SCHOOL OF PRACTICAL SCIENCE 
 
 TORONTO 
 
 ESTABLiSHED 1878 
 
 Affiliated to the University of Toronto, 
 
 TJiis School is equipped and supported entirely by the 
 Province of Ontario, and gives instruction in the follow- 
 ing departments : 
 
 1-CIVIL ENGINEERING 
 
 2-MINING ENGINEERING 
 
 S^MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL 
 ENGINEERING 
 
 4-ARCHITECTURE 
 
 5-ANALYTICAL & APPLIED CHEMISTRY 
 
 Special Attention is directed to the Facilities Possessed 
 by the School for giving Instruction in Mining Engineer- 
 ing. Practical Instruction is given in Drawing and 
 Surveying, and in the following Laboratories : 
 
 1-CHEMICAL 4-STEAM 
 
 2-ASSAYING 5 -METROLOGICAL 
 
 3— MILLING 6- ELECTRICAL 
 
 I 7— TESTING 
 
 The School also has good collections of Minerals, 
 Rocks and Fossils. Special Students will be received as 
 well as those taking regular courses. 
 
 b/WWWVVWVV> 
 
 For Full Information See Calendar. 
 
 ■**■■■■■ 
 
 L. B. STEWART, Secretary, 
 
F. B. POLSON, 
 
 J. B. MILLER 
 
 R. J 
 
 ,^ « 
 
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 IRON WORKS 
 
 TORONTO, ONT. 
 
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 BOOK'S BY 
 
 E. J, CHAPMAN, Ph,D,, LL.D, 
 
 BLOWPIPE PRACTICE. With original tables for the 
 determination of all known minerals. $2.50. 
 
 t This work has been favorably noticed in the 11th and 12th editions of 
 
 Von Kobell's celebrated Tafeln zur Bestinimung der Mineralien. 
 
 THE MINERAL INDICATOR. A practical guide to the 
 determination of generally-occurring minerals. $1.00. 
 
 (practical instructions for the deter- 
 mination BY FURNACE ASSAY OF GOLD AND 
 silver in rocks AND ORES. Second Edition, 
 Revised. 50c. ' - 
 
 THE COPP, CLARK CO., Limited 
 
 9 Front Street West, TOEONTO 
 
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POCKET MANUAL OF MININCI. 
 
POCKET 
 
 MA.NUAL OF MINING 
 
 FOR THE USE OF 
 
 MINING MEN, LAWYERS, BUSINESS MEN, PROS- 
 
 PEGTORS, AND THOSE INTERESTED IN THE 
 
 MINERAL RESOURCES OF G AN ADA. 
 
 BY 
 
 J. H. CHEWETT, B.A.Sc, C.E. 
 
 Assoc. Mem. Can. Soc. C.E. 
 Mining Engineer, 
 
 AND 
 
 C. M. CANNIFF, Grad. S.P.S. 
 Mining and Civil Engineer. 
 
 TORONTO : 
 THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED. 
 
 J 897. 
 
TH 
 
 
 I 
 Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one 
 thousand eight hundred and ninety-seven, by Thk Coi'r, Clark Co., 
 Limited, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Ill presentiriff this small manual, which has heen prepared more particularly 
 for Canadian readers, the e<litors disclaim any attempt at writing a book. 
 Herein will be found, on the other hand, a compilation from the best authorities 
 on the various subjects treated, together with some portion of original matter. 
 
 Throughout, as far as possible, technical phraseology has been avoided, for 
 the convenience of lawyers, business men, prospectors, and others having an 
 interest in Mining. 
 
 Dana's Classification of Minerals has been closely adhered to, the rarer 
 minerals being omitted, save where they occur in Canada, and for that reason 
 are of interest. It is hoped that this condensed but accurate section, as well 
 as those on Geology and Mining, may commend the book to mining men and 
 Others who need a handy, reliable pocket-book of reference. 
 
 Among other works consulted were Ihlseng's Manual of Mining ; Ore and 
 Stone Mining, by C. Le Neve Foster ; Bowie on Hydraulic Mining ; Lock's 
 Miners' Pocket-book ; Dana's Geology ; Jukes and Geikie on Geology ; Chap- 
 man'?/ Mineralogy and Geology ; Geological Survey Reports of Canada ; Reports 
 of Ontario Bureau of Mines ; Kemp's Ore Deposits, and various Trade 
 Catalogues. 
 
 Toronto, February, 1897. 
 
 5S7551 
 
/ • 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 jrEOLOGY — PAGES. 
 
 Structural, Metamorphism, Veins, Glaciers, Rock 
 Making Minerals, Kinds of Rocks, Fragmental 
 Rocks, Metamorphic Rocks, Calcareous Rocks, 
 Igneous Rocks, etc 1-10 
 
 %Il!^ERALOGY — 
 
 Physical Properties of Minerals, Blowpipe Trials, 
 Determination of Metals, etc., in Minerals; Classi- 
 tication of Minerals 11 -65 
 
 Prospecting — 
 
 General Principles, Sampling, Panning, Rough 
 Method of Assay for Free Milling Gold Ores, 
 Prospecting Mill, Alluvial Prospecting, Prospec- 
 tor's Kquipment, Form for Describing a Prospect. 00-74 
 
 Mining — 
 
 General, Stoping, Drifts, Tunnels and Adits, 
 Methods of Mining, Drills, Explosives and 
 Blasting, Diamond Drill, Machine Drilling, 
 Blacksmithing, Hoisting, Underground Traffic, 
 Surface Transportation, Pumping, Illumination, 
 Entry and Exit, Boring, Timbering, Hydraulic 
 Mining 75-92 
 
 Ores and Ore Tueatment — 
 
 Ores, General Treatment, Free Milling Ores, Fine 
 Concentration, Pan Amalgamation, Roasting, 
 Concentrating Ores, Chlorination, (jyanidation, 
 etc.. Smelting Ores, Furnaces, Plant, etc 93-111 
 
 Useful Information ant> Tables — 
 
 List of Elements, Various Tables of Weights and 
 Measures, Lumber, Power, Fuel, etc., Measure- 
 ment of Water, Workshop Recipes 112-122 
 
 Glossary — 
 
 Definitions of Mining Terms , 123-131 
 
 Index 133-143 
 
ERRATUM. 
 
 ^^ In the first table on page 15, in the column of "resultp," 
 insert oppo ite "Antimony, Lead, Bismuth (Zinc, Molybdenum)," 
 the words, " Coa:ing on charcoal " ; the reactions being the same 
 as for the succeeding table. 
 
POCKET MANUAL OF MININC 
 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 Structural. 
 
 Geology for the purposes of this hand book may be considered 
 be the study of the structure of rocks, and the agencies which 
 
 have participated in their formation, and also their classilication 
 
 according to the sequence of that formation. 
 
 Of the various theories on the creation and development of 
 the earth's surface there seems to be a preponderance of belief in 
 the supposition that originally the globe was a molten mass, and 
 that a rock crust was formed by a more or less lengthy period of 
 cooling. Subsequent to this appearance of the primitive — or 
 Archean — rocks, and simultaneous with a strengthening of the 
 crust by a still further internal cooling of the molten mass (into 
 unstratified rock) began a process of working-over of the external 
 rock, in which the atmosphere, heavily burdened with carbonic 
 acid gas and other vapors, greatly assisted. In those, creation's 
 early days, the seas although shallow were, as compared with 
 now, of vastly greater extent than the land, and their formation 
 was no doubt owing to the condensation of igneous vapors once 
 the first crust was cooled. From the start, according to the 
 generally accepted theory, shrinkage due to cooling and volcanic 
 action kept the earth's surface in a constant state of bending and 
 contortion. All in its due time, ensued the disintegration of the 
 hard rock, through the decomposing action of carbonic acid gas 
 in, the rains and atmosphere, alternate heat and cold, and other 
 causes, such as are in fact observable in our own day. The hard 
 rock passed in due course into broken fragments, then into 
 pebbles, sand, mud, and clay, finding its way by the agency of 
 streams and rivers into the surrounding shallow seas, where, as 
 a^Bo from observation the same process is seen at this time, it was 
 deposited in layers to form sedimentary beds, which in turn from 
 pressure and other causes were to harden subsequently into rpck. 
 Tjae contortion above alluded to was on a grand scale, and the 
 best reasons exist to believe that, whether the periods of rising 
 awd falling occupied thousands or billions of years, various por- 
 tions of the globe's exterior varied at intervals in elevation from 
 the portions adjoining, resulting in countless alterations of the 
 afea covered by water. The sea, which formerly c<mtained much 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
(tEOLOGV. 
 
 Structural. 
 
 more of the destructive carbonic acid gas than now, thus over 
 diffi^rent areas and at divers times, had opportunit}' to further 
 disintegrate and work over into beds the rock masses which had 
 been already decomposed by atmospheric influence. 
 
 From stratified rock, or that formed by the successive layers of 
 deposition, geologists have evolved a system of classiHcaticm (s(!fc 
 table) according to their age, starting with the reasonable suppo- 
 sition that the lower layer was deposited prior to tiie next above. 
 While rocks have been forming through action of the sea in one 
 region, in another — because it was not submerged — more were Ie 
 progress, so that nowhere is the complete series found. Care 
 ful study of the fossils or organic remains furnished a means o! 
 identification with beds occurring elsewhere, not necessarily oi 
 the same composition, bat containing fossils of the same animals 
 and plants. The following facts have been learned : 
 
 1. At first there was an age when no life exist' d in the globe, 
 and the rocks formed during that age are called Archean or Azok. 
 
 2. Next came an age when shells, corals, and other low forini , 
 of sea-life, but none of terrestrial life, appeared. It is tht 
 Silurian. 
 
 3. An age when, besides shells, corals, etc., fish abounded au( 
 low forms of earth vegetation flourished is next, and gets th( 
 name of the Devonian. 
 
 4. Dense land vegetation, and evidences of many succeediiii 
 alternations of luxuriant growth and submergence beneath tli 
 waters mark the next period. The forms of life, in sea and oi 
 land, were more advanced. It is the coal-plant era, or Carbon 
 iferous Age. 
 
 5. The succeeding era was remarkable for the variety and siz 
 of reptiles that abounded, so that it received the name o 
 Reptilian Age. 
 
 6. 'I'he next age, when reptiles gave place to mammals or quad 
 rupeds in equal abundance and variety, the continents having b; 
 this time grown to something like their present area, is ternie 
 the Mammalian Age. 
 
 7. Then came man, the highest type of animal life, ushering ii 
 the present, or Quaternary Age. 
 
Geology. 
 
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Geology. 
 
 Metamohphism. 
 
 Just as bricks are made from wet clay, uiuler the action of 
 Hre, moisture and pressure, rocks like sandstones and limestones, 
 uncrystalline in texture, under certain c(mditions are metamorph- 
 osed, i.e., changed, into granite and marble, or others which are 
 crystalline, and ^he area of action may be either circumscribed or 
 extensive. Many of the Canadian rocks are metamorphic. Some- 
 times mvtamorphism lias resulted in no chemical change, while in 
 other cases the ingredients subjected to the process entered into 
 new combinations, perhaps giving rise to various crystalline 
 minerals disseminated through the nuiss. The water necessary 
 for metamorphism is that contained in the rocks themselves, for 
 the most part ; the heat may either be derived from the earth's 
 interior, or th;it resulting from the friction created when the 
 rocks were shoved or folded by causes already referred to ; while 
 the pressure, which may or may not be necessary for metamor- 
 phic changes, could be furnished by tlie overlying ocean or rofcks. 
 
 Veins. 
 
 Veins are the filling of spaces in the rocks, which may be cracks 
 made by uplifting forces, by shrinkage from cooling or drying, by 
 the separating of layers in a rock, or by cavern-action. The 
 forces producing metamorphism were responsible for much of the 
 rending of the rocks, and the filling of the spaces with quartz or 
 other stony material was probably effected as a result of such action. 
 Quartz is the most abundant of all rock-making minerals and it, 
 therefore, was the material set free in the majority of cases when, 
 under action of the vapors actending metamorphism, the rock 
 mass below or on either side of the fissure was decomposed. 'J'he 
 same fluids that carried this quartz into the vein took with it the 
 gold freed by the decomposition of the rock —provided it was in 
 the first place gold-bearing — so that in forming veins nature 
 found a way of collecting in small area the rich minerals which 
 were before thinly scattered. Similarly other minerals came into 
 veins, ores of lead, zinc, copper, iron, etc. Fissures filled by 
 deposition from above, and sometimes carrying mineral, are not 
 true veins. Metallic ores, likewise, have often been deposited 
 when a sedimentary bed was forming, and the strata may then 
 have been tilted^ exposing to view — edgewise — the once horizontal 
 bed. It may resemble, but is not a true vein. Many deposits 
 shew evidence of being a series of parallel fissures close together, 
 produced by compression ("crushed zones"). The metalliferous 
 fluids are supposed to have flowed along these fissures, attacking 
 the country rock on each side, dissolving the rock and replacing 
 it gradually with the metal sulphides (this hfi,s been termed meta- 
 somatic replacement). The gold bearing iron and copper sul- 
 phides of the 'IVail Creek district give stroug indications that 
 
Geolooy. 
 
 they are of this character. This will explain the irregular width 
 ot many of the veins and gradual fading away of the mineral into 
 the country rock, without shewing delined walls, thougli many 
 parallel slickensided surfaces will be noticed throughout the 
 dei)osit. 
 
 Veins are often " faulte<l " by another lissure cutting across it 
 and breaking its continuity. In four cases out of five the con- 
 tinuation will 1)0 found by assuming that the uarrow-based body 
 has slipped down the faulting plane. 
 
 Glaciers. 
 
 If not unanimous on the reasons why a glacial climate came to 
 exist, geologists agree that late in geological history the more 
 northerly continents underwent great surface changes through a 
 movement of vast glaciers from the polar regions towards the 
 equator. Jn Canada the surface of the ancient rocks, long ex- 
 posed to atmospheric intluenees and badly decomposed, under- 
 went great alterations through the southerly moving rivers of 
 ice, which picked up a "shoe" of boulders on tlieir lower 
 surface and deeply scoured the area traversed. Upon melting, 
 the attached boulders, mud, clay and gravel were dropped — to 
 form the till or drift that comprises the present surface over a 
 large area of the country. The network of lake and river so 
 distinctive of an extensive part of Canada results from the 
 glacial erosion and damming which went on. 'llie rock scratches 
 (striae) — often deep and wide, and occurring frequently in 
 several parallel lines — are due to the same cause, as well as the 
 rounded appearance characteristic of the rock masses of the 
 eastern half of the Dominion. A notable exception to this last 
 is seen in north-eastern Labrador, where identically the same 
 Archean rocks are angular, but soft from decomposition to con- 
 siderable depth, showing that they escaped glaciation. 
 
 liOCK Making Minerals. 
 
 Eocks consist essentially of minerals, and the minerals of the 
 common rocks are of four groups : — 1. Quartz, called in chemis- 
 try silica. 2. Silicates, or compounds of silica. 3. Carbon. 
 4. Carbonates, or compounds of carbon. 
 
 1. Quartz is the most common of all species, and being one of 
 the hardest minerals, and nearly insoluble and infusible, with- 
 stands various destroyijig agencies proportionately better. The 
 sands and pebbles of the seashores and gravel-beds are mainly 
 (juartz, because it resists wearing action of the waters more than 
 any other common mineral. Similarly, most sandstones and 
 conglomerates consist largely of quartz. 
 
6 (tkolckjy. 
 
 Rock Making Minerals. 
 
 2. The Silicates. — Pure Alumina— which is very hard, infusible 
 and insoluble, and therefore adapted to its phice as second in 
 abundance to quartz ; magnesia -hard as ([uartz when crystal- 
 lized and eijually infusible and insoluble ; lime — common (|uick- 
 lime ; potash and soda — the common alkalies ; and iron oxide, 
 complete the list of the most important bases l;hat combine with 
 silica to make silicates. The principal siHcates are (a) Feldspar. 
 Varieties :--Ortl)Oclase (most common), a potash feldspar ; albite, 
 a soda feldspar ; oligoclase and labradorite, soda-lime feldspars. 
 {})) Mica. Varieties : — Muscovite, white ; biotite, black from 
 presence of iron, {c) Chlorite, resembling black mica in consti- 
 tution, and when well crystallized, in its cleavage. ((/) Horn- 
 blende and pyroxene, {e) Talc and Serpentine. {/) Various 
 silicates which occur distributed in crystals through many 
 crystalline rocks, such as garnet, tourmaline, andalusite, cyauite 
 and staurolite. 
 
 3. Carbon only occurs pure among the minerals in diamond 
 and graphite, although it is the principal constituent of mineral 
 coal, charcoal and petroleum. 
 
 4. The Carbonates include Calcite — a carbonate of calcium, 
 and Dolomite -a carbonate of calcium-magnesium. They burn 
 to quicklime without melting and are the material of limestone 
 and marble. 
 
 5. Comi.'ion or Rock Salt is the only chloride forming rock 
 masses. 
 
 6. Iron 07'es are wideb^ distributed in rocks, sometimes in 
 thick beds. They are : — {a) Hematite. The usual iron-black 
 color of its crystals becomes deep red when earthy or impure, 
 and hematite furnishes' the color in red sandstones and other red 
 rocks, (b) Limonite (a hematite containing water), which is the 
 coloring ingredient in a large part of the brown and brownish 
 yellow rocks and clays. The water present evaporates on heat- 
 ing, and the mineral changes to hematite and to red. (c) Mag- 
 netite is iron-black but magnetic, and, instead of being red 
 when powdered, like hematite, is black. It commonly occurs in 
 grains in a large part of rocks and in sand and soils, although 
 also occurring in great beds in some of the older rocks. 
 
 Pyrite and pyrrhotite (iron sulphides) and siderite (iron car- 
 bonate) also occur extensively. 
 
 Kinds of Rocks. 
 
 The minerals composing a rock may be either ( 1 ) in broken or 
 worn grains or pebbles, forming a fragmental rock, or (2) in 
 crystalline grains which are angular and, quartz excepted, 
 generally exhibit cleavage surfaces. Examples, common 
 white marble and granite. 
 
CiKOl.()(JY. 
 
 Kinds of Roi'ks. 
 
 FrtKjnicnfnl 7'ork's are the most common of all, and include 
 Kindstones, HJialcH, and conj^lomcrutes, tluse hoin^ formed in 
 each succeeding age out of the material produced hy the wear 
 and (Ujcomposition of the rocks of ti»e age preceding. Tliey are 
 Htidtijied rocks also, because they are in beds, and avdimentdrij 
 because deposited for tiie most part as a se<linu!nt. 
 
 Of the ('r!/sf((//iii(' Jior/cs some are tnefdiiior/iJiic, some ipn'onx. 
 
 Metaniorphic rorkfi are those onlinary fraguiental rocks and 
 limestones which have been changed by heat or pressure into 
 crystalline rocks, and usually without fusion, examples being 
 architectural marble, mica schist, gneiss and much granite, etc. 
 
 I<j)Uions rocks have come up melted through volcanic lissures 
 which connected with some subterranean seat of melted rock, and 
 include lavas, porphyry and granite, etc., and those which 
 have formed at great depths, and have afterward been exposed by 
 the wearinjj; away (denudation) of the upper strata, — granites, 
 syenites, diorites, gabbro, etc. 
 
 CalcareouH rocks are the limestones, largely originating from 
 pulverized shells, corals and other animal relics. 
 
 Siliceous 7-ocks are those composed mostly of silica (quartz). 
 
 Porphyritic rocks are those having distinct fehls[)ar crystals dis- 
 seminated throughout so as to appear spotted with a light colored 
 mineral when polished. 
 
 Massive is a term applied to rocks when they do not break into 
 slabs or plates, e.fj., granite and most conglomerates ; schistose, 
 when if crystalline, they break into slabs or plates owing to the 
 arrangement in layers of the mica, hornblende or other mineral 
 ingredients ; lamimded, when splitting into slabs or flags, but not 
 owing to a crystalline structure ; sUittj, when separating easily 
 into thin, even, hard slates ; shah/, when 8j)litting easily into 
 thin slate-like plates of irregular shape, and fragile. A schist is 
 a schistose rock, a Hag a laminated one, while slate and shale are 
 applied to slaty and shaly rocks respectively. 
 
 FRAGMENTAL ROCKS, NOT CALCAREOUS. 
 
 The classilication of fraguiental rocks depends on the consti- 
 tuents, which are : — 
 
 1. Sand-beds; Gravel-heds. — Most sand or gravel is composed 
 mainly of quartz, but some beds are made of granite sand or 
 pebbles, or of fragments of other rocks. If containing much clay 
 they are argillaceous ; some are red or biownish yellow owing to 
 presence of iron and are ferruginous. Some contain lime and are 
 calcareous. Beach sand often contains red gi-ains of garnet and 
 idso magnetite. 
 
 2. Mud ; Earth ; Clay. — Mud and earth contain, besides 
 
Gkologv 
 
 KihiIh of liockM. 
 
 grains of <(ii;iit/, hoimo powdered fel(l8|)ar, or else clay, with inoro 
 or less of other niineralH. When hlack the ooh)r is due to car- 
 ])oiiacc(>u.s matiM-ial (h.'rivcd from vi-^^etahle or animal (le(Mtni[)oHi- 
 tion. ('oMinion clay is pure clay mixed witli /grains of cjuart/, 
 feldspar and usually traces of iron. Owing to the iron it hums 
 red, making red hrick. (Mays free from iron are re<iuired for 
 ■white; pottery, and free from fel(lH))ar for lire hrick hecause the 
 potash of feldspar makes clay fusible. 
 
 8. SiUuLstoui'. — A rock made of sand, and of red, grey, hrowii, 
 white and other colors. When of ([uartz sand it is a (piartzose or 
 siliceous sandstone, when of granite sand, a granitic ; if line i 
 earthy or clayey, an argillaceous sandstone. 
 
 4. Coniflomerate. — Consolidatetl gravel. If the stones are 
 rounded the rock is a puddingstone ; if angular, a breccia ; if the . 
 pebbles are quartz, a siliceous conglomerate ; if limestone pebbles, ^ 
 a calcareous conglomerate, 'i'he stones may be a foot or more ii. 
 diameter, but usually are much smaller. j 
 
 5. Shale. — A somewhat slaty rock made of clay or clayey earth ^ 
 or fine mud. Carbonaceous shale is tiie blackish variety, yield 
 ing mineral oil when heated. 
 
 (). Tufa. — Volcanic sandstone, usually brownish, brownisli ^ 
 yellow, grayish or reddish. j 
 
 ME'rAMOHPHIC ROCKS. 
 
 1. Granite. — A crystalline rock of quartz, feldspar, and mica or 
 hornblende. Color usually light or dark gray, or flesh- red, the < 
 latter shade from a Hesh-colored feldspar ; the (piartz — uncleav- \ 
 able, usually grayish white ; the feldspar — white to flesh-red, and 
 yielding smooth shining surfaces by cleavage ; the mica — white ' 
 to black, and afl'ording thin, flexible leaves by cleavnge. Prolo- [ 
 (/me is an altered granite having chlorite, talc or hydrous mica < 
 instead of mica or h()rn blende. It is usually greenish in color. ] 
 
 •2. Otieiss. — Like granite in constitution, but having a bedd*itU 
 structure, due to the mica or one of the other minerals taking 
 parallel lines along which it easily and evenly fractures. 
 
 3. Mica Schist. — Is a rock like the last, but with more mica 
 and quilrtz and less feldspar ; breaks into plates along the mica < 
 layers. 
 
 Siienite. — Is like granite in appearance and composition, but < 
 contains little or no quartz. * 
 
 H iidrouiica Schist. — A slaty, fine grained mica schist, feeling 
 somewhat greasy ; sometimes mist;ikenly called talcoae .slate, but < 
 containing hydr<ms mica instead of talc. 
 
 Chlorite Schist -A slaty rock containing the olive green mineral, ( 
 chlorite. Much hydromica schist is chloritic. ^ 
 
Q ICO LOG V. 9 
 
 Kimi'i of Uorkn. 
 
 Slate, Arijill'iti'y PlujUUc — Hoofing slate and allied slaty rocks, 
 hftidly crystallino to tin; iiakod «'ye. 'I'lie most peift'ot kinds are 
 hard, smooth, atul do not ai)sorl) water. Color, l»lue-l)lack, 
 purple, re*!, green an*l other shades. Much slute is finegrained 
 hydromiea schist. 
 
 QiKtrtxitr. — A metamorj)ho8ed sandstone, usually very liard, 
 dUl'ering from massive ((uartz in consisting of grains of (luartz. 
 
 /->/o/v7f' -Like syenite, l)ut contains the striated feldsi)ar8 
 oligoclase, lahradorite, etc , instead of orthoclase. Coarse or 
 fine graiiUMl. Color, grayish-white to dark green, sometimes 
 uliuost black. 
 
 (JALC'AltKOUS KOCKS. 
 
 CUnnmoti /y//y/r.sA>/;r.-- Consists of calcite or dolonnte, often im- 
 pure from clay. Col(>r, dnll shades from gray to black. See calcite. 
 
 (>r>/v/^(\ Limestone consisting of concretions, snniU as (ish-roe. 
 
 Tidiwrtine. — Stalactites are limestone concretions shaped and 
 f(krmed like icicles, and coiresponding formations on the Hoor are 
 stalagmites (dripstone). A similar deposit from streams and 
 poijds is called travertine. 
 
 Crii-stiiUinc //nnesfoiic, ArchUerturnl and Staluarti Marlde, 
 unlike the last three, are metamorphic, crystalline, and there- 
 fore glisten on a broken face. 
 
 ^ IGNEOUS KOCKS. 
 
 "^lassive Igneous rocks may be subdivided thus : — Abyssal or 
 deep-seated, solidified under pressure. Oyke, solidified in wide 
 fissures near the surface. V'olcauic, solidified on the surface. 
 The structure of these rocks depends upon the rate of cooling as 
 well as their chemical constitution ; rapid cooling gives line 
 g»*aintd or glassy rocks. When the fine grained rocks have well 
 defined crystals scattered through them they are termed *'por- 
 pbyritic." Slow cooling gives coarse crystals crowded together — 
 
 granitic structure. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 I ABYSSAL ROCKS — {haciinj a granitic fitructure). 
 
 '■i 
 
 Granite — consisting of quartz, feldspar and some basic or dark 
 coloied mineral (mica, hornblende, or pyroxene). 
 
 SSiienite — as in the metamorphic syenite, contains little or no 
 quartz. Hornblende is most frequent, and pyroxene often occurs 
 as the <lark mineral. 
 
 JDlorite — contains the striated feldspar (plagioclase) and mica 
 or niore frequently hornblende ; seldom carries quartz. 
 
 Gahhro — consists of the striated feldspars and pyroxene 
 (augite, diallage, or hypersthene). If it contains olivine it is 
 termed an olivine gabbro ; or if the dark mineral is absent it is 
 called an anorthosite. 
 
)0 
 
 Gi:oLo<iv 
 
 Kinds of Rocks. 
 
 Pyroxeniic — consisting nearly altogether of pyroxene. I 
 
 PeridolUe — made up of olivine — bottle glass green in appear 
 ance. 
 
 DYKE ROCKS — [usuaUij porphyvitic in structure). 
 
 Granite porphyry, Syenite porphyry^ and Diorite vorj)hyrit(. 
 similar to the Abyssal rocks of the same constitution, but finei 
 grained, with occasional large crystals scattered through. , 
 
 Diabase, consisting of pyroxene and lath shaped crystals o; 
 feldspar ; sometimes contains olivine. , ' 
 
 VOLCANIC ROCKS — {porpkyritic and glassy). 
 
 These rocks may be divided into two classes : (1) the old, usu. 
 ally porphyritic ; (2) the young, glassy. 
 
 Porphyry (old), very fine grained, light colored ground masse 
 with crystals of feldspar and sometimes quartz (quartz porphyry) 
 
 Felsite, like porphyry, but without defined crystals of feldspai ' 
 or quartz. a 
 
 Porphyrite (old), the ground mass dark and fine grained (horn 
 blende or biotite) with crystals of feldspar and sometimes quart^* 
 (quartz porphyrite). t 
 
 Diabase (old), like the same dyke rock. 
 
 Basalts (young), compact, almost flinty rocks made up of horii'^ 
 blende, pyroxene, olivine and feldspars ; the feldspar usually weL 
 crystallized in small crystals. 
 
 Lavas (young). Any rock that has flowed in streams from i^ 
 volcano, and of various constitution ; when glassy it is known .ij^ 
 Obsidian ; when more stony as Pitchstone and Pear/stone ; if f ul 
 of cavities. Scoria ; and white scoi'ia with long slender cavities if 
 Pumice. \ 
 
 Below is given a condensed table of the igneous rocks. h 
 i1 
 
 Orthoclase feldspar^ 
 (white and red), mica J- 
 or hornblende, quartz j 
 
 Ditto, with little or no 
 quartz 
 
 Plagioclase feldspar^ 
 (striated), horn- j- 
 
 blende or mica. 
 
 Ditto, with pyroxene, etc. 
 
 Abyssal 
 Rocks. 
 
 Granite. 
 
 Syenite. 
 
 Diorite. 
 
 Gabbro. 
 
 Dyke Rocks. 
 
 Granite porphyry. 
 
 Sj'enite porphyry. 
 
 Diorite porphyrite. 
 
 Diabase. 
 
 Volcanic Rocks, r 
 
 i.< 
 
 (old) 
 
 ,- Porphyry. 
 
 Porphyrite. 
 Diabase. 
 
 (YOlNd) * 
 
 e 
 
 c 
 
 Lavas, e 
 
 t( 
 
 ' :- J 
 
 11 
 
 \ " 
 
 y Basalts, ] 
 
MINERALOGY. 
 
 Physical Peoperties of Minerals. 
 
 ■Hrdnkss. — Determine what number represents the examined 
 n^al by reference to the following table : — 
 
 — T 
 
 Standard. 
 
 
 Chapman's Convenient Scale. 
 
 Ic 
 
 1 
 
 Yields to the finjifer nail. 
 
 ckSalt 
 
 2 
 
 Does not yield to the finger nail, nor scratch copper coin. 
 
 Icite 
 
 3 
 
 Scratches copper coin, and is also scratched by one. 
 
 AorBpar = 
 
 4 
 
 Not scratched by copper coin. Does not scratch glass. 
 
 •atlte 
 
 5 
 
 Scratches glass feebly, yields to knife easily. 
 
 thoclase = 
 
 6 
 
 Scratches glass easily, difficult to scratch with knife. 
 
 ■ck Crystal = 
 
 7 
 
 Does not yield to knife. Difficult to scratch with file. 
 
 paz - 
 
 8 
 
 •\ *- 
 
 rudduni = 
 
 9 
 
 vHarder than flint or rock crystal, nottouched by a hand file. 
 
 amond = 
 
 10 
 
 y 
 
 TbIsaci'I y. —If a mineral breaks or powders easily it is brittle ; 
 hetk slices may be cut off, and these slices hammered flat like 
 itiVfe gold, silver and copper, it is malleabk ; if thin slices may 
 ! cut off with a knife it is sectile ; if a mineral will bend and 
 mftins bent, like talc, it hJlexlMe ; if after it is bent it springs 
 kcfcto its original position, like mica, it is elastic. 
 SPltciFic Gravitv. — The specific gravity of a mineral is its 
 eight comprjed with that of water, which is taken as a stand- 
 d. . Divide the weight in air by the difference between the 
 eig^t in air and the weight in water ; the result will be the 
 eci|ic gravity of the mineral. 
 
 PHANEITV. — The property of transmitting light. When the 
 itlHes of objects, seen through the mineral, are distijict it is 
 iiVMarent ; when objects are seen but their outlines indistinct 
 i&mibt?-aNHpareiit ; when light passes through, but objects are 
 >t Ben, it is translucent ; when merely the edges transmit light 
 
 11 
 
12 MlNHRALUi 
 
 Physical Propertiefi of MinaraU. 
 
 faintly it is suhtranslticeut ; wlien no light is transmitted 
 mineral is opaque. ] 
 
 Lustre. — The lustre (or aspect) of minerals depends on i 
 nature of their surfaces, which causes more or less light to !)») 
 fleeted. The varieties are as follows : — ;( 
 
 1. Metallic — the usual lustre of metals. If imperfectly iiin 
 lie it is submetallic. i 
 
 2. Vitreous — the lustre of broken glass. Subvitreous appl 
 similarly. Quartz is vitreous. This kind of lustre may i^ee 
 hibited by minerals of any color. ii 
 
 3. Resinous — lustre of the yellow resins. Example, w 
 opal, zinc blende. x 
 
 4. Pearly —like pearl. Talc, etc. ] 
 
 5. Greasy — oily. 3 
 
 6. Silky — like silk. j 
 
 7. Adamantine — like diamond. 'i 
 'J'he intensity of the lustre of minerals may be graduated iui 
 
 descending order : — Splendent, Shining, Glistening, Giimmtu: 
 
 C«)LOK. — In distinguishing minerals, both the external cc 
 and the color of a rubbed or scratched surface are noted. I 
 latter is called the streak ; and the powder scraped (»ff, the .v/,i 
 pou'der. When there is a milky or pearly reflection from d 
 interior of a specimen, as in a cat's eye, it is opalescent. If ]r 
 matic colors are seen within a crystal it is iridescent. Miiul 
 that give out light during friction or gentle heating are p 
 ph orescent (as seen in the dark). J 
 
 Elfxteicity and Magnetism. — Many minerals become t) 
 trifled on being rubbed, and attract cotton and otlur light i 
 stances. If the mineral is not electric unless heated it is oiic 
 pyroelectric. Several ores, chiefly of iron, are attracted bv3 
 magnet and are marjnetic. 3 
 
 Taste and Odor.— Taste belongs only to the soluble niiiui 
 and IS classified under the terms astringent = the taste of ali 
 saline=^ taste of salt, alkaline = ta.s,te of soda, coo/<n<7 = tasttfi 
 saltpetre or nitre, bitter = ta.ste of Epsom salts, and so?<r = tasiu 
 sulphuric acid. 
 
 Cleavage. — Mica has eminent cleavage, that is, it real 
 yields sheets thinner than paper, but other minerals only alia 
 plates somewhat thicker an(l thus range from a perfect eh av< 
 to difficult cleavage according to the ease with which the \)\\^ 
 can be separated. Other minerals have no cleavage, and 1 1 
 crystals cannot be subdivided. Cleavable minerals usually at:,i 
 even, and frequently, polished surfaces. *J 
 
 Fracture is the appearance of a mineral when broken, ^* 
 may be either hackly or crystalline like iron, slaty or evtii U 
 conchoidal — breaking with shallow concavities or convt.xi 
 over the surface — like flint, or hard coal. 
 
 ( 
 
\ 
 
 fliEUALOCiV. 1 3 
 
 4 
 
 Blowpipe Trials. 
 
 The blowpipe is a bent tube, about ten inches long, which, 
 he^ blown tlnough while the smriler end is held just within 
 le llaine, concentrates it. In iisin/,/ the blowpipe it is necessary 
 ) Weathe and blow at the same time, that the iiame may be 
 ;eady. By breathing a few moments through the nostrils while 
 le cheeks are inflated, and then inserting the blowpipe between 
 le lips, this knack may be easily acquired. By holding the 
 lowi)ipe point close to the candle flame, and blowing gently, a 
 ellow pointed flame is produced which is the reducing flame 
 it. F. ) ; and when the point is placed just inside the flame and 
 lOre force used in blowing, a pale blue flame is made, being the 
 ddi zing flame (O. F. ). The mineral is held cither in platinum- 
 pped forceps or on a firm and well burnt piece of charcoal. For 
 jcertainiiig a mineral's fusibility in the forceps, a thin piece, the 
 ze of a pin head, is preferred. The fusible metals alloy readily 
 'ith platinum, so compounds of lead, arsenic, antimony, etc., 
 lUst be tested on charcoal. Platinum wire, cut to three inch 
 jngtlis and bent into a loop at one end, is used to observe the 
 ctiQii of the fluxes (commonly borax or soda) on the mineral, and 
 Iso the colors that the oxides give to the fluxes when dissolved 
 1 them. In practice, the loop is highly heated and dipped in the 
 3da or borax till it is filled with a bead, and then one or more 
 rains of the powdered mineral is dissolved in it. The bead 
 btained in both oxidizing and reducing flames is watched closely 
 3r 4jolor and degree of transparency, both when hot and cold. 
 Jse too little rather than too much substance for the bead test. 
 )ilute sulphuric acid cleans the wire after using. Glass tubing 
 f J i:., bore, cut into 3 in. lengths, and used in some cases with 
 oth ends open, in others with one end closed, are employed to 
 3st whether vaporization of volatile ingredients occurs, and 
 3 examine for odor, acidity and alkalinitj'. Acid fumes redden 
 tmns paper. If the mineral is a sulphide, arsenide or antimo- 
 ide, it should be roasted on charcoal in the oxidizing flame before 
 sinff a flux. Sulphides, in such a case, give out fumes of burning 
 ulphur ; arsenides give an onion odor ; selenides, the odor of 
 ecaying horse radish ; while antimony fumes are dense white 
 iid odorless. The color given to the flame in blowpipe trials is 
 uppvtant. If the mineral contains sodium the flame is bright 
 eU©w ; potassium, pale violet ; calcium, a pale reddish yellow ; 
 ithitini, a deep purple red; strontium, a bright red; copper, 
 merald green ; phosphates, bluish green ; boron, yellowish 
 reen ; copper chloride, azure blue. Beads should be examined 
 fy daylight only. It is also to be noted whether the substance 
 leate quietly or with a crackling noise (decrepitation), whether it 
 ui^ with effervescence, or with boiling (intumesceilce). Alkalies 
 
! 
 
 14 MlNERAL<i. 
 
 Blowpipe Trials. _ - ' 
 
 change the yellow of tumeric paper to brown, or red litmu ■ 
 blue, when heated in a glass tube. 
 
 Blowpipe Outiit — Blowpipe ; steel or platinum- tipped forct < 
 small hammer ; steel anvil, about 2 inches square and ^ i 
 thick ; magnet ; platinum wire ; glass tubing ; a few pieces 
 charcuai ; cupel mould ; lile ; candles. ' 
 
 Reagents. — Sodium bicarbonate, borax, bone-ash, blue and 
 litmus paper, tumeric paper, assay litharge. These may be 1; 
 in small wooden pillboxes, and the whole outtit conveniei 
 carried in a flat tin, or cigar box. 
 
 'I'he following table is a scheme of analysis for the purport 
 determining the presence of certain elements in the mineral t ] 
 tested. As all minerals are chemical compounds, two or tl 
 reactions may be noticed froin the same mineral ; exam 
 mispickel, a compound of iron, arsenic and sulphur, gives an 
 fumes, sulphur reactions, and a magnetic residue of iron. 
 
 St 
 
i^NKRALOGY. 
 
 15 
 
 Metallic Lustre. 
 
 l(/nife be/ora blowpipe on charcoal. 
 
 Results. 
 
 4 
 
 Emiysion of odor — 
 
 ^^ Garlic 
 
 ^H Matches 
 
 ^B Decaying' horse-radish 
 
 Emission of copious white fumes. 
 
 FiSii 
 
 lie coloration — 
 
 Blue 
 
 Pale green 
 
 Green, hlue, or greenish white. 
 Magnetic residue 
 
 Metals. 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Selenium. 
 
 Arsenic, Antimony, Zinc. 
 
 Antimony, Lead, Bismuth (Zinc, 
 Molybdenum). 
 
 Lead, Arsenic. 
 
 Antimony, Molybdenum, Tellurium. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Iron, Nickel, Cobalt. 
 
 Ffisf mibHtance with soda on charcoal. 
 
 Results. 
 
 Emission of odor 
 
 Coating on charcoal — 
 
 "White 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Dark yellow 
 
 Pale yeUow and phosphorescent, hot 
 White, cold 
 
 Yellow, hot. 
 White, cold. 
 
 Metallic globule— Brittle . . 
 
 Malleable. 
 Forms a slag — 
 
 Powder the slag and moisten it. 
 If it blackens a silver coin 
 
 Metals. 
 Arsenic, Selenium. 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 j-Zinc. 
 
 j- Molybdenum. 
 
 Antimon}', Bismuth, Tin. 
 Lead, Silver, Copper. 
 
 >- Sulphur, Selenium, Tellurium. 
 
1(5 
 
 MiNERALOG 
 
 Boant some of powdered suhntance and fuse a little ivith hortix in 
 
 platinum ivire loop. 
 
 Results. 
 Formation of colored bead- 
 Violet 
 
 Mrtals. 
 
 Manganese. 
 
 Green while hot, in oxidizinjf flame ^ 
 
 Blue while cold, in oxidizinjj flame. [ VCopper. 
 
 Brown, opaque, in reducing flame..! J 
 
 Yellow in oxidizing flame \\ j chromium. 
 
 m reducmg flame I / ' 
 
 Green 
 
 Brown in oxidizing flame 
 
 Gray, opaque, in reducing flame. 
 
 } Nickel. 
 
 Blue Cobalt. 
 
 Yellow in reducing flame Titanium. 
 
 \ Molybdenum. 
 
 Formation of colorless bead — 
 
 Yellow in oxidizing flame 
 
 Brown or gray in reducing flame . , 
 
 If much mineral is used, and the 
 bead becomes opaque white on 
 cooling 
 
 \ Barium, Calcium, Strontium, .AhuJ 
 I nesium, Zinc. 
 
 Non-Metallic Lustre. 
 
 Fune a particle hi/ il.ielf in platinum forceps. 
 
 Results. 
 Colored Flame — 
 
 Pale green 
 
 Rich green 
 
 Crimson 
 
 Pale red 
 
 Bright yellow 
 
 Violet 
 
 Magnetic mass or bead . , 
 
 Metals. 
 
 Barium, Borates and Phosphatt : 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Strontium, Lithium. 
 
 Calcium. 
 
 Sodium. 
 
 Potassium. 
 
 Iron, Nickel, Cobalt. 
 
llNKKALOGY. 
 
 17 
 
 Fuse substance vjith soda and a little borax on charcoal. 
 
 Resilth, 
 Odbr of garlic Arsenic. 
 
 Funu'S, white ' Arsenic. 
 
 Metalh. 
 
 Metallic globule — Brittle . . . . 
 Malleable . 
 Coftting on charcoal — 
 
 White 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Dark j'ellow 
 
 Pale yellow and phosphorescent- 
 hot 
 
 White— cold 
 
 Slagf (blackens silver coin when crushed 
 and moistened) 
 
 Antimony, Bismuth, Tin. 
 Lead, Silver, Copper. 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Absorption in the charcoal 
 
 Fonftation of opaque blue or greenish 
 blue enamel 
 
 Izinc. 
 
 \ Sulphur (a sulphate). 
 
 /Barium, Strontium, Lithium, Sodi- 
 \ uni, Potassium. 
 
 Manganese. 
 
 Fuse a small particle with some borax on platimiin wire loop. 
 
 Formation of colored bead. 
 
 The bead reactions are similar to 
 those described under "Metallic 
 Lustre." 
 
 Cuppjllation. 
 Ores rich in goltl and silver may be tested in this way. The 
 mineral is powdered and mixed with soda and pure lead or lith- 
 irge and reduced on charcoal with the blowpipe to a lead button. 
 When cooled and cleaned the button is placed on the cupel. A 
 ?ood cupel may be made thus : lill a clay pipe bowl three- 
 luarters full of clay, and in the cup-shaped cavity left on top 
 prew some dry bone ash, and smooth the surface with the round- 
 jd-ipd of a glass stopper. The lead button is treated by the 
 )xi^zing flame, and is kept moving on the cupel to bring it in 
 JOB^ict with fresh bone ash all the time. The lead is absorbed 
 n the bone ash and finally, when the cupellatiou is finished, the 
 ittte silver or gold button gives a flash or gleam of light. Galena 
 ,)re«j of course, require no addition of lead, but a lead button 
 Jon^ining the silver for cupellation is obtained by fusing with 
 "''lion charcoal. 2 
 
It 
 
 MineralogI 
 
 § 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 H 
 O 
 
 9 u 
 
 C W 
 
 
 . 0) v (u 
 <u .ti .1i -2 
 
 V 
 
 D 
 
 pa 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 I 
 I 
 
 » 
 Pi 
 
 OS 
 
 o 
 
 0) 
 
 0) 
 
 c 
 
 >. C 0) S 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 v 
 
 
 -t-i 
 
 
 
 
 »4 
 
 
 >. 
 
 , 
 
 IIh 
 
 H 
 
 
 H 
 
 s 
 
 
 o 
 
 S 
 
 u 
 
 9? <i> u s 
 
 ^ 2 S 2 
 
 j« <tj a ■« 
 
 » 
 Oi 
 H 
 CC 
 
 Oi 
 
 E- 
 00 
 
 £3 
 
 o 
 
 
 n 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 hi 
 
 o 
 
 »a 
 
 tn 
 
 •CO. 
 
 o 
 
 0) 
 
 (I (U u 
 
 
 'o 
 
 
 «-■ u 55 
 Art S 
 
 t»«0 
 
 
 1 
 
 VERY HARD. 
 
