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VOLUME 1. CONTENTS. ■—• ♦— CORNISn MINERS IN AMERICA. ENGLISH CHARITY. LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. BRITISH POLICY. THE PRINTER'S DEVIL. HE RET) MAN. THE AIR WE LIVE IN. MEMORANDUM ON THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO. THE LONDON AND NORTH-WESTERN RAILWAY. THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. THE BRITANNIA BRIDGE. THE LONDON POST-OFFICE. PREFACE. This hrocxl of Literary Chickens, all of which, save one, have been hatched in the ' Quarterly Review,' now migrate from theii* coop, to fare, in the wide world, for themselves. The Proverb says. Birds of a feather flock together, but in this motley group the Reader will find that, in size, in substance, and in colour, there are no two of them alike. >tim«tfWtiHfi»iaiMi|Mm DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS. CORNISH MINERS IN AMERICA. We do not profess to euro insanity, and have tliorcfore no ambition to persuade those who still rave about the riches thcv arc to extract from the American mines, that their speculations arc as visionary as Daniel O'lloiu'ke's visit to the moon. Deeply aa we lament their situation, wc offer no remedy to constitutions which require rather blisters, bleeding, and water-gruel, than any treatment which it is our province to administer. The rational part of our community have now, wo believe, come to the general conclusion, that these mining speculations are absurd ; yet, as the foundation of this opinion is not clearly defined, or, in other words, as the question has not as yet been considered with the requisite calmness and minuteness, we think we may do some service by laying before our readers, — 1st, a short de- scriptive sketch of the Cornish system of mining, with the character of the Coniish miner ; 2dly, a similar out- B mmm CORNISH MINERS IN AMERICA. line of the Atnerican mines and miners; and, 3dly, a brief review of the progress M'hioh our City Mining Companies have made, and of the experience they have gained. From tlicse data we conceive that every candid person may collect ample reasons for adhering to the opinion now generally prevalent on this subject. I. THE CORNISH SYSTEM. The largest mines in Cornwall are tho '~,\yiisolidated Mines, the United Klines, the Poldice Mine, the Dal- coath IMinc; all of which arc in hills of clay-slate or killas, three or four hundred feet above the level of the sea, and in the neighbourhood of the town of Redruth. These mines run east and west ; and they are about half- v,ay between the two shores of the British and Bristol Channels. To one unaccustomed to a mining country, the view from Cairn IVIarth, which is a rocky eminence of seven hundred and fifty-seven feet, is full of novelty. Over a surface neither mountainous nor flat, but diversified from sea to sea by a constant scries of low undulating hills and vales, the farmer and the miner seem to be occupying the country in something like the confusion of warfare. The situations of the Consolidated Mines, the United Mines, the Poldice Mine, etc. etc., are marked out by spots a mile in length by half a mile in breadth, covered with what are termed ' the deads ' of the mine ; i. e. slaty poisonous rubbish, thrown up in rugged heaps, which, at a distance, give the place the appearance of an encampment of soldiers' tents. This lifeless mass follows THE COllMSII SYSTK?.r. the course of the main lode (wliiclij as has been said, generally runs east and west) ; and from it, in different directions, minor branches of the same barren rubbish diverge through the fertile country, like the streams of lava from a volcano. The miner being obliged to have a shaft for air at every hundred yards, and the Stannary Laws allowing him freely to pursue his game, his hidden path is commonly to be traced by a scries of heaps of 'deads,' which rise up among the green fields, and among the grazing cattle, like the workings of a mole. Steam-engines, and whims ('argc capstans Avorked by two or four horses), are scattered about ; and in the neigh- bourhood of the old, as well as of the new workings, are sprinkled, one by one, a number of small whitewashed miners' cottages, which, being neither on a road nor near a road, wear, to the eye of the stranger, the appearance of having been dropped down a-propos to nothing. — Such, or not very dissimilar, is in most cases the su- perficial view of a country the chief wealth of which is subterraneous. Early in the morning the scene becomes animated. From the scattered cottages, as far as the eye can reach, men, women, and children of all ages begin to creep out; and it is curious to observe them all converging, like bees, towards the small hole at which thev are to enter their mine. On their arrival, the women and children, whose duty it is to dress or clean the ore, repair to the rough sheds under which they work j while the men, having stripped and put on their imderyroimd clothes (which are coarse flannel dresses), one after another descend the b3 m m CORNISH MINERS IN AMERICA. several shafts of the mine, hy perpendicular ladders, to their respective levels or galleries — one of which is nine hundred and ninety feet below the level of the ocean. As soon as they have all disappeared, a most remarkable stillness prevails — scarcely a human being is to be seen. The tall chimneys of the steam-engines emit no smoke ; and nothing is in motion but the great ' bobs ' or levers of these gigantic machines, which, slowly rising and fall- ing, exert their power, either to lift the water or produce from the mine, or to stamp the ores; and in the tran- quillity of such a scene, it is curious to call to mind the busy occupations of the hidden thousands who are at work: to contrast the natural verdure of the country with the dead product of the mines, and to observe a few cattle ruminating on the surface of green sunny fields, while man is buried and toiling beneath them in dark- ness and seclusion. — But it is necessary that we should now descend from the heights of Cairn Marth, to take a nearer view of the mode of working the mine, and to give a skeleton plan of that simple operation. A lode is a crack in the rock, bearing, in shape and dimensions, the character of the convulsion that formed it; and it is in this irregular crevice that Nature has, most irregularly, deposited her mineral Avcalth ; for the crack, or lode, is never filled with ore, which is distri- buted and scattered in veins and bunches, the rest of the lode being made up of quartz, muudic, and ' deads.' Under such circumstances, it is impossible to say before- hand, where the riches of the lode exist ; and therefore, if its general character and appearance seem to authorize THE CORNISH SYSTEM. the expense, the following is the simple, and, indeed, the natural plan of working it usually resorted to. A perpendicular pit, or shaft, is sunk, and at a depth of about sixty feet a horizontal gallery, or level, is eut in the iode, say both towards the east and towards the west — the ore and materials being raised at first by a eommon windlass. As soon as the two sets of miners have each cut or driven the level about a hundred yards, they find it impossible to proceed for want of air ; this being anti- cipated, two other sets of miners have been sinking from the surface two other perpendicular shafts, to meet them; from these the ores and materials may also be raised; and it is evident that, by thus sinking perpendicular shafts a hundred yards from each other, the first gallery, or level, may be prolonged ad libitum. But while this horizontal work is carrying on, the original, or, as it is termed, the ew^iwe-shaft, is sunk deeper ; and at a second depth of sixty feet, a second horizontal gallery, or level, is driven towards the cast and towards the west, receiving air from the various perpendicular shafts which are all successively sunk down so as to meet it. The main, or engine-shaft, is then carried deeper still ; and at the same distance — sixty feet, or ten fathoms — is driven a third, and then a fourth gallery ; — and so on to any depth. The object of these perpendicular shafts, and horizontal galleries, is not so much to get at the ores which are di- rectly procured from them, as to put the lode into a state capable of being worked by a number of men, — in short, to convert it into what may now be termed a mine ; for it will be evident that the shafts and galleries divide 6 CORNISH 5IINERS IN AMEUICA. i the lode into solid rectangular masses, or compartments, each three hundred feet in length, hy sixty feet in height. These masses of three hundred feet are again subdivided, by small perpendicular shafts, into three parts ; and by this arrangement, the lode is finally divided into masses called pitches, each sixty feet in height, by about thirty- three feet in length. In the Cornish mines, the sinking of the shafts, and the driving of the levels, is paid by what is termed tut-ivork, or task-work, that is, so much per fathom ; and, in addition to this, the miners receive a small percentage of the ores, in order to induce them to keep these as separate as possible from the deads, which they would not do, unless it were thus made their interest. The lode, when divided as above described, is open to the inspection of all the labouring miners in the countrj'^ ; and by a most admirable system, each mass or compart- ment is let by public competition, for two months, to two or four miners, who may vvoi'k it as they choose. These men undertake to break the ores, wheel them, raise them to the surface, or, as it is termed, ' to grass,' and pay for the whole -process of dressing the ores — which is bringing tliem to a state fit for market. The ores are sold every week by public auction, and the miner receives imme- diately the tribute or percentage for which he agreed to work, — which varies from sixpence to thirteen shillings in the pound, according to the richness or poverty of the ores produced. The owners of the mine, or, as they are termed, the adventurers, thus avoid the necessity of over- looking the detail of so many operations, and it is evi- dently the interest of the miner to make them gain as THE CORNISH SYSTEM. much as possible. Sliould the pitch, or compartment, turn out bad, the miner has a right at any time to aban- don his bargain, by paying a fine of t'venty shillings. At the expiration of the lease, or whenever they may be aban- doned, the pitches are anew put up for auction, and let for two months more. Some may be getting richer, others poorer, as the work proceeds ; — and thus public competi- tion practically determines, from time to time, the proper proportion of produce which the miner should receive. The different rectangular masses, or pitches, into which the lode is divided by the galleries and shafts, very sel- dom turn out to be of similar value ; and they are of course worked exactly in proportion to their produce. In one compartment the whole of the ore is worked out ; in another only a proportion will pay for working ; while not a few turn out so poor, that no one will undertake to work them at all. Tlie pitches are in most cases taken by two miners, who relieve each other ; and one often sees a father and son, who are in partnership, gradually find the lode turn out poorer and poorer, until they are at last compelled to pay their fine, and qu^'*- the ungrateful spot. The lottery in which the tributei's engage abounds in blanks and prizes. Sometimes the lode gets siuldenly ri(ih, sometimes as suddenly poor, and occasionally a productive lode altogether vanishes, or, as the miners say, has * taken a heave ;' by which they mean, that some convulsion of nature has broken the lode, and removed it off — some- times two or three hundred feet — to the right or left. In order to determine where to find it, those well ac- quainted with the subject carefully observe the fracture ! i O C0HN18H MINEUS IN AMKUICA. or broken extremity of the lode, and from its appearance they ean determine on which side, and in what direction^ to search for the lost prize. Sometimes, again, a lode wliich is paying very well, is all of a sudden found ' to have taken horse' which means, that it has split into two lodes, separated from each other by an unproductive mass, which the miners term a ' horse ;' and although the ag- gregate of the two lodes frequently contains the same (quantity of ore as the original single lode, yet as the ex- pense of working is doubled, it often will not pay to work them ; for in all mining operations it must be constantly remembered, that it is not the quantity, or evea qua- lity of the ores, that can induce a prudent man to work them, if the expenses, from any circunistances, should exceed the returns. In explaining the above operations, we have delayed to describe the draining of the mine, which, in a humid climate like Cornwall, calls for very early attention. The method, however, would suggest itself to any one on very little reflection : for it is evident that, if in the mine there be water which impedes operations, there can be only two ways to get rid of it, — either to lift it out, or to tap the hill. The latter is sometimes impos- sible, and it then becomes necessary to employ pumps, which are worked first by hand, then by horses, and finally, if the mine will pay for the expense, by steam. Without entering into further details, it will be evi- dent that the system of tributers, in the Cornish mines, encourages the miners to live by their wits. Great prac- tice and experience alone can teach them to calculate the ».-.-«*K„,. i-"T--r" r^'Trtr ^ nwu iiifc TUE CUUXISH SYSTEM. value of the ores, and to speculate vt'itli tolerable accu- racy on the capabilities of the lode which they are about to work for a definite percentage of its produce; and each miner thus finds it advisable not to undertake too much, but, by a very natural division of labour, to con- fine his sole attention either to tin or to copper. These ores are completely diflcrent; the individual labourer studies either the one or the other, not both. In the proverbial language of the district, a copperer is not a tinner ; and those w ho fancy that any Cornish miner is able to work any lode, in any country, under any cir- cumstances, will be surprised to hear that at the Poldice mine, where a lode of copper runs absolutely touching a lode of tin, no man who could ventm'c to take o. pitch of the former on tribute, would ever pretend to have the smallest notion of the value of the latter. Generally speaking, the copper- man would no more think of un- dertaking to work tin, or vice versd, than a London plumber would undertake to do the task of a London blacksmith. * V In working by tribute, the minor naturally does all he can to enrich himself; but the system is so admira- bly balanced and arranged by long practice and expe. rience, that it is very dilHcult for him to enrich himself vvitliout also enriching the owners or adventurers. Still, however, there are modes by which he occasionally en- deavours to defraud his employer. The miners m ill some- times steal each other's ores. If they come to a very good lode, they will occasionally hide their ore under the rubbish, or deads, with the viev of making the profit B 3 ^"^jT ''^--^^ *— 10 CORNISH MINEKS IN AMERICA. I fi they are getting appeal* to be inconsiderable, and, of conrse, being able, at the end of their contract, to take on their pitch, for anotlier two months, at an easy rate. They perhaps succeed in this ; but ^vhcn they go to reap tho benefit of their fraud, they sometimes find that a ])rother miner, still more cunning than themselves, has discovered tlieir hidden treasure, and has carried it ofl*. The most usual mode of fraud, however, is a combination between two trilmtcrs, one of vhom is working very rich, and the other very poor, ores. The tributer who is working poor ores has, perhaps, bargained that he is to receive thirteen shillings out of every twenty shillings' worth of ore ; while his friend, who is working the rich ores, is to get only one shilling out of twenty. In the dark chambers of the mine these two men secretly agree to exchange some of their ores, and then to divide the gross profits, Avhieh are, of course, very large; for, by this arrangement, instead of one shilling they get thir- teen shillings out of twenty for a portion of the rich ores, while they lose but a trifle on a corresponding portion of the poor ores. There arc a few other methods of defrauding the adventurers ; but in the diamond-cut- diamond system of the Cornish mines, a severe check upon all such tricks is established by the appointment of a number of excellent men, who are selected from among the working miners, to superintend all their opera- tions. These men, having been brought up in the mines, are, of course, acquainted with the whole system. They have fixed salaries of about eighty or ninety pounds a year, and are termed captains of the mines. Each dis- THE COIIXISII SYSTEM. 11 trict of mines has three captains ; the senior of whom is very properly entitled a grass captain, bccimse his duty is on the surface, while his brethren, wlio overlook what goes on within the mine, are styled underyround cap- tains : — and underground we now beg to leave them, while we say a few words on tlie mode of dressing the ores, or preparing them for market. These ores, or, as the miners term them, 'hures* are all dressed by women and boys, who cob them, pick them, jig them, buck them, buddle them, and splay them, as they may require; — but as these terms of art may not be altogether intelligible to some of our readers, we shall describe the process in humbler words. In order to prepare copper ores for market, the first process is, of course, to throw aside the deads, or rubbish, with which they are unavoidably mixed; and this operation is very cleverly performed by little girls of seven or eight years of age, who receive threepence or fourpcuce a day. The largest fragments of ore are then cobbed, or broken into smaller pieces, by women ; and after being again picked, they arc given to what the Cornish miners term maidens, — that is, to girls from sixteen to nineteen years of age. These maidens buck the ores, — that is, with a bucking iron, or flat hammer, they bruise them down to a size not exceeding the top of the finger ; and the hares are then given to boys, who jig them, or shake them in a sieve under water, by which means the ore, or heavy part, keeps at the bottom, while the spar, or refuse, is scraped from the top. The part which passes through the sieve is also stirred about in water, the lighter portion .^um. ri'6'wni^M 12 COIINISII M1NKU8 IN AMUIUCA. \l is thrown from the surface, and the ores, thus dressed, l)cing put into hu'ge heaps of about a hundred tons each, are ready for the market. They then are forthwith shipped for Waits (it being mueh cheaper to carry the ores to the coals than the coals to the ores) ; and in Wales, after undergoing another trifling operation, they are ready to be smelted — a process of which no Cornish coj)per-niiuer of any order has the slightest notion. The dressing of tin ores is altogether a difl'erent pro- cess, because not only are the ores perfectly dift'erent, but the method of smelting them is also so dift'erent, that it is necessary the tin should be reduced to the finest powder, while copper ore is smelted in small lumps. The tin ore, after being picked or separated from the deads, is thrown into a stamping mill, where it gradually falls under a number of piles or beams of wood, shod with iron, which are worked vertically up or down, — generally by a water-wheel, though at the Pol- dice !Mine thirty-six of them are at once worked by steam. As it is necessary that the ore should be bruised to a very fine powder, the bottom of the stamp is surrounded by a very fine copper sieve, and water being made constantly to flow through this, the ore can only escape when it is fine enough to pass with the water through the inter- stices of the sieve. It then settles into a fine mud, which is composed of metallic particles and powdered quartz-rocks, etc. This mud undergoes a very ingenious process, which the miners term buddling. The metallic and other particles are all of different specific gravities, and the dresser, being aware of this, places the mud at THE COHNI8II SYSTEM. 13 the top of uii inclined plane, and, gently working it about, allows a small stream of water to run over it. In a short time the inclined plane is all equally covered with the mud, ami although, to any person who has not been brought up to the business, the whole mass has the same appearance, yet the dresser is able to distinguish, and to draw a line between, the heavy metallic particles, which have remained at the top of the inclined plane, and the worthless ones, which, from being lighter, have been washed towards the bottom. After separating the one from the other, the worthless part is thrown away, and the metallic part huddled again ; and the process is repeated until the mass retained consists almost entirely of metallic particles. But these particles, which are as fiuo as flour, are not all tin ; generally many of them are composed of mundic (the sulphuret of arsenic) ; others arc copper; and as the ditt'crenee between the specific gravities of these three metals is not sutficicut to separate them by huddling, or washing, it becomes necessary to roast the mass, an operation which the dresser does not himself perform. As soon as the mass is placed in a furnace, and sul.vjectcd to a proper degree of heat, the sulphuret of arsenic goes oft' in white poi- sonous fumes or smoke, and the specific gravities of the different particles of copper and tin are so altered by the action of the fire, that, upon being taken out of the furnace, and again delivered to the dresser, he finds that, in the course of carefully huddling the mass on the inclined plane before described, the particles sepa- rate, — the tin, which is the heaviest, being left upon the j» ^^i*^^!