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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m6thode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 v^ HIST % * WITH Prkscri s "w I nsr a? o nsT's OUTLINES OF THK WORLD'S HISTORY, ANCIENT, MEDI/EVAL, AND MODERN, WITH Sl'KCIAl, RKLATION ((J TUB HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION AND THE PROGRESS OF MANKIiVD. llcbiseb Oranabiun ebitiou, WITH APPENDIX, CONTAINING A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ^ i Pbkscribkd by the Cou. cil ot^ Pttblic Instruction i-UBLic Schools. FOR USE IN THE HALIFAX, N. S. : Kntered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the year 1883, By a. & W. MacKinlay, In tlie Office of the Minister of Agriculture, at Ottawa. PREFACE. In preparing the following Outlines of the World's His- tory, the author has assumed that the proper aim of such historical study as can be pursued in high schools and academies should be to give the learner a general viciu of human progress, — to furnish, for example, brief but ex- plicit answers to such questions as these : — 1. What were the Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Hebrews, Latins, Spaniards, English, etc. ? What did each of these nations contribute to the common stock of civilization ? 2. In y^hsX forms did the mind of the race express itself: in religion, war, law-making, political organization, litera- ture, art? 3. What was the actual life of the people themselves,— their condition as regards political freedom, education, phy- sical well-being, food, dress, trade, society, etc. ? What were their ways of thinking, and how did these show them- selves in the manners, customs, and social usages of the time ? 4. What have been the great steps in hitman progress^ — the discoveries, social and political changes, advances in thought and skill, that have carried forward civilization and the " betterment of man's estate " (Bacon) ; and what 'W \< tv PREFACE. is the series of events that has brought the world up to its present standard of enliglitenment and knowledge? These are questions that we have learned to ask only in comparatively recent times. The asking of them and the an- swering of them have given us history in its modern sense ; that is to say, history as a showing forth of the life of nations, in place of history as the mere biography of kings, or the record of battles and sieges, of dynasties and courts. The theory of this book may be stated in a single sen- tence : it is to bring to the treatment of history for elemen- tary instruction the same method that has proved fruitful and interesting in the larger classic works. Such treat- ment is in marked contrast with that of the compendiums in ordinary use, which consist mainly of catalogues of facts and of chronologic data. The author believes, however, that the judgment of progressive teacher'^ will fully coincide with his own in this : that far more valuable and more last- ing results can be secured by giving scholars a vivid gen- eral view of the institutions and civilization of the greater nations than by cramming the memory with ever so im- posing an array of isolated facts and dates. This book lias grown out of a great deal of experiment- ing with classes, — testing of w/ia/ pupils can take in and assimilate, of what becomes fruitful in their minds, and of what, on the other hand, is retained with difficulty or for- gotten with ease. Care has been taken to cast the para- graphs into such a form that the subject-matter of each may be easily grasped by the pupil, and the same readily elicited by means of the marginal notes, — a device which seems to be better suited to a work of this grade than PREFACE. mere literal questions would be. It is scarcely necessary to call attention to the maps : they have been drawn with great care, and will be found both accurate and ample. In addition to these features there are two salient points to which notice is called : — i. This manual is made from modern material, and presents the fruit of those researches that have so essentially modified and so greatly enlarged our views both of anticjuity and of more recent times. 2. It is written in the s[)irit of the modern tpid/iod, — that method which deals with the broad, vital facts, rather than with the pedantries of history. The author is deeply impressed with the conviction that history, studied in the right manner, is of fundamental im- portance in the growth of the mental and moral nature. And he believes that such study is of especial moment in our own country, as a preparation for citizenship in a free, self-governing nation : for how can we appreciate what we enjoy, unless we know how it came to be ? In the sincere hope that this survey of the providential ordainment of human affairs may prove helpful, both to intellectual growth and the formation of character, it is commended to the judgment of the teaching profession. WILLIAM SWINTON. U\ PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION FOR NOVA SCOTIA In a few paragraphs of this edition of the Outlines of the World's History the original language of the author has been modified. These revisions have been intended to adapt the work more fully to use as a public school text, and none of them, it is believed, do violence to historical accuracy. As the regular edition does not include any treatment of the history of the United States, an outline supplying that deficiency is published as an Appendix. This forms a valuable feature of this edition. THE PUBLISHERS. CONTENTS. :rs. INTRODUCTION . SECTION I. THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. CHAP. I. Geograi'hical Sketch II. Egypt 1. Historical Outline . . . 2. Egyptian Civilization . , III. The Assyrians and Babylonians I. Introduction .... 2 Early Babylonian or Chaldaean Kingdom 3. Assyria 4. Later Babylonian Kingdom . IV. The Hebrews .... V. The Phcenicians .... VI. The Hindoos .... VII. The Persian Empire 1. Historical Outline . • • 2. Persian Civilization . . • VIII. Commerce of the Ancients SECTION II. HISTORY OF GREECE. I. General Sketch .... PAGB I 8 12 12 19 26 26 28 30 32 36 41 48 53 53 58 62 * i! 71 II m CONTENTS. 79 79 83 89 89 96 98 99 II. History of thk First PEuion : From the D-iian Mif^ration to the Beginning of the rcrsiaii Wars, 1100-500 n.c 1. Bejjinninijs of Greek History . . . . . 2. Growth of Sparta and Athens HI. History of the Skcond Period : From the Beginning of the Persian War to the Victory of Philip of Macedon at Cliteronen, U.c. 500-338 . 1. The Persian Invasions .... 2. Tlie Age of Pericles .... 3. The Peloponnesian War .... 4. Period of Spartan and Theban Supremacy IV. History of the Third Period: From the Victory of Philip to the Absoiption of Greece by the Romans ..... 1. Supremacy of Macedon — Philip 2. Career of Alexander the Great 3. Alexander's Successors 4. Later History of Macedon and Greece V. Grecian Civilization .... 1. Political Ideas 2. Religion 3. Grecian Festivals .... 4. Greek Literature and Philosophy . 5. Grecian Art 6. Greek Life, Manners, etc. . . lOI lOI I02 105 107 iia 112 iia "5 II 117 I\ 123 V i^S VI SECTION III. HISTORY ^'^ ROME. T. Geography and Races .... II. Primeval Rome— Period of the Kings III. The Roman Republic .... 1. Epoch of the Struggle for Existence. Great Names of Early Rome . 2. Epoch of the Roman Conquest of Italy 128 H 131 H ^^^ 134 9 ^^^^- 134 |H I3S ^H 141 H CONTENTS. \x 79 79 83 89 89 96 98 99 lOI lOI 102 105 107 iia 112 112 nS 117 123 125 3. Kpoch of Foreign Conquest 4. lipocli of Civil Strife IV. KoMK AS AN Em PIKE 1. Afje of Aiii,'iistus 2. Political History . , 3. Spread of Christianity 4. Roman Life, Manners, Customs, etc 5. Last Days of Rome . SECTION IV. MEDI/EVAL HISTORY. . 128 . 131 . 134 • »34 -^ • »35 1 . 141 ^1 Introduction • . • I. The New Races . ■£L Three Centuries of History 1, The Byzantine Empire 2. Italy down to Charlemagne J. Beginnings of France , 4. Beginnings of England . 5. Rise of the Saracens III. Empire of Charlemagne . IV. The Feudal System V. Growth of the Papal Power VL The Crusades 1. Introduction . , . 2. The First Crusade . . 3. The Second Crusade 4. The Third Crusade , 5. The Later Crusades 6. Results of the Crusades . VII, Chivalry, its Rise and Decay VIH. Civilization in the Middle Ages 1. Civilization Threatened . 2. The Age of Revival. — Cities and Commerce 3. Literature, Science, and Art 146 157 180 180 188 192 198 204 • 209 . 210 . 218 . 218 . 219 . 221 . 223 . 224 . 2';i 237 244 249 249 252 257 25S 260 262 264 269 269 273 276 CONTENTS. IX. Political Outline : From Charlemagne to the Close of the Middle Ages . , 280 1. The Gernan Empire 280 2. France 283 3. England 286 4. Italy 290 5. Spain • 293 SECTION V. MODERN HISTORY. I. Transition to Modern History 1. Introduction . . . 2. Fall of the Eastern Empire 3. Maritime Discoveries . 4. The Revival of Learning . 5. Decline of Feudalism . 6. Rise of Great Monarchies II. Great Events of the Sixteenth Century , 1. Age of Charles V. . 2. England under Henry VIII. 3. Rise of the Dutch Republic Civil and Religious Wars of France Age of Queen Elizabeth . . . Great Names of the Sixteenth Century III. Great Events of the Seventeenth Century 1. England under the Stuarts 2. The Thirty Years' War . 3. The Age of Louis XIV. . 4. Progress of Civilization . Great Names of the Seventeenth Century. IV. Great Events of the Eighteenth Century 1. England under the Georges . . 2. Prussia and Frederick the Great . The Rise of Russia . . . The French Revolution . • . Progress of Civilization • . . Great Names of the Eighteenth Century 4- 5. 3. 4. 5. 301 301 302 303 308 309 310 313 313 323 328 331 337 344 347 347 361 366 376 383 387 387 393 398 405 42s 43a CONTENTS, V. Great Events of the Nineteenth Century 1. The Consulate and the Empire 2. Modern English Politics . . 3. Revolutions in French Politics . 4. The Unification of Italy . . 5. The German Empire Restored . Great Names of the Nineteenth Century 436 436 453 459 466 469 479 APPENDIX.' Outlines of the History of the United States 484 INDEX 507 MAPS. TAOB Ancient Oriental Monarchies. {Double f age.) , . 8 Historic Era at the Beginning of Records . . .11 Egypt AT THE Time OF Persian Conquest .... 13 Dominion of Solomon 37 Phoenicia AND HER Colonies 42 Persian Empire. {Double page.) 52 Routes of Ancient Commerce 63 Gre:ecE AND her Colonies. {Double page,) .... 70 Greece before Dorian Migration 74 Greek Races after Dorian Migration , ... 81 Persian Invasions of Greece 90 Vicinity of Marathon and Athens 91 TlIERMOPYLifl? . . , " 94 Races of Ancient Italy 128 Latium, or Primeval Rome 131 The Punic Wars 146 MiTHRiDATic Wars 159 Campaigns of C.«sar 166 Roman Empire. {Double page.) 180 Plan of Ancient Rome 183 Europe, Close OF 6th Century 217 Original Home of the English 223 Europe, a.d. 800 ......... 230 Map of the Crusades 250 Iberian Peninsula, 1491 293 Europe, i6th Century. {Double page.) .... 300 Globular View of Geographic Discoveries , , . 304 Europe, Time of Napoleon. {Double page.) , . . , 436 !l I OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PAOE 8 II 37 ri 42 52' 63 70 74 81 90 9» 94 128 , i3» . 146 . '59 . 166 . 180 . 183 . 217 . 223 . 230 . 250 . 293 . 300 . 304 . 436 INTRODUCTION. 1. History may be defined, in a general way, as the record of the life of mankind. In a more special History de- view, it is the narrative of the rise and progress fi^ed. of those famous peoples whose doings constitute the history of civilization. 2. In this its proper and highest sense history presup- poses the races advanced beyond the natural its relation or primitive state, and gathered in political to nations, communities, or nations ; and it confines itself to those nations whose achievements have influenced the gc?ieral current of the world's affairs, and made the condition of the world what we now see it. 3. Respecting mankind outside of nations^ there is much interesting and valuable knowledge, supplied Aids to by various sciences. Among these are, — history, Ethnol'ogy, or the science of the several races, or types of mankind. ARCHyEOL'oCY, or the science of the ancient works of man. Philol'ogy, or the science of language. By the aid of these sciences much is now known regard- ing humanity in its lower stages of progress. In our own times a vast amount of inquiry has been made into the con- dition of the primeval races ; interesting studies have been made also on the customs, manners, arts, languages, and religions of savage tribes. A [ !| .■,1 OUTLINES OF GENERAL HISTORY. 4. These researches belong to Anthropol'ogy, which Difference deals with man in fiatural history^ rather than thrro^io^"" ^^ History proper, which deals with nations, aiid History, that is to Say, with man in civilizaticm. 5. Viewing history as confined to the series of lead- The real his- ing civilized nations, we observe that it has to toricrace. (Jq y^\^ \^yy^ Qj^g grand division of the human family, namely, with the Caucasian, or white race. To this division belonged the people of all the elder nations, — the Egyptians, Assyr'ians, and Babylo'nians, the Hebrews and the Phceni'cians, the Hin'doos, the Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans. Of course, the modern European nations, as also the states founded by European colonists^ all belong to this ethnological division. Thus we see that history proper concerns itself with but one highly developed type of mankind ; for though the great bulk of the population of the globe has, during the whole recorded period, belonged, and does still belong, to other types of mankind, yet the Caucasians form the only truly historical race. Hence we may say that civilization is the product of the brain of this race. Of the peoples outside of the Caucasian race that have made some figure in clvilizaiion, the Chinese, Mexicans, and Peruvians stand alone. But though those races rose considerably above the savage state, their civilization was stationary, and they had no marked influence on the general current of the world's progress. 6. Modern scholars divide this historical stock — the Its three di- Caucasian race — into three main branches: visions. \ ^\^q A'ryan, or Indo-European branch; II. The Semit'ic branch; III. The Hamit'ic branch. This classification is a linguistic one, — that is to say, it is a division based on the nature of the languages spoken by the three families of nations, — but at the same time it repre- sents three distinct civilizations. INTRODUCTION. 7. The Aryan branch is that division to which we our- selves belong : it includes nearly all the present _. ^^ and past nations of Europe, — the Greeks, Latins, Germans or Teu'tons, Celts, and Slavo'nians, — together with two ancient Asiatic peoples, namely, the Hindoos and the Persians. 8. The evidence of language shows that the Celtic, Ger- man, Slavonian, Greek, and Latin tongues all Their unity, bear a remarkable family likeness, and that how proved. they share this likeness with the Sanscrit, which was the ancient language of India, and with the Zend, the ancient language of Persia. It is quite certain that the forefathers of the Persians and of the Hindoos and the forefathers of all the European nations were once one people, and lived together somewhere in Western Asia. This was at a time long before the beginning of recorded history (for we know nothing of the Greeks, Latins, Germans, Celts, etc., as suc/i^ until we find them in Europe) ; but still it is proved by the evidence of language that their original home and native seat was Asia. 9. The Semitic branch includes the ancient inhabitants of Syria, Arabia, and the Tigris and Euphrates countries. The leading historical representa- tives of the Semitic branch are the Hebrews, Phoenicians, Assyrians, and Arabs. 10. The Hamitic branch has but one prominent repre- sentative, — the P2gyptians. It is probable, how- ever, that the ancient Chaldoe'ans also belonged to this race. 11. The history of the civilized world is the history of the Aryan, Semitic, and Hamitic races. It is comparison of interest to know that the race to which we of the races. belong, the Aryan, has always played the leading part in the great drama of the world's progress. The Hamitic nations, the Egyptians and Chaldaeans, though they devel- Hamites. I* !■; tr, i - ' ■^'".'■aaih '; H OUTLINES OF GENERAL HISTORY. oped a peculiar type of civilization, yet grew up and re- mained in a great degree a/>ar/ from the rest of the world, having no considerable influence on the main current of history. As to the Semites, there is one respect in which they have the greatest place in the story of mankind, namely, in religious development ; for the three religions that have taught men that there is but one God — namely, the Jewish, the Christian, and the Mahom'etan — have all come from among them. But, aside from this, the Semites do not make nearly so important or so conspicuous a figure in history as do the Aryans, or Indo-Europeans. They have never been greatly progressive. They have generally shown a conservative disposition that has, in the main, kept them fixed to their native seat, in the small tract of country between the Tigris, the Mediterranean, and the Red Sea. Thus they have not, like the Aryans, been the planters of new nations ; and they have never attained a high intellectual development, or that progress in political freedom, in science, art, and literature, which is the glory of the Aryan nations. 12. If we trace back the present civilization of the ad- The Aryans vanced nations of the world, — our own civil- in history. ization, and that of England, Germany, France, Italy, etc., — we shall find that much of it is connected by direct and unbroken line with the Roman. The Romans, in turn, were heirs of the Greeks. Now, all this is Aryan ; and when we go back to the primitive age oi the undivided Aryans in Asia, we see that this race must even then have been placed far above the condition of mere savages, and that they had made good beginnings in government, and social life, and religion, and the simple mechanical arts. Thus we are fully authorized to say that the Aryans are peculiarly the race of progress ; and a very large part of the history of the world must be taken up with an account of the contributions which the Aryan nations have made to the common stock of civilization. INTRODUCTION. $ 13. In these Outlines of the world's history we shall take up : — Divisions of I. The groups of ancient Oriental nations, this book, including, i. The Egyptians ; 2. The Assyro-Babylonians ; 3. The Hebrews ; 4. The Phoenicians ; 5. The Hindoos ; 6. The Persians. n. The history of Greece. ni. The history of the Roman Dominion. IV. The history of the Middle Ages. V. The history of the modern European states and na- tions. 14. The entire historical period, commencing with the early Empires of the East, and coming down chronologic to our own times, is usually divided into dis- P"iods- tinct portions, sometimes two and sometimes three; that is to say, some historians make a double division, into Ancient history and Modern history; and others a triple division, into Aficient, Alediaval^ and Modern history. In either case Ancient history ends with the breaking up of the Dominion of Rome, in the fifth century a.d. (fall of the Western Roman empire, 476 a.d.). Then, if we make the double division, Modern history will begin with the downfall of Rome ; but if the triple division, the interval from the fifth to the fifteenth century will be regarded as a period by itself, called Medieval history, or the history of the Middle Ages ; while Modern history, according to this method, will be confined to the centuries between the fifteenth and the present time. 15. Such divisions of the historic period into portions are merely arbitrary, seeing that history forms Nature of the in reality an unbroken whole. We shall adopt divisions, the triple division for practical convenience, though per- haps the double division is the more philosophical; for while we think of the ages as forming a continuous stream, the Roman Dominion may still be regarded as a reservoir Hi OUTLINES OF GENERAL HISTORY. into which all the currents of history from the anterior ages were gathered, and from which, in turn, the ampler currents of Modern history have flowed. Jt was out of the breaking up of the great Dominion of Rome in the fifth century a.d. (when the Western Roman Empire fell, under the attacks of the Gothic invaders, and of other new races loosely called " Northern barbarians ") that the modern states of Europe — that is, Italy, Spain, France, England, Germany, etc.— gradually took their rise. l6. In the largest sense, however, history is a unif: its History cpochs form but acts in one grand Providen- a ""»*• tial drama ; one thread of progress binds nation to nation ; and, looking at humanity as a whole, we see that Through the ages one increasing purpose runs, And THE THOUGHTS OF MEN ARE WIDENED WITH THE PROCESS OF THE SUNS. J'ennj/son, ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. I. Definition of History. (IT i.) Anthropology, ) History proper, ) ^°^ distmguuhed. (H 4-) II. Aids to History. Ethnology ARCHif;OLOGY Philology, .GY, ^ , ) how defined. (IF 3.) III. Divisions of the Caucasian Race. Hindoos, Persians, Aryan (Indo-European) ) Latins* Germans, Celts, Slavonians. Bkancu. (IT 7.) INTRODUCTION. _ ( HKJiREws, Semitic Branch, (irg.) ^^"^J-^^'cians, I Assyrians, C Araus. Hamitic Branch. (^ ,o.) \ Eoypt/ans, IV. Divisions Of History. (^ ,3.^ '• ^^^'ENTAL Nations. 2. GkeE(E. 3- RoMK. 4. Thk Middle Ages 5. Modern History.* V. Chronologic Periods. (^ ,4, Ancient Historv r l Western Ko^.n^il^! ^H'a ' ^'"^ '" '^' f"" "^ '"« Medi/eval Historv r Modern History frnm .i , P««m ii,„e. ' ^"'" ""' "='»« of th= isel. centu^, ,o .fce I Its :i., ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. SECTION I. THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES, Historic area. CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 1. The ancient Oriental civilizations to be treated of in Oriental this scction comprise the monarchies of Egypt, nations. Assyr'ia and Babylo'nia, Judai'a, Phcenicia, India, and Persia. 2. With the single exception of Egypt, the seat of all the ancient Oriental nations was in Asia. And of this grand division of the globe it is to be observed that only a small part has any connection with history proper. Historical Asia is in reality South-western Asia. 3. All that part of Asia north of the Altai range is a com- Nortiiern paratively barren waste. It was almost wholly Asia. unknown in antiquity, 4. Central Asia, extending between the 50th and the 40th parallels of north latitude, — known to ancient writers as Scyth'ia, — is a region of vast pla- teaus. Being destitute of arable land, it is a mere country of pasture. It has always supported a great population, but a population of nomads without fixed habitations or cities, and with no other form of political association than patri- archal government. Accordingly, the races of this region have played no part in history, except that the Mongolian or Tartar races, inhabiting the great steppes, have at times poured down upon and conquered the civilized countries. Central Asia. I mi . of in gypt, li'cia. lithe id of ;o be with (Stern com- rholly 40th icient pla- untry 1, but ::ities, patri- egion ^olian times itries. \§^t 1 I 1 ■ : 1 % " t 1 !■ \i A AWllQuJSnUyiuluaxK S fl wes regi vail bet\ clus 6. Asia whic and conn bord^ and < Phoei Leb'a 3. Th last is 7. severs nia, o] and tl of the 3. Bal the lo' stretch countr ward fi Desert. great ri the Tig 8. It several I say tha valleys ( time wh !^1I' GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 5. The real theater of Asiatic history, namely, South- western Asia, may be subdivided into three uivisjonof regions: i. that west of the Euphra'tes ; 2. the Western valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris ; 3. the region ^'** between the Zagros Mountains and the In'dus basin in- clusive. 6. West of the Euphrates we have : i. The peninsula of Asia Minor, the seat of several nationalities (of „. , . , . ^ >. , ,,. , . ^ V Fiist region, which that of Lydia was the most important) and of various Grecian colonies ; their history is, however, connected as much with Europe as with Asia. 2. Syr'ia, bordering on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, and comprising three distinct parts: (i) Syria proper; (2) Phoenicia, including the narrow strip of coast between Leb'anon and the sea ; (3) Pal'estine, south of Phoenicia. 3. The peninsula of Arabia, stretching south-eastward. This last is of comparatively little importance in ancient history. 7. In the basins of the Tigris and the Euphrates were several distinct territorial divisions : i. Arme'- Second nia, or the highland region between Asia Minor "Rion* and the Caspian Sea. 2. Assyria proper, which lay east of the Tigris River and west of the Zagros Mountains. 3. Babylonia, comprising the great alluvial plain between the lower course of the Tigris and of the Euphrates, and stretching westward to the Syrian Desert. 4. Chaldae'a, the country at the head of the Persian Gulf, stretching west- ward from the lower waters of the Euphrates to the Syrian Desert. 5. Mesopotamia, or the district between the two great rivers. 6. Susia'na, including the country lying along the Tigris east of Babylonia. 8. It must not be supposed that these territories were severally the seat of distinct nations. We may Nations in say that three great monarchies ruled in the second re- valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, down to the *^'°"' time when these territories were absorbed in Persia (6th cen- r^ r il-|i ;sn I lO ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. tury B,c.). These were the Chaldcean, Babylonian, and Assy- rian kingdoms ; and of these the last, at the height of its power, held sway over nearly the entire region between the Zagros Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. 9. The tableland of ancient Iran (Persia) lay to the east Eastern of the Zagros chain of mountains, which sepa- division. rated it from the Tigris and Euphrates basins. In the north, toward the Caspian Sea, was Media ; to the south, and reaching to the Persian Gulf, was ancient Persia proper. Farther eastward, and stretching to the south, was the peninsula of India, forming the eastern limit of ancient Asiatic civilization. 10. The earliest nations recorded in history arose in the Civilization three alluvial plains of the Nile, of the Tigris andgeogra- and Euphrates, and of the Indus. This fact ^ ^* was wholly due to physical causes. In a primi- tive state of society, population can gather into nations only in regions where a fertile soil produces abundant food. Now the three alluvial basins just named are distinguished for their extraordinary fertility. Here nature spontaneously produces certain important articles of food, such as dates, rice, etc., which, being easily cultivated and yielding immense returns, made a large population possible. Accordingly, we find that in these countries men had adopted fixed habitations (a great advance on the pastoral or nomad state) and formed themselves into political associations at a time long ante- dating recorded history. 11. As the physical conditions that favor the formation of human society are, so far as the Old World goes, found only in the alluvial plains of South-west Asia (taking in Cradle of Egypt), as the earliest nations appear in these nations. regions, and as philology proves that all the European races came from Western Asia, — we may safely consider that /lere was, if not the cradle of the human race, at least the cradle of dviiization. GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. fl 12. We shall begin with these earliest nations of civilized man. With the origin of the human race, its origin of first seats and earliest distribution, history "*"• proper does not undertake to deal. History commences when historical records commence. Hence we must leave to revelation and to science the consideration of primitive humanity, and take up our studies with those ancient Ori- ental nations that appear on the stage of human affairs when historic records begin. 13. When the curtain goes up on antiquity, — say in the 23d century B.C. — we have disclosed to view Earliest his- the venerable figures of two civilizations : that to"c theater, in the Nile Valley and that in Chaldaea. And beyond this narrow region the fore-world is to us shrouded in impene- trable darkness. I: ;• 12 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. CHAPTER II. EGYPT. ri ;' Why old. 1. HISTORICAL OUTLINE. 14. Egypt is the country in which we first find a gov- Antiquityof ernment and political institutions established. Egypt. Egypt itself may not have been the oldest nation^ but Egyptian history is certainly the oldest history. Its monuments, records, and literature surpass in antiquity those of ChaldcTea and India, the two next oldest nations. 15. It is natural to suppose that the banks of the Nile must have been one of the primitive seats of human society, for the condition already men- tioned as favoring the first formation of nations — namely, cheap and abundant food — was here present in a remark- able degree. 16. Egypt itself has been called from the earliest an- Physicai tiquity " the Gift of the Nile." This mighty geography. river, flowing from the highlands of Abyssinia and the great lakes of equatorial Africa, forms in Egypt a strip of fertility in the midst of the desert waste. In its annual overflow (due to the immense rainfalls in the Abys- sinian mountains), the Nile, by its mud deposits, renews every year the soil of this strip, so that all the people had to do was to plant, and nature produced. 17. In Egypt the date-palm grew spontaneously, and furnished the people with a cheap and abundant °° '^ * article of food. The fertility of the soil also yielded, with slight labor, large crops of cereals (especially dhourra^ a sort of maize), and the " granaries of Egypt " were EGYPT. 13 it an- lighty rssinia rypt a lln its Abys- every to do and indant il also jecially 1" were ^ ^ f ^ V// ^^ ^y^ Effect on the people. the storehouse whence all the peoples of the Mediterranean were wont to draw supplies in seasons of scarcity. 18. The cheapness of living in Egypt led to a great mul- tiplication of the population. A Greek writer, Diodo'rus Sic'- ulus, who traveled there nineteen centu- ries ago, says that to bring up a child to manhood did not cost more than twenty drachmas (less than four dollars of our money), — and he no- tices this fact as a cause of the populous- ness of Egypt 19. Information in regard to oid sources of ancient information. Egypt was, until the present century, de- rived chiefly from the narratives of the Greek historians, and especi- MAP STUDY. Andent Egypt comprised three divisions,— Lower E^ypt, or the Delta ; Middle Hgypt, or tha Ileplanoinis ; Upper Egypt, or the Thebais. I. In which division was Memphis? 2. On which bank of the Nile was Memphis ? 3. In which division was Tliebes? 4. Near which city are the Great Pyramids ? 5. What seaport at the mouth of the eastern branch of the Nile? 6. Where was the land of Goshen? 7. What sea north of Egypt? 8. What is the general course of the Nile? g. What sea east of Egypt ? 10. What celebrated mountain in this vicinity ? '^ u n «4 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. ally from that of Herod'otus,* who traveled in Egypt in the 5th century B.C., and from some fragments of a history written in Greek by Mane'tho, an Egyptian priest, in the 3d cen- tury B.C. 20. But in modern times our knowledge of the ancient The new land has been greatly extended by the discovery sources. q{ ^]^q r^j.^ q^ reading the inscriptions which the Egyptians of old with great lavishness carved on their build- ings and monuments, especially their obelisks, painted on the frescoed interiors of f'leir tombs, and indeed placed on almost every object of use or art. These writings were in the character called hieroglyph' ics^ which is a Greek term meaning sacred carvings, or priestly writing. Now, the knowledge of the reading of these died out with the decline of Egypt, and " hieroglyphics " became a synonym for every- thing that is mysterious. 21. It was an interesting accident that led to the unveil- Deciphering ^"S ^^ ^^^^ mystery. During the exnedition of the French to Egypt, under Napoleon, at the close of the last century, an engineer in digging the foundation of a fort near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile found a stone tablet about three feet long, on which was an inscription in three different characters. This was the famous " Rosetta stone." One of the three texts (the lower one) was Greek, and of course! was readily translated ; the text at the head was in the mystic hieroglyphic character ; the inter- mediate text was in a character since called demotic (demos^ the people), that is, the writing of the common people. This inscription was copied and circulated among scholars, and after long ind ingenious efforts the alphabet of the hiero- glyphics was made out ; so that now these carvings are read with ease and certainty, and a new flood of light has been thrown on the history of ancient Egypt. of the hiero- glyphics. * Herodotus, called the father of history, was born at Halicarnassus, a Greek colony in Caria (Asia Minor), B.C. 484. ii EGYPT. '5 Note on thk Rosttta Stonf. — The Greek text, when translated, showed that the inscription was an ordinance of the priests decreeing cer- tain honors to Ptc'emy Epiph'anes on the occasion of his coronation, 196 B.C. (Ptolemy Epiphanes was one of a line of Greek sovereigns who ruled over Egypt from the time of its conquest by Alexander, 4th century, to the ist century B.C.) It contains a command that the decree should be inscribed in the sacred letters (hieroglyphics), the letters of the country (demotic), and Greek letters,— and this for the convenience of the mixed population of Egypt under its Greek rulers. It was natural to conclude that the three texts were the same in substance, and accordingly earnest efforts were made to decipher the hierc jlyphics by aid of the Greek. The first clew was obtained by noticing that certain groups of the hieroglyphic characters were inclosed in oval rings, and tiiat these groups corresponded in relative position with certain proper names, such as Ptolemy, etc., in the Greek text. The following line presents a few of the characters with a group in the oval ring. (The words and groups of words are read from ri£Ai to le/i). mmsm mw.v\9>^ (Ptolemy eternal beloved of Pht.ih) of Etjypt kin^ of statue raising It was by comparison of the group judged on strong grounds to be the name Ptolemy, with another group (found on another stone) supposed to stand for the name Cleopatra, that the first great advance was made. The groups were as follows :— @M13 Supposed to be Ptolemy, ( Sgi^ Supposed to be Cleopatra, In Greek Ptolemy Is Ptolemaios, and Cleopatra is Kleopatra, If now the hi i()<,'lypliic characters were ktter-%vgx\%, the characters, i. 2, 3. 4, in Ptole- m.iios should correspond respectively with 5. 7, 4, 2, in Kleopatra (}hft first letter in Ptoleniaios being \.\\efifik in Kleopatra, etc.). in this way several letters were discovered ; by means of other groups the whole alphabet was made out, and finally it was proved that by this phonetic alphabet the char- n ft' : IT i6 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. actrrs and groups could be resolved into the C"T)tic language of Egypt, which was already understood by scholars. It should not be forgotten that the great work of deciphering was mainly effected by the French savant, Champollion. 22. The Egyptians were not Africans, as we understand Egyptian that term. They belonged to the Caucasian race. race. Still, they were neither Aryans nor Sem- ites, and hence scholars call them by a special designation, namely, Hamites^ or Khamites* They bore a greater resemblance to the ancient Chaldaeans than to any other Asiatic people ; both peoples showed a wonderful building instinct, and the Egyptian language seems to be a sort of primitive Semitic. Hence some scholars believe that the Egyptians were originally immigrants into the Nile Valley from the alluvial plain at the head of the Persian Gulf; but if this was the case, the Egyptians must have left Asia at a period before there was that sharp division of Semites and Aryans which we find in historical times. 23. The origin of Egyptian civilization is hidden in the „ . . darkness of antiquity : but by the aid of cer- of Egypt's tarn ascertamed facts we may establish at history. X^-ysX zx\ approximate starting-point. Thus, it is known that Abraham visited Egypt in the 20th century B.C., and then he tliere found a flourishing monarchy exist- ing. Now at this remote period the Great Pyramids were standing, and modern scholars are agreed that these struc- tures were reared by kings of the fourth dynasty, — at a time not later than the middle of the 25th century b.g It is evident from the monuments that the civilization of Egypt at this early date was in many respects of an advanced order, and hence we must seek its origin still farther back. But hoii* far back? According to ihe native historian Manctho, twenty-six dynasties of kings ruled the country from Me'nes, the first king of the first dynasty, down to the * Khami (literally the Black Land) wai the native name of Egypt. EGYPT. Ty conquest of Kgypt by the Persians in the 6th century b.g The accession of Menes is placed by some scholars (as Bunsen) at 3906; others bring it down as late as 2700. Later than that date we cannot bring it, and it would doubt- less be quite correct to say that Egypt was a civilized country three thousand years before the Christian era. 24. The history of Egypt from the first dynasty (2700 B.C.) down to the destruction of Egyptian in- The three dependence by the Persians (525 B.C.) may be ?«"<><*'• divided into three periods, namely : — I. First Period (or period of the old empire), from the earliest times (say 2700 b.c) to 2080. II. Second Period (or period of the Hyk'sos rule), from 2080 to 1527. III. Third Period (or period of the new empire), from 1527 to 525. 25. The First Period begins with the first dynasty (2700 B.C.), and lasts for 620 years; but it cannot First Period be said that authentic Egyptian history com- characterized, mences until the fourth dynasty, about the middle of the 25th century B.C. And, indeed, the epoch of the fourth dynasty is the most notable during the whole of this First Period ; for this was the era of the pyramid-builders. Man- etho ascribes the building 6{ the Great Pyramid at Gizeh [.i^w'sM] near Mem'phis to Sup/iis (the Che' ops of Herodo- tus) ; and it is an interesting fact that in the interior of this structure has been found a hieroglyphic royal name which scholars agree in reading Shufu. 'i'he center of the Fgyp- tian power was then at Memphis, in Lower Egypt, where a centralized monarchy ruled the whole country ; and it is apparent that at this epoch the Egyptians had made very considerable progress in the arts of life. Before the close of the First Period, however, Egypt was broken up into really separate kingdoms, the monarchy which ruled at Thebes in Upper Egypt being the most powerful. This B p i8 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. left the country in so feeble a condition that it was invaded by a foreign enemy, namely, the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings. And with their conquest of Egypt (2080 B.C.) closes the First Period or Old Empire. 26. The Second Period is the era covered by the rule of .„ . . the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, and lasts for Second Period. , ■'- ' • / r. . rr-i about five centuries (2080-1525 B.C.). The Hyksos are believed to have been a nomadic race from either Syria or Arabia. Entering Lower Egypt, they de- stroyed the i.ative monarchy at Memphis, and afterwards conquered the Theban Kingdom of Upper I'-gypt. The complete establishment of their dominion was about 1900 B.C., and after this follows the darkest period of Egyptian history.* 27. The revival of Egyptian independence by the expul- sion of the " Shepherds,'' introduces us to the Third Period, or that of the New Empire. This continues for about one thousand years (1527-525 B.C.); but it should be divided into two ages, — the grand age and the age of decay. 28. The expulsion of the Hyksos was due to the valor The grand of a 'I'heban prince, who headed a great na- *8^®- tional uprising, and who received as his reward the supreme authority over the whole country, — a right which was inherited by his successors. Egypt now became one great centralized power, with Thebes for its capital. The most splendid period of Egyptian history was from the eighteenth to the twentieth dynasties, — about three centuries (1525-1200 B.c.).t Egyptian art attained its highest per- Third Period. * It was (lur'ng the rule of one of the dynasties of Shepherd Kings tiiat Abraham visited Ei;ypt,— said to be 1920 B.C., — and thoy were siill leigninjj; when Jacob and his sons settled iu the country^ 1706 n c. t At the head of the eiLjhteenth dynasty is supposed to have been that Pharaoh "who knew not Joseph." The exodus of the Israelites from EGYPT. 19 that ■from Age of decay. fection, and the great temple-palaces of Thebes were built. The Egyptians even undertook foreign expeditions : Ethi- opia, Arabia, and Syria were invaded ; the Euphrates was crossed, and a portion of Mesopotamia was added to the Egyi^tian Empire. The chief of these warlike kings was Rani'eses II., the Sesos'iris of the Greek writers. 29. From the twentieth dynasty onwards Egypt declined for six centuries, till finally it was conquered by the Persians under Camby'ses, 525 B.C. In 332 Egypt fell under the dominion of Alexander the Great, who founded on its shore the new capital and literary and commercial center called Alexandria. One of his gene- rals, named Ptolemy, received Egypt as his fragment of the divided empire of Alexander, 323 B.C. Thenceforward for three centuries the Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies ruled on the banks of the Nile till Queen Cleopa'tra, the last of the line, being overcome by the Romans, died by her own hand; and the venerable land became a Roman province in B.C. 30. (See under the history of Rome, p. 176.) s. EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION. 30. In government^ Egypt was a hereditary monarchy, but the kingly rule took a peculiar form, owing to the extraordinary power of the priestly class. Unlike the sovereigns of the East, an Egyptian Pharaoh was far from being the unquestioned master of his own actions : his public duties and his daily habits of life were prescribed by religious rule ; so that the priestly class formed the "power behind the throne." In another respect an Egyptian king differed from an Eastern despot : his power over the lives and property of his subjects was strictly E'Typt is believed to have takoi ]ilace 1320 n.c, during the reign of Meneptha, the fourth king of the nineteenth dynasty, — the Pharaoh whose heart was hardened, and who was drowned in the Red Sea. Government. i E 1* u^; 20 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. i|M Caste. Priests. limited by law, and nothing left to caprice and passion. The right to enact new laws, however, resided with the sovereign. 3X. The station in life of every man was fixed by an in- stitution named casfg. By the system of caste each individual, instead of being able to make his own place and fortune in the world, had his lot marked out by his birth : he had to be what his father was. Of these castes, or ranks, there were three broad divisions, — the priests, the soldiers, and the lower orders. 32. The priests were the richest, most powerful, and most influential order. It must not be supposed, however, that the modern word " priest " gives the true idea of this caste. Its members were not limited to religious offices ; they formed an order copnprising many occupations and professions. They were distributed all over the country, possessing exclusively the means of reading and writing, and the whole stock of medical and scientific knowledge. Their ascendency, both direct and indirect, over the minds of the people was immense, for they pre- scribed that minute religious ritual under which the life of every Egyptian, not excepting the king himself, was passed. 33. Next in importance to the sacerdotal or priestly order was the military caste, numbering about 400,000. To each man of this soldier-caste was assigned a portion of land ( = 6 J acres) free from any tax ; but he could not engage in any art or trade. The lands of the priests and soldiers were regarded as privileged property ; while the rest of the soil vas considered as the property of the king, who rented ft to c\;>ltivators, receiving from them one-fifth of the produce. 34. Widely separated from the priests and warriors were Lower the various unprivileged castes. These were castes. the husbandmen^ the artificers^ and the herdsmen^ each caste including many different crafts and occupations. Warrior*. EUYF'l. JI rere /ere bus. The lowest caste was that of the herdsmen, and the lowest niembers of this caste were the swineherds, who were not permitted to enter the temples. All the castes below the priests and soldiers agreed, however, in this, that they had no political rights, and could not hold land. 35. The effect of the caste-system was evil. It was one of the main causes of the decline of the nation. Effect of It discouraged progress and improvement ; it *^***** crushed out personal aiubition ; it produced dull uniformity. 36. The population of ancient Egypt is known to have been at least five millions, and it may have been much more. As food was cheap and abundant, owing to its being easily obtained, the race in- creased very rapidly ; hence there was a large part of the people whose labor could be used in any way the rulers wished. This fact accounts for the ease with which great public works — works that, like the pyramids, were useless, but yet required the labor of hundreds of thousands of men for years — were constructed. 37. Herodotus relates that Egypt contained 20,000 in- habited towns. The two most famous cities were Memphis and Thebes. Memphis was about twelve miles above the apex of the Delta. Scarcely a vestige of the place now remains ; but its great burial- place at Gizeh is still seen. Here are the great Pyramids, the colossal Sphinx, and miles on miles of rock-hewn tombs. Thebes was the metropolis of Upper Egypt, and the most splendid city of the Nile. The traveller who now views its ruins at Kar'nak and Lux'or beholds pillared temples and statues of a size so colossal as to seem like the work of giant hands. 38. In some branches of art, especially in architecture, the Egyptians made great advances. The race seems indeed to have had a wonderful building instinct. The distinguishing feature of Egyptian architecture Cities. 1 32 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. Pyramids. is its vastness and sublimity. Avenues of colossal sphinxes and lines of obelisks led to stupendous palaces and temples, elaborately sculptured, and containing halls of solemn and gi -omy grandeur, in which our largest cathedrals might stand. 39. The pyramids were designed as the sepulchers of kings. The three great pyramids of Gizeh are the most celebrated; but as many as seventy stand on the left bank of the Nile, just beyond the cultivated ground, in the vicinity of Memphis. The largest of the three great pyramids is 450 feet high ; it has a square base of 764 feet, and it covers an area of more than 13 acres, — twice the extent of any other building in the world. The second pyramid is but little less ; the third about half the size. In the construction of these works no degree of labor for any length of time seems to have intimidated the Egyp- tians. The huge blocks of stone, sometimes weighing 1600 tons each, were dragged for hundreds of miles on sledges ; in one case which is known, 2000 men were employed three years in bringing a single stone from the quarry to the structure in which it was to be placed. 40. In sculpture the Egyptian artists aimed at the colos- sal, and never attained the beautiful. A re- markable peculiarity of Egyptian sculpture is, that, though the earliest monuments reveal a considerable degree of artistic skill, this skill never advanced. The ex- planation of this is found in the connection of Egyptian art with Egyptian religion. The artists were fettered by strict rules, and were forbidden to indulge their inventive genius. 41. Egyptian painting did not reach true excellence. The best specimens, as seen in the frescos in the interiors of the sepulchers, display brilliancy of coloring, and frequently great spirit and vivacity ; but the drawing is very inaccurate, displaying no observance of perspective or even the simplest laws of vision. It should Painting. EGYPT. 23 Religion. be Stated that in this branch of art, too, religion interfered to limit the taste and fancy of the painter, certain colors being positively prescribed in representing the bodies and draperies of the gods. 42. The art of writing was practiced more extensively by the Egyptians than by any contemporary nation. Art of The p3 ramids and monuments of even the ear- writing, liest period bear inscriptions ; and it was the custom to mark every object and article of use or ornament. For manu- scripts an excellent writing material was made from the leaves of the pa-py'rus plant, whence our word " paper." Fragments of manuscripts on papyrus exist of the earliest Theban dynasties, — 2000 B.C. 43. The translation of the sacred books of the Egyptians shows that their religion embodied some grand conceptions, — among others that of the immor- tality of the soul, and that of the existence of an invisible God. The several attributes and manifestations of the Deity, were, however, represented in various forms, and, though by the priests and other learned men these were regarded as mere symbols, they became to the ignorant separate divinities and objects of worship. In this way the religious system of the Egyptians was very complicated, the number of gods being so great that every day of the year was consecrated to one. The worship of Osi'ris and I'sis was that most generally diffused. 44. One of ihe most striking peculiarities of the Egyptian religion was the honor paid to brutes. The worship of dog, the cat, the ibis, and the hawk were held an^^a^' in reverence throughout the whole land, — other animals were worshipped only i:i special nomes^ or districts. The highest honors were paid to the bull Apis at Memphis, and to the cnlf Mne'vis at Heliop'olis. The sacred animals were kept i.. the temples, ministered to with the greatest care, and when they died they were embalmed. If a person killed Vi ii 24 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. Embalming^. an ibis or a hawk, whether intentionally or unintentionally, he was immediately put to death. Animal worship received its extraordinary extension in Egypt owing to the over- whelming influence of the priestly caste. Ultimately it was a main cause of the mental debasement . T the people. 45. The practice of embalming dead bodies was con- nected with the peculiar religious ideas of the Egyptians. The original reason of embalming was the belief that at the day of judgment the soul would reunite with the body : hence the care taken to preserve the corpse from corruption, and hence also the great pains taken to ornament the interiors of their stone-hewn sepulchers, since, even while lying in the tomb, the body was believed to be not wholly unconscious. 46. The Egyptians were adepts in the finer kinds of Arts and ma- mechanical art. In the polishing and engraving nufactures. Qf precious stones, in glass manufacture, porce- lain-making, and in embalming and dyeing, they had attained great skill. They raised flax, out of which they made fine linen (linen being their usual article of dress) ; they worked in metals from the earliest recorded period; their walls and ceilings they painted in beautiful patterns, which we still imitate ; and in the production of articles of use and ornament they had reached a perfection that modern art has not been able to surpass. 47. It is known that the Egyptians had some acquaint- ance with certain sciences, especially geome- try, arithmetic, astronomy, and medicine. But their knowledge can hardly be called science^ in the modern sense : they knew truths more as matters of fact and obser- vation than as determined by law. For example, the Greek philosopher Pythag'oras learned from the Egyptian priests the/7' miMM 26 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. CHAPTER III. THE ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. I. INTRODUCTION. 49. To Egypt ha:- been accorded the precedence of Anf It f P<^ssessing the earliest secular historic records^ Chaidsean but an actual antiquity hardly later than that cmikation. ^f Egypt may be claimed for the civilization which arose in the 'vro-Euphrates basin. There is a posi- tive date in Chaldse. story going back to the 23d cen- tury B.C. (2234 B.C. .„je IT 57, p. 29), while authentic Egyptian history antedates this by only two centuries (epoch of the Pyramid-builders, fourth dynasty, B.C. 2450). 50. If, however, leaving profane records we take theguid- The Scripture ance of the Hebrew Scriptures, this region will record. claim an even greater antiquity. The Bible places the commencement of the history of mankind in the Tigro-Euphrates basin. "And it came to pass," says the Book of Genesis, "as they journeyed from the East, that they found a plain in the land of Shi'nar ; * and they dwelt there." There the Scriptures place the building of Babel, the first great city founded after the Deluge, and there occurred the confusion of tongues and the dispersion of races. It is * Shinar, that is, Mesopotamia. See Map of Ancient Oriental Mon- archies, opposite p. 8. MAP STUDY. See map of Ancient Oriental Monarchies, opposite p. B. 1. In what country do the Tigris and the Euphrates rise? 2. Where is Mount Ararat? 3. What mountain chain between the Tigro-Euphrates basin and the phiteau of Media and Persia? 4. Describe the course of the Tigris. 5. Of tlie Euphrates. 6. Wiiere do they unite? 7. Into what gulf do they empty ? 8. Locate Nineveh ; Babylon ; Ur. t IS ire is irates if the tgulf 1 ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 27 an interesting fact that the record of this event is preserved in the Babylonian tradition, as well as in the Mosaic narrative. 51. 'I" wo great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, take their rise in the highlands of Armenia, and sketchofgeo- unite near the head of the Persian Gulf, which b'^p^v- receives their waters after the Euphrates has flowed about 1780 miles and the Tigris about 1150. The valleys of these streams interpose as a belt of fertility in the midst of the great desert zone that extends from the western coast of Africa almost to the north-eastern shores of Asia. 52. The Tigro- Euphrates basin comprises a number of territorial and political divisions which it is Geographical not always easy to mark by definite lines. The divisions' region between the two great rivers was called by the Greeks Mesopotamia, and by the Hebrews Shinar. Chaldaea was the name applied to the region south of the lower course of the Euphrates, and to the head of the Persian Gulf. These we may call territorial divisions ; but Babylonia, on the other hand, was a political division which took in the alluvial plain between the lower waters of the Tigris and Euphrates (Southern Mesopotamia or Shinar), and also Chaldaea south- ward to the Arabian desert. Again, the territorial division of Assyria proper lay east of the Tigris and west of the Zagros Mountains, and must not be confounded with Assyria as a political power, that is, the Assyrian ICmpire, which varied in extent, and the name of which was often applied to the whole territory between the Mediterranean Sea and the tableland of Media and Persia. Susiana lay along the Tigris, south-east of Assyria, and was a territorial, not a national, designation. 53. The Tigro- Euphrates basin was the seat of three successive kingdoms: — i. The early Babylo- The three nian, or Chaldtean, Kingdom ; 2. The Assyrian nations. Empire ; 3. 'Ihe later Babylonian Kingdom. 54- As in the case of Egypt, our knowledge of the ancient r ,( !i II 28 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. ur history of these countries has been very greatly enlarged Modern through modem research. By the industry of research, explorers, beginning with Layard thirty years ago, Nineveh and Babylon and the buried cities of the plain have been unearthed ; their palaces and temples have been exposed to view ; the mysterious inscriptions in the wedge- shaped or cu-fieU-form character, which were found covering the slabs that lined the interiors of the palaces and temples, have, by a triumph of modern scholarship, been translated ; and thus a flood of light has been cast on the darkness of the primeval world. Ill !iii a. EARLY BABYLONIAN, OR CHALD.SAN, KINGDOM. 55. The earliest of the three kingdoms was the Chaldaean, Physical de- or Early Babylonian, which arose in the lower scription. p^rt of the rich alluvial plain lying above the Persian Gulf. Chaldaea by its natural fertility was calcu- lated to be one of the first seats of human society. It is the only country in which wheat is known to be indi- genous. Other cereals grew plentifully ; groves of the magnificent date-palm fringed the bank; of the rivers ; the vine and other fruits abounded, while the rivers teemed with fish. 56. Authentic history in the Tigro-Euphrates basin, as Earliest in the Nile Valley, commences only with the history, formation in Chaldaea and Babylonia of one united kingdom, including previously disunited tribes under its authority. The Hebrew records name Nimrod, the son of Cush, as the founder of this kingdom ; and the Book of Genesis also reveals to us the existence of a Tetrapolis, or confederation of four cities, that ruled over the Empire established by Nimrod; namely, i. Babylon; 2. E'rech ; 3. Ac'cad ; 4. Cal'neh,— all of which places have been iden- tified in modern times. ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 29 Astrouotny. Architecture. 57. The primitive Chaldaeans practiced the worship of the heavenly bodies. Their religion, combined with the facilities afforded by their climate and their level horizon, led them from the earliest times to the study of astronomy, in which they made very considerable progress. When Alexander the Great took possession of Babylon, 331 B.C., he found a series of astronomical observations taken by the Chaldaeans for an unbroken period of 1903 years. 'Ihese observations would therefore date from 2234 b.c. (331 + 1903)- 58. The Chaldaeans showed from the first an architec- tural tendency. The attempt to build a tower "which should reach to heaven," made here (Genesis xi. 4), was in accordance with the general spirit of the people. Out of such simple and rude material as brick and bitumen vast edifices, the ruins of which have re- cently been found, were constructed, pyramidal in design, but built in steps or stages of considerable altitude. 59. Other arts also flourished. Letters in the cuneiform, or wedge-shaped, characters were in use; and the baked bricks employed by the royal builders had commonly a legend stamped in their center. Gems were cut, polished, and engraved. Metals of many kinds were worked and fashioned into arms, ornaments, and im- plements. Delicate fabrics were manufactured by their looms. Commerce was carried on with other countries, and the "ships of Ur" traded along the shores of the Persian Gulf. 60. The site of Ur is believed to have been identified with ceruin mounds and ruins on the banks of the lower Euphrates. This place is interesting in connection with Abraham, who was born at " Ur of the Chaldees." The period of Abraham is usually put at about two thousand years before the Christian era. The belief is that Chaldaea contained at this time a Semitic population Arts. Ur. 1 j I Mill 30 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. ii[ ir 1' M I iiiili Early history. which professed a pure form of religion, in the midst of the idolatrous C'haldccans ; and hence Abraham, who was a Semite, emigrated with his family and flocks and herds to the land of Canaan. 61. The Chaldaean monarchy continued for several cen- Deciineof turies : but about the 13th century B.C. it took a Chaidffia. secondary position, and the newly arisen Assy- rian nation became the dominant power of Mesopotamia. 3. ASSYRIA. 62. The Assyrians are believed to have been a Semitic population who originally lived in Chaldcea, but who at an early period removed to the upper course of the Tigris. Here there grew up a kingdom which at first was subject to the Chaldgean ruler at Babylon, but which finally, about 1250 B.C., became independent. As- syria advanced rapidly and completely overshadowed Baby- lonia ; and for six centuries, down to the fall of Nineveh, 625 B.C., was the great imperial power of Western Asia. 63. The six centuries of Assyrian history may be divided Two periods into two periods. The first period is from the of Assyria. independence of Assyria (about 1250 B.C.) to the foundation of the new Assyrian Empire under Tig'lath- pi-le'ser II. 745 B.C. ; the second is from the accession of 'Jiglath-pileser II. to the fall of Nineveh. 625 B.C. 64. Among the famous monarchs of the first period were Tiglath-pileser I. (1130 B.C.), a conquering prince, and Asshur-idanni-pal (the original of Sardanapalus, but wholly unlike that mythic king), to whose time belong the winged bulls and lions and the sculptured palace-walls which have been dug from the ruins of Calah. Towards the end of this period Nabonas'sar, the ruler of Babylon, not only made himself independent, but gained a certain supremacy over Assyria. The date of this event, 747 rere ring II ot lose ired ilah. fcr of led a 747 ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 3« B.C., is known as the '"era of Nabonassar." In 745 b c, however, the authority of Assyria was revived by Tiglath- pileser II., with whose accession begins the second period of Assyrian history. This monarch was a great conqueror, as were also his successors, Sargon and Shalmaneser IV. ; but the most si)lendid reign during the second period was that of Sennacherib (705-681 n.c), who made extensive con- quests, and was tlic builder of magnificent structures at Nine- veh. This second period was the golden age of Assyrian art. 65. The countries included within the limits of Assyria, at the height of its glory, were Babylonia (cover- Extent of the ing all the territory of the ear/y ChaldtEan E»npire. Kingdom), Mesopotamia, Media, Syria, Phoenicia, a large part of Palestine, Arabia, and Egypt. Under the Assyrian rule the subject states were generally allowed to retain their own government, but their kings were compelled to do homage and i)ay tribute to the Assyrian monarch as the "king of kings." 66. The vast empire of Assyria was never more than a loosely-tied bundle of petty states. The records causeof of the kings, engraved on slabs and cylinders, decay- reveal a constant succession of revolts, wars, subjugations, and deportatio.is of whole populations. Thus Assyria had no inherent strength, and after culminating in the 7th century it began rapidly to fall in pieces. 67. In the 7th century Babylon made a successful rebel- lion ; and when the Median conqueror Cyax'- closing ares led a force from beyond the Zagros chain events. to attack Assyria, he was joined by the Babylonians under Nabo{)olas'sar, the Assyrians were overthrown, Nineveh was captured, its splendid palaces and temples were given to the flames, and Assyria fell, never to rise again, 625 li.c. 68. Nineveh was rather an assemblage of fortified pal- aces and temples, interspersed with clusters of Nineveh de- meaner dwellings built of sun-dried bricks, than scribed, what is now understood by a city. For about sixty miles f i 32 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. mounds of ruins dot the banks of the Tigris : these doubtless formed part of Nineveh ; but the heart of the vanished city seems to be represented by the mounds that are opposite the modern town of Mosul. So complete was its demolition, that even in the 4th century B.C. — time of Alexander the Great — almost every vestige of it had disappeared. 69. Summing up what the Assyrian people contributed Assyrian civi- to civilization, we find that their genius took ligation. mainly the form of art and manufactures. In letters and in science they were behind both the Chaldaeans and the Egyptians. Architecture was their chief glory, and the palaces of Nineveh must have been of extraordinary splendor. Their sculpture, too, though never attaining Grecian purity and perfection, was far in advance of Egyp- tian stiffness and conventionalism : it displays a wonderful grandeur, dignity, boldness, and strength. 70. In the useful and mechanical arts, they had reached great skill. They not only had transparent glass, but even lenses ; they were well acquainted with the principle of the arch, and constructed tunnels, aque- ducts, and drains ; they knew the use of the pulley, the lever, and the roller ; they understood the arts of inlaying, enameling, and overlaying with metals ; they cut gems with the greatest skill and finish, ana in the ordinary arts of life they were, twenty-five centuries ago, nearly on a par with the boasted achievements of the moderns. The arts. Ill 4. LATER BABYLONIAN KINGDOM. 71. During the six centuries of Assyrian dominion — 1250 lit- to^25B.c — Babylon had been partially eclipsed; ation of but the ancient Chaldoean or Babylonian nation Babylon. never entirely lost its spirit of independence. When Assyria was overthrown by the Medes, 625 b.c, Nabopolassar, who had aided the Medes, received as his share of the spoil the undisputed possession of Babylonia. he 250 led; tion nee. B.C., his la. ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 33 72. This later Babylonian Kingdom lasted for 87 years (625-538 B.C.), till overthrown by the new con- Extent of quering power of Persia. histoiy. 73. Nabopolassar, the first monarch of the new Babylo- nian Kingdom, was succeeded by his son Nebu- Nebuchad- chadnez'zar, under whom the empire reached «>««"■• its height of glory. Having in early life proved the sharp- ness of his sword upon Egypt, this king, during his long reign of forty-three years, undertook other wars, in which the siege of Tyre and the siege of Jerusalem stand out as conspicuous achievements. Besides his conquests, Nebu- chadnezzar distinguished himself by almost entirely rebuild- ing the city of Babylon. With his " unbounded command of naked human strength," he applied himself to those works which afterwards called forth his celebrated boast : " Is not this Great Babylon, that I have built for the house of the Kingdom, by the might of ray power, and for the honor of my majesty ? " 74. Babylon was a square city, at least five times as large as London, and traversed diagonally by the Euphrates. Its walls — 338 feet high and 85 feet thick — were studded with towers and pierced with brazen gates. Its palaces and its hanging gardens — a system of terraces in imitation of mountain scenery, formed to please Nebuchadnezzar's Median qujen — were among the wonders of the world. 75. Nebuchadnezzar was followed by four kings, the last of whom was Nabona'dius. This monarch had made his son Belshaz'zar the partner of his ^'' throne, and it is the name of Belshazzar that appears in the Scriptures in connection with the capture of Bab-,-v n. 76. At this time a new power appeared from ^e^ond tht Zagros Mountains. This power was the con- Persian con- quering army of the newly risen dominion of ' ) CHAPTER V. THE PHCENICIANS, 91. Phcenicia was one of the most important countries of the ancient world, and to us the Phoenicians interest of are one of the most interesting peoples of early *^^"" ^'stonr. history. The interest and importance of this nation do not arise from the extent of its territory, — for Phoenicia proper was all comprised in a mere strip of land between Mount Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea, — but from the fact that the Phoenicians hold a high place in the history of primitive civilization. 92. The Phoenicians were the earliest commercial and colonizing people on the shores of the Mediter- Traders and ranean Sea. There they preceded the Greeks, Colonizers, who subsequently became their great rivals in trading and in planting settlements. It was not until about 1000 B.C. that the Greeks began to push off from the mainland and to occupy the islands of the ^gsean Sea and the shores of Asia Minor, — and when they did commence to spread them- selves from the mainland to the islands, they found the Phoenicians already settled there. 93. As early, probably, as the 9th century b.c. the enter- prising Phoenicians had founded on the north- ern coast of Africa the colony of Carthage, which became the most famous of the Phoenician colonies, and which, five or six hundred years after this, guided by the military genius of Han'nibal, ventured to cope with the migiity power of the Roman Commonwealth. 94. The Phoenicians had gone even ftirther : they had made their way beyond what the Greeks called Extent of the " Pillars of Hercules," that is, the Strait of wtuement*. Carthage. m ^ n 42 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. Jl' from the Mediterranean Sea Gibraltar, and had sailed into the Atlantic Ocean. There they had founded the city of Gii'des (now Cadiz). Sailing over the Atlantic, their merchants sought the southern parts of the British Islands *.o procure tin from Cornwall. Jn the Eastern seas the Phcienicians had made es- tablishments on the Ara- bian and Persian Gulfs, whence they traded with India and Ceylon and the coasts of Africa. Thus we see that the Phoeni- cians were navigators, mer- chants, and planters of colonies several centuries before the Greeks rose to any note in the world. 95. The Phanicians as Influence of planters of colonies. colonies had an important influence on the progress of civilization and of political freedom ; and we I ■ ■ i MAP STUDY. I. Where was Phoenicia? 2. What nation immediately south? 3. In what respect was Phcenicia well situated for commerce? 4. Name the five principal Phoenician cities. 5. Where was the territory of Carthage? 6, The city of Carthage? 7. Utica? 8. What was the name of the PliGcnician territory in Southern Spain? 9. Where was Gades? to. Name the large Mediterranean islands in which the Phcenicians had colonies. (i THE PHCENICIANS. 43 J re In ie :? le o. iul must now try to understand how this was. Colonies are founded by trading nations lor the purpose of securing a lucra- tive commerce, by establishing a market for the manufactured produce of the parent state, and a carrying-trade for its mer- chants and seamen. This is the motive ; and we see that it contrasts very noticeably with the cause that leads despotic states to form military establishments, — which is mere lust of conquest for conquest's sake. Colonies planted by commer- cial states require to be flourishing in order that the mother country shall have profitable relations with them. The parent country, knowing this, leaves the colonies to the guid- ance of persons advanced in political knowledge, who know how to adapt the institutions of the home government to the actual state of affairs in the new settlement : hence it has generally happened that civil liberty has developed more rapidly in commercial colonies than in the parent country itself 96. The ancient Phoenicians were the inventors of the first perfect alphabet. This is a very significant and interesting fact ; for, all things considered, the art of alphabetical writing is probably the most important invention ever made by man. We have seen that the Egyp- tians developed the germ of the alphabet ; but the Egyptian writing was only in part phonetic: hence the hieroglyphic alphabet was very cumbersome, consisting of several hundred characters, no sound having one fixed and invariable char- acter to re[)resent it. The cuneiform^ wedge-shaped, or arrow-headed characters of the Babylonians and Assyrians were not truly phonetic : they represented, as a general thing, syllables rather than sounds. It was reserved for the Phoenicians to adopt the apparently simple, yet ingenious and beautiful, device of determining the few elementary sounds of language and appropriating one distinctive char- acter to represent each sound. The period of the invention is not definitely known. Alphabet. li i"- !!■ i 44 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. I! Cadmns. I 97. The Greeks were directly indebted to the Phoenicians for the alphabet ; the Romans adopted the Greek alphabet with some changes ; the Roman alpha- bet is the basis of our modern alphabets. The Greeks them- selves were ignorant of precisely how they obtained the alphabet from the Phoenicians. The account they gave is that "Cadmus brought sixteen letters from Phoenicia into Greece, to which Palame'des, in the time of the Trojan war, added four more, and Simon'ides afterwards added four." * Modern scholars have proved that Cadmus is a mere fabled name signifying " the East." However, it is quite certain that the Greeks ///V/ derive their alphabet from Phoenicia. The transition from the Phoenician to the Greek may be readily perceived by examining the table on the opposite page. 98. The origin of the Phoenician nation is lost in the Origin of the darkness that shrouds primitive history. It is Phcenicians. known that, like the Hebrews, they were pure Semites. There is reason to believe that they were emi- grants from Chaldgea, and as it is recorded in the Hebrew Scriptures that Abraham came out of " Ur of the Chaldees," we may infer that Southern Mesopotamia was the native seat of the Semites. When the Phoenician branch of the Semites reached their new home on the shores of the Mediterranean, they found an aboriginal population of Ca'naanites, whom they subdued, just as the Jews did in Judaea. We also know that the Phoenician and Jewish rulers and peoples were connected by ties of friendship. Hiram, king of Tyre, was the friend both of David and of Solomon. 99. Phoenicia consisted of several independent states, Nature of the each city, in fact, being a separate state, under nation. j^g own king ; and only in times of danger did they occasionally unite under the leadership of the most powerful The chief cities of Phoenicia proper were Sidon • Pliny. ( y 111 THE PHCENICIANS. 45 1^ ler HEBREW. PMENICIAN. ANCIENT CREEK. UrER GREEK. CKUSH. n: ^^ ^.^/i^ A A A n ^ ^ i^ B K : /li A^^C r G ^ A^ ^ <^ V p -A D •71 -3^ ^^>^^IS E e E ^ 1 A /=• F 1 Z S 2 JT z Z n K B fe| H tD <^ 00® OQ © Th •» ^K/ Z I X 1 I :3 >1^ 1 M K K K ^ < u Ayj/. A L D ■y ^"y/^/A M M :3 t^ ^M*AA N N D w $ > mm X )/ o oo ♦ o O o .^ 1 H r n p > .X Q Q "1 » W ft. ^11 Ai^^^nt^ P R (D yfH^vs/v M'^ri^ zc S -tL ^rA Tk' T T K x- X omnra i f m tin les )W- !)' 48 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. CHAPTER VI. THE HINDOOS, 1^ 105. The Oriental nations of which we have thus far . . . learned have been either Semites or Hamites. Asiatic Aryans. ... ... 1 « • r 1 We are now to inquire into the history of the two Asiatic representatives of the great Aryan race, — the Hindoos and the Persians. 106. We have already .seen that the forefathers of all the First seat of great European peoples came originally from the Aryans. Westcm Asia, where they dwelt side by side with the ancestors of the Persians and Hindoos. But the original seat of the undivided Aryan family was not Persia or India. The Persians were immigrants into Persia, and the Hindoos into India, just as the Greeks, Latins, Teutons, Celts, and Slavonians were immigrants into Europe. The original seat of the undivided Aryan stock is fixed by scholars to the north-east of Persia, in the region of the Oxus and Jax-ar'tes rivers. 107. The primitive Hindoos, leaving their native seat, Hindoo mlgra- first settled in the north-western part of India, tion. It seems to have been about the year 3000 B.C.* that they crossed the Indus and established them- selves between that river and the Jumna, since known among themselves as Ar'ya Var'ta. Some time afterwards we find them occupying all the country north of the Vindya range. 108. At this time the peninsula of India was occupied Amaigama- by native dark races. These were speedily tion. subdued by the fair-skinned i^rjai who eventually overspread the entire cour^'^ .1 process of * According to Sanscrit scholars, B.C. i'l led ily Iho I THE HINDOOS. ¥) time these lost much of their purity of blood by intermix- ing with the native tribes, many of whose customs and ideas they adopted, and in the end they almost wholly lost their identity. This fact explains much that is peculiar in the civilization of the Hindoos. The Aryans in gen- eral are a progressive and practical race ; but the Hindoos, after making considerable advances in literature and philo- sophy, became stationary, and had very little influence on the great current of the world's history. We shall see that their kinsmen the T ersians, being left unmixed, developed far more of those characteristics that marked the Euro- pean members of the Aryan stock, — the Greeks, Latins, Teutons, etc 109. The first historical notice that we have of India in relation with Europe is at that great epoch in Alexander'* its history, its invasion by Alexander the Great ***'*• (326 B.C.), in the course of his world-conquering expedi- tion. The Macedonian leader merely looked into India, fought a few engagements with the native princes, and then returned; but the historians who accompanied the expe- dition left a description of Indian society, — and it corre- sponds almost exactly with what may be seen at the present day. 110. At the time of Alexander Indian society was firmly fixed in castes, similar to the state of things we found in Egypt ; and the same system both prevails to the pres;.it day and has prevai^'^d from time immemorial. The Hindoos made four divisions of society : i. The Brahmins, whose proper business was re- ligion and philosophy ; 2. The Kshatriyas, who attended to war and government ; 3. The Vaisyas, who were the mer- chants and farmers ; 4. The Sudras, or artisans and laborers Below even the lowest of these classes were the Pariahs, or outcasts, who performed the meanest of all labors. As a general thing, every person was required to follow the pro- D Castes. I ^ i*i|^ \>-i-i 11 SO ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. I*; '1 'l I'r ; Origin of caste. fession of the caste to which he belonged, and the regula- tions about intermarriage were very rigidly prescribed. 111. The division into castes probably arose from the desire of the conquering Aryans to keep up a distinction between themselves and the inferior tribes about them ; and the Hindoo word for caste, varna^ is said to mean cohr. 112. The language of the ancient Hindoos was the San- Sanscrit scrit ; it is not now spoken, and is understood speech. only by the Brahmins and by scholars who have studied it. It was the opening up of this tongue to the knowledge of European scholars, at the close of the last century, that led to the grouping of all the languages of Europe along with the Sanscrit as the Indo-European (Aryan) family of tongues. It was found that Sanscrit, both in its words and grammar, bore a remarkable likeness to the Greek, Latin, German, Celtic, and Slavonic languages; and though Sanscrit is not now regarded as the parent of these dialects, it is looked upon as the language the nearest to the original speech of the undivided Aryans. 113. In this highly-developed language the learned men Hindoo litera- of ancient Hindostan recorded a vast body of *^«' literature, much of which has been preserved to the present day. Among the oldest of these writings are the Vedas, which are believed to be as old as 2000 B.C. They form part of the sacred books of the Brahminic religion. 114. The Vedas distinctly set forth the doctrine that theic is "one unknown true Being, all-present, all-powerful, the creator, preserver, and de- stroyer of the universe." This Supreme Being " is not con- ceivable by vision or by any other of the organs of sense." But the prevailing theology which runs through them is what is called pantheism^ or that system which speaks of God as the soul of the universe, or as the universe itself. Religion. THE HINDOOS. 5' )n- » is of klf. " In him the whole world is absorbed ; from him it issues ; he is entwined and interwoven with all creation." "All that exists is God ; whatever we smell, or taste, or see, or hear, or feel, is the Supreme Being." The Invisible Supreme Being, according to the Hindoos, manifests himself in three forms, — as Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Siva the destroyer. 115. The central point of the Hindoo theology was the doctrine of transmigration of souls. Accord- -^ ^. - ing to this doctrine the human soul is joined transmigrra- to earthly bodies only for the purpose of punish- ^°°* ment, and its aim and effort are to reunite itself with the Divine Spirit of the universe. The Hindoo, therefore, regards existence in this world as a time of trial and punishment, to be abridged by prayer and sacrifice, by penance and puri- fication. If a man neglects these, his soul after death will be joined to the body of an inferior animal, and will have to commence its wanderings afresh. 116. In addition to the Vedas, the Hindoos possess a very extensive literature, both prose and poetical, other A considerable number of these works have been writingrs. translated by modern scholars. They are exceedingly curious, and of the highest worth as illustrative of the mental state of this peculiar ancient representative of our own Aryan stock ; but the absence of artistic form prevents their being appre- ciated by general readers, and hence lessens their literary value. 117. There are in India copious remains of ancient art. Among the most remarkable of the monuments are the ruck-hewn temples and grottos, espe- cially tl.ose found at Ello'ra, in the middle of Lower India, and at the Island of Klephan'ta, in the Bay of Bombay. These are elaborately sculptured and inscribed, and must have required the labor of thousands of hands for ages. 118. In the 6th century b.c. there arose in India a new Architecture. \ ■ I ft; '11 I t Sa ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES, Commerce. system of religion called Buddhism. Its founder was an ^ ,,. , Indian prince named Gautauma. It grew out of Buddhism. •,.,•• ■ r i i a social and religious reaction from the abuses of the old Brahminism ; and it was no doubt in many respects an important reform. It spread rapidly, and is still the religion of one-third of the human race. 119. Though during the whole period of antiquity India remained shut out from what was then the civi- lized world, it nevertheless had an important influence on ancient commerce. The abundance of the productions of nature and art — pearls, precious stones, ivory, spice, frankincense, and silks — made that region from an early period the center of a great maritime and caravan trade. I'he Phoenicians, as we have seen, were engaged in the carrying-trade of India both by land and sea. The same business was inherited by the Italian republics during the Middle Ages ; and the " pearl and gold " of India found their way through Arabia and the Red Sea to the Medi- terranean, till Vasco da Gama, in the time of Columbus, rounded the Cape of Good Hope. I. li ( t 1 i lii ALEXANDER CONQUEREOG ^^ Seal* c ^MUtt XOC ioo ^co .«• '7 V^ 727 J«,t lie numerals denote Xoft Ion t- 1 'i II sc u Ir THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 53 CHAPTER VII. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 1. HISTORICAL OUTLINE. 120. It will be convenient to connect the history of the Medes with that of the Persians for two Connection of reasons I. The people of both countries be- Media and longed to the same race ; 2. Although Media *"*** and Persia were for a time separate governments, yet very soon Media was absorbed in Persia. 121. On the plateau east of the chain of Zagros — the plain of ancient Jrii/i — dwelt a hardy race, the Origin of the Medcs, and a kindred stock, the Persians. '*'^"' They were both pure Aryans. They were immigrants from the nortli-easterly native seat of the Aryan stock. By vari- ous successive movements, which were not completed till the 8th century B.C., they established theiaselves in the highlands of Media and Persia. 122. The Medes first come to notice in connection with the Assyrians. About B.C. 710, Sargon, an Assyrian monarch, conquered some Median territory, and planted it with colonies, in which he placed MAP STUDY. See map of the PeriUin Empire, opposite this pafre. J. What sea formed the western boundary of the Persian Empire? 9. What countries to the east ? 3. What sea south ? 4. What two gulfs south? 5. What three seas to the north ? 6. What country in Africa was inclosed in the I'ersian Empire? 7. What satr.ipies in tlu- Tigro- Euphrates basin? 8. What is the situation of Persia I^ropcr (I'ersis) ? 9. Into what river do the Oxus and Jaxartes empty ? 10. What mountain chain to the east of the Tig ro- Euphrates basin ? iz. Where were Persepolis ; Susa ; the two Ecbatanas ; Maracanda ? Early Medes. B'- • Ir 'I . I H f - i ii I 54 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. Rise and fall. the Israelites from the cities of Samaria who had been led into captivity hy the Asyrians. 123. But the Assyrians could not hold in subjection the Medes, who grew in power and estalilished a great Median monarchy under Cyaxares, 633 B.C. He was a concpiering king : invading Assyria, he destroyed Nineveh in 625 H.c, and pushed the Median arms westward into Asia Minor. This king, the founder of the Median monarchy, was succeeded by his son Asty'ages, under whom the brief dominion of Media gave place to the rule of Persia under Cyrus the Great. 124. During this early period of the Median monarchy, Early the Persians also had established a kingdom (in Persians, persis, or ancient Persia proper) ; but it was in a measure subject to Media. While Astyages was king of the Medes Camb\ses was king of the Persians, but Cambyses acknowledged Astyages as his suzerain, and paid him tribute. The daughter of the Median monarch Astyages was married to the Persian prince Cambyses, and to them a son was born named Cyrus. Cyrus lived as a sort of hostage at the court of his grandfather Astyages, and could not leave it without permission. 125. Thus much in the life of Cyrus is true history ; but Legend of when wc go much further, we are immediately Cyrus. plunged into fable. Both Herodotus and Xen'- ophon* exalted Cyrus to the rank of a hero of romance. The following is the current story of his early life. Asty- ages having dreamed that his daughter's son should conquer all Asia, intrusted to a courtier, Har'pagus, the task of kill- ing the little Cyrus. Harpagus gave the child to a herds- man, who promised to expose it on the mountains. But ♦ Xenophon, a Greek historian, was born about 444 B.C., and was a disciple and friend of Socrates. He wrote a work on Cyrus called Cyro- fcEdia (literally, Education of Cyrus) ; but it is rather a political romance tlian an authentic history. THE PEkSIAN empire. 55 the herdsman was led to substitute his own dead baby for the Hving prince, who grew up in a humble station. The secret was disclosed, when Cyrus began to lord it over his playfellows and beat them. A noble's son complained to the king, and the royal boy was recognized. Astyages took a barbarous revenge on Harpagus, by cooking the courtier's son and serving up the flesh for the father to partake of. Cyrus was sent to his father, and Harpagus bided his time for revenge. When the time was ripe, he sent a secret message to Cyrus, who invaded Media, was welcomed by crowds of deserting troops, and by their aid overturned the Median throne, 558 b.c. We need not attempt to discover what basis of truth, if any, there may be in this legend. One fact is certain, that under Cyrus the Persians became the ruling power. 126. Commencing his reign in 558 B.C., Cyrus first sub- dued all the northern and western provinces of conquests the old Median kmgdom. On the western of Cyrus, frontier the most formidable enemy he encountered was Crcesus, King of Lydia, in Asia Minor. Croesus, taking the offensive, led his army from Sardis, his capital, across the river Ha'lys (which formed the boundary between the Per- sian and the Lydian territory), and an indecisive action was fought near Sino'pc. But Cyrus followed up, and by the overthrow of Cr(ji3sus and capture of Sardis added all Asia Minor west of the Halys to the dominion of Persia, 554 B.C.* Next, most of the Greek cities and colonies on the coast of Asia Minor and the adjoining islands were subdued. The remote East now claimed the attention of Cyrus, and between the years 553-540 b.c. he was employed in the subjugation of the various tribes in the region between Persia and the Indus, — Parthia, Bactriana, Sogdiana, etc.f * This is the date of the fall of Crcesus, according to Rawlinson ; most Other chronologers place it at 546 B.C. + See Map of Persian Empire, opposite p. 53. I. ( ■Mil If: ■ '^^.:si 56 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. The greater glory of reducing the mighty power of Babylonia now remained : this was accomplished by the capture of Babylon (538 B.C.), as already described. (See page 34.) 127. During his career of twenty-nine years, Cyrus ex- Extent of his tended the Persian dominion from the Indus to empire. the Hellespont, from the Jaxartes to the Syrian shore ; and indeed he left to his successors only the com- pletion and consolidation of his work, for by his own efforts he had made Persia the great imperial power of Asia. 128. Of the whole line of Persian monarchs Cyrus was Character the greatest, and his character is far more worthy of Cyrus. q( rcspect than that of any of his successors. He was a great conqueror without being a cruel ruler, and to remarkable ability as a soldier he added many noble traits as a man. 129. Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses. To another son, named Smerdis, Cyrus had given the dominion over some important provinces. This arrangement cost Smerdis his life, by rousing the jeal, ousy of his brother, who very early in his reign caused him to be put to death secretly. The chief event of Cambyses' reign was his conquest of Egypt in 525 B.C. In Egypt Cambyses behaved with great wantonness and cruelty. He forced the Egyptian king Psammen'iius to drink poison ; he shocked the Egyptians by stabbing a calf, which they regarded as sacred ; and on one occasion, when a courtier told him at his own request that popular rumor blamed him for drinking to excess, he proved the steadiness of his hand and eye by piercing the heart of that courtier's son with an arrow. 130. The absence of Cambyses brought about a revolution at the Persian capital. A Magian, named Go- mates, personated the murdered brother Smer- dis, and headed a conspiracy that raised him to the throne. When Cambyses heard the news, he hastened towards Per- sia, but while on the way he died, — some say by suicide, Cambyses. Revolution. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 9f iim 5ypt He he ided :ing Ition Go- lone. others from an accidental wound from his own dagger, — 522 B.C., after having reigned less than eight years. The reign of the false Smerdis was brief. Dari'us, the son of Hystas'pes, governor of one of the Persian provinces, and himself belonging to the royal family, headed an insurrec- tion, and the impostor was slain after he had reigned eight months. 131. Darius I. (Darius Hystaspes), who ascended the throne 521 b.c, was, next to Cyrus, the greatest Reign of of the Persian monarchs. He completed the Darius, work that Cyrus began. Cyrus by his conquests founded the empire; Darius organized it. To him belongs the credit of having given to the Persian Empire that peculiar poli- tical system and arrangement that maintained, it in a fairly flourishing condition for nearly two centuries. 132. Darius divided the whole empire into twenty " satra- pies," or provinces ; the native tributary kings Persian being swept away, and each province governed government by a Persian official called a satrap. A fixed rate of tribute took the place of arbitrary exactions. " Royal roads " were established, and a system of posts arranged, whereby the court received rapid intelligence of all that occurred in the provinces. The great centers of Persian power were fixed at Susa, the spring residence of the king; Ecbiiana, his summer abode ; and Babylon, the winter quarters. 133. The most interesting event in the reign of Darius is the commencement of the Persian invasions Relations of Greece. Some of the Greek cities of Ionia in w»th Greece. Asia Minor, which had been brought under Persian domi- nion by Cyrus, revolted ; the Athenians encouraged them in this revolt, and this brought Persia and Greece into col- lision on the plains of Marathon, 490 B.C. [As nearly all that is striking in the after history of Persia interweaves itself with the affairs of Greece, the narrative will best be given in connection with Grecian history.] \\ li i Hvi 58 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. s. PERSIAN CIVILIZATION. 134. The Persians belonged to the same stock as the Persian Mcdes, but they seem to have been even more character, purely Aryan, — and the term 'Aryan' is itself a Persian word signifying nod/r. When we first meet them in history, they are a race of hardy mountaineers, brave in war, rude in manners, simple in their habits, abstaining from wine, and despising all the luxuries of food and dress. Though not highly intellectual, the Persians were keen- witted, vivacious, and fond of poetry and art. Indeed, they seem in many respects prototypes of the Greeks, whose kinsmen, through a common Aryan descent, they were. They afterwards lost their noblest traits of character and became a servile Asiatic race ; but it was during their hardy, virtuous prime that all their conquests were made. 135. As builders and artists, the Persians were first pupils of the Assyrians and Babylonians. The magnificent temples and palaces of Nineveh and Babylon had been in existence many centuries before the race of Iran began to do anything in art, and it was not till they came in contact with the Assyrians and Babylo- nians that they commenced to erect noble structures. Then, however, they did more than merely imitate : they adapted, so as to make a new architectural style of their own. This style may be said to stand midway between the solemn and heavy grandeur of Egyptian and Assyrian architecture and the perfect beauty of the Grecian. The great masterpieces of Persian building consist of palaces and tombs, — their outdoor and simple worship requiring no imposing temples. The most famous remains of Persian architecture are the ruins of the royal palaces at Persep'olis. The distinguisli- ing features of these are the solid and handsome stone plat- forms, the noble staircases richly sculptured in bas-reliefs, and the profusion of light and elegant stone columns. Architecture. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 59 136. The Persians did very little in the mechanical arts. It was their boast that tliey were soldiers, and ^^ had won by their swords a position tliat gave thcni command of the i)roducts and wares of other nations. So long as the carpets and muslins of Babylon and Sardis, the shawls of Cashmere and India, the fine linen of Egypt, and the varied manufactures of the Phoenician towns poured continually into Persia, it was needless for the native popu- lation to engage in manufacturing industry. 137. I he Persians had a much purer and nobler religion than the Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, or « ,. . Phoenicians. They were not idolaters. In- deed, in the primitive period the main feature of their re- ligion was the acknowledgment and the worship of a single supreme God, — "the Lord God of heaven." But this at an early date gave way to the doctrine of the perpetual conflict of two great First Principles, that of Light and that of Darkness, personified under the names of Auramazda, or Or'mazd, and Ahriman'. 138. The Persian religion was further corrupted by the intermixture of a system of worship of the elements, — a system which the Medes had learned from the Scythians, and which ultimately overlaid the purer doctrines of the Persians. The leading feature was fire-worship, or Magianism (from Magi, the name of the priests of this rite). On lofty mountain-spots fire-altars were erected, on which burned a perpetual flame, watched constantly lest it should expire, and believed to have been kindled from heaven. Here day after day the Magi chanted their incantations, displayed their divining-rods, and prac- ticed those arts called, after them, magic. 139. The government of Persia as ruler over many coun- tries was a great advance on the theory of government of the other Oriental empires. It was more than a mere loosely -joined congeries of king- Goverament I I I : I 6o ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES ill isfi- r I I ': doms, — it was a real imperial dominion. The government was upon the whole singularly mild, and by far the noblest and the best of all the universal empires of antiquity. 140. There is no doubt that the Persians had a consider- able literature, but very few fragments of it have survived. The oldest literary monument of the Iranic race is the collection called the Zend-Avesta, which contains the sacred books of the Persians, and which was compiled by Zoroas'ter, the great religious legislator of the Persians. We can form some idea of ancient Persian poetry from a poem called the Shah Nameh, an epic com- posed by Firdousi, the greatest poet of Persia, about the middle of the loth century a.d. Though written at a time long subsequent to the Persian greatness, it is yet valuable as based on ancient traditions and fragments of song and story. Judging the poetical faculty of the Persians by this epic, we should say that they were distinguished rather for lively fancy and arabesque conceits than for true creative imagination such as distinguished the Greeks, or for the grand inspiration that breathes through the productions of the Hebrew bards and prophets. i ik J' I i I ! ' ! \W CHRONOLOGIC SUMMARY. B.C. The Medes under Cyaxares overthrow Assyria and become the leading power in Asia 625 Accession of Cyrus and supremacy of Persia . . . • 55^ Sul)jugation of Lydia 554 Capture of Bal)ylon ......... 53^ Acces.;ion of Cambyses 5^9 Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses S^S Accession of Darius Hystaspes . . • • . . * S^^ Persian invasion of Greece . 490 I ■■>■' THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 6i NoTK ON Asia Minor, — Lvoia. — The peninsula of Asia Minor was occupied from very early times by various nations; hut as tliese were of secondary importance, nothing need here be said of their history save in the case of Phrygia and Lydia. It is believed that the earliest dominant people of Asia Minor were the Plirygians, who at one time occupied the whole of the p'Miinsuia. Tiie peoi)le were engaged in agriculture and commerce. Their capital was Gordium, and the kings were alternately Gor'dias and Mi'das ; but great obscurity rests on their history. Phrygia became a province of Lydia in 560 n.c. Lydia in the 7th century rose to be the niling power in Asia Minor. The last and greatest king of this nation was Croesus, who is famous in history for his enormous wealth. When Cyrus on his career of conquest carried the Persian arms into Western As'.. Cruesus made an alliance wit!) Sparta, Egypt, and Babylon to resist 1j m ; but, as we have seen, Cyw was victorious, Croesus was made prisuaer, and Lydia was absorbed Persia, 554 B.c rs .c. I m i. IV 62 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. X,., : *fP CHAPTER VIII. COMMERCE OF THE ANCIENTS. 141. The three most commercial nations of antiquity , . ^ anterior to the Greeks were the Babylonians, Ancient / ' commercial Phoenicians, and Carthaginians. A brief sketch nations. ^f ^Y[e great routes of the trade of these nations, together with the leading articles of exchange, will be found of value in connection with the interesting map presented on the opposite page. 142. Babylonia, with its admirable situation, was one of Babylonian the leading emporiums of ancient commerce, trade. TKis trade consisted partly in the exchange of Babylonian manufactures, and partly in the purchase of products of the farther East. 143. Weaving of cotton, woolen stuffs, and carpets was the Babylonian principal manufacture established in Babylon, manufactures. Articles of luxury, such as perfumed waters, carved walking-canes, engraved stones and seals, were made in the city, and the art of cutting precious stones was carried to the utmost perfection. These articles were sought by all the civilized nations of antiquKy. 144. The Babylonians had an extensive commerce east- Trade routes ward with Persia and Northern India, whence from Babylon, they obtained gold, precious stones, and rich dye-stuffs. From Can'dahar and Cashmere they procured fine wool, and from the desert of Bactria (the modern Cobi) emeralds, jaspers, and other precious stones. The trade by sea was between the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates, and the western coasts of India and the island of Ceylon. From these regions they imported limber of various kinds, sugar-cane, spices, cinnamon, and pearls. At a very early i% COMMERCE OF THE ANCIENTS 03 if on. Ion. ids, arly I -,.-. i t •J ^ n im III ! m m ,. Their trade. <4 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. period the Babylonians formed commercial establishments on the Bahrein [dd-ran'] Islands in the Persian Gulf, whence they obtained large quantities of the finest pearls. 145. The Phoenicians were the leading commercial peo- The Phoeni- pie of Asia. 'Ihough the textile fabrics of the cians. Sidonians and the purple cloths of the Tyrians were celebrated from the earliest antiquity, it seems probable that the commerce of the Phoenicians consisted more in the interchange of foreign commodities than in the exportation of their own goods. 146. The land trade of the Phoenicians may be divided into three great branches : the Arabian, which included the Egyptian and that with the Indian seas ; the Babylonian, to which is referred the commerce with Central Asia and North India ; and the Armenian, including the overland trade with Scythia and the Caucasian countries. 147. From Ye'men (Arabia Felix) caravans brought Arabia and through the desert frankincense, myrrh, cassia^ the Levant, gold, and precious stones, — the gold being probably obtained from the opposite shores of Africa. The greater part of the Phoenician trade with Egypt was overland. The first branch of the eastern Phoenician trade was with Jud.nea and Syria proper. The dejicndence of the Phtenicians on Palestine for grain fully explains the cause of their close alliance with the Jewish kingdom. 148. But the most important branch of Pha^nician trade Eastern ^'^'^ ^^^^ Orient was that through Babylon to the trade of interior of .\sia .\ considerable i)art of the route Phoenicia, j.^ J^abylon lay through the Syrian desert, and to facilitate the passage of the caravans two of the most re- markable ("ities of the ancient world, Baal'bec and Palmy 'ra, were founded. 149. The Scythian trade may be very fairly considered the sauie, in all important particulars, as that which now 'I if I trade [o the route nd to 1st re- ny'ra, lered now COMMERCE OF THE ANCIENTS. 6S exists between Southern Russia and Bokha'ra. It was con- nected with Europe by the Greek colonies on Scythian the Kuxine (Black) Sea. Hut the most impor- *''*^®' tant branch of trade carried on through the Scythian terri- tories was the Indian, with which probably we may connect the Indo-Chinese. Bactra and Marcanda i^Balkh and Samar-^ catu{) have always been the depots of an active commerce. It is certain that a portion of this trade passed over the Caspian Sea ; but it is equally certain that the greater por- tion of it was conducted by caravans, which went round the north of the Caspian, and perhaps of the Sea of Aral. 150. The northern land trade of the Phcenicians is de- scribed by the Projjhet Ezekiel : "Javan (/>., Northern Ionia and the Creek colonies), Tubal, and tf^de. Meshech (/>., the countries round the Black and the Cas- pian Seas), they were thy merchants : they traded the per- sons of men and vessels of brass in thy markets. 'Ihey of thv3 house of Togar'mah (/>., Armenia and Cappadocia) traded 'n thy fairs with horses and horsemen and mules." * 151. The Mediterranean Sea was, however, the great high- road of Phcenician commerce. Spain was, in „. , . . » ' Phoenicians resi)ect to precious metals, the richest country in the Medi- of the ancient world; and here this pushing t«''''^ean. people early formed stations. "Tar'shish (/>., Tartes'sus, or south-western Spain) was thy merchant by reason of the multitude of all kinds of riches ; with silver, iron, tin, and lead tliey traded in thy fairs." t From Spain the Phuenicians entered the Atlantic Ocean, and proceeded to the south of the British Isles, where they procured the tin of Cornwall, and probably to the coast of Prussia, for the greatly esteemed amber. In the eastern seas they had establishments on the .Arabian and the Persian Gulfs, whence they traded with the coasts of India and Africa and the Island of Ceylon. During the reign of Pharaoh Necho, King of Egypt, they * Ezekiel xxvii. 13, 14. f Ibid. 13. 66 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. m 1 1^ Carthage. discovered the passage round the Cape of Good Hope ; but this led to no important result, on account of the calamities that Tyre endured from the conquest by the Babylonians in the 6th century. 152. 'I'he commerce of Carthage was carried on both by land and sea. Her own manufactures included fine cloths, hardware, pottery, and leather har- ness. The principal land trade of the Carthaginians was by caravans with the barbarous tribes of Central Africa, the chief imports being negro-slaves and gold-dust. 153- In the western Mediterranean their chief trade was Western ^^^^ ^'^^ ('reek colonies in Sicily and the south Mediterra- of Italy (from which they obtained wine and oil "**"■ in exchange for negro slaves, precious stones, and gold, and for cotton cloths manufactured at Carthage), and also with Spain, the El Dorado of antiquity. In fact, the C'arth;iginians possessed almost exclusively the carrying trade b( twcen the nations of Africa and those of Western Europe. r>cyond the Strait of Gibraltar the Carthaginians succeeded the Phuenicians in the tin and amber trade with the British Isles and the shores of the Baltic. 154. On the west coast of Africa the Carthaginian colo- nies studded the shores of Morocco and Fez; but their great mart was the Island of Cer'ne * (now Suana), the principal depot of merchandise, whence goods were transi)orted in light barks to the opposite coast. Here the Carthaginian exports were trinkets, saddlery, cot- ton goods, pottery, and arms, for which they received hides and ivory. There is also every reason to believe that these enterprising merchants had some intercourse with the coast of Ciuinea, and that their navigators advanced beyond the mouths of the Sen'egal and Gambia. African trade. * H.inno in the year 570 B.C. conducted sixty ships, bearing 30,000 colonists, to the western shores of Africa, where he planted a chain of six colonies between the Strait of Gibraltar and the Island of Cerne. ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS. 67 I ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. I. Nations treated of. We have considered the history of the following ancient Oriental nations : — I' The Egyptians. The Assyrians and Babylonians. The Helirews. OF ANTIQUITY j The Phoenicians. The Hindoos. The Persians. II. Classification of Races. These nations may be classed in three races, — the Aryan, or Indo-European, the Semitic, and the llamitic, as follows : — Aryan Race. ndoos. sians. Semitic Race. { Hind f Persi ! Assyrians. Phoenicians. Hebrews. Hamitic Race j Egyptians. ( Chaluxans (early Babylonians). III. Place in History. Summing up what we have learned respecting the part played by the several ancient Oriental nations, we may mark the follow- in" ciiaracterisiics : — / Leading representative of the Hamitic stock, — developed apart, — were not a conqusrin;,' or at;gres- sive race, — had a marvelous building instinct, — at- tained a considerable advancement m many of the mechanical aits, and had some knowleiij^e of certain sciences, especially astronomy and geometry, — marked. \by the stations, y character of their civilization. Seem to have been a Hamitic stock allied to the CuALD.'EANS.... ^Egypl'a"s,— had building instincts r to the Egyptians, — cultivated asironomy with aiucn saccesfi, — their civilization ot a materialistic ch«acrgr. Egyptians 68 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. t i Assyrians. Babylonians. [La/er kingdom Hindoos. Were probably almost pure Semites, — were a con- quering race, and became, previous to Persia, the <;reat imperial power of Asia, ruling not only all the Meso- potamian countries, but also Media, Syria pii>per, Plue- nicin, Palestine, part of Arabia, and neariy all Mgypt, —in the fine arts excelled, particularly in sculjjiure. As a political power ruled for only the brief perio BaiyloHia.l i Absorption in Assyria . • • (about) 1250 Assyria Becomes a great power absorbing Baby- lon (about) 1250 Fall of Nineveh and overthrow of Assyria . 