 From 7 to 10 
 
 Topaz. 
 Corundum. 
 Diamond. 
 Quartz. 
 
 
 
 I=> 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 eiS 
 
 
 
 u « 
 
 
 cs.ti 
 
 
 .c -ti 
 
 
 d cS 
 
 
 5 fl 
 
 
 C V 
 
 
 bW 
 
 !C 
 
 
 
 
 . 0) -5 u 
 
 a: 
 n 
 
 
 
 C t) ?< w 
 
 
 
 
 J[S1h5!J 
 
 ►^ 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 Oi 
 
 
 
 
 •a 
 
 u: 
 
 
 
 0: 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 ^ 
 
 0i 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 ■ ' »— c 
 
 o-SE,! 
 
 ej d t. »-;- 
 
 a> 
 
[EMALO(iY. 
 
 19 
 
 OccuRKiNo Canadian Minerals. 
 
 CLASS I. 
 
 Chapman's Syllabus for Determination of Commonly 
 
 1. Native silver and black silver sulphide. 
 
 2. Native gold. 
 
 3. Native copper. 
 
 : , , CLASS II. 
 
 000, i.e., scratched by the knife. 
 
 {II a.) Metallic Lustre. 
 
 1. Yellow. Copper pyrites. Reducible to a metallic bead 
 Magnetic after ignition. 
 b 2.- Bronze-yellow, or reddish. Magnetic pyrites. Magnetic 
 I before fusion. 
 
 r 3. Plesh-red, but with blue or other tarnish. Bornite. 
 - 4. Lead-gray. Galena, lleducible to metallic bead of lead, 
 
 and coveri )g support yellow. 
 Molybdenite. Infusible. Tinges flame green ; 
 
 soils paper like graphite. 
 Stibnite. Fuses in candle flame. Gives dense, 
 white fumes. 
 
 5. Gray or black. Graphite. Infusible, no color to flame, 
 
 marks paper. 
 
 Pyrolusite. Turquois enamel with sodium car- 
 bonate. With hydrochloric acid gives odor 
 of chlorine. 
 
 Hematite. Ked streak, magnetic after ignition. 
 
 '! (lib.) Non-Metallic Lmtre. ' 
 
 'recUk red or brown. 
 
 6. Hematite. Streak red. No water on ignition in the bulb- 
 
 tube, magnetic after ignition. 
 
 7. Limonite. Streak brownish red. Yields water in bulb-tube 
 
 magnetic after ignition. ' 
 
 _8. Zinc blende. Streak light brown. Yields no water. In- 
 fusible by itself, yields coating of oxide on the support. 
 _ Yellow hot, white cold, and green after ignition with 
 cobalt nitrate solution. 
 
 reok uncolored. 
 
 \). With sodium carbonate blackens silver. 
 
 rypsum. White, very soft, yields water in bulb-tube, 
 easily fusible. 
 
.,Q MiNKItM. 
 
 DderminalUm of Common Minerah. 
 
 10. Barite. Fusible with ditficulty, yields no water, tii. 
 
 flanie green. , • , , i. 
 
 11 Celestite. Fusible ; colors Haine red, yields no water. j_ 
 
 12. Zinc blende (some varieties). Yields no water, no tla^" 
 
 coloration (see 8 above). ^^ 
 
 {2). No sulphur reaction. 
 
 13. Rock salt. Taste is distinctive. 
 
 14. Fluorite. Fusible, occurs mostly in cubes. ' 
 15 Apatite. Infusible, occurs in six-sided prisms. ^ 
 10. Mica. Fusible on edges, can be easily divided into slu^ 
 17. Calcite. 1 
 
 CLASS III. ^ 
 
 Hard, i.e., not scratched by knife. 
 
 (Ufa.) MHallk Lustre. ^^ 
 
 1. Yellow. Iron Pyrites. Magnetic after ignition, fiisii 
 
 (rives off sulphur odor ; cubical. ! 
 
 2. Brownish yellow. Reddish. Magnetic Pyrites. Magii ; 
 
 before ignition. 
 
 3. Silver-white. Arsenical Pyrites. Gives off odor of am, 
 
 and becomes magnetic. i 
 
 4. Black. Magnetic iron ore. Anhydrous, streak black, ii 
 
 netic before ignition. il 
 
 5. Dark steel-gray or red. Hematite. Magnetic only -e 
 ^ ' ignition. Streak red, yields no water. . 
 
 .' 6. Brown. Reddish-yellow. Limonite. Yields water m I 
 tube. Streak yellow, magnetic only after ignition. 
 
 ( 
 I 
 
 (///&.) Non- Metallic Lustre. . 
 
 7. Hexagonal pyramids or prisms, yields no water, infiu'i 
 
 Quartz 
 
 8. Hard, cleavable in various directions, fusible on the e * 
 
 Feldspar. 
 
 9. White or pale green, fusible with strong intumesct^ 
 
 Prehnite. 
 10. Dark red, opaque or semi-transparent; yields no waj 
 fusible, regular system. Garnet. i 
 
 I 
 
 'i 
 
 t] 
 
 )] 
 
 I 
 
DANA'S CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS. 
 
 (Condensed with but ultfjht alteration.) 
 
 In tlie following classilicution these abbreviations are used: 
 ! = 0<)l<»r, S = streak color, L- lustre, H— hardness, (j — specific 
 ravity, H, B. — before blowpipe. The lij^ures given with the 
 imposition indicate tlie percentage of each component part. 
 
 SULPHLFt (jKOUP. 
 
 Na'i IVK SiJLPHUi:.— Orthorhondjic, octahedrons. Also massive. 
 
 and Srrr canary yellow, sonietinjes orange yellow. L=: resinous. 
 r»^nBparent to translucent. Brittle. H=l. .1-2.5. (j=2.07. 
 urns with bhie flame and sul})hurous odor. In closed tul)e 
 holly volatilized and redeposited on walls of tube. Uses : gun- 
 jwder, bleaching, medicines, and for manufacturing sulphuric 
 }id. 
 
 Native Tklluhium. — lihombohedral. Sometimes in six-sided 
 risms, but usually granular massive. C and S = tin-white, 
 rittle. H = 2-2.5. = 6.2. Sometimes contains a little iron, 
 id also a trace of gold. 
 
 MOLVBDKNUM does not occur native. 
 
 MOLYBDENITK. — Molybdenum Sulphide. Hexagonal ])late8 or 
 
 iusses, in thin leaves like gra[)hite, and rtsendjling it. H = 
 -1.5. (t = 4.45 4 8. C = pure lead gray. S = same, slightly 
 •een. Thin sheets very flexible, but not elastic. Leaves mark 
 1 paper, but its mark is slightly bluish gray. B.B. infusible, 
 dphur fumes given off. Sulphur 41, molybdenum 59. Occurs 
 equently in Canada. 
 
 MOLVBDITK. — Yellow oxide of molybdenum, is found in Canada. . ^ 
 
 Boron. 
 
 Sassolite. — Boracic Acid. Hydrogen Borate, Occurs in small 
 alea, white or yellowish. Feels smooth and greasy. Tastes 
 iid or a little salty and bitter. The borax of commerce is 
 liefly derived from native borax, but also from ulexite and 
 ssc^itc. (j = 1.48. Fuses easily, tinges flame green. 
 
 ^ Arsenic. 
 
 Native Arsknic. — Rhombohedral. Also massive, columnar or 
 mnttlar. C and S = tin- white, but usually dark grayish from 
 minh. Brittle. H = 3.5. G = 5.7. Found near Port Arthur. 
 OiifiMKNT. — Yellow Arsenic Sulphide. In leaf-like masses, 
 idji0metimes in prismatic crystals. C and S = flne yellow. L = 
 illil^t pearly or metallic pearly on cleavage face. Subtrana- 
 irent to translucent. Sectile. H = 1.5-2. G = 3.4. Used as 
 vinjl Burns with garlic odor and bluish flame. Sulphur 39, 
 selic 61. 
 
 21 , 
 
23 MiNKiiAr.oc 
 
 Avfienic. 
 
 llKWAiAH.—AvHvinc Suliihidc. (! Hinc cloar rvA to oraiiji 
 Transp.ireiit or tniiiHlucont. II — 1. 5 2. (i-.S.H") .S.()5. I'm 
 ill iiiaiiufactiiring li reworks and King's yellow pigment. Saii 
 uharacteristio.s as last. Arsenic 70, sulphur .SO. 
 
 Arhknolitk, WiirrK Aijskmc. — Arsenous Acid. Isonietn 
 In minute hair-like crystals, botryoidal or stalactitic. C-— wliit 
 H = 1.5. G =3.7. Used for alloys in small portions, as with It; 
 for shot making. Arsenic 70, oxygen 24. 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Native Antimony. — Hhombohedral. Usually masbive, wil 
 very distinct plate-like structure, sometimes granular, ('and 
 =tin white. Hrittle. H=3-3.5. (;=0.() 0.75. B. B. fu* 
 easily, passes oft" in white fumes. Occurs in New Brunswid 
 Uses, alloys and medicine. 
 
 Stibnitk, (jRav Antimony. — .\ntitn()ny Sulphide. Orth. Uigl 
 r^iombic prisms with striated lateral faces. Cleavage high 
 perfect. Commoidy divergent columnar or iibrous. Sometiiii 
 massive granular. C and S=lead gray, liable to tarnish. L 
 shining. Brittle^ but thin plates a little flexible. Somewii 
 sectile. H=2. G— 4.5-4.02. Fuses readily in the Hame of 
 candle; B. B. on charco.al it is a])sorbed, giving off white fuiii 
 and sulphur odor. Distinguished ])y extreme fusibility and i 
 vaporizing B. B. Antimony, 71.8; sulphur, 28.2. Affords tl 
 antimony of shops, and is principally used for Britannia ai 
 Babbitt metals and pewter. Frequent in Canada. 
 
 Kermksitr, Red AiViimony. — An antimony oxide and sulphii 
 in red tufts of hair-like crystals. L = adamantine. Mostly accoi 
 panying stibnite. B. B. wholly volatilizes. 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Native Bismuth.— Cleavage rhombohedral perfect. Gene 
 ally massive, with distinct cleavage, sometimes granular. C and 
 = silver- white with slight red tinge, subject to tarnish. Britt 
 when cold; somewhat malleable, heated. H = 2-2.5. G— 9. 
 9.8. Used as alloy. Occurs in Hastings Co., etc. 
 
 BiSMUTHiNiTK. — Bismuth Sulphide. In needle-shaped crysta 
 of lead gray, also massive ; found in the Mikado mine near 11 
 Portage, Ontario, and elsewhere. 
 
 Tetradymite. — Bismuth Telluride. Hex. Crystals oft( 
 tabular, with very perfect basal cleavage. Also massive ai 
 leaf-like or granular. Plates flexible. L = splendent metalli 
 C = pale steel gray. A little sectile. H= 1.5-2. G.-7.2-7. 
 Soils paper. The metal is mostly derived from native bismut 
 the most valuable mines being in Saxony, Hungary, Bade 
 Cornwall and Australia. Tellurium 48.1, bismuth 51.9. 
 
INKUALOaY. 
 
 29 
 
 Diamond. — Isometric. Octahedrons, (lodeoihedrniiH, and more 
 jin[)lex forms ; faces often curved. Cleavage octahe<lral, per- 
 let. ('-white or ccdorless ; also yellowish, red, orange, blue, 
 }i'en, brown or black. L -adamantine. '!'rans|Mn'nt ; trans- 
 (cent when <lark colored. H = 10. U =3.48-3.5r). I'liie carlion. 
 lirns at hii^li temperature. I'.lectric. Di.stinguislKMl by hard- 
 ^8S, electricity, and brilliant reHection of light, C'oarse dia- 
 Dixls (borts) used in <liamond drill. In view of recent dis- 
 ^veries in the neighboring State.-* the diainond may yet be found 
 
 (/'a 1 1 ad a. 
 |(iu.\j'HrrK, Rr.ACK Lead, I^LUMnAOO. — Hexagon il. Sometimes 
 
 six-sided })rism8 or tables with tranaver.sely leaf like structure, 
 jually leaf-lik !, and massive. Also granular and compact. L — 
 
 itallic. C=iron black to dark steel gray. B. B. infusible, not 
 [ected by aci<ls. Thin plates flexible. H* = 1-2. (i = '2.'2r) '2.21. 
 rapliite may be distinguished from molybdenite })y streak, and 
 )m the latter giving sulphur fumes. Soils paj)er and feels 
 |easy. Commonly {lo to Hi) of carbon. Uses : pencils, lubri- 
 nt, crucibles and furnaces, electrotyping, stove polish. Found 
 ^quently in Canada. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 ATIVK Gold, — Isometric. Octahedrons, etc. Tree shaped, 
 ".;ad-like, net-form, and in grains, scales, ormasses. ('=yellow. 
 b2.5 3. G^whcn pure 19-19.3 varying to 15 and 12 accord- 
 to impurity. Eminently ductile and malleable. Iron and 
 )per pyrites, often mistaken for gold, are brittle ; while gold 
 y he cut or flattened under a hammer. 
 
 Ugvagitr, Foliatkd TELLi'iauM.— Like graphite. C and S 
 )lackish lead-gray. H-. 1-1.5. = 7.08. Contains, tellurium 
 32.2, lead 54, gold 9, often with silver, copper, and some sulphur. 
 O^jcurs at Huroniau mine, Out. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 S^ative Silver. — In octaliedrons and other forms. No cleav- 
 Often in threads and tree-like shapes, threads having a 
 ^stalline character. Also in plates and massive. C and S = 
 ver-white and shining, often black from tarnish. Sectile. 
 dleable. H=2.5-8. G=10.1-ll.l. B.B. fuses easily into 
 lite globule. Distinguished by being malleable ; from bismuth 
 d other white metals by giving no B.B. fumes, and by affording 
 
 [precipitate with hydrochloric acid (yields chloride of silver, 
 
 hich becomes black on exposure). 
 
 |Argkntite, Silver Glance.— Silver Sulphide. Isometric, 
 dodecahedrons more or less modifled. Cleavage sometimes 
 
2-1 MiNKHALOGY, 
 
 Silver. 
 
 apparent, parallel to faces. Also net-form and massive. L = 
 metallic. C and S = blackish lead gray. S = shining. Very 
 sectile. H = 2-2.5. G = 7. 19-7.4, B.B. bubbles and gives odor 
 of sulphur and finally affords silver globule. Itesembles some 
 ores of copper and lead, and other ores of silver, but dis- 
 tinguished by being easily cut with knife, like lead ; and also bj 
 giving globule of silver on charcoal by heat alone. Speciiic 
 gravity much higher than that of any copper ores. Sulphur 
 12.9, silver 87. 1. Common in Canada. 
 
 Hersite. — Silver Telluride. C = lead and steel-gray. Sectile, 
 G = 8.3-8.6. B.B. on charcoal with soda gives silver globule. 
 Silver 62.8, tellurium 37.2. Found at Pine Portage, Ontario, 
 and in Kootenay. 
 
 Stri (Mkyeri i'e. — Silver-Copper Sulphide. C = steel-graj'. B. B, 
 fuses with sulphur odor and gives silver globule only by cupella- 
 tiou. Found in British Columbia, at Hall mines. Sulphur 
 15.7, silver 53.1, copper 31 2. 
 
 Sternbehgiie. — Silver- Iron Sulphide. Highly leaf-like, re- 
 sembling graphite and leaving mark on paper. 'J'hin sheets 
 flexible. C = brassy brown. S = black. Contains from 30 to 35 
 silver. 
 
 Arqueuite. — An amalgam containing 86 silver, mercury 14, 
 Found in British Colum ia. 
 
 Sylvanite, Gkaphtc Tki.lurtum. — Oold-Silver Telluride. C 
 and S = steel gray to silver white, sometimes brassy yellow, 
 H= 1.5-2. G = 7. 9-8.3. The crystals arranged like writing 
 characters. Tellurium 55.8, gold 28.5, silver 15.7. Occurs west 
 of l^ake Superior. 
 
 HuNTiLiTE, — Silver Arsenide. C = dark gray to black. Amor- 
 phous. When impure called McFarlanite. Huntilite and 
 Animikite occur at Silver Islet, Lake Superior. 
 
 Animiktte. — Silver Antimonide. 
 
 l*YRAKGYRITE, RUBY SiLVKR, DaRK ReD SiLVElt OrE.— 
 
 silver sulph-autimonite. Khombohedral, also massive. C = black 
 to dark red. S = dark red. L = splendent metallic to adaman- 
 tine. Its red streak and reactions for antimony and silver are 
 distinctive. B.B. fuses easily, on charcoal, sulphur and antimony 
 fumes, reddening litmus paper. Silver 59.8, sulphur 17.7, anti- 
 mony 22.5. Found in Slocan district. 
 
 Stephanite, Black Selver, Brittle Silver Ore. — A silver 
 sulph-antimonite. Orthorhonibic. Often in compound crystals. 
 Also massive. C and S = iron black. H = 2-2.5. G = 6.27. 
 Silver 68.5, sulphur 16.2, antimony 15.3. B.B. gives odor of 
 sulphur, and dense white fumes, like last. 
 
 Cekakgyrite, Horn Silver.— Silver Chloride. Isometric. 
 Cubical with no distinct cleavage. Also massive, often incrust- 
 
INKHALOOY. 
 
 25 
 
 liver. 
 
 H = 1.5-2. G = 5.3-5.5. C = gray passing into green and 
 ue, looking like horn or wax and cutting like it. L = resinous to 
 aniaiitine. IS = shining. Translucent to nearly opaque. B.B. 
 Olds silver easily on charcoal. Fuses in candle iiame with 
 rill fumes. Silver 75.3, chlorine 24.7. 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 I N ATIVK Platinum. — Isometric. Usually in flattened or angular 
 ■ains or irregular masses. No cleavage. C and S = pale or dark 
 
 icl gray. L = metallic shining. Malleable? H = 4-4. 5. G = 
 19. « >ften slightly magnetic. Soluble in heated aqua regia. 
 Jatinum is at once distinguished by malleability, specihc gravity 
 id extreme infusibility. Found in Canada. 
 
 Ikido^mtne. — A compound of iridium and osmium. Found 
 Laringly in allu vials in Quebec. 
 
 Palladium. 
 Native Palladium. — Isometric. In minute octahedrons. 
 
 Oc- 
 
 irs mostly in grains, sometimes of divergent fibres. = steel 
 fay to silver white. Malleable. H.^4.5-5. G^ 11.3-12.2. 
 
 Merclrv. 
 
 Native Mercury. --In fluid globules scattered through the 
 mgue. C = tin white. Entirely volatile B. B. and dissolves in 
 [trie acid. G= 13.58. Native amalgam, see arquerite. 
 
 (JiNNABAR. — Mercury Sulphide. lUiombohedral. Cleavage 
 [teral, highly perfect. Crystals often tabular, or six-sided 
 risuis. Also massive, sometimes in earthy coatings. L = un- 
 [etallic, of crystals adamantine; often dull. C = bright red to 
 rownish red and brownish black. S = scarlet. Subtransparent 
 nearly opaque. H = 2-2.5. G = 9. Sectile. Distinguished 
 [oni red oxide of iron ai»d chromate of lead by vaporizing B. B. ; 
 [om realgar by garlic fumes on charcoal. Chief source of metal. 
 
 hen pure identical with vermillion. Mercury 86. 2, sulphur 
 
 .8. Found in British Columbia. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Native Copper. — Isometric. No cleavage apparent. In plates 
 
 masses, and in large or small tree-like and thread-like shapes, 
 
 [)nsistiug usually of a string of crystals. Malleable. H = 2.5-3. 
 
 = 8.8-8.95 B.B. fuses readily and on cooling is covered with 
 
 lack oxide. Dissolves in nitric acid and produces deep azure 
 
 |lue solution on addition of ammonia. Occurs in Lake Superior 
 
 3gion. 
 
26 Mineralogy 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Ohalcocite, Copper Glanc p., Viitieous Copper Ore. — Copper 
 Sulphide. Orthorhombic. Also in compound crystals like ara- 
 ^'j^^onite. Often massive. C and S= blackish lead gray, ofteu 
 ' tarnished blue or green. S = sometimes shining. H = 2.5-3. 
 G=5.5-5.8. B.B. gives fumes of sulphur, fuses easily, yields 
 copper globule. Resembles argetitite, but is not sectile, and 
 affords different results B. B. Copper 79.8, sulphur 20.2. Occurs 
 frequently in Canada. 
 
 Chalcopyrite, Copper PYnrris. — Copper and Iron Sulphide. 
 Tetragonal. Tetraliedral or octahedral crystals. Also massive, 
 C = brass yellow, often tarnished deep yellow and also iridescent. 
 S = unmetallic greenish black, and but little shining. H = 3.5-4, 
 G = 4.2. B.B. fuses to magnetic globule, gives sulphur fumes. 
 Distinguished from gold by crumbling under a knife, and from 
 iron pyrites in its deeper yellow color and in yielding easily to 
 point of knife, instead of striking fire with steel. Copper 34.6," 
 iron 30.5, sulphur 34.9. Common in Canada. 
 
 Bornite, Erubescite, Variegated Copper Pyrites. — Iso- 
 metric. In octahedrons and dodecahedrons. Also massive. 
 C = copper red to brassy brown but tarnishes to bluish and red- 
 dish shades rapidly on exposure. S = pale grajnsh black and but 
 slightly shining. Brittle. H = 3. = 4.4-5.5. B.B. on char- 
 coal fuses to brittle magnetic globule. Dissolves in nitric acid 
 with separation of sulphur. Copper 55.5, iron 16, sulphur 28.5, 
 Fairly common in Canada ; also houritonite, a sulpli-antimouite of 
 copper ; and domeykite, a copper arsenide. 
 
 Tetrahedrite, Gray Copper, Fahlrhz.— Isometric. In 
 tetrahedral crystals. C = steel gray to blackish. S - nearly same, 
 to brown and cherry red. H = 3-4.5. 0=4.7-5. Frequently 
 found with galena in the Slocan, B. C, and elsewhere in Canada. 
 
 Atacamite. — Copper Oxichloride. Orthorhombic. In rhombic 
 prisms, etc., also granular massive. C = green to blackish green. 
 L=adamantine to vitreous. 8 = apple green. Translucent to 
 subtranslucent. H = 3-3.5. G = 3.8. Chlorine 16.64, oxygen 
 11.25, copper 11.25, water 12.66. 
 
 Cuprite, Red Copper Ore. — Copper Oxide. Isometric. In 
 regular octahedrons, also massive, sometinies earthy. C = deep 
 red of various shades. S = brownisli red. L=adamantine or 
 sub-metallic. Brittle. H = 3.5-4. G=6. Subtransparent to 
 nearly opaque. B. B. affords copper globule. Dissolves in nitric 
 acid, hiffers from cinnabar in not being volatile ; from hematite 
 in yielding copper bead. Copper 88.8, oxygen 11.2. Occurs in 
 Canada. 
 
 Mklaconite, Black Copper. — Copper Oxide. A black pow- 
 der, and in dull black masses and botryoidal concretions. Con- 
 tains 60- 70 of copper. 
 
Mineralogy. . , " 27 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Chalcanthite, Blue Vitriol. — Sulphate of Copper. Tri- 
 climc. In oblique rhomboidal priarns. Also as efflorescence or 
 incrustation and stalactitic. -deep sky blue. S = iincolored. 
 Subtranspareiit to translucent. L=^ vitreous. Soluble. Taste 
 nauseous and metallic. H — 2-2.0. G = 2.2I. Sulphuric acid 
 32. 1, copper oxide 81.8, water 36 1. 
 
 Olivkmtk. — Hydrous Copper Arsenate. Orthorhombic. In 
 prismatic crystals, also fibrous and gra'uular massive. C and S = 
 olive green to liver and wood brown. Siibtransparent to opaque. 
 Brittle. i = 3. G- 4. 13-4.38. B.B, fuses with deflagration, 
 garlic odoi, .iud yields brittle globule which with soda gives 
 metallic copper. Copper oxide 56.15, arsenic pentoxide 40.66, 
 water 3.19. 
 
 Malachite. — Green Copper Carbonate. Monoclinic, usually in 
 incrustations. Structure finely and firmly fibrous ; also earthy. 
 C=: light green. 8 = paler. Usually nearly opaque, crystals 
 translucent. L=:of crystals, adamantine inclined to vitreous; 
 but fibrous incrustations silky on cross fracture ; earthy variet- 
 ies dull. H = 3. 5-4. G = 3. 7-4. B. B. decrepitates and blackens, 
 colors flame green, and becomes partly a black scoria. With 
 borax, fuses to deep green globule ; finally aftbrds a bead of 
 copper. Malachite is not bluish green like chrysocolla, which it 
 resembles ; moreover the former has complete solution and 
 effervescence in nitric acid. Copper oxide 71.9, carbon dioxide 
 19.9, water 8.2. Common in Canada. 
 
 AzuRiTK. — Blue Copper Carbonate. Monoclinic. In modified 
 oblique rhombic prisms, the crystals rather short and stout. 
 Lateral cleavage perfect. Also massive ; often earthy. C — deep 
 blue, azure blue. Transparent to nearly opaque. S = bluish. 
 L= vitreous, almost adamantine. Brittle. H=: 3. 5-4.5. G = 3.5- 
 3.83. It makes a poor pigment as it is liable to turn green. 
 B.B. same as preceding. Copper oxide 69.2, carbon dioxide 
 25.6, water 5.2. Occurs in Canada. 
 
 DioPTASE. — Copper Silicate, Rhombohedral. Occurs in six- 
 sided prisms with rhombohedral terminations. C = emerald 
 green. L= vitreous. Transparent to nearly opaque. H = 5, 
 (t = 3.28-3 35. B.B. with soda on charcoal yields copper. Hard- 
 ness distinctive. Copper oxide 50. 4, silica 38. 1, water 11.5. 
 
 Chkysocolla. — Hydrous Copper Silicate. Usually as in- 
 crustations, botryoidal and massive ; in thin seims and stains ; 
 no fibrous or granular structure apparent, nor sign of crystalliz- 
 ation. C = clear bluish green. L=^smoothly shining, also 
 earthy. Translucent to opaque. H = 2-4. G=:.2-2.4. B.B. 
 blackens in reducmg flame, gives water without melting. Cop- 
 per oxide 45.3, silica 34.2, water 20.5. Occurs in Lake Superior 
 region. 
 
28 " MiNEKALOOV 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Native Lead is rare, occurs in thin sheets or globules. 
 G = 11.35. Found near Kaministiquia, Ontario. 
 
 (Ialena. Galentte. — Lead Sulphide. Isometric. Cleavage 
 cubic, eminent and very easily obtained ; also coarse or iiiit; 
 granular, rarely Hbrous. C and S = lead gray. L = shining 
 metallic. Fragile. H = 2.5. G-7. 25-7.35. The lead of com- 
 merce obtained from galena ; used in glazing common stoneware, 
 being ground to impalpable powder and mixed in water witli 
 clay ; into this the vessel is dipped and then baked. B.B. de- 
 crepitates unless heated with caution, fuses, gives sulphur odor, 
 coats the charcoal yellow and yields lead globule. Lead 86.6, 
 sulphur 13.4. ('ommon in Canada. 
 
 MiNTUM. — Oxide of Lead. Powdery. C== bright red mixed 
 with yellow. G=4.6. Identical with red lead, but for arts is 
 artiricially prepared. B.B. affords lead globule in reducing flame. 
 
 Meneghinite. — A lead sulphantimonite, occurs in Canada, 
 
 Anglesite. — Lead Sulphate. Orthorhonibic. ]n rhombic 
 prisms and other forms. Also massive, plate-like or granular. 
 C— -white or slightly gray or green. L= adamantine, sometimes 
 a little resinous or vitreous. Transparent to nearly opaque. 
 Brittle. H=2.75-3. G = 6.r'5-6.4. Distinguished by speciiic 
 gravity and by yielding lead on charcoal vith soda B.B. Differs 
 from lead carbonate in lustre and in not dissolving with efierves- 
 cence in acid. B.B. fuses in candle flame. Aflbrds 73 of lead 
 oxide. Usually found as a decomposition-product of galena. 
 
 Crocoite. — Lead Chromate. Monoclinic. In oblique rhombic 
 prisms, massive. C = bright red. S = orange yellow. Translu- 
 cent. H = 2.5-3. G=5.9-6. 1. B.B. blackens and fuses, forms 
 a shining slag containing lead globules. Lead oxide 68.9, chro- 
 mium trioxide 31.1. This is the chrome yellow of painters. 
 
 Pyuomorphite. — Lead Phosphate. Hexagonal. In hexagonal 
 prisms, often in crusts made of crystals with a radiated structure. 
 C=r bright green to brown, sometimes line orange-yellow, owing 
 to presence of lead chromate. 8= white. L-more or less 
 resinous. Nearly transparent to subtransluce;it. Brittle. H= 
 3.5-4. G — 6.8-7. 1. B.B. fuses easily, colors flame bluish green, 
 charcoal coating is white at edges and yellow nearer mineral. 
 Has some resemblance to beryl and apatite but differs B.B. and 
 is higher in spec. grav. and is softer. I'hosphorus pentoxide 
 15.7, lead oxide 82.3, chlorine 2.6. 
 
 Cerussite, White Lead Ore.— Lead Carbonate. Orthorhom- 
 bic. In modified right rhombic prisms ; often in compound 
 crystals, two or three crossing one another; also in six-sided prisms 
 like aragonite ; also massive ; rarely librous. C = white, grayish, 
 light or dark. L-adamantine. Brittle. 11 = 3-3.5. G = 6.46- 
 6.48. B.B. decrepitates, fuses, and with care gives lead globule 
 
Mineralogy. * 29 
 
 Lead. 
 
 on charcoal. Effervesces in dilute nitric acid. Distinguished by 
 spec. grav. and by yielding lead when heated. From anglesite it 
 differs in giving lead alone on charcoal B. B. , as well as by solubility, 
 effervescence with nitric acid, and less glassy lustre. Associated 
 usually with galena. Cerussite is identical with white lead, but 
 for arts and coninierce is artificially prepared. In rare instances 
 cerussite and anglesite are mined for lead. Lead oxide 83.5, 
 carbon dioxide 16.5. Found in Canada. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Zinc is a brittle metal, but admits of being rolled into sheets at 
 212° F., and is thus extensively used for roofing and other pur- 
 poses, being less corrosive, harder, and lighter than lead. Used 
 for coating (galvanizing) iron. Also alloyed with copper to make 
 brass, muntz and spelter metals. Obtained chiefly from smith- 
 sonite, willemite, calamine, zincite, sphalerite, and franklinite. 
 
 Sphalerite, Blendk, Black Jack. — Zinc Sulphide. Isome- 
 tric. Perfect dodecahedral cleavage. Also massive, sometimes 
 fibrous. C = wax yellow, brownish yellow to black, sometimes 
 green, red, and white. 8 = whitish to reddish brown. L- resin- 
 ous or waxy, and brilliant on a cleavage face ; sometimes sub- 
 metallic. Transparent to subtranslucent. Brittle. H = 3.5-4. 
 = 3.9-4.2. Some specimens become electric and give off a 
 yellow light when rubbed with a feather. This ore characterized 
 by lustre, cleavage, and by being almost infusible. Some dark 
 varieties look a little like tin ore, but their cleavage and inferior 
 hardness distinguish them ; some clear red crystals, which re- 
 semble garnet, are distinguished by the same characters, and also 
 by their difficult fusibility. Zinc 67, sulphur 33. Common in 
 Canada. 
 
 Zincite, Red Zinc Ore. — Zinc Oxide. Hexagonal. Usually 
 in foliated masses, or in disseminated grains ; cleavage nearly like 
 that of mica, but the plates brittle and not so easily separated. 
 C — deep or bright red ; by transmitted light, deep yellow. S — 
 orange yellow. L = brilliant, subadamantine. Translucent or 
 subtranslucent. H=4-4.5. 0=5.68-5.74. B.B. infusible alone, 
 but yields yellow glass with borax, coating on charcoal yellow 
 while hot, white cold. Zinc 80.3, oxygen 19.7. 
 
 OosLAHiTE, White Vitriol. — Zinc Sulphate. Orthorhombic. 
 C= white. L= vitreous. Easily soluble. Taste astringent, 
 metallic and nauseous. Brittle. H==2-2.5. G=2. Extensively 
 used in medicine and dyeing. Prepared to a large extent from 
 zinc blende by decomposition. B.B. coating on charcoal as pre- 
 ceding. Zmc oxide 28.2, sulphur trioxide 27.9, water 43.9. 
 
 Smith.sgnite. — Zinc Carbonate. Rhombohedral. Massive or 
 incrusting ; reniform and stalactitic. C=impure white, some- 
 
} 
 
 30 Mineralogy 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 times green or brown. S=imcolorecl. L= vitreous or pearly. 
 Subtransparent to translucent. Brittle. H=5. (j!=4.3-4.4r). 
 B. B. infusible, electric. Occur? commonly with galena or blende. 
 Distinguished by effervescence with acids. Zinc oxide 64.8, 
 carbon dioxide 35.2. 
 
 WiLLKMiTE. — Zinc Silicate. Rhombohedral. In hexagonal 
 prisms, also massive. 0^= whitish, greenish yellow, apple green, 
 flesh red, yellowish brown. S=uncolored. Transparent to 
 opaque. Brittle. H=5.5. G=3.9-4.2. B.B. fuses with ditti- 
 culty to white enamel, more easily on adding soda ; yields coat- 
 ing yellow hot, white cold. With cobalt nitrate this coating 
 becomes green after heating in oxidizing flame. Zinc oxide 72.9. 
 silica 27.1. 
 
 Calamine. — Hydrous Zinc Silicate. Orthorhombic. Rhombic 
 prisms, cleavage perfect, also massive and incrusting, mammilated 
 or stalactitic. C=white or whitish, sometimes bluish, greenish, 
 or brownish. S=uncolored. Transparent to translucent. L- 
 vitreous or subpearly. Brittle. H=4.5-5. G=3. 16-3.9. B.B. 
 alone almost infusible. Forms clear glass with borax. Dissolves 
 in heated sulphuric acid, solution gelatinizing on cooling. Pyro- 
 electric. Differs from calcite and aragonite by action with acids ; 
 from a salt of lead, or any zeolite, by its infusibility ; from chal- 
 cedony by its inferior hardness, and its gelatinizing with heated 
 sulphuric acid ; from smithsonite by not effervescing with acids, 
 and by the rectangular aspect of its crystals over a drusy surface. 
 Zinc oxide 67.5, silica 25, water 7.5. 
 
 Franklin ITE. — An ore of iron containing zinc and manganese. 
 
 Cadmium. 
 
 Cadmium. — Only two ores known : Greenockite and Eggonite, 
 but it exists with zinc in sphalerite, smithsonite and calamine. 
 
 ■ ' Tin. 
 
 Tin. — Tin is used for coating other metals, especially iron and 
 copper. Also alloyed with copper. Lead plates, coated with tin 
 and rolled thin, get the name tin-foil. With mercury, tin is used 
 for mirrors. The chlorides of tin are used in the precipitation of 
 many colors, and in flxing and changing colors in dyeing and 
 calico printing. "Bronze powder," much employed for orna- 
 mental purposes, like in paper hangings, is the bisulphide of tin. 
 
 Stannite, Tin Pyrites.— Tin Sulphide. Commonly massive 
 or in grains. C = steel gray to iron black. S= blackish. Brittle. 
 H=4. 0=4.3-4.6. Tin 27, copper 30, iron 13, sulphur 30. 
 
 Casstterite, Tin Ore.— Tin Oxide. Tetragonal. In square 
 prisms and octahedrons, also massive and in grains. C=:brown, 
 
kllNEKALOGY. 31 
 
 in. 
 
 ll.ick, yellow. L = of crystals high adamantine. S-=pale gray 
 |() l)rowr.ish. Nearly transparent to opaque. H=6-7. G=6.4 
 7.0. Has some resemblance to dark garnets, to black zinc 
 ^leiule, and to some varieties of tourmaline. Distinguished by 
 iifusibility and its yielding tin B.B. on charcoal with soda, 
 [arder than blende. It is the chief ore of tin. Stream tin is the 
 [ravel-Hke ore found in alluvials. Tin 78.67, oxygen 21.33. 
 
 Titanium. 
 
 Titanium. — Never found native. 
 
 lluTiLE. — Titanium Oxide. Tetragonal, in prisms of 4, 8 or 
 (lore sides ; often needle-shaped, and penetrating quartz ; often 
 w'inned and in groupings ; sometimes massive. C = reddish 
 fiown to nearly red. S = very pale brown. L — submetallic- 
 damantine. Transparent to opaque. Brittle. H=6-6.5. G= 
 .18-4.25. Sometimes contains iron and then very nearly black. 
 J. B. alone, unaltered. The peculiar subadamantine lustre of 
 utile, and brownish red color (in splinters much lighter red) are 
 triking. It differs from tourmaline, idocrase and augite by being 
 maltered when heated alone B.K. ; and from tin ore in not 
 ffording tin with soda ; from sphene in its crystals. Rutile used 
 or porcelain painting, and coloring artificial teeth. Titanium til, 
 xygen 39. 
 
 Cobalt and Nickel. 
 
 Cobalt and Nickel. — Not yet found native. 
 
 LiNN^iTE.— Cobalt Sulphide, Cobalt and Nickel Sulphide, 
 sometric. In octahedrons and cubo-octahedrons ; also massive. 
 !! = pale steel gray, tarnishing copper red. S = blackish gray. 
 
 = 5.5. G = 4.8-5. B.B. on charcoal yields sulphur odor and 
 nagiietic globule. 
 
 MiLLKRiTE. — Nickel Sulphide. Rhombohedral. Usually in 
 air-like or needle-like crystallizations, sometimes like wool, often 
 11 divergent tufts ; also in fibrous crusts. C = brass yellow, in- 
 tlining to bronze yellow, with often a gray iridescent tarnish. 
 Sebright. Brittle. H=3-3.5. G = 5.65. B.B on charcoal 
 uses to globule ; after roasting gives, with boiax and salt of 
 hosphorus, a violet bead in oxidizing flame, which in reducing 
 lame becomes gray from reduced metallic nickel. A valuable 
 re. Nickel 64.4, sulphur .35.6. Found at Sudbury (?) 
 
 FoLGERiTE. — Massive, plate-like, no crystals. Brittle. C = 
 ight bronze yellow to tin white. L = metallic. S = grayish 
 lack. H = 3 5. In minute grains only, magnetic. Nickel 32.8, 
 rou 31.3, sulphur 35.8. Found at Sudbury, Ont. 
 
 Blurite, Jack's Tin. — Massive, no crystals observed. Brittle. 
 
 = pale olive gray inclining to bronze. S = black. L = metallic, 
 
32 MlNKKAL()(i\ 
 
 I 
 
 Cobalt and Nickel 
 
 somewhat silky. H = 3-3.5. Gr:4.2. Not magnetic. Nickel :C 
 iron 43, sulphur 53.3. Found at Sudbury, Out. Whartonib' 
 alhed to blueite. 
 
 Smaltite, Cobalt Glance, Chloanthite. — Cobalt or Co])iilt 
 Nickel Arsenide, graduating into Nickel Arsenide called Chloaii 
 thite. Isometric. In octahedrons, cubes, dodecahedrons ain 
 other forms. Cleavage octahedral, somewhat distinct. Ah 
 reticulated ; often massive. C = tin white, sometimes incliiiiiij 
 to steel gray. S = grayi8h black. Brittle. Fracture granulai 
 and uneven. H — 5.5-G. G = 6.4-6.9. In closed tube afFordi 
 metallic arsenic ; in open tube, a white sublimate of arsenoiii 
 oxide, and sometimes traces of sulphurous acid. B. B. on char 
 coal gives garlic odor, fuses to globule which gives reaction foi 
 iron, cobalt and nickel. Arsenopyrite is white like smaltite, l)ui 
 yields sulphur as well as arsenic, and in closed tube affords tlit 
 arsenic sulphides, orpiment and realgar. Cobalt varies from '23.5 
 to none. Found at Sudbury. 
 
 CoBALTiTE. — Cobalt Sulph- Arsenide. Isometric. Crystal 
 similarly shaped to those of pyrite, but silver white with red 
 tinge, or inclined to steel gray. 8 = grayish black. Brittle. 
 H=:5.5. G = 6-6.3. B.B. gives sulphur and garlic odor, and 
 magnetic bead ; with borax a cobalt-blue globule. Distinguislied 
 from smaltite by yielding sulphur. Cobalt 35.5, arsenic 45.2, 
 sulphur 19.3. 
 
 Niccolite, Copper Nickel, Arsenical Nickel. Hexagonal, 
 usually massive. C = pale copper red. S=pale brownish red, 
 L = metallic. Brittle. H = 5-5.5. G = 7.35-7.67. B.B. gives 
 garlic odor and fuses to pale globule, which darkens on exposun 
 Assumes a green coating in nitric acid, and soluble in aqua regis 
 Distinguished from pyrite and linnaeite by its pale reddish shade, 
 and also its arsenical fumes, and from much of latter by not giving 
 a blue color with borax. None of the ores of silver with metallic 
 lustre have a pale color, excepting native silver itself. Nickel 
 44, arsenic 56. Found at Sudbury. 
 
 AsBOLiTE, Earthy Cobalt.— Black Cobalt Oxide. Earthy, 
 massive. C=black or blue black. Soluble in hydrochloric 
 acid, giving chlorine fumes. Occurs in an earthy state mixed 
 with oxide of manganese as a bog ore. This ore is purified and 
 made into smalt for arts. 
 
 Erythri'ie, Cobalt Bloom.— Hydrous Cobalt Arsenate. Mon- 
 oclinic. In oblique crystals, cleavage like mica. Plates flexible 
 in one direction. Also as incrustation ; kidney-shaped ; star- 
 shaped. C=peach red, criiDson, rarely grayish or greenish, 
 S=a little paler, the dry powder lavender blue. L=of plates 
 pearly, earthy varieties without lustre. Transparent to sub- 
 translucent. H=1.5-2. G=2.95. Resembles red antimony but 
 
^INEUALOGV. 33 
 
 lohalt ami Nickel. 
 
 hat Hpeoies wholly volatilizes B.B. Red copper ore differs in 
 olor and in giving blue glass with borax, moreover tlie color of 
 lie copper ore is somewhat 8om})re. V^alnable as cobalt ore 
 k'lieii abundant. B.B. garlic odor given off, fuses; a blue glass 
 vitli borax, Cobalt oxide 37.6, arsenic pentoxide ,S8.4, water 24. 
 
 MoRENOsiTK (Nickel Vitriol) is found in Canada. 
 
 (tKnthitk. — A hydrous magnesium-nickel silicate. C = pale 
 ,pple green. 
 
 (tARSIRRITK. ~A variety of genthite occurring in serpentine 
 ocks from New Caledonia, and worked for nickel. Most of the 
 I'orld's supply formerly came from that locality, but Sudbury 
 low outrivals it. 
 
 Uranium. 
 
 Uranimte, Pitch Blende, Coracite. Uranium Oxide. Iso- 
 letric. la octahedrons and related forms, also massive and 
 lotryoidal. C=grayish, brownish or velvet black. L=sub- 
 letaUic or dull. 8=black, opaque. H=5.5. C=f9.2 (when 
 maltered). Used for painting on porcelain, yielding a line 
 range in enamelling tire and a black in baking lire. Obtained 
 [lostiy in Bohemia. B.B. infusible, gives gray slag with borax. 
 liowly soluble in nitric acid when powdered. Uranium 81.5, 
 xygen 13.5, lead 4, water 0.8, iron 0.4. 
 
 Uraconitk. — A Uranium Sulphate, found in Canada. 
 
 ToRBERMTE, Uramte, Uran-Mica, Cii alcolite. — Tetragonal. 
 u square tables, thin plates like mica ; plates brittle. C=em- 
 rald and grass green. S=a little paler. L=of plates pearly, 
 'ransparent to subtranslucent. H=2-2.5. G=3.3-3.6. B.B. 
 uses to black mass, colors flame green. The micaceous struc- 
 iire, bright green color and square tabular form of crystals are 
 triking. Uranium trioxide 61.2, phosphorus pentoxide 15.1, 
 upper oxide 8.4, water 15.3. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Native Iron. — Usually massive with octahedral cleavage. 
 
 and S = iron gray. Fracture hackly. Malleable. H = 4.5. 
 ^—7.3-7.8. Acts strongly on magnet. Native iron is the chief 
 onstitueut of most meteors. 
 