^**** 14 CORNISH MINERS IN AMERICA. I#l 'm upper part, while the copi)ei' is at the bottom. The tin is thcu packed in liags and sold ; and, bein}^ nearly jjurc ractal, it requires, in comparison to copper ore, so little fuel, that it is all smelted in Cornwall. Whoever compares together the two processes of dressing copper and tin ores, must be satisfied that they are completely ditferent attuirs ; and accordingly in Cornwall it is ])erfectly well understood that they form difl'erent trades. The ores are so dissimilar, and rcquuf^ such different modes of treatment, that the experionec which the labourer gains in dressing the one, is of no possible use to him who dresses the other. It is true that both sets of people are called dressers, but it does not follow that, for that reason, they can all dress any- thing ; and to desire a copper-dresser to dress tin ores would, in Cornwall, be considered as preposterous as if one were to send hiid to Aldersgatc Street to dress a turtle, or to St. James's Square to dress a duchess. All this is perfectly well known, and has been so for ages. How strange then was the conduct of our City Mining Companies, in sciidiiig out to America, at the enormous salaries of fifteen guineas a month, so many Cornish tin-dresscrs and copper-dressers, to instruct the native miners in dressing silver ores, of the com^ ;^lti..u; cha- racter, qualities, and treatment of whicu tho; c:q totally ignorant ! But it is time that the underground captains should come to grass, and that the whole body of subterraneous I'ibcarers sho\ Id be released ; and those who have at- ten^'.'il tr their >bours through the day will scarcely I > THL (-OUNISU ^^rrsM. 15 YO'^rct to sec thcra rising out of the earth, and issuing in crowds from the difl'cnuit h«)le8 or shafts around, hot, dirty, and jaded ; each with the rcuiainch'r of his huncli of caiKHes hanging at the hottom of liis fliuniel gar'). .'»s soon as the men come to yruss they repair to the fMigine-house, wliere they generally leave their under- f/round clothes to dry, wash themselves in the warm water of the engine-pool, and pnt on their clothes, Avhich are always exceedingly decent. By this time the ma'uiens and little hoys have also washed their faces, and the whole party (sixteen hundred persons arc employe i in the Consolidated Mines) migrate across the fields in groups, and in difl'crent directions, to their respective homes. Generally speaking, they now look so clean and fresh, and seem so happy, that one would scarcely fancy they had worked all day in darkness and confine ■ ment. The old men, however, tired with their work, and sick of the fi)llies and vagaries of the ontside and the inside of this mining world, plod their way iu sober silence, probably thinking of their supper. The young men proceed talking and laughing, and, where the grass is good, they will sometimes stop and wrestle. The big bins generally advance by playing at leap-frog; little urchins run on before to gain time to stand upon their lieads; while the 'maidens,' sometimes pleased aiul sometimes offended with what happens, smile or scream as eircumstauecs may require. As the different members of the group approach their respective cottages, their nuud)ers of course diminish, and the individual who lives furthest from the mines, like the solitary survivor of a 16 COllNISH MINERS IN AMERICA. large family, performs the last few yards of his journey by himself. On arriving at home, the first employment is to wheel a small eask in a light barrow for water ; and as the cottages are built to follow the fortunes and progress of the mine, it often happens that the miner has three miles to go ere he can fill his cask. As soon as the young men have supped, they generally dress themselves in their holiday clothes, — a suit better than the workiny clothes, in which they walk to the mines, but not so good as their Sunday clothes. In fact, the holiday clothes are the Sunday clothes of last year ; and thus, including his underground jlannels, every Cornish miner generally possesses four suits of clothes. The Sunday is kept M'ith g/eat attention. Tiic mining community, male and female, are remarkably well dressed ; and as they come from the church or meetings, there is certainly no labouring class in England at all equal to them in appearance, for they are usually good- looking. Working away from sun and wind, their com- plexions are never Mcather-beaten, and often ruddy; they are naturally a cheerful people, and indeed, when one considers how many hours they pass in subterra- neous darkness, it is not surprising that they should look upon the sunshine of the Sabbath as the signal, not only of rest, but of high and active natural enjoyment. The ' ticketing,' or weekly sale of the ores, forms a curious featm'c of the system of mining in Cornwall. The ores, as before stated, are generally made up by the tributers into heaps of about a hundred tons each ; and samples, or little b;igs, from each heap are sent to the THE SOUTH AMERICAN SYSTEM. 17 agents for the diffcreut copper companies. The agents take these to the Cornish assayers, — a set of men who (strange to relate) arc destitute of the most distant no- tion of the theories of chemistry or metallurgy, but who nevertheless can practically determine, with great ac- curacy, the value of each sample of ore. As soon as the agents have been informed of the assay, they deter- mine what sum per ton they will ofler in the names of their respective companies for each heap of ores at the weekly meeting or ticketing. At this meeting (held for the sale of tin ores every Tuesday, and for copper ores every Thursday) all the mine-agents, as well as the agents for the several copper companies, attend ; and it is singular to see the whole of the ores, amounting to several thousand tons, sold without the utterance of one single ^vord. The figcnts for the copper companies, seated at a long table, hand up individually to the chairman a ticket or tender, stating what sum per ton they ofler for each heap. As soon as every man has delivered his ticket, they are all ordered to be printed together in a tabular form. The largest sum offered for each heap is distinguished by a line drawn under it in the table ; and the agent who has made this offer is the purchaser. II. THE SOUTH AMERICAN SYSTEM. Having endeavoured to introduce to the acquaintance of our reader the Cornish miner, and the system of mi- ning established in his country, we shall now proceed '<< 1 .- '' — ._ .. -v.- , 18 CORNISH MIXERS IN AMERICA. P ,1 to a general but faithful sketch of the miners and mining of the Spanish colonics across the Atlantic. It is certainly the case that nature has formed the vast continent of America on a scale very different from that of the Old "World. In point of grandeur and raag- nificeuce the outline of the Western world is far superior to that in Mhich it is our fortune to live. We cannot boast of rivers one liundred or one Inmdred and fifty miles in breadth ; nevertheless we have streams of much narrower dimensions, free from the rapids of the St. Law- rence, from the pamperos and sandbanks of the Rio Plata, and broad enough for every purpose for which we can require their aid. We have not, it is true, a range of mountains to equal, in sullen magnificence, the stu- pendous Andes ; but !Mont Blanc is quite high enough for the scientific portion of our commimity, and Green- wich hill quite steep enough for those who feel anxious to roll down it. Wc have neither the dark impenetrable forests of North America, nor the vast interminable plains of tlie Pampas; but we possess, in their stead, the snugger regions of civilized life, and we have beef somewhat tenderer than that of the wild bull, with plenty of good coal to cook it. In like manner, avc do not possess mines of gold and silver to equal those which are said to be deposited in the lofty Cordilleras of the American mountains ; but we have in our own country, in great aljundancc, huml)ler metals, which possess the inestimable value of being within om' reach, and under the protection of our own laws. With respect to the value of the American mines ait |\ '"^• -•aa a a THE SOUTH AiMElllCAN SYSTEM. 19 mmiug mines hitherto diseovercil, there is now but too mueh reason to bcheve that the popular estimate has been, all along, greatly exaggerated. The unprecedented mass of pre- cious metals poured into Europe after the discovery of America, naturally led men to conceive that the ores must have been obtained with great facility, and that, consequently, they existed in great abundance in Ame- rica; but it was not remembered that, for a large pro- portion of these metals, the Spaniards, who dazzled us with the display of them, had never paid the labour of extraction ; in short, that they were gained at first by open plunder, and long afterwards by dooming the In- dians to a life of forced labour and misery, which caused, in many places, all but the extinction of that unfortu- nate race. There can however be no doidit that, I'or a considerable time previous to the Revolution, some of the mines in jNIexico did produce very large profits ; but here again we quite forget that these profits proceeded not from the whole of the mines, but from a very small number. During the Revolution, many of the richest mines were burnt and ruined ; being, therefore, deserted, they gra- dually became filled with water, and, because the natives of America, under su ih circumstances, hesitated to under- take the expense of re- working them, English Companies were formed for the purpose of doing so, — the singu- lar foundation on which all tiiese Companies principally rested being a notion that the natives of America were ignoratit of the proper mode of working their own mines. This notion was radicallv absurd, and it has been acted ."^■aaafcteMT J, fl>>ii ■ 20 CORNISH MINERS IN AMERICA. 1 : * upon with miserable consequences. It now turns out that the American system Avas not only the result of in- telligence, trial, and experience, but was adapted to the character, habits, and state of civilization of the country ; and of this the mode in which many of the poor mines were worked gives, perhaps, the fairest example. A small party of miners were engaged, who, with their tools in their hands, and with a supply for some months of charque, or hung beef, at their backs, ascended forth- with the mountaiii, until they reached the lode, and there, without hut or shelter of any sort, at once com- menced their operations, by sinking small shafts on the most promising points, and following the veins wherever they were found to be richest. By these means they often contrived to extract a small profit from the little lode ; and certainly their mode of operations, under the circumstances, Avas the best they could adopt ; for the locality of the lode was sueh, that it could not bear the expense of being worked on a more extended plan ; and besides, the lode, after all, was so poor that it was only the irregular system of taking its best parts that could at all pay the miner for his labour. Ths native miner therefore Avorked his lode after his OAvn Avay, and he certainly managed to extract from it a profit Avhich no foreigner could hope for. Any one Avho has travelled among the mountains of America, will admit that there are hundreds of spots from which silver has been ex- tracted, Avhieh Avould not pay us for working, even if they Avere in England ; and it seems to foUoAV that the same credit is, in these cases, justly due to the native THE SOUTH AMERICAN SYSTEM. 21 turns out ult of in- ed to the country ; )or mines A small tools in lonths of ed forth- ode, and nee com- ts on the wherever ans they the little nder the ; for the bear the Ian; and was only at could ve miner and he k'hich no travelled lat there )een ex- even if that the e native mii.er, which no man in England would refuse to the local farmer who should extract a profit from land for which no stranger would undertake to give any rent. The plan adopted in the great mines of America was not less suited — we speak from personal observation and deliberate reflection — to the localities of the lodes, the character of the country, and the habits of the popula- tion. In Cornwall, as we have stated, neither miners nor captains of mines, nor assayers, nor adventurers, pre- tend to work upon scientific principles, or to possess any but practical knowledge ; they have no books upon mi- ning, and, until the present day, mining has never occu- pied public attention in this country. But in Mexico the Court of Spain, far from neglecting the mines, looked towards them for its greatest revenue, and cared for them accordingly. Besides many intelligent individuals who went to the mines from Spain, German miners were sent thither by the Court, to introduce, as far as possible, their knowledge and experience ; and a college, or " Tribunal de Mincria," was founded in Mexico, the professor of minerology in which establishment (M, Del Rio) had visited the most celebrated mines in Europe, and made himself acquainted with all that they could show. The working of the mines was also the natural, indeed almost the sole object, to which the most intelli- gent persons resident in Mexico had earnestly directed their attention. They had more people at work in some of their establishments than any of our mining compa- nies in England ever employed ; they had worked some mines to greater depths than have ever been explored, I' I"; \' !' i r» . I! h 22 COHNISII MINERS IN AMKRICA. clown to the present hour, in Cornwall; anrl, as their profits before the Revolution were very great, they not only possessed capital enough to enable them to intro- (luee whatever improvements they eonecived neeessary, but they were quite liberal enough to exert it. To take an example, we are assured tliat the works on Count Regla's mine eost him €100,000. But although the proprietors of the Mexiean mines were naturally anxious to avail themselves of any improvements, which might increase their jirofits or diminish their expenses, it was impossible for them blindly to adopt the customs of the mines in Europe, which all differed from each other, exactly in proportion to the differences of locality, re- sources, etc. etc. in the states where thev were worked. To any one who has for a moment considered the subject of mining, it must be evident that no one general system can be pursued, even within the limits of one country. In America, for instance, even supposing that two lodes quite similar to each other existed on two mountains, of the same altitude, dimensions, and geological construc- tion, but widely separated from each other, it would by no means follow that the same system could be adopted in both of them. The one mine might be drained by means of simjjlc machinery, to be worked by water which might exist iu;ar the spot, or by mules which might be supported in its neighbourhood; Mhile, from want of roads, pasture, A\ater, and so forth, it might be abso- lutely necessary to drain the other by means of an ex- pensive adit. And again, snp})0sing the ores extracted from the two mines to be of the very same class, yet I THE SOUTH AMEKICAN SYSTEM. 23 it was iss, vet they might prohahly require to be treated in a different way ; those near water and wood eould l)e easily dressed and smelted, while the dressing of the others might en- tail not only great tronhlc and cost, bnt also the process of amalgamation ; and, nnder these cirenmstanees, the ores wonld weekly increase or diminish in valnc, accord- ing to the flnctnating prices of qnicksilver, conveyance, and the like. On the other hand, it is natural and pro- bable to conceive that there ivere some improvements in mining which the ^Mexican projjrietor might have over- looked, and which he might have introduced Avith advan- tage ; yet the ^Icxican system, upon the whole, was far from bad. Every one who has visited those mines must admit, that the masonry in the shafts is admirably per- formed ; that the woodwork, though not so neatly done as in England, is strong and sutHcient ; that the arastras, or mills for tlic trituration of the ores, have been brought to great perfection, and that the native miner possesses prodigious physical strength. A great deal has been said against the system of car- rying out the ore on the backs of men ; yet it must be recollected that, where the population is so small, and the lodes are so large, as in IMexico, the proprietors of the mines are naturallv in the habit of searching after the best ores only, instead of regularly working out the lode, as is customary in England. Now, nnder this mode of operations, it is often unavoidably necessary to bring the ore through irregular serpentine galleries, for which the American method of carrying the ores is pe- culiarly adapted, as it saves the expense of sinking shafts ; 24 CORNISH MINERS IN AMERICA. and, upon the wliole, wlien it is considered that the In- dian Tenateros carry upwards of three hundred pounds, which is a fair hurdcn for a mule, it is easy to conceive that the Mexican proprietor had deliberately calculated the cost and produce of their services, and that, under the circumstances of the case, he had foimd human beings the cheapest machines he could use. In fact, it was by hard labour and rigid economy alone that the Mexican proprietor ever dreamt of reaping a harvest from his mine. When the Revolution took place the mines were burnt, and, the timbers l)cing destroyed, the principal workings and galleries fell in : on this the positive value of the mines instantly sank, because the expense necessary for working them was of course considerably increased. The intelligent Mexican niiner, living on the spot, conver- sant with the subject of mining, possessing many data for calculating with considerable accuracy what average wealth the lodes about him probably contained, and what it would probably cost to extract that wealth, did not think it worth his while to work the mines. mj S(!.j mil frj CIT to I th^ \ u III. THE LONDON SYSTEM. The mines, thus lying idle, happened to attract the no- tice of some individuals in London ; and an idea, which, if it had been calmly taken up, might have proved not altogether unworthy of attention, suddenly burst into hasty plans and greedy speculations, which were carried on in a manner little creditable to the prudence or cha- racter of this country. ^\-:mm THE LONDON SYSTEM. 25 the no- Iwliich, led not ■it into parried r clia- It was resolved at once to despateh Cornish miners, machinery, and money, to mines whose situation was scarcely known : indeed, several Companies sent their miners from Falmouth before they had secured even the frailest title to the mines in which the men were to be employed. Tiie subject of working si/ver-mines was one to which very few people in England had ever directed their attention; and nothing can prove the profound ignorance which prevailed among us, more than the assortment of commissioners and miners that were now omimrked for America. To command the Cornish miners, and to conduct the whole speculation, one or two commissioners were appointed by each of the new Companies ; and as there was no class of people in this coiuitry who could boast of any experience in working silver-mines, the directors, who knew no more of the business than the shareholders, were rather puzzled to determine from what profession these commissioners ought to be selected. One of the Companies considered that, in order to guard their property, no person could be better than an officer of the Guards ; other directors resolved that, as engines were to be sent out, it would be well to procure officers from the Engineers. Many selected officers from the Artillery, because they heard that gunpowder was to be required for the mines. Se- veral determined that, for hauling up ores, water, etc. from the depths of transatlantic mountains, officers of his Majesty's navy would be singularly serviceable ; and one Company, whose mines were filled with water and widely separated one from another, concluded that to VOL. I. c 26 CORNISH MINERS IN AMERICA. 