625 (Era of Nabonassar 747 Revival of independence under Nabopolassar. 625 Capture of Babylon by Cyrus, and overthrow of Babylonian kingdom . « . • 538 India Immigration of Brahminic Aryans into the Indus Valley .... (about) 3000 Aiexandei's expedition into India . . . 326 / Mi'Tation of Abraham (about) 1920 . 1320 Palestine. \ Exodus from Egypt .... .Acctssion (if Solomon ..... 1015 Ijivision of Solomon's Empire into the King- dom of Israel and Kingdom of Judah . 975 Desu notion of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians and captivity of the Israelites . 721 Capture of Jerusalem I ly Nebuchadnezzar . 5'*^^ Return from the captivity .... 536 Absorption by Rome ..... 63 I*HtENlClA Tyre Incomes leading city-state of Phoenicia . I050 riicRuicia conquered by the Assyrians . (about) 870 Foundation of the colony of Carthage . . 850 Tyre captured by Alexander the Great . • 322 Phcenicia conquered by the Romans , » 63 W. t| ! ;• :*•■: i '111 70 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. Persia , ' Foundation of the Persian monarchy by Cyrus 558 Camhyses becomes kinj^ .... 529 Darius I. (Ilystaspes), who organized the Per- \ sian Empire, becomes king . . . 521 I Xerxes becomes kin^ 486 \Ovenhrow of Persian Empire by Alexander . 331 V. General Summary. The following may serve as a general summing up of the philo- sophy of Oriental history : — The great feature of all the Oriental nations was their unprogressive character. In Asia there came into ])eing a number of vast empires, but as these were despotisms, as the social state of the people was fixed in castes, and as the people themselves were reduced to a low level by polygamy, the power of man could not find free play : hence, though the ancient Eastern nations readied a considerable advancement in civilization, their civilization was of a stationary character. Asia was the land of births and beginniii},'S, and played indeed a wondrous part in the history of our race ; but when in the order of Divine Providence her appointed task was completed, ii was given to other lands and other peoples to carry forward the great work of humanity ; and we shall find that with the Aryan race on the free soil of Europe first comes true progress. I I IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // <' y. ,v €P. <$>. c^^ .^- ■ ^^-- ^ ''t Photographic Sciences Corporation ^y '*{,'■ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 // /,> Wr U.. \ n. ■ ''1 i!i Jiatt lon^iojuU 20 /rem. Grt iii ^! i 1 1 1 i '■ 1 ' 1 n,i '.", ini z. Euro Rom Gree The abou Rom natio ! tina • series spirit I. \ betwee with th the sit) the sit was th state o Lacedj « the ma 1 Cyclad Helles] Argos, • i ! 1 Therm GENERAL SKETCH, yi SECTION II. HISTORY OF GREECE.' 1 i CHAPTER I. * GENERAL SKETCH, I. We are now to begin the history of the two great European nations of antiquity, Greece and Contrast of Rome,— the history "of the glory that was Euro^p^aT'* Greece, and the grandeur that was Rome." history. The story of these nations fills the whole period between about the year looo B.C. and the downfall of the Western Roman Empire, 476 a.d. Between the history of these nations and that of the ancient Oriental empires we shall find a marked contrast. The Orient presents to view a series of vast overshadowing despotisms under which the spirit of individual freedom was completely crushed. That MAP STUDY. [See map opposite.] X. What were the boundaries of Continental Greece? a. What sea between Greece and Italy? 3. What isthmus connects the Peloponnesus with the mainland? 4. What gulfs on opposite sides of this? 5. What is the situation of the Pindus range? 6. They divided what states? 7. Tell the situation of the CEta Mountains, of Olympus, of Parnassus. 8. What was the situation of Macedon, of Attica, of Laconia? 9. Where was the state of Boeotia? la Was Attica a seaboard or an inland state? 11. Was Lacedsemon an inland or a seaboard state? 12. What rivers are named on the map? 13. What large island off the east coast? 14. Where were the Cyclades and Sporades? 15. Where were the Chersonesus, Cyrenaica, Hellespont, Thrace, Asia Minor? 16. Where were Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Argos, Delphi, Corinth, Plataea, Marathon, Miletus, Saniis, the Pass of Thermopylae? 1 . mk hi: ; ' I Id' ■■1r ' t m 1 ) 1 1 '[ '] ' t •• 7a HISTORY OF GREECE. spirit first finds play in Europe, where we shall see the rights of man asserting themselves and taking embodiment in free, self-governing states. The history of the Orient is the his- tory of dynasties ; the history of Greece and Rome is the histor)' of the people ; and accordingly the latter is far more interesting, more instructive, and more valuable. 2. The Greeks were a branch of the mighty Aryan or ^ . Indo-European stock, — the stock that includes Greek race. ,i , i • • /- t. , • , all the historic races of Europe, together with the Persians and Hindoos of Asia. As Aryans, they were closely related to the Romans ; and, in fact, the forefathers of the Greeks and of the Italians formed originally one swarm, which at a very early period in prehistoric times (not later than 2000 B.C.) left the native hive of the Aryans in Asia and moved into Europe. The evidence of language shows that this stock must have kept together for a consider- able period after they had parted company from the other members of the Aryan family, and before they settled, the one branch in the eastern and the other in the central of the three Mediterranean peninsulas, where they subsequently appeared in history, the first branch as Greeks, the second as /Romans. 3. Greece was a name almost unknown by the people whom we call Greeks, and was never used by Hellas. . . them to describe their country. It was first adopted by the Romans, from whom it has descended to us. The name by which the Greeks always called their country is Heilas. This term, however, included more than is now covered by the term Greece ; for it comprised not only the adjacent islands, but also numerous patches of settlement around the Mediterranean Sea. Hellas, in fact, denoted wherever the Hel/e'nes, or Greeks, were settled. 4. In the geography of Greece there are two important Physical ^cts to be noticed : i. That Hellas is a land of islands and peninsulas, deeply perforated by features. M GENERAL SKETCH. 7$ by 3 bays and inlets of the Mediterranean. This fact is one of the main reasons why the Greeks were the earliest civilized people of Europe, since their situation on the sea-coast brought them into contact with those older civilizations whose seats were on the eastern shores of the Mediterra- nean, and especially with Egypt and Phcenicia. 2. That the surface of the country is ridged by numerous mountains, which divided Greece into a multitude of small, isolated regions. This fact favoured the establishment of numerous separate and independent states or communities ; and it was in these little states that, for the first time in the history of the world, political freedom was attained by man. 5. Greece proper is a peninsula about 250 miles long and 1 80 miles across in its widest part It has an area about the same as that of the State of Maine. 6. The natural division of Greece is into Northern, Cen- tral, and Southern. Northern Greece extends from the north boundary line to the point .where the eastern and western shores are respectively indented by the Gulfs of Ma'lis and Ambra'cia, or Ac'tium. Central Greece reaches from this point to the Isthmus of Corinth. Southern Greece is identical with the Pelopon- ne'sus, called in modern geography the More'a. 7. Northern Greece contained in ancient times two prin- cipal countries, Tljes'saly and Epi'rus. To the Northern north of these was Macedo'nia, which, though division, ruled by kings of Hellenic blood, wag never counted to be part of Greece till quite late times. 8. Central Greece contained eleven states.* The most important of these was Attica, which is the central foreland or peninsula projecting from Boeotia states. to the south-east. Its length was 70 miles, its greatest widtli 30 miles. The general character of this region was moun- * Name these states from the map opposite page 70. Divisions. ■a I H HISTORY OF GREECE. lii'.i hi ! ;^ It,;', -■ iiiii tainous and infertile. In Attica was Athens, the foremost city of all Greece. 9. Southern Greece, or the Peloponnesus, contained Peiopon. seven principal states.* The most important nesus. Qf fj^g southern states was Laconia, sometimes called Lacedae'mon, of which the capital and most impor- tant city was Sparta. The isles. 10. The "isles of Greece" formed a very considerable and noted part of ancient Hellas. The largest of the coast islands was Euboe'a, 100 miles long. Off the west coast was the important island of Corcy'ra. Off the southern coast was Crete, 150 miles in length. The * Name these states from the map opposite page 7a, i«. GENERAL SKETCH. 75 lost ned tant mes por- "I PelasffL Hellenes. ^:':g2e'an Sea was studded with numerous islands, of which the two groups of the Cyc'lades and Spor'ades extended in a continuous series, like a set of stepping-stones, across from Greece to Asia. 11. It is probable that various tribes of the Ayran stock had Dcnetrated into the Greek peninsula as early as 2000 B.C. In the ante-Hellenic period, that is, in the prehistoric age, we hear of the Pelas'gi, who seem to have been an Aryan race. They were civilized enough to till the earth and to build walled cities. To them are attributed the remains of certain ancient monu- ments known as Pelasgic or Cyclopean remains. These consist of tombs and of walls composed of enormous rude masses of stone joined to one another without cement. 12. At a period long before the beginning of recorded history the Pelasgi were overwhelmed by an invasion of a more vigorous and warlike race, the Hellenes, who, descending from Thessaly, entirely over- spread the peninsula and gave their name to the whole country. There were four chief divisions of the Hellenes, — the Do'rians, ^o'lians, Achse'ans, and lo'nians. The iEolians were spread over Northern Greece and the western coast of the Peloponnesus ; the Achaeans held the southern and eastern part of the Peloponnesus (the Arcadians, a remnant of the older Pelasgic race, occupy- ing the center); the lonians were confined to a narrow strip of-<:ountry along the northern coast of the Peloponnesus and 'jastward into Attica ; the Doriaas were to the north, and occupied the southern slope of Mount CEta. Such appears to have been the distribution of the races in ihe age represented by the Homeric poems. 13. The Greeks of this age have no history, in the proper sense of the word. The place of this they sup- Legendary plied by a mass of beautiful legends, called by **^*' themselves myths. These recount the exploits of various heroes, and hence this period is called the Heroic Age. It is vain to attempt to separate the thread of historic truth which there may be in the body of Greek legends : to do ii 75 HISTORY OF GREECE, i, i fif.!) I i M so is only to " spoil a good poem without making a good history." 14. The last and greatest enterprise of the heroic age Siege of was the siege of Troy. This was immortalized Troy. by the genius of Homer in his ///'at/ (from J/iuWj or Troy) ; and recent explorations on the site of Troy give reason to believe that the narrative of Homer rests on a basis of actual fact. The outline of the story is as follows : Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, abused the hospitality of Menela'us, king of Sparta, by carrying off his wife Helen, . the most beautiful woman of the age. At the call of Mene- laus all the Grecian princes assembled in arms, elected his brother Agamem'non leader of the expedition, and sailed across the Aigsean to recover the faithless fair one. Nearly all Asia Minor was leagued with Troy, ar.d the most valiant Trojan leader was Hector, son of Priam. It was not till the tenth year that Troy yielded, and it is with the events of this year that the ///at/ deals. 15. Achil'les, the bravest and most redoubtable of the Greeks, offended by Agamemnon, abstains from the war ; and in his absence the Greeks are no match for Hector. The Trojans drive them back into their camp, and are already setting fire to their ships, when Achilles gives his armour to his friend Patro'clus, and allows him to charge at the head of the Myrmidons. Patroclus repulses the Trojans from the ships, but the god Apollo is against him, and he falls under the spear of Hector. This causes Achilles to return into the Grecian camp, and he slays Hector in single combat ; but is himself killed by an arrow directed by Apollo. Finally, the noblest combatants on both sides having fallen, the city is taken by the Greeks, through the stratagem of a wooden horse, devised by the crafty Ulys'ses. Troy is delivered over to the sword, and its glory sinks in ashes.* • See note, end of this chapter. The story. ^ GENERAL SKETCH. 77 the rom e no into ,vhen lows oclus lo is This d he y an tants eeks, 16. The most faithful reflex of the spring-time of the Hel- lenic world is preserved to us in the Homeric Homeric poems, the ///fZ// and the Oi^yssfjy. Among the Greece. noticeable features of society, as there depicted, are : i. The universality of kingly government. 2. The predominance of the tribe or nation over the city, whereas in the historical period the city ts the state. 3. The existence of a hereditary nobility, who form the king's council. 4. The existence of an assembly which is convened by the king to receive com- munications and witness trials, but not either to advise or judge. 5. The absence of polyuamy, and the high regard in which women are held. 6. Slavery everywhere estab- lished, and considered to be right. 7. Perpetual wars be- tween the various tribes and nations, and the preference of the military virtues over all others. 8. Strong religious feeling ; belief in polytheism and in fate ; respect for the priestly character ; peculiar sanctity of temples and festival seasons. 17. According to the traditions of the Greeks, some im- portant foreign elements were received into the Foreign nation during this first period. It is said that influence, both Phcenician and Egyptian settlements were made in Greece. Scholars now doubt that any such seU'evients were made ; but it is quite certain that the early Greeks, when they began to spread over tiie Grecian isles, came in con- tact with the Phoenicians, who were at this period the most commercial and progressive nation inhabiting the shores of the Mediterranean. From the Phoenicians the Greeks received the alphabet. It is probable, also, that the early Greeks drew from the fountains of antique Egyptian lore, and that they gained from the Egyptians their first know- ledge of some of the arts and sciences ; while the influence of the Egyptian religious system can be plainly traced in the Greek mythology. % i^.l wt — ' till ,1'':' 78 HISTORY OP GREECE. l8. But, on the whole, Hellenic civilization was of home Greek growth. Iwcn what they took they stamped civilization original. with their own character. Hence the Greek people must be considered to have developed for themselves that form of civilization, and those ideas on the subject of art, politics, morals, and religion, that have given tiiem their peculiar reputation. NoTR ON Troy.— In the revolutions of time the city of Troy has so coinplett'ly disappeared that many scholars have been disposed to doubt even tlie existence of such a place. But in recent times fresh light seems to have been tlirown on the subject by tlie researches of Dr. Schliemann, a German savant, who in the years 1869-73 '"a'l'i a series of explorations in the 'lioad, or "plain of windy Troy." He identifies the city of Ilium, or Troy, with the modern place called Hissarlik. Many interesting arclineologic remains were discovered by the explorer, who also states his belief that he could identify in the ruins the " house of Priam," the Scaean gate, and various other points mentioned by Homer. Many scholars are not prepared to accept all the conclusions of Dr. Schliemann ; but all agree that his discoveries are of great interest, and furnish new illustrations of the "tale of I'roy divine," ill I BEGINNINGS OF GREEK HISTORY. 79 CHAPTER II. HISTORY OF THE FIRST PERIOD. FROM THE DORIAN MIGRA TION TO TUB BHGlNNtNG OF THH PERSIAN WARS, 1100-500 AC. I. BEGINNINGS OP GREEK HISTORY. 19. Grecian history may be divided into three periods : I. From the Dorian migration to the beginning pg^joj, o# of the Persian wars (1100-500 B.C.) 2. From Greek the beginning of the Persian wars to the subju- *"^*°nr. gation of Greece by Philip of Macedon (500-338 b.c.) 3. From the subjugation of Greece by Philip to the P.oman contjuest (338-146 u.c.) 20. Leaving the dim twilight of legendary Greece, w.^ come to a period when there took place those Perir 1 >£ movements of tribes that finally resulted in »etti«^"»e°t' settling the Hellene '»> those parts of Hellas in which we find them during the times of authentic history. Thus there seems to be no doubt that about the year iioo b.c. the Dorians, who originally had been an unimportant tribe in the small patch of northern territory on the southern slope of Mount CEta, began to make a great figure in Greek affairs ; for, moving southward, they conquered the Achaean kingdoms in the Peloponnesus, took possession of Laconia or Lacedaemon, and gradually subdued most of the neigh- boring states. 21. Out of the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus resulted other great changes in the Hellenic other world. The Achaeans, expelled from the south movements. and east of the peninsula, fell back upon the northern coast, driving out the lonians. The latter found refuge with their brethren of the same race in Attica, and the lonians became I'M l^\ '.f k: ' '.'TV ' ' 1 iUiH 80 HISTORY OF GREECE. not only the dominant race in Central Greece, but also si)read themselves over most of the Cyclades islands in the -^gcean Sea. 22. The planting of Greel. colonies in Asia Minor was Colonies in another important event of this early period, Asia Minor, connected with the general unsettlement result- ing from the Dorian conquest. These colonies were made by the three races, the i^olians, lonians, and Dorians. The yl^'olians established themselves along the coast of Mysia and in the island of Les'bos, where they formed a confede- ration of twelve cities (^'olis). The lonians established themselves on the shores of Lydia, and on the islands of Chios and Sa'mos (lo'nia), and grew into a very powerful confederation. The Dorian colonies were planted in the south western corner of Asia Minor and the adjacent islands (Do'ris) ; but they were of less importance than the ^olian, and especially the Ionian, settlements, which became of great note in Grecian history. 23. Other settlements were made by the Greeks, of which other settle- the most notable were those on the coasts of ments. Thrace and Macedonia, on the islands west of Greece, in Sicily, in Lower Italy (hence called Mag'na Grae'cia, or Great Greece),* and in the territory of Cyre'ne, or the Cyrenaica, along the northern coast of Africa. Some outposts of Hellenic settlement were planted as far east as the shores of the Euxine Sea, and one colony arose in the extreme western part of the Mediterranean at Massilia, now Marseilles. 24. The establishment of so many colonies in countries Effect of pre-eminently favored by nature in productions colonies. and climate, and so situated as to prompt the inhabitants to navigation and commerce, gave a great im- pulse to the civilization of the Hellenic race, and may be regarded as the main cause of its rapid progress. • See map opposite page 70. BEGINNINGS OP GREEK HISTORY. 8l 25. The accompanying map represents the distribution of the several representatives of the Hellenic , . . , , The map. race, at the time when the great movements of i)opulation just spoken of had been accomplished (say about loco H.c.) fllO^ONT/0 DISTRIBUTION OF RACES AFTER THEIR MIGRATION! 26. At this time the two leading races of Greece were the lonians and the Dorians. These were dis- ,,. . . Character of tinguished from each other by striking charac- the two lead- teristics, and the difference between them forms *°8r races, a chief feature of Cirecian politics ; it runs through their entire history, and was the principal cause of the deep-rooted antagonism between Athens, the representative of the Ionian race, and Sparta, the leading Doric state. 'J'he lonians were remarkable for their democratic spirit; they were F ii ui ' "srn 82 HISTORY OF GREECE. ' i I i ! p. ■;• MM vivacious, fickle, given to commerce, fond of refined enjoy- ments, and devoted to the fine arts. The Dorian race was noted for the severe simplicity of its manners ; it preferred an aristocratic form of government, and maintained slavery in its worst form. 27. The authentic history of Greece commences with the Be innin ^poch known as the First Olym'piad, B.C. 776. of real This era is the commencement of that consecu- history. ^j^g chronology, which the Greeks reckoned by the series of victors in the foot-race at the four-yearly fes- tival of Olympian Jupiter near E'lis. The First Olympiad began in the midsummer of 776 B.C. ; the Second Olympiad in midsummer of 772 b.c, etc., — the Olympiads recurring every four years. 28. Looking at Greece at this period, — say the middle of Political the 8th century B.C., — we find that an impor- change, ^^j^j change in the nature of the government had taken place. During the heroic age, in that "youth of the world " which Homer paints, the various Grecian tribes were under kings; but now the government had become republican, and we find the people gathered together in little free states. (Sparta was the only state that held to even the name of king.) Each city, in fact, formed an in- dependent commonwealth with its own little territory ; and there is no doubt that this parcelling out of a small country was a main cause of the rapid development of political science in Greece. 29 Divided as the Greeks were politically, they were, Hellenic nevertheless, united by a certain national feel- unity, jnig q^he root of this was the consciousness that they were all Hellenes ; and this sentiment was fostered by the posbcssion of a common language, literature, and re- ligion, and of rites, temples, and festivals that were equally open to all. Still, the first feeling of every Greek was for his city, and there was scarcely even the sentiment of patriot- SPARTA AND ATHENS. 83 ism for Greece as a land. We shall soon see how imper- fect was the union even against the pressing danger of subjugation by Persia, and what a long series of sectional contests was carried on between the leading states. The Greeks in the end discovered the great principle of Federal Ufiion ; but this was not till near the close of their history, when it was too late. Sparta. B. GROWTH OF SPARTA AND ATHENS. 30. In this section we shall glance at the history of the two most important Grecian states, namely. Subject Sparta and Athens; and we shall trace their treated. history down to the period when all Greece united against the Persians, about 500 B.C. 31. At the commencement of authentic Grecian history we find the Spartans the dominant power in the Peloponnesus. They were a part of that great Dorian wave that about iioo B.C. had overflowed the southern peninsula of Greece : the Dorians established and settled three states, Argos, Messenia, and Laconia or Lace- daemon ; but in time the Spartans, that is, the people of Laconia or Lacedasmon, gained supremacy over the other states. 32. The ascendency which Sparta acquired over the other states of the Peloponnesus was mainly owing to her peculiar institutions, which tradition ascribes to a legislator named Lycur'gus. Of this personage nothing is known whatever, and some have even denied his existence. It is probable, however, that Lycurgus did exist somewhere about 850 b.c, that is, about a century before the beginning of reliable history, and that he more clearly defined and fixed already existing usages and regu- lations. 33. But the peculiar constitution of the Spartans arose Lycurgus. ,, il I! i ; •ji I'l ! I Ul I 84 HISTORY OF GREECE. necessarily out of the circumstances in v/hibh they lived in other parts of the Peloponnesus the Dorian conquerors Cause of gradually fused with the native Achaeans, but pecuiiari- '" Lacedaemon the separation was maintained. ties. Such of the Achaeans as readily submitted were allowed to retain their personal freedom, though without any political rights ; but the greater part were reduced to servitude, and were known as Helots. The citizens of Sparta were thus a small class of lords (estimated at 9000 in the time of Lycurgus) among a tenfold number of slaves and subjects ; and to keep these in subjection their whole training was military. 34. The chief object of the legislation that goes by the Ob" ctof J^^^c of Lycurgan was to create and maintain Lycurgrus's a vigorous and uncorrupted race of men ; hence laws. jj. concerned itself less with political arrange- ments than with the regulation of private life and with physical education. 35. By this system weakly children were exposed to perish, Spartan while of those who were allowed to live, the education, males were at the age of seven separated from their homes and trained by state educators. The whole time of the Spartans was spent in public. They took their frugal meals at public tables in messes or companies, to which each contributed so much from the produce of his land. Great attention was devoted to gymnastic exercises and military drill ; for the education of a Spartan, beginning with his seventh year, was not relaxed till his sixtieth. He was inured to hunger and thirst and to the extremes of heat and cold, and was taught to endure the keenest bodily torture without complaint. To teach him strateg)' and secrecy, there were licensed expeditions for thieving, and severe punishment was inflicted on him who allowed him- self to be detected in it. Every one has heard of the Spartan youth who hid the stolen fox under his coat, and allowed pub] nal, Asse electi exerc reput SPARTA AND ATHENS. 85 Dcrish, , the from whole their ies, to of his ercises inning He es of bodily igy and g, and d him- partan lallowed it to tear out his vitals rather than expose it to view. Girls were trained in athletic exercises nearly similar to those of the boys, but separately. This reared a race of vigor- ous women, the influence of whose patriotism in sustaining that of the men is matter of histpric celebrity. " Return either with your shield or on it ! " was the exhortation of a Spartan mother to her son on his departure for the field of battle. 36. Spartan education produced warriors, but naught else; that people contributed nothing to the literature and the arts for which the world is indebted to Greece. Oratory was held in special contempt, and philosophy was superseded by those " wise saws," the brevity of which we still describe as /atonic Commerce was forbidden to the Spartan citizens, and iron money alone was allowed for their few trading transactions. The fine arts were discouraged as leading to effeminacy. The labors of agriculture were carried on exclusively by the Helots. Thus the Spartans resided in the city, where they passed their lives according to the Lycurgan discipline, while all the ordinary pursuits of civilized life were left to their depen- dents. This discipline no doubt made them intrepid sol- diers, but as a people they were stolid, ungenerous, and cruel, even for those cruel times. 37. The constitution of Sparta was peculiar. At the head of the state were two joint-kings, who Constitution commanded the armies and performed the of Sparta. public sacrifices. But their power was often merely nomi- nal, and was always restricted by the Senate and by the Assembly of all the Spartans. The Assembly annually elected five officers called Ephors, who as a general thing exercised all power ; so that Sparta was really an oligarchic republic under the guise of a monarchy. 38. Sparta under the Lycurgan system became an ag- !>wi iiti M i;!l Ml fit, ! :H 86 HISTORY OF GREECE. gressive military state : she conquered the Messenians (in Spartan two wars, 743-724 and 685-668 B.C.), humbled conquests, her powerful rival, the Argives (547 B.C.), and thus raised herself to the leadership of the Dorian Com- monwealths. Having become the controlling power of the Peloponnesus, Sparta in the 6th century B.C. began to assume the right of interference in the internal affairs of the Grecian states beyond the Peloponnesus, and it is pro- bable that she would have eventually brought all the states under her sway (for they were then in no condition to dis- pute her pre-eminence), had it not been that, at the time at which we have arrived, all the states were called upon to unite their arms against the aggressions of the Persians. 39. Parallel with the rise of Sparta was the growth of another state that was destined not only to push democratic freedom farther than any other Grecian state, but also to assert an intellectual supremacy over all Greece. This was Athens — Athens. ** Athens, the eye of Greece, mother of arts And eloquence, native to famous wits." 40. It is known that the Athenians belonged to the Early Ionian race, of which indeed they were the history, flower. The founding of Athens runs back into the mythic period. At first the Athenians, like the otlier Hellenes, were under kings, but by the time that reliable Athenian history begins, we find that Athens had ceased to be under regal rule, Codrus being the last of the kings. 41. Athenian affairs, however, were not at this time Nature of the managed by all the people, but only by a grovemment. privileged class of nobles. Thus, though a republic, Athens was not at this time a democracy. The kingly power had given place to the office of archon : this was at first limited to the royal family and held for life ; SPARTA AND ATHENS. then it was held for ten years, and finally thrown open to the whole body of the nobles, the number of archons increased to nine, and the period of ofifice reduced to one year. There was also a Senate, afterwards called the Areopagus, but it was made up exclusively of the nobles. Thus we see that the great mass of the people had no share whatever in the government ; and it happened at Athens, as generally happens where power is confined to one class, that the oligarchy abused their privileges. 42. The discontent of the people at length became so serious that a statesman named Dra'co was ap- Laws of pointed in 624 B.C. to draw up a written code Draco. of laws. They were marked by extreme severity ; for he affixed the penalty of death to all crimes alike, — to petty thefts no less than to sacrilege and murder. Hence Draco's laws were said to have been written, not in ink, but in blood ; and we are told that he justified this extreme hardship by saying "that small offences deserved death, and that he knew no severer punishment for great ones."* 43. The legislation of Draco tailed to calm the prevail- ing discontent, the overbearing conduct of the aristocrstcy led to popular outbreaks, and there tame a state of anarchy, from which,- at tiie beginning of thel 6ih century B.C., Athens was rescued by Solon. Solon haid been chosen one of the archohs. and wits commissioned- td temodel the Constitution of Athens, 594 B.C. The suc- cessful manner in which he perlormed this work laid the foundation of the happiness of his native country. 44. The main object of the constitution of Solon was to abolish the oppressive aristocracy and to sub- Laws of stitute for it a moderate government, whicli Solon. should admit all Athenian citizens to a siiare of power, but give a preponderating influence to the higher orders. Solon's legislation was marked by great political sagacity, * Smith's History of Greece. Revolution; i*t-- i- HISTORY OF GREECE. m I PUistratus. and under it Athens made rapid progress in prosperity ; but it was far from satisfying his contemporaries. Like most moderate politicians, he was accused by one side of going too far, and by the other of not being radical enough. 45. The result was a struggle of parties, which ended in the seizure of power by a leader named Pisis'- tratus, who (560 B.e.) assumed the position of Dictator, or, as the Greeks called it, Tyrant, — a term which, however, denoted merely one \vht) usurptd powei') not necessarily one who abused power. There is no reason to believe that the constitution of Solon was abolished under Pisistratus. Athens continued to enjoy its republican government, tiiough under a dictator. Pisistratus ruled mildly, encouraged the arts and edited Homer, and even suc- ceeded in transmitting his power to his sons ; but after half a century of this mild tyranny, the family of the Pisis- trat'idae were banished, 510 B.C. 46. A noble named Clis'thenes now rose into power. He Reforms of cspoused the cause of the people, gave the Ciisthenes. suffrage to all free inhabitants, and introduced into the constitution political reforms to which very much of Athenian greatness is attributable. Under the new con- stitution the state was a pure democracy, and the establish- ment of liberty and equality gave a great impulse to the spirit of pa rioiism. The result was that Athens soon rose to be the leading state of Central Greece. 47. At the period at which we have now arrived, — the The new beginning of the 5th century B.C., — Greece epoch. had put on the shape which she was to wear during the greatest times of her history. At this time a new tra in Hellenic history begins. The Greeks had to bear the trial of a great forei n invasion. Europe, em- bodied in Greece, was to meet old Asia, represented by Persia, and the sons of Hellas were to come out of the struggle strong and ennobled PERSIAN INVASIONS. 89 >erity ; Like ide of nough. ded in i Pisis'- ition of a term ' powet» 3 reason bolished publican us ruled even sue- but after the Pisis- 3wer. He gave the ntroduced ^rery much new con- establish- L\se to the soon rose rived,— the — Greece las to wear Ithis time a sks had to lurope, em- jesented by out of the i CHAPTER III. HISTORY OF THE SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE PERSIAN WAR TO THE VICTORY OF PHILIP OF MACEPON AT CHAIRONEA, B.C. 500-338. I. THE PERSIAN INVASIONS. 48. We have already seen how the great Eastern mon- archy, founded by Cyrus and extended by Relations Cambyses, was consolidated by Darius, who with Persia, became king of Persia in 521 b.c Among the conquests of Cyrus was the kingdom of Lydia, in Asia Minor. Now, just before the Persian conquest of Lydia, the king of that country, Croesus, had succeeded in reducing under his own dominion the Greek cities on the coast of Asia Minor; so that now they, too, became subject to Persia. 49. The Ionian cities did not submit without a struggle, and after a certain lime there ensued a general ^ , . . rw-.! . 1 • Ionian revolt, revolt of these cities, 500 b.c 1 he AtliemanS; to help their kinsfolk in Ionia, sent twenty ships with a small force. A landing was made on the coast of Asia Minor, and Sard is, the capital of Lydia, was captured and accidentally burnt, 499 b.c. 50. This sally liad only the effect of drawing down the wrath of Darius on the Ionian cities, and the Effect on revolt was soon quelled (494 B.C.) The Per- Darius, sian monarch then resolved to chastise the Athenians. When the news of the burning of Sardis was brought to Darius, he called for his bow, and shot an arrow towards the sky, with a prayer to Auramazda for help to revenge himself on the Athenians. Then he bade one of his ser- vants repeat to him thrice daily, as he sat down to dinner, the words, " Master, remember the Athenians I " if I m ii nil'i il l! 'I ml m w 90 HISTORY OF GREECE. 51. In execution of his purpose, Darius instructed his First hostile son - in - law, Mardo'nius, to march an army movement, against the Athenians. The force advanced through Thrace into Macedonia, which was speedily subju- gated, but it was able to go no farther : and a fleet which liad been sent to co-operate was shattered by a great storm off the peninsula of Mount A'thos, so that Mardonius returned to Asia Minor in disgrace, 492 B.C. 52. This failure only added fury to the resolution of Newprepara- D^^rius. While pushing forward his prepara- tions, tions for the invasion of Greece, he sent round heralds to the chief Grecian cities to demand the tribute of earth and water as signs of his being their rightful lord. The island states generally made their submission, as did IV'J i? PERSIAN INVASIONS. 9« : I his .rmy [\ced jb)U- .•hich itorm Lirned Lon of epara- round bute of il lord. as did f •^: I' "Jfi ^ ■#w| \Tu^ i;**d: also many of the continental states, and it seemed that the young civilization of the West was to be overwhelmed by Eastern despotism. But the genius of Hellas found noble champions in two of the states ; for Athens and Sparta in- dignantly rejected the demand, and their conjunction drew after them most of the lesser states in a defensive league. 53. Il was time for Greece to be united, for in the spring of 490 B.c the preparations of Darius were invasion of complete. A vast force, under a commander Greece, named Datis, sailed in 600 triremes from Samos across the /Egaian, reducing the Cyclades islands on the way, and after capturing Eretria in the island of Euboea, made a landing in the bay of Marathon, on the east coast of Attica. The Persians now prepared to advance on Athens. 54. But this was not to be without a struggle, and the plain of Maiaihon was the scene of the con- n. ^ , , Marathon, flict, one of the most miportant and momen- tous in history. There, be- tween the mountains and the sea, the little Athenian force of 10,000 men, unaided save by 600 men from Platae'a, but led by the genius of Milti'ades and inspired by high patriotic daring, met a TlARATMON'/ The sequeL Persian army of ten times its number, and defeated it, — September 490 b.c. 55. The Persian monarch was not able immediately to renew hostilities with the Greeks, for other affairs engaged his attention ; and when Darius finally found himself free to resume his purpose, he was cut off by death, 485 B.C. His son Xerxes succeeded to the throne, and promptly took up the task. The result was another and far more formidable invasion, made ten years after the battle of Marathon. I. . 'i 111 .^.tf^ §i HISTORY OF GREECE. 56. During this interval of ten years the Athenians were Affair* at "ot idle. At this time the leading men at Athens. Athens were Themis'tocles and Aristi'des. Aristides was a pure patriot, but he was considered stub- born and impracticable. Themistocles, on the other hand, was a sagacious statesman : he urged tiiat the Athenians should bend their energies to preparing against a renewal of the invasion by the Persians, and especially that a navy should be created ; Aristides opposed this policy. Between these two leaders there was a long rivalry ; but finally Aristides was ostracized.* Under the vigorous counsels of Themistocles, the Athenians bent their energies to preparing for the impending conflict, and especially to building a great fleet of triremes. Then, as the note of preparation for the invasion sounded throughout all Asia, a general congress of the Grecian states, summoned by Athens and Sparta, was held at the Isthmus of Corinth. Though several of the states stayed away through fear, yet this was a truly national meeting ; and it was re- solved that Sparta should be the head of the league against Persia. ♦ The institution of ostracism was a method which the Athenians had ilevised for the purpose of getting rid of obnoxious public men, and was m some respects a very good plan, as it stopped interminable quarrels between rival politicians. It derived its name from the fact that the citizens, in voting for its infliction, wrote the name of the objectionable person on a shell {pstreon), and if there was a majority of votes for his banishment, he was exiled for ten years. The conflict between Aristides and Themistocles became at last so sharp that the Athenians finally voted to ostracize Aristides. Among those who voted were many, no doubt, whose hostility had been aroused by the stern probity of A.istides, who was known as " the Just." The story is true to nature, that when the vote of ostracism was being taken, an unlettered citizen, not knowing Aristides, asked him to write for him on the shell. "And what name shall I write?" "Aristides." "And, pray, what wrong has Aristides done you?" "Oh, none; but I am tired of always hearing him called the Just." I :! m PERSIAN INVASIONS. 9.1 rere \ at des. jtub- land, lians \ewal navy tween (inally unsels ies to iWy to lote of \ Asia, ned by Corinth, rh fear, was re- nians had and was quarrels that the ectionable ;es for his . Aristides lally voted |no doubt, :ides, who when the knowing rhat name Aristides lim called 57. From every part of his wid( dominion Xerxes col- lected at Sardis an army such as iiad never been Beginning of seen b'^fore. For transporting it into Europe Xerxci'i in- he caused a double bridge of boats to be built ' ***** across the Hellespont, where it is a mile wide ; and in 480 B c. the vast host (Herodotus puts it at 2,500,000 fighting men and ships' crews) crossed the bridge in two columns, taking seven days and nights to make the passage. A great fleet, consisting of 1200 triremes (each manned by 200 rowers and 30 fighting men) and many smaller vessels, pursued its course northward to the Hellespont, md then steered westward, keeping close to the coast so as to be in constant communication with the army. Meanwhile the prodigious array, having entered Europe, advanced west- ward through Thrace and Macedonia, and then turning southward through Thes \*ly, poured itself in a mighty deluge over the northern states of Greece and moved to- wards Attica. 58. The Greeks resolved to take their stand in a narrow mountain gorge lying between the precipitous mountains of CEta and a marsh forming the edge of the Gulf oi" Malis. [See large map, p. 71.] This is the celebrated Pass of Thermop'ylae.* It was, however, only a small lorce that was sent to the defence of Thermo- pylae. When the arrival of Xerxes in Northern Greece became known, the Greeks were upon the point of cele- brating one of their religious festivals, and not wishing to give up the solemnity, they resolved to send merely men enough to hold the pass till the festival was over, when they would be able to march in fiill force. The defense of the position was intrusted to the Spartan king, Leonidas, with iiboiii 7000 troops, the flower of which consisted of 300 S] artans. ' }( Continuation. * Literally, ^d!/« of the hot springs ; the pass contains several hot springs, and the^/t7, or gates, are the two openings of the pass. 4 • I -f V :i.Tir- 94 HISTORY OF GREECE. m m ; I m m 59. When the Persian host reached Thermopylae and Battle of sought to force the pass, the Grecian guard Thermopylae, made a stout defense, and for two days kept the enemy at bay ; but on the third day a traitor pointed out to the Persian king how, by taking a mountain-path, the position of the Greeks might be '* turned." When this movement became known, most of the Greek officers wished P^jr.j i».i J 4v^ _i > to withdraw, since the position was no longer tenable. But Leonidas refused to retreat. As a Spartan he was bound by the laws to conquer or to die in the post \ THERMoPrL^-i^^^lAf^T^^^^fl^'^ assigned to him. His three hundred Spartans were moved by the same feeling, and seven hundred Thespians resolved to share their fate. The rest of the allies were allowed to retire. This being done, Leonidas and his comrades determined to sell their lives as dearly as possible ; so they advanced into the open space in front of the pass and charged the Persians with desperate valor. But this heroism was in vain ; for their spears were erelong broken, and the enemy, pouring in from front and rear, surrounded the Greeks on all sides. Leonidas fell, and the heroic band were killed to a man. The dale of the battle was August 480 b.c. 60. The Greek fleet, as we have seen, had taken position off the northern coast of the island of Eubcea. Here a brisk naval action was fought, which, though indecisive, helped to raise the courage of the Greeks. It seemed, too, as though the gods were on their side, for in two great storms nearly half the Persian fleet was shat- tered. When, however, it became known to Themistocles, the commander of the Grecian fleet, that tlie Pass of Ther- mopylae had been carried, and that the enemy was advanc- Naval affairs. PERSIAN INVASIONS. 95 5 and guard 3 kept ointed vpatb, en this wished ice the longer eonidas :at. As s bound conquer the post m. His i feeling, heir fate, his being sell their the open iians with for their lOuring in all sides, to a ir^an. ing on Athens, he withdrew the fleet southward to the Bay of Sal'amis, near Athens. 61. The news of the approach of Xerxes created great consternation at Athens; but the oracle told Matters at the Athenians that they must seek safety in Athens, their "wooden walls." This was interpreted to mean their ships. Accordingly the whole population was removed from the city, and the Persians took possession of Athens and reduced it to ashes. 62. The fate of Greece was to be decided by a glorious naval combat In the Bay of Salamis the Battle of Sa- Greeks had assembled their whole fleet of 366 i**"^*' ships. Though the Persians had lost heavily by storm, they had still about 1000 vessels, and two months after the battle of Thermopylae the opposing fleets were arrayed for the fight. The Persian army was drawn up along the shore, and the eastern monarch, anticipating a brilliant victory, took his seat on a lofty throne on a promontory overlooking the scene. ** A king sat on the rocky l)row Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis ; And ships by thousands lay below, And men in nations, — all were his. He counted them at break of day, And when the sun set, where were they ? '* 63. Salamis was a complete victory for the Greeks ; the Persians lost over 200 ships, and Xerxes, struck with cowardice, beat a retreat into his own dominions by the route on which he came, October 480 B.C. 54. When Xerxes retired he left behind a force of 300,000 under one of his generals, named Mardonius. piataea and The following year a decisive combat, in which Mycaie. the Greeks were completely successful, was fought at Piataea between this force and a Greek army of 70,000 men under Result. :! id If iir| d i u ilfl _A ^ iT"^ 96 HISTORY OF GREECE. Later events. the Spartan leader Pausanias and the Athenian leader Aris- tides, September 25, 479. On the same day a battle at Myc'ale (in Asia Minor) effected the destruction of the remnant of the Persian fleet. 65. These three battles, Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale, decided the war, and the Persians never again dared to invade Greece itself. The struggle, it is true, went on for several years longer before the Per- sians were dislodged from the various posts which they held north of the -^gaean ; but at last they wert; driven wholly out of Europe. Thus it: was that the liberties of Greece were secured, and it must be remembered that the preser- vation of Grecian independence meant the preservation of the civilization of Europe. i mi I'iSi i;||i|: s. THE AGE OP PBRICLE& 66. The half-century following the battle of Salamis PeriodofPeri- (480-430 B.C.) forms the most brilliant period des. of Athenian history, and one of the most illus- trious eras in the history of the world It is usually called the " age of Pericles," its duration nearly coinciding with the public life of that statesman, who for forty years, though merely a private citizen, held a controlling influence over the politics of Athens. 67. The main cause of the ascendency which Athens now Policy of assumed was the brilliant part played by that Athens. state in the Persian wars. To preserve the freedom of the now liberated Greek cities on the islands and coasts of the ^gaean, a league was formed of which Athens, from her naval power, became naturally the leader. The inland states meanwhile clung to Sparta. It soon came about that the maritime cities were brought into a sort of subjection to Athens ; the Athenians denied the right of the states to secede from the confederation, caused tlie AGE OF PERICLES. 97 is- at he i\e, ain g^e, Per- leld loUy eece eser- )n of ilamis :)eriod illus- called with [hough e over IS now )y that /e the islands which header. It soon a sort right of ted the separate treasury of the league to be merged in that of Athens, and employed the ships and money of the allies in prosecuting their own aggrandizement If this was short- sighted policy, it at least put the Atlienians in an almost impe- rial jiosiiion for the time being, and carried forward the little democracy to a wonderful degree of power and splendor. 68. It was during this period, when the Athenian intel- lect was stimulated by a proud sense of national sketch of the greatness, that Grecian genius put forth its p*"©**- richest blossoms of literature and art. This was the age of grand dramatic composition, and of the greatest works of architecture and sculpture. Oratory, which is so powerful an instrument in a free state, w^as now cultivated assiduously, and the Athenians became accustomed to hearing the purest lessons of patriotism put forth in the lofiiest forms of elo- quence. In fine, the Athenian commonwealth under the exertions of Pericles attained such an exalted state of culti- vation that it is recorded that the citizens were almost all equally qualified to fill offices or discharge business ; so that the regulation that the greater part of the public offices should be filled by lot, rarely resuUed in the choice of any but able and well-qualiBed men. 69. It was in this age that, on the other hand, the seeds were sown of that terrible civil strife that rent Beffinnins of the glory of Greece ; for Pericles himself lived ■**'^'* to see the outbreak of that direful conflict known as the Peloponnesian War. 70. This great man, one of the very ablest statesmen that ever lived, fell a victim to a pestilence that raged in Athens in 429 b.c. His deathbed was surrounded by his friends and admirers, who recited the many illustrious exploits of his glorious life. " You fofget,** said the dying patriot, — " you forget the only valuable part of my character : none of my fellow-citizens was ever com- pelled by any action of mine to assume a mourning robe." O Pericles. i! .' I i .H' 1 • V ' i \^ 11 98 HISTORY OF GREECE. m hh 3. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 71. The Peloponnesian war was a conflict between Duratioaof Athens and her allies on the one hand, and the war. Sparta and her allies on the other. It began in 431 B.C., lasted twenty-seven years, and ended in weak- ening Greece generally, and in completely destroying the Athenian ascendency. 72. This war was occasioned by the jealousy which the Cause of the great power of Athens stirred up among many ^^' other of the Greek cities ; but it had in reality a deeper cause : it was the outbreak of an " irrepressible conflict " between lonianfj and Dorians, between democracy and oligarchy, — Athens being the chief of the Ionian and democratic states, and Sparta the chief of the Dorian and aristocratic states. 73. The immediate occasion of the war was a conflict First ten between Corinth and one of her colonies, years. Corcy'ra. Siding with the latter, Athens ex- cited the wrath of the Dorian Confederacy ; and a Spartan army invaded Attica, 431 b.c. During the first ten years of the war, down to 421, the two parties contended with nearly equal success, the Athenians being much the stronger by sea, and the Spartans and their allies by land. A peace was then concluded, called the ** Peace of Nicias " (421 b.c.), which was to last for fifty years ; but as many of the con- federates were dissatisfied with its terms, it was not likely to be of such long duration, and indeed hostilities were renewed almost immediately. 74. The renewal of the war was precipitated through the political influence of Alcibi'ades, a hand- some, dissolute young disciple of Socrates : he possessed brilliant talent, but he was ambitious, and he was eager to renew the war, as aflbrding him an opportunity of personal distinctioi), Alcibiades. SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACY. 99 75* Alcibiades brought forward a scheme of conquering Syracuse, a city in Sicily. It was a bold syracusan scheme, and its successful execution would expedition, have given a great preponderance to Athens over Sparta. The Athenians adopted the plan, and in b.c. 415 sent a fleet and lorce against the Syracusans. Sparta sent aid to the Syracusans, and thus the Peloponnesian war was renewed. In the midst of the enterprise Alcibiades was recalled to Athens on a charge of impiety ; but he managed to escape, and went over to Sparta. The Syracusan expe- dition proved a total failure (413 b.c.), and greatly damaged the power of Athens. 76. During the last eight years the Peloponnesian war was carried on mainly at sea, off the coast of closing Asia. Sparta allied herself with Persia, and yea", it was Persian gold that afforded Sparta the means to continue the contest against Athens. Athens, however, made a bold front, and under the lead of Alcibiades (who had meanwhile been recalled to the command) kept up the contest with wonderful vigor. But a fatal blow fell when the Spartan admiral, Lysander, surprised the beached galleys of the Athenians at ^^Egos Pot'amos in the Hellespont, B.C. 405. The siege and surrender of Athens in the following year brought the great Peloponnesian contest to an end. 77- The result of the Peloponnesian war left Sparia the greatest power of Greece. Athens sank into the Result of background as a second-rate state ; still, while **** ^"• she lost her political supremacy, she became more and more the leader in literature, art, and philosophy. 4. PERIOD OF SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACY. 78. After the decline of Athens, Sparta stood without a rival in Greece, and for thirty-four years (from Spartan the victory at ^gos Potamos to the defeat of *"pren»acy« Leuctra, 405-371 b.c) the Lacedaemonians exercised an \ 1 ; ; too HISTORY OF GREECE. m li M'fi:c I I undisputed sway in Greece. The Spartan dominion was extremely despotic, and the Greek states that at the begin- ning of the Peloi^onnesian war had sided with Sparta as a " liberator " from Athenian rule now found the Spartan yoke much more galling than the Athenian had been. 79. Meantime in Thebes a new power was arising that Rise of was to curb her pride. The greatness of Thebes Thebes. ^as the work of two men, — Epaminon'das and Pelop'icias,— who knew how to inspi»"e their fellow-citizens with their own heroic spirit. To revenge themselves for the insults of Si)arta, the Thebans, under these leaders, began a long and heroic struggle. The decisive combat of this war was fought at Leuctra, where Epaminondas utterly defeated the Spartans, 371 b.c In consequence of this defeat Sparta fell suddenly and for ever from her high estate. • 80. Thebes now rose to be the leading state of Greece, Theban ^^^ this position she held as long as her gre?' supremacy, chieftain, Epaminondas, lived. But in the battle of Mantine'a (362 B.C.), waged against the Si)artans and Athenians, the Theban chieftain died in the arms of victory. With the fall of Epaminondas Thebes herself fell, for there was no one to take his place. 81. The struggle between Sparta and Thebes, following Effect of the as it did the great Peloponnesian war, — in both wars. of which nearly all the Hellenic states were engaged, — resulted in the general exhaustion of Greece. What strength remained was expended in mere intestine broils, and soon after this Greece fell an easy prey to Philip of Macedon. SUPREMACY OF MACEDoN. Philip's plans. CHAPTER IV. HISTORY OF THE THIRD PERIOD, FROM THE VICTORY OF PHILIP TO THE ABSORPTION OF GREECE BY THE ROMANS. I. SUPREMACY OF MACEDON.-PHIMP. 82. The Macedonians, though closely allied by race to the Greeks, had remained in obscurity while -^^^^ Mace- their southern kinsmen were pursuing their don. stirring career. But in the middle of the 4th century b.c they came under a bold and energetic chief. This was Philip, son of Amyntas J I. 83 Philij) assumed the government of Macedonia in 359 RC. He was well acquainted with Grecian politics, having as a young man resided at Thebes in the character of a hostage, and when he became king he set on foot a plan for the elevation of Macedonia. This was not by any means to conquer Greece, but to have Macedonia recognized as a Greek state, and then to make it the leading state of Hellas, — ^just as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes had successively been. 84. Philip commenced by craftily mixing himself up with Greek affairs; and he managed with such skill Doings of that at last he was acknowledged as a member Phiup. of the Amphic'tyonic Council, the great religious assembly of Hellas, — a concession equivalent to the recognition of Macedon as a Greek state. Step by step his ambition grew, till he began to think of a grand scheme of conquest. 85. This plan the great Athenian orator Demosthenes clearly perceived, and he commenced uttering oemos- the thunder of his voice in warnings ; but the thenes. Athenians had lost much of their patriotic ardor, so they took these warnings but tardily. ii I; 103 HI8T0RV OF QR^ECE. 86. The direct aggressions of Philip on Athens com* Career of menced about 358 B.C., and for twenty years he PhUip. continued a mixed policy of war and intrigue, which at length made him master of Greece. In 338 B.C., at Cliaerone'a (in Boeotia), he won a decisive victory over the Athenians and Thebans ; this crushed the liberty of Greece, and made it in reality a province of Macedonia. 87 The main causes of Philip's wonderful succe>s were Causes of his twofold : — I. His admirable military organiza- success. tion : the Macedonian phalanx, invincible until it came to be opposed to tlie Romans, was his creation. 2. His political finesse : taking advantage of the divided condition of Greece, and of the general prevalence of cor- ruption, he played off state against state, politician against politician, promising, cajoling, bribing, tiireatenmg, so that he won even more by diplomacy than by force. 88. Philip now announced his intention of uniting all His after the forces of Hellas to make war on Persia, plans. jij^d avenge the old invasions of Greece by Darius and Xerxes. This was a very skillful stroke of policy on the part of Philip ; it diverted the minds of the Greeks from the thought of the loss o^ their independence, by filling their imaginations with the glorious vision of a great national enterprise of the Hellenes against the barbarians. 89. The design, however, was not executed ; for in the midst of the preparations Philip was assassi- His death. , , <- • • , . / ^ v nated by one of his own subjects (336 B.C.), at the age of forty -six, after a reign of twenty-three years. a. CAREER OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 90. Philip was succeeded by his son Alexander, known as Alexander the Great. At the age of tw^enty he became heir to his father's power, and of far more than his father's military genius. He was imme* r ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 103 by great ans. the ssassi- c), at diately acknowledged generalisbimo of Greece against the Persians, as his father had been. In the year 334 he set out on his great expedition, and as he never returned to Macedonia or Greece, we must now turn our eyes away from Greek history proper, and follow the marvelous career of the youthful conqueror. 91. Alex uider crossed the Hellespont with a small army of 35,000 men, and advanced to the Grani'cus His first vio (in Asia Minor). Here a Persian army some- tories. what larger tlian his own was met and defeated, B.C. 334. He then passed victoriously through the Persian provinces of Asia Minor and entered Syria. At Issus^ near the borders of Cilicia and Syria, a vast Persian army under Darius Codoman'nus was met. The nature of the ground was such that the Persian superiority in numbers did not tell; Alex- ander here won a signal victory (333 B.C.), and Darius fled, leaving his mother and his wife captives. 92. Alexander did not immediately follow up the Per- sians, but proceeded from Issus against Tyre, His next Gaza, and Egypt, at this time under the domi- operation, nion of Persia. Twenty months sufficed for the reduction of these places. The foundation of the great seaport Alexandria, — an act of far-sighted policy on the part of Alexander, — was a result of his sojourn in Egypt. 93. Having possessed himself of all the maritime pro- vinces of Persia, Alexander, in B.C. 331, pro- Battle of ceeded to seek his enemy in the heart of his Arbela. empire. The final conflict took place at Arbe'la in Assyria.* Here Darius had chosen his ground and arrayed the full force of his empire. But the Asiatic soldier was inferior to the European, and the invading force was led by a con- summate military genius. The result was the complete overthrow of a Persian force of a million men by less than * Though the action bears the name of Arbela, it was in reality fought at Gaugame'la, a village twenty miles distant. 1 IS ^1 :^M| I04 HISTORY OF GREECE. 50,000 Greeks (b.c. 331). So decisive was the victory, that the three capitals of the emi)ire, Babylon, Susa, and Persep'olis, surrendered almost witiiout resistance ; and the Persian monarch became a fugitive, and was erelong assassinated. 94. Thus at the age of twenty-five Alexander saw him- Aiexander'3 Self lord of Western Asia. But the most re- ambition, markab'e part of the conqueror's career was now to begin. Instead of settling down in the luxurious capital of the East, he was urged by an irresistible impulse to press on, so long as there were lands or men to conquer. 95. To the east of Persia lay a new and unknown Expedition world, believed to be one of immense wealth, to India. and he resolved to penetrate it. Half explor- ing, half conquering, he pushed his way into the mysterious Orient as far as the river Hyph'asis (the modern Sutlej) in Northern India (326 b.c.) * He subdued the princes that were found reigning here, and then desired to press east- ward and complete the subjugation of the continent, which w^as believed to terminate at no great distance. 96. His soldiers, however, refused to go any farther Return from than the Hyphasis ; so he had to prepare to India. return homewards. It is a proof of his inventive genius, that in place of retracing his steps he went back by * See the route of Alexander on the map opposite page 53. From Persep'olis he went to Ecbat'ana, thence eastward through Media, Hyr- cania, Parthia, and Aria, founding in the latter a city of Alexandria (modern Herat) ; then southward through Drangia'na ; then (late in 330) north-east* ward through Aracho'sia, founding there Alexandrop'olis (modern Can- dahar*?) ; then northward across the range of the Paropami'sus or Hindoo Koosh, across the Oxus River, and (early in 329) traversing Bactria'na and Sogdia'na to the capital of the latter, Maracanda (modern Samarcand) ; then northward to the Jaxartes River, where he founded Alexandria Eschate {i.e., the /asi ox farthest) ; then back again, scouring Sogdiana and Bactriana in various directions ; then, in 327, south-eastward from Bactriana to the Indus, which he crossed at Tax'ila ; then eastward to the Hydas'pes, founding Buceph'ala and Nicae'a, and finally to the Hyph'asis. their •* Th( ment peopj niom< that J Jartje 99. fell tol wiio hi ALEXANDER TtlE ORE At, t05 His deaths an entirely new path. He built a fleet to sail down the Hydas'pes and the Indus, while the bulk of his army- marched down their banks. Reaching the Indian Ocean> Alexander sent his admiral, Near'chus, with the fleet, round to the Euphrates ; he himself led his army overland through the desert region of Gedro'sia ( Beloocliistan) and Carma'nia into Persia. Though his army suff'ored terribly in tlie desert, yet Alexander brought back the greater part of his force to Persepolis (324 B.C.), and began to prepare for new enterprises; 97" The plans of Alexander were brought to an end by the sudden death of their projector at Babylon, at the age of thirty-three (b.c 333). Thus cut off in the vigor of early manhood, he left no inhefitor eithef of his power or of his projects. When asked on his death- bed to whom he left the empire, he said, "To the strongest" But there was none strong enough. Tims the vast dominion broke into fragments soon after his death, and his daring schemes of policy and conquest were buried in his grave. 98. Though the great empire of Alexander broke in pieces almost at once, yet the effects of his Result of his career have remained to all time. One great conquests, result was the Heilaiizing of the conquered lands, that is, their assimilation to Greek ideas and Greek civilization. "The (Jreek language became the tongue of all govern- ment and literature throughout many countries where the people were not Greek by birth. It was thus at the very moment that (ireece began to lose her political freedom that she made, as it were, an intellectual conquest of a large part of the world." 3. ALEXANDER'S SUCCESSORS. 99. The great empire of Alexander, as has been said, fell to pieces afier his death, and the generals Division of who had fought under him contended fiercely *•»« empire i'. ':\ , 1 1i, ! ? i it 'k ! iq.t i Mi M m \ io6 HISTORY OF GREECE, Egypt. during twenty years for the fragments. In the year 301 a decisive action took place at Ipsus in Phrygia, the result of which gave Syria and the East to Seleucus, Egypt to Pto- lemy, Thrace to Lysim'achus, and Macedonia to Cassander. Of the various kingdoms founded by these men, two are of special interest, — the kingdom of the Ptolemies in Egypt and the kingdom of the Seleu cidse in the East. 100. Egypt fell to the lot of Ptolemy, one of Alexander's generals, known as Ptolemy Soter. He was an energetic monarch, and during a long reign (323-283 B.C.) ruled Egypt, on the whole, well The Greeks and the Macedonians whom he carried with him or who emigrated to Egypt were the ruling race ; but the Egyp- tians were not oppressed, for many of the civil rulers were natives, and particular respect was paid to the old Egyptian religion. 101. Ptolemy I. was followed by a series of monarchs, also called ; Ptolemies, down to the time of Queen Cleopatra, the last of the line of the Ptolemies. On her death (30 B.C.) Egypt became a Roman province. 102. The history of Egypt during the three centuries of Alexandrine Ptolemaic rule is mainly the history of Alexan- eiviiization. dria, which was mitde the capital^ and which Soon became a great and flourishing city^ Literature, phild- sophy, and the arts were assiduously cultivated ; the great Alexandrian Library was swelled to 500,000 volumes, and k hovel and peculiar culture and civilization — a mingling of Greek, Egyptian, and Jewish — arose on the Nile bankst under the paternal despotism of the Ptolemies. 103. The kingdom of the Seleucid-x^ was founded (312 Kingdom of ^.c) by Seleucus, another of Alexander's gene- Seleucus. rals. At first the kingdom consisted merely of Babylonia and the adjacent regions, Susiana, Media, and Persia ; but Seleucus afterwards made himself master of all The Ptolemies. MACE DON AND GREECE. 107 the countries lying between the Indus and Euphrates on the one hand, and the Jaxartes and the Indian Ocean on the other. A still further addition was soon made in nearly all of Asia Minor. Seleucus now removed his capital from Babylonia to the newly founded Greek city of Antioch in Syria. 104. Seleucus, who died by assassination in 280 B.C., was followed by a succession of kings known as the Seleucidae, who for about two centuries ruled over the kingdom he had founded. This portion of history, however, is not specially instructive, and the kingdom of the Seleucidae was of no considerable importance in the history of civilization. The two centuries are filled with the stories of wars and revolts, in the midst of which the kingdom gradu- ally lost its huge proportions ; its remnant was finally con- quered by Pompey and absorbed into the Roman Empire in the year 65 b.c Later history. 4. LATER HISTORY OF MACEDON AND GREECE. 105. We now return to what took place in Macedon and Greece subsequently to the death of Alexander Greece resists the Great in ac. 323. On the death of Alex- Macedon. ander, the Greeks were inspired by high hopes of bursting the chains which bound Hellas to the footstool of the Macedonian kings. Athens, under Demosthenes and Hy- per'ides, took the lead : they formed a confederacy of the Greek states, and entered on what was called the " Lamian War " (323-32 1 B.C.) But the confederates were unsuccess- ful, and the yoke of Macedonia was riveted on them more firmly them ever. 106. The last days of Grecian history, before the country came altogether under the power of the Romans, Later Greek are distinguished in several ways from the times politics, which went before them. The chief powers of Greece now *j m io8 HISTORY OF GREECE. were Macedonia, Achasa, ^tolia, and Sparta : Macedonia, for reasons tliat will readily be known ; Achaei and ^lolia, from a new fact in the politics of (ireece, namely, the for- mation of Tc'deral Leagues of States. 107. 'Ihe nature of these luui.cs was similar to the Grecian federal union of the blaies of Switzerland and leagues, of the American Republic ; that is, there was an agreement on the part of several states to give up part of their power, and especially their control of questions of peace and war, to a general government in which all had a share. These leagues now came to be of sj^ecial weight in Greek politics, since it was found that as long as the cities stood one by one they had no chance of keeping their fee dom against the Macedonian kings. The most important of these federal unions were the Achaean (formed in 280 B.C.) and the ^tolian Leagues. Besides these two great federa- tions, there were smaller unions ; so that, with the exception of Sparta at one end and Macedonia at the other, the greater part of Greece was parted out among the different leagues. 108. These confederations of the Greek States subserved a useful purpose, as they enabled them to pre- serve a front of independence against Mace- don. Under Ara'tus and Philoi)ce'men, — two patriots of the kind that Hellas had produced in her glorious times, — the States of the Achaean League rose to a considerable eminence (245-213 B.C.); but the jealous selfishness of Sparta once more led to discord and strife, and the Mace- donian king being called in as umpire, was once more master. 109. But Macedon itself was about to be swallowed up Macedon and by a yet greater power,— by Rome. It was at Rome. this time, as we shall presently see, that the Romans, having broken the power of Carthage, turned their ambition eastward. After a long conflict (200-168 b.c), Their effect. ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS. 109 the Macedonian kingdom was overthrown at the battle of Pydna, 168 B.C., and Perseus, the last of the Macedonian kings, adorned as a captive the triumph of a Roman general. 110. After this event the Greek republics were for a short time left independent; but, quarreling Last days of once more among themselves, they were finally Greece. (146 B.C.) reduced to a Roman province under the name of Ac/iaia. 111. The intellectual history of later Greece was of a different character from that of its glorious Decline of period. There was more of scholarship, but Delias, less of creative genius. We have seen that the Oriental conquests of Alexander and the Greek rule in the new king- doms of the East tended to Hellenize Asia ; but there was a reflex influence of Asia on Hellas herself. The Oriental habits of servility and adulation superseded the old free- spoken independence and manliness ; patriotism and public spirit waned ; literature lost its vigor ; art deteriorated, and the people sank into a nation of pedants^ parasites, and adventurers. ** *Twas Greece, but living Greece no more I" ANALYTIC SY^TOPSIS FOR REVIEW. Three Periods of ( Greek history. ' First Authentic Pt riod, — from the Dorian migra- tions to the beginning of the Persian wars, B.C 1100-500. Second Period, — from the beginning of the Persian wars ♦d the victory of Philip of Macedon at Chseio- nea, B.C. 500-338. ' .rd Period, — from the victory of Philip to the absorption of Greece by the Romans, B.C. 338-146. fmw IIO HISTORY OF GREECE. m mi I I, Summary. Hi '' First Period, B.C. 1100-500. The Heroic Age ended with a general tnigralion of the tri'-es of Greece, the settlement of the Do- rians in the Peloponnesus, and the estaVjlishment of colonies on the shores of Asia Minor and else- where. In the succeeding three or four centuries the Spartans, under the form of government established by Lycurgus, became .^^ { the leading state of the Pelopon- nesus, conquering the Messenians and others. Athens meantime had become an oligarchy. A more moderate government was estab- lished by Solon ; however, con- tentions were frequent, and Pi- sistratus seized power, which remained with his sons, till the Pisistraiidae were expelled, and Athens became a pure democracy. Second Period, B.C. 500-388. /' The Ionian Greeks in Asia Minor revolted from Persia, and Athens lent them aid. Accord- ingly Darius sent Mardoiiius against Greece ; but he advanced no fartlier than Macedonia, his fleet being destroyed by a storm. Then Darius sent a vast force under Datis, but it was defeated in the battle of Marathon. Da- rius having died, his son Xerxes moved on Greece with an im- mense army and fleet : he was successful at Thermopylae, and took Athens ; but was defeated at Salamis, and the remaining force at Platoea and Mycale, — which Vcaused the Per:>iaii scheme wholly LEADING DATES. B.C. General Summarv Dorian migratioc... zioo Colonies founded in Asia Minor (about) 1000 Period of Lycur- gus (about) 850 Beeinnin^ of first Messenian war... 743 Beginning of se- cond 68s Solon's constitu- tion 594 Pisistratus be- came dictator 560 Banishment of the Pisistratidae 510 Revolt of the Ionian Greeks against Persia... 500 Expedition of Mar- donius 49a Battle of Mara- thon 490 Battle of Ther- mopylx 480 Battle of Salamis... 480 Battle of Platza. ... 479 Battl« of Mycale.... 479 ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS. Ill ES. B.C. ,. xioo !d or ... lOOO ar- .... 850 rst r... 743 se- itu- 685 594 5** the 510 the eeks sia... 500 ^ar- /to fail. The half-century follow- ing the battle of Salamis was the most brilliant period of Athenian history (age of Pericles) ; but the greatness of Athens led to the Peloponnesian war. This was in- terrupted by the Peace of Nicias ; but, being renewed, the Athenians were beaten in various engage- General / ments, and finally defeated at Summary. 49« ara- ... 490 rher- 480 mis... 480 aa. ••' 479 ale.... 479 General Summary.^ yEgos Potamos: so the result of this war was the ascendency of Sparta. Sparta continued pre mi- nent till her defeat at Leuctra. Thebes now became for a while the leading state ; but Greece, rent by dissensions, was soon sub- jugated by Philip of Macedon in ',the battle of Chaeronea, Third Period, B.C. 338-146. Philip of Macedon by war and intrigues made himself master of Greece, and was then appointeii general-in-chief against Persia ; but he died, and his son Alexan- der took up the task. He marched against the Persians in Asia Mi- nor, dt'feating them at the Ciranicus and '-.r Issus ; then into Egvptaiui AsoViia, ('efcating them in the de- r si e battle of Arbela. He after- w.irti luriiched eastward to beyond ci c Tnci ;, f iH thence returned to Babylon, .vhere he died. Aftei Alexander's death his generals disputed, and the empire was di- vided. Greece, meanwhile, foil into a state of intestine war, and af k«t became a Roman province. Beginning: of Pelo- ponnesian War ... 431 Peace of Nicias 4x1 Battle of ^gos Potamos 405 Battle of Leuctra... 371 Battle of Chaero- nea 338 Death of Philip of Macedon 33$ Battle of the Grani- cus. 334 Battle of Issus 333 Battle of Arbela 331 Death of Alexan- der 32:1 t Greece made a Ro- man province 14^ ^ , m ■t l l lMHl 112 HISTORY OF GREECE. CHAPTER V. GRECIAN CIVILIZATION. •^ ii i X. POLITICAL IDEAS. 112. The history of Greece, though the history of but a Part la ed ^mall part of the world lor a brief period (the in history by grand age is limited to the century and a half Greece. between the battle of Marathon, 490 B.C., and the triumph of Philip of Mi^cedon, 338 B.C.), is of perma- nent interest, for the reaso. : the Greeks were the first people to show the world wha. eal freedom and real civil- ization are. It has been said that in the Grecian common- wealths "the political and intellectual life of the world began." 113. The great contribution given by Greece to the Political world's Civilization was the j)ractical example freedom, of free, self-governing states. In the Oriental nations the only government was despotism : there was an absolute lord, and there was a mass of subjects or slaves, but wo people in a j)oliiical sense. It was left for the Greek states to give an illustration of democracy, — " the govern- ment lent. 3. A-pol'lon, or Apollo (called also Phoelms Apollo), the divinity of poetical inspiration, of song and music. He was figured as the beau ideal of manly beauty. (Statue of Apollo lielvedere dis- covered in 1503.) 4. Ar'te-mis, or Diana, the huntress among the immortals, the divi- nity of flocks and of the chase. As twin-sister of Apollo, she was the divinity of the moon. 5. He-phais'tos, or Vulcan, the god of terrestrial fire : he is repre- sented as a Ijlacksmith. 6. Her'mes, or Mercury, the messenger of the gods ; the god of elo- quence, and the protector of trade : he is marked by his winged sandals, and by his caduceus, or wand. 7. A'res, or Mars, the god of war, delighted in the din of battle, the slaughter of men, and the destruction of towns. 8. Her?, ox Juno, the wife of Jupiter, a beautiful but unamiable god- dess. 9. A-the'na, or Mitierva (also Pallas), the goddess of wisdom and war. 10. Hes'tia, or Vesta, the goddess :>f the hearth. 11. De-me'ter, or Ce'res, the goddess of agriculture. 12. Aph-ro-di'te, or Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, is gene- rally represented with her son E'ros, or Cupid. The legend runs thai she rose from the sea-foam and landed on the island of Cyprus. The Odyssey represents her as the wife cf Vulcan. Venus was of course a favorite subject with the Greek sculptors. The two finest remaining sta,.ues of this goddess are the Venus de Medici and the lovely but imperfect statue known as the Venu-i of Miio. 118. Besides the twelve dii ntajores^ or greater gods of other divi- Olvmpus, there was an indefinite number of nities. others, some of whom were little inferior in power and dignity. Such were He'Iios, or Sol (the Sun) ; Bacchus, whom the Greeks called Diony'sos, to whom the goatherds and vinedressers paid especial honor; the Muses ; the Nere'ides, or sea-nymphs ; the Graces, etc. There were also monsters, — the progeny of the gods, — as the Harpies, the Gorgons, Cer'berus, the Centaurs, the Dragon of the Hesper'ides, etc. GRECIAN FESTIVALS, ^»^ 119. By the Greeks all nature was imaged as moving nnd workinsr through a number of personal ^ , . 00 1 General view agents; and though many of the legends con- of Greek re- cerning these personages appear to us silly, and "8^"*"- some quite shocking, yet the early Greek religion was, to say the least, composed of many beautiful and poetic conceptions. It was not until later that the Greeks adopted from Egypt, Asia Minor, and Thrace the grosser supersti- tions piacticed in their orj^iics and Eleusinian mysteries. 120. 'I he popular worship of the gods consisted princi- pally in sacrifices, which were either offerings „, ., c J .1! 1 • • • «• • Worship, of prayer and thanksgivmg, or sm-offermgs: these were celebrated by the priests, either in the open air, on the tops of mountains, in forests and groves, or in tem- ples, especially on the occasion of the celebration of the great national festivals. The offerings were either animals — sometimes single, sometimes in great numbers (heca- tombs) — or inanimate objects, as fruits, wines, honey, milk, frankincense, etc. Other modes of honoring the gods were by short forms of prayer uttered standing and with out- stretched arms, by votive offerings, solemn processions, and religious dances. 121. The Greeks believed that they obtained revelations of the divine will from the oracles, of which ^ , Oracles> the most renowned were those of Zeus at Do- do'na, and of Apollo at Delphi )er 3. GRECIAN FESTIVALS. 122. One of the most striking features of Grecian life were the congresses of the people of all the The four fes- states and colonies at the four great national t'^^'^- festivals, — the Olympic, Pyth'ian, Isth'mian, and Ne'mean Gaines. The Olympic festival was celebrated in honor of fi i „• * Jr* ii <' 1 i '■'Ik • ! , i. i >■ ■f \ 1 %\ lift !'■ • ! 1^ 1 i t^^ 1 ■•■i ^ 1 ! ■' ' i,; i ■ ■' W 1 1 i Ii6 HISTORY OF GREECE. Their nature. Jupiter in the plain of Olympia, in E'iis, every four years ; the Pythian was held in the third year of each Olympiad, near Delphi, in honor of Apollo; the Isthmian, in honor of Neptune, was so called from its being celebrated on the Isthmus of Corinth ; the Nemean, in honor of Nemean Jui)iter, at the town of Ne'mea in the Peloponnesus. 123. The great feature of all these festivals were those "games," or, as the Greeks called them, "con- tests," in which prizes were awarded to the victors in athletic exercises, in foot and horse and chariot races, in music and poetry. The prizes were of no value by themselves, — a mere garland of olive, laurel, etc., placed on the victor's head. But this chaplet carried with it death- less fame. The name of the victor was proclaimed before assembled Hellas, his statue was erected in the sacred grove, and his praises were sung by poets» He returned in triumphal procession to his home, where distinguished honors and substantial rewards awaited him. 124. These festivals lasted for several days, and drew influ nee so- ^^S^^^^^^ ^" immense multitude from all parts ciai and liter- of Greece. They thus afforded the best pos-. *'^* sible means for commercial, social, and literary intercourse. " In the booths arqund the plain of Olympia, merchants exchanged the rude wares they had brought fronx the banks of the Tanais and the Rhone against the rich products of Asia and Africa ; the social and political condi- tion of the various states of the mother country, of her far- thest colonies, and of the barbarian nations around them, might be compared. Teachers of philosophy discussed the theories which sprang up in Athens and Italian Greece ; sculptors and painters took occasion to exhibit the finest productions of chisel and brush ; while poets and historians read aloud, in all their freshness, those immortal works which we only half admire for want of such a hearing. Such intercourse must have powerfully tended to maintain GREEK LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY. 117 .' n that intellectual sympathy which, in the absence of any political union, was the strongest bond of nationality among the sons of Hellas."* 4. GREEK LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY. 125- Leaving aside the Sacred Scriptures, the literature of Greece is incomparably the most valuable of comparison all the literatures of antiquity. It is far richer, of uteratures. grander, and more original than that of Rome, — and in- deed the L^atins were avowedly imitators of the Greeks. Of the literature of tiie Egyptians, Babylonians, and Phoeni- cians we have only fragments, and these are far from show- ing a high tone of thought or sentiment. The ancient Persians have left us but one important work, the Zend- Avesta, and this is rude and primitive in its structure. The great body 01 Hindoo writings (the Vedas, etc.) is, from its lack of form, curious rather than valuable. With the Greeks, for the first time, came noble intellectual conceptions em- bodied in forms of literary art 126. In Greek literature poetry precedes prose. The oldest Greek poems that remur to us are the two immortal epics (£. I II ill Philip Srailh, History of the World. -nlaHMIIHMMlMili I '-' ' ;' f I ' > III '[' llj ■! 1 i; 1 ■J i ■ If 1 ill 1 t ii8 HISTORY OF GREECE. Hesiod. 127. By the Greeks Homer was regarded as a real in- Homer dividual ; Herod'otus places him four hundred Greeks. ^ years before himself, which would fix his period at about 880 b.c. These poems were for centuries lodged only in the memory of bards, who sang or recited them to assembled companies and at festivals. They were not com- mitted to writing till the period of Pisistratus at Athens (B.C. 560). On the subject of the authorship of the Homeric poems, read Chap-» ter XXI. of Grote's Greece, vol. ii. The most celel)rated English trans- lations of liomer are those of Ciiapman (time of Shakespeare), Pope and Cowper (lait century), Lord Derby and the American poet, William Cullen Bryant. 128. The next development of epic poetry was in Boeo'- tia, in the works of Hesiod, who is thought to have lived in the 8th century, that is, about a century after Homer. The two most famous books of Hesiod are the Theogony and the Works a?id Days. These were looked up to by the Greeks as of great authority in theological and philosophical matters ; but they do not pos- sess the same interest for us as the Homeric poems. 129. The epic was the only kind of poetry during the Epic and kingly period. The epics usually rtlnted the eiegrjr. exi)loits of the heroes of the mythical ages, and hence were very acceptable to princes who claimed descent from those heroes. When, however, regal rule gave place to democracy, poets arose who were stimulated to a freer expression of life feelings. The new style of poetry is called the Elegy, — hut the word has a wider meaning than with us, and denoted all emotional poetry. ' One of the most famous writers of the elegy was Tyrtse'us (born in the latter part of the 8th century b.c.) He is said to have been a lame schoolmaster at Athens, sent to Sjiarta in de- rision by the Athenians, to whom the Spartans had ai)plied for a leader in the Messenian war: it is added that his J. o V( W( IT) Gi da bia ant swe nati schc subJ aros( tury men (born lity of na of Ba were brougj under I3^ ^schy differer t^e pla ^'"agedy with th( the Grei ^^EEK LITERATUP- jatt. ~ ZIZ^_J^^"IL0S0PHY. „. -mad as a wHter ^f n^w^ ^'^ '- 5th century, I ^ ■• jO. ihQ next t of the human race, belongs to the epoch immediately succeeding the age of Pericles (469-399 b.c). He did not teach any positive system of philosophy ; his special work was to break down prejudices, to show people their ignorance, to expose fallacies, and to assert the exist- ence of great necessary truths, — of the good, the true, and the beautiful, — and this he did by a method of searching inquiry, called, after him, the Socratic, He was ungainly of person and ascetic in his habits ; he taught without pay in the porticoes, the market-place, and the street, addressing all who chose to listen in a homely but most pointed and telling style. Notwithstanding his pure and noble life, and his efforts to promote the welfare of mankind, his doctrines made him many enemies : he was charged before the Athenian magistrates with not believing in the gods, and with being a corruptor of youth. Being condemned on these charges, he was sentenced to drink a cup of hemlock. He met his death calmly, surrounded by his beloved and weeping disciples, to whom in his last hours he discoursed on the Immortality of the Soul. 140. Plato (429-347 B.c), one of the disciples of Socrates, was the founder of the Academic school, so called from the groves of Acade'mus, near Athens, where the philosopher gave his lectures. The works of Plato remain in tlie form of his Dialogues, In these Socrates is represented as the principal speaker ; but the philosophy of Plato was really his own. It is distin- guished for its lofty ideal character. The Platonic doctrines have had a powerful influence on the human mind, and are the high-water mark of spirituality in the ancient world strugg folJowe and re The , GRECIAN ART. ■ '^j 141' Aristot'le (-iSa t ' ' " ■ patefic school (a, the LyceunTa,' '^^,^^'"'f'' °f 'h^ Peri- the most logical inrf c, ! ' '*'hens), was Phers and sliZ^'j^^T H "Z '"'"°^"- ""°''" >3 called >he^.^«^/,v«ystem oVr. " «"'" ''""' '° "'hat Predo,mna,ed over the mTnH, f""'"^' "*^ Pl-i'osc.hy years,-,asting. i„ fact! un^? °f T\ '"' '*° 'housind «'' system, „ith which .he "ame otf ''' *"' "^^ ^'"^''- Induction arrives a. truth bvTen, """" '^ '"^°<^''«^d. general laws; deduction begi„TwT^"" ''°"' '"'^"^ '° and seeks to arrive at truthT J" '""'' P"'"='P'^^ 'Lfr^^- ^--* -^tht^::r "of is;t;;: 5. GRECIAN ART. ing''fnd''mu^c"''^L"::t.^r-^''''^«"-' -"'Ptnre. paint- Greeks expressed then, ete' in X' fi °' '"^ ---' forms (for painting and mi ,i!.i ? ^'■" '"'° °""'«rt- Ages and .0 Chris, i^a^-.^rndl'h?"'";'^ '° "'^ M'^^'-'e "on was attained that was ^eve Mf " ^^'"" "^ P^^^™" never since been surpass^ ^'°'^ '''"- ^"d 'hat has ^^ -pri/rrs'^^'r"''' r^ ^^ ^-e •he develo|.ment of thp r7 ■' '^ "^ ''"d three classic forms- eCc ^^r '" '^^ '*""^ f ™'-»- It is probable ha an thr"- ''""'' *""' ^OR- ; eec. had temples con.men a w h tr"'H^''"-^"''^' °^ 'e Persian wars; but many wZ a , .^'^""^^'0'^ ruggle and in .he grand^Iri fd of °''' '"""= "•-' followed the contest with Persia 1 "'. "' '"'^ "-^f d rebu.lt the old structures I iLT'"'" '""'"' <^°>^" '''e co„se,iuence is that nearly all ,h '■''^"''"''^'" ^'>'e- fo'^nd m Greece were built ^"«oms of the relics they have left ,T r """"«' a"d 'eresting subject, which I ^ ''^^P'^ '"- """"^ ""xHrV. * °"'^"'' ^'*" --'^ be touched I4> I he drjss of the r^^i. necessary co^rings or uLlesTri T '"'"P''^> »«hout un ments. Between the « ^ '^'^^ "'^ oma- "' difference of altire Tl,„ ' '^"'^ ""s '"tie *>"»■• "nen, and later of cotr^'' "^^-^ =°™™only of woo. coverings; all the men 1 „I T,™^" *°'« no head -d certain kinds of w^rlcZr" „'d'f "' T^^' '«S no foot-covering; abroad thev'w. ' "'^ ^^^eks used fmes boots. " '"^^ "ore sandals, shoes, sot^e- ^o^J^LdT^ "'" ""•«« daily „,eals reW • napkin? InV Sett" '^'''-'oth"t;"''"'"« - «n«ers for knl^td t^"' ^ f^ ""' "'^'' ""^ I,' m 126 HISTORY OF GREECE. Education. meals. Among the common people dried fish and barley bread, with dates, were the staple food. Among the well- to-do all sorts of luxuries were of course indulged in. After dinner came the symposium^ when host and guests drained goblets of wine mixed witli hot or cold water, being governed by the " master of the feast," who was chosen by lot This drinking-bout was enlivened by varied conversation, music, dancing, and all sorts of games and amusements. 151. Though the state did not support schools, yet daily school-going was quite general ; the boys alone went to school, however. The whole education of a Greek youth was divided into three parts, — grammar, music, and gymnastics. The schoolmaster was called the ^ravunatis'tes^ or grammarian ; but with the Greeks "gram- mar" included most of the rudimentary branches of educa- tion, while under the term "music "came all intellectual accomplishments. The gymnasium, where the body was rendered supple and strong by wrestling, running, box- ing, and kindred pursuits, was part and parcel of Greek education, and was much frequented both for pastime and exercise. There the contestants trained for the celebrated Olympic Games. 152. Women seem in the Homeric age to have held a Position of higher position in the household than in later woman. times. In the historic period, the husband treated his wife as a faithful slave, " something better than his dog, a little dearer than his horse." The principle on which the education of women rested was, that just so much mental culture was expedient for women as would enable them to manage the household, provide for the bodily wants of the children, and overlook the female slaves. Secluded in the ^^yneccBwn^ or female apartment, both before and after marriage, they led a secluded and narrow life ; so that we must think of Greek society as destitute of the refining and ennobling influence of cultured mothecs, sisters, GREEK LIFE, MANNERS, ETC. 127 and wives ; and this fact resulted in some distinctly traceable defects in the products of Grecian genius. We shall hereafter see that it is lo Christianity that we are indebted for the elevation of woman to her true place in society. .il^' i box- i < ; ii: I2S HISTORY OF ROME. SECTION III. HISTORY OF ROME. f| i ■Ik: U-\ ^'':l ! m m U. I't l! Ill i ; 'I III II ■??!!' CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHY AND RACES. A. The history of the Romans, the last and greatest ^ , . people of anticiuity, is now to engage our attention. We shall see how this people comes first to notice as a village community in the 8th century B.C., — how it de- velops into a vigorous republic and subdues all the other races of the peninsula, — how it pushes its concjuests beyond the V5J| bounds of Italy, — and how, finally, about the time of the birth of Christ, it stands forth a great impe- rial and world- ruling power. It is a wonder- ful and most instructive story. 2. Italy is the central one of the three great peninsulas which pioject Etruj and th but it stock. village ^''^r civl many strange Italy dv ^ primi ^n addi V .i,i^ GEOGRAPHY AND KACES. from the South nf v . ~~~ l^ "as an ex...e: tgfh' 0"'°"" ^^<^«--ean Sea. bounded on .,„e „o„h byt c ain of th '4', *^ °"-p""< and IS surrounded on /ft, .!"" °f '"e Alps, featiu-a divided into t.TZs^LT,^y '"e sea. It may be great plain drained' by' thf^ "7 pT' '^""^''""S "^ ">« 'nl«..anes, and the southern bd„„ ,"'' " ^"^ '^"'' «s «ith the Apennines as a backbon . "°- '°"="^ °f '^"d '° «ou.h. I, should be noticed hn """'"^ " '"^"^ "o«h of .he Empire the Romans nevert^rf'/'e' "" "'^ "'"e Po m Italy. To this section I ''^'' ""^ P^" of the C'WX«., or Gaul on thMthel '""' .""^ """■« °f ^"^^^ Both the northern and mh rn ^T"^ f' °' "'^ ^Ips. many distinct territorial divisTo„sT "'^ '=°'"Pri«d best be learned from the mlp "^'"'= °^ "h'^h will 3- Italy was inhabited at fh» „- r knowledge carries us back bv t'"' ^"°-^ '° ''"='' °ur faces, the Gauls F,r,T % °"'' P"""pal Italians proper but the fi,\^'""'«''^"=' ""d ««« con.pareS „'^h 'thSu. h ^'^i^'^ °' "-- -po«ance 4- The Gauls inhab t^H .t ""' ^'°i>^'- I'aly (Gallia Cisalpfna ''^ the'^f"" P-t "^ Northern of the same race ,hat iil abld r, 1 "^ ^'"'"«' north of the .Alps (France nl^;,^"' '° "'^ '"«•• Etruscans inhabited E^ru ja " H '" ''"" ^'^^"'^ The and the Tiber. Their oI„ is' i'^'!, ^""^^" ">« ^rno but It is believed that thrnl . ^^'^ '" S^at obscurity stock. Certain i, L thltl '^ 'u ' ''"'°"S«'' t° the .Ar^an village on the TiL" h:Vt::fca:rH''i'™' "PP^"'^ " '"•f civilization : the • were 'reat h m ''"''^'"P^^ ^ I'^cu- -n-y of the arts; tlyKt'd t"^"' '"<' *'"-" '" range and gloomy reUgion !„ Z" °""''' '""^ ^^'^ " "•■'ly dwelt the lapydans : this ,LtlT ""^ "^^ heel of pnm„ive race, quite disli t' rol T"l, T ""^^ ''^^'^ jf.i, ■ J 111; t' i- < f ►11' . 4 1 ,1 •J ':;* m HISTORY OF ROME, Italians. Greeks in Italy, for this people had early planted so many colonies on the southern coast that they gave to that dis- trict the name of Magna Grceda, or Great Greece. 5. The fourth of the races of Italy is the one with which we shall be mainly concerned in Roman his- tory. This is the Italian race proper, which occupied almost the whole of Central Italy. It was origi- nally a pure Aryan stock, nearly related to the Hellenic race, — a kinship which is strikingly attested by the agree- ment of Greek and Latin in many words ihat relate to agriculture and the primitive facts and phases of life. 6. The Italians proper were divided into two branches, the Latins and the Umbro-Sabellians, the latter including various tribes : — Italians. S Latins, Umbro- Sabellians. iUmbrians, Sabines, Samnites, etc. Now it is with the first branch that we shall be specially concerned in the beginnings of Roman history, — namely, with the Latin branch of the Italian race ; for it was by men of this stock that were laid the foundations of the mighty Roman r.tate, 7. The seat of the Latins was Latium, a small district Seat of the ^n the western coast of Central Italy, between Latins. the Tiber and the Liris. Its limits are repre- sented in the map on the opposite page. 11 i( I ?fji!i. ntf; PRIMEVAL ROME. CHAPTER ij the marvels of Rome'l 7 ' ""'^^ ^^^ail , ^ fTm«^ a^ . ^omes descent frr.»« •, ^eg-endsof yarned Troy, the landing of ^nr' r '^'^^' ««'-Jy Kon,;. the god Mars for the^ ^"'"^ ^" ^^^ium, the love of vestal Rhea, her bear- ^ ing twins by the god, their exposure in the liber,theirbeingsaved and suckled by a she- wolf and fed byawood. pecker till found by the shepherd Faus'tulus, their finally restoring their grandfather tothe throne of Alba Longa, .and then their collect- jng their fellow-shep- I ^ herds and founding | LatiuM ^ town named Rome I°owjnion of ^ (from Romulus thppi r'""*EVALRoME aerofthetmns),onthe ViSS^gJ^^^^^L^^ i ^| they can no loneer h*. .^ J^. simplicity ; but r •« . ofr^oi ^ "® '^^Sarded as a «ot,\- Cntidsmon ot real events. The rernrHc r u narrative these. "nown to have ^^l^^tl^ ^,:^^J^-^ °^ W are |f : ; i n\ M 1 f ' I!! 'i;^l city was burned by HISTORY OF ROME. m the Gnuls (b.c. 390) ; and l>ivy, the earliest writer on Roman afifairs whose works have come down to us, wrote about 750 years ater the foundation of the city. 10. At a very early period the Latins in the district of Realbeein- Galium formed a confederacy of thirty cities, ningsof at the head of which was the city of Alba Rome. Longa. Now it is believed that Rome was founded by a colony that went out from Alba T^onga with the view of estal)lishing there an outpost of defense against the Sabines and Etruscans, whose territory adjoined Latium at that point. And, indeed, according to modern scholars, the very name Romay in place of having any relation to the fabled " Romulus," means a march or border. 11. The founding of Rome is plnced in the year 753 B.C. Earliest his- -^"^^j setting aside the impossible fables of the tory. Roman historians, we may say there is good reason to believe that as early as the middle of the 8th century before the Christian era there stood on a height on the Tiber, called the Palatine Mount, a little village named Roma, the center of a small township, consisting probably of 5000 or 6000 inhabitants, all of them husband- men or shepherds. A chain of events which history can- not now trace, but which is indicated in a poetic manner by a number of early Roman legends, led to the incorpora- tion of Rome with two neighborinc: towns, — a small Etrus- can settlement on the Caelian Hill, supposed to have been called Lu'cerum, another a Sabine village on the Quirinal Hill, called Quirium. The Sabines were received on a footing of equality, but the Etruscans on a subordinate footing. The settlement thus consisted of three tribes^ — the Ramnes^ or Romans, the Tities^ or Sabines of Quirium, and the Luceres, or Etruscans of Lucerum. 12. Tradition hands down the names of seven kings who ruled Rome during the regai period (753- 509 ac); but great obscurity hangs around the greater part of this epoch. Kinsrs. IP ij« PRIMEVAL ROME. »33 13. The Roman citizens were from tiie earliest times Tdivided into two classes,— I'airicians and Pie- Organization beians, a distinction of great importance in ofsociety. Roman history. To tlie Patricians belonged all magisterial oftices, all the higher degrees of the j)riesthood, the owner- siiip of the puMic lands, and the privilege of using a family name. In fact, during the early ages the Patricians alone constituted tiie Populus^ or people, in a political sense ; for not only was the senate chosen from their ranks, but the sole popular assembly was the assembly of Patricians, called the Comi'tia Curia' ta. The Plebeians at this time, though freemen, and personally independent, were wholly destitute of political importance. 14. During the reign of the fifth king of Rome, Ser'vius Tullius, called the " King of the Commons," an change of important change was made in the constitution constitution, of the Roman state. Servius gave the Plebeians a share in the government by establishing a new national assembly called the Comitia Cetituria'ta, or Assembly of the Hundreds, in which both Plebeians and Patricians voted alike. It was so arranged that in the new national assembly the old families and the wealthy class should have most voice. However, notwithstanding these restrictions, the new con- stitution was a great concession to the people, as it virtu- ally admitted every free individual within the Roman territory to a share in the government 15. An attempt on the part of the seventh and last king, Tarquin'ius Super'bus, to undo these reforms End of the and to establish what the ancients called a kinRs* tyranny, led to the expulsion of him and his family, and to the abolition of the kingly form of government at Rome, 509 B.a Ever after this the Romans hated the very name of king. n : i'' «34 HISTORY OF ROME. CHAPTER III. THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. t. EPOCH OP THE STRUGGLE POR EXISTENCE (509-390 B.C.) 'I' 511 5 16. The history of Rome as a republic covers a period Extent of his- of 482 years, — from the termination of kingly tory. ruie^ c;o9 B.C., to the termination of republican rule by the establishment of the empire under Augustus, 27 B.C. 17. This period naturally divides itself into /our Epochs. Its four I- Epoch of the Struggle for Existence, epochs. beginning with the establishment of the re- public and ending with the Gaulish invasion of Italy, 509- 390 B.C. II. Epoch of the Roman Conquest of Italy, from the Gaulish invasion to the complete subjugation of the penin- sula, alter the repulse of Pyrrhus, 390-266 b.g III. Epoch of Foreign Conquest, including the Punic and Macedonian wars down to the beginning of civi' strife under the Gracchi, 266-133 B.C. IV. Epoch of Civil Strife, from the Gracchi to the estab- lishment of the Empire under Augustus, 133-27 b.c. 18. When, at the close of the sixth century (509 b.c.). Nature of the Rome ceased to be under kingly rule, it became government, a republic. Instead of a king, two magistrates called Consuls were elected every year. In other respects the constitution remained as before. The first consuls were Brutus and Collati'nus. 19. Rome had attained a high degree of power unt Territory nn- her kings, By a treaty made in the secoriu der the kings, year of the republic with the Carthaginians (508 ac), a treaty which has fortunately been preserved, it s'letcl Brutu one 01 state for a THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. 135 jstab- B.C.), icame strates [spects )nsuls lunc tecou'- rinians red, it appears that she was mistress of the whole coast from Ostia to Tcrracina, and traded with Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. 20. The state of things under the republic was for a long time much less fortunate. The Romans warsofthe became engaged in contests with their neigh- "public bors, and soon after the change of government they lost a considerable part of their dominion. There were : i. Wars with tlie Eiruscans ; 2. Wars with the Sabines, Volscians, and i^quians ; 3. Wars with the ^quians and Volscians ; 4. Wars with the ^quians and Veieniines ; till finally, alter over a century of strife, Rome was overwhelmed by the Gauls, 390 B.C. It is needless to enter into any account of thes( contests, and the more so, that almost the whole history of this epoch is of a legendary character. 21. Leaving aside the details, however, we can readily see that this century or more of desperate character of struggle for existence was in many respects a the period, great era, and behind the veil of legend we plainly descry grand human figures, — the figures of those stern old patriots who gave to the name Roman its lolty significance. The old Roman character was indeed a hard character, — it was stern, unfeeling, in many respects cruel ; for we must re- member that Christianity had not yet come to humanize men by the consciousness of universal brotherhood. But at the same time it had some noble virtues ; it was of heroic mold, and, for the work then required, was doubt- loss just what was needed. Below will be found brief s^.etches of a few of the great men of the first epoch. GREAT NAMES OF EARLY ROME. Brutu (Lucius Junius), known as the *' Elder Brutus," was one 01 the first two consuls. During his term of office llie Roman state was threatened both from wi hoilt and within. The eNJUd kng, Tarquin, liml letircd to Etrurin, where lie began to intrigue fur a return to ^^ome. In this he was aided by a cou&piri.cy of a ii t ;n \ i i Imi 1 i L> 136 HISTORY OF ROME. number of the young nobility, and amon<; the conspirators were found the two sons of Brutus himself. The plot being discovered, the consul would not pardon his tjuiity children, and ordered the liclors * to put them to death with the other traitors, — a memorable <.'\;miple of inflexible justice. Soon after, the Etruscans espoused tile cause of 'I'arquin and marrlied against Rome. When Aruiis, a 6on of Tarquin, saw Brutus \t the head of the Roman cavalry, he spurred his horse to the charge, and both fell from their horses mortally wounded. Horatius (Codes) is celebrated for his heroic "defense of the bridge." The circumstances are these. Porsena, lars or lord of C'usium in Etruria, had taken up the cause of the exiled Tarquin, and in 508 B.C. advanced with a large army to the Mount Janiculum, just across the Tiber from Rome. That city was now in the greatest danger, and the Et.uscans could have cniered it by the Sublician bridge, had not Iloraiius Codes, with two comrades, kept thewliole Etruscan army at bay while the Romans broke down the bridge behind him. VVlun it was giving way he .sent back his two com- panions, and withstood alone the attacks of the foes till tlie cracking of the falling timbers told him that the hridi;e was destroyed. Then praying, " O Father Td)er, take me into thy charge and bear me up ! " he plunged into the stream and swam across in safety amid the arrows of the enemy. The slate raised a statue in his honor, and allowed him as much land ss he could plow round in one day. Few legends are more celebrated in Roman history than this gallant deed of tloratius, and Roman writers love to tell " How well Horatius kept the bridge In the brave days of old." Coriolanus (488 n.c.) Caius Marcius, surnamed Coriolanus, from iiis valor at the capture of the Latin town of Corioli, was a brave but hauj^hty Patrician. lie was hated by the Plei)cians, who refused him the consulship. This inflamed him with ani^er, and accordingly when the city was sufrerin*; from famine, and a present of corn came from Sicily, Coriolanus advised the senate not to distribute it among the Plebeians, unless they gave up their tribunes. Such insolence enraged the Plebeians, who would have torn him to pieces on the spi't had not the tribunes summoneil him before the Comiiia of the * The Lictort were public officers who attended upon the Roman magis- trate, liach consul had twelve lictors. They carried upon their shonldtrs Jiisces, which were rods bound in the form of a bundle, and containing an ax in the middk;. the a c werd in bac sena told dict£ •Se( f Th ofgreat gave it I niagistr was Titi THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. 137 ' I Tribes. Coriolanus himself breathed nothing but defiance ; and his kinsmen and friends interceded for him in vain. He was condemned to exile. Accordingly he went over to the Volscians, the enemies of his countrymen and offered to head them against Rome. The king of the Volscians persuaded his people to appoint Coriolanus their general. Nothing could check his victorious progress : town after town fell before him ; and he advanced within five miles of the city, ravaging the lands of the Plebeians, but spariiig those of the Patricians. The city was filled with despair. The ten head men in the senate were sent in hopes of moving his compassion ; but they were received with the utmost sternness, and told the city must submit to his absolute will. Next day the pontiffs, augurs, flamens, and all the priests came in their robes of office, and in vain prayed him to spare the city. All seemed lost, but Rome was saved by her women. Next morning the nouiest matrons, headed by Veturia, the ai;ed mother of Coriolanus, and by his wife Volumnia, holding her little children by the hand, came to his tent. Their lamentations turned him from his purpose. ** Mother," he said, bursting into tears, ** thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son ! " He then led the Vol- scians home. Some s.iy that he was put to death by the Volscians ; but others, that he lived among them to a great age, and was often heard to say that " none but an old man can feel how wretched it is to live in a foreign land." * Cincinnatus (Lucius Quintius, 458 B.C.) was one of the heroes of old Roman story, with whose name is connected a well- known spirit-stirring legend. He was a noble, but had retired from popular tumult to bis farm. On one occasion the i^quians, who were bitter foe'> of the Romans, had surrounded a Roman camp on the Alban hills. In this emergency it became necessary to appoint a dictator,t and the senate chose Cincinnatus. The delegates who were sent to announce this to him, found the noble Roman engaged in plowing his own fields, clad only in his tunic or shirt. They bade him clothe himself that he might hear the commands of the senate. He put on his toga, which his wife brought him. They then told him of the peril of tne Roman army, and that he had been made dictator. Next morning before daybreak he appeared in the Foruni • See Shakespeare's drama of Coriolanus. + The Dictator was an extraordinary magistrate appointed in seasons of great peril. He possessed absolute power for six months, unless he sooner gave it up ; and from the time of the appointment of the dictator all the otlier magistrates, even the consuls, ceased to exercise any power. The first dictator was Titus Lartius, appointed in the year 498 B.C. 1 ( III m i) 138 HISTORY OF ROME. and levied a new army ; he then marched against the enemy, and succeeded in hemminj; in the ^qiiians, who were blockading the Romans. He forced them to surrender, and made them pass under the yoke.