 PvRiTE, Iron Pyrites. — Isometric. Usually in cubes, the 
 triae of one face at right angles with those of either adjoining 
 aces. Many other forms also. Massive. C/= brass yellow. 
 i = brownish black. L=often splendent metallic. Brittle. 
 1=6-6.5. B.B. gives sulphur odor, yields magnetic globule. 
 Vill strike fire with steel. 0=4.8-5.2. Distinguished from 
 opper pyrites in being too hard to cut with knife and also in 
 laler color. 1'he ores of silver at all resembling pyrite are steel 
 
34 MlNEI<AI.()<Jl 
 
 Iron. 
 
 gray or nearly black, and besides are easily scratched with knitV 
 and are quite fusible, (iold is sectile and malleable. Pyritf ii 
 the " iiiundic " of miners, iron 40.7, sulphur 53. M. Common ii 
 Canada. 
 
 Marcasitk, White Ikon Pyhite.*^. — Like the former in con 
 stitution, but ortliorhon>bic. (J and H little ]){der. When ii 
 crested shapes called cocksromh jti/rUc-i. Found in (Canada. 
 
 Pykkho'HTR, MA(}Nh;Tic Pv kites. — Hexagonal, In tabulai 
 hexagonal prisms, massive. C = between l)ronze yellow am 
 coi)per red. S=dark grayish bhick. Brittle. H- 3.5-4..i 
 Gt=4.5-4.05. B.B. like iron j)yrites. Its inferior hardness 
 shade of color, .;nd magnetic (piality distinguish it from pyrile 
 and its bronze color fr(»in copper pyrites. Iron 60.5, ax' 
 phur 39.5. It is the important ore of nickel at Sudbury, bciiii 
 workable when it contains upwards of 2% of nickel. At ilosslam 
 it is intimately associated with the gold deposits. 
 
 AKSENorVhlTE — MiSl'IC'KKL, ARSENICAL IkoN PyKITES.— Ol 
 
 thorhombic. In rhombic prisms. Crystals sometimes elongatti 
 horizontally ; also massive. C=silver white. S — dark gravis! 
 black. L-:shining. Brittle. H=5.5-6. C=5.G7-G.3. "Ue 
 sembles smaltite, but is much harder (giving tire with steel) 
 B.B. gives garlic odor, and magnetic globule. Arsenic 46, iioi 
 34.4, sulphur 19.6. Occurs in Canada. . 
 
 Hematite. ISpeculak Iron Ore. — Rhombohedral. Crystal 
 occasionally thin tabular. Cleavage usually indistinct ; oftei 
 massive granular ; sometimes plate-like or micaceous ; als( 
 earthy. C = dark steel-gray or iron-black. L==when crystallized 
 splendent. Streak powder cherry-red or reddish-brown. H o 
 crystals 5.5 — 6.5. CJ=4.5 — 5.3. Sometimes slightly magnetic 
 Iron, 70, oxygen, 30. (Jommoii in Canada. Varieties : Speciih 
 Iron. L — perfectly metallic. Micaceous Iron. Structure foli 
 ated. Bed Hematite. Submetallic, or unmetallic. Brownisl 
 red. Red Ochre. Soft and earthy, often containing clay. /(*« 
 Chalk. More firm and compact than red ochre and of line tex tiire 
 Jaspery Clay Iron. A hard impure siliceous clayey ore, having i 
 brownish-red jaspery look and compactness. Clay Iron Stow 
 Same as last, but color and appearance less like jasper. Martii 
 is hematite occuning in octahedrons, and derived from oxidatioi 
 of magnetite. Hematite's red powder and the magnetism whicl 
 is so easily induced in it by the reducing flame distinguish it froD 
 all other ores. Magnetite powder is black. 
 
 Menaccanite, Ilmentte, Titanic Iron. — Rhombohedral 
 Often in thin plates or seams in quartz ; also in grains ; crystal 
 sometimes very large and tabular. C=iron-black. S=subiue 
 tallic. L=metallic or snbmetallic. H=5-6. 0=4.5 5. Pvt 
 sembles hematite, but streak is black. Acts slightly on magnetii 
 
MiNKRALOnY. 35 
 
 li'ini. 
 
 Kcdle. In c()ni{>()siti(>ii liko hematite, hut titaniiiin rephices some 
 jt tlu! iron. Found in (jJucIxm; and t'lHewhore in (Janachi. 
 
 MA(;NK/nTi'', Maonk'I'K,' Ihon Okk. — Tsonietiic. Also granuhir, 
 lassivu ; occasionally in frost-like forms h(-tween the shetts of 
 iii(;i. (J iron-hlack. S--hhick. H— -r).r)-().r). (J 5 0-5. 1 
 
 1> infuHihle. Strongly attracted hy magnet and thus ditl'er- 
 1114 lioiii preceding. The hhiek streak and strong magn<'t»8m dia- 
 ii'^uisli it from fiaidvlinite and ehromite. Iron 72.4, oxygen 
 >7.<>. Very common in (Janadiau igneous rocks. 
 
 KiiANKi.f viTF,. isometiic. In octaluMlral and dodecahedral 
 jivslids ; also coarse giamdar, massive. (J = iron-hlack. S - 
 lai k rfddish-l)r()wn. lirittle. H— 5.5-0.5. (i=4.5 5.1. Usu- 
 dly t'cH!l)ly attracted hy magnet, li. !». with soda gives zinccoat- 
 ii<,^ to charcoal. Soda head in oxidizing llan)e is c<dored green hy 
 he manganese. Uesend)k'S magnetic iron, hut is more <lecided 
 (lack. Streak and B. H. reactions distinc.'tive. (.'omi)ositionsanie 
 IS magnetite, h'^t zinc and manganese rei)lace part of iron. 
 
 ('ni;oiSirrE, Chhomic IkoN. — Isometric. Composition same as 
 iiaunetite, hut chromium replaces part of iron. Octahedrons 
 siially massive, and hreaking with rough unpolished surface. 
 ' ii()u-hhi(!k, hrownish-hlack. S^ dark hrown. L suhmetallic, 
 tittn taint. H=5.5. 0=4.32-4.0. In small fragments attracted 
 >y magnet. The compounds of chromium, extensively used for 
 (igmcnts, are chieHy ohtained from ehromite. B. B. infusihle 
 ilont! ; with horax, a heautiful green head. Found in Canada. 
 
 hiMoMTE, Biit'VVN Hkmatitk. — Hydrous Sesquioxide of Irou. 
 Jsually massive ; often smooth hotryoidal or stalactitic with 
 !')mpaet tihrous structure within ; also earthy. = dark hrown 
 iiid Mack to ochre yellow. S = yellowish brown to dull yellow. 
 
 = wlien hlack sometimes suhmetallic ; often dull and earthy ; 
 )ii surface of fracture frequently silky. H-^5 5.5. C!=3.0-4. 
 IB. l>lackens and becomes magnetic. Varieties : Jh'oion Hematite. 
 rile hotryoidal, stalactitic and associated compact ore. Brown 
 Jc/in', Ycl/oiv Ochre. Earthy ochreous varieties of brown or yel- 
 ow color. Brown and Yellow Clay Iron Stone. An impnre ore, 
 lard and compact, of brown or yellow color. Bo(/ Iron Ore. A 
 oose, brownish black earthy ore occurring in low grounds. 
 imonite afibrds water when heated in glass tube. Same com- 
 )ositi()n as hematite, but containing 14% water. Common in 
 Janada. 
 
 Mklantkkite, Copperas!, Green Vithiol. — Sulphate of Iron. 
 ^lonoclinic, in acute oldique rhombic prisms. Cleavage basal, 
 )t'rfect. Generally powdery or massive. C=greenish to white. 
 
 --vitreous. Subtranspareut to translucent. Taste astringent 
 uhI metallic. Brittle. H = 2. G = 1.83. This species is the 
 •esult of decomposition, from exposure to atmosphere, of pyrite, 
 
% Mi\f<:rai,0(;y 
 
 Iron. 
 
 marcasito and pyrrliotite. Copiunaa ia much lined by taunt 
 and dyers l)ecrtU8e it atfordH a black color with tannic acid, tht 
 hitter being an ingredient in nut galls and many kinds of buik 
 Similarly employed in manufacture of ink. Also used in makin, 
 Prussian blue. Sulphur trioxide 28.8, iron protoxide 1'."). 
 water, 45.3. 
 
 WoLKKAMiTK. —Iron-Manganese Tungstate. Moiu)clinic. Al* 
 massive, C dark grayish black. S dark reddish brown 
 Ij=Siibmetallic, shining, or dull. H— 5-r).r). (i}=7. 1-7.5. Thi 
 metal tungsten is employed to some extent in making with ironi 
 steel harder than ordinary steel. Soluble tungstates have ;il,si 
 some uses in the arts. Found in (Janada. 
 
 CoLUMBiTE. — Iron Niobate. Orthorhombic. In rectangiila 
 prisms more or less modilied ; also massive. C=iron bl.ujk 
 brownish black often with characteristic iridescence on surtaw 
 of fracture. • S = dark l>rown, slightly reddish. Ii=:submetallii 
 shining. Opac^ue. Brittle. H=5.(). G = 5.4-0.5. InfusihK 
 Its dark color, submetallic lustre and slight iridescence, togntliei 
 with its breaking rea<lily into angular fragmeiits will generalli 
 distinguibh it from the minerals it resembles. 
 
 Vivian ITK. — Hydrous Iron Phosphate. Monoclinic. In modi 
 tied obli(iue prisms, cleavage in one direction highly perfect 
 Also radiated, kidney-shaped and globular, or as coatings 
 C = deep blue to green and white. S = bhiish. L= pearly 
 vitreous. Transparent to translucent. Opaque on exposure 
 Thin plates flexible. H:::: 1.5-2. G-2.6-2.7. Deep blue coin 
 and little hardness, distinctive. B. B. fuses easily to magnctii 
 globule, coloring dame greenish blue ; affords water in glass tube 
 Phosphorus pentoxide 28.3, iron protoxide 43, water 28. 
 Abundant at Vaudreuil, Quebec. 
 
 Cacoxenitk — A phosphate, near vivianite. 
 
 SiDKRiTE, Spathic Iu)N. — Iron Carbonate. Ehombohedral 
 Faces often curved. Usually massive with foliated structure 
 somewhat curving ; sometimes in globular concretions or ini 
 planted globules. = grayish- white to brown, often dark brown 
 ish red. Becomes nearly black on exposure. S=uncolore(i 
 L=pearly. Translucent to nearly opaque. H = 3— 1.5. G=3." 
 3.9. B.B. blackens and becomes magnetic, but alone infusible 
 Dissolves in heated hydrochloric acid with effervescence. Sidei 
 ite cleaves like calcite and dolomite, but its specific gravity i 
 higher. Iron protoxide 62.1, carbon dioxide 37.1). Common i 
 Canada, often as a gangue in B. C. silver-lead ores. Humboldtint 
 a hydrous iron oxalate, occurs in Canada. 
 
^[iNKHALOaY. * 37 
 
 Man<iankhk. 
 
 Manoanosttr. — OxiMo of Manganeae. Isometric. Cleavage 
 ul»ic. ('emerald greeu, but brown afte • uxpoaure. L -vitre- 
 „s. H=o-6. (i 5.2. 
 
 I'VKoiJ'siTK. — Hlacik ()xi<le of MangaiKiHo. Orthorhombic. 
 II Hiiuili rectanguhir priams. SometimoH librouH and radiated. 
 )ft('ii jnaasive and in kidney-shapod coatinga. (! =iron-blaek. 
 black, non-metallic. H=2-2.5. C« 4.8. Witb a minute 
 )()iti(>n, atforda bead, deep aniethyatine while hot, red-brown on 
 odliiig. Diflera from iron orea by violet glaaa with borax. 
 ^I.iiiganeae 0S.2, oxygen 30.8. Occura in ('anada. 
 
 I'siLoMKLANE, — Dioxide of Manganeae with water and some 
 )aryta or potasaa. Masai ve and botryoidal. C— black or greeniah- 
 Aiick. S=reddiali or browniah-black, shining. H-=5-6. G= 
 -4.4. 
 
 Wad, Boo MANUANEaR. — From 30 to 70% dioxide of man- 
 aiiese with water and some hematite. Maaaive, reniform, 
 arthy ; in coatings and froat-like markinga. C and o= black or 
 nowniah-black. L=dull, earthy. H = l-6. G=3-4. Soils the 
 iiigera. Like preceding it may be uaed in bleaching, but too 
 iiipure to afford good oxygen. Sometimes uaed for making 
 ini))er paint. Occurs in Canada. 
 
 Mallarditr. — Hydrous Manganese Sulphate. Fine fibrous, 
 
 = white. Easily soluble. 
 
 Tkiphylite. — Hydrous Phosphate of Iron, Manganeae and 
 iithium. Orthorhombic. In rhombic crystals. Maaaive. C= 
 leenish-gray to bluiah-gray, but often brownish-black externally 
 roni oxidation of manganeae preaent. 
 
 TiuPLiTE. — A Phoaphate of Manganese and Iron, containing 
 uoriue. Orthorhombic, uaually massive. Cleavage in three 
 lirections. C— blackiah-brown. S=yello wish-gray. L=resin- 
 »us. Nearly or quite opaque. H = 5 5.5. (t=3.4-3.8. B.B. 
 ;ives violet color to hot borax bead, fuses to magnetic globule. 
 Affords 30% manganese oxide and 8% fluorine. 
 
 IluoDOCHROsiTR. — Manganese Carbonate. Khombohedral. 
 ike oalcite in having three easj"^ cleavages, and in lustre. C= 
 ■ose-red. H=3.5-4.5. (li =3.4-3.7. Manganese oxide (51.4, 
 sarbonic acid 38.6. Occurs in Canada. 
 
 Aluminium. 
 
 Aluminium. — Obtained by different methods from alumina 
 ind cryolite, and from corundum and bauxite by electric heating. 
 
 Corundum. — Rhombohedral. Usually in six-sided priams with 
 ineven surfaces and very irregular. Also granular masaive. 
 ^— blue and grayiah-blue (most common), gray, red, yellow, 
 )i'owu and nearly black ; often jright. Transparent to trans- 
 ucent. H=9. G=4 when pure. Exceedingly tough when 
 
38 Mineralogy 
 
 Aluminium. 
 
 compact. B.B. unaltered alone and with soda. In tine povvdtr 
 with cobalt nitrate beconiea blue. Aluminium 53.2, oxygen 
 46.8. Varieties : the name .sapphire is usually restricted to clear 
 crystals of bright colors, used as gems ; while dull-colored 
 crystals and masses are called corundum : the granular variety of 
 bluish gray and blackish colors containing much disseminated 
 magnetite (whence its dark color) is termed emery. Found in 
 Ontario. 
 
 Bauxite. —Aluminium-Iron Hydrate. In concretionary forms 
 and grains. Alumina 50 to 70. An important source of the 
 metal. 
 
 Spinel. — Isometric. In octahedrals more or less modilied, 
 Occurs only in crystals. Cleavage octahedral, but difficult. (J = 
 red, passing into blue-green, yellow, brown and black. The red 
 shades are often transparent and bright, the dark usually opaque, 
 L= vitreous. H = 8. G = 3.5-4. 1. Alumina 72, magnesia 28, 
 The aluminium is sometimes replaced in part by iron, and the 
 magnesium often in part by iron, calcium, manganese and zinc, 
 Infusible, insoluble in acids. Occurs in Canada. 
 
 Chrysoberyl. — Orthorhombic, also in compound crystals; 
 crystals sometimes thick, often tabular. C — bright green, from 
 light to emerald, and brown ; rarely raspberry red by transmitted 
 light. S = uncolored. L= vitreous. Transparent to translucent. 
 H = 8.5. = 3.7-3.86. B. B. infusible and unaltered. Aluniiiia 
 80.2, beryllium oxide 19.8. 
 
 Cryolite, Ice Stone. — Aluminium-Sodium Fluoride. Mono- 
 clinic ; rectangular cleavages; usually massive. ('=: white. 
 Translucent. H = 2.5-3. G = 2.9-3. 1. Fusible in candle flame 
 and thus easily distinguished. Used in making soda, porcelain- 
 like glass. A source of the metal. Aluminium 13, sodium 32.8, 
 fluorine 54.2. 
 
 Alunogen. — Hydrous Aluminium Sulphate. In silky efflor- 
 escences and crusts of white color. Taste of alum. H = l.r)-'2 
 G= 1.6 1.8. Sulphur trioxide 36, alumina 15.4, water 48.6. 
 
 Kalinite, or Common Alum, is a product of the foregoing. 
 Occurs in Canada. 
 
 Alunite, Alum Stone. — Rhombohedral with perfect basal 
 cleavage. Also massive. C = white, grayish or reddish. L=oi 
 crystals vitreous or a little pearly on basal plane. Transparent 
 to translucent. H=:4. 0=2.6. B.B. decrepitates, infusible. 
 gives reaction for sulphur. Distinguished by infusibility ad 
 complete solubility in sulphuric acid without forming jelly. 
 Sulphur trioxide 38.5, alumina 37.1, potash 1 1.4, and water l.'l 
 
 Amblygonite. —Lithium- Aluminium Phosphate. Triclinic, 
 with cleavages unequal in two directions. L=^ vitreous to pearly 
 and greasy. C = pale green or sea green to white. Translucent 
 
UlXKRALOUV. , 31) 
 
 ilaminium. 
 
 subtransparent. H=6. G — 3-3. 1 B.H. fuses very easily with 
 nibbling, coloring flame yellowish red to carmine, with traces of 
 
 rreen. 
 
 LazulIte. — Monoclinic in crystals, also massive. C = azure 
 Ana. H = 5-6. G — 3. B.H. whitens, yields water in closed 
 ;ii)>(!. Found in Canada. Phosphorus pentoxide 46.8, alumina 
 H, magnesia 13.2, and water 6. 
 
 Ti RQUoTS. — Massive, kidney-shaped, without cleavage. C = 
 )luish green. L = somewhat waxy. H = 6. G = 2.6-2 8. Sol- 
 il)le in hydrochloric acid. B.B. infusible, but becomes brown, 
 lolors flame green. Differs from bluish green feldspar in infusi- 
 )ility and reactions for phosphorus. Phosphorus pentoxide 22.6, 
 ilumina 46.9, water 20.5. Used as gem. 
 
 Wavellite. — Orthorhombic, usually in small hemispheres ^ or 
 \ inch across, flnely radiated within ; when brok'^n off they leave 
 
 star-like circle on the rock. Sometimes in rhombic crystals, 
 ilso stalactitic. C- white, green or yellowish and brownish, with 
 omewhat pearly or resinous lustre. Sometimes gray or black. 
 Translucent. H = 3.5-4. G =-2. 3-2. 34. B. B. becomes dark red- 
 lish brown. Distinguished from zeolites, some of which it re- 
 embles, by giving phosphorus reaction, and also by dissolving in 
 icids without gelatinizing. Phosphoius pentoxide 35.2, alumina 
 J8.1, water 26.7. 
 
 Cerium, Yttkium, Erbium, Lanthanum, Didymium. 
 
 Yttroceritr. — B.B. alone infusible. Massive. C = violet blue 
 somewhat resembling purple fluorite) ; also reddish brown. L = 
 glistening. Opaque. H = 4-5, G = 3.4-3.5. Fluorine = 25. 1 , 
 ime 47.6, cerium protoxide 18.2, yttria 9.1. 
 
 Samarskitr. — Orthorhombic. Usually massive, without cleav- 
 ige. 0::= velvet black. L^ shining submetallic. S = dark red- 
 lisli brown. Opaque. H=i5.5-6. G = 5.6-5. 8. Composed of 
 ii()l)ic and tantalic pentoxide, sesquioxides of yttrium, cerium, 
 lidyniium, lanthanum, iron, and oxide of uranium. 
 
 MoNAzn'K. — Monoclinic. Perfect and brilliant basal cleavage. 
 Observed only in imbedded crystals, C = brown, brownish red. 
 Mibtransparent to nearly opaque. L== vitreous, inclining to 
 resinous. Brittle. H = 5. G = 4.8-5.1. The brilliant easy trans- 
 ^^erse cleavage distinguishes monazite from sphene. B.B. colors 
 Hame green when moistened with sulphuric acid. Difficultly 
 soluble in acids. Has now a high commercial value on account 
 ')f its use in Auer and Welsbach lights. The best light is obtained 
 from a mixture of thorium oxide §, yttrium ^. A phosphate of 
 cerium, lanthanum, yttrium, didymium and thorium. 
 
40 " Mineralogy 
 
 Magnesium. 
 
 Pericj.asitr. — Magnesium Oxide. Isometric, in small ini 
 bedded crystals with cubic cleavage. C=grayish to dark green. 
 H = 6. G = 3.7. B. B. infusible. Soluble in acids with effer- 
 vescence. Magnesium 60, oxygen 40. 
 
 Bruc.'Ite. — Magnesium Hydrate. Khombohedral. In hexa- 
 gonal prisms and plates, thin foliated, thin plates easily separated; 
 also librous. Translucent. Flexible, but not elastic. Ii= 
 pearly. C = white, often grayish or greenish. H = 2.5. G = 
 2.35-2 45. B. B. infusible, but becoming opaque and alkaline. 
 Soluble in hydrochloric acid without effervescence. It resembles 
 talc and gypsum, but is soluble in acids. Magnesia 69, water 31. 
 
 Eppomite, Epsom Salt. — Magnesium Sulphate. Orthorhombic. 
 Cleavage peifect. Usually in fibrous crusts or botryoidal masses, 
 C = white. L=vitreous to earthy. Very soluble. Taste, salty- 
 bitter. Liquefies in its water of crystallization when heated, 
 Gives much water, acid in reaction, in closed tube. 'I'he line 
 needle-shaped crystalline grains of Epsom salt, as it appears in 
 shops, distinguish it from Glauber salt, which occurs usually Id 
 thick crystals. Occurs as efflorescence in mine galleries and 
 elsewhere. Sulphur trioxide 32.5, magnesia 16.3, water 51.2, 
 Occurs in Canada. 
 
 BoRACiTE. — Magnesium Borate. Isometric. Usually in small 
 cubes. Cleavage only in traces. Also massive. In crystals, 
 translucent. C=white or grayish, yellowish or greenish, 
 L=vitreous. H=of crystals 7, when massive softer. G=2.97. 
 Electric when heated. Distinguished readily by form, high hard- 
 ness, and pyro-electric properties. Boron trioxide 02, magnesia 
 31, chlorine 7. 
 
 Magxesite. — Magnesium Carbonate. Ehombohedral. Cleav- 
 age same, perfect. Often massive, either granular or compact 
 and porcelain-like, in tuberose forms ; also librous. C=white, 
 yellowish or grayish white, brown. L= vitreous, librous varie- 
 ties often silky. Transparent to opaque. H = 3-4.5. G-3. 
 Resembles some calcite and dolomite, but from a concentrated 
 solution no calcium sulphate is precipitated on adding sulphuric 
 acid. The librous variety is distinguished from most other 
 fibrous minerals by effervescence in hot acid, which shows it to 
 be a carbonate. Used in manufacture of Epsom salts. B.B, 
 infusible, and after ignition an alkaline reaction. Magnesia 47. C, 
 carbon dioxide 52.4. - 
 
 Calcium. 
 
 Fluohite, Fluor Spar. — C'alcium Fluoride. Isometric, cubes 
 most common. Cleavage octahedral, perfect. Rarely fibrous, 
 often compact, coarse or line granular. C = usually bright; 
 white, or some shade of light green, purple, or clear yellow most 
 
VllNERALOGV. 41 
 
 !oinmon ; rarely rose red and sky blue ; colors of massive varie- 
 lies often banded. Transparent, translucent or subtranslucent. 
 \=i. G=3 3.25. Brittle. Phosphoresces when heated gently 
 as seen in dark), affording light of different colors, as emerald, 
 mrple, blue, rose red, pink, orange. B. B. decrepitates and 
 iltimately fuses to an enamel, having alkaline reaction. Pow- 
 iered and treated with sulphuric acid, hydrofluoric acid is given 
 )ff, which corrodes glass, hence its use in etching glass, seals, or 
 my siliceous stone. In its bright colors, fluorite resembles some 
 )f the gems, but its softness and easy octahedral cleavage when 
 jrystallized distinguish it. Its strong phosphorescence is strik- 
 ng. Used as a flux in reducing copper and other ores. Fluorine 
 18.7, calcium 51.3. Found in Canada ; with silver ores in Port 
 Arthur region. 
 
 Gypsum. — Hydrous Calcium Sulphate. Monoclinic. Commonly 
 n arrow-head crystals. Easy cleavage, affording thin, pearly, 
 lexible plates. Also in plate-like masses ; fibrous, with satin 
 ustre ; in star-shaped or radiating forms consisting of narrow 
 )lates ; also granular and compact. When crystallized usually 
 ;ransparent or nearly so ; the massive, translucent to opaque. 
 L= pearly. C=white, gray, yellow, reddish, brownish, and 
 even black. H= 1.5-2. G:=:2.33. The plates bend in one 
 iirection and are brittle in another. Varieties : — 
 
 SeleuUe. — Transparent plates or crystals. Satin Spar. White 
 md delicately fibrous, used for trinkets. Alabaster. White or 
 ight-colored compact gypsum having a very fine grain. Cuts into 
 rases, statues, ornaments, etc. Foliated gypsum resembles some 
 I'arieties of heulandite, stilbite, talc and mica ; the fibrous looks 
 ike Hbrous carbonate of lime, asbestus, and some of the fibrous 
 zeolites ; but gypsum in all varieties is readily distinguished by 
 softness, by becoming B. B. opaque white through loss of water 
 w^ithout fusion, by not effervescing or gelatinizing with acids. 
 Moreover, by adding a little water to powder obtained by heating, 
 the water is taken up and the whole becomes solid. Gypsum 
 when burnt and powdered is plaster of Paris. Used for casts, 
 models, and giving hard finish for walls. Ground gypsum used 
 IS fertilizer (land piaster). Found near Paris, Ont., and else- 
 where. Lime 32.6, sulphur trioxide 46.5, water 20.9. 
 
 Anhydritr. — Anhydrous Calcium Sulphate. Orthorhombic. 
 In rectangular and rhombic prisms. Cleaves easily in three 
 directions into square blocks. Also fibrous and in layers, 
 often contorted ; coarse and fine granular, and compact. C = 
 white, or tinged with gray, red or blue. L.=more or less pearly. 
 iVansparent to subtranshicent. H-=3-3.5. G=2.95-2.97. Its 
 3C|uare forms of crystallization and its breaking into square 
 
4'J Mineralo(;y 
 
 Calcium. 
 
 blocks are good distinctive features. Lime 41.2, sulphur trioxide 
 58.8. Found in Canada. 
 
 Ulexite. — Calcium-Sodium Borate. In interwoven fibres, 
 or hair-like crystals, making small rounded masses. Tasteless. 
 H=l. G=1.C5. L— silky. C=white to gray. Hydrous, 
 Valuable as source of borax. B.B. fuses very easily. Wetted 
 with sulphuric acid the Hame is momentarily deep green. 
 
 ScHEELiTB. — Calcium Tungstate. Tetragonal, also massive. 
 L:=vitreous. C=white, pale yellowish, brownish, greenish, 
 reddish. Transparent to translucent, H=4.5-5. G = 5.9-(),l, 
 Unlike calcite, and other minerals resembling it, in its high 
 specitic gravity and non-effervescence with acids. 
 
 Apatite. — Calcium Phosphate. Hexagonal. Usually in hex- 
 agonal prisms. Cleavage imperfect. Occasionally massive, some- 
 times mammillary with a compact fibrous structure. C= usually 
 greenish, often yellowish green, bluish green, and grayish green, 
 sometimes yellow, blue, reddish, brownish, colorless. L=vitre- 
 ous to subresinous. Transparent to opaque. H=5. G=3. 18- 
 3.25. Brittle. When chlorine is present in place of fluorine it is 
 called chlor- apatite, and when the reverse, fluor-apatite. B.B, 
 infusible except on edges. Dissolves slowly in nitric acid without 
 effervescence. Massive apatite is called Phosphorite. Distin- 
 guished from beryl by inferior hardness (easily scratched by 
 knife) ; from calcite by no effervescence with acids ; from pyro- 
 morphite by difficult fusibility and by giving B.B. no metallic 
 reaction. Useful as fertilizer. Phosphorus pentoxide 40.92, 
 lime 53.80, chlorine (or fluorine) 6.82. Extensive in Ottawa 
 valley. ' 
 
 Calcite, Calc Spar.— Calcium Carbonate. Rhombohedial, 
 Cleavage easy. Often fibrous. L = silky, sometimes plate-like, 
 often coarse or line granular and compact. When transparent, 
 colorless. C = topaz-yellow, and rarely rose or violet ; other 
 crystalline varieties white, gray, reddish, yellowish, rarely deep 
 red, often mottled ; when massive uncrystalline, of various dull 
 shades, chalk-white, grayish-white, gray, ochre-yellow, red, 
 brown and black. L:= vitreous ; of the finely fibrous, silky ; of 
 uncrystalline, dull, often earthy. H = 3. G = of pure crystals 
 2.7, Distinguished by being scratched easily by knife, strong 
 effervescence in dilute acids, complete infusibility. Less hard 
 than aragonite, unlike it also in having distinct cleavage. B.B. 
 colors flame reddish, gives alkaline reaction. Lime 56, carbon 
 dioxide 44. Common in Canada. Limestone is 'burnt to make 
 quicklime. 
 
 Principal varieties : Iceland Spar. Transparent crystalline 
 calcite. Bog-tooth Spar. Satin Spar. Finely fibrous, with satin 
 lustre, usually in veins. Limestone. A general name for massive 
 
yilNERALOGY. 43 
 
 'Jalciiiiii. 
 
 !alcit(! as well as for massive dolomite. Granular Limestone. 
 las glistening lustre, owing to its consisting of crystalline grains ; 
 ;he grains show the cleavages of calcite crystals, hence called 
 !ry«talline limestone. The better kinds, valuable in the arts, 
 lie called marble ; the coarser, architectural marble ; the finer 
 vhito, statuary marble. Compact Limestone. Dull in lustre 
 iiiless polished, and not distinctly granular in texture. Chalk. 
 iVhite and earthy ; without lustre ; soft enough to mark a board. 
 Hlidraidic Limestone. An impure limestone affording, on burning, 
 I (piicklime that makes a cement which sets under water. Oolite. 
 'oinpact, consisting of small round concretionary grains. Rock 
 M'llk. Wliite and earthy like chalk, but still softer. Deposited 
 roin waters containing lime in solution. Stalactite, Stalagmite, 
 Travertine. Deposits fiom calcareous waters. 
 
 Ahagonite. — Composition like Calcite. Orthorhombic. In 
 homhic prisms ; usually in compound crystals having form of 
 lexagonal prisms, with uneven or striated sides ; or in star- 
 ike forms consisting of two or three flat crystals crossing one 
 uiother. (Jleavage not very distinct. Also globular and like 
 !oral ; also fibrous seams in rocks. C=white or with light tinges 
 )f gray, yellow, green and violet. L=vitreous. Transparent to 
 ;ranslucent. H = 3.5-4, G=2.93. B. B. falls to powder readily 
 tvheu heated, otherwise acts same as calcite. Differs in cleavage 
 roiii calcite. Found in Canada. 
 
 Dolomite, Magnesian Limestone. — Calcium-Magnesium Oar- 
 )oiiate. Rhombohedral. Cleavage perfect. Faces of rhombo- 
 ledrons sometimes curved. Often granular and massive, consti- 
 ;uting extensive beds. C=white, or tinged* with yellov/, red, 
 freeii, brown, and sometimes black. L== vitreous or pearly. 
 Nearly transparent to translucent. Brittle. H=3.5-4; G=2.8 
 -2.9. Some iron or manganese often present replacing part of the 
 Diagiicvsium or calcium. Iron bearing varieties become brown on 
 exposure, and the manganese-bearing black. Chemical analysis 
 Dt'teii required to distinguish dolomite from calcite. Calcium 
 carbonate 54.35 ; magnesium carbonate, 45.65. Found in Canada. 
 Used for making quick-lime. 
 
 Bartl^m. \^; ,' 
 
 Bahite, Barytes, Heavy Spar.— Barium Sulphate. Ortho- 
 rbond)ic. Cleavage perfect. Massive varieties often in coarse 
 layers ; also columnar, fibrous, granular and compact. C=white, 
 sometimes tinged yellow, red, brown, blue, or dark brown. L= 
 vitreous, sometimes pearly. Transparent or translucent. H= 
 -••") .S.5 ; G=4.3-+.7. Strontium and calcium are sometimes pre- 
 sent, replacing a little barium. B. B, fuses to bead having alka- 
 line reaction, imparts green color to flame. Gives sulphur reac- 
 
44 Ik MlNKRALO(tY 
 
 Barium. 
 
 tion. Distinguished by spec, grav., inaction of acido and hard 
 ness. Ground barite used to adulterate white lead to make 
 different whites ; also to weight paper. Baryta 65. 7 ; sulphur 
 trioxide, 34.3. Found in Canada. 
 
 WiTiiKRiTE. — Barium Carbonate. Orthorhombic. Cleavage 
 imperfect. Also in globular or botryoidal forms ; often massive, 
 and either fibrous or granular. C=yellowish or grayish white to 
 white when in crystals. Translucent to transparent. L=a little 
 resinous when massive. H=3-4 ; G=4.3-4.35. Brittle. B.B, 
 decrepitates, fuses easily, tingeing flame green to translucent glob- 
 ule which becomes opaque on cooling and gives alkaline reaction. 
 Effervesces in hydrochloric acid. Distinguished by spec, grav, 
 and fusibility from calcite and aragonite ; by its action with acids 
 from allied minerals that are not carbonates ; by yielding no 
 metal, from cerussite; and by tingeing flame green, from strontiau- 
 ite. Used in manufacture of plate glass, and in France for making 
 beet sugar. Baryta, 77.7 ; carbon dioxide, 2*2.3. Found 
 Canada. 
 
 Strontium. 
 
 Crlestite. — Strontium Sulphate. Orthorhombic. Crystals 
 rhombic prisms or tabular, often long and slender. Cleavage dis- 
 tinct. Also columnar, or fibrous, rarely granular. C=white, 
 slightly bluish, sometimes clear white or reddish. L=vitreousor 
 a little pearly. Transparent to translucent. H=3-3.5 ; G=3I 
 -4. Brittle.. B.B.,,,decrepitate.'3 and f^isea, tingeing flame bri^h! 
 red, to a milk-white globule, giving alkaline reaction. Sulpliur 
 reaction. Distinguished from barite by the bright red color of 
 flame B.B. and its less specific gravity ; and from the carbonates 
 by not effervescing with acids. Used in arts for making nitrate 
 of strontia for red fireworks. Strontia, 56.4 ; suljjhur trioxide, 
 43.6. Found in Canada. . 
 
 Stromtianite. — Strontium Carbonate. Orthorhombic. Cleav- 
 age perfect. Also fibrous and granular ; sometimes in globular 
 shapes, radiated within. C=pale greenish white ; also white, 
 gray and yellowish brown. L= vitreous, or somewhat resinous. 
 Transparent to translucent. H=3.5-4. G==3.6. Brittle. Some 
 strontium often replaced by calcium. B.B. swells, throws out 
 little sprouts, but does not fuse. Colors flame bright red. Effer- 
 vesces in cold dilute acid. Its effervescence with acids distinguish 
 it from minerals that are not carbonates ; the flame color B.B, 
 from witherite and other carbonates ; calcium salts also give red 
 color to flame, but the shade is yellowish and less brilliant. Stroii- 
 tianite employed in preparation of strontium nitrate. Strontia 
 70.3, carbon dioxide 29.7. 
 
UlNKRALOOY. 45 
 
 Potassium. 
 
 Sylvitr. — Potassium Chloride. Isometric. Crjstals often 
 ubes with octahedral planes. C -white or colorless. Jj=vitre- 
 )us. Tastes salt. H — 2. G =1.9-2. Potassium 52.5, chlorine 
 17.5. 
 
 Nitre. — Potassium , Nitrate. Orthorhombic. In modified 
 .i^ht rhombic prisms. Usually in thin white crusts, and in 
 leedle shaped crystals. Tastes salt and cooling. H=2. 
 T=l.l)7. Distinguished by taste and vivid action on live coal. 
 ^tash 46.6, nitrogen pentoxide 53.4. Uses : gunpowder, as a 
 ertilizer, and in manufacture of sulphuric and nitric acid. 
 
 Sodium. 
 
 Halite, Rock Salt, Common Salt.— Sodium Chloride. Iso- 
 iietrio. In cubes and related forms. Cleavage perfect. C= 
 kvhite or grayish, sometimes rose-re<l, yellow and of amethystine 
 ;ii)ts. H=2. (t=2.26. Distinguished by solubility and taste. 
 Imodium 39. .3, chlorine 60.7. Found in Canada. 
 
 MiKABiLiTE, Glauber Salt. — Hydrous Sodium Sulphate. 
 Monoclinic. In efflorescent crusts of white or yellowish wliite 
 color; also in many mineral waters. Tastes cool, then feebly 
 salt and bitter. Distinguished from Epsom salt by its coarse 
 crystals, and the yellow color given to blowpipe flame. Soda 
 19.3, sulphur trioxide 24.8, water 55.9. 
 
 BoHAX, Tinkal. — Hydrous Sodium Biborate. Monoclinic. 
 Cleavage perfect. Crystals white or colorless, oO}en transparent. 
 L=vitreous. H = 2 2.5. G=1.7. Taste sweetish alkaline. B.B. 
 swells to many times its bulk, bexjomes opaque white, finally 
 fuses to glassy globule. Boron trioxide 36.6, soda 16.2, water 
 47.2. 
 
 NiTRATfNE. — Sodium Nitrate. Rhombohedral. Also in crusts 
 or efflorescences of white, grayish and brownish colors. Taste 
 cooling. Soluble and very deliquescent. Burns vividly on 
 charcoal, with yellow light. Resembles nitre but deliquesces. 
 Soda 36.5, nitrogen pentoxide 63.5. Uses same as nitre. 
 
 NatroxN, Carbonate of Soda. — Hydrous Sodium Carbonate. 
 Monoclinic, Generally in white efflorescent crusts, sometimes 
 yellowish or grayish. Tastes alkaline. Effloresces on ex- 
 posure, surface becoming white and powdery. Carbon dioxide 
 26.7, soda 18.8, water 54.5. Used in manufacture of soap and 
 lass. 
 
 Silica. 
 
 Quartz. — Rhombohedral. Usually in six-sided prisms ter- 
 minating in six-sided pyramids. No cleavage apparent, but some- 
 times obtained by heating and plunging the crystal into cold 
 
46 MlNERALO(n 
 
 Silica. 
 
 water. Sometimes in coarse radiated forms ; also coarse .uii 
 line granular (like sandstone) ; also compact, flint like, (nthti 
 amorphous or presenting stalactitic and mannnillary shapes 
 Often colorless, sonictimes topaz yellow, ametiiystine, ntse, 
 smoky or otlier tints ; also of various shades of ycHow, ml 
 green, blue, and brown to black ; in some varieties the cohus 
 bands, stri])es or clouds Of all degrees of transj)arency t< 
 opaque. L vitreous ; of crystals splendent; of some massivi 
 forms dull, often waxy. H 7. (i -2.5 2.8; pure crystals LMw 
 The common mineral impurities are chlorite, rutile, asbestus 
 actinolite, tourmaline, hematite, limonite. Hematite (red iioi 
 oxide) is the usual red cf)loring nuitter ; limonite (mostly yell()\; 
 ochre) the yelh)w and brownish yellow ; chlorite and actinolite 
 give a green color ; an oxide or silicate of nickel an apple gieto 
 tint ; manganese an amethystine ; carbonaceous matters, suet 
 as color maish waters, smoke- brown shades. (^)uartz crystai* 
 often ccmtain liquid in cavities, either water, petroleum, oi 
 naphtha-like material, or liquid carbonic acid. Chalcedom 
 usually has more ov less of disseminated opal ; and clear (jiiail 
 is sometimes spangled with scales of mica or rendered oj)alin(; hj 
 means of asbestus. Flint or chert often colored by mix tun 
 with material of the enclosing rock. Quartz is exceed ini;h 
 varied in color and form, but may be distinguished Ijj 
 absence of true cleava^je, hardness, infusibiUty JB.B., insolii 
 biiity with either of common acids, its ettervescence Avlitu 
 heated B, B. with soda, and (when crystallized) by form. Silicoi 
 4G.67, oxygen 53.33. 
 
 Vitreous Varieties are : — lioc/c Cry.stal=V\\ve clear quartz 
 G=2.65. Amethydiue=V\xT\)\ii or bluish violet, often of gieal 
 beauty. If finely and uniformly coloi'ed, higldy esteemed as 
 gem. G=2.G5. Rone Quartz=Vm]s. ; seldom occurs in crystals 
 generally in masses, much fractured and imperfectly transparent 
 Color fades on exposure. False Topaz {Citrine) — JJ\g\\t yellow 
 clear crystals. Absence of cleavage distinguishes it from tnii 
 topaz. S))wk'ii Qu(trtz=Qo\oT sometimes so dark as to he ntarlj 
 black, and opaque except in splinters. It is the cairngorm stone 
 Milky Qnartz=]^eAv\y opaque ; massive and of common occur 
 rence. Has often a greasy lustre and called (jreasy quart 
 P7-a.sr= Leek-green, massive ; resembling so^iie shades of bei yl ii 
 tint, but has no cleavage and is infusible. Aventiirine Quart:- 
 Common quartz spangled with scales of goMen yellow mica. Usu 
 ally translucent, and gray brown, or reddish brown. Ferrw/imv 
 (j>Mar^2;= Opaque and either yellow, brownish-yellow or red froB 
 presence of iron oxide. s 
 
 Chalcedonic Varieties are : — Chalcedony =TY?a\^\\\cGui. Mass 
 ive, with glistening and somewhat waxy lustre ; usually of pali 
 
iIinkhalogY. ' • ^ 47 
 
 Vifd. 
 
 niyisli, bluish, whitish, or light browiiiah hIuuIc. Often occurs 
 iiiiig (»r lining cavities in junygchdoidal and other rocks. Chrt/- 
 (>y>/vf.sr— Apple-green chalcedony, colored by nickel. Carnclidn^^ 
 ;ii(,'lit led chalcedony. Of ckar rich tint, cut and polished and 
 null used in cheapei* grades oF jewellery, and for seals an<l beads. 
 'anl A deep brownish-red chalcedony, of blood-red color by 
 lansiiiitted light. Atjatc^A variegated chalcedony. 'J'he col- 
 Is distributed in clouds, spots or concentric bands, which take 
 traiglit, circular or zig-zag forms, the last mentioned being called 
 ' Koitilication Agate." These bands are the edges of chalcedony 
 lyers, the layers being the successive deposits during formation 
 roce.ss. Mocha Sto)te or Mo.^h A<jate is a brownish agate con- 
 istiiig of chalcedony with frost-work or moss-like markings of an 
 ])ii((ue yellowish brown color. Agates are sometimes artilicially 
 olored blue and other shades. 0////a;=A kind of agate having 
 olois arranged in Hat hoiizontal layers ; the colors are usually 
 ight clear brown and an opaque white. Onyx used for cameos, 
 he ligure being carved out of one layer and standing in relief on 
 iiotlier. C«7!V^/y('=()ireeuish gray translucent chalcedony, hav- 
 ig a peculiar interior reflection (whence the name) when cut 
 •ith a spheroidal surface ; efiect due to lilainents of asbestus. 
 'I'lHt, Honidone, Cherts Wasnive, compact silica of dark shades 
 f smoky gray, brown, or even black ; feebly translucent ; break 
 litli .sharp cutting edges and conchoidal surface. Flint occurs 
 s ijodules in chalk. Hornst(me is more brittle than flint ; chert 
 
 an iiii))ure hornstone. Plaanta-^K faintly translucent variety 
 f ciialcedony, ap]jr()aching jasper, of green color, sprinkled with 
 ellow and whitish dots. 
 
 Jaspery Varieties are :— Jasper =D\\{\ opaque red ; yellow or 
 rownish siliceous rock. Jt also occurs of green and other shades. 
 hhanil Jasper=A jasper consisting of broad stripes of green, 
 ellow, gray, red or brown. E<jy}>tian Jasper has these colors in 
 ■regular concentric zones, and occurs in nodules which are often 
 ut across and polished. Ruin /«.s/>er=With markings resem- 
 ling ruins, of some brownish or yellowish shade on a darker 
 round. Porcelain Jasper =^^SLked (Amy, differing from jasper in 
 eiiig fusible B.B. Hed felsyte resembles red jasper, but felsyte 
 i tu.sdde. Jasper admits of high ijolish, and is a handsome stone 
 or udaid work ; very little used as a gem. Bloodstone or Helio- 
 •o^>^ Deep green, slightly translucent, containing red spots 
 oloied by iron). Li/dian Stone, Touchstone =^ Velvet black and 
 paque, and on acjount of hardness and color used for trying the 
 iirity of the precious metals. Granular Quartz=A rock con- 
 istnig of compactly cemented quartz grains. Silicijied Wood^ 
 etrified wood, consisting of quartz, quartz having replaced ori- 
 mal wood. i ^ b f 
 
48 MiNKIlALOCY 
 
 Silica. 
 
 Opal. — Same composition .as ((uart/. Compact and amorplious, 
 also kidney sliaped and stalactitic , oarthy. (J=wliite. yellow, 
 red, ])rovvii, gieen, blue and gray. Kinest varieties exliihit tioii 
 within, on being turned, a rich play of colors of delicate shades 
 L=waxy to subvitreous. H~r).r)-0.r). (i — 1.9-2. 3. SoUiblc ii 
 strong alkaline solution, especially if h(!ated. Also differs tnm 
 (quartz in lustre, which is more waxy than chalcedony ; also in 
 total absence of crystalline texture. infusible B. B. is Hk 
 best character for distinguishing opal from pitchstone, pearl 
 stone and other resembling species. Tripolite, DidtoNinceoiis oi 
 Infnuorial Earllt — A white or grayish white variety ; earthy, 
 massive, slaty. Forms }>eds and often occurs below peat. Soli 
 as a polishing powder under the name of electro-silicon 
 Formerly took the place of wood-pulp as the absorbent ii 
 manufacturing dynamite. 
 
 Silicates — I. Anhydrous Bisilicatks. 
 
 Enstatitk, Bkonzite. — A Magnesium Silicate. Orthorhoin 
 bio. Cleavage easy. Usually of tibrous appearance on cleavagi 
 surface. Also massive and in layers. C = grayish, yellowisli 
 or greenish white, or brown. L— pearly. H=:5.5. G = 3. 18.3 
 B.B. infusible. Insoluble. Bronzite has a portion of the mag 
 nesium rejdaced by iron. Resembles liornblende and pyroxene 
 but infusible and orthorhombic. Silica 00, magnesia 40. 
 
 HvPERsiHENF. — Near bronzite iii form and composition, bu 
 containing more iron and B.B. fuses; on charcoal become 
 magnetic. 
 
 WuLL.-^SToNiTE, TABULAR Spar. — A Calcium Silicate. Moiifr 
 clinic. Barely in oblique flattened prisms, usually massive 
 Cleaves easily in one direction, afibrding a lined or indistinotlj 
 columnar surface. Usually white, but sometimes tinged witl 
 yellow, red or brown. 'J'ranslucent or rarely subtranspareiit 
 L=vitreous, pearly. Brittle. H=4.5-5. (V^2.85-2.9. B.B 
 fuses with difficulty to subtransparent, colorless glass ; in powdei 
 decomposed })y hydrochloric acid, solution gelatinizes on evajwr 
 ation ; often efifervesces when heated with acid from presence 
 calcite. Differs from asbestus and tremolite in more vitreoui 
 appearance and fracture, and by gelatinizing ; from the zeolite 
 by the absence of water which all zeolites give in closed tube 
 from feldspar in fibrous appearance of cleavage surface and actioi 
 of acids. Silica 52, lime 48. Occurs in Cana<la. 
 
 Pyroxene, Augite.— Monoclinic. Usually in thick and stou 
 prisms. Massive varieties are of coarse lamellar structure 
 also tibrous, fibres often tine and hair-like. Also granulai 
 usually coarse granular and friable ; grains usually anguliii 
 
UlNKHALOr.V. 49 
 
 ■I nil 1/(1 ro US liisUicatcH. 
 
 lomciimcs round. Also coinjwict nia8,sive. (!=rgreou of various 
 ili.idts, (lark and liglit, p.iHHiiig through hlue Hha(h>H hut not 
 cllitw. Ii = vitniouH, inclining to resinouH or ptiariy, the latter 
 11 liliioiiH vnrietieH. TrauHparent to oi>;i(jue. \\~i^i{\. i\=',\.*l- 
 {.,'». I». I>. fuses and the iion-hearing varieties art; most fusihle. 
 iis(»hil)le in acids. Thi; crystalline form and rea«ly cleavage in 
 \V(» iil.mes nearly at light angles to each other are the best dis- 
 iiictiou. Silica .')5, lime 'Jii.;"), magnesia IG.5, iron protc^xide 4.;"), 
 ii;iiit,Muese oxide O.o. (vommon in (.'anada. Varieties are:- 
 ]lii/(ic<)/lf(', White, Aiftfite A calcium-miignesium pyroxene; in- 
 IikUs white or grayish white crystals or crystalline masses. 
 \)inii/i(h' Same composition, in greenish white, or grayish green 
 MVxtals ; and masses cleaving with a bright smooth surface. 
 Siili/i/c, containing iron in addition, like last, but color dingy. 
 Ix/yr.s7//.s= Fibrous varieties of both pyroxene and hornblende, 
 ut pyroxene is rarely asbestiform. AiK/ite—'Vlni black and 
 rifciiish black crystals, which contain a larger amount of iron or 
 roll aiid magnesium. (J=r.S.;^. Jt is the common pyroxene of 
 sniptive rocks. /)ki/ln<je = A thin foliated variety often occur- 
 iiii,' ind)edded in serpentine and some other rocks. Differs from 
 )n)iizite and hypersthene in crystallization, and greater fusibility. 
 
 llnoDONiTE, Man(IAnfsk Spar, Fowlkrite. — A Manganese 
 jilioate. Triclinic, but nearly of same form as pyroxene ; also 
 nassive. = reddish, commonly deep Hesh-red, also brownish, 
 reeiiisii or yellowish when impure ; very often black on surface. 
 S=uiic()lored. L=vitreou£<. Transparent to opaque. Becomes 
 (lack on exposure. 1-1 = 5.5-6.5. (i— H.4-8.7. (Jommonly con- 
 ains a little iron and lime replacing manganese. Becomes dark 
 ►rowu when heated ; with borax in oxidizing flame gives deep 
 iolt't color to bead while hot, red brown cold. Kesembles some- 
 FJiat a Hesh-red feldspar, but has greater spec. grav. and differs in 
 (lackening on exposure, and in the glass with borax. Used in 
 lakiiig a violet colored glass, and also for a colored glazing on 
 toiiewaie. Takes a high polish for inlaid work. Silica 45.9, 
 (laiiganese oxide 54.1. 
 
 Si'oDUMENE. — Monoclinic. Cleavage easy. Surface of cleavage 
 learly. C^grayish or greenish ; pale amethystine ; rarely 
 merald. Translucent to subtranslucent. H =6.5-7. G=3. 15- 
 .19. B. B. becomes white and opaque, fuses, swells up, and gives 
 iirple red flame. Unaffected by acids. Resembles feldspar and 
 capolite, buu has higher specific gravity and more pearly lustre, 
 u(l gives rhombic prisms by easy cleavage. Silica 64.9, alumina 
 7.6, lithia 7.5. Occurs in Canada. 
 
 Petalite. — Monoclinic. In imperfectly cleavable masses. C = 
 ^liite, gray, pale reddish, greenish. L = vitreous to subpearly. 
 'raushicent. H=:6-6.5. G = 2.5. B.B. phosphoresces when 
 4 
 
50 •* MlNKHALOCl 
 
 A nliifdroiiM liinifioifcu. 
 
 gently heated ; fiises with (lifficulty on edges ; giveH luirple M.-tiiie 
 DifFers from 8p(»duinene in hiHtre, specific gravity and gr» .itei 
 fuHihility. Silica 77.1), alumina 17.7, lithia 'A. I, soda 1..S. Occur 
 in Canada. 
 
 Amphiholk, PfoRNBLENDE.— Monoclinic. OleavHgo period 
 Often in long, slender, flat, rhomhic prisms, breakintj easily tr.uis 
 versely. Frecpiently columnar and blade-like ; long. i)early di 
 silky lihroMs ; tihres coarse or tine ; also in layers ; also graimlai 
 either coarse or line. C - white to black, passing through l)luisl 
 green, grayish green, green and brownish green shades. !,- 
 vitreous, with cleavage face inclining to pearly ; fibrous varictit^i 
 silUy Neatly transparent to op.ujue. H=5-6. (1 = 2.9 Xi 
 B. B. similar to pyroxene; fusi))ility easiest in black varieties 
 Distinguished from pyroxene by very ready cleavage. 
 
 Liiiht-colored varitit.ies. TrcmoHfc, (iramnmtUe.. White niid 
 gr.iyish, in blade-like crystallizations and long crystals j)enetrat 
 ing the gangue, or ag^M•egated in coarse columnar forms, 
 Sometimes nearly transparent. Silica 57.7, magnesia 'JS.Sj, 
 lime 1.S.45. AvtiuoHle. A calcium-magnesium-iron hombkiide 
 Bright green. Fibrous. Columnar and prismatic, also massive 
 The varieties inclu<le glassy, radiated and librous actinolite 
 Ashcstus. In slender fibres easily separable and sometimes lik 
 fiax. Cireen or white. The asbestus of commerce is usujill; 
 fibrous serpentine, which contains water, and is thus distiuguisli 
 able from true asljestus. Nephrite. A tough compact variety 
 related to tremolite. C = light green or blue. Breaks witl 
 splintery fracture and glistening lustre. H=6-6.5. G=8. It 
 is a magnesium-calcium hornblende. Made by the Chinese iiit( 
 images. 
 
 Dark-colored variety. Hornblende. Black and greenish black 
 crystals and massive ; often in slender crystallizations like acti 
 nolite ; also short and stout. Color due to iron. Tough, espe 
 cially when massive. Silica 48.8, alumina 7."), magnesia lIKi 
 lime 10.2, iron protoxide 18.8, manganese oxide l.J. Common it 
 syenite, diorite and hornblende schist. 
 
 Bkryl, Emrrald. — Hexagonal. In hexagonal prisms. Cleav 
 age basal, not very distinct. Rarely massive. C=green, pale 
 blue and yellow, emerald. S=:uncolored. L = vitreous, some 
 times resinous. Transparent to subtranslucent. Brittle, 
 H = 7.5-8. G -2.67-2.75. B.B. becomes clouded, but infusible. 
 The emerald is the rich green variety, owing its color t« 
 chromium. Hardness distinguishes beryl from apatite ; and this 
 character and its crystal form, from green tourmaline. The com 
 position is complex, principal constituents being silica 62.' 
 alumina 18.9, and beryllium oxide 16.3. Occurs in Canada. 
 
Ml\KI{AT.OnY. ^. 61 
 
 IT. — Aniiyduouh TTnisilioatkh. 
 
 ('ni;vs()i,iTK, ()[,iviNK, Pkiuddt. -()rtliorli(nul»ic. Inrcctangii- 
 
 ar jiiisiiis. IJHually in iinlu;(lili>(l ^raiuM of olivo green color ; 
 
 |s(» yt-llowiah green. \j vitreous. < 'leHvjil)K!. 'J'rjuisp.arcnt to 
 
 liiiisliicciit. H () 7. (J .')..'i M.t). li. B. whitens Imt is infua- 
 
 )1(' ; with borax a yellow bead, color <lue to iron. Deeoniposed 
 
 in hydrochloric acid, solution geiatini/ing wlieii evaporated. 
 
 istiiii^Miished from green (piartz by cleavage and by occurring 
 issciiiiiiated in basaltic rocks ; <|uaitz never does. From obsi- 
 
 aii or volcanic glass dittcrs in infusibility. Silica 41.. S!), mag- 
 (sia oO.ll, iron protoxide 7.71. 
 
 (Iaknkt. — Aliu(in(lit(\ Kssonitc and Mchtu'ito are varieties, 
 soiiuitric. Dodecahedions and trape/ohedrons, both common 
 11(1 sometimes variously modilie<l. (Jleavage sometimes rather 
 istiucit. Also luassive granuhir, and coarse lanu liar. C — deep 
 0(1 to cinnamon brown, also blown, ))lacU, green, emerald, rarely 
 olorless, Transparent to o[)a({ue. L=-vitreous. hriltle. 11 = 
 
 )-7 ,"). (J=3. 1-4 8. H, 1). fuses to brown or black glass. Not 
 ecoMiposed by hydrochloric acid ; but if ignited and th(;n pow- 
 eied and treated with acid it is decomposed, and solution usually 
 t'latiiiizt's when evaporated. ( /omj)osition varies; mainly a 
 ilicate of aluminium and iron, calcium or magnesium. Common 
 n Caiiiula. 
 
 ZiKCoN. — Tetragonal. Cleavage imperfect. Usually in crys- 
 als, but also granular. C = red to brown ; also yellow, gray 
 11(1 white. S uncolored. L=more or less adamantine. Often 
 r.ins{)arent, also nearly opaque. Fracture is conchoidal, brilliant. 
 i=7.;"). G— 4-4.9. B. B. infusible, but loses color. (Crystals, 
 pec. giav., and adamantine lustre distinguish zircon. Silica 31^, 
 ircoiiia 67. (^*omm(m in Canada. 
 
 Vksuvianite, Idocrasr. — 'I'etragonal. Cleavage indistinct. 
 Uso massive granular ;ind subcolumnar. C=brown, sometimes 
 erging to green. S=uncolored. L — vitreous. Subtransparent 
 ne.irly opaque. H=0.5. G~3.38. B. H. fuses easily with 
 ffervcscence to greenish or brownish globule, llesembles some 
 >rown garnet, tourmaline and epidote, but differs in crystalliza- 
 ion aiKl greater fusibility. Chiefly a silicate of aluminium and 
 iine with iron. Found in Canada. 
 
 Epidote. — Monoclinic. Also massive granular and forming 
 ock masses ; sometimes columnar or fibrous C=yellowish 
 reen and ash gray or brown. S = uncolored. Translucent to 
 paque. L=vitreous. Often brilliant on faces of crystals. 
 
 little. H=6-7. G= 3. 25-3. 5. B.B. fuses with effervescence 
 ■o black glass, which is usually magnetic. Partly decomposed 
 y hydrochloric acid, but if first ignited is decomposed, and the 
 olutiou gelatinizes on evaporation. The peculiar yellpwish green 
 
52 Mineralogy 
 
 Anhydrous U nisllicates. 
 
 color of ordinary e^ndote distinguishes it. A silicate of aliiini 
 nium, iron and oalciuin, with water. Found in Canada. 
 
 Z018ITK, Lime Epidotr. — Orthorliombic. Columnar and mas 
 sive. Cleavable. C=ash gray to white, also greenish gray, red. 
 L=vitreous to subpearly. H=6.G. G==8. 1 1-3.38. B.B. swells 
 and fuses. Like epidote, with little or no iron. 
 
 Ilvaite. — A calcium-iron silicate, occurs in (^anada. 
 
 AxiNiTE. — - Triclinic. In acute-edged oblique rhomboidal 
 prisms. Cleavage indistinct. Also rarely massive or in layers, 
 C=dark brown, differing somewhat in shade in three directions, 
 [j= vitreous. Transparent to subtranslucent. Brittle. 11= 
 6.5-7. 0=3.27. Electric after ignition. B, B. fuses easily, 
 bubbles and yields dark green or black glass, giving pale gieeo 
 flame. Kemarkable for sharp thin edges of crystals, their glassv 
 brilliant appearance and absence of cleavage ; implanted and uot 
 disseminated like garnet. Occurs in Canada. 
 
 Danbukite. — A calcium silicate containing much boron, 
 Orthorhombic, resembles topaz in its crystals ; also massive, 
 C=pale yellow. Trans) )arent. L= vitreous, slightly grtasv 
 when massive. H = 7-7.*25. C — 2.98. B. B. fuses to colorless 
 glass ; green flame. 
 
 loLViE, DiCHRorrE. — Orthorhombic. Six and twelve sided 
 prisms; also massive. Cleavage indistinct. C:= shades of Idv 
 and yellowish gray. S = uncolored. L= vitreous. Transparent 
 to translucent. Brittle. H = 7-7.5. G = 2.6-2.7. Resembles 
 blue quartz, distinguished by fusing on edges. A silicate oi 
 aluminium, magnesium and iron. 
 
 Mica Group. 
 
 Muscovite. — Monoclinic. Usually in plates or scales, some- 
 times radiated groups of scales. C— from white through green, 
 yellowish and brownish shades ; rarely rose-red or reddish violet. 
 L — pearly. Transparent to translucent. Tough and elastic, 
 H = 2-2.5. G=2.7 3. B.B, whitens and fuses on thin edges, 
 with difficulty. Differs from talc and chlorite in being elastic; 
 leaves tougher and harder. Sericlte is related to muscovite but 
 it has 4 or 5% water. A component of granite, gneiss, and 
 mica schist. Common in Canada. Uses : in stoves, etc. , decor- 
 ating wall paper, lubricant, insulating for electrical purposes, 
 boiler and pipe covering, etc. A silicate of aluminium, iron, 
 potassium, etc. 
 
 Phlogopite. — Monoclinic. C = often yellowish brown with 
 oopper-hke reflection, also brownish yellow to white. B.B. like 
 muscovite. Common in Canada. 
 
 BioTiTE. — Monoclinic. Crystals usually short rhombic or 
 hexagonal prisms. Common in scattered scales and scale masses, 
 
\IlNERALOfiY. 
 
 53 
 
 Uka Group. 
 
 ; = (lark green, black. Transparent to opaque. Cleavage emiu- 
 nt. L = niore or less pearly on cleavage surface, H = 2.5-3. 
 ; = 2.7-3.1. B.B. whitens and fuses on thin edges. In mica 
 cliist, gneiss and granite, much more common than muscoyite ; 
 •ften in syenite. Mainly a silicate of aluminium, magnesium, 
 )otassiiini and iron. Common in Canada Clear varieties valu- 
 h\e for insulating purposes, as above. 
 
 Lkpidomelane.— Allied to last, but with more iron and less 
 nacniesia. Found in Canada. 
 
 ScAPOLiTE Group. 
 
 WfJvNKRITE, Scapolitr.— Tetragonal. Also massive, or some- 
 inics faintly fibrous. Cleavage indistinct. C = white, gray, 
 )ale blue, greenish or reddish, brown when impure. S = uncolored. 
 Transparent to nearly opaque. L = usually a little pearly. H = 
 ) 6. (1 = 2.65 2.8. The square prisms are characteristic. In 
 }leavable masses resembles feldspar except for a slight fibrous 
 ippearance usually distinguished on the cleavage surface. More 
 usible than feldspar and spec. grav. higher. Spodumene has 
 niich higher spec. grav. and differs also B.B. VVoUastonite is 
 nore librous iu appearance of surface, is less hard, and gela- 
 binizes with acids." B.B. fuses easily and boils to white glass ; 
 mperfectly decomposed by hydrochloric acid. Silica 48.4, alumina 
 28.5, lime 18.1, soda 5. Occurs in Canada. 
 
 Nki'heltte, Eleolite.— Hexagonal. Also massive, rarely 
 fchiii columnar. C == white, or gray, yellowish, greenish, 
 jluisli red. L = vitreous to greasy. Transparent to opaque. 
 H=:5.5-G. Gr = 2.55-2.6-2. Distinguished from most scapolites 
 and feldspars by the greasy lustre when massive, and the facility 
 of gelatinizing with acids ; from apatite by the last character and 
 also greater hardness. A silicate of aluminium, sodium and 
 potassium, containing iron, manganese and lime. 
 
 SoDALiTE.— Isometric. In dodecahedrons. Cleavage dodeca- 
 liedral. C^brown, gray, or blue. L = vitreous, sometimes greasy. 
 H = (i. G =2.25-2.4. B. B. fuses, bubbles, gives a colorless glass. 
 Decomposed with hydrochloric acid, solution gelatinizing on 
 evaporation. A silicate of alunnnium and sodium, containing 
 chlorine. Occurs in Canada. 
 
 Lai'LS-Lazuli, Ultramaiunr.— Isometric, rarely in crystals 
 (dodecahedrons). Cleavage imperfect. Usually massive. C= 
 rich azure blue. L = vitreous. Translucent to opaque. H=5.5. 
 G=L'. 3-2.5. B.B. fuses to white translucent or opaque glass, 
 and if burnt and powdered loses color in acids. Color supposed 
 to be due to sodium sulphide. A silicate of aluminium, sodium, 
 and calcium, containing sulphuric acid, sulphur, iron and chlorine. 
 Used for the valuable blue paint called ultramarine. 
 
54 MlNF-RALO(!Y 
 
 Scapolite Group. 
 
 . Leucitb, Amphigene. — Isometric. Cleavage imperfect. 'Ira- 
 pezohedroii. Usually in dull glassy white to gray crystals, diss(;m- 
 inated through lava. Translucent to ojmque. H = 5.5-(). (1 = 
 2.45-2.5. Brittle. B.B. infusible. Moistened with cobalt nitrate 
 and ignited assumes blue color. Decomposed by hydrochloric 
 acid without gelatinizing. Distinguished from analcite by hard- 
 ness and infusibility. Silica 55, alumina 23.5, potash 21.5. 
 
 Feldspar Group. 
 
 Triclinic feldspars (jet the general term Plagtoclase. Anor- 
 THiTE. Indianite. — Lime Feldspar. Triclinic. Crystals 
 tabular. Also massive, granular, or coarse layers. C = white, 
 grayish, or reddish. H = G. G=-2.G6-2.78. B.B. fuses with diffi- 
 culty to colorless glass. Decomposed by hydrochloric acid and 
 solution gelatinizes on evaporation. Silica 43.1, alumina 30.8, 
 lime 20.1. Huronite, an altered anorthite, occurs near Sudbury. 
 
 Labradokite. — Lime-soda Feldspar. Triclinic. Usually in 
 cleavable massive forms. Dark gray, brown, or greenish brown, 
 also white or colorless. Often a series of bright colors from in- 
 ternal reflections, especially blue and green, with more or less 
 yellow and pearl gray. H = 6. G = 2. 67-2. 70. B.B. fuses easily 
 to colorless glass. Only partially decomposed by hydrochloric 
 acid. Silica 52.9, ahimiua 30.3, lime 12.3, soda 4.5. Occurs in 
 Canada. 
 
 Oligoclahe. — Soda-lime Feldspar. Triclinic. Commonly in 
 cleavable masses. Also massive, usually white, grayish white, 
 grayish green, greenish, reddish. Transparent, subtranslucent, 
 H = 6-7. G=2.5-2.7. A portion of soda usually replaced by 
 potash. B. B. fuses without difficulty ; not decomposed by aci<ls, 
 Silica 61.9, alumina 24. 1, soda 8.8, lime 5 2. Occurs in Canada, 
 in granite, gneiss and syenite rocks. 
 
 Albite. — Soda Feldspar. Triclinic. Crystals more or less 
 thick tabular ; also massive, granular or plate-like structure. C= 
 white, occasionally light tints of bluish white, gray, reddish and 
 greenish. Transparent to subtranslucent. H = 6-7. G=2.()l. 
 B.B. fuses to colorless or white glass ; intense yellow flame. Not 
 acted on by acids. Silica 68.6, alumina 19.6, soda 11.8. Occurs 
 in Canada, in granite and gneiss. 
 
 MiciiocLTNE. — Potash Feldspar. Triclinic. In angles and 
 physical characters like orthoclase, but cleavage surface shows 
 sometimes tine striations. C = white, flesh red, copper green. 
 Occurs in Canada. 
 
 Orthoclase, Commov Feldspar.— Potash Feldspar. Mono- 
 clinic. Cleavage angle is 90°. Usually in thick prisms, often 
 rectangular and also in modified tables ; also massive with granu- 
 lar structure or in coarse plates ; also fine grained, massive, flint- 
 
IlNERALOGY. ^^ 
 
 (lithculty ; not actea on oy acKis. omuci ut. <, rtiuinmc 
 potash 16.9. An important ^constituent of granite, syenite, 
 8, porphyry. Extensively used for porcelain. Found in 
 
 'ekiydr Group. 
 
 ke i; flight; white, gray and tiesh red, common ; also la-eenisti 
 
 nd'bluish white and green. H-G. 0=2.55-2.58. B. B. fuses 
 
 nth difficulty ; not acted on by acids. Sdica 04.7, alumina 
 
 8.4, potash Ib.y. 
 
 neiss, 
 
 )anada. 
 
 SUBSILICATES. 
 
 Chrosdrodite.— Monoclinic. Cleavage indistinct. Usually 
 1 imbedded grains or masses. C==light yellow to brownish yel- 
 ow, yellowish red and garnet red. L= vitreous, inclinnig a 
 ittleto resinous. S=white or slightly yellowish or grayish, 
 'ranslucent to subtranslucent. Fracture uneven. H=C-6.5. 
 ;=8. 1-8.25. B.B. infusible. Decomposed by hydrochloric acid, 
 olution gelatinizing on evaporation. Unlike tourmaline or gar- 
 let, some broMuish yellow varieties of which it resembles, it 
 loe's not fuse. A silicate of magnesium, with small quantities of 
 ron, fluorine and aluminium. Found in Canada. 
 
 Tourmaline.— -Hexagonal. Usual in prisms of 3, 0, 9 or 12 
 -ides, terminating in a low three-sided pyramid ; sides of the 
 irisms often rounded and striated. Also compact massive, and 
 loarse columnar, radiating or divergent. C=- black, blue black, 
 ,nd dark brown, common ; also ruby red, pale red, rich grass 
 ;reen, brown, yellow, gray and colorless, 'i'ransparent, usually 
 iranslucent to nearly opaque. L = vitreous, inclining to resinous 
 m surface of fracture. !S = uncolored. Brittle, the ciystals oUen 
 ractured across and breaking very easily. H=7 -75. G=2.9- 
 1.3. B.B. dark varieties fuse with ease, the lighter with diffi- 
 ulty. On mixing the powdered mineral with potassium bisul- 
 )hate and fluorspar, and heated B.B., the flame colors green 
 (wiiig to boron. The presence of boron trioxide is a remarkable 
 eature of this mineral in all varieties. The electric properties 
 )f tlie crystals, when heated, is another remarkable character. 
 k silicate of aluminium, boron, iron and magnesium, etc. 
 "Jomnion in Canada, in granite, gneiss, chlorite schist, quartzite, 
 granular limestone, etc. 
 
 Andalustte.— Orthorhombic. In nearly square prisms. Cleav- 
 ige sometimes distinct. Also massive ; indistinctly coarse 
 )olumnar. C=gray and flesh red. pink. L= vitreous or inclin- 
 iig to pearly. Translucent to opaque. Tougli. H=7.5. G= 
 M-8:i B.B. infusible. Ignited, after being moistened with 
 Jobalt nitrate, assumes a blue color. Insoluble in acids. Distin- 
 guished from pyroxene, scapolite, spodumene and feldspar by its 
 nfusil)ility. hardness and form. Silica 86.9, alumina (53.1. 
 Found in Canada. 
 
56 MiNRRALOCY, 
 
 Suhnlicates. 
 
 FiBR(3LiTE. — Orthorhombic. In long slender rhombic prisuis, 
 often much flattened, penetrating the gangue. (yleavage brilliant. 
 Also in masses, consisting of aggregated crystals or lil)res. ('- 
 brown or grayish brown. L= vitreous, inclining to pearly, 
 Translucent crystals break easily. H=6-7. G=3.2-.'>.;i 
 Moistened with cobalt nitrate and ignited assumes a blue color, 
 Infusible alone and with borax. Distinguished from tremolite 
 and the varieties of hornblende generally by brilliant diagonal 
 cleavage and infusibility ; from kyanite and andalusite by its 
 brilliant cleavage, fibrous structure, and oithorhombic crystals. 
 Composition same as last. 
 
 Kyanite. — Triclinic. Usually in long knife-like crystals, 
 aggregated, or penetrating the gangue. Sometimes in short, 
 stout crystals. Lateral cleavage distinct. Sometimes fine fibrous. 
 C— usually light blue, sometimes liavingablue centre with white 
 margin ; sometimes white, gray, green, or even black. Lustre of 
 flat face a little pearly. H=o-7.r). G = 3.55-3.7. Distinguished 
 by infusibility from varieties of hornblende. Short crystals 
 have some resemblance to staurolite, but their sides and termina- 
 tions are usually irregular ; also difl'ers in cleavage and lustre. 
 The thin-bladed characteristic of kyanite is distinctive. (Jem 
 position same as last. ( )ccurs in Canada. 
 
 'J'oPAZ. — Orthorhombic. Rhombic prisms, usually differently 
 moilifled at the extremities. Cleavage perfect basal. C = pale 
 yellow, sometimes white, greenish, bluish, or reddish. S = white, 
 L — vitreous. Transparent to subtransiucent. Electric after 
 ignition. H = 8. 0-8.4-3.65. B.B. infusible; some kinds 
 become yellow or pink when heated ; moistened with cobalt 
 nitrate and ignited assumes fine blue color. Insolubl in acids. 
 Headily distinguished fitom minerals resembling it by brilliant 
 and easy basal cleavage. Silica 16.2, alumina oo.T, silicon 
 fluoride 28. 1. Used as gem. 
 
 EucLASK. — Monoclinic. In oblique rhombic prisms. Cleavage 
 highly perfect, affording smooth polished faces. C = pale greeu 
 to white or colorless, pale blue. L=vitreous. Transparent, 
 Brittle. H=7.o. G = 3. 1. Electric after ignition. The cleavage 
 of this glassy mineral is very perfect like topaz, ])ut is not basal, 
 Used as gem. Silica 41.2, alumina 35.2, beryllia 17.4, water (i.i 
 
 Datoltte. — Monoclinic. Crystals small and glassy. Distinct 
 cleavage. Also botryoidal, and columnar within ; also massive 
 and porcelain-like in fracture. C = white, occasionally grayish, 
 greenish, yellowish or reddish. Translucent. H-^5 5.5. (i = 
 2.9-3. Its glassy complex crystallizations without cleavage dis- 
 tinguish it from other minerals that gelatinize with acid ; so also 
 in tingeing blowpipe flame green. B. B. becomes opaque, bubbles, 
 melts easily to glassy globule, coloring flame green. Decomposed 
 
hSKUALOr.Y. - 57 
 
 iihsi/kates. 
 
 liydrochloric acid ; solution gelatinizing on evaporation. 
 ilica .'J7.0, l)oron trioxide 21.9, lin)e 35, water 5.6. Found in 
 Canada. 
 
 Ti TAN UK, Sphen k. — Monoclinic. Crystals usually very oblique 
 hiii-oilged prisms. Cleavabla in one direction, sometimes perfect. 
 )ocasi()iially massive. 0=grayish brown, ash gray, brown to 
 lack; sometimes pale yellow to green. S — uncolored. L=:ada- 
 laiitiiu; to resinous, 'i'ransparent to opaque. H = 5-5.5. G = 
 .4-3.r)0. In dark brown atid black crystals, some iron replaces 
 art (»f the calcium. B.B. fuses and bubbles. Imperfectly 
 ecoinposed by hydrochloric acid. The thin wedge-shaped crys- 
 al is generally a distinguishing character. Silica 30.6, titanium 
 xide 40.82, lime 28.57. Common in Canada. 
 
 Stauholitic. — Orthorhombic. Cleavage imperfect. Usually in 
 roi-s-sliaped twin crystals. Never massive or in slender crystal- 
 zations. C'=brown to black. L= vitreous, inclining to resinous, 
 onietiines bright, but often dull. Translucent to opa(|ue. H = 
 
 7.5. 0—3.4-3.8. B.B. inf'mible, excepting a manganese vari- 
 ty. Insoluble in acids. Distinguished from tourmaline and 
 arnet l)y infusibility and form. Silica 28.3, alumina 51.7, iron 
 xide 15.8, magnesia 2.5, water 1.7. 
 
 Hydrous Stlicate.^'. 
 
 Pectolite. — Monoclinic. Usually in aggregations of needle- 
 haped crystals, or fibrous-massive, radiate, star-shaped. C= 
 diitc or grayish. Translucent to opaque. Tough. H~5. (t= 
 .8(5. B. B. fusible. In closed tube yields water. Decomposed by 
 ydrochloric acid ; solution gelatinizes on evaporation. Resembles 
 broils varieties of tremolite, natrolite, wollastonite. Silica 54.2, 
 me .'is. 8, soda 9.3, water 2.7. Found in Canada. 
 
 Lal'imontite. — Monoclinic, like pyroxene in form. Massive, 
 ritli radiating or divergent structure, not line fibrous. C = white, 
 assing into yellow or gray, sometimes red. L = vitreous, inclin- 
 iig to p'uirly on cleavage face. Transparent to translucent. H = 
 .5 4. (j1 =2. 25-2.36. Becomes opaque on exj^osure through loss 
 f water, and readily crum))les. B.B. swells u}) and fuses easily 
 white enamel. Deconq)osed by hydrochloric acid ; solution 
 elatinizes on evaporation. The alteration this species undergoes 
 11 exposure to the air distinguishes it. A hydrous silicate of 
 iluininiuni and calcium. Found in Canada. 
 
 Ar ii'HYLLiTE. — Tetragonal. In square octahedrons, prisms 
 nd tal»les. Cleavage basal, highly perfect. Massive and foliated. 
 ^'=\vliite or grayish, sometimes with shade of green, yellow or 
 ed. \j~oi one face pearly; of rest vitreous. Trans[)arent to 
 pa(pi.'. H==4.5-5. (;=2.3-2.4. B.B. exfoliates, c(dors Hanie 
 
58 ^ Minehalo(;y. 
 
 Hydrous Silicates. 
 
 violet (owing to potash) and fuses very easily to white enamel, 
 In closed tube yields water which has acid reaction. Decom. 
 posed by hydrochloric acid with separation of slimy silica. The 
 easy basal cleavage, and basal pearly lustre and form of crystals 
 distinguish it from the preceding species. It is never fibrous, 
 Silica 52.97, lime 24.7*2, potash 5.2, fluorine 2.1, water 15.9, 
 Occurs in Canada. 
 
 Pyralloltte. — An altered variety of pyroxene. Found in 
 Canada. 
 
 Prehnite. — Orthorhombic. Cleavage basal. Sometimes in 
 six-sided prisms, rounded so as to be barrel-shaped, and lookiug 
 as if made up of a series of united plates ; also in thin rhombic or 
 hexagonal plates. Usually kidney-shaped and botryoidal, with 
 crystalline surface. Never fibrous. C = apple green to colorless. 
 L = vitreous, except one face, which is somewhat pearly. Sub- 
 transparent to translucent. H = 6-G.5. = 2.8-2 90. B.B. fuses 
 very easily to enamel-like glass. Decomposed by hydrochloric 
 acid, leaving residue of silica, but does not gelatinize. Yields a 
 little water in closed tube. Distinguished from beryl, green 
 quartz, and chalcedony by fusing B. B. ; and from the zeolites by 
 hardness. Receives a handsome polish and is sometimes used 
 for inlaid work. Silica 43.6, alumina 24 9, lime 27.1, water 4.4. 
 Occurs in Canada. 
 
 ZoNOcuLORiTr, AND Chlorastrolite. — Greenish varieties of 
 prehnite. Found in Canada. 
 
 Allophank. — In amorphous incrustations, with a smooth, 
 small mammiUary surface, a\i<X sometimes powdery. C = [)ale 
 bluish white to greenish, and deep green ; also brown, yellow, 
 colorless. Translucent. .H=:3. (i = 1.85-1.89. Inclosed tube 
 yields much water. B. B. infusible but crumbles. Gives a blue 
 color with cobalt solution and a jelly with hydrochloric acid. 
 Silica 23.75, alumina 40.62, water 35.63. 
 
 Zeolite Section. 
 
 So called because they generally fuse easily. B. B. with bub- 
 bling, (Greek zeo = to boil). Sometimes called trap minerals, 
 because often found in cavities or fissures of amygdaloidal trap 
 as well as related basic eruptive rocks. Yet they occur occa- 
 sionally in fissures or cavities in gneiss, granite and other 
 metamorphic rocks. They are not the origin il minerals of any 
 of these rocks, but the result of alteration of portions of them 
 near the little cavities or fissures in which the minerals occur, 
 and part were made while the rock was still hot and as cooling 
 went forward. 
 
 Thomsomte. — Orthorhombic. In right rectangular prisms. 
 Usually in masses having a radiated structure within, and cou- 
 
iNKRALOr.Y. 
 
 59 
 
 jeolUe Section. 
 
 [sting of long fibres, or ueedle-shaped crystals ; also amorphous. 
 I = snow white ; impure varieties brown. L = vitreous, inclining 
 pearly. Transparent to transhicent. H=5. G = 2.3-2.4. 
 brittle. B.B. fuses very easily to white enamel. Decomposed 
 hydrochloric acid, solution gelatinizing on evaporation. 
 fistiiiguished from natrolite by its fusion to an opaque and not 
 lassy globule. Silica 38.1, alumina 81.6, lime 12.6, soda 4.6, 
 fater l.S.4. Occurs in Canada. 
 
 Na'I'holitk. — Orthorhombic. Prisms very slender and aggre- 
 
 ited. Also in globular, star-shaped and divergent groups of 
 
 lelicate needle-shaped fibres (often terminating in needle-shaped 
 
 Irisinatic crystals). C = white, or inclining to yellow, gray, red. 
 
 (=vitreous. Transparent to translucent. H =5-5.5. G = 2.2. 
 
 irittle. B. B. fuses easily and quietly to a clear glass ; a fine 
 
 ()hntor melts in candle flame. Decomposed by hydrochloric 
 
 2i(l, sohition gelatinizing on evaporation. Silica 47.29, alumina 
 
 J6.() ), soda 16,3, water 9.45. Found in Canada. 
 
 Analcitr. — Isometric. Usually in trapezohedrons. C = often 
 )lorless and transparent ; also milk white, grayish, and reddish 
 jrliite. Sometimes opaque. L = vitreous. H=5-5.5. G=2.25. 
 i.B. fuses easily to colorless glass. Decomposed by hydro- 
 ^iloric acid, the silica separating in gelatinous lumps. Charac- 
 3nze(l by crystallization and absence of cleavage. Distinguished 
 [•oni (juartz and leucite by giving water in closed tube ; from 
 ilcite by its fusibilit>^nd by not effervescing with acids ; from 
 Laba/ite md varieties by fusing without bubbling to a glassy 
 lobule, and by crystalline form. Silica 54.47, alumina 23. 29, 
 }da 14.07, water 8. 17. Found in Canada. 
 
 Chahazije. — Rhombohedral. Often in rhombohedrons, much 
 Bsembliug cubes. Never massive or fibrous. C = white, yellow- 
 ^h, riesh-red, or red. L= vitreous. Transparent to translucent. 
 
 = 4-5. G=: 2. 08-2. 19. B.B. bubbles and fuses to nearly 
 paque bead. Decomposed with hydrochloric acid. In closed 
 fibe gives water. The nearly cubical form when crystallized is 
 triking. Distinguished from analcite as stated under that 
 becies ; from calcite by yielding water and action with acids ; 
 jrom tiuorite by form and cleavage, and by showing no phosphor- 
 scence. SiHca 52.2, alumina 18.3, lime, soda and potash 8.7, 
 later '20.5. Found in ('anada. 
 
 Harmotome. — Monoclinic. Unknown excej)t in compound 
 Irystals. (J = white; sometimes gray, yellow, red or brownish. 
 [ubtruM.sparent to translucent. L = vitreous. H==4.5. G=2.45. 
 5.B. whitens, crumbles and fuses quietly to white translucent 
 |lass. (lives water in closed tube. Partially decomposed by 
 lydrnchloric acid, and if sulphuric acid be added to solution a 
 leavy white precipitate of barium sulphate is formed. Some 
 
60 Miner ALOf! 
 
 !Y, 
 
 Zeolite Section. 
 
 varieties phosphoresce when heated. Much more fusible thai, 
 glassy feldspar or sca[)olite ; does not gelatinize like thomsoiiite, 
 Silica 4(). 5, alumina lil.O, baryta 23.7, water 18.9. ^ 
 
 Stimutk. — Mono(;linic. In crystals. Also in sheaf-like ai:u;ie 
 gations, and spheres, thin pearly laniellar-cohininar in structure, 
 also in radiateii crystallizations ; never line fibrous. = white, 
 sometimes yellow, brown, or red. Subtransparent to translucent, 
 L = highly pearly on cleavage surface. W = ?tS^-\. G = 2.1 LMi 
 B.B. swells up, and curves into fan-like forms, and fuses to 
 white enamel. Decomposed by hydrochloric acid without j^'ela- 
 tinization. Cannot be scratched with thumbnail like gypsuni, 
 Unlike heulandite in crystals. Silica 57.4, alumina 10.4, lime 
 8.9, water 17.2. Found in Canada. 
 
 Heulandite. — Monoclinic. In right rhombic prisms wit 
 perfect pearly cleavage, other planes vitreous in lustre. C = 
 white, sometimes reddish, gray, brown. Transparent to subtr.ans 
 lucent. Leaves brittle. H-3.5 4. = 2.2. B.B. like stilhite, 
 Bubbles and fuses, and becomes phosphorescent. Dissolves Id 
 acid without gelatinization. The very pearly lustre of cleavage 
 face is a marked character. Distinguished from gypsuni In 
 hardness ; from apophyllite and stilbite by crystals ; and from 
 latter species also in not occurring in radiated, sheaf-like or 
 spherical crystallizations. Silica 59.1, alumina 16.9, lime 9.'. 
 water 14.8. Found in Canada. 
 
 Margarophyllite Section. 
 
 Talc. — Orthorhombic. In right rhombic or hexagonal prisms, 
 Usually in pearly leafy masses, separating easily into thin trans 
 lucent pearly leaves. Sometimes star-shape, or divergent, con- 
 sisting of radiating sheets. Often massive, consisting of minute 
 pearly scales; also crystalline granular; also flint-like. b= 
 eminently pearly. Feels greasy. C = some shade of light green 
 or greenish white, occasionally silvery or pearly white ; also 
 grayish green and dark olive green. H — 1-1.5. (i =2.5 2.8, 
 Leaves flexible, but not elastic. The extreme softness, greasy 
 feel, leaf-form crystallization, and ])early lustie are good charac- 
 teristics. Differs from mica in being inelastic, although Hexihle; 
 from chlorite, kaolin, and serpentine in yielding little water 
 when heated in glass tube. Only the massive varieties resemble 
 serpentine, and chlorite has a dark olive green color. Pyrophyl- 
 lite, which cannot be distinguished in some varieties, by eye 
 alone, from talc, becomes dark blue when moistened with cobalt 
 nitrate and ignited. Silica 62.8, magnesia 33.5, water 3./. 
 Found in Canaila. 
 
 Varieties : Foliated Talc, white to greenish white, leafy. 
 SoajMone or Steatite, white, gray, grayish green. Massive, gran 
 
llNKIlALOCY. 61 
 
 l(ir[inrophijlUte Section. 
 
 lar or inij)!il[)able. (Jreasy to touch. French Chalk, milk-white 
 
 ith pearly lustro. Potntone, impure soapstoue, grayish green or 
 ju'k (,'iven. Talc is ground, an<l used largely for adulterating 
 Kip, iiiid to some extent in making pajjcr. Soitpstone, sawn into 
 lal)s, in used for lining furnaces, also in making porcelain. Used 
 s luhiicator, and fi>r jtolishing ser[»entine, alabaster and glass. 
 
 PvHoiMiVLLiTK. — Like talc in crystallization, cleavage and oc- 
 urreiice in leafy and line grained massive forms, its greasy feel, 
 ts \vliit(! to pale green colors, varying to yellowish, its feeble 
 e(,Met! of hardness. The leaves are sometimes radiated. H =: 
 -2. (J ='2.75-2.92. B. B. whitens and fuses with difficulty on 
 (lgi;s ; deep blue color with cobalt nitrate ; yields water in 
 Idseil tube. Radiated varieties take fan-like forms, heated. 
 ilica (14.82, alumina 24.48, iron, magnesium, and calcium oxides 
 .84, water 5.25. 
 
 SKrioLFTR, Meerschaum. — Usually compact, of line earthy tex- 
 ure, with smooth feel, and white or whitish color ; also fibrous. 
 ) = wliite to bluish green. H = 2-'2 5. B.B. infusible, much 
 
 ater in closed tube, pink color with cobalt solution. The earthy 
 ariety Hoats on water. Silica 60.8, magnesia 27.1, water 12.1. 
 
 (tLaucomtr, Gree.v Earth, — Essentially a silicate of inm and 
 otassium. In dark olive green to yellowish green grains, or 
 ranular masses. L = dull. \i=2. G = 2.2. Mixed with sand 
 fc forms thick beds called greensand. B. B. fuses easily to mag- 
 etic glass, yields water in closed tube. 
 
 Serpentine. — A hydrous magnesium silicate, like talc, but 
 ontaiiiing more water and less silica. Usually massive and com- 
 act ; also in layers or leafy, the leaves brittle ; also columnar, 
 sbestiform, and delicately silky fibrous. C flight to dark 
 reen, to olive green and blackish green ; also greenish yellow, 
 rownish yellow, brownish red ; rarely white. L = weak ; resin- 
 iis, inclining to greasy. Translucent to nearly opaque. H = 
 
 5-4. = 2.5. Feel, especially of powder, a little greasy. 
 oiigh. Fracture conchoidal. B.B. fuses with much difficulty 
 n thin edges ; yields water in closed tube. Decomposed by 
 ydrochloric acid, leaving residue of silica. In some kinds, iron 
 eplaces some of magnesium. The distinctive features of the 
 ompact mineral are no cleavage, feeble lustre, slightly waxy or 
 ily lustre, little hardness ; yielding much water and low specific 
 ravity. When polished has much Tjeauty. Silica 43.5, magnesia 
 3.5, water 13. AsheMus. Chrysotile is fibrous serpentine ; and 
 
 usually the asbestus of commerce. Unlike true asbestus it 
 ffonlfs nuich water in closed tube. The bulk of the world's 
 upply of asbestus comes from (Quebec. Uses : tire-proof articles 
 I all kinds, piston packing, covering for steam pipes and boilers ; 
 lade into yarn, cloth and paper. - :, 
 
62 MlNKRALooy 
 
 Margnrophyllite Section. 
 
 Dewkymtk. — Com})osition near Serpentine, ])ut containing 3 
 percent, of water. Massive. (' - wliitisii, yellowish, l)ro\\iii,s; 
 yellow, greenish, reddish. Has the asi)ect of gum arahic. V(r 
 brittle. H = 2S.5. (J = 1.9 2.25. GeiUhitv and (hirnkriti m^ 
 varieties coiitauiiiig much nickel. 
 
 Saponite - Soft, clay-like; of the consistence, before dryiiii; 
 of cheese or ])utter, but brittle when dry. (J -white, yellow i,s| 
 grayish green, bluish, reddish. Does not adhere to toiigiu 
 Found in Canada. 
 
 Kaolimte, Kaomx, Pure CfAV. -Composition : silica, alii 
 mina, wat(T. Orthorhombic. Massive. (Jlay-like ; either coin 
 pact, friable or mealy. Feels greasy. C = white, grayish w liitf 
 yellowi.sh ; sometimes brownish, bluish or reddish. Scale 
 flexible, inelastic. H= 1-2.5. (1 = 2.4 2.0. B.B. infusible. 
 blue color with cobalt nitrate. Yields water in closed tiilic 
 Insolulile in acids. Kaolin is used for white porcelain of liiK 
 quality and for giving weight and body to paper. Silica 4G.i 
 alumina 39.7, water 13.9. Found in Canada. 
 
 Finite. — Amorphous, and usually flint like. C = grayisli 
 greenish, brownish, sometimes reddish. L = feeble; waxy, 
 'JVanslucent to opaque. H =2.5-3.5. (! =2.0 2.85. Silica 4().8"3, 
 alumina 27.65, iron, potassium oxides, etc., containing water 
 Occurs in Canada. Wilson ite is a variety. 
 
 Hydromica Section. 
 
 Fahlunite. — A hydrous silicate of aluminium and iron witb 
 little or no alkali, and in this last jioint diff'ering from pinite 
 In 6 and 12 sided prisms, usually leafy, parallel with the base, 
 but owing the prismatic form to the mineral from which it vas 
 derived. Leaves soft and brittle, of grayish green to dark grete 
 color and pearly lustre. G =2.7. B.B. fuses to white glass, le 
 closed tube gives water. Insoluble in acids. Distinguished fro 
 talc by aS'ording much water B. B. , and readily by its association 
 with iolite, and its large hexagonal forms, with brittle leaves. 
 
 Chlorite Group. 
 
 Hisingerite. — Massive, kidney-shaped. C= Black to browu 
 ish black. S=yellowish brown. L = greasy, inclining to vit 
 reous. H = 3. G = 3.045. B. B. fuses with difficulty to magnetic 
 slag. Silica 35.9, iron sesquioxide 42.6, water 21.5. 
 
 Pyroscle RITE— Orthorhombic or monoclinic. Mica-like cleav 
 age; sheets flexible, not elastic. C = apple green to emer.al 
 green. L = pearly. H = 3. G = 2.74. B.B. fuses to grayish 
 glass ; gelatinization with hydrochloric acid. Silica 38.9, aluni- 
 ina 14.8, magnesia 34.6, water 11.7. 
 
llNKItALOaV. 03 
 
 'hforitr Group. 
 
 ViiKMicriJTK. — Mica-like cleavage. In aggregated scales. Also 
 
 I bii^e n»ica-like crystals or plates. Flexible, not elastic. = 
 ray, hrown, yeilowisli hrown. L = pearly. H. B. fuses finally 
 ) gray mass. When scaly-granular the scaUs open out into 
 M»rm-lik(! forms. 
 
 I'knnimtk. — Hexagonal. Cleavage basal, highly perfect, mica- 
 ke. Also nuissive, consisting of scale aggregations, and Hint- 
 ke. (■=greea of various shades; yellowish to silver white; 
 Dso ivd to violet. L^pcsarlyon cleavage surface, 'i'ransparent 
 I) tiaiislucent. Sheets Hexihle, not elastic. H = 2-2.r)on edges. 
 \ = 2.i) -.7r) B. B. leaves separate somewhat and fuse with dif- 
 culty. Tartially decomposed 4>y hydrochloric acid, aiul wholly 
 
 II liy sulphuric acid. Silica 3.S.(3, alumina 10.0, iron sesipiioxide 
 8, iiia^Micsia, 34.{), water 12.4. 
 lliiMDoi/TK. — Monoclinic. Similar in cleavage and mica-like 
 
 haiiicttr to penninite, and also in color, lustre, hardness, and 
 pec. grav. B. B. and with .acids nearly like jienninite. Composi- 
 on similar to last, but it has les.s iron and a little chromium. 
 
 Pkociilohite. — Hexagonal. Similar in cleavage and niica- 
 ke characters to last. () = green to blackish green ; scmietimes 
 ed acnKss by transmitted light. (31=2.75-3. Sheets not elastic. 
 5. B. same as last. Silica 25.4, alumina 18.6, iron protoxide 
 8.8, magnesia 17.1, water 9. 
 
 MAWdAHiiE, Kmerylite, Diphantte, Clinomantte, Corun- 
 KLLiiK. — Orthorhombic. Mica-like. Sheets rather brittle. 
 ) = white, grayish, reddish. L = of cleavage surface strong 
 earlv and brilliant, of sides of crvstals, vitreous. H --3.5-4.5. 
 
 = 2.99. B. B. whitens and fuses on edges/ Silica 30.1, alum- 
 la, 51.2, lime 11.6, soda 2.6, water 4.5. 
 
 OHM)i;noiD, Masonite, Phyllite, OiTHErjiE. — Monoclinic. 
 leavage basal perfect. Also coarse foliate<l massive ; and in 
 lin disseminated scales. Brittle. C = dark gray, greenish to 
 lack. L = of cleavage face somewhat pearly. H =5.5-6. = 
 .5-.S.() B. B. becomes darker and magnetic, but fuses with diffi- 
 ulty. Decomposed by sulphuric acid. Silica 24, alumina 40.5, 
 •on oxide 28.4, water 7. 1. Found in Canada. 
 
 Hydrocakbons. 
 
 Petroleum.— Mineral oils varying in density from 0.6 to 0.85. 
 oluble in benzine or camphene. Petroleum occurs in rocks of all 
 ges, from the lower silurian to the most recent ; in limestones, 
 orous or compact sandstones, and shales ; but it is mostly 
 btained from civities existing among the earth's strata or more 
 robably from the porous strata themselves. Black shales and 
 uch bituminous coal afford it abundantly when heated. Sur- 
 ce oil springs occur in many places. Petroleum is obtained 
 
94 MiNKKAI.Ocy 
 
 Hydroenrhn)iH. 
 
 chi«'tly at the present time from ])orouR oil ''saiuls" (coarj, 
 BaiMlstoiMH), or cavitit'H rea(!h«'(l l>y ImhIiij,'. Reiii^ under |>r»ssiir 
 from the ^an aHsociatcd with it, it riscH to tjjc Hurfaco in tii 
 })orin;^', and Hoimstinu'H inaUeH a "spouting well" or "guslici 
 It iH thought to he due to decom[»(»Mitioii of animal an<l veg< t.ilil, 
 BiibstanceH. Occurs abundantly in Ontario at Petrolca and 
 Springs at depths, respi'ctively of about 4(i(l and .'i(»() feet, 
 crude oil is (listilled in sheet-iron rtitorts, and at tlu; v.uidii 
 stages yi(dds gasoline and naphtha, illuminating oil, internn iliat, 
 and wool oils, and lubiicating oils, in order named, the rrsjdii, 
 being carboiiaccjous matter locally s(dd as coke, N'aselinc, axl- 
 grease, parallinc wax, etc., are by-products. 
 
 HATCiiF/rrn K, Mountain Talf.ovv. - Like soft wax in ajipcp: 
 ance and hai'dness. Yellowish white to greenish yellow <(tl(ir 
 IJelated to j»arathne in C()mi>osition. 
 
 KLArKKlTK, MiNKIlAL CAOUTCHOUC, KlASTK! BiT(TMKN. hi 
 
 soft flexible masses somewhat resembling india-rubber. Vz 
 brownish black, sometimes orange red by transmitted Ijl'I 
 (i =().!)- 1.2'). (/arbon 8;")..'), hydrogen 1.S..S. Burns readily witl 
 yellow flame and bituminous odor. 
 
 Amhku. — In irregular masses. C = yellow, sometimes brdwii 
 ish or whitish. L^^ resinous. Transparent to translucent. II 
 2-2.5. U^l.18. Electric. A resin. 
 
 Asphaltum. — Amorphous and pitch like. Burns with biii,'li' 
 flame, melts at (W-lOO' V. Soluble nu)stly or wholly in ca 
 phene. A mixture of hydrocarbons. Much used in naii 
 making. 
 
 Albkktite. — Coal like in hardness, but little soluble in caiii 
 phene, and only imperfectly fusing when heated ; but havinL; tlk 
 lustre of asphaltum, and softening a little in boiling water 
 H=I-2. G=l.l. Occurs in Nova Scotia. 
 
 Anthraxolite. — Black, lustrous, and reseml)ling anthracitt 
 or albertite in general characters. H = 2.25-2.5. G=1.4 I. 
 Composition essentially carbon. Forms small plates or irrci^aila; 
 cubic Idocks between which is generally more or less (piartz 
 Found in Eastern Townships ami noith of Lakes Superior am 
 Huron, 'i'he pure mineral yields rixed carbon 90 to 9i\/°, volatile 
 matter and ash 5 to 10. 
 
 Mineral Coal. —Massive, uncrystalline. C:= black or brown 
 Opaque. Brittle. H:=0.r)-2.5. (i = 1.2-1. 8 Contains carboii. 
 with some oxygen an<l hydrogen, more or less moisture, am; 
 traces also of nitrogen, l)esides some earthy material which con 
 stitutes the ash. Coals differ in the amount of volatile iiif.'rt 
 dients given off when heated. These ingredients, beside- 
 moisture and some sulphur, are hydrocarbon oils and gas, dtrivei 
 
^IlNKnALOGY. 
 
 C5 
 
 lililro<'(U'ftons. 
 
 lorn the samo clasH of iiiaolu 1)1(3 hyclioourboiiH tliat is the Hource 
 [f the oil in shales and other rocks. 
 
 r(f;/V^V/<; ANTnKA(.'nK.- L = high, not resinous, Honietinies 
 liilmutallic. (J^hlack. H =2-2.5. (i - 1.57 -[.(i?, if pure. Frac- 
 iiie often oonclioidal. Good anthracite contains lixed carhon 
 |8 8H (8.S average), hydrogen 2 .S.5, oxygen 1.5 3.5, with 4 12 
 If earthy iuipuritiea. The amount of volatile matter is but 3-7%, 
 Vl thi re is a trace of sulpiiur. Burns with feeble blue Hame. 
 Recurs in the Kocky Mountains and in Queen Oharlotte Jsland. 
 
 Hm.MiNous Coal. — Color and powder l)lack. J^ = usually 
 hm;vviiat resinous H= 1.5-2. C = 1.2-1.4, if pure. (Contains 
 jsuiilly carbon 75-85%, hydrogen 4-(>, oxygen 4-15, with mostly 
 pjof moisture. The volatile hydrocarl)on ingredients 20-45%, 
 ^•itli .')() to over GO in some kinds ; sulphur in the best coals 
 L'low I, but often 2 2.5. Ash imi)urities 1.4-7.5 (average 5 or 0). 
 
 iini.s with bright yellow Hame. Yields little to, or colors 
 [ightly, a potash solution. Cccurs in Nova Scotia, Vancouver 
 slaiul and in Kocky Mountains. 
 
 (!aki.\() (.'oal includes that part of bituminous coal which 
 )ftenH wlien heated and becomes viscid, so that adjoining pieces 
 iiite into a solid mass. Burns readily with lively yellow flame, 
 bt re([uir( s frequent stirring to prevent its agglutinating, and so 
 logging tile lire. Non-caking coal resembles the caking in 
 Itptarance, but does not soften and cake. 
 
 ('ANM>;r, Coal — Verycomi>act and even in texture. L^weak. 
 [liicture large conehoidal. 'Jakes lire readily, and burns without 
 leUiiit,' with a yellow Hame. Volatile hydrocarbon conipounds 
 Iveii out when heated amount to 40 to 50%, and eveti (io ; and 
 Eiice valued for the manufacture of gas as well as for uiel ; also 
 feltl inucli mineral oil. 
 
 Brown Coal, Lkj.mte.— Color black to brownish black; of 
 )W(lor, brown. (Contains oxygen 15 to 2l)%, and often 8 to 10 
 
 nl^i^sture; Hxed carbon mostly 52 to 05. Gives a brownish 
 
 brownish red color to a solution of potash. Usually non- 
 piig. The kinds having more or less of the structuie of wood 
 recalled I'lijuite ; and in these kin«ls the oxygen present may be 
 P to over 30%, and the moisture 15 to 20. Between the brown 
 pis and bituminous there is a gradual passage in constitution 
 Mm color of powder. Occurs in Canadian North- West, 
 htish (.'olumbia, and James' Hay region. 
 
 pEr resembles cannel coal but is harder ; deeper black and 
 Iglier uistre ; takes brilliant polish, and is used in jewellery. 
 
PROSPECTING. 
 
 General Principles. 
 
 The search for minerals is attended by many difficulties ; tt 
 outcrops are frequently covered with soil, and the appearance^ 
 the ore is comi)letely changed at the surface. General rules fi 
 guidance may be given as follows : 
 
 1. Ihe prospector should look for natural rock exposure 
 occurring in clifis, gorges, etc., and be guided by stains, if aiii 
 on the rocks. Iron sulphides are about the commonest miiiera: 
 in nearly all ore deposits, and when oxidized by exposure to tl 
 weather, the stains imparted to the surface will be yellow , 
 brown. Copper, in like manner, gives blue and green surfii 
 stains, antl in some regions, like the >locan, such green and b' 
 discoh)rations are an indication, usually, of high values in silv 
 
 2. Watch for natural raised ledges and sags. Often the vti 
 matter is harder than the enclosing rock and resists weather; 
 better, so that it projects above the country. Or, if the vei 
 matter is softer, a more or less delined trough results. 
 
 3. In a region where soil covers the rock, the prospector ma 
 come upon large boulders [Jioat) of vein matter containing miiierii 
 This must have come down-hill, and the parent ' ^dge is toi 
 sought in the direction of the drainage. Good judgnK.nt 
 needed. Examine matter composing river-beds for traces 
 heavy ore of metals. If the float be pebbly or rounded it is 
 sign that it has travelled far ; if the edges are angular, the ledj: 
 is not very distant. Where the clue has been traced, for instaiu 
 part way up a steep incline, the prospector may arrive at a poii 
 where no float is to be seen, for it naturally congregated at tl; 
 bottom ; then the ledge is close at hand above, in the foni 
 maybe, of huge crags of quartz. Often from the point of quittic 
 the float a trench, dug to bed rock, exposes the vein, 
 
 4. Where grade permits, dams are sometimes built to lio: 
 back a stream, and when suddenly broken, the rushing watt 
 strips the rock of overlying soil anct allows mineral to be lookt 
 for with comparative ease. This is called hooniUKj. 
 
 5. 'J'imber of better gr ule than the general run of a particiils 
 area frecpiently is evidence of iron oie ; and, in Ontario at leasi 
 springs of superior <piality are apt to exist where extensive iro 
 deposits underlie. Magnetic iron ore is sometimes discoveredl 
 the waveiing or variation of a compass or dip-nejdle. Wheutt 
 needle's agitation continues over any extended number of feti 
 
 66 
 
Prospecting. 67 
 
 General Principles. 
 
 the deposit is of soiiie extent, and, if nnexposed, can not be far 
 below. Iron springs often aceom])any coal outcrops. 
 
 0. The contact of two different formations ought to be carefully 
 !xaniiiie<l on both sides. Pay heed to sudden changes in the 
 triki! (f the ridge followed, likewise faults or other variations 
 loni the ordinary, and where eruptive dykes interrupt the 
 oniiation. 
 
 If a prospector has some acquaintance with geology he is the 
 )ettei' c(piipi)ed, and the more he knows of mineralogy the better 
 use he makes of his time. Tables, elscvhere, give a rough and 
 iiiiipU; means of identifying some common Canadian minerals, 
 uul the chapter on blowpipe work can be understood by anyone 
 f average intelligence. 
 
 The surface of a vein bears little resemblance to the matter 
 )elo\v. Oxides change with depth to sulphides, as oxide of iron 
 
 pyrites. A vein consisting largely of jjyritesand quartz, there- 
 oie, oil the surface beconies a cindery mixture of quartz and 
 iiipure iron oxide, known as (/ossdn or iron-cap ; so that this cap- 
 iiig often affords important evidence of what the vein matter will 
 )e l)elow where unaltered. Example: limonite, being mostly 
 lerived from iron pyrites, when occurring on the surface witii 
 )lue atid green stains due to azurite and malachite, gives evidence 
 if iron and copper sulphides. 
 
 Masses < f highly oxidized matter {hlow-oufs) are common in 
 ;aleiia regtms. A peculiar purple tarnish very often is seen in 
 ich g'alena. 
 
 Examine for silver all suli)hide veins of copjjer, antinu>ny, zinc 
 ir lead. When once found it is necessary to determine the value 
 if the deposit. If the mineral occurs in a mass, as in beds, 
 )oriiig may be resorted to. Veins are rather more freaky and 
 •ecjuire careful exantination. Those with sharp well-defined walls 
 re l)est, as they offer some evidence of continuity below .surface. 
 
 Oold often occurs in pyrites and in veins of crystalline (piartz. 
 iVheii the quartz reseml)les coaz-.sr-grained white sugar, or is rust- 
 itaiiied and filled with small angular cells having iron rust in 
 iliein, it is a good sign, particularly when the quartz streaks are 
 aii(h\ iched between layers of yellow and brown iron oxides, with 
 
 1 surface strewing of brown, spongy gossan. The veins length 
 long the top, as far as traceable, should be measured, as well as 
 leadt.h at many different points, the distance between all these 
 
 )oiiits heing entered in a book, 
 
 Pitsor tienchis, sunk at right angles to the direction of the 
 I'eni, are needful to determine the general •strike (direction) and 
 iip (its angle with horizon) with enough accuracy to furnish an 
 'lea of the future workings. Note any difference in the opposite 
 "alls of the vein and where occurring. Often a result of that 
 
gg Prospecting, 
 
 Uaieral Principles. 
 
 oxidation of the ore, before alluded to, is to rot and soften it 
 that the adjoining rock mass crushes inwards, leaving an outward 
 show of merely a small streak ; or the outcrop may fold back (tail. 
 out) and give false idea of thickness. If the rock be rich, the 
 more thorough this part of examination is, the better in the end, 
 
 Sampling. 
 A vein may \ie 30 or 40 ft. thick, but the poverty of the ore sucli 
 
 that it is not worth working ; or its richness may make a vein 
 
 of but few inches repay mining. Disaster ensues, commoiil}- 
 1 from testing at one point only ; better many small, than one big 
 
 sample. 'J his is particularly true when precious metal oco'iis 
 ^ . nuggety. Having selected the lichest looking [)ortion of a wide 
 
 vei^ij, at every '){) or 100 feet, shallow cuts or pits should be nuule 
 
 ^ -^ across the vein ; or, if it is a narrow one, a comnion practice is to 
 
 ^^v_j^iHj«iCetr1S4^rei\ch along the exposure. In both cases, at nie<u 
 
 ured, points oii,t)ie vein, and chosen with a view of correct avei- 
 
 ages,ltpie-ia'niples at intervals across it, number them, and record 
 
 the breadth of the vein in each case. 
 
 Panning. 
 
 If gold is searcheil for, remember that nearly always a pocket- 
 lens fails to show the metal owing to its hneness, and panniuiris 
 necessary. A pan is a round shallow dish, shaped after the frying 
 
 (Jold Pan. 
 
 pan (which will answer if wholly free from grease), about loin 
 wide, :> in. deep, with sloping sides. The ore is ground to powtlei 
 tine enough to pass the sieve, by means of an iron mortar and pestle 
 which foV prospecting need not weigh over ten iK)un<is Tli 
 process gives lower results than a careful tire assay but show 
 closely what a mill would save. From the samples biokeii 
 from one of tne transverse cuts, select a few which seem to giv« 
 a fair average, and powder them. Make it a rule always to pai 
 the same quantity, 8 oz. being a convenient weight. By noticin« 
 the colors of gold obtained in a pan from a never- varied weiglil 
 of ore, a prospector acquires an accurate idea of the yield ]if 
 ton, after his judgment of the colors is corrected a few times b; 
 the assay er's figures. 
 
 If too much has ])een powdered, thoroughly mix the whol 
 before weighing out the half-pound required. For the latter aw 
 
 
PUOSI'KCTING. 69 
 
 Panning. 
 
 other purposes it is handy to know that some necessary part of 
 the kit weighs an even pound — a tin of condensed milk, for 
 
 instance. 
 
 Panning is best done at the edge of a still pool or stream. 
 The powdered ore is placed in the pan, which is then filled with 
 water. The ore is stirred round with the hand (which must be 
 ree from grease) and the muddy water poured off carefully ; this 
 is repeated until the water remains fairly ck^an. The pan is then 
 tilted so as to bring all the remaining sand with the heavy miner- 
 als, gold and particles of iron ground off the mortar, to one side ; 
 )y shaking the pan in this position the heavy particles settle 
 ;o the l)()ttom. Part of the top sand is then washed away, the 
 remaining ore is settled by shaking as before and the top sand 
 oshed oflF again. Kinally, there is nothing left but ine iron, 
 leavy minerals, gold, and a very small quantity of sand. By 
 low using just enough water to cover this residue, a? it lies in the 
 ingle of the tilted pan, and by washing it carefully round in this 
 uigle with a vibrating motion, the gold will collect at the upper 
 md in a little "tail" (or elongated patch of colors), or a few 
 jrains, according to the richness of the ore. If doubt is felt as to 
 diether the grains are gold, they may be tested by the point of a 
 mife to determine if they are malleable, as they should be. The 
 inal stages of panning require great skill in manipulation, which 
 !an only be acquired by practice. 
 
 Bough Method of Assay for Free-Milling Gnld Ores. — After 
 )anning down exactly 8 ounces of rock, as previously described, 
 here will be left in the pan the gold and concentrates (which 
 hould not exceed a thimbleful, except in a very heavily mineral- 
 zed ore). By collecting this to one spot in the angle of the pan 
 uid pouring off all the water, the lesidue may be made into a 
 )aste with assay litharge, sodium bicarbonate, and a little borax. 
 This is then carefully transferred to a hole cut in a piece of char- 
 ioal. and fused until nothing remains but slag and a button of lead. 
 f the paste is too ))ulky for one test, it may be divided and 
 reated in two or three operations, and the resulting buttons fused 
 nto one. This button of lead will contain all the gold, and is 
 Hen treated on a cupel as described elsewhere. The lead is 
 volatilized and absorbed, leaving a bead of gohl containing what- 
 iver silver may be present. If the bead is very yellow, it is 
 
 robal)ly all gold, if pale yellow it contains some silver : a bead 
 iontainiug half gold and half silver is almost silver-white. For 
 'eighiiig this bead a balance, sensitive to ^^L- grain, can be ob- 
 tained, cost $4 to $5. One grain of gold is worth 4.166 cents, or 
 'lie ounce worth $20.00. The following table gives the value per 
 on when 8 oz., and 1 lb. are taken, respectively. 
 
70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Prospecting, 
 
 Pannintj. 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 OZ. OK PULl 
 
 Taken. 
 
 1 
 
 Lb. ok Pulp Taken. 
 
 
 Ton of 2000 Lbs. 
 
 Value • 
 Per Ton. 
 
 Ton of 2000 Lbs. 
 
 Valuo 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Oz. 
 
 Dwt. 
 16 
 
 Grs. 
 16 
 
 Oz. 
 
 Dwt. 
 
 Grs. 
 
 Per Ton. 
 
 A 
 
 
 !3!16.G6 
 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 !i?8.;{3 
 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 33.33 
 
 
 IC 
 
 16 
 
 16.(16 
 
 v. 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 50.00 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 25.00 
 
 A 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 66.66 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 33. :5;] 
 
 • I'^o 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 83.33 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 41.66 
 
 A 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 50.(10 
 
 I'a 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 116.66 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 58.;]3 
 
 i^« 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 133.33 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 66.(16 
 
 I'^O 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 150.00 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 75.00 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 166.66 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 83.33 
 
 This table is based on the va-lue of pure gold, therefore if tlie 
 bead contains silver the value of the ore is proportionately 
 reduced ; thus if the bead weighed y*^ grain, and contained liali 
 gold and half silver, since silver is worth about 06 cents per oz., 
 the value per ton would be only $8. 60. 
 
 • With a little ingenuity a torsion balance ma}'^ be made to 
 measure y^^ grain. A tine platinum wire about 2 ft. long is 
 stretched between staples. One end of a very thin sliver of wood, 
 or a straw (used as a lever), is attached to the centre of the 
 wire by a small clip. When the balance is at rest the outer end 
 should be slightly elevated above the horizontal. Beside the 
 point of the lever is yjlaced an upright, and the position of the 
 lever point marked thereon. A jV gi'JJ'i" weight is now put in 
 the weighing cavity near the point of the lever and the secoiui 
 position marked : by dividi ig this space into 10 equal parts, 
 beads from ^^^ to yV grain may be weiglied. By using longer 
 and finer wire, and by regulating the tension carefully, the 
 balance can be made sensitive to weights of less than j^^ giaiii. 
 With this balance, values of $1.00 or even 80c. per ton maybe 
 detected. 
 
 Parting. — If it is thought necessary to determine the propor 
 tionate values of gold and silver in the beads obtained from th' 
 
 I 
 
PUOSPKCTING. 
 
 71 
 
 )■ 
 
 ;ests, this may be done as follows : take two or three of the 
 eads, note their total weight, then fuse them together with 
 bout twice their weight of pure silver and some test lead, into a 
 imtton. Cupel this and dissolv^e the bead in nitric acid in a small 
 )orcelain cup, the gold will be left as a dark brown powder which 
 iaii l)t' weighed (after washing and drying) by carefully brushing 
 t into the weigliing pan with a camel's hair brush. The result 
 ,vill l)e the weight of pure gold in the original beads taken. 
 rims, if original beads weighed 0,7 gr., and resulting gold 0.6 gr., 
 ihen 1 oz. bullion = f gold + | silver, = $17.15 gold + |0.10 
 iih'er = $17.25 per oz. bullion. 
 
 Peospecting Mill. 
 
 Dolh/bif/. — If the prospector desires to test the surface value of 
 lis property more carefully, it may be done by constructing a 
 )r()Specting stamp mill as shown in the cut. 
 
 *•§&''' 
 
 
 Prospecting Stamp Mill. 
 
 It will be seen that in principle tha contrivance is a large 
 nortar, with a heavy pestle which is balanced on a spring pole. 
 he "Dolly" is a round stick of timber fitted with a shoe, the 
 atter made of a piece of wrought iron boiler plate bent round its 
 ower end, and spiked. The mortar may be constructed of a 
 leavy lo^ or a suitable stump. The iron })ars upon which the ore 
 s crushed should be 18 in. hmg, about ^ in. x 3 in. section, and 
 aid oil edge close together. Water is fed continuously. When 
 he ore is crushed line enough it is washed through, helped by the 
 arring, and flows through a riffled sluice, or over a blanket or 
 malg;unate<l copper plate (see stamp mill). If a blanket is used 
 he gold a!i<1 heavy /ninerals become entangled, tailings being 
 vashe<l away. At intervals the blanket is removed and shaken 
 
72 
 
 Prospecting, 
 
 Prospecthnj Mill. 
 
 in a tub of water, the gold in the tub being collected with iiier 
 cury, while the concentrates may be saved for assay. 
 
 Should favourable results induce the prospector to fuitlier 
 examination, he may sink a shallow shaft where the best ore \\ 
 found on the line of outcrop by panning Sample all the waj 
 and expose both sides of the vein, if possible, to be certain tliat, 
 to that depth at least it does not pinch out or otherwise var), 
 Having staked his claim, and noted the general features of tlie 
 locality, the prospector is then in tlie best position, if his lindis 
 worth anything, of interesting people with capital, provided he 
 does not wish, or lacks means, to develop the property himself. 
 
 Alluvial Prospecting. 
 
 Prospecting for river or alluvial gold is done by panninj,' tlie 
 san<l, from which the ])ebbles must first be removed. The saiuls 
 unilerlying the gravel beds of streams are those to search, alsi 
 crevices of the rock bottoms, because gold, like the valuable 
 platinum which often occurs with it, is one of the heaviest nietah 
 and sinks as low as possible. The bottom of a rapid is a likeh 
 spot, and bends of rivers where the speed of the current is 
 checked, and eddies occur. Panning gives a product of black 
 sand, usually magnetite, with whatever gold may occur. T" 
 results of several pannings are mixed thorcmghly with mercun 
 and squeezed in a buckskin bag, saving the quicksilver as i; 
 comes through. It can be used over and over again by cleaning 
 with nitric acid one part, and water tvo to three parts. Tli 
 mixture left in the bag is then highly heated on a shovel or pan 
 and the gold, if present, is easy to detect. When a rich bar is 
 struck the gold may be won by any of the placer methods : bv 
 pan, by cradle (a small trough on rockers), etc. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 I 
 
 'p' 
 
 
 /^ocAc^r 
 
 /foc/rcy 
 
 Rocker or Cradle. 
 
Prospecting. 
 
 73 
 
 < ( 
 
 (( 
 
 (( 
 
 (( 
 
 Prospector's Equipment. 
 
 1, Long handled prospecting pick 4 lbs 
 
 2. jVl ortar and pestle 10 
 
 ;^. Sieve of 40 mesh \ ^ 
 
 4. (iold pan f 
 
 5. Magnifying glass \ 
 
 6. Magnet f ^ 
 
 7. Canvas sample bags 8" x 14" (^ doz.) i 
 
 8. (Joinpass ) 
 
 9. Tent, small 10 
 
 10. Cooking utensils (frying pan, two tin pails, one) ^ << 
 
 tittnig in the other, tin plates, cups, etc. ) J 
 
 30 lbs. 
 Food Supplies. 
 
 1. Flour per man per week 5 lbs. 
 
 2. Bacon or pork •* " 5 " 
 
 3. Beans " " 2 " 
 
 4. Oatmeal and rice " " 2 
 
 5. Sugar " " 2 
 
 6. Tea and coflfee ** " h 
 
 n 
 (t 
 
 (( 
 
 7. Baking powder, salt, pepper^, etc . . " ** k 
 
 Total per man per week, say 17 lbs. 
 
 The above list of food supplies includes only necessities, and 
 can be varied or added to accoidin'j to individual tastes. 
 
 If tlie jjr'^suector has acquired sufficient knowledge and skill to 
 enjil)le him to use the blowpipe he will often find such an outfit 
 as that described in the mineralogy a very useful addition to his 
 equipment. 
 
 When ]>rospecting is to be done in mountainous regions, as in 
 British Cohinibia, it is an object to make the "jjack " as light as 
 possible, and only absolute necessities can l^e taken. The 
 explorer usually carries his pack on his back, though if he can 
 afford it, it is better to take a cayuse or a pack mule to carry his 
 supplits. A man can pack on an average about 60 lbs. It is pos- 
 sible for two men to carry sufficient to stay out three weeks. A 
 pack mule will take 2.')0 to .300 lbs. and can be obtained in British 
 ColiimUia for about .$20. Prospecting in Western Ontario is, as a 
 rule, a much simjder matter. One can go almos": anywhere in a 
 canoe, with occasional portages. 'I he surface, too, is usually freer 
 from earth, gravel, etc., than in British Columbia, and the woods 
 are also less dense. In a canoe two men can take more than 
 twice the quantity of supplies that they could were they obliged 
 to carry it on their backs. 
 
74 PU0SPECTJ> 
 
 N(; 
 
 Form to be F'illkd Out in Dkschibin'o a Pkospect, 
 
 Date 
 
 Nature of the property 
 
 Area of the property 
 
 Location of the property . 
 
 Application made by 
 
 Survey made by 
 
 Names and addresses of present owners 
 
 Nearest P.O 
 
 Keferences 
 
 How the pro2)erty can be reached 
 
 What development is done 
 
 Approximate height of outcrop above nearest water , 
 
 What advantages does the neighborhood offer for a mill-site. . ., 
 
 Facilities for shipping ore 
 
 What are the water rights and power, and distance from the 
 
 property 
 
 Nature of country rock 
 
 Length of outcrop traceable , 
 
 Strike of vein 
 
 Width of vein at different points 
 
 Width of pay streak 
 
 Dip of vein 
 
 Character of the walls 
 
 Character of ore (free milling, refractory or concentrating, etc. 
 
 Result of assays, and by whom made 
 
 By whom, and how samples were made ... 
 
 Alluvial properties : 
 
 Character of deposit 
 
 Value per cub. yd 
 
 Depth to bedrock 
 
 Facilities for dumping 
 
 No. of working months per year . . . ; from to. 
 
 Water sup[)ly for hydraulicking, etc , 
 
 Approximate quantity and head obtainable 
 
 Is tlie property dry or wet , 
 
 What fuel obtainable 
 
 What timber or lumber ; at what distance 
 
 General remarks 
 
MINING. 
 
 General. 
 
 The cost of operation varies with coiulitions, and demands 
 areful considei'ation. A given deposit may he vahieless he- 
 laiise its depth heh)W the surface makes it too costly to 
 nine iind hoist ; and ch)se estimates are desirahle down to the 
 mallest and every detail. Figures, of necessity, can he but aver- 
 
 7^/.£yS^ 
 
 VJIQ 
 
 e^/.£y££. t 
 
 9ZS 
 
 Silver Islet Mine — (part of the workings). 
 Note : — Portion in black shows ore-body sloped. 
 
 ages owing to never-ending variations, like the hardness and for- 
 mation of rock, in stating cost, etc, of blasting ; but the follow- 
 ing (lata, necessarily incomplete, gives a fair insight into mining 
 
 practice. 
 
 . 76 
 
t'f 
 
 la 
 
 70 Minim, 
 
 Oeneral. 
 
 iJxcept in rare cases (l)y (liamond-drill trials, for insitancc) tl^ 
 (li8C(>very of hods and veins depends on clieir exposure at the sm 
 face. Tlie position, angle, etc., of the exposure (outcrop) uitt 
 respect to tlie ground in the vicinity having heen noted— ,itt 
 stripping of surface soil where necessary- some idea is gained ,is t 
 the "lay " of the ore body l)eneath. Development work, witl 
 view of detcrniinittg extent and value, is the next step, and ouijlit 
 to be carried on that it may serve some useful purpose in the fiit 
 ure working of the mine, should it become one. A hillside out 
 crop, for instance, may suggest eitlier a tunnel or a shaft eiitrv 
 for development, whereas one mii,'ht be better suited than the 
 other for a mine in operation. A v ein out of the vertical i)rest'iit< 
 the (juestion of the shaft's location ; whether on it, or to one side. 
 so as to intersect it at certain depth. Such i)roblems occur in ni;iiiy 
 varieties. l)ut this may be said in a general way : the entry to a 
 mine, whether shaft, slope, -tunnel or adit, should be centr.illv 
 located near the rich ore body and so as to aid drainage and uinler- 
 ground hauling. Tlie cases are few where sinking On the vein 
 should not be adopted until examination of the ore along tlie 
 slope (or incline) reveals its worth. By so doing you *' pay^oiir 
 way." After a freaky vein has been followed, the slope may 
 prove too twisted for use as a hoist-way, and the owners then 
 may either abandon it for a new and better-ciiosen entry, or 
 devote it to exploratory work. 
 
 Once the ore body is reached, levels are run (drifted) right ami 
 left, graded towards the outlet. Tiiese should be every 111) tn 
 100 feet, vertically in veins. They cut the mine into lioriznntil 
 layers (lifts or stopes) which are increased in numl)er and lessciitd 
 in height, the larger the ])roposed output is. In other words, an 
 increased num})er of levels means increase in s[)ace open for hlast' 
 ing. Miners work in two shifts of 10 hours eacli, excei)t m here 
 haste is desirable, as in shaft-sinking. Ordinarily, the cost ot 
 stoping is iVtli that of drifting, and V.^th of sinking, and ,',Mi di 
 upraises. 
 
 The general uses of shafts, drifts, etc., as above, in getting ore 
 to the surface, is best indicated by describing shortly the process 
 of mining ut an ore body. For example, take a vein— vertical, 
 or nearly so— situated so that the mine cannot be opened l»y a 
 tunnel, but requires a shaft as means of entry. This shaft is first 
 sunk, and, as already described, along tlie vein levels arc driven 
 from it every 60 to 100 feet, vertically, as desired. The vein 
 matter left between these levels cojistitutes the stoping groiiiid 
 Suppose overhand stoping is to be employed. At a suitable dis- 
 tance from the shaft along one of these 'levels, in which a tram- 
 way exists, an ui)raise is begun through the ore body and carried 
 to the next level above. 
 
illNlN^!. 
 
 77 
 
 II 
 
 Slojiii'il. -The i)n)c«;H8 of stojjini^ now begins at tliu point where 
 ho winze meets tlie h)wer level. Tlu; ore constituting tlie roof 
 t' tin- lt;vel at thin point is broken «lown, loaded on the tram-ear, 
 un to tiie shaft, and hoisted to the surfaee. Platforms are 
 rooted so that tlie now heiglitened roof can he reached, and more 
 ..ati'iial is Idown down and removed. Eventu dly the level is 
 oofetl in and, if needs be, platforms erected above it so that the 
 oof (»t" the stope is easily reached. This process continues till 
 he whole of tlie ore body has been worked out, an artiticial Hoor 
 )t'iii<.^ Idiilt for the upi>er levtd as the stoping [irocess removes 
 ho (»iij,'inal one. Hy means of a box, or chute, built in the winze 
 »r;itaiiy convenient point, ore from the stope may be readily 
 It'livt ml to the level below, where a sli.ling gate prevents it from 
 nteriiig the level, except when loading cars. 
 
 If uiitlerhand stoping is to be i-mployed tlie process is begun at 
 ho junction of tlie winze and the up])er level. Stoping may be 
 L;inii"l on from both sides of a winze. It will readily be seen 
 tliut tli(! rate at which ore can be got from the mine depends 
 ipoii tlie number of stopes working, which in turn depend upon 
 tho miiiibcr of winzes connecting the levels, and the distance 
 ijcut (»f the levels themselves. 
 
 Kdiiiiind B. Kirl)y, M.K., Colorado, gives the following yields 
 iiul costs of stoping per ton of ore broken, l>eing approximately 
 correct for Canada : 
 
 Thlrkiii'XK ofpnjf streak calculated Tom per 8(j. fathom Cott per 
 
 fur ore icheii 1.1 c, ft ~1 ton. of ore sheet. ton. 
 
 A streak 4 in. wide yields 0.<)'2 $17 38 
 
 G " " 1.38 11 55 
 
 8 " *• 1.85 8 G7 
 
 10 '« '' 2.31 6 93 
 
 '• 1L> " " 2.77 5 78 
 
 " 14 " " 3.23 4 95 
 
 These costs are calculated, assuming wages of miners at $3.50 
 for 10 hours, timbermen $3.50 for 10 liours, foremen $-1 to $5 per 
 (lay, l.lacksmilhs .$3.50 to $4, trammers ami suifacemen $2.50. 
 
 Shtii'f.s. — The size of these should increase proporti mately with 
 depth and intended output, and additional space provided for 
 ventilation at the rate of 1 sq. ft. to 8 men. In soft ore the 
 shaft should reach from wall to wall, and in hard rock veins is 
 preferable on the footwall side for safety. Small shafts, say 5 by 
 7 ft., are sunk cheaper by hand than by power drills, and nearly 
 as (piickly, and cost $15 to .$25 a running ft. for the first 100 ft. 
 Only two miners can work on 20 sq. ft. area. In an 1 1 by 10 ft. 
 shaft, 2 machine drills can work conveniently, and in ordinary 
 rock sink from 3 Ct. to 5 ft. per day. Sinking costs from $5 
 
 ^ i 
 a 
 
•^^ Mining 
 
 General. 
 
 to $18 per cubic yd., but below 100 ft. the cost increases eact 
 100 feet as tlie square root of tlie deptli. Rapid progress i* 
 made for 10 or 15 ft., the rock being shovelled up from pLitfom 
 to platform: below that, down to 1(,0 ft., it may be hoistedby 
 windlass, beyond which machine hoisting must be resorted to, 
 Unless the country rock be very iirm the shaft has to l)e tiiii. 
 bered, and pumping is compulsory if water collects. It there 
 exists any doubt as to whether timbering will be needed, trim up 
 the shaft as you go. 
 
 Ih\ft8, Tunnels, AditH.—Tlm larger these are, the greatei' need 
 for timbering. The average drift is 4^ by (5 ft. and offers gm\ 
 space for 1 drill, while in a 10 ft. width 2 may work. In hani 
 rock 1 ft. per shift is fair work, in soft 3 ft. or more. Hnuliug 
 through a tunnel is about twice as fast as sh ift-hoistiiiij! 
 Tunnels over 8 ft. iiigh are driven in benches. In the west, tlk 
 cost of driving varies from $3 to J^9 per running foot in stratilieJ 
 rocks, and from $7 to ^\0 in granite. 
 
 Methods of Mining. 
 
 Ore deposits may be thick or thin ; and ocaur at any angle \v>li 
 the horizon. The mode of actual mining for different cases is 
 shown by the following table. 
 
 '' rLong:-\vall Friable or soft roof 
 
 Under 6 ft. thick \ Pillar and stall. 
 
 Dip less than 4,5° -i 
 
 :-; Pillar and stall ) „. 
 
 iFlatstopes | Firm ore. 
 
 Panel Gaseous coals, 
 
 /"Gallery and pillar Hani ore. 
 
 I Method of cavintf ^ ,.. ,,. 
 
 Over ft. thick-,' Method of fillinir.... P»eldinjr 
 
 Square setts. . . j vem-mattor. 
 
 V (.Square work Medium-firin ore. 
 
 (Under 8 ft. thick i ^/e»-haud stopinj? . . . .Firm vein-nuitier, 
 T^- ,. „ I t Underhand stopiiiL^ . . \ j, . , , 
 
 Dip exceeding 45°^ r Traverse with fillinii,^ . / Friable ore. 
 
 Over 8 ft. thick { Traverse with cavinjc » o .. 
 I I Traverse with sq. sett / ^^^^ °^'^- 
 
 From 30 to 60 ft. of unworked rock should surround shafts 
 haulage ways in beds, by pillars GO ft. wide on either side, 
 stopes by arches of 10 to 20 ft. thick. In beds the unworked 
 matter for supjjort iier,:ly equnU that mined in the rooms. 
 
 Louij U'«//.— In coal mines two or more parallel haulways, '20 
 ft. apart, are driven, one from each entry. Tramroads are then 
 driven to the rise of the seam, and from each road the face of ore 
 IS undermined, and cut vertically to right and left so that its 
 weight tumbles the overhanging portion ; or, otherwise, makes 
 its removal easy by blasting. The refuse is thrown behind the 
 
Mining. 79 
 
 Methods of Mining. 
 
 men. For ten feet in front of the working face the roof is kept 
 well supported, and, to prevent the waste obstructing the ore 
 cars, the tramway needs protection with pack walls and roof 
 timl)ers. Long wall methods thus effect removal of the ore with- 
 out leaving portions for support. 
 
 Pil/ar and Stall is the most common metiiod for flat beds of 
 any mineral. At right angles to the gangways and every 20 or 
 3()'tt. along it, passages (from 6 to 8 ft. wide) are driven towards 
 the rise of the bed. At a safe distance from the gangway, to 
 le.avc stump pillars, the ore between every alternate pair of i)ass- 
 agcs is rapidly mined, forming rooms 20 or 3(1 ft. wide and from 
 8 to 10 times their width in length, progress l)eing backward up 
 the slope. A chain pill .r of solid ore 20 to 30 ft. wide is thus 
 left l)et ween each room, clear to the upper level, for support. 
 Every square foot of roof area receives a pressure of 8 tons per 
 100 ft. of overlying strata, and the relative width of pillar and 
 stall varies with different ores. When the rooms reach the far 
 edge of deposit, the pillars are robbed, retreating, sometimes by 
 long wall. 
 
 P<tn<d Si/ stem.— From gangway to the upper level, roadways 
 are run at suitable distances apart, and from it roads and 
 breasts are driven horizontally. When the Ijreasts are mined 
 and the roof settled, the heavy barrier pillars which separate the 
 panels, are rapidly robbed, as well as tne stump pillars. 
 
 S(iintre Work. — From the gangway, rooms 150 ft. square are 
 opened, with 30 ft. thick pillars between. The rooms are divided 
 by two sets of cross galleries, 20 ft. wide, which leave 9 pillars 
 about 25 ft. square for supporting; roof. 
 
 (Jallery and Pil/ar' is a wasteful system by which the mining is 
 (lont; by driving numerous galleries, as wide as the roof allows. 
 The ore between is not recovered. Large irregular deposits are 
 so treated. 
 
 Square Sdt.— The deposit is alternately divided into rooms and 
 pillars, both 20 to 30 ft. wide. 'J'he room is worked iii^ 7 ft. 
 breasts, and when each breast is blown out to depth of 7 ft. a 
 square sett of timbers is built to the roof, replacing the ore. Flach 
 sett is framed to its neighbor, and the. mining proceeds by slices 
 each 7 ft. high. Little of the timbering is recovered. The setts 
 are strong, easily erected, and admirably adapteil to all thick- 
 nesses of ore deposits or variations in hanging or foot walls. 
 
 (Jaarri/uKj is adopted for slate, building stone, iron, lead and 
 ziue ores, peat coal and graphite. Larger masses may be taken 
 out whole and from many points at once. All deposits near the 
 surface can l)e thus worked, but at a certain point the retaining 
 of the sides of the pit becomes too expensive. Drainage is, also, 
 a factor to be dealt with. 
 
a 
 
 ^^ Mining, 
 
 Drills. 
 
 Hand (hills include the churuer and the ordinary drill, ami 
 both may he made by any blacksmith. The churn drill ki 
 heavy iron bar pointed with steel at each end ; it is lifted, 
 dropped, and thus churns down a hole. A convex cutting hitii 
 the most generally satisfactory, and when one end of the drill 
 dulls, it is reversed, this second bit being a trifle smaller to pre- 
 vent sticking. The ordinary drill is simply a bar of steel, ciiciilai 
 or octagonal, sharpened at one end only and the other S(iuareil 
 for the hannner. After each blow it is turned in the hole, 
 Water is poured in to preserve the temper of the steel and to 
 "mud " the powdered rock, which is scrapetl out frequently. If 
 a single man works the drill the size is from f^ to 1 in. ; if one 
 strikes while another holds and turns, I to U in. ; if two stiike, 
 as large as 2 in. ; but holes over 1^ are exceptional. The hole is 
 beguji with a "starter" or short drill ; longer ones are used as 
 depth is gained. Each drill has a somewhat smaller bit than 
 the previous one, so that a tapering hole is produced, the final 
 diameter being about | in. greater than that of the cartridge, 
 'J'he bit is larger than the rest of the ])ar to prevent sticking, 
 Hard, brittle rock is best broken by long, nan-ow holes ; tough 
 or tissured material by short, wide ones. About 80 inches uf 
 holes per shift is the average in medium rock, single hand. The 
 hammer is of 4 or 5 Ihs., with short oval handle. Experience 
 alons teaches the least amount of drilling necessary for taking 
 out a given quantity of rock, and the proper angle for the hnlJ. 
 '\ he consumption of steel in medium ground is about 2.") cents per 
 cubic yard removed. In soft schists and sandstones single hand 
 drilling is from 20 to 30 per cent, cheaper than two hand diill 
 ing, anil in hard rock more rapid progress can be made. In most 
 cases, except for shaft sinking, ib is better than two hand (hill- 
 ing. Drill steel costs about 10 cents per lb. 
 
 Explosives ^vnd Blasting. 
 
 Common bliek powder and dynamite are favourite mining ex- 
 plosives. The dangers attending the use of nitroglvcerine kd 
 to experiments on some sjifer form of the powerful explosive, and 
 dynamite was brought out^ which carrits the nitro "in some ab- 
 sorbent such as wood pulp, infusorial earth, etc. It is made in 
 many grades. 
 
 The explosive should not fill over one-third of the hole, the 
 balance being filled with clay or other tamping and the tanii)ing 
 never placed except with a wooden bar. One foot of a one-inch 
 hole can hold 5 oz. of powder. Black pf)wder is use<l in heavy ^oil- 
 ena ores, in serpentine and similar rock, or wherever the qiiiclcer 
 shattering powders wouhl pulverize the ore too much ; tiie 
 
^IlNIN(J. 81 
 
 ^.cpJo^^'nrs and Blasting. 
 
 ii(rhest tirade of dynamite, No. 1, has 6 times the explosive force 
 )n)l;ick ])0W(ler. Detonators (caps) are generally nsed for firing, 
 iiul to tliem are attached fuses, or wires from a battery. The 
 ihooting is usually done at the end of the shift, so as to give the 
 nine tiiiie to clear itself of smoke. Sandstone and limestone are 
 )est s}>lit by weak powder, as a strong one may pulverize a large 
 jortion of it without breaking stone. Trap, granite and syenite 
 ire linn and brittle — hard drilling but easy shooting ; quartz is 
 lanl for both ; dolomite, amygdaloid, limestone and por[)hyry 
 hill easy but do not b> eak to tlie back of the hole. Every cubic 
 pid ioinove<l consumes $1 worth of powder in medium tough 
 rock. Dynamite freezes at 40° to 44" F., and should only be 
 thawed })y placing it in a pot inserted in a larger pot of boiling 
 water. It is difficult to make miners heed these warnings, and 
 the only proper plan, on all scores, seems to be to make one man, 
 tlie foreman of each shift, personally responsible for tlie dynamite 
 romtlie moment it leaves the store-house until the holes are fired. 
 Powder should be stored in a dry, cool, well-ventilated surface 
 jtore-room. Caps should not be kept with powder. Jars sus- 
 tained in wngons, etc., will not explode even well- thawed powder, 
 ^nd with ordinary care it is handled throughout as safely as black 
 [)ow(ler. Give " misi^ed fires " plenty of time to fire ; after that, 
 carefully extract the tamping and re-load with a big charge. No. 1 
 giant costs about 18 to 22 cts. per lb.. No. 2, $9 per 50 lb. box. 
 
 Diamond Drill. 
 
 «ome favour the diamond drill for exploring ground. Its motion 
 is rotary and, as the bit may be circular and also hollow, a core of 
 the rock may be brought to the surface when desired. From 6 
 ti) 20 rough diamonds (borts) are mounted around the lower face 
 of the bit and, the revolutions being 400 to 800 per minute, 
 progress averages from 1 to 2 ft. per hour, stops inclusive. The 
 bit is coupled to tubing, that being added in 5 to 10 ft. lengths as 
 the liole deepens. The wear of the diamonds costs 21 to 56 cts. 
 per ft. Five men can keep 2 drills working. The only bad 
 feature is that the comparatively small bit may happen to strike 
 a i);irticularly rich portion of the vein, or it may just miss fairly 
 average rock altogether and mislead in either case. In estimating 
 the exact position from which a core was obtained it is necessary 
 to remember that even with expert superintendence the tubing 
 is apt to deflect, perhaps corkscrew, in certain formations 
 even at moderate de})ths. An 8 horse-power engine is suitable 
 for 1,000 ft. holes. Laid down in Canada, a drill (suitable for 
 underground or surface exploitation) capacity 300 ft., core 1 in., 
 costs about $1,500 ; another of 500 ft. capacity, and also with 
 full e(pupment, about $3,000. 
 () 
 
82 
 
 Mining 
 
 """■ "^ )g^/.^^^^^^;%g%^ 
 
 Diamond Drill. 
 
 Machine Drilling. 
 
 Except for development work or where compression plants are 
 too expensive, power drills have superseded hand drills. Pow 
 drills are pistons working in cylinders, mounted on tripod or 
 column, and a bit which is clamped to the end of the piston-rod, 
 The average mining size is the3-ni. piston, 1 to IJ in. steel, feed 
 ing 20 to 24 in., and usually having 8 bits to the set, the longest 
 for a 10-ft. hole. It costs about $300, and weighs, exclusive of 
 tripod or column, 270 lbs. Each bit has a life of about 275 ft, of 
 
Mining. 
 
 83 
 
 Machine Drilling. 
 
 holes, iind ordinarily drill from 1 to 2 feet before needing sharp- 
 ening- In quartz 50 to 60 ft., of holes per day, 90 to ICO in slate, 
 are averages. The cutter is usually of ^-shape, but I, Z or IS are 
 
 Power Drill. 
 
84 
 
 Mining, 
 
 Machine Drilliuf/. 
 
 sometimes used. Holes should be started with short, light strokes, 
 Jiud a requisite of all drills is a caj)a))ility for variable stroki! .ami 
 for muddin^ well. The speed averages 1200 blows per min. A 
 complete plant of 6 drills, as above, with a 16 x '24 compressor, 
 etc., costs $7,000. In running power drills steam or compressed 
 air is used above ground aiul compressed air bfdow, with an aver- 
 age pressure of 50 to 80 lbs. per sq. in. Out of an average cS-hour 
 shift the actual drilling time is about o^ hours ; the shiftiiii,' of 
 tools, etc., takes ^ hour ; Icadin*/, blasting and removing rock 
 about I hour each. In 7 x 7 ft. headings, 2 machines can work. 
 Roughly, 11 horse-power is required to run 1 drill. The limit of 
 steam is reached in a few hundred feet ; compressed air may be 
 carried for miles with practically no loss. 
 
 Mining with Power Drills. 
 
 Blacksmithing. 
 
 The blacksmith is a most necessary accessory to a developing 
 claim or proven mine, and shows his ability when sharpening 
 tools for hard ground. The shop should be Supplied with a 
 full kit of tools, good bellows and tuyeres, Peter's anvil, vise, 
 taps and dies, twist drills, round and square ^ to 1^ in. bar 
 iron, strap and hoop iron, carriage and machine bolts, screws, 
 spikes, nails, a few horse-shoeing tools, benches, etc., all in a 
 space of 14x12 ft. Wrought iron is the most generally useful 
 kind of metal, welding well. A steel is called hardened after it 
 has been forged to a red heat and then plunged into cold water or 
 oil. The quicker the heat is thus abstracted from the tool the 
 
Mining. 85 
 
 Blacks mithuKj. 
 
 harder it will be. Tcmperiim properly is a process following hard- 
 ening, the steel being given a lower re -heat, which softens it and 
 removes the brittleness. The risk is in overheating and burning 
 out the carbon essential to hardness. When the hardened iron 
 is slowly re-heated it passes from light straw through shades of 
 yellow, hrown, purple, blue and red. At the red heat the efifects 
 of the chilling are practically removed. Tempering consists in 
 carrying the re-heat to one of the above colors, according to the 
 amount of brittleness to be annealed, depending on the uso of the 
 tool, in practice this re-heat is carried a little way beyond the 
 desired color, the article is carefully plunged part way into the 
 water, till the disappearance of the steam indicates that it is cold, 
 when another portion of the distance is further immersed for a 
 moment. The article is withdrawn, the scales rubbed oflf, and 
 the heat of the remaining portion d^aws to the edge, until the 
 proper tempering color appears. It is then thoroughly cooled. 
 Wave the tool slightly when in the water to avoid the tendency to 
 fiacture at a certain color-line if held there too long. Experience 
 teaches the proper color for a certain class of rock. Pieces that are 
 to be tempered throughout are uniformly heated before plunging. 
 
 For forging and dressing machine bits a special kit of "dollys" 
 and "swages" are used to give the X-shape to bits ; cost, $20. 
 A good sharpener can dress tools for 8 or 10 gangs (3 men each) 
 ou medium rock, and swage I or X bits for 7 machine drills ; so, 
 for a sina'l mine employing 20 hands in all, one blacksmith is 
 ample. With a striker he can make 12 heavy picks, 20 light 
 ones, or weld 40 pick-stems in a shift. 
 
 Tempering Colors. — Very faint yellow to pale straw. Suitable 
 for hard instruments, as hammer faces, drills, etc. 
 
 Full yellow to brown. For instruments requiring hard edges 
 without elasticity, as shears, scissors, turning tools, etc. 
 
 Brown with purple spots, to purple. For tools for cutting 
 wood and soft metals, as plane-irons, knives, etc. 
 
 Dark blue to full blue. For tools requiring strong edges with- 
 out extreme hardness, as cold chisels, axes, cutlery, etc. 
 
 Grayish blue, verging on black. For spring- temper, which 
 will bend before breaking, as saws, sword blades, etc. 
 
 If the steel be heated higher than this, the effect of hardening 
 process is destroyed. 
 
 Hoisting. 
 For shafts of moderate depth and for winzes a windlass is used, 
 though in an 8-hour shift 2 men cannot raise over 4 tons through 
 ICO feet. 'J'he windlass-barrel is of 6 to 10 in. diain., and long 
 enough to cross the shaft. It is turned by 2 cranks, 15 in. long, 
 set at right angles, and the simpler the mechanism the better. 
 
86 
 
 Mining. 
 
 Hoisting. • 
 
 Properly, when the heiglit is over 60 ft , or output over 5 tons 
 per shift, horses should be used, a horfie being able to raise 
 8 tons 200 feet per day. For greater depths or quantity "2 horses 
 are used. A 28 horse-power engine can do as much work as .SOO 
 men on a windlass, or 85 horses on a whim, and at less cost, 
 Rapid hoisting necessitates good shaft timbering and firm founda- 
 
 Skip-hoist. 
 
 tion for engines, etc. Wire rope is as pliable as hemp, and much 
 stronger for same w^eight and money. A 1 in. wire rope, at 140 
 lbs. to the 100 ft., good for a working load of 9,000 lbs., requires 
 at least a 4 ft. drum ; it takes a 3 in. hemp rope for same strength. 
 Hoist ropes are only good for 18 mos. continuous service, and 
 demand inspection weekly. 
 
^IlNINO. 87 
 
 {lol'itilKj. 
 
 Uucb'tH {kibbles) — from 18 to .S3 in. diam., 30 to 54 in. deep, 
 rtoighiiiir 150 to 900 lbs., and carrying 000 to 3,000 Iba. of ore — 
 \re used in shafts (or slopes, sliding oi\ skids) where the develop- 
 nents are not extensive enough for more elaborate arrangements, 
 md also during sinking. If wire rojje is used a short piece of 
 leavy oliain is placed between the bucket hook and the rope 
 locket. Strong iron boxes {^tkips), weighing JiOO to 1,500 lbs., on 
 "our wheels, are used in slopes. Omjes are simply platform lifts 
 running on wheels if in a slope) on which ore-cars are run and 
 loisted. At the several levels in metalliferous shafts, buckets 
 and on a hinged door. When not used it is hooked up, closing 
 the drift and leaving the hoistway clear. In deep shafts an 
 mlinary rope, owing to its own weight, becomes unsafe for the 
 idded strain of the load, and recourse is had to one that tapers ; 
 )ut in slopes such cannot be used because the lowest and thinnest 
 )ortion gets most wear over the wheels which lead the wire. 
 y'ages are being hoisted in vertical shafts at 2,50 feet per min.; 
 kips at 1,000 ; buckets at not over 300. The diameter of the 
 heave should be 100 (48, at least) times that of the wire rope. 
 The usual number of wires to the strand is 19, twisted about a 
 lemp centre for durability and flexibility. Suitable mechanical 
 ippliances for indicating to the man in charge at the surface the 
 )ositiou of the load in the slope or shaft, and for preventing over- 
 loisting, are required. 
 
 Underground Traffic. 
 
 This is done by cars, which in metal mines weigh from 600 to 
 500 lbs., and cost from $50 to |200 ; usually their wt ight is about 
 lalf of contents. A shoveller can load into a 3 ft high car 20 
 oils per shift, into a 4 ft. only 14. In thin seams and steep veins 
 cars are confined to main haulways, and are filled from chutes 
 fitted at the lower end with a gate. The tracks are preferably of 
 ibout 2 ft. gauge, of T rails running from 12 to 16 lbs. per yd. in 
 gangways and levels, to 35 in slopes. The larger the output, or 
 the smaller its value, the better needs be the roadbed, on the score 
 [>f cheap, rapid hauling. Under certain conditions it is desirable 
 to leave one or both wheels on an axle loose, loose wheels being 
 best for short roads and sharp curves. A power that will pull 100 
 tons on the horizontal can only manage 47 up a slight gra<le of 20 
 ft. per mile ; and 25 and 13.5, respectively, on a 1% and 2% in- 
 cline, 'i'he maximum grade allowable is 3 ft. in 100. Men push 
 the cars in small mines ; but horses, or steam or electric power, 
 are used in large ones. 
 
 It frequently pays to have long underground hauls to the main 
 shaft, instead of going to the expense of sinking another, and the 
 
88 Mining. 
 
 U lulenjround Tra^c, 
 
 plan varies according to the grading of the haulway towards the 
 shaft. 
 
 (1) If horizontal, power is needed both ways by man, horse, 
 locomotive, motor, or rope-ways may be employed. 
 
 (2) If graded towards the shaft, tlie full train pulls the eiiijity 
 up on a self-acting tramway, the rope connecting the two truins 
 passing round a sheave or drum tixed at tlie far end. Tlw 
 smallest grade is 10^%, the best 20% ; if over 33% brakes must be 
 applied, while at one exceeding 70% the system is inapplic'al)le. 
 Self-acting tramways are ecjually good, underground or al)ove, 
 where the cost is not over 10 cts. per ton-nnle. The rope is not 
 as large as for shafts, length and load being equal. Two-car trips 
 on !8% planes need § in. rope, | on 100%. When the slope cannot 
 be self-acting, engine-planes are used — a stationary engine operat 
 ing a drum which turns and pays out rope for descending cars, 
 being geared to pull tliem back on the same or parallel track. 
 
 (3) If graded fnmi the shaft, the tail-ro})e (for limiting grade of 
 3%) or the endless rope systems are employed extensively in 
 beds. The tail-rope is inexpensive to build and repair, audits 
 greatest advantage is horizontally or on a slight grade. The 
 engine is located at the shaft-end of haulway, and has two 
 drums which are thrown alternately in and out of gear. The 
 main rope, same length as the haulway, is fastened to the from 
 end of the train, the tail-rope (twice as Icmg) passes from its 
 drum around the sheave at the other end, thence to rear end 
 of cars. In operating, the main rope drum is thrown into gcar- 
 the other out— and the engine started, drawing the loaded oars 
 to the shaft, dragging the tail-rope. Then the main drum is 
 thrown off, the other on, and the emptied cars return, pulling 
 the main rope off its drum. 
 
 The endless rope is very suitable for a double track with fre- 
 quent stoppages and no branches. A continuous motion in one 
 direction is given the rope by a single drum, the cars being 
 attached or detached at will. 
 
 Surface Transportation. 
 
 W. R. Carlyle, Provincial Mineralogist of British Columbia, 
 
 gives the following figures for the Slocan district :- -The cost of 
 1*1 I • , t .. ./. ft' 
 
 j^K^.tj\j ^\^i. vKjii, uj »» c*^gv»»IO VJl OlClglia, «J)1 tU .jp — , UV UCl null. V >-'c» 
 
 of transportation from shipping centres to smelters in the Unitnl 
 States, from Sandon, $7. 50; from Slocan City, $11. 
 
 Tramways^ either surface or aerial, are resorted to when any 
 considerable quantity is handled, as from shaft to mill, etc. The 
 aerial varieties are either on the Bleichert or Hallidie systems. 
 
Mining. 89 
 
 Sut'l'<(''f Transportafion. 
 
 Tlic Hl«'icliert has one or two ropes stretched tightly and sup- 
 j)()itt(l l>y staiuhirdH ; on this run travellers to whicii buckets 
 lire hooked, the motion being given by a single or endless rope, 
 speed about 1^00 ft. per nunute. The buckets carry SOO-IOOO 
 ll)s., and dump automatically. The Hallidie supports and moves 
 the hiiid by the same rope which has a continuous motion in one 
 direction, at rate of '200 ft. per min. A ropeway, at such rate, 
 oaiiviiig 100 lbs. per bucket (buckets 100 ft. apart) delivers GO 
 tons per shift ; it may be built for $I..SO per ft., and $2,000 for 
 terminal machinery. The cost of the Bleichert system is higher, 
 about !i!!l.7o per ft., but it is caj)able of handling larger (quantities 
 and operating over greater distances than the Hallidie, and run- 
 ning expenses are less. When the grade is above 147o it is self- 
 acting, the speed being controlled by a brake ; below this grade 
 power is applied. 
 
 Pumping. 
 
 Buckets may be hoisted by windlass or steam. For the latter 
 service bailing tanks, holding 4o0 to 1)00 gals., with balanced 
 valves and discharging pegs, give satisfaction for shafts, and 
 similarly valved self-dumping skips for slopes. If such means 
 are insufficient, a single-acting lift- pump, or a force-pump — 
 single or double-acting — is advisable, the former for a vertical 
 shaft less than 300 ft. only. 
 
 Illumination. 
 
 Lessened cost for plant has brought electric lighting into high 
 favor in coal mines owing to reduced risk from explosions. In 
 gold mining, such as in Rainy Kiver region, sperm candles 
 should be used, as grease hinders mercury amalgamation. Of 
 sixes (6 per lb.), the consumption averages 3 per man per shift. 
 In metal mines they avfj cheaper than lamps. 
 
 Entry and Exit. 
 
 L((d(lers. — Generally of 2 by 6 in. standards, 18 in. apari:, with 
 steps I ft. apart — should incline not less than 10° from vertical 
 to enable men to carry tools ; at every 20 to 40 ft. in vertical 
 shafts, or more if inclined, they rest on 2 in. platforms. Buckets 
 or cages are much better and save time. 
 
 o^ 
 
 Boring. 
 
 Punch-drills were, and are yet, "kicked" down by spring-pole 
 with hand or foot labor, but not for holes over 3 in. diam. or 300 
 ft. deep ; the iron rods are 1 in. square. With a derrick (tall 
 enough to support the whole length of tools), having a sheave at 
 
90 * Mining. 
 
 Boring. 
 
 its crown, and a 10 horse-power engine winding a rope on a bull- 
 wheel drum and operating the tools by a walking beam through 
 a pitman, 6 in. holes may be carried 1,000 ft. or more. The 
 rope is of 1^ in. hawser-laid cable. By another system the 
 rope and tools are raised by a single-acting piston operating on a 
 pulley ; the up stroke raises, and the down stroke lets fall the 
 tool. "Jars," for taking up the concussion injurious to material 
 and joints, play an important part. Mud is removed by a 
 sludger. Such borers are conmion in oil fields. In south-west- 
 ern Ontario the wells are drilled 4§ in. diam., and a pump of 
 1^ to 1^ in. tubing is inserted. VN'ooden rods are now used 
 there instead of cables. Pump rods attached to a horizontal 
 wheel, so that their weights balance one another, enable a 12 
 horse-power engine to pump as many as 90 wells ; this is the 
 *' jerker " system. 
 
 TiMBERTXG. 
 
 Lining for shafts, generally, consists of series of timber frames, 
 preferably dressed, slightly smaller in outside dimensions than 
 the shaft itself, and separated from one another by vertical posts 
 which are boxed into the frame timbers. Between the shaft 
 walls and these frames, planks (lagging) are placed, forming a 
 close sheeting, and any spaces between the lagging and shaft- 
 wall are packed with rock waste. The whole is supported at 
 intervals as circumstances demand by long, heavy stulls extend- 
 ing beyond the side of the shu,ft into tlie country rock, and 
 forming part of the frame at that point. If levels or tunnels 
 need timbering the common method is by two vertical posts 
 supporting a cap, with lagjjing en the outside ; or if one of the 
 walls is hard no vertical is needed on that side, and the cap may 
 be supported on the rock at that end. In soft ground the diffi- 
 culties encountered often call for expert supervision. Sand- 
 stone or conglomerate offers a good roof, soapstone a bad one, 
 and fire-clay is the most dangerous. 
 
 Hydra-Ulic Mining. 
 
 Working shallow placers (bar, creek, or gulch placers accord- 
 ing to nature of occurrence) is still done by pan, cradle, or wing- 
 damming in British Columbia, but those of the older districts 
 are nearly worked out. The far more expensive method of 
 hydraulicking is now in vogue for working the deep placers, or 
 the beds of ancient rivers which have been diverted by volcanic 
 or other action. Except on top, these are packed t«»o hard for 
 the simple methods, and water umler sufficient head to give the 
 needful pressure is employed to excavate and direct the gravel 
 into a dump over sluices. Sluices are large troughs, generally 
 
Mining. 
 
 91 
 
 Hydraulic Mining. 
 
 frame, lying upon the ground, and paved with loose blocks of 
 wood or stones to give a surface fit for catching gold and amal- 
 gam. Riffles fixed on the sluice bottom at intervals answer the 
 same purpose. The source of water, gravel-bed, and dump must 
 be situatetl at proper relative elevations before the claim can be 
 advantageously worked, while the supply of water must be 
 ample. Sluices are lengthened if a test of the tailings shows 
 a loss in gold, the nature of the dirt washed being an important 
 factor. Generally they are on a wide curve to prevent too great a 
 current, which would wash the gold over the riffles. Dimensions 
 vary with amount treated, and the latter is governed by water 
 supply. The grade also varies with the water supply and cost 
 of water, and the water in the sluice should cover the largest 
 boulder met with. If the water is scarce and expensive a high 
 grade is needed. The heavier the gravel, also, the steeper the 
 grade. The water is generally considered capable of carrying 
 away } of its own weight of gravel. The water is led in ditches, 
 flumes or pipes to the pressure-box (also called bulk-head or 
 sand-box) which is a tank placed at sufficient elevation to give 
 the jet requisite force. Ditches generally have sloping sides and 
 a grade varying from 7 to 20 ft. per mile. Flumes are wooden 
 troughs, carried across depressions on trestles, or along the sides 
 
 Monitor. • 
 
 of canyons, if necessary, by iron brackets let into the rock. 
 Pipes, either iron or steel, are used in crossing deep valleys. 
 From the pressure box the water goes to the workings in pipes, 
 which are forked if two points in the ))ank are worked at once. 
 At tlie end is a nozzle (monitor) of 5 to 9 iu. diameter, by which 
 the water is pointed as required. Mercury is added several times 
 daily at the sluice head. If the bed rock is below the drainage 
 
92 Mining. 
 
 Hydraulic Mining. 
 
 level, the hydraulic elevator is used, being a pipe through 
 which a jet of water creates powerful upward suction of the 
 gravel to the head of the sluice. Gravel worth only 5 or 10 
 cents per cubic yard under favorable circumstances can sometimes 
 be made to pay. 
 
 Deep placers are otherwise exploited by drift mining. A 
 tunnel is run after the position of the rich gravel is aocurately 
 located, and the mining is prosecuted from drifts run from the 
 tunnel. 
 
OEES AND ORE TREATMENT. 
 
 Ores. 
 
 An ore is a substance which gives on treatment one or more 
 vahiable metals. Ores are generally mixtures of rock material 
 and the metal in a free state or combined with other elements. 
 This rock material or gangue is usually quartz, calcite, siderite, 
 barite or fluorite. Quartz is the most common, and is nearly 
 always present when the other gangues ire found. The metals 
 are nokl, silver and copper, and the various minerals those of 
 copper, lead, silver, antimony, zinc, etc. Iron pyrites is almost 
 universally present in ores. 
 
 The ores usually met with of commercial importance are : — 
 
 Native Metals {simple or alloys). 
 Gold, silver, platinum, copper. 
 
 
 Oxides. 
 
 
 
 Magnetite 
 Hematite 
 
 worked for Iron. 
 
 Limonite 
 
 (< 
 
 
 (( 
 
 Bog Iron Ore 
 
 Cuprite 
 
 Cassiterite 
 
 
 
 Copper. 
 Tin. 
 
 Zincite 
 
 (( 
 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Bauxite 
 
 Sulphides. 
 
 
 Aluminium. 
 
 Galena 
 
 worked for Lead and Silver. 
 
 Zinc Blende 
 
 (( 
 
 
 Ziuc. 
 
 Chalcocite 
 Copper Pyrites 
 Bornite 
 
 
 
 Copper. 
 
 4*" 
 (( 
 
 Argentite ** 
 Cinnabar " 
 Pyrrhotite (sometimes) ** 
 Millerite ** 
 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Stibnite 
 
 (( 
 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Orpiment 
 Realgar 
 
 it 
 Arsenides. 
 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 Niccolite 
 
 worked for Nickel. 
 
 Smaltite 
 
 93 
 
 ( ( 
 
 Cobalt. 
 
94 
 
 Ores and Oue Treatment, 
 
 Ores. 
 
 Proustite 
 
 ' 
 
 S 111 ph- Arsenide. 
 
 worked for Silver. 
 
 
 
 Chlorides and Fluorides. 
 
 
 Cerargyrite 
 
 Atacaniite 
 
 Cryolite 
 
 
 worked for Silver. , . • 
 ** *' Copper. 
 '* '* Aluminium. 
 
 Carbonates. 
 
 
 Malachite 
 Aziirite 
 Siiiitlisonite 
 Ctrussite 
 Spatliic Iron Ore 
 
 worked for Copper. • 
 
 (( <' (< . . 
 
 '* Zinc. ' 
 " " Lead. 
 " Iron. 
 
 
 
 
 Silicates. 
 
 
 Calamine 
 Garnierite 
 
 
 worked for Zinc. 
 " " Nickel. 
 
 
 These ores are workable, under onUiiary circumstances, ^vhen 
 they carry amounts of metal approximately as follows : — 
 
 Gold 
 
 from 
 
 5 dwt. 
 
 to 1 oz. 
 
 per ton. Value $5 00 to $20 00 
 
 Silver 
 
 
 8oz. 
 
 " 10 oz. 
 
 
 
 5 25 to 6 50 Millins" ores. 
 
 (( 
 
 
 5 oz. 
 
 " 10 oz. 
 
 
 
 son to « nni^^'^^^C'^W^' 
 3 00 to 6 00 ^ Sulphides. 
 
 Nickel 
 
 
 1% 
 
 " 2% 
 
 
 
 7 00 to 14 00 
 
 Tin 
 
 
 2% 
 
 '• 3% 
 
 
 
 5 00 to 8 00 
 
 Copper 
 
 
 1% 
 
 " 2% 
 
 
 
 2 dO to 4 00 Free milling. 
 
 Copper 
 
 
 2% 
 
 "3% 
 
 
 
 4 50 to 6 50 Smelting ores 
 
 Zinc ) 
 Lead / 
 
 
 15% 
 
 " 20% 
 
 
 
 10 00 to 15 00 
 
 Iron 
 
 
 30% 
 
 •' 40 % for carbonate ores. 
 
 Iron 
 
 
 50% 
 
 " 60 % for oxide 
 
 ores. 
 
 ■ - * 
 
 The figures given in this table will vary with the locality, 
 facilities of transportation, and the nature of included minerals 
 or impurities. 
 
 Ores usually receive their names from the metal yielded which 
 is commercially the most valuable ; f.f/., galenas frequently carry 
 high values in silver, and are therefore called silver ores or silver 
 lead ores, though the baser metal, lead, is largely in excess. These 
 ores in British Columbia carry also zinc blende, ruby silver and 
 gray copper, the last mineral being looked upon as particularly 
 favorable, as it is nearly always found to, be accompanied by high 
 values in silver. The gold ores of Western Ontario consist of free 
 gold in a quartz matrix (or gangue), together with scattered crys- 
 tals of iron pyrites, copper pyrites, galena, or zinc blende. One 
 of these accessory minerals is always present in ** healthy ore,' 
 
Orks and Ore Treatment. 95 
 
 Ores. . ' - 
 
 and sometimes call of them. The gold, though of less bulk and 
 weigltt than the accessory minerals, constitutes the chief value, 
 and tlie ore is tlierefore called gold ore. Similarly the nickelifer- 
 o«s pyrrliotites of Sudbury, Ontario, and the auriferous pyrrho- 
 tites ot Kossland, B. C)., are termed respectively nickel and gold 
 ores ; both often carry ai)preciable values in copper, and the 
 former yields a few dollars in gold. 
 
 Tlie most commonly occurring metal in ore deposits is iron, as- 
 sociated witli sulphur (pyrites) ; this compound is valueless as a 
 sonrce of iron, tlie supply coming entirely from magnetite, hema- 
 tite, ;ind spathic iron ore (carbonate). The pyritous ores, liowever, 
 when they contain 'lOX upward of sulphur, are used for the manu- 
 facture of sulphuric acid (vitihd). 
 
 Gold and jdatinum are found native in gravels and s.ands of 
 ancient and modern river channels, this character of deposit being 
 known as an alluvion, (iold also occurs in segregated veins and 
 intercalations between the sheets of slates, etc., and finely dis- 
 seminated in eruptive rocks. 
 
 On both north and south shores of Lake Superior a most im- 
 portant ore of native copper occurs ; native copper being found in 
 grains, pellets and masses in an amygdaloidal trap or greenstone, 
 and sandstone. In other parts of Western Ontario bands of 
 heavily mineralized country rock — technically known as fahl- 
 baiids— occur, which will possibly form sources of valuable ores 
 of copper and, perhaps, gold. 
 
 General Treatment. 
 
 The choice of the proper treatment for a given ore requires care- 
 ful consideration ; no hard and fast lines can be laid down. 
 Theories and practice must give way to the necessities of particu- 
 lar cases. The following synopsis, however, serves as a guide to 
 indicate methods of dealing with various ores ; combinations of 
 two or more methods being sometimes adopted. 
 
 1. If free gold can be panned out and no sulphurets — Free 
 gold milling. 
 
 2. Free gold found, but also sulphurets, which on being 
 panned out aftei free gold is separated, assay sufficiently well to 
 pay for treatment — Free gold milling and concentrating with 
 mining machines for tailings ; chlorlnation, cyanidation or smelt- 
 ing for the product {concentrates). 
 
 3. Free gold in small quantities, but much silver present in 
 sulphurets — Roasting milling ; or free gold milling, vanners and 
 melting ; or copper plates, vanners and amalgamating pans, 
 
 4. Chloride of silver ores and decomposed silver vein outcrops 
 over 8 oz. per ton — Free silver milling. 
 
96 Ores and Okk Treatment. 
 
 Qenc.ral Treatment. 
 
 5. Silver ores consisting of part chloride or decomp )sed, and 
 part silver bearing sulphurets — Free silver milling, vannera ami 
 sjneltlnff, or if grade of ore i)i Itigh — Roasting milling. 
 
 6. Silver ore with base metal sulphurets, if low grade — Fine 
 concentration and smelting ; if high gnuXa—Jloasting nulling. 
 
 7. Low grade silver ores, with gray coi>per teliurides, ruby, 
 brittle or native silver — Fine concentration and smelting. 
 
 8. Heavil}' miii'^rahzed ores of lead, copper, ziac, often carry- 
 ing silver —C'oa^'.se concentration and smelting. 
 
 9. Lightly mineralized ores of lead, tin, copper and 'MUC—Fim 
 concentration and smelting. 
 
 10. Carbonate or oxide of lead or copper — Smelting. 
 
 11. Solid galena ores— Smelting, either after simple hand s'lec- 
 tion (cobbing), or hand selection and coarse concentration on rejected 
 ore. 
 
 12 Metallic copper ores — Stamping with coarse concentrafion 
 and melting to ingot. 
 
 13. Antimony ores — Hand picking, coarse or fine concentrutm 
 and smelting. 
 
 14. Zinc blende and zinc carbonates — Coarse or fine concentra- 
 tion and reduction by a zinc smelting process. 
 
 15. Tin ores — Fi?ie concentration, roasting and smelting. 
 
 16. Copper pyrites and copper glance — Hand-picking, coar«t or 
 fine concentrafion, partial roasting and matting. 
 
 17. Heavy iron pyrites, carrying gold — Chlorination pj^oces.^, or 
 roasting and intermixture xoith smelting ores. 
 
 18. Massive iron pyrites, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, marcasite, 
 arsenopyrite, etc., carrying gold, silver, nickel or copper — Sul- 
 phide (pyritic) smelting. 
 
 Free Millixg Ores. 
 
 Gold. — These comprise those mentioned under Sections 1, '2 
 and 3 of the preceding table. Under exceptionally favoural)le 
 circumstances ores carrying as low as $2 per ton can be milled 
 with profit. From this to $5 per ton, the ore body must be large 
 and easy to mine, the milling machniery extensive and carefully 
 designed, and management of the very best. In Nova Scotia 
 where labor ($1.25 for 10 hours) and fuel (coal at$;^ per ton) are 
 very low, ores averaging $4 to S6 have been successfully treated. 
 Under ordinary circumstances in Canada, free milling ores aver- 
 aging about $10 per ton are to be looked upon as profitable. 
 
 The principles underlying the treatment of free milling ores are 
 first, crushing to pulp fine enough to set free the smallest par- 
 ticles of gold ; sec id, bringing every particle of the pulp into 
 contact with mercury — the gold amalgamates with the mercury 
 while the worthless pulp (tailings) is washed away. 
 
Ores and Orb Trkatmrnt. 
 
 97 
 
 free Milling Oren. 
 
 Advantage should be taken of any natural slope in selecting a 
 site for a mill, so as to permit the handling of the ore by gravity 
 as far as possible. 
 
 The ore as delivered at the mill is in variously sized lumps. It 
 
 Gold Mill. 
 
 tirst passes over a grizzly to the crusher (rock-breaker). The 
 (jrizzh/ is a frame, 3 to 4 ft. wide, 10 to 14 ft. long, made of 
 wrought iron bars which are 1 in. wide, 2 to 4 in. deep, and 
 place I 1^ to 2 in. apart. The bars run with the slope, which is 
 towards the crusher, allowing the ** fines" to fall into the ore-bin 
 —over which the rock-breaker is set — and thus relieving the 
 latter of unnecessary work. Jhe coarse ore is usually fed by 
 hand to the crusher, which reduces it to walnut-size and drops it 
 into the ore-bin. Among the rock-hreakera in general use are the 
 Blake, Dodge, Gates and Comet, the first two being jaw-crushers. 
 The (.'omet's crushing is performed by an upright cone of chilled 
 iron, tixed at the top (small) end, and given a circular swinging 
 motion, the ore passing between it and the conical chilled iron 
 shell M'hich encircles it. The Comet has capacity of from 4 to 60 
 tons per hour, weighs 6,500 to 3'i,000 lbs. and costs f. o. b. $550 
 
^8 
 
 Ores and Ore Treatment, 
 
 Free Milling Ores. 
 
 to $3,000. The largest Blake, No. 5, is calculated to feed 20 
 stamps when run 20 out of 24 hours. Its given capacity is I 
 tons per hour. 
 
 BlakeiCrusher. 
 
 From the bin the ore, in well appointed mills, is led by a chute 
 to an automatic feeder, either Tulloch or Challenge, which feeds 
 the ore to the stamps or Huntington mill, the latter being some- 
 times used. It cannot be too well understood that the .stamp 
 mill, although most simple in construction, cannot be rightly 
 handled by a novice ; yet in the hands of an experienced man 
 astonishingly good results may be expected. On a given 
 quality of ore there are many points to be considered : the right 
 slope of the apron-plates, the proper feed of water and mercury, 
 the correct height of discharge, the fineness of the screen, the 
 weight of the stamps, the drop, the number of drops per minute, 
 the order of drop, the frequency of cleaning up, together with 
 what quantity of ore to keep between the dies and shoes ; all 
 these receive attention from the expert who is seeking to extract 
 from any certain ore the greatest quantity of gold in the cheapest 
 and quickest way. 'ilie stamp mill has been used for many years 
 and, in consequence of its widely known capabilities, as well, 
 remains prime favorite among mining men in spite of a lengthy 
 list of alleged substitutes and improvements. The price at the 
 maker's works is from |400 to |600 per stamp for small plants of 
 10 or 20 stamps. 
 
Ores kud Ork Treatment. 
 
 99 
 
 Free Milling Ores. 
 
 The ore enters the nwrtar at the back near the top, and falling 
 on the dies which a.-e sot in the bottom of the mortar, is crushed 
 
 Stamp Battery. 
 
lOO Ores and Ore Tiikatment. 
 
 Fret MiUiny Ores. 
 
 by ^he dropping stamps. The stamp nhoe is attached to the 6(av,s- 
 htad^ and the latter to the lower eiul of the stem. Near the top 
 of the stem is fastened a tappet, which being worked by a cam on 
 a horizontal shaft (cant shaft) is alternately raised and let full. 
 Five stamps generally work in one mortar box and the usual 
 order of drop is 1, 3, 5, 2, 4. The stems move in guides. A linii 
 foundation for the whole is essential. Water enters at the top of 
 the mortar against each stamj), and they splash the pulverized ore 
 against the screen which is placed over an opening in front. Tlie 
 average screen is of 30 or 40 mesh to the inch. The weight of 
 each stamp is usually 850 lbs., the number of times it falls !)0 
 per minute, the drop in. When tine enough to pass the screen 
 the pulp Hows over a copper ylate. This apron plate, made us 
 wide as the discharge, is fV >"• thick, 8 to 10 ft. long, and falls \_ 
 to 2 in. per ft., its surface being amalgamated with mercury to 
 which the gohl a<lheres in passing over, (k)pper plates, similarly 
 amalgamated, are placed inside the mortar as well and capture 
 the gold in the ore which is splashed against them by the stan)|>s. 
 Quick silver (mercury) is fed to the battery with a small wooden 
 or horn spoon, the average amount being ih ozs. to every ounce 
 of gold extracted. The correct amount is known by the feel of 
 the plates ; if hard and crumbly there is danger of amalgam being 
 carried off by the pulj), anl more mercury is needed ; if too soft 
 «iui slippery less ainalgam collects on the inside plates, and 
 liquid amalgam may roll ort' the apron plates : on free milling ore 
 jf oz. per ton of ore milled would be the exj)ected average loss. 
 As a rule it is better to use too little water than too much ; the 
 right amount will just cany the pulp evenly over the apron 
 plates. Periodically the amalqam is scraped from the plates and 
 retorted, the gold thus gained being melted and run into moulds. 
 The mercury vaporizes and, being condensed in water, is saved for 
 further use. 
 
 Aferciirtf, traps, through which the pulp passes after leaving the 
 apron plates, save the amalgam and quicksilver not collected on 
 the plates. 
 
 Fine Concentration. — Ores mentioned in Section 1 require no 
 concentration, practically all the gold being saved in the mortar 
 and on the plates. Those under Sections 2 and 3 carry sul- 
 phurets which hinder amalgamation to a certain extent, and a 
 portion of the gold escapes with the heavy minerals (usually 
 sulphides of iron, copper, zinc, lead, etc.) in the tailings. When 
 the loss is sufficiently high to warrant concentrating the tailings 
 (i.e. separating out the heavy minerals with the gold from the 
 worthless gangue), some form of concentrating machine is used, 
 such as Frue vanners, Embrey concentrators, Kittinger percus- 
 sion tables, Perfection, etc. 
 
Ok MS AND Ohic Tkeatmknt. 
 
 101 
 
 /V" MUlinij Orefi. 
 
 The mmuer is moat popular among mining men, and consists of 
 an ctulless rubber belt, 4 ft wide and 12 ft. long, with an up-sbint 
 of I in 35 to 50 in the direction of its motion, and passing from 
 the high end around a lower drum which dips into a water tank. 
 A steady shaking motion is imparted from side to side by a crank 
 shaft. The f>ulp is fed on in water about 3 ft. from the head of 
 belt and is washed slowly down. The slow, upward travel of the 
 belt itself, 28 to 30 in. per min., brings up the heavy mineral, and 
 a row of water jets at the head wash back the lighter sands 
 while the concentrated minerals fall into the tank below, from 
 which they are collected for subsequent treatment by smelting, 
 chlorinatiou or other processes. 
 
 Fnie Vaiiner. 
 
 The p]mbrey is almost identical, but receives an end shake 
 instead of one sideways. 'J'wo machines commonly go to each 
 battery of 5 stamps, the pulp passing from the apron plates to 
 the vanners. They take less than \ horse-power apiece to drive, 
 and one man can attend to 16 or 20. The ordinary kind (with 
 4 ft. belt) costs 1575, not including tanks. 
 
 Pan Amaltianiation — By the old process the crushed ore is 
 rim into large shallow settling tanks, the pulp being removed by 
 hand and further ground in amalgamating pans with mercury ; 
 by the Boss continuous system the pulp runs automatically 
 through a row of pans and settlers connected by pipes. The pan, 
 which holds 1 to 1 ^ tons of pulp, is generally of wood, with a 
 cast iron bottom fitted with dies, upon which the muller 
 works while grinding. The muller is adjusted by a hand wheel 
 and may be raised for the necessary gentle circulation of the 
 water. Steam enters the pans during the operation. Generally, 
 pan amalgamation must be preceded by roasting. 
 
 Boasting. — There are various furnaces for' roasting ore. The 
 Briiekner is a revolving cylinder, G to 8 ft. diam., and from 12 to 
 18 ft. long, being of smaller diameter at the ends than in the 
 
102 
 
 Ores and Ohk Thkatmknt. 
 
 AV^g Milliinj Ores. 
 
 niidtlle, bo that the ore, being conatantly turned over, exposes 
 new surfaces to the lire. One weighing 2.') tons costs ahoiit 
 i3,(R)0. The Stetefelilt is a vertical shaft, the pulverized ore 
 being showered in and roasted. Tiie White consists of a lonj{ 
 cast iron revolving cylinder inclined towards tlie tire end ; still 
 another common make is the Hofmann, somewhat similar. He- 
 verberatory furnaces are also much employed. 
 
 Ore Dniit'H are, conunonly, revolving cylinders, 44 in. diam. at 
 one end and 36 in. at the other, 18 ft. long, and have 30 to 40 
 tons capacity per 24 hours. 
 
 Concentrating Ores. * 
 
 
 
 Gold. — Gold ores containing much sulphurets (Sections 17 and 
 18) are either concentrating or non-concentrating ores, the latter 
 when 40 per cent, are present, roughly speaking. The nou- 
 concentrating class require dry crushing by rolls, and either 
 
 Crushing Rolls. 
 
 chlorination (with fine crushing), smelting or pan .amalgamation 
 Gold ore smelting embraces ( 1 ) complete smelting to silver Itad 
 bullion, (2) concentrating smelting to iron matte, (3) Cv^ijcentratinir 
 smelting to copper matte, (4^ pyritic smelting. 
 
 Concentration maybe divideil into coarse and fine, the crushing 
 in the former case being by rolls, in the latter by stamps. Most 
 ores are not rich enough for smelting when taken from the deposit, 
 on account of the gangue which is mixed with them. They are 
 
Old a AND OiiB Treatmknt. 
 
 103 
 
 Concentrating^Mill. 
 
104 
 
 Orbs and Ore Treatment. 
 
 Concentrating Ores. 
 
 therefore crushed and the gangue rock eliminated. If stamps 
 are used the product is finer and the concentrating machines 
 must be suited to the finest slimes (vanners are best if value is 
 high). All concentrates require subsequent workii)g by one of 
 the processes mentioned under non-concentrating ores. 
 
 Rolls consist of two rolls, from 9 to 36 in. diam., their axles 
 driven by strong gear wheels, or by belts, and revolving against 
 each other at a speed of 100 to 150 revolutions per minute. The 
 bearings of one roll are stationary, of the other sliding and kept 
 in position by strong springs, so that a uniform pressure acts on 
 the ore which is placed between them for crushing. They cost 
 from $200 to $1,800. 
 
 At the top of the mill should be the ore floor, on which the ore 
 is delivered from the mine, and the ore goes then over the grizzly 
 to the crusher. It is next passed wet to coarse rolls, and thence 
 to the coarsest revolving screen (or screens). Screens (trommels) 
 
 Jig. 
 
 are either cylindrical or conical, and cost $200 each. Lumps too 
 large to pass these coarse screens drop through a spout to finish- 
 ing rolls, and being then elevated are returned to the coarse 
 
Orks and Ork Tkeatment. 105 
 
 Conrentratino Ores. 
 
 screens. The ore which passes descends automatically to finer 
 revolving screens, No. 2 ; the portion passing No. 2 to No. 3, still 
 finer ; that which passes No. 3 to No. 4, a degree finer still. The 
 ore detained by each of these screens is of like size and graded 
 according to the mesh of the particular screen which detains it. 
 Each screen continuously drops its contents to its own jig, 
 stationed below, while the material fine enough tc pass the whole 
 series flows either to settling tanks for ultimate treatment on 
 slime dressing machines, or is run through hydraulic classifiers. 
 
 The jig is a water tank with a horizontal screen (on which the 
 ore is placed) at one side, and a plunger working up and down, on 
 the other. The pulsation of the water acting on the pieces of ore 
 (of similar size but different specific gravity) causes the particles 
 that are heavy from mineral to settled own through the lighter 
 worthless material, and enables it to be separately discharged. 
 Iron work for a jig costs about $35, the wood being usually found 
 at the mine. 
 
 Hydraulic classifiers work on the same principle, and separate 
 the heavy particles from the fine slimes. Evans' slime-table and 
 Collom's buddle treat the sediment from settling tanks, and are 
 circular revolving tables about 14 ft. diam. 'I'he ore is fed on at 
 the centre in a current of water, the waste flows down and off, 
 while the heavier particles remain and are eventually washed oflF 
 by strong jets of water into launders. From 10 to 12 tons per 24 
 hours is a table's capacity. Sometimes they are stationary, the 
 water jets revolving instead. They are often ** double-decked. " 
 
 Chlorination. — The common process consists of drying the ore 
 or concentrates, crushing in rolls if necessary, roasting, and leach- 
 ing in revolving barrels by the aid of chlorine (produced from 
 chloride of lime and sulphuric acid). The fluid chloride of gold 
 18 drawn off, and the gold precipitated as a sulphide by sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen. A small plant for working a few tons of 
 concentrates daily is simple, and very few hands are necessary. 
 A first class plant, capacity 5 tons daily, can be built for $5,000 
 or ^5,500. Cost of treatment averages |8 to $10 per ton of con- 
 centrates. It is the most popular process ; also used for hand- 
 picked sulphuretted ores. 
 
 Bromination.— The bromine process is similar to above, but 
 bromine is employed instead of chlorine. 
 
 Ci/anidatiou.—ln the cyanide process the ore, tailings, or concen- 
 trates, is treated in tanks with a potassium cyanide solution, and 
 the gold dissolves. The gold solution is then rra through a long 
 narrow tank with partitions, filled with zinc shavings. The gold 
 B precipitated in a fine powder upon the zinc, and can then be 
 shaken ofi^. In South Africa the consumption of cyanide was 1 
 to 2 lbs. per ton of tailings treated, and cost of treatment varied 
 
106 
 
 Ores and Ore Treatment. 
 
 Concentrating Ores. 
 
 from 11.20 to $2 per short ton. If the vanners yield iron py 
 rites, in which the gold occurs fine, cyanide consumption W(»uld 
 be greater. If the gAd is coarse, or occurs with most of the 
 copper and antimony ores or chemically combined with ]»ase 
 compounds, cyauidation is inapplicable. 
 
 Chlorination Plant. 
 
 Silver. — When"silver, as is usual, occurs in free milling gold 
 ores in small quantities, it is amalgamated with the gold and also 
 saved in the concentrates and extracted by smelting, pan amal- 
 gamation or chlorination method. If much silver is present the 
 ore comes under the head of a silver ore. Silver ores — leaving 
 aside such as require direct smelting, or concentrating before 
 smelting — are usually divided into free milling and roasting 
 milling. 
 
 Free milling silver ores are amalgamated at once in pans (as 
 mentioned under gold ores). The process costs $3 to $10 per ton, 
 the extraction varying from 60 to 80%. 
 
 Roasting milling ores call for dry crushing, roasting with salt, 
 and final treatment in amalgamating pans. Cost, $8 to |lo per 
 ton ; extraction between 80 and 90%. 
 
Oris and Ore Trbatmknt. . 107 
 
 Concentrating Orea. 
 
 Tlie concentrating process spoken of above is identical with 
 that described under concentrating gold ores. 
 
 C( i'PER. — Milling is practiced on the south shore of Lake 
 Superior, and as similar ores of native copper occur on the Cana- 
 dian shore they may probably be similarly treated. Steam 
 staiMps discharge the ore through screens (perforations yV i»- 
 diaiD.) to hydraulic separators, thence it goes to jigs and rotary 
 slime tables. Oxidized copper ores are frequently sorted but 
 seldom concentrated. 
 
 Smelting Ores. 
 
 Gineral.—Ore^ of all kinds, as mined, usually require sorting 
 by hand (cobbing), or coarse concentration (see under milling) 
 before smelting, particularly when they have to submit to the 
 cost of long transportation to a smelter. Where smelting is 
 done at the mine it is often more economical to get rid of the 
 worthless rock matter by slagging in the furnace, when suitable 
 Huxes or fluxing ores are obtainable. The common ores to which 
 smelting is applicable are mentioned under Sections 7, 8, 9, 10, 
 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 before given. If sulphur, arsenic, or 
 other volatile elements are present in the mineral, roasting or 
 oxidation is first necessary. U his is a simple matter, although 
 he process varies in different cases. Generally, a reverberatory 
 iirnace is employed, the fuel being consumed upon a front 
 bearth, separated from the bed for the ore; the heated fuel- 
 gases ascend to the arched roof and so down upon the ore, and 
 theuce escape through a flue. The heat must not be high 
 enough to melt the m'neral. Stall-roasting and heap-roasting a°e 
 among the other methods for oxidizing. 
 
 Redaction, or smelting proper, is applicable to most metallic 
 oxides, natural or artificial. The aim is to remove the oxygen, 
 by heating with a substance having a greater attraction for oxy- 
 gen than the mineral itself. The furnaces are frecjuently very 
 large, the form varying with the metal to be treated ; the ore is 
 intensely heated, together with coke or charcoal which unites 
 with the oxygen and carries it off as a gas. The earthy and 
 other impurities (often a large part of the ore), which have not 
 keen entirely elnninated owing to defects in the mechanical 
 treatment, must now be got rid of. Certain fluxes, or substances 
 which form fusible compounds with the earthy ianpurities, are 
 added with the fuel ; these melt, making a fluid (glass) through 
 »hich the reduced metal sinks, and is thus shut off from the air. 
 The metal is run off at intervals from the furnace bottom, while 
 "<e melted slag is drawn from a hole in the side. Technical 
 training and much judgment is necessary in selecting fluxes in 
 Iheir proper proportions ; often this is accomplished by a proper 
 
108 
 
 Ores and Oue Tkkatmknt 
 
 Water-jacket Smelting Furnace. 
 
Orks and Ore Treatment. 100 
 
 Smelting Ores. 
 
 mixture of diflferenfc ores of the same metal, each supplying some 
 ingredient needful to make the slag sulKciently fusible. The 
 melting of barren tluxes is to be avoided if possible. 
 
 Copper and lead ores are the most important for smelting. Dif- 
 ere it methods are : 1. Sfmple reducing melting in rfiverberatory 
 or water-jacket furnaces of carbonates of lead or copper, or metal- 
 lic copper ores. Some flux is nearly always necessary to slag off 
 the gangue rock (iron or lime, if quartz ; or quartz if too limey). 
 2, Matting. That is, running the minerals out of the rock not in 
 a fully metallic condition, but as a concentrated mineral or matte. 
 This is done also in reverberatory or stack furnaces, usually after 
 a partial pre liminary roast. The matte or regulus is afterwards 
 reriiied or shipped to refineries. 3. Partially roasting galena ores, 
 and then a reducing smelting in which the oxidized lead reacts on 
 any sulphides remaining, and only metallic lead results. Here, as 
 in the Hrst division, proper fluxes must be added to slag off the 
 waste rock and keep all fluid in the furnace, 4. The aildition of 
 iron ore, or roasted iron pyrites, to galena ores in smelting, the 
 iron capturing the sulphur of the galena and leaving metallic 
 ead. This process necessitates roasting and re-melting a large 
 quantity of matte formed. 
 
 Such are the general principles. The cost of smelting varies 
 greatly ($5 to $3(1 per tonj according to locality and arrangements. 
 The saving in gold and silver ores is from 90 to 98% of assay value ; 
 the lead in one case and copper in the other are also saved. 
 
 Fiirnacefi (not water-jaeketted) are usually lined with refrac- 
 tory materials to resist the action of the furnace charge. These 
 are either 
 
 Acid — ganister (a higlily silicious lining). 
 
 Neutral — graphite and lire-clay. 
 
 Basic — bauxite, dolomite and magnesite. 
 
 The acid lining resists silicious ores, and the basic resists metallic 
 oxides. 
 
 Notwithstanding the resistance of thesejlinings, they are gradu- 
 ally eaten out by the fluids in the furnace, which then requires 
 re-lining. For this reason water-jacket furnaces are now in great 
 'avor for lead and copper ores. They are usually rectangular, of 
 various size ; capacity ranging from 15 to 40 tons per day. 
 
 The water-jacket consists of two sets of removable wrought- 
 irou l)oiler-plates, one outside the other ; in the space l)etween 
 them water circulates, keeping the inside plate at a temperature 
 uat below the boiling point of water. A small amount of fire- 
 »rick is necessary just above the jacket, resting upon or independ- 
 ent of it. A bustle-pipe, of galvanized iron, surrounds the fur- 
 lace to receive the air-blast from the blowing engine, and distri- 
 
110 Ores and Oke Treatment. 
 
 Smelting Ore8. 
 
 butes it to the tuyeres which enter the furnace through the water- 
 jacket just above the slag opening. 
 
 The portion of the furnace below the tuyeres is the crucible in 
 which the melted slag and metal separate. 
 
 Nickel and Copper. 
 
 Sudbury nickel ores (about 3% to 4% copper, nickel same) are 
 roasted in heaps. The ore is crushed to 3 in. square size aiu 
 graded by a screeninr? cylinder into tines, ragging and coarse, 
 although hand spalling gives less percentage of tines. The 
 sulphur gases liberated may be converted into sulphuric acid. 
 The beds are rectangular and 5 ft. to 15 ft. high, containing COO to 
 3,000 tons of ore ; chimneys are made by slanting sticks on end. 
 About one cord of wood is used for *20 tons of ore. Roasting lasts 
 60 days or more. In Sudbury the smelting is done in large 
 water-jacket furnaces, Herreschoflf pattern, l« ft. high and oval, 
 being ft. 6 in. x 3 ft. 3 in. at the tuyeres. Matte of nearly 
 equal parts of copper, nickel, iron and sulphur is produced, 
 Each furnace has a brick-lined fore-hearth into which tlow the 
 slag and matte. The slag, being lighter, overtlows from a spou 
 near the top, into a water trough under the tloor ; it is thus gi an- 
 ulated and then conveyed to the dump. The matte every 20 
 minutes is drawn from the fore-hearth into conical iron pots of 
 about 800 lbs. capacity. For one ton of ore 275 lbs. of coke is 
 sufficient. About 1 5 tons of matte are produced from 1 10 tons of 
 ore daily. This crude matte is taken to the Bessemer converters, 
 adjoining the smelter, and the whole of the iron and about half 
 the sulphur are removed. The result is perfected matte. The 
 refining is done in the States at present. 
 
 The cost of smelting to perfected matte is about $3 per ton oi 
 ore, including Bessemerizing ; refining $1.50 to $2 more per ton 
 of ore. 
 
 The auriferous pyrrhotites of Trail Creek, containing copper, 
 are matted like the foregoing, and cost about $10 per ton, when 
 95% of the assay value of the gold and silver is paid for and 1.3°{ 
 is deducted from the copper present. 
 
 Silver Lead. 
 
 The silver lead ores of the Slocan, which are being extensively 
 worked, are treated as described under Reduction. The greatei 
 bulk of the ore is treated in the States, freight costing froii 
 $7.50 to $11 per ton, and smelting $15 to $18 per ton for galeiu 
 ores ; while carbonate ores run from $10 to $15. The smelter! 
 pay for 95% of the silver and 90% of the lead ; when zinc presen 
 exceeds 10%, $0.50 per unit is deducted. 
 
Orrs and Ork Treatment. Ill 
 
 Smelting Ores. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 The crushed ore is first smelted ia a blast furnace, usually fire- 
 brick lined cupolas, from 75 to LOO ft. high. The ore and ilux is 
 placed between successive layers of coke. The blast is generally 
 heated. The pig iron is tapped every 8 hrs., aud averages 3 to 5% 
 of carbon. 
 
 Bessemer Process. — Pig is melted in cupolas or reverberatory 
 furnaces, and is run fluid into converters. The air blast is 
 turned on through tuyeres. In about 15 rain, the carbon is 
 dissipated and a calculated weight of spiegeleisen (ferro-man- 
 gariese) is run in, and the blast turned on again for a few minutes 
 to insure incorporation. The liquid malleable iron is then run 
 into moulds. 
 
 Siemens Martin process consist? in melting pig in a Siemens' 
 regenerative furnace with malleable iron aud Hessemer scrap, 
 about 7% of spiegeleisen being added near the end of the process. 
 
 Puddling, to refine the iron. Dry puddling is the oldest and 
 best method, produced by a strong current of air through the 
 furnace. In wet puddling, or boiling, the oxiuizing is effected 
 by hematite, magnetite or basic slags. A charge of about 5 cwt. 
 is placed in the hearth of the reverberatory furnace, in ^ hr. it is 
 melted. It is stirred, and then begins to boil, with jets of blue 
 flame over its surface. Pasty masses of iron are then seen to 
 separate and are removed in balls of about 50 lbs. Siemens' 
 reverberatory furnace, which can use inferior fuel, is also 
 employed. . 
 
 • A 
 
USEFUL INFORMATION AND TABLES. 
 
 
 
 L18T OF Elements. 
 
 • 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 Combining 
 Weight. 
 
 
 Aluminium 
 
 Al 
 
 27 A 
 
 Molybdenum 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Sb 
 
 120 
 
 ^'ickel 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 As 
 
 76 . 
 
 Niobium 
 
 Barium 
 
 Ba 
 
 137 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Beryllium 
 
 Be 
 
 13.8 
 
 Osmium 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 Bi 
 
 210 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Boron 
 
 B 
 
 11 
 
 Palladium 
 
 Bromine 
 
 Br 
 
 80 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 Cd 
 
 112 ' 
 
 Platinum 
 
 Caesium 
 
 Cs 
 
 133 
 
 Potassium 
 
 Calcium 
 
 Ca 
 
 40 
 
 Rhodium 
 
 Carbon 
 
 C 
 
 12 
 
 Rubidium 
 
 Cerium 
 
 Ce 
 
 92 
 
 Ruthenium 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 CI 
 
 35.5 
 
 Selenium 
 
 Chromium 
 
 Cr 
 
 62 
 
 Silver 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 Co 
 
 59 
 
 Silicon 
 
 Copper 
 
 Cu 
 
 63.5 
 
 Sodium 
 
 Didymium 
 
 D 
 
 96 
 
 Strontium 
 
 Erbium 
 
 E 
 
 166 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Fluorine 
 
 F 
 
 19 
 
 Tantalum 
 
 Gallium 
 
 Ga 
 
 70 
 
 Tellurium 
 
 Gold 
 
 Au 
 
 197 
 
 Thalliun* 
 
 Hy(ii*ogen 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 Thorium 
 
 Indium 
 
 In 
 
 113.4 
 
 Thulium 
 
 Iodine 
 
 I 
 
 127 
 
 Tin 
 
 Iridium 
 
 Ir 
 
 198 
 
 Titanium 
 
 Iron 
 
 Fe 
 
 56 
 
 Tungsten 
 
 Lanthanum 
 
 La 
 
 139 
 
 Uranium 
 
 Lead 
 
 Pb 
 
 207 
 
 Vanadium 
 
 Lithium 
 
 Li 
 
 7 
 
 YtteiJaium 
 
 Magnesium 
 
 Mg 
 
 24 
 
 Yttrium 
 
 Manganese 
 
 Mn 
 
 55 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Hg 
 
 200 
 
 Zirconium 
 
 i'VMn/i/ 
 
 Comhinuig 
 
 'TilUOl, 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Mo 
 
 96 
 
 Ni 
 
 59 
 
 Kb 
 
 94 
 
 N 
 
 14 
 
 Os 
 
 19i> 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 Pd 
 
 106 
 
 P 
 
 81 
 
 Pt 
 
 197 
 
 K 
 
 39 
 
 Ro 
 
 104 
 
 Rb 
 
 85.4 
 
 Ru 
 
 104 
 
 Se 
 
 79.4 
 
 Ag 
 
 108 
 
 Si 
 
 28 
 
 Na 
 
 23 
 
 Sr 
 
 87.6 
 
 S 
 
 82 
 
 Ta 
 
 182 
 
 Te 
 
 128 
 
 Tl 
 
 204 
 
 Th 
 
 231 
 
 Tm 
 
 170.7 
 
 Sn 
 
 118 
 
 Ti 
 
 50 
 
 W 
 
 184 
 
 U 
 
 240 
 
 V 
 
 51 ..1 
 
 Yb 
 
 173 
 
 Y 
 
 91 
 
 Zn 
 
 65 
 
 Zr 
 
 90 
 
 112 
 
Useful Information and Tables. 113 
 
 English Money. 
 
 Standard: gold. 
 
 4 farthings = 1 penny, d. 
 12 pence - 1 shilling, a. 
 
 20 shillings = 1 pound, £. 
 
 21 •• =1 guinea. 
 
 Long Measure. 
 
 12 inches, in. = 1 foot, ft. 
 
 3 feet = 1 yard, yd. or y. 
 
 5i yiirds = 1 tod, pole, or perch. 
 
 40 rods = 1 furlong. 
 
 8 furlongs = 1 statute mile. 
 
 3 miles = 1 league. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 6 f^ct = 1 fathom, water measurement. 
 
 ^ tA statute mile = 1 geographical mile, nautical. 
 
 3 geographical miles = 1 league. 
 60 " «' = 1 degree. 
 
 Surveyor's Long Measure. 
 
 7^^ inches = 1 link, 1. 
 
 25 links = 1 rod. 
 
 4 rods; or 66 feet = 1 chain, oh. 
 
 80 chains = 1 mile. 
 
 Square Measure. 
 
 144 square inches = 1 square foot. 
 
 9 *♦ feet =1 *' yard. 
 30i " yards = 1 " rod. 
 40 " rods = 1 rood. 
 
 4 roods =t 1 acre. 
 
 Surveyor's Square Measure. 
 
 625 square links = 1 pole. 
 
 16 poles = 1 square chain. 
 
 10 square chains = 1 acre. 
 640 acres = 1 square mile. 
 
 8 
 
 640 acres = 1 square mi 
 
 36 square miles = 1 township. 
 
114 Useful Information AND Tablks. 
 
 CCBTO MKAiiURE. 
 
 1728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot. 
 
 27 ♦' feet =1 *• yard. 
 
 4^ «' •« = 1 ton of ship's cargo. 
 
 216 c.it. = 8c.y. = 1 toise (Toronto. ) 
 
 261i eft. =9.685 c.y. =1 *' (Montreal.) 
 
 4 ft. X 4 ft. X 8 ft. = 128 c.y. = 1 cord of wood. 
 
 British or Imperial Measure. 
 
 4 gills = 1 pint. 
 2 pints = 1 quart. 
 4 quaits = 1 gallon. 
 2 gallons = 1 peck. 
 4 pecks = 1 bushel. 
 
 Imperial gallon, Great Britain and Canada : 277.274 cubic in., 
 or 10 lbs. avoirdupois distilled water at 62° F., barometer 30 in. 
 Wine or U.S. gallon, 231 cubic in. =8^ lbs., avoirdupois. 
 6.2321 Imperial gallon = 1 oAtA^^i lbs. of water. 
 7.48052 U. S. ♦♦ = 1 eft./ * , . . , 
 
 The Winchester (U.S.) bushel =1.24445 cubic ft.; the Impenal 
 bushel =1.2837 cubic ft. 
 
 To reduce U.S. dry measures to British, divide by 1.032. 
 
 Apothecaries' Weight. 
 
 20 grains = 1 scruple. 
 
 3 scruples = 1 drachm. 
 
 8 drachms = 1 ounce. 
 
 12 ounces = 1 pound, lb. 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight. 
 
 16 drams = 1 ounce, oz. = 437^ grains. 
 
 16 ounces = I pound, lb. = 7000 " 
 
 25 pounds = 1 quarter. 
 
 4 quarters = 1 hundredweight, cwt. 
 
 20 hundredweight = I ton (short ton, or 2,000 lbs.). 
 
 Long Ton W^eight. 
 
 When specified, used for coal, iron ore, etc. 
 
 14 pounds = 1 stone. 
 
 28 pounds = 1 quarter. 
 
 4 quarters = 1 hundredweight (cwt.) or 112 lbs. 
 
 20 hundredweight = 1 ton, or 2,240 lbs. 
 
Useful Tnpokmation and Tahles. HD 
 
 Troy Wekjht. 
 
 Troy Weight i8 used for (fold ami .silrer. 
 
 24 grains = 1 pennyweight (<lwt.) 
 
 20 pennyweights = 1 ounce. 
 12 ouncea = 1 pound. 
 
 Comparative. 
 
 1 oz. Avoir. = .9 11 46 oz. Troy, or Apoth. 
 1 lb. " = 1.2153 11)8. " «' 
 
 In Troy, Apothecary, and Avoirdupois, the grain ia the same. 
 United States standard pound = 27.7015 cub. in. distilled water 
 at 39° 83" F. Barometer 30°. 
 British and Canadian = 27.692 cub. in. 
 
 Table for Conversion fkom British to Metric Measures. 
 
 1 inch = 25.399 millimetres. 
 
 1 cub. in. = 16.386 cub. centimetres. 
 
 1 metre = 3.2809 feet. 
 
 1 cub. metre = 35.316 cub. ft. 
 
 1 pint = .56755 litres. 
 
 1 litre = .22024 gallons. 
 
 1 grain =: .064799 grammes. 
 
 1 kilogramme = 2.6792 pounds. 
 
 Astronomical and Navigation. 
 
 60 seconds," = 1 minute,' 
 60 minutes = 1 degree," 
 90 degrees = 1 right angle. 
 360 degrees = 1 circle. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 24 sheets = 1 quire, qr. 
 20 quires = 1 ream, rm. 
 
 2 reams = 1 bundle. 
 
 5 bundles = 1 bale. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 12 units = 1 dozen. 
 12 dozens = 1 gross, gro. 
 12 gross = 1 great gross, gt. gro. 
 20 units = 1 score. 
 720 feet = 1 cable's length. 
 
116 Useful Information and Tables. 
 
 MifBellnufimts. 
 
 Area of circle = square of dianiett^r x .7854. 
 Circumference = dianietrr of a circle x 3. 141H. 
 A mile of track (railH 10 lbs. per yd. ) weighs 25 tons, 32() lbs. 
 
 Jiiilc. — To fin<l the number of gross tons of rail to the mile : 
 divide the weight per yd. by 7 and multiply by II. 
 
 A mile of track requires kegs (1,780 lbs. ) of 3 in. spikes. 
 •• •« •* 15 kegs (3. 1 H» lbs. ) of 4.\ in. spikes. 
 
 ** " " 20 kfga {'A,{m lbs.) of 4^ in. spikes. 
 
 " ♦' *• 2,(>40 cross-ties (2 ft. apart). 
 
 *« •♦ " 528 splice-joints (2 bars, 4 bolts and 
 
 nuts per joint) each weighing 5 to 10 lbs. 
 An acre is 41^.560 sq, ft. 
 
 1,000 ft. n.M. of dry white pine = 4,0('0 lbs. 
 1,000 ft. H.M. of green white pine = 6,000 lbs. 
 A column water, 1 8(| in. base, 27.7 in high = 1 lb. pressure, 
 A miner's inch is 22(>0.8 cubic ft. in 24 hours, under 7 in. head, 
 discharging through a 2 inch square opening in a 3 inch plank, 
 the outer inch of the orifice being chamfered. '1 his equals about 
 10,800 gals. The average miner's inch in California equals 
 100 cubic feet per hour. 
 
 Approximate rule for changing scjuare feet into acres. — Multi- 
 ply the number of square feet by 23, and place the decimal point 
 between the 6th and 7th figure from the right. 
 
 Weight of a Winchester Bushel in lb. Avoirdupois. 
 
 Lb?. 
 
 Apples, dried 22 
 
 Anthracite 80 
 
 Barley , 48 
 
 Beans 60 
 
 Beets . . , 60 
 
 Bituminous coal 76 
 
 Bran 20 
 
 Buckwheat '. 48 
 
 Carrots 60 
 
 Cement, Kosendale Hydraulic 76 
 
 " Louisville 62 
 
 Portland 96 
 
 Charcoal, hard wood 30 
 
 Clover seed 60 
 
 Coke . . 40 
 
 Corn, in ear 70 
 
 Corn, shelled 56 
 
 Flax seed 56 
 
 Hemp seed 44 
 
Useful Tnfohmation and Tables. 117 
 
 WeiyfU of a Wincheater Bushel iti lb. Avoirdupois. 
 
 Lime, loose 70 
 
 Malt 38 
 
 Oats, U. S 32 
 
 " Canada 34 
 
 • Onions 60 
 
 Peas 60 
 
 Potaioea 60 
 
 Hye 50 
 
 Salt 66 
 
 Timothy seed, U. S 46 
 
 *♦ Canada 48 
 
 Turnips 60 
 
 Wheat 60 
 
 1 Quintal tish = 100 pounds (avoir.). 
 
 1 Barrel flour =196 ** 
 
 1 Barrel salt =280 " 
 
 1 Cental =100 " 
 
 1 Barrel pork =200 " 
 
 1 Barrel beef =200 '* 
 
 1 Keg powder = 25 ** 
 
 1 Pig of lead or iron = 21 J stone = 301 
 
 <i 
 
 Lumber. 
 
 Sawn lumber and timber is almost universally sold in Canada 
 by board measure. The foot board measure is the equivalent of 
 a board 12 in. long, 12 in. wide, and 1 in. thick, and is denoted 
 1 ft. B.M. To Hnd the contents of sawn lumber or timber in feet 
 B.M., multiply the length in inches by the width in inches by 
 the thickness in inches, and divide by 144. If the length is in 
 feet, divide by 12. Illustration : Given 1 board 12 ft. long by 
 10 in. wide by 1 in. thick, we have ^j^^^^^=\0 ft. B.M. Or, 
 given a stick 20 ft. long by 10 in. wide by 8 in. thick, we have 
 ^^Vk--^ = 13.3Mt. B.M. 
 
 Logs and round timber are generally purchased and sold by 
 board measure. Rule : From tlie diameter of the log in inches 
 deduct 4 and multiply the remainder by half itself ; multiply 
 that proiluct by the length of the log and divide by 8 ; the 
 qnotient is the feet, B.M., required. If the log is over 20 ft. 
 long, find the average diameter ; if less, take diameter at small 
 end only. 
 
 Shingles — Best are of white cedar. Shingles are packed 250 to 
 the bundle, or 4 bundles to 1 ,000. 
 
 1 bundle 16 inch shingles will cover 30 sq. ft. 
 1 «« 18 ♦' " " " 33 " '* 
 
118 
 
 Useful Information and Tables. 
 
 Weight in Pounds of 1 Cubic Foot. 
 
 AlumiDium. .. . 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 Bronze 
 
 Brass 
 
 Copper 
 
 Gold 
 
 Iron, wrought. 
 Iron, cast .... 
 
 Lead 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Platinum 
 
 Silver 
 
 Steel 
 
 Tin 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Barite 
 
 Cerussite 
 
 Chalcocite . . . 
 Chalcopyrite.. . 
 
 Galena 
 
 Hematite 
 
 Limonite 
 
 Magnetite 
 
 Pyrites 
 
 Zinc Blende . . . 
 
 Quartz 
 
 Quartz, broken. 
 
 166 
 419 
 613 
 534 
 524 
 540 
 
 1200 
 480 
 450 
 708 
 849 
 
 1344 
 654 
 490 
 455 
 437 
 277 
 400 
 356 
 262 
 468 
 325 
 250 
 338 
 312 
 250 
 165 
 95-100 
 
 Anthracite coal 
 
 Anthra. coal, broken 
 
 Bituminous coal 
 
 Bitum. coal, broken. 
 
 Brick, common 
 
 " pressed & fire. 
 
 Clay 
 
 Charcoal, hardwood. 
 
 ' * pine 
 
 Coke (loose) 
 
 Glass 
 
 Granite 
 
 Gravel, in bank 
 
 dry 
 
 Ice 
 
 Limestone . 
 
 Marble 
 
 Oak, dry 
 
 Pine, dry yellow 
 
 Pine, dry white 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 Slate 
 
 Soil or sand (loose) . . 
 
 Soil, common 
 
 Soil, strong 
 
 Tallow 
 
 Water, pure 
 
 " sea 
 
 / 
 
 85-100 
 
 50- 55 
 
 . 80 
 
 50 
 
 100-125 
 
 150 
 
 119 
 
 20- 35 
 
 IS 
 
 30 
 
 170 
 
 170 
 
 111 
 
 74 
 
 57^ 
 
 168 
 
 171 
 
 55 
 
 42 
 
 30 
 
 140 
 
 175 
 
 80- 95 
 
 90 
 
 - 95 
 
 59 
 
 62i 
 
 40 
 
 Power, Fuel, Etc. 
 
 A Horse Power (H.P.) = 33,00() lbs. raised 1 ft. per minute. 
 
 To find the H. P. of a steam engine, multiply together the 
 area of piston in sq. in. , the meati pressure of steam in lbs. per 
 sq. in., the length of stroke in feet, and the number of strokes 
 per min., and divide the product by 33, OCX). 
 
 One ton of coal = 1 1 cords of dry hard wood, 
 = 2 " *' ' soft '* 
 
 Compound engines use from 1 1 to 3 lbs. of coal per H. P. per 
 ho.ur ; expansive condensing engines, 4 to 7 lbs. 
 
 Rainfall. 
 
 1 in. rainfall per hour = I cubic ft. per sec. per acre. 
 Inches of rainfall x 2,323,200 = cubic feet per sq. mile. 
 
 (< 
 
 Uh 
 
 = millions of gallons per sq. mile. 
 
Useful Information and Tables. 
 
 119 
 
 Measurement of Water. 
 
 To determine approximately the flow of water in a stream, the 
 following method may be employed. When the cross-section of 
 the channel is moderately uniform, depths are measured at regular 
 iDtervals across the stream ; the average depth thus determined, 
 multiphed by the width, gives the sectional area of the flowing 
 stream : multiply this product by the velocity in feet per min. 
 and the result will be cubic feet per min. The velocity may be 
 found by measuring off a distance of 100 or 200 ft. along the 
 bank, throwing ih floats, and noting the time they take in tra- 
 versing it. Ex. — A stream which is 20 ft. wide is sounded every 
 2 ft. in a line from bank to bank, and gives depths of 3, 5, 7, 8, 
 10, 10, 9, 7, and 4 inches; the sum of the 9 soundings is 63 
 inches, or an average depth of 7 inches. The velocity is 300 
 ft per min. Then the flow will be ^V x 20 x 300 cub. ft. per 
 min. = 3500 c. ft. per min. 
 
 The following table gives the Horse Power of 1 cubic ft. of 
 water per min. under heads from 1 to 1100 ft. (head being the 
 vertical height through which the water falls). Table based on 
 efficiency of 85%. 
 
 Heads in Fket. 
 
 HORSK POWKR. 
 
 Heads in Fbet. 
 
 Horse Power. 
 
 10 
 
 .0016098 
 
 320 
 
 .616136 
 
 80 
 
 .032196 
 
 330 
 
 .631234 
 
 80 
 
 .048294 
 
 340 
 
 .547332 
 
 40 
 
 .064392 
 
 350 
 
 .663430 
 
 fiO 
 
 .080490 
 
 860 
 
 .579528 
 
 60 
 
 .096588 
 
 370 
 
 .596626 
 
 70- 
 
 .112686 
 
 380 
 
 .611724 
 
 80 
 
 .128784 
 
 390 
 
 .627822 
 
 00 
 
 .144892 
 
 400 
 
 .643920 
 
 100 
 
 .160980 
 
 410 
 
 .660018 
 
 no 
 
 .177078 
 
 420 
 
 .676116 
 
 120 
 
 .193176 
 
 430 
 
 .692204 
 
 130 
 
 .209274 
 
 440 
 
 .708312 
 
 140 
 
 .225372 
 
 450 
 
 .724410 
 
 150 
 
 .241470 
 
 400 
 
 .740608 
 
 160 
 
 .257568 
 
 470 
 
 .766606 
 
 170 
 
 .273666 
 
 480 
 
 .772704 
 
 180 
 
 .289764 
 
 480 
 
 .788802 
 
 190 
 
 .305862 
 
 500 
 
 .804900 
 
 200 
 
 .321960 
 
 680 
 
 .837096 
 
 210 
 
 .338058 
 
 540 
 
 .869292 
 
 220 
 
 .354156 
 
 660 
 
 .901488 
 
 230 
 
 .370254 
 
 680 
 
 .933684 
 
 240 
 
 .386352 
 
 600 
 
 .965880 
 
 250 
 
 .402450 
 
 660 
 
 1.046370 
 
 260 
 
 .418548 
 
 700 
 
 1.126860 
 
 270 
 
 .434646 
 
 760 
 
 1.207350 
 
 280 
 
 .450744 
 
 800 
 
 1.287840 
 
 290 
 
 .466842 
 
 900 
 
 1.448820 
 
 300 
 
 .482940 
 
 1000 
 
 1.609800 
 
 310 
 
 .499038 
 
 1100 
 
 1.770780 
 
120 UsKFUL Information and Tables. 
 
 Pelton wheels are economical sources of power for heads over 
 30 ft., yet if not more than 10 to 20 horse-power is wanted they 
 are cheaper and more efficient than turbine and other wheels 
 under heads not higher than 15 to 20 ft. For high heads (over 
 100 ft.) peltons are unrivalled, and the largest to the smallest 
 stream may then be utilized, and turned into electric power for 
 hoisting aad other purposes at a distance. 
 
 Workshop Recipes. 
 
 Cement for Cast Iron. — Two ounces of sal-ammoniac, one ounce 
 sulphur, and 16 ounces of borings or filings of cast iron, to be 
 mixed well in a mortar and kept dry. When required for use, 
 take 1 part of this powder to 20 parts of clear iron borings or 
 filings, mix thoroughly in a mortar ; make the mixture into stiff 
 paste with a little water, and then it is ready for use. A little 
 tine grindstone sand improves the cement. 
 
 Red Lead Cement for Face Joints, — Equal parts of white and 
 red lead, mixed with linseed oil to the proper consistency. 
 
 Cement — Steam Boiler. — Litharge in fine powder 2 parts, very 
 fine sand and quicklime (that has been allowed to slack spontane- 
 ously in a damp place) of each 1 part. Mix and keep it from the 
 air. Used to mend cracks in boilers and to secure steam joints. 
 It is made into a paste with boiled oil before application. 
 
 Cement — Steam Pipe. — (jlood linseed oil varnish is ground Mith 
 equal weights of white lead, oxide of manganese and pipe clay. 
 
 Cement — Hydraidic. — IVlade by slacking lime with water con- 
 taining about 2 per cent, of gypsum, and adding a little sand to 
 the product. 
 
 Cement — Cutlers'. — Black resin 4 parts, beeswax 1 part, finely 
 powdered brick dust 1 part. Mix well. Used to fix tools in their 
 handles. 
 
 Cement — Leather. — Gutta-percha 1 lb., caoutchouc 4 ozs., pitch 
 2 ozs., shellac 1 oz., linseed oil 2 ozs. Melted together. Must be 
 melted before being applied. Used for uniting leather or rubber. 
 
 Brazing. — The edges filed or scraped clean and bright, covered 
 with spelter and powdered borax, and exposed in a clear fire to a 
 heat sufficient to melt solder. 
 
 Fluxes for Soldering or Welding. 
 
 For iron or steel, borax or sal-ammoniac. 
 
 For tinned iron, resin or chloride of zinc. 
 
 For copper and brass, sal-ammoniac or chloride of zinc. 
 
 For zinc, chloride of zinc. 
 
 For lead, tallow or resin. 
 
 For lead and tin pipes, resin and sweet oil. 
 
Useful Information and Tables. 
 
 121 
 
 Workshop Recipes. 
 
 Allots. 
 
 si' 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 • 
 
 1 
 
 K 
 
 S5 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 
 « 
 
 >- 
 
 K 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 SB 
 
 < 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 • 
 
 B 
 
 n 
 
 Babbitt 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 112 
 
 64 
 
 20 
 
 32 
 
 2 
 65 
 
 3' 
 
 1 
 90 
 
 3 
 1 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 3 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 Bell-metal 
 
 
 Brass, eng'ine bearings 
 
 
 " locomotive bearines 
 
 
 •' tough, engine work 
 
 " " heavy bearings 
 
 
 " yellow, turning 
 
 
 " straps and glands 
 
 
 Metal which expands in cooling 
 
 1 
 
 Muntz' sheathing 
 
 
 Pewter 
 
 
 Spelter 
 
 
 Statuarv bronze 
 
 
 T\T>e metal 
 
 
 Fi>r soldering — 
 
 Brazing, hardest. . 
 
 
 hard 
 
 
 " soft 
 
 
 (< i> 
 
 
 Lead 
 
 
 Pewter 
 
 
 Tin 
 
 
 
 
 Rules for Obtaining Approximate Weight of Iron. 
 
 For Bound Bars. 
 
 Bale. — Multiply the square of the diameter in inches by the 
 length in feet, and that product by 2.6. The product will be the 
 weight in pounds, nearly. 
 
 For Square and Flat Bars. 
 
 Bale. — Multiply the area of the end of the bar in iiiches by the 
 length in feet, and that by 3.32. The product will be weight in 
 pounds, nearly. 
 
 Table of Values. 
 
 Aluminium 50c. per lb. 
 
 Antimony 7c. per lb. 
 
 Copper 1 He. per lb. 
 
 Gold $20 per oz. 
 
 Graphite (average) 4|c. per lb. 
 
 " (foundry) 2c. per lb. 
 
 Lead 2^ to 3^c. per lb. 
 
 Mercury 50c. per lb. 
 
122 Useful Information and Tablks 
 
 Table of Values. 
 
 Nickel 36c. per lb. 
 
 riatinum $15 per oz. 
 
 Silver 65c. per oz. 
 
 Spelter 4c. per lb. 
 
 Tin 13|c. per lb. 
 
 Tungsten 70c. per lb. 
 
 Fly Oil. 
 
 Fill an 8 oz. bottle with equal parts of sweet oil and oil of tar, 
 and add 20 to 25 drops of oil of creosote. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 Abi/ssal, applied to rocks formed under pressure at great depth, 
 
 and cooled slowly. 
 Abstrich, a mass of black litharge appearing on the bath of lead 
 
 early in cupelling. 
 Adit, a horizontal or slightly rising passage into a mine. 
 Afterdamp, a gas remaining along the vein after an explosion of 
 
 fire-damp. 
 Aitch- piece, parts of a pump in which the valves are fixed. . 
 All re, productive. 
 
 Alloy, a mixture of two or more metals. 
 Alluoions, deposits of alluvium. 
 
 Alluvium, silt sand, gravel, etc., deposited by streams. 
 kmalgamation, absorption of gold and silver by mercury. 
 Amorphous, having no regular form. 
 Amifgdaloid, igneous rock, in which the almond-shaped cells have 
 
 been filled by kernels of quartz, calcite, etc. 
 Anhydrous, containing no water. 
 
 Anneal, toughening by first heating and then cooling slowly. 
 Anticlinal, a fold of rock, or strata, convex upwards — the reverse 
 
 of S3'nclinal, 
 
 Apex, edge of vein at the surface. 
 Aprons, copper plates in front of stamp battery. 
 Arch, portion of vein left, to support the hanging wall, or 
 
 because it is too poor. 
 Arenaceous, sandy. 
 Argentiferous, silver bearing. 
 irgillaceous, clayey. 
 ir77i, inclined leg of a set of timber. 
 hrastra, a Mexican amalgamating mill. A round stone-paved 
 
 pit in which the ore is ground and amalgamated by dragging 
 
 heavy flat stones in a circle. Usually by mule power. 
 issessment work, annual work necessary to hold a claim. 
 iiu'i/erous, gold bearing. 
 
 kck, vein lying between a level and the surface. 
 kcking, timbers let into notches across the top of a level. 
 ack shift, afternoon shift. 
 alance-bob, a counterweight for pump rods. 
 kiik, (1) surface at mouth of shaft, (2) deposit worked above 
 water level, (3) coal face. 
 
 kr-diggingsy alluvial gold claims in shallow streams. 
 krrel'Work, native copper that can be hand-sorted. 
 
 123 
 
124 Glossary. 
 
 Basque, furnace or crucible lining. 
 
 Bate.a, a bowl for separating metal from refuie. 
 
 Battery, a set of stamp-heads working in the same mortar-box. 
 
 Bed, a mineral seam between rock strata. 
 
 Bed-rock, solid rock beneath alluvions. 
 
 Bede, miner's pick. 
 
 Belt, a zone or band of strata of ^ particular kind exposed on the 
 
 surface. 
 Black-band, a carbonate of iron found in coal deposits. 
 Black copper, impure smelted copper. 
 Black damp, carbonic (acid) oxide gas. 
 Black ends, refuse coke. 
 
 Black Jlux, charcoal and potassium carbonate. 
 Black jack, zinc blende. 
 Black lead, graphite. 
 
 Black Hand, magnetite and dark minerals found with alluvial gold. 
 Blanched copper, copper alloyed with arsenic. 
 Blanket-sirake, sloping tables or sluices lined with baize for 
 
 catching gold. 
 Blick, a flash of light from the cooling gold or silver bead at the 
 
 end of cupellation . 
 Blind level, (1) an incomplete drift ; (2) drainage level. 
 Blind lead or lode, a vein having no outcrop. 
 Bloomary, a forge for making wrought iron. 
 Blossom, decomposed outcrop of a vein, etc. 
 Blower, a discharge of gas from coal ; also a ventilating fan. 
 Blow-out, a decomposed mineral explosure of a vein. 
 Blue^billy, residue of copper pyrites after roasting with salt. 
 Blue lead, a rich blue stained stratum of gravel. 
 Blue stone, copper sulphate. 
 Booming, prospecting by laying ground bare by sudden discharges 
 
 of dammed water. 
 Botryoidal, in grape-like clusters. 
 Brattice, used in levels or shafts ; a partition to separate air 
 
 currents. 
 Breast, face of a gallery or heading. 
 Buddie, a circular tub for separating line ores from waste, by 
 
 means of water. 
 
 Bulling-har, a bar to pound clay into crevices crossing drill-holes. 
 Buntins, timbers placed horizontally across a shaft. 
 Butt, the end faces of coal. 
 
 Calcareous, limey. 
 
 Calciferous, lime-bearing. 
 
 Calcining, roasting ajjplied to ores. 
 
 Cam, a curved projection on a revolving shaft for moving another 
 
 part of the machinery. 
 Cam-shaft, the shaft to which cams are attached. 
 
(Il()S3Ary. 125 
 
 Cap, rock covering ore. 
 
 Carhonaceou.% coaly. 
 
 CarhoniferonSf coal-bearing. 
 
 Cnsiug, lining of shaft or well-hole to prevent caving. 
 
 Chimney, an ore shoot. 
 
 Cholie-damp, carbonic acid gas. 
 
 Chute, shoot, shiite, a timbered incline for throwing down ore and 
 
 rock ; also a body of pay ore following a certain direction. 
 Claim, a portion of mining ground lieid under one grant. 
 Clastic, applied to rocks composed of pieces broken down from 
 
 pre-existing rocks. 
 Ch<in-up, collecting the product periodically of a battery or 
 
 sluice. 
 Cleat, a joint in rock ; a wedge. 
 Goh, to break up ore for sorting. 
 
 Column-pipe, pipe through which mine water is pumped. 
 Colors, particles of gold found in panning. 
 Couce'ntrates, the heavy sulphide minerals, etc., which has been 
 
 separated from the worthless rock matter by concentrators. 
 Concretions, particles compounded in one mass. 
 Contact-vein, a vein between rock masses of different characters. 
 Counter, a cross- vein. 
 Country, Country Rock, the main rock of the region through which 
 
 the veins cut. 
 Course, horizontal direction : see Strike. 
 Crah, an iron windlass for moving heavy weights. 
 Cradle, a wooden trough for washing gold sands, usually on 
 
 rockers. 
 Qreepy a gradual movement of rock due to removal of support by 
 
 excavation. 
 Crib, a timber frame. 
 Crop, outcrop, a surface exposure. 
 Cross-course, an intersecting vein. 
 Cross-cut, a horizontal passage driven through country rock to the 
 
 vein. 
 Crow-foot, a tool for drawing broken boring rods. 
 Culm, fine waste coal and dirt. 
 Curb, a timber frame supporting the shaft lining. 
 Cupriferous, bearing copper. 
 
 Dam, a barrier for water or gases. 
 
 Damp, carbonic acid gas. _ • 
 
 Day-shift, a gang c? miners working during the day. 
 
 Dead, valueless, sluggish. 
 
 Dead quartz, that carrying no mineral. 
 
 Dead work, exploratory work not directly productive. 
 
 Dead roasting ^voB&tmg till all sulphur is driyen off. 
 
126 Glossahy. 
 
 Deliquescent, liquefying in the air. 
 
 Dip, pitch, the angle made by a plane of rock with the horizontal. 
 
 Dolly, a primitive stamp for crushing ore. 
 
 Dowel, a straight pin of wood or metal inserted part way into 
 
 each of two faces, which it unites. 
 Drag, the point of union of two vc* 3 which meet without 
 
 crossing. 
 Drift, a subterraneous horizontal passage, properly with neither 
 
 end to daylight. 
 Driving, excavating drifts, adits, or levels. 
 Dropper, a stringer leaving the vein on the foot- wall side. 
 Drum,, the cylinder on which the hoist-rope is wound. 
 Dry Orea, applied to silver ores high in silver, low in lead. 
 Dump, a heap of ore or waste. 
 Dyke, a fissure tilled with igneous rock. 
 
 Exfoliate, to break off in scales. 
 
 Efflorescent, to form dust or powder, or to be covered with a 
 feAthery incrustation. 
 
 Face, the exposure of rock at which work is being done. 
 
 Fahlhand, a course of country impregnated with metallic 
 sulphides. 
 
 Fault, a dislocation of the vein. 
 
 Feeder, a small vein leading into the main vein. 
 
 Ferruginous, iron-bearing. 
 
 Fire-damp, carburetted hydrogen gas. 
 
 Fire-setting, to break by exposing to great heat. 
 
 Fissure-vein, a vein cutting massive or stratified rocks (in latter 
 case, independent of their bedding). 
 
 Float, pieces of vein matter lying upon the surface, distant from 
 or near the vein. 
 
 Floor, the rock upon which a mineral bed rests. 
 
 Flouring, the breaking up and contamination of mercury, render- 
 ing it useless for amalgamating. 
 
 Foot-wall, the rock face on the lower side of the vein. 
 
 Flume, a water conduit, usually of wood. 
 
 Fossicking, casual and unsystematic mining. 
 
 Free-milling, gold or silver ores requiring no roasting or chemical 
 treatment. 
 
 Gad, an iron or steel wedge for splitting rock. 
 
 Gallery, a horizontal passage. 
 
 Gallows-frame, frame supporting a pulley fo» hoisting-rope. 
 
 Gangu£, the barren portion of a mineral deposit. 
 
 Gangway, the principal level of a coal mine. 
 
 Ganister, furnace lining composed of fire clay and quartz. 
 
Glossary. 127 
 
 Onnh-vein, one which extends only a short distance. 
 
 Oirif whim. 
 
 Ooaf, worked out ground, usually filled with waste (gob). 
 
 Qohhing-up^ filling with waste. 
 
 Gossan^ the outcrop stained by decomposed sulphides of iron 
 
 (limonite). 
 Gouge, a soft clayey material or decomposed rock between the 
 
 vein and its wall. 
 Grass-rootH, surface. 
 Grizzly, an iron grating for separating large pieces of r9ck from 
 
 the finer. 
 Guide, timbers nailed to the shaft-timbers for guiding the cage. 
 Gun-boat, a skip ; a self-dumping box used in slopes. 
 
 Eanging-iuall , the wall of rock above the vein. 
 
 Head-gear, a derrick. 
 
 Heave, see Fault. 
 
 Helve, an axe-handle. 
 
 Hewer, a coal miner. 
 
 Hitch, a dislocation of a vein. Also a shoulder cut in the rock to 
 
 support the end of a stuU or other timber. 
 Holing, grooving the lower part of a coal seam preparatory to 
 
 breaking down the upper mass. 
 Hopper, a funnel-shaped box. 
 Horse, a mass of country rock in a vein. 
 H-piece, see Aitch-piece. 
 Hungry, worthless looking. 
 Hydraulicking, working auriferous gravel beds by a column of 
 
 water directed under pressure against the bank. 
 
 Incline., an entry into a mine following the dip. 
 
 In place, applied to a vein or deposit in its original position. 
 
 Inter-bedded, lying between two beds of strata. 
 
 Intrusive, applied to igneous rocks forced into the midst of others. 
 
 Iron-hat, iron-cap; gossan. 
 
 Jar, that part of the drilling apparatus which takes the shock 
 
 when the tools hit the bottom of the hole. 
 Jigging, separating heavy from light particles by agitation in 
 
 water on a jig. 
 
 Kibble, an iron ore bucket. 
 Kirving, see^ Holing. 
 
 Lagging, slabs of timber between the main timber sets and the 
 
 roof or walls. 
 launder f water trough. ^ 
 
128 Glossary. 
 
 Lend, a term aj)plied to veins. 
 
 Level, a subterraneous horizontal passage. 
 
 Lift, all the mine workings connected with, opened from, and 
 
 mined out at one level (stope). Also length of pump sliaft 
 
 between stations. 
 Live quartz, well-mineralized quartz. 
 Location, a mining claim. 
 Lode, a vein carrying mineral. 
 
 Longwall, a system of coal mining without leaving any pillars. 
 Long-torn, a gold washing trough. 
 
 Mattock, pick. 
 
 Mamm'ilated, having little? globules or beads. 
 
 Matrix, the rock matter enclosing any particular fragments, 
 
 crystals or minerals. 
 Measures, a term embracing a strata of a geological series. 
 At eta f lifer 0U.S, carrying metal. 
 
 Metamorphic, applied to rocks altered by heat or pressure. 
 Miners^ inch, the unit for measuring water, equals 90 to 100 cubic 
 
 feet per hour, used mainly by hydraulic miners. 
 Moil, a wedge-pointed drill used for cutting hitches. 
 Mortar-box, the cast-iron box in which the stamps work in 
 
 stamp mills. 
 
 « 
 
 Nitro, nitro-glycerine ; dynamite. 
 
 Ore-shoot, ore-chute; same as Chute. 
 Outcrop, see Crop. 
 Output, product of a mine. 
 
 Panning, to obtain gold or heavy minerals by washing crushed 
 
 rock or earth in a pan. 
 Parting, a joint, crevice or seam in the rock, filled with clay or 
 
 slate ; a switch to allow loaded and empty cars to pass one 
 
 another. 
 Pay streak, the portion of a vein which possesses value. 
 Pikty a pick. 
 
 Pinch, a narrowing in a vein. 
 Pipe, an elongated body of ore ; also fossil tree-trunks in coal 
 
 seams. 
 Pitch, see Dip. 
 
 Pillars, portions of vein or bed left to support the roof. 
 Placer, mineral, usually gold, accumulated by the wash of 
 
 streams. 
 Plane, an inclined tramway for lowering by gravity or raising by 
 
 stationary engine. 
 PUUt a platform, a turn-table. 
 
Glossary. 129 
 
 Pocket, a rich isolated body of ore in a vein. 
 
 Poling, a system of timbering for soft ground. 
 
 Poll-pick, pick and hammer head combined. 
 
 Poppet, puppet. Pulley frame or head gear over a shaft. Also 
 an unhinged valve. 
 
 Power drill, a rook drill employing steam, air or electricity as a 
 motor. 
 
 Prop, a timber or metal support for roof or wall. 
 
 Prospect, a property, the workings of which have not yet dis- 
 closed ore in paying quantities. 
 
 Pulp, crushed ore, wet or dry. 
 
 Quick, soft running ground. Ore is said to be quickening when 
 the associated minerals indicate richer mineral ahead. 
 
 Reacher, a prop from one wall to another. 
 
 Reamer, a tool for enlarging holes. 
 
 Rerf, a gold-bearing quartz vein ; a vein projecting above the 
 
 surface. 
 Refractory, not free-milling ; also applied to ores difficult of 
 
 reduction. , 
 
 Reticulated, net-like. 
 
 Rih, a pillar of vein matter left to support roof or wall. 
 Rick, an open heap in which coal is coked. 
 Riddle, a perforated box used in alluvial mining for screening 
 
 coarse gravel. 
 
 Uffle, a groove or check on the floor of a sluice to catch gold. 
 Rimrock, bed rock forming a boundary to gravel deposit. 
 Robbing, taking the mineral from pillars in a mine. 
 Rocker, see Cradle. 
 Room, a working place in a flat mine corresponding to stope in a 
 
 steep vein. 
 
 Saddle, the ridge of a stratum or ore-bed ; an anticline. 
 
 ^and pump, a valved cylinder for removing mud from bore-holes. 
 
 Scraper,, a tool for cleaning out drill- holes. 
 
 kam, a layer of mineral, generally interbedded, usually applied to 
 
 coal. 
 Selvage, gouge. 
 Set, Sett, a timber frame. 
 Shaft, a vertical opening from the surface. 
 Sheave, a grooved wheel over which a rope is turned. 
 Shift, the time during which one gang works in a mine — from 6 to 
 
 10 hours. 
 
 Shoot, to break rock with explosives. 
 Shute, chute. 
 Sickening, flouring. 
 
 9 
 
•iQQ OliOSSAHY. 
 
 Sill, the H(U)r-])icco of a timber set. 
 
 Silt, soft tine mud deposited ))y water. 
 
 SkirnpimjH, the poorest ore skimmed ott the jig. 
 
 Skip, a ear tor raising ore. 
 
 Slack, small <lirt or coal. 
 
 Stan, the refuse product from smelting. 
 
 StirkrtmdcM, the polished and striated surface of fissure walls. 
 
 Slimefi, the mud produced from ore-crushing. 
 
 Slip, fault. 
 
 Slitter, a pick. 
 
 Slope, an incline, entry to a mine. 
 
 SItuhje, slimes. 
 
 Sludger, see Sand pump. .^, .^ ^ ^ , , , . ,, . , 
 
 Sluice-hox, a long Hume with ritties to catch gold in alluvial 
 
 mining. 
 Sniift, a slow burning fuse. 
 Sollar, platform, landing. 
 Spall, to break ore for dressing. 
 Spills, a temporary lagging driven ahead on levels, in loose ground. 
 Spears, pump-rods. 
 
 Spoon, a cup at end of a rod for cleaning out holes. 
 Spray, a piece of wood used to block the wheels of a car juiil 
 
 check its speed. 
 Spar, crystalline vein stones. 
 Spur, an offshoot or branch vein. 
 Square sett, a system of timbering in mines. 
 Squeeze, creep. 
 
 Squih, smift. i • , 
 
 Stochverke, country rock networked by veins and mined in thi 
 
 mass. 
 Slope, to excavate mineral in a series of steps. 
 Stowing, the waste thrown back by miners to support roof o: 
 
 hanging wail. 
 Strike, course. Horizontal direction, applied to veins or strata. 
 String-rods, a line of rigidly connected rods for transmifctin| 
 
 power. 
 Stringer, a narrow vein. 
 Strake, an inclined table or trough for separating mineral from 
 
 refuse. 
 Stamp-mill, a crushing mill for reducing ores of gold, silver, tin 
 
 copper, etc. 
 Stull, a stick of timber, or platform, for supporting miners o 
 
 waste. 
 Stull-dirt, material supported on stuUs. 
 Sulphurets, applied to sulphide minerals in milling ores. 
 Sump, the lowest point of the mine workings, from which th 
 
 water is pumped. 
 
Glossary. 131 
 
 Swah-sticky a stick frayed at one end for cleaning out holes. 
 Synclinal, the trough formed by folded strata, the reverse of 
 anticlinal. 
 
 Tailings, the refuse from crushing-mills or concentrators. 
 
 Tamping, making a loaded hole tight with clay. 
 
 Terrane, a group of strata. 
 
 Throw, fault. 
 
 Till, hard pan, boulder clay. 
 
 Tribute, a system of paying miners according to value of ore 
 
 which thev extract. 
 Trouble, fault. 
 Tuberose, bulb-like. 
 Tunnel, a horizontal entry to a mine, across country rock. 
 
 Underholing, see Holing. 
 
 Upcast, an opening through which air rises. 
 
 Upraise, a secondary passage from one level up to another. 
 
 Van, to dress or concentrate ore. 
 
 Vanner, a concentrating machine. ' 
 
 Vug, a cavity in a rock. 
 
 Wall-plate, the long horizontal stick in a shaft-timbering frame 
 
 and parallel with the vein. 
 Wet Ores, applied to silver ores, high in lead, and low in silver. 
 Whim, a horizontally revolving drum for winding hoisting rope, 
 
 operated by a horse. 
 Whip, a hoisting rope supported by a pulley operated directly by 
 
 a horse. 
 Winch, windlass, a hoisting drum operated by hand. 
 WinzCt a secondary opening sunk from a level. '^ 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Minerals described under Mineralogy are printed in italics. 
 
 Abbreviations, 21 
 Abyssal rocks, 9 
 Actinolite, 50 
 Adits, 78 
 
 Aerial tramways, 88, 89 
 Agate, 47 
 Alabaster, 41 
 Alhite, 54 
 Albertite, 64 
 Allophane, 58 
 Alluvial prospecting, 72 
 Almandite, 51 
 Aluminium, 37 
 A lum stone, 38 
 Alunogen, 38 
 Alunite, 38 
 Amalgam, 96, 100 
 Amalgamation pans, 101 
 Amber, 64 
 Amblygonite, 38 
 Amethystine qxiartz, 46 
 Amphibole, 50 
 Amphigene, 54 
 Analcite, 59 
 4?ida^wsi7e, 55 
 Anglesite, 28 
 Anhydrite, 41 
 Anhydrous bisilicates, 48 
 Anhydrous unisilicates, 51 
 il nimikite, 24 
 Anorthite, 54 
 Anorthosite, 9 
 Anthracite, 65 
 Anthraxolite, 64 
 Antimony, 2.2. 
 Apatite, 42 
 Apophyllite, 67 
 
 Apron plate, 100 
 Aragonite, 43 
 Archean, 1, 2, 3 
 Argentite, 23 
 Argillite, 9 
 Arquerite, 24 
 Arsenic, 21 
 Arsenical 2>yrites, 34 
 Arsenical nickel, 32 
 Arsenolite, 22 
 Arsenopyrite, 34 
 Asbestus, 49, 50, 61 
 Asbolite, 32 
 Asphaltum, 64 
 Assay, for gold. Rough, 69 
 Atacfimite, 26 
 Augite, 49 
 
 Aventurine quartz, 46 
 Axinite, 52 
 Azoic, 2 
 Azurite, 27 
 
 Balance, Assay, 69, 70 
 
 Barite, 43 
 
 Barium, 33 
 
 Barytes, 43 
 
 Basalt, 10 
 
 Battery, Stamp, 99, 100 
 
 Bauxite, 38 
 
 ^ert/i, 50 
 
 Bessemer process. 111 
 
 Biotite, 52 
 
 Bisilicates, Anhydrous, 48 
 
 Bismuth, 22 
 
 Bismuthinite, 22 
 
 Bitumen, Elastic, 64 
 
 Bituminous coal, 65 
 
 133 
 
134 
 
 Index. 
 
 Black copper, 26 
 Blackjack, 29 
 Black lead, 23 
 Black powder, 80, 81 
 Black sand, 72 
 Black silver, 24 
 Blacksmithing, 84 
 Blanket, 71 
 Blasting, 80 
 Blende, 29 
 Bloodstone, 47 
 Blow-outs, 67 
 Blowpipe, 13, 14, 15 
 Blueite, 31 
 Blue vitriol, 26 
 Bog iron ore, 35 
 Bog manganese, 37 
 Booming, 66 
 Boracite, 40 
 Borax, 45 
 Boring, 89 
 Boron, 21 
 Bomite, 26 
 Boss head. Stamp, lOO 
 Boulders, 5 
 Boumonite, 26 
 Breaker, Rock, 97 
 Breccia, 8 
 
 Brittle silver ore, 24 
 Bromination, 105 
 Bronzite, 48 
 Brown coal, 65 
 Brown hematite, 35 
 Brown ochre, 35 
 Brucite, 40 
 Buckets, 87 
 Buddie, 105 
 
 Cacoxenite, 36 
 Cadmium, 30 
 Cages, 87 
 
 Cairngorm stone, 46 
 Caking coal, 65 
 Calamine, 30 
 Calcareous rocks, 7, 9 
 Calcium, 40 
 
 Calcite, 42 
 
 Ca^c spar, 42 
 
 Cambrian period, 3 
 
 Cam shaft, 100 
 
 Canadian period, 3 
 
 Candles, 89 
 
 Cannel coal, 65 
 
 Caoutchouc, Mineral, 64 
 
 Caps, 81 
 
 Cars, Ore, 87 
 
 Carbon, 6 
 
 Carbon, 23 
 
 Carbonate of soda, 46 
 
 Carbc nates, 6 
 
 Carboniferous 2, 3 
 
 Carnelian, 47 
 
 Cassiterite, 30 
 
 CaVs-eye, 47 
 
 Catskill period, 3 
 
 Celestite, 44 
 
 Cenozoic, 3 
 
 Cerargyrite, 24 
 
 Cerium, 39 
 
 Cerussite, 28 
 
 Chabazite, 59 
 
 Chalcanthite, 26 
 
 Chalcedony, 46 
 
 Chalcocite, 25 
 
 Chalcolite, 33 
 
 Chalcopyrite, 26 
 
 CAaZA;, 43 
 
 Chalk, French, 61 
 
 C^aZfc, iJ«d, 34 
 
 Champlain period, 3 
 
 Characteristics of common miner- 
 als, 18 
 
 Charcoal, 13 
 
 Chemung period, 3 
 
 C/i«r«, 47 
 
 Chloanthite, 32 
 
 Chlorite schist, 8 
 
 Chromite, 35 
 
 Chlorastrolite, 68 
 
 Chlorination, 105 
 
 Chlorite group, 62 
 
 Chloritoid, 63 
 
Inde3C. 
 
 135 
 
 Chromic iron, 36 
 Chrondrodite, 65 
 Chryaoberyl, 38 
 Chrysocolla, 27 
 Chrysoprase, 47 
 Chrysotile, 61 
 Churn-drill, 80 
 Cinnabar, 26 
 Citrine, 46 
 Classification, Geological, 3 
 
 ' ' of minerals, 21 
 
 Classifiers, Hj'draulic, 105 
 Clay, 6, 7. 
 
 Clay iron stone, 34, 35 
 Clay, Pure, 62 
 Cleavage of minerals, 12 
 Clingmanite, 03 
 Coal, Anthracite, 65 
 Coal, Bituminous, 65 
 Coal, Brotvn, 65 
 Coal, Caking, 65 
 Coal, Cannel, 65 
 C(iai, Mineral, 64 
 Coal plants, Age of, 2, 3 
 Cobalt, 31 
 Cobalt bloom, 32 
 Cobalt glance, 32 
 Cobaltite, 32 
 Cockscomb pyntes, 34 
 Colors (of gold), 68, 69 
 Colors for tempering, 85 
 Columbite, 36 
 Common minerals, 18, 19 
 Common Salt, 45 
 Compact limestone, 43 
 Compressor plant, 84 
 Concentration, Fine, 100 
 Concentrating mill, 104 
 Concentrating ores, 102 
 Conglomerates, 7, 8 
 Converters, 110 
 Copper, 25 
 Copperas, 35 
 Copper, Black, 26 
 Copper glance, 26 
 
 Copper, Grey, 26 
 
 Copper nickel, 32 
 
 Copper crep. Milling, 107 
 
 Copper ore. Red, 26 
 
 Copper ore, Vitreous, 25 
 
 Copper plates, 100 
 
 Copper pyrites, 26 
 
 Copper pyrites, Variegated, 26 
 
 Coracite, 33 
 
 Corniferous period, 3 
 
 Cornish rolls, 104 
 
 Corundellite, 63 
 
 Corundum, 37 
 
 Coiichiching, 3 
 
 Cradle, 72 
 
 Cretaceous, 3 
 
 Crocoite, 28 
 
 Crushed zones, 4 
 
 Crusher, Rock, 97 
 
 Crushing rolls, 104 
 
 Cryolite, 38 
 
 Crystalline limestone, 9 
 
 Crystalline rocks, 4, 6, 7 
 
 Cupellation, 17 
 
 Cuprite, 26 
 
 Cyanidation, 105 
 
 Cganite, 56 
 
 Danburite, 52 
 
 Dark red silver ore, 24 
 
 Datolite, 56 
 
 Determination of elements in min- 
 erals, 15 
 
 Detonators, 81 
 
 Development work, 76 
 
 Devonian, 2, 3 
 
 Deweylite, 62 
 
 Diabase, 10 
 
 Diallage, 49 
 
 Diamond, 23 
 
 Diamond drill, 81 
 
 Diatomaceous earth, 48 • 
 
 Dichroite, 52 
 
 Didymium, 39 
 
 Dies, Stamp mill, 99 
 
 Diopside, 49 
 
136 
 
 Index. 
 
 Dioptase, 27 
 Diorite, 9, 10 
 
 " porphyrite, 10 
 Dip, 67 
 Diphanite, 63 
 bitches, 91 
 Dog-tooth spar, 42 
 Dollying, 71 
 
 Dolomite, 43 • 
 
 Domeykite, 26 
 Drift, 5, 76, 78 
 
 " mining, 92 
 Drill, Hand, 80 
 
 •' Machine, 82 
 
 •• Punch, 89 
 Dripstone, 9 
 Dryers, Ore, 102 
 Dyke rocks, 9, 10 
 Dynamite, 80, 81 
 
 Earthy cobalt, 32 
 
 Efjgonite, 30 
 
 Elastic Bitumen, 64 
 
 Elaterite, 64 
 
 Elements, List of, etc., 112 
 
 Eleolite, 53 
 
 Emerald, 50 
 
 Emery, 38 
 
 Emerylite, 63 
 
 Endless rope, 88 
 
 Enstatite, 48 
 
 Eocene, 3 
 
 Epidote, 51 
 
 Epsom salt, Epsomite, 40 
 
 Erbium, 39 
 
 EraOiscite, 26 
 
 Erythrite, 32 
 
 Essonite, 61 
 
 Euclase, 56 
 
 Explosives, 80 
 
 Fahlerz, 26 
 Fahlunite, 62 
 False topaz, 46 
 Faults, Rule of, 5 
 
 Feeder, Automatic, 98 
 
 Feldspar group, 54 
 
 Felsite, 10 
 
 Fibrolite, 56 
 
 Fine concentration, 100 
 
 Fishes, Age of, 3 
 
 Flame, Color of, 13 
 
 Flint, 47 
 
 Float, 66 
 
 Flumes, 91 
 
 FlvLorite, Fluorspar, 40 
 
 Fluxes, 107 
 
 Fly oil, 122 
 
 Folgerite, 31 
 
 Foliated tellurium, 23 
 
 Food supplies. Prospectors', 73 
 
 Form for describing prospect, 74 
 
 Foivlerite, 49 
 
 Fragmental rocks, 6, 7 
 
 Franklinite, 30, 35 
 
 Free milling ores, 96 
 
 French chalk, 61 
 
 Fuel, etc., 118 
 
 Furnace, 101, 109 
 
 Gabbro, 9, 10 
 Galena, Galenite, 28 
 Gallery and pillar, 79 
 G*amet, 51 
 Garnierite, 33, 62 
 Genthite, 33, 62 
 Geology, 1-10. 
 
 " Structural, 1-10. 
 Geological classification, 3 
 Glaciers, 5 
 Glacial period, 3 
 Glass tubing, 13 
 Glauber salt, 46 
 Glauconite, 61 
 Gneiss, 8 
 Gold, 23 
 
 " how occurring, 67 
 
 ♦• mill, 97 
 
 " ores. Concentrating, 102 
 
 •' ores. Free milling, 96 
 
Index. 
 
 137 
 
 Gold, parting, 70 
 
 ** rough assay, 69^70 
 
 «' value, 69 
 Ooslarite, 29 
 Gossan, 67 
 Grammatite, 50 
 Granite, 8, 9, 10 
 Granite porphyry, 10 
 Granular limestone^ 43 
 Granular quartz, 47 
 Graphic tellurium, 24 
 Graphite, 23 
 Gravel, 5, 92 
 
 " beds, 7 
 Gray antimony, 22 
 Gray copper, 26 
 Green earth, 61 
 Green vitriol, 35 
 Greenockite, 30 
 Grizzly, 97 
 Gypsum, 41 
 
 Halite, 45 
 Hamilton period, 3 
 Hand drill, 80 
 
 " sinking, 77 
 Hardening steel, 84 
 Hardness of minerals, 11 
 Hardness, Scale ot, 11 
 Harmotome, 59 
 Hatchettite 64 
 Heavy spar, 43 
 Helderberg, Lower, period, 3 
 Heliotrope, 47 
 Hematite, 34 
 Hematite, Brown, 35 
 Hessite, 24 
 Heulandite, 60 
 Hisingerite, 62 
 Hoisting, 85 
 Ifomblende, 50 
 florn silver, 24 
 Hornstone, 47 
 Humboldtine, 36 
 Huntilite, 24 
 
 Huronian, 3 
 Huronite, 54 
 Hydraulic classifiers, 105 
 Hydraulic limestone, 43 
 Hydraulic mining, 90 
 Hydrocarbons, 63 
 Hydromica schist, 8 
 Hydromica section, 62 
 Hydrous silicates, 57 
 Hyper sthene, 48 
 
 Iceland spar, 42 
 Jce «<one, 38 
 Idocrase, 51 
 Igneous rocks, 7, 9, 10 
 Illumination, 89 
 Indianite, 54 
 Invertebrates, Age of, 3 
 Ilmenite, 34 
 Ilvaite, 52 
 Infusorial earth, 48 
 lolite, 52 
 Iridosmine, 25 
 /ron, 33 
 Iron cap, 67 
 Zron, Micaceous, 34 
 Iron ores, 6, 111 
 Jron ore, J5oflr, 35 
 Jr(Jri ore. Magnetic, 36 
 Jron ore, Specular, 34 
 /ron pyrites, 33 
 /ron. Spathic, 36 
 Iron, Wrought, 84 
 
 Jack's tin, 31 
 
 Jasper, 47 
 
 Jasperp clay iron, 34 
 
 Jerker system, 90 
 
 Jet, 66 
 
 Jig, 105 
 
 Jurassic, 3 
 
 Kalinite, 38 
 Kaolin, Kaolinite, fi2 
 Keewatin, 3 
 Kennesite, 22 
 
138 
 
 Indkx. 
 
 Kibbles, 87 
 Kind of rocks, 6 
 Kyanite, 56 
 
 Labradorite, 54 
 
 Ladders, 89 
 
 Laminated rocks, 7 
 
 Land plaster, 41 
 
 Lanthanum, 39 
 
 Lapis-lazuli, 53 
 
 Laumonite, Laumontite, 57 
 
 Lauren tian, 3 
 
 Lava, 10 
 
 Lazulite, 39 
 
 Lead, 28 
 
 Lead we. White, 28 
 
 Lepidomelane, 53 
 
 Leucite, 54 
 
 Levels, 76 
 
 Lifts, 76 
 
 Lighting, 89 
 
 Liffnite, 65 
 
 Lims epidote, 52 
 
 Limestone, 9 
 
 Limestone, 42 
 
 Limestone, Magnesian, 43 
 
 Lim,onite, 35 
 
 Linnceite, 31 
 
 Long wall, 78 
 
 Lumber, etc., 117 
 
 Lydian stone, 47 
 
 Machine drilling, 82 
 Magnesium., 40 
 Magnesian lim,estone, 43 
 Magnesite, 40 
 Magnetic iron ore, 35 
 Magnetic pyrites, 34 
 Magnetite, 35 
 Malachite, 27 
 Malacolite, 49 
 Mallardite, 37 
 Mammals, Age of, 3 
 Mammalian, 2, 3 
 Manganese, 37 
 Manganese spar, 49 
 
 Manganosite, 37 
 
 Marble, 9 
 
 Mareasite, 34 
 
 Margarophyllite section, 60 
 
 Margarite, 63 
 
 Martite, 34 
 
 Masonite, 63 
 
 Massive igneous rocks, 9 
 
 Massive rocks, 7 
 
 Matte, Nickel and copper, 110 
 
 Meerschaum, 61 
 
 Melanite, 51 
 
 Melaconite, 26 
 
 Melanterite, 36 
 
 Menaccanite, 34 
 
 Meneghinite, 28 
 
 Mercury, 26 
 
 Mercury, stamp mill, 100 
 
 traps, 100 
 Mesozoic, 3 
 Metamorphism, 4 
 Metamorphio rocks, 7, 8 
 Metasomatic replacement, 4 
 JJf tea group, 52 
 Mica schist, 8 
 Micaceous iron, 34 
 Microline, 64 
 Mill, Oonuentratirtg, 104 
 Mill, Gold, 97 
 Miller ite, 31 
 Mineralogy, 11-65 
 Minerals, Classification of, 21 
 
 •' Blowpipe trials of, 13 
 Mineral caoutchouc, 64 
 Minerals, Cleavage of, 12 
 
 Color of, 12 
 Mineral coal, 64 
 Mineral oils, 03 
 Minerals, common, characteristics, 18 
 
 " Common, determination, 19 
 
 •• Determination of elements 
 in, 14 
 
 " physical properties, 11 
 Rock making, 5 
 Specific gravity of, 11 
 
 <i 
 
Index. 
 
 139 
 
 Minerals, streak, 12 
 
 " test in glass tube, 13 
 Miner's inch, 116 
 Mining, development work, 76 
 Drift, 92 
 
 " General, 75 
 
 •• Hydraulic, 90 
 
 *' methods, 78 
 Minium, 28 
 Miocene, 3 
 Mirahilite, 45 
 Mispickel, 34 
 Mocha stone, 47 
 Molybdenite, 21 
 Molybdenum, 21 
 Molybdite, 21 
 Monazite, 39 
 Monitor, 91 
 Morenagite^ S3 
 Mortar, stamp mill, 99 
 Mo8P agate, 47 
 Mountain tallow, C4 
 Mud, 6, 7 
 Mundic, 34 
 Muscovite, 52 • 
 
 Nagyaaite, 23 
 
 Natrolite, 69 
 
 Natron, 45 
 
 Nephelite, 53 
 
 Nephrite, 50 
 
 Niagara period, 3 
 
 Niccolite, 32 
 
 iV^icAieZ, 31 
 
 Nickel and Copper Ores, 110 
 
 Nickel vitriol, 33 
 
 Nitratine, 45 
 
 iVtire, i5 
 
 Nitroglycerine, 80 
 
 Obsidian, 10 
 Ochre, Brown, 35 
 Ochre, Red, 34 
 OoAre, Yellow, 36 
 Oils, Mineral, 63 
 Oligoclase, 64 
 
 Olivine gabbro, 9 
 
 Olivenite, 27 
 
 Onya;, 47 
 
 067t<e, 43 
 
 Oolite, 9 
 
 Opal, 48 
 
 Ore oars, 87 
 •' dryers, 102 
 
 Ores, Concentrating, 102 
 " general treatment, 95 
 " Manner of naming, 95, 96 
 " Smelting, 107 
 ** when workable, 94 
 
 Oriskany period, 3 
 
 Orpiment, 21 
 
 Orthoclase, 54 
 
 Ottrelite, 63 
 
 Overhand stoping, 76 
 
 Oxidizing flame, 13 
 
 Packing, 78 
 
 Palaeozoic, 3 
 
 Palladium, 25 
 
 Pan amalgamation, 101 
 
 Panel system, 79 
 
 Panning, 68, 72 
 
 Parting gold t',nd silver, 70* 
 
 Pearlstone, 10 
 
 Pectolite, 57 
 
 Pelton wheels, 120 
 
 Penninite, 63 
 
 Periclasite, 40 
 
 Peridotite, 10 
 
 Petalite, 49 
 
 Petroleum, 63 
 
 Phlogopite, 52 
 
 Phosphorite, 42 
 
 Phyllite, 9 
 
 Phyllite, 63 
 
 Pillar and stall, 79 
 
 Pinite, 62 
 
 Pitch blende, 33 
 
 Pitchstone, 10 
 
 Placers, 90 
 
 Plagioclase, 54 
 
 Plasma, 47 
 
140 
 
 Index. 
 
 Platinum, 25 
 
 Pliocene, 3 
 
 Plumbago, 23 
 
 Porphyrite, 10 
 
 Porphyritic rocks, 7, 9 
 
 Porphyry, 10 
 
 Granite, 10 
 
 " Quartz, 10 
 
 «• Syenite, 10 
 
 Potassium, 46 
 
 Potstone, 61 
 
 Powder, Black, 80, 81 
 
 Power and fuel, 118 
 
 •• drilling, 82 
 
 *' sinking, 77 
 Prase, 46 
 Prehnite, 58 
 Prochlorite, 63 
 
 Prospect, description form, 74 
 Prospecting, 66 
 
 '« alluvial, 72 
 
 mill, 71 
 
 Prospectors' equipment, food, etc., 78 
 Protogine, 8 
 Psilomelane, 37 
 Pudding stone, 8 
 Puddling, 111 
 Pumice, 10 
 Pumping, 78, 89 
 Punch drills, 89 
 Pyrallolite, 58 
 Pyrargyrite, 24 
 Pyrite, 33 
 
 Pyrites, Arsenical iron, 34 
 Pyrites, Cockscomb, 34 
 Pyrites, Copper, 26 
 Pyrites, Variegated copper, 26 
 Pyrites, Magnetic, 34 
 Pyrites, Tin, 30 
 Pyrites, White iron, 34 
 PyrolvMte, 37 
 Pyromorphite, 28 
 Pyrophyllite, 61 
 Pyrosclerite, 62 
 Pyroxene, 48 
 
 Pyroxenite, 10 
 Pyrrhotite, 34 
 
 Quanying, 79 
 Quartz, 5 
 Quartz, 45 
 
 Quartz, Granular, 47 
 Quartzite, 9 
 Quartz porphyry, 10 
 
 " porphyrite, 10 
 Quaternary, 2, 3 
 Quicklime, 42 
 Quicksilver, 100 
 
 Rails, 87 
 
 Rainfall, 118 
 
 Realgar, 22 * 
 
 Recent period, 3 
 
 Red antimony, 22 
 
 Red chalk, 34 
 
 Red copper ore, 26 
 
 Red ochre, 34 
 
 Red zinc ore, 29 
 
 Reducing flame, 13 
 
 Reduction, or smelting, 107 
 
 Repidolite, 63 
 
 Reptiles, Age of, 2, 3 
 
 Rhodochrosite, 37 
 
 Rhodonite, 49 
 
 Riffles, 91 
 
 River-beds, 66, 72 
 
 Roasting furnaces, 101 
 
 Rock breaker, 97 
 
 Rock crystal, 46 
 
 Rock milk, 43 
 
 Rock salt, 45 
 
 Rock -making minerals, 5 
 
 Rocks, 6-10 
 
 Rocker, 72 
 
 Rolls, 104 
 
 Ruby silver, 24 
 
 Rutile, 31 
 
 Sahhte, 49 
 Salina period, 3 
 Salt, Common, 45 
 
Index. 
 
 141 
 
 Salt, Rock, 45 
 Samarskite, 39 
 Sampling, 68 
 Sand, 7 
 
 Sand stone, 7, 8 
 Saponite, 62 
 Sapphire, 38 
 Sard, 47 
 Saatolite, 21 
 Satin spar, 41, 42 
 Scapolite group, 53 
 Scheelite, 42 
 Schist, Chlorite, 8 
 
 " Hydromica, 
 
 •* Mica, 8 
 Schistose rocks, 7 
 Scoria, 10 
 Screen, stamp mill, 100 
 
 " * revolving, 104 
 Sedimentary rock, 1, 7 
 Selenite, 41 
 
 Self-acting tramway, 88 
 Separator, Hydraulic, 105 
 Sepiolite, 61 
 Seridte, 52 
 Serpentine, 61 
 Shafts, 77 
 Shale, 7, 8 
 Shifts, 76 
 Shoe, Stamp, 100 
 Siderite, 36 
 
 Siemens Martin process. 111 
 Silica, 45 
 Silicates, 48 
 Silicates, 6 
 
 " Hydrous, 57 
 Siliceous rocks, 7 
 Silicified wood, 47 
 Silurian, 2, 3 
 Silver, 23 
 Silver, Black, 24 
 Silver glance, 23 
 Silver ores, 106 
 Silver lead ores, 110 
 Silver, Ruby, 24 
 
 Silver ore, Brittle, 24 
 Silver ore. Dark red, 24 
 Sinking, 76, 77, 78 
 Skips, 87 
 Slag, 107 
 Slate, 9 
 
 " Talcose, 8 
 Slaty rocks, 7 
 Slime-table, 106 
 Slopes, 76 
 Sluices, 90 
 Smalt ite, 82 
 Smelting ores, 107 
 Smithsonite, 29 
 Soapatone, 60 
 Sodalite, 63 
 Sodium., 45 
 Spathic iron, 36 
 Specific gravity, 11 
 Specular iron ore, 34 
 
 Sphalerite, 29 
 
 Sphene, 67 
 
 Spinel, 88 
 
 Spodumene, 49 
 
 Square sett, 79 
 
 Stalactite, 43 
 
 Stalactite, 9 
 
 Stalagmite, 43 
 
 Stalagmite, 9 
 
 Stamp battery, 99, 100 
 " mill, 98 
 " stem, 100 
 " shoe, 100 
 
 Stannite, 30 
 
 Staurolite, 67 
 
 Steatite, 60 
 
 Steel, 84 
 " consumption, 80 
 
 Stephanite, 24 
 
 Stembergite, 24 
 
 Stibnite, 22 
 
 Stilbite, 60 
 
 Stoping, 76, 77 
 
 Stratified rocks, 2, 7 
 
 Streak of minerals, 12 
 
142 
 
 Index. 
 
 Strea/m tin, 81 
 Striae, 5 
 Strike, 67 
 Strontium, 44 
 Stromeyerite, 24 
 Strontianite, 44 
 Structural gfeology, 1, etc. 
 Subailicatea, fi5 
 Sulphur group, 21 
 Surface transportation, 88 
 Syenite, 8, 9, 10 
 
 " porphyry, 10 
 Sylvanite, 24 
 Sylvite, 46 
 
 Tables, General, 112 
 
 " of i{(neou8 rocks, 10 
 Tabular spar, 48 
 Tail-rope, 88 
 Tailings, 96, 100 
 Tale, 60 
 Talcose slate, 8 
 Tamping, 80 
 Tappet, 100 
 Tellurium, 21 
 Tellurium, Foliated, 23 
 Tellurium, Graphic, 24 
 Tempering, 85 
 
 •* colors, 85 
 
 Terrace period, 3 
 Tertiary, 3 
 Tetradymite, 22 
 Tetrahedrite, 26 
 Thomsonite, 68 
 Thorium, 39 
 Till, 5 
 
 Timbering, 90 
 Tin, 30 
 Tin ore, 30 
 Tin pyrites, 30 
 Tinkal, 46 
 Titanic iron, 34 
 Titanite, 67 
 Titanium, 31 
 ToiMiz, 56 
 Topaz, False, 46 
 
 Torbemite, 33 
 
 Touchstone, 47 
 
 Tourmaline, 65 
 
 Track, 87 
 
 Traffic, Underground, 87 
 
 Tramways, Aerial, 88, 89 
 •• Surface, 88, 89 
 
 " Underground, 87, 88 
 
 Transportation, Surface, 88 
 
 Traps, Mercury, 100 
 
 Travertine, 43 
 
 Travertine, 9 
 
 Treatment of ores, Qeneral, 96, 96 
 
 Tremolite, 50 
 
 Trenton period, 3 
 
 Triassic, 3 
 
 Triphylite, 37 
 
 Tnplite, 37 
 
 Tripolite, 48 
 
 Trommels, 104 
 
 Tufa, 8 
 
 Tunnels, 78 
 
 Turquois, 39 
 
 Ulexite, 42 
 Ultramarine, 63 
 Underground traffic, 87 
 Underhand stoping, 77 
 Unisilicates, Anhydrous, 61 
 Upraises, 76 
 Uraconite, 33 
 Uran-mica, 33 
 Uraninite, 33 
 Uranite, 38 
 Uranium, 33 
 
 Values, Table of, 121, 122 
 
 Vanner, 101 
 
 Variegated copper pyrites, 26 
 
 Veins, 4 
 
 Vermiculite, 68 
 
 Vermillion, 25 
 
 Vesuvianite, 51 
 
 FitreoM* copper ore, 26 
 
 rt»tawt««, 36 
 
 Volcanic rocks, 9, 10 
 
Tndkx. 
 
 143 
 
 Wad, 37 
 
 Water measurement, 119 
 Water Jacket furnace, 109 
 Wavellite, 39 
 
 Weight of bushel, 116, il7 
 WeiRht of 1 cub. ft. of various sub- 
 stances, 118 
 W^ernerite, 53 
 White arnenic, 22 
 White augite, 49 
 White iron pyrites, 34 
 White lead ore, 28 
 White vitriol, 29 
 Willemite, 30 
 WilHonite, 62 
 IVindlass, 86 
 iVinze, 77 
 iVire rope, 86, 87 
 
 Witherite, 44 
 Wolframite, 36 
 Wollastonite, 48 
 Workshop recipes, 120 
 
 Yellow ochre, 36 
 Yttrium, 39 
 Vttrocerite, 39 
 
 Zeolite section, 68 
 Zinc, 29 
 Zinc blende, 2!) 
 ^wic ore. Red, 29 
 Zincite, 29 
 Zircon, 51 
 Zoisite, 52 
 Zones, Crushed, 4 
 Zonochlorite, 58