'I I i. \l encounter difficulties both on land and on water was in- disputably the province of an ofliccr of Marines; and therefore^ from every one of the above calliugs one or more persons received the invitation to direct the opera- tions of some mining company in America. The ho- noiu'able professions to which these gentlemen belonged aflbrdcd satisfactory pledges, that they would severally conduct their undertakings with zeal and integrity ; but perhaps none will now be more ready than themselves to admit, that their education had in no way fitted them for expounding the systems of raining, smelting^ nraal- garaation, etc. ; and few of them can hesitate to confess that, far from being acquainted with the nature of the covmtry in which their administrations were to be carried on, they were quite unable even to speak its language. However, although they knewuothing, the shareholders, if possible, knew less, and the whole system being that of the blind leading the blind, these forlcrn-hope com- missioners took their leave and started for the New World. The Cornishraen who accompanied them consisted of copper-miners, tinners, copper-ore dressers, and tin-ore dressers; and if these men had only been questioned, we are quite sure they would all have said at once that they did not profess to know anythhig either about searching for silver ores, or about dressing them. The copper-miner would have said, " If you will send me to a copper-mine, and if the copper ores in that mine are similar to the particular description of copper ores which are to be met with in the neighbourhood of the ^ I *> THE LONDON SYSTEM. 27 I Dalcoath mine, where I have worked all my life, I will undertake to tell you which are good ores, and whieli are badj I will tell you whether the lode is kind/y or not, — that is, whether it promises to improve. If you will put me among people who speak English, I will teach them all this, — if you can prevail ou them to learn it ; and // you wish me to work upon tribute, I tell you fairly, I will make the best bargain with you I can." The copper-ore dresser would have said with equal frankness, " I know nothing at uU about dressing tin-hures, because that is a trade by itself; and I come from a part of Cornwall where there are no tin-mines ; but if you will give me copper-lmres, I will undertake to buck them, and jig them, and dress them, and make them in every way fit to be smelted in Wales. I know nothing about silvery 'hures,' or about suiclting any sort of ' hures •' and I don't know what amalgamation means: however, as you oft'er me fifteen guineas a month to go to America, and as I now can scarcely get three, I am very willing to engage." The captain of the Cornish mines would have said, " I will engage to work your mines in America exactly on the plan they are worked in Cornwall. I know all the tricks of the Cornish miners, for I was l)rought up among them ; and if there are the same tricks in Ame- rica, I will do my utmost to put a stop to them : but as I cannot understand what it is foreigners say when tliey speak to each other, I will not answer to find out any- thing beyond what I can see ; and with respect to the foreign miners swallowing pieces of gold, and concealing c2 t I :• 28 CORNISH MINIBUS IN AMERICA. pieces of rich ore in their hair/ arms, tlii^rlia, etc., — which I hear they do, to the amount of four tliouaand pounds a yc ar in one mine, — these are tricks our miners never practise, and I shoidd not know how to prevent them : liowcver, as you oft'cr me one tlionsand poiuuls a year, and as my present pay is ninety-six pomids, I shall be exceedingly happy to go." If any man of common sense, practically acquainted with the character of the Cornish miners, had been con- sulted, he would have said, " It is useless to make bar- gains with these men, which are inconsistent with their habits and experience; their signatures can be no se- curity to you that they will perform more than their nature can pcriwit. They are ignorant of the work you are about to require from them; they are unable to stand against a climate so uncongenial to their constitu- tion. Consider moreover that in Cornwall, not only do the laws of the country ensure protection to your un- dertaking, but every branch of trade offers its support. Fuel, candles, rope, iron, woodwork, machinery, tools, provisions, everything that the miner can possibly re- quire, is furnished him, and, like a spoiled child, he has never known want. Accustomed to follow his own judg- ment, you will find him obstinately bigoted to Cornish customs and modes of working, which must be totally inapplicable to the mountains of America. His experi- ence has made him intelligent in Cornwall, and his own interests have taught him to be cunning : but the latter characteristic is the only one that will bear exportation ; the former, like witchcraft, will vanish in crossing the i THE LONDON SYSTKM. 80 moving ^vutl'rs of the Atlantic. In England, your miner must work »r starve ; but you have yourselves annihi- lated in him all inducement to labour, by the enormous salary at which you have engaged him. By virtue of your contract you may insist upon his going down to the mine, but you cannot make him labour when he is there; for, raised above his work by the independent salary of one hundred and fifty pounds a year, which you have been so inconsiderate as to ensure to him, he will do little more than look about him and drink to your health." Indeed, one of tho Cornish miners did w rite to his brother in Cornwall, " You have no idea, IJill, how thirsty this here hot, dry country do make us !" The opinion of the native miners of America was unfortunately never asked ; and assuredly the first ren- contres that took place between them and their new rivals were strange scenes. On one of these occasions (we write as an eye-witness) a small i)arty of our tinners (^ and copperers had at last, with great dilKculty, succeeded in climbing to the summit of one of the lofty ranges of the Aiules. The Cornish men, dressed in their holiday clothes, were flushed with the fatigue of riding to such a height, and their healthy, florid cheeks seemed ready to burst with the blood dancing within them. They rode on their mules to the mouth of a snudl mine, and had scarcely arrived there, Avhcn aii old Indian gradually rose from the earth beneath them. Excepting a small piece of cloth round his middle, he was naked, and a fragment of rock, weighing more than two hundredweight, rested upon his bare back. His red frame was sinewy rather ; : I 1 1 30 CORNISH MINERS IN AMERICA. than muscular^ and there was not a line in liis Avithcrcd countenance Avhich did not seem to tell its own tale of suffering. He looked as if he had long wanted food, yet betrayed no symptom of exhaustion. Standing firmly under his gigantic load, the poor man gazed wildly through the lank black hair that streamed and dangled before his face, as if utterly surprised at the appearance of the strangers, — to whom, could they have understood him, he might justly have said: " For what purpose have the inhabitants of the Old World come again among us? Is it to relieve our wants, or to add to our misfortunes? You have driven us fi'om our plains ; our ancient empires are in your haiuls ; we have been, and we are, unable to stand against you ; but do you still s;u'iously believe that our whole race has neither judgment nor strength ? Do you conceive that we could have procured you the pre- cious metals in such abundance without gaining expe- rience in the arts of scjirching for them ? Do yoii fancy that they are here in profusion ? Enter the mine l)e- ncath us, and you Avill perceive how trifling is its value if you abstract from it our labour. In what do you pretend to instruct ns ? Are you better acquainted with our mountains than we ourselves? Or, are you prepared to bear the sudden changes and rigour of this climate with more firmnc^ ? How can you expect to work cheaper than we do ? Will you live in a more humble hovel than that before you, or will you subsist on coarser food than it contains? Look around at the cheerless snowy mountains by which we are imprisoned ! Is it in your power to fertilize or to cidiven them? Do you \ \ ^ ~ THE LONDON SYSTEM, 31 you fancy that you are stronger than an Indian ? If so, uso those M'cighty tools, or carry this rock which I support : if you admit that you would sink under the fatigue of doing either, you can be superior to us in nothing but the faculties of your minds ; and if you be really miners, you must know but too well that intellect need not be very rapid, or bright, to keep pace with, or to enlighten him who passes his dreary life in the rocky bowels of these Avild mountains ; that to force one's way through them is a much greater exertion of the muscles than the brain. Finally, though you be children of the civilized world, deign to profit by the experience of an old Indian, when he assures you that the mine in which he has worn out /lis life is incapable of giving any labourer clothes such as you wear, or food such as it has apparently been your good fortimc to subsist upon !" Besides the instruction which the City Mining Com- panies expected that their eomniissioners and Cornish men were to impart to the Indian miner, they had also calculated on great advantages which they w^ere to receive, by introducing into America machinery and capital : and upon these two points it is therefore ne- cessary that we should make a very few observations. JMachinery is the representative of labour, and it is applied in England generall}^, and in our Cornish mines in particular, because, upon calculation, it is found to be an economical substitute for labour. The great ninety- inch steam-engine on the Consolidated Mines in Corn- wall, for instance, cost at the foundry two thousand pounds ; the expense of putting it up was four thousand i 32 CORNISH MINERS IN AMERICA. pounds, and the pit- work two thousand more. In twenty-four hours it consumes about one hundred and eighty Ijushels of coals, which are delivered at one shil- ling a bushel. In return for this calculable expense, the engine lifts sixty-four gallons of water per stroke, and it can work twelve strokes in a minute. It is, we take it, evident that the advantages of such an engine are scru- pulously to be weighed against its expenses, and that it can only be introduced with prudence when the former exceed the latter. Now the engines sent to Mexico were of seventy-inch cylinder, and being similar to those used in Cornwall, their advantages, or rather powers, are everywhere the same ; — that is to say, they are capable of lifting a certain number of gallons per stroke, and of working so many strokes in a minute ; but in America what is to be the expense of this? Even at the first glance it must appear that the cost of transporting a seventy-inch engine to the mines even of jNIexico must be something quite enormous. There is not only the unhealthy climate of Vera Cruz to contend with, but the Mhole country is one continued obstacle to the undctak- iug. It is necessary to make roads, to construct bridges; and such unnatural etforts are, and must be, attended by unnatural expenses. Supposing, however, that all these ditUcultics are, by dint of money, surmounted, and that this unwieldy labourer does get to the mines, — at what expense is he to be supported there ? What is to be the price of his fuel ? and what are to be the salaries of the artisans who must unavoidably be maintained for the purpose of repairing every sort of accident that may :* i i THE LONDON SYSTEM. 33 happen to this many-limbed and most delicate colossus, in his unnatural exile? Without attempting to calculate the expenses of all these contingencies, we do not hesitate to assert, that if the same, or similar, difficulties could exist in Cornwall, there would not be at this hour one steam-engine in that country. Again, with respect to the benefit which the City Mining Companies expected to derive flora iiitroducing capital into America, it may justly be said that the ad- vantage here was more evidently in favour of America than of the English shareholder. It was asserted in London, first, that the American mines were exceedingly rich ^ and secondly, that they were lying idle for want of capital ; but it was rather singular that the facts offered in support of the first assertion contradicted the second. To establish the riches of the ^lexican mines, for ex- ample, Ave arc told how Josc[)h Laborde, a Frenchman, who came into ]\Iexico very poor, suddenly acquired im- mense wealth, by working one of the mines of Tlapujahua; and how, having dissipated this money, the same Joseph again realized one hundred and twenty thousand pounds by workijAg a mine in the Intendencia of Zacatecas. The fortunes acquired by ]M. Obregon, created Count Valen- ciana — by Don Pedro Tereros, created Count Regla — by the INIarquis del Apartado, etc. etc., are also quoted as tests of the riches of the ]Mexican mines. B»it as these immense fortunes were all made by i)ersons who com- menced with little or no capital, it seems to follow as the proper conclusion, from the very showing of the case, that if tiiese mines are now as they were then, it is not c 3 I :l 3i CORNISH MIXERS I\ AMERICA. necessary to have large capitals to work them ; that if they arc not as they were, the same profits cannot be expected from them ; and, upon the whole, that if the Mexican adventurers consider the niines, under existing c-ircumstances, not worth their attention, they ought not in prudence to engage ours. In England, the advantages of great capital are evi- dent. In all our large undertakings, money is as power- ful as steam, because, like that power, we are enabled to confine it, and to apply its force on the particular point, and in the particular direction, which is required. But take from us the laws of our country, and the advan- tages of public competition, which bind and protect our capital, and money, like steam, becomes as impotent as moke. It required, surely, no extraordinary sagacity to foresee that a large capital suddenly appearing in Mexico, Chili, Buenos Ayrcs, etc., before we were acquainted with the characters of those countries, — before our titles to the mines were secured, — before the laws ol" these young States were even strong enough to secure our titles, — before we had taken any precautions to prevent the mo- nopoly of the numerous articles wc should require, — would only operate as a temptation to the Governments, and to every class of society, to tax and plunder us ; in sliort, would attract obstacles instead of removing them. IV. RUINOUS RESULTS. We have now endeavoured to show what, in theory, might have been expected from the scheme of forwarding RUIXOUS RESULTS. 35 in < ' i English commissioners, miners, macliinery, and eapital to the American mines ; and it only remains for us to lecord a few of the events which have already attended the actual execution of the project. The confusion and hurry in which miners and miners' wives, machinery, and conunissioners were huddled on board, can hardly be forgotten. It may also be remem- bered that these Companies were of such hasty growth, that they were scarcely considered to exist at all, until it could be reported " that the miners and machinery had been (the phrase was ominous) despatched." As soon as this was made known, the value of the shares rose rapidly, though no rise, however unexampled, could keep pace with the expectations of the people, who fancied that the gold and silver was (as the secretary of one of these com- panies admirably expressed himself) "glaring and glis- tening, and jumping into their pockets." However, -when the Cornish miners, assaycrs, doctors, surveyors, etc. etc., had been confined on board ship a few days, tiie mixture began to ferment. In a short time two of the ships returned to Falmouth, the miners having taken possession of the vessels, because the captain would not give them fresh beef; and if these City Companies had reflected for one moment — si mens non lava fuisset — they would have learnt, from this trifling incident, the folly of sending out, on such an errand, men who had never known restraint, and who were evidently unpre- pared to submit to the privations which must be required of them amidst scenes and labours so entirely new. How- ever, the captains were changed, the vessels were filled •^ I III 36 COIIXISH MINERS IN AMERICA. J ! with better provisions, off again they sailed, and, when well away from land, their murmurs were soon hushed by the wild winds that howled ai'ouud them. One vessel had weathered Cape Horn, when the commissioner, re- solving to save the French brandy, delivered to each of the miners, per day, a quart of light claret, which had been purchased on the voyage. The Cornish men, for some days, were pleased with the change ; but they soon declai'cd that it was cold — that there was no warmth in it — that it was poor stuff — finally, that it was sour. After some days, the miners, in a body, all came aft. The spokesman who was to address the Commissioner held in one hand a quart mug of claret, and in the other a basin, which had evidently contained brown sugar, and, with an unusual acidity of countenance, he said to the Commissioner, " Sir, I will drink no more of this elarcty wine! I have put all this here sugar into this here stuff*, and it is sour yet ! " By degrees however these little gripings and fermentations subsided, and the different vessels at last landed their passengers and cargoes at their respective destinations. The fate of most of the South American Companies was very rapidly decided. On the arrival of the Cornish miners, headed by their military, naval, or marine com- missioner, etc., it was, in most cases, found that the mines which the shareholders expected to have had for nothing, were in the hands of persons who had exceed- ingly well calculated on the distress in which these Com- panies were about to be involved. Enormous sums were accordingly asked for mines which, upon inspection. i RUINOUS RESJLTS. 37 J proved to be poor, without resources, and adapted only to operations upon a very small scale. !Many of the commissioners, at exorbitant prices, purchased such mines, at distances of seven hundred or eight hundred miles from each other; and, while the natives were smiling at the Cornish tinners, who were standing on the suiuiy sides of the streets, devoured ])y mosquitoes, and cutting water-melons the wrong way — the Govern- ments began to ask for loans ! Although the object of these Companies was to make money, and not to spend it, yet one hundred thousand dollars were lent to one Goverimient, and smaller sums to others, until the ca- pitals were expended. In short, one plethoric London hobby after another was bled to death ; and, after agents and governors had, like vampires, sucked its vitals, the hide and carcase, being of no value in South America, were, with due form, delivered over to the shareholders, who, gazing in groups at the melancholy spectacle before them, and comparing their defunct favourite with his cock-tailed picture, taken as he trotted out of Corrdiill but a yeai' before, mentally exclaimed, " Heii ' quantum mutatus !" On the arrival of the different mining parties in Mexico, they too, with all diligence, prepared to carry into exe- cution their respective plans. The miners and machinery were landed, but of one com[)any of forty-four indivi- duals, almost the first act which twenty-six of them performed was — to die. They were buried chiefly on Mullan beach, at Vera Cruz, eight of them in one grave. AVe possess an elegy, written at Vera Cruz, by one of 38 COKNISH MINERS IN AMERICA. i 1 1 I i 1 J '/■ 1 Im the survivors of the party ; but the subject is too serious to admit of its publication. However, as the reader may be curious to see a specimen of a Cornish miucr's poetry, we su])mit a few verses of a baUad, written by William Simmons, of lledruth Highway, one of the individuals in the service of the Famatina Mining Company. — " Conic nil my friends and ueiglibours round, give eiir, while i disclose The dangers of a foreign voyage, in which wo was oxposetl. " Its of a mincing company, who left their native xhore, And suil'd for South Amei'ica, in search of minend ore. " We all embark'd at falmouth port, oiu' voyage for to proceed, In the good ship Marquis of anglesea, a luuidsom ship indceu. " Tiie thirtivnth of September, when our odcrs was for sea, We hauled up oiu* topsails, and we soon got under way. " Our friends they stood upon the hills, while ihey could have a view ; We gave a cheer of three times three, and bade our isle adieu. " We had not left our island long, before we was surjjrised To sec oiu' burk so toss about, upon the swelling seas. " The twenty-first of November a gale of wind came on ; We lost one of our comrades here, he from the deck was blown, " We saw our friend toss'd on the swells, that runs like moinituuis high ; Sailors and men was active then, and eveiy means did try, " The oders then was backen sails ; wo for a while lay to, And after using every means, we bid our friend adieu, " He simk beneath the heavy swells, near the Brazilian shore ; The greedy sea inclos'd him in : we never seed him more. " lie left a wife and "hild on board, to share their loss apart ; The crys that echo'd tlu-ough the ship whould rend the hardes heart. ******* " Then on our yoyage wo did proceed, i'm sorry to relate, We was drove on a bank of sand, that's in the River Plate. " Sea after sea did drive us forth ; all hands was call'd on deck, For to consult the best methode to save us from a wreck. ' Wlien much exertion hero was used to git her off again ; But after toiling all the day, we seed our work was vain. c f BUIX0U8 RESULTS. 