* Cincinnaius entered Rome in triumph only twenty-four hoiir> after he had quitted it, and voluntarily laid down his dictatorial power after holding it but fourteen days, and returned to his farm. 22. In addition to troubles from without, the young re- Social public had to meet internal difficulties ; for a troubles, quarter of a century had not passed since the expulsion of the Icings before a struggle of classes arose, — a struggle between the Patricians and the Plebeians, the first of a long series of social contests that constitute the most important portion of the annals of the early commonwealth. 23. It appears that the Patricians had found an ingeni- Oppression ous way of crippling the Plebeians by means of ofthePiebs. the Operation of the Roman law of debt. In primitive Rome, as in other ancient states, an insolvent debtor was liable to be seized by his creditor, and kept in chains or made to work as his slave. Now such had been the distress caused by the wars ever since the establishment of the republic, that multitudes of the Plebeians had been obliged to become debtors to the Patricians, who were the exclusive proprietors of the state lands. Hundreds had in consequence fallen into a condition of slavery ; so that the Plebs were thoroughly disheartened, and the Patricians prac- tically possessed all power. 24. When this state of things became unbearable, the Plebeians resolved upon quitting Rome and building beyond the Roman territory a new town on the A/o/is Sacer (Sacred Mountain), about four miles from the city, 493 b.c. Thither accordingly they seceded ; but after considerable negotiation a compromise was made : debtors were relieved and slaves for debt were set free. * Subjuiifum (Jugum, a yoke), the origin of our word subjugate. The yoke Wiis ormcd by two 3pearshxed upright in the ground, while a third wa.s fast- ened across them. f were conti anoth very contir of th( Aloun 2S. tJie sej ^vas a^ and thi TfTlL STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. n9 and new liles ided ■, lade : -le yoke tas fast- 25- At the same time a still more important change was mide, — two magistrites, chosen from the office of Plebeians, and called 'Jriouiies of the Plcbs, were tribune. appointed. These afterwards became ten in number. They held office for a year, during' wliicli time their persons were sacred, and they could nullify any decree of the senate that tney thought injurious to the Commons by the word Veto, J forbid it. No one could have foreseen how important this office would become. 26. The Plebeians had gained an important step in the appointment of the tribunes. But there were j^^^^ ^^ still many grievances under which they suffered, the Twelve And one of the most oppressive was that no "r****®*- regular code of laws existed. After many stormy debates it was at last decided (450 B.C.) that a Council of Ten, called from their number Decemvirs, sliould be appointed to make a code of laws, and it was agreed that in the mean- time all the officers of the government (consuls, tribunes, etc.) should give up their places, and let the decemvirs control the state. The decemvirs appointed for the first year did their work well : they embodied the laws of Rome in written form, in the famous code of the Twelve Tables. 27. On the expiration of their year's office, all parties were so well pleased that it was resolved to Conduct continue the same form of government for of the another year. But the new decemvirate acted <*«'=«"'^"' very tyrannically, and when their time came to an end, they continued to hold their power in defiance of the senate and of the people. Matters soon fell into so bad a state that the Plebeians seceded once more, retiring to the Sacred Mount. 28. This second secession extorted from the Patricians the second great charter of Plebeian rights. It what was was agreed that the tribunes should be restored, «»"»««'• and that the authority of the assembly of the tribes {Comitia \l !•;:!' Il fl^ il i i' m I m 140 HISTORY OF ROME. Tributd) should be put on a level with that of the Cen- turies. Two consuls were elected in place of the decem- virs, 446 B.C. 29. 'J'he Plebeians were, hn^cever, still justly dissatisfied ; Dispute about the choice 01 the chief executive, namely, the consuls. consuls, was made exclusively from the Patri- cians. The Commons now began to claim a share in the consulate. This demand was resisted by the Patriciany with their whole strength ; and when at last the Plebeians prevented the raising of levies for military service, the Patricians declared that they would rather have no more consuls than agree to the admission of the Plebeians to the office. 30. At length the Patricians proposed (444 B.C.) that a More certain number (first three, afterwards six) of changes. Military Tribunes, who might be chosen equally from Patricians and Plebeiaua, should exercise supreme power. In the following year two new magistrates called Censors were appointed ; and as these were chosen exclu^ sively from among the Patricians, it gave that order consid- erable additional weight, especially as the censors held the power of determining the rank of every citizen, of fixing his status in society, and valuing his taxable property. More- over, though in theory the military tribunes could be elected from either order, yet in fact^ such was the ascendency of the Patricians, that usually only men of their own class were chosen ; and it was not till 400 B.C., or about forty years after the remodeling of the government, that Plebeians were freely elected. 31. It was at this time that the progress of Rome received GauUsh a great check by an invasion of the Gauls, who, invasion, under the leadership of Brennus, pressed south- ward, overran Etruria, and having defeated the Romans on the Allia, captured the city, and burned almost the whole of it, except the Capitol, 390 B,c. I'he Capitol held out for ROMAN CONQUEST OF ITALY. 141 seven months, until the Gauls, tired of the siege, agreed to go on receipt of a thousand pounds of gold. It is recorded that Brennus increased the stipulated amount by the weight of his sword, which he cast into the scale. Many stories told by the Roman historians respecting the Gaulish cap- ture of Rome are plainly fictions ; but of the fact itself there can be no doubt s. EPOCH OF THE ROMAN CONQUEST OF ITALY (390-966 B.C.) 32. Scarcely had Rome been rebuilt with narrow and crooked streets and small dwelling-houses, when Plebeian the Patricians again asserted the whole of their oppression. claims, and in jiarticular revived the ancient laws of debtor and creditor in all their severity. The Gallic invasions left the Plebeians in a state of great poverty and distress, and now the severe measures of the Patricians threatened to reduce the whole common people to a state of practical slavery. The contest came to a crisis in 376 B.a 33. At this time two bold and able tribunes of the people, Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextius, came forward Proposals with a plan to settle all the difficulties. They f°' reform, said there were two evils to be remedied : i. Political in- equality ; 2. Material want. The new plan met the first evil by restoring the consuls as the chief magistrates, and appointing that one o( the two consuls annually chosen should always be a Plebeian. The second evil, namely, the poverty of the Plebeians, the new plan proposed 10 mitigate by providing, first, that the interest already paid on debts should be deducted from the capital, and the residue paid in three years ; secondly, that of the public lands hitlierto practically monopolized by the rich, no man -hould hold more than 500 ju^^ra* while the remainder iK'ukl be distributed in small portions among the Plebeians as ilieir own property. * Kjugerum was rather more than half an acre. t: I %. |.| 143 HISTORY OF ROME, Democracy. 34. This new plan of a constitution, known as the Victory of Liciniati RogaiionSj was resisted to the utmost the Piebs. by the Patricians ; but all their efforts proved unavailing against the firmness of the tribunes, who pre- vented the election of ofificers and military levies. The plan became a law in 367 B.C., and the following year a Plebeian consul, Lucius Sextius, was elected All the other offices, dictatorship, censorship, praetorship, etc., were soon thrown open to the Commons, — so that at last, after the long struggle, perfect political equality was established. 35. For a century and a half since the expulsion of the kings, Rome had been a republic, but an aristocratic republic : it was now truly a govern- ment of the people. From this time begins the golden age of Roman politics. Civil concord, to which a temple was dedicated, brought with it a period of civic virtue and heroic greatness. 36. Up to the period at which we have now arrived, — SmaUness of the middle of the 4th century B.C., — the Romans the nation. were but a small nation : their territory in- cluded but a few townships on the Tiber, and the whole number of adult Roman citizens at the close of the 5th century was under 300,000. In the meantime Rome was surrounded by petty nationalities that girdled its strength ; and its wars thus far had been mainly a '* struggle for ex- istence." 37. With the settlement of political difficulties in the Wars for middle of the 4th century, we enter on a new dominion, era of Roman history. The republic now began a series of wars for doviinion. These wars were with (i) their immediate relatives the ZaZ/wj ; with (2) their more distant relatives, the various other Italian nation- alities; with (3) the Greek settlements in Southern Italy aided by Pyrrhus, King of Epirus ; with (4) the Gauis in Northern Italy. ROMAN CONQUEST OF ITALY. 143 38- History has been too much occupied with the record of battles and sieges ; hence we shall not go Meaning of into the endless and complicated details of these wars, these operations. But we must understand in a general way that these Roman wars meant a great deal. Before Rome could play its grand part in the history of the world's civili- zation it was necessary, first of all, that it should become a great Nation, A great nation needs an extensive stage on which to play its part. Now the wars by which the Romans put down the various small and obstructive nation- alities of Italy were the clearing of the stage, preliminary to the oncoming of that imperial figure, the Mistress of the World. 39. The series of wars against Etruscans, Latins, Sam- nites, and Gauls, sometimes singly and some- samnite times in combination, is usually known in ^"s* Roman history by the general designation of the "Latin wars " and the " Samnite wars." These wars filled the greater part of the half-century between 343 and 290 b.c, j and the Samnites were the leaders in this onset of the nations on Rome, the issue of which was to determine whether Rome or Samnium should govern Italy, The Romans were completely successful ^ and extricating them- selves by their valor from this confused conflict of nations, the Romans found themselves masters of Central Italy (290 RC.) — Samnites, Latins, etc., all their subjects. 40. The "Samnite wars" were succeeded by a short but brisk war, designated in Roman history warwith "the war with Pyrrhus and the Greeks in Pynrhus. Italy." Pyrrhus was an able and enterprising Greek prince, whom the Greek towns of Southern Italy — fearful of being overwhelmed by what they called the " conquering barbarians of the Tiber " — had invited over from his native country to help them as champion of a Greek city. 41. Pyrrhus came over with a force of 25,000 troops and 1 ( \- i y M , 1 II i- ; I 144 HISTORY OF ROME. Results. 20 elephants. In the first battle (Pandosia, 280 kc.) the Romans fought stoutly, until what they con- Narrative. C J 1 J ceived to be gigantic gray oxen (the elephants) came thundering down npon them ; so that the victory re- mained with Pyrrhus. In the next contest also (Asculum, 279 B.Cy Pyrrhus was successful ; but the Romans made him pay so dearly for his triumph that he is said to have exclaimed, " Another such victory and I am undone ! " Not having succeeded in his main object, Pyrrhus quitted Italy and went to Sicily; but soon after he returned, renewed the contest with the Romans, and was utterly overthrown at Beneventum, in 275 B.C. 42. The subjugation of Southern Italy — of all that part called Great Greece — soon followed, and at the close of the year B.C. 266, Rome reigned supreme over the length and breadth of the peninsula of Italy, from the southern boundary of Cisalpine Gaul to the Sicilian Straits, and from the Tyrrhenian or Tuscan Sea to the Adriatic. 43. We must now see how Rome consolidated the power Nature of the she had thus won, and try to realize what Roman state, manner of nation the Roman state now formed. The real governing power was the Roman people, — populus Romanus — that is to say, the body of free inhabitants of the thirty-three tribes or parishes north and south of the Tiber, which constituted the Roman territory proper, together with a considerable number of persons in other parts of Italy, who, either from being colonists of Roman descent or from having had Roman citizenship conferred on them, had the privilege of going to Rome and voting at the Comitia, or Assembly. The possessors of the suffrage thus formed a comparatively small body of men, such as might be assembled with ease in any public square or park, and these by their votes decided on the affairs of the commonwealth, controlling thus the destinies of the whole 'f \ i- . ROMAN CONQUEST OF ITALY. I4S population of Italy, estimated at this time at above 5,000,000. 44, In addition to the populus Romanus there were two other classes, — the Italians and the Latins. other The Italians, or socii^ were the inhabitants of <^»»"»« the allied and dependent Italian states that had submitted to Rome. These communities were almost all permitted to retain their own laws, judges, municipal arrangements, etc.; but they did not possess the Roman franchise, and hence had no share in the political afJliirs of the republic. The Latins were those who belonged to cities having the " Latir> franchise," as it was called, from its having first been given to the cities of Latium when conquered. This did not give full Roman citizenship, but made it easier to obtain it. 45, Rome wisely left self-government to all the depen- dent and allied states, while she secured her Summary of sovereignty by three rights which she reserved srovernment. to herself: i. She alone made peace or declared war; 2. She alone might receive embassies ; 3. She alone might coin money. Altogether it was an admirable system, vastly superior to the loosely related Grecian states. It was a system that made possible for the first time in the world's history a great, as well as a free, nation. 46, Thus far we have been occupied wholly with the ex- ternal wars and the internal struggles of the General Romans, and this for the reason that their con- »ummary. quests and their political organization were the main things that this remarkable people had yet accomplished. It is a striking fact that there was not yet even a dawning Roman literature; in art, science, philosophy, Rome had done— absolutely nothing. But, in fact, it was in the art of govern- ing mankind that Roman genius was to appear ; and it was this that showed itself in these early years, — it was their valor, their probity, their patriotism, their political tact, and not speculation or literary culture, that distinguished theob r w- i y< i^ iii fm !^|1 Ml i 146 HISTORY OF ROME. 3. EPOCH OF FOREIGN CONQUEST (166-133 B.C.) 47. The epoch of Roman history on which we now enter Extent of covers 133 vears, beginning in 266 b.c. and the period, ending in 133 B.C. This is the era of Rome's first great foreign conquests, embracing the Punic and Mace- donian wars, and lasts down to the rise of the civil broils under the Gracchi. )U ■ : : i; f ( U II t LLUSTRATt . , o , THE PUNIC WARS. ^" y SMOWIMG ROM*'* /tmrtrntir'At f/tftM rs/tM/MAT/OM 48. In the middle of the 3d century B.a the great maritime power of the Western Mediterranean was Carthage. She was at the head of the Other Phoenician cities in Africa, numbering about 300, with possessions in Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and Spain. In government she was a republic ruled by an aristocracy. The Carthaginians were devoted to commerce, and had the good and the bad traits characteristic of a purely commer- FOREIGN CONQUEST. »47 Seeds of war. cial peo{ le. The Romans, who were their rivals and ene- mies, rej^rcsentcd them as wanting in integrity and honor ; hence the ironical phrase to denote treachery, Punica fides {Punica from Pceni^ the Latin form of the name Phceniaans)^ or Punic faith. 49. It was hardly possible that two such powers as Car- thage and Rome should not come into colli- sion. And it was the more likely, as the island of Sicily lay between them, where the Carthaginians had large possessions, and where the Greek ciiies were close!) con- nected with the Greek subjects of Rome in Southern Italy. 50. The pretext was not long wanting. The Mamer- tines, a body of Campanian mercenaries who origin of first had seized the town of Messa'na on the Sicil- P»»nic War. ian Straits, being threatened with destruction by the com- bined Carthaginians and Syracusans, applied for help to Rome, and were readily received into her alliance. From this resulted \.\\q first Punic IVar^ which lasted for twenty- three years (264-241 Rc.) The independent Greek city of Syracuse having very soon changed sides, the war was between the Romans and Syracusans on one side and the Carthaginians on the other. 51. The war was carried on chiefly in and about Sicily. The reduction of Agrigentum (262 B.C.) was the first great exploit of the Romans. But the most remarkable feature of the contest was the wonderfully rapid development of a navy by the Romans. At the he- ginning they had no fleet at all, and it is said that tiiey took as their model a stranded Carthaginian galley : two years afterwards they were able to assemble so powerful a navy that they defeated their enemy in a great sea-fight at Mylae, 260 B.C. 52. Tlieir victories by sea emboldened the Romans to send an army across to Africa, and to attack their enemy in his own country. But the Roman Narrative. Sequel f- ■ i i ji'iti mm I4l>' HISTORY OF ROME. I i '" ' 'i t^ rli! PI I 1 11 army under Reg'ulus was defeated at Tunis, and Regulus himself was made prisoner (255 r.c.) The war was then confined to Sicily, where the Carthaginians suffered severe defeat at Panor'mus. In the meantime disasters at sea befell the Romans, who lost fleet after fleet, until a new navy raised by subscription took the sea, and by the victory at i4i)gu'sa reduced the Carthaginians to seek peace, b.c 241. The treaty compelled the Carthaginians to evacuate Sicily and the adjacent islands, to pay a heavy indemnity, and to recognize the independence of Hi'ero, king of Syracuse. 53. The island of Sicily, or that part of it which the Province of Carthaginians had possessed, was organized SicUy. into a province^ and this fact is notable as being the commencement of that new feature in the Roman rule, namely, the institution of provincial government^ or that government established by the Romans for their posses- sions outside of Italy. 54. Having thus triumphed over Carthage, the Romans Conquest of t"*""^^ ^^eir cyes northward with the view of Cisalpine Carrying tiieir dominion to the Alps. The Gauls ^*"^- in the valley of the Po (Cisalpine Gaul) took the alarm, and began a movement towards Rome. They were, however, met by three armies, and were so thoroughly punished that in three years all Cisalpine Gaul submitted to Rome, 222 B.a In the country were planted two Roman colonies. 55. The Carthaginians felt that they had been deeply Carthage pre- wronged by the Romans, and ever since the pares forwar. close of the war they had been studying how the injury done them might be revenged. Among the advocates of war at Carthage was the powerful Barcine hiiiiiiy, at the head of which was Hamil'car Barca, who had won lame in the latter part of the previous war. Under this able leader the Carthaginians first directed their atten- FOREIGN CONQUEST. 149 tion to S[)ain (where they already had a strong foothold) as a fit "base of operations " against the Romans, ll.iniil- car's great object in subjugating Spain was to obtain the means of attacking the hated rival of liis country. His implacable animosity against Rome is shown by the well- known tde. that wJKn he crosse I over to Spain in 235 n.c, taking with him his son Hannibal, then only nne \ears o!d, he made him swear at the altar eternal hostility to Rome. Hamilcar fell in battle, and was succeeded by his son in- law Has'diubal, and when the latter was assa^si^a;ed, the command of the army devolved upon Hannibal. 56. When, at the age of iweniy-six, Hannibal was appointed to tiie command of the Carthaginian Hannibal's army m Spain, he carried the Carthagmian line campaign, up to the Kbro and besieged Sagui/tum, an ally of Rome, The city fell, and Rome immediately declared liostilties. The result was the second Punic War, which began in the year 218 DC. Before the Roman army was ready to take the field, Hannibal, who was one of the greatest miliiary geniuses that ever lived, had crossed the Pyrenees on his way to Itaiy. He then proceeded to perform one of the most famous exploits on record : with his army he climbed over the Alps (218 B.C.), losing above 30,000 men, burst into the plain of Italy, and defeated the Romans in four battles, the greatest of which was Cannae, fought in 3l6 B.C. 57. In Italy the career of Hannibal was most extraor- dinary : for fifteen years (217-202 ac.) he Operations maintained himself in the peninsula, moving ^ ita^y* hither and thither, keeping seven or eight Roman generals, and among them the wary Fa'bius and the bold Marcellus, coniinually employed, scattering the Romans like chaff wherever he appeared, exhausting the finances of the state, and detaching the Italian nationalities from their allegiance. 58> It is probable that Hannibal might have maintained r ISO HISTORY OF ROME. himself in Italy for an indefinite time, and finally have Roman shattered the commonwea th in pieces, had strategry. jt not been that the Romans assumed the ofTensive against C.irthage. A vigorous young soldier, I'ub''lus Scij)io, was sent into Spain, which he reduced to the condition of a Roman province, tlius closing the main avenue by which the Carthaginians could send reinforce- ments to Hannibal (216-205 ^^•^•) Hannibal's brother, Hasdrubal, managed, indeed, to march Irom Spain across the .\l|)s into Italy (207 B.C.); but his force was met and dcfcaied,— and the first intimation Hannibil received of his liroiher s arri\al in Italy wa> the sight of tliat brother's bloody htad tossed contemptuously into his camp. 59. In sj)ite of the cutting off his communications, Han- Cioseofthe »• '^1 could readily have mainta ned l^iinself in ^ar. Italy: but now Scipio passed over into Africa, and having defeated the Carthaginians in several battles, so terrified the autliorities at Carthage that they recalled Hannibal from Italy. The final battle of the war was fought on the plain of Zama in Africa, in the year 202 b.c The victory was with the Romans, and the Carthaginians in con- scfiuence were obliged to agree to a peace on very severe terms. Scipio — henceforward known as Scipio AJricanus — returned home and was honored with the most maunifi- cent triumph that had yet been exhibited in the Roman caMital. 60. Several years after this time Hannibal had to flee Anecdote of ^""om his country, and he si)ent the last years HaiJiiibaL of his life in Syria and liithyn'ia. liy a strange (1 incidence of fortune, his victor, Scijjio, had also to go into cNilc. and resided for a while at Kphesus, where Han- nibal was at the time. Many friendly conversations i)assed i)Ll\\ccn tiiem, and in one of these the Rom.m is said to h.ive asked the Carthaginian "whom he thought the greatest general." Hannibal immediately replied, "Alexander; Je/t sidera to a this pr the dt was ht he ma 63. yieliJin inuniti( f^ive uj Rome. side citj lion anc FOREIGN CONQUEST. 151 because that, with a small body of men, he had defeated \\ ry numerous armies, ;.nd had overrun a great part of tlie world.'" '• And who do you tiiink deserves the next place ?" continued the Roman. " Pyrrhus," replied ihe other ; *• he first taught the method of forming a camp to the best advaniage." "And whom do you place next to those?" said Scipio. "Myself," said Hannibal; at which Scipio asked wiih a smile, " Where, then, wouid you have placed yourself it you had conquered me?" "Above Alexander," replied the Cartiiaginian, "above Pyrrhus, urd above all other generals." 61. An interval of fifty years separates the second from the third and last war with Carthage, and several xhird Puric important events that we shall have to relate w*""- happenetl in tiie interim ; but it will give us a clearer view if we close here the whole history of Rome's dealmgs with Carth:)ge. 62. The third Punic war was, on the part of Rome, utterly causeless. The second had made Blame of Cartilage a dependent ally of Rome, but still the war. left it free in its internal government. Now, a con- siderable i)arty at Rome were bent on reducing Carthage to a position of complete subjugation. At the head of this party was Porcius Cato, the ( cnsor, who then swayed the decisions of the Roman : i-nate. So bitterly hostile was be to Carthage, thai for years he closed every speech he made — no matter on wiiat subject — with the words, Dekn'da est Cartha'^Oy " Carthage must be destroyed ! " 63. The humbled Carthaginians made every submission, yielding up their arms, their ships, aiul their Roman munitions of war, and they even offered to harshness. give up tiieir own government and become subjet.s of Rome, When, however, Rome projHJsed to raze their sea- side city, and send them to live inland, a wail of indigna- tion and despair went up from Carthage, and the inhabitants i«;3 HISTORY OF ROME. determined to sacrifice their lives ratlier than sulmiit to the savage mandate. 64. The third Punic war liegnn in 149 n.c. The ** Sie.re Siege of <'f Carthage," which lasted four ^ears, and was Carthage, coniiucted on the part < f the Romans by t!ie younger Scipio, known as Scii)io /Ivriiia'nus, was the one event of tliis final struggle, (.'arihage was without shi: s, without allies, almost wi:hoiit arms; yet she maintained the contest witii the coura-:e of dcsi)air : the women ;:'i*o their tresses to make bowstrings, and the nien ])()urcd out their blood most lavishly. But it was all in vain. The city was taken, and being set on fire, the fi imcs con- tinued to rage lor seventeen days. Thus was Carthage with Its walls and buildings, the habitations of 700.000 people, razed to its foundations. The Carthaginian terri tory was then made into the Roman Province of Africa^ under a proconsul, and the seal of government was fixed at Utica (n.c. 146). 65. It is related that when Scipio beheld Carthage in Anecdote flames his soul was softened by reflections on of Scipio. the instability of fortune, and he could not help anticipating a time when Rome herself should expe- rience the same calamities as those which had bciallen her unfortunate cimi[)eiitor. He vented his feelings by quoting from Homer the lines in which Hector predicts the fall of Troy : — '• Yet come it will, the day decreed by fates ; (How my heart trembles, while my tongue relates !) The day when ihou, imperial Iroy, mu^t bend, And see thy warriors fall, thy {jinrics end." 66. Meantime the Roman dominion had been enlarged ^ ,. ,, bv the amiexation of Macedonia and Greece. Subluxation , o( Macecion While the late war was going on, the ruler of and Greece. Macedon, King IMiilip V,, became embroiled with Rome, owing to his having made a treaty with Han- ■f K'i FOREIGN CONQUEST. «S3 nibal. The Romans made a campaign against Philip, and in this contest some of the Greek state? sided with Macedon and some with Rome. The result was that in the battle of Cynosceph 'ala3, in Tliessaly, 197 n.c, the power of Macedon was broken and Philip had to become a dependent ally of Rome. A little later the Macedonians were completely crushed at Pydna (168 B.C.), and came still more under the power of Rome. In the year 146 n.c. (same year as the destruction of Carthage) Corinth was captured and burned. No further resistance was offered to the victorious Romans, and Greece was made into a Roman province under the name of Achaia. 6y. At the commencement of the period of conquest (266-133 B.C.), the Roman dominion was con- Review of fined to the peninsula of Italy ; at its close it Rome's con- extended over the whole of Southern Europe ^"" from 'c shores of the Atlantic to the straits of Constanti- nople, er the chief Mediterranean islands, and over a portion of North Africa, while further east, in Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria, her influence was paramount. At the commencement of the period Rome was merely on^ of the " Great Powers " of the world as it then was, — that is, she ranked with Carthage, Macedonia, and the kingdom of the Seleucidae ; at its close she was clearly /Ae sole Great Powei left. 68. The Roman dominion now became a duality,- -it was " Italy AND THE Provinces." The poli- Rule oi the tical state of Jiti/y was that described in the provinces. last section ; but the addition of the conquered countries resulted in the new feature of Roman rule called J^rovindal l^i'VtTfimefit. Retaining their native habits, religion, laws, etc., the inhabitants of every province were governed by a military president, sent from Rome, with a staff of officials. Tiie provincials were rec^uired to pay taxes in money and kind ; and these taxes were farmed out by il 154 HISTORY OF ROME. IjSi ' lilii 1 'Vl I- the censors to Roman citizens, who, under the name of rublicans^ settled in the various districts of the provinces. Thus, liice a network proceeding from a center, the pohtical system of the Romans pervaded the mass of millions of human beings iniiabiting the shores of the Mediterranean ; and a vast population of various races and languages were all bound together by the cohesive power of Roman rule. 69. The luster of the Roman power and the glory of the Grandeur of Roman name were now at their height. The Rome. eyes of all the world were now on Italy, the young republic of the West. Into Rome all talents, all riches, flowed. What a grand thing in those days to be a Roman citizen ; so that, wherever one walked, — in S[)ain, in Africa, even in once proud Athens, — he was followed, feasted, flattered ! What a career was opened to those who wished for wealth or aspired to fame ! But in the very sun- burst of Rome's glory, the germs of decay were ripening. 70. On the Romans themselves the effect of their foreign Effect of conquests was both good and bad; but perhaps conquests. the evil outweighed the good. Let us glance at both sides of the shield. 71. I'he wealth poured into Rome by the conquest of Carthage, of Greece, and tlie East, and the con- siderable revenue derived from the permanent taxation of the provinces, enabled the Romans to carry out a gicat system 01 public works. Throughout Italy splendid military roads which remain to this day were built, the pro- vinces were traversed by imperial highways, and fine stone bridges were thrown across the Tiber. In Rome splendid public buildings were erected, the city was sewered, the streets were paved (174 n.L.), two new a(|uedurts (the Marcian, built in 144 ii.c, at a cost ot $10,000,000) were constructed ; and it may be noted that the Consul 1\ Scipio Nasi'ca, in 159 b.c, set up in Rome a pubic clep'sydra^ or water-clock, the citizens having for six centuries gone on Public works. FOREIGN CONQUEST. ^5$ without any accurate means of knowing the time by night as well as day. 72. The effect on Rome of the conquest of Greece and the Hellenized Kast was very marked. Greek influence of rhetoricians, scholars, tragedians, flute-players, Greece. and philosophers in large numbers took up their abode in Rome. The city swarmed with Greek schoolmasters. Greek tutors and philosophers, who, even if they were not slaves, were as a rule accounted as servants, were now per- manent inmates in the palaces of Rome ; people speculated in them, and there is a statement that the sum of 200,000 sesterces ($10,000) was paid for a Greek literary slave of the first class. 73. The stimulus of Greek literary culture led to native production, and in the 2d century B.C. we iiave First litera- the beginning of that Latin literature which we *""• still read. Though the great period of Roman letters did not come fill a century after this time (age of Augustus), yet there arose a number of writers of no ordinary power. Among these should be mentioned Knnius, the father of Roman poetry ; Plautus, his contemporary, a man of rich poetic genius ; the elder Cato, the first prose writer of note ; and Terence, the most famous of the comic poets. 74. While the Romatis were in some respects benefited by contact with the superior though decaying ^^ culture of Greece, they also learned a great deal that was debasing. They became effeminate, luxurious, and corrupt in morals ; marriage was not respected ; the old Roman faith waned, and it was said that two augurs could not meet in the street without laughing in each other's (ace. 75. I'he political system of Rome now began to lead to a dreaJful slate of public corruption. The political cor- Ronian government was devised for the rule of niption. a cUy : all power was in the hands of the civic voters, and ^1 Ki m W IP MM 156 HISTORY OF ROME. I f H ■ i when there came to be great prizes, in the way of great offices at home and abroad, the voters began to find that their votes were worth something, and unblushing bribery and corruption became common. 76. The demands of the large planters and merchants Growth of led ^o a great extension of the slave-inide. slavery. AH lands and all nations were laid under con- tribution for slaves, but the places where they were chiefly captured were Syria and the interior of Asia Minor. It is probable that at the period at which we have now arrived (middle of the 2d century b c) there were twelve million slaves against five million free inhabitants in the Italian peninsula, — a most lamentable state of things ! 77- In addition to the slaves, Italy became filled up with Corruption ^ motley piirasitic i)opuiation from Asia and of blood. Afiica and all the concjuered lands, — and the result of this intermixture soon appeared in a marked de- generacy in the Roman ?'iicf itself. 78. The decay of old Roman virtue became at the same time apparent in a great increase of luxury. This (lisjjlayed itself in houses, villas, i)leasure- gardens, fish ponds, dress, food, and drink. Extravagant prices— as much as 100,000 sesterces ($5000) — were paid for an exfjuisite cook. C'ostly foreign delicacies and wines were afferted, and the Romans in their banquets vied with one another in dis))laying their hosts of slaves ministering to luxury, their hands of musiri ms, their dancing-girls, their ymrple hangings, their carpets glittering with gold or piciorially embroidered, and their rich silver plate. 79. In the midst of the system there were not wanting some noble patterns of the old Roman type, among whom should be named Cato,* who • Porcius Cato, freqiirnily surnamed Cato the Censor, was born n.c. 934. He ' ii ,?s i ' 1 ' n'"l i4o HISTORY OF ROME. time of which we have been speaking ; nnd finally they ac- fjuired such power as to bring on a civil strife that deluged Italy with blood. 87. The wars just referred to were : the Jugurthine war Wars of the (111-106 B.C.), the war against the Climbri (ii.-^- period. loi B.C.), and the Social war (90-89 B.C.), with the details of which we need not concern ourselves ; but the fourth contest was of more moment, and needs notice here. This was the Mithridatic war. 88. Mithrida'tes, King of Pontu.s, a l)old and able soldier, Design of formed the design of uniting the .'\siatic states Mithridates. and Greece in a vast confederacy against the Roman dominion. He began by causing about 80,000 Romans who dwelt in the cities of Asia Minor to be mas- sacred in one day (88 u.c.) He then invaded Greece. 89. The command in this important war was eagerly Mithridatic sought by both Marius and Sulla. Sulla pre- war, vailed ; he was elected consul and put in com- mand. Marius, being chagrined at this, succeeded in having the popular party set aside Sulla. But the aristo- cratic general marched to Rome and compelled Marius to flee into Africa. Sulla then set out for Greece, all of which submitted to him, the army of Mithridates being defeated (86-84 B.C.) 90. During the absence of Sulla, Marius returned to Italy. Marian mat- Entering Rome in 86 B.C., he filled the entire sacres. city with slaughter, and in particular he caused the murder of the leading senators that had supported his rival. Marius then caused himself to be proclaimed consul without going through an election ; but a fortnight later he died. 91. Notwithstanding the death of Marius, the Marian Sulla's mas- party still continued in power. Sulla, hcariiiL,^ of their successes, hastily concluded a peace eacres. with Mithridates, and hurried to Italy (83 b.c.) Alter a CIVIL STRIFE, i6l severe struggle, Sulla utterly overthrew the Marians. The blood of massacre then flowed a second time, in a yet greater stream. Lists of proscribed persons, embracing all who belonged to the people's party, were published every day, and the porch of Sulla's house was full of heads. 92. Having put down all his enemies, Sulla caused him- self to be proclaimed dictator for an unlimited SuUa'* career time (81 B.C.) He then proceeded to re-or- and death, ganize the government wholly in the interest of the aristo- cratic party ; but to the great surprise of every one he three years afterwards resigned his power and retired to private life. Sulla died in 78 B.C. ; he was honored with a maf,mifi- cent funeral, and a monument with the following epitaph, written by himself: "I am Sulla the Fortunate, who in the course of my life have surpassed both friends and ene- mies ; the former by the good, the latter by the evil, I have done them." In the civil wars carried on between Marius and Sulla 150,000 Roman citizens, including 200 senators, perished. 93. We have now arrived at a period in Roman history when all the interest centers in the struggles of struggle of a few ambitious men for supreme power. The 'actions, grand days of the republic were over, and a war of factions had begun. This could end only in anarchy, and when a republic falls into anarchy, a supreme ruler is soon wel- comed as a deliverer from its horrors. The only question now was lo/io in Rome was to be that ruler. 94. After the death of Sulla, the most prominent figure among all the men of the aristocratic party Rise of wos Cneius Pompey, who had distinguished Pompey. himself as a lieutenant of Sulla, and afterwards won renown by his management of several important matters in which Rome was engaged, — especially in the suppression of a formidable revolution in Spain under a very able leader named Serto'rius (77-72 b.c.), and in stamping out a fire L lii 1 ; ( IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 m |50 I St iiiiM m ■12 «;.? m MM m 112.0 1.8 1.4 11.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 L<9 ii 1 62 HISTORY OF ROME. lllikk '' h^i * ul I 'I vi I ;■ I I i V 4 'p. i.ii-i I of revolt kindled by Spar'tacus, the leader of a band of gladiators, who, joined by a large force of discontented spirits, kept Italy in alarm for two or three years (73-71 B.C.) These exploits made Pompey a popular favorite, and in the year 70 B.C. he was rewarded by being made consul along with a rich senator named Crassus. 95, At the expiration of his year of office he retired to His doings pnvate life, but was soon called upon to sup- in tiie East, press a formidable combination of pirates who infested the Mediterranean Sea and had their headquarters in Cilicia (in Asia Minor). Thi«: cask he accomplished in three months. These triumphs, aided by his political in- fluence, enabled Pompey to procure the command in the war against Mithridates, who had renewed his scheme of conquering the Eastern Roman provinces. He was given powers such as never had been delegated to any Roman general. This war lasted for two years (66-64 b.c.), and was marked by a series of brilliant triumphs for Pompey. He utterly crushed Mithridates (who died by self- admini- stered poison), as well as his son-in-law Tigra'nes, subdued Phoenicia, made Syria a Roman province, and took Jeru- salem. Thus, with the glory of having subjugated and settled the East, he returned to Rome (62 b.c.), where a magnificent triumph awaited him. He was in a position to make himself military sovereign of the Roman world, if he chose to avail himself of his opportunity. We must now see what had been passing in Rome in the meanwhile. 96. There seem to have grown up, after the death of The four Sulla, four factions in Rome : the " oligarchi- factions. qq\ faction," consisting of the small number of families the chiefs of which directed the senate, and in fact governed the republic ; the " aristocratic faction," com- prising the mass of the senators anxious to obtain the power usurped by a few of their colleagues ; the " Marian party," including all those whose families had been prosecuted by .. -..r^v/ ... CIVIL STRIFE. 163 Sulla, and who now began to rally and aspire to power ; the " military faction," embracing a crowd of old officers of Suila. who, having squandered the fortunes they had gained under him, were eager for some revolution that might give them the opportunity to improve their condition. 97. At the head o( the oligarchical faction was Pompey j but during his absence in Asia its representa- Leader of tJie live was Marcus Tul'lius Cicero (born 106 B.C.), oligarchy, who had established bis reputation as the first orator in Rome. He had risen through various offices to the preetor- ship, and at the time Pompey left for the East aspired to be consul. He did not himself belong to a noble family, but still he made himself the champion of the oligarchy. Though vain and boastful, he was a virtuous and patriotic man. 98. The leader of the aristocratic faction was Crassus, formerly the colleague of Pompey in the con- ofthearis- sulship, now his personal rival. He was a man tocracy. of no great ability, but his position and his immense wealth made him influential. (After prodigious expenditures, he died worth $10,000,000.) 99. The leader of the third, or Marian party, was a man six years younger than Pompey or Cicero, who, distinguished in youth for his accomplishments and his extravagance, rose in the year 65 B.C. to the office of edile. This was Caius Julius Caesar, a man of pre-emi- nent ability, one of the greatest that ever lived. He was the nephew of Marius, and now stood forward as the leader of the Marian party. He was of an old patrician family, and took up the cause of the people to serve his own ends. 100. The leader of the military faction was Catiline, who had been one of the ablest and most ferocious conspiracy of Sulla's officers. He had a large following ofCatUine. of debauched young patricians and ruined military men, who thought they would better their fortunes by making Julius Caesar. ii 1 I i ■ Ij 164 HISTORY OF ROME. Catiline consul. Cicero was his rival, and, receiving the support of the senators, was elected. Enraged at his defeat, Catiline formed a conspiracy of which the murder of Cicero and the burning of Rome were parts. A woman betrayed the plot to Cicero, who denounced Catiline with such fiery eloquence that he had to flee from Rome. With a band of confederates he attempted to reach Gaul ; but he was ovc-taken in Etruria and slain, 62 B.C. 101. If Pompey had been really a great and clear-sighted Position of nian, he could, on his return from the l^ast, Pompey. havc easily put himself at the head of affairs. But he was not really such. He was, in fact, rather a lucky general than a great statesman. The oligarchic party began to distrust him, and as the senate under the lead of Cato refused to ratify his measures in Asia, he threw himself into opposition and went over to the popular party. This brought him into close connection with Caesar. 102. Caesar and Pompey, finding that they agreed in First trium- many of their views, resolved to unite their virate. forces. To cement their union more closely, Cresar gave his only daughter Julia in marriage to Pompey. For various reasons it was found desirable to admit Crassus to their political partnership, and thus was formed (60 b.c.) that famous coalition known in Roman history as the " First Triumvirate." The object of Cassar and Pompey was to thwart the senatorial party in every way, and wield all power themselves. 103. The formation of the triumvirate was followed by Elevation the election of Caesar to the consulship (59 b.c.) ; oi Caesar, j^^j when his year of office expired he ob- tained for himself the government of Gaul for five years, and then for another five. This was probably the great ob- ject of Caesar's desires. No doubt he was already brooding over the design of making himself master of Rome ; and for this purpose he would need an army. I1 CIVIL STRIFE. 165 104. During the years 58-50 B.C. Cicsar made eight campaign?j in Gaul, forming the remarkable His GaUic series of operations which he afterwards de- campaigns, scribed with such pointed style in his Commeniaries. The prominent points in these campaigns are : He arrests the emigra- tion of the Helvetii ; expels the Germans under Ariovistus (58 B.C.) ; com- pletes the conquest of Gaul by subduing the Belg.ii (57 u.c), and the Afjuita'ni (56 n.c.) ; invades Britain twice (in 55 and 54 B.C.) ; penetrates inio (ierminy ; overthrows the Gauls, who revolt rei^eatedly j conquers Vercingetorix, and entirely subdues the country (53-51 B.C.) 105. The result of his eight years' campaigning was that, in the spring of 50 B.C., Caesar was able to Position of take up his residence in Cisalpine Gaul, leav- Caesar. ing the 300 tribes beyond the Alps, which he had con- quered by such bloody means, not only pacified, but even attached to himself personally. His army, which in- cluded many Gauls and Germans, was so devoted to him that it would have marched to the end of the world in his service. 106. Let us now inquire as to the other two members of the triumvirate. During Caesar's absence, pompeyand Pompey and Crassus were elected consuls for Crassus. the year 55 B.C. ; and when their own year of office had ex- pired both obtained important commands : I'ompey received the government of Spain, as proconsul, for five years, and Crassus a similar appointment over the East. Soon after this, Crassus was murdered in Parthia ; so that the trium- virate became a duumvirate, or league of two men, — Caesar and Pompey. 107. Now between these two men there had for some time been a growing coldness. It was said Rivalry of that Caisar was a man who could brook no Caesar and ec^ual, and Pompey a man who could suffer no °°'"®y' superior. A feeling of rivalry having once arisen, naturally grew till Ctesar and Pompey became the bitterest enemies. i66 HISTORY OF ROME. Mil ma litt in Ra^ his of the Rii this u.n C/r/L STRIFE. 167 Pompey went over to the aristocratic party, to which he had originally belonged, and having been made sole consul for the year 52 B.C., he began to exert his great influence against Cnesar. In this he was supported by the nobles, who dreaded Caesar's immense power. 108. As the period of Caesar's command would expire in the year 49 B.C., he had determined to obtain NewcompU- the consulship for the year 48 B.C., since other- cations, wise he would become a private citizen. Accordingly he demanded, though absent, to be permitted to put himself in the lists for the consulate. But it was proposed, through the influence of Pompey, that Caesar should lay down his command by the 13th of November, 50 B.C. This was an unreasonable demand ; for his term of government over Gaul had another year to run, and if he had gone to Rome as a private man to sue for the consulship, there can be no doubt that his life would have been sacrificed. Caesar, still anxious to keep the peace, offered, at the beginning of the year 49 B.C., to lay down his command if Pompey would do the same ; but this the senate refused to accede to, and a motion was passed that Caesar should disband his army by a certain day, and that if he did not do so, he should be regarded as an enemy of the state. 109. Caesar promptly took his resolve: he would appeal to the arbitrament of arms. He had the en- thusiastic devotion of his soldiers, the great mass of whom being provincials or foreigners, cared very little for the country whose name they bore. Accordingly, in January, 49 B.C., he advanced from his headquarters at Ravenna to the little stream, the Ru'bicon, which separated. his own province and command from Italy. The crossing of this river was in reality a declaration of war against the republic ; and it is related that, upon arriving at the Rubicon, Caesar long hesitated whether he should take this irrevocable step. After pondering many hours, he at The Rubicon. n M (tT- i68 HISTORY OF ROME. a 1 s length exclaimed, " The die is cast ! " and plunged into the river. 110. Pompey concluded not to attempt to defend Italy, Retreat of but to retire ui)on the East, wliere he would Pompey. gather a great army and then return to over- whelm the " usurper." Accordingly he retreated to Greece. 111. In sixty days Cocsar made himself master of all Casarmas- Italy. Then marching to Rome, he had him- ter of Italy, self appointed dictator and consul for the year 48 B.C. He showed masterly statesmanship, and soon brought the general current of opinion completely over to his side. 112. Meantime Pompey had gathered a powerful army Battle of in Thessaly, and thither Caesar with his legions Pharsaiia. proceeded against him. The decisive battle between the two mighty rivals was fought at Pharsa'lia, in 48 B.C. It resulted in the utter defeat of Pompey ; and as it left Caesar the foremost man in the Roman world, it must be regarded as one of the great decisive battles of history. II3« Pompey, after his defeat, sought refuge in Egypt; Fate of but he was assassinated by the orders of Ptol- Pompey. gj^y when seeking to land on the coast of that country. Caesar, who followed in pursuit, did not hear of his death until his arrival in Alexandria, where messengers from Ptolemy brought him Pompey's head. Caesar, who was both a generous man and a compassionate foe, turned with horror from the spectacle, and with tears in his eyes gave orders that the head should be consumed with the costliest spices. 114. At Alexandria Caesar became bewitched by Cleopa- Cssar in tra, the young, beautiful, and fascinating queen the East. q{ Egypt. He even mixed himself up with a quarrel that was going on between her and her younger brother Ptolemy, to whom, according to the custom of the country, she was married, and with whom she shared the ii' CIVIL STRIFE. 169 throne. This intermeddling led Ccesar, who had but a small force with him, into conflict with the troops of the king. A fierce battle was fought in the city. Caesar suc- ceeded in firing the Egyptian fleet ; but unfortunately the flames extended to the celebrated Library of the city of Alexandria, and the greater part of the magnificent collec- tion of manuscripts was burnt. Ccesar was finally success- ful : Piolemy was killed, and Cleopatra was made queen of Egypt. From Alexandria Caesar marched into Pontus to attack Pharna'ces, son of Mithridates, whom he subdued so quickly that he described the campaign in the most laconic despatch ever penned : Vent, vidi^ vici^ — " I came, I saw, I conquered." 115. The Pompeian forces that escaped from Pharsalia had established themselves in the Roman pro- Casar's final vince of Africa. They were commanded by victory. Scipio and Cato. Caesar having settled matters in the East, now proceeded against this force, which he utterly destroyed at Thapsus, early in the year 46 B.C. Scipio and Cato killed themselves. One more rally the Pompeians made in Spain, but they were defeated by Caesar in the decisive battle of Munda (March, 45 b.c.) 116. Caesar returned to Rome after the battle of Thapsus, the master of the Roman dominion. The Caesarand republic went out when Cato fell upon his the state, sword at Utica ; the monarchy came in with the triumphal entry of Caesar into Rome in the summer of 46 B.C. It is true Caesar was not king {rex) in name^ but he was so in sub- stance. His position as chief of the state was this : he was invested with the dictatorship for ten years, — an arrangement changed soon afterwards to perpetual dictator, — and was hailed with the title of Imperator for life. The latter title, Imperator (meaning commander)^ was one which belonged under the republic to the victorious general ; but it was a temporary title, always laid aside with the surrender of mili- *IHi m Vi l^ih IV, J li i. . UJP) i, i 1 Iki L_ 170 HISTORY OF ROME. tary command. Cocsar was allowed to use it in a special way and permanently, and in his case it had much the mean- ing of the term Emperor, — a word which is simply Imperator cut short. 117. Julius Caesar was a strong, clear-sighted man, who His views and plainly perceived that the old political system character. Qf j^ome had hopclcssly broken down. He believed that jieace and prosperity could come only under the firm and just rule of one man. He obtained power by overriding the laws, but he designed to //j * 176 HISTORY OF ROME. calculating Octavius, she, sooner than be led in chains to adorn the triumph of the victor, and glut the eyes of the populace of Rome with the sight of the daughter and last of the Ptolemies preceding the chariot of the adopted son of him who had done homage to her charms, gave herself voluntary death by the bite of an asp, or the scratch of a poisoned needle. Egypt now became a Roman province (30 B.C.) 139. There was now no one left to withstand Octavius Triumph of Csesar, who thus remained sole master of the Octavius. great dominion which the mighty Julius had prepared for him. The senate, in fact, was ready to concede to him the entire authority. He indeed went through the farce, soon after his return to Rome, of resigning the im- peratorship ; but he was prevailed on to resume it for ten years, and every ten years after to re-resume it. Gradually all the great offices were united in his person, and he be- came in fact Emperor of the Roman world. We may count the Roman Empire as beginning with the year B.C. 27, when Octavius was saluted with the new and peculiar title of Augustus. ANALYTIC SYN'PSIS FOR REVIEW. X. Rome under the Kings. General Statement. , Rome is believed to have been founded as a frontier po>t by the Latins of Alba l.onga ; but it was from the first .nlmost independent, then v'holly so, and finally ac- quired an ascendency over all \ the other Latin cities. The num- ber of kings is said to have been seven ; but their history is almost wholly fabulous. Regal rule was ended by the banishment of Tar- \quin. LEADING DATES. B.C. Founding of Rome 753 End of kingly rule 509 i ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS. 177 First Epoch, Roman Republic (509-390). General Statement. / The first epoch of 119 years from the establishment of the re- public was a period of struggle external and internal. The Ro- mans had to contend, for their mere existence, with the various neigliboring states, and duiing this epoch they went rather l)ack- wards than forwards, as regards the extent of their territory. There was also a struggle of classes, owing to the oppression of the Plebeians by the Patri- cians ; but finally the Plebs were allowed to elect magistrates called tribunes. Soon after, the unwritten Roman law was em- bodied in the Twelve Tables. Various changes were made in the administration of the govern- ment, decemvirs taking the place of consuls, and military tribunes the place of decemvirs. In this unsettled state of affairs Rome fell a prey to the Gauls, who ^burned the city. Establishment of the Republic 509 Secession of the Plebeians 493 Laws of the Twelve Tables... 451 Military Tribunes appomted Rome captured by the Gauls 30a Second Epoch, Roman Republic (390-266). The Plebeians were again griev- ously oppressed by the Patricians, and troubles ensued, but a set- tlement was made by the Licin- ian constitution, which remedied abuses. With the cessation of internal troubles the Romans be- gan a career of conquest. Fir-t, tiiere were the "Snmnite" wars and the "Latin" wars. These General / wars ended in the complete sub- Statement, jjugation of these nations and the Licinian laws passed 367 Beginning: of Sam- mte wars 343 Beginning of Latin wars 340 End of Samnite wars 190 M ' m if! 178 HISTORY OF ROME. Battle of Pandosia 280 279 27s Romans masters of aU Italy a66 mastery of Rome over all Cen- tral Italy. The Romans now turned their attention to Southern or Grecian Italy, where they had to meet Pyrrhus in several bat- tles. At first defeated, they were Battle of Asculum finally successful; Pyrrhus was | Battle of Beneven- compelled to abandon his project, and the southern part of Italy was conquered, thus giving the Romans mastery over the whole Italian peninsula. Third Epoch, Roman Republic (26&-133). The era of foreign conquest lasted 133 years (266-133). First the Romans attacked the Cartha- ginians, their great rivals. This mighty contest ran through three wars, known as the three Punic Wars. In the first, lasting twenty- three yearsjthe Carthaginians were unsuccessful. The Romans after this conquered Cisalpine Gaul. Hamilcar now became general-in- chiefof the Carthaginians, and on his death his greater son Hannibal came into command. Hannibal took the aggressive in Spain, and thus began the second Punic War. He won brilliant victories, and maintained himself fifteen years in Italy ; but finally was recalled to Carthage and was defeated by the Romans at Zama. Soon after the second Punic War the Romans conquered Macedon and Greece, and made them Roman provinces. The third Punic War was marked by the siege of Car- thai,^ and resulted in the utter annihilation of the Carthaginian \ power. General Statement. ^ Beeinnlne of first Punic War 264 End of first Punic War a4i Conquest of Cisal- pine Gaul 222 St Beginning of se- cond Punic War 218 Battle of Zama. andendof second Punic War 202 Battle of Pydna.... Greece made a Ro- man province Burning of Car- thage, and end of Punic Wars... 168 146 14. ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS. 179 66 364 »4« axa ai8 20s 168 146 14. Fourth Epoch, Roman Republic ( The long civil strife which fol-l lowed Rome's foreign wars re- sulted from the de^^jierate poverty of the Plebeian class. This class found two champions in the Grac- chi, but both were victims to the rage of the aristocracy. The first Mithridatic war now ensued, but was successfully ended by Sulla. Then came the bloody days of Marius and Sulla. Subsequently Pompey rose to power. He had been the leader of the aristocracy, but went over to the people's party, he, Julius Caesar, and Cras- sus forming the First Triumvi- rate. Caesar went into Gaul, where he prosecuted his cam- paigns for eight years ; but Pom- pey intrigued against him ; so he General / crossed the Rubicon and made Statement.^ himself master of Italy. The de- cisive battle between Caesar and Pompey was fought at Pharsalia, Caesar being successful ; the remnant of the Pompeian forces was crushed at Thapsus. Cae- sar was now master ; but a con- spiracy was formed against him, and he was assassinated. After the death of Caesar his nephew Octavius formed with Antony and Lepidus the Second Triumvirate. Octavius led his forces against Brutus and Cassius, defeating them at Philippi. Antony and Octavius now quarreled, but the dispute was settled in favor of the latter by the battle of Actium, and soon after Octavius assumed the title of Augustus Caesar. 133-27). Acfrarian law brought for- ward by T. Gracchus 133 Death of C. Grac- chus las Outbreak of first Mithridatic war... 86 Massacres by Ma- rius 86 Sulla's proscriptions 83 First Triumvirate ... 60 Caesar's Gallic campaign 58-50 Crossing: of the Rubicon 49 Battle of Phar- salia 48 Battle of Thap- sus 46 Assassination of Caesar 44 Second Trinmvirate 43 Battle of Philippi...., 4a Battle of Actium 31 Octavius (Augustus) becomes Em- peror *f i8o HISTORY OF ROME. CHAPTER IV. ROME AS AN EMPIRE. X. AGE OF AUGUSTUS. 140. When Augustus CcTcsar at the age of thirty-six Nature of the became master of the Roman world, there was imperial rule, no open establishment of a monarchical govern- ment. On the contrary, most of the old republican forms were kept up ; but they were mere forms. The senate still sat, but it did little more than vote what Augustus wished j the people still met in thtir assemblies and elected consuls and magistrates, but only such persons were elected as had been proposed or recommended by the Emperor. Augustus, however, assumed nothing of the outward pomp of a mon- arch : he was satisfied with the substance of supreme rule. The almost uninterrupted festivities, games, and distributions of corn and the like kept the people out of politics ; and, what through degeneracy, and what through despair, they were willing to be out of politics ! 141. The boundaries of the Roman Empire as estab- Extentofthe Wished by Augustus may be stated in a general Empire. way as follows : — On the north, the British Channel, the North Sea (Mare German'icum), the Rhine, the Danube (Ister), and the Black Sea (Pontus Euxi'nus) J on the east, the Euphrates and the Desert of Syria ; on the south, the Sahara of Africa; and on the west, the Atlantic Ocean. It extended from east to west a distance of fifty degrees, or about 2700 miles, and had an average breadth of about fifteen degrees, or above 1000 miles. 142. The Roman Empire took in the modern countries of Portugal, Spain, France, Belgium, Western Holland, ■ 1 , i , '.ii _JI M I ■: \ [i A A -WKcLC Kinlay Hai/oj) jOT H • I ; '' ; #1 " uii 1, in i :-L ( S - « ! j h Pi Sc Vi Al int coi AVt Sol I wen Lati civil to t Moi the I, sulal Eui as a the vincj modi espej Rod mani those those Helle donis AGE OF AUGUSTUS. i8i Provinces. Rlicnish Prussia, parts of P)n(leii and Wurtcmbcri;, most of Bavaria, Swit/crland. Ilaly, the 'l)iol, Austria countries Proper, Western Hungary, Croa'tia. Slavo'nia, included. Servia, TurKcy in Europe, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Iduma^'a, Egyi)t. the Cyrena'ica, Tripoli, 'I'unis, Algeria, and most of Morocco. 143. The entire empire, exclusive of Italy, was divided into twenty-seven " Provinces," whi( h may he conveniently grouped under three heads : i. The Western, or European ; 2. The Ivastcrn. or Asiatic ; 3. The Southern, or African. The Western provinces numbered ' 14 ; the Eastern, 8 ; the Southern, 5.* JF 144. Within the circuit of the Roman dominion there were what we may call three civilizations: the The three i Latin, the Greek, and the Oriental, /ji/i/i civUizations. civilization took in the countries from the Atlantic Ocean to the Adriatic ; Gre^-/: civilization, from the Adriatic t^ Mount Taurus ; Oriental civilization, the lands beyond to the Euphrates. 145. The area of Latin civilization embraced the peniuP sula of Italy (its native seat) and all Western Europe, where the Romans appeared not only as a conquering but also as a civilizing people. Thus in the three provinces of Spain (Hispania), in the four prol vinces of Transalpine Gaul (corresponding nearly with the modern France), as well as in the North African provincea,r especially Carthage (which was restored by Csesar as.** Roman colony), the Latin language took firm root, and tli^ manners and customs, and indeed the whole civilization, of those lands became Roman. 146. Greek civilization was spread over Greece and all those parts of Europe and Asia that had been Hellenized by Grecian colonists or by the Mace- donian conquerors. In manners, customs, language, and * Name these from the map opposite p. 180. The Latin. The Greek. \ > f ii if mm 182 HISTORY OF ROME. culture these lands remained Greek, while politically they were Roman. 147. Oriental civilization was diffused over the Eastern provinces, especially Egypt and Syria. These countries had, under the rule of Alexander's successors, become to some degree Hellenized ; but this influence was on the whole superficial. The peoples of those Oriental lands had never given up their own languages or religious ideas or ways of thinking. Now these peoples, i it should be said, did not become Latinized either, — they ^ did not adopt the language and civilization of Rome. iL 148. Within the limits of the Roman Empire under ¥ Augustus there may have been in all one * Government. .. , . vt ^ 1 HUNDRED MILLIONS of humau bcmgs. Not less than one-half were in a condition of slavery; and of the rest, only that small proportion who, under the envied name 'pf Roman citizen {civis Romanus)^ inhabited Italy, enjoyed political independence, or had the smallest share in the government. The various lands and peoples were under Homan legates (half of these appointed by Augustus and the other half by the Senate), who held supreme military command. To the provinces were left, however, their in- dependent municipal constitutions and officers. In Rome J^nd Italy the public peace was preserved by the pretorian /cohorts, — bodies of soldiers of tried valor, to whom Augus- ytus gave double pay. Throughout the provinces the people 4irere kept in check by the regular troops, — numbering t'350,000 men. 149. Of this vast empire Rome was the metropolis, now a city of innumerable streets and buildings, and containing, it is calculated, a population of about two millions and a half. It was at this period that Rome became truly a splendid city. Augustus was able to boast that "he found the city brick and left it marble." 150. In the days of its greatest prosperity the circumfer- The capital \ i s a b, 1 9 r AGE OF AUGUSTUS. 183 II'? r hey tern lese kr's this s of lagcs (pies, -they under ONE 3t less of the , name njoyed in the under us and nilitary leir in- Rome retorian Augus- ; people nbering (lis, now iiildings, lation of iod that s able to •ble." Lrcumfer- ence of Rome enclosed by walls was about twenty miles ; Its extent but there were also very extensive suburbs. The walls were pierced by thirty gates. The most remarkable objects were the Coliseum, the Capitol with its temples, the Senate-House, and the Forum. 151. The great circus, or Circus Maximus, a place reserved for public games, races and shows, was one of circus and the most magnificent structures of Rome. It Coliseum, was capable of containing 200,000 spectators. The Flavian Amphitheater, whose massive ruins are known as the Coli- seum, CDuld seat from 80,000 to 100,000 persons. In ihe arena were exhibited the fights of gladiators, in which the Romans took such savage delight, together with races, com- bats of wild beasts, etc. Theaters, public baths, etc., were i84 HISTORY OF ROME. r n :.!• P .d Forum. erected by the emperors, who seemed anxious to compen- sate the people for their loss of liberty by the magnificence of their public shows and entertainments. 152. In the valley between the Palatine and Cap'itoline hills was the Forum^ or place of public assem- bly, and the great market. It was surrounded with temples, halls for the administration of justice (called basii'icce\ and public offices ; it was also adorned with statues erected in honor of eminent warriors and statesmen, and with various trophies from conquered nations. 153. In the Forum was the celebrated Temple of Janus, Temple of built entirely of bronze, and dating back to the Janus. early kingly period. From some early circum- stance the custom was established of closing the gates o^ this temple during peace ; but so incessant were the wars of the Romans, that during eight centuries the gates of the Temple of Janus were closed only three times. ^ 154' The elections of magistrates, reviews of troops, and > Campus the census or registration of citizens, were held Martius. jn the Campus Martius, which was also the MTorite exercise-ground of the young nobles. It was sur- rcsunded by several splendid edifices ; ornamental trees and shrubs were planted in different parts, and porticoes erected, ^nder which the citizens might continue their exercise in fainy weather. Hard b}' was the celebrated Pantheon, or Temple of All the Gods (erected in the reign of Augustus), the most perfect and splendid monument of ancient Rome that has survived the ravages of time. 155. The aqueducts were among the most remarkable _. ^ Roman structures. Pure streams were sought Aqueducts. ,. , , • , . at a great distance, and conveyed in these arti- ficial channels, supported by arches, many of which were more than a hundred feet high. Under the emperors, not fewer than twenty of these stupendous and useful structures were raised ; and they brought such an abundant supply of Tir AGE OF AUGUSTUS. iSn water to the metropolis, that rivers seemed to flow througl- the streets and sewers. 156. Rome was inferior to Athens in architectural beauty, but it far surpassed the Grecian city in works General of public utility. To enumerate all the notable description, edifices would be impossible here ; but we may sum up the matter by saying that the "Eternal City" in the zenith c.\ its glory contained four hundred and twenty temples, five regular theaters, two amphitheaters, and seven circuses ol vast extent. There were sixteen public baths built of marble, atid furnished with every convenience that could be desired. From the aqueducts a prodigious number of fountains was supplied, many of which were remarkable for their archi- tectural beauty. The palaces, public halls, columns, por- ticoes, and obelisks were without number, and to these must be added the triumphal arches erected by the later emperors. 157. As the peace of the Roman world was maintained by the strong hand of power, it was at this time , % that many of those arts that grow best during seasons of national order and prosperity made their greatret progress. Thus many of the best-known Latin wi iters li>^d at this time. Augustus himself was a great patron of literal y men and artists, and so was his minister, Caius Cilnius M?ece'nas. They honored and regarded eminent writers ; and though we must not forget that many of the distin- guished men whose writings add luster to the "Augustan age" had grown up under the republic, still Augustus de^ serves credit for fostering letters. Nothing will make up for the loss of political freedom ; but it is something that in Rome, when liberty was lost, literature at least flourished. 158. Among the distinguished writers of this age or the times immediately preceding it are : — Virgil, the autlior of the epic poem the ^m'idt a graceful, if not an original, writer. I l;|i| i86 HISTORY OF ROME. ' ii Horace, author of many poems, odes, satires, and epistles ; a witty, good-humored, and most vivacious song-writer. Sallust, the historian of the Jugurthine War and the Conspiracy of Catiline ; a very spirited writer. Lucre'tius, a writer of didactic poetry, containing passages of noble eloquence and philosophy, along with much that is characteristic of the low tone of thought prevalent in the pagan world. Catullus, author of lyrics that are among the sweetest and most truly poetic things in the Latin language. 159. These are the most distinguished names in the Augustan age, and they are among the most distinguished in all Roman literature. And as we shall have no further occasion to recur to Roman literature, we may simply note here among subsequent writers, — Livy, the great historian of Rome ; Ovid, the poet ; Martial, the writer of epigrams ; Pliny, the writer on natural history (killed 79 a.d. by the great eruption from Vesuvius which buried the cities of Pompeii and Hercula'- n^eum) ; Ju'venal, the bitter satirist ; and Tacitus, the philo- sdphic historian of the declining glories of Rome. JI60. The reign of Augustus is rendered memorable by jBirthof the birth of Christ at the little village of /Christ. Bethlehem, in Judaea, — the most momentous event in the spiritual history of the world. Reckoned in our common era, this event took place in the year 4 b.c.* 161. Augustus died in 14 a.d., so that, counting from Reign of ^'s formal accession to title, 27 B.C., he ruled Aug-ustus. over the Roman dominion for forty-one years. 162. Augustus was succeeded by his stepson, Tibe'rius * Our method of counting time was not introduced till the year 533 A.D. The calculation was erroneous, and it was found ten centuries afterward to be deficient four years of the true period ; but as the altera* tion of a system that had then been adopted by nearly all Europe would have made great confusion in civil and ecclesiastical affairs, the error was, by general consent, allowed to remain, and we continue to reckon from this era (A.D., anno dotnini, that is, "in the year of our Lord"), which, however, lacks four years and six days of the real Christian epoch. ( AGE OF AUGUSTUS. 187 Clau'dius Nero. It must be remembered that the Roman government was not legally a monarchy ; hence His suc- Augustus's heir was not necessarily the heir ce»«oi- of his power. But the Emperor had adopted Tiberius as his own son, and the subservient senate voted him all the honors Augustus had held. 163. In the note below * the scholar will find a reference The following table gives a list of the Roman Emperors, with the dates of their reigns Augustus . . Tiberius . . Caligula . . Claudius . . Nero . . Galba . . Otho Vitellius . . Vespasian . Titus . . Domiti.in . Nerva . * Trajan . . Hadrian . Antoninus Pius ( M. Aurelius . ( L. Verus Commodus Pertinax . . Julianus , , Septimius Severus ( Caracalla . ( Geta . Macrinus . Elagabalus Alexander Severus Maximinus ( Gordianus I. I Gordianus II. ( Pupienus Maximus ( Balbinus Gordianus III. , Pbilippus . . } A.D. A.D. 14 14- 37 37- 41 41- 54 54-68 68- 69 69- 69 69- 69 69- 79 79- 8* 81- 96 96- 98 98-117 117-138 138-161 161- I 80 161-169 180-192 193-193 193-193 193-21 I 211-217 211-212 217-218 218-222 222-235 23S-5«38 238-238 238-238 238-244 344-249 Decius . A.D. A.D. 249-251 Trebonianus Gallus 251-254 ^milianus 253 -253 ( Valerian . , \ Gallienus 253-260 253-268 Claudius II. , , a68-2yo Aurelian . , . 270-275 Tacitus . , , 275-276 Florianus , , 276-276 Probus . . , 276- a^jBs Cams . . , 282-283 ( Carinus » \ Numerianus ) 283-284 ( Diocletian . . 284-305 ^ Maximian . . 286-305 ^ Constantius I, , 305^06 ( Galerius 305-3" \ Constantine I. the Great 306-337 ^ Licinius 307-3?3 1" Constantine II, , 337-340 "S Constantius II. , 337-361 '^ Constans I. . 337-350 Julian 361-363 Jovian . , , 363-364 Valentinian I. . , 364-37S Gratian . , 375-383 Valentinian II. 383-393 Theodosius I. . 392-39S (Emperor of the West as . well as of the East. 1 Honorius . , . 395-423 Theodosius II. . t 423-425 Valentinian III. • • 435 455 I 1 ' » ^ e • rHl .1 1 I M ill \ i88 HISTORY OF ROME. table of the Roman emperors, from Augustus to Angus- Reference tulus, 476 A.D. It is not the plan of this book Table. ^-q make Roman hist-)ry turn on the personal fortunes of the emperors or the intrigues of their courts, — insignificant details with which history has been entirely too much taken up. Hence it will be enough to refer to the table from time to time as we take up under separate heads the great events of the Roman world. iis^ I. POLITICAL HISTORY. 164. During nearly three centuries after the death of Kind of Augustus, the empire remained, as far as poli- government, tical arrangements were concerned, pretty nearly as he had left it. Though the senate still continued to sit and consuls to be elected, yet the Roman world soon be- came thoroughly accustomed to the rule of one man. At first, the empire was inherited as a birthright by those who could claim descent from Augustus, or who had been adopted into the family, Nero was in reality the last emperor of the family of Augustus, though all who suc- ceeded to the empire still went on calling themselves CcBsar and Augustus to the last, l65- It soon came about tiiat the real power behind the Pretorian throne was the soldiery. The troops, and Guard. especially the " Pretorian (luard," took it upon themselves to dispose of the sovereignty as it pleased them, and it was rare that the senate ventured to refuse to register the decree of the soldiers. To raise favorite generals to the Petronius Maximus . 455-455 Glycerius 473-474 Avitus . 455--456 Julius Nepos . 474-475 Majorian • 457-461 Romulus Augustulus 475-47^^ Lihius Severus . 46 1 -465 (Last iMnptTor of the Antliemius . . . 467-472 West.) Olybrius . , , • 472-472 1.1 a' the ind )on Bter ithe [474 475 ,476 POLITICAL HISTORY. 189 purple, and then to murder them for the sake of the largesses which it was customary to receive in case of a new accession, was the favorite pastime of the troops ; and it sometimes hajipened that there were several emperors at the same time, different armies throughout the empire having each apix)inted one. 166. Augustus bequeathed as a valuable legacy to his successors the advice of confining the empire Growth of within those limits which nature seemed to theempin* have placed as its permanent boundaries : on the west, the Atlantic Ocean ; the Rhine and the Danube on the north ; the Euphrates on the east ; and on the south the deserts- of Africa and Arabia. The only accession which the Roman Empire received during the first century of the Christian e^a was the province of Britain. " After a war of about forty years, undertaken by the most stupid [Claudius], maintained by the most dissolute [Nero], and terminated by the most timid [Domi'tian] of all the emperors, the greater part of the island of Britain submitted to the Roman yoke." * The next addition to the Roman territory was made by Trajan in the early part of the 2d century This consisted of the province of Dacia, which was bounded by the Dnei'ster,*the Theiss, the Lower Danube, and the Euxine Sea. 167. It has already been seen that the Roman Empire consisted of Italy and the Provinces, and Roman that in point of government the two divisions citizenship, were on a very different footing. The inhabitants of Italy were Roman citizens, whereas the provincials were under the military rule of Roman officials, — legates and proconsuls. But the same salutary maxims of government which had secured the peace and obedience of Italy were little by little extended to the countries outside of Italy. A nation of Romans was gradually formed in the provinces by the double expedient of introducing colonies and of admitting * Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. , r •I .\ n If I t^. jdi i i im ' ; ■ "'*' ' ilii^ 'ii :!■ :mi 1 . il T i r ,1 iV« I POLITICAL HISTORY. 191 Constantine. Struggles, the whole empire was reunited under Constantine the Great, in a.d. 323. 171. Constantine made a change which had a great effect upon the later history of the Roman world. He removed the capital of the empire to the old CJreek city of Byzan'tium, on the Bos'phorus, which he greatly enlarged and called JVnv Rome^ but which has been better known ever since as Constantino'ple (Greek polis^ a city,- the city of Constantine). Even before this, Rcwne had, as we have seen, ceased to be the usual dwelling place of the emperors, who commonly lived at Milan, Nicome'dia (Bithyn'ia), and elsewhere ; but the transfer of the capital to a Greek city is a proof of how completely the Empire had come to overshadow Rome and Italy. 172. Theodosius I. was the last EmjDeror who reigned over the whole Roman Empire. On his death, _ m A.D. 395, the vast dommion was divided between his two sons, — Hono'rius ruling in the West, and Arca'dius in the East. 173. From that date the history of Rome divides itself into two distinct histories, — that of the Western Division of or Latin Empire, and that of the Eastern, the empire, Greek, or Byzan'tine Empire. As to the Eastern Empire, we shall have to follow its history down through the Middle Ages, till its destruction by the Tur\s in the 15th century. But for the present, it is with the Western Empire alone that we are concerned, for with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ancient history ends. This downfall took place in the year 476 a.d. ; but we shall defer to a subse- quent section the narrative of the last days of Rome. ' k V V I ' "YTw^r 192 HISTORY OF ROME. m u i ; 1 ]\m [ 1 b 1 ii' ' 3 SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. 174. While the political events about which we have just The new learned, and which filled up the five centuries power, of imperial Rome, were taking place, a change far more momentous than any political revolution was coming over the minds of men. This was the mighty moral trjfhsformation effected by Christianity. ^75. In the time of Augustus the different peoples and State of nations under the Roman sway had a great *'t «r°birth ^^^^^^y ^^ religions, but all, with the exception of Christ. of the Jews, were pagans and polytheists. While Augustus was ruling over a hundred millions of fellow-polytheists, there took place in an obscure corner of the Roman dominion an event the importance of which the wisest Roman could not have foreseen. This was the birth of Christ, the founder of a religion which was to overspread the polytheistic nations, dissolve the ancient creeds and philosophies, and renovate the faith, the thoughts, the whole life of the civilized world. Now the diffusion of Christianity was powerfully aided by the /act of the Roman Empire, — by the unity of government under the empire ; hence it has been truly said that "the Roman Empire maybe defined as a compulsory assemblage of polytheistic nations in order that Christianity might operate over a large surface at once of that polytheism which it was to supersede and destroy." 176. Jesus Christ was crucified in the nineteenth year First spread of the reign of Tiberius. At Antioch, in Syria, of Chris- where Barnabas and Saul taught the faith, the ^' ^' disciples were first called "Christians." And then began those journeys by which St. Paul carried the gospel through Asia Minor and Greece, until he was himself carried a prisoner to Rome, to die there in the reign of Nero. The Christian religion silently but surely spread itself; first among the Jews, then among the Greeks or Eastern, and lastly among the Latin or Western, Gentiles. e n ,1 k SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. ^95 177. The existence of Christianity in the Roman empire is first siii^nalized by the persecutions to wliich Nero's per- the Christians were subjected. In the reign seditions, of the brutal Nero the first persecution took place, but it was confined to the city of Rome. A great fire, wliich con- sumed a large part of the city, took place. Men said that the emperor's own hand had kindled the flame, out of m§re madness, and that, while the burning continued, he sat calmly looking on, singing verses to the music of his lyre. To divert suspicion from himself, Nero resolved to direct it upon the Christians. We shall tell the se(iuel in the lan- guage of Tacitus, the great Roman historian, who was born during the reign of Nero. The passage which we quote is of great interest, because it contains the earliest mention, by any profane writer, of the name of Christ. "With this vievv [that is, to divert suspicion], Nero inflicted the most exquisite tortures on those men wlio, under the vulgar appellation of Christians, were already branded with deserved infamy. They derived theirname and origin fnm one Christ, who in the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of the procurator Pontius Pilate. For a while this dire superstition was checked, but it again burst forth ; and not only spread itself over Judrea, the first seat of this mischievous sect, but was even introduced into Rome, the coir .ion asylum, which receii«es and protects whatever is impure, whatever is atrocious. The confcs^ions of those who were seized discovered a great multitude of their accom- plices, and tliey were all convicted, not so much for the crime of setting fire to the city, as for their hatred of human kind. Some were nailed on crosses, others sewn up in the skins of wild beasts and exposed to the fury of dogs ; others, again, smeared over with combustil)le materials, were used as torches to illuminate the darkness of the night. The gar- dens of Nero were destined for the melancholy spectacle, which was accompanied with a horse-race, and honored with the presence of the emperor, who mingled with the populace in the dress and altitude of a charioteer. The guilt of the Christians deserved indeed the most ex. eniplary punishment, but the public abhorrence was changed into com- miseration, from the opinion that those unhappy wretches were sacrificed not so much to the public welfare, as to the cruelty of a jealous tyrant." * * Tacitus, Annals, xv. 44. N I I Ijl «94 HISTORY OF ROME. 178. A question here arises : Why was it that many of Real causes ^^^ emperors, who saw without concern a thou- of the per- secutions. sand forms of religion subsisting in peace beneath their sway, singled out the sect of the Christians to make them the sole objects of persecution ? The answer to this question is found in several facts. And first, in the pfoselyting ardor of the Christians. The empire was tole- rant of all faiths ; but it was not tolerant of a faith which taught that the gods of Rome and of all other nations were alike false, and which strove to win over all mankind to that belief Then the Roman mind, while it looked with respect on all national faiths, viewed with suspicion and disgust a creed that was not sanctioned by the belief of any nation^ but was held only by a sect. Moreover, the early Christians were in the habit of holding their meetings secretly and at night ; this was regarded as illegal in principle, and as pos- sibly dangerous in results. Summing up the several facts, we may say that the persecutions of the Christians were owing to political reasons rather than to religious intolerance. 179- A striking proof of this is found in the fact that the Christians suffered most under good and reforming princes like Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, men of pure and humane character, while under the infamous emperors they were generally let alone. 180. In spite of persecution the Church constantly ad- Growth of vanced and made converts, and in the first Christianity, half of the 3d century, which was a period of calm, the Christians were permitted to erect and consecrate convenient edifices for the purpose of religious worship ; to purchase lands, even at Rome itself, for the use of the com- munity ; and to conduct the elections of their ecclesiastical ministers in a public manner. Notwithstanding severe per- secutions under Decius and Vale'rian, the doctrines of Chris- tianity continued to spread among all classes of people everywhere. Indeed, it almost seemed that these persecu- tii it dt by '. ♦( SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. 195 tions were needed for the sifting of the Church ; the gold was tested and refined in a fiery furnace, and, like a sturdy young oak, Christianity, amid all these great and frequent storms, only struck its roots the deeper into the soil. 181. At last it became plain that a deadly struggle be- tween the old faith and the new was inevitable, Diocletian's and this came in the reign of Diocletian and persecutions. Maximian, at the commencement of the 4th century a.d. Gale'rius, the son-in-law of Diocletian, and the Ccesar under him, was a special enemy of the Christians, and he per- suaded the emperor to issue an edict (February 24, a.d. 303) commanding all Christian churches to be pulled down, all Bibles to be flung into the fire, and all Christians to be de- graded from rank and honor. Scarcely was the proclamation posted up, when a Christian of noble rank tore it to pieces. For this he was roasted to death. A fire which broke out in the palace twice within a fortnight was made a pretext for very violent dealings with the Christians. Those who refused to burn incense to idols were tortured or slain. Over all the empire the persecution raged, except in Gaul, Britain, and Spain, where Constan'tius Chlo'rus ruled as Caesar under Diocletian's colleague, Maximian. When Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, and Galerius held supreme rule in the East, he indulged all his fury against the Christians. Says a historian : " With little rest for eight years, the whip and the rack, the tigers, the hooks of steel, and the red-hot beds continued to do their deadly work. And then, in a.d. 311, when life was fading from his dying eye, Galerius published an edict permitting Chris- tians to worship God in their own way." 182. This was the turning-point in the great struggle : it was plain that the most violent efforts of despotism were unable to crush that which was by its very nature divine and deathless. 183. We come now to a remarkable epoch in the history Result. 'J if-' 196 HISTORY OF ROME. of Chris; ianity, namely, the reign of a Roman emperor Constantine. who liiniseh professed Christianity. Con'staniine was the son of Constantius Chlorus. On the death of his father in Britain, Constantine was at once pro- claimed emperor by the soldiers there. He had immedi- ately to enter on a contest with no fewer than five rivals, and the circumstance attending his conversion is associated with an event that took place during this period of warfare. 184 In A.i). 3 [2, while on the march to attack one of His con- ^1'^ rivals (Maxen'tius), near Rome, Constantine version. jg reported to have seen with his own eyes the luminous trophy of the cross in the sky, i)laced above the meridian sun, and inscribed with the following words : By THIS CONQUKR [in Crcck, Jitt tonto 7iika ; in Latin, In hoc 77//tv]. In the battle that followed Maxentius was com- pletely overthrown. It is said that this decided Constan- tine to be a Christian. l85- 'i'he early church historians also add that the follow- ing night Clirist appeared to Constantine in a dream and commanded him to frame a similar standard, and under it to march witii an assurance of victory against all his enemies. This is the origin of the celebrated J.al>'(in(m^ or standard of the cross, disi)layed by the Chris- tian emperors in all their military expeditions. The top of the ! iib'.triim was adorned with a mystic X, representing at t)nrc the cross and the initial of the Greek word for Ciirist. 186. The first fruit of Constantine's conversion iippeared _. . ,. ., in a famous decree called the Edict of Mi 'an, Cnnstianity _ ' the;.;tate A. D. 313 : this restored peace to the Christian iei.j:r.n. church. The establishment of Christianity as ti:c religion of the state took place in 324, wl:en the defeat of the last of his rivals made Constantine sole master of the Rom in world. 187. He immediately, by circular letters, exhorted all his The Labarum. * i. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. 197 rated ]hris- )p of eared li'an, istian ty as cfcat f the ill his subjects to imitate the example of their sovereign by embrac- ing tlie divine truth of Christianity. It is calcii- constan- lated that in Constantinc's time about a twentieth t'"e's poUcy. part of ti)e whole population of the empire were professed Christians. The emperor did not forbid paganism, but chose rather to work by ridicule and neglect. With public money he repaired the old churches and built new ones, so that in every great city the Pagan temples were faced by Christian churches of rich and beautiful architecture. The Christian clergy were freed from taxes, Sunday was pro- claimed a day of rest. And, to crown all, Constantine removed the seat of government to a new capital, — Con- stantinople, — which was essentially a Christian city. 188. Julian, known as Julian the Apostate, who became emjjeror in a.d, 361, made a strong effort to Paganism restore the fallen gods ; but this effort was in forbidden, vain, and the ruin of paganism was completed at th close of the 4th century. By this time the Christians wer- the great majority in most parts of the empire ; and Theodosius gave the final blow to the heathen faith by prohibiting uuucr severe penalties the worship of the old gods. 189. In closing our review of the first spread of Chris- tianity, we must note that the new faith, in intellectual addition to its direct effect on the belief, the '"flue"". lives, and the conduct of men, had also important intellectual results. It gave the mind of the age great subjects to grapple with ; and as the despotism of the imperial government crushed out all political speculation, the intellect and tiie enthusiasm of the nations freely turned to the grand problems of the "City of God." 190. There thus arose a series of theological writers both in Greek and Latin, who are known collectively as the Christian Fathers, among whom the fol- lowing are the most famous ; — The Fathers. \ -liV \ \ igS HISTORY OF ROME. Tertul'lian. Bom at Carthage in a.d. i6o,— first of the Latin writers of the Church,— chief work, his "Apology for Christians," written about A.D. 198. Or'igen. Born in Egypt a.d. 185 or 186, — editor and commentator of tlie Scriptures, — wrote in Greek. Cyp'rian. Archbishop of Carthage in the middle of the 3d century, — chief work, ** Unity of the Church," — martyred under Valerian. Am'brose. Born alK>ut a.d. 340 in Gaul,— Archbishop of Milan, — chief work, De Officiis^ — vindicated the authority of the priesthood over even emperors and kings, by condemning Theodosius I. to a long and weary penance for his massacre of the Thessalonians. Athana'sius. Born in Alexandria, end of the 3d century, — Patriarch of Alexandria, — the great champion of Trinitarianism against Arius. Greg'ory Nazian'zen. Born early in the 4th century in Cappadocia, — for a while Patriarch of Constantinople, — noted as a writer of theology and religious poetry. Chrys'ostom. (Gold-mouth, from his eloquence.) Bom at Antioch, A.D. 354, —Patriarch of Constantinople,— his works are in Greek. Jerome. Born in a.d. 340 in Dalma'tia, — especially learned in He- brew, — founder of Monasticism, — chief work, a translation of the Bible into Latin (known as the Vulgate, a version for the common people, — vulgus). Augus'tine. Born in Numid'ia, in Africa, A.D. 354, — Bishop of Hippo (in Africa), — is known as the Father of Latin Theology, — a man of powerful intellect and eloquence, — chief works, "On the Grace of Christ," "Original Sin," the "'City of God," and his "Con. fessions" (an autobiography). ~\ 4. ROMAN LIFE, MANNERS. CUSTOMS, ETC.* 191. The most remarkable garment of the Romans was the toga, made of pure white wool, and in shape resembling a segment of a circle ; nar- row at first, it was folded so that one arm rested as in a sling ; but in late days it was draped in broad, flowing folds round the breast and left arm, leaving the right nearly bare. Though its use in the streets was in later times exchanged for a mantle of warm-colored cloth, called the pallium or * Abridged from Collier's " Domestic Life in Imperial Ri '^r ' *'- .x^^>..\ LadieV dress. ROMAN LIFE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, ETC. 199 /acenia, yet it continued to be the Roman full dress ; and in the theater, when the emperor was present, all were expected to wear it. The Romans always kept the head uncovered, except on a journey, or when they wished to escape notice. Then they wore a dark-colored hood, which was fastened to the lactrna. In the house soUte were strapped to the bare feet; but abroad the calceus, nearly resembling our shoe, was commonly worn. On the ring-finger, the fourth of the left hand, every Roman of rank had a massive signet-ring. There were fops who loaded every finger with jewels ; and we are told of one poor fellow who was so far gone in foppery as to have a set of lighter rings for summer wear, when his delicate frame could not bear the weight of his winter jewels. 192. The dress of Roman ladies consisted of three parts, — an inner tunic, the stola^ and ihQpaiia. The stola, which was the distinctive dress of Roman matrons, was a tunic with short sleeves, girt round the waist, and ending in a deep flounce which swept the instep. The palla, a gay-colored mantle, was worn out of doors. It vws often sky-blue, sprinkled with golden stars. The brightest colors were chosen ; so that an assembly of Roman beiles in full dress v/as a brilliant scene, sparkling with scarlet and yellow, purple and pale green. The hair, encircled with a garland of roses, was fastened with a gold pin, while pearls and gold adorned the neck and arms. 193. The early Romans lived chiefly on bread and pot- herbs; but when wealth was introduced by cheir conquests, luxury seized all ranks, and, as we have already seen, the imitation of Oriental customs completely sapped the abstemious virtues of the old Romans. To many, in the degenerate ages of Rome, the great ends of life were to eat the most delicious food, and to eat as much of it as possible. Roman meals were ihxQtt—Jentacuium^ prandium^ and cana, Jentaculum, taken soon after rising, Pood. ''m i f, • I M 20O HISTORY OF ROME. ' i I consisted of bread, dried grapes or olives, cheese, and per- haps milk and eggs. At prandium, the midday meal, tiie Romans partook of fish, eggs, and dishes cold or warmed up from the last night's supper. Then, too, some wine was drunk. But coena was the principal meal, taken about the ninth hour, and on the whole corresponding to our dinner. It began with eggs, fish, and light vegetables, such as rad- ishes and lettuces, served up with tasty sauces, all being intended merely to whet the appetite for the more subst.m- tial dishes to follow. Then came the courses {ferciila\ of which, in all their wonderful variety, no just idea can be given here. Among fish, turbot, sturgeon, and red mullet were greatly prized ; among birds, the peacock, pheasant, woodcock, thrush, and fig-pecker. The favorite flesh-meat was young pork ; but venison was also in great demand. The courses were followed by a dessat of pastry and fruit. 194. While eating, the Romans reclined uoon low couches, which were arranged in the form iriclininm^ Table usagre, 1 • ^u j c r,., ^ making three sides of a square. Ihe open spflce was left for the slaves to place or remove the dishes. The place of honor was on the middle bench. In later times round tables became common, and then semicircular couches were used. There were no tablecloths ; but the guests wore over the breast a linen napkin {tnappa), which they brought with them. Instead of knives and forks two spoons were used, — one, cochlear^ small and pointed at the end of the handle ; the other, lingula^ larger and of uncertain shape. The splendor of a Roman feast was gr aily n,aired by the oil-lamps, the only light then used. The iara[ :> them- selves were exquisite in shape and material, as were »!' the table utensils ; but the dripping oil soaked the table, while the thick smcke blackened the walls and ceiling, and rested in flakes of soot upon the dresses of the guests. X95. At feasts, instead of the toga, short dresses of red i1 ROMAN LIFE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, ETC. 201 pen les. ater cular the hich two the rtain vred hem- the while ested f red Baths. or other bright colors were worn. Before the drinking began chaplets were handed round. For these roses, myrtle, violets, ivy, and even parsley were used. Before they were put on, slaves anointed the hair with nard and other sweet unguents. Wine was almost the only drink used. Before being brought to table it was sometimes strained through a metal sieve or linen bag filled with snow, and was called black and white according to its color, just as we talk of red and white wines. The famous Falernian, celebrated by Horace, was of a bright amber tint. Besides pure wine they drank mulsum, a mixture of new wine with honey, and calda^ made of warm water, wine, and si)ice. 196. The Romans spent much time in their splendid baths. The cold plunge in the 'I'iber, which had braced the iron muscles of their ancestors, gave place, under the empire, to a most luxurious and ela- borate system of tepid and vapor batiiing, often repeated seven or eight times a day. At the baths the gossip of the day was exchanged. ap- 197. The theater, with its tragedies and comedies, tne circus, and the amphitheater supplied the Romans with their chief public amusements. At tlie circus they betted on their favorite horses or charioteers ; at the amphitheater they reveled in the bloody coml)ats of gladiators, — the most brutal of all the Roman pastimes. At the trumpet's sound throngs of wretched men — captives, slaves, or convicted criminals — closed in deadly strife. The trodden sand soon grew red ; yet on they fought with parched lips and leaping hearts, for they knew that a brave fight might win for them their freedom. Erelong hacked and bleeding limbs began to fail, and dim eyes turned to seek for mercy along the crowded S!;ats. There were times when the dumb i)rayer was answered, and the down-turned thumbs of the spectators gave the signal Amusements. HISTORY OF ROME. '■■ "; I M' E for sparing life ; but loo often mercy was sought in vain, and the sword completed its work. Combats of gladiators with wild beasts olten took place. Whole armies some- times thronged the scene. When Trajan celebrated his triumph after his victories in Dacia, 10,000 gladiators were exhibited at once. 198. Roman books were rolls of papyrus-bark or parch- ment, written upon with a reed pen dipped in lamp-black or sepia. The back of the sheet was often stained with saffron, and its edges were rubbed smooth and blackened, while the ends of the stick on which it was rolled (whence our word volume^ "a roll") were adorned with knobs of ivory or gilt wood. Letters were etched with a sharp iron instrument {stylus^ whence our word sty/e) upon thin wooden tablets coated with wax. These were then tied ^ up with linen thread, the knot being sealed with wax and stamped with a ring. 199. The Romans had three forms of marriage, of which „ . the highest was called cotifarreatio. The bride, ^ ' dressed in a white robe with purple fringe and covered with a bright yellow veil, was escorted by torch- light to her future home. A cake {far) was carried before her, and she bore a distaff and spindle with wool. Arrived ^tthe flower-wreathed portal, she was lifted over the threshold, lest — omen of evil — her foot might stumble upon it. Her husband then brought fire and water, which she touched ; and, seated on a sheepskin, she received the keys of the house. A marriage supper closed the ceremony. 200. The household work was done by slaves of various classes. In earlier times a few sufficed ; but in the days of the empire it was thought a dis- grace not to have a slave for every separate kind of work. And so, besides those who managed the purse, the cellar, the bedrooms, and the kitchen, there were slaves to carry the litter, or to attend as their masters walked abroad Slaves. \ ' inous but a dis- woik. ellar, carry iroad Houses. ROMAN LIFE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, ETC. 203 Some, of higher pretensions, were readers, secretaries, and physicians. Then, for amusement, there were musicians, dancers, buffoons, and even idiots. But all may be ranked under two heads, — bought slaves and born slaves. There was a slave-market, in which the common sort were sold like cattle J but the more beautiful or valuable were dis- posed of by private bargain in the taverns. Prices ranged from $20 to $4000. 201. The disinterment of the town of Pompeii, which was overwhelmed by an eruption of lava from Mount Vesuvius in a.d. 79, enables us to form a very correct idea of what a first-class Roman house was. The principal apartments were on the ground-floor. Passing through the unroofed vestibule^ often between rows of graceful statues, the visitor entered the house through a doorway ornamented with ivory, tortoise-shell, and gold. On the threshold, worked in mosaic marble, was the kind word Sal'vtT (welcome). Then came the atrium, or great central recep-r tion-room, separated from its wings by lines of pillars. Here were placed the ancestral images ; and here, too, was the focus ^ or family fireplace dedicated to the La'res. Farther in lay a large saloon called the per'istyle. The floor was generally a mosaic of colored marble, tiles, or glass ; the walls were carved and painted ; giit and colored stucco- work adorned the ceilings ; while the window frames were filled with talc or glass. On the roofs were bright gardens. In houses like these might be found ivory bedsteads, with quilts of purple and gold ; tables of precious wood ; side- boards of gold and silver, loaded with plate, amber vases, beakers of Corinthian bronze, and glass vessels from Alex- andria, whose tints rivaled the opal and the ruby. 202. Of course the scholar will understand that these descriptions apply exclusively to the wealthy. The common people lived as best they could, and we know very well that the richest were without a great The poor. mdtiAtt^*fltamJi{m!k»mli<*m 204 HISTORY OF ROME. f': lUli Review. / •<«<* many comforts and conveniences which even the poor now command. 5. LAST DAYS OF ROME. 203. In the section on the political history of Rome we brought the story of the great empire down to the time of its final dismemberment in 476 a.d. We did not, however, narrate the circumstances attending the catastrophe ; accordingly we shall now briefly refer to these. 204. In the 5th century of our era many things portended Signs of ^he fall of Rome. Chief of these was the fact decay. tj^jit the Romans had really ceased to exist as a nation. Tlie empire had absorbed the nation. We have already seen th;it the Roman race., which conquered the world, was finally swallowed up by the world which it con- quered. The blood itself was corrupted by alien admix- ture ; luxury further demoralized the people ; and the very ' fact that they were willing for the five hundred years of the empire to sit under an imperial despotism, shows that they were unfit to be free. 205. The removal of the cai)ital by Constantine from Change of Rome to Byzautium was a signal proof of the capital. f^(.(. tj^j^t; Italy had ceased to be the center of the Roman world. From this it was an easy step to the division of the empire, which took i)lacc under the sons of Theodosius, the last empeior who ruled over the whole of the Roman dominion. Thencetbrward we may regard the Roman empire as confined to Italy with the Western pro- vinces, or Gaul, Spain, etc., while the Eastern empire, com- prising what we have called the Greek and Oriental civiliza- tions, pursued a career of its own. 206. In this state of facts the Western empire fell a prey to the new and vigorous Teutonic, or German, The Teutons. tribes that for centuries had inhabited the forests LAST DAYS OF ROME. 205 now le we ;n to ) A.D. nding fer to ended le fact xist as e have ed the it con- adniix- e very of the at they |e from of the ■nter of to the sons of [hole of ;ard the \:xn pro- -e, com- civiUza- \\ a prey "icrman, le forests of the North. Ever since the time of Augustus the diffe- rent German tribes had been most dangerous enemies of Rome, and many of the most vahant emperors had had much ado to defend the empire against them. One imjior. tant result of the contact of the " northern barbarians " with the Romans was that the Teutonic tril)es became acquainted with Roman civiHzation and with Christianity ; so that most of them became Christians before they settled in the empire, or very soon afterwards. 207. The first great lodgment of the Teutons within the limits of the Roman empire took place by per- pj^^^ settle- mission of the Roman Emperor Valens, in the mentof last half of the 4th century. The great Ger- ^°'^** manic family of the Goths at that time formed an extensive kingdom in the lands north of the Danube, — the lands we now call Moldavia and Wallachia. This region had been Trajan's province of Dacia, but the Romans had withdrawn from it under Aurelian. The Goths were gradually becom- incf Christians of the Arian sect under the teaching rf a o o bishop named Ulfilas, whose translation of the Scriptires into the (iothic tongue is the oldest Teutonic writing that we have. 208. Now in the latter half of the 4th century the Goths found themselves pressed upon by an invasion Manner of of Huns, — Tartars or Kalmucks, who had been settlement, driven out of Eastern Asia, and were at this time making their way into Europe. In their despair the Goths asked the Emperor Valens (who ruled over the East, while Va'ien- tinian was emperor of the West) to allow them to cross to the south side of the Danube, and thus put that stream be- tween them and their hideous foes. Leave was granted, on condiiion that they should give up their children and their arms. The bargain was struck at once. Roman boats were provided, and for many days and nights the broad river was torn into foam by the ceaseless splash of oars. The fugitives ! I 206 HISTORY OF ROME. I '< s 1 Jill i r surrendering their children with little concern, gladly paid away all they had as bribes to the Roman officers for leave to keep their arms. In this way an immense body o*" fierce warriors (men, women, and slaves nmnbered nearly a million souls) settled, sword in hand, within one of the great natural frontiers of the em])ire, 376 a.d. 209. The Goths had humbly vowed that they would for Their be- ^^'^^ make it their grateful duty to guard the havior. Roman borders. In spite of this they had hardly been allowed to settle south of the Danube when they turned their arms against Valens. It must be said, however, that tor this they were not wholly without excuse ; the officers of the emperor treated them in the most scan- dalous manner, and left them to starve. In this plight they resolved to helj) themselves ; they accordingly advanced towards Constantinople. The imperial army met them near Hadriano'ple, where a battle took place that was most disastrous to the Romans, and in which Valens lost his life, A.D. 378. The Goths, having now nothing to fear, spread themselves over the fertile country westward to the confines of Italy and the Adriatic Sea. 210. Under Tiieodosius the Great, who became emperor of the East in a.d. 379, the Goths were brought to capitulate and settle down quietly, and large numbers took service in the Roman armies ; but this course was only preparing the inevitable result. When the two feeble sons of Theodosius divided between them the Roman world, the Visigoths (i.e., Western Goths) revolted, and, hoisting their chief, Alaric, upon their shields, according to their national mode of electing a king, precipitated them- selves upon Italy. Rome was captured and sacked (a.d. 410), and all Southern Italy was overrun. 211. And now the great Western empire was fast dis- Signsof solving. In the early part of the 5th century dissoiuUon. three fragments broke off from the decaying Alaric. j ' LAST DAYS OF ROME. eave ierce lUion Ltural Id for d the \f bad when I said, xcuse ; t scan- ht they ^vanced ;m near ls most his life, ^ spread onfines ;mperor brought |nd large Ls course the two Roman led, and, irding to led them- :ed (a.d. fast dis- century decaying M7 AttUa. trunk. The province of Britain was evacuated by the Romans and was soon overrun by the German tribes called Angles and Saxons. The various Teutonic tribes were pressing into Gaul, and from Gaul into Spain. Spain was conquered by Vandals, Sueves, and other German races ; while Gaul was filled with Franks and Burgimdians and Goths, — all of whom belonged to the great Teutonic fanuly. The province of Africa, too, was lost ; for a band of Vandals under Gen'seric passed over from Spain to Carthage, which was conquered in a.d. 439. 212. Meanwhile At'tila the Hun had gone forth from his log-house on the plain of Hungary, at the head of half a million savages, to conquer the world. Crossing the Rhine, he pierced to the center of Gaul ; but at Chalons he was defeated by the united i)ower of the Romans, Goths, and Franks, a.d. 451. In this memorable battle, Aryan civilization and Tartar despotism met in a life-and-death struggle, and the nobler triumphed. Being defeated in Gaul, Attila climbed the Alps and overran Italy, pillaging and destroying up to the very gates of Rome. It is a strange fact that it was throuuh the persuasion of the bishop of Rome, Pope Leo, that Attila was induced to return to Hungary. Here he soon afterwards broke a blood-vessel. So (lied one whose savage boast it was that grass never grew on a spot where his horse had trodden. His great empire immediately fell to pieces. 213. No sooner had Attila departed than Genseric, the Vandal chief of Africa, crossed over from Car- thage and anchored his ships at the mouth of the Tiber. This time the persuasion of Leo could not save the city. Rome was captured (a.d. 455), and for fourteen days Vandals and Moors wrecked and pillaged without mercy. Shii)loads of treasure and crowds of captives were carried over the sea to Carthage. 214. During these events there were still emperors of Genseric. i tl-I ■J Uii\ 208 HISTORY OF ROME. the West, and their names will be found in the list. But Downfall of they were mere nonentities, for the real power Rome. was in the hands of the barbarians. At last the Roman Senate voted that one emperor was enough, and that the Eastern emperor, Zeno, should reign over the 'v^ole empire ; but at the same time Zeno was made to tr-ist t!i(? 'jovernment of Italy to Odoa'cer, chief of the German Herulians, who took the title of Patrician of Italy. The last of the Western Roman emperors was Romulus Augustulus, a handsome but feeble youth. Him they pensioned off in a.d. 476. Then "when Odoacer was pro- claimed king of Italy, the phantom assembly that still called itself the Roman Senate sent back to Constantinople the tiara and purple robe, in sign that the Western empire had passed away." * • White's " Eighteen Christian Centuries. '* INTROD'JCTION. ?09 i» Jut v^er the and the e to the taly. mlus they ) pro- :alled le the e had SECTION IV. MEDIiEVAL HISTORY. INTRODUCTION. 1. Modern history, in a comprehensive sense, begins with the downfall of the Western Roman scope of mo- Empire; for with that event the volume of dern history, ancient history was closed : new actors then appeared on the stage, and a new civilization arose. It will, however, be convenient to consider the fourteen centuries tliat have elapsed since the breaking up of Rome as divided into two parts. The first part constitutes what is usually called the Middle Ages. This period embraces one thousand years ; that is, it extends from about the close of the 5th to the close of the 15th century of our era. From the close of the 15th century down to the present time is modern history in its narrower sense. 2. It was during the thousand years from the 5th to the 15th century that the civilization of modern Reainatureof Europe was ripening. In many respects this this period, rc'.lod seemed a relapse into barbarism, and the interval from the 5th to the nth century is sometimes called specifically the Z>ark Ages. But in a juster view it was the germinating season : the seeds of modern civilization, cast into the soil, were quickening in new institutions and new nations ; so that when we see modern society in the 15th and 1 6th centuries rr.suming the fixed shape which it still wears, we must remember that <• grew into that shape in the antecedent thousand years. s 1^ I li ■! 1^ 2IO MEDIAL VA L UIH 1 OK Y. r^i CHAPTER I. THE NEW RACES. 3. The historical races of Europe comprise four grand Historical tlivisions of the great Aryan stock, — the (ira:co- racesof Latins, the Celts, the Teutons, and the Slaves, Europe, ,,, or Slavonian>. 4. In the ancient history vjf Europe wj have been Graeco- occupied exclusively with one of these races, — Latins. the ( ira2co-T>atins. The three other races — the Cells, Teutons, and Slavonians — belong wholly to modern history. 5. It is known that the ancestors of these races came Unity of Originally from Asia, where they formed one Aryan races, family with the forefathers of the Hindoos and Persians, — the term Aryan, or Indo-European, being used to indicate their common lineage. The migration of these races into Europe was at a j 'riod that antedates recorded history (probably as far bac' 2500 B.C.) 6. 'Ihe evidence of languc^^^c goes to show that the first Order of wave of migration brought the race which we migration, designate as Celts. These established them- selves in Central Europe. After a time, however, they were pressed upon by the Teutonic incomers, and the'result was that the Celts were driven into Western E^urope, while the Teutons possessed themselves of Central and Eastern Europe. Whether the forefathers of the Hellenic and Latin rar.es appeared previous to or subsecjuent to the Teutons is mere matter of conjecture. At a subsequent date the Slavonic race made their appearance in Europe ; and the efiect of this was that the Teutons were wedged into Central and North-Western Europe, while the Slavonians overspread the whole of the great Eastern plain. 7. The ( fined to t (Jreece and the Aryan r; dcvclopnien 'i eutons, an. dition, withe or fine art.s, side of Gree of barbarians 8. 'J'he Gi the barbarian of Rome. C came in contr of Cisalpine ( were brought republic, and hands of Juliuj population of the rule ol R( extended to t Jn the case of l^ritish Island; 'i'he result 01 Celtic populati Latinized and ^Vestern Empi 9- l^he Teu fory till we con ''"g the downfa ^jermanic race to play its migl the history of t barbarians with society is the THE NEW RACES. 211 7. The original civilization of ancient Europe was con- fined to the two Mediterranean peninsulas, Ancient Aryan Cireece and Italy, where a favored branch of civilization, the Aryan race attained to social organization and to a high development in culture, while their brethren, the Celts, Teutons, and Slaves, still remained in an undeveloped con- dition, without written languajj;e or literature, or the useful or fine arts, or the varied ai)i)liances of civilization. Out- side of Greece and Italy the European world was a world of barbarians. 8. The Greeks had no influence whatever in civilizing the barbarians ; but it was different in the case influence of Rome. Of the three races, the Celts first of Rome on came in contact with the Romans. The Gauls * ^ ' of Cisalpine Gaul were Celts, and we have seen that these were brought into subjection by the Romans under the republic, and that they received the Roman franchise at the hands of Julius Caesar. Under the same conqueror the vast j)opulation of Transalpine Gaul (France) was brought under the rule ot Rome, and in the end Roman citizenship was extended to the whole mass. The same thing took place in the case of the Celt-Ibe'rians of Spain. The Celts of the British Islands, also, were received into the Roman family. The result of their contact with the Romans was that the Celtic populations of Gaul and Spain had become thoroughly Latinized and Christianized before the breaking up of the A\'estern Empire. 9. The Teutons do not begin to affect the course of his- tory till we come to the series of events attend- ing the downfall of Rome. It is now that the Germanic race commences its existence, now that it begins to play its mighty part. The history of the Middle Ages is the history of the incorporation of Teutonic or Germanic barbarians with the Latin and Celtic elements ; modern society is the result of the blending of the two ', and it Teutons. ii'il h wmammmmmmmmmm •r i 212 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. derives ingredients from both, — from the barbarians the love of personal liberty and the sense of independence, from the Romans the forms of a long-established civilization. 10. In a general way, the terms Teutonic, Gothic, Ger- Unityof manic, are all used as synonymous, and are Teutons, employed indifferently to designate this mighty central family of Europe. Its unity is evidenced by the kinship of the forms of Teutonic speech. And this indivi- duality of speech, as we might suppose, accompanies an individuality of race, so that, in the analysis of the com- ponent elements of European civilization, that which is Teutonic is readily recognizable as a thing quite apart from that which is classic or Celtic or Slavonic. 11. The chief Germanic tribes were the Goths, the Leading Franks, the Vandals, the Burgundians, the tribes. Lombards, the Saxons, the Angles, and the Scandinavians. 12. The earliest home of the Goths was Scandinavia, where we can still mark their dwelling places by such words as Godoland, Godesconzia (Castle of the Goths), and, p'ainer still, Gothland. But the roving spirit natural to barbarism would not let them rest con- tent with their native swamps and forests. They began to push southward about a.d. 200 ; and we soon find them in Central Europe in three great divisions, —Visigoths (;>., Wi'st Goths), Os'trogoths (/./•., Easf (Joths), and Gep'idae (La<^gan/s).* The (ioths were the first of the Teutons to come under the influence of Christianity. A considerable time before the downfall of the Western Empire they had been converted from paganism to "he form of Christianity called Arianism. 13. Of some of the other Germanic tribes we have already Goths. • The circumstances under which the Goths were admitted within th« lioiits of the Roman Empire have already been told. See page 206. -'idse already /ithin the THE NEW RACES. 213 caught a glimpse or two in the confused and shifting scenes attending the breaking up of the Western Em- Movements pire. Thus pressed by the Gothic invasions, a oft*^^bes. mingled host of Vandals, Sueves, and Burgundians left the uplands between the springs of the Rhine and the Danube early in the 5th century. The Burgundians settled in Eastern Gaul, and have left their memorial in the name of the dis- trict of Burgundy. The Vandals and Sueves pushed on to Spain, and founded a kingdom in the north-west corner of the peninsula. This was before the downfall of Rome. But the kingdom did not last long ; for the Visigoths, following soon after, defeated the Suevcj and Vandals, and founded a Visigothic kingdom in Spain about a.d. 414. This may be called the first of the modern kingdoms of Europe. Mean- time the fierce Vandals, leaving behind them their name in "Andalu'sia" (once Van'daios), crossed to Africa, where they founded a state of which Carthage was the center. It did not endure, being absorbed a century afterwards in the Eastern Empire. 14. The Franks (from an old German word signifying a battle-axe) we first find inhabiting what we now call Belgium and the lower courses of the Rhine ; but in the stormy period just before the downfall of Rome they pressed into Gaul. Under their leader, Clovis, they took firm root in Gaul, conquered the Burgundians who were in the south-east and the Visigoths who were in the south-west, and thus, just about the time Rome fell, estab- lished that kingdom of the Franks which afterwards came to be called France (from Francia^ the land of the Franks). 15. Of those particular German tribes that were directly concerned in the downfall of Rome we have Germans in already seen something. First were the Visi- ^'^^y- go'hs, who swarmed down on Italy. It will be remembered that Odoacer, chief of the Visigothic tribe of the Heruli, was made Patrician^ or king of Italy, in a.d. 476. We shall irt i i» W^: (! W :* f (I in r ;: iMi :! V, 214 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. afterwards see that the Visigoths were siiccee^led first by the Ostrogoths and then by the Lombards, The original home of the Lombards was in Jutland ; but they afterwards moved to the banks of the Elbe; then passim: soutiveast towards the Danube, they made it a starting-point for tlieir march upon Italy, where, as we shall see, they displaced the Ostrogoths at the end of the 6th century, and where the name Lom'bardy still points out the scene of their greatest triumph. 16. The Saxons (knife-men, from Sachs) at first occupy- Angio- ing Holstein, soon spread over the basin of Saxons, ^^g Weser. '^'^wo kindred tribes — Angles and Jutes — filled the penir. :la of Denmark. The various tribes in the low countries along the North Sea are known as Low Germans, and their languages as the Low German type of the Teutonic speech. They had never come in con- tact with the Romans, and were still pagans when Rome fell. These tribes are of great interest to us, because it was rov- ing bands from among them that in the 5th century crossed over to Britain and laid the foundations of England^ the land of the Angles, and began the Saxon kingdom and the English language. 17. We have now named the chief Teutonic tribes with Scandi- the exception of the Scandinavians. We shall navians. ^ot hear of them till about the 9th and loth centuries, when they appear as Norsemen. 18. The fourth representative of the Aryan stock in Eu- The siavo- rope are the Slavonians, or Slaves, of the great nians. Eastern Plain. They do not begin to play any important part in history till well on in the Middle Ages. The word " slave " (borrowed from the proi)er noun Slave) is sadly suggestive of the woes they suffered during the long wars of the Middle Ages. The Poles belonged to the Slavonian race ; but the foremost national representative of 01 TJ U W( tol thj ch col of THE NEW RACES. 2IS ^s in Eu- le great lay any e Ages. S/dve) •ing the i to the ative of 1 this stock are the Russians. Russia, however, was not a civilized country till comparatively modern times. 19. Europe is mainly possessed by Aryans, but not wholly. In the centuries of confusion wild Non-Aryan hordes from the Ural Mountains swept down races. on the Danube. We have seen how the Tartar Huns under Aitila overran Europe. They were defeated, but not en- tirely driven out of Europe. They all pressed upon one point, — modern Hungary, with its grain-growing vales and gem-producing hills. Lastly came the Magyars, who were also Mongols or Tartars, and who, settling down in the basin of the Danube, stayed there. They became Chris- tianized and civilized about 1000 a.d., and gradually took shape as the noble Hungarian nation. The Turks, who captured Constantinople and overthrew the Byzantine Em- pire, were also Mongols or Tartars, and they have retained a foothold in Europe (Turkey) up to the present time. 20. We must now glance at the languages of the new nations that arose on the ruins of the Roman Rise of the Empire. At the time the Teutonic tribes forced Romance their way into Italy and the western provinces °°8:iies. of the Roman Empire, Latin had become the common speech of Gaul and Spain, no less than of Italy. The old Celtic of Gaul and the Celt-Iberian of Spain, which were spoken before the Roman conquest, lived on only in a few out-of-the-way corners. Thus the language which the Teutonic settlers found prevailing was Latin, — not pure Latin, of course, but still Latin. As the Teutonic settlers were far outnumbered by the native populations, they had to learn Latin in order to communicate with the people of the provinces ; but in learning the tongue they further changed and corrupted it to some extent Accordingly the common language of Italy, Gaul, and Spain became a sort of corrupt Latin, which was called Rotnatiy while classical Latin was still written by scholars. Gradually in these three \ 'If !■ |. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. English. f countries differences of dialect arose, and the common Roman gradually developed into the Italian, French, and Spanish : these languages are still called the Komance tongues, to show their derivation from the speech of the Romans. 21. In Britain the Germanic invaders, as we shall find, did not mix with the Celtic-speaking Britons ; hence the language of Anglo-Saxon England was purely Teutonic, and it did not become affected by Romance influence until England was conquered in the nth century by the French-speaking Normans. 22. The new nations of purely Teutonic stock that arose in Germany and Scandinavia were in their speech wholly unaffected by Latin influence ; so that their languages were unmixed Teutonic. These are the German, Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, etc. 23. The Slavonic people speak languages of their own, — languages which belong to the great Aryan stock of tongues, but which are quite distinct from the Romance tongues on the one hand and the Ger- manic tongues on the other. German. Slavonic. :| ^ I Italian, , ^ ^ French, languages. Spanish. Romance Germanic and Romance. English. Germanic. Celtic. 'High German, or the tongues of Southern Germany,— the " German " of our day. Low German, the tongues spoken by the dwellers in Northern or sea-coast Germany, represented by the Dutch of our day. Scandinavian, including the Swedish, Danish, Nor- wegian, and Icelandic. Gaelic Scotch, Erse of Ireland. Slavonian. | «---• rid nee ihe nd, ►ns; and I by the irose their snce ; se are • • own, Aryan istinct e Ger- SU. |-many, — ;ellers in by the IsHrNoa- IsiAN, llSH. THE NEW RACES. 217 i I } n s Hfl- si8 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. CHAPTER II. THREE CENTURIES OF HISTORY. I. THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 24. When the feeble hand of Rome let go, in her decay, Eastern the Latin provinces of the empire, the tradition, Empire. and in some respects the substance, of Roman dominion still continued in the East. The Western Empire, as we have seen, went all to ruin, and finally passed into the hands of the barbarians ; but the Eastern Empire was not involved in the universal wreck, and for a thousand years after the downfall of the Latin Empire, — during which time the new nationalities and the new civilization of Europe were coming into being, — the Eastern, Greek, or Byzantine Empire, as it is called, continued to subsist, though in a state of premature and perpetual decay. 25- The Byzantine Empire was in the meridian of its Reign of g^o^y in the 6th century during the long reign of Justinian. Justin'ian, A.D. 527-565. Justinian was famous for his buildings, especially for the great church of St. Sophia at Constantinople ; but his name is still more honorably connected with the mighty work of putting the laws of Rome into the shape of a regular code. Nobody could know the law, for there were so many contradictory decrees and decisions. With the aid of a great jurist named Tribo'nian, and other learned men, that complete system of Roman law called the CiviV Law^ wiiich has formed the groundwork of the law of most of the nations of Europe (England the most notable exception), was reduced into what are called the Code^ the Institutes^ and the Pandects. ITALY DOWN TO CHARLEMAGNE. 219 26. We shall not be greatly concerned with the affairs of the Eastern Empire, because progress lay not „ . there, but in the West. Byzantine civilization, Byzantine with its polish and learning and culture on the ^^'^tory. surface, was petrified and dead at the core, while it was the so-called " barbarous " races of Western Europe that alone held the promise of the future. Still, it is necessary con- stantly to bear in mind the existence of the Eastern Empire, and also the fact that the emperors at Constantinople claimed to rule over all the dominion of their predecessors ; for this claim was put forth whenever there was any chance of making it good. «. ITALY DOWN TO CHARLEMAGNE. 27. It has been seen that the Western Empire came to an end when the Visigothic chief, Odoacer, jheOstro- became king of Italy. Odoacer went on govern- goths. ing, professedly by authority derived from the Emperor of the East, but in reality giving very little heed to the Byzan- tine court. In the meantime the Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths, had established an Ostrogothic kingdom between the Black Sea and the Adriatic, which was ruled by their young hero-king Theod'oric, or Dietrich. They were partly allies, but quite as much enemies, of the Emperor of the East ; so the Emperor Zeno gave Theodoric a commission to march into Italy and bring that country back to the Empire. The march of Theodoric was the emigration of an entire people, — the soldiers being accompanied by their wives, children, and aged parents, with all their effects in an immense number of waggons. After a three years' struggle Odoacer was compelled to capitulate (a.d. 493), and he was soon after assassinated by his rival at a solemn banquet. 28- Theodoric secured his conquest by distributing one I t , !>' .1 i SSBH ■■I i ; !i 220 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. third of the lands of Italy to his soldiers in military Reign of tenures. This partition was effected with very Theodoric little /iolence to the ancient possessors, and the Goths were instructed to spare the people and to reverence the laws. Under I htodoric's wise rule Italy revived, and Romans and OstiOgwths lived in peace and ])lcnty ; the fair- ' Oc']' '. -r M \vt;iring their furs and brogues, carried the sword, while the Romans, wrapped in the flowing toga, held the pen and filled the schools. So passed three-and- thirty years, until Theodoric died, in a.d. 526, and then frightful scenes of blood were enacted over his fallen throne. 29. In the confusion that followed, the Byzantine gov- Reconquest crnment took the opportunity to interfere. At by Justinian, this time the Emperor of the East was Justinian, the first able ruler that had sat on the throne of Con- stantinople since the downfall of the Western Empire. His general, Belisa'rius, a man of great military talent, now marched with tlie imperial forces into Italy, and captured Rome. Nar'ses, the successor of Belisarius, completed the overthrow of the Ostrogothic power in Italy, a.d. 553. Italy was thus reduced to a Byzantine province, and was governed by rulers appointed from Constantinople and called Exarchs of Raven'na. 30. Three years after the death of Justinian (a.d. 565), Lombard Italy, then a dependency of Constantinople and invasion, governed by an exarch residing at Ravenna, was overwhelmed by the last of the three great Teutonic deluges. The Lombards (so called from their long l^ardi, or spears) moved from Central Europe, crossed the Alps, and descended into the basin of the Po, settling in the extensive district known even yet as Lombardy. They took possession of this region, and made Pavi'a their capital, A. 1). 568. The Lombards treated the Italians with grea^ cruelty, and committed ravages on every side- Among the liiii BEGINNINGS OF FRANCE. 221 try :ry [he ice ind fair- ried oga, and- then alien results of such oppression was the flight of various Roman families to the islands and lagoons at the head of the Adri- atic, where, a few years before, had been laid the foundations of the Venetian state. 31. While the Lombards overran the greater part of Italy, the Byzantine power still retained Ra- Later his- venna, Rome, Naples, a portion of the coast 'ot. line, and most of the southern part. So we see that the Eastern Empire upheld its title in the peninsula, and for two hundred years the Lombard kings and the exarchs of Ravenna divided Italy between them. The last Lombard king was Deside'rius, who was made prisoner by Charle- magne in A.D. 774. This brings the history of Italy down to the time when it falls into the general history of the Em- pire of Charlemagne, and concerning this we are to learn fully hereafter. i i 3U BEGINNINGS OP FRANCE. 32. In the stormy period, when the Western Roman Empire was falling to pieces, various Teutonic Rise of tribes established themselves in Gaul. There France, were Visigoths and Burgundians and Franks, but in the end the Franks under Chlod'wig or Clovis (which is the same as Ludwig or Louis) got the upper hand ; so when Clovis fixed his capital at Paris (Lute'tia), in a.d. 507, we may say that the foundation of France was laid. When the Franks came into Gaul they were pagans, but they were soon converted to Christianity. 33. The Franks were too powerful and too far off for the Byzantine emperors to have much real autho- Relations to 1 1 1 1 1 I /- • 1 Constanti- nty over them ; so they were held to be friends nopie of the Empire, and from Constantinople a gold crown and purple robes were sent to Clovis. i J i. i hilt k : i I i B J. « -r-.^x^rasaat 222 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. .1:1'.' iVUl !i 34. On the death of Clovis, his dominions were divided Successors among his four sons. For over a ceiuuiy, of Clovis. during tlie whole j)eriod of the first Prankish dynasty (called Merovingian, atter Merowig, the supposed grandfather of Clovis), there is nothing to relate but a series of crimes and violences. Latterly the Frankish kings be- came mere imbeciles, and were too weak to be wicked even. 35- In this state of affairs a remarkable arrangement was Mayors of made : the real power passed into the hands of the Palace, a sort of prime minister styled the Mayor of the Palace, — an officer chosen by the nobles to be the guide and controller of the sovereign. As the Mayor of the Palace had the command of the army, he was the real king and carried on all the affairs of the nation, while the ])han- toms of royalty called the "sluggard kings" {rois faineants) combed the long yellow hair which they regarded as the sign of their kingship. 36. One of the most celebrated of the Mayors of the Charles Palace was Karl or Charles Martel, who ap- Martei. held the Frankish power most vigorously, and, what is more, by his defeat of the Saracens in a.d. 732, saved all Europe from being subjugated by Mohammedan rule. The Saracenic invasion will be related in a subsequent chapter. 37. The son of Charles Martel, Pepin, succeeded his father as Mayor of the Palace ; but under him this absurd arrangement was ended. In 752 he was proclaimed king of the Franks in a general assembly of the nation, and was formally recognized as such by the Pope in the following year, the puppet-king, Childeric, hav- ing been in the meantime removed to a monastery, where he died three years after. Pepin. DEC INNINGS OF ENGLAND. 3^3 i. BEGINNINGS OF ENGLAND. 38. We must now Icnjk for a moment at anotlier series of events happening in an obscure corner of tlie Anglo-Saxon once great empire of tlie West, and see how the conquest. foundations ot the nation that afterwards rose to be England were laid. The Roman troo[)S had been withdrawn from the i)rovince of Britain about half a century before the downfall of Rome, and the Britons, who belonged to the Celtic race, were left to shift for themselves. About the middle of the 5th centuvy various Teutonic tubes belonging to the Low-German stock, and coming from the old Low- theOriginalHome:! German lands by the Elbe and the Weser, invaded Britain and won for themselves new homes there. They knew nothing and cared nothing for the language or arts of Rome, and they did not, like the I'danks and Goths, adopt the language and religion of the Romans. These swept every- thing before them, and the native Celt'c Britons were killed, enslaved, or driven to the mountain regions of Wales and North Britain. i^;; I J B i.' ' 224 MEDIEVAL HISTORY, 39. Among these Low-German invaders there were three The three "i^in tribes, — the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, tribes. q'hc name J^uh' has left no memorial in Eng- land ; but the English people are still often spoken of as belonging to the Saxon race, while the speech which arose in the island from the intermixture of the various German dialects took the name of /I n^i^/o-Saxon, and Britain changed its name to Eni^land, or the land of the Angles. 40. The German immigrations to England went on from Growth of the middle of the 5th to the close of the 6th England, century ; so that in little more than a hundred years the greater part of that land which had been the Roman and Christian province of Britain had become the heathen land of the Angles and Saxons. In the course of the following century the Anglo-Saxons were Christianized by Roman missionaries. Variou? little kingdoms were formed, and wars were waged, — wars that, as Milton says, are of no more importance than "the bpttle of kites and crows," — till finally, early in the 9th century, under Egbert, who was a contemporary and friend of Charlemagne, the various petty dominions were united in the one kingdom of England. S. RISE OF THE SAiiACENS. 41. We now come to a remarkable chapter in European history, — the invasion of P^urope, the land of the Aryans, by a Semitic race, the followers of the famous Moham'med. Connected with this is the rise of a new religion and of a vast dominion that played a great part in the history of the I«Iiddle Ages. 42. Ma'homet, or Mohammed, was born at the sacred city Mohammed's of Mecca, r^ \i - i, in the year 570 or 571. Till early life. t^p n forty he lived without exciting much remark, and wa wn only a? ^n able, rich, and enterprising Subject. RISE OF THE SARACENS. 2^5 merchant, honorable in his dealings, and strictly truthful in all that he said. He could neither read nor write ; but his mercantile journeys to vari(uis i)arts of the i)eninsula, as well as to Syria and Palestine, had enlarged his store of informa- tion. In his frequent retirements to a mountain cave for secret thought and study, he developed a religious system of his own. He one day, at a meeting of iiis kinsmen, made the startling announcement thai he hac! received a divme commission to reform the faith and practice of the whole Arabian nation. He taught that though both the Jewish and the Christian religions were sent from God, yet he had him- self received a more perfect one than either. He now called upon all his friends and kinsmen to ackncnvledge his autho- rity, forsake their idols, and worship the one only true God. 43. There can be no doubt that in his own country Mohammed was a great reformer ; that he gave His system; his countrymen a far more rational religion than »ts value, they had been practicing, and that in the furnace blast of religious entimsiasm the scattered Arab tribes were fused into one nation. 'I'he doctrines of Mohammed, written down from time to time, received the name of the Koran^ — that is, the " Reading ; " and the religion itself was called hlam^ — that is, "Salvation." 44. His wife and a few other immediate relatives were the prophet's first disciples, and these did not increase very rapidly. The people of Mecca denounced him as a madman or an impostor, and in a little time he was forced to flee from Mecca to save his life. He betook himself, with his disciple:-, to what is now Medina. The date of this flight, or Hegi'ra, as the Aiabians call it, — July 15, 622 A.D., — has been adopted ever since as the chronological era in Mohammedan countries. At Medina he was received with open arms, — his doctrines having already made a number of converts in that place ; and here he built his first mosque. Hegira. I i! i||r 226 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. i^.:- Ij 1 1' ai 45. A complete chansje now came over Mohammed, — Koran and ^^e dreamer became a red-handed soldier. "The sword. sword." cried he, " is the key of heaven and hell;" and by the sword Islam was to be forced upon all men. Tribe after tribe was subdued ; and before the lapse of ten years the whole peninsula acknowledged the sove- reignty of Mohammed, and could boast of an unmixed population of Mos'lems, or True l>elievers. The prophet was preparing to carry the new religion beyond the hounds of Arabia, when he was cut off by a fever at Medina in A.D. 632. 46. Mohammed was succeeded in his power by rulers Conquests of Called his Caliphs^ or Successors, the first of theCahphs. whom was his father-in-law, Abu-beker. They were at once spiritual and tem|)oral rulers. The pro- selyting spirit of Mohammed had been communicated to his successors, and they began a long series of inva- sions, wars, and conquests. They everywhere gave men the choice of three things, — Koran, tribute, or sword, liy these means the religion of Mohammetl was spread over a large part of Asia and Africa, and we shall presently see that it made its way into Europe also. 47. The first countries assailed were the Oriental posses- sions of the Byzantine Empire. In the reign of Abu-beker, Syria and Mesopotamia were sub- dued by Arabian armies. Under the next caliph, Omar, Egypt was conquered and Northern Africa over; jn. In the course of their Egyptian conquests the victorious Moslems are charged with having burned the great Alexandrian Library ; but recent writers say it must have been destroyed long before Mohammed's day. The Arabs, or Saracens, as they were also called, met with comparatively little resist- ance in the Oriental countries, the countries beyond Mount Tau'rus ; and this may be accounted for by the fact that these were the parts of the Roman Empire in which both The East. rhe and I all apse jove- lixud )pbet ►unds na in rulers rst of They ; pro- iicated inva- e men l>y over a ee that RISE OF THE SARACENS. 837 In the West. Roman law and Christianity had taken least hold. Thus the Eastern Empire was shorn of all its Oriental posses- sions ; and even the farther East — Persia and the lands beyond, to India — was added to the Moslem dominion. 48. In the West, however, a stout resistance was en- countered. The Saracens besieged C^onstanti- nople, against which they carried on a siege of eight years (a.d. 668-675) 5 but every nssault was repelled by torrents of terrible Greek fire. A second siege, forty years afterwards, met a like result. In North Africa, too, they encountered long and obstinate resist?ince ; but finally the whole northern coast — Cyre'ne, Tripoli, Carthage — was subdued; and in a.d. 710 a host of turbaned Arabs with unsheathed scimitars, under Tarik-ben-Zaid, crossed the narrow strait into Spain, and landed on the rock which commemorates the name of their leader (" Gibral'tar," /. tine Exarch, — the Lombards take possession ot all Northern Italy, — and the Loml)atd kings and the By santine Exarchs rule Italy till the tmieof Charlemagna fhM ;: ! II ^l :t. (:1 -^h ■f'tl 11 : ' U'l 7 !il| 9 ;;( i ll I' ■1 ' II ■h 230 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. haly\ the existJ Sp:iijl 61I EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 231 » 0\ 01 q: 11- \^ I CHAPTER III. EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE, 57. An interesting chapter in the history of the Middle Ages is now before us. We are to see how the subject ruins of the dilapidated Western Empire were treated o£ for a time rebuilt into an imposing structure by the genius of a great man, the grandest figure of the Middle Ages, — Charlemagne. 58. Charlemagne was the son of Pepin, the first of the Carlovingian monarchs,— that Pepin who shut charie- up the imbecile puppet-king of the Merovingian «»agnes birth, line and assumed the sovereignty of the Franks. He was born ai)Out a.d. 742. The real name of this great man was Karl, that is, Charles. Though best known by his French name of Charlemagne (Charles the Great), we must remem- ber that he was no Frenchman in our sense of the term, but a thorough Teuton in birth, instinct, speech, and residence. 59. The kingdom of the Franks, to which Charlemagne fell heir on the death of his father, formed an Prankish extensive dominion comprising portions of the i^ingdom. two countries we now call France and (Jermany, — for it must be remembered that the specific countries, France and Germany, did not yet exist at all. 60. At this time — the latter half of the 8th century — Italy was divided between the Lombards and contempo- the Fasten emperors, England had come into rary events, existence, but only as a number of feeble and warring states, Spain was under the rule of the Moslems. 61. In the meantime the land of the Franks was lifting ii- \: I' n iflli MEDIEVAL HISTORY. '1 n itself from out the surrounding barbarism of the new races, Situation of and was the center of that Teutonic civilization the Franks, which was Struggling into existence. It is im- portant to bear in mind the actual condition of the Euro- pean world at the time Charlemagne came on the stage, for it will help us to understand the work he did, how far he succeeded, and how far he failed. 62. The ruling idea of Charlemagne was the re-establish- Chariemagne's Hient of the Roman Empire, — the building up design. qu German soil of that Colossus which iiad toppled over because it rested on the too narrow basis of Latin nationality. In executing tliis design he aimed to use all the elements of civilization that the times presented, and especially these two great elements, — the political ideas and instincts of the Teutons, and tlie adhesive power of the Christian Church. Hence we find him, througliout his wiiole career, carefully cherishing all these old German institutions upon which the mass of his people looked with deep reve- rence, while at the same time we behold him the protector of the Pope and the loyal and ardent champion of the Church. 63. It was in the effort to realize his grand idea tliat Object of Charlemagne undertook the numerous wars and his wars. expeditions that filled the forty-six years of his reign. We shall not enter into the details of these wars ; but it is needful to understand their object and tiieir result. 64. The most important of Cuarlcmagne's military en- terprises were directed against the fierce pagan nations of Germany and the wild Scythians in the outlying lands beyond. To appreciate the importance of these we must try to realize that the eastern frontier of the Frankish land, that is, the eastern boundary of Charle- magne's kingdom, on the German side of the Rhine, ran into and abutted on the extensive stretch of country in Middle Europe that was still in the hands of the various un- civilized tribes. As long as these nationalities remained in His foes. EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 233 their warlike, s ivage. and paiian condition, they would press heavily on the smiugling civilization of the Prankish king- dom, and would endanger, if not utterly destroy, its progress. Hence to subdue, and especially to Christianize, these tribes — to extend the domain of organized and law-governed society into the desert waste of Teutonic barbarism — was a main object with Ch.irlemaLine. 65. With the Saxon confederation, formed by various pagan tribes on the Weser and the Elbe (the Wars with same tribes from among which the Saxons and the Saxons. Angles, who conquered Britain three centuries before this, had gone forth), Charlemagne had the greatest trouble. He repeatedly marched into their country and subdued them ; but they constantly rose up again, and it was only after the adoption of measures of great severity — the massacre of Verden being a blot on the groat monarch's memory — that they were reduced to submission. Ouce subdued, they became peaceable subjects, and soon adopted Christian doc- trines and usages. 66. Soon after this the Bava'rians attempted to render themselves independent of the Frankish power Eastern by the assistance of the Avars, a Tartar race conquests, living in what we now call Hungary (then Pantw' tiia). Charlemagne overpowered the Bavarians, incorp()i;iting Bavaria with his German territory ; and he then revenged himself on the Avars by conquering them, taking their trea- sures, and annexing Hungary to his dominion. The result of Charlemagne's conquests on the east side of the Rhine was that Germany was for the first time all united under one head, and on that side the Frankish kingdom was ex- tended to the confluence of the Danube v.'itii the Theiss and the Save. 67. Against the Saracens in Spain Charlemagne made an important expedition. The capture of Sara- gos'sa laid Ar'agon and Navarre' at his feet, Saracens. in \\\ h \ "i 1 234 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. Italy. and he united the whole country as far as the Ebro to his own kingdom as a Spanish province. During his return the rear-guard, under Roland, suffered a defeat in the valley of Roncesval'ies, in which the bravest champions of the Franks were destroyed. This, however, did not undo the substantial results of the campaign. 68. We must now see what Charlemagne did in Italy. At this period the Lombards were very trouble- some to the Pope, and frequently assailed the Roman territory. Accordingly, when Pope Adrian I. called on Charlemagne for aid, the Frankish monarch crossed the Alps, defeated the Lombards, shut up their king in a mona- stery, and iiimsclf assuming tlie famous "iron cn^wn " of Lombardy, united the whole of Upper Italy to the kingdom of the Franks (a.d. 773). At the same time he confirmed the gifts made by Pepin to the Pope. 69. The general result of all the wars and conquests Extent of which we have described was that by the year Charlemagne's 800 Charlemagne, who had inherited from Pej)in dominion. ^ kingdom scarcely equal to all Caul, found himself lord of a dominion as large as the ancient Roman Empire of the West, and extending from the Ebro (in Spain) on the west to the Elbe in the north-east, the Theiss (Hungary) in the south-east, and including half of Italy, with Corsica, Sardinia, and the Barearic Isles. He fell heir to a ki?i^dom ; he was now master of an empire. 70. The year a.d. 800 forms the climax of Charlemagne's Crowned reign. The sovereign had gone in splendid emperor, state to visit Italy. On Christmas day Charle- magne and his court were attending divine service in the church of St Peter's, at Rome. Suddenly, while the monarch was kneeling on the steps of the altar in prayer, the Pope, Leo III., placed a crown upon his head and soUmnly saluted him as " Emperor of the West," with the title of Charles I., Caesar Augustus. i^ II EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 235 his urn Uey the . the Scholarship. 71. The latter years of Charlemagne's life were spent in labors for the consolidation of his empire and Charlemagne's the elevation of his people. In activity, in a eners^y- craving desire to be ever doing something, Charlemagne resembled Napoleon. From the affairs of his own house- hold to the state of the markets, a)id even to the mona- steries in tlie most distant parts of his empire, he made hiinscir afxpiainted with everything ; and he weaned out all about him by his astonishing powers ot invention and labor and the amount of work he exacted from them. 72. Cliarlemaune was a great patron ot learning and learned men. He was himself a good Latin scholar, and he knew something of Greek. Wherever he was he was usually surrounded by learned churclimen, whom he drew to liis court from all quarters, and with whom he delighted to hold conversations on liter- ary and other subjects. The emi)eror, his family, and all attached to his household formed what was called the "School of the Palace." Fond of literary pursuits, Charle- magne studied grammar, rhetoric, music, logic, astronomy, and natural hisioiy under his learned friends; and even after he was considerably advanced in years he took the pains to acquire the art of writing, — an accomplishment then very unusual except amo;ig ciiurchmen. 73. Nor was the emperor's interest in education confined to his own household. Each of the numerous Education of monasteries that he endowed was bound to the people, maintain a school. He had copies of the writings of the ancient Romans made and distributed among the convents; he formed a collection of old German heroic ballads, and untler his patronage church music was greatly improved. 74. Physically Charlemagne was of heroic stature and majestic appearance. In his habits he was Person and plain and unostentatious. He dined off four habits. dishes, and was very fond of roast venison, newly killed and I ■■ I ■ m H Mm r- r M ^ W ' i^i 5 r^i f .^ ■ ■ '- • ^! !.■{ i! : ■•I-- i ilf£D/^F/lL HISTORY. Residence. served up to him on the spit. He hated drunkenness. At table, books of history and Augustine's " City of God " were often read aloud to him. His love for the nrtional Frankish dress was so strong that he never, save on a few great occasions of state, exchanged it for the Roman garb. 75- Charlemagne's favorite place of residence was at Aix- la-Chapelle' (in German, A a (hen). Hp made this the northern capital of his emjiire, as Rome was the southern, and built a magnificent palace there. When his power was confirmed by his coronation as Emperor of the West, all the world hastened to pay him homage. The Saracenic caliph, the famous llaroun-al-Ras- chid, who ruled the Eastern dominion of the Saracens at Bagdad, exchanged courtesies with his great brother of the West, sending him, among other presents, an ape, an ele- phant, and a curious clock which struck the hours. 76. Charlemagne died at the age of seventy-two, at Aix- Bndofhis la-Chapelle, in a.d. 814. The year before, he empire. had caused his only living son, Louis, to assume the imperial crown. But the vast structure that Charle- magne had raised during his lifetime tottered and fell almost immediately after his death. Louis, known as the Gentle fie Detonnaire), was better fitted for the repose of a cloister than for the government of a warlike kingdom. His sons, among whom he divided the empire, turned their arms first against himself and then against one another. Finally, in A.D. 843, a treaty was made at Verdun', by which France, Germany, and Italy became separate and independent states ; so that, in less than thirty years after the death of Charlemagne, the history of thk Franks came to an end, and the history of France and of Germany began. 1 « THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. a.l7 CHAPTER IV. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 77- The aim of this chapter, and of the succeeding four chapters, is to present a general view of the Programme Middle Ages, — oi" those great historic facts of topics, common to all the nations of Europe during that epoch. Thus, all the nauons of Europe were under that peculiar form of society called feudalism (and this will be treated of in the present chapter) ; all bore certain relations to the Papal power (the subject-matter of the next chapter) ; all participated in the Crusades and in the spirit of Chivalry (the subject-matter of Chapters VI. and VII.); and all passed through the Middle Ages, and shared in the intel- lectual revival which marked the latter part of that era (described in Chapter VIII.) 78. The most marked feature of society in the Middle Ages was Feudalism, or the Feudal System. General This system sprang out of the peculiar relations statement of man to man among the various Teutonic tribes who ob- tained possession of the countries that had formed the West- ern Empire ; by the nth century it had spread into all the lands to which the German conquests extended; it con- tinued throughout the whole Middle Ages, and it passed away only with that extensive series of changes that marked the advent of modern history proper. 79. Every free German who had helped his chief in con- quering the country received as his share of the Origin of the spoil a particular estate, which was called his system. aiiodiumt qx freehold^ — this estate being absolutely his own i^ ■il ;< 338 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 5! property. Tlie chief or king, as a matter of course, received a very large domain as /it's share. Now, after a time, it be- came usual for him to grant portions of this his own domain to his followers and favorites, on condition of their being faithful to him and doing him service in war. The land so granted was called a feudtim ox fief, and land held in tliis way was said to be held by :i feudal tenure. This " tenure," or way of holding, was totally unlike the property that was allodial^ or allotted. The latter was a man's very own; while land held by the feudal tenure was not the soldier's property by right, but was retained only during the pleasure of the real owner, and so long as the conditions agreed on were lived up to. The real owner was the lord, suzerain, or liege, while the person to whom he granted the land was called his vassal^ liegeman, or retainer. 80. Just as the kings made these feudal grants to their Growth of favorites, so the holders of extensive allods the system, (that is, grants made to them from the first as absolutely their own) gave away portions of these to the less wealthy, to be held by feudal tenure, and thus obtained liegemen or vassals of their own. Bishops and abbots also gave grants of extensive tracts received from the kings to knights, who held these lands as vassals of the bishops and abbots, — that is, they were bound to defend the monastery and supply a certain number of troops when the king made a general levy. 81. The usual tenure by which vassals held their fiefs Duties of a was that of military service and homage, — in liegreman. other words, the proprietors who held fiefs from the king were bound to attend his court on occasions of ceremony, and to assist him, in case of war, with a certain number of men ; and the smaller proprietors, who held fiefs under great lords, were in like manner bound to appear at the castles of their lords, when summoned, and to reiulcr them military service. The lord, on the other hand, was bound to protect his vassals. \1 1 " THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 239 82. It soon happened that the feudal tenure of proi)erty prevailed over every other. The great nobles Feudalism were but too glad to become vassals of the kings, universal. in return for the rich gifts which they had tc^ bestow ; so also the holder of a small a//oJ, or freehold, woi'Ul often, of his own accord, give it up to a powerful lord in his neigh- borhood, whose protection he wished to secure, receiving it back from him as a fief. Gradually, therefore, almost the whole property of a country became a connected system of fiefs ; and society, from the king down to the i)oorest free- man, consisted of a chain of ranks, each retaining from that above it. Kings themselves were vassals of other kings for estates lying out of the boundaries of their own sovereignty. Thus William the Conqueror, monarch of England, was, as Duke of Normandy, a vassal of the king of France. 83. To understand the practical operation of the feudal system, it is best to fancy what took place in a illustration country about to undertake a war. The king from war. summoned his vassals or retainers to appear in the field at a certain time, with a certain military retinue ; these vassals, generally the chief nobles of the kingdom, made a similar claim upon their retainers or liegemen, the smaller pro- prietors; and they, in their turn, summoned the farmers and yeomen who stood to them in the relation of feudal obed- ience. The army thus consisted of bands of freemen, each armed at his own cost, or at the cost of his feudal sujjerior, and each following the banner of his chief. 84. We have thus far been considering the holders of land ; but in feudal society the great mass of the people were not freeholders at all, but serfs. The serfs were not actual s/ajrs ; that is to say, they could not be bought and sold man by man ; but they were bound to the land, and passed with it when it changed hands. In addition to the serfs there were also actual slaves, — those Serfs. "i 1 . % 840 MEDIMVAL HISTORY, :, i' *■' ( •! ; il who became slaves by being made prisoners of war or by being condemned to slavery for some crime. 85. A fief consisted properly of two things, — the castle Nature of ^^ which the lord or proprietor lived with his afieL family and men-at-arms; and the viliage, or attached domain^ inhabited by the tillers of the soil. These were either villains (inhabitants of the ville or village\ who were freeborn men renting land or serving for wages, or serfs who were the born thralls of the lord of the soil. 86. Feudalism had spread into all the lands conquered The system by the Teutonic tribes before it reached Eng- in England, j^nd ; and it was first introduced there in its perfection by William of Normandy, when he conquered the country in a.d. 1066. He, as conqueror, claimed the right of giving estates to whomsoever he pleased, on condition of receiving in return military service and aids of money. 87* As the Normans, on going into England, entered a Norman conquered country, their first thought was to castles. build dwellings for safety ; and to insure this they erected strong castles, and surrounded them with thick walls and a ditch. These buildings usually consisted of three divisions, namely, the inner and outer courts^ and the keep^ which formed the baron's residence The entrance to the castle was guarded by the barbacatiy which in most cases was a strong gateway in front of the main gate. The passage through the gateway could be closed, in addition to the gates, by a spiked iron grating, called Zi portcullis^ which was let down from above, and the nrchway was pierced wit'i holes, through which melted lead and boiling pitch could be poured upon an enemy. The grey ruins of many of these castles, found here and there throughout England, give a vivid idea of the massive strength of the homes of the nobility in the feudal times. 88. By many writers feudalism has been painted in u M THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 241 romantic colors; but, in spite of this gilding, it is plain that the system was a bad one. The mass of the evUs of people had no guaranteed rights — they were at the '«"daUsni. mercy of the lords ; and though we may believe that under good proprietors the condition of the people may not have been invariably or necessarily unhappy, yet that system is radically vicious which makes one man subject to the will and caprice of another. Indeed, it is certain that under this system there were monstrous abuses. The feudal barons, withdrawn within their gloomy castles, and surrounded by a dependent and isolated village of serfs and tenants, griev- ously oppn 'vj'.d the people, who had no redress, seeing that the nobles were the magistrates of the fief. 89. At the same time the feudal government retarded the growth of nationality. Everything tended to Effect on isolation ; a kingdom was a cluster of confede- **** "tion. rated powers under a common head ; but that head, the king or emperor, lacked real power, since, though the nobles and barons owed feudal allegiance to the suzerain, obedience, when refused, could be enforced only by war. In fact, the system was a reign, not of iaiVy but of lawless' ncss. 90. The three influences that gradually undermined feu- dalism were: I. Royalty; 2. The Municipalities; Enemies of 3. The Clergy. A word regarding each. feudalism. 91. The increase of the power of royalty was directly opposed to feudalism; for just in proportion influence of as the central authority was strengthened, the 'oy»ity« power of the nobles was weakened. At the outset, in the new Teutonic kingdoms of France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and England, the monarch was to the great nobles merely what these were to their vassals, — the head of a system of fiefs. But very soon the monarchs began to center power in themselves, anu then they came into antagonism with feudalism. The reason of this was, that, being head of the \ E « r' 242 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. tt': i.l !f Of the cities. whole, the kings were the first to be inspired with the idea of nationality. Tliey sought to pierce down through the intermediate ranks of barons, counts, etc., to the xQ.-d\ people themselves. They thus to some extent put themselves on the side of the lower ranks. At tho same time, by issuing decrees to be put in force over the whole kingdom, the throne became the fountain of Imv^ as something distinct from the mere will of the feudal chiefs. 92. The second influence mentioned is the rise of the municipalities. Under the Roman system there had been numerous free, self-governing cities throughout the empire. Many of these survived the shock of the Teutonic invasions, and formed little republics or self-governing communities in the midst of the feudal society. Moreover, feudalism itself gradually created similar com- munities. In the turbulence of the times, population tended to crystallise around the castles of feudal chiefs. The lords, finding themselves greatly strengthened bv this, began to see that it would be to their advantage to gruU the inhabitants certain privileges. Hence arose towns^ governed by officers — provosts and bailiffs — appointed by the lord, and the still more highly favored Iwroughs, — that is, towns possessing regular charters which conceded them the right of governing themselves by magistrates, such as mayors and aldermen, chosen by the burghers, or free inhal^itants. These towns and boroughs were oases of freedom amid the desert of feudal despotism. It was here that there arose tiiat great power in Euroi)ean society, the Commons^ or free middle class, that in the end not only overthrew feudalism, hut tempered the despotism of kings, and brought about limited^ rfpnseniative monarchy. 93. The Church, in its efforts to repress the absolutism of the feudal lords, naturally sought to ally itself with a great centralized power. Hence we find that the clergy usually sided with the kings and against the Of the cler/jry. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 243 nobles. Moreover, the clcruy owned more than one half of the entire landed j)roperty of most Euro can countries. Finally, the humane sentiments of Christianity, the doctrine of the common brotherhood of man, became a powerful agency in checking the injustice and the arbitrary power of the feudal lords. 94. Among other influences tliat co-operated towards the destruction of feudalism, were tlie Crusatles, other in- the change of the mode of war following the ""ences. invention of gunpowder, the extension of commerce, and in general the progress of knowledge. 95. It was a system that was not wholly bad : it must have been in some degree adajjted to the times, otherwise it could not have existed at all ; but it belonged to a state of society essentially barbarous, and it was overthrown by that very ci:'iliz'm.^ >- Cv? £"< s". 1.0 I.I 12.0 1.8 IIIM IIIM 1.25 1.4 1.6 <, 6" ► Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER N.Y. ' ;:-80 (716) 87?.-. 503 Q>, (/a ^» )l M^= 253 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. against tlie Saracen enemies of God awakened in the stem hearts of congregated warriors. 113. The cause was now taken up openly by the Pope, Council of and two councils were held on the subject in Clermont. ^ p_ 1095. At the sccond, held ai Clermont, in France, tlie Pope addressed a great multitude assembled from all parts of Europe. As he proceeded the enthusiasm of the crowd found vent in cries of /)eus vuit^ and the slightly varied acclamations of Dieiix el volt and Deus lo volt* — " It is the will of God ! " At the instant when their cries resounded throughout the vast assembly, the figurative injunction of Scripture to the sinner, to take up the cross of Ciirist, suggested to Urban the idea that all who embraced the sacred enterprise should bear on their shoulder or breast that symbol of salvation. The proposal was eagerly adopted, and tew there were who left the old market-place on tha. day without a red cross on the shoulder, to mark them as Croises, or soldiers of the cross. The following spring was aj)pointed as the time for beginning the movement to the East. i 'r'f I 1 s. THE FIRST CRUSADE (A.D. 1096-1099). 114. Long before the season — August the 15th — fixed „ . on by the Pope for the departure of the Cru- First rush. , , , • i , • • /■ , ^ saders had expired, the impatience of the ruder multitudes of people grew too violent for restraint. Soon after the commencement of the new year an immense con- course of pilgrims, chiefly ot the lowest classes, and consist- ing not of men alone, but also of women and children, had thronged around Peter the Hermit on the eastern frontiers of France, and urged him, as the original preacher of the sacred enterprise, to assume its command. Apparently * Dieux el volt and Deus lo volt were the popular corruptions which the pure Latin, Dens vult, liad undergone in the two great Northern and Proven9al dialects of France, -fixed Cru- ruder Soon e con- onsist- fn, had )ntiers of the irenily |s which lern and unconscious of liis utter unfitness for command, the enthu- siastic hermit rashly accepted the perilous charge ; and under his guidance, and that of a Burgundian knight named Walter the Penniless, the accumulating torrent began to sweep over Germany. 115. The several bands composing this vanguard of the Crusades, amounting to more than 21^0,000, J ' ' Narrative. took the route through Germany, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Thrace ; but being without organization or provision, they committed the most dreadful devastations in the countries through which they passed, and were mostly dispersed and exterminated by the enraged Hungarian peasantry. Remnants of the bands succeeded in crossing the Bosphorus at Constantinople, but these were soon cut to pieces by the Turks. Such was the disastrous beginning of the Crusade, — a quarter of a million of individuals swept out of existence, altogether without result. 116. Meanwhile the real chivalry of Europe had been mustering for the enterprise. None of the sove- Main move- reigns took part in the movement ; but the "^^nt. feudal chiefs, each at the head of his own vassals, ranged themselves under distinguished leaders, — Godfrey of Bouil- lon', Duke of Lower Lorraine' (in the modern kingdom of Belgium), Robert, Duke of Normandy, and others. Six sepa- rate armies were thus formed, which marched by different routes to Constantinople. 117. The appearance of this vast host — amounting to at least 600,000 men, exclusive of women and priests — alarmed the Greek F.mperor with the fear that the Latin princes might seek to secure the mastery of the East for themselves, and not for him. It was only by the threat of attacking Constantinople that he was made to withdraw his opposition, and further the transit of the Cru- saders into Asia Minor. Here all the great divisions of the crusading levies made a junction, and their numbers were I The march. 1 1 254 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. I' n increased by the wretched remnants of the preceding multi- tude, who, with Peter the Hermit himself, found their way from various jjlaces of refuge to the general muster. 118. The real nerve of the grand army consisted of the Description mailed cavalry, amounting to over 100,000 men. of the army. '\}^\^ superb body of horse was composed of the flower of the FAiropean chivalry : knights, esquires, and their attendant men-at-arms, completely equipped with the helmet and shield, the coat and boots of chain and scale armor, the lance and the sword, the battle-ax and the ponderous mace of iron. The crowd of footmen fought principally with the long and cross bow ; but they formed a miserable contrast to the splendor of the chivalric array, which glittered in the blazonry of embroidered and ermined surcoats, shields and head-pieces inlaid with gems and gold, and banners and pennons distinguishing the jjrincely and noble rank of chief- tains and knights. 119. The first movement of the Crusaders was directed Advance ^g^i^st Nice, or Nicae'a, in Asia Minor. This through place was captured by the Crusaders. In their Asia Minor, ^^^(jvance through Asia Minor, a march of 500 miles was still to be made before they could touch the con- fines of Syria, and the Sultan of Roum was prepared to offer a formidable resistance. With an inmiense cloud of cavalry — the number is put at 300,000 horse — he hovered around the Crusaders ; and at Dorylce'um he suddenly fell upon one of the two main divisions while on the march. So sudden was the onset, that the victory was at first with the Turks; but rallying, and being reinforced by the other division, the Crusaders fell upon the enemy. In close combat, the supple dexterity of the Asiatics, armed with the curved scimitar and light javelin, could make but a feeble opposi- tion to the ponderous strokes of the European arm wielding the long pointed sword and gigantic lance. In a direct charge the Turkish cavalry was completely overpowered, 1 THE CRUSADES. 255 i: way Df the ) men. of tbe d their helmet [\or, the iS mace with the contrast id in the ields and ners and r^ of chief- 5 directed .or. This In their :h of 5°^ Vi the con- ed to offer . of cavalry ed around U upon one So sudden the 'VurU ; -r division, iombat, tbe the curved ^ble opposi- rm wielding In a direct Overpowered, I and of the mighty host 30,000 were slain. This was pro- bably one of the most tremendous cavalry battles ever fought. 120. But what Sol'yman could not accomplish in the field he largely effected in another way. He made sufferings the country through which the Crusaders were °" *^^ march, to march a waste. Hundreds died, on every day's march, of want, of fatigue, of raging thirst or its fatal gratification. The horses in particular died in such numbers that 30,000 men were dismounted on this march, and had to trudge along, fainting with the weight of their armor, under the burning sun. At last they saw, set in the emerald meadows that line the Oron'tes, the fair turrets of the Syrian An'tioch. (See map, page 250.) 121. To lay siege to the capital of Syria was now the task of the Crusaders. But this task was jnirsued siegre of amid great difficulties. For seven months the Antioch, city held out, and during this time the besiegers had to suffer the horrors of famine and pestilence. Their horses were either starved or killed for food, and erelong, of the 100,000 horses with which the march was begun, only 2000 remained. Finally, by the treachery of a Syrian officer, the Crusaders were able one dark stormy night to surprise and capture the city, June 1098. 122. No sooner was Antioch captured than the Crusaders were in their turn besieged in that city by an Events ia army of 200,000 Mohammedans, sent by the Antioch. Persian sultan. A second and still more terrible famine was suffered. But finally the Crusaders, by a bold sally, completely overthrew the besieuing host. The way was now open to Jerusalem, and thither the columns headed, — columns, however, that were sadly reduced ; for of the immense host, perhaps 600,000 men, which had originally formed the siege of Nice, so enormous had been the losses by the sword and the climate, by famine and pestilence, y m 256 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. l:i it ■l.fi I' To Jerusalem. desertion and conquest, that the total force which advanced from Antioch amounted to only 1500 cavalry and 20,000 foot-soldiers, with about an equal number of unarmed pil- grims and camp-followers. 123. From Antioch to Jaffa, 300 miles, the Crusaders moved along the sea-shore. Then they struck into the interior country, traversing a region filled with places which hourly recalled some sacred associa- tion. At last the Holy City burst upon their enraptured gaze. In that glorious sight, the long-cherished ot)ject, promise, and reward of their hopes, every toil was forgotten, every suffering repaid. The single mighty passion of a host suddenly broke forth in joyful exclamations and embraces; and the whole armed multitude, as with one impulse, sink- ing on their knees, prostrated themselves, and poured out their tears over the consecrated soil. 124. The deliverance of the Holy City and Sepulcher Siege of Still remained to be accomplished. At this the city. time Jerusalem was in the possession, not of the Turks, but of the Saracenic caliph of Egypt, who was head of an independent government, and had recently won Palestine from the Turks. The caliph was determined to make a stout resistance ; so a siege had to be begun. Under a sky of burning copper, with no water in the pools and brooks, the Crusaders fought for five long weeks before Godfrey and his stormers stood victorious within the walls, July 1099. The massacre of 70,000 Moslems and the burning of the Jews in their synagogue stained the glory of the conquerors. 125- Jerusalem was now erected into a Christian king- Kingdom of dom. The princely and noble chieftains of the Jerusalem, crusading host by their free vote proclaimed Godfrey of Bouillon king of the Holy City, July 23, 1099. Godfrey, however, modestly refused a regal crown, nor would he assume any other title than that of Defender of THE SECOND CRUSADE. 257 ced 000 pii- \ders truck eg\on socia- )tured )\i)ect, gotten, a host braces ; ,e, sink- red out ;pulcher At this trot of kvho was Intly Nvon nined to Under iools and .s before :he wal^s, 'and t^^^ glory of Lian king- Us of the [roclaiu^ed 23, 1099- roNvn, n^^ fender ot the Tomb of Christ. Si ill, from the election of Ciodfrey of Bouillon may not the less be dated the foundation of the Latin Kingdom of Jkrusalkm, after the Holy City had been four hundred and fifiy years in the hands of the Mohammedans. The great desij;n of the Tirst Ckusadk was accomplished. 126. After this victory many of the actors in the great drama went home. Among these was Peter the Hermit, who closed his days in a French monastery. The noble and chivalric Godfrev reigned five days less thati a year, when he died at the age of forty. So just and paternal had been his ru.e, that he was regretted alike by Moslems and Christians. He was succeeded by his brother Baldwin, who transmitted the crown of Jerusa- lem to his kinsman, Baldwin du Boing, whose ])Osierity continued to reign in Palestine until the kingdom wa's over- thrown by Saladin in a.d. 1187. Later events. 3. THE SECOND CRUSADE (A.D. 1147-1149). 127. During a period of half a century the Christian do- minion in the East maintained itself against the situation in attacks of the surrounding Mohan-imedans. But tbe East, after the lapse of fifty years dangers began to arise threaten- ing the very existence of the Christian kingdom. One of the Turkish anirs. or governors, took the Christian princi- pality of Edes'sa (see map, page 250), and slaughtered the Christian inhabitants (a.d. 1145). 128. The news of the fall of Edessa startled the Christian residents in Palestine, and led them to appeal to Effect in Europe for assistance. This ai)peal was received Europe. with a general enthusiasm almost equal to that which marked the First Crusade. The pure and devoted St. Bernard preached a new Crusade. Moreover, his eloquence enlisted It i > \ 258 MEDIJ^VAL HISTORY. The march. in the Second Crusade the two foremost sovereigns of the age, — Conrad III., Emperor of Germany, and Louis VI I. of France. 129. The arniies, numbering 300.000 choice troops, moved in a.d. 1147, ^^^ following the path of the earlier Crusaders, advanced to Constanti- nople. The Emperor Conrad, preceding his ally, i)assed the Bosphorus, and marched into Asia Minor. But the Emperor of the East, Man'uel, being an enemy of Conrad's, gave the Sultan secret intelligence of the German line of march, and furnished Conrad with treacherous guides, 'i'he result was, that, after sustaining a glorious but unsuccessful combat on the banks of the Mean'der, the German army had to retreat to Nice. Nine-tenths of the whole German host are said to have been destroyed by the shafts and scimi- tars of the Infidels, or to have perished of hunger and thirst 130. The French, under Louis VII., had meanwhile Advance to nioved to Nice, and thence, being joined by the Jerusalem, remnant of troops under Coiiiad, the two bodies advanced together through Asia Minor. They suffered a severe check at Laodice'a; but still struggled on, storm- beaten and famine-worn, to Antioch, and finally reached Jerusalem, with a mere fraction of the chivalric army that had left Europe. 131. The first and only undertaking was the siege of Damascus. This was a miserable failure ; and the Second Crusade closed in gloom, with the return of the Crusaders to their own country. Result 4. THE THIRD CRUSADE (A.D. 1189-1192). 132. Forty years elapsed before the Third Crusade began. In the interval an important revolution had taken place in Mussulman politics. Sallah-a- deen, or Saladin, as he is generally called, a young Kardish Saladin. THE THIRD CRUSADE. 259 Events of Third Crusade. chieftnin, had united the Mussulman states from the Nile to the Tigris under his single empire. Meanwhile the Latin kingdom, through internal disorders, was fast falling into a stale of weakness. Taking advantage of this fact, Saladin invaded Palestine, took town after town, and lastly Jerusalem, after a siege of fourteen days, a.d. 1187. The only place that remained to the Christians in Palestine was Tvre. 133. The news of the extinction of the kingdom of Jeru- salem called forth the Third Crusade. The three great Western princes took the cross, — Richard I. of England, known as Richard Coeur de Lion (Lion-hearted) ; Philip Augustus of France ; and Frederick Barbaros'sa (Red-beard), Emperor of Germany. A tax, called Saladin's tithe, was laid upon Christendom, to meet the expenses of the war. 134. While the French and the English monarchs trans- ported their armies to Palestine by sea, the high- Frederick's souled P'rederick marched overland with 60,000 column, cavalry and 100,000 infantry. Fine preparations had been made, so that the march through Europe and across the Hellespont into Asia Minor was a complete success. Unfor- tunately, the Emperor met his death while bathing in a little stream in Cili'cia. The expedition having thus lost its head, everything fell into disorder ; and before the Crusaders reached the borders of Syria, their numbers had been re- duced to one-tenth the original force. The remnant joined the French and English forces before A'cre. (Map, p. 250.) 135. The Christians in Syria had in the meantime rallied, and were laying siege to Acre. Now that the siege of chivalry of Europe came to their aid, the siege Acre. could be prosecuted with much vigor. In vain Saladin at- tempted to relieve Acre. Numerous battles were fought in the plains around, between the Crusaders and the Moslem myriads ; and after a siege of twenty-three months, Acre surrendered to the Christians, a.d. 1191. I > 1^' )l 260 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. Philip retires. 136. The cai)ture of Acre was liailed by the Christians as a ulad omen of the recovery of the Holy Sei)iilcher. But these bright hopes Ave.e dashed by the retirement of the king of France from tlie Crusade. The cause of this secession is believed to have been disgust on the part of Philip Augustus at the reckless character and intolerable arro .Mnce of the Lion-hearted, united, jierhaps, with some jealousy of the sui)erior glory won by Richard, 137, Richard remained, and continued the struggle for Closing some time with various success ; but at last he events, agreed to a truoe with Saladin, the terms of which were, on the whole, fivourable to the Christians, and creditable to the liberalitv and tolerance of the Moham- medans.* t S, THE LATER CRUSADES. 138. The three expeditions that have just been described Character fo'^i what we may regard as the Greater Cru- ofiater sades. Several subsequent Crusades — three or rusa es. ^^^^ — were undertaken ; but some of these were not directed towards the Holy Land at all, and the others failed of any great results. 'H DETAILS OF THE LATER CRUSADES. Fourth Crusade. — This Crusade may be dismissed in a few words. It was an enterprise set on foot by the Kniglitsof St. John, and no part was taken in it by either England or France, as Richard and Pliilip were too actively engaged in war against ench otlier to quit their respective dominions. It was encouraged by the Emperor, Henry VI,, who, however, did not jiroceed fartlier than Sicily, The armies which, reached Palestine at first gained signal advantages, but * Richard took his departure from the East in October, A,D. 1192 ; but being detained on the way as a prisoner of the Austrian archduke at Vienna, he did not reach England for nearly two years afterwards. In the mean- time Saladin, between whom and Richard there had been established a mutual admiration and regard, died in A,D. 1193. This event gave a new turn to the history of the Holy Land. THE LATER CRUSADES. 261 words. and no ird and to quit iperor, Tiie ;es, but these were soon lost throutjh the disunion which broke out among tlieir leaders. Fifth Crusade. — The chiefs of this Crusade embraced none of the crowned heads of Europe. Several French and Italian lords of dis- tinction, through dread of the march across Asia Minor, repaired to Venice, where tiiey purchased the aid of a Venetian fleet by reducing uncier the control of Venice Zara, a Christian city in Dalma'iia (a.D. 1202), and fmally, instead of sailing to Palestine, they direcleil their course to Constantinople, where they overthrew the Greek Empire (a.D. I204), and established on its ruins a Latin kingdom tluu lasted till A.D. 1260. Sixth Crusade. — Egypt was the scene of the Sixth Crusade (a.d. 1216-1220). Success attended tiie first operations of the Christian army ; but fmally matters were managed so badly tliuttlie army was forced to surrender to the Egyptian sultan. There was wliat may be regarded as a continuation of this Crusade in A.D. 1228 by Frederick II., Emperor of Germany. He entered Jerusalem in triumph, and compelled (he Sultan of Egypt to cede that city and several others to the Christians. But a few years afterwards all that had been gained was swept away. Seventh Crusade. — This expedition, undertaken in a.d. 1238 by the French under the King of Navane and by the Englisii cliivalry under Richard, Earl of Conuvall, was terminated liy negotiation, favoural)le terms being obtained for the Christians. But peace lasted for only two years, the Latin kingdom l)eing overwiielnied by an invasion of the Turks of Khorasm, who acquired possession of most of Palestine. Eighth Crusade. — This new disaster excited the zeal of the pious Louis IX. of France (known as Saint Louis), who headed the Eighth Crusade, A.D, 1249. It turned out to be utterly fruitless. The king was captured, and had to pay a large ransom for the re- demption of himself and his force. Ninth Crusade. — Twenty-one years afterwards (a.d. 1270) Saint Louis undertook what proved to be the Ninth and ia-t Crusade. It was totally without result. On his way the French king turned aside to besiege Tunis, A pestilential disease broke out in tiie army, and Louis himself died. Prince Edward of England, who joined with Louis in the Crusade, meanwhile advanced to Palestine; but after a few unimportant operations he was compelled to return home. Soon after this, Acre, the last stronghold of the Christians, was captured, and the Holy Land fell completely into the power of the Mohammedans. t ' 262 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. First effect. 6. RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 139. The Crusades utterly failed in their immediate object, — the recovery of the Holy Land from the Mohammedans. Still the effects of these remarkable expeditions were very important in many ways. 140. We may note that the Western nations, having to act in concert, came to know one another better, to interchange chivalrous sentiments, to feel mutual sympathies, and to entertain more liberal ideas. 141. Next, it is to be observed that the Crusaders brought Effect on ^^0"^ the East the knowledge of many products commerce, and processes tending to promote the arts and manufactures; and it was during these expeditions that modern commerce was first developed. The Italian mari- time states supplied the Crusaders with transports, and conveyed to them stores and munitions of war. This traffic led to a rapid increase in the commerce and navigation of the Mediterranean ; a taste for spices and other articles of Oriental luxury was gradually diffused throughout Europe ; and trading depots were formed by Venice, Genoa, and other Italian states on the shores of the Levant and the coasts of the Greek Empire. 142. Another effect was to diminish the strength of the Effect on feudal aristocracy by . .^asioning the breaking feudalism, ^p ^nd sale of many feudal properties. 143. Chivalry, though older than the Crusades, derived Effect on i'^s chief influence and strength from these wars, chivalry. The use of surnames, coats of arms, and distinc- tive banners became necessary in armies composed of men collected at hazard from every Christian kingdom. 144. It is noteworthy, too, that contact with men of other rope ; and the RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 263 nationalities had its effect in Hberalizing the ICuropean hosts; men returned home with larger ideas and a inteUectual uider horizon of thought, and we may say that e*^«ct. from the time of the Crusades a great intellectual revival began throughout all Europe. Hence we see that the principal European universities were founded in the 12th and 13th centuries. i|fM jrived wars. stinc- men other i i' II 264 MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. CHAPTER VII. CHIVALRY— ITS RISE AND DECAY. mm I 13 :< i i Its origin. 145. Chivalry sprang out of feudalism, and was its General brightest flower; it grew into a great insiitu- sketch. ^JQj^ jIj^j- fQj. several centuries exercised a won- derful influence on the manners, i^abits, thoughts, and sen- timents of men in all the nations of Western Europe ; it was brought to maturity and sj)lendor by the Crusades ; it was pushed to fantastic extremes, and it ceased to exist when feudal society passed away. 146. Chivalry had its origin in two peculiarities in the customs and instincts of the Gothic races, — the great honor paid to the profession of arms, and the high regard and delicate gallantry of the Teutons towards the female sex. When feudalism had become a regular system, — say in the nth century, — it was the custom for the sons of the various vassals of a lord to form a little court or school in his castle, where they were educated under his eye and along with the members of his family in military exercises and feudal etiquette. 147. From the age of seven to fourteen the name given to these boys was pai^e or variety — in old English ballads, child. The page attended the ladies of the mansion, following them in their walks, or accompanying them when they rode out hawking or hunting. He was thus taught obedience and courtesy, and in addition he was instructed in music, chess, the doctrines of religion, and the use of light weapons. Being constantly surrounded by noble ladies and valiant knights, his earliest impressions were those of gallantry, honor, love, and bravery. Usually each youth selected some accomplished young lady at whose Pages. CHIVALRY— ITS RISE AND DECAY. 265 feet he displayed all his gallantry, and who undertook to polish his manners. "The love of God and the ladies,'* says Hallam, " was enjoined as a single duty." 148. At the age of fourteen tiie page became a squire ; and just as the page was the attendant of the . ladies, so the squire served the men. The squire was employed in various subordinate offices about the castle ; but his great duty was to follow his lord to the battle or the tournament, leading the war-horse. When the hour of battle came, he arrayed his master in full armor ; he kept behind him in the fight, handed a fresh lance, led in a horse if his lord was dismounted, and dashed to the rescue if he saw him hard pressed. Such were a squire's duties till he reached the age of twenty-one, when he at- tained the goal of his ambition, — he became a knight {miles). 149. The admission to knighthood was attentied by an imposing ceremonial. Having fasted and con- ceremonial of fessed all his sins, the candidate passed a night knighthood. in prayer and watching. Then, having bathed, he was dressed in new robes, — an underkirtle, a silk or linen vest embroidered with gold, a collar of leather, and over all the coat of arms. Proceeding to the church, he had to i)ass an examination, and if he was judged worthy of admission to the order of knighthood, he received the sacrament and took the vows, — the vow that he would be a good, brave, loyal, just, generous, and gentle knight, that he would be a champion of the Church and clergy, that he would be a protector of ladies, that he would be a redresser of tlie wrongs of widows and orphans, etc. Then the baldric — a belt of white leather and gold— was slung round the candidate; his golden spurs were buckled on, and the prince who was to confer the dignity, taking the aspirant's sword, completed vhe ceremony with a blow of its flat side on the neck. 15a The dress and equipment of the knight varied much 1^1 11 It 1 if ililli 266 medijEval history. at different periods. At the time of the first Crusade, the Dress and knights wore chain armor, formed of interlinked armor. hooks of Steel ; a hauberk, or tunic of steel rings, hung to the knees ; the head was protected by a hood of chain-mail over which was worn a low flat cap of steel ; mittens covered the hands, and pointed shoes of mail the feet. The horses were at first unprotected ; but afterwards it became customary to sheathe them in complete armor. During the 14th century the chain-mail of the early knights was exchanged for armor formed of overlapping metal plates ; and in the heyday of chivalry the knight must have been truly a splendid and romantic figure, mounted on his richly caparisoned steed, glittering in his costly armor of steel, with plume and crest and vizored helmet, with lance and mace and battle-ax. 151. The characteristic amusement of the age of chivalry was the tournament, celebrated on occasions of coronations, distinguished victories, royal marriages, etc. The tourneys took place within what were called the lists, — a space roped or railed off in an oval form. The open spaces at each end were filled with stalls and galleries for the ladies and noble spectators. The tilting was generally with lances, on the points of which were fixed pieces of wood called " rockets ; " and the great object v;ith each knight was to unhorse his antagonist. When the heralds cried, ^^ Laissez aiUr^' (Let them go), off they dashed from opposite ends of the lists and met in the center. When one of the knights had unhorsed his opponent, he came forward, amid the blare of martial music, and the shouts of " Honor to the sons of the brave ! " from the lips of the minstrels, to receive the prize from his queen or his mistress. From the descriptions of these scenes that we read in the pages of Sir Walter Scott, or of the old chroni- cler Frois'sart, it is evident that the tourney must have sur- passed every scenic performance of modern times. Tourneys. 1 ' i " CHIVALRY-ITS RISE AND DECAY. 267 152. The question as to the influence of chivalry is one respecting which there have been conflicting Good side opinions. In many respects this influence of chivalry, must have been good and ennobhng, for the ideal of chivalry was lofty and pure and generous. Valor, loyalty, courtesy, munificence, and a hatred of injustice formed collectively the character of an accomplished knight. If these virtues were active among men, they could not help bearing beau- tiful fruits. And there is no doubt they were active, and that some of the noblest characters of the Middle Ages were nursed by the ideas of chivalry. Those ideas soft- ened warfare in a barbarous age, by inculcating humanity and courtesy to enemies ; at a time when the obligations of honor were feebly felt, they taught a scrupulous adherence to one's word and to all engagements ; and they helped to elevate woman to her proper place as the equal and com- panion of man, by making her the object of chivalrous attention. 153. StiH, no institution can radically change human nature ; and it is not to be doubted that there were those who were not true knights, that gallantry often degenerated into licentiousness, that a per- nicious thirst for military renown was nourished by chivalry, and that the wholesome sense of honor finally degenera'.ed into mere punctilio and fantastic notions, the result of which long lingered in the practice of the duello. 154. The institution of chivalry declined with feudalism, Evil side. of which it was largely a product. The com- Gunpowder, plete change in the mode of warfare effected effect of. by the invention of gunpowder, put the knight at great dis- advantage. Armor of proof might be forged that would withstand the Swiss broadsword or the ell-long arrows of the English bowmen, hut what coat of mail could resist the cannon-ball ? Battles were now to be fought chiefly at a distance, no longer hand to hand. t 1 268 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. . -l ■ 1 ■ ■ 5 '■ :] ■! \' i:} il-' 1 ik y '' i!|' 155. Iniyard, who fell in France in ad. 1524, and was Last of the known as the ciievalicr ^^ sjns pcur d sans knights. reproche'" (fearless and blameless), was almost the last of the knights of that knightly land. In England, chivalry lasted till the time of Elizabeth, and we cannot help thinking of Sir Philip Sidney as a bright example of the noble knight. In Spain it went out at the same period, amid the inextinguishable laughter excited by Cervan'tes's burlesque of chivalry in the immortal romance of " Don Quixote." 156. Still, it is certain that, while the instiiution perished, Permanent ^^ Spirit of chivalry, its finest essence, lived, effect of From the knight of the Middle Ages grew the ^' gentleman of modern days, the elements of each remaining the same. This is a character new in his- tory. Antiquity produced heroes^ but not gentlemen ; so it may be said we owe the noblest human type the world has ever seen, — that type of man in which are richly blended a sense of personal honor, generosity, courtesy, and Christian tenderness and helpfulness, — to the same infl\iences which shaped chivalry in the period of the Middle Ages. CIVILIZATION IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 269 CHAPTER VIII. \ Dark Ages. CIVILIZATION IN THE MIDDLE AGES. I. CIVILIZATION THREATENED. 157- The era termed t/ie Middle Ai:;es comprises the long period of a thousand years stretching from the close of the 5th to the close of the 15th century. The first six of th jse centuries have been, though some tliink U7ijustly\ termec. the Dark Ages. They were noted for con- flict and upheaval throughout Europe. Often the light of Christian civilization seemed threatened with extinction. 158. It is a strange and melancholy spectacle to see civili- zation after attaining so considerable a height in- cause of the the Roman Empire fall back towards barbarism, relapse. This relapse has sometimes been laid to the door of the barbarous races that overthrew the Empire ; but it was not due wholly to this influence. For two or three centuries before the structure of Roman civilization finally fell, the foundations were undergoing gradual decay. In the latter ages of the Roman Empire we find a general indifference towards the cultivation of letters. As a natural result, original and powerful works ceased to be produced. The final settlement of the uncultured Teutonic nations in Gaul. Spain, and Italy completed the ruin of literature. 159. A main cause of this loss of culture was a change that was at this time going on in the languages Cause of loss spoken by the people of Western Europe. In of culture, the two or three centuries succeeding the Teutonic con- quest there was a gradual breaking up of the structure of the Latin speech as spoken in Italy, Spain, and < '.aul. ^Fhe Teutonic conquerors, in order to communicate wit.. \.\\.^ people in these countries, had to learn Latin, but in learning 270 MFDIMVAL HISTORY. it they still further corrupted it. Thus the common language of those lands was a sort of broken Latin, which was called Rotnan, while classical Latin wis still written by scholars. The process of change went further, however: differences of dialect arose in the several countries, and Roman de- veloped into Italian, French, and Spanish. 160. During this transition period, knowledge, as obtain- Resuitof 3.ble from books, was to a large extent locked change. up from the people. Latin continued to be, even to a much later period, the language of philosophy, science, and theology, so that knowledge of that grand old speech was preserved among the learned classes. 161. But as literature had not yet taken root in the newly Use of formed languages, the common people, who letters. were ignorant of Latin, were placed in circum- stances unfavourable to intellectual culture. Latin being retained as the official language of public documents and legal papers, the popular use of writing became, for the time, almost obsolete. 162. The praiseworthy exertions of the clergy (who were Scarcity the chief custodians and promoters of learning of books, jn this dark and troublous period) to disseminate knowledge were impeded by great difficulties. The art of printing was of course unknown. That of making paper from cotton rags was not introduced till about the close of the nth century. Previous to this the two kinds of writing material were parchment and papyrus. But after the conquest of Alexandria by the Saracens in the 7th century, the latter almost ceased to be imported into Europe; while parchment was too costly to be generally used.*" U 'B|l ii ! . I : fi 1 i\ liul 1,; M|L ^^ * From this dearness of parchment a curious practice arose ; the monks in the monasteries would erase a manuscript, and write another on the same skin. Such writings are known as pal' impsests (twice writ« ten). =5 l» CIVILIZATION IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 271 [paper close ids of after I 7th into lerally le; the lanother :e writ- 163. During these five centuries, notwithstanding the cir- cumstances to which reference has been made, _ , , . , . Eirinent men. we nnd the names of some truly emment men. Bede, an Englishman, known as the " Venerable Bede " (born A.D. 673), and Alcuin, another Englishman, already mentioned as the teacher and friend of Charlemagne, were distinguished for their learning. John Sco'tus Erige'na will serve as a type of the original thinkers, Gregory VII. (better known as Hildebrand) of the ecclesiastical rulers, Alfred or Charlemagne of the sovereigns, whose history renders noteworthy these ages. 164. It is not wonderful that in a period of such con- stant disturbance and war — the nobles being picture of almost exclusively devoted to the profession of t^e age. arms — the intellectual and moral progress of the race was seriously interrupted. Agriculture was in a miserably back- ward condition. There is not a vestige to be discovered for several centuries of any considerable manufacture. Every- thing had to be made on the place, and even kings, in the 9th century, had their clothes made by the women upon their farms. To traffic there were great obstacles ; for in the lawless state of society a merchant ran constant risk of being robbed, while in the domains of every feudal lord a toll was to be paid in passing his bridge, or along his high- way, or at his market. In Germany especially unscrupulous robbery was practised by the great, who, from their gloomy and inaccessible castles, issued forth to harry the land and spread terror over the country. 165. If it be asked how it happened that so much of ancient learning survived throughout this long influence of winter, we can ascribe its preservation only to the Church. Christianity. The Church was the bridge across the chaos, and linked the two periods of ancient and modern civiliza- tion. In estimating the work done by the Church during these ages of confusion and overthrow, we must take into i^ '*tim 272 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. The monks. account the adverse conditions which we have already noted. It seems certain that clerical culture alone saved Europe from lapsing into b;u-barism.* 166. In tlie good work of the Chtircli the most active agents were the monks. Mmiasiicism, or the jjractice of retiring to a solitary and conietr.- plative life, took its rise in ihe l^^ast, and is believed by some to be coeval with (Christianity. 167. Ihe monastic system was introduced into \Vestern The Bene- Kuroj^e early in the history of the Cliristian dictines. Church ; but it rcrcived iis ])erfect form in the 6th century, at the hands of St. Ben'edict, an Italian, who established the first monastery on Mount Cnssi'no, in Lower Italy. He was thus the founder of the widely spread order of Benedictines, which rapidly extended itself among all nations, and built many monasteries. The rule of this order included the novel feature of industrial occupation. Agriculture was especially recommended ; and in the Middle Ages the Benedictine monks were the best husbandmen in Europe. The monasteries, — erected for the most part in beautiful and remote situations, and the inhabitants of which were obliged to take the three vows of celii^acy, personal poverty, and obedience — proved, in those days of lawless- ness and barbarism, a blessing to mankind. They converted heaths and forests into flourishing farms ; they afforded a place of refuge (asylum) to the persecuted and oppressed ; they ennobled the rude minds of men by the preaching of the gospel ; they preserved the remains of ancient literature from utter destruction, and were the nurseries of education and of learning. * "The Church of the Middle Ages I do not consider *a mitiirated evil,' but an incalculable benefit to society. " — Preface to History of A'e- Joniiatioii, by George P. Fisher, D.D., Prof. Eccles. History, Yale College. THE AGE OF REVIVAL. 273 ^ s. THE AGE OF REVIVAL. -CITIES AND COMMERCE. 168. From the state of confusion and struggle described in the last section all the European nations General gradually emerged, — some slowly, others more statement, rapidly. The commencement of this restoration may be dated from about the close of the 1 1 th century. 169. One of the first signs of advancing civilization, and also one of the great agencies of further ])rogress, Growth of was the growing up of towns to a position of towns, prime importance. Cities are always the centers of civili- zation. In the old Greek and Roman times the towns had, so to speak, been everytliing. But the Goths, Franks, and other Teutonic invaders were not used to cities, and even those that had arisen in Central Europe under Roman influence declined very much after the German settlement, and lost much of their importance and local freedom. However, as civilization began to revive, new towns arose, especially in Germany and Italy, and the old towns won back something of their former greatness.* 170. The real importance of these German towns is to Ing of rat u re • In Germany, till the reign of Charlemagne, at the close of the 8th century, there were no towns except a few that had been erected on the Rhine and Danube by the Romans. During the next three hundred years, however, we find many cities arising. At the commencement of the 12th century, Henry V. conceded certain privileges to the free cities, and espe- cially to their artisans, and these gave a soul to industry. The first town erected on the coasts of the Baltic was Lubeck (a.d. 1140). In the 13th century it became independent of any sovereign but the German Emperor. Ham'burg was originally a castle (Ham'maburg) built by Charlemagne for defense against the Norsemen. It purchased independence of its bishop in 1225. Bremen dates from about tliis period. A colony from Bremen founded Riga in the 12th century ; Dant'zic arose in the following cen- tury. s 1 i I'm i 1 i lit 1 f 1 f ' it Mi f 1 * j > 274 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Hanse cities. be dated from their famous union in what is called the Hanseatic Lea^^ue. This was a confederation made about the middle of the 13th century, of eighty of the most considerable German cities. The union was suggested by the need of mutual defense against piracy by sea, pillage by land, and the exactions of the nobles. It was of the greatest importance both to commerce and to freedom. 171. In Italy the cities rose to greatness even earlier Italian free than in Germany. This was particularly the cities. case in Northern Italy, that is, Lombardy. There from the nth century the towns became everything. Though nominally under the dominion of the German emperors, they gradually grew strong while the power of the emperors declined. What is called the Lombard Z^t/^/ze- was formed in 1167 ; and the peace of Constance, in 1 1 83, secured the independence of the cities. The great city-republics of Venice, Gen'oa, etc., date from this period. 172. With the growth of the towns, industries of various Wooimanu- kinds began to spring up, and trade and com- facture. merce to spread and flourish. One of the earliest industries was the woolen manufacture of Flanders. This had grown to great importance in the 12th century, and the " Flemish stuffs " were sold wherever the sea or a navigable river permitted them to be carried. Ghent and Bru'ges were the chief seats of this industry, and the weavers of these cities were distinguished for their demo- cratic spirit. 173. In England, commerce, for two centuries after the English Norman conquest, — middle of the nth to the commerce, middle of the 13th century, — was almost con- fined to the export of wool, then the great staple of that country. But in the next century Edward III., the father of English commerce, introduced the finer manufacture of woolen cloths, by bringing large numbers of artisans from THE AGE OF REVIVAL. 275 er the the t con- f that father ure of from Flanders. From about the middle of the 14th century we find continual evidence of a rapid increase in wealth, and at this period, for the first time in English history, the occupation of a merchant began to be recognized as honorable. 174. The commerce of the South of Europe was through the city-republics of Venice, AmalTi, Pisa, and Italian Genoa. It was chiefly with the Saracenic coun- commerce, tries before the first Crusade ; but the Crusades themselves led immediately to the growing prosperity of the commer- cial cities of Southern Europe, and opened an extensive trade with the Levant'. In Southern France, Marseilles', Nismes, and Montpel'ier, and in Spain, Barcelona, had a flourishing commerce. 175- The earliest impulse to manufacturing industry in Italy was given by the introduction of a silk sukmanu- manufacture at Palermo by Roger Guiscard in facture. 1 148. Silk became very soon a staple manufacture of the Lombard and Tuscan republics, and the cultivation of mul- berries was enforced by their laws. The same industry soon spread into Southern France and Catalonia (in Spain), where it flourished greatly. 176. The needs of an enlarging commerce eventually led to the organization of moneyed institutions. The jews By most people in the Middle Ages lending and money, money for profit was treated as a crime. The trade, in fact, was at first entirely in the hands of the Jews, who were long the objects of cruel persecution, being maltreated and swindled to an almost incredible extent 177. In the 13th century the trade in money was taken up by the merchants of Lombardy and of the The Lombard South of France, who began the business of bankers, remitting money on bills of exchange, and of making profits on loans. In spite of much prejudice the Lombard "usurers," as they were called, established themselves in all the chief i i ?4I j k^ ■■: :i i » 1 f 276 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. Comforts. commercial centers of rAiroi)e, and as the practical utility of their business was found very great, good sense finally overcame ancient j)rejudices.* 178. The growing wealth of Europe led to a consider- able diffusion of comforts among the people. This is proved by the enactment, in the J4th century, of what are called *'sumi)tuary laws," — that is, laws designed to restrict men in regard to what they shall eat, wear, etc. 179. It may also be noticed that at this same period the houses peo])le lived in began to be of a belter sort, though for several centuries after this they were what we should regard as very indifferent habitations. Still, it is something that at this time chimneys and window- glass were introduced. Chimneys were wholly unknown to the ancients, who had to let the smoke escape through an opening in the roof. They came into use in the 14th cen- tury, as did also window-glass. The internal accommoda- tions were, however, yet very imperfect. Even in gentlemen's houses, the second story (where there was one) was ap- proached from the outside, the walls were bare, without wainscot or plaster, and it is hardly necessary to say that neither pictures nor libraries were to be found in them. Houses. Universities. 3. LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART. 180. One of the earliest signs of the reviving spirit of liter- ature and science was the establishment of uni- versities. That of Oxford in England is said to have been founded by King Alfred (9th century), but it did not flourish greatly till the nth century. In 1201 it en- * The earliest bank of deposit is said to liave been tliat of Barcelona, founded 1401. The bank of Genoa was established in 1407, and soon grew to be a great power. LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART. 277 rolled 3000 collcgiaiij. The univei sities of Paris and Padua were founded about the year a.d. 1180, that of Cambridge a century later. In the i2ih century, Bologna had a roll of 10,000 pujiils, while that of Paris in the 15th century numbered no less than 25,000. The earliest German uni- versity was that of Prague, founded in 1350. Other flourish- ing mediaeval universities were those of Toulouse, Mont- pelier, and Salamanca. 181. The chief attraction that drew the crowds of students to the universities was the rise of the new scholastic "scholastic philosophy" in the 11 h and 12th philosophy, centuries. The chief feature of this was the application of the art of dialectics to subtle questions of metaphysics and theology. 182. The great masters of this art are known collectively as the Schoolmen; and it attained its highest The school- perfection, in the 13th century, in the persons ™e°' of Thomas Aqui'nas and Duns Scotus. Other famous schoolmen were Roscelin, Anselm, and Peter Lombard. 183. While the schoolmen were devoting themselves to subtle points of theology and metai)hysics, a . few minds were beginning to investigate matlie- matical and scientific questions. Among the greatest of these may be mentioned Roger Bacon, an English monk, and Albertus Magnus, both of whom lived in the 13th cen- tury. For the times in which they lived these men made wonderful advances in true knowledge. The former suf- fered for a time much inconvenience from lying under the suspicion of practising magical arts, but in his later years he enjoyed the friendship and powerful protection of Pope Clement IV. 184. One of the most interesting chapters in the intel- lectual history of Europe during the Middle Saracenic Ages is that which treats of Arabic contribu- learning, tions to science. The Saracens established observatories '^ ^U nv. 278 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. imif I anrl museums, and collected many remains of Greek and Alexandrine learning. They also originated a noble order of architecture, of which the Alhambra presents a fine specimen. It is from them that we received our mode of notation, called the Arabic figures ; and the terms " algebra," " alcohol," "alchemy," "zenith,"" nadir," etc., all of which are Arabic, attest the influence of that remarkable people on the science ot the Middle Ages. It is well known that to the researches of the Saracenic alchemists we owe the beginnings of chem- istry, a science which the Arabians cultivated with success j and the first work on the subject with which we are ac- quainted was written by Yeber-Abou-Moussah-Djafer-al-Sofi, whom we call Geber, an Arab of the 8th century. iSS- It must be remembered that all the writings of the Growth ofna- churchmen were in Latin. But literature, to live literature, become a real national power, must come from the people. Hence it is of importance to know when a native literature began to spring up in the various European nations. We may say, in a general way, that there began to be works written in the new Romance tongues, — the Italian, French, Spanish, — and also in the German, about the time of the Crusades and immediately thereafter. It was at this time that the Troubadours and Minnesingers arose to celebrate the deeds of knights, battles, adventures, and love. The German collection known as the Nibelungen Lied, the Spanish romance of the Cid, and the cycle of poetry relating to the British Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table, are among the most famous collections of the heroic poetry of the Middle Ages, 186. In the 13th and 14th centuries these earlier pro- Dante and duclions were followed by some true outbursts Chaucer. q{ ^q highest form of poetry, — the real begin- nings of our modern literature. In the 13th century we have in Italy Dante (born a.d. 1265), whose Divina Corn- media is one of the great world-books ; and in the 14th cen- LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART. 279 ik and rder of cimen. , called cohol," Arabic, science icarches ,f chem- iuccess ; are ac- r-al-Sofi, rs of the ature, to )me from r when a European re began ues,— the in, about after. It nesingers [ventures, libelungen of poetry e Round he heroic irlier pro- outbursts teal begin- sntury we \vina Com- 14th cen- Architecture. tury our own English Chaucer (born a.d. 1328), who is still accou'.iced one of England's five greatest poets. 187. 1'he characteristic art of the Middle Ages was archi- tecture, — especially the building of cathedrals. The Gothic cathedral is the highest expression of the blended faith and genius of that age. The nth cen- tury was a time of great splendor in building churches. They were, however, still built in the round-arched^ or what is called Rotnariesqiie, style. 188. The use of tiie pointed arch and what is called the Gothic style did not come in till near the end Gothic of the 1 2th century. Originating in Northern cathedrals. France, the Gothic style of sacred architecture soon spread over all Europe, and during the 13th and 14th centuries it attained its highest perfection. Many of the grandest edi- fices occupied from one to two centuries in building. With their heaven-piercing spires, their noble arches, their elabo- rate sculptures and traceries, and their great mullioned win- dows, on whose " storied panes " the whole history of the Bible is written in the hues of the rainbow by the earnest hand of faith, they remain to this day the most sublime structures ever reared by the hand of man. 189. We have said that architecture was the character- istic art of the Middle Ages. Painting, though painting and it began in that period, did not reach full °»"*»c. development till the i6th and 17th centuries, while music belongs to a date still closer to our own times. I |!> t 28o MEDIEVAL HISTORY. ' i|l!?t^ #|i] CHAPTER IX. POLITICAL OUTLINE. FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO THE CLOSE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. t. THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 190. When Charlemagne died (a.d. 814), he was suc- Divisionof ceeded by his son Louis, who divided the charie- Frankish dominion between his three sons. tnagne s Empire. They quarreled violently, but the Treaty of Verdun (a.d. 843) confirmed the partition. Thus out of Charlemagne's empire grew three states, — Germany, France, and Italy. But neither of these countries remained long under the rule of the descendants of Charlemagne. 191. The Carlovingians ruled in Germany for less than a Germany century after Charlemagne's death. During this CaxS.*^* time the chief power was in the hands of certain vingians. great dukes, and when the last of the German Carlovingians died (a.d. 911), five of these got together and chose Duke Conrad of Franconia to be king ; so that Germany became an elective kingdom. 192. On the death of Conrad the Saxons and Franco- First line of nians united in placing Henry, a Saxon (called Emperors. Henry I., or the Fowler), on the throne (a.d. 919) ; and he was the first of a series of five Saxon emperors who ruled Germany fQr more tiian a century, and raised it to be the greatest power in Europe. 193. Henry was succeeded by his son Otho the Great ^ . , , (a.d. 936), under whom took place a very im- Revival of ^ ^ --> / i j the Western portant evcnt, namely, the revival of the Wesiern Empire. Empire under tiie title of the " Holy Roman Empire of the German nation." This took place when Otho Ui»i\ "^ Jl THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 281 s suc- d the sons, aty of out of France, id long ; than a ing this certain erman ogether so that iFranco- (called le (a.d. |mperors raised it ^e Great rery im- iWesiern Roman len Oibo married Adelaide, widow of Lothaire, the last Carlovingian king of Italy : receiving the iron crown of Lombardy, he united Upper Italy with the German kingdom. Otho was consecrated emperor by the Pope in a.d. 962. From this time every German emperor continued to receive a triple coronation, — as king of Germany, as king of Italy, as em- peror of the West. The " Empire " was after a time little more than a fiction, but it was a fiction that had a great influence on political affairs throughout the Middle Ages. The Saxon dynasty went on in three descendants of Otho, till A.D. 1024, when a line of Franconian emperors begins. 194. The Franconian line of emperors lasted for a cen- tury and a year. The first was Conrad II., a.d. Franconian 1024. The chief event of his reign was that emperors, the kingdom of Burgundy was united to the empire. Con- rad's son, Henry III. (a.d. 1039), was one of the greatest of all the emperors. It was in his time that the empire came to have a great deal to do with the election of the popes, for Henry III. took this matter into his own hands. Under the next emperor, Henry IV. (a.d. 1056), the troubles between the popes and the emperors grew to a great height, and we have seen that Pope Gregory VII. forced Henry IV. to beg his pardon. Henry V. had nearly the same disputes with the popes. As this emperor had no son, the Fran- conian line ended, a.d. 1125. 195. After Lothaire of Saxony had held the imperial crown for twelve years, it passed to one of Events under the greatest families that ever held it, that theSuabtan of the Hohenstaufen, or Dukes of Suabia. The ^'"p«'"°"- first of this line was Conrad III,, who reigned as king of Germany, but who was never crowned emperor. Frederick Barbarossa, his nephew, was elected to succeed him, and he was crowned emperor a.d. 1155. The greater part of his reign was taken up with a struggle with the Lombard ciljies of Northern Italy, which claimed to be independent. Tlie % . 1360), by which the English king, Edward, gave up his claim to the crown of France ; but he kept his possessions in Aquitaine, together with Calais, and that no longer as a vassal, but as an independent king.] 3. Conquest of Aquitaine by the French. The French king, Charles V., broke the Peace of Bretigny, and wrested from the English nearly all of Aquitaine except the cities of Bordeaux' and Bayonne'. 4. Renewal of the war by the English. Henry V. of England took advantage of the dissensions by which France was torn in pieces during the reign of the mad French king, Charles VI. The great action was the — A.D. A.D. A.D. * Philip VI., . 1328 Louis XT., . I461 Henry TI., . 1547 John 11., . . 1350 Charles VIII., 1483 Francis II., , ISSQ Charles V., . 1364 Ix)uis XII., . 1498 Charles IX., , i,S6o Charles VI., . 1380 Francis I., . 1515 Henry HI, . I.S74 Charles VII.. 1422 'i 286 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 5. Battle of Agincourt (a. D. 141 5) : English victory. [By a treaty of peace (A.D. 1420) it was agreed that the English king, Henry V., should succeed to tlie crown of France on the death of the mad king, Charles VI., and that the two crowns were to be ever after united.] 6. Refusal of the French to acknowledge the treaty after the death of both Charles and Henry in a.d. 1422. The war was now carried on by the French king, Charles VII. 7. Uprising of France, under the inspiration of the famous Maid of Orleans, Joan of Arc. By the enthusiasm which she excited, 'he French gained several victories over the English, and finally, by A.D. I453j thelatterwere entirely driven from France, retaining only the town of Calais. This closed the Hundred Years' War. 208. On the whole, notwithstanding the long war with state of England, the kingdom of France grew greatly in power and extent in the times between the middle of the 13th century and the middle of the 15th century. And regarding the history of France during the Middle Ages as closing with Louis XL (a.d. 1483) we may say that the French nation was then the most powerful in Europe. the French nation. u Review. 3. ENGLAND. 209. The history of Anglo-Saxon England has been traced up to the epoch of Charlemagne, when the various petty kingdoms were all united under King Egbert, at the beginning of the 9th century. 210. The supremacy of Egbert was soon interrupted by Troubles with the Danes, or Norsemen, and both he and his the Danes. successors were very greatly disturbed by them. Alfred the Great was a grandson of Egbert, and became king of Wessex in a.d. 872. He was almost constantly employed in fighting the Danes. But all he could do did not prevent them making a lodgement in England ; and a century after Alfred's death England was quite won by them, !(" ENGLAND. for the Dnnp r ' "" — " — — ''ave been related (under ft,! f'"' °^ *'"'<^h _ , '"" g'-t event in the his"ory olTl' T ""^ "«« ~-- event the English natioi^„ England. By this "»i«"t. Norman, wh^ c^^TZX tZT''''' ^"'^^"S«^<^- The J hey had al, the great officer^:' "^^ "T ™""^ ^'-^ courts were directed by them tV ^"'^'' ^"'^ 'he law that spok,„ ^y ^^^ J them The officii language wal 'vhich was a Romance, or Latk' '' "' Norman-French, 212 The Saxons hn„L "^"""S- ^Peech. feld their own "erCrLTr^'^"^'' -«'- They .the great majority of the peonle Z"^'^ "'" Pe„iste„„ ■mportant, also, they clunff? t ■ ""^^ '^ "'^■7 <"s«„^" f "age. The effect 'of the h ^I""'"^ Anglo-Saxon Ian. long time the two tongues drin^^' '';'" P'™""- For a remamed the speech of the com °1 '°^''^^^- Anglo-Saxon "-as the official and the faMn T^ P^°P''^' '^hile French dred years but few No'maf ? 'f"^"^^^- I" two hu„ the ordinary speed butT^ °'^.f ''''' "^^^" brought into to drop most if its peculiL 'r "' ''" ^nglo-Saxof beZ Saxon hadbeen iS^fZZT''T'- '^'-•-^ about m the r4th centu,; a rlm^"^!^"'-^^^. 'here came the languages. Thousands of W. ^""""S together of ■ntroduced into the common ^•^""'"•^'•^"eh words were fyPe Of English wh ch we may 'Id": »"=»"8:s. followed: Henry IV. (a.d. 1399-1413) ; Henry V. (a.d. 1413-1422); Henry VI. (a.d. 1422-1461). 221. In A.D. 1455 there broke out the great civil strife known as the Wars of the Roses (the red rose, Wars of the symbol of Lancaster, and the white rose, sym- Roses. bol of York), the contending parties being the respective representatives of the families of Lancaster and of York, both of which were claimants to the throne. Six years of T \ % mm 290 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. war resulted in the accession of Edward IV., of the family of York. 222. The House of York included three kings : Edward Houseof IV. (a.d. 1461-1483); Edward V. (a.d. 1483); Y°fi^ Richard III. (a.d. i 483-1 485). The twenty- four years' reign of these three kings was filled with troubles and intrigues, and these continued till a.d. 1485, when a Lancastrian Earl, son of Edward Tudor, came to the throne as Henry VII. With him the Tudor line of English sove- reigns begins, and English mediaeval history ends. , * i ■ ' m ' ; - i ■' 1^1'' ;: ::l '' 'J'? '1 'K'l!* ■ • V- '•; - -t - ■1 Ml I si 4. ITALY. 223. When the extensive empire of Charlemagne was Changes in parceled out by the Treaty of Verdun (a.d. 843), Italy. the Italian possession (comprising all of Lom- bardy) fell to Lothaire.one of the grandsons of Charlemagne. Under the German Emperor Otho these were, as has been seen, absorbed in the " Holy Roman Empire." 224. But this did not bring quietude to Italy ; for the Her con- emperors and the popes were continually qiiarrel- dition. ing, and Italy was inevitably drawn into the struggles between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines. The Ghibellines were the friends of the emperors ; the Guelphs, with whom the popes generally sided, upheld the cause of tlie Italian people, who were constantly striving to rend the links that bound them to the German empire. 225 In the latter half of the 12th century Frederick struggle with Barbarossa attempted to strip the Italian towns the Emperor, ol their dearly prized liberties. This resulted in the League of Lombardy in a.d. 1167, when twenty- three Italian cities united to claim, among other privileges, the right of electing their own magistrates and making their own laws. By granting charters and working on local ^TALY, jealousies, FrcdoriZ "^ "^ !!_' H''pos!ttn,'&ou:abI^r c^^" ^'' •"<= Crusades already led ,o sl„„bunHi ''°">merce, l,ad ^'• ""d the hire of ve els fn ^ °" ^ '^^g*^ ^'^'■"e i ^'°'«- fed '- coffers :wrgj,r"H':^^--''-^'o Pa,e.,,„e course led to the rapid tk^ „f "'^^ ^ast. The s-im^ ^«e shore of Italy. wZh! '"''' ^^"°''' <"• the opno specially priced. "^ '^^ ^'^"^^ '"^de at Venice being rou'^th?Ln;t°^^,:[,^-;- ^P-ad f an early day Candia; and Iterlhe ex e^nTd h'''"'^' ""^ M°-. and hardy as far as the Adda r ' '"'">' "^'""gh Lom ■n A^B. ,480. ''''''"• Cyprus was conquered by her h"?'i'"-~^^^^ of the Doge, or Du.=e, hundred and eighty menZrl ch »"""' '=°""<^" °f ^u «^hange took place .,n„-T A '-''ange after p ,.,. ---'i 'he go'verninen' o\he°""r' °' ''^" ^^■ itTtr' ' -^^" ^^' oTb :::• ^"<^- "^^^ - . ^JO. Jn the meantimo th« "egan. ;;;S- The,.agueorCarb^;j^;3;^;^^^^^^ ^'^^ -^ decay. Decay. I'; ^ 1 ' f \ i 1 f^: i i * i* r. .jin s ng i rTjiBii ^-i a 292 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Florence. Emperor, and the kings of France and Spain, and she suffered a defeat from which she never fully recovered. 231. The strength of Florence lay in the commercial spirit of the citizens. They wove in silk and wool, made jewelry, and especially followed the occupation of bankers. Their gold florin,, first coined in A.D. 1252, became the standard currency of Europe. In A.D. 1250 the citizens, revolting against the rule of the Ghibelline nobles, established a magistracy styled the Sig- noria. Long and tedious feuds distracted Florence, but in spite of these she grew rich. 232. In the course of these troubles a family of mer- chants named the Medicis \med' e-chee\ rose to great influence in Florentine politics ; and finally one of these, named Lorenzo de Medici, raised him- self to be the head of the state. His splendid patronage of art and literature gained for Lorenzo the name of the Magnificent. He turned his gardens at Florence into an Academy, he enriched the public library with many hun- dreds of manuscripts collected in Italy and the East, and by his patronage of artists made Florence the scene of some of the most brilliant triumphs ever won by brush or chisel. 233. When Charles VIII. of France, crossing the Alps, invaded Italy, Florence was rudely despoiled. The Medicis were then banished from Flor- ence ; but they were restored in a.d. 1512. The republic, however, did not long endure. Its extinction dates from A.D. 1537, when Cosmo I. was proclaimed Duke of Flor- ence. In A.D. 1569 he was created by the Pope Grand Duke of Tuscany. But this carries us beyond the period of the Middle Ages, and we shall return to Italy under modern history. Later events. \ m SPAIN. 293 I she ercial : and lowed oined ;. In Df the e Sig- but in f mer- ose to ; and ;d him- nage of of the nto an ly hun- .st, and f some hisel. e Alps, ,poiled. Flor- ;pubUc, :s from i Flor- id Duke of the iiodern 5. SPAIN. 234. It has already been seen that Spain was over- whelmed by a Saracenic deluge in the early Condition part of the 8th century. The Christian king- J^^^^g'IJ^ dom was almost utterly crushed. However, rule, after a time the Mohammedan dominions were split up among a numbt.T of petty sovereigns; and the Christians began gradually to conquer back what had been lost. ^ BAY or 3 / s 235. The kingdom of Navarre was lounded in a.d. 873, the kingdom of Aragon in a.d. 1035, the king- j^^^^^f dum of Castile in A. D. 1026. Leon and xA.stunas Spanish were added in a.d. 1037, and Ferdinand of Leon '"srdo.ws. and Caf ! added Cor'dova, Toledo, and Sev'ille between « A.D. 1234 and A.D. 1248. ! 11"^ r '3 :! i 'i^l 294 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. 236. The kingdom of Spain was formed by the union of Unification Castile and Aragon, by the marriage of Ferdi- of Spain. nand and Isabella, and in a.d. 1491, Granada, the last of the Mohammedan possessions, was wrested from the Moors by Ferdinand and Isabella. T" the long campaign against the Moors the court moved with the army, and Columbus, who was then soliciting the aid of the Si)anish sovereigns in his great enterprise, moved with it. It is an interesting fact that the formal arrangement, or capitulations^ between Isabella and Columbus is dated Ironi the "Vega (or plain) of Granada " three days after the surrender of the last stronghold of the Moors. y\ ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS. =95 ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. »f ^ Fifth Century, Sivth Cen'.urr. The latter part of this century is filled with the events attending the dissolution of the Western Roman I'.mpite. The series of emperors in the West comes to an end, antl the Visi<^roths reign in Italy. Mean- while the Goths, Franks, and other Teutonic nations press into the Em- pire, and out of their settlements th'.' Romance nations of Europe arise. At the same time the An- gles and Saxons are settling in Britain and laying the foundations ^ of the English nation. '' In the sixth century the Franks establish themselves as the domi- nant race, and under r!o">s, A. I). 510, found a kingdom of the Franks that embraced parts of what we now call France and Germany. Clovis is succeeded by other kings of the Merovingian line. In the liyzantine Empire Justinian reigns in the first half of the century. Under him the Ostrogoths are driven out of Italy, and a good \ part of the peninsula is united with the Eastern Empire, as is also the Vnndal kingdom in Africa. But in the latter half of this century the Lombards pour into Italy and conquer the whole northern part, leaving to the Ea'^tcrn Empire only some parts of Central Italy — the Exarchate of Ravenna — and of the southern section. The Lombards establish the kingdt)m of Lombardy, Vembiacing the valley of the Po. Progress of Civili- ZA'l ION. Introduction of Chris- tianity into France. Silk-worms brought to Europe. Roman law codified under Justiniaji. Introduction of Chris- tianity into England. Latin disused in Italy. 1> 296 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. ( The first half of the seventh cen- tury is marked by the rise of Mo- hammedanism, and by the first frreat Saracenic conquests (Ilegira, A.o. 622). Under the Caliphs the Saracens wrench from the Kastern Empire a great part of its Oriental dominion. North Africa also is conquered. Hut Consianlinople successfully withstands the Sara- cenic assai Us. In Italy and the land of the Franks matters remain much as at the close of the previ- ous century. England is Chris- tianized .• but it is not yet Eng- landy — Lt^ '-"ided among seven or eight pc -vereigniies called Vthe Heptarchy Seventh Century. i m wm Eighth Century, In the early part of the eighth century the Saracens cross into Spain, which falls almost wholly into their hands. They also at- tempt to push their conquests beyond the Pyrenees, but are met a' Tours by Charles Martel and defeated. The Frankish kings sink into mere nonentities. Tiie real rulers are the Mayors of the Palace ; and one oi these, Pepin, / deposes the last Merovingian, and becomes the founder of the Carlo- vingian line. Under Pepin's son, Charlemagne, the Frankish don)i- nion is greatly extendeil ; North- ern Italy is conquered from the Lombards, and on Christmas day, A.D. 800, Charlemagne is crowned Emperor of the West. Pepin lays the foundation of the temporal power of the popes by the gift of ^ the Exarchate of Ravenna. Pens made from quills. Glass manufactured in England. Alexandrian Library destroyed. Greek fire invented. Koran published. Paper made from cotton. Carpets introduced. Schools of learning founded by the Saracens. Greek works of sci- ence translated into Arabic. ii ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS. 297 )m red ary ed. Ninth Century, from Lced. irningf the pf sci- td into / In the early part of the ninth I century the various petty sove- reignties in England are all united into one kingdom under Egbert ; and the brilliant period of Alfred comes in the latter half of this century. In Spain the Saracenic power declines, and the Christian I kingdoms of Navarre and Leon are \ founded. Under the successors of Charlemagne the empire is broken up into the three kingdoms of France, Germany, and Italy ; but it is a period of great confusion and many changes in these coun- tries, owing to the fact that the feudal barons assume the power of sovereign princes in various parts , of the empire. / In the early part of the tenth cen- tury the Norsemen become promi- nent, and under Rollo they make a landing at the mouth of the Seine, and become so formidable that the French king cedes to them the province of Normandy. They also (as Danes) assert their power in England and maintain a footing Tenth ' there. At the same time Germany Century. ^ passes entirely away from the Car- lovingians, and under new sove- reigns begins to grcv great. Otho, the German king, is crowned em- peror ; so that most of Italy is now part of the Empire. In F" ranee, to- waids the end of the century, the im- becile Carlovingian dynasty comes to an end ; Hugh Capet, the Duke of Francia.is crowned king, and the V French monarchynow really begins. Clocks brought to Western Europe. Oxford University founded. Agrriculture and hor- ticulture encour- aged in Germany. L navy first orgfan- ized by Alfred the Great ^ Arabic notation in- troduced into Eu- rope. Wine presses first introduced into Italy. Cambridgre Univer- sity founded. 11 , '1^^ 298 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. i i.' J m Musical notes vented. in. During the eleventh century the German empire is the foremost power in Europe. The popes also have risen to great influence in temporal affairs, and a good part of this century is marked by a great and prolonged struggle between the popes and the emperors. In the latter half of the century Hilde- Eleventh C brand (Gregory VII.) is pope ; he Century. Twelfth Centuiy. strongly asserts the prerogatives of the Church. The Norman con- quest of England takes place during the latterhalf of ihis century, — A.D. 1066. The kingdom of Castile is greatly enlarged at the expense of the Mohammedans. Towards the end of the century the Crusades / During this century much is done towards bringing the various pow- ers of Europe into something like the state in which they are now. The Italian cities assert their inde- pendence, the power of the Ger- man empire comes pretty well to an end, and Germany and Italy begin to be collections of separate states, independent or nearly so The Crusades go on at intervals during this century. Chivalry be- comes a great institution. The Italian republics rise to great wealth , and glory. The Crusades continue during the thirteenth century, but in a feebler way, and finally cease in the latter half. In England Nor- Windmills first used. Clocks with wheels introduced. Bcg:inning:s of native literature in the Romance tongues. Cultivation of the sugar-cane intro- duced into Sicily. Glass windows used in England. Introduction of the scliolastic philoso- phy by Abelard, Peter Lombard, and others. Spectacles inventeJ. in- ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS. 299 used. wheels native ,n the agues. Thirteenth Century. )f the intro- iicily. rs used of the philoso- Lbelard, ird, and Fourteenth Century. IventeJ. mans and English are fully recon- ciled ; the English kings, losing the greater part of their dominion in France, are forced to become national sovereigns ; the rights of the people are asserted in Magtia Charia and the establishment of the House of Commons. In Ger- j many the em])ire is upheld by \ Frederick II. (king also of Sicily), thus joining together in himself three crowns ; but he has continual strivings with various popes. In Spain, the Saracens and Moors are left with nothing but Granada. This is also a period of general intel- lectual improvement. The universi- ties are established, and this is the ageof theMinne4ngers of Germany \and of Gothic church-architecture. During a good part of this cen- tury England and France are en- gaged in war. France, in conse- quence of the English invasions of Edward III., is nearly con- quered ; but she gains in the end. These wars exercise a great influ- ence in uniting the English into one nation. The English language takes on to a good degree its mod- ern form : it is now really English, not Anglo-Saxon or Semi-Saxon. In Italy learning revives ; but the republics lose most of their free- dom. Spain is gradually becoming a great power. Norway, Denmark, and Sweden are joined by the \ Union of Calmar. Glass mirrors used. Clocks to strike made ia Europe. Science cultivated by Roger Bacon and Albertus Magnus. Marco Polo jour- neyed into Eastern Asia. Mariner's compass introduced into Europe. Paper made from hnen rags. Gunpowder and can- non used in war. Pins invented. Beginnings of English literature,— Chaucer. New Testament translated by Wyclifife. If y ( ■ if * \ i vm I ^ 1 F i 300 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Fifteenth Century. S ^ In the course of tliis century we get fairly beyond the Middle At^es. 'I'he feudal form of society has been (gradually undermined, and stron<,' national monarchies liave arisen in tlie various European countries. The Eastern Empire comes to an end, being overthrown by the Turks in the middle of this cen- tury. Spain becomes one great nation by the union of Aragon and Castile. Tiie application of the mariner's compass leads to distant sea - voyages, — new lands are opened up. Gunpowder changes the art of war, and printing makes Van intellectual revolution. Invention of the art of printing. Greek philosophers seek refuge in Italy. Algebra borrowed from the Arabs. Discovery of Amer- ica. Pass^e round Cape of Good Hope dis« covered. Hiir be art I sophers a Italy. owed abs. Amer- id Cape )pe di8« If '' s "7 ' !{' tr,,ril I'rTter u m ® IP 1 16'." CENTURY. ~TS7! ^O K Fp.. LuTi./itliJf h.d^.t ,-^' i. V \ '■'"■■; T H '--';7,J:yo^^ H^^^it'i; ^,^' i»i. -■ . .■|^ •,*>*.. An. ^k _. zs .!; ,: Jj_ 6-7 ... ;•? li 1 .1 : I «iii I. say tory "Th passj cult) histc place Turk But 1 for E disco was : Othe this i 2. the c era, i elude part ( ing tl bridg s INTRODUCTION, 301 SIiCTION V. MODERN HISTORY. Ff^OAf THli BEGINKING OF THF. SIXTFTNTH LllNTURY TO TUB FRllSI.M TIMF.. CHAPTER I. TRANSITION TO MODERN HISTORY. I. INTRODUCTION. 1. It is difficult to fix upon a precise date at which to say mcdicXval history ended and modern his- -^j^^^^ ^^^^ tory began ; for, as a great author declares, mediaEvai "The horologe of Time does not peal out the history end? passage from one era to another." And indeed this diffi- culty is shown by the different dates selected by different historians as the proper close of the Middle Ages. Some place it at the date of the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, when the Eastern Roman Empire came to an end. But this was far from being an event of marked importance for Europe in general. Others place it at the date of the discovery of America. But this event, great though it was, was merely one event in a series of maritime discoveries. Others, again, place it at the close of the 15th century. But this is purely arbitrary. 2. In place of marking one single date as the close of the old and the commencement of the new Period of era, it will be wiser to regard the period in- transition, eluded between the latter part of the 15th and the early part of the i6th century as a Period of Transition^ in pass- ing through which it may fairly be said that we cross the bridge from mediaeval to modern history. II \ i f. '* 302 MODERN HISTORY. 3. This period will embrace several marked events and Events in- revolutions in affairs : as, the destruction of eluded. the Eastern Empire ; the era of maritime dis- covery, including the discovery of America and the circum- navigation of Africa; the invention of printing and the revival of learning ; the invention of gunpowder, with con- sequent changes in the art of war and in the organization of society ; the decline of feudalism and the establishment of centralized monarchies. *. FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. \ 4. In the middle of the 15th century Constantine Palae- Stateofthe ol'ogus was the rulcr over the Byzantine Em- Eastern Em- pire ; but this empire was reduced almost to P"^®* the limits of the city of Constantinople, — for to such a pass had the great dominion of Constantine been brought by the vice and folly of its rulers, the fury of theo- logical controversy, and the corruption of its citizens. Thus sunk in hopeless decay, it was to fall before the power of the Ottoman Turks. 5. The power of the Ottoman Turks commenced in Asia Minor, and was laid by Othman, or Ottoman (born History of ^^5$), who, originally ruler of a small moun- the ottoman tain district forming the frontier of ancient Turks. Bithynia and Phrygia, gradually extended his dominion till it became one of the most flourishing states of Asia Minor. The advance of the Ottoman dynasty after this was rapid. Not only did nearly all Asia Minor fall under Turkish sway, but in the 14th century the Turks crossed the Hellespont, made Adrianople their capital, and teaching out froni there, gradually stripped the Byzantine emperors of Thrace, Macedon, Servia, and Southern Greece. At length Mohammed II. ascended the Ottoman throne u MARITIME DISCOVERIES. 303 :s and ion of le dis- ircum- id the :h con- ization shment le Palse- ne Em- most to )le, — for le been Df theo- Thus ower of iced in a (born moun- ancient ied his ,tates of ;y after or fall Turks al, and zantine reece. throne (145 1), and, from the moment of his accession, directed his efforts to the capture of Constantinople. 6. At the head of an army of 300,000 men, supported by a powerful fleet, he laid siege to the cele- siege of Con- brated metropolis. Constantine Pala^ologus stantinopie. met the storm valiantly, and for fifty-three days made a stout defense of the city. At last, on the 29th of May 1453, the Turks stormed the walls, having previously battered them with cannon (then used for perhaps tlie first time); Constantine fell, sword in hand, boldly dis- puting every inch of ground ; multitudes of his subjects were massacred ; the Crescent waved over the church of St. Sophia, and the Byzantine Empire fell forever. 3. MARITIME DISCOVERIES. 7. We have now to take a survey of the maritime dis- coveries of the 15th century, and the consequent .1-,,^ ^^^.j^ changes in trade and commerce. The map before the on page 304 presents to the eye the world as '** century, we now know it, with the world as known to Europeans previous to the discovery of America and the circumnavi- gation of Africa. From this it will appear that, during the whole of what we call ancient history and the Middle Ages, the historic stage was limited to Europe, a small part of Western Asia, and a narrow strip of Northern Africa. We are now to learn how these limits were prodigiously enlarged in consequence of the great discoveries that mark the latter half of the T5th century. 8. A knowledge of the properties of the magnet was a necessary antecedent of distant ocean voyages invention of and the discovery of unknown lands. Tiic *^'® compass, invention of the compass has commonly been attributed to an Italian named Gioja [/V/j'(ir], who flourished about the '\i ! li ■Hi ^1 i^ 'H I 304 MODERN HISTORY. beginning of the 14th century; but erroneously, for the in- strument was known, even in Europe, nearly two centuries before this time. It was then, however, in a very rudimen- tary state, being merely a needle rubbed on a loadstone and floating on a cork, or other light substance, in a vessel filled with water, — a method used long before by the Chinese. The really important question is. When was the compass practically applied in navigation ? This does not seem to have been done till about the beginning of the 15 th century. 9. It was the Portuguc^se who, under the patronage of MARITIME DISCOVERIES. 305 e in- uries men- stone vessel the las the ^es not )f the age Prince Henry of Portugal, took the lead in maritime discovery. Retiring to the promontory of St. Prince Henry Vincent, this enlightened prince established of Portugal, himself at the seaport town of Sa'gres, where he built an observatory and gathered around him from all quarters men skilled in astronomy and navigation. With these he discussed bold projects of maritime enterprise ; and the point to which he especially directed his attention was the practicability of sailing round Africa and of thus reach- ing the East Indies. 10. The southernmost cape of Africa known in those days was Cape Non, which received this appel- „ .^ lation from the idea that it was utterly impossible discoveries to get beyond this cape. But the officers of *"^"'^*- Henry, having at length doubled it, found Cape Bojador [/wz/i-ii-dar'] ; and this awful cape being j)assed by, the region of the tropics was penetrated, and divested of its fancied terrors ; the river Senegal was observed, the greater part of the African coast, from Cape Blanco to Cape de Verde, was explored, and the Cape de Verde and the Azore Islands were discovered. Before the death of Prince Henry, in 1463, Portuguese discovery had been pushed to within five degrees of the equator. 11. The passion for discovery languished after the death of Prince Henry; but it was revived with ad- Their further ditional ardor by his grand-nephew. King John Progress. II. (1481). In his reign the Portuguese for the first time crossed the equator and beheld the stars of a new hemi- sphere : in 1484 a Portuguese fleet sailed fifteen hundred miles south of the equator, settlements were made on the coast of (iuinea, and a regular commerce was established. 12. The Portuguese now began to conceive the possibilit;^ of reaching India by a southern navigation Circum- around Africa. In 1487 Bartholomew Diaz of Africa, sailed far enough south not only to descry but to double* ^ ■f 306 MODERN HISTORY. m I the Oilfo Tormentoso, or Cape of Storms ; and as the coast was ascertained to run towards the north-east, the prospect of success seemed now so clear that the king re-named this cape Cabo de Boa J'.speran^a, or Cape of Good Hope. The " good hope " was reahzed by Vasco da Gama, who, having doubled the southern point of Africa, arrived at Cal'icut, in Mal'abar, in May 1498. A sea-route to India was thus opened up. 13. The desire of reaching India by sea was the inspir- Whatiedto ^"S motive of a voyage that resulted in a still the discovery more brilliant discovery, namely, the discovery of America. ^^ America by Columbus. 14. Columbus's love of enterprise was no doubt stimu- Aini of lated by the maritime discoveries of the Portu- Coiumbus. guese ; and it has been recently proved that he conceived his grand project soon after his arrival in Portugal. This project, as is well known, was by no means that of finding a new continent, but of seeking a passage to India, the land of gold and spices. He knew that the Portuguese were bending their efforts to reach India by the circumnavi- gation of Africa ; and his grand inspiration was that India might more readily be attained by sailing westward across the Atlantic. 15. The success of the Portuguese in India, though not so Portu ese brilliant, was scarcely less important than that of in the East the Spaniards in America. Albuquerque con- Indies. quered Goa (15 n), and made it the capital of the Portuguese establishments in the East. But the Portu- guese generally abstained from territorial acquisition ; they contented themselves with commercial establishments along the coast, whence they exported from India direct the articles which the Venetians had formerly supphed to Europe through Egypt and the Levant. 16. The circumnavigation of Africa made a complete tfr, MARITIME DISCOVERIES. 307 1/ coast spect i this The aving ut, in ; thus inspir- a still ::overy stimu- Portii- hat he irtugal. that of India, uguese mnavi- India across not so that of con- )ital of Portu- ; they ; along irticles irough Implete e I revolution in the commercial condition of Europe : the trade which had been confined to the Medi- Effect of sea- terranean now traversed the Atlantic, and the route to ladia Western nations hastened to share in its gains. "" * ** With characteristic indolence, the Portuguese carried the Indian produce no farther than Lisbon, where it was sold to foreign merchants for transmission to other countries. The Dutch engaged very eagerly in this carrying trade, and found it so lucrative that they took the earliest opportunity of excluding the Portuguese themselves from all share in their commerce by depriving them of their colonies. 17. England was not altogether without a share in these great maritime discoveries. In 1497, under the Part taken by auspices of Henry VII., Sebastian Cabot, a native ^^ English, of Bristol, and one of the three sons of John Cabot, a Vene- tian merchant settled in that city, sailed around the northern coast of Labrador, touched at a point supposed to have been either New'foundland or Cape Breton', and sailed to the south along the coast of what is now the United States as far as latitude 38°. His enterprise led to no immediate advantage, though the discoveries of Cabot are of interest as having been the foundation of the English claims to dominion in North America. 18. The growth of commerce in this age was very rapid, but there appeared to be still room for further ^. ^ ^ . Circumnavi- discoveries, until the globe was circumnavigated gationofthe by the ships of iMagel'lan (1519-1521). Prom ^^°^®' that time the attention of nations began to be directed more to completing old discoveries than to the search for new lands. The navies of Europe commenced to assume a formidable aspect ; manufactures multiplied, and states previously poor became suddenly rich. Sovereigns and governments began to direct their attention to commerce, justly persuaded that mercantile wealth is the source as well of the prosperity as of the glory of nations. '' » 3o8 MODERN HISTORY. i I I i:' 4. THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 19. While the European mind, in the 15th century, was thus astir with the spirit of discovery, there attending the took place that remarkable intellectual awaken- revivaiof jng Styled the Revival of Learning. We have already seen that this movement had begun in the latter part of the Middle Ages. Long before the fall of Constantinople the love of classical literature had been gradually reviving ; — that event increased it by compelling a great number of learned Greeks to seek shelter in Italy, and other parts of Western Europe, carrying with them their treasures of classic lore. There now began among scholars a most ardent search for buried and neglected manuscripts, and their diligence was rewarded by the dis- covery of many precious monuments of the Greek and Roman literature. The labors of these scholars were mainly instrumental in producing that state of things which turned men's minds towards the invention of printing, and nourished it to maturity when invented. 20. It is rather singular, in connection with the history Controversy ^^ printing, SO aptly termed the "art preserva- on the origin tivc of all the arts," that while it records the o prin mg. ^jj-^Vj of Other inventions, no positive record exists of its o\\ n. A controversy has arisen, concerning the origin of the art, between the three towns of Harlem, Mentz, and Strasburg ; each, from a natural partiality, attributing it to her own citizens. The dis{)ute, howe\cr, has turned rather on words than facts, and it seems to have arisen from the different definitions of the word priniui(^. If the inven- tion of the principle be made the criterion, the h^nor is unquestionably due to Laurence Coster, a native of Har- lem, who first found out the method of impressing characters on paper by means of carved blocks of wood. If movable types be considered as the criterion, the merit of the dis- w li itury, there aken- have run in fall of been ^jelling 1 Italy, them among glected he dis- sk and s were which g, and history 'eserva- rds the record ling the Mentz, libuting turned m from inven- fuior is ^f Har- iracters lovable Ihe dis- DECLINE OF FEUDALISM. 309 cover}' is due to John Gu'tenberg of Mentz ; while Schoeffer [s/ii/'ty], in conjunction with Faust, was the first who founded types of metal. 21. In regard to the earliest books printed, the following facts are of interest : — 1423. Year of the earliest dated print This is known as the "St. Clirislopher" jirint, — a single entjiaved page with a few lines of en graved letters. 1438. Letters separately cut in wood about this date. 1450. Letters separately cast in metal alioiit this date. Z455. Bible in Latin. This earliest complete printed book known is called the Maz'arin Bible, from having been foimd in the col- lection of Cardinal Mazarin. It is supposed to have been issued from the press of Gutenberg and Faust at Mentz, about 1455. X457. Psalter in Latin; printed at Mentz by (Jutenberg and Faust, — first book printed with a date. X460. Bible in Latin and German : earliest example of a book printed on both sides of the leaf with metal types. 1474* First book printed in England by Caxton. Its title is "The Game and Playe of the Chesse." 5. DECLINE OF FEUDALISM. 22. At the close of the 15th and commencement of the 1 6th century, the power of the great European Feudalism in vassals had been shaken, but not annihilated. France. In France feudalism had received a severe blow at the hands of Louis XI. ; yet it still in some degree survived ; it threatened to rise again during the civil wars of France, and was not completely extinguished till the time of Riche- lieu. 23. So also in Spain, though much abated, it remained to be put down by the policy of the Emperor in Spain and Charles V. and his successor, Philip II. In England. luigland the great vassals of the crown had never been so powerful as on the Continent ; and hence in the time of y S J ''J 1 I 310 MODERN HISTORY. John they had been obliged to league themselves with the people in defense of their common rights, The great Earl of Warwick in the reign of Edward IV., and the Duke of Buckingham in that of Richard III., are among the last remarkable instances of formidable power in the nobles. The greater part of them perished in the Wars of the Roses. 24. Among the chief agents in the destruction of feu- Result of the sialism were the invention of gunpowder and invention of the consequent change in the art of war ; for pow er. neither the armor of the knights nor the thick walls of their castles were proof against bullets and cannon- balls. 25. Although it is universally conceded that gunpow- Periodofthe der was invented by Roger Bacon, the English invention. monk, in the 1 3th century, it was long before the invention was applied to the art of war. This applica^ tion has been claimed for Berthold Schwartz, a German apothecary, about 1330 ; but gunpowder appears to have been used in war by the Moors before that period. 6. RISE OF GREAT MONARCHIES. 26. The most striking fact in the political aspect of Europe Great i«5P tare ^^ ^he commencement of modern history is the of the period, appearance of a series of great centralized mon- archies, which in the period of transition arose upon the ruins of the feudal states. 27. Despotism could not exist in the time of feudalism, Cause of ^n account of the resistance of the nobility ; royal but when the great vassals were overthrown, espo ism. ^j^^ kings gradually contrived to get all power into their own hands. And thus, strange to say, the condition of affairs at the beginning of the modern period, though in some respects a going forward, was in other respects a ssssr 1> h the :Earl ke of e last obles. S-oses. )f feu- :r and ir; for I thick innon- inpow- ]^nglish before ipphca- jcrman o have Europe is the mon- lon the lalism, )bility ; Ihrown, ^er into idition though )ects a RISE OF GREAT MONARCHIES. 311 falling back from the state of affairs in the Middle Ages. It was p time when laws could be more regularly carried out, when much of the turbulence and disorder of the feudal period came to an end. But it was also a time when poli- tical freedom retrograded, when the great states became absolute monarchies under sovereigns whose will was law. 28. These monarchs wielded the sword of the state, and this sword was the Standing Army, a thing new Effect of in European history. In the feudal ages, when, standing in order to make war, the sovereign had to call on *^°"^' his liegemen, there was always this limitation of the king's power, that the great vassals might not obey. But an army of soldiers kept constantly under the kings pay was a tremen- dous weapon which he could wield at will ; and it was by means of this weapon that the kings in most parts of Europe overthrew the free institutions that had arisen in the Middle Ages. 29. The people surrendered these liberties without heed ; for such was the spirit of the age, that men had surrender of come to think the sovereign and the state one, liberties, and patriotism meant simply loyalty to the king. This was a devotion not without its noble aspect, but it was fatal to the people ; and we shall see that liberties surrendered thus lightly had afterwards to be reclaimed with terrible throes. 30. The absolute power which the great sovereigns had acquired enabled them to wage wars for their Nature of the own purposes, — wars in which the nations that ''^" waged, they governed had very little interest, and which were de- signed merely for the aggrandizement of particular royal families. Thus, though the most valuable part of history is that which concerns the people themselves, and not that which has to do with kings and courts, it happens that at this period we cannot pass over the latter in silence, because the relations, hostile or otherwise, of great princes form ^ k i really the most salient facts in the history of the i6th and 17th centuries. 31. The understanding of this state of affairs will help the Balance of studcut to a knowledge of what is meant by the Power. balance 0/ pmce?; of which we read a great deal in modern European history. For when the strength of nations thus became centralized in the hands of a few mon- archs, it was not unlikely that one of these might through his own power, aided by fiimily connections, gain a great and dangerous preponderance over the others. Now the aim of the policy named the balance of power was to attain such a just distribution of force, either by alliance or internal resources between the different states, that no one should overshadow the others. This led to exceedingly complicated international relations, and the combination of nations thus formed is often spoken of as the " States-System of Europe." i! AGE OF CHARLES V. 3»3 ^ CHAPTER II. GREAT EVENTS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, TOPICS.... Age of Charles V. England under Henry VIII. Rise of the Dutch Republic. Civil and Religious Wars of France. Age of Elizabeth. X. AGE OF CHARLES V. 32. It is the brilliant figure of Spain that first attracts our attention at the beginning of modern his- Growth of tory; and indeed we may fairly say that dur- Spanish power, ing most of the i6th century Spain was the greatest power in Europe. For a long time during the Middle Ages Spain lay obscurely between the ocean and the Pyrenees, and carried on wars and policies which were limited by its territorial bounds. Indeed, we can hardly say that at this time Spain was a nation at all; for the peninsula was parcelled out between a number of small independent kingdoms, while the Moors, though their power had been greatly circumscribed, still held firm foothold in Grenada. But the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon with Isabella of Castile united the two most powerful states. Then these sovereigns entered upon a vigorous campaign against the Moors, and the year 1491 saw the fall of Grenada. In 15 12 Ferdinand conquered nearly all the kingdom of Navarre, — so that the whole peninsula except Portugal was thus joined together ; and the year 1516 saw the supreme power over all united Spain descend on the head of the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella. Now this grandson was the character known in history as the Emperor Charles V, n 1 3'4 MODERN HISTORY. (If 11 1 33. Charles V. was born at Ghent in the year 1500. Position of Hc was the son of Philip, Archduke of Austria Charles V. (^on of Maximilian, Emperor of Germany), and of Joanna (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain). At the age of fifteen he assumed the government of Flan- ders, which came to him through his paternal grandmother, Mary of Burgundy. In the following year, 15 16, the death of his maternal grandfather, Ferdinand, placed on his head the brilliant crown of Spain, and as Don Carlos I. he ruled jointly with his mother, Joanna, who, however, was insane. The Spanish dominion at this time included not only Spain, but Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and those vast possessions beyond the Atlantic with which the genius of the Genoese navigator had dowered the Castilian crown. Three years after this, in 15 19, the death of his paternal grandfather (the Emperor Maximilian) transferred to him the sovereignty of Austria and of the other hereditary pos- sessions of the House of Hapsburg. 34. The death of Maximilian transferred to Charles He is chosen Maximilian's hereditary possessions, but not Emperor. the imperial crown ; for in these times the Emperor of Germany was elected by the Electors^ or great princes of the various German states. Accordingly, on the death of Maximilian, in 15 19, it became the duty of these Electors to choose an Emperor of Germany. Charles's most formidable competitor was Francis I. of France, though for a while young Henry VHI. of England sought the glittering prize. Charles was chosen ; so tha*: now Don Carlos I. of Spain became the Emperor Charles V., and as such he was crowned with the diadem of Charle- magne at Aix-la-Chapelle in the year 1520. H< twenty years old, yet he ruled a dominion than that which had obeyed the sway of Augustus. 35. The two great events of the reign of the Emperor was •xtensive under or c AGE OF CHARLES V. 31S 1500. ustria I, and pain). Flan- other, death n his si. he ir, was ed not 56 vast nius of crown. )aternal to him iry pos- Charles ut not es the r great on the f these harles's ranee, sought now |ri2S v., Chnrle- as tensive or c Imperor Charles V. are : i. The rise of Protestantism ; 2. The wars carried on under the lead of Francis I. of France Two chief against Charles V., to maintain the balance of events of the reign. power. 36. At the beginning of the i6th century all the nations of Western Kurope were in communion with the pQ,jt|(,„ ^j Roman Catholic Church. It is true that from the Catholic time to time, during the Irtter half of the Middle Church. Ages, there had been religious discontents among particular men. Thus in the 12th century there arose in the South of France a sect called the Albigcnses, who agreed in con- sidering the authority claimed by tlie popes in spiritual matters, as well as the discipline and ceremonies of the Roman Church, erroneous and unlawful. Very similar opinions were proclaimed in England in the 14th century Dy WyclifTe, and in the next century by Huss in Bohemia. But these revolts against the See of Rome had been partial and temporary, and they were all put down, though not till many persons were burnt as heretics. 37. It happened, however, very soon after the beginning of the 1 6th century, that great controversies on Beginnings matters of religion arose. Undoubtedly abuses of religious had crept into the Church ; the interference of *^°" roversy. popes in the civil affairs of nations had long given serious umbrage, while the excessive wealth of ecclesiastics had excited the cupidity of princes ana powerful nobles. 38. Such was the state of affairs when indulgences were published in Germany by the authority of Leo p^otes^a t X., the proceeds of which were to be applied to ism at the the building of St Peter's Basilica at Rome, a ^0""**^"- grand edifice commenced by Julian 11. The office of pub- lishing the indulgences having been entrusted to the l^lcctor Albert, Archbishop of Mentz and Magdeburg, who was as extravagant and fond of display as Leo himself, he selected as Commissary or preacher for hiu diocese, Tetzel, a ripe scholar, ■ i 3«^ MODERN HISTORY. ■ i I , ' .' f ! ■ and a popular, though intemperate, speaker. The choice of Tetzel gave offence to the order of Augustinians, who had previously enjoyed this privilege. 39. Tetzel's preaching excited particular dissatisfaction in ^. , Saxony, where the authorities had recently en- First appear- •' . •' ance of acted measures against the abuse of indulgences. Luther. Mart'ii Luther, a distinguished Augustinian friar and professor 01 theology in the new University of Witten- berg, became the mouthpiece of this dissatisfaction. Having in vain prayed the Archbishop to mark out the proper course to be followed, so that the publication might be made in a lawful manner, by the advice of his friends and in accordance with the usage of the age, he affixed 10 the doors of the church connected with the castle of Wittenberg his famous Ninety- five riopositions^ in which he protested against the abuse of the doctrine of indulgences. Though a number of these propositions were ultimately declared heretical, Luther at this time had no thought of throwing off his allegiance to the Church of Rome. His theses were propositions for dispute, concluding with a solemn declaration that he affirmed nothing, but left everything to the judgment of the duly constituted authorities. Indeed the seventy-first pro- position invoked a curse on all who should speak against the truth of the Papal indulgences. 40 'I'he applause which greeted the appearance of Progress of Lutht.'s pro[)ositions revealed the intense indig- Luther. nation everywhere excited by Tetzel's course. The Bisho]) of Warzburg anticipating danger to Luther from his bold proceedings, besought for him the protection of the Elector Frederick the Wise of Saxony. Several princes and noblcy of (lermany esjjoused his cause, displeased that works of art in a foreign country should drain off so largely the resources of their own people. Luther's propositions, as might have been exj)ected, called forth many counter' theses, none of which were left unanswered. AGL OF CHARLES V. 317 ce of had on in y en- mces. 1 friar ^itten- [aving ::ourse : in a rdance :hurch Windy- abuse f these thcr at ince to :)ns for hat he of the St pro- against lice of indig- course. ir from of the :es and d that largely jsitions, lounlei' 41. He further forwarded his proj^ositions, with explana- tory supplements, to the Pope, respectfully continued craving an investigation, and expressing uncon- disputes, ditional submission to the will of the Pontiff. His con- sequent citation to Rome was modified at the request of his protector, Frederick the Wise, into a summons to Augsburg, to meet the Papal legate, Cardinal Cajetan, reputed one of the most learned theologians of the time. Though nothing came of this interview, Luther respectfully but decidedly declining to retract his opinions, he still pro- fessed the utmost reverence for the authority of the Church. The Pope (Nov. 15 18) issued a bull explaining the doctrine of indulpCi.ces, and threatening all gainsayers with excom- munication. He also sent a second messenger, Miltitz, a Saxon by birth, who, while decorating the Elector Frederick with the golden rose, had it in charge to restrain Luther by peaceful mea< ures until the German bishops might termi- nate the strife. Luther agreed to abstain from discussion, if his adversaries would do the same. Tetzel was sharply rebuked by the Papal legate for his indiscreet zeal, and withdrawing to a monastery, fell sick and died. But the truce between the contending parties was broken by Dr. John Eck, who challenged Luther to a public discussion. This was held at Leipsic, where Eck was confronted by Luther and his friend Carlstadt. Pxk, without loss of time, and ignoring the Papal legate, set out for Rome to urge the Pope to take prompt and decisive measures. The outcome was the issue of the bull Kxsun^e Domine (June 1520), in which fifty-one propositions extracted from Luther's writings were condemned as heretical, and himself ordered to be excommunicated, if he should not retract within sixty days. Luther, anticii)ating the blow, circulated his sermon on r.XiOi/if/iunicatiflfi, and dispatched to Leo a letter breathing the boldest spirit of defiance. Eck, though holding no superior rank as a churchman, and justly regarded as w ti I ■■I ^i 318 MODERN HISTORY. Luther's most implacable enemy, was made a member of the commission appointed to execute the bull. Availing himself of this circumstance, Luther published a pamphlet on "the Eckian bulls." What he termed "the execrable bull of Antichrist " he committed to the flames in the pre- sence of the students of the university and the inhabitants of Wittenberg. 42. All Germany was in a ferment. Frederick, Elector The Diet of of Saxony, was one of the earliest converts to Worms. the Reforfnation^ as the new movement began to be called. Other princes, actuated in part no doubt by jealousy of the House of Austria, now menacing the liberties of Europe, took the same side. The recently elected Emperor, Charles V., strongly attached to the tradi- tional teachings of the Church, summoned a Diet of the German princes at W^orms, where Luther, despite the protests of Alexander, the Papal legate, was summoned to appear. Being called on to retract, he refused to do so. The Emperor, though dismissing him under a "safe-conduct," expressed himself as determined " to use all endeavors to extirpate the heresy." Shortly afterwards Luther was solemnly placed under the ban of the Empire. 43. However, civil discords in Spain and the desperate conflict which the Emperor was waging in France claimed his undivided attention. The new doc- trines rapidly spread, and under various forms took root in Germany, France, Switzerland, England, Scotland, and Scandinavia. 44. An attempt was made to check the movement by the Ori in of ^^^^ ^^ Spires, 1529; for by this assemblage a the name decree was promulgated forbidding any change Protestant ^j^jjj ^^^ meeting of a general council. Luther's friends and followers protested against this decree, and hence the professors of the reformed religion received the common name of Proiestonis. We have sketched the rise of Protes- tantism without reference to the theological issues involved. ^ir^w it »er of ailing iphlet crable e pre- )itants Elector srts to began doubt ng the ecently e tradi- of the protests appear. ). The induct," Lvors to Dlemnly sperate France ew doc- 3k root id, and AGE OF CHARLES V. 3»9 With the modifications of creed and ritual and ecclesiastical polity the secular historian is not called upon to deal. The movement has arrested our attention as carrying with it important natioi al consequences, as the occasion of wars and treaties in which the greatest nations and sovereigns of Christendom were concerned. 45. We now turn to the other and political events of the age of Charles V., namely, the complications Rivalry with with Francis I. of France. This bitter rivalry Francis I. led to four wars, in each of which the avowed object of Francis was to preserve the balance of power, as against the menacing greatness of the House of Austria, represented by Charles V. 46. In the first war, which was mainly an Italian war, the decisive action was the battle of Pavi'a, 1525. Events of the Here the imperial forces sliattercd the P>ench fi^'stwar. power in Italy ; and Francis himself was taken prisoner and conveyed to Madrid, where he lay a year in prison. At the end of that time he was released by Charles on the promise that he would give up the Duchy of Burgundy, renounce all his pretensions to Italian territory, and sur- render his two sons as hostages. 47. Francis had made the stipulations mentioned with- out ever intending to keep them : the result was that hostilities were immediately renewed, and the second war (1527-1529) began. This time Henry VIII. of England sided with Francis, who was also sup- ported by the Pope. The French army entered Italy, but was there repeatedly defeated. This inclined Francis to peace ; and as at the same time the Emperor was anxious to suppress the Reformation in Germany, a treaty was made in 1529 (Treaty of Cambray), the terms of which were quite unfavorable to Francis I. 48. The third war began in 1535, but in three years both parties were exhausted ; so by the media- Third and tion of the Pope they concluded in 1538 a truce ^^^^^ «*«■■• Second war. t U 320 MODERN HISTORY. ¥ IV ' '.' mM\ j ': J II that was to last for ten years. Before the time of truce had half expired, hostilities were renewed, and the fourth war commenced. A strange alliance it was that Francis now formed ; for Solyman, Sultan of Turkey, together with some of the Protestant princes of Germany, united with the French against Charles V., who was aided by Henry VIII. of Er«'^ — " The P>ench king won a victory over the Emperor at Cerisoles ; but this did not prevent the invasion of France both from England and from Spain. However, the Emperor and the English monarch did not act in concert, and accordingly PYancis concluded a peace with Charles at Crespy in 1544. Three years after this, 1547, the Emperor's two great royal contemporaries, Francis I. and Henry VHI., died. 49, At this time Charles V. became engaged in a contest w "thth ^'^^^ ^^^ Protestant princes of Germany, who, Protestant fifteen years before, had formed a league for pnnces. their mutual protection at Smalcald in 1531. On the other hand, the famous Council of 'Irent^ convoked in 1531 for "the propagation of the faith, the elevation of the Christian religion, the uprooting of heresies, the restora- tion of peace, the reformation of the clergy and Christian people, and the overthrow of the enemies of the Christian name," was finally opened in December 1545. Disap- pointed in his long-cherished exi)ecuaion of securing a general and lasting peace by harmonizing religious differ- ences, the Emperor now put lorth vigorous efforts against the Protestant cause. Almost at the commencement of the war, Maurice of Saxony, one ot the Icadinij: Protestant princes, deserted the League and espoused the cause of C.'Iiarles. This change of sides, which was not free from iiie suspicion of interested motives, had the effect of cum- [)letely breaking up the League. 50. Charles was now completely successiul and Protestan- Attemptsat ^*sm seemed to lie jjiostrate at his feet. But conciliation, though elated by his victories, he retained the V r,1i. m tl AGE OF CHARLES V. 321 truce fourth rancis r with i with Henry y over :nt the Spain. :h did ided a .rs after oraries, contest y, who, (rue for D 1531- nvoked ion of restora- uistian nristian Disap- )tcstan- But led the desire of uniting all his subjects within the fold of a common faith. Under his auspices was tranicd what is known as the Augsbu>\^' Jniei ifii^ an attempt to construct a religious platform for nil parties in the t.m[)ire, and thus by his impe- rial authority to put an end to schism. But the attempt at conciliation pleased neither party. Catholics and Protes- tants alike rejected it. At this juncture, Maurice of Saxony, having by his alliance with the Emperor been enabled to gratify a long-standing grudge against his kinsman the Elector, resumed his attachment to the Protestant cause, and in 155 1 entered into a secret treaty with Henry H. of France. Soon he took the field against Charles at the head of the Protestant princes of Germany. 51. The Emperor's reverses were as rapid as had been his successes. Unable to carry on a contest against Religious the combined armies of the French king and the anaTsured Protestant princes, Charles resolved to try the principle, power of peaceful negotiations. The king of France march- ing eastward, captured in swift succession Toul, Verdun, and Metz, Maurice of Saxony surprised and nearly caj-tured the Emperor himself at Innsbruck. At this crisis, Charles deputed to his brother Ferdinand the task of arranging a peace, first at Passau (1552) and linally at Augsburg (1555). The articles agreed upon recognized the principle of mutual toleration, and were measurably satisfactory to both the great religious parties. 52. The Emperor was doomed to sustain another reverse. At the head of a splendid army of 60,000 men Failure be- he sought to recapture the fortress of Mctz. foj'e Metz. He was forced to retreat with heavy losses, and Metz was for three centuries lost to the German empire. 53. In this state of affairs Charles V. determined to lay aside his crowns. Accordingly, in 1556 he _. resigned the scepter of Spain and the Two Sicilies abdication to his son Philip H., and the imperial crown a^^deat**- X .i it I ^p i) !lif !l I J i 322 MODERN HISTORY. to his brother Ferdinand : he then retired to the monastery of San Yuste \yoos'td\ in Spain, being resolved there to end his days. In the solitude of the convent he divided his time between religious duties and the making of mechanical con- trivances. Towards his latter end he conceived the ghastly fancy of having his own funeral rehearsed. This unicjue display was the forerunner of the dread real tragedy itself; for death overtook the Emperor in 1558. 54. Whatever may have been his failings, Charles was Character of perhaps the ablest and most powerful monarch Charles V. of the 1 6th Century. "He was the converging point and heir of four great royal lines, which had become united by a series of fortunate matrimonial alliances." He was both born and elected to the highest positions in Chris- tendom, and he proved himself not unworthy of filling them, even though many of his schemes failed, and he eventually threw down his scepters in disappointment, if not in disgust. He was free from many of the vices of his kingly contem- poraries. He spoke but little, and a laugh or smile was rarely seen upon his face. An impartial authority * declares that " Charles was neither cruel nor cold by nature : he was popular among all classes and nationalities of his subjects, clement to rebels, revered by his immediate attendants, loved by the members of his own family, and deeply attached to his wife." However ojjposed to the spirit of the present times were the means which he adopted to en- force his own religious opinions ui)on his subjects, the sincerity of the convictions which prompted those measures cannot reasonably be doubted. Proud of his position as the pohtical head of Christendom, he was sorely disap- pointed at finding circumstances too strong for liini. * Encyclopedia Britannica, u ENGLAND UNDER HENRY VIII. 323 istery ) end stime .1 con- ;hastly inique itself; ;s was onarch merging )ecome » He I Chris- g them, intually disgust, pontem- e was eclares le was ibjects, ndants, deeply )irit of to en- Its, the easiires tion as disap- a. ENGLAND UNDER HENRY VIII. 55. In the year 1509 Henry VU., the first of the Tudor line of English sovereigns, died, leaving as heir Events at the to the throne a son who is known to history as accession. Henry VHI. The young king, at this time eighteen years of age, was handsome, lively, accomplished, and learned. Soon after his accession he married Katharine of Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur, and aunt of Charles V. of Spain. 56. The king soon became mixed up with Continental poli- tics, into which he was drawn by the fact that the „ , ., ' •' , Englands two great sovereigns of France and Spam who foreign were his contemporaries, namely, Charles V. and "^**'<'°«' Francis L, both sought his alliance in their wars. Henry was generally on the side of the Emperor, and he more than once invaded France ; but in truth nothing very great was done by England on the Continent, and altogether the most important events of Henry VHI.'s reign were connected with matters that happened at home. 57. During the first twenty years of this reign the most notable figure in political affairs was the cele- q^.^^.^ ^ , brated Cardinal Wolsey. Wolsey was the son Cardinal of a butcher, but displaying while young great ^^^^y- quickness and intelligence, he received a learned education with a view to his entering the Church. His first employ- ment at court was in the humble office of chaplain ; but becoming acquainted with the young monarch, he soon grew to be a great favorite. He was made Archbishop of York, then High Chancellor of England, and finally became Henry's sole minister. 58. It was in the early part of this reign that the doctrines of Luther began to make a great stir in Europe. The king and (Henry's accession, 1509; Luther before the t^* Church. Diet of Worms, 1521.) At this time the English people were ardently Roman Catholic in faith, and Henry VllL \i I I M W I! 324 MODERN HISTORY. distinguished himself by writing a book against the Lutheran doctrines. The Pope was so much pleased with the pro- duction, that he gave the EngUsh king the title of Defender of the Faith. However, Henry was not destined to continue long an adherent of the Roman Pontiff, and we are now \o see the circumstances under which the great schism arose. 59. After Henry VHI. had lived eighteen years with his _, , . , first wife, Katharine of Aragon, he i^rofessed to Beginning' of ' o » i Henry's wife- feel conscientious scruples respecting the law- troubles, fulness of the marriage, on account of her hav- ing been the wife of his brother. About the same time he became enamored of the beautiful and fascinating Anne Boleyn \lwol'in\^ one of the queen's attendants. He now conceived the design of annulling his marriage with Katha- rine and marrying this younger and more agreeable person. To this end he applied to the Pope for a divorce. 60. The Pontiff (Clement VH.) granted a commission The Pope and authorizing Wolsey, with the aid of any of the Woisey. other English prelates, to inquire summarily and without judicial forms into the validity of the dispen- sation which had been granted by Julius H. The process went on for several years, but without reaching the conclu- sion desired by the king. Wolsey at length fell under the king's displeasure for not acting with sufficient zeal in the matter; he was stripped of all his places of power and wealth, and, sinking under grief and mortification, he died in 1530. In his last moments he is said to have exclaimed to his attendant, " Had I but served my God as diligently as I have served my king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs." * * Shakespeare weaves this sentiment into the touching soliloquy of the Cardinal in the drama of " Henry VIII." " O Cromwell, Cromwell, Had I but served my God with half the zeal I served my king, he would not in mine age Have left me naked to mine enemies." Henry VIII., Act iii. Scene «. ENGLAND UNDER HENRY /III. 32s 4( 61. The negotiations with the Pope for the divorce went on for two years longer. At last, in January Henry's deci- 1533, Henry took the final step from which "vestep. there was no retreat, — he secretly married Anne Boleyn ; and as, soon afterwards, the marriage with Katharine v,as declared invalid by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Henry's private union with Anne Boleyn was acknowledged, and on the ist of June 1533 she was crowned queen, with im- posing splendor. In the same year was born their cele- brated daughter Elizabeth. 62. History has pronounced a severe verdict on Henry Vni. for his conduct in divorcing Queen verdict on his Katharine. There is no doubt of the substan- conduct. tial justice of this verdict, though some recent historians, and especially Froude in his " History of England," have endeavored to free the king from a considerable part of the burden of blame. His defenders call attention to the fact that Henry VHI. was moved by a public motive, to wit, the fear of civil war likely to break out after his death on the question of disputed succession, owing to the fact that he had no living son and heir by Katharine. It is further urged that on this account the divorce was warmly desired by the great body of the English nation. It is indeed possible to conceive that Henry's mind was under the influence of mixed motives, but his subsequent conduct proves only too conclusively that the gratification of his passions was the prime reason which prompted the divorce. 63. As regards the relations of the English people to the Catholic Church, all that had been done thus The English far was to declare that the Pope had no juris- ^^ **>* ^°p«* diction in England. There was no thought of secession from the unity of the Catholic faith, and this fact Parlia- ment in 1534 took pains to declare. Nevertheless, events soon led to a considerable widening of the breach. Thus in this same year, 1534, the Pope declared King Henry 326 MODERN HISTORY. VIIT. to be excommunicated from the fellowship of the Church, and to have forfeited the allegiance of his subjects. 64. The English king now concluded that there was What Henry nothing left but to meet defiance with defiance, now did. Accordingly the Pope's authority in England was declared to be abolished, and all persons were required to take an oath of allegiance, which pronounced the mar- riage with Katharine illegal, and the children by Anne Boleyn the only rightful heirs. In addition, Parliament in 1534 passed an Act declaring the king to be the supreme head of the Church of England, and all who denied him this title were to be held guilty of high treason. 65. This led to some terrible acts of persecution against Persecution CathoHcs, whosc Consciences forbade their ac- of Catholics, knowledging that the king was the head of the Church. First a number of humble friars were put to death. Then came nobler victims, — the venerable Bishop Fisher, and the illustrious Sir 'I'homas More, who had been Lord Chancellor after the disgrace of Wolsey, and who was acknow- ledged to be the most learned and eloquent man in England, 66. The happiness which the king had expected to find Fate of Anne with Anne Boleyn was destined to be of brief Boleyn. duration. In less than three years after the marriage, charges of gross misconduct were brought against her; she was brought to trial before a high court, and being found guilty, was condemned and beheaded, 1536. 67. Hitherto, though professing independence of the Changes in Church of Rome, Henry still maintained and religion. enforced by bloody laws most of its doctrines. Now, however, he took measures for altering the system of worship to something nearer the Lutheran model, and also for suppressing the numerous monasteries throughout the country. As many as 645 monasteries, 2374 chantries and chapels, 90 colleges, and 1 10 hospitals were broken up by this powerful but unscrupulous monarch. He partly seized the f the ijects. ; was iance. [gland :^uired 5 mar- Anne ent in ipreme ;d him against leir ac- of the ) death. Fisher, Lord .cknow- ngland. find Df brief ter the against rt, and 536. of the d and :trines. Item of id also j)ut the les and 1 by this led the ENGLAND UNDER HENRY VIII. yf revenues for his own use, and partly gave them away to the persons who most actively assisted him. In the meantime it was dilhcult to tell what the state of religion really was ; I for if not Catholicity, it was also not Protestantism. And, indeed, for many years Henry vacillated so much in his opinions, and enforced them with such severe enactments, that many persons of both religions were burnt as heretics. 68. The day alter the execution of Anne Boleyn, the king married Jane Sevmour ; but in the follow- u . . *^ . ' Henrys silo- ing year she died, and Henry then married sequent mar- Anne of Cleves, a German princess. ^ le was "^^^^' not pleased with her person, however; so he divorced her by an Act of Parliament. Next he married Catherine Howard (1540), but had not been long united to her when he discovered that she had been guilty of evil conduct both before and since her marriage. The unfortunate woman was beheaded. To close this tragic business of Henry's marriages, it may be added that he took for his sixth wife Catherine Parr, widow of 1-ord Latimer (1542). She seems to have been a person of great discretion, who knew how to humor her arbitrary lord, and she si.rvived the king, whose death took place five years afterwards. 69. Henry VHL died in 1547, being in his fift} sixth year. The common verdict which has been common ver- pronounced on him by historians is that he diet on Henry was a remorseless tyrant. " If all the pictures and patterns of a merciless prince," says Sir Walter Raleigh, " were lost in the world, they might all again be painted to the life out of the story of this king." " Perhaps no other monarch since the emancipation of woman from polygamy," says Mackintosh, "has put to death two wives on the scaffold, divorced another whom he owned to be faultless after twenty-four years of wedded friendship, and rejected a fourth, without imputing blame to her, from the first im- pulse of personal distrust." f)' i I'.. s 328 MODERN HISTORY. I I m\ 70. In recent times a tendency to inodify the rigor of Milder judg- tliis judgment lias shown itself. It is urged* ments. that an examination of contemporary history shows that for some of his arbitrary and seemingly cruel acts he had jtroper justification, and that many other mea- sures which we must regard as rejjrehensible were forced upon him by the necessities of the difficult and perilous times in which he and ]<^ngland found themselves. This plea, though ingeniously urged, has not succeeded in removing the stigma from Henry's reputation. Opinions may differ as to individual actions, but the verdict of impartial history on his character as a whole must be decidedly adverse. 71. Henry VIII. ruled with a strong hand, and Parliament Benefits of was generally submissive to his behests. He his reign. acquired and exercised a most despotic sway over the fortunes, liberties, and lives of his subjects. Happily the forms of a free government were still suffered to exist, and the nation thereby saved from a permanent loss of liberty. 3. RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC. 72. The name of the Netherlands is at present given Extent of the Only to the kingdom of Holland. In the i6th Netherlands, century, however, that name denoted a cluster of provinces extending from the Zuyder Zee and the Dollart to the northern frontiers of France, and forming that tract of fertile and alluvial land which is at present occupir.A by the two kingdoms of Holland and Belgium. These provinces were a part of the extensive dominion which the Emperor Charles V., on his abdication in 1556, resigned into the hands of his son, Philip II., king of Spain. 73. At this period, the people of the Netherlands, who were Spirit of the ardent lovers of civil liberty, had by industry and people. intelligence attained a high degree of ])rosperity. They were at once the boldest navigators and the most skilful * See Froude's History of England. RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC. 329 manufacturers in Europe. During the reign of Charles V. many of them had embraced the principles of the Refor- mation. 74- This last fact was very offensive to Philip II. The religious zeal of Charles V. had, in passing character of into the gloomy character of his son, assumed p^'^'p- additional intensity. He was a silent, plotting, patient man, and, sitting in his palace of the Escurial, directed in person the affairs of his vast empire. And now, above all, his somber soul brooded on how the heresy that had spread into the Low Countries might be rooted out, for he saw that if this were not done, a separation between the Netherlands and the power of Spain might result. 75. It was soon discovered that the king had resolved to govern the country independently of the coun- The quarrel cil of nobles. On leaving the Netherlands in begins. August 1559, he ap[)ointed his sister, Margaret of Parma, regent. The forcible measures adopted to arrest the spread of the new religion alarmed and excited the Protestants, who rose in a species of frenzy, and within four days no less than four hundred churches, with everything they con- tained, were destroyed. This outbreak, which was suppressed by the influence of William of Nassau, Prince of Orange, and by concessions from the frightened regent, infuriated the king, who accordingly sent the Duke of Alva, a relentless soldier, with a large force, to render impossible such risings in the future. Then followed five years of deplorable struggle and slaughter. The Duke of Alva, at the head of the in- famous " Blood Council," seized, imprisoned, and beheaded his opponents without mercy, thereby estranging from the Spanish throne many devoted and distinguished Catholics. 76. In this sad situation the man to whom the Nether- landers looked for deliverance was William of Events under Nassau, Prince of Orange, and known in history wuiiam of as William the Silent. William, though a Pro- °''*°** j^ 330 MODERN HISTORY. m . -■ > 1 ■ '$H i 9 » : d_ ? ^ hb iL. i testant, was too wise to make the struggle a purely religious one. He appealed to naiional sentiments and sympathies, and the heroic efforts put forth to throw off the Spanish yoke were shared in by the people without distinction of creed. He led an army out of Germany into the Netherlands ; but as the Spaniards held all the fortified towns, he could for a time accomplish very little. The capture of Brille (1572) was the first success. Then the people of the province of Holland, under the Prince of Orange, declared their in- dependence. The province of Zealand followed. Various towns were taken, and the gallant defence of Harlem con- vinced Alva of the inability of strong measures. He accordingly asked to be recalled, 1573. 77. Alva was succeeded by Requesens, commander of Progress of Castilc, a man of mild disposition. The war the war. gtiU went on. The defence of Leyden (1574), which was saved by cutting the dikes and flooding the S])anish trenches, was a great blow to the pride and power of the Spaniards. But they proved too powerful for the two revolted provinces. Then the Dutch in their despair offered the sovereignty of their country to Klizal)eth of England, but the virgin queen, though a Protestant, did not then wish to interfere. The war raged as fiercely as ever. 78. Meanwliile Requesens died ; and the Spanish garrison ^ .. ^ ^u committed such atrocities at Antwerp that all the Events to the ' death of provmces entered mto a union called the Paaficii- WiiUam. y^;„^ 0/ Ghent {\si(i\ William of Orange heinL-; chosen chief magistrate, with the title of Stadtliolder. The struggling Dutch were able to confirm their constitution in 1579, when the Union of Vtrtcht formed the seven northern provinces into the Dutch Republic, under the presidency of William. 79,, Five years later the dagger of an assassin deprived the States of their able and patriotic leader. Their gratitude made them appoint his son Maurice, a youth of eighteen, in n' »t CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS WARS OF FRANCE. 331 gious thies, yoke :reed. , ; but for a >572) nee of cir in- various n con- . ile ider of he war (1574), ing the power for the despair Iheth of mt, did as ever. garri:^t)n t all the \iiiti ra- il being r. 'The lution in northern Icncy ot leprived :;ratitude iteen, in his stead. He proved himself a valiant captain in the war with Si)ain, which continued to rage in the southern Assasiination provinces. I he Spanish general, the Duke of ofWiUiam, ]*armn, took Antwerp, which was a great blow to »«d ^^e sequel, the States. Klizabeth now resolved to aid the Dutch. The Karl of Leicester accordingly was sent with an English force of 6000 men to Zutphen, near which the heroic Sidney received his mortal wound. 80. The bitter contest continued for several years yet. Towns were taken on both side" The pa- stubbornness tience of the Netherlandcrs, howe,-:r, sustained of the Dutch. them through all their trials, and finally the Spanish com- mander gave it as his opinion that the subjugation of the United Provinces was im})racticable. The pride of Spain was reduced to treat with the Dutch as an independent nation, and under the mediation of France and England a truce for ten years was made, 1 609. 81. Thus, after a severe struggle of thirty-seven years, the indeiicndcnce of the Dutch Republic was „ 11 1 • -11 1 7. /• Summing; up. secured, though it was not till the J'eace of Westphalia (1648) that this independence was acknowledged by Spain. During the conflict the Dutch had increased in wealth, had made extensive acquisitions in the East Indies, and had established the most powerful navy in Europe. 4. CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS WARS OF FRANCE. 82. The history of France during the latter half of the 16th century is mainly taken up with a series Subject of the of civil and religious wars between the Catho- chapter. lies and Protestants within the country. Connecting Note.— On the tleath of Fr.incis I. (iS47). ^^^- crown passed to his son, Henry II., who w.is married to v itlierinede Medicis a wily and artful Italian. After .1 reign of twelve years (1547-1559), he met his death accidentally at a tournament held in honor of the marriage of his son Francis with Mary Queen of Scots. This son, a /\ i fWi !; '■ t,- i I 332 MODERN HISTORY. sickly boy of sixteen, now ascended tlie throne under the title of Francis II. The guardians of the feeble sovereign and ninnai;crs of the court were tlie two brothers Guise, — Francis the general, and the Cardinal of Lorraine, un^nles of the fair young queen. The nominal sovereignty under Francis II. lasted only seventeen months ; for at the end of that time he died, and his young widow, Mnry Queen of Scots, sighing a sad f^afewell to beautiful France, sailed back to Scotland. Two other sons oesides Francis were left by Henry II. The eldest, Charles IX., was now but nine years old ; .so the queen-mother Catherine de Medicis claimed the custody of her son, and became, in fact, if not in name, regent of the kingdom. This brings the train of events up to the epoch at which begins a direful series of civil and religious wars. 83. Protestantism had taken root in some, particularly Form of French the southcm, parts of France; but the French Protestantism. Protcstants were followers, not of Luther, but of John Calvin, a Frenchman by birth, who had settled at Geneva. His teaching was a greater departure from the doctrines of the Roman Church than was that of Luther. The followers of Calvin grew to be very numerous in France, where they were known by the name of Hui^ucnots* The Huguenots were alternately persecuted and protected by Francis L, according to the varying fortunes of that monarch. 84. During the reigns of the successors of irancis, Henry Nature of the U- ^^^ Francis n., bitter religious controversies wars waged, arose between the Huguenots and Catholics, leading eventually to a series of wars which began in 1562. It should be noted, however, that these wars were quite as much political as religious ; for, so far as the great actors were concerned, it was personal ambition fully as much as religious zeal that animated them. We must, accordingly, guard carefully against misinterpreting the nature of this con- test. For there were few on either side that cared for the things in whose name they fought ; while on both sides the mo.st frightful crimes were committed in the name of religion. 85. During the brief reign of the feeble Francis H. the all- * Thf name "Huguenot" is .1 corruption of the German word " Lid- Kmossen," that is, persom dssocid/eii fry oai A,—*' Covcnunlcts." CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS WARS OF FRANCE. 333 Francis e court arclinal ireignty of that ig a sad ler son3 X., was Medicis \ name, le epoch icularly French ler, but ttled at om the Luther. France, * The :ted by lonarch. Henry wersies itholics, I 56: luite as actors h as lingly, 11 uc Ins con- for the les the lehgion. Ithe vall- Eid- powerful Guises governed the country. This fact excited the anger and jealousy of the Princes de Bourbon, Antagonism who were of the blood royal, and claimed a direct of the leaders, descent from Saint Louis. One of these princes, Antoine de Bourbon, enjoyed the title of king of Navarre ; another occupied the principality of Conde. These nobles, being excluded from all court influence, formed an opjjosition party to the Guises. The Prince of Conde embraced the Reformed religion and became a Huguenot, and his ex- ample was followed by Admiral Coligny [/co/-/e/i-y/] and other powerful persons. The part'/ans of tlie opposing fac- tions arranged themselves on the one side or on the other. 86. In 1562, a civil war, having its origin in religious strife, broke out in France, and continued for Events of the many years to devastate that country. During war. this period the famous House of (iuise was at the head of the Catholic party ; Coligny and the Prince of CondtS were the leaders of the Huguenots. The celol)rated queen- mother, the wife of one h'rench king and the mother of three more, became regent during the minority of her second son, Clharles IX., though she had previously participated but little in public affairs. Naturally fond of power, she endeavored to maintain her })osition by refusing to ally herself positively with either party. Many hold her crafty policy resjjonsible, to a large extent, for the civil wars and their dreadful consetiuences. After a series of battles, temporary pacifications and renewed outbreaks, the hostili- ties were terminated by the Treaty of St. Ciermains (1570). 87. In the latt.r part of the contest the chief part on the Reformed side had been taken by the settlement by young Henry of Bourbon, king of Navarre, marriage, who was next heir to the crown of l-'rance after the sons of Henry 11. To cement tlie peace a marriage was i)rop()sed between the young king of Navarre and the Princess Margaret, the beautiful sister of the king of France. Jhe ^ i ' 33* MODERN HISTORY. ( r proposal diffused universal joy, and both the Catholics and the Protestants came to witness the nuptials, which were celebrated on the i8th of August 1572. 88. The events which led to the fearful tragedy that Wordofcau- accompanied this marriage have been so nus- tion. represented by j^arty writers on every side, that it is no easy matter to arrive at positive conclusions con- cerning either the motives or the circumstances of this tragical affair. 89. Charles IX., feeble in body and weak in intellect, Plots and had just attained his legal majority, but the counterplots, real power of the state was wielded by Catherine de Medicis. The young king, however, had conceived a strong affection for the Huguenot leader, Admiral Coligny, and had come largely under his influence. Jealous of this influence, and dreading the consccjuences to which it might lead, the cjueen-mother, ever alive to the furtherance of her own interests, and not over-scrui)ulous as to the means to be emj)loyed, took steps to secure the assassination of Coligny. The attempt was made, but failed. Having discovered the real instigator of the plot, the Huguenot leaders miprudently proclaimed their intention to inflict a heavy vengeance on Catherine and her favorite son, Henry. 90. In this emergency Catherine convoked a secret Preparations cou'^cil of her friends, and there it was re- solved to strike, on the Iwe of St. Bartholomew, a blow that would effectually crush the Huguenot party. Late in the evening of August 23d Catherine went to Charles IX., accomi)anie(l by her chosen advisers, and told him that the Protestants had formed a |)l;m for the extermi- nation of the royal family, which could be frustrated only by the most immediate and decisive measures. The feeble monarch, who was not mnny degrees removed from idiocy, exhibited every sign of helpless alarm : whilst in this con- for the tragedy. I 4> cs and 1 were [y that ;o nus- le, that IS con- of this itellect, but the itherine civecl a ^oligny, of this it might e of her )eans to tion of Having uguenot inflict te son, secret ^vas re- blonicw, ligucnot \\\ cnt to id told txtermi- )nly by feeble [idiocy, lis con- CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS WARS OF FRANCE. 335 diiion his mother placed before him the dreadful decree of extermination, and demanded his signature. Charles at first refused, and for some time it was doubtful whether his consent would be obtained. His reluctance was at length overcome, and the fatal order for a general massacre extorted from him. 91. On the night of August 23-24 the dreadful tragedy known as the Massacre of St. Bartholomew Barthoio- began. The tocsin was sounded at two in the ™ew's Eve. morning. All had been arranged beforehand, and the participants carried a scarf on the left arm and a white cross in the hat, for better distinction. Death reigned throughout Paris ; the Huguenots rushed out of their houses half naked at the sound of the tocsin and the cries of their brethren, and were slaughtered in the streets. Coligny was one of the first victims ; but Henry of Navarre saved his life from the personal fury of the king by affecting to become a Catholic. After the direful destruction there fell a dead silence upon the streets of Paris, — there was nobody left to slaughter. Estimates as to the number of persons slain during this frightful massacre in Paris and other towns to which it extended greatly vary, but even the lowest leaves an inefiaceable stain upon the memory of Catherine de Medicis. 92. Queen Catherine and her son had anticipated as the result of this blow a reign of submission and the con-^act of termination of the civil wars. But they were the Husruo- deceived. The Huguenots, utterly desperate, "° ' flew to arms : the war broke out with greater fury than be- fore, and it was terminated only after a year of bloodshed. 93. Less than two years after the fatal night of St. Bar- tholomew, Charles IX. died at the age of twenty- France under four (1574). His brother, the third son of Henry iii. Catherine de Medicis, now came to the throne with the title of Henry HI. During his reign of fifteen years France was 'V 336 MODERN HISTORY. jl in a frightful state of anarchy, confusion, and bloodshed, and in 1589 H^nry III, died by the hantl of an assassin. With him the House of Valois, which had ruled in l-'rance during more than two centuries and a half, became extinct. 94. The crown now came of right to Henry of Navarre, „ ^ - and indeed Henry HI. had before his death re- Navarre wins cognized his right to the succession. But this the crown. prince, wlio now took the title of Henry IV. {Henri Quatre)^ had to fight for his throne. He won two signal victories over his enemies, at Arques \ivli\ (1589) and at Ivry (1590), and three years later he removed all grounds of opposition by himself becoming a Catholic. 95. Henry IV., the first king of the House of Bourbon, s ttiem nt f ^^'^^ crowned king of France and Navarre, 1594. the religious His first care was to terminate the religious disputes. disputes which had so long distracted the king- dom. For this purpose he in 1598 promulgated the cele- brated Edict of Nantes^ which re-established all the favors that had ever been granted to the Protestants by other princes.* The Edict of Nantes put an end to the disastrous wars which for thirty-six years had desolated the kingdom. 96. The administration of Henry IV. and of his saga- France under cious minister Sully was a blessing to France ; Henry IV. agriculture revived, commerce was restored, new branches of industry were opened, and vexatious im- posts abolished. The king became the most popular of sovereigns, and, despite some weaknesses of character, was unquestionably the most honorable and humane. 97. The career of Henry IV. was ended in the year • The Eldict of Nantes allowed the Protestants the exercise of their wor. ship ; it left open to them admission to all employments ; estalilished in every Parliament a chamber composed of magistrates of each relifjion ; tolerated the jjeneral assemblies of the Reformers ; authorized them to raise taxes among themselves for the benefit of their Church ; provided ministers for them : and granted them fortified places of safety, the priQ* dpai of which was Kocheiie'. AGE OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. 337 1610 by the hand of an assassin. On the 14th of May, as he was riding through the streets of Paris „. . . in his carriage, a fanatic named Ravaillac [rii- va/i-ya^'] mounted on the wheel, removed the leather cur- tain, and reaching over, stabbed the king with two blows, of which the second was instantly fatal. Such was the end of Henri Quatre, surnamcd by some the Great, and by others the Father of his People. ) 5. AGE OP QUEEN ELIZABETH. 98, The reign of Queen Elizabeth is in every respect one of the greatest eras in English history. It character of was an age of wonderful activity both material **** *tf®* and intellectual, an age of great fullness of national life ; and this appeared in bold maritime enterprises, in deeds that gave England a proud pre-eminence in the politics of Europe, and in the most original and powerful literary crea- tions ever witnessed. 99. Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VHI. and Anne Boleyn. She came to the throne at the Genealogy of age of twenty-five, in the year 1558, that is, eleven years after the death of her father. Elizabeth. Connecting Note. — The interval between I lenry VIII. and Eliza- beth was filled by two brief reigns. 1. Reign of Edward VI. lasted for six years (i 547-1 553). Edward, who was the son of Henry VIII. by his third wife, Jane Seymour, was but ten years old when liis father died ; so the governm^'nt was placed in the hands of one of the great nobles, Somerset, named the Protector; but Somerset was brought to the scaffold by another of the great lords* named Warwick. Warwick married his son to the Lady Jane Grey, a beautiful and accomplished princess of the l)lood royal ; and when tne young King Edward died at sixteen (1553), WarwicK causeti Lady Jane Grey to assume the crown. However, she can hardly be sair to have worn it, for in ten days a stronger party set Mary, daughter if Henry VIII. by his first wife, Katharine of Aragon, on the throne. Mary caused Lady Jane Grey and her husband to be beheaiied. 2, Reign of Mary lasted for five years (1 55;^! 558j. Uooicr 338 MODERN HISTORY. ^t ' M the Protestant party had held sway in England ; but Mary, wlio was an ardent Catholic, caused all the laws in rej;aid to Protestantism to be repealed, and many men were burned for ihcir religion. The chief Bcene of these tragedies was Smithfield, in London. In order to strengthen herself at;ainst the Pr(.te>lant interest, she married Philip II. of Spain, son of the Kniperor Charles V.; but the {)eoi)le, who detested the Spanish alliance, took care tliat Philip shoukl have no power in England, — and on the whole the result was to withdraw the English more and more from the Pope. With the death of Mary in 1558 came a new turn of affairs. 100. From the peculiar circumstances of her birth, Eliza- Views as to beth's right of succession was denied by all the the succession. Catholics at home and abroad. By the Cath- olic party in England the person looked upon as the legiti- mate sovereign was the then young, beautiful, and fasci- nating Mary Queen of Scots.* 101. Under these circumstances Elizabeth deemed that Elizabeth's her best course lay in restoring and maintain- poiicy. ji^g jj^g Protestant religion in her own country, and in seeking to support it in all others where the people were favorable to it. Accordingly, soon after her accession two celebrated Acts — the Supremacy Bill and the Act of Uniformity — were passed for the purpose of crushing the political influence of Catholicism. By the Supremacy Bill all clergymen and all holding oflfices under the crown were compelled to take an oath ascribing to Elizabeth all power both in the Church and state of England, and abjuring the temporal and spiritual jurisdiction of any foreign prince or prelate ; the Act of Uniformity prohibited any one from attending the ministry of any clergyman who was not of the ♦ Mary of Scotland was the daughter of James V. of Scotland, and grand-niece of Henry VIII. This princess, celebrated in history as Mary Queen of Scots, had been brought up in the Catholic faith at the court of France. In 1599 (the year after that in which Elizabeth came to the throne) Mary was married to the Dauphin of France, who, the next year, by the d'iath of his father, became king of France, under the title of Francis II. In the following year, however (1560), Francis II. died, and in 1561 Mary returned to Scotland to assume the personal government of that country. AGE OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. 339 'f d that intain- luntry, eople ession ct of g the :y Bill were power g the ce or from lof the nd, and Mary tourt of I throne) I, by the Incis II. )i Mary lintry. established religion. These laws were enforced with great severity, and under them many Catholics suffered death. 102. It was at this time that the Puritans arose in Eng- land. Many Protestants who had tied to the RiseofPuri- Continent from the persecution under Mary tanism. returned on the accession of l%lizabeth. For a time they reunited themselves with the Church of F.ngiand ; hut being pressed to acknowledge the authority of Elizabeth as supreme head of the Church, they separated from that body in a few years. As they professed a desire to establish a purer form of worship, they received in derision the name of Puritans. As they refused also to be bound by the Acts of Supremacy and of Uniformity,* they were fmcd and imprisoned in great numbers during the rest of this reign. 103. Mary Queen of Scots had in 1561 returned to Scot- land. After seven stormy years there she was The Queen compelled to flee across the Border (her infant of Scots, son being proclaimed king of Scotland under the title of James Vl.t), and came to implore the pity of Elizabeth. The English cjueen imprisoned her in Bolton, Tutbury, and Fotheringay castles for eighteen years. 104. During this time several plots were formed by Catholic subjects of Elizabeth in behalf of the piotsand Queen of Scots. An Act was passed declaring *^*"" "suit, that any person by or for whom any plot should be made against the queen of England should be guilty of treason. A person named Babington having formed a conspiracy for the liberation of Mary and the dethronement of Elizabeth, Queen Mary was formally arraigned for complicity in treason- able practices, under the provisions of the Act referred to. The trial was held in her prison at Fotheringay Castle, and resulted in a verdict oi guii/y. * From this lact tlie Puritans are often called Nonconformists. t James VI. of Scotland became, on tiie death of Elizabeth, king of England, under the title of James I. See p. 347. V w ! ' t i i i i 1 f 340 MODERN HISTORY. The Armada. 105- I he warrant for her execution was delayed by the The death- reluctance — real or pretended — of Elizabeth, warrant. ^j- j-^jj^ ^j-,,^. qy^'en signed the warrant, and sent her secretary, Davidson, with it to the Chancellor, that it might receive the great seal. Recalling this order next day, she found that she was too late : the seal was affixed, and the warrant was on the way to Fotheringay. There, in one of the castle halls, in the gray light of a February morning (1587), Mary Stuart, aged forty-five, was beheaded. The treatment of the beautiful and nnf<;rtunate queen is the darkest stain on the memory of I'^li/abcth. 106. At the beginniiigof i'vli/abeth's reign, England was at war with !■ ranee and in close alliance with Spain. (Iradually the old enmity towards France had died out, while events deveU^ped hostile relations with Spain. At length, stung by Elizabetlrs interference in behalf of his insurgent subjects in the Netherlands, and other aggressive acts, Philij), king of Spain, resolved to strike a decisive blow. The Juvincibe Annaaa^ the most formidable fleet ever seen up to that time, was fitted out against I'Jigland. This armament consisted of 129 ships, 3000 canntjn, and 20,000 men, while 34,000 additional land forces i)repared to join from the Netherlands. 107- I'l Ji'b' ^S'^^t ^he Armada entered the luiglish Account of Channel. Thirty vessels prepared to meet the the action. Sjjanish fleet. The command was taken by Lord Howard of I'^ffingham. The l.nglish fleet attacked the Annada in the Channel, and was found to have a con- siderable advantage in the liglitness and manageableness of the vessels. A.ter seven days, only tliree of which jxissed witliout warm actions, though there was no decisive engage- ment, the Spanish fleet was so harassed and damaged tiiat it was forced to take shelter in the roads of Calais. The English during the night sent in fire-shii)s, whirh destroyed several vessels, and threw the others into such confusion that AGE OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. 341 the Spaniards no longer thouglit of victory, but of escape. At daybreak they were attacked by Howard, Drake, and Lord Henry Seymour, and though the Spaniards fought gal- lantly, they were completely at disadvantage ; in seamanship and gun-practice they were inferior to their adversaries, and their great floating castles were no match for the active little English vessels. Had not the queen's ill-timed i)arsi- mony kept her fleet insufficiently supplied with powder, the Armada would have been destroyed. As it was, the Span- ish leader, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, attempted to return home by sailing round the north of Scotland ; but dreadful storms arose, scattering the fleet about in the seas of Scot- land and Ireland ; and of the triumphant navy that sailed from Lisbon but a third part returned in a wretched state to tell of the calamity. 108. This success was regarded as a triumph, not so much of England as of the Protestant cause Effect of the throughout Europe : it virtually established victory. the independence of the Dutch, raised the courage of the Huguenots in France, and completely destroyed the decisive influence that Spain had acquired in the affairs of Europe. 109. The years following the defeat of the Armada were years of splendor and triumph. 'I'he flag of England England became supreme on the seas ; English "icendant. commerce penetrated to the farthest corners of the Old World, and l-.nglish colonies rooted themselves on the shores of the New ; while the national intellect, stimulated by the excitement of sixty years, took shape in a literature wiiich is an eternal p()ss(,'ssion to mankind.* 110. At this time the chief articles exported from England to the Continent were wool, cloth, lead, and tin. commerce formerly these had been sent in vessels belong- and manu- ing to the Hanse Towns ; but now English ships ^ ^'^^' * Fronde, History of England. Y i» ^m IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) y {/ < fe'x W.' CP., y 1.0 I.I m 11^ IIIIIM IIIIM IIM izo 1.8 1 1.25 1.4 1.6 ■^ 6" — ► Photographic Sciences Corporation s. ^ # :\ \ #>> 23 WEST MAIN jTRtET V/EBSTErt, M Y 14580 (71i) 872-4503 6^ >" c^ J? f/j 342 MODERN HISTORY. i ,{ I. were substituted for this trade. Birmingham and Sheffield were already thriving seats of the hardware manufacture, and Manchester was becoming distinguished for making cottons, rugs, and friezes. Stocking-weaving and the making of sail- cloth, serge, and baize took their rise in this reign. The progress of other arts was much favored by the cruelties of Alva in the Netherlands, which drove into England great numbers of weavers, dyers, cloth-dressers, etc. 111. Amongst the wealthier classes the wearing of hand- increase of some apparel, and of gold ornaments and luxury. jewelry, made a great advance. Coaches were introduced, but for a time were thought fit for the use only of ladies. Great improvements were made in the building of houses. Theatrical amusements were begun and be- came very popular, though only in London. The smoking of tobacco was introduced by Sir Walter Raleigh, who became acquainted with the plant in " Virginia." 112. During forty years of her reign Elizabeth was guided Elizabeth's by the advice of Lord Burleigh, an experienced ministers. ^nd cool-tempered statesman. He rose to be Lord Treasurer, and by his policy greatly increased the revenue of the kingdom. Sir Francis Walsingham, too, as Secretary of State, enjoyed much of Elizabeth's favor. 113. It is remarkable that while Elizabeth increased in power and resources, she became more noted for feminine weaknesses. Her favorite in middle life was Robert, Earl of Leicester, a profligate and a trifler. In her latter days she listened to the addresses of the Earl of h'.ssex, a young man of greater courage and better prin- ciple, but also headstrong and weak. Essex, who had ac- quired popularity by several brilliant military enterprizes, began at length to assume an insolent superiority over the queen, who was on one occasion so much provoked by his rudeness as to give him a hearty box on the ear. Notwith- standing all his presumption and caprices, tlic queen still Her favorites. heffield ire, and cottons, of sail- 1. The cities of id great )f hand- Its and ties were use only building and be- sn'>oking gh, who ,s guided lerienced se to be ised the 1, too, as or. eased in re noted middle a trifler. the Earl ter prin- had ac- terprizes, over the id by his Notwith- leen still ''')■ Al AGE OF QUEEN EL ZABETM. 343 dotingly forgave him, until he at length attempted to raise an insurrection against her in the streets of London, when he was se ^d and condemned to die. He might Ftill have been pardoned, if a ring given to him by the queen in some moment of tenderness, to be sent to her when any danger hung over him, had reached her. It never came, and Essex was beheaded in the Tower, aged thirty-four. 114. Some two years later the queen ws entreated to visit the Countess of Nottingham, who was story of dying. This lady confessed that Essex had EUzabeth. entrusted the ring to her to be carried to Elizabeth, but that she, influenced by her husband, a bitter enemy of the Earl, had not delivered it. Rage and grief seized the queen ; and it is said that she shook the dying Countess in her bed. 115. Never happy since the death of Essex, she sank under this blow. Ten days and nights she lay „ ^ , 1 • , n 1 • -1 /• , Her death. on cushions on the floor, taking neither food nor medicine; and then falling into a heavy sleep she died, March 24, 1603. She was in her seventieth year. 116. In Elizabeth's reign of forty-five years England advanced politically and commercially from Herchar- the position of a second-rate to that of a first- »«=*". rate power. It follows that she was a sovereign of very remarkable ability. Yet her character was a strange blend- ing of the base and the noble, the weak and the strong. She bribed and bullied and deceived, and to the cruelty of a Tudor she added personal vanity and insatiable fondness for flattery and admiration. Still she had royal traits, which enabled her to imi)ress herself both on her subjects and foreign nations as a great ruler. The proud pre-eminence which I'.ngland held before all Europe while Elizabeth grasped the scepter gives her name a conspicuous place in history. n 344 MODERN HISTORY. :| GREAT NAMES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. lu H ARTISTS. Michel Angelo (1475-1564), an Italian sculptor, painter, and archi- tect. He flourished under the patronage of Lorenzo de Medici. His works are characterized by exceeding massiveness and grandeur. He superintended St. Peter's, but did not live to complete the dome. Raphael (1483-1520), an Italian painter of grea^ distinction. Mailon- nas and sacred pieces chiefly employed his t)rush. His great work in Rome was the decoration of the wails of the Vatican. After producing immortal works, he died at the age of thirty-seven. Titian (1477- 1 576), a Venetian portrait and landscape painter. His chief works are at Venice and Madrid. By many he is considered the prince of colorists. Albert Diirer (1471-1528), a German painter, engraver, and sculptor. He is entitled the Father of German painting, and has certainly the pre-eminence. His best paintings are Chtistian Martyrs in Persia, Adoration of the Holy Trinity, and other sacred subjects. Holbein (1498-1543), next to Diirer the most distinguished of German artists. The greater part of his life was spent in England, under the patronage of Henry VIH. He was celebrated for his portraits. WRITERS. Spenser, Edmund (1553-1599), one of England's greatest poets. His chief work is the Facie Queen, an allegorical poem, written in stanzas of nine lines each, calle , I » 346 MODERN HISTORY. 1 1 .1^ i ;V J i ^i } 1* PHILOSOPHERS AND SCIENTISTS. Copernicus (1473-1545), a celebrate-i German astrcMiomer. He was the first to question the ancient theory of the heavens (called the Ptolemaic theory), which taui^ht that the eartli was tlie centre lound which all the heavenly i)0(iies revolved. This doctrine had remained unquestioned for fifteen hundred years, when Copernicus demon- strated its falsity. He leared, however, to .shock general helief by pul)lishin<^ his proof, and his great work, /V 0/l>/um Ce/i's/inw Re- 7'olHtionil'us^ was finally published by a cardinal, and dedicated to Pope Paul HI., himself a mathematician, — a politic step tosecuie himself from attack. Galileo (1564-1642), a celebrated Italian astronomer. He adopted the Copernican system, and making use of the then recent invention of spectacle-glasses, lie contrived a telescope with two such glasses in a leaden tube. By the aid of this instrument he discovered the satel- lites of Jupiter, the ring of Saturn, and the moonlight phases of Venus. ■Brahe (i 546-1601), an astronomer of Coi:)enha<:en. Frederick Tycb< II. of Denmark erected an observatory on the island of Huen, and there Tycho-Hrahe was established for many years, making astrono- mical observations that were of great value. ■i! ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 347 He was ;alled I he ,tre lound remained s deinon- helief by siiiim Re- dicated to I to secute e adopted t invention 1 glasses in d ihesatel- s of Venus. Frederick Huen, and n{j astronu- CHAPTER III. GREAT EVENTS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, i England under the Stuarts. The Thirty Years' War. The Age of Louis XIV. X. ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. The Stuarts. 117. Elizabeth was the last of the Tudors. On her death in 1603. James VI. of Scotland, son of Mary Queen of Scots, succeeded to the throne, and took the title of James I. of England.* With James I. begins the Stuart period of English history, — an eventful period, comprising six reigns and covering the whole of the 17th century. t 118. The distinctive feature of this period is the arduous and continuous struggle on the part of the people stuarts and against the arbitrary and unconstitutional gov- Tudors con- ernment of the Stuart sovereigns. The Tudors *''"'^^' had been despots, but they ruled with vigor and tact. The Stuarts displayed less sagacity ; and besides, since the days • James VI. of Scotland was the nearest living lineal descendant of Henry VII. Strictly speaking, his claim to the crown was not perfect; but Elizabeth on her death-bed declared as her will that her successor should be '* her cousin of Scotland." A.D. JLn. t James I. (son of Mary James II. (brother) . , 1685 Queen of Scots) , 1603 William II!. (nephew), and Charles I. (son) 1625 Mary II. (daughter) . 1689 [The Commonwealth and Anne (daughter of James Cromwell] , 1649 II>) • • • • 1703 Charles II. (son of Charles I.) 1660 << 348 MODERN HISTORY. I I of the Tudors, times were changed, for the English people had in the meantime been advancing greatly in intelligence, and consequently in the love of liberty. Blind to this significant fact, James I. no sooner came to the throne than he began to proclaim that the king, by divine right to the crown, was above all laws. This is the famous Stuart doctrine of the "divine right of kings," — on which doc- trine James I. was almost crazed, and which he transmitted to his son, Charles I. 119. In carrying out this policy he was guilty of the most James and arbitrary and illegal measures, — imprisoning his Parlia- members of Parliament, and raising money by forced loans, Star-Chamber fines, and " benevo- lences." But Parliament gained some important advantages. They declared against monopolies and royal proclamations not authorized by Parliament ; they secured their right of im- peachment and of deciding disputed elections ; and finally, when James told them they had no right to interfere in state affairs, they recorded the memorable protest that the "Liber- ties of Parliament are the undoubted birthright of the subjects of England ; that all matters of debate are fit subjects for discussion there ; that ever}' member has a right to freedom of speech ; and that no member can be lawfully imprisoned or molested for his conduct in Parliament, except by order of the House itself." 120. Th*; reign of James I. was not marked by what are Character- "sually called great events. This was owing to isticsofthii his timid character, which induced him to main- "'*^°* tain peace, at whatever sacrifice, throughout the greater part of his reign. On the other hand, it may be said that under the rule of this king the nation took greatly to trade and maritime enterprise, and increased rapidly in wealth and intelligence. 121. James I. was an oddity in human character. His Character of appearance was awkward, chiefly from the weak- Jamet I. uess of his knecs. He was weak, obstinate, and ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. ?49 people igence, to this ne than to the Stuart ch doc- ismitted the most prisoning cioney by ' benevo- vantages. lamations Tht of im- id finally, :e in state e "Liber- e subjects ibjects for freedom iprisoned by order what are owing to to main- Ighout the ly be said [greatly to jrapidly in tter. His 1 the weak- inate, and conceited. He made a great show of his learning, which was considerable, and he wrote several books ; but he was exceedingly pedantic. The l-'rench statesman, Sully, called him "the wisest fool in Europe," and the phrase exactly paints his character, 122. The resi^ect of the English people for royalty was not increased by the policy or character of Temrsrof James I., and the folly of that king descended Charles i. to his son, Charles I., who came to the throne at the age of twenty-five (1625). He had a higher notion than even his father of the "divine right of kings to govern wrong." 123. At the time of the accession of Charles I. a foolish war with Spain was going on. The Parliament j^.^ ^ j.^ having refused to grant the funds necessary for withPariia- continuing it, the king raised money by illegal ™®°*' means. A general discontent spread over the nation. The Commons, seeing that, if the king could support the state by self-raised taxes, he would soon become independent of all control from his Parliaments, resolved to take every measure in their power to check his proceedings. They also assailed him respecting a right, which he assumed, of imprisoning his subjects upon his own warrant and detain- ing them as long as he pleased. Having made an inquiry into the ancient powers of the crown, before these powers had been vitiated by the tyrannical Tudors, they embodied the result in what was called a Petition of Right. With great difficulty Charles was prevailed on to give his sanction to this bill (1628) ; but soon afterwards his dispute with Parlia- ment ran to such a height that he dissolved it in a fit of indignation, resolving nevermore to call it together. 124. For some years Charles governed the country en- tirely as an irresponsible despot, levying taxes progress of by his own orders, and imi)rison!ng such per- despotism, sons as were obnoxious to him, in utter defiance of the Petition of Right. How long the English people would 3SO MODERN HISTORY. m have borne the tyranny it is impossible to say : events soon occurred that precipitated a struggle. The Scots, whom Charles had roused to revolt by trying to force on them the liturgy of the Church of England, crossed the Border in arms, and then it became necessary to summon Parliament. 125. In 1640 the memorable assembly known in his- Actionofthe ^°^y ^^ ^^^ Z,^«?' Parliament* came together. Long Pariia- They resolved to curb the royal power and "^®"** remove the grievances under which the nation had groaned for the past eleven years. The king himself at last saw that the torrent was irresistible, and resolved, though too late, to give ^/ay to it. By the Triainial Bill it was enacted that there should be a Parliament at least every three years. Strafford and Laud, who were blamed as the authors of the king's obstructive policy, were brought to the block. The court of " Star Chamber " was abolished. Finally a bill was passed declarmg that Parliament should not be dissolved without their own consent. 126. By the month of November 1641, all the abuses The situation of which complaint had been made were re- in X64X. moved ; and as the king by his concessions had gained many friends, it seemed that all the troubles were now at an end. But it is the nature of a revolutionary movement that it gains as it goes on. The leaders of the Opposition, still distrustful of the king's sincerity, resolved that they would have a guaranty for the future. They ac- cordingly passed in Parliament a measure called the Remon- strance^ setting forth all the faults of the king's government, and expressing the distrust with which his policy was still regarded. 127. That the Radicals were right in their judgment of Theexpio- the temper of the king was soon made mani- fest by a despotic act committed by him. * So called because it sat for more than thirteen years. sioa comes. ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 351 Early in 1642, Charles, in order to overawe the refractory Commons, demanded the surrender of five of the most troublesome members on a charge of treason. 'Ihey were not given up, and on the following day the king went to the House, accompanied by a considerable number of armed men, to seize them. They were, however, designedly absent. This violation of the constitution alarmed the Commons. There was great indignation against the king, for he had insulted the nation. He left the capital and went to York. 128. For some months messages passed between the king and the Parliament ; but there was no steps towards desire to yield on either side. At last the Par- *='^^ ^*^' liament demanded that he should give up the command of the army. He refused, and Civil War became inevitable. 129. On the side of the king were the nobles, the clergy, and a majority of the country gentlemen. We cavaiiers and may call these the Royalists ; but in that time Roundheads, they received the name of Cavaliers. On the side of Parlia- ment were the tradesmen and shopkeepers of the towns, the yeomanry, a considerable number of the country gentlemen, and a few of the nobility. The Opposition, or Parliamenta- rians, were called in derision Roundheads^ from the Puritan fashion of wearing closely cropped hair.* 130. On the 25 th of August 1642, the royal standard was unfurled at Nottingham. In the following Qgngf^i sketch month the opening battle was fought at Edge- oftheCivU hill ; and, though indecisive, it enabled the king ^^' to approach London and produce considerable alarm. He then retired to Oxford, and negotiations were entered into which proved unavailing. From Edgehill (1642) to Col- chester (1648) we may count six years of strife, and the names * Perhaps we may regard the Whigs and Tories who sprang up in Eng- land in the following century, as well as the Liberals and Conservatives of modern England, as in some respects the representatives of the principles of the Roundheads and Cavaliers respectively. i I Ji jm 352 MODERN HISTORY. of the principal actions will be found in the note below.* During the Arst two campaigns the Royalists were gene- va w rally successful : hut after that, and especially onward from Marston Moor, the Roundheads were victorious. 131. The first leader on the side of the Roundheads was _. , the Earl of Essex ; but a greater than he was First appear- ^ ~ ance of soon to api)ear. At Edgehill a captain of horse Cromwell. named Oliver Cromwell had fought in the army of the Parliament. He was then about forty years of age (born 1599), and had up to that time lived a peaceful country life in Huntingdon. As a member of the Long Parliament he was known chiefly as a man of homely manners, slovenly dress, and rough-and-ready speech. 132. Cromwell had been captain of a troop of horse at „, . Edgehill ; after that he became a colonel of cav- His advance- o 7 ment and airy. He put his regiment under the severest discipline, and soon Cromwell's "Ironsides" conduct * The following table exhibits the leading battles of the Civil War :— JP, means Patiiameitfariatt ; R. means Royalist. NAME. DATE. RESULT. Edgehill 1642 Indecisive. Reading (siege) . . 1643 P. victory. Chalgiove Field . . 1643 R. ,, Atherion Moor . 1643 R. „ Lansdowne . 1643 R. „ Roiindwav Down 1643 R. ,, Bristol (siege) . -^43 R. „ I St Newbmv 1643 P- ,» Nantvvich . 1644 P- » 1 Cropredy Bridge . 1644 R. „ i Marston Moor 1644 P- „ ! 2d Newbury . , 1644 Indecisive. ' Nasebv 1645 P. victory. ' Biid^evvater (siege) 1645 P „ Bristol (siege) 1645 P „ Pembroke . * , 1648 P » Colchester . 164$ P » I ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 353 leiow. : gene- i from ids was he was >f horse le army of age )eaceful i Long homely I. lorse at 1 of cav- severest insides " Var:— JLT. isive. ;tory. )> M it »» «> »> »» isive. ;tory. >» >> If f» bei^ame famous. After two or three years the army was remodeled ; and then, though Sir 'I'liomas Fairfax was api)ointed commander-in-chief of the ParUamentary forces, yet the real captain was Cromwell, who received the rank of Lieutenant-Cjcneral. Then was organized that army, — the most wonderful ever seen, and the very embodiment of Cromwell's own Puritan soul, — composed of stern, enthu- siastic men, who prayed when they did not fight, and who, marching to battle with the singing of psalms, scattered like chaff the Royalist forces. Naseby (1645) was the decisive battle of the war ; for there the king was so completely beaten that he and his party could no longer keep the field. 133. Meantime the Puritans had becoi; . divided into two parties: the one, called Presbyterian, and ThetwoPuri- consisting of the majority of Parlianv t, was tan factions, desirous only of limiting the power of the king; the other, called rndt'penJent^ and embiacing the leaders of the army, nns bent upon the destruction of the throne. Cromwell became the leader of the Independents. 134. After the disaster of Naseby the king fled to the Scots, who, however, gave him up to Parlia- The king and ment ; but Cromwell caused Charles to be CromweU. seized and confined as a prisoner at Hampton Court. Much negotiation now went on between the king and the two parties, and indeed at one time a satisfactory arrangement was made between Charles and the Parliament for the settle- ment of all difficulties. This alarmed the leaders of the army ; and under the direction of Cromwell measures were taken to clear the House of Commons of all members op- posed to their plans. For this purpose (Jolonel Pride, with an armed force, barred the door of the House of Commons, and thus prevented the entrance of more than a hundred members opposed to the army party (December 1648). This high-handed act was calle? Frides Purge. The re- r 354 MODERN HISTORY. niaining fifty or sixty members, all of whom were Indepen- dents, received th^ nickname of the "Rump." 135. This remnant proceeded to nominate a High Court Trial of the of Justice for the trial of King Charles. The ^^'^S' court sat in Westminster Hall, and Charles was brought to the bar, January 20, 1649. The king entered a dignified protest against the right of the court to try him. This, however, availed him nothing ; lengthy evidence was given, and on the 27th he was condemned to execution as a " tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy." 136. The sentence was carried out January 30, in front Hisexecu- of the banqueting - hall of Whitehall Palace. **°°* Soldiers surrounded the black scaffold, on which stood two masked headsmen beside the block. The king displayed conspicuous intrepidity at the last awful moment, asserting even then for himself the same sovereign rights and prerogatives which he had always claimed. He then calmly placed his head on the block and gave the sig- nal. One blow and all was over ; and the executioner, rais- ing the dripping head of Charles Stuart, cried out, " This is the head of a traitor ! " 137. The execution of Charles, the first and only king of Verdict on his England that has died on the scaffold, was utterly execution. unconstitutional. The one right and open course would have been to depose him, for he had violated his coronation oath. But this was not a time for calm mea- sures, when the nation was in the throes of a revolution, and the king fell a victim to the spirit of the age, which he obsti- nately refused to understand. 138. The Parliament now governed England, and estab- The Common- lished a republic under the title of The Com- weaith. MONWEALTH. It lasted for eleven years, which years may be divided into two periods : i. From Charles's death to the appointment of Cromwell as Lord Protector ; 3. The Protectorate of Cromwell. >i ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 355 depen- Court The les was tered a ry him. ice was oil as a n front Palace. )ld, on :. The t awful )vereign d. He the sig- icr, rais- This is king of utterly course ited his m mea- on, and le obsti- d estab- E CoM- j, which harles's jtector i 139. During the first period the executive power was en- trusted to forty-one members, but even under - ^. ^^ this arrangement Cromwell was the actual head, the first He acted with astonishing vigor. He led an p«'''°'** army into Ireland, and rapidly overran and conquered the whole country. The people of Scotland having proclaimed Charles 11. king, Cromwell invaded and reduced that king- dom also. Charles entered England with a Scottish army ; but the battle of Worcester (165 1) put an end to his hopes. The Dutch becoming insolent, he chastised them, and forced their ships to strike their flag to the English. 140. At home Cromwell found himself surrounded by many difficulties. And the most troublesome rro^^gu of these were caused by jealous and discontented dissolves Puritans in Parliament. So one day in April P"!"^*"*- 1653, he went to the Parliament House, and said, " Get you gone, and give way to honester men." He stamped on the floor ; musketeers stationed without poured in, the hall was speedily cleared, and Oliver, locking the door, carried off the key. In this forcible way was the Rump Parliament dissolved. 141. Under the direction of Cromwell a new Parliament, » * was He becomes Protector. known as " Barebone's Parliament, called. But after sitting a short time they re- signed their power into the hands of Cromwell, bestowing upon him the title of Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. He was king in all but name, and indeed had more power than any king since Henry VIII. 142. In the government of England Cromwell ruled as a despot. To insure the maintenance of his His home authority the whole country was divided into "^®- eleven districts, and each placed under the command of a major-generd with almost unlimited power. Resistance * So called from a London currier named Barcbone, who v/as a leading member of it. n ■ \ 356 MODERN HISTORY. m I "11 was hopeless ; men were fined and imprisoned contrary to law, and some were sent as slaves to l^arbadoes. 143. The Protector's foreign policy was as vigorous as His foreign his home government. He made England policy. honored and feared. He vanquished the Span- iards by land and sea, and took from them the island of Jamaica. He dictated peace to Holland. He aimed at, but only partially accomplished, owing to the prudent con- duct of some of the leading Catholic powers, a com})lete union for aggressive and defensive purposes of the Protes- tant states of Europe. 144. Cromwell's latter days were clouded with many Last days cares and fears. Royalists, Presbyterians, and and death. disappointed republicans plotted against him, and he was in constant dread of assassination. Anxiety and fear at last wore out his strength, and an ague carried him off in the sixtieth year of his age (September 3, 1658), on the anniversary of his decisive victories of Dunbar and Worcester. 145. In his person Oliver Cromwell was of a coarse and Character of heavy figure, about the middle size. His eyes Cromwell. were gray and keen, his long nose was of a deep red. It is a characteristic trait that when a painter, wishing to flatter him, represented the Protector without a wart which deformed his foce, he angrily told the artist, " Paint me as I am ! " Yet within this rugged frame there burned a soul of boundless energy and ambition. He had military talent of the highest order ; but he was more than a mere soldier : he was an iron character^ a man of terrible, fiery earnestness, fitted to play an important part in the history of his country. 146. Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded by his Events to the father's appointment to the protectorate; but Restoration, he was wholly unfit for the position, inheriting but little of his father's capacity for public affairs. Realizing ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 357 ^ his own deficiencies, he resigned the office in five months. Then followed an interval of great confusion, in the midst of which it was clearly seen that the English people were leaning towards their exiled sovereign, Charles II. He was accordingly invited back to his native land, and returning, he was proclaimed king in May 1660. 147. The Restoration, as it is called, was hailed with transports of joy,— the joy oi a people who circumstances loved order and hated anarchy. Yet a people oftheResto- may purchase order at too dear a price, and '^*^'°°' this fact soon received a striking illustration in England. The nation, without imposing any terras on the new sovc reign, trusted implicitly to his good disposition. Charles II. soon showed his true character : though humane and amiable, he was indolent, prodigal, and licentious, unfitted either to support the national honor abroad, or to command respect at home. 148. During the greater part of his reign Charles II. made few inroads on the constitution and The reign of laws. It is true that he issued Declarations Charles 11. of Indulgence, removed incorruptible judges, sanctioned excessive fines and punishments, and published proclama- tions on his own authority. But these measures were so feeble and few compared with those of his father, and they were counterbalanced by so many excellent laws conducive to freedom, that they excited little opposition ; and the dis- like with which the king soon came to be regarded sprang, not from these illegal measures, but from his disgracefully licentious manner of life, and the mean acts to which he resorted to })rocure money. 149. Towards the close oi his reign he governed with- out a Parliament, under the inOuence of his His later brother,* and was guilty oi acts as tyrannical character, and monstrous as any committed by his father. His con- * The Duke of York, after\v;irds James II. \ 358 MODERN HISTORY. ( .; duct during these last years shows him to have been as despotically inclined as any of the Stuarts ; and there seems little doubt that only his being steeped in vicious and idle pleasures during the greater part of his reign prevented his being the most arbitrary monarch of his line. 150. Under the austere Puritan rule of Cromwell sculp- Puritanaus- ture and painting had been almost banished terity. from the land, as savoring of idolatry. Then, too, all public amusements, especially theatrical perform- ances, were forbidden, and even the innocent sports around the May-pole and by the Christmas-fire were sternly put down. 151. The nation, released at the Restoration from such Manners restriction, plunged wild'y into the opposite under extreme. The king's libertine example was Charles II. imitated, and morals became very corrupt. Members of Parliament sold their votes, as a matter of course. The plays written then, in which for the first time female performers took the female parts, are unfit to be read, so disgusting are the thoughts and the language. The power of even the Church was but feebly exerted to stem this torrent of wickedness. 152. On the other hand, it may be noticed that the Eng- Progressof Hsh during the reign of Charles II. advanced England. considerably in material prosperity. Naviga- tion and commerce were encouraged. Manufactures of brass, glass, silk, hats, and paper were established. The post-office, set up during the Commonwealth as a means of raising money, was advanced in this reign. Roads were greatly improved, and stage-coach traveling was com.menced, though not carried to any great extent. During this reign tea, coffee, and chocolate were first introduced. In 1660 the Royal Society was established in London, for the cul- tivation of natural science, mathematics, and all useful knowledge. ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 359 een as seems id idle ted his [ sculp- inished Then, erform- around tily put m such )pposite He was corrupt, atter of le first unfit to nguage. irted to le Eng- Ivanced Naviga- ;ures of The means ds were nenced, is reign n 1660 ;he cul- useful 153. In 16S5 Charles 11. died, having on his death-bed declared himself a Catholic. He was succeeded sketch of by his brother, the Duke of York, who received James ll.'» thetitleof James II. The new king was an ardent '^^'^°* Catholic, and naturally desired to secure for his proscribed co-religionists the religious privileges which were denied them by law. However excellent his motive, the methods ad- opted for carrying out his purpose were not in all cases wise. His famous Declaration of Jndulgence^ by which freedom of worship was extended to all Non - conformists, was gene- rally regarded as an undue stretch of the royal prerogative, and most of the Protestant dissenters declined to take the benefit of its provisions. James, who was constitutionally tenacious of his opinions, did not properly estimate the strength of the feeling which his policy had aroused, while he made that policy additionally offensive by the manner in which he sought to carry it into execution. In a short time, the leaders of the two political parties were ready to forget their differences in opposition to the king's measures. After much secret negotiation, an agreement was entered into to appeal to William, Prince of Orange, to deliver the nation. William was the grandson of Charles I., and both nephew and son-in-law of James II., being married to that king's daughter Mary. 154. He accepted the invitation ; and collecting a large fleet and force, landed on the coast of Eng- wmiamof land, 1688. James did not perceive the storm Orange and that was gathering around his head until William ■'*™®** had landed. It was in vain that the king now turned him- self to the army and the people, and promised the removal of every measure repugnant to the constitution. When a part of the army went over to William, and the general voice declared itself against the king, James sent his wife and son to France, threw the Great Seal into the Thames, and then fled himself in despair from the land of his I 1 i 360 MODERN HISTORY. fathers. He lived from this time forth at St. Germains, a pensioner of Louis XIV. 155. After the flight of James the representatives of Throne de- the EngHsh people declared the throne vacant, Glared vacant, and agreed that the Catholic line of the House of Stuart should be excluded from the governnient, and that this should be placed in the hands of the royal pair, William III. and Mary II. Instructed, however, by the past, they secured the liberties of the nation against any future arbitrary acts by the Bi// of Rights. 156. Such was what the English people call the " Glori- Benefits of the ous Revolution of 1688." And indeed it is not Revolution, unworthy of the name ; for it presents a striking example of the salutary power of public opinion directed by wisdom and aiming at just and worthy ends. By the Bill of Rights the British constitution now became, in many important points, fixed and determined. This Act secured by guaranties all the old English liberties which the Stuarts had violated. It was a triumph of the people over kings. It destroyed at one blow and forever the false and pernicious doctrine that the royal prerogative is something more sub- lime and holy than the fundamental laws of the realm. It laid the sure basis of the stability and the prosperity of England.* 157. The Revolution was accomplished ; but James did Hostile efforts "^t yield without a struggle. Of this Ireland of James. -was the chicf scene. Besieging Londonderry in vain, he was signally defeated at the Boyne in 1690 ; and, utterly dispirited, he hastened to return to France. * Some of the most important articles in the Bill of Rights are the foUowing : — i. The king cannot suspend the laws or their execution. 2. He cannot levy money without the consent of Parliament. 3. The sub- jects have a right to petition the crown. 4. A standing army cannot be kept up in time of peace but with the consent of Parliament. 5. Elections and parliamentary debates must be free, and parliaments must be frequently assembled. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 3^1 158. The death of Mary in 1694 left her husband to rule alone. This he did by prudently conceding a career and good deal to the Parliament, provided that they death of gave him money to carry on the war with Louis ^*^^^™ XIV. (Of this we shall have an account under the ."i^^e oj Louis XI v.) The Treaty of Ryswick brought the struggle to an end in 1697. A second war was in preparation when William died (March 8, 1702), in consequence of a fall from his horse. 159. William was a prince of commanding ability, par- ticularly in military affairs. His ruling sentiment was a wish to reduce the power of the king of France, and this he was able in no small degree to effect. His person was thin and feeble, and his ordinary demeanor was cold, silent, and unattractive. It was only in battle that he ever became animated or easy. He was a conscientious man, of sober and even kindly domestic habits, and though the laws of his realm bore hardly upon the Roman Catholics^ he was believed to be, in h\% private opinions, averse to re- ligious persecution. His character. k \ and, are the ecutioii. The sub- be kept Ions and jquently a. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 160. The greatest event in the politics of Continental Europe during the first half of the 17th century character oi was the famous Thirty Years' War, which began t^e war. about 1618, and was terminated by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. This war had Germany for its center, and it was, properly speaking, a contest between the Catholic and Pro- testant princes of that country ; but eventually most of the nations of Europe were drawn into it 161. In order to understand the nature of this struggle, we must glance back to the affairs of Germany ^^ at the period of the abdication of the Emperor Charles v.'« Charles V., the point at which our last survey ^^^ I 'P' i I ' (• ? il !' w 362 MODERN HISTORY. of the Empire closed. Germany was at that time distracted by the political factions and quarrels of its independent princes, and by the contentions of the Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists. Ferdinand I., the brother and successor of Charles V., attempted to reconcile these differences and unite the three religions, but in vain. This state of affairs was not at all changed under the succeeding three emperors down to Matthias, who was emperor in the early part of the 17th century. 162. When Matthias, who had been king of Bohemia Be^nningsof ^^^ Hungary, was elected emperor, he had the revolt. his cousin Ferdinand made king of Bohemia. Ferdinand was intolerant towards the Protestants of Bo- hemia, and they rose in revolt. While the war was yet in progress Matthias died, and Ferdinand II., to the great alarm of the Protestant party, was raised to the imperial throne, 161 9. But just about the time that Ferdinand II. was crowned emperor the Bohemians renounced their allegi- ance, and chose as their king the Elector Palatine^ Frederick, a Protesiant prince. 163. Frederick was the son-in-law of the English king, Defeat of James I., and the Protestants of Bohemia in Frederick. choosing Frederick trusted that he would be upheld by British influence and power. But this hope was frustrated by the weakness and timidity of James. The re- sult was that in the next year (1620) Frederick was driven out of Bohemia by the imperial army, and he presently lost his own dominions as well. 164. The Emperor, blinded by his success, now deter- Narrativeof "lined to crush Protestantism in Germany. the war. Wallenstein, a great general, but a most un- scrupulous plunderer, was at the head of the army, and ravaged the territory of the Protestant princes. It seemed indeed that the Emperor would swallow up all Germany. But at this crisis other powers began to step in. The first THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 3<53 stracted pendent therans, ;essor of nd unite was not down to he 17th Bohemia he had Joheniia. 5 of Bo- is yet in he great imperial inand II. eir allegi- rederick, ish king, lemia in ould be ope was The re- s driven ntly lost |w deter- rermany. host un- |my, and seemed Germany. 'he first was Christian IV., king of Denmark, who became the chief of the Protestant League (1625). He was able to accom- phsh nothing, however, and was presently forced to return to his own dominions. Then it was that a heroic figure from the North came upon the scene. This was the famous Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. 165. Gustavus was a prince of the highest military and civil talents, and in every respect a noble char- gustavus acter. As a Protestant he cherished full confi- Adolphus dence that the Protestant princes of Germany *pp**"* would rally to his standard, if not at once, yet the moment he had gained any signal advantage. On the 20th of May 1630, taking in his arms his daughter Christina, then only four years of age, he presented her to the Swedish Parlia- ment as their future sovereign, and made his farewell address. " Not lightly, not wantonly," said he, " am I about to involve myself and you in this new and dangerous war. God is my witness that I do not fight to gratify my own ambition; but the Emperor has wronged me, — has supported my enemies, persecuted my friends, trampled my religion in the dust, and even stretched forth his revengeful arm against my crown. The oppressed states of Ciermany call loudly for aid, which, by God's help, we will give them." 166. Landing in Germany at the head of a small but highly disciplined army, Gustavus defeated Tilly His career of in an obstinate engagement on the plains of victory. Leipzic (1631). This victory removed all reserve on the part of the Protestant princes, who were now ready to acknowledge him as their true leader. At the same time aid came from other quarters. The great Cardinal Riche- lieu, then the real chief of France, prompted by his anta- gonism to the House of Austria, had already made a treaty with Gustavus and helped him with money. England, too, though she never formally joined in the cause, lent it her 4 'I ' 1' >i i\ . ^^^^^ 364 MODERN HISTORY. moral support, and tliousands of Englishmen and Scotch- men went over to enlist under the banner of Gustavus \dolphus, the "Lion of the North." 167- The career of Gustavus in Germany continued for His victories two years, down to the time of his death (1630- and death. 1632). Hc defeated the imperial generals Tilly and Wallenstein, and rapidly regained all that the i'rotestants had lost. His last and greatest battle was at LUtzen in Saxony (November i6, 1632), one of the memor- able fields of history. Victory declared for the troops of Gustavus, but the heroic leader himself was killed in the fullness of his glory. 168. The Swedes were overwhelmed with sorrow, and Affairs after began almost to despair of their cause ; for the his death. successor of Gustavus was an infant only seven years old. Fortunately, the council of regency entrusted the management of the Gennan war to Ox'enstiern, a states- man of the highest abilities. Under his guidance the Protestant cause soon began to assume a less desperate aspect ; the organization of the armies was once more com- pleted, and the chief command entrusted to the Duke of Saxe-Weimar, a worthy successor of the great Gustavus. 169. An unexpected event soon after greatly raised the Death of confidence of the Protestants. The Emperor Wallenstein. Ferdinand had reason to suspect that Wallen- stein meditated a revolt, and was about to use the imperial amiy as a means of obtaining sovereign power. Though Wallenstein's guilt was established by undoubted proof, he was too powerful in the camp to be arrested. Under these circumstances, recourse was had to the disgraceful expedi- ent of assassination ; and Wallenstein was murdered (1634) by some of his own officers, who had, it is supposed, warrant for the crime. 170. The war now assumed a new aspect, by the fact New phase that France under Richelieu took a direct part ill the contest In fact, it became a war for of the wan 'it. ,■ THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 365 Scotch- ustavus iiied for (1630- 2;cnenils hat the : was at inemor- •oops of i in the ow, and for the ily seven intrusted a states- ince the .esperate re com- Duke of .vus. .ised the mperor Wallen- imperial Though roof, he ler these expedi- warrant the fact |-ect part war for the aggrandizement of France,— and all the more so as most of the Protestant states of Germany made [)eace with the Emi)eror in 1635. Under the guidance of Richelieu and Oxenstiern the struggle went on in most parts of Europe with varying success. 171. After the death of Richelieu in 1642, his policy of hostility to Austria was continued by Car- situation after dinal Mazarin, who succeeded to the power Richelieu. of Richelieu. The Emperor Ferdinand had died five years before ; so that the latter part of the 'J hirty Years' War went on under a different emperor and different rulers, both of France and Sweden, from those under whom it had begun. 172. In this latter part of the war the French armies, under their great leaders, Turcnne and Conde, were French suc- crowned with such success that the Emperor cesses, found it necessary to propose a treaty in order to prevent the dismemberment of Germany. After long and tedious negotiations the Treaty of Westphalia was signed at Munster in 1648. 173. The Treaty of Westphalia is one of the most im- portant treaties in the history of Europe. It Nature of the established the religious independence of the treaty. Protestant states, and formally acknowledged the indepen- dence of Switzerland and Holland. And, w^hat was even more important, the two foreign kingdoms that had had the chief share in the war, France and Sweden, obtained posses- sions within the Empire,* and also as sureties of the peace they obtained a general right of meddling in the affairs of Germany. The authority of Ferdinand was reduced to narrower limits, and by a natural consequence the Catholics lost much of their influence in Germany. * France obtained Alsace, Brisach, Metz, Verdun, and other territo- ries ; Sweden got Upper Pomerania, Stettin, the isle of RUgen, Bremen etc., with three votes at the Diet. m 366 MODERN HISTORY. Effect of the war on Ger- many. 174' I'o Germany the Thirty Years* War was most ruin- ous. Ihe Empire was thoroughly sliattered, and became a mere lax confederation of petty despotisms and oligarchies, with hardly any national feeling. Whatever traces were left, either of autho- rity in the iunpire or freedom in the people, quite died out. Thus began that weakness and disintegration which marked Germany for the next two centuries, and from which the Teutonic Fatherland has only in our own day been lifted into unity by mighty throes. i i I i. I [-(■■- ^' 3. THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 175' Before narrating the history of the age of Louis Review of XIV. wc must glancc at the events that con- events down nect this age with the reign of Henry IV., the to Ric eiieu. pe^JQ^j j^j ^hich we stopped in our last survey of French history. Henry IV. died by the dagger of Ravaillac in 1 6 1 o. His son, Louis XIII., being then but nine, the queen- mother, Mary de Medici, ruled as regent. It was a time of miserable court cabals, and France, which under Henry IV. had risen to high prosperity and splendor, sank into weak- ness, faction, and disorder. Louis XIII., becoming of age, assumed the government ; but he was a monarch of mode- rate abilities. By the advice of his favorites he banished his mother : she took up her residen ::e at Blois, rallied the dis- satisfied nobles around her, and for two years the kingdom was kept in a state of anarchy. In the m-dst of these events a man came to the front who was to be the real king of France, and to mark an epoch in the history of Europe. This man was the Cardinal de Richelieu. 176. A few years before this time a quiet-looking young Advancement ccclesiastic named Armand Duplessis de Riche- of RicheUeu. lieu had spoken with eloquence at a meeting of the States-General, and had been appointed Bishop of n Tin: AGE OF Louis xiv. 367 it ruin- ittered, )f petty lly any r autho- ied out. marked lich the n lifted if Louis lat con- IV., the urvey of aillac in e queen- time of :nry IV. o weak- of age, mode- shed his the dis- om was vents a France, mis man young ; Riche- meeting shop of Lu^on. Tlicn he became sp'ritual adviser to Mary de Medici ; and, as it was tiirough his tact that the quarrel be- tween herself and her son was made up, the queen-mother succeeded in getting for him a cardinal's hat from the Pojje, and in having Louis XIII, agree to admi*- him to the cabinet. He was only to give his opinion : he was to affect no state, to hold no levees, and to behave in all resi)ects as a simple, humble-minded ecclesiastic. But no sooner had he taken his seat at the council-board than it was evident that the true man was found. Fo twenty years (1622- 1642), up to the time of his death, he exercised an entire control over the king, making him, as was said, "the first man in Europe, but the second in his own kingdom." I77« Richelieu has been compared with Wolsey of Eng- land, and t lere are certainly points of com- comparison parison. Like him, he was a prelate, a minister, with Woisey. a consummate politician, and a master of the arts of intrigue. He gave his whole attention and all his vast abilities to affairs of state, was prodigal of display, and entertained projects of the most towering ambition. He added to his ministerial and priestly dignities the emoluments and honors of the profession of arms, assumed the title and dress of generalissimo of the French army, and wore alternately the helmet of the warrior and the scarlet hat of the cardinal. Richelieu, however, was far more crafty than the minister of Henry VIII., and more unscrupulous, while at the same time he pursued a more profound and comprehensive policy. 178. The chief domestic object of Richelieu was the suppression of Protestantism. Grown desperate, uonjegti^ qi_ the Huguenots ha*^. attempted to throw off their icy of Riche- allegiance, and establish an independent state ^^^' of which Rochelle was to be capital. Richelieu laid siege to this city, which, after maintaining a most obstinate resist- ance for a year, during which 15,000 persons perished^ was !iti ^ . ' ' ?. i ■ . j'v ^ : ■ i 1- ; ^} ill H|l 368 MODERN HISTORY. forced to surrender (1628). By this event the civil war was ended, and the Protestant power in France finally crushed. 179. The principal aim of Richelieu's foreign policy was His foreign the humiliation of Austria. This he accom- poUcy. plished by giving his aid to Gustavus Adol- phus in the Thirty Years' War ; and after the death of that hero France took the field directly as one of the com- batants of the struggle. 180. The power of the nobles was always hostile to Dealings with Richelieu ; but his stern resolve and deep craft tiie nobles. thwarted all their schemes against him. When he got them in his grasp he did not spare, as Montmorency, Cinq- Mars, and De Thou — all of whom were executed for plots against him — bitterly experienced. 181. In 1642 the great Cardinal died. He had extended Deatiiofthe the glory of the French name to distant regions, CardinaL commanded the respect of all the European powers, patronized literature and science, and founded the French Academy. Five months later died the monarch whom he had served with such splendid ability. 182. Louis XIII. left a son who was at this tune only Reign of ^ve years old, but who, under the title of Louis Louis XIV. XIV., inherited the throne of France. The reign of this king forms the main topic of this chapter. It had the extraordinary duration of seventy-two years, lasting from 1643 to 1 7 15. It is usually regarded as one of the great periods of French history, for during this space France rose to be the most formidable power in Europe. 183. The long reign of Louis XIV. naturally div'des itself into three eras : i. The government of Mazarin ; 2. The development of the ambitious policy of the king ; 3. Its retribution. 184. During the minority of Louis XIV. the regency was in the hands of his mother, Anne of Austria. Three epochs. The Regency. The queen took as her counselor and guide, iti n THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 3<>9 war was Tushed. )licy was : acconi- js Adol- h of that :he com- lostile to leep craft .. When morency, xuted for extended it regions, European unded the monarch iine only of Louis hce. The apter. It .rs, lasting ne of the ce France y div'des nment of ambitious gency was f Austria. nd guide, Caidinal Mazarin, an Italian, to whose management the affairs of state were, during this period, almost entirely entrusted. l85- At this time the war against Spain and the Emperor of Germany, begun by Richelieu and forming partinthe part of the Thirty Years' War, still continued. Thirty Years' The result was glorious for the arms of France. "' Conde, an illustrious general, won a series of brilliant victories over Spain and the Emperor. These victories were followed by the Peace of Westi)halia (1648), which concluded the Thirty Years' War. The pacification, how- ever, did not extend to Spain, which continued hostilities for ten years longer. 186. Though triumphant abroad, France was meanwhile in a state of civil commotion. Mazarin, the Rise of the prime minister, was the object of numerous Fronde, cabals, while at the same time the exhausted condition of the finances brought the crown into collision with the peo}jle. A reform i)arty called the Fronde waged a civil war against the court party from 1648 to 1653. This movement had in it promise of great good, but it came to naught, and was marked by extreme frivolity. 187. On the death of Mazarin, Louis XIV., at the age of twenty-three, nssumed the direction of the Louis xiv. goverrmient himself The President of the becomes king:. Assembly of the Clergy desired to know to whom he should now address himself on business : " To myself," said Louis ; and he was sole master of France until his death. 188. Louis XIV. had the discernment to choose great men as his ministers. Colbert and Louvois rn 1 1 1 • 1 rr i . <- His muustefs. filled the highest offices, and put the finances, commerce, and the army and navy on an excellent footing. 189 The king wished to enlarge his empire, and to render his name illustrious by military renown, warwith He took advantage, therefore, of the death of Spain. i< 2 A IIP i I- ■ l^Pf ^f li .-Tin ^ 1;: 370 MODERN HISTORY. the Spanish king, Philip IV., to make pretensions to his inheritance as the husband of Maria Theresa, PhiHp's daughter, and to march an army into the Spanish Nether- lands, 1667. By the triple alliance of England, Holland, and Sweden, he was compelled, by the Peace of Aix-la- Chapelle (1668), to surrender, after a short campaign, the greater part of his conquests ; but many of the frontier towns of Flanders remained with France, and were converted by the great engineer, Vauban, into impregnable fortresses. 190. As Holland had been the chief instrument in War begins checking the victorious course of the haughty with HoUanA king, SO she did not fail to experience his ven- geance. Louis won Sweden to his side, and purchased the favor of the English king (Charles II,) by bribes. Thus prepared and protected on every side, Louis, in 1672, began a second war, which at first was directed against Holland alone, but in which almost all the European states were involved during the seven years of its continuance. 191. The Hollanders saw the approaching storm, and The Dutch turned their eyes to a young man, the descen- champion. dant of the great Nassaus, to whom they owed their deliverance from the Spanish yoke, and invited him to take the military government into his own hands. This was William, Prince of Orange, whom we have already seen as coming at a later period to the throne of England. 192. Passing the Rhine, the French army pursued a French sue- rapid course of victories into the territories of cesses. ^j^g United Netherlands. In forty days Holland was overthrown, and the French were already within four leagues of Amsterdam. De Witt, the Grand Pensionary, or chief magistrate, of the Netherlands, in despair demanded terms of peace. The embassy was insultingly dismissed by the French king, and the people of the Hague rushed desperately to the house of De Witt and tore him and his brother Cornelius to pieces. ■w THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 371 to his Philip's Nether- lolland, Aix-la- ign, the frontier inverted tresses. lent in haughty his ven- ased the ,. Thus n 1672, . against an states ance. rm, and : descen- ley owed d him to s. This dy seen d. rsued a tories of Holland thin four onary, or emanded lismissed rushed and his 193. It seemed that the ruin of Holland was now complete ; but the calm and resolute William of Orange n d f ventured on a desperate yet successful measure, wuiiam of Better, thought he, that the sea should engulf his ^''^k®- country than that his country should lose its liberties. He opened the sluices throughout the land. The German Ocean and the Rhine poured over all the plain, and the invading army was limited to the high grounds on which their citadels were placed. William then sent forth the Dutch fleet to meet his enemies on the sea, and the great Admiral de Ruyter met the united French and English fleets in three combats, which, though indecisive, were on the whole to the advantage of the Dutch. 194. And now from many quarters unlooked-for aid came to the Netherlanders. Shame took pos- Aid to the session of the English Parliament at the terms Dutch. of the alliance with France, and they forced the mercenary Charles H. to sign with his nephew William of Orange a treaty of peace, 1674. Other nations threw themselves into the struggle more warmly than England. The king of Spain, the German Emperor Leopold, and the Elector of Brandenburg (now Prussia) took arms against Louis. 195. A grand combat of the nations, in which Louis XIV. stood opposed to half of Europe, now The giant ensued. For four years (i 674-1 678) the tramp struKeie* of a dozen armies shook the Rhine provinces, and Flanders and Alsace and Franche Comt^. Great generals, Turenne and Conde and Montecuculi and William of Orange, put forth the mighty efforts of their genius. Success was now with the one side and now with the other, but it was not decisive with either. At length longings for peace seized on the heart of Europe. Louis himself was wearied with the struggle, which had drained the resources of his realm. Negotiations were entered into, and the war was brought to a close by the Peace of Nim'eguen, 1678. i } i'i i M it it 1 I' ii i 372 MODERN HISTORY. 196. The treaty was especially favorable to the interests Results of of France, as it secured to Louis the provinces the treaty, of Franche Comte, Alsace, and many of the strong fortresses and industrious towns of Flanders. Hol- land by the treaty recovered everything, so that Spain was the chief loser by the Peace of Nimeguen. 197. Louis XIV. was now at the height of his power, Point of cui- and the municipal authorities conferred on him mination. fhg ^\^\q of Great. Yet in reality the grandeur of the French monarchy had culminated, for the glory of the king had been bought at too great a cost. The con- stant wars and the despotic home government of Louis had weakened and impoverished his kingdom. 198. A measure was adopted at this time which involved Edict of ^^^y iii^portant consequences to other countries Nantes re- as well as France. We allude to the Revocation voked. of the Edict of Nantes^ which had been granted by Henry IV. for the toleration of the French Protestants.* The reasons assigned in justification of this extreme mea- sure were, briefly, that the presence of the Huguenots, as a sort of imperiui?i in imperio^ was a constant source of danger to the state, and that the political activity of their leaders had cut them off from all claim to toleration. It is but fair to the memory of Louis to assume that he was deceived by the representations of his agents, who assured him that the great body of the Protestants were indifferent to a change of religion. While, therefore, their worship was suppressed, their churches demolished, and their ministers banished, the Protestant laity were forbidden, under the most rigorous penalties, to quit the kingdom (1685). The government entered also on a most cruel persecution, em- ploying dra^onnades, as they were called, that is, raids by parties of dragoons, who were allowed full license to insult and worry the heretics till their conversion was obtained. * See p. 336. THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 373 iterests ovinccs of the . Hol- ain was power, on him rrandeur glory of he con- ouis had involved countries \evocation \ granted ;estants.* me mea- enots, as ource of of their n. It is he was assured different |rship was ministers nder the 15). The tion, em- raids by to insult bbtained. The result was, that, in spite of the penalties, crowds of Huguenots continued to escape from France, which thus lost a large number of her most industrious and useful subjects. 199. The Revolution of 1688 brought the Dutch Stadt- holder, William of Orange, to the throne of Grand AUi- England. He had been the persistent enemy ance formed, of Louis, and being now at the head of a great nation, he had a very formidable backing. King William became the soul of a general league, called the Grand Alliance^ which was now made agninst the aggressions of Louis. 200. The war went on almost everywhere at once, and many battles were fought and towns taken on _. , , . , • 1, ■ 1 -VT , 1 1 T *nc result. Doih Sides, especially m the Netherlands. It was at last ended by the Peace of Ryswick (1697), which retrenched some of the conquests of Louis XIV. on the Rhine and in the Netherlands, and recognized William III. as the lawful sovereign of England. 201. Another great war in which Louis was the moving spirit broke out in the year 1701. This is war of Span- called the War of the Spatiish Succession. The ^^ succession, manner in which it originated was as follows. The king of Spain, Charles II., died in the year 1700, leaving no children, but leaving a will by which he bequeathed the succession of his house to a grandson of Louis XIV., named Philip of Anjou. This at once alarmed the nations of Europe as a menace to the balance of power, for Philip of Anjou was a mere boy. It was believed that the astute and ambitious Louis XIV. would himself be the real ruler, and the close union of two such kingdoms as France and Spain was greatly to be feared. 202. Accordingly the German Emperor and William III. of England united with Holland and Prussia Narrative of to prevent Philip's wearing the crown of Spain, events. They supported the claims of the Archduke Charles, second ;j 374 MODERN HISTORY. son of the German Emperor, as king of Spain. William III., who was the head of the coalition, died in the midst of his hopes and preparations ; but two men rose in his place, — one the greatest gent;ral except one in the annals of Kngland, John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough ; «:he other. Prince I'-ugene of Savoy, who headed the armies of the Emperor. 203. 'I'his War of t'le Spanish Succession lasted for thir- Resuitof teen years (i 701-17 14), and resulted in the the war. humiliation of Louis XIV. The French king was defeated in all his plans. Marlborough sent his mar- shals in headlong flight from Blen'heim, Ramillies', Oude'- narde, and Malplaquet. Gibraltar was wrested forever from Spain and attached to England. The French fleets were burned at Vigo, and Toulon was besieged by sea and land. Prince Eugene in the meantime crushed the French power in Italy and approached the boundaries of France. Domes- tic sorrow, too, came to Louis. His only son died, then two of his grandsons ; and nobody remained in the direct line of succession to the old man of seventy-four but a great- grandson, then a child in arms. 204. Nevertheless, Louis succeeded so far that he estab- Sudden Hshed Philip of Anjou on the throne of Spain ; successor and the way in which, after so many defeats, °^^ ' this came about is rather curious. The allies were contending with France to set the Archduke Charles of Austria on the throne of Spain, in order to prevent too close a union between Spain and France. Now, in the thirteenth year of the war the Emperor of Germany died, and the Archduke Charles became Emperor. If he were made king of Spain while at the same time German Emperor, would not the balance of power, about which the allies were so anxious, be still more daringly menaced? Accordingly Louis XIV. was surprised to find his nomination of Philip to the Spanish crown suddenly ratified by England and * I f1 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 375 William midst in his inals of J other, of the for thir- in the ich king his mar- ', Oude'- iver from eets were ind land. .ch power Domes- ied, then :he direct Lit a great- he estab- of Spain ; y defeats, The alUes Charles of t too close thirteenth and the nade king ror, would ;s were so ccordingly . of Philip gland and Holland. The chief point was conceded, and Philip V. be- came the first of the Bourbon line in Spain. The treaties of Utrecht ( 1 7 13) and of Rastadt (i 714) terminated the war. The next year Louis XIV. died. 205- During the last thirty yearr of the reign of Louis XiV. France stood at the culminating point of Position of her power abroad and of her prosj)erity at home, France, so that the flattering chronicles of those days described the period of Zon:s Quatorze as the golden age of France. Trade and industry received a prodigious development by the care of Colbert ; the woolen and silk manufactures, the stocking and cloth weaving, which flourished in the southern towns, brought prosperity ; the maritime force increased ; colonies were planted ; and the productions of France were carried by trading companies to all parts of the world. 206. In this age also the court of France displayed a magnificence that had never before been wit- The court and nessed. Sumptuous buildings, costly libraries, manners, splendid literary productions, vast establishments for the natural sciences, academies and similar institutions, ex- alted the glory and renown of the Great Monarch. The refined air of society, the polished tone, the easy manners of the nobility and courtiers, subdued Europe more per- manently and extensively than the weapons of the army. French manners and fashions bore sway from this time in all the higher circles of society, and the French language and French style attained supremacy in Europe. 207. Nevertheless, it was not a period which any one who loves the greatest of all things, political liberty True character and the true virtue of nations, can regard with of the age. unmixed satisfaction. We must, in summing up the age of Louis XIV., carefully guard against the false political philo- sophy that would teach us to judge an epoch by its mere external glitter. The government, though tempered by courteous manners and superficial polish, was Oriental des- mnr N^i H 376 MODERN HISTORY. potism, and Louis XIV. himself summed up all the political characteristics of the reign in one significant sentence, " I am the state" {Hetat dest inoi). The means to carry on the great and often unjust wars whose victories are cited as the ground of our admiration were raised by a severe and un- equal taxation that pressed heavily on the cultivators of the soil Under a flimsy veil of propriety and poUiesse^ the morals of society were exceedingly corrupt. The literaiure of the age was brilliant, but it was at the same time servile. Louis put the Muses into his livery, as he had already done with the nobility, and artists and authors took his wages to cover him with official adulation. •tl;: 4. PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 208. The 17th century is one of the most active and Character of progressive periods in the intellectual history the century, of Europe. A great revival had begun in the previous century, and in this century it was carried forward in great scientific discoveries, in striking improvements in philosophy, in powerful literatures, and in a general advance in the condition of the people. 209. In philosophy the most notable change was the Bacon andhis Substitution of the modern method of inductive philosophy. inquiry for the deductive methods which the scholastic philosophy had inherited from Aristotle, and which consisted in assumi?ii> causes instead of interrogating Nature herself. The name of Bacon is associated with the new philosophy, which, indeed, is often called the Baconian method. But Bacon was not so much the author of the change as an evidence that the change had taken place. 210. The man to whom the new philosophy was per- _ haps more indebted than to any other was the French philosopher Descartes \dd-cari']. PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 377 (olitical " I am on the I as the md un- 3 of the 'sse^ the teraiure servile, dy done wages to tive and I history m in the I forward ments in advance was the inductive •hich the Dtle, and rrogating .ted with ailed the le author ad taken was per- :)ther was \dd-cart'\ His method finds its point of deixirture in universal doubt; not that he nursed doubt as a skeptic, but that he strove to arrive at truth by dismissing all prejudices. He then starts from this fact. — /think; or, as he expresses it, Cogito,ergo sum* Then, / exist, not of my own will, but from some source out of my self. Then, / cannot come from any source less perfect than my oivn ideas of perfection^ etc. 211. A still bolder course was pursued contemporane- ously by a Jew of Holland, Spino'za, who by a method akin to geometrical demonstration sought to prove that there must be only one "Infinite Sub- Spinoxa. Stance," of which all the various forms of existence are but emanations. Spinoza's system may be described as a specu- lative pantheism, tending to pure atheism, though perhaps S})inoza, who was personally a virtuous character, was not a formal atheist in the sense of denying the existence of God. 212. In astronomy Galileo led the way, in the early part of the lyth century, by the discovery of the Kepler and satellites of the larger planets and their mo- Newton, tions. Then a greater genius followed : Kepler earned for himself the title of the "legislator of the heavens," by investigating with enormous labor three of the great laws that regulate the motions of the planets. Newton came after Kepler, and completed his work. He demonstrated the theory of universal gravitation, a principle which solves the chief phenomena of nature and connects and regu lates the whole material universe. His theory of light and colors is the foundation of the science of optics, and his Priftcifia the basis of all natural philosophy or physics. 213. Newton was also the discoverer of that most power- ful instrument of mathematics, the Calculus, Newton and which he called fluxions,— though it is a curi- Leibnitz, ous fact that Leib'nitz, a German philosopher of universal • •'! think, therefore I am." M tf: ' 378 MODERN HISTORY. I \i u r^ genius, discovered this method indepeuJcntly about the same time. 214. The discoveries in astronomy led to improvements other great '" navigation. Napier abridged calculation by names. the invention of logarithms. The Florentine physicist, Torricel'li, laid the foundation of hydraulics, and invented the mercurial barometer. Otte Guericke \_^er'ik-ka\ invented the air-pump. In 1628 Harvey published his dis- covery of the circulation of the blood, having spent nearly twenty years in collecting facts to establish his theory. 215. The English Royal Society, which originated from Scientific private meetings of the English philosophers, societies. was incorporated by Charles II. in 1662, and greatly contributed to the advancement of the sciences and the useful arts. The French Acaden y of Sciences was instituted in 1666 by Louis XIV., and similar institutions were founded in most of the countries of Europe. These societies did much for physics and chemistry. Brandt, an alchemist, discovered phosphorus in 1677. 216. The progress of literature in the 17th century was French equally remarkable with that of science and drama. philosophy. And here the French showed the greatest advance. The French drama was the creation of the age of Louis XIV. Corneille' and Racine' brought French tragedy to its highest elevation. Corneille has more grandeur and sublimity than his rival, who excels him in the tender and pathetic. The comedies of Moliere \molk-tr''\ are among the finest productions of wit ever com- posed. 2I7« The French pulpit oratory of this century can bonst other several unrivaled names. Bossuet \lws-su d''\ writers, was a universal genius and spirit-stirring orator ; Mas'sillon and Bourdaloue' were reckoned the greatest ol French preachers ; F^n'elon, the author of Telemaque^ was an admired pastor. Pascal was a mathematician when a \r e same ements ;ion by rentine ,cs, and his dis- : nearly y- id from sophers, 162, and ices and ces was ititutions These randt, an ury was nee and Dwed the cation of brought ille has o excels Moliere ver coin- ;an boast bos-sii a^^ g orator ; eatest ol' igue^ was when a PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 379 child, and was famous in many sciences before he had attained manhood. His Provitrial Letters^ directed against the Jesuits, are reckoned masterpieces of witty argument, and he is characterized by Bayle as " one of the sublimest spirits of the world." The other French writers of emi- nence are Rochefoucauld \rdsh-foo-kd\ the author of the well-known keen and witty Maxims; Boileau \bwah-lo\ the critic and writer of satirical poems ; and La Fontaine', the modern yEsop, and author of the most delightful fables ever written. 218. English literature continued to flourish in all its splendor during the first half of the 17th English century. Shakespeare died in 1616; but he literature, was followed by Ben Jonson and Fletcher and Mas'singer. The period of civil war was not favorable to literary pro- gress, but still there were many writers of undying fame even in those days of strife. In verse Milton produced his great epics ; Jeremy Taylor shone in prose ; and Bunyan, the " Dreamer of Bedford," gave to the world his famous allegories. The period following the Restoration produced many dramatic writers, of whom John Dryden was the prince. The stage literature of the epoch was, however, marked by great licentiousness. Butler, the author of Hudibras^ shines as a humorous and satirical writer. 219. In art, though the 17th century showed rather a falling off from the epic grandeur of the pre- y^ta„df|, vious century, yet there are not wanting illustrious Flemish name^-. At this period it is, strange to say, the **=**°^'- Netherlanders that lead in art. Rubens, born in the pre- vious century, was the greatest painter of the Flemish school, and specially famed for his coloring and bold execution. Rubens's famous pupil, Vandyck, was a native of Antwerp, but was naturalized in England, where he lived the larger part of his life, painting those portraits that hand down to :nr* I I -<} ! N^i lllirtl ^M II ij III i ^n-rf 380 MODERN HISTORY. US the faces of most of the beauties of Charles I.'s court. Tile third great name of the Flemish school is Rem'brandt, who excelled particularly in color and the effects of liiiht and shade. 220. Of the Spanish painters, Muril'lo was the most Other celebrated during this period. The land of painters. Michel Angelo and Raphael could during this century produce no greater name than that of Salvator Rosa, a second-class artist. England had but little native art, though we may mention the name of Sir Christopher Wren, the architect of St. Paul's Cathedral. 221. The social condition of the European nations during the 1 7th century is a subject so large and diver- f trcSxtu**^* sified, that we shall confine our attention to that people in which we are most directly interested, namely, the English people.* 222. The country " gentlemen,'' now a polished and im- Cngiish gen- portant class, were then rough and poorly edu- runswick, had been left in imprisonment in Hanover, condemned to perpetual confinement for some alleged misconduct. 240. George I., who was a thorough German, thought far more of his Electorate of Hanover than he Politics under did of his kingdom of Great Britain ; and this George i. partiality became a source of political complication. He had been called to the throne by the Whigs, and it was from this party that he chose all his advisers. The Tory leaders were prosecuted and impeached. Great riots then took place, for the feeling of almost the entire nation ran strongly in favor of the Tories ; and opposition to the king finally took shape in the rallying of a considerable party to the support of the Pretender, * T'he following list comprises the sovereigns of the House of Brunswick, with the dates of their accession : — A.D. A.D. George I. (great-grandson George IV. (son) . . 1820 of James I.) . 1714 William IV. (brother) . • ^830 George II. (son) . , , 1727 Victoria (niece) . , . 183- George III. (grandson). 1760 Regency of the Prince of Wales .... 1811 ■I,' wimm i 390 MODERN HISTORY. 241. This person was the son of James II., and called The Pre- himself James III. He had pretensions to the tender and throne of England and Scotland, for, of course, his invasion, j^^ ^^^ j^^^ acknowledge the union of the two kingdoms. His supporters were called "Jacobites," from Jacobus^ the Latin name for James. Louis XIV. had pro- mised the Pretender aid in winning the British throne ; but just then the French king died, — so that when in 1715 risings were made both in Scotland and England in the cause of the Pretender, and he himself came over from France to join in, he was easily defeated, and the attempt utterly failed. 242. A pacific reign, like that of George I., furnishes South Sea f'Sw events of importance in history. One, how- scheme, ever, of disastrous consequence occurred. A Scotchman named Law, who had become controller-general of France, and amused that country with financial schemes which at first promised to enrich, but finally almost ruined the country, was the means in 1720 of inspiring the British people with a similar visionary project, called the South Sea Bubble. It seemed for a time to prosper, and many realized large fortunes by selling their shares at a premium to others ; but in a short time its unsoundness was discovered, the price of shares fell, and thousands were utterly ruined. With great difiicuky the House of Commons equalized as nearly as possible the state of gain and loss among the innocent parties, and credit was restored. 243. George II., son of George I., ascended the throne Character of of Great Britain in the forty-fifth year of his age, George II, 1 727. He was a little, light-haired, fair-com- plexioned man. Having resided some time in England, he had a partial knowledge of the English language, which, however, he spoke with a f(^reign accent. He cared as little for science, art, or literature as did his father, and he was more than once heard to growl, in his German-English, that he saw no good in " bainting and boetry." ^-t'-i> E^GLA^D UNDER THE GEORGES. 391 i called to the course, :he two from ad pro- le ; but n 1715 in the r from attempt irnishes le, how- •ed. A ■general chemes ruined British uth Sea realized others ; ed, the ruined, lized as )ng the throne his age, lir-com- and, he which, ired as and he English, 244. During nearly half the reign of (joorge II. {i.e., till 1742) the oflice of prime minister was held by o- T-> 1 IX r , , ,, .11 Walpole. Sir Robert Ualpole, Me was a man ot little learning, rough and boisterous in his manners and in his life ; but he retained his great power with a passionate grasp, preserving it, dislionorably indeed, but with consum- mate tact. Bribery was the secret of his long reign as premier, so that he had always at command a majority of votes in Parliament. 245' During the reign of George II. there were four wars of considerable importance : i . The war with Four wars of Spain ; 2. The war of the Austrian suc^^ession ; George 11. 3. The war for the Young Pretender; 4. The American war with France. 1. The war with Spain was begun in 1739, and was forced on George II. and Walpole by the general wish of the people, who were stirred up by tales of wrong done to Englishmen by the Spaniards in America. Little or nothing came of this war. 2. The war of the Austrian succession broke out in 1 741. It was to determine whether Maria Theresa, daughter of the Emperor of Germany, Charles VI., should succeed to the Austrian throne, or whether it should go to another claimant, Charles, the Elector of Bavaria. Though it was a quarrel with which in reality England had nothing to do, yet George II. espoused the cause of Maria Theresa, while Prussia under Frederick the Great, and France under Louis XV., took the side of Charles. Nothing came of this war, as England and France gave back their conquests to each other at the end of it. (Treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle, 1 748,) 3. In the year 1 745 Charles Edward, the son of the Old Pretender, tried with French aid to gain the British crown for his father. The battle of CuUoden decided against him. 4. The war with France had relation to the colonies of the two coun- tries in America, and is known in United States history as the " French and Indian War." It began in 1 755. was continued to the reign of George III., who began to rule in 1760, and was ended in 1763 by the Peace of Paris. By this treaty all Canada was surrendered to the British. 246. During the latter part of the reign of George II. the 1 :' IH ff i 392 MODERN HISTORY. Pitt. great figure in politics was William Pitt, known as the Grm/ Commoner. He was born in 1708; he was edu- cated at Oxford, served in the army, then in Parliament, and finally giving himself up entirely to politics, he won for himself a leading place in the government of his country. He directed all his genius to raising the glory of England both in America and in India ; and it was to his clear head and admirable administrative faculties that Great Bri.tain owed her formidable position in the politics of Europe in the middle of the 1 8th century. 247. George III. in 1760 ascended a glorious throne. En land Through the energy and foresight of the Great under Commoner, Britain had become the first nation George III. jj^ ^.j^g world. He was the first monarch of his house who could be regarded as English in feeling. His first speech to the Parliament contained words which showed that England had obtained at last a native king. " Born and edu- cated in this country," said George, " I glory in the name of Briton." 248. George III. was the best of the Georges, which, Character of however, is not saying much. He was correct George III. in his private life, devoted himself faithfully to the duties of his station, and no doubt had the good of his country at heart. But he was a 1.";^ of narrow under- standing and obstinate prejudices, and his very patriotism led him into a series of fatal blunders. Long prone to insanity, his mind quite gave way in 18 10, though he lived until 1820. 249. This reign was fruitful in Colonial history. Indeed, Events in ^^^ ^^ was five years old, symptoms of the great, America. and to Britain disastrous, American war began to appear. The trouble arose during the administration of Mr. Grenville, showing itself deci'i.ively on the passage of the Stamp Act, 1765. This was afterwards repealed ; but other taxes were imposed which finally precipitated that momentous , :/ .m, PRUSSIA AND FREDERICK THE GREAT. 393 conflict which r ultcd in the independence of the United States and its appearance among the powers of the earth. 250. It was in this reign also that the great struggle be- tween the French and English for the possession Conquest of of India was settled in favor of the latter. The '^'^^^ KngHsh power in India first made great advances under Clive, and after him the most famous name in the history of British India was that of Warren Hastings. Not only were the French subdued, but the various native princes were conquered one after another, and their provinces in- corporated with the British dominion ; so that now England rules over 200,000,000 of people in Hindostan. 251- Aside from Colonial history, the most important events with which England had to do during _ . Other eventSt the latter part of tho i8th century were the events of the French Revolution, — that fearful maelstrom of war that drew into its vortex all the nations of Europe. The part which England played m this mighty epoch will, however, be best related in the special section on the French Revolution. (See p. 405.) «. PRUSSIA AND FREDERICK THE GREAT. 252. We are now to trace the rise of Prussia, that great power which in our own time., has been able Subject to bind together the lon^-dissevered German treated ot states into the mighty German Empire. 253. One of the numerous states of the German Empire during the Middle Ages was the FJectorate of Beg-innings Brandenburg. Lying alongside of this was a of Prussia, small territory known as the Duchy of Prussia * Wliile Elizabeth sat on the throne of England, the tors c^ * The name Prussia is derived from the word Borussi, the name of a fierce Slavonic tribe. }' 394 MODERN HISTORY. (f Brandenburg added this duchy to their dominions. By good management on the part of its rulers Brandenburg grew apace; and finally, towards the close of the 17th cen- tury, the Elector Frederick III. bargained to lend the Em- peror aid in the War of the Spanish Succession, provided he obtained the crown of Prussia. The first year of the 1 8th century (1701) marks the change of the last Elector of Brandenburg^ Frederick 111., into the first King of Prussia^ Frederick I. 254. The second king of Prussia was Frederick William, Frederick (i7i3-^74o)- He was a stern old tyrant and WiUiam. semi-savage, but he was at the same time a rigid economist ; and he set himself to drilling and dis- ciplining a magnificent army, which in the hands of his son was to be the instrument for raising Prussia to the position of one of the gR-atest military powers in Europe. 255. This son was the famous Frederick II., or, as history „ ^, , calls him, Frederick the Great. He was born in Youth of . . Frederick 1713. By his tyrannical old father, Frederick the Great. WjHiam, he had been kicked and raved at and fed on bread and water, till he finally ran away, and wa with great difficulty saved from the death of a deserter. This was not a promising training ; but there was the true marrow in the young man, so he bided his time, while in the meantime he played on the flute, and scribbled books, and kept up a correspondence with Voltaire and others of the new French school of philosophy. 256. In the year 1740 rough old Frederick William died, He ascends ^"d his son Came to the throne of Prussia. He the throne, had as a boy had the dream of being a great soldier : he was now the possessor of a full treasury and a well-drilled army, — so he looked about for a war. 257. In the very year which Frederick came to the Maria throne the Emperor of (jermany, Charles VL, Theresa. died. His daughter Maria Theresa, by a law By of 1 PRUSSIA AND FREDERICK THE GREAT. 395 called a Pragmatic Sanction^ became ruler over all the hereditary dominions of Charles, namely, the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, the Archduchy of Austria, etc. — • and she was called by her highest title, that of Queen of Hungary. The Empire, of course, was at the disposal of the Electors. No sooner had Maria Theresa come to power, than various princes began to lay claim to the whole or part of her dominions. 258. Among others, P>ederick set up a claim to part of the territory of the helpless princess ; to wit, p^^^ ... Silesia, claiming it as part of the ancient do- claim and minion of the House of Brandenburg. It was *=<"*'^"^*- a mere pretext, without show of justice ; but Frederick marched an army into Silesia, won two victories (1741, 1742), and Maria Theresa, anxious to concentrate her energies against her other foes, made over Silesia to him. This is known as the First Sihsian War. 259. Hostilities were renewed in 1744 ; but nothing came of this Second Siksian War^ though F ance and second war, England were both in it on opposite sides, and and sequel it was closed the next year. Eight years of peace followed, and this breathing-space was devoted by Frederick to the good of Prussia, which under his able administration, con- tinued to rise in importance. 260. And it needed all the strength he could husband ; for in 1756 there broke out another and far Mature of the greater contest, called the Seven Years' War. Seven Years' This time Frederick was not to blame for draw- ^**"' ing the sword ; for though, in fact, he drew it first, the war was strictly defensive. Austria formed a secret treaty with France, and another with Russia, Poland, Saxony, and Sweden, for the partition of Prussia. England, then en- gaged in the great Colonial wars with France, took sides with Prussia ; — and so it was that Frederick, unaided save by the half-hearted support of Great Britain, had to con< Iff 396 MODERN HISTORY. front more than half of Europe, arrayed in arms to over- whelm him. 261. The story of how the Prussian captain-king bore The war and ^p against this " sca of troubles " that raged all its results. around his country forms one of the most wonderful chapters in military annals. Some of the main points are stated in the note below;* but, leaving aside Tisa 'i ■ i * First Campaign, 1756. — Frederick assumed the aggressive, know- ing that a league had been formed against Aim, At the head of 70,000 men he invaded Saxony, took Dresden, and defeated the Austrians at Lo'wositz. At Dresden Frederick seized the state papers, and found therein the whole story of the secret plot for the partition of Prussia: these papers he published, in order to defend his action in beginning hostilities. Second Campaign, 1757. — This campaign, the greatest of the seven, began with the invasion of Bohemia by Frederick. Near Prague he won a great battle over the Austrians, but he suffered a severe defeat at Kolin. Then a succession of terrible misfortunes burst over the head of the Prussian king,— Russians breaking through his eastern frontier, Swedes in Pomerania marching on Berlin, his friends the English driven in disgrace from Hanover by the French, who were rapidly advancing into Saxony. It is said that at this time Frederick meditated suicide, such were the disasters that overwhelmed him. But presently there came a turn in the tide. The Russian army of invasion was recalled, owing to the illness of the Empress Elizabeth ; Frederick, taking heart again, dashed into Saxonjr with only 20,000 men, and at Rossbach overwhelmed an Imperialist and French army of three times the force. Another crushing (lefeat to the Austrians took place a month afterwards at Lcuthen, in Silesia. The Immediate result of these victories was the recapture of Silesia, which had been overrun by the Austrians, and the exaltation of Frederick to the greatest fame. London was a blaze of illumination in his honor, and the English Parliament voted him ^^700,000 a year. Third and Fourth Campaigns, 1758-1759.— In the third campaign the cause of the Prussian king was on the whole triumphant : he still held Silesia, and the French had been driven out of Germany. But in the fourth year of the war blow after blow fell heavily on Frederick. At Kunersdorf, in Brandenburg, he was terribly defeated by the Russians, who had again taken the field against him. Dresden was taken and held by the Austrians, and an army of nearly ao.ooo Prussians, hammed in by Austrian bayonets among the passes of Bohemia, was forced to un< conditional surrender. Sixth Campaign, 176a— Frederick, desperate, stood at bay, sur* PRUSSIA AND FREDERICK THE GREAT. 397 details here, we may say that after the conflict two results appear : i. That in Frederick himself was one of the world- soldiers, one of the men that make epochs in the history of war and of nations : 2. That in Prussia a new power had arisen. In fact, henceforth Prussia takes rank as one of the Five Great European Powers^ and the Holy Poman Empire is practically divided into the two great monarchies of Austria and Prussia^ which till the French Pevolution held the balance of power on the Continent. 262. It is estimated that, counting the losses on all sides, a million of men fell in the Seven Years' War. pmssja's Prussia bore her own sad share in this sacrifice, losses and while those who survived found themselves in "*^o»^*^o°« a wasted land. Frederick now set himself to repair the terrible mischief done by the war. He gave corn for food and seed to the starving people, and rebuilt the houses that had been burnto Silesia was freed from the payment of all taxes for six years, and other districts received the same boon for a shorter time. Rewards to his living soldiers and pensions to the widows and children of the dead were bestowed with liberal hand. Measures were taken for the revival of commerce ; and though these mea- sures were not always wise (the debasement of the coin by rounded by a gigantic host of 200,000 men. One tremendous dash he made at Torgau, where he won a victory that saved the Prussian monarchy from annihilation. But he could do no more than watch his foes from a strong camp in the heart of Silesia. The outlook was so discouraging, that again, we are told, the thought of suicide crossed Frederick's mind. Last Year, 1762-1763. — A death saved him. Elizabeth of Russia died in January 1762, and her cousin, Peter III., Frederick's warm ad- mirer and friend, not only made peace, but sent him aid. The example set by Russia was followed by Sweden. Then came the Peace of Paris (1763), concluded by England and France, so tnat Austria and Prussia fronted each other alone. However, these powers also signed the Peace of Hubertsburg (1763), and this ended the Seven Years* War. This treaty left the face of Germany on the whole unchanged,— Prussia intact and still holding Silesia. W: flPP ^P^, m 1 I .j^SSi rMP' w 1 n.im' ,1. i 398 MODERN HISTORY. the king's order is a notable instance of financial unwisdom), yet, on the whole, Prussia flourished greatly under Frederick. The best proof of this is, that, having inherited a kingdom with a population of two millions, and six million thalers in the national treasury, he died leaving seventy-two millions of thalers, and a contented and happy population of over six millions. 263. Frederick the Great died in the year 1786; and it Character of may be noticed as an interesting fact that his Frederick. j^gj- great public act was the conclusion, in that year, of a commercial treaty with the then infant republic of the United States of America. He was ir > seventy- fifth year at the time of his death, and had reigned forty- seven years. He was a great soldier, of daring courage in battle, of quick and fertile genius in difficulties, of most elastic spirit in the hour of depression. He gave himself little trouble respecting the justice of his undertakings ; but he was distinguished from the common herd of conquerors by having one fixed object, — to make his country one of the great powers of Europe. Carlyle selects him as a hero for the characteristic reason that " he managed not to be a liar and a charlatan, as the rest of his century was." And certainly, as compared with his royal contemporaries, the Georges of England and the Louises of France, he chal- lenges our admiration for his consummate ability, if he can- not claim our love as a man. ' 3. THE RISE OF RUSSIA. 264, In the history of Europe down to the beginning of the Russianques- i^th century Russia is a blank. Why is this? tion stated, fhc stock to which the Russians belong, the Slavic race, is inferior in capacity to no other member of the Aryan family. Moreover, Russia early started on the path of civilization. Tl:e foundation of the kingdom was laid by THE RISE OF RUSSIA. 399 iwisdom), ""rederick. kingdom thalers in ) millions n of over 6 ; and it t that his n, in that t republic , seventy- jned forty- ;ourage in ;, of most v^e himself {.ings ; but ;onquerors one of the a hero for ?/ to be a as." And raries, the he chal- if he can- ning of the hy is this ? lelong, the nber of the 1 the path vas laid by the Norseman Ruric in the 9th century, and in the loth century the Russians were Christianized, adopting the faith of the Greek Church. 265. The exj)lanation of why no progress was made is found in the fact that Russia lies directly ex- _, , •' . Reason of posed to the attacks of those fierce Mongolian Russia's back- savages who, from their hive in Central Asia, hardness, were wont to pour themselves in devastating tides into Europe. From these inroads the Slavic land had repeatedly suffered, when, in the 13th century, it was completely over- run by the Tartars of Genghis Khan. For more than two centuries Russia was held in bondage by these savages, while the Poles and Lithua'nians hemmed her in to the west, so that she was quite cut off from any part in European affairs. 266. The deliverance of Russia from Tartar supremacy was due to Ivan Vasilovitz, who became czar, progress of or emperor, about the same time that Queen Russia. Elizabeth ascended the throne of England. Russia was now a powerful state, but it was cut off from the ISaltic by the Poles and Swedes, and from the Black Sea by the Tar- tars, who held the Crimea. However, the close of the 17th century saw the appearance of a ruler who was to give Russia for the first time a place in the states system of Europe. This man was Peter the Great. 267- Peter was a son of the Czar Alexis, called the Good (1645-1676), and the father of this Alexis was Peter's biog- a certain Michael Romanoff, who in 16 13 was ""aphy. made Czar : from him the present royal family springs (the old line of Ruric tlicn ceasing). Peter was born in 1672, and ten years later was crowned, along with his half-brother Ivan ; but the latter, a poor deformed idiot, was only a name in the state. Having baffled the ambitious scheme of his half-sister Sophia, a bcld and beautiful woman who acted as regent, the }oung Peter, when only seventeen, seized alone the scepter (1O89). y J I 1 1' i I I • * - v» , J 'li 400 MODERN HISTORY. His first idea. 268. At this time he was a tall, rough youth, sensual and His person debauched, but showing at the same time a tre- and aims, niendous fund of native energy and will. And, strangely enough, this energy and will seemed to aim, not at what is ordinarily with such characters the object of am- bition, namely, war and destruction, but at the elevation of his people by means of those peaceful creative arts that are the basis of all national prosperity. Wars he waged, indeed, but he did not make war for war's sake : he made it because he was forced to do so in carrying out his pacific plans. 269. The first great idea that possessed Peter seems to have been that the absence of any available seaboard was necessarily a source of weakness to his country. Seizing Azof from the Turks (1696), he obtained a footing on the Black Sea ; and, having accom- plished this, he resolved to form a fleet sufficient to overawe that power. 270. With this view the young monarch, leaving the gov- His visit to ernment in the hands of an old noble, traveled the West, ^-q Holland and England for the purpose of learning the art of shipbuilding, and of acquiring whatever knowledge might be necessary for his great undertaking. At Saardam in Holland he worked as a. common ship-car- penter, receiving his wages every Saturday night, and every day boiling his own pot for dinner. At the same time he picked up rope and sail making, blacksmith's work and some surgery, though afterwards his surgery was mostly of a very rough kind.* In England, whither he went in 1698, he was heartily received by King William III. ; but, instead of passing his time in the usual entertainments of princes, he busied himself visiting dockyards and looking into all the details of naval construction. • Thus, on his return to Russia, he found that his guards had made a reV)ellion, which, however, had been quelled. With his own hand he beheaded twenty of the wretched guards in one hour. 1 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. 401 aal and le a tre- And, dm, not t of am- ation of that are indeed, because ins. ;eems to available kveakness 696), he y accom- I overawe the gov- , traveled arpose of whatever iertaking. ship-car- md every i time he work and mostly of t in 1698, It, instead )f princes, g into all li;id made a wn hand he 271. Returning home in the first year of the i8th cen- tury, Peter began his social reforms. Dressing His social himself in a brown frock-coat, he insisted on all reforms. Russians, except the priests and the peasants, casting off the long Asiatic national robe. He laid a tax on beards. He changed the titles and lessened the power of the nobility. He tolerated all sects, and gave free circulation to the Bible. 272. To obtain an outlet on the Baltic was now Peter's object. The opportunity seemed to be excel- „ , rr.! I r , ■ • .- 1 Peter's plan. lent. Three years before this, m 1697, the king of Sweden had died, leaving as his successor a youth but fifteen years of age. He seemed to be helpless ; so, in kingly fashion, Russia and Denmark and Poland entered into a league for the dismemberment of his kingdom. But this was not to be so easily done ; for the youth was Charles Xn., that astonishing meteor that for a decade swept across the northern sky. 273. Charles XII. allowed his foes no time to carry their plot into execution. Moving svvifdy, first upon Campaign of Denmark, and then upon the Polish army at Charles xii. Riga, he speedily rid himself of two of his three enemies. Next he turned upon a Russian force of 80,000 men that was besieging Narva, a small town near the Gulf of Livonia, and within the Swedish dominion. His own force was only a tenth that of the Russians ; but with his gallant Swedes he flung himself with such impetuosity on the enemy that he utterly overthrew the Russian army, capturing most of it, with its artillery and baggage (November 30, 1700). Peter was not at the battle. " Ah," said he, when the news came to him, " these Swedes, I knew, would beat us, but they v/ill soon teach us how to beat them ! " 274. The same marvelous fortune attended the Swedish warrior in the operations of the next four years Proposes toin- in Poland and Saxony. His success quite in- ^^^^ Russia. toxicated him, and he prepared to invade Russia. Peter 20 in^ 402 MODERN HISTORY. I i I ; 7 offered terms of peace, but Charles declared that he could negotiate only at Moscow. When the Czar was informed of this haughty answer, he coolly replied, "My brother Charles affects to play the part of Alexander, but I hope he will not find in me a Darius." 275. The strategy adopted by Peter for the purpose of Peter's stra- meeting this invasion was simple and sensible, tegy. "YYiQ advance of the Swedes on the direct line to Moscow was prevented by the destruction of the roads and the desolation of the country. After enduring many privations Charles turned off towards the U'kraine, whither he had been invited by Mazep'pa, a Cossack chief who had thrown off his allegiance to the Czar. The convoy and re- inforcements which Charles had expected from Lithuania were intercepted by the Russians ; but, notwithstanding these misfortunes, he continued the campaign even in the dei)th of winter, though the season was so severe that two thousand men were at once frozen to death, almost in his presence. 276. At length Charles laid siege to Pultowa, which con- tained one of the Czar's principal magazines. The town was obstinately defended, and Charles was wounded in the heel while viewing the works. Before he recovered he learned that Peter was advancing to raise the siege. Leaving 7000 men to guard the works, the Swedes advanced to intercept the Russians, accompanied by their king borne in a litter. 'J'he battle was decided by the Russian artillery, for Charles in his rapid march had abandoned his cannon. In less than two hours the Swedish army was ruined, and Charles, with only 300 followers, sought shelter within the frontiers of Turkey (ly-'Q). 277- "i'o pursue the subsequent career of Charles XII, Close of would be aside from our purpose here. Suf- Charies xil.'s fice it to say that this astonishing man ran a course of nine years longer, — a course of strange Pultowa. career hi. I 1 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. could "ormed brother ope he :)ose of snsible. jct line 2 roads y many whither ,'ho had and re- ithuania standing 1 in the :hat two it in his lich con- agazines. I Charles Before to raise orks, the jm[)anied icided by arch had e Swedish followers, ))■ irlcs XII. ere. Suf- iian ran a of strange 403 ups and downs, and was finally killed by a cannon-ball while besieging the castle of Fredericshall in Norway, 17 18. "His fall was destined to a barren strand, A petty fortress, and a dubious hand ; He left the name at which the world grew pale To point a moral or adorn a tale." * 278. To Russia the winnings of the struggle with Sweden were most important, for Peter gained Livonia Gains to and the other Swedish possessions east of the Russia. Baltic, so that now he had a water-front on that sea as well as on the Euxine. Later in this reign he extended his bor- ders on the other Russian sea, the Caspian, at the expense of Persia. 279- In the intervals of the war Peter the Great was not forgetful of his pacific ambition. In 1704 he His pacific founded the city of St. Petersburg, t at the "measures, mouth of the Neva, on the Gulf of Finland (a region won from the Swedes), and he made it his capital in place of the old metropolis, Moscow. In the internal state of the country he made many changes : he remodeled his army, created a navy, improved the administration of justice, en- larged the commerce, encouraged manufactures, cut canals, built roads, and introduced the printing-press. It was the task of a giant to lift the great savage land into a position among the civilized nations, but Peter did it. 280. This greatest of the czars died at the beginning of the year 1725, of fever caught by wading knee- Death and deep in Lake Ladoga, to aid in getting off a character, boat which had stuck on the rocks. His character is well * Dr. Johnson, Vanify of Hiivtan XVishea. The fine passage begin- ning with "On what foundation," etc., and of whicli the four Hnes above quoted form the conclusion, may be read for a summing-up of the whole career of the " Madman of the North." t So called after the name of his patron saint and name.father, the Apostle Peter. 404 MODERN HISTORY. ili' :i !; J/. J described by Voltaire : " He gave a polish to his people, and was himself a savage ; he taught then* the art of war, of which he was himself ignorant ; from the sight of a small boat on the river Moskwa he created a powerful fleet ; he made himself an expert and active shipwright, sailor, pilot, and commander ; he changed the manners, customs, and laws of the Russians, and lives in their memory as the * Father of his Country.' " 281. The history of Russia from the time of Peter the Peter's sue- Great down to the close of the century may be cessors. rapidly sketched. During the greater part of this time the throne was filled by women. There was first his widow, named Catherine I., who continued the policy of her great husband. Her reign, however, lasted but for two years, when she was succeeded by Peter H., the grand- son of Peter the (ireat. His death, three years afterwards, brought to the throne a niece of Peter the Great, named Anne. Her rule lasted for ten years, till 1 740. Then came Peter the Great's daughter Elizabeth, who filled the throne till 1762. Elizabeth left her empire to her nephew, who became Peter IH. In a few months, however, he was mur- dered, and his wife was raised to the throne as Catherine II., surnamed the Great (1762). 282. Calherine II. was, next to Peter the Great, the ablest Doings of ^^d most successful of the Russian autocrats. Catherine. By her vigorous generaly, Potem'kin and Su- warrow [soo-or'ro], she won greatly from the Turks, and achieved the conquest of the Crimea, thus getting rid of the last trace of the old Tartar dominion, and at the same time obtaining free access to the Black Sea. ■283. But Catherine II. won still more by her share in Partition of What is called the Partition of Poland, though Poland. the means by which she won was a gross viola- tion of the law of nations. The scheme for dismembering the kingdom of Poland is supposed to have originated with THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 40s eople, )f war, , small n; he , pilot, s, and as the ter the may be part of as first ; policy but for I grand- irvvards, , named gn came ; throne ew, who ras mur- latherine he ablest utocrats. and Su- rks, and lu; rid of the same share in (/, though :oss viola- lembering lated with Frederick the Great of Prussia, and he and Catherine of Russia and the Kmpress-Queen Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary, entered into it. The Poles were so weakened that they could make no resistance, so the royal robbers each seized certain provinces in 1772. 284. In 1792 another partition was made by Russia and Prussia only, and in 1795 Poland was destroyed Eudof altogether as an independent nation, and its Poland remaining territory was divided among its three neighbors. '* Oh ! bloodiest picture in the book of time ! Sarmatia fell, unwept, without a crime." Wicked as was this assassination of a nation, the accession of territory to Russia was of immense importance to the empire, and " brought that nation into the nnddle of the continent and into the thick of European affairs." 285. Catherine II. died in 1796. She was succeeded by her son, Paul ; but he was an eccentric, half- Catherine's crazy creature ; and when he was murdered in successors. 1 80 1, his son, Alexander I., came to the throne. Now this Alexander I. wns the grandfather of the present Alexander III., Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias. 4. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 286. " After me the deluge " {Aprh mot le diluge), sighed Louis XV. to his courtiers as he lay on his Remark of death-bed in the year 1774, which was the very Louis xv. year of the meeting of the first American " Continental Con- gress." The deluge came, — that dreadful deluge of fire and blood known in history as the French Revolution. We are now to learn about the causes, the leading facts, and the results of this tremendous explosion. 287. The student will remember that before the close of the reign of Louis XIV. (17 15), France had France and reached the culminating point of her power Louis xv. 4o6 MODERN HISTORY. and glory. Under his successor, Louis XV. (17 15-1774), a ra])id decline took place. The court, ruled by the ])ainted favorites of the licentious king. Pompadour and I)u Barri, exhausted every shajie of costly debauchery. The last sou of taxation was wrung from the starving ])easants. And, to add to the awful burden, a continued series of wars was carried on for the gratification of a j^roiligate ambition, and sometimes apparently for no better reason than to afford employment to a numerous body of idle nobility, who disdained to follow any other profession than that of arms. 288. Louis XV. died in 1774, leaving his throne, with Accession of ''iH its embarrassments, to his grandson, Louis Louis XVI. XVL, a kind-hearted, amiable, pious young man, but utterly destitute of the mental qualities calculated to fit him for the arduous [}Osition he was called upon to occupy. Ther twenty years of age, he had been already four years married to Marie Antoinette, the beautiful daughter of Maria Theresa. Surrounded by eager courtiers, and saluted for the first time as king and queen, they fell upon their knees and cried, weeping, " O God, guide us ! Protect us ! We are too voung to reign ! " 289. And they were indeed too young and too inexperi- Bad condition c^ced to deal with a problem whose solution of France. would have demanded the supreme genius and iron will of a Cromwell or a Nai^oleon. For already signs of dissolution and prophecies of woe were abroad. France had been sowing the wind, and was now to reap the whirl- wind. Long wars and the lavish expenditures of the last century and a half had reduced the finances of the king- dom to a dci)lorable condition. The public credit was at its lowest ebb. I'he treasury presented a deficit of two hundred millions of dollars. The people were overtaxed, restless, and half savage. Many abandoned agriculture and sought a precarious subsistence by smuggling and S[)oliation. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 407 290. A spirit of political and religious infidelity per- vaded the middle and lower classes. The Further throne had been too long degraded by excess detaUs. and tarnished by scandal to command the affection of the miillitude. The nobles were scorned rather than reverenced, and not even the ancient stronghold of terror remained. In Voltaire [7'o/-/dre'], Rousseau Iroa-so'], Helvetius, and Condillac [con-Je-yiik'] the new opinions had found their chief advocates and leaders. Before their sweeping cen- sures so-called Christianity, loyalty, tradition, had been reduced to powder. A host of distinguished men hastened to their support, and the innovators carried all before them, < — leveling good as well as evil, and sapping the founda- tions of truth, mercy, and chivalry, while compassing the necessary destruction of falsehood, despotism, imposition, and vice. 291. The grand problem was the finances. The first financial minister of the reign was Turgot [///r- Financial go'], an able man of extensive views, who j^ro- measures, posed gradually to sweep away the abuses which weighed so heavily upon the kingdom ; but his reforms alarmed the courtiers : they persuaded the king that such experiments were dangerous, and Louis, always obedient to the last adviser, dismissed Turgot in 1776. Two new ministers soon gave way to Necker, a Geneva banker of good reputation and the best intentions. His maxims were the reduction of expenditure, so as to avoid all necessity of loans, except on extraordinary occasions, and the maintenance of public credit, so that money might be borrowed when requisite. This clever banker held his office for five years, and in 1 78 1 was able to produce a balance-sheet which showed a revenue larger than the expenditure. But his accounts angered the nobility by revealing that they paid no taxes; so Necker was harassed into a resignation. 292. It was during the administration of Necker that 1 1 4i ^^ 408 MODERN HISTORY. Effect of the American War. France became embroiled in a war with England, caused by the former country's siding with the Ameri- cans in the struggle for independence. To have aided in founding a great democracy across the Atlantic was a subject of pride to the French ; but the sigiit of their handiwork reminded them painfully of the position still occupied by themselves. Democratic doctrines from America found their way into the dull head of the French peasant, who could not help realizing the injustice that gave two-thirds of the soil to the nobility (who numbered only about 150,000 souls), while he and his twenty-five millions of brother serfs, owning but one-third of the land, had to bear all the burdens of the state. 293. The war with England only added to these bur- Administra^ dens, while the finances, no longer in the skilled tionofCai- and prudent hands of Necker, were managed onne. ^y ^ brilliant financial juggler named Calonne [cai-on'], who borrowed on every side without one thought of repayment. For a time this went on ; but the day came when even Calonne could get no more. It was necessary to devise some new expedient, and the one adopted was the assembling of the Notables. 294. The Assembly of the Notables is th-^ name given to Meeting of ^ convention of the chief nobles and magis- the Notables, trates of France called to consult on public afiairs. Such a meeting had in the previous centuries been occasionally called by the kings in emergencies, and much was now hoped from it by the nation. It met in February 1787 : there were 137 members. Calonne wanted to maiie up for the deficiency of revenue by a land-tax j but his pro- posal was rejected by these lords of the soil, an ' th As- sembly was dissolved in May. Then came the ^al of Calonne, who was soon succeeded by Brienne, nbishop of Toulon. But Brienne could do nothing to .era ihe rising tide, so Necker was recalled in 1788. Ff^ THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 409 caused Aineri- 'o have OSS the le sight )osition ;s from French ce that mbered nty-five le landi ise bur- j skilled lanaged I^alonne thought iy came icessary ted was xvftn to magis- public ies been d much ebruary ;o mai:e his pro- tb As- '^al of iibishop .em fche 295- Necker, as his first act, pro|)osed to convoke a States-General., an nssenibly havin^^ the righis of Necker's pro- conferring and i)etitioning. There had been no position, meeting of such a body since the days of Richelieu, the last being in 16 14. Since that time the existence of a constitution had been almost forgotten, for the three kings that intervened hnd caused a virtual suspension of every power except their own. Hut the convocation of a States- General, where, as in an English Parliament, every class of society had a voice, was hailed as an acknowledgment that power proceeded from the people. 296. All over France the elections went on, and no man who wore a decent coat was refused leave to _. . . mi -If r 1 1 1 • The elections, vote. Three millions of the people sent up their deputies — lawyers, doctors, priests, farmers, writers for the press — to the great Slates-General, in which for the first time during nearly two centuries the down-trodden commons were to sit in council with the nobles and the high clergy. There were 1200 representatives, and they met in the king's palace at Versailles [ver-sd/z'] on the 5th of May 1789. 297- It soon became evident that the real strength of the States-General lay in the commons, or, as the The Commons French named them, the 7'/ers ^tat \te-airz' assert thenj- dt-if\, ?>., the Third Estate.* Tiiey numbered ^®^^'®^ as many members as the noblesse and the clergy together. At the very outset came the trial of strength. It had not been decided whether the nobility, the clergy, and il.e Tiers ^tat should meet in one chamber or be organized into two : it had been assumed that the latter would be the plan. But the deputies of the Tiers Etac would not submit to be separated from the Upper House. Sitting in their own chamber, they invited the nobles and the clergy to join them ; and when the invitation was scornfully * The clergy and the nobility constituting the First and the Second Estates. If I f 410 MODERN HISTORY. rejected, they constituted themselves the Naiiojial Assembly by which name we shall now have to call the body. 298. In vain did dukes and archbishops complain of this King and uncxamijlcd usurpation of supreme power, commons. '] }^g j^j,-,g ^.^g undecided and alarmed, and in this condition he cook a suicidal step. He prorogued the Assembly for a month, and stationed soldiers at the door to prevent the members from going in. Their president, Bailly, when crossed bayonets refused them admittance, led them to the Tennis-court {Jen de paume) of the palace, where they swore a solemn oath not to dissolve their Assem- bly until they had formed a constitution for France. The firmness of the Tiers Etat gave them the victory. A large secession took place from the other orders, — most of the clergy and forty-seven of the noblesse., with the Duke of Orleans at their head, joining the commons in their hall. 299. There was Lafayette, a pure patriot, but not a man Three of commanding ability. And there sat Mira- characters. j^g^^ \j}ier-a-bo'\ the wickedest and most de- bauched aristocrat in France, but a man of pre-eminent power and elocjuence. Different from him, and near him, was the small person and commonplace countenance of Robespierre \robz-pe-air\ — grinning, smirking, and con- temptible, — but who ere many months were over was to thrill with terror the stoutest hearts. 300. The court, thus foiled and acknowledging its own \cf fth humiliation, adopted again an unpopular course : Court and Nccker was banished and troops were gathered Assembly. around Versailles. But the Assembly proceeded with their business in the most radical fashion. They abol- ished all privileges of birth or profession ; taxes were im- posed on all equally ; the public debt was consolidated, the press was declared free, and political liberty was guaranteed. These were great steps in advance. II' ssembly 1 of this power. , and in rued the :he door resident, iiittance, e palace, ir Assem- :e. The A large St of the Duke of in their ot a man sat Mira- most de- 2-eminent lear him, ;nance of and con- ;r was to ? its own \x course : : gathered proceeded 'hey abol- wcre im- dated, the iaranteed. t 1 I THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 411 301. Meanwhile all Paris was in a state of insane com- motion. Clubs, meetings, associations of all Madness kinds, kept every ([uarter of the great city astir, of Paris. Enthusiasm grew with every fresh event, and already the thirst for blood, which so strongly discinguishes the Parisian mob, began to fire the hearts of the rabble. A single spark exploded the mine. There came a report that the soklicrs were on the march to dissolve the National Assembly. 'I'he peojile rushed to the defence, guns were procured, and tricolored flags hoisted on public buildings. Rioting and pillage went on in various quarters, and the more so that the guards, when called out to disperse the mob, refused to fire. Finally on the 14th of July a definite aim was given to the wild intoxication of the people by a cry which suddenly went through Paris, " Let us storm the Pastile !" 302. This ancient and fortified prison was at the time defended bv a feeble garrison of eighty-two capture of invalids ancx thirty-two Swiss, under a stanch the Bastiie. old soldier, the Marquis de Launay. The wild multitude raged around its walls, but the governor utterly refused to surrender. Then a siege of four hours began. The be- siegers were joined by tiie French guards, — cannon were brought, — De Launay capitulated, — the drawbridge was lowered, and the Bastiie taken : taken by a lawless mob of maddened men and women, who fonhwiih massacred the governor, his lieutenant, and some of the aged invalids, — freed the few ])risoners (ound in the cells. — sel lire to the building and razed it to the ground, — garnished their pikes with the evidence of murder, and so j)araded Paris. 303. P'rom tiiis luomenl the people were supreme. 'Phe tinops were dismissed from Versailles, Necker was recalled, the king visited I^aiis, and was invested at the Ilott'l de Ville with the tricolored emblem of democracy. 'Phen began what is called tiie first etni-rativii^ — that is, a general and most cowanily, as well as most The sequel. Ji 4" MODERN HISTORY. imprudent, flight of the nobles, who from beyond the fron- tiers witnessed the revolution in ignoble safety. The king and his famiiy remained at Versailles, sad at heart amid their presence-chambers and garden-groves, four leagues from volcanic Paris. 304. Hither, from time to time during the few days that Provincial intervened between the 14th of July and the risings. ^th of August, Came strange tidings of a revo- lution which was no longer Parisian, but national, — tidings of provincial uprisings, of burning chateaux, of sudden vengeance done upon unpopular officials, tax-gatherers, and the like. It was plain that the nobility must bow its head before the five-and-tvventy savage millions, make restitution, speak well, smile fairly, or die, 305. The memorable 4th of August came, when the Sweeping re- no^l^s did this, making ample confession of their weakness. The Viscount de Noailles [«'i ? 414 MODERN HISTORY. n came Lafayette, with the National Guard of Paris, and suc- ceeded in clearing the palace, and in rescuing for the time the hapless group in the king's apartments. 309. The crowd demanded that the king should come Return to to Paris; and amidst a procession of maiKCt- P*"^- > ._.., at a foot-pace, with human heads borne aloft on pikes before the carriage, the unhappy Louis and Marie Antoinette were conducted to the capital (so- called y<^i'ei:/-nrz'] was attacked. The National Guards, the Tuileries. ^ho had been apj)ointed to the defense of the courtyard, went over to the insurgents, and pointed their cannon against the chateau. Only 300 Swiss guards were left ; and they, overpowered by numbers and fighting gal- lantly to the last, were literally cut to pieces. The king and his family escaped to the Legislative Assembly, and on the 14th were removed to the old Temple prison. 319. From this time that awful period known in history Reig:n of as the /^ei'i^^i of Terror may properly be said to Terror. havc bcgun. '* My advice," said Danton, " is to confound the agitators and to stop the enemy by strik- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 417 ing terror into the royalists. This advice produced the im- prisonment of hundreds of persons considered not suffi- ciently zealous in the revolutionary cause. A temporary success won by the Prussians in the capture of Verdun was the death-doom of the unfortunate prisoners. The news was brought in the night, and next day (September 2, 1792) the prisons were cleared by the death of the captives. Three days did the horrible scene of bloodshed continue, and the victims displayed the most touching traits of resig- nation and heroism. This wholesale massacre is known as the Massacre of September. 320. On the 2ist of September 1792, the Legislative Assembly, having sat for the allotted space of The new one year, was succeeded by a new body of government. representatives, known by the name of the National Con- vention. 321. The constitutional party of the old Legislative As- sembly (the /i?///'//^///^) had disapj)eared in the The parties maelstrom of the Revolution, and the Conven- and their tion was divided between the Girondists and the Mountain. In the Chamber the Girondists had the majority, but the Mountain, led by Danton, Robespierre, and Marat, had the great revolutionary advantage of being on the aggres- sive ; and they had, besides, the support of all the sans- ailottcs^ or rabble of Paris. Their policy was simple and well defined, — the death of the king and the establishment of a republic. 322. To proclaim the Republic was the first act of the Convention. Then came the trial of the king. Trial of On the 13th of November 1792, Louis XVL, ticking, who had been four months a prisoner in the Temple, ap- peared before the tribunal of his enemies. The charges brought against him were based principally upon some papers that disclosed the intrigues of the court against the revolution, and on others that seemed to indicate a know- 2 D ^^f n 418 MODERN HISTORY, ledge of the proceedings in favor of the royal cause in foreign countries. Some writers have pointed out that the deposition of the king (which had already taken place when the Republic was proclaimed) should have barred all these accusations. But this was not a time either for legal tech- nicalities or calm judgment to have any weight. Robespierre appealed to the will of the ])eople. "What have not the friends of liberty to fear," said he, *' when they see the ax unsteady in your grasp, and detect a regret for your past fetters, even after your emancipation?" 323. Louis stood before his judges with a firm counte- The trial nance. He required counsel, and when one continued, of those he selected declined the task, Males- herbes [f/icT/z-^-///], who had in the early part of his reign been one of his ministers, came forward to undertake his master's defense. Said he : " I have been twice called to assist at his council-table when such a summons was an ob- ject of ambition to every one. I owe him the same service now that it is a function that many persons would consider dangerous." After an able defense by Malesherbes, a long and earnest discussion arose. Robespierre said, " The last proof of devotion which we owe to our country is to stifle in our hearts every sentiment of sensibility." On the side of the Girondists vigorous efforts were made in the king's defense ; but finally the discussion was closed, and three questions were put to the vote, — the guilt of Louis, the ap- peal to the people, and the penalty. 324. The king by a unanimous vote was pionounced guilty, and the appeal to the people rejected; the question of the penalty to be inflicted re- mained. But the orators did not deliberate alone ; for around the doors of the Assembly was a savage mob, heap- ing threats upon all who dared to be merciful, — so ti;at even tliose who most desired to save the king became frightened. For ten days the voting went on, and when The verdict. T THE FRENCH REVOLUTIO 419 ise in at Uie when tliL'se 1 tcch- spierre lot the the ax ir past :ounle- n one Males- s reign ike his illed to an ob- service onsider , a long Ihe last stifle in side of 2 king's id three the ap- lounced ejected ; ctcd re- ne ; for b, heap- -so that became id when with a voice of emotion the President of the Convention, Vergniaud [rv77/-_V(/], declared the result, he t\)und that, out of 721 votes, the sentence awarded by a majority of 2O was d('d//i, — death within twenty-four hours! 325- Louis requested the attendance of a priest (the Abbe Edgeworth) to administer the oflices of . ... ,..,., , A sad scene. rehgion to hmi in his last moments : the re- quest was granted. A last interview with his family, from whom he had for some time been separated, was granted also ; but the keepers recpiired that the meeting should take place in a hall which had a glass door giving a view of the interior. The king entered the apartment at eight, and walked about for some time in expectation. At half- past eight a door opened, and the queen, the king's sister Elizabeth, and his two children entered, casting themselves with sobs into his arms. After a long and sad conference, Louis rose and promised to see them again on the morrow ; in spite of this promise, which was not to be fulfilled, the farewell was heart-rending. 326. Towards midnight the king slept soundly, continuing to do so till five in the morning, when he re- Execution of ceived the sacrament from the priest. At eight Louis xvi. on the morning of January 21, 1793, the officers entered; the procession moved between two lines of armed men, and arrived, at half-past ten, at the Place de la Re'volution. There in a large open space stooc' the scaffold with the fatal guillotine,* surrounded by the guards and a rabble, utter- ing ferocious cries and yells. Louis attempted to speak : " I die innocent ; I pardon my enemies ; and as for you, unfortunate people — " but the drums drowned his voice, and while the confessor poured into his ear the words, * "La guillotine," as the French call this deadly machine, was invented about 1755 by Dr. Guillotin, whose name in the French feminine form it bears. It is a large, loaded knife set in a wooden frame, and its action is instantaneous. "!!j li 420 MODERN HISTORY. "Son of St. Louis, ascend to heaven!" the king ceased to live. 327. This act of regicide was equivalent to a declaration Foreign o^ ^^'^'^^ ^^'^h the whole of Europe. England, affairs. Holland, Spain, Germany, Sweden, and finally Russia, flew to arms. Almost at the same time the Erench province of La Vendue broke into ojien insurrection, and the Republic found itself called upon to suppress disaffec- tion at home, to organize armies, and to defend France from 350,000 of the best troops in Europe, now approaching the frontiers upon every side. A levy of 300,000 men was accordingly decreed, and Dumouriez marched into Holland, where he won several victories ; but soon after, becoming disgusted with the excesses of the republican government, he went over to the enemy's camp. Other generals, how- ever, took his place, and the war went on in the Austrian Netherlands, along the Rhine, and in Italy. Though sometimes beaten, the French were on the whole victorious, and were able all the time to make head against the allies. The energy displayed by the leaders of the Revolution was truly amazing. 328. These achievements of the French armies abroad Excesses of ^ere, however, almost effaced by the disgrace therevoiu- which fell upon the name of the Republic in tionists. consequence of its atrocities at home. Appro- priately commencing with the abolition of religious belief, the worship of Reason, and the suppression of the Sabbath, the savage man who ruled the whirlwind passed on to a saturnalia of blood. The queen, Marie Antoinette, the king's sister Elizabeth, and hundreds of persons of rank and station went to their death. The victims of the guillotine in Paris amounted to seventy or eighty a day, and a sewer was constructed for the express purpose of carrying off the human blood. The Girondists were slain without mercy. Two hundred thousand suspected persons were cast into THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 421 ceased aration iiL^land, finally French in, and iisaffec- France Daching len was lolland, icoming rnment, Is, how- \ustiian Though :torious, e allies, ion was abroad disgrace ublic in Appro- s belief, sabbath, on to a itte, the ank and uillotine a sewer I off the t mercy. :ast into prison, and thence day by day brought out in tumbrels to the place of doom. It is shocking to record that women sat and knitted as calmly as in the pit of a theatre while the fearful tragedy was being played out before their eyes. 329. During the height of the Reign of Terror all the powers of the state were centered in a small _j^ . ^ body of Jacobins called the "Committee of and their Public Safety," foremost among whom were struggles. Dantcii, Robespierre, and Marat. Marat met a deserved death at the hands of Charlotte Corday, a young woman who came to Paris from Caen for the express purpose of assassinating him, — a purpose which she accomplished in his bath. Danton, thinking that the revolution had gone far enough, wished to bring back something like order. But the "sea-green" Robespierre had another thought; he determined to destroy his former friends, that he might stand alone on the dreadful eminence of terror. He suc- ceeded in his attempt, and, as we shall see, was himself swallowed up in the same abyss. 330. In the spring of the year 1794 Robespierre be- came absolute ruler of the Convention, and he Robespierre determined to exterminate the leaders of all master, parties. He therefore denounced on the one hand what were called the anarchists as enemies to the true weltare of the state, and on the other the moderates as lukewarm in the cause of liberty. Among the latter were Danton and his party : the leader himself, with most of his followers, went to the scaffold. Robespierre ruled by murder, and between June 10 and July 17, 1794, he sent 1285 persons to the guillotine in Paris. 331. At length, terrified by the rapidity, the impartiality, and the number of Robespierre's condemna- ^^ , , /- 1 ^ The reaction. tions, the members of the Convention re- solved to rid themselves of the tyrant. No man's life was »» 422 MODERN HISTORY. Better days. certain for a day. No man knew but that his name might be found upon the next list of victims. On the 27th of July 1794, Robespierre was defied in the tribune, and with his brother and some of his accomplices arrested. A con- test between the Assembly and the Jacobins of the city ensued : after many times inclining the other way, it was decided in favor of the Convention. 332. Robespierre, with some of his fellow-demons, had Death of taken refuge in the Hotel de Ville. In despair Robespierre, j^g attempted self-destruction with a pistol, but only fractured his jaw. He and his fellows were cast rudely into a cart and carried to the guillotine (July 28, 1794), where they suffered a part of the punishment due to their accumulated crimes. 333. The Reign of Terror was over. It is true that some of the Jacobin members of the Conven- tion continued to advocate the principles of the revolutionary tribunals, and the sans-culoties attempted one or two insurrections. But the reaction had fairly set in. The people awoke as from a hideous dream. The prisons were opened, the living Girondists were recalled from exile, the laws of Robespierre were repealed, and the churches were again devoted to the worship of God. 334. While these things were passing in Paris, the cam- Foreign sue- paigns against the allies, who had all along cesses. Y&^X. the field against the French, were emi- nently successful. All Flanders, the frontiers of Holland, and many strongholds on the Rhine, as also several places in Spain, submitted in 1794 to French commanders. And early in 1795 the French general Pichegru marched into Holland and took possession of Amsterdam. The stadt- holder fled to England, and up to the close of the revolu- tionary wars Holland remained a dependency of France. Indeed, so successful were the French in the field, that in [ THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 423 I might 27th of nd with A con- the city it was ms, had despair stol, but ere cast July 28, ent due rue that Conven- :iples of ttempted ad fairly ; dream, sts were repealed, arship of the cam- ill along ^ere emi- Holland, al places rs. And :hed into he stadt- e revolu- f France. 1, that in the year 1795 ^^^^ Prussia and Spain made peace with them. 335- In this satne year, 1795, France received a new con- stitution, — the third since 1789. Two legislative coun- cils were decreed, — the Ancients and the The new //7'ench government. The directors were to be chosen by the two councils, and each director was to be in turn president for three months. 336. The Directory was not established without a struggle* The inhabitants of Paris were dissatisfied with conflict for the change proposed by the Convention ; so the power, citizens by their Sections, or municipal divisions, joined battle with the Convention, supi)orted by 5000 regular troops. The Sections, joined by the National Guards, mustered 40,000 men, and had at first the advantage. The Convention, however, gave command of the regular force to a general named Bairas. He nominated as his second in command a young Corsican officer of artillery named Napoleon lionaparte, of whom we shall soon hear a great deal. 337. Bonaparte pointed his cannon down all the streets by which the Tuiieries could be approached, Triumph of and when the assailants attempted to advance, the Direc- he mowed down the mass with grape-shot °^^' (October 4, 1795). This settled the matter: the Conven- tion triumphed, and the new constitution and Directory stood on firm ground. With this ended the French Revolu- tion, and here opened the wonderful career of Napoleon Bonaparte. 338. Napoleon Bonaparte was of Italian blood and name, and was a native of Corsica. Only two months youth of before the birth of Napoleon (which took place Napoleon. in the year 1769) Corsica had given up its long struggle for If^ w¥ n 424 MODERN HISTORY. ance as a soldier. independence and was incorporated with France, — so that he chanced to be borii wnth all the privileges of French citizen- ship. He was the second son of Charles Bonaparte, a lawyer. At the age of ten he was sent away from home to the French Military School at Brienne. Here he spent over five years. At the end of that time the official report made of him was as follows : " Distinguished in mathematical studies, tole- rably versed in history and geography, much behind in Latin, belles-lettres, and other accomplishments ; of regular habits, studious and well-behaved, and enjoying excellent health." In 1785 he received his commission as a sub-lieutenant of artillery. 339. When the Revolution broke out Napoleon took the First appear- popul'ir ^'tle. He fiist comes to notice in con- nection with the siege of Toulon. That city had made a royalist uprising in 1793, and the garrison was aided by English and Spanish ships. The Republican general, Barras, made very little progress till Napoleon discovered a mode of converging his artillery-fire o\\ the forlsi in the harbor, and the resiilt was that Toulon soon fell. Barras recognized the ability of the young artil- lerist, and accordingly, when he was appointed to the com- mand of the troops of the Convention to oppose the Paris Sections, he asked for Lieutenant-Colonel Bonaparte as his assistant. The part which Napoleon played on that occasion we have already seen. 340. In the new government of the Directory, which we His advance- saw formed in 1795, l^^rras was one of the ment five Directors. Now in the spring of 1796 the Republic organized three great armies to oppose the allied enemies of France. One army was given to (general Morcau [mor-o'], another to General Jourdan'. The third, the army of Italy, through the Iriendly influence of Barras, was conferred upon tl. ^ young Corsican officer. He was twenty-six years of age, and had but just married Josephine, ^%^ PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 42s so that citizen- lawyer. French e years, lim was is, tole- n Latin, r habits, health." jnant of :00k the in con- hat city and the IS. The jress till Uery-fire Toulotl ing artil- :he com- he Paris te as his occasion hich we J of the of 1796 )ose the ('Tcneral re third, Barras, He was sephine, widow of the Count de Beauharnais [d£>-/iar;i-a'\f when aj)i)ointcd to this important command. 341. A strict following of chronology would require us to enter on the narrative of the camj^aign that Napo- leon now made in Italy, and of his subsequent lehftions"' campaigns up to the close of the i8th century, with the Re- But it will be much more convenient to treat the Napoleonic wars as a whole, which we shall be able to do in the next chajjter. And, indeed, it is the aj)pearance of Napoleon on the stage, rathc,^ than the mere date of the year 1800, that maiks the cloit. of the period under review. The becoming of tlie cannon with which, on that October day, in the year 1795, he stayed the on-coming of the Sections and secured the victory of the Directory, was the death-knell of the Revolution, and announced a great era of French, and indeed of European history, in which himself was for twenty years to be the central figure. France had waded through revolution to a republic, but it was only to find her- self in the hands of a master more despotic than any king that had ever sat upon her throne. 5. PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 342. The dcails already given under the topics embraced in this chapter show that the i8th century was a period of wonderful changes, — a time when the*century. old ideas and old institutions were swept away in a manner that had never happened in any previous time. 343. The great characteristic of this period is the advance of democratic ideas. These ideas w- e first pro- influg^j.^ mulgated in systematic form in France, where of French about the middle of tlie 18th century a series of enters, remarkable writers arose to doubt and (|uestion all existing 426 MODERN HISTORY. beliefs and things. There were wits and philosophers and economists in this school ; and its leaders were Voltaire, Rousseau, ^lontesquieu, Diderot, Condorcet, and the En- cyclopedists. They attacked the State and Church with extreme and equal vigor. While they called attention to some needed reforms, their motives do not always command our respect, nor can the results of their labors be viewed with unqualified admiration. In proposing remedies lor some evils, they no doubt laid the foundation of other and perhaps greater ones. 344. The influence of the French school of political and Influence of social pliilosophcrs upon the founders of the America on American rei)ubiic is readily traceable, and the Declaration of Independence draws some of its inspiration from Rousseau's Contrat Social. While France by her ideas influenced America, the reflex influence of America on France was prodigious. In the republic of the United States was a living embodiment of the gospel of democracy. Here was a great self-ruling nation, — a government of the people, for the people, and by tiie peoi)le. French armies and fleets had fought to establish this government, and the reports from across the Atlantic, and the living voice of those who had shared the con- flict, set the blurred brain of every poor French serf into activity. 345. The result of this ferment was the French Revolu- Phiiosophy of t'on,— that savage uprising of a people against the abuses of feudalism and the divine right of kings. That this deluge swept away much that was evil cannot be doubted, yet he would be a bold man who would venture to plead that the permanent gains then made for liberty are a vindication of the crimes And atrocities of the dreadful period between 1789 and 1793- 346. The influence of the French Revolution spread the French Revolution. PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 427 lers and Voltaire, the Eri- ch with ntion to )mmand ; viewed dies ioT her and ical and 1 of the and the le of its France ence of ublic of gospel tion, — a l^y the ;stablish Vtlantic, lie con- erf into Re vol u- against ie right ly much d be a manent [.' crimes 89 and spread Literature. throughout ail the nations of Europe. Even where there was no great political change there was a wide influence of social change ; and we may say, generally, that the Revoiu- since that great popular upheaval there has **°"8^*"" y* been no part of Europe where the people have been so utterly down-trodden as they were before. If all the glittering dreams of French Liberie, Fraternite^ and Ai^iiliie were not destined to be realized, one immense and permanent gain there was : it was acknowledged that the people have rights, and ever since that time there have been slow yet steady advances towards the embodi- ment of these rights in the constitution of society and nations. 347. The literature of the i8th century is distinctively the literature of wit, which glitters in all kinds of composition, — letters, pamphlets, lampoons, essays, novels, and poetry. Nearly every celebrated writer had the talent of exciting laughter, not only as a conspicuous talent, but as his most conspicuous. Pious Addison and pious Cowper had it, surly Dr. Johnson, good-natured Gold- smith, courtier Voltaire, and rustic Hums. Another century of ridicule may not occur again in history, but it was needed. Institutions, manners, and habits had become ridiculous and vicious, and they required to be laughed out of the world. (For the most eminent writers of the 18th century see " Great Names," pages 433, 434.) 348. In ])ure philosophy the progress was not specially marked. In England, Locke's Kssay on the JJuman Understanding^ had at the time a great repute ; but the book has not held its place. Bishop licrkcley proj^ounded a form of Idealism, and Reid, on the other hand, put forth his system of Common Sense. The contributions of Hume have probably had a more last- ing influence than those of any contemporary English philosopher. French philosophy was almost wholly of a Philosophy. 42? MODERN HISTORY. S ;!J HI iif • '* Fine arts. negative and destructive character, — and hence had but a temporary influence. Far deeper were the metai)hysical speculations which now began to engage the attention of some profound German philosophers. Among these the greatest name is that of Kant, whose system laid the basis of all subsequent German metaphysics. 349. The fine arts were cultivated assiduously during this century. It was now for the first time that England began to have native painters of some eminence and originality. The chief names in the English school are Gainsborough, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and lienjamin We'Jt, the last of whom was born in this country. But the most notable fact in the artistic history of this period is the great advance in the art of music, which now began to take embodiment in truly grand com- jjositions. It is sufficient to mention the names of Handel, Haydn, and Mozart. These great comjjosers all belonged to the 18th century, and they were the fathers and founders of modern nmsic. 350. The progress of science during this century was Science: most Striking. It was at this time that chem- Chemistry, istry first took rank as a science. Black dis- covered carbonic acid gas ; Cavendish, the composition of water, and the constituents of the atmosphere ; Priestley, oxygen and more new substances than any other chemist ; while the great French chemist, Lavoisier [/ii-T7c>iic-yea'], sys- tematized and generalized all previous discoveries, adding also other important contributions. 351. l be science of electricity may l)e said to have originated at this same time. Benjamin Electricity. . . Franklin did much for this branch of investi- gation, both by theory and by experiment. He demon- strated the ide/.t'ty of natural and artificial electricity. Then came an accident that made the electric telegraph possible in our own time. The wife of Galvani, a professor in PJiOGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 429 }longcd Bologna, had skinned some frogs, and noticed the twitching of the leg of one of them when the nerve came in contact with a piece of metal, — and this was the first observed mani- festation of galvanism. To produce it Volta devised his pile, but in time a battery of plates of zinc and coi)pcr was found most convenient. 352. To enumerate even a tithe of the great scientific discoveries that render the iStii century illus- other dis- trious is imjwssible here. It was then that coveries. the basis of modern geology was laid. Botany, from a jumble of pre-existing observations, was by the genius of LinncEUS first brought into systematic form. C'omparative anatomy was created. The weight, form, and size of the earth were determined. Lai)lace collected and elaborated the mathematics of astronomy in his Mccanique Celeste ; Sir William Hcrschel discovered Uranus (ijtSi), and resolved the Milky Vv\.y into distinct and se])arate stars. Adam Smith, in his Wealth of Natums created the science of political economy, and thereby rendered mankind one of the greatest services. 353. Striking as are these advances of pure science, we are even more impressed by the mighty practical Great ai)plications in the arts of industry which science inventions, received at this time. At the right moment, when human undertakings became too vast for the hand and for j)rimitive implements, I'rindley, Watt, and Arkwright. and other great inventive geniuses, devised machinery to meet the require- ments of the new industrial era. Navigable canals began to be made, and the genius of James I'rindley proved that in the construction of these highways the most formidable engineering ditliculties might be oveicome. The manu- facture of iron rcneived an immense impetus by Roebuck's process of smelting by coal instead of charcoal. Machinery was applied to spinning and weaving cotton. The si)inning- jenny was invented by Hargreaves in 1765, the s[)inning- 430 MODERN HISTORY. i \ ■ frame by Arkwright in 1768, and the mule-jenny by Crompton in 1775. But the crowning achievement of the age was that of the Scotchman, James Watt, who, though not actually the inventor of the steam-engine, so improved it as to place a new ])0wer in the hands of mankind. Pro- bably no material service of equal value was ever rendered to humanity. Its use as a motive-power at once revolutionized all the processes of industry, and it soon drew after it, though not till early in the next century, steamboat navigation, rail- road traveling, and a thousand other beneficial applications. 354. The following minor though important details of other invention and industry will be found of in- Inveutions. tcrest : — Pianoforte: invented by an orj^anist of Dresden in 1717 ; the instiu- niciU was not made in England until 1766. Caomchouc, or india-rubber : was brought to Europe from South America in 1 730. Stereotyping : William Ged of Pldinburgh first practised the art of ])iinliii^' from stereotype plates. Chronometer: John Harrison (1736-1742), in response to a Parlia- mentary offer of a reward of ;{^20,ooo, first constructed aclock which kepi perfect sidereal or solar time, — invaluable in determining the longitude of ships at sea. Umbrellas : in 1778 Joseph Ilanway introduced one into England, probably from Spain. Vaccination : Jenner made the first experiment of inoculating a child from a cow-pox pustule in 1796. Hydraulic Press : invented by Bramah, an Englishman, in 1786; by tliis machine a slender column of water may be made lo raise the heaviest weit^hts. Gas-lights : useii by Murriorh in Com\vall in 1792, and in the foundry oi Watt ani Holton in 1798 ; but gas was not used forstreet-lij^htmg until this centiny. Cotton-gin : I"li Whitney, an American, in 1793 made a machine for separating the fiber of cotton from the seed, and cleansing it with rnsf ; this invent inn eiii'rniou'ly increased the demand fi^r cotton. Lithography: was invented in Germany in 1796. 355. Ail great inventions are essentially democratic, that PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 43 » mny by t of the , though 11 proved I Pro- dered to lionized , though ion, rail- ications. itails of i of in- le instru' >m South le art of a Pari i a- tck which ininy the England, g a child 1786; by raise the ; fouiulry ij^luing chine for t; it wiih cotton. is, they tend to the benefit of the whole people. We there- fore mark, during the i8th century, a perceptible improvement rise in the condition of the European masses, of the masses. It is true there was a terrible amount of squalid poverty and deplorable ignorance, as there still is ; but, as a whole, things weie on the mend. The poorer classes received an amount of consideration which they never knew before ; while they inevitably shared in the advantages, improve- ments, and inventions created by capitalists, in bringing more of the comforts of life within their reach. Public libraries, mechanics' institutes, clubs, co-operative societies, and Sunday-schools were now first established. It is a fine proof of the enlarging humanity of the age that there now arose a considerable number of men who devoted their lives to the amelioration of the condition of the poor, the down- trodden, and the criminal. John Howard is famous for his labors for the reform of prisons in England. Thomas Clark- son and William Wilberforce are honored as the leaders of the party which did away with the slave-trade in the English colonies. Sir Samuel Romilly is distinguished for his efforts to improve the English penal laws, at that time the most severe in Europe. 356. It is worthy of note, that towards the close of this century men began to lay aside the elaborate Reform in fripperies of dress — the hanging cuffs and lact! <*«»^ ruffles, the cocked hats, wigs, buckles, and swords — that had previously constituted the costume of a gentleman, and took to a sensible attire, fit for our work-a-day world. Gentlemen turned their attention to more useful occupations than rois- tering, drunkenness, and ga)'antr>'. The occupation of a merchant or a manufacturer became honorable, and the morality and decorum of the higher classes had a aeneficial effect upon the habits of the common people. ic, that if 432 MODERN HISTORY. GREAT NAMES OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. I I' « PHILOSOPHERS AND SCIENTISTS. Swedenborg (168S-1772), a Swede, — distinguished for scientific and religious speculations — believed himself favored with special levcla- tions — wrote voluminously on apocalyptic sul)jects — his doctrines still followed by members of the New Church, Benjamin Franklin (1706- 1790), an American philosopher and states- man — his public career well known — established the identity of lightning with electricity, and contrived lightning-rods — published two volumes of essays, with an autobiography. Linnseus (1707-1778), a Swedish botanist — simplified and popular* ized botany — introduced a new system of classification by stamens and pistils. D'Alembert (1717-1783), an eminent French scientist — principal contributor to the famous French Encyhpedia. Hunter, William and John {1718-1783, 1728-1793), brothers, born in Scotland — both distinguished as anatomists — two of the greatest surgeons that ever lived. Adam Smith (1723- 1790), a Scotchman — professor in Glasgow Uni- versity — chief work, the Wealth of Nat tons , by which was founded the science of Political Economy. Kant (i724-i8o4),a German metaphysician of the first rank — his great work, The Critique of Pure Reason, which is a review and recon« struction of the whole theory of human knowledge. Priestley (1733-1804), by profession a Unitarian minister, but by nature a priest of science — discovered oxygen — a voluminous writer — sympathized with the French Revolution, for doing which his house, lilirary, and valuable apparatus were burned by a mob. Galvani (1737-1798), an Italian physiciaii — discovered that part of electricity known as galvanism. William Hersche' (1738-1822), a great astronomer— came to Eng- land as a bandman in the Hanoverian Guards — improved the re- flecting telescope— discovered Uranus in 1781. Lavoisier (1743-1794), one of the greatest French chemists — devised the improved chemical nomenclature— first introduced the balance into chemical analysis — was guillotined during the French Revolu- tioii, Bcntham (1747-1S32), a political philosopher and juridical reformer ^TURY. tntiflc and :ial revela- doctrines and sfates* dentity of -published I popular* y stamens -principal lers, born le greatest ;gow Uni- s founded -his great nd recon- r, but by )himinous ing which y a mob. It part of : to Eng. :d the re- —devised e balance I Revolu- reformer GREAT NAMES OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 433 — one of the deepest thinkers England ever jiroduced — was tlie author of Utiliiaricrttistn — chief \vorV;s, 7'he rrincipUs of Morals and Legislation, anil Evidence and /'enal l.fi^islation. Laplace ( 1749-1827), a celebrated French mathematician — author of the Mecaniijue Celeste, a work that produced as jjreat a sciisuiiun in the scientilic world as Newton's Vrincipia, WRITERS. Jonathan Swift (1667- 1745), Dean of St. Patrick's, Dublin — an eminent political writer — chief work, Gulliver s Travels — wrote verses also — very sarcastic — died mad. Addison (1672-1719), educated at Oxford — much engaged in politics under Anne and George I. — famous for his prose papers in W\t Spec- tator — wrote also Cato, a Tragtdjf^ A Letter from Italy, and other poems. Alexander Pope (1688-1744), the son of a Lor>don linen-draper — wrote good verses at twelve — chief works, the lissay on Man, The Kape of the Lock, a short mock-heroic poem, and a translation of Homer into English verse— lived chiefly at Twickenham on the Thames — deformed, sickly, and peevish. Richardson (1689-1761), one of the founders of English novel-writing — his chief works, Pamela, Clarissa ILarlowe, and Sir Charlti Grandisou — they are now regarded as tedious and sentimental. Montesquieu (1689-1755), an emin< it French thinker — born near Bordeaux — president in the Parliament of that city — chief works^ Lettres Fersannes, Esprit des Lois. Voltaire (1694-1778), the greatest of French wits and satirists— unhappily distinguished for the bitterness of his infidelity — author of the lienriade, the only French epic poem — among his historical works are the Age of Louis XIV., history of Charles XII. — wrote nume- rous plays and minor poems — live' his last twenty years at Ferncy in Ain — an enemy of the Christian tuith — his mission was to destroy. BufTon (1707-1788), born at Montbard in Burgundy — a great natu- ralist — chief work, his Histoire NaturelU. Fielding (1707-1754), the greatest of the English novelists of the 18th century — his chief works, Tom Jones^ Jonathan VVilde^9xA Joseph Amirews. Samuel J'^nnson (1709-1784), born at Lichfield — lived generally in London — chief works, 7 he Lives of the Poets i Kasselas, an Eastern 7 ale ; an Em^lish Dictionary ; and a poem called London. David Hume (1711-1776), a Scotch philosopher and historian — chief 2 E 434 MODERN HISTORY. *■' 1 i work, History of England — held the strange doctrine that we can be sure of nothing — wrote a Treatise on Human Nature and Essays, Rousseau (1712-1778), bom at Geneva — son of a watchmaker— a skeptic in religious mntters — author of many operas and eloquent literary works — obliged to leave France on the publication of his Contrat Sodal, an essay advocating essentially Communistic ideas. Sterne (1713-1768), prince of Enj^lish humorists — author of Tristram Sfumdy and The Sentimental Journey. Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774), born in Ireland — in early life regarded as an idiot — rose, however, to be a famous writer — best- known works. The Vicar of Wakefield^ Deserted Village^ and .S"^* Stoofs to Conquer — marked by charming simplicity of style, tender- ness of sentiment, and racy description. Lessing (1729-1781), a German critic and playwright — chief works, Laocobn and the tragedy of Emilia Galctti — a very profound and suggestive thinker. Edmund Burke (1730-1797), bom in Dublin — a famous orator- chief works, An Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful and Reflec- tions on the Trench Revolution, Edward Gibbon (1737-1794), born in Surrey — chief work, Tht Decline and Fall of tht Roman Empire^ in six volumes, written in twelve years. Robert Burns (1759-1796), an Ayrshire farmer — famed for his lyric poems— author of the Cotters Saturday Night and Tarn O'Shanter* Schiller (1759-1805), a distinguished German poet and prose writer- made Professor of History at Jena in 1786 — the great dramatist of Germany — chief works, William Tellasxd IVal/ensiein-^vftotc aho a History of the Thirty Years* War, J I J 4 ARTISTS. Handel (1684-1759), an illustrious German musical composer — very precocious as a boy — visited England in 17 10, and remained there during the most of his subsequent life — his most famous oratorios are Israel in Egypt, The Messiah, And Judas Mctccabaus. Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792), born in Devonshire— the first President of the Royal Academy — a famous portrait and historical painter — published Discourses on Painting — a great friend of Dr. Johnson. Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788), born in Suffolk — a fine painter of English landscapes — lived in Ipswich, Bath, and London. GREAT NAMES OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 435 le tliat we Wature and maker — a 1 eloquent tion of his ^'tic ideas. Iristrani early life iter — best- and She le, tender- ief works, found and orator— nd Re/Uc- ^ork, Tht written ia ■ his Ijrric yShanter, * writer— imatist of t^rote also ser — very led there oratorios the first historical d of Dr. ' painter Haydn (1732-1S09). born near Vienna — a ^'reat musical {;cniu<5 — father of iiio.lcrn orchestral music — greatest work, T/ie Creation, an oratoru). Benjamin West (1738-1820), born in America — President of the Royal Academy — a distinguisiied historical painter. Mozart (»756-l792), a great Cieunan musician — lived much at Vienna —chief woik-i, Don Gmuintii, and the c«;lebrated Requiem, tlie lal cr wntlcii on lus dcatli-bed — died of fever, Dcccinncr 5, I7'^2, a^cd 36. Canova (1757-1822), a celebrated Italian sculptor— famous for many very beautiful statues. INVENTORS. James Brindley (1716-1772), native of England — engineer of the canal made by Duke of Bndgewater from Worsley to Manchester, and hence the founder of canal navigation. Hargreaves (1730-1778), born in England — the inventor of the card- ing machine as a 8ul)stiiute for carding by hand — produced the spinnin^-jenny in 1765 — was persecuted by the ignorant of his time. Josiah Wedgwood (l 731-1795), the great improver of our porce- lain manufacture — the son of a Staffordshire potter — inventor of the "Queen's ware," made of white Dorsetshire clay mixed with ground flint. Sir Richard Arkwright (i 732-1 792), born at Preston, Lancashire— originally a hair-dresser — invented the spinning-frame, by which hand-labor is ^aved in tiie coitun-niiils — hence may be called tho founder of the cotton manufacture. James Watt (1736-1819), native of Greenock — invented the double- acting condensing steam-engine, and applied it to machinery- lived first in Glasgow, and then in Hirmingham. Jacquard (i 752-1834), born in France — at first employed as a nlaiter of straw — the inventor of the loom for figured weaving — at first encountered much opposition among the manufacturers, but his macliine was soon in great demand. Crompton (1753-1827), the inventor of M^ww/ir, amachinethat greatly facilitated the s[»inning of yarn. Robert Fulton (i 765-1815), an American engineer — studied in Eng- land the a7 '/ /A Photographic Sciences Corporation [V d V ■^ 1 ^ <* ^ N> 6^ >> % V 23 WES'' MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 '% n7 &?. t/j f I :'' 43^ MODERN HISTORY. 11 CHAPTER V. GREAT EVENTS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, X. THE CONSULATE AND THE EMPIRE. 357* ^^ have now come to a period that is in the strict- The eriod ^^^ sense modern ; for when we speak about the and its Nineteenth Century^ we are speaking about our character. ^^^ times, and many persons who are now alive saw the beginning of this period. It is an age crowded be- yond all the ages of history with great events, — an age fuller, richer, and more varied than was ever seen before. 358. There are several broad facts that stamp the 19th _ , century with this peculiar character. Thus : Reasons of ^ ... this pecuU- First, the struggles waged m this period are no ^^''^y* longer struggles of the kings with one another, but struggles between the kings and the peoples. This fact alone has served to work a complete change in the politics of Europe. But, secondly, new problems of a political and social nature have arisen, such as the questions of democracy, of representative government, of national unity, of the rights of labor, etc. ; and these have made a wonderful stirring in the spirits of men. Third, The historic stage is enlarged to embrace the whole world, since, on the one hand, new nations have arisen in distant and hitherto unsettled regions, and, on the other, the old lands of Asia and Africa have shown a marked awakening, and have again begun to count for something in the world's history, after lying dormant for ages. 359. The first of our topics is the career of Napoleon, Topic here because for fifteen years he was the great central treated of. figure, not ouly in the history of France, but in the history of Europe. NTURY, the strict- about the about our now alive wded be- ige fuller, the 19th Thus : d are no another, rhis fact ^ politics tical and inocracy, he rights :irring in larged to V nations )ns, and, e shown ount for for ages, apoleon, t central n but in WKT^' ■ , li •;j \'!' i ' ^i : ■ if 1 i 1 i THE CONSULATE AND THE EMPIRE. 437 360. In the last chapter the narrative of events in France was brought up to the establishment of the gov- Retrospect ernment under the Directory in 1795. This is of«vents. known as the Constitution of the Year III* It was the third constitution France had received since the outbreak of the Revolution, the first being the Constitution of 1789 (a constitutional monarchy, formed by the National, or Constituent, Assembly), and the second, the Constitution of September 1793 (a republic, formed by the National Convention). The establishment of the republican govern- ment under the Directory may be regarded in some sense as the close of the French Revolution ; for, though there were many subsequent changes, all these changes were effected by the Government^ or its armies, ivithout the inter] ere7ice of the people. 361. It has already been seen that the French Revolu- tion, which was at firsjt political (that is, con- „ ,^. , ' . , , . f . ^ . '. , Position of cerned with the mternal constitution of the France io French government and society), afterwards be- *^® '"^^' came military or aggressive, because the European sovereignsi, fearful of its consequences in their own dominions, attacked it. The year 1792 saw the first of that series of Coalitions against France into which nearly all the powers of Europe were successively drawn. This war was Still going on when, in 1795, the management of affairs fell into the hands of the Directory, under the Constitution of the Year III. In the spring of 1796 they fitted out three great armies, and the command of the army of Italy was, as we have seen, assigned to the young general, Napoleon Bonaparte, ♦ The" Year m.," because the National Convention, when, in 1792, it abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic, also refonncci the calendar, decreeing that the new chronologic era should date from liie establishment of the Republic, September 1792. Tlie year 1795 of the Christian chronology was therefoie the "Year HI." of French autichristiaa chronology. 438 MODERN HISTORY. 362. The Republic under the Directory lasted for four Fro Re- Y^^^^i i795~^799' when it came to an end, and public to the Consulate was established, with Napoleon Consulate. ^^ j-fst Consul and real master of France. The series of events by which this change was brought about is presented in the following synoptical view, which shows side by side the military operations of Napoleon and the course of affairs under the Directory : — THE DIRECTORY, 1796-1799. 1796 : The Directory organized three armies, — two, under Jour- dan .ind Moreau, to operate against Germany ; and the third, under Napoleon, to operate against tlie Au>.trians in Italy. Tlie armies of Moreau and Jour- dan, uniting in Germany, forced the Austrian army, under the Archduke Charles, to retreat beyond the Danube, ^^ut the Archduke CliarleH then took the offensive, and defeated Jourdan, while Moreau saved himself only by a rapid retreat through the Black Forest and over the Rhine( August). An ill-concerted expedition under General Hoche was sent to invade Ireland, towards the close of the year. He returned without accomplish- ing anything. NAPOLEON, 1796-1799. 2796: Italian Campaign. — Na- poleon, being appointed by the Directory to the command of the army of Italy, went in March 1 796 to his headquarters at Nice, where he found an ill-fed, half- clad army of 36,000 men. He was to operate against the Aus- trians in Italy, wheie they had a force of 60,000 men. He en- tered Italy by a series of skillful manceuvers. "Two standards, fifty-five pieces of cannon, five victories, 15,000 prisoners, and peace with the Piedmontesewere the results of a campaign of fif- teen days." In May Napoleon won the brilliant victory of the Bridge of Lodi and entered Milan. He next attacked the Austrian army under Wurmser, as it marched, divided, along the banks of the Lago di Garda, — falling upon the divisions sepa- rately and overwhelming them at Castiglione, Roveredu, and Bas- sano (August and September). Two months afterwards he had to meet, with his feeble remnant of an army, a new Austrian force THE CONSULATE AND THE EMPIRE. 439 d for four 1 end, and Napoleon nee. The it about is jhows side the course aign.—Na- uted by the mand of the t in March ters at Nice, ill-fed, half. > men. He ist the Aus- le they had n. He en- !s of skillful ) standards, :annon, five soners, and ontesewere )aign of fif- f Napoleon :tory of the id entered tacked the ■ Wurmser, i.alonji^the ii Garda, — . fiions sepa- ingthemat o, and Bas- eptember). irds he had tie remnant 5trian force X797: The Directory found itself greatly embarrassed in the at- tempt to rule France. The elec- tions proved more favorable to the reaction than to the Repub- lic. The government accord- ins'ly determined to maintain its position by force. Troops were brought to Paris ; several mem- bers of the Five Hundred and of the Ancients were arrested, and two of the Directors, Carnot and Barthelemy, were banished ; so that there were but three Direc- tors in place of five. This violent movement is called the ** Revolution of i8ih Fructidor" (September 4, 1797). of 60,000 under Alvinzi. But Napoleon was victorious at the bridi^^e of Areola (near Verona), and as the result the third Aus- trian army was driven out of Italy. X797 : Wurmser, beaten the previ- ousyear,stilllayatMantua,where Napoleon besieged him. The A'istrians sent a fresh force of 65,000 under Alvinzi across the mountains to the reliefof Mantua. Napoleon, reinforced to 45.OOO men, beat this army at Rivoli (January), and took Mantua. He then advanced to the Adriatic, captured Venice (in consequence of hostilities against the French), and overthrew her ancient inde- pendent government. He next crossed the Alps through the Tyrol into Carinthia and Styria, making for Vienna ; but, in con- sequence of the French army operating in Germany (under Moreau and Jourdan) having been driven back out of Ger- many by tbe Archduke Charles, Napoleon's base of operations was threatened by the advance of tlie Archduke Charles into the Tyrol. He therefore ceased his advance against Vienna. The Austrian emperor was glad to negotiate for peace. The Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1797) ended the campaign. Fiance obtained possession of Milan, Mantua, Modena, Fer- rara, Bologna, Corfu, Zante, find the whole of the Austrian Netherlands. France ceded Venice to Austria. S 440 MODERN HISTORY. l: I 1798: Tlie Directory had now to meet a Si'cond Coalition nt^ainst France, consistincj of England, Russia, and Austria. Things wentbadly for the French. Italy, the reward of Napoleon's bril- liant campaign, was recovered by the Austrians, aided by the Rus- sians. The finances were in the worst possible condition. Tlie forced conscription ordered by the government disgusted all classes. The appeal to the mili- tary by the Directory made them feel their power, and the army be- gan to long for the strong hand of a martial master. The members of the Directory were terrified, and resigned or changed their places. 1799 : With the armies of the Coalition threatening the soil of France, and the demoralized State of things at home, the 1798 : Egyptian Campaign.— Napoleon, returning at the close of 1797 to France after this bril- liant campaign, became the hero of the French people. The Directory began to fear his popularity and ambition ; but for some months he lived very quietly with Josephine in Paris. Napoleon then proposed an in- vasion of Egypt as a means of attacking the commerce and power of England in the East. Theremotenessof theexpedition influenced the jealous govern- ment ingivinghim thecommand. With an army of 40,000 vete- rans, he landed at Alexandria, and captured it (July). He then overthrew the Mamelukes in a brilliant action, the "Battle of the Pyramids" (July 21), which opened to the conqueror the gates of Cairo and made him master of Egypt. While Napoleon *vas thus engaged, the whole of his vast fleet, an- chored in Aboukir Bay at the mouth of the Nile, was totally destroyed by the English fleet under Nelson ("Battle of the Nile," August 1). Thus left in Egypt with his army, and de- prived of the vessels upon which he bad relied for his return, Na- poleon, undismayed, saw the commencement of his Oriental career. 1799 Advancing from Egypt through the desert of Arabia Petrsea into Palestine, he took Gaza, and at the foot of Mount THE CONSULATE AND THE EMPIRE. 441 'ampaign. — ngat the close after this bril- camethe hero )eople. The to fear his mbition ; but he lived very hine in Paris, oposed an in- s a means of mmerce and in the East, heexpedition lous govern- hecommand, 40,000 vete- : Alexandria, ly). He then amelukes in the "Battle ' (July 21), le conqueror and made :ypt. While us engaged, 1st fleet, an. Bay at the was totally English fleet laitle of the Thus left in ny, and de- i upon which 1 return, Na- d, saw the his Oriental •om Egypt of Arabia ne, he took ot of Mount murmurs of the people grew loutier and louder, ami the Government was blamed for having, in wliat was called tlie batiis/uiient of Napoleon, de- prived France of the only man who was equal to the occasion. Tabor defeated the Turks with enormous slaughter (April); but he received a clieck in the siege of Acre (defended by the Turks and a body of Knglish marines under Sir Sidney Smith); so that he ha>'. to return to Kgypt after losing half his army (July). Here, howevei, he won a bril- liant victory over the Turks at Aljoiikir. Finding now that matters were in great confusion in France, Napoleon, v/ithout consulting the wishes of the home government, left the army in command of Kleber, and, embarking secretly on a F'rench frigate (August), returned to France (October), 363. When, in October '1799, Napoleon suddenly re- turned to France from Egypt, he found the situation state of affairs in a condition similar to that on return of In which Caesar found Rome on his return Napoleon, from Egypt. The Republic had broken down. Anarchy prevailed. The Directory was without any support in public oi)inion. To concentrate the executive power in a single individual needed but one act of daring. Napo- leon felt that his was the genius to conceive and execute so bold a deed. 364. The Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients had been summoned to assemble at Theiothof St. Cloud \cloo'\ on the loth of November 1799. November. On that day General Bonaparte, who liad been appoiiiLedto the command of all the troops, entered the Chamber of the Ancients, and protested against the constitution under which they were formed. Leaving tlie senators overwhelmed with surprise, Le proceeded to the Council of Five Hun- dred, accompanied by about twenty officers and grenadiers. 449 MODERN HISTORY, 11: Jill i He reproached the members vehemently with their misrule, refused to swear to the constitution, and declared the Direc- tory an incompetent body. But he was received with cries of " Outlaw him I Down with the Dictator 1 " and unaccus- tomed to scenes like this, he retired abashed. Then mount- ing his horse he harangued the troops, who saluted him with acclamation. "Soldiers, can I count upon you?" cried the new candidate for empire. " Yes, yes," was the reply ; and Murat with a company of grenadiers cleared the hall of the Assembly, drowning all remonstrance by the rattle of the drums. 365. The Constitution of the Year III. was at an end. Nature of new What should now be the government of France ? government. There was at that time in Paris a certain Abbd Siey^s, a leader in politics, and a great constitution-monger. He had a new constitution all ready, and it was adopted. The new government was a Consulate. There were to be three Consuls, — a First Consul and two assistants. The First Consul, it is needless to say, was Napoleon. The two other Consuls, Sieves and Ducos, it is equally needles^ .^ say, were mere clerks to register his decisions, '^^'^e First Consul was to have the patronage of all the offices of ad- ministration, of the army and navy, and of the magistracy, the promuigaiion of laws, and the declaration of peace and war. It is true France preserved the show of a republic (as did Rome under Caesar), and provisions were made in the new constitution, called the " Constitution of the Year VIII.," for a senate, legislative body, etc. \ but in reality Napoleon was master of France. 366. Napuioon immediately began to assert his power: Doings of he placed newspapers under the severest re- Napoleon, strictions, shut up political assemblies through- out the Republic, and filled France with detectives ; but at the same time he improved the financial condition of the country by establishing the Bank of France and removing THE CONSULATE AND THE EMPIRE. 443 leir misrule, i the Direc- i with cries nd unaccus- hen mount- ed him with ou?'' cried the reply; 1 the hall of tie rattle of at an end. of France ? jrtain Abbd on-monger. IS adopted, were to be ants. The , The two needles;, .^, '"^'v. First fifices of ad- rnagistracy, peace and ' a republic re made in if the Year t in reality his power: ;everest re- is through- ^os ; but at .ion of the I removing restrictions from trade ; while, aware of the national taste for show, he gathered into the bill-rooms of the Tuilerics crowds of handsome soldiers and lovely women. At the same time he bent his energies to the raising of troops, and a quarter of a rnillion of conscripts were soon marshaled beneath his banners. 367. And he needed these troops ; for, though he suc- ceeded in detaching Russia from the Coalition, jj^g^jyt^ yet England rejected his overtures of peace, and of foreiga Austria was still against him. Indeed, England, p°^^"' Austria, and most of the European powers still acknowledged Louis XVJII. as the only legitimate authority in PVance, and regarded Bonaparte as a usurper. The " usurper," how- ever, felt every inch a king when he put on his cocked hat and plain gray riding-coat, and summoned his legions to follow him once again io victory on the plains of Italy. It was here that he proposed to humble Austria. 368. In the sprinrj of the yenr 1800, having by artful manceuvers made niS enemy believe that he in- The Italian tended attacking Germ raj 7 by the open passage campaign, of the Rhine, he se^retiy led his army across the lofty sum- mits of the Alps, and poured like an avalanche into the valley of the Po. The Austrians — two or three times his own num- bers — had chosen the great level of Marengo as the field of battle, and there fell upon the French on the march, June 14, 1800. It was the most brilliant, but at the same time the most bloody, of Napoleon's earlier battles, and resulted in the complete defeat of the Austrians, who were driven beyond the Adige and the Brenta. Five weeks after he left Paris he made his re-entrance into that enraptured city. In November of the same year Moreau, whom Napoleon liad sent to the Rhine, defeated the Austrians at Hohenlinden. These successes were followed by the treaty of I uneville, February 1801, by which Austria ceded to France Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine. 1 444 MODERN HISTORY. ill m 369. There was now peace around all the borders of Events up to France except the sea. There the English the peace. rulcd supreme. In order to destroy this supre- macy, Napoleon worked in the Northern courts until he united Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and afterwards Prussia, in a formidable league against England and her ships. But Nelson, sailing into the harbour of Copenhagen, crushed the naval power of Denmark in four hours (April 2, 1801). A few days earlier Paul of Russia, the enthusiastic admirer of Napoleon, was strangled by conspirators. So the giant league melted into nothing, and as, at the same time, the British overwhelmed the remnant of the French force in Egypt, the First Consul was willing to make peace. This was arranged between France and England by the Treaty of Amiens, March 1802. The peace was, however, only a breathing- spell, for neither party trusted the other. 370. That Napoleon had the entire confidence of France Napoleon's was provcd by a decree of the senate (August reforms. 1802), proclaiming him First Consul for life ; the votes of the people all over the land ratified the change. And his own conduct showed that, to the best of his know- ledge, Napoleon had the good of France at heart. He set his best lawyers to work arranging the laws of the land. These were snnplified and condensed into what is called the Code Napoleon^ and France still enjoys the benefit of this valued legacy. Every department of government received its portion of care ; public instruction, the administration of justice^ commerce, industry, roads, courts, arsenals, were placed on an excellent footing, and the Legion of Honor became the first step towards the creation of a nobility. 371. It was England that again provoked hostilities, by Hostilities issuing letters of marque, and imposing an renewed. embargo on all French vessels in English ports (May 1803). Napoleon, in retaliation, seized upon all English and Dutch subjects sojourning in the territories THE CONSULATE AND THE EMPIRE. 445 - borders of the English )y this supre- irts until he is Prussia, in ships. But , crushed the 2, 1801). A : admirer of : giant league J, the British n Egypt, the vas arranged of Amiens, a breathing- :e of France late (August 1 for life ; the the change. >f his know- art. He set of the land, is called the nefit of this jnt received nistration of >enals, were 1 of Honor obility. ostilities, by n posing an in English eized upon 2 territories of the Republic. In the months of May and June the French armies took possession of Hanover and menaced England with invasion. Russia and Austria then coalesced with England. 372. Napoleon, taking advantage of this crisis, contrived with admirable diplomacy to have himself soli- Napoleon cited by the Senate to exchange the consul- Emperor, ship for the imperial crown. On the i8lh of May 1804, a decree was passed giving him the title of Emper-'tr, and this elevation was ratified by the popular vote of France, only about 4000 names being recorded against it. The Pope, Pius Vn., was invited to France to crown the newly elected Emperor. At Notre Dame, on the 2d of December 1804, the ceremony of coronation was performed. The Pope blessed the crown, and Napoleon, taking it from the altar, placed it on his own head. He next passed into Italy, similarly to ratify bis royal authority, and in May 1805 was proclaimed A'ing of Ital)\ and was crowned at Milan with the iron crown of the Lombards. 373. In order to break the force of the English, Austrian, and Russian coalition, the Emperor Napoleon, His plan of in the spring of 1805, formed a prodigious plan campaign, of campaign. It was to begin with the invasion of England, for which immense preparations were made at Boulogne. 374. While these were still going on, Napoleon heard that the Austrian army, 200,000 strong, was operations in moving towards the Rhine, and that the Russian Germany, army was on the march to join it He immediately left Boulogne, and crossing the Rhine with an army of 160,000 men, advanced to Ulm, where he forced the Austrian gen- eral. Mack, to surrender with 30,000 men (October 1805). A few days afterward he entered Vienna in triumph. Pass- ing beyond the capital to Aus'terlitz, he gave battle to the united Austrians and Russians, whom he utterly defeated, indicting on them a loss of 15,000 killed, 20,000 prisoners, ••-I ,1 446 MODERN HISTORY. u Trafalgar. forty standards, and 200 pieces of artillery. December 2, 1805. The next day Francis II. of Austria came to the tent of Napo- leon to ask for peace. The recpiest was acceded to, and a treaty was made ; but it cost the House of I lapsburg the loss of twenty thousand square miles of territory, and two millions and a half of subjects. 375^ Ij^ the meantime an event had happened that for ever put a stop to Napoleon's design of invad- ing England. The fleet which the Emperor had counted on to protect his transports in crossing to England was chased up and down the seas by the British, and finally, with the ships of his ally, Spain, was blockaded in Ca'diz. Lord Nelson lay hard by watching them, and when, three weeks after Napoleon crossed the Rhine, the French and Spanish fleets came out, he attacked them off Cape Tra- falgar (October 21, 1805), and annihilated them. Nelson died in the arms of victory, the French admiral, Villeneuve, committed suicide, and Napoleon never again attempted to dispute the dominion of the sea with England. 376. This was a severe blow, but the fruits of Napoleon's Changes in own wonderful victories in Germany remained. Germany. And one result of his triumph was a great change in the constitution of Germany itself Napoleon raised the Electors of Bavaria and Wurtemberg to the rank of kings; and in the following year (1806) the kings of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, the Elector of Baden, the Land- grave of Hesse, and the princes formally declared themselves separated from the German Empire. They were formed into a league called the Confederation of the RJmie^ witl Napoleon as their "protector," and undertook to aid hin-^ in war with an army of 60,000 men. Francis II. resignec the imperial crown in the same year (August 6), taking th( title of E7nperor of Austria, so that Germany was no longer! even in name, a united state acknowledging a common headj Thus it was that the " Holy Roman Empire " came to an enc THE CONSULATE AND THE EMPIRE. 447 cember 2, 1805. he tent of Napo- \ :ceded to, and a i Ilapsburg the \ rritory, and two j ippened that for design of invad- the Emperor had ssing to England -itish, and finally, kaded in Ca'diz. and when, three the French and m off Cape Tra- d them. Nelson miral, Villeneuve, gain attempted to ind. uits of Napoleon's ermany remained, mph was a great itself Napoleon ; mberg to the rank 806) the kings of Baden, the Land- eclared themselves rhey were formed ?/ the Rhine^ with lertook to aid him rancis II. resigned igust 6), taking the any was no longer, ig a common head, \ e " came to an end. 377' ^^t this time Napoleon began to give away king- doms. Seizing Naples early in 1806, he made Napoleon as his brother Joseph king. Turning the Nether- king-maker, lands (" Batavian Republic") into the kingdom of Holland, he placed its crown on the head of his brother Louis.* 378. In the struggle of Germany with Napoleon, Prussia had hitherto, out of selfish motives, taken no Napoleon in- part. But its turn now came. By gross insults vades Prussia. Napoleon stung the Prussian king, Frederick William III., into war when Prussia was most unfit for a struggle. Then he threw forward his armies with his usual marvelous i)romp- titude, and in two great battles, — Auerstadt \our'stai\ and Jena \^yea'nd\ — fought upon the same day (October 14, 1806), he utterly crushed the military power with which, but half a century age, the Great Frederick had wrought such marvels. Prussia lay writhing at his feet, and Bona- parte entered Berlin in triumph. 379. What remained of the Prussian army now joined the Russians on the Prussian frontier. At Eyiau and Eylau [z'^7f'] (Febiuary 1807) a battle was J^"^- fought, of which nothing in particular came. But in June of the same year there was another battle fought at Fried- land, in regard to the results of which there could be no doubt, for the Russians were defeated with a loss of 60,000 men. The Czar now sued for peace, which was made by the Treaty of Tilsit (July 1807). 380. The terms of peace were terribly severe to Prussia : she had to resign Saxony, Westphalia, and Terms of Prussian Poland ; and the conqueror, in his peace, character of king-maker, elevated his third brother, Jerome, to the crown of the newly formed Kiii^:;dom of W 'estfhaiia, 381. The reaction now began. Having driven the royal House of Bragan'za from Portugal to Brazil, Beginning o; and having deposed the Bourbons from the reaction. * The father of the late Empeior Napoleon III, (Louis Napoleon). 448 MODERN HISTORY. H s throne of Spain, he set up his brother Joseph, in place of the latter, as King of Spain. Murat was promoted to fill Joseph's vacant throne at Naples. This appropriation of Spain was the commencement of a struggle in which the British under Wellington first assumed an important part in the military operations of Europe. Joseph was .■.iven out of Madrid, and the French were compelled to evacuate Portugal. These reverses compelled Napoleon to take the field in person, and his genius soon restored the French prestige in the Peninsula (1808). But no sooner had he conquered in one direction than he was menaced in another. He had conquered all Europe, and all Europe was arrayed against him. It was Austria this time that menaced his power. 382. Austria had never looked on the result of the battle TheWagram o^ Austerlitz as final, and was resolved to re- campaign, cover her lost territory. So while Napoleon was occupied in Spain, the Emperor, Francis II. of Austria, mustered half a million soldiers, and conmiitted the com- mand to the Archduke Charles. On the receipt of this in- telligence. Napoleon quilted Spain and took the command on the Danube (May 1809). Combats took place at As- pern and Essling, which on the whole were favorable to the Austrians ; but in the decisive battle at Wagram (July 5, 1809), Napoleon was completely successful, and Austria purchased peace by a large surrender of territory. 383. The treaty of peace, called the Pdac^ of Vienna The Austrian (1809), was followed by negotiations for the marriage. hand of Maria Louisa, Archduchess of Austria; and in the following year, Nai)oleon, having divorced the faithful Josephine, married that princess. His hope in this marriage was that an heir might be born to him, and this hope was realized in the birth of a son, afterwards known as the Duke of Reichstadt.* See p. 463. THE CONSULATE AND THE EMPIRE. 449 -ph, in place of romoted to fill Ppropriation of - in which the important part ph was .aven ed to evacuate 3n to take the d the French ooner had he ed in another, e was arrayed menaced his of the battle solved to re- 'e Napoleon f. of Austria, eci the com- :»t of this in- 'e command )Iace at As- Table to the am (July 5, nd Austria r, (^f Vienna ns for the of Austria ; ^'orced the ope in this I, and this fds known 384. In the year 181 1 Napoleon was at the height of his power, and his position at this time is well Napoleon worth marking. The French empire over touches the which he ruled extended from the borders of "°'*^- Denmark to those of Naples. Holland, Naples, and West- phalia were ruled by his kinsmen. His brother Joseph was on the throne of Spain, though not very secure there. Bernadotte, one of his generals, had been chosen Crown Prince of Sweden. As Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine he held the German states in subjection, as he did also the Helvetic Confederation, into which he had formed the cantons of Switzerland ; Austria and Prussia crouched at his feet, and Russia seemed his firm ally. Yet in a short time all this was changed. "The magician's wand was broken, and his magnificent theater of action had sunk into a little house and garden far out in the tropic sea." 38s The beginning of Napoleon's disasters was the war which he commenced with Russia in 1812. invasion of This arose out of Napoleon's dissatisfaction at Russia, the Czar's having opened his ports to British goods. As usual, Napoleon assumed the aggressive. Assembling a vast army, he crossed the Niemen (June 181 2) with 500,000 men, and headed his columns towards Moscow. The Russians gave battle at Borodino (September 7), and were defeated, but fell back in good order towards Moscow, — the Russian strategy being to lure Napoleon into the interior of the country. 386. On the 14th of September the French entered the ancient capital of Russia, and beheld the The French towers of the Kremlin and the fantastic spires *° Moscow, of Moscow. But when they entered the city, it was silent and empty, — an enchanted city, and all their own. Exult- ing in their plunder and security, they spread hither and thither, and proceed to pass the night in revelry. But in 2 F ■I 11 1 i '■:•• 450 MODERN HISTORY. t!ie midst of their merriment the city was found to be in flames. The Russians, knowiri'-r no other means bv whic'i to deprive their foes of winter quarters and provisions, had set fire to their ancient and beautiful capital, which after four days sank into a heap of ashes, leaving the conquering lei2;ions alone with famine and desolation. 387. Retreat was all that now remained for the Emperor. It began on tlie 19th of October. We shall not describe the horrors of this journey, in which the French were perpetually harassed by fl\ ing bodies of Cossacks, were starved, were frozen, and were left to die by the wayside. It is calculated that 125,000 perished in battle : that 130,000 died of fatigue, hunger, and cold; and that 190,000 were made prisoners. 388. At Smorgonoi (December 5) Napoleon abandoned Events to bat- ^^e wretched phantom of the grand army and tie of Leipsic. set out in a sledge for Paris, which he reached on the 1 8th. He knew that the struggle was to be one of life and death. All the powers of Europe now combined against him. In the Peninsula Wellington had in the meantime defeated Napoleon's marshals and had entered the South of France. Nevertheless the Emperor was still far from despairing. With incredible energy he marshaled a fresh army and marched to the banks of the Elbe. He defeated the Prussians and Russians at Liitzen, and again at Bautzen, in May 18 13. But these victories w^ere of little use to stem the great tide of enemies which had set in towards Paris, for the Austrians and the Bavarians had joined the coalition against him. Battle after battle was fought, until he made his final stand at Leipsic. The com- bat there was a crushing defeat to Napoleon, who lost upwards of 70,000 men (October 16-18, 18 13). 389. The great allied host was now advancing in all Events up to directions towards the frontiers of France. Elba. Napoleon summoned all his energies to meet THE CONSULATE aND THE EMPIRE. 451 ^oiind to I)e in cans by whic^i )rovisions, had il, which after le conquering the Emperor, er. We shall s journey, in ' fl} ing bodies sre left to die o perished in id cold ; and n abandoned id army and h he reached to be one of 'w combined had in the had entered ror was still e marshaled Elbe. He , and again es were of ch had set 'arians had battle was The com- who lost ing in all ^ France. 5 to meet the crisis, and amazed his enemies by the rapidity of his movements and the fertility of his resources. At last he made a false move : he dashed to the rear of the allies, in the hope that they would retreat in terror ; but instead of this they marched direct upon Paris, which was surrendered without a struggle (March 31, 1814). Napoleon, who came up too late to save his capital, rode away to Fontainebleau \fo7i-tam-blo'\ Two days afterward he was deposed by a decree of the Senate ; on the 4th of April he signed his abdication, and on the 20th he set out for the little island of Elba, which was now to be all the sovereignty of the once mighty potentate. 390. The Bourbon dynasty was now restored in the person of Louis XVIII., the brother of the The Bourbon guillotined king. But Louis XVIII. was indeed Restoration, a Bourbon, — "one who forgot nothing and who learned nothing." Indeed, so unpopular did he make himself, that soon all hearts began to turn once more to the exile of Elba. And he was now to startle Europe with a new ap- pearance on the stage. 391. After ten months in Elba^ Napoleon escaped. Land- ing near Cannes \can\ he pushed on to Paris, Napoleon's being joined by a small body of troops, and reappearance, reached the capital without firing a shot. Louis XVIII. fled to Ghent. At this time a congress was sitting at Vienna, and the task of reconstructing the map of Europe, so roughly disturbed by Napoleon, was going merrily on when the news came. The news is said to have been greeted by the assembled diplomatists first with a silent stare of incredulity and then with a roar of laughter. 392. But Napoleon was in Paris levying troops ; action must be prompt and decisive. The allies im- progress of mediately declared Bonaparte an outlaw, and events, poured their armies toward France. Resolving to deal first with the enemies nearest to him, Napoleon invaded 1 'U. - tl 452 MODERN HISTORY. Waterloo. Belgium, where lay the English and Prussians under Wel- lington and Bliicher. 393. The result of this campaign is told in a single word — \Vati:ki-oo ! This decisive combat took place on the 1 8th June 18 15. It was an overwhelm- ing defeat to the French, and Napoleon hastened to Paris to announce that all was lost. 394. On his arrival, he found himself no longer treated Abdication and as a sovereign : his star had set, and as in his Gurrender. grandeur he had made the best interests and liberties of France subservient to his own glory, so now he was cast aside that the nation might be cared for. On the 2 2d of June he signed his second abdication, and the allies entering Paris on the 7th of July, reinstated Louis XVIII. as king of France. Najjoleon now sought to escape to the United States ; but this he could not do, as the British cruisers watched all the coast. On the 15th of July he went on board a British ship, having previously written to the Pruice Regent of England to say that " he came like Themistocles to claim the hospitality of the British people and the protection of their laws." 395. But the British Government regarded him as a tiger St. Helena ^ho was better chained than free, and orders and death, were sent to carry him to St. Helena. The ship reached the lonely rock in October 18 15, and there he lived for six years. His death took place May 5, 1821 ; and his last words, as he lay dying amid the crash and glare of a tropical thunderstorm, were, ^^ Tele d'an/iee / " ("Head of the army I") 396. The character of Napoleon Bonaparte has been matter of great discussion and ot" most op; osed opinion; and this necessarily so, since, in ti.i.' judgment of lives, men differ so widely in their /hrs/s of judgment. Viewed purely from an intellectual stand[)oint, as a man accomplishing worldly ends by worldly arts, — Ki; character. ■I $ t-S MODERN ENGLISH POLITICS. 453 s under Wel- a single word fjat took place T overvvhelm- ned to Paris ^nger treated nd as in his nterests and ^, so now he oi"- On the "^ the alhes >uis XVIII. ^ escape to the British o^ July he y written to ■came like tish people a as a tiger 3nd orders ena. The and there ' 5, 1821 ; crash and ^^arniee / " has been oP; osed -, in tin' I'^uis of ndpoint, ■ arts, — by generalship, by faculty of combination, by administrative genius, — he was undoubtedly the greatest that ever lived. But as a character he was neither good nor in the highest sense great ; for he was not great enough to be above self, VVe can only say that the work he did needed to be done, and let the verdict go at that. For the rest, never has the v\orld seen ambition so brilliant in its success, so tragic in its ialL s. MODERN ENGLISH POLITICS. 397. At the time when peace came to Europe, after the long Napoleonic wars, George III., whose reign Qeo^-e in. began far back in the previous century, was still and George alive, but he did not rule. Long prone to in- sanity, his mind had given way in 1810, anH the appointment of a Regent had become necessary. This office devolved upon his eldest son, who held it until the death of the poor old, blind, crazy king in 1820, when he ascended the throne as George IV. He is said to have been a man of consider- able ability ; and from his fine person and polished man- ners he was called by his flatterers the " first gentleman in Europe ;" but if to be a gentleman one must lead a decent life and have a feeling heart, then this king deserves not the name. 398. After the battle of Waterloo the sovereigns of Aus- tria, Russia, and Prussia entered into what is England and called the Holy Alliance^ by which they bound the Holy Ai- themselves "to aid one another, in conformity **°'^®' with Holy Scripture, on every occasion." By this high- sounding profession they seem to have meant no more than that they would crush the desire for liberty and reform which began to show itself in the several countries. Franco also joined the alliance; but England, suspecting that its object was the maintenance of despotic government, refused f ' 'f ^f fill' 1)1 I i 454 MODERN HISTORY. to assent to the principle of interference with the internal affairs of other states. 399. The most important political event of George IV.'s A step in reign was the removal of certain grievous dis- progress. abilities under which all persons who did not belong to the Church of England labored. These affected both Catholics and Protestant dissenters. The restriction which required all persons taking office to commune according to the rites of the Established Church was re- moved in 1828; but many grievous laws yet remained in force against Catholics, who were shut out from Parliament, and from many offices, franchises, and civil rights. 400. In Ireland there arose a great agitation for the Justice to repeal of these laws, and early in the reign Catholics. Daniel O'Connell, an Irish barrister of great eloquence, organized the Catholic Association for the pur- pose of pushing the question of emancipation. The sub- ject was frequently debated in the House of Commons, and motions in its favor were carried ; but the House of Lords would not sanction the repeal of the penal laws. The excitement became intense, and the Catholic Association elected O'Connell to a seat in Parliament. So well did he fight the battle of his Church, that a bill was passed remov- ing all penal laws against Catholics, and placing them on the same political footing as Protestant subjects. The Duke of Wellington, who was at that time Prime Minister, avowed in the House of Lords that he had brought for- ward the measure in order to avert civil war. The bill received the royal assent in April 1829. Next year the king died. 401. George IV. was succeeded by his brother, William Accession of Henry, Duke of Clarence, who ascended the wuiiamiv. throne as William IV. He reigned seven years, that is, till 1837. 402. At the time of William's accession, the great ques- MODERN ENGLISH POLITICS. 45S the internal George IV. 's grievous dis- who did not hese aflTected »e restriction ) commune urch was re- remained in Parliament, Its. ion for the n the reign ter of great or the pur- The sub- mmons, and se of Lords laws. The Association well did he >sed remov- g them on ects. The 2 Minister, fought for- The bill t year the •r, William ended the led seven reat ques- tion of Parliamentary Rfform agitated the people. For many years there had been a growing demand Abuses of par- for a change in parliamentary representa- liamentary re- lion, and certainly such a change was greatly P''«sentation. needed. Many towns, such as Liverpool and Manchester, which contained a teeming population, were without repre- sentation at all, while many small and insignificant places reiurned to Parliament one or more members. In such boroughs, known as " pocket " or " rotten " boroughs, the property was, in most instances, in the hands of some one large owner, by whom the elections were controlled. The large centers of population, unrepresented in the National Legislature, could no longer suffer this state of things to continue, and loudly demanded parliamentary reform. 403. The celebrated Reform Bill was brought into Par- liament in March 1831 by Lord John Russell. Passage of the The two parties in the House of Commons Reform bul were so evenly balanced, that another appeal was made to the country, and a new House of Commons was returned, pledged to carry "the Bill." After a desperate struggle, the measure was passed in the House of Commons by a large majority, but it was thrown out in the Lords. This caused great excitement throughout the country, and riots broke out in many places. On the assembling of Parlia- ment the following year, 1832, the Reform Bill was again introduced, and passed the Lower House ; and on finding both the Crown and the people against them, the Lords were induced to give up their opposition to the measure. 404. By this Act three great changes were made : i. Fifty- six of the pocket boroughs were disfranchised ; changes it 2. Several towns which had sprung, during the efifected, last century, into first-class cities, now, for the first time, re- ceived the right of sending members to Parliament ; 3. The franchise, or right of voting, was extended more widely among the middle classes. The right of voting for towns * ^.111 ym, 456 MODERN HISTORY. was given to tlie tenants of houses worth ;^io a year or upwards ; for county members all were entitled to vote who owned land worth ^10 a year, or who paid an annual rental of ;j^5o. 405. When the Reform Parliament met in the following AboUtion y^^^' ^^33f ^' justified the best hopes of its of colonial friends by entering upon a course of wise and slavery. liberal legislation. One of the most important of its acts was the abolition of slavery in the British col- onies. The merit of this work is mainly due to Wil- liam Wilberforce, who for many years had devoted him- self to the question of Emancipation. For the 800,000 slaves who thus received their freedom, a compensation of ;^ 20,000,000 was paid to their masters. 406. William IV. died in 1837, and was succeeded by Accession of Alcxandrina Victoria, daughter of his brother. Victoria. Edward, Dukc of Kent. She was then eightee; years of age, and three years afterwards was married to her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. 407- 'I'he most important political event during the early Repeal of the part of this reign was the Repeal of the Corn Corn Laws. Laws. These were laws imposing heavy duties upon the importation of foreign grain. All who lived by agriculture — the landowners, the farmers, and the laboring classes — wished to keep foreign grain out of the market, in the belief that it was their interest, by high duties, to protect home agriculture. On the other hand, those who held free- trade doctrines argued that every man and nation should be free to buy in the cheapest and sell in the dearest market, and that all protective restrictions were futile. In 1839 a number of these men, of whom Richard Cobden was the most prominent, formed what was called the Anti- Corn-Law League. By vigorous agitation the cause triumphed in 1846, when bills were carried through Parliament for abolish- MODERN ENGLISH POLITICS. 457 'o a year or (J to vote who d an annual the following hopes of its of wise and St important British col- due to Wii- e voted him- the 800,000 sensation of icceeded by his brother, 'en eighteen fried to her I. 'g the early ////I)I)onenis. cember 2, in Louis -II read a Ived, that •'as under martial law. On the 4th, there was the usual Parisian up- rising ; but it was put down by the strong hand, after some 800 of those who resisted the usurpaticm had fallen by the bullets of the soldiery. On the 14th of tiie following Jan- uary (1852), a new constitution placed in the hands of Louis Napoleon the government of France for ten years. 423. 'Ihe strange success attending this extraordinary seizure of power can only be accounted for by,, ,. . ' ^ ^ Cause of Louis the fact that France was completely demorai- Napoleon's ized by the long period of change and anarchy ^""®*^' through which she had i)assed. How thoroughly by this time the French had lost all sense of real political liberiy is evidenced by the next step in the marvelous career of Louis Napoleon. This was his elevation to be Emperor by over seven millions of voles, being nearly the entire vote of France. 424. On the 2d of December 1852 he was proclaimed Emperor with the title of Napoleon IIL* On Becomes the 30th of January 1853 he was married to Emperor. Eugenie de Montijo, a Spanish lady of Scottish extraction and ancient birth. The ceremony was performed with great splendor by the Archbishop of Paris in the Cathedral of Notre Dame. 425. When Napoleon IIL assumed the imperial crown, he made an utterance which, it was supposed, His profession would be the key to his policy : " The Empire," of peace, said he, " is peace " {L'Efnpire c'est la paix). But indeed there have been wars in Europe ever since, in which France has taken the chief part. 426 The year after his accession, when there arose the quarrel between Russia and Turkey that re- sulted in the Crimean war, he led the way in His first war. * The putative Napoleon IT. was the son born to Napoleon I. and Maria Louisa in 1811. He never reigned, and on the abdication of his father was created Duke of Reichstadt in Austria. He died in 1832. m 'j-^^^ 464 MODERN HISTORY. Torming the coalition against Russia. The nation entered with eagerness enough into the contest, and it is generally believed that, as between France and England, the French had the greater share of glory in the operations before Sebastopol. 427. In 1859 hostilities broke out between Austria and His second Sardinia. The French Emperor in person ^"' took the field in Northern Italy as an ally of Sardinia. It was given out that he intended to free all Ita^y from the Alps to the Adriatic ; but though the French were victorious over the Austrians at Magenta and Solfe- rino. Napoleon III. stopped short and concluded the mysterious Peace of Villafranca. It did not then appear that his conduct was wholly disinterested, for though by his action Lombardy (given up by the Austrians) was joined to Sardinia, yet Victor Emanuel, the king of that state, had to cede to France the two provinces of Nice and Savoy. 428. The last and greatest of Napoleon III.'s wars v/as The German that which he declared against Prussia in war* 1870. The reason which he assigned for this act of aggression was, that there had been talk of giving the crown of Spain to Leopold, a distant kinsman of the king of Prussia ; but the real reason was that he was very jealous of the greatness of Prussia, which was rapidly accom- plishing the reconstitution of Germany ; and besides, he was desirous of establishing his waning popularity in France by means of a successful war. To take away all cause of dispute, Leopold, in July 1870, withdrew from being a candidate for the crown of Spain. But this did not satisfy Napoleon, who asked the king of Prussia to give formal assuraiices that Leopold would tiever in the future accept of the crown of Spain. This demand was refused, and France declared war. 429. In the sketch of Germany a brief account will be REVOLUTIONS IN FRENCH POLITICS. 465 lation entered it is generally id, the French rations before 1 Austria and or in person as an ally of ;d to free all gh the French nta and Solfe- oncluded the then appear or though by ustrians) was king of that 3 of Nice and [I.'s wars v/as t Prussia in ined for this alk of giving isman of the he was very ipidly accom- besides, he sty in France all cause of )m being a d not satisfy give formal (re accept of and France >unt will be given of the stupendous struggle which now ensued. It is sufficient for the present to say, that the French summary of crossed the German frontier, but were driven events, out in a few days, and then the German armies entered France and won a series of great victories. Napoleon III. himself became a prisoner. Paris was besieged, and sur- rendered to the Germans. Meanwhile Napoleon III. was declared deposed, and a rei)ublic was again set up in France. The late Emperor retired to England, where two years after- wards he died. 430. In thus following down through the wars waged during the reign of Napoleon III., we have, for Material the time being, neglected the internal state of prosperity France. The eighteen years of imperial rule ° formed a period of quite marked material prosperity. Louis Napoleon had something of his uncle's genius for adminis- trative details. He did much to build up the commerce of the country, to develop its railroad system and its mining and manufacturing interests, and to extend and beautify its cities. The French people, freed for twenty years from anarchy, and directed into industrial channels, became as a nation more practical than they ever were before, and the material prosperity of France was never greater than under the Second Empire. 431. But a nation pays too dearly for peace and material well-being when it purchases them at the price The price of liberty. The French are a mighty, a noble ** *^°*'' people, and for centuries upheld the civilization of Europe ; yet it is to be said of them, that for twenty years in the midst of the 19th century they permitted themselves to live under a rule which, in principle, if not in practice, was no better than an Asiatic despotism. The real rottenness of the system was clearly disclosed by the German conflict. The issue on trial was this : a people, the bravest, the, proudest in Europe, but the great mass of whom were 2 G t ' hi J .» r 466 MODERN HISTORY. morally enfeebled both by want of education and of intelli- gent participation in public affairs, opposed to a nation brought U]) in a public school. The result was a most sig- nificant verdict as to the merit of the two systems. 4. THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY. 432. After the Congress of Vienna (1815), j^ustria hung Italy, X815- 'like a millstone round the neck of Italy ; so »848. that this beautiful land can hardly be said to have had any history from 1 8 1 5 to 1 848. Austrians swarmed in the basin of the Po, and creatures of Austria wore the coronets of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma. 433. When Pius IX. became Pope in 1846, he began to Revolution ^lake some useful changes among the people of of X848. the Papal States. The Austrians, alarmed at any signs of growing freedom, entered Ferrara in 1847, and all Central Italy rose in arms against the tyrants. The following year saw the flame of revolution kindled in Lombardy. The Austrian troops were driven from Milan, and Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, took the field against them. But the hour of triumph was short : the Austrians soon reconquered Lombardy and invaded Sardinia, and Charles Albert, de- feated at Novara in 1849, abdicated, and was succeeded by his son, Victor Emanuel II. Meanwhile Venice, which had again become a republic, was recovered by Austria. Rome, where a republic had been set up, was overcome by troops sent by the new republic of France. In the other Italian states, the princes who had been frightened by the revolu- tionary movements into granting constitutions withdrew these. I'hus, after 1849, Italy was left in much the same case as she had been in before the uprising. 434. In this depressed state of affairs, the one outlook Victor fo^^ Italian patriots, who yearned intensely for Emanuel, the freedom and unity of their country, was in Sardinia, whose new king, Victor Emanuel II., was known UNIFICATION OF ITALY. 467 J of intelli- 3 a nation I most sig- istria hung Italy ; so be said to s swarmed I wore the : began to people of led at any 7, and all ■ following rdy. The les Albert, the hour onquered Ibert, de- :ecded by ^hich had Rome, by troops ir Italian le revolu- withdrew :he same oudook nsely for r, was in s known to be liberally inclined. His subjects, the Picdmontese, enjoyed a constitutional government, a free press, and a large share of religious liberty. Victor Emanuel did not disappoint the good hopes of the patriots, for he introduced many reforms, and kept his word so faithfully that he won for himself the honorable nickname of 7/ Jve Galantuomo (The Honest King). 435. In 1853 Count Cavour became prime minister to Victor Emanuel. He was one of the ablest cavour's statesmen of the 1 9th century, and passionately p^^"^* desired to see all Italy free and united. As an important step towards this end, he induced the king in 1855 to enter into the war which England and P'rance were carrying on against Russia in the Crimea ; for he reasoned that if Italy should come to be regarded as a useful ally by the great powers, her deliverance might be hastened by foreign inter- ference. Accordingly at the Congress of Paris, held the following year to arrange terms of peace between the allies and Russia, Cavour took the opportunity of laying before the representatives of the European powers the unhappy condition of his countrymen in the other Italian states. This led France and England to remoi.otrate with the king of Naples, who was one of the worst of the Italian tyrants, and at length the dispute became so serious that their am- bassadors were withdrawn from Naples. And now we come to the eventful days that changed that little kingdom of Sar- dinia into the kingdom of Italy. 436. In 1859 France and Sardinia declared war against Austria, and the Emperor Napoleon III. said Warwith he would free Italy from the Alps to the Adri- Austria, atic. The Austrians were beaten in the two great actions of Magenta (June 4, 1859) and Solferino (June 24), and it seemed as though the French Emperor would keep his word. But he found that if he went farther, Prussia would take up the cause of Austria, and so he concluded the fcStf w m 468 MODERN HISTORY. Peace of Villafranca. Austria gave up to the king of Sar- dinia Lombardy to the west of the Mincio. In March i860, Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Rornagna, by a general vote of the people, became subject to the king of Sardinia. 437. In the meantime the doings of one man placed Garibaldi's Naples and Sicily under the power of Sardinia, operations. Joseph Garibaldi,* "the hero of the red shirt," issuing from the rocky islet of Caprera, landed in May 1 860 at Marsala in Sicily, proclaiming himself Dictator for Vic- tor Emanuel. Storming Palermo, the capital of Sicily, and defeating the troops of the king of Naples at Melazzo, he then invaded the mainland, forcing Reggio to capitulate. The king of Naples took refuge in the maritime fortress of Gaeta, while Garibaldi entered the capital and nominated a provincial government. 438. The troops of Sardinia soon invaded the Papal Italy a States, whose armies they defeated, and whose kingdom, seaport of Ancona they forced to capitulate. Other victories followed, and the kingdom of the Two Sicilies became a dependency of Sardinia. By vote or revo- lution all the other states, except the Papal territories and the Austrian province of Venetia, were in 1861 amalgamated into the kingdom of Italy, and the Italian Parliament made Victor Emanuel king of Italy. 439. The rest of the story of Italian liberation is soon Closing told. When the war between Austria and events. Prussia broke out in 1866, Italy joined Prussia, and Austria had to give up Venice and Verona. Lastly, II • Joseph Garibaldi, born at Nice in 1807, has had a most eventful and wandering life. After making some voyages as a sailor, he engaged ia plots with Mazzini against Charles Albert of Sardinia. Escaping from the perilous consequences of these, he carried his sword to South America, where he fought against Brazil on behalf of Rio Grande. On his return to liurope he aided in defending Rome against the French (1848). Another turn of Fortune's wheel, and he appears as a soap-boiler and candlemaker in America ; then is transformed to a farmer on the rocky islet of Caprera. THE GERMAN EMPIRE RESTORED. 469 ng of Sar- in March ly a general Sardinia, lan placed f Sardinia, red shirt," May i860 or for Vic- Sicily, and lelazzo, he capitulate, fortress of Dminated a the Papal and whose capitulate. the Two te or revo- ories and ;a1gamated nent made in is soon istria and d Prussia, H. Lastly, eventful and engaged in caping from ith America, his return to 5). Another candlemaker of Caprera. when the war between France and Germany (1870) caused tiie I'rench troops to be withdrawn from Rome, the Eternal City was at last joined to tiie Italian kingdom. Victor Emanuel entered Rome, which has since been the capital of United Italy. 5. GERMAN EMPIRE RESTORED. 440. Until the Napoleonic wars, the German Empire, or " Holy Roman Empire," the true representative Review of of the empire of the Cresars, had continued to German exist in name, though, since the Peace of West- ^° * "^*' phalia, the union of the German states had been very lax indeed. But under Napoleon even the name of union under an imperial head passed away. First he succeeded in detaching the two duchies of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg and several smaller states, and these he formed into the Confederation of the Rhine.* And at last the Emperor Francis II., in 1806, formally resigned the imperial crown, and was called simply Emperor of Austria ; — so that, after this, Germany was no longer, even nominally, a united state, acknowledging a common head. 441. When, after the downfall of Napoleon in 181 5, the status of the various European nations was set- ^he German tied at the Congress of Vienna, the jealousies of Confedera- the greater German states, especially Austria and **"* Prussia, did not permit that the empire should be restored. Instead of this, the German princes united by a lax fede- ral tie in what was called the German Confederation (June 8, 1815), which union lasted until quite recent times. It was made up of thirty-nine states, f Each state was to remain * See page 446. t The principal of these were: (i) Austria, (2) Prussia, (3) Bavaria, (4) Saxony, (5) Hanover, (6) Wurtemberg, (7) Baden, (8) Hesse, (9) Darm- stadt, (10) Brunswick, (iz) Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Nassau. The votes f 470 MODERN HISTORY. ii I. i ^ i[] s-j! [It; *- :iJ : -e I '' ' independent in matters that affected it alone, — the object of the Confederation being merely the regulation of those affairs common to all German states equally. A permanent Diet, or Parliament, consisting of the plenipotentiaries of the f>tates, was to hold its sittings in Frankfort-on-the-Main, the representatives of Austria presiding. The members of the Confederation agreed never to declare war against one an- other ; there was to be a confederate army, to which each state was to contribute according to its population, and all subjects of dispute between the various states were to be referred for settlement to the Diet. 442. By the Act of Confederation all the princes promised Broken ^ee constitutions to their people. This was a promises, concession to the spirit of the age ; but, in fact, most of them forgot to make good their promise. This was a great disappointment to the hopes of the liberal and patriotic i)arty throughout Germany. 443. Moreover, for some time a strong feeling for the real jj .. _ unity of Fatherland had been growing up, espe- step towards cially since the war of freedom. There was a **• very general desire that Germany should cease to be a mere bundle of states only nominally united, and become a strong power by becoming a united power. One not unimportant step towards realising this wish was taken as Prussia gradually, from 1828 onwards, became the center of a commercial union among the German states, the mem- bers of which agreed to levy no duties on merchandize passing from one state to another, but to levy them only at the comviion frontier. This union, called the Zolverein^ or Cus- toms' Uviion, was gradually joined by most of the German states. 444. But, aside from this, most of the German sovereigns In tlie Diet were so regulated that the eleven states of first rank alone held a full vote, the secondary states holding merely a half or the fourth of a vote. I THE GERMAN EMPIRE RESTORED. 471 espe- and ])rinc:es showed tbenjsi.'lvcs to be tlu^roii^li al>solutists in principle and practice. Repressive nieasuri-.s jii,. jrovern- werc used to crush every little manifestation of meut and independence, and the press was completely *^'^p^°p'^' shackled. But, indeed, these acts had only the effect of making the desire for freedom and unity stronger. When the French Revolution of i8^^o took place, there were sliglv symi)athetic uprisings in Prussia and Austria, and especiali\ in Drunswick; but very little came of these. 445. However, the French Revolution of 1848 (when King Louis Philippe was driven out and a re- The earth- public was set up) had more serious conseciuences quake year. in Germany. The people this time were in earnest, and re- solved to obtain, at whatever cost, their chief demands. The princes of the smaller states were alarmed, and most of them at once adopted a more liberal policy. In Austria the re- forming or revolutionary party everywhere gained the \.\<\ er hand ; and the Emperor was obliged to summon a Diet, tc l"j elected by universal suffrage in all his hereditary lands. ' i Berlin the uprising was even more determined ; there were sharp contest:^ between the people and the soldiers ; and the king, Frederick William IV., was obliged to grant a new constitution. It was generally hoped that union as well as freedom was now to be achieved in Germany, for the n^ove- ment gained such height that members from the various states were elected to a A'ational Assembly^ which was opened Frankfort in May 1848, and which had the right of acti) for all Germany, since the Diet had meanwhile voluntani . ceased to exist. 446. But once again the movement for union and inde- pendence proved abortive, and this time when cause of the tb.e people seemed to have everything their own people's way. This failure was due to several causes. To begin with, the National Assembly was largely under the influence of well-meaning but visionary men, and showed 472 MODERN HISTORY, J ) I itself unequal to the task of reconstituting Germany. Then the movement for independence was seriously checked by the great excesses to which the revolutionary party in Austria md Hungary went. 447. '1 he Hungarians, it must be remembered, were under Uprising and ^^6 Austrian dominion, and formed one of the down-putting states of Francis II. 's " empire." But they had o ungary. qj^^^q been a great and an independent nation, and they sighed to be freed from the yoke of the House of Hapsburg. Headed by the famous orator Kossuth, they demanded complete independence and set up a republic. But unluckily feuds arose between the Magyars and the other races in Hungary, and this greatly helped the recon- quest of the country by Austria, which, however, was not done without the help of Russia. 448. While these events were taking place in Hungary, The tide there was a gradual subsidence of the republican recedes. movement in Germany proper, so that in Austria and Prussia and the other states the Government got the upper hand. And now that the Governments were freed from the fear with which the revolutionary outburst had at first inspired them, they became less and less inclined to adopt any very thorough changes. Moreover, the National As- sembly, still sitting at Frankfort, was violently divided. True, it got so far in April 1849 as to form a kind of constitution, and it offered the imperial power to the king of Prussia, in whose family it was to be hereditary. Frederick William, however, refused to accept the title under a constitution which, he said, would not give him power sufficient to fulfil the duties of an emi)eror. 449. All this time, and long afterwards, the greatest diffi- Jeaiousiesof ^^^^Y ^" ^^^^ unification of Germany arose from the jealousies between Prussia and Austria, each believing that // should form the nucleus in *' reconstitution of the empire. Prussia, when Austria was Prussia and Austria. THE GERMAN EMPIRE RESTORED. 473 any. Then checked by y in Austria were under one of the ut they had ent nation, : House of ssuth, they a republic, •s and the the recon- r, was not Hungary, republican in Austria nt got the "reed from ad at first to adopt ional As- d. True, istitution, russia, in William, istitution t to fulfil est diffi- se from ria, each s in *' ■ :ria was Events to 1859. engaged in quelling the Hungarian revolt (1849), made an effort to unite Germany, leaving out Austria. Several states joined Prussia in an alliance. Then Austria, alarmed by the attempt of Prussia to seize the place in Germany which she looked on as lawfully hers, made a counter-effort, and succeeded in joining with her various states in another alli- ance, leaving out Prussia. Feeling ran very high, and the two sections were nearly plunged into civil war on a dispute that arose in regard to Hesse-Cassel. The difficulty was settled by the temporary re-establishment of the Confedera- tion much as it had been before 1848. But it remained clear that the great question in German politics was whether Austria or Prussia should occupy the first place in Germany. 450. The years that followed the revolutionary period begun in 1848 were on the whole prosperous. Commerce flourished, and much was done to promote popular education. In the year 1859 Austria plunged into war with Sardinia, — the war in which Napoleon HI. took sides with Sardinia and compelled Austria to give up Lombardy."* Austria tried to drag the Confederation into the struggle on her side ; but Prussia firmly adhered to the principle that the Confederation could take no part in any contest that did not directly affect German interests. As bearing on Germany, this war is only important in that the partial unification of Italy, which was the result of it, gave a fresh impulse in many German minds to the desire for national unity. 451, King Frederick William IV. of Prussia died in 1 86 1, and was succeeded by his brother, who Prussia under took the title of William I. He appointed WiUiami. Otto von Bismarck, one of the ablest of modern statesmen, his prime minister and minister of foreign affairs. The king was an enthusiastic soldier and wished to see the Prussian army reorganized. His efforts to achieve this end led to * See page 464. 474 MODERN HISTORY. I / ill h disputes with the Parliament, which did not wish to sanc- tion the heavy expenditures required. But the king and Ijis- rnarck, in direct violation of the constitution, carried out the scheme. 452. All this time the relations of Prussia and Austria, Progress of ^nd ()( both to the Confederation, were very the quarrel, unsatisfactory. Bismarck declared in Parlia- ment that the German problem could be solved only by " blood and iron." For a time the jealousies of the two rival states were kept in abeyance by the absorbing interest of what is called the " Schleswig-Holstein question." '1 his joined Prussia and Austria against Denmark. In February 1864 the united armies crossed the Eider and drove the Danes from a rampart called the J)anciinrk, The fortress of Diippel also was taken, and such loss was inflicted on Denmark that she consented to part wiih die h^et duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lau'enbiirg, in fc.vor of the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia. 453. And now a fresh difficulty arose in regard to the Relations of disposition that should be made of the duch- the powers, jeg. Prussia desired to annex them to her own territory ; Austria, though not anxious for them, was stiii resolved that Prussia should not obtain them. I'he dispute was finally settled amicably. However, the real difficulties between the two rival powers were not lessened, — and Bismarck did not desire that they should be l'.;ss- ened, for he saw in these complications the opportuni'.} for increasing the greatness of Prussia. 454- When a nation wishes to make war, the opporci:i):ty The fresh is usuallv lound. J'russia discovered one \.. outbreak, ^j-j^^ g^jj Qpgn dispute wiih Austria in regard to the Schlcs\vi._r-Flo]stein question. But the struggle that now began, and which proved to be one of the most rai)id and decisive in history, had, in reality, very little to do with the petty question with which it was nominally assc . iated. %^ THE GERMAN EMPIRE RESTORED. 47S h to sanc- g and IjIs- arried out d Austria, were very in Parlia- 1 only by if the two ig interest n." 'Ihis February drove the le fortress flicted on 'i duchies )r of the rd to the he duch- to her hem, was m. The the real essened, be I'jss- uniiy for )ortui)'ty one ;», igard to le that St rai)id do with ■'.ated. T }al [he 1( mdi f wheiher Ai lie real issue was the long-pending one ot wiieiner Ausina or Prussia should guide the destinies of the Fadierland. 455- i "e coufliet was i)iecii)itated in June 1866, and was continued through what is called the Six _ ^ .^, ^ . Events of the W'eei^s' War. Italy united with Prussia in de- Six Weeks" daring war against Austi ia. For a time Austria ^*''* had tolerably good fortune. The Italians were defeated at Custozza by the Archduke Albert. But the Prussians, armed with the needle-gun, — a breech-loading rifle of new construc- tion, — invaded Pohemia under the command of their king, and inflicted a signal defeat upon the Austrians under com- mand of Marshal Benedek at Sadowa near Koniggratz. Austria was obliged to sue for peace, which was concluded at Prague in August of the same year (1866). 456. Py this treaty Austria was for ever excluded from Germany, and had to pay a heavy indemnity. Results of the Besides this, several of the states that had struggle, taken part with Austria— Bavaria, Baden, and two or three others cnteicd into a secret alliance with Prussia, by which their troops were placed at the disposal of Prussia for the defence of Germanv. 457. The final result was, that all the states to the north of the Main united to form the North German Formation of Confederation \\r\iS.itx \k\^ leadership of Prussia, North German thewhole military system of the Confederation <^o"federation. being placetl at the disposal of that country. The first Diet of the new Confederation met at Berlin in February 1867. 458. This ])artial union of Germany was a great advance on the old state of things, but still it was far Further pro- from complete. A great party — the so-called ^rress. National Liberal party — had already been formed, whose leading aim was the union of South Germany wiih the new Confederation. Still such a union seemed far off, when an event happened by which, amid the rejoicing of Germany, the object was attained. This event was the war wii;h France. ■1' i : 476 MODERN HISTORY. 459. The occasion of the war with France, as has already Cause of the been stated,* was the fact that Leopold of ^^' Hohenzollern, a kinsman of the king of Prussia, allowed himself to be a candidate for the Spanish throne ; but the underlying cause was the intense jealousy of Napoleon 111. at the success of Prussia in gathering so great a part of Germany around herself. 460. In declaring war, which Napoleon III. did in July Napoleon's ^^7°» ^^ hoped that the South Germans, if disappoint- they did not actually join France, would at *°^° least remain neutral ; but he was greatly dis- appointed The petty occasion of the dispute was soon wholly lost sight of, and most of the South German states, realizing that the struggle was one of aggressive and domi- neering France against the long-humiliated Fatherland, willingly united with Prussia. Austria and the other domi- nions of the House of Austria alone held back. 461. Soon a million of men were in the field under the Be in -in ^^^S ^^ Prussia. His chief adviser was General oftiie von Moltke, one of the ablest strategists of struggle, modern times. The French, assuming the offensive, crossed the frontier, fully expecting, in their blind confidence, that they would soon dictate a peace at Berlin. 462. With the details of this remarkable campaign it Account of will be impossible for us to occupy ourselves, tiiewar. j^yj. ^ fg^ ^f ^}^g prominent points are here presented. Battle of Weis'senburg. — The French having invaded Germany, active operations commenced early in August 1870. Battle of Weissenljurg, lou^lit Ijetween the German army under the Crown Prince and the French, August 4lh : result, the French Wtre defeated. The army of the Crown Prince now encamped on French ground. * See page 464. IS has already t Leoi)old of the king of r the Spanish :ense jealousy gathering so I. did in July Germans, if ice, would at LS greatly dis- lute was soon lerman states, ve and domi- i Fatherland, le other dorni- k. i\d under the r was General strategists of ssuming the ing, in their ;e a peace at campaign it 3y ourselves. Its are here ded Germany, 70. Bat lie of er the down French were encamped on THE GERMAN EMPIRE RESTORED. 477 Battle of Worth, — fought between the German forces and the French army under Marshal MacMahon, August 6th : result, defeat of the French ; and as some other successes were won by the otht-r German columns about the same lime, the whole German army now entered France. Battle of Sedan'. — The main French army under Marshal Bazaine was defeated in several engagements near Metz ; and after varioti- operations in different quarters the French were driven from all sides into Sedan, which was surrounded by tiie Germans (Sej)- tember 1st) : result, the French army of 80,000 men was forced to surrender ; the Emperor Napoleon III., who was present with this army, yielded his sword to King William, and received as his residence the castle of Wiihelm^hohe, near Cassel. Siege of Paris. — Soon after Sedan, two of the German armies, under the Crown Prince, marched towards Paris, which they invested (September 19th), while the third German army occupied the country to the south and south-east, and otlier forces the region to the north and north-east. The French made several attempts to break through the German line of investment (.September and October), but were driven b.ack. Surrender of Metz. — Meanwhile, a new Fiench army had been raised to operate with a view to the relief of Paris, but just then fresh disasters befell France. Marshal Bazaine, surrounded by German forces at Metz, after having tried several times to escape, capitulated with his whole army of 170,000 men (Octol)er 27). Surrender of Paris. — A last attempt was made by the French to escape from Paris in January 187 1 ; but they were driven back with heavy loss ; and as, in sjnte of some partial successes, all their armies in the field were defeated, the "Government of the National Defense," which had taken the control of affairs after the surrender of Napoleon, opened negotiations for peace. Paris formally surrendered January 28, 187 1, 463. The final treaty of peace between France and Ger- many, called the Treaty of I^rankfort^ was signed Terms of May lOj 187 1. Very severe tcrnis were imposed peace. on France, which had to give up to the Germans the pro- vinces of Alsace and German Lorraine, and pay an indem- nity of 5,000,000,000 francs. 464. Even before the termination of hostilities, the long- ! )| 478 MODERN HISTORY. desired result, the unification of Germany, was accomplished. Creation of The war itself had inspired the South Ger- the Empire, m^j^^is with a warm desire for a closer union with the Northern Confederation. By treaties made with the various South German states in November 1870, the North- ern Confederation was changed into a German dnifedera- iion^ under the presidency of William I. of Prussia. In the following month the German sovereigns proposed that the President of the Confederation should receive the title of Gcr- man Emperor. The proposal being agreed to, King William was in the palace of Versailles solemnly proclaimed Emperor of Germany, January 18, 1871. 465. In the month of March the first Diet of the new The German empire was opened at Berlin. By this Parlia- constitution. nient a constitution was adopted for the twenty- five states forming the empire. Each of these regulates its own affairs in so fiir as they do not affect other states, and is allowed to send and receive diplomatic representa- tives. What concerns the whole country is left to the Imperial (lovernment. The duties of legislation rest with the Federal Council and the Diet ; the executive power is wielded by the Emperor. He has the right to declare war and make peace, to form alliances and conclude treaties. 466. Thus it was that the greater part of Germany was Summary again United as a single power. In the mean- er results, time Austria and its adjuncts formed a sepa- rate kingdom known as the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. The triumph of Prussia was complete ; but it was also the triumph of Germany. The Austro-Prussi?n war raised Prussia to the first place in Germany ; the Franco-Prussian war raised Germany to the first place in Europe. ,^ t.i.-.-"— -^— ^jj GREAT NAMES OF NINETEENTH CENTURY, 479 ccomplished. South Ger- ::r union with ide with the 3, the North- // CivifedeTii- ssia. In the Dsed that the s title of 6^7-- <.ing William led Emperor of the new ^ this Parlia- : the twenty- L^se regulates other states, : representa- left to the on rest with ve power is declare war treaties, ermany was the mean- led a sepa- monarchy. 'as also the war raised co-Prussian I GREAT NAMES OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. PHILOSOPHERS AND SCIENTISTS. Humboldt, Alexander von (1769-1859^ born at Berlin — the greatest of descriptive naturalists — ciiitf work, his A'osmos, an account of the physical phenomena of the universe. Cuvier (1769-1831), a Swiss, but lived most of his life in Paris — a very distinguished naturalist and palreontologist — principal works, 77ie Anitnal Kingdom and Discourses on the Revolutions of the Sur- face of the Globe — employed by Napoleon as M mister of Education. Hegel ( 1 770-1 831), a German philosopher and founder of a new school of philosophy. Davy, Sir Humphry (1778- 1829), a celebrated chemist and natural philosopher — discovered a number of scientific facts and principles — inventor of the safety-lamp for miners. Arago (1786-1S52), a distinguished French savant, and especially re- nowned in astronomy — was superintendent of the Paris (Jbstrvatory. Hamilton, Sir William (17S8-1856), a Scotch metaphy.>ician and logician — author of works on mental phih)sophy and loijic — contri- buted greatly to advance metaphysical science as a professor and critic. Faraday (1791-1869), an eminent physical philosopher — made im- portant discoveries relative to magnetic electricity and light — the ])rince of lecturers on scientific subjects. Comte (1798- 1 85 7), a famous French philosopher, and author of the Positive philosophy. Liebig (1803-1872), born at Darmstadt — a great chemist — professor at Munich— has written much on the chemistry of agriculture and physiology. Mill, John Stuart (1806-1873), an eminent English philosopher — author of Political Economy, Logic, On Liberty, etc. Brewster, Sir David (1781-1868), a distinguished Scottish scientist —editor of the Edinburgh Encyclopedia — wrote Letters on Natural Magic and a LJfe of Newton — famous for his discoveries in optics. Leverrier (1811-1877), a great French astronomer — proved by ma- thematical calculation that there must be another planet beyond the orbit of Uranus, and told when and where it would come into view, August 19, 1846 ; in September it was discovered in nearly the locality indicated, and is now known as Nepiune. Tyndall, John (1820- ), a natural philosopher and most clear and / 48o MODERN HISTORY. eloquent expounder of scientific subjects — aulhot oi //eai Considered as a liJode of Motion^ GLuicrs of the Alps, etc. •^gassiz, Louis J. R. (1807-1S73), an eminent naturalist, born in Swiizerland, but spent the last iwenty-five years of his life in the United Slates — leading works, Poiisons Fossiles, Contributions to the Natural JJistory of the United i^tates^ and Methods of Study in Natural History. : \.. f! !' % WRITERS. Goethe (1749-1832), born at Frankfort-on-the-Main, one of the most glorious names of Germany — chief works, PVert/'ier, Wilhelin Meister^ and J'aust, Richter {1763-1855), a German author and humorist, and a most orif^inal writer— principal works, litan^ Hesperus^ and Levana on Education. Wordsworth, William (i 770-1850), one of the Lake Poets— cliief works, 7 he Excursion and 7 he White Doe of A'y/stune — Poet Laureate after Southey — many of his poems describe commott events in everyday words. Scott, Sir Walter (1771-1832), born in Edinburgh— famed as a poet, and still more so as a novelist — began with a translation of BUrger's Leonora and 7 he Wild lluntstnan — chief poems, Lady of the Lake and Lay of the L.ast Minstrel. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor (1772-1834), one of the Lake Poets — chief works, 7 he Ancient Mariner and Christabel^ an unfinished poem. Campbell, Thoma^ (1777-1844), bom nnd educated in Glasgow- author of I^leasures of Hope — more admired for his warlike ballads, such as The Battle oj the Baltic and Ye Mariners of England. Btfranger (1780-1857), a noted lyric poet of France — sang of the com- mon people and their interests : the Burns of France. Grimm, Jacob and William (1785-1863), brothers, and associated as philologists and antiquarians — through their labors comparative philology was raised to the dignity of a science — greatest works, Teutonic Grammar and Gertnan Dictionary — known to the young as the authors of LJousehold Tales, Guizot, Francois Pierre Guillaume (1787-1875), a prominent statesman and the most distinguished modern French historian, author of a LListory of Civilization in Europe, and many other works. Byron (1788-1824), born in London — one of the leading British poets Heat Considered uialist, born in his life in the '^contributions to Uhods of :itudy ne of tlie most 'ilhelm AJeister, it, and a most and Levana on e Poets— cliief Kylstune — Poet cribe common med as a poet, on of Burger's dy of the Lake Lake Poets— an unfinished n Glasgow— irlike ballads, England. of the com- id associated comparative atest works, o the young a prominent :h historian, many other British poets GREAT NAMES OF NINETEENTH CENTURY. 481 — his chief work is Childe Harohfs Pilgrimage, written in the stanza of Spenser — filed at Mi^solonj^dii (in Greece), of fever, aged 36. Carlyle, Thomas (1795-1881), bom in Scotland, but Hved most of liis life in London — one of the greatest of modern English writers — distinguished for his powerful and picturesque, though somewhat eccentric, style— did muclr to introduce German litera- tuie to the knowledge of the English-speaking public — greatest works, the French Revolution (a grand prose epic), Life 0/ Frederick the Great ^ Life of Crotmvell, Surtor Kesartus, etc.— lias profoundly influenced the thought of his age. Prescott ( 1 796-1859), an eminent American hislorian — devoted him- self especially to Spanish history— chief works, Ferdinand and Isa- bella, Conquest of Mexico, etc Thiers (1797- 1877), a French historian and statesman, author of The French RevohUion and The Consulate and the Llmpire — was made President of the French Republic after the overthrow of Louis Napoleon in 1870. Pushkin (1799-1837), the greatest of Russian poets. Macaulay (1800-1859), the finest historian of the day — chief work. History of England — distinguished for his brilliant and picturesque style. Hugo, Victor (1802- ), a P'rench poet, dramatist, novelist, and politician — took part in the school of Romanticists in opposition to the Classicists — best-known novels, Notre Dame in his earlier days, and Les Miserables and Ninety- Ihree in his latter days. Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1803-1882), the "sage of Concord "—the most subtle and original thinker of America — leading works, Essays^ Representative Men, etc Hawthorne (1805-1864), an American novelist — distinguished for the subtlety of his analysis and his graceful, powerful style — author of The Scarlet Letttr, Twice- Told Tales, etc. Tennyson, Alfred (1809- ), Poet Laureate of England— 4 great master of rhythm and metrical harmony — his poems marked by sweetness and depth of passion — leading works. The Princess, In Memoriam, Idyls of the King, etc. Thackeray (1811-1863), though not the most popular, yet the pro- foundest of English novelists^-distinguished for his subtle analysis of character — leading works. Inanity Fair^ Pendennis^ The Neuh comes, etc. Dickens, Charles (1812-1870), the most popular of modem English novelists — the Shakespeare of the 19th century — his novels distin- guished as generally having some object of philanthropy or reform. 2 H !*r V 48a MODERN HISTORY, ARTISTS. Thorwaldsen (1770-1844), a Danish sculptor, and author of many noble works — founder of the Art Museum at Copenhagen, .'eethoven (1770-1S27), a great German , iiisician — among his many works may be named T/i^ Mount oj Olives^ an oratorio, and ludelio^ an opera. Turner ( 1775-185 1), one of the best landscape painters of the English school — painted also several historical pictures — died under an assumed name in a humble lodging in London. Weber (1786-1826), a distinguished musician of the German school — liis greatest work, Der Freischiilz^ was brought out in 1822 at Berlin. Vernet, Horace (1789-1863), one of the greatest of modern French painters — his favorite sul)jects, battles and African hunting — painted on very large canvases. Rossini (i 792-1 868), a great Italian musical composer — most cele* brated operas, William Tell z,xi^ The Barber of SevilU — author also of Stahat Mater. Meyerbeer ( 1 794-1864), a renowned German musical composer — at six years of age astonished the public by his playing — greatest operas, Robert le Viable, 'J he Huguenot s. The Prophet, and V Afri^ caine. Donizetti (1798-1848). a composer of Italian operas — best known, Lturezia Borgia and Lucia di l.anintervioor. Landseer, Sir Edwin (1802-1873), famous for his paintings of ani- mals, which have been widely poi)ularized in engravings. Kaulbach, \Vilhelm von (1805-1874), the most illustrious modern German painter — the leader of the idealistic school — spent most of his life in Munich, the last twenty-five years as director of the Art Academy — produced many grand paintings, his masterpieces being the "Battle of the Huns" and the "Destruction of Jerusalem." Mendelssohn (1809-1847), born at Hamburg, of German-Jewish parentage — a musician of the highest genius — chief works, his music for the Midsiitnmer Night's Dream, and his sublime oratorios St, Paul and Elijah. Verdi (1814- ), an Italian composer — best-known operas, // Tro- vatore and La Traviata. Dor6, Gustave (1833-1883), a French artist — distinguished for ex- traordinary powers of conception — well known for his illustrations of the works of Dante, and of Don Quixote and the Wandering yew. composer — at ^'ing — greatest (, and VAfrU -best known, I itings of ani- ings. rious modern ■spent most of tor of the Art rpieces being erusalem." jrman-Jewish rks, his music oratorios St, \ eras, // Tro- shed for ex- ■< illustrations ; Wandering GREAT NAMES OF NINETEENTH CENTURY. 483 uthor of many iliagen. long his many io, and Fidelio^ of the English iied under an !5erman school )ut in 1822 at lodern French an hunting — ;r — most cele« !f — author also INVENTORS. Brunei, Sir Isambard (i 769-1849), a distinguished engineer— greatest work, the Thames luntiel ; begun 1826, fmished 1843. Stephenson, George (1781 -184S), born at Wylam, Nortliumberland — the great railway engineer— inventor of the locomotive engine- died at Tapton, aged 67. His son Robert (1803-1859) was distin- guished as the engineer of the tubular bridge over the Menai Stiait. Daguerre (1 789-1851), inventor of the daguerreotype : the production by light of images on a sensitive surface was already known, i>ui Daguerre discovered how to fix the image in hyposulphate o. soda. Morse, Professor S. F. B, (1791-1871), born in Massachusetts— educated for a painter, but devoted himself to science — his world- wide fame is based on the invention of the electric telegraph. if ./ Ih APPENDIX. OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY uP' THE UNITED STATES, \i Loyalty of the colonies. 1. We have seen that the latter half of the eighteenth century was a period during which the founda- tions of several of the most powerful nations of the present day were laid. Not the least important of the great national movements of that epoch was the successful revolt of the chief American Colonies of Great Britain, followed by their union in a federated republic known as the United States of America. 2. Until within a few years of the breaking out of the so-called "War of "^ ^pendence" in 1775, the colonies had contin ^o give many and strong proofs of their loyal attachment to the " Mother Countr)'." The sentiment of loyalty seemed indeed to be the uniting bond between the inhabitants of the various Provinces, who differed considerably both in origin and character. Hence the colonists, from Massachusetts to Georgia, had taken part in the war between France and England, in support of the supreme and finally successful attempt of the latter to obtain possession of North America. Under George Washington they fought with Braddock in his ill-starred expedition against Fort du Quesne ; they helped to reduce Louisburg, Ticonderoga, and Crown Point ; and universally rejoiced over the capture of Quebec and the complete triumph of England. D STATES, eighteenth he founda- i nations of rtant of the 2 successful ;at Britain, ; known as out of the 1 1775, the and strong " Mother eed to be he various origin and lusetts to ranee and successful 1 America, iock in his ley helped 'oint ; and c and the APPENDIX. 485 3. But while there was this general feeling of loyalty to the throne of (ireal Britain, strcnijihcned too ^• . ' «^ Circum- by the need of protection and by the pervasive stances modi- intlucnces of English literature 'and law, most 'y'»8^ 'oy^'^v- of the colonists inherited from their ancestors a strong attachment to the princi])les of popular representative government. In the early periods of their history, several of the colonies were virtually republics or democracies. It was not until the reign of Charles II. that the right of parliamentary control was fully asserted. When asserted, it called forth strong protests from Virginia and other colo- nies. Subsequent to the English Revolution of 1688 a definite system of colonial government was established. Still from that date until the breaking out of hostilities nearly a century afterwards, few years passed in which the conflict of parliamentary prerogative and colonial claims did not lead to dispute and friction. 4. The direct causes, as well as the details, of the war, which, bfp'un in 1775, terminated in 1783, with underlying the acknuwledarment of the independence of principle oi the War of the revolted colonies, form an integral part of independ- English history, and therefore may be omitted *"<=«• in this narrative. It is sufficient to observe that the war ultimately turned on the question of colonial taxation, as a principle. The measures adopted by Parliament, which were most obnoxious to the colonies, and which to some extent were felt to be practical grievances, were repealed, chiefly through the efforts of those celebrated statesmen, the elder Pitt and Edmund Burke. But i^ar- liament insisting on a recognition of its ri^i^ht to impose taxes, the colonies opposed to this claim the sweeping prin- ciple that, without representation in Parliament they were not justly liable to taxation in any form or to any degree. 5. On September 3rd, 1783, the Treaty of Paris, to which Great Britain was one of the chief contracting parties. ..; ( 486 APPENDIX. Defects of the Articles acknowledged the independence of the colonies of New . . , Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, enceac- Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- knowiedged. ^^j^j^^ Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, under the title of the United States of America. 6. In 1777 the Continental Congress, which had the A tici f supreme direction of affairs during the war, had Confedera- fixed the relations of the colonies to each other *^°"* by an agreement called the Articles of Confed- eration. In 1 78 1, these articles were ratified by the States separately, and continued in force until 1788. 7. While the war lasted and in presence of a common danger, the Articles of Confederation had effec- tively promoted unity of action among the of Confedera- colonies. But now circumstances were greatly changed. The States were independent, but they were encumbered with a foreign debt of ^8,000,000 and a domestic debt of ^30,000,000. The army was unpaid, and the paper currency, which for a time had served the purpose of money, became utterly worthless. Above all, there was no power to compel a State to resort to taxation in order to pay its share of the debt and of necessary expenditures still to be made. In view of these difiiculties, a Convention was summoned in 1787 to revise the Articles of Confederation. 8. The " Constitutional Convention " met at Philadelphia Constitu- ^" ^^y 17875 George Washington, who had tionU Con- guided the war to a successful issue, was selected to i)reside over its deliberations. The Articles of Confederation having been carefully examined and pro- nounced hopelessly defective, the Convention prepared an entirely new Constitution, providing a central Federal Execu- tive with full powers, and at the same time acting upon the people individually as well as upon the States. After four months' deliberation, the Convention agreed upon the terms of APPENDIX. 487 ■s of New e Island, ', Pennsyl- lia, North he title of 1 had the le war, had each other of Confed- ' the States a common 1 had effec- miong the rere greatly nt, but they ,000 and a mpaid, and he purpose there was in order to iitures still ention was ederation. hiladelphia who had .as selected ic Articles and pn- re})ared an ;ral Execu- upon the After four he terms of Constitution. a Constitution to be submitted for ratification to the people of the various States. By the middle of the next year, the new Constitution had received the assent of all the States except Rhode Island and New York. These States adopted it soon afterwards. Three statesmen, James Madison of Virginia, and Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay of New York, did much by their writings and speeches to counteract the opposi- tion, based on fears of undue federal interference in the affairs of the States, which the new Constitution encountered. 0. The Constitution of the United States provides for a Federal Government, embracing: i. A Legis- lature or Congress, consisting of a Senate of two senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, and a House of Representatives, consisting of one or more members from each State according to population, and elected by the people in equal electoral districts ; 2. An Executive or President, chosen quadrennially by an electoral college, elected by the people of the various States, and equal in num- ber to the senators and representatives taken collectively; and 3. A Judiciary, consisting of a Supreme Court, with a Chief Justice and seven associate Justices, appointed by the President for life. Such powers are given to this Federal Government as are necessary "to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, and secure the blessings of liberty." The individual States surrender to the general Government in its legislative branch the power " to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States." The States are positively prohibited from "making treaties, coining money, laying duties on imports, and exer- cising any of the powers granted to Congress." It is, how- ever, ex[)ressly provided that all powers not directly surren- dered to the Federal Government are reserved to the States or to the people. Though in general a carefully written # 1"^ 4S8 APPENDIX. document, the Constitution of the United States has given rise to many serious disputes as to the interpretation of the clauses which define the limits of Federal and State authority. Indeed the political history of the country is little more than a record of such disputes. 10. At the first election held under the provisions of the _. , , newConstitution, George Washington of Virginia Firat presi- . dentiai was elected President, ana Jonn Adams of election. Massachusetts Vice-President of the United States. Washington surrounded himself with a Cabinet of wise and experienced s*^n*^esmen, who dealt in a very able manner with existing < iculties. Adequate provision was made for a revenue. I'he public debt was successfully funded, and in due course of time entirely liquidated. 11. Washington and Adams were re-elected in 1792. Up Develo m t ^° ^^^^ ^^'^^ ^^^ country had not witnessed any of party displays of party spirit. But gradually the ten- spint. dency ever observable in countries possessing a representative system of government to divide into parties began to manifest itself. It became very marked as Wash- ington's second term drew towards an end. Those who favoured a strict construction of the Constitution, and the utmost possible limitation of the Federal authority, were called Republica7is ; those who advocated a strong central Government, and a liberal interpretation of its constitutional powers. Federalists. Alexander Hamilton was the leader of the latter, Jefferson of the former. 12. During Washington's second term of office, the coun- t fl r try felt the disturbing influence of the French Innuence of •' . ° ^ the French Rcvolutiou. The Sympathies of the people were Revolution. ^^^ unnaturally with the French in the wars which followed that great national outbreak. But Washington saw that the true policy of his country was nrutrality, and insisted on the recall of the French Minister, Genet, who attempted to excite the popular enthusiasm in favor of France. :ates has given )retation of the State authority, ittle more than ovisions of the ^ton of Virginia hn Adams of if the United th a Cabinet of in a very able : provision was as successfully ^uidated. I in 1792. Up : witnessed any idually the ten- es possessing a de into parties .rked as Wash- Those who ation, and the LUthority, were strong central constitutional s the leader of ifice, the coun- Df the French "le people were the wars which ashin'fton saw y, and insisted vho attempted ranee. APPENDIX. 489 13. In 1796, Washington, refusing election for the third time to the exalted position which he had held for eight years, published his farewell address to the people of the United States. His words breathed a spirit of Retirement of the purest patriotism, warned the people against Washington, entangling alliances and the dangers of partizan politics, and were, in every respect, worthy of a statesman and soldier who was " first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." 14. In 1796, John Adams, previously Vice-President, was elected to the Presidency in succession to Wash- ^j^jj^jg^r . ington. Thomas Jefferson now became Vice- sionofjohn President. The new officials represented op- ^^°^^- posmg political principles, Adams being a strong Federalist, and Jefferson leader of the Democratic, or, as it was then called, the Republican party. Difficulties now rose between the United States and France. The latter state had adopted commercial regulations involving the right to search and capture American vessels, which proved very obnoxious to the American people. War was averted by the accession to power in France of Napoleon Buonaparte, who brought the matter to a satisfactory settlement in 1800. Other circum- stances contributed to make the period of Mr. Adams's Presidency one of considerable uneasiness. The President's avowed attachment to English institutions, the establishment of a Federal army, and the adoption of vigorous measures, termed the "Alien and Sedition Laws," for the prompt arrest and banishment of foreigners, and for the repression of undue criticism of the acts of Government, rendered his adminis- tration unpopular with a large portion of the people. 15. At the election of 1800, Jefferson was elected Presi- dent bv a large majority over his i)redecessor, .^ , - , ^ . \ ^ TT- ,^ -J Adniinistra, Aaron Burr being chosen as Vice-President, tion oi jefTer. Jefferson was elected for a second time in 1804. ^°"' His accession to office was signalized by the repeal of the 490 APPENDIX. (( Alien and Sedition Laws," the reduction of the army and navy, and tlie abolition of internal taxes. The most impor- tant event of his administration was the purchase from France of the extensive territory called Louisiana, comprising the whole country from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains as far north as the British Possessions. Thus the undisputed r. ^ ig t'on of the great Mississippi river was secured to the te 1 States. Among other events of this period may be . ..:on .d the war with the Barbary States for the sujjpres- sion of piracy ; the shooting in a duel of Alexander Hamil- ton, the celebrated statesman, by the Vice-President Aaron Burr ; the treasonable attempt of the latter to found a new empire in the Mississippi valley ; and the difficulties in regard to American commerce growing out of the conflicts of France and England, and eventually leading to war with the latter country. 16. Jefferson was succeeded by James Madison of Virginia, Circura- who was elected in 1808 and re-elected in 181 2. stances foi- Madison was an intimate personal and political lowing- the /- • i election of fnend of Jefferson, of whose policy his election Madison. ^^s regarded as a poi)ular vindication. On his accession to office, the relations of the country to both France and England were extremely critical. The recriminatory orders, decrees, and blockades of those nations, then engaged in deadly strife, had virtually swept American commerce from the seas. The primary responsibility for this state of things rested with France quite as much as with England, but as the latter was better able to enforce her decrees, she naturally felt the weight of the popular indignation. It is said that during the years 1809-12 nine hundred American vessels were seized for alleged violation of the restriction? imposed on neutral commerce. 17. Taking advantage of the revocation of the French War with decrees. President Madison (June 181 2) recom- mended Congress to declare war against Eng- England. the army and e most impor- je from France omprising the :ky Mountains he undisputed secured to the period may be ir the su}jprcs- xander Hamil- esident Aaron ) found a new ulties in regard iicts of France with the latter ;on of Virginia, ected in 1812. il and poHtical cy his election ition. On his to both France recriminatory , then engaged :an commerce r this state of with England, iv decrees, she nation. It is red American le restriction^ )f the French 181 2) recom- against Eng- APPENDIX. 4.91 land. A few weeks later war was formally declared, and Congress voted to raise 25,000 enlisted soldiers, 50,000 volunteers, and 100,000 militia. A large and influential section of the people, particularly in New England, opposed the war as uncalled for, and as unjustly discriminating against England in favor of France. This war, which we need not particularly describe, lasted more than two years, being terminated by the Treaty of Ghent, signed on the 24th of December 18 14. It is a remarkable fact that the treaty is entirely silent upon the matters complained of by the Americans as furnishing them with an occasion for war. England was not called upon in any way to apologize for her famous Orders in Council or the manner of their enforce- ment. Of the war itself it is sufficient to say, that during its earlier periods the Americans were very unsuccessful on land, while they gained some signal victories on the ocean, and that towards its close the same statement is applicable to the British forces. 18. The Presidency was filled from 1816 to 1824 by James Monroe, like Jefferson and Madison, a ^^^^. f Virginian, and like them devoted to the doctrine Monroe's Ad- of popular rights. At this time the Federalist ministration, party may be said to have disappeared from American politics. The chief events of Monroe's Presidency were the acquisition of Florida from Spain, and the adoption of a principle by Congress known as the Missouri Compromise^ by which slavery was prohibited in all territory lying west of the Mississippi and north of 36° 30' north latitude. The name of this President is retained in the phrase "Monroe doctrine," a theory advanced in one of his messages to Congress, and sometimes still mooted by speculative politicians, to the effect that the American continents "are not to be con- sidered as subject to future colonization by any European power." 19. The sixth President of the United States was John (*/ 4t-2 APPENDIX. \ i^ I. Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, son of the second Presi- johnQuincy dent. At the elections in November 1824, Adams. nout of the six candidates for the Presidency had received the required majority of electoral votes. Under these circumstances the Constitution referred the choice to the House of Representatives, by which body Mr. Adams was elected, although he had not received as many electoral votes as General Jackson of Tennessee, one of the other candi- dates. The friends of the latter were very indignant, and un- justly preferred charges of foul play against the supporters of the other candidates, who combined to elect Mr. Adams. At this period the policy of encouraging native manufactures by the imposition of high duties on foreign goods was first advocated in Congress. In 1828, Henry Clay of Kentucky, the originator of this policy, succeeded in securing its adop- tion. Ever since, this question has been an exciting one. On July 4th, 1826, the anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, ex- Presidents, and two of the founders of the American Re- public, died within a few hours of each other. 20. The election of 1828 resulted in the triumph of Election of General Jackson by an immense majority over General Mr. Adams, who was a candidate for re-election. ja son. rj.j^^ ^i^j^^ issues of the contest were the tariff question, and the constitutional powers of Congress to vote money for improvements within the States. A new political organization, calling itself the Whig party, committed to the advocacy of protective tariffs and the carrying on of public works as internal improvements, had been formed under the leadership of Mr. Adams and Mr. Clay. It is noteworthy that John Quincy Adams ic-entered political life after his defeat for the Presidency, sitting in Congress for sixteen years as representative of the Quincy District in the State of Massachusetts. He was known among his colleagues as " the old man eloquent." APPENDIX. 493 iecond Presi- Diiiber 1824, residency had Dtes. Under I choice to the . Adams was lectoral votes other candi- nant, and un- supporters of , Adams. At manufactures )ods was first of Kentucky, •ing its adop- exciting one. »eclaration of efferson, ex- imerican Re- triumph of najority over r re-election. ire the tariff ress to vote lew political litted to the n of public d under the noteworthy fe after his for sixteen .he State of illeagues as 21. General Jackson's administration lay in times of great political excitement. The questions referred to ^j^^ jackson in paragraph 19 continued to be discussed with Administra- increasing acrimony. The President added fuel ^*°°* to the fire by vetoing a bill renewing the charter of the United States Bank, a powerful financial corporation organized in 18 1 6. In 1832 Congress levied higher duties on imported goods. These duties pressed with exceptional severity on the Southern States, whose people were purely agricultural in their pursuits. The Legislature of South Carolina pro- nounced the Tariff Bill unconstitutional, and the State her- self threatened to withdraw from the Union. The Presi- dent, though opposed to the high duties, prepared to execute the laws and rigorously assert the national authority. The Vice-President, Calhoun, a South Carolinian, resigned his office and asserted the doctrine that the States possessed in- dependent rights of sovereignty, including the right of seces- sion. A measure suggested by Mr. Clay, providing for a gradual reduction of duties, was finally accepted as a basis of pacification by all parties. 22. General Jackson was succeeded in the Presidency by Martin Van Buren of New York, who was Martin van elected in November 1836. Van Buren was an Buren. ardent political disciple of his predecessor. His adminis- tration was disturbed by a tremendous financial crisis in 1837, interpreted by the Whigs as the result of the fiscal policy of their opponents. The distress accompanying this crisis had an undoubted effect in preparing the way for a Whig triumph at the next Presidential election. 23. The ninth President was General William Henry Harrison of Ohio. This was the first Presiden- tial victory of the Whigs. President Harrison IJ^'^Jf <>" *"** died a few weeks after his installation (March 1 841), and, according to constitutional provision, the Vice- President, John Tyler of Virginia, succeeded. The adminis- 494 APPENDIX. tration of affairs by the new President greatly disappointed the party which had elected him. He vetoed a bill for the establishnient of a National Bank and other important measures passed by the Whig majority in Congress. His Cabinet resigned with the exception of the Secretary of State, the celebrated Daniel Webster ot Massachusetts, who remained in office for the avowed purpose of completing the negotiations which he was carrying on with Great Britain respecting the disputed boundary between Maine and New Brunswick. Tyler was obliged to summon to his Cabinet unknown men of neutral politics. The most important event occurring during his term of office was the annexation of the republic of Texas. Texas had been a part of Mexico, and though its independence was acknowledged by France, England, and the United States, Mexico had never conceded to its people the rights of self-government War with Mexico was understood to be involved in the annexation of Texas. 24. The Presidential election of 1844 was conducted with Election of ^'^^sual animation, and resulted in the choice President of James K. Polk of Tennessee, the democratic ^°^ candidate. Henry Clay, the distinguished cham- pion of the Bank, protective duties, and internal improve- ments, was the nominee of the Whig party. The strong feeling prevailing in the South in favor of the annexation of Texas swept all before it, and a comparatively unknown man triumphed over one of the foremost statesmen of the Union. 25- The Mexican war is the only event of Mr. Polk's Presi- dency worthy of permanent record. Almonte, the Mexican Minister at Washington, protested against the annexation of Texas as an act of warlike aggression. General Zachary Taylor (afterwards President) was at once despatched to the southern frontier of Texas, where he soon encountered the Mexican forces sent across the Rio Grande, and gained several victories, the Tlie war with Mexico. APPENimc, 495 ; disappointed 3ed a bill for her important in Congress, he Secretary of ichusetts, who ;ompleting the Great Britain aine and New \.o his Cabinet nportant event annexation of irt of Mexico, td by France, ever conceded irwith Mexico on of Texas, inducted with in the choice 16 democratic juished cham- rnal imprcve- The strong annexation ^ely unknown esmen of the i. Polk's Prest- Almonte, on, protested as an act of (afterwards hern frontier exican forces victories, the most important of which was that of Buena Vista. Other generals took possession of California. General Winficld Scott, after bombarding and capturing the important fortress of Vera Cruz, carried the war into the very heart of the country. The victories of Ceno Gordo, Contreras, and Cherubusco enabled him to strike directly for the capital of the Montezumas, which he entered in triumph, September 1847. This ended the war. The ensuing treaty gave to the United States, in addition to Texas, the important territories of California and New Mexico. 26. In November 1848, (ieneral Zachary Taylor of Louis- iana, nominee of the Whig party, was elected General by a decisive majority over General Cass of Taylor. Michigan, the Democratic candidate. Ex President Van Buren was also put in nomination by the Frec-Soilers^ a party now appearing for the first time and making opposition to the extension of slavery its cardinal principle. The Whigs had the advantage both of General Taylor's military prestige and of the disturbing effect of Van Buren's nomination on the Democratic party. President Taylor lived but sixteen months after his inauguration in March 1849, '^^d was suc- ceeded by the Vice-President, Millard Fillmore of New York. 27' 'I'he annexation of Texas as a slave-holding State had led to an acrimonious discussion throughout the „ ° . Compromise country as to the relation of slavery to the tern measures of tories of the United States. On whom should the ''^^** decision rest whether the new States to be formed from time to time out of those territories should be free or slave-holding? In regard to this question, Northern and Southern opinions came into sharp conflict. California was now applying for ad- mission into the Union as a free State. I -ong and bitter discus sions arose. The veteran statesman, Clay, proposed a plan of pacification, known as the " Compromise ]]ill." This measure was adopted by Congress, and received the sanction of the new President a few months after General Taylor's 496 APPENDIX. ill 1^ death. It provided for reciprocal concessions between the two great sections of the country. California was admitted as a free State. On the other hand, a new and more stringent provision for the rendition of fugitive slaves was adopted. The carrying into effect of this provision led to much dissa- tisfaction and difficulty, while the effect of the whole measure was simply to postpone an inevitable conflict between the irreconcilable forces of freedom and slavery. 28. The Presidential election of 1852 resulted in the Pierce's Ad- triumph of the Democrats. The new President miristration. -yvas Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, who had a large majority over General Scott, his Whig opponent. The chief feature of this administration was the growing friction between North and South on the question of slavery. The Missouri Compromise had settled the principle that all territory north of latitude 36° 30' shotyJd be con- secrated to freedom. Two western territories, Kansas and Nebraska, were now seeking admission as States. Mr. Douglas, senator from Illinois, and a Democrat, proposed to set aside the Compromise^ and leave it to the people of the territories themselves to decide whether slavery should^ or should not, be incorporated in their State Constitutions. Congress adopted the suggestion, and thus paved the way for a long and bitter struggle, in which the whole country soon became involved. The immediate result of the local conflict was the exclusion of slavery from the territories in question. Various events, however, occurred to embitter the relations of the North and South. Among these was the brutal assault on Charles Sumner, senator from Massa- chusetts, by a Southern politician named Preston Brooks. Sumner was smitten down at his desk in the senate chamber, where, a short time before, he had delivered a speech severely reflectmg on the conduct of the South in reference to Kansas. 29. President Pierce was succeeded in 1857 by James APPENDIX, 497 I between the as admitted as nore stringent was adopted. much dissa- i^hole measure between the suited in the lew President npshire, who lig opponent, the growing question of the principle DijJd be con- Kansas and States. Mr. at, proposed le people of very should, onstitutions. ved the way lole country of the local erritories in to embitter g these was "om Massa- on Brooks, the senate delivered a le South in by James Buchanan of Pennsylvania. The election of 1856 was characterized by unusual excitement. The Whig presidential party had collapsed. An organization calling itself election of the American party, but whose adherents were *®^* popularly styled " Know-Nothings " from the secrecy of their operations, had appeared within the preceding two or three years. For a short time its avowed principle of excluding foreigners from office gave it great influence in many States. Its history, however, marks but a period of transition in the politics of the oountry, and its power was effectually broken some months prior to the election. It retained sufficient vitality to put ex-President Fillmore in nomination for the Presidency, but was able to give him but few elec- toral votes. The real contest lay between Mr. Buchanan, the Democratic candidate, and John C. Fremont, the nominee of a newly formed organization called the Republican party, which combined, without respect to previous political affilia- tions, the various elements of opposition to slavery. Though its operations were necessarily confined to the Northern States, it exerted itself so vigorously that Buchanan's success actually turned on the vote of his native State, Pennsylvania. 30. The strife between the 1 )emocratic and Republican parties, which was fast becoming a conflict 3 u 3 . between North and South, continued to grow Administra- in bitterness. In the newly settled territory of ^°°' Kansas, blood was abundantly shed in the frays between Northern and Southern emigrants. The lawless violence which prevailed was attributable to the repeal of the Missouri Comproinise^ and the adoption of the principle of Popular Sovereignty^ by which the character of the State Constitu- tion in respect to slavery was left to the determination of the settlers themselves. In 1857 the Supreme Court of the United States decided that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional, and that slave-holders might freely take their slaves into free States. This decision caused great 2 I !=♦: 498 APPENDIX. indignation among the pcoi)lc of the North, who claimed that it made slavery a njtio'<'xl instead of a purely local 2C!\^ domestic institution. In 1859, an old man named John lirown, who had taken an active part in the struggles in Kansas, planned and led an ex[)edition for freeing the negroes in Virginia. Though the attempt failed, and its author was speedily arrested, tried, and executed, its effect on the feelings of the Southern [)eople was most inflam- matory. They professed to see in it the precursor of an organized attack upon their favourite system. 31. Under these exciting circumstances the period of a ^ ,. xt 1 new Presidential rlection was ai')nroaching. Fon.r Presidential . . . e'ection of candidates were nominated. "I'he sectional agita- *®*^ tion of the times affected even the great Demo^ t ratic party, which had been so long united and triunijihant. It became hopelessly divided, one section of extreme South- ern views nominating John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, the other, Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, the great cham- pion of popular sovereignly. The candidate of the Repub- licans was Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, while the remnant of the American party nominated John I'ell of Tennessee, The Democratic dissensions secured ^or Mr. Lincoln a large majority of the electoral votes. 32. The si' uation of affairs now became exceedingly critical. Though the Republican candidate had been elected upon a cautious and conser- vative "platform" of principles, avowing his intention to maintain inviolate the rights of each State, especially in respect to the character of its domestic institu- tions, the South generally accepted Mr. Lincoln's election as the signal of withdrawal from the Union. The leading Southern statesmen lo*^ ♦■ nr ime in acting upon their previous declarations. By t' e of Linc^Mn's inauguration (March 4th, 1 861), seven S -1, namely, oouth Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, iVi. >sis5 ^^pi, Alabama, and Texas, had A critical period. ■r i. APPENDIX. 499 k'ho claimed :\y local and lamed John struggles in freeing the led, and its ed, its effect nost inflam- :ursor of an period of a ching. Four :tional ngita- ^reat Demo- triumj)liant. reme South- f Kentucky, ^reat cham- the Repub- he remnant Tennessee, coin a large exceedingly candidate md conser- wing his each State, Stic institu- I's election he leading sir previous ion (March Georgia, Texas, had formally seceded, and organized a new government, under the name of the Confederate Slates of America, with Jefferscni Davis of Mississippi as President, and Alexander H.Stephens of Georgia as Vice-President. This movement had been but feebly resisted by President Buchanan. He held the doctrine that neither himself nor Congress had a constitutional right to coerce a State into submission. In consequence of federal inaction, the seceding States were enabled to seize and appropriate most of the forts, arsenals, custom-houses, ships, and other descriptions of national property within their borders. 33. President Lincoln's inaugural address disavowed all intention of interfering with the institution of secession slavery within the States where it was established completed. It was contended, however, that no State could lawfully with- draw from the Union, and the purpose was announced of recovering all Federal property which had been seized by the seceders. This proclamation, temperate as was its tone, was accepted by the South generally as the gage of war. North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, and Arkansas, followed in swift succession the seven cotton-growing States already in revolt. As State after State withdrew, its senators and repre- sentatives in Congress resigned their seats, while, on the principle that their primary allegiance was due to the Slate rather than the Nation, nearly all the military and naval officers fom the seceding States, transferred their swords to the service of the Confederncv, The slave-holding States of Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, ccrA Missouri did not for- mally secede. They were held in the Unior. partly by Federal occupation, partly because a considerable portion of the population of each was opposed to the princip}e of secession. 34. At the inauguration of Lincoln certain forts in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, were still in the possession of the United States. The Federal commander, Anderson, to make his position more War. w If u Soo APPENDIX. Ml 1^ secure, took up his quarters in the strongest of these, known as Fort Sumpter. Here he was so closely hemmed in, that the Cabinet at Washington determined to send an expedi- tion for his relief. The appearance of the relieving squadron off the harbor led to the first actual outbreak of hostilities. The fort was immediately bombarded by the Confederate General Beauregard, and forced to surrender. 35« Then followed a sudden outburst of indignation at Battle of the North. The Government at once called for BuURun. 75,000 volunteers, and in a few days all the rail- roads leading to Washington were engaged in the transpor- tation of troops. Meanwhile the Confederates were not idle. I'hey seized the Federal Arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virg:.::r., while a large force under (ieneral Beauregard advanced upon Washington. At Bull Run, a few miles from the Potomac, the invaders encountered the national volunteers und^r General M'Dowell The action resulted in the com]ilete rout of the Federal troops, who were glad to save themselves by a precipitate retreat to Washington. 36. The Confederates were now strongly intrenched in Prepara- Virginia, whose chief city, Richmond, had been tions. chosen as the capital of the Confederacy. Recog- nizing their exposure to attack on the west, they erected strong fortifications at imi)ortant j^oints on the Mississippi and its tributaries. The Federal (iovernment, on the other hand, blockaded the whole line of coast from Virginia to Texas, built gunboats in large numbers, and by December 1861 had 640,000 men in the field. Thus far the aged (general Scott had been nominally com- mandcr-in chief ot the Federal forces. He was R-*h*^*^ "d.°" ^'^^ retired, and the army placed under the com- mand of General Ceorge B. M'Clellan, who int mediately planned an expedition against Richmond. With lifficulty the "army of the Potomac " fought its way to a position five miles distant from the Confederate capital. these, known imed in, that d an expedi- nng squadron of hostiHties. Confederate idignation at nee called for .ys all the rail- the transpor- were not idle, -rry, Virgi..:., Ivanced u{)on the Potomac, nteers under complete rout lemselves by ntrenched in nd, had been acy. Recog- rected strong sippi and its other hand, I a to Texas, ember 1861 ninally com- ;s. He was der the com- an, who imr ond. With s way to a Eite capital. APPENDIX. SOI From this point M'Clellan was beaten back in a seiies of bloody engagements and obliged to seek shelter in his gun- boats. In a few days his losses had amounted to 15,000 men. 37. In the west the national cause was more successful Fort Donelson, erected by the Confederates to protect the important Cumberland Valley, was 2^the*West. taken by General Grant. Nashville, the capital of the State of Tennessee, thus fell into the hands of the Federal troops, and so remained until the close of the war. About this time also a United States fleet under Admiral Farragut captured New Orleans and took possession of all the Lower Mississippi. 38. In the east the Confederates assumed the offensive, advancing again to Bull Run, where they achieved confederate a second victory. Under General Lee they invasion, crossed the Potomac, creating great alarm in Baltimore and Washington. A battle, resulting on the whole favorably to the Federals, was fought at Antietam. Lee retreated into Virginia, but was able to take back with him an immense supply of provisions and horses. 39. General M'Clellanwas now replaced in the command of the United States armies by General Burr M'Cieliaa side. The new commander, in a fresh attack superseded, on Richmond, was defeated by General Lee at Fredericks- burg. This was one of the most sanguinary battles of the war. 40. On New Year's Day 1863, President Lincoln issued his famous Emancipation Proclamation^ by which, as a military necessity warranted by the Constitution, he declared free all slaves within the seceded States. On this act he invoked "'the considerate judgment of mankind and the gracious favor of Almighty God. 41. General Burnside was now superseded in command by Emancipation. 1^:;y M>, 502 APPE-NDIX. !i i General Hooker,whohadacquiredgreatdistinctionbyhisper- B- tties of sonal bravery. A few months after his promotion viiie"and°"" Hooker exjierienced at ChanccUorsville the most Gettysburg-, crushinc; defeat of the war Lee now boldly in- vaded the North. Driving Hooker before him to Washington, he entered Pennsylvania, capturing the towns of York and Carlisle. At this juncture (General Hooker was replaced in the Federal command by General Meade, who encountered Lee's invading force at Gettysburg. This was the greatest battle of the entire conflict. The issue was fiercely con- tested for three days, during which the Confederate loss was estimated at 30,000. Having in vain attempted to dislodge Meade from his strong position, Lee retreated into Virginia, and thenceforward was obliged to act on the defensive. 42. In the meantime the arms of the United States had Federal sue- been successful in the west. The two principal cesses in the - , , , t-. tt i West. fortresses on the Mississippi river, Port Hudson and Vicksburg, yielded after protracted sieges by both land and water. The entire river was thus laid open to the Federal gunboats. 43. This central period of the war was a time of great Period of distress in both sections of the country, but distress. particularly in the South. In the North there were great riots in consequence of the conscription of troops, to which the Government was repeatedly obliged to resort, while the banks having suspended specie payment, the national paper currency was immediately depreciated. The Southern people experienced evils of far more appalling magnitude. The Federal blockade was enforced with con- stantly increasing rigor. The people were soon reduced to the commonest necessaries of life, while in many quarters even these failed them. The armies were half fed, and the railroads wearing out, troo])s were with difficulty transported from one part of tlie country to another. A powerful enemy -. t ion by his per- ils promoiion ville the most ow boldly in- Washington, of York and LS replaced in encountered s the greatest fiercely con- erate loss was ;d to dislodge into Virginia, iefensive. ed States had two principal Port Hudson by both land open to the ime of great country, but North there ion of troops, ed to resort, ayment, the ciated. The )re appalling cd with con- oon reduced lany quarters led, and the transported vcrtul enemy APPENDIX. 503 Events of 1864. had control of the sea, and shut them out from the markets of the world. 44. Major-General Grant, who had distinguished himself in the west by the captures of Fort Donclson and Vicksburg, was now appointed Lieutenant- Gcneral and Commander-in-Chief of the Federal armies. His policy, ultimately successful, was, to quote his own words, "to hammer continuously against the armed forces of the enemy and his resources, until by mere attrition he should be forced to submit." By March the United States had nearly 1,000,000 men in the field. Grant gradually extended his lines towards Richmond, though each new advance involved a terrible loss; the South fighting with the energy of despair. In the south-west, the Federal General Sherman gained some notable successes, after which he made his celebrated " march to the sea," cutting through the Confederate lines to Savannah, Georgia, which he captured towards the last of December. In November Mr. Lincoln was re-elected to the Presidency. The new Vice-President was Andrew Johnson, a Southerner, who, since the fall of Nashville, had been mili''.ary governor of Tennessee. 45. The Federal authorities made a fresh levy of 500,000 men. In the south, Sherman captured Colum- bia, and compelled the Confederates to evacuate CJ^^paismi Charleston. In front of Richmond, Grant opened the final campaign on the 29th of March. A strong force assailed the right flank of the Southern army. On the night of April 2nd, Lee evacuated Richmond, and a week later surrendered his whole force at Appomattox Court House. This event was followed in a few days by the surrender of the other armies, or umnanis of armies, which the Con- federates had been able to keep in the field. 46. While the North was filled with rejoicings over the triumph of its arms, on Good Friday, April 14th, the I s t i\" 504 APPENDIX. President was assassinated while sitting in his box at Ford's Assassina- Theatre, Washington. The fatal shot was fired tionof Lin- by an actor, named John Wilkes Booth, a bitter *^° "• partizan of the Southern cause. He tragically quoted the motto of Virginia, Sic semper tyrannis^* as he made his hurried exit from uie scene of slaughter. The assassin was successfully pursued, and refusing to surrender, was shot like a dog. 47. Large rewards were offered for the apprehension of Jeffersott Mr. Davis, the Confederate President, and the members of his Cabinet, who were erroneously Davis. Losses dur- ing the war. supposed to be privy to the assassination of Mr. Lincoln. Davis was captured in Georgia in November 1865, but was released without trial in May 1867. 48. The total number of troops actually raised by the North was 2,690,401. The Federal losses were estimated at 316,000. Statistics regarding the Confederate forces are very imperfect. The array in 1864 is reported to have amounted, all told, to 549,226. The Confederate loss is not known. 49. The administration of President Johnson, who took Reconstnic- office on the death of Mr. Lincoln, was chiefly **°"* occupied with attempts to re-establish Federal authority in the seceded States. This task of reconstruction^ as it was termed, proved a difficult one. The States were required to rescind their ordinances of secession, declare void all debts incurred in support of the rebellion, and support an amendment to the Constitution for ever prohibiting slavery. The States assented to these conditions. Congress, however, went farther than the President in demanding certain civil and political rights for the newly enfranchised negroes. The views of Congress finally prevailed. In the struggle between that body and the President, the latter was • Thus always to despots. APPENDIX. 505 )0x at Ford's lot was fired 30th, a bitter ie tragically nnis,* as he ghtcr. The to surrender, rehension of ent, and the erroneously ^r. Lincoln. 365, but was -ised by the .1 losses were igarding the t. The army to 549,226. n , who took was chiefly ish Federal 'onstruction^ States were eclare void nd support prohibiting Congress, demanding ifranchised d. In the e latter was formally impeached, but after a long trial before the Senate, he was acquitted, the prosecution failing by a sin^le vote. 50. General Ulysses S. Grant, elected in November 1868, and inaugurated in March 1869, was the eight- eenth President of the United States, and having ^Sbtration. been re-elected in 1872, continued in office until 1876. Shortly after Grant's accession, Congress agreed to recommend to the Legislatures of the different States an hnportant amendment to the Constitution. In due course of time this amendment, which provided that " the right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account ol race, color, or previous condition of servitude," was ratified by three-fourths of the States, and, under the name of the Fifteenth Amendment^ was declared to be a part of the Con stitution in March 1870. 51. In February 187 1, a joint High Commission of ten members, embracing an equal number of Treaty of eminent British and American statesmen, met Washington, at Washington. The purpose of this Commission was to consider claims made upon the treasury of Great Britain in view of depredations by Confederate cruisers built or fitted out in England. The result, known as the Treaty of Wash- ington^ provided the conditions of an amicable settlement 52. The Treaty of Washington embraced as one of its provisions a Board of Arbitration to decide upon Geneva Arbi- the amount due the United States under the tration. treaty. This Board met at Geneva, Switzerland, in 1872, and awarded to the United States $15,500,000. 53. The Presidential elecdon of 1876 was marked by the unusual circumstance that each party claimed Hayes" Ad- to have elected its candidate. The uncertainty niinistratioL arose in connection with irregularities in the elections in several of the Southern States. Congress solved the difficulty by appointing a Court, known as the Electoral }'i'}. I n 906 APPENDIK, \ '•!! Commission, with full power to act in the premises. The Commission was composed of five members from the Senate, five from the House of Representatives, and five from the Supreme Court. The finding of the Commission was, that Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio, the Republican candidate, was elected by a majority of one electoral vote over the Demo- cratic candidate, Samuel J. Tilden of New York. Mr. Hayes' policy towards the South was, on the whole, a con- ciliatory one. The troops were gradually withdrawn, and the Southern people left free to direct their own affairs. In 1878 a Commission sat at Halifax to carry out a provision of the Treaty of Washington in regard to the fishing-grounds of North America. It was decided that the United States should pay to Great Britain the sum of $5,500,000 for the privilege of fishing in British waters for twelve years. 54. The twentieth President of the United States was President J^TTies A. Garfield of Ohio. He was elected in Garfield. November 1880 by a large majority over his Democratic competitor. General Hancock of New York. On the 2nd of July 1881, four months after his inauguration, President Garfield was shot by a disappointed office-seeker named Guiteau, while entering the railway station at Wash- ington. This event, which was entirely unprovoked, called forth for the suffering President the sympathy of the whole civilized world. After nearly three months of agony, he yielded to the fatal injury. The wretched assassin paid the penalty of his crime after a trial which forms a unique chapter in the history of criminal procedure. 55. The stability of American institutions was well illus- The Republic, tratcd in the peaceful transference of supreme still lives, authority to the Vice-President, Chester A. Arthur of New York, who took the oath of office a few hours after the death of President Garfield. •remises. The om the Senate, i five from the ssion was, that candidate, was 'er the Demo- V York. Mr. whole, a con- thdrawn, and n affairs. In It a provision ;hing-grounds -United States 0,000 for the >'ears. I States was as elected in ity over his New York, nauguration, office-seeker on at Wash- oked, called 5f the whole ' agony, he 5sassin paid ns a unique 5 well illus- of supreme Chester A, ^ce a few INDEX. Abraham, 29, 36 Abu-Beker, 226 Acailemy of Sciences, foundation of. A J-7^ Achaia, province of, 109, 153 Acre, siege of, by Crusaders, 259, 441 Actium, battle of, 175 ^ ^* Adams, J ,hn, 488. 489, 491 Adams, John Quincy, 491, 493 Addison, 433 iJi«os Fotaiiios, battle of, 99 Aiieas, 131 A)schines, lai iEschylus, 119 Africa, circumnavigation of, by Da Gitm.), 300 Agassiz, Louis J R., 480 Ages, the Dark, 269 Agmcourt, battle of, 286 Agriculture, low state of, in Middle Ages, 27, Alba Longa, 13a AlciCUS, ug Aicihiades, 98, 99 Alcuin, 271 Alexander the Great, career of. 102, 103 ; his successors, 105 Alexander .1. of Russia, 405 Alfred the Great, 286 Alhambra, the, 278 Alien and Sedition Laws, 489, 490 Alliance, the Holy, 453 ^ ^^ Almonte, 404 Alphabet, the Phoenician, ^q-ie Aisace, 477 ^^ *' Alva, Duke of, 329, 330 Ambrose, 198 Amusements, Roman, 201 Ancient History, end of, 5 Andalusia, meaning of the term, ai» Angelo, Michel, 344 ^ Anglo-Saxon, persistence r.f, 287 Anglo-Saxons, conquest of Britain by. 223, 224 ^ Antietam, 501 Antioch, siege of, 255, 256 Antony, Mark, 171, 174, „, Aijucducts, Roman, 184 Arago, 479 Arbcia, battle of, 103 Archeology, definition of, i Architecture, Egyptian, 21 ; Chaldean. 29: Hindoo, 51 ; Persian. 58 ; Greek. orders of, 123, ,24; Gothic, 270 Archons, Athenian, 86 Areola, battle of, 439 Ariosto, 345 Aristides, 92 Aristophanes, 120 Aristot.e, 123 Arkwri^ht, 435 Armada, the, 340, 341 Army of (he rotomac, 500 Arques, battle of, 336 Art, Greek, 123 ; the Flemish School of. « ,379 Arthur, President, 506 Articles ol Confederation, 486 Arts, Assyrian, 32 ; Babylonian, 34 ; Per- sian, 59 Aryans, 3 ; proof of the unity of, 3 ; in- fluence of, in history, 4; first seat of, 48 A>ia, ^;eographic.il divisions of, 8-10 Assassination of President Lincoln, 504 Assembly, the French Legislative, dur- ing tiie Revo'ution, 415 Assyria, lunpire of, 30-32 Astioiioniy, Clialda;an, 29 Attiaiiasiiis, 198 Athens, early history of, 86 Attila, 207 Auerstadt, battle of, 447 Augu>tiiie, 198 Auijustan Age, 186 Au-nstus (see also Octavius), 180-187 Austeritz, battle of, 445, 446 Austrian Empire, establishment of, 446 Babylon, description of, 33 ill 508 INDEX. m Bacon, Roger, 277 ; Francis, 376, 383 Balance of Power, nature of the, 312; wars of Francis I. to preserve the, 319, 320 Banking, origin of, 275, 376 nott Barbary States, 490 Barras, 423 Bassano, battle of, 438 Ba-itile, capture of the, 411 Baths, Roman, 201 Bautzen, battle of, 450 Bayard, 268 l^eaiiregard, General, 500 Bede, 271 Beethoven, 483 Belisarius, 220 Bell, John, 498 Benedict, Saint, 379 Bdranger, 480 Berkeley, 427 Bernadotte, 449 Bernard, Saint, 257 Bi>hop of Rome, power of, 944 Bismarck, 473, 474 Blood, discovery of the circulation of, 378 Boieyn, Anne, 324-326 Bonaparte, Joseph, 447, 448 ; Louis, 41^7 Books, Roman, 202 ; scarcity of, in Middle Ages, 270; earliest printed, 309 BoKsuet, 378 Bourbon, House of, 285 ; first king of name, 336 Braddock, (jener.il, 484 Breckinridge, J. C, 498 Brt-wster, Sir David, 479 Brindley, 420, 435 Britain, conquest of, by Romans, 189 ; abandonment of, by Romans, 207 Brooks, Preston, 496 Brown, John, 498 Brunei, Sir Isambird, 483 Brunswick, House of, 389, 389 note Brutus, Lucius Junius, 135 ; Marcus Junius, 171, 172, 174 Buchanan, President, 497 Buddhism, 52 Buena Vista battle of, 495 Bull Run, bitile of, 500, 501 BiirgundiaiiS, 213 Burke, 434 Buiieigti, 343 Burns, 434 Burnside, General, Sox Burr, Aaron, 489, 490 Byron, 480 Byzantium, iqx Cahot, 307 Cadmus, 44 C'jcs.ir, Julius, T63-173 Calhoun, Vice-President, 493 California, 495 Caliphs, me.ining of term, 336 Caloiuie, 408 Calvin, John, 33a Cambyses, 54 ; son of Cyrus, 56 Camoens, 345 Campbell, Tliomas, 480 Campo Formio, treaty of, 439 Canals, first navigable, 429 Cannx, battle of, 149 Canova, 435 Capet, Hugh, 283 Carlyle, Thomas, 481 Carthage, founding of, 41 ; position of, in Roman period, 46, 146; siege of, 152 Cass, General, 495 Cassius, Caius, 171, 174 Castes, Kgvptian, 20, 3i ; Indian, 49; origin of, 50 Castiglione, battle of, 438 Castile, foundation of, 294 Catherine IL of Russia, 404, 405 ; de Medici, 331-335 Catholics, persecution of, under Henry yin., 325-327 Catiline, 163, 164 Cato the Censor, 151, 156 notf ; the Youn(;er, 169 Catullus, 186 Caucasian race, its historic representa- tives, 2 Cavait;nac, 463 Cavaliers, 351, custom of the, 381, 38a Cavour, 467 Celts, immigration of, into Europe, axo{ influence of Rome on, 211 Cervantes, 345 Chaeronea, battle of, 102 Chalda-a, the kingdom of, 27-30 Chancel lorsville, battle of, 503 Charlemagne, empire of, 231-336 Charles Albert, 466 Charles L (of England), reign of, 349« 3.';4 ; Charles II. (of England), reign of. .^57) 358 ; Charles V. (of Spain), age of, 313-322; Charles IX. (of France), 334-336 ; Charles X. (of France), 459 ; Charles XII. (of Sweden), 401-403 Chartists, the, 457 Chaucer, 279 Chemistry, foundation of, in i8th cen- tury, 428 Cheops, 17 Chimneys, origin of, 276 Cliivalry, 264-268 Christ, birth of, 186 Christianity, spread of, 192-198 Chrisiians, fast pagan mention of, 193, 193 Chronology, French system of during the Revolution, 437 noti Chrysostom, 198 term, aafi jf Cyrus, 56 480 ty of, 439 le, 429 of, 41 ; position of, i, 46, 146 ; siege of, 174 !o, 31 ; Indian, 49; U38 •f, 294 issia, 404, 405 ; de >n of, under Henry 51, 156 tK}ie; the historic representa- li\'DEX. I of the, 381, 38a , into Europe, 210; e on, 3IZ loa i\ of, 27-30 le of, soa of, 231-336 id), reipn of, 34^ of B^ngland), reign ries V. (of Spain), Charles IX. (of Charles X. ' tharles XII. (of (of 1 of, in 18th ceo* 76 ', 192-198 mention of, 19a, jstem of during 7 Hoig Church, influence of, in Daric Ages, 271, Cicero, 163, 164 Ciiiciiinalus, 137 Cities, 1 ise of, in Middle Ages, 242 ; the i;rowth of, in Middle At;es, 273 Citizeiish p, Roman, extension of, 190 Civilization, connection of, with geogra- pliy, 10; Assyrian, 3a : Plicenician, 47 ; Alexandrian, 106 ; Grecian, 112- 127 ; types of, in Roman Empire, *53' 154! sources of modern, 211, 212; Hyzantine, 319; in Middle Ages, 269-279. Clay, Henry, 492-495 Cleopatra, 168, 169, 175, 176 Clergv, the English, in 17th century, 3 So Clovis, 221, 222 Code Najjoleon, 444 Coleridge, Samuel T., 480 Coliseum, 183 Colonies, I'hicnician, 42, 43; Greek, in Asia Minor, 80; American, revolt of, 484 ; loyally of, 484 ; names of, 486 Coluinous, 306 Commerce, Jjabylonian, 62 ; PhcEuician, 64; Carthaginian, 66; early Eng- lish, 274, 275 ; Italian, 275 ; Vene- tian, 291 ; etTect of circuiniiaviga- tion of Africa on, 306, 307; English, under I'.lizaheth, 342 Commonwealth, the English, 354 Compass, invention of maiiner's, 303, 304 Compromise liill, 495 Comte, 479 Confederate States, the, 498, 499 Confederation of the Rhine, 446 ; the German, 469, 475 Conformity, Act ot, 339 Congress, 487 Consolidation of the United States, 487 Constance, Peace of, 374, 291 Constaniine, 196, 197 Constantinople, 191, 227, 303 Constitutional (.,'onvention, 486 Consulate, estiblishment of French, 442 Consulate and the Empire, France under the, 436-453 Continental Congress, 486 Copernicus, 346 Corday, Charlotte, 4ai Coriolanus, 136 Corneille, 378, 385 Corn Laws, repeal of, 456, 457 Cosmo I., 292 Cotton-gin, 430 Crassus, 162, 163, 166 Crecy, battle of, 285 Crimea, conquest of the, by Russia, 404 Crimean war, 45B, 463, 464 ; part taken by Italy in, 4C7 Croesus, overthrow of, 55 Cromptun, 430, 435 Cromwell, Oliver, 353-3571 R>t 357 Crusa'pt, 12-25; anticjuity of, 12 ; itsgr^o- ijrapliy, 12, ij ; jhii.u ousuess of, 13; hieroRlyphics, 14, 15: clironoloLjy, 17 ; c. isles, 30, 21 ; arcliiteciuic, 21; sculpture, 22 ; religion, 23 ; manu- factures, 24 Elba, 451 Electricity, Franklia's discoveries in, 428 Elegy, rise of, among the Greeks, 118 Elizabeth of England, reign of, 337-343 Emancipation proclamation, 501 Embalming, practice of, among Egyp- tians, 34 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 481 Emperors, the Roman, 187, 188 Empire, the E.istern Roman, 218 ; the German, in Midtile Ages, 280-282 England, meaning of name, 224 ; Chris tianizatiun of, 224 ; history ot, in Middle Ages, 286-290 ; effect of Norman conquest, 287; under Fienry VIII., 323-328; under the Stuarts, 347-361 ; social condition of, in i7ih century, 380, 381 Epaminondas, 100 Era, the Christian, true beginning of, 186 note Essex, Earl of, 342 Essling, battle of. 448 Etiinology, definition of, i Etruscans, the, 129 Euripities, 119 Exodus, the, 18, ig note Eylau, battle of, 447 Faraday, 479 Farragut, Admiral, 501 Fathers, the Christian, 198 Federalists, 488, 401 Federations, Greet:, 108 Feudalism, 237-243 ; decline of, 309 Fief, nature of, S3S, 240 Fielding, 433 Fifteenth Amendment, the, 505 Fillmore, President, 495 Florence, history of, in Middle Ages, 292 Florida, acquisition of, 491 ; secession of, 498 Food, Roman, 199 Fort Donelson, 50X Fort Sumpter, 500 France, meaning of the term, 213 ; foun- dation of; 221 ; beginnings of, 283, 284 ; under Carlovingians, 283; Cape- tian kinps of, 283, 284 ; under House of Valois, 285 ; under Louis XIV., 366-376 ; difficulties of United States with, 489 Franchise, the Latin, 145 Frankfort, Treaty of, 477 Franklin, Benjamin, 438, 43a Franks, meaning of the word, 213 ; in- vasion c)*" ("i.-iul by, 213, 221 Frcdcr ck L.ii b.nossa, 259; Duke of S.iNoiiy, 317 ; Elector Palatine, 363; Wiliiam, 394 Frcilcrick-.l)nrg, battle of, 501 Free Soilers, 495 Fit-mont, John C, 497 French revolutions, 405-425, 489 Fulton, 435 Gadio;, 43 Gainsborough, 434 Galileo, 346, 377 Gallia Cisalpin.i, 139 Galvaiii, 428. 432 Galvinism, origin of, 42P, 429 Games, the four (irecian, 115, 116 Garfield, Preside, it, 506 Garilialili, 468 Gaslights, first use of, 430 Gaul, settlement of Teutonic tribes fn, 221 G.iuls, s-at of, in Italy, 129 ; burning of Home by, 131, 132 ; capture of Rome by, (40, 141 Genet, 468 (ieneva arbitration, 505 Genserir, 207 Gentleman, origin of the, 268 ( leology, (uundation o', 429 Georje I. of Kng'and. reign of, 3R0, 3Q0; Geori;e I!., reign of, 391; George III rei,;n of, 392, 393, 453; George IV., 453 . Germans, Empire of, in Middle Ages, 280-282 Gettysburg, battle of, 509 (iheni. Treaty of, 491 Gliibellines, 290, 291 Gibbon, 434 Gibraltar, meaning of term, aaj Gioja, 303 Girondists, the, 415, 417, 420 Glass, introduction of, in windowSi 276 Godfrey of Bouillon, 156, 257 Goethe, 480 Goldsmith, 434 Good Hope, Cape o', doubled, 306 (joths, 205, 206; original home of, 212 Gracchus, Tiberius, 157,158; Caius, 158 Grai.icus, battle of, 103 Grant, President, 501, 503, 505 Great Britain, orii^in oi name, 388 Greece, history of, 71-127 ; race, 72 ; geography of, 72-74 ; states of, 74 ; legends of, 75, 76 ; movements of races, 79, 80 ; colonies, 80 ; ear.iest history, 82 ; growth of Sparta and Athens, 83-88 ; Persian invasions of, 89-96 ; age of Pericles, 96, 97 ; Pelo- ponnesian war, 98, 99 ; Spartan and Theban supremacy, 99, 100 ; supre- ' the word, 213 ; in- jy, 213, 22t isa, 259 ; Duke of lector Palatine, 363; tie of, 501 97 405-425. 489 42R, 429 cian, IIS, J16 506 Teutonic tribes in, ily, 129 ; b\iriiin<{ of j2 ; capture o( Rome 50s "the, 268 o!, 429 l1, rei^;n of, ^Rf), :^Qo; 11 of, 391 ; Ueorye i 392. 393. 453; f, in Middle Ages, 50a f term, 327 7. 420 in windows, 276 «56, 257 doubled, 306 inal home of, 212 57, 158 ; Caius, 158 '3 503. 505 3t name, 3S8 n-127 ; race, 72 ; -74 ; states of, 74 ; 6 ; movements of jnies, 80 ; eardest 'th of Sparta and irsian invasions of, clcs, 96,97 ; Peio- 99 ; Spartan and y, 99, 100 ; supre- INDEX. 5" macy of Macedonia, loi, loa ; later history, 107-109; civilization of, 112-127 Greek society, ia6, 127 Gregory Nazianzen, 198 Gregory VII., 246 Granada, capture of, 294 Grey, Lady Jane, 337 Grimm, Jacob and William, 480 Guelphs, the, 290 Guiteaii, 506 Gunpowder, effect of, 267 Gustavus Adolphus, 363, 364 Gutenberg, 309 Hamii.car, 148 Hamilton, Alexander, 488, 490 Hamilton, Sir William, 479 Hamites, their represent aives, 3 Hancock, General, sotj Handel, 434 Hannibal, 149-151 , Hanno, 66 nt>U HapsburtCi origin of House of, aSa Hargreaves, 435 Harou^■al-Ka^^chid, 228 Hari cr's Ferry, 500 Harrison, President, 493 Harvey, 378 Hawthori.e, 481 Haydn, 435 Hebrews, the, 36-40 Hegel, 479 Hegira, date of, 325 Hellas, 73 Henry 11. (of England), VI!. (of Kn gland), VIII. (of England), rcign of, {323- 328; Henry III. (of France), 336; Henry IV. (of France), 336, 337 ; Henry IV. (Emperor of Germany, 347 Henry, Prince of Portugal, 305 Herodotus, 14 nate, 120 Herschel, William, 43a Hesiod, 118 Hieroglyphics, Egyptian, 14-17 Hildebrand, 246, 247 Hindoos, the, 48-53 History, definition of, i ; a unit, 6; ear- liest theater of, 11 Hohenlinden, battle of, 443 Holbein, 344 Homer, 76, 77, 88, 117, 118 Hooker, General, 50a Horace, 186 Horatius Codes, 136 Houses, description of Roman, 204 Howard, Catherine, 337; John, 43X Hngo, Victor, 481 Huguenot, origin of name, 33a Humboldt, Alexander von, 479 Hum*, David, 437, 433, 434 384 ; Henry 90 ; Henry 473 Hungary, revolution of, in 1B48, 472, Hyksos, 18 Imi'RRator, meaning of, 170 India. Alex.'tnder's expcilition to, 104; con(juest of, by British, 393 Innocent III., 248 Inventions, sketch of, in i8th century, 429, 430 loni.*, rerolt of cities of, 89 lonians. characier of, 81, 8a Ipsus, battle of, io6 I.sabella, 294 Israel, kingdf>m of, 38 Is5us, battle of, 103 Italy, in Middle Ages, 390-393; unifica' tion of, 466-469 Ivry, battle of, 336 Jackson, President, 493, 493 Jacobite, origin of the name, 390 Jacijuard, 4^1; James I. of I'-ngland, 347-349 ; James II., 359 360 Janus, temple of, 184 J(lTersoii, President, 488, 489, 493 Jena, battle of, 447 Jerome, 198 Jerusalem, destruction of, by Titus, 39; capture of, by Ciusaders, 256 ; king- dom of, 257 Jews, their place in history, 39 Joan of Arc, 286 John of Ei gland, 288 Johnson, I'resident, 503, 504 Johnson, Samuel, 433 JoSf.phine, 424 Joiirdan, 424, 438 Judah, kingdom of, 38 Judiciary, the, 487 lugeruni, 141 note [uiian the Apostate, 197 I ustinian, reign uf, 318, aao luvenal, 186 Kansas, 498 Kant, 428 Kepler, 377 Kings, divine right of, 348 Kiiigiit, dress and equipment of, 265, 266 Knighthood, ceremonial of, 266 Know-Noihings, the, 497 Koran, the, 225 Kossuth, 472 Lara HUM, the, 196 Lafayette, 410 Lamian war, the, 107 Lancaster, House of, 289 I^tidseer, Sir Fdwin, 48a Langnaj;es, the Teutonic, 216; the Sla- vonic, 216 ; the Celtic, 315; the Kqp mance, 270 5ia INDEX. I nii^' •i V \ It \' Laplace, 433 Latins, the race of the, 130 Laud, 350 Lavoisier. 428, 43a Law, John, 300 Law, the civil or Roman, ai8 I^ws, English penal, 431 League, the Achxan, 108 ; the Smalcal- dic, 330 ; Hanseatic, 374 ; Lombard, , »74 . . Learning, rtvival of, 3081 309 Let, General, 501, 503 Leibnitz, 377, 384 Leicester, Earl of, 343 Leipsic, battle of, 450 Leonidas 93, 94 Leopold, 464 Lepidus, 174 Lessing, ^34 Letters, the disuse of, in Middle Ages, 370 Leuctra, battle of, 100 Leverrier, 479 Library, the Alexandrian, 106, 169, 336 Licinian law, ihe, 141 Lictors, the Roman, 136 note. Liebig, 479 Lincoln, President, 498, 503, 504 Literature, Hindoo, 50, 51 ; Pers an, 60; early Roman, 15s ; Roman, 185 ; characteristics of European, in i8th century, 437 ; French, in i8th cen- tury, 425 Lithography, invention of, 430 Livy, 132, 186 Locke, 437 Lodi, battle of Bridge of, 438 Logarithms, invention of, 378 I.ombards, 314, 330, 245 Lombardy, Charlemagne, L,!iig of| 934 ; League of, 290 Long Parliament, 350 Lorraine, 477 Ix)sses during the war of Secession, 504 Louisiana, acquisition of, 490 Louis Napoleon, early career of, 460, 461 ; coup ditat by, 463, 463 ; be* comes Emperor, 463 I.ouis Philippe, 460 Louis le D^bonnaire, 336 ; Louis IX., 361; Louis XI I L, 367; Louis XIV., J66-376; Louis XV., 406; Louis jCVL, 406-419 ; Louis XVIIL, 451, 45a, 459 „^ Lucretius, 186 Luneville, Treaty of, 443 Luther, Martin, 316, 317 Liitzen, battle of, 364, 450 Luxury, Roman, 156 Lydia, 6z noU. Macaulav, 48s MacClellan, U«n«ral, soo MacDowell, Gener.il, joo Macedonia uiukr Pliilip, loi, loa; sub* ju;;ati>)n nf, by i; subdued by Ro> »S8 'Ionian, 6a; Floren* ihh, 358 . 91 I uf Greece by, 90 443 395 .20 ! of. 374 20 a 2, 237, 328 56 'd). 337- 338; Mary ■1). 359. 368 ; Mary, - 338-340 321 392; Catherine de, Sparta with, 85 1477 79 e, 49« ! of, 334 ; character I of, 335 ; death 0^ INDEX. 913 ;he, 49Z 389 B.,483 49. 450 , . Revolutionarj W5 ^' Moznrt, 435 Miirnt, 448 Murillo, 380, 385 Music, fuuiulers of moderni 438 Mycalc, battle of, 96 Mytholnj;y, (Jreek, 113-116 Nahdnassar, era of, 30, 31 Nabopohissar, 33 N.iiito, edict of, 336 Napier, 378 Napol on Honaparte, 433; early cam- paign of, 437-441 ; made Emperor, 445 ; averts war with United States, 489; Nap 'leon III., 461-465 Naseby, battle of, 353 Nashville, 501 National Assembly, doings of the, 410- 415 Naval decrees of England and France, 490 Navarre, foundation of kingdom of, 393 Nebra-ka, 496 Nebuchadnezzar, 33 Nccker, 407, 408, 410 Nelson, 444, 446 Nero, 186, 187 New Mexico, 495 Newton, 377, 384 Nice, 464 Nicias, Peace of, 98 Nile, battle of the, 440 NinieKuen, Peace of, 371 Nineteenth century, characteristics of the, 436 Nineveh, description of, 31, 33 ; its fall, 3 1' 32 Normans in England, 340, 341 ; origin of, 283, 284 Norsemen, invasion of France by, 383 Notables, Assembly of the, 408 O'CONNELL, DaNIKL, 454 Octavius, 173, 174, 176 Odoacer, 213, 219 Olympiad, the first, 83 Omar, 226 Oracles, iij Orange, William, Prince of, 359 Origen, 198 Orleans. Maid of, 386 Ostracism, 92 Oiho I., 280, a8i Ovid, 186 Pagf, meaning of term, 264 Paintin^c, rise of, in England, 438 Palace, Mayors of the, 222 Papal power, growth of the, 244-348 Parliament, origin of English, 289; English, under James I., 348; under Charles I., 349; the Long, 350 : Barebone's, 355 Paris, siege of, in 1S70, 477 ; Treaty of, Parr, Catherme, 327 Parthenon, the, 12, » Pascal. 378, 379 Patricians, the Roman, 133 Pavia, battle of, 319 Pelasui. 75 Pelopidas, 100 Pepin, 231 Pericles, 96, 97 ; as an orator, lai Persecutions of early Christians, 193-195 Persia, Empire of, 53-60 Peter the Hermit, 351, 353, 357 ; the Great, 399-404 Petition of Right, 349 Pnarnaces, 169 Pharsalia, battle of, i68 Philip, king of M.icedon, 101, 103 ; Augustus, 2<9, 260,284; Philip II. of Spain, cnar.tcter of, 328, 339; marriage of, with Mary of England, 338 Philosophy, the scholastic, 377 Phoenicians, the, 41-47 Phrygia, 6i ttoU Piiinoforte, invention of, 430 Pierce, President, 496 Pindar, 119 Pisistratus, 88 Pitt, William, 399 Pius IX., 466 Piantageiicis, the, 388 Piatxa, battle of, 95 Plato, 133 Plebeians, early oppression of Roman, 133, 138, 140 Pliny, i86 Plutarch, 121 Poitiers, battle of, 385 Poland, partition of, 404, 405 Poles, their race, 314 Political economy, contributir>nof Adam Smith to, 429 Polk, President, 494 Pompeii, 186, 203 Pompey, 161, 162, 164, i66-i68 Pope, Alexander, 433 Pope, the, meaning of term, 344, 345 Popes, 244-348 Popular sovereignty, 497 Populus Romanus, meaning of term, „ 14s Portuguese, account of discoveries in Africa, 304-306; in the Indies, 306 Powder, inv-mtioii of, 310 Pragmatic Sanction, 395 Prescott, 481 President of United States, the, 4S7 Presidential elections, 488-498, 503, 505, 506 Pretender, the, 389, 390 Pretorian guard, the, 188 2 K Ivi SH tr^DEX. 1 «: Jl Pride's Purge, 353 Pric.-its, iiifliiieiice uf, in Egypt, 20 Printing, origin of, 309. 310 Piotfction policy, 4()2, 4()3 Proifstam, origin of n;iint;, 318 I'rotesiiiitisni, origin of, 315, 316 ; French form of, 33J Prussia, beuinnini;s of, 393 ; history of, under Frctierick tltc Great, 393-397 Ptolemies, thr, 106 Ptolemy Sotor, 106 i'nnic wars, 146-152 I'nritansni, rise of, 339 rurji.nis, austerity of, 358 i'lislikin, 481 Pyiina, Ijattle of, 109 Pyramids, battle of the, 440 Pythagoras, lai Quebec, capture of, 484 Rahei-ais, 345 Race, the It ilian, 130 Races, the historical, compared,' 4, 5 ; It.ilian, 139; historical, of Europe, 3IO ; Racine, 378, 3S6 R.dcigh, 345 Raphael, 344 Kavenna, exarchs of, 220 Rebellion, history of Great English, 351- .354 Reform Bill, 455 Ke^iillis, 148 R'Mclistadi, Duke of, 448, 463 note K( igu of 'I'error, 416-422 Religion, Egyptian, 23; Hindoo, 50; (ireck, 113 Rembrandt, 3!:5 Representatives, the House of, 487, 49a Republic, duration of Uoman, 134 Re)inblicans of the United States, thci 488 " Restoration," tlie English, 357 Revo'aiiion, the English, of i()88i 360 ; bfginning of American. 39a; French, 405-425; French, of 1830, 460; of 18^8, 4O1 Reynolds, Sir Joshua. 434 Richard 1. (Ciuurde Lion), 259, aConoU Richelieu, Cardinal, 3O3-368 Richmond. 500 Richtcr, 480 Rights, the Hill of, 360, 361 noU Rivoli, battle of, 439 Robespieire, 410, 421, 42a Roderick, 227 Romance langu iges, origin of, 2t6 Roman Empire, boundaries of, 180, i8r ; division of, 191 ; downfall of, 208 Rome, history ot, 128-208; its geogra- Ehy, 128; races, 129, 130; early iatory, 13a; early uruggies, 134- 141 ; Punic wars, 147-152 ; civil struggle, 157-176; the Empire, 180- 20S ; I ity ot, 182, 183, 191 Roniilly, Sir Samuel, 431 Romulus, 131, 132 Rose-:, wars of the, 289, 290 Rose,! fa stone, 14, 15 Rountiheads, 351 Royal Society, foundation of| 378 Rossini, 482 Rotten l)oroughs, 455 Rousseau, 434 Roverdo, battle of, 438 Kubens, 379, 384 " Kump Parliament, 354 Russia, invasion of, by Napoleon, 449, 450 Russia, rijie of, 398 ; history of, under Peter the Great, 399-403 Ryswick, Peace of, 373 Sadowa, battle of, 475 Saint Bartholomew, Massacre of, 335 Saint Petersburg, foundation of, 403 S.iladin, 258, 259, 260 HoU S.'ilamis, battle of, 95 Sallust, 186 Sanction, Pragmatic, 395 Sanscrit, 50 Sappho, 119 Saracens, their empire, 228; learning of, 277, 278 ; expelled from Spain, 294 Satraps, the Persian, 57 Saxons, meaning of term, 214; nativo scat, 214; wars of Charlemagne with, 233 Savoy, 464 Schiller, 434 Schleswig-Holstein question, 474 Schoolmen, 277 Science, EgyiHian, 25; progress of, to i8tli century, 42R, 429 Scipio, Publius, 150 Scots, Mary, Queen of. 338-340 Scott, General Wingfield, 495. 496, 500 Scott, Sir Walter, 480 Sco VIS, Jolin. 271 Sculpture, Egyptian, 22; Assyrian, 3a; Grttck, 124, 125 Secession, 499 Sedan, battle of, 477 Seleiicidu:, kingdom of the, 106 Seleucus, 106, 107 Semites, their liistorica! representatives, 3 Senate of United Stales, 4B7 Sennacherib, 31 Sesostris, 19 Seven Years' War, 395 Seymoui, Jane 327 Shake-peaie, comparison of, with Greek dramatists, iso; life of, 344 Sherman, General, 503 Sicily, Roman province of| 148 ars, 147-152 ; civil 76 ; the Empire, 180- 2, 183, 191 :1. 431 289, 290 5 idation of, 378 55 438 fit. 354 , by Napoleon, 449, i ; history or, under t. 399-403 373 475 , Massacre of, 335 ouiidation of, 403 60 HOU ?5 c, 39S ire, 928 ; learning of, led from Spain, 294 1. 57 if tcnn, 214 ; nativo )f Cliarlemagiie with, question, 474 25; progress of, io (8, 429 of. 338-340 ■S\n\d, 495. 496, 500 80 1, 23 ; Assyrian, 33 ; of the, 106 cal rcprfsentalives, 3 iies, 487 95 rison of, with Greek life of, 344 net of, 148 INDEX. 5^5 Sidney, Sir Phih'p, 345 Sieycs, 44a Silesia. 39S Silk, fust manufacture of, 275 Simoi\ides, 119 Slavery, Roman. 156; abolition of Eng- li-^n roloni.ii, 456 Sl.ives, price of Roman, 203 Slavonians (see also Slaves), 214 Sinerdis, 56 Smith, Ad.Tm, 429, 433 Sof.T.ites, 122 Solfpriiio, b.'ittle of, 467 Soliimrin, rtiga of, 38 Solon, 87 Sophists among the Greeks, t2t, 13a Suplidcles, 1.1 South Car< I'l 1, threatened withdrawal South Sea SchemCj 390 Spain, history of, m Middle Ages, 393, Spanish succession, war of, 374 Sparta, growth of, 83 ; eiiucalioD in, 84, 85 ; constitution of, 85 Spenser, 344 Spinning-jenny, 429 Spinoza, 377, 384 Spires, Diet of, 318 Squire, duty of, 265 StandinR armies, esiahlishriieni of, 31X Star Chamber, aboiiti'ii of, 350 States-General, meeting of the, 409 Steam engine, improvement of, by Watt, _ 430 Stepliens, Alexander H., 499 Stephenson, G'orge, 483 Stereotyping, first practice of, 430 Sterne, 434 St. Helena, 453 Stralford, 350 Stuarts, the line of, 347, 347 m»//, 348 Stili , 159-161 Sumner, Charles. 496 Sujircmacy, A' t of, 338 Surrender of Confederate armiei, 503 Swedeuborg, 43a Tacitus, 188 Tarquinius Superblil, 133 Tasso, 345 Taylor, President, Tpnnvson. Alfr#H_ Texa*. 494, 455 Tnackeray, 481 Thales, 121 Tliapsus, battle of, 169 Thebes (Greek state), supreoucy of| 100 Thcmistocles, ga Theodoric, 219, 220 Theod'isiu-, 191 '1'hermopyi.x, battle of, 94 Thiers, 481 Thorw.Tldscn, 483 Thucydides, 121 Tigris, ihe river, description of, 27 Tilden, Samuel J.. 506 Tilsit, Treaty of, 447 Tin, Phoenician trade in, 65 Titian, 344 Tobacco, introduction of, into England, 34a Tory. 351 Toulon, "-lege of, 4'?4 'i'ournament, 366 TrafaUar. battle of, 446 Treaty of Washington, 505, 506 Trihonian, 218 Tribunes, establishment of Roman, 139; military, 140 Triumvirate, the second, 174 Troy, s ;ge of, 76 ; site of, 78 furtf Tudor. li'Hise of, 290 Ttirgot, 407 Turks, rise of the Ottoman, 303, 303 Turner, 482 Twelve T.ibles, l.iws of the, •.33 Tyler, President, 493 Tycho-Hrahe, 34'" Tyndall, jo 11, 479 Tvrc, commerce of, 46 Tyrtaus, n8 Ur.M, capture of. 441; Union, treaty of, between England and .Sc'itland, 387 United States of America, outlines ot history of, ^84 United States Hank, the, 493, 494 Universities, establishment oi, in Middle Ages, 276, 377 Uf, 29 Utica, 160 Utrecht, Treaty of, 375 Vaccination, discovery of, 430 Van Huren, President, 493, 495 Vandals, 207, 313 Vandyck, 379, 384 Vassal, 238, 239 Vedas, the, 50 Venice, 221 ; growth 01, 3>i Vera Cru7, 495 Verdun, Treaty of, 980 Verdi, 483 Vernet, Horace, 48a Vicksburg, 503 Victor Emanuel, 466-4S8 Victoria, 456 Vi.gil, 185 Visigoths, settlement of, ia Italy, •!}» in Spain, 313 1 r >- 1 '1 / 516 INDEX. Voltnire, 433 Wagram, battle of, 448 Wallciistein, 362, 364 Walpole, Sir Robert, 391 War. the Juguniiiiie, 160; the Thirty Years', 361-366 ; the Seven Years , 395,396. T^q-j note ; the Franco-Prus- sian, 464, 465, 475-478 ; the Six Weeks', 474, 475; of Independence, 484, 485 ; the United States with England, 490, 491 Wasliint;ton, Geur^e, 484, 4uU, 488, 489 Waterloo, battle of, 452 Watt, James, 429, 435 Weber, 482 Webster, Daniel, 494 Wedgwood, 435 Weisscnburg, battle of, 476 West, Benjamin, 435 Westphalia, Treaty of, 365 ; Peace of, 331 ; kingdom of, 448 . Whig, 351 ; the party m United States, 49a, 493» 497 Wilberforce, 431, 456 William I, (of (iermany), 473, 478; William 1 1 1, (of England), 361, 362 ; William IV. (of England), 454; William the Conqueror, 284 J William of Orange, 329, 330 Wines, Roman, 201 Wolsey, Cardinal. ^23, 324 Woman, position ol, among the Greeks 126; education of English women ia the 17th century, 383 Wool, manufacture of, 274 Wordsworth. William, 480 Worcester, battle of, 355 Worth, battle of, 477 Wycliffe, 273 Xknophon, 54, 54 note, 131 Xerxes, invasion of Greece by, 93, 95 " Ybar III.," constitution of the, 437 York, House of, 290 ZoLLVB&BiN, the Geiman, 470 ■i ll ippa ^s6 (of England), 454 Conqueror, 28^ • ^nge, 329, 330 * * 3»3. 324 I, among the Greeks ^of English women ia of,' 274 "n, 480 '»355 7 f^fe, 191 Greece by, 93, 55 'tmionofthe»437 niiu,49o