39 " To tlu'ow the cargo overboard ; our lives was valued then, And try to save our slmtter'tl hulk, to bear us sale to huid. " When many thousands pounds value, was tlivown into the sea, Wo had no hopes of gitting off, our ship so heavy lay. " Expeeting ol" a gale of wind to blow from the south-west ; The only means wo had to try, was to eut down our nuist. " But while wo held a couneil here, our look-out did express * A sail in sight ! a sail in sight ! and standing towards us.' " Just at this time a schooner came, our wants for to relieve, Part of our cargo for to save, though they was Potugees ;" etc. etc. Attempts were made by the different companies to transport their maehincry to their respective mines. One Company, at an enormous expense of money and life, succeeded in dragging their engines to their nearest mines ; a second managed to transport the boiler in se- parate plates, but the bobs were left on one ptirt of the road, and the cylinder on another. Others were obliged to abandon altogether so ruinous an undertaking ; and their Birmingham steam-engines, and other ponderous pieces of machinery, are now lying on the beach at Vera Cruz, and, on ditfcrent parts of the road, miserable mo- numents of the reign of this unexampled gullibility. Instead of feeling their way, and confining their ope- rations each to a single mine, these companies, as soon as they broke loose from their dead weight of machinery, ran riot over the country. Careless of the distances which separated one mine from another, and led by the nose by the crafty, intelligent natives, they travelled about, and made such numerous purchases of mines, that it was morally impossible even a small proportion of them ever could be worked. For instance, one single 1 |! f ; 40 CORNISH MINERS IN AMKRICA. Company engaged tlic whole or parts of thirty-fwe large mines, besides smaller ones, nine haciendas, and three hundred mills, Avhich last they took on leases for nine or twelve years; and this same Company, after expending about eight hundred thousand pounds, have now just determined to abandon all their mines together, except- ing four. Of the Cornish miners who went to Mexico, a considerable proportion have been fortunate enough to find their way back, and these men, who are now at their old work in Cornwall, openly say that the native miners, could labour harder and longer than they could ; that they found them cunning and pilfering ; that they were once seen diiving off twenty mule-loads of ore, but in such numbers that the Cornish guard did not dare to interfere ; that many people were imposing on the Eng- lish Companies ; and that, after all, the mines, in their opinion, were poor. These statements are corroborated by many recent letters from Cornish miners, who arc still in Mexico, and of which the following literal extract may serve as a specimen : — " The mines is very poor. Tlie engine is working at Mine, and nearly in fork (i. e. dry), but for my part I believe it would be so well if the water was running out to adit." Having now laid before the reader data which, we conceive, may enable him to form for himself some opinion on the subject of Cornish mining in America, we have but a few general observations to offer. In all countries the fascinating speculation of mining is a lot- tery, composed of more blanks than prizes. In fact, in Cornwall, as cLsewhcrc, it is perfectly well known that ■i^mp RUINOUS RESULTS. 41 we mines, in the aggregate, arc a losing conecrn ; that the quantity of copper, for instance, annually extracted in Cornwall, is not worth the money annually spent in Cornwall in copper mining. A nnmbcr of people there- fore lose money by mining in Cornwall, and a few gain very large profits. Now such being the case, no pru- dent man, surely, would recommend a stranger to invest money in mining generally, although, under certain cir- cumstances, he might speculate in it to a very large amount himself. Many of the proprietors, or, as they are termed, the advent urertt, of the Cornish mines, sup- ply the mine with coals, candles, rope, iron, or other materials, and the ])rofit M'hich they thus gain collate- rally, supports them in case the main speculation should fail. Indeed, if a man has but a small share in a mine, and furnishes it with a large quantity of materials, it may be his clear interest to vote that operations should continue, even though the mine itself be a losing con- cern. — Again, if the mine is turning out badly, and if the adventurers are privately desirous of getting rid of their shares, it is not impossililc to give the mine a mo- mentary appearance of doing well ; and lastly, if it is doin^ well, it is sometimes for the int jrest of the adven- turers to conceal that fact. From these and many other circumstances, all people who are well acquainted with the subject concur in advising a stranger to have nothing to do with mining in Cornwall, unless he is himself to be resident in that country, or unless he can implicitly depend upon the judgment of some friend who is a resi- dent ; lor, as some one must have the blanks, it requires 43 COKNISH MINKRS IN AMKRICA. M % consi(lcr.'il)lo iiitclligciiro ;in(l (Mumiii}^ to avoid tluMU. It is from a practical kiio\vk'(i«^c of tliesc facts, that the Cornish speculators ha\c all a very bad opinion of the South American miiiinj^ companies. Without entering into any long-winded argununit on the subject, these people (we have had occasion to talk with not a few of them) very significantly say, " J)o you think toe would have anything to do with a mine, if we could not look into it?" And the same general argument equally a[)plies to Mexico ; for it is avcU known that the Mcalth which was extracted from the Mexican mines, even be- fore they were destroyed, biu'ut, and inundated, and M'hen jjrovisions and labour were infiniti'ly cheaper than they ai'e at present, proceeded from a very few mines j that, although there were many speculations, yet, com- paratively, only a very few advimturers were enriched. The great question therefore is, — admitting that mi- ning in America is a lottery in which prizes are again to be gained, who are the individuals most likely to obtain them? Without hesitation we reply, tlie natives of the country. They have already shown their s\q)erior intel- ligence and ability, by inducing us to make expensive purchases, which we have since found it necessary to abandon. They possess great practical experience and local knowledge, and they can themselves supply their mines with materials at a cheap rate. They imderstand the mode of governing, rewarding, punishing, and watcli- ing the Indian labourei's. They are acquainted with the laws, good and bad, of their own country; and have prol)ably influence enough to get the duty on one article IIUINOUS RKSULTS. 48 iiuTcascd, and on anotlicr diminislicd, as their interests may rc(inirc. They liavc the natural goodwill of the Government and of the conntry in their favour. And yet if a eompany of the wealthiest of these foreigners, ignorant or not, were to land in England, with men and machinery, to possess themselves of our Cornish mines, and set about working them, would thi'i/ succeed? — would they carry off the i)rizes ? In the expectations which our Companies have formed, in the arrangements they have made, and in the failures which they have encountered, they have already exposed a measure of ignorance and absurdity which will surely satisfy every reflecting mind, that mc arc the last people who are capable of carrying off the mining prizes of America, — that our share in that lottery are the Llanks. We have possession of some mines, it is true, and it is reported that wc inv grattiially succeeding in draining the water from a few of them, and in obtaining ores ; but at what priot arc the ores rising, and at what ex- pense is the water sinking? Supposing, even for a moment, that, after paying all our exj)cnses, we should succcec' in jjrocuring silver at less per ounce than wc can here purchase it at our markets, is there no chance that we mii/ht, b^ so doing, excite the jealousy of the natives or the a\ ariee of the Government ? Might not the open enmit_\ of the one, or the seei t impositions of the other, rob us of our profits? li property could possuily exist in England under circumstances at all similar, would it not, by every prudent man, be considered in fearful jeopardy? >-^'i>i* ^ ^.^ 44, CORNISH MINERS IN AMERICA. .11 Ought we to be satisfied with the mere countenance and professions of any Government, or any people, unless they could offer us security which neither could dare to attack ? But it is argued that our City Mining Companies have gone too far to retract ; that several of them have al- ready spent from eight hundred thousand to a million of sterling money; that they therefore must proceed; and the shareholders are generally not unwilling to cling to a doctrine which tends to save their shares from anni- hilation — for we all know now that shares may flutter about the Stock Exchange, though the speculation to which they belong has been long defunct. In reply, we must humbly remind these shareholders that the subject is one m Inch cannot much longer be veiled in ignorance ; tliat, if they have no rational hope of succeeding, they may increase their loss, — they cannot hope to retrieve it ; that to retire from a bad undertaking is one of the first axioms among miners ; and that when the simplest Cornisliman has taken a 'pitch' Avhich ceases to be ' kindly,' he abandons his work, and pays his forfeit. To conclude : we have avoided, as much as possible, alluding to any particular Company or to any set of spe- culators ; and we withhold from publication many curi- ous enougli facts which we possess, solely because they might tend to injure the interests, or hurt the feelings, of particular individuals. Whether the directors of one or two of these Companies have acted honourably or not, — whether they have given to their shareholders cor- rect or incorrect pictures of the reports actually trans- RUINOUS RESULTS. 45 raitted to them by their commissioners, — these are mat- ters which we have no desire to discuss. We have levelled our observations at the system in general ; and we have done so, because we believe it to be one which is bringing not oidy great loss, but very serious dis- credit, upon this country. r 1(5 ENGLISH CHARITY. '■i i ll^ Ox the day the Poor-Law Amendment Act passed into a law, it occurred to us, that were we to go personally to any spot where it might he determined to hring the new code at once into operation, we should l)e enahled calmly to review the old condemned law in its full opera- tion, as well as the first strife, stnigglc, or conflict be- tween it and its infant antagonist ; and as the practical working of the Act might possibly prove very different from the theoretical intentions of its framers, on a point of vital importance to all classes of our society, but es- pecially to the poor, we resolved to judge for ourselves, and gravely to form our opinion on a strict, impartial analysis of facts. With this serious object in view, we accordingly ac- companied the Assistant Poor-Law Commissioner,* who first sallied forth on his official errantry into one of the most troublesome districts in the country. For four months we never left him for a moment, — in fact, we were his shadow. We inspected every poorhouse in * Sir Francis B. Head. THE OLD SYSTEM. 47 East Kent, — attended all his public meetings of magis- trates, parish oflicers, and ratepayers; observed how and why he divided the whole of East Kent into Unions, — remarked by what assistance he succeeded in eft'cct- ing this object, as well as obtaining the consent in writing of the Guardians for the dissolution of all the old ex- isting Unions. We pored over his calculations, sifted his dota, studied his reports : we listened to the sandy arguments raised against him, — and, with equal impur- tiality, we listened to his replies. By conversing with the magistrates, yeomen, parish officers, peasantry, and paupers, we made ourselves acquainted with public o]^- • ■ V as well as private interests, and it will now be oiT idcavour to lay before the public, in the unpve- tcnding form of a few unconnected notes, a short review of these proceedings. THE OLl) SYSTEM. To give our readers a full and correct notion of the poorhouses in East Kent would be almost as diihcult as to sketch him a pictiire of the vari(!gatcd surface of this globe. We will however endeaAour to commence the task by describing, first, the buildings, and then their inmates. The River workhouse, on the great Do\er road, about three miles from the town, is a splendid mansion, which Mr. Robins would designate as " delight- fully situate," and fit for the residence of a " county mem- ber" or " NOULEMAN OF UANK." Modcstly retired from the road, it yet proudly overlooks a meandering stream ; 48 ENGLISH CHARITY. ! nm\ the dignity of its elevation, the elegant ehasteness of its architecture, the massive structure of its walls, its broad double staircase, its spacious halls, its lofty bed- rooms, and its large windows, form altogether " a delight- ful retreat," splendidly contrasted with the mean little rate-paying hovels at its feet, which, like a group of wheelbarrows round the Lord Mayor's coach, are lost in the splendour of the gilded spectacle. And though, to be sure, it is not yet paid for ; — though many of its aged paupers, unable to reach its summit, naturally enough prefer to live "cheap and nasty" in a clinker-built shed which adjoins it ; — yet not a bit the less on that account does it stand a monument of our inexplicable wealth, a top-heavy symbol of our prosperity, a picture of English policy J it is, in short, the same sort of reward for the pauper that Greenwich Hospital is for the sailor. Many of the Kentish poorhouses, which about forty years ago were simultaneously begotten by Gilbert's Act, bear a strong family resemblance to the proud hero we have just desr vibed. Some arc lofty, some low, but all are massive and costly ; indeed, it Avould seem that, pro- vided the plan was sufllciently expensive, no questions were asked. A considerable number of poorhouses, again, are composed of old farmhouses, more or less out of repair. Some are supported by props, — many are really unsafe, — several, living alone in a field, seem de- serted by all but their own paupers, — some stand totter- ing in a boggy lane, two miles from any dwelling, — and in many eases they are so dilapidated, so bent by the prevailing wind, that it seems a problem whether the I I THE OLD SYSTEM. 49 chasteness 5 walls, its lofty bed- a flelight- lean little group of irc lost in hough, to f its agofl y enough milt shed ,t account wealth, a f English il for the r. out forty rt's Act, hero we ', but all hat, pro- luestions )rhouses, less out lany are eem de- i totter- g,— -and ; by the her the J # i '':.-■■ worn-out aged inmate will survive his wretched hovel, or it him ! Now, without attempting to argue which of all these buildings is the most sensibly adapted to its object, we will only humbly observe, that all cannot be right. We might even say, that, as they are diflcrent, if one should happen to be right, it would folic w that all the rest must be wrong. However, bidding adieu to brick walls and mud ones, broad staircases and ladders, slated roofs and thatch, we will proceed to enter thesi' various dwellings. In some of the largest of these habitatio ^ an attempt has evidently been made to classify and arrange the in- mates, and, generally speaking, every apartment is ex- ceedingly clean. In one large room arc found sitting in silence a group of motionless, worn-out men " with agf grown double," but neither "picking dry sticks" nor "mumbling to themselves." With nothing to do — with nothing to cheer them — with nothing in this world to hope for — with nothing to fear — gnarled into all sorts of attitudes, they look more like pieces of ship-timber than men, In another room are seen huddled together, in si- milar attitudes, a number of old, exhausted women, clean tidy, but speechless and deserted. Many, we learned, had seen brighter days ; and in several instances we were in- formed that their relations (we will not insult them by calling tlmm friends) were "well off in the world ;" but whenever we asked whether they were often visited, we invariably received the same reply, "Oh, no ! people sel- dom takes any notice of 'em after they once gets here." In large, airy bedrooms (separate of course) were found 50 ENGLISH CHAIUTY. men and Avomcn all b(;(lri(ltlcu. As avo passed be- tween two ranges of tivstles almost touching each other, nothing was to be seen but a s(;t of wrinkled faces, hieh seemed more dead than alive. Many had been lyiug there for years ; many had been inmates of the poorhouse for fourteen, fifteen, and eighteen years ; few seemed to have any disorder : they were wanting no- thing, asking for nothing, waiting for nothing, Imt their death. As wc passed one poor man, he said he knew he was dying, and, raising his head froui his pillow, he beg<Tod hard that "little George" niiglitbe sent for; but the master, accustomed to such scenes, would have con- sidered the request inadmissible, had not the Assistant Commissioner ventured rather strongly to enforce it. The only instance, in all the poorhouses wc visite(1, of any stranger attending upon its inmates, was in a large room containing about thirty bedridden old fe- males. On a trestle there was lying a woman who was not well ; slio was ill — very ill ; — in fact, she was dying. Her face was much flushed, she kept pulling at her bed- clothes, and, excepting in one direction, turn which way she would, slic seemed restless. The only attitude that appeared for a moment to suit her was when she cast her eyes upon a fine healthy peasant lad, dressed in a smock frock saturated with brown clav, who sat bv her bedside. It was her son. Syllabic by syllable, and with his finger helping as he proceeded, he was attempt- inj? to read to her the ]3ible. The job was almost more than he could perform ; his eyes, however, never left his book for a moment, but hers occasionally turned upon THE OLD SYSTKM. 51 aged 1)9 )} yo >> 90 )) 76 J5 75 liis face, and then upon the sacred volume in his hand, tlic sight of both iniited seeming always to afford her a momentary ease amounting almost to pleasure. In the Coxlieath United Workhouse we found the fol- lowing group seated round a small fire : — David Kettle William Pinson John Hollands Edward JJaldwin John Latherby They -were all leaning towards the lad Latherby, who, in a monotonous tone of voice, was very slowly reading the following prayer to them, out of a tract pid)lisheri by the Society for Promoting ' ristiau Knowledge : — " O Lord Almighty, who giveat to thy creatures health and strength, and when Thou secst fit visitest tlieni with siclniess and iufirinity, be pleased to hear the prayers of those who af now afflicted by Thy hand. Look down from heaven, beho' visit, and in Thine own good time reHeve them, and dispose them to place all their trust and confidence in Thee, not in the help of man !" On our taking the pamphlet from his hands, to copy the M ords into our note-book, the five men never altered their attitudes, but during the M'hole operation sat like the frozen corpses which, in Napoleon's retreat from Moscow, were found still in the attitude of warming their hands roiiiid the white dead embers of their de- parted fire ! From these sad pictures of decrepitude we were ge- nerally conducted into the apai'tment belonging to the ]j 3 II ! i 62 ENGLISH CHARITY. a1)lc-bodic(l women, who were ordered to rise from their chain, in honour of the entraixce of strangers. In their robust outlines certainly no ivrinkfe't were to be seen ; whatever was their complaint they equally laboured under it all, — Natui-e's simplest hieroglyphic suthciently denoted their state, " And coming events cast their slmdows before." Adjoining this room there was alwiays a den of conva- lescents, — a little land flowing with milk and honey, easier imagined than described. On descending the staircase, the next scene was a room full of sturdy labourers out of work. In hob- nailed half-boots and dirty smock-frocks, they were generally sitting round a stove, with their faces scorched and half-roasted; as we passed them they never rose from their scats, and had generally an over-fed, a mu- tinous, and an insubordinate appearance. A room full of girls from five to sixteen, and another of boys about the same age, completed the arrangement. In some eases they were said to be " completely separated ;" that is to say, they could not possibly meet without going up stairs, Avhich "was forbidden." In other cases, they were, strange to say, separated only "till dusk;" and in many instances, although their rooms were " divided," they met together, whenever it so pleased them, m the yards. Such, prior to the ptassing of the New Poor Law Act, was the general state of the lavffe poorhouses of East Kent. In the smaller ones, the minute classification we have mentioned has been found impossible : all that is THE OLD SYSTEM. 53 m their In their le seen; abourcd ficieutlv f conva- honcy, c was a In hob- cy were scorched ver rose 1, a mii- oom full ys about In some (1 ;" that 5oing up ses, they ' and in ivided," (1, 111 the 3w Poor orhousea effected, is to put the males of all ages into one room, and all the females into another. In these cases, the old are teazed by the children, who are growled at when they talk, and scolded when they play, until they be- come cowed into silence. The able-bodied men are the noisy orators of the room ; the children listen to their oaths, and, what k often much worse, to the substance of their conversation ; while a poor idiot or two, hideously twisted, stands grinning at the scene, or, in spite of re- monstrances, incessantly chattering to himself. In the women's hall, which is generally separated only by a passage from the men's, females of all characters and of all shapes live with infants, children, and young girls of all ages. We could carry the description of these two rooms much further, but it would be painful to do so. We forgot to mention that we often found a large attic in tlie roof, used as a dormitory for " able-bodied labourers and their wives." Each bed was separated from its neighbour by an old blanket. In this society of "low life above stairs," — in this chance-medley of " Ics frercs et Ics soeurs de la charite," — it must be sup- posed that the ladies first modestly retired to their nests ; yet we could not help fancying that if husband A should happen unintentionally to make a mistake, the iwsition of his shoes might perchance throw B, C, D, and the rest of the connubial alphabet, all wrong. Whether such a higgledy-piggledy arrangement be creditable or not to a civilized country, it is not our present intention to inquire ; sutHce it to say, that it only formc'i part and parcel of the Old System. . 54 ENGLISH CHAUITV. I'l til Ai t In the small, tottci'ing hovels wc hiivc mentioned, wc f;cncrally found seven or eight aged people at the i)oint of death, an able-bodied labourer or two, with a boy or a young girl, who, in answer to our inquiries, was gene- rally, before its innocent faee, said to be " only a love- (iuild." Sometimes we diseovered but two or three inmates; in tliese diminutive poor-huts, however, there was always a being termed "The Governor;" although in one case wc found only two i)aupers, one being " llis Excellency" and the other his guest : — "And so llis man Fridav Jii'pt his house nent and tidy. For you know 'twas his duty to do so ; Like brother and brother, wliu live one with another, So lived Friday and Robinson Crusoe." In these poorhouscs, so falsely called workhouses, we found that the cost of keeping the paupers varied as widely as the character of the dwellings. As there at present exist in England about 50(),()()U in-door poor, the reader can calculate for himself that a single far- thing per day, profusely expeiuled upon each, amounts to rather more than £o20 a year : one woidd conceive therefore that something like a fixed sum Mould have been determined upon ; but from the reports of tu o hundred and eighty parishes, which arc now lying before us, it a})pears that the cost of maintaining a pauper in Kent varies from 2s. 2d. a week to 4s. Gd.; and, strange to add, these sums are, in general, granted equally for all inmates, — men, women, children, and even infants a month old; sucking-babies being, by pauper law, as costly and as consumptive as full-grown ploughmen. THE OLD SYSTEM. 55 )ne(l, M'c lie point I boy or as gouc- II lovc- )r three cr, there ilthough A; houses, aried as there at or poor, iiglc far- amoimts conceive ihl have of two g before uiper in strange tally for nfauts a law, as ghmen. ^. !5v this avrangciufnt it is evident that it is made the in- tcrcst of the governor, who is generally the contractor, that there should exist as many babies in his dominion as can conveniently be produced. However, although there is this wide difference in the cost of the various poorhouses, yet throughout these receptacles the diet differs but little. \Vhilc the inde- pendent laboiu'cr is subsisting, in nuuiy localities, on little more than bread and water, almost evervwhcre the Kentish pauper has what are called three meat-days a week, in many cases four incat-days, and in some cases live; his bread is many degrees better than that given to our soldiers; he has vegetables at discretion; and, (^specially in the large workhouses, it is declared with great pride that "there is no stinting," but that "we (fives 'em as mtir^ victuals as ever then can eat." It should howe\er be observed that we detected a clauoC in this Act whii.'h it is only fair should be explained. It is very true that the ploughman in the workhouse receives as much as ever ho can eat, "provided always," says the miwritten code, " that he clears his plate before he asks for more." In order therefore to obtain a thii'd edition of meat, he must previously manage to swallow greens and potatoes enough to choke a pig ; and as he is confined to the stye, with no other work to perform, oiir reader will not perhaps be surprised at our previous statement, that the able-bodied pauper in the poorhouse has the tight appearance of being over-fed. But casting the ledger aside, admitting that poor- houses of all shapes are cqiudly good, — that it is beneath > m 56 ENOLISII rirARlTY. the cli<;riitv ofu wealthy nation to care wlictlicr tlio nation pays 2.V. 2^/. or l.v. Od. for a pauper's fare, or whether such a l)ein<? bursts himself or not, — supposing even that the poor-rates of this country were to l)e paid by our satellite the Man in the Moon, — let us for a moment consider what is the efl'eet of this system of stall-fed charity, and what truth there is in those lines which pathetically declare " How \vi(li> tho limits stniid Btlwivn IV spleiulitl unci u Imppj lund." \Vc have stated that, in viewing with considerable at- tention some hundred workhouses, we found aged ])eoplo of all descriptions, — those who had basked in prosperity as well as those who had known of this world nothing but its adversity, — alike deserted ; and while they stood or rather lay Ijcfore om* eyes, we could not help ftvling at each spot how mistaken had been the kindness which, by the smell of hot joints, had attracted so many poor helpless parents to enter the gates of their parish poor- house, over which might too justly be inscribed, " La- sciate ogni speranza, voi eh' intratc." As we gazed upon the poor dying jjauper, lying deserted on his trestle, always (with the solitary exception we have mentioned) had we thought — " Had he no friend, no daugliter dear, Jlis trembling voice to soothe and cheer? Had he no son? " We wished we could have added — " Ay, once he had, But he was dead ! " THE OLD SYSTEM. 67 The coarRC fact, however, was, that th(^ fellow, far from hvAi\<f (Icud, was in a heer-shop, pointed out to him hy a hoard which very imperfectly explains to us whether it is the heer or t\\c peamtit which is requinul hy Act of Par- liament " TO UK DIIUNK ON TUK IMIKMISES." The infant, we all know, must he weaned from its mo- ther, the apron-strin;? that tethers the hoy to her side must he cut, l)ut that filial hand hy which nulure hinds a man to his aged j)arent should only he severed hy her death : like the white wand of (larter King-at- irms, it should never he hroken until it is dropped into the grave, upon the hollow-sounding eolKn-lid of its monarch. It seems, however, consistent with that stall-fed system -f English charity, which, as shall soon he shown, posses ics Hfty-four governors for encouraging women to desert their infant offspring, that there should also exist in the country a premium on the opposite vice, namely, for every ploughman who will consent to desert his aged mo- ther. Were it not for this application of our poor-rates, there can he no douht that the English peasant, and ahove all, the Kentish peasant, would feel an honest pride in lahouring for the support of his parents, and that, in- stead of expending his sturdy powers in hiiiwclf digesting meat, cabhage, and potatoes in a poorhoi'.>.e, he would most willingly wear himself down in the noble duty of providing for his mother's comfort, ]jy repaying to her in decrepitude the sustenance which in his infancy he had borrowed of her; for, can Government beer-shops offer him enjoyment superior to this, which Nature has implanted in his heart? But to give her five meat- days d3 I I) •I :l • 'II ^ i. \ 58 ENGLISH CIIAlllTY. a week, to maintiiiu lier in the style iu which the parish trough feeds its guests, is totally beyond his humble po\vers, and thus he is actually encouraged to leave her to her fate. \VlKni once the filial tie is broken, — when once, emigrating from her chimney-corner, she has en- tered that painted sepulchre the parish poorhousc, filial duties appear to her son to be at an end. She has a better dwelling, better clothes, better food, better fires, than he couUl possibly provide for her; and little does he or she think of that horrid chasm, of those countless hours which, witli no ostensible cause of complaint, must intervene l)etween her first parish meat-day and her death. Those who weigh moi'al happiness against food, — who measure intellectual enjoyment by the imperial gallon, — who consider that misfortune means a half-empty sto- mach, and that jjcrfect contentment is feeling "chock lull," — will (Uuy tlie force of the foregoing arguments; ])ut we ho[)c tlu re are still many who will keenly feel that to end one's career by fourteen or eighteen years' neglected bauishiucnt in a poorhousc ; — to close a morn- ing's activity by a long dreary evening of woe ; — for the mind to he l)uricd alive so long before the bo^y be in- terred ; — to be (Ungraded in a parish iu which it was once one's pride to be distinguished ; to be abandoned by those whose helj;lcss iuiancy one had laboured to support, is not only to be an English "pauper," but to be " poor in- deed ! '' The misfoitune to the parent and son is mutual, — both sink; the Ix^er-shop and the poorhousc are alike destructive, they play into each other's bauds ; — the one THE OLD SYSTEM. 59 entices tlie lad to desert his motlier, the other fatally induces the mother to leave her son : ahsolved from the duty of providing for his p.arent, he tries, encouraged hy Parliament, to distil "on the premises;" — happiness from sti'ong beer J she, etpially encouraged by the parish, ex- pects in the workhouse to extract filial consolation from hot meat. Both are deceived : he becomes brutal, mu- tinous, demoralized, — she lingers without happiness, and (lies deserted. V/c have painfully witnessed and deeply leflcctcd on tlie scenes just described ; and we have no liesitation in declaring that, in our humble opinion, the late pauper system of in-door relief (totally regardless of its enormous expense) has, in the case of our aged poor, created infinitely more misery than it has alleviated. Firmly believing that there exists on the surface of this earth no soil more congenial to the growth of every domestic virtue than the breast of the Engl:..n peasant, it is but too true, that if thorns be found growing there instead of fruit, — if the crop be poisonous instead of Ijeing nutritive, — our political labourers, not the land, must be cursed. The ancient Greeks revered even the bones of their ancestors; we have taught our peasantry to bequeath their parents, blood, body, and bones, to the workhouse ! AVith respect to the manner in which children have l)een systematically demoralized in many of our small poorhouses, the error, we conceive, speaks so clearly for itself, that we need not oft'er to be its advocate. A mix- ture, in about equal parts (never mind a scruple or two), of boys and girls, idle men, and abandoned women can m ENGLISH CHARITY. J • ^ •i i w only by a miracle he unproductive of evil to society ; wc will therefore content ourselves with repeating a practi- cal opinion which was thus expressed to us by a governor of twenty years' experience : — " When children" said Mr. Cadell, "have been brought up in a ivorkvs, they have never no disposition to shun a workus." It appears, therefore, that in all cases where children might have been made to provide for themselves, or might have been thrown on their relations for support, the parish has culpably attracted them to their ruin. Having now treated of those two extremes — the aged pauper and the children of the poorhouse, — we Avill offer a few remarks on the mode by which the Kentish poor- hougcs cunningly manage to get possession also of their able-bodied inmates. To induce a fine athletic fellow to barter independence for dependence, to exchange voluntarily liberty for con- finement, and honest Mork for idleness, was not only the last, but tlie hardest job which stall-fed Charity had to perform ; and her exertions to gain this darling object have been proportionally great. To have persuaded the Kentish ploughman to become a pauper, by appealing to his brains, would, she knew, have been hopeless, but his stomacli was a house of easier access: — "La barri(/a," she exultingly exclaimed, " lleva los pies ! tripas Uevanpies /" She accordingly, in Kent, in order to bait the workhouse trap, arranged, printed, and published a bribe, which we consider as one of the most astonishing documents in the pig-stye history of our poor-laws. Before we submit a few extracts from this ludicrous m fki 4 THE OLD SYSTEM. 61 :l '» proclamation, we should mention that, having entered within the last few months a vast numhcr of cottages, having quietly conversed with the inhahitants, and seen and sat down with them at their meals, we are enabled to assure our readers, that we have met ^vith many instances of laboui'crs' families (we do not allude to those who steal corn for their pigs) subsisting a whole week without meat, — nay, of there often being scarcely food enough of any sort for the children. In one instance, wishing to have a model of a workhouse executed, we called upon an artist of considerable merit. Although he was preparing some works for a public exhibition, it was evident, from his look, as well as from the sunken features of his family, that they not only were, but long had been, badly fed. The man of genius, however, was soaring high above his stomach ; in fact, his outline, like our own, showed scarcely any stomach at all. We found it impossible, in fact, to divert his conversation from his favourite subject. But while he mounted for a moment into his attic, in search of a new specimen of his art, we quietly observed to his wife, who sat surrounded by four children, that we feared they were badly off. The woman, with tears in her eyes, pointing to a basket of potatoes in the corner of the room, assured us, that excepting a sheep's-head among them all, they had tasted since Sunday week nothing but potatoes and bread. We admit this sad picture to be an extreme case ; yet, in every country it is unavoidably necessary that the in- dependent (and honest) labourer, who, besides himself, has a large family to support, must, to a certain degree, ■^■A -gi ;: i lij w i ■' i i ji (>2 ENGLISH CHARITY. he poorly fed; but, on that aceount, he need not si'\k in his own estimation, he ought not to he allowed to sink in the estimation of the world. If, however, the pauper be unjustly elevated many degrees above this man, the latter bof lom's in faet relatively degraded ; and he Avill not feel tliib the less, although it may be declared by all the political economists in Europe that he has been left untouched and absolutely at rest. Now, supposing a large body of labourers, subsisting principally on bread, potatoes, and water, should, in going to their work, stop for a moment to read the following proclamation, which we lately tore from the walls of one of the Kentish Morkhouses, we only ask, what effect would it naturally produce ? — " Conditions of Contracts. " 1. The contractors to furnish ivarm, wholesome, siccet, dean, comfortcddc l)e(ls, bedding, blankets, and slieets, and good, sufficient shoes, hats, bonnets, caps, and wearing "ppiirel of all kinils, as well linen as woollen ; two things of each sort for every j)oor person admitted into the workhouse, suitable to tiieir age and sex. " 2. The contractors to provide as many servants as shall be necessary for cooking and servimj up the victuals ; for vvdshing, cleaning, and keeping in order the workhouses and premises, and the poor therein, and attending on them when necessary. " 3. The contractors to provide and supply good, sweet, wfiolesome, fat meat, and other articles of diet, in sufficient quantities for the consumption of the poor. The meat to con- sist of good fat beef, leg-of-mutton pieces, and chucks of good ox-beef, and good wether mutton. " 4. The beer to be good sound small beer. THE OLD SYSTEM. 63 " 5. The flour to be the heat household flour. " 6. The biead to be the best second wheateu bread. " 7. The cheise to be good Gloucester cheese. " 8. The butter to be good and clean. " 9. All the other articles to be good in their respective kinds. " 10. No pork is to be given to the paupers (!), and no salt meat, only such as shall have been salted to preserve it from spoiling, and which shall be dressed within four days from the time of salting." But lest the })anper, becoming tired of this homely fare, should threateu to quit the poorhouse, the con- tractor is occasionally to fuiniish a nice little variety for him, as follows : — " For every poor person, the following, instead of the usual dinner allowance, shall be provided, viz. : — "11. On Christmas-day, fourteen ounces, before cooked, of good baked beef with vegetables, one pint of strong l>eer, and one pound of plum-pudding. " 12. On two days, in the summer, six ounces of bacon with green peas, " 15. On two other days, six ounces of bacon with oeans. " 16. On four other days, good mackerel. " 17. On four other days, good fresh herrings. " 18. On six other days, good salt-flsh instead of meat. " 19. The poa-soui) to be made according to the following receipt ; and the Assistant Overseer to see that the stiijulated ingredients are all put in." Here follow the weights oi the ingredients of this national sottpc maiyre, wliich is to be made merely of " beef, peas, potatoes, locks, onions, and Scotch barley." m»^Ki 'm^iw i.U ', 61 ENGLISH CHAIUTY. "19. The contractors to provide firing for vVivrnnnij, und candles for ligi ting the rooms of the workhour^o, anil ffoodvouX fires in the gen< ral room, from the 1st of October uiitil the lat of May , and during tlie time when Mres are v:,t ^ttinn^ tod to keep ;/ood coal fives in fourteen rooms, at the usual huv»r, in the morning and evening, for tiie paujx *'s to b(.!" the water in their tea-kettles." There n,re about fourteen or iHiecu v^jtlicr clause's ia this ourioUcS contract, wliich relate to minor lip 'ries scarcely worth attention, such as — ' 22. The<'nitractors io have the paupers' hair cut once in six weeks;" and " 2''i, 1 iio co)iti'actors to provide wigs for such as wear thci^i or require them." ! ! ! A desire to pull down the aristocracy of a country proceeds only from jealousy ignorant oi' human nature ; for almost every one who has ever lived among republics (particularly among those of the New \A'orld) has been sufficiently convinced that a spit-on-the-earpet equality is very far from desirable ; still many may honestly fancy that it might be a blessing ; but to disorganize society ))y reversing our system — by elevating the pauper above the labourer, is a pot-bellied philanthropy which one cannot sufficiently despise. Of all seductions it is the nastiest, for it is the swinish government of the belly. We read of luxury and effeminacy having created na- tional imbecility and premature decay ; but there is no other instance on record of a wealthy country, in rude health, bursting its social band by such false principles of arrant gluttony. How can we possibly conceive that the lower orders of THE OLD SYSTEM. 65 this country will stand against tlic storm ? How can we expect that they will be foolish enough, mad enough, to gain their bread by the sweat of their I)row, so long as we publicly notify to them, that there is roast-beef and plum-pudding, bacon and beans, green peas and mackerel, strong beer, fresh herrings, and warm wigs, for those Avho will cowardly fly from their work ? What authority can a parochial officer, the Assistant Overseer, have in their eyes, when they find that he is ordered to mix their soup, and to take special care that the Scotch barley, the leeks, the beef, and the onions, are duly congregated V It happened that Avhen we visited the poorhousc of Canterbury, which is conducted under a proclamation very similar to that we have just quoted, we witnessed a scene worth relating. The city is composed of fourteen united parishes, each of which furnishes t,"o citizen- Guardians. The government of the poor belongs also to the mayor and corporation, who are, generally speaking, liberal, well-educated men ; but as the citizen Guardians outvote them, they have long agreed to absent them- selves from the workhouse court. The vulgar pride of this " court" is to stuft' the lusty pauper at the expense of the lean ratepayer ; and on the day of our visiting their workhouse we found that little puddle in a storm. The contractor had happened to furnish a batch of bread, nutritive, wholesome, and, to any hungry man, most ex- cellent, but a shade darker than w as deemed fit for a pauper. AVe will not say how much softer it Avas than ship-biscuit, or how very many degrees whiter it w as than the bread we have eaten with the Russian and Prussian ' "1' 'I i I' t, i] 06 EN'QLISII CHAlllTY. ii ! I armies ; wc will merely ohsorvo, it was considerably whiter than the "broion tommy" of onr own soldiers, or than that speeies of luxnry known in onr fashionable world by the enticing appellation of brown bicad. The (^autcrl)ury Guardians, however, had declared it to be luifit for paupers, and the Governor had conseqncntly been obliged to furnish them with white bread from one of the bakers of the town. The Assistant Commissioner, happening to be hungry, not only greedily ate of this re- jected bread, but respectfully forwarded a loaf of it to the Poor-Law Board, who probably requested Mr. Chadwick to digest it and report thereon. The contractor, however, having the whole batch on his hands, and from pride not choosing publicly to dispose of it, ordered it to be given to his pigs. On proceeding to the styes, we found these sensible animals literally gorged with it. All but one were lying on their sides in the straw, grunting in dreams of plethoric ecstasy : a large, hungry, piebald hog had just received his share, and as, looking at the Poor-Law Commissioner, he stood crunching and munching this nice bread, there was something so irresistiljly comic in his eye, something so sarcastic and satirical, something in its twinkle that seemed to say, De guslibus noii est disputaudum ! — " Citizen Guardians for ever, and down with the New Poor-Law Amendment Act !" — that the contractor himself was seen to smile, — " And the Devil he smiled, for it put him in mind Of England's connnereial pi'osperity !" The general ellccts produced by this ignorant system may be sufficiently explained by a very few instances. THE OLD SYSTEM. 07 Mr. Curling, the governor of ^largate workhouse, de- clared in our hearing, — " I am an eye-witness tliut, by over-feeding the pauper, we have made the labouring classes discontented." lie added, — " During the fashionable season at Margate, the donkey- drivers, the fly-drivers, and hundreds who are employed by the London ladies, generally receive '2-is. a week, but it is all hpent in beer, — there is no i)rudence, nothing saved ; for the cant jdu'ase among them is, We have alivays tlie Matmoii-houae to go to." We may observe that the cost of 201 in-door paupers at Margate has amounted to about .C2000 a year. An (iverseer near Canterbury told us that a youug man had lor nearly a year been receiving 1*. 6d. a week from the liarish, every Friday ; — that he always spent this money in hiring a gun to shoot with on Siuuluy ; — and that, whenever he received his money, he returned laui^hing with it in his hand to his fellow-workmen, saying, with much less elegance than truth, " What a set of d — d fools they are !" ]Mr. John Davies, the overseer of St. Peter's, at Sandwich, said, — " They only wants to thrust themselves into the workus, to get a bellyfull of good victuals, and do nothing, but I won't hi 'em /" It will sound incredible that the overseers themselves, as well as the governors of the workhouses, are perfectly sensible of the vice of this shocking system ; but that such is the case the following extracts from certificates, addressed to the Assistant Commissioner by several of If f 68 ENGLISH CHARITY. 11 the most respectable of the governors, etc., on the l)th of February hist, will clearly show : — " Huvhjg been Governor of the poorhouse of this ])arisii, antl also clerk to the Guurdiuns, for fourteen years, I have had an oi)portunity of witnessing tlmt the paupers in this house live a ^ijreat deal hotter than many who are trades- people, and who help to support them ; and I am eortain of the fact, that many of the independent labourers do not get meat once a week. The boatmen of this place, at present, are in a very distressed situation ; antl I think it is very often the case that they have no meat in the course of the week. " (Signed) A. B." " I have been Guardian of this parish for seven years, and I ain (piite sure tlie paupers in the workhouse live better than one-third of the ratepayers of this parish ; and I have very frequently said to parishioners, the people of our house live much too well, and that they are better off than half the inhabitants ; but the rejdy was, ' That is no business of yours.' " (Signed) C. D." "Having tilled the situation of Governor these fourteen years past, as also superinteu»lent of the unemployed poor, I am sure, from the experience that I have had of witnessing much of the distress of the industrious ratepayer, that he can- not in any degree live e(iual, nor have those comforts, the poor in our workhouse have ; which I have frecpiently stated to our board of officers, but the reply has been, ' If the pa- rishioners are satisfied, what need you trouble yourself about it V " (Signed) E. F." " I think that not one-half of the ratepayers of our parish live as well as the )»oor in the house ; and none of our out- poor live so well as the in-poor. I have often ex])ressed this opinion in committee. " (Signed) G. H." THE OLD SYSTEM. 69 "I really bclkvc tliiit many of the poor ratepayers do not live lu'tter, or have meat so often in tlieir family, as the people in the poorliouse, as I have been freqiiontly given to under- stand hy the (liifert-nt colleotors of the i)oor'H rates ; and am sure that, out oF the five iuindred boatmen, mmv. of thorn live so well as the people in our workhouse, and very few of the boatmen get meat at all. " (Signed) K. L." But, if these letters do not, the Kentish fires throw quite liglit enough on tlie eHcets of this system. In no region it has been our fortune to visit have we ever seen a peasantry so eoiupletely disorganized. In no enemy's country that wc have seen, liave we ever encountered the ehurlish demeanour which tliesc men, as one meets them in tlieir lanes, now assume. Perfectly unedu- cated, — ncitiier mechanics, manufacturers, nor artisans, — in point of intellect little better than the horses they drive, they govern in a manner which is not very credit- able to their superiors. Their system of robbing corn for their horses has, they believe, been almost sanctioned by custom into law ; and as, with something like jus- tice, they conceive they are entitled to be higher fed than the scale established for the pauper, nothing they ran honestly gain can possibly he sufficient tu make them contented. And yet the countenances of these country clods arc strangely contrasted Avith tueir con- duct. We would trust them with our life, — in no coun- try in the world are there to be seen infants, boys, and lads of more prepossessing appearance, — honesty, sim- plicity, and courage adorn them ; proving that they are 1 Ml' ■ t 70 KN(iMSII ClIAItlTY. the (Icserndaiits of tlioso who were oiic<^ complimented by th(! remark, that they Averc "non An^li, sed An- geli." Their women, hke tlieir hops, have ten thousand clinginj;, elaspin;^^ nnchdating, hloominj; beauties; and there seems to be no rivison Avhy, of tlieir lov(;ly native county, it should not still be said, "Ex his, qui Cantium ineolunt lonji^e sunt beatissimi." But it is not of their materials we complain, it is only of our own workman- ship : — our Ponr-luv's have mined them ! The curate of a Kentish villajife told us, that while he was that morninu; earnestly exhorting a poor family to abandon their depraved habits, the labourer rose from liis ehimney-eorner, and told him, that " If he did not quit the cottage that moment, he would kick him out." An association is at this monumt forming among them to resist the Poor-Law Amendment Act, and, in fact, all other acts and deeds, as will appear by the following extract from a eommnnieatiou recently sent to London, by the rector, ehurehwardens, and overseers of Witters- liam. After stating that " the unions are in the habit of holding their meetings very frequently at various places in this neighbourhood," they proceed to detail the following evidence, which a labourer had just given to his master : — " He says, two men stand, one on each side of the door, with drawn swords in iheir hands : they that intend to he members are sworn in, blindfolded, to fight if they are wanted ; and that two of the greatest men in London are at the head, and they send others into the country ; and they say that they have enough men to crush all the rest now, if they like to do Tin; ()I.I> SYSTEM. 71 it. TIio man snyw, tliiit lu> oxpoctM, boforo a liiontli's time, thnt nearly all tin; parish will have joined it, and what do not like to join, they intend to compel : n(» parish relief to ho received hy a member. The nnm nays, that they inteiid that the Kiiij^ shouhl have less, the parsons less, and the ]»oor people more, to live on ; and when I said that it was out of their power to nndtc that alteration, he said he expected it would cause war. I asked the nuiu if he thought they would take in any farmers as mend>ers of the Union ; he said, they wonhl not admit farmers into the room, for they were a<.;ainat farmers." It is impossible to read tlic rustic proiiraiinnc of this hob-nailed Pjirliununit without a sense of ridieulc ami disgust : hut ought there not to l)c also a deeper feeling of our own responsihility, in having, hy our sins of omis- sion and commission, so hu'gely contributed to the de- gradation of tlu>se uneducated and misguided uuni ? The Assistant Connnissioner, having witnessed more of these scenes than we luive tinuj or inclination to de- tail, felt it his duty respectfully to address to the Poor- Law Commissioners a letter, froui which wo shall now make some extracts. "During the inspection which I have made of one hundred and ninety-one parishes, I have very earnestly endeavoured to inform myself of the relative scale of diet between the pauper and the independent labourer ; and tlu^ result of my own ob- servations having been in every instance corroborated, without any hesitation, by the magistiates and j)arochial officers whose opinions I have asked, I feel that I have now sufficient autho- rity to state to you, that as far as regards diet in this county, the following is a fact which cannot be denied : — Poor is the diet of the pauper in the poorhouse ; Poorer is the diet of the small ratejtayer ; Poorest is the diet of the independent labourer. 73 ENOLISU CHARITY. ' % ., "In many instances I have found that the hard-working independent labourer (and even the small ratepayer) has great difficulty in getting sufficient food for the seventh day in the week, while at the workhouse (take that of Swanscombe and Stone for instance) the pauper who sits almost the whole day in indolence, scorching himself before a stove, receives — Four hot meat meals per week, Half-a-pound of butter per week, One pound of bread per day, Vegetables of various sorts, as much as he can eat. One i)int of beer per day. Pudding on Sundays. " So far therefore as diet is concerned, the independent la- bourer, as well as the small ratejiayer, exist with the pauper ahoi'e them, instead of beloto them ; and although a sense of honest pride induces them still to cling to their independent .station, yet the double error of such a vicious system is — " 1st. That it encoun ges the labourer to be'^ome a pauper ; and, " 2dly. That it discourages the pauper from becoming an independent labourer. " I feel confident that the parish officers, as well fft the ma- gistrates, in all directions, would, if called upon, fully corrob()- rate the foregoing statement, many of them having declared to me, that though their parish pays an annual subscri[)tion to a Union, or receiving poorhouse, yet they are afraid to send any labourers out of work there ; the reason being, that the able-bodied paupers are fed so well in the workhouse, that if once labourers are sent there, they won't Icive it. " It will, I am sure, be evident to you, that were we to be totally regardless of the enormous expense of this system, yet, so long as it is permitted to exist, so long must the scale re- main disorganized^^so long will the number of paupers in- crease — the number of independent labourers diminish, — until the fabric of our society, like a cone resting on its apex instead THE OLD SYSTEM. 73 of its bai=ie, sliixll faU to the ground. But the remedy is, fortu- nately, as simple as the disorder is complicated ; for, without interfering with the independent labourer or the small rate- payer, if we will but resolutely place the pauper hpJon^ him, instead of allowing him to exist (tbove him, he can thus only rise by gaining his own independence ; while the in(lc[)endcnt labourer will no longer have an inducement to rise by becom- ing a pauper. "Having had occasion, last week, to speak separately to the overseers of sixteen parishes, I took the opportunity of jiuttirs'.'' to them the following question ; to which everj- individual, without hearing what others had said, replied without hesita- tion as follows : — " (2.— Supposing the pauper were hencefi>rward to receive porridge for breakfast, bread and cheese or potatoes fi>r dinner, and porridge for supper, do you consider lie would, on such a diet, be as well off as independent labourers with large families * " A. — Yes ; Jte would he better off. " My own observation enables me most deliberately to con- cur in the above evidence ; and seeing the mischievous effects as well as the injustice of such a system, I feel it my duty re- spectfully to recommend that public notice should as early aa possible be given in this county, that from and after — say the Ist of May next, the diet of the pauper in the workhouse should no longer be better than that of the independent la- bourer, and accordingly, that from the period stated it should consist of bread, porridge, cheese, and vegetables, with an Mllowance of meat only for people oi above fifty-five yearg of age, or for such paupers as the medical attendant may recom- mend it. " If what are commonly called the 'poor ' were really the poorest members of society, I feel confident that this county would strongly oppose the slightest reduction in their diet ; but I have found the magistrates, farmers, and especially the VOL. I. i; It- • ;! ^¥ 'I Ht 74 ENGLISH CHAllITY. yeomen of Kent, so sensible of the vice of the present system, that I am confident tliey entertain the manly feeling that it is ftilse benevolence to disorganize society by forcibly obliging the small ratepayer to feed the pauper better than himself; and that it is injustice, and not charity, to raise men living in idleness and dependence above the labourer who is maintain- ing his independence by the sweat of his brow. " In most of the towns in this county (people there not being aware of what is passing in the country) I have observed that public charity has ignorantly bestowed its affections on * the 2^001' ' instead of on * the poore?' ' and on ' the 2worest ' members of society ; and accordingly, in such towns I hear great sympathy everywhere expressed for the pau[)er — very little for the indei»endent labourer — and none at all for the small ratepayer, although, as I have already stated, the two latter classes are actually subsisting on less food than the idle inhabitant of the poorhouse. By this class of townspeo[»le considerable clamour would consequently be raised ; but with so just and honest an object in view, such opposition, I con- ceive, need not be feared ; particularly as it would cease so soon as the beneficial effects of the adjustment should have proved the reasons for which it had been ordered. " With respect to the formation of large Unions, you are aware that I am still prosecuting that object ; at the same time it must be evident that no possible arrangement of bricks and mortar Ci''i possibly cure the evil of the late administra- tion of the Poor-laws, so long as you shall allow the dietary of the pauper to be superior to that of the small ratepayer and labourer. "(3igned) F. B. Head." The simple act of lowering the diet of the poorhoiisc to at least the level of the iudependciit labourei^'s fare, wonkl, we believe, without any other assistance, be siifti- cient, placidly, to correct almost every disorder to which THE OLD SYSTEM. 75 our late Poor-law system has subjected us ; for as soon as the poorhousc shall cease to be attractive, the whole of the physical as well as moral machinery for repelling applicants must at once become useless luinber ; and if a healthy reluctance can only be created among the in- dolent (never mind whether it proceeds from the dictates of their heads or stomachs) to enter the parish gates, it must unavoidably follow (action and reaction being equal and contrary) that a manly desire to support themselves Avill instantly burst into being. Again, if the robust, well-disposed peasant does not like i)oorhouse fare for himself, neither will he like it for his aged mother ; and he will consequently prefer the pleasr<re of labouring for her support, to the drunken enjoyment of Government beer-shops. As soon as workhouse life shall become j)<^^' se whole- somely repulsive, the rude, amorous ploughman will pause a little before he contracts a marriage which must, ere long, make him its inmate ; whereas, if (as in the Old System) his parish insists on ottering him, not only the blooming girl of his heart, but heavy ir.inps of sa- voiuy food, the warm bribe, like the bride, must be irre- sistible. As soon as we shall liave fortitude enough to make workhouse diet " low " instead o^ high, not only will the labouring classes find a hundred excuses and in- genious expedients for not coming into " tlie mansion," but even among its inmates there will be invented simi- lar excuses and similar expedients for quitting it; no one will come, no one will remain, if he can possibly help it. Society will thus be restored to a healthy state ; in short, e2 Hi! li llf 1 AWm^ 'Ii: If t :l. 76 ENGLISH CHARITY. i:| wc appeal to every man of common sense, — avc go still higher — wc ask, is there a philosopher or a mathemati- cian in existence who can deny the pure truth of the two folloAving axioms: — 1st, That in the creation of every sensi/Ae Poor-law system, the workhouse ought to possess a centrifugal, and not a centripetal, influence ; 2nd, That in every country under the sun, if x denote the situation of the iiulependent lahourer, x minus 1, and not x plus 1, ought to be the condition of the pauper; and that the only legitimate mode of bettering him is by raising the value of ^ ? Simple as these trutlis are, yet we have violated them both. We have made all our workhouses ceutripptal instead of centrifugal; wc have raised the condition of the pauper, not only to ^+1, but in many cases to a^-f 21 ; and we seriously ask, has not the pu- nishment of our oftcnce gradually become an annual fine, in the form of poor-rates, of more than seven millions ? " But," exclaimed a Metropolitan orator the other day, his hand constantly striking his stomach (i)rol)aljly mis- taking it for his heart), " shall it be said, Gentlemen, that v)e feed our paupers on coarse food ? God forbid ! Is the cruel triumvirate of Somerset House to determine the minimvni on ivhich our trembling nature can subsist ? God forbid!" We would ask tlie defenders (and, icgion-like, they are many) of these pvg-nosed principles, whether it ever occurred to them, instead of speechifying, to relieve the poor, — by which expression we mean the industrious and hard-working poor, — for in such a charity they, as well as all of us, might most benaficentiy combine? Will k -Tr..^ TiiE OLD SYSTEM. tliey enter into a subscription for raising the coiulitiou of the independent la))ourer? Oh no ! on the contrary, they drive their bargaias wHh him, if it be mciely for digging a sooty garden eighteen leet by seven, as hard as they are able. " Wliat lias a peasant's fanJly to do," they exclaim, " with the price of fowls, eggs, butter, pork, or anything else that he brings to market from his cottage or his stye?" But if they have to deal with tlie iHiuper instead of the labourer, — if the parish purse, and not the orator's, be doomed to pay, — if parish con- tracts are to be increased in proportion to tlie demands on pai'ish charity, then it is manfidly argued in the ves- try, — " Gentlemen, as Britons, let us be Uueral ; as Em/- Jishmen, let us be profuse ! Shall it be othenvise ? God forbid /" Of all the ioathsome vices that disgrace our na- ture, none appeal- more odious and repulsive than when they dare to assume the mask of a virtue ; and, con- trasted with such gouty charity and such self-interested philanthropy as this, how simply beautiful do those words of truth and religious benevolence sound to us, which sternly declare, " For even when we were with you, this we commanded you, that if any woidd not work, neither should he eat;" again, "Tlie industrious eateth to the satisfaction of his apijctite, but the belly of the sluggard shall want ;" and again, " The sluggard will not plough because it is cold ; tlierefoi'c shall he beg iu harvest, and hav? nothing," I' li r 1V, *<1 1 i ■ ! ^ i '■ ■ 5' 78 ENGLISH CHAUITY. NIGGERFUL JOIIX. In one of the visits we made to a very large poor- house in East Kent, we particularly remarked, among the motley group that surrounded us, a tall, slender boy of about fourteen, whose eccentric history having just flitted across our memory, we shall place it here as an episode. Some fifteen years ago, there entered the family of a wealthy individual, a young, industrious, Ilclxvlooking Kentish girl, who embarked in life in the menial capa- city of a housemaid. Her tables shone ; her sfairs grew cleaner and cleaner ; not a si)idcr could exist in her do- minions ; nothing couiplained of her but mops and soap. Some praised licr for one excellence, some for another ; but all agreed that so charming a complexion had never been seen; it was a mixture, infusion, or suffusion of red roses and white ones, the colours of Avhich seemed alwavs on the move. The slightest fear made her look pale j the smallest joy turned her all red ; ami as she was cither friglitcncd or delighted at everything she saw, her changes were as beautiful and as evanescent as those in the dying dol[)liiu. With all these blooming flowers at her command, it seemed natural enough that a steady gardening-man in the neighboiu'hood shoidd ca^ officio fall in love witli her ; and after a long, tedious, pro- tracted co\irtship, the happy day of their marriage ar- rived. Her dinn{)y fellow servant, the cook, clumsily danced at tlivj wedding ; while the great black ^'ootnian, his arms flying round his head, was seen ea])ering Inside \v.iv like a mad scaramouch. Poor degraded wretch ! in il lU NIOOEUFUL JOHN. J'J pjjite of his colour, lie belonged to an affectionate race, and was not the less a man because his eyes were j'cllow, his nose flat, his mouth l)road, his skin coarse as an ele- phant's, and because his arms and legs seemed made of whalebone. In a certain number of months — avc regret to say that the tail of the figure hap[)cned to point upwards instead of downwards — (it was perhaps better it should do so tiiau have no tail at all) — the wife Mas suddcidy but safely delivered of a child, which the fond gardener hastened to caress the instant he heard its faint cry. It was, of course, duly presented to him ; but when the blanket was unfolded, — " Aiiycls and miimtcrs of (j race defend us!" — ins BAuv WAS A ULACK onk! Tlic phcnomcnoii Avas inexplicable. A hundred tinu's had the gardener grafted white ro. v3s on red ones, and ) ellow ones on pink ones, but never before had he heard of any of hiis trade succeeding in making the lovely flower black ! For five years the child lived with its parents, and pros])ered. The honest gardener loved it ; he laboured for its support; on returning from his work, he longed to hear its cheerful voice ; . . . anci yet . . . there was a bilious look about its eyes ; it had an elast c trick of throwing about its arms ; there m as something so cold and clammy in its skin ; at times it felt so like a toad, that the father liimself began to croak ! Time would probably have mellowed these hoarse notes, but his fellow-hdunu'ers incessantly tt)rnu>nted him, imtil the i.ian at last, in a state alnu)st of frenzy, ai)peared before the vestry to declare that, unless the parish would y ■ \ I. t rrn t>' I. 80 KXGl.ISH CHAUITY. accept the child, he Mouhl fly to America, leaving it and its mother hehiud him^ for that to live witli it any longer he could not ! The parish Guardians, for some time, at- tempted by reasoning to repel the expense; but no sooner did they make use of tlic blooming mother's own simple argument, namely, that just a week before her confine- ment she had mifortunately been frightened, dreadfully frightened by a l)lack man, than tlie gardener started forwards, dashed the cap from tlu> head of tlie boy, and loudly exclaimed, " Look here. Gentlemen, do you mean to say that fear could turn liair into tvool?" The a])peal was mianswerable. The parish olHcei's at once received the child, and for nine years Hioy have very kindly sup- ported it, under the name of ' I\iggerful John.' THE SEPARATION OF MAN AND WIFE. n Si In several of the poorhouses of East Kent, the se[)a- ration of man and wife has, without any disturbance, long been carried into effect ; but wherever the rule had not been estaljlislied, the Commissioner was sturdily as- sailed by peo})le of education, as well as of no education, who, with consideral)le ability, opposed the unpopular arguments by which he resolutely insisted on its neces- sity. The following is a specimen of the doctrines on both sides ; in fact, it is a long-winded argument on the subject, between a young, ruddy, healthy Kentish la- bourer, and the emaciated representative of the Poor- Law Amendment Act : — " Labwirer. — Sir, I am out of work. I appear before you to beg relief. THE SEPAIIATIOM OF MAN AND WIFE. 81 you Assidfant Commissioner. — In the ouuvsc of the hist six nioaths, how much money, which might have beuu saved, have you spent in gin or heer-shops ] JLob. — I decline to answer that question, I have now nei- ther money nor work ; I therefore, Sir, respectfully demand relief. As. Com. — What relief do you require 1 Lab. — Food, clothes, lodging, and tiring. As. Com. — They shall be inmiediately granted to you. \re you satisfied 1 L(d). — No, Sir ; for I have also a wife, who is as destitute myself. As. Com. — At what age did you marry % L(th. — I married at eighteen. As. Com. — AVhat age was your wife when you married her? Lnb. — She was just seventeen. /■Is. Com. — At the time you married her, 1 ad you the means of providing for her, in case you should, for a short peritid, be (as you now are) thrown out of work, or forced for a time to work for wages only sufficient to supjjort yourself? Lab, — I decline answering that (piostion : we are now both destitute. Besides relief for myself, I demand it also for her. As. Com. — What relief do you require for her 1 Led). — Food, clothes, lodging, and tiring. As. Com. — They shall be immediately granted to you both. Are you satisfied ? Lab. — No, Sir ; for I have five young children, who are as destitute as ourselves. As. Com. — Previous to your marriage, did you ever calculate whether or not you had the means of providing for such a young family ? Lab. — I decline to answer that question ; it has nothing to do with my present case. We are all destitute ; we are there- fore, I conceive, legally entitled to relief. E 3 ^' I H r 1 1 1 \i i ! 82 ENOLISII ClIAHITY. J.'i. Com. — Ai'i! you aware that the nli y<ii( require can only he nttonU'd you hy a rate, which iuunc he levied on the industrious elasses of socicl .■ ? Arc vou aware that, if vour ])etition he granted, the indepemlent lahourcr of yoiu* own j)a- rish must he ol)li;,'ed to ;j;ive u]) a portion of his hard i'aniinc;s ; in fact, that he nuist work a certain jicMJod every day to sup- port you ? Do you think this just towards him 1 Lab. — I decline answering any of these questions; hut re- s]>ectfully demand food, clothes, lodging, and tiring for myself, my wife, and niy five young children. As. Com. — Tluy shall immediately he granted to you all : are ycm satisfied I Lat>. — No, Sir , I require moreover that I should he per- mitted to continue to sleep with my wife. As. Coin. — On what grounds do you mnke this a<lditional rofpicst ? Liil). — Pieeause it is written, "Those whom Llod hath joined, let no man put asunder." J.'.v Com. — Have you any other reason 1 L'l},. — No, Sir. I consider, that in a Christian country, Mf/^ .i:").;U!i'ent is umuiswerable. .iv Com. — It is my painful duty most deliberately to refuse your retincst. Lab.— \Nhy, Sir 1 As. Com. — I might, I conceive — quite as fairly as yon have done — decline to answer that question ; hut I prefer explain- ing to you, my friend, calmly and rationally, the grounds of a decision which, I rejjcat to you, is a painful one. The sentence of Holy Scripture, which you liave very correctly quoted, only alludes to divorce ; it does not bear the interpretation you have given to it, — namely, that a man, under all circumstances, is to sleep with his wife every night of his life ; for, wer<' that to be the casi3, it would be wicked, "in a Christian country," to imprison or transport a criminal without also imprisoning or transporting his wife. l: 1 ii! TIIK SEPAIIATIO.V OF MAX AMI WIFE. 83 Ltih. — Sir, I nm not tt criminiil ; iiiisfnrtmie is not guilt. Aa. Com—\onv obHcrvutiou is pcrlectly just, but as an ar- gument, it is falMc ; for you did not duuiand j»t'ri>iission to sleep with your wile Iteeausc you had been sober, beeuuse you had b> en eareful, because you had been provident, but, pro- perly enou;;h, <leclininy on these points to prove your own chunicter, you claimed the riyht as oix nerall) belongin;^ to all men by Seripture law ; and nrely see that you deserted your own arifunient, whci. .. ly from Serip- lure to your ])rivote eharacter. On se two founda- tions are you disposed to continue to -iippoiL your ar<,'unient 1 There is surely no \iolatiou of Scripture iu ofi'erinjj^ food, clothes, hxlgiii;,', and tiring to yourself, to your wife, and to your children ! I'ermit me also to add, that in trying to prove to you that your ({notation did not bear tlie general interpre- tation you have given to it, it was m>t my intention to class you among criminals. I only menlitmed their case, to show you that your own argument (namely, that because you and your wife had been married, y ni could not, by any human law, be ])Ut asunder) was false. Lab. — Weil then. Sir, I dennind it on the score of liuma- nity. It is possible L may have been thoughtless, but it is certain I am now unfortunate. As. Com. — And in terms of Immanity and reason I will reply to you. If you will observe and reilect for a moment on the artilicial state of our society, you will see not only that a large })roportion of men, from the highest down tt) the low- est, are occasionally separated from their wives ; but that, if what you demand almost as a right, were even as a rule to be inflicted on society, it would be impossible for the business of this country to be carried on. Mendiers of both housea of Parliament, noblemen as well gentlemen, who have estates and business in various counties, — all people employed by Govern- ment iu missions at home and abroad, with their secretaries IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT.3) 1.0 I.I Uit2^ 12 5 |5o ■^" M^a ■^ Ki2 |Z2 :!f b£ 12.0 Ml 1.8 L25 1 1.4 1.6 < : 6" ► Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STRUT WnSTER,N.Y. MSSO (716) •73-4903 iV ^ m <> ^^^ -«N7<5. \ ■% O J' •% [Hf| 'f I I i 1; ! li ) ^l 84 ENGLISH CHARITY. and uitendauts — carriers of despatches, commercial men, com- mercial travellers, bag-mcu, and even Assistant Commissioners of the Poor-Laws, are all obliged occasionally to quit their families for a longer or shovter time. Respectable servants, who have married, are, generally speaking, rarely enabled to spend all their nights at home. On foreign service, officers as well as soldiers are not only completely separated from their families, but they often embark ciioerfuily for climates and for dangers which render it very probable they will never return. In his Majesty's navy, not even the officers are allowed to sail with their wives. The best seafaring men are, I am sorry to say, after long voyages, forcibly torn from their wives ; and it is a fact which, if you are reasonable, you cannot deny, that there is no class of people in England, who, generally speak- ing, more enjoy the uninterrupted blessings of living in their own climate with their families than the very labouring class to which you belong. Supposing, therefore, that t^^v new law, incomprehensible to the peasantry, were to have the ef- fect of obliging a small proportion of them to be separated for a short period from their wives, do you conceive that they could reasonably complain of it, seeing that it is an imposi- tion which is fairly levied on all other classes 1 Lab. — But there sounds something like a reason for the weparation from their families of all those you have mentioned ; but I am not a soldier, I am not a Member of Parliament — I only wish I was, — and I ask, what necessity is there, Sir, for separating me from Elizabeth 1 As. Com. — I will tell you. If you were able to provide for Elizabeth ; if (to say nothing of beer-shops) you were able to provide for the children you already possess, no person would have any disposition, indeed there exists nowhere any power, to separate you j and believe me, that the Poor Law Amend- ment Act is framed to cheer, reward, and elevate the indepen- dent labourer ; but you must remember, it has been already THE SEPARATION OF MAN AND WIFE. 85 settled between us, that you, Elizabeth, and your five children are to be supported by the sweat of other men's brows ; and you must therefore keep in mind, that while you are thus sup- ported, there nmst be some firm engine at work to make you all anxious to relieve the hard-working, independent labourer from the heavy tax you ai imposing upon him ; and if you admit that a portion of the labouring classes might fairly, like other people, be occasionally for a short period sei)arated from their wives, do you not think it reasonable that those should be especially selected who come forward, of their own accord to declare that they are unable to provide for their said wives, and that they must consequently be supported by others 1 Can you be dependent and independent at the same time 1 For the welfare of society, is there to be no difference between the domestic happiness of the one state and that of the other 1 Lab. — Well, then. Sir, am I to understand that I and my wife are to be separated from each other merely to punish us because we are poor ? Have you ever, Sir, known what it is to want food yourself? As. Com. — Perhaps I have ; but that can have nothing to do with your case ; for I repeat to you, that you, your wife, and your five children, are to have not only food, but fire, clothes, and lodging, at the expense of others. But while the Poor-La ws of England are thus generous to you, they must also be just to those who are forcibly obliged to support you ; and therefore, while we relieve you, it is our duty, at the same time, to satisfy them that there exists a coercion of some sort to induce you to relieve them from poor-rates, which, you must know, amount to twelve, eighteen, twenty, and, in some cases, even to twenty-five shillings in the pound. But, my friend, the stern justice of acting towards you oa this prin- ciple is not the only thing that we and you too ought to bear in mind. Instead of building huge Union Workhouses, we are going, in East Kent, economically to avail ourselves of 86 ENGLISH CHARITY. 111! ■]:. I i' those which already exist. The rooms of our old house are generally large, and to give one of these immense apartments to every pauper and his wife would, you must admit, be per- fectly im ossible. Supposing we were, therefore, to allow you to choose for yourself, you could only continue with your wife by an arrai>gpment whif'' \aH been very common in the old workhouses ; that is to say, by dividing your bed by a blanket from the beds of ten or twelve other lusty labourers, who are as uxorious, which means that they are as fond of their wives, as you are. Now if you value, as I am sure you do very highly, Elizabeth's modesty, I ask you, my friend, whether you ought even to consent to such a disgusting arrangement ? What- ever may be her poverty, do you think it advisable that she should be introduced to a scene, such as among savages would scarcely be tolerated 1 Do you think it proper for your little children to be contaminated by such an existence 1 And lastly, leaving your own feelings out of the question, do you think that aui/ Poor-Law Amendment Act could honestly consent to sanction an arrangement which, you must know, has long long tended to demoralize the poor ? Even supposing that an immense new i)oorhouse was to be built, composed of innu- merable little cells, suited to the various sizes of different families, do you think it would be possible to '^ -'regate two or three hundred men, women, boys, girls, ar, ants, with- out creating wickedness of every sort ? Sup|>o iing that, in consequence of having taken a few nights' refuge in such a den, an honest jjcasant should lope for ever the affections of his wife, — or, for the remainder cl his life, have occasion to look with shame upon his daughter, — do you not think he would pay very dearly for the poisonous relief which his country, under the mask of charity, had insidiously adminis- tered to him 1 Is it not much better for the poor themselves, and much wiser in the government under which they live, that the inmates of every poorhouse should be judiciously and !; THE SEPARATION OF MAN AND WIFE. 87 sensibly clussified, so as to ensure that misfortune be not pro- ductive of guilt 1 Ought they not to be restored to indepen- dence at least as virtuous as when, for a moment, they became dependent ? But to return to your own case. You are young, healthy, and you seem to be an honest man. Your desire to con- tinue with your wife certainly is no discredit to your character ; but you have been guilty of imprudence. In a moment of sunshine you embarked in marriage ; — the storm has now come upon you ; — you seek for a harbour, not with the inten- tion of anchoring there all your life, but only until the blue sky shall again appear. Take the harbour therefore as it is ; enter it without abusing its regulations ; and be thankful for the security it offers to you and to your cargo, llemember that without it you would have foundered ; and should its calm monotony induce you to determine never again to be caught flying before the storm ; and should it instil into the minds of your little children, that by caution, sobriety, thought- fulness, and by ever keei»ing a good look-out ahead, they also may avoid these harbour-dues, depend upon it you will never regret the sound moral it has taught you. Lab. — Sir, I am not satisfied yet. If you do not allow me to sleep with Elizabeth, I will appeal to the public. As. Com. — You will do quite right. It will support you and as loudly revile me ; but, my friend, I clearly see my duty, and, until I am ordered to abandon it, that duty shall be performed. I deliberately refuse your request." In tlie country villages, the advocates for rewarding improvidence were not all quite as eloquent as the honest labourer whose claim lias just been dismissed. " Poor folk," said one great lumbering yeoman, " have as much right to bread as the rich, and that they never can have till every man has land enough to keep a cow ! How is a poor man, let me ax, to keep i. wile and eight children 88 ENGLISH CHARITY. ■ I f: on his wages?" "But," it was replied, "why does he marry and get eight chihlren, without any likely means of supporting them ? " " Why do folk marry ? you maught as well ax why they do catch the smallpox, or aught of that ! Nay, Zur, that's a matter o' God's own ordering, and man can't mend it. His very first command was ' Increase and multiply,' and there's nao gooing agin it !" THE FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. By far the most difficult task the Assistant Commis- sioner had to perform was to reply to those who in- veighed against the cruelty of (we must unavoidably call it by its name) the Bastardy Clause of the Poor- Law Amendment Act. Indeed he scarcely met with one advocate in its favour. The Kentish ladies were all silently against it ; but their lords, particularly after dinner, Avei'e loud in deprecating its harshness, and in- sisting on the necessity of its abrogation. Some espe- cially pitied the poor women, some the poor children; but all abused the Law, and many its Assistant Com- missioner. For the sake of both, we will therefore allow him to say a few words on the subject ; and as the clause is decidedly, to say the least of it, one of apparent severity, we shall, we hope, be excused if we permit him to pre- face his arguments by wandering, for a moment, beyond the boundaries of East Kent. He says in his note-book now before us, " The merest 1 I' THE FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. 89 sketch of the History of the London Foundling Hos- pital, established by Royal Charter in the year 1739, shows very remarkably that charitable error, like the acorn, is easily planted, but before it has attained a century's growth, how difficult it is to grub it up ! AVhat was established as a foundling-hospital, now no longer dares to call itself an hospital for foundlings. Still it exists ; still its ' fifty-four governors,' its ' six vice-presi- dents,' its ' treasurer,' and its ' secretary,' like Dervishes in their dance, pompously bow to each other ; still the ' organist ' plays his tunes ; still the ' chaplain,' * readers,' and 'preachers' go through their services; still the ' clerk ' mutters his Amen ; still the ' vergers' wear their gowns ; still the ' building committee,' the ' sub-com- mittee,' the 'house-committee,' gravely perform their inexplicable functions : still [vide the printed Report of the Hospital) ' Miss Bellchambers, Miss Lloyd, Mr. Goulden, INIr. Pyne, Mr. Atkins,' etc., form 'the choir;' still they chant, with glee and harmony, appropriate melodies, all set to the tune of ' j£42 per annum ;' still the ' house-apothecary' mixes his drugs ; still the ' store- keeper' arranges his cheques. In this small creation, 'the medical officers, steward, matron, porter, watch- man, master of the boys, gardener, messenger, tailor, two cooks, laundress, housemaids, nurses of the wards, mistresses of the girls, and gown- maker,' are still seen mathematically moving in their rcsi)cctive orbits. " Between an institution and the house, be that barn or palace which contains it, there exists this important difference, namely, that the former can live long after .1 00 ENGLISH CHARITY. it has nothing whatever to rest on j whereas, so soon as you destroy tlie foundation of the latter, down it lionestly falls prostrate on the ground. If that splendid building, curiously called ' the Foundling Hospital,* because it now refuses to receive foundlings, and does not contain them, had had its basis only half as much exploded as the fallacy of the institution has already been exposed, the fifty-four governors, in their respective committees, would have been seen mournfully wandering together about our streets, like Christmas gardeners following a frozen cabbage ; but the vitality of error is like that of the snake, and though you cut it into pieces, still it lives ! " Now that experience has sternly taught us the prac- tical results of a public receptacle for fatherless and motherless children, it is curious to look back at the fol- lowing solemn decision of the House of Commons, dated Gth April, 173G:— " ' Resolved, — That the enabling the Hospital for the main- teunnce and education of exposed and deserted young children, to receive all the children that shall be offered, is the only me- thod to render that charituhle institution of lasting and general utility. . . . That to render the said Hospital of lasting and general utility, the assistance of Parliament is necessary. . . . That to render the said Hospital of general utility and effect, it should be enabled to appoint proper places in all counties, ridings, or divisions of this kingdom for the reception of all exposed and deserted young children.' " On the House of Commons voting to the Hospital, as its first donation, the sum of ten thousand pounds, the gates of the charity were instantly thrown open ; and on the 2ud of June, being the first day of general recep- THE FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. 91 tion, one hundred and seventeen babies were handed in ; and from this time to the 31st of December of the following year, a fruitful harvest of five thousand five hundred iiiid ten little babies were safely gathered into our metropolitan barn, which, among its ornaments, still boasts of a grand picture painted by Willis, and inscribed mth the 16th verse of the 18th chapter of Luke, * Suffer little children to come unto me, and forbid them not.' The corporation, chuckling with delight, and encouraged by a Parliament which, with paternal pride, exultingly crowed at its own performances, extended its views the following year to distant counties ; county hospitals were instantly esta])lished over tlic kingdom, while large rolls of county governors, county committees, etc. etc., were created for the management of these subordiuate esta- blishments. " Like fiddle-strings in damp weather, apron-bands now began to snap in all directions, white tape and stay- laces rose in value, pap and caudle bore a premium, ba- bies' cauls were ' all the fashion.' In less however than three years the House of Commons saw its error, and manfully endeavoured to correct it, but the system couh not at once be arrested ; the little babies who, summoned by Parliament, had most innocently aiTived, could not be put to death j those on the march could not easily be stopped J nevertheless, as quietly as possible, Parliament drew in the horns of its charity, by gradually withhold- ing its support, but not until Old England had purchased sucking babies and experience at the enormous national cost of i^450,000 ! 92 ENGLISH CHARITY. f i' nl : "The Foundling Hospital, dt'sertcd by tlic Legislature, suddenly changed its course, and, falling from the frying- pan into the fire, it adopted its present plan, which is even more hoodwinked than the first. Retaining its High-sounding name, it resolved that foundlings (the ex- pressed objects of the charity) should no longer be ac- cepted; and it gravely decreed that, as babies really ought to have mothers, so from henceforward from none but their avowed mothers should babies be received. All honest women are now denied admittance, on the ground that * the design of the foinulation was to hide the shame of the mothers ;' but those who happen to have children without husbands are rigidly examined by the committee, and if they can succeed in showing that they are really guilty, a day is appointed on which they are doomed painfully to produce and abandon their offspring, to be re-christened, to be re-named, and, so long as they remain in the institution, never by their mothers to be seen again ! " We do not object to cutting through the Isthmus of Panama, or even through that of Suez, but to sever the connection between a mother and her child is a work of ingenuity, we humbly conceive, culpable exactly in pro- portion to its success. As no animal but man could in- vent such an arrangement, so no creature in existence but a wretched, fallen, lost woman could bear to assist, even under momentai y anguish, in carrying it into effect. What woidd the tigress do if, even by a charter, one were to attempt to deprive her of her cub ? Under what mask of charity could one approach the wolf, to ask her THE FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. 98 for her young? What clops the scream of the most timid hird mean when the urchin is robbing her of her nest '( why, as he hurries homewards, does she hover round liis thoughtless liead ? and why docs she press daily against the iron cage that, hanging on the outside wall of a cot- tage, imprisons her chirping brood V But it seems that not only men, but grave associations of men, can devote themselves to degrade a poor woman's heart. " As impressed with these feelings, we lately stood in the splendid square of this mistaken institution, we were politely informed by its secretary, that we had before our eyes one of the topmost feathers in the cap of the British nation ; that its immediate object was to seek out young women who had been seduced, and by accepting their oftspring, to give them what, with an air of triumph, he called a second chance ! ! 1 Now, if the subject were not almost too serious, it might excite a smile to reflect for a moment on the very comical mistakes into which we invariably fall whenever we presume to condenm and alter the wise arrangements of Nature. It would no doubt have been in her power to have bestowed upon all women this ' second chance ;' she could moreover have granted to a lady's character as many lives as the cat is said to possess, — but for hcv own reasons she decreed it otherwise; her law is beneficently irrevocable, — no charter can erase it, no Act of Parliament has power to evade it. " But let us consider how this ' second chance ' system practically works. The young woman, after depositing her offspring and her secret, modestly retires to some distant county. That her maternal feelings must pursue 94 ENGLISH CHARITY. lior no one can deny, but her beauty also she carries with her, and in due time she bcf^ius to observe that her siglts and her countenance are alike admired. In short, to end a tedious story, she at last finds herself at the altar, blushinj^ obedience to some sober ger\tleman sentenced by charter to become initiated in this newfangled doc- trine of the ' second chance.' That such a trick in all countries has occasionally befallen very honest men is rather to be lamented by us than denied but that in the great metropolis of England there should exist an incorporated association of fifty-four governors, an or- ganist, a chaplain, three preachers, a building-committee, a sub-committee, six choristers, an apothecary, a matron, a tailor, two cooks, and a gownmaker, for the avowed purpose of inflicting upon us by wholesale, and by charter, these ' second chances,' indisputably proves that, at least in London, our notions of charity are as mystified as our climate." THE BASTARDY CLAUSE. By far the most angry arguments urged against the Poor- Law Amendment Act were, as we have stated, against its Bastardy clauses ; and, as these arguments have all appealed to the sympathy of our nature, they have naturally enough been apparently triumphant. The Commissioners and our Assistant Commissioner however remain unshaken. " It is so much easier," writes the latter, " to excite the passions than convince the judg- ment ; it is so much more popular to preach what is agreeable than what is right ; to reward error than to I I THE FOUNULINU HOSPITAL. 05 punish it, that it is not at nil surpriHin<!: that the cliivnli ic weapons, whieh have flown from ten thousand scabbards to defend the weaker, the lovelier, and the JKjtter sex, 1) the field. should luivc ended the contest Dy possession But the army is not always beaten tiiat retires, and troops before now have proclaimed tlumiselvcs to be 'covered with glory, little thinking that by the simple elements of nature they were sentenced very shortly to become wanderers, fijgitives, and vagabonds ! It has not only been argued, but preached ; not only senators, but divines, have boisterously contended that, in cases of bas- tardy, to relieve the man from punishment, and to leave his unhappy victim to shame, infamy, and distress, is a law discreditable to our national character, impious, cruel, ungenerous, unmanly, and unjust. In some remarks published by a charitable association^ it is beautifully stated by the Rev. T. Hewlett : — " ' Could we portray a mother's sufferings, what forms of agony should we not exhibit ! At the time when the lungunr of the body and the growing anxiety of the mind [Mtvverfully eUiim, and in general receive, additional tenderness, she is obliged to endure the severe t affliction that fear could imagine or unkinduess produce. If she look forward into futurity, l)overty and hunger pursue her, or, at least, her melancholy lot is daily to eat the bread of affliction, and to drink the tears of remorse.' " We confess that we feel very deeply the force of these observations ; at the same time it must be evident that Mc should have dreaded to have stated (we hope we may say so fairly) one side of the question, unless mc felt convinced that there was something to be said on ;■' > li ,1 f ^ 4L • :' f 96 ENGLISH CHARITY. the other. That the virtues of the weaker sex are the ])urest blessings which this world affords us, — that they were so intended to be by Nature, — and that, like all her works, they have not been ereated in vain, it is not even necessary to admit. From our cradle to our grave, — in our infancy, our Iwyhood, — our zenith and our decline, — rejoicing at our prosperity, ever smiling iu our ad- versity, there is, we all know, a satellite a*-* nding our orbit which, like our shadow, never leaves us, and which too often becomes itself a shadow when we are gone ; but as the satellite shines with borrowed lustre, so does the character of a woman much depend upon the eon- duct of him whose fate she follows ; and if this be true, how deeply important it is for a nation to take es- pecial care lest, by too much human legislation, it may (as ours has too often done) interfere with the wise arrangements of Nature, whose motto, with all her kind- ness, has ever been. Nemo me hnpune lacesset ! Universally adored as woman is, yet it is an anoma- lous fact, which no one can deny, that in every climate under the sun man appears as her open, avowed enemy ; indeed, strange as it may sound, the more he admires the treasure she possesses, the more anxious he is to de- prive her of it. " The lovely toy, so keenly sought. Has lost its charms by being caught ; And every touch that wooed its stay Has brushed its brightest hues away!" Now, if this arrangement were totally incomprehensible to us, yet surely it would not be altogether discreditable. , 1 i I THE BASTARDY CLAUSE. 97 ■rave, — m were we to feci assured that the mystca-ious dispensation was benevolent and just. We have ah-eady observed, that with all her kind- ness, the punishments by Avhich Nature preserves her laws are irrevocably severe. Bcstowiufij on us, Avitli one hand, the enjoyment of health, with Avhat severity docs she, with the other, punish every intemperance which would destroy it ! What human eastij>;ation, we beg leave to ask of some of our opponents, is C([ual to a fit of their gout? Compare a healthy peasant's cheeks with the livid countenance of a gin -drinkt r, and who can say that a magistrate's fine for drurdicnness is as severe as hers ? What adaionition of a pi'cacher is equal to the reproof of a guilty conscience? Although the sentence of death is what many of the meanest among us have forti- tude enough in silence to endure, the first murderer's punishment was ' greater than he could bear ! ' and after all, what was this punishment but simply a voice, crying to him in the wilderness of his paradise, * Cain ! Cain ! ivhere is thy brother ?' If abstinence be neces- sary for the recovery of our health, can any physician enforce it like the fever which robs us of our appetite ? Can the surgeon explain to the man who has broken a limb the necessity of rest, in order that the bone may knit, as sternly as the excruciating puiu which punishes him if he moves it ? Now, if in these eases it be ad- mitted that Nature, though her lips be motionless, main- tains our real welfare by a judicious system of rewards and punishments, surely it would follow that it is pro- bable she would consistently pursue a similar course in VOL. I. P \ ' \ I i i| '•I' i t 4 ! \\ K 98 ENGLISH CHARITY. protecting female virtue, on which the happiness of all individuals, as well as of all nations, mainly depends. If she alone receives the reward M'hich adorns its pre- servation, is it not a sensible argument that she should likewise be the sole sufferer for its loss ? Would it be prudent to entrust it to any but her own keeping ? Could any better arrangement be invented ? In common affairs of life, do we not invariably act on the same principle ? Have we not one officer to command our army in the field, on purpose to ensure a responsibility which would not practically exist, were it to be subdivided ? But it is loudly argued, ' Nature is wrong : a woman ought not to be the sole guardian of her own honour ; let us there- fore make it, by English law, the joint-stock property of the sexes ; let the man be punished for its loss as much as herself, and luider this clever and superior arrange- ment, which will make it the interest of both parties to preserve the treasure, it will remain inviolate ; depend upon it, no bankruptcy will take place ! ' Well, this theory has long been reduced to practice, and what, we ask, has been the result ? Have the lower orders, to whom it has been exclusively applied, become more or less moral than their superiors in station ? Has the fear of punishment had its promised effect ? Has it intimidated the enemy ? Has it strengthened or ruined the fortress ? Has it preserved the citadel ? Is there now, as there used to be, but one seducer, or are there two ? Has it become the interest of the woman, instead of opposing, to go over to the enemy ? For consenting to do so, has not the law almost invariably rewarded her THE BASTARDY CLAUSE. 99 Could with a husband ? Has it not forcibly provided for her ? Has not the oath it has extorted from her been frequently productive of perjury ? Before the altar do the ceremo- nies of marriage, churching, and christening, respectfully follow each other at due intervals, or are they not now all jumbled together in a bag ? Are the peasantry of England a more moral people in this respect than the Irish, among whom no Poor-laws exist ? Has it not been indisputably proved that our domestic servants are, as to this matter, by far the most moral among our lower classes? and has not this been produced by our own unrelenting rule of turning them out of our houses, — in short, like Nature, abandoning those who misbehave ? Has not that severity had a most beneficial effect ? Can there be any harm in our acting nationally as we con- scientiously act in our own homes ? If it should be impossible for the defenders of the old law, and the revilers of the Poor- Law Amendment Act, satisfactorily to answer these questions, surely it must follow that our theory, having been unsuccessful, is false ; and standing before the world as we do, con- victed of being incapable, on so delicate a subject, to legislate for ourselves, surely we ought, in penitence and submission, to fall back upon that simple law of Nature, which has most sensibly decreed that a woman, after all, is the best guardian of her own honour, and that the high rewards and severe punishments which naturally attend its preservation and its loss are the beneficent means of securing our haj)piness, and of maintaining the moral character of our country. That we have erred F 2 W' I 41 m ll;: ) II , i TOO ENGLISH CHARITY. from a mistaken theory of charity and benevolence — that we have demoralized scciety, kindly desirous to improve it — that in scrubbing our morality we never meant to destroy its polish — that^ by our old bastardy laws, wo nobly intended to protect pretty women, just as we oneo thought how kind it would be to nurse infants for thcni in our national baby-house, the Foundling Hospital, and just as we thought how benevolent it would be to raise the pauper above the independent labourer, — it is highly cousolingto reflect; but the day of such follies has passed. This country has no longer the apology of youth and inexperience, — it is deeply stricken in years ; age has brought with it experience, and, by experience most dearly purchased, it enacted, in the Poor-Law Amendment Bill, the clause to which so much obloquy has attached, bat which, we humbly conceive, rests on u foundation that cannot now be undermined by the weak tools of mistaken sympathy, or reversed, by explosions of popular clamour." GEORGE PniLLPOTTS. Having been assured by various classes of people, as well as convinced by documents, that the Deal boatmen were in a state almost of famine, we felt it our duty to look with considerable attention into their case. " How they manage to live," said the overseer of the parish, " God only knows .'" " / can solemnly assure you they are starving," exclaimed one of the magistrates. " It's them floating lights that Government has put on the \ GEOllGE PHILLPOTTS. 101 Good'in Sands ivhich has ruined 'em,^' observed a short, fat, puffy shopkeeper, a radical advocate for what he called the freedom of mankind. Finding that all people in different terms corroborated the same evidence, we strolled doAvn to the beach, and endeavoured to get into conversation with the boatmen themselves j but from them we could not extract one word of complaint ; yet their countenances told plainly enough what their tongues disdained to utter, that they were subsisting on low diet. Dressed in blue jackets and trousers, they were sitting before their houses of call, loitering in groups on the l)each, or leaning against the boats, while their tarred canvas clothing, apparently stiff enough to have walked alone, was hanging against the low clinker-built hovels which sheltered their best sails, oars, etc. from the weather. Excepling a wind-bound fleet, riding at anchor, with heads, like cavalry horses, all pointing the same way, there was not a vessel in sight, and their prospects, altogether, certainly did appear about as barren as the shingle under their feet. " I am afraid you are badly off nowadays, my men," we said to four able-looking seamen, who were chewing (instead of toijacco, which tliey would have liked much better) the cud of reflection. We received no answer — not even a nod or a shake of the head. " Quanto sono insensibili quest I Inglesi !" we muttered to ourselves. Finding there was no wisdom in the multitude, we returned to the inn, and having previously learnt that George Phillpotts was one of the most respectable, most experienced, as well as most daring of the Deal boatmen, . ! '! ' i I 1 S > I! I ^'1 102 ENGLISH CHARITY. we sent a messenger for him ; and in about twenty mi- nutes the door of our apartment opened, and in walked a short, clean-built, mild-looking old man, who, in a low tone of voice, very modestly observed that he had been informed we wished to speak with him. At first we conceived that there must have been some mistake, for the man's face did not look as if it had ever seen danger : and there was a benevolence in it, as well as a want of animation in his small blue eyes, that ap- peared totally out of character with his calling. His thin white hair certainly showed that he had lived long enough to gain experience of some sort ; but until he answered that his name was Phillpotts, we certainly did think that he was not our man. " Well, George, what shall it be ?" we said to him, pointing to a large empty tumbler on the table. Pie replied that he was much obliged, but that he never drank at all, unless it was a glass of grog or so about eleven o'clock in the morning ; and, strange as it may sound, nothing that we could say could induce him to break through this odd arrangement. As the man sat per- fectly at his ease, looking as if nothing could either elate or depress him, we had little difficulty in explaining to him what was our real object in wishing to know exactly how he and his comrades were faring. On our taking up a pencil to write down his answers, for a moment he paused ; but the feeling, whatever it Avas, only dashed across his mind \ik: the spray of a sea, and he afterwards cared no more for the piece of black- lead, than if it had been writing his epitaph. o h t- r i I III " GEORGE PHILLPOTTS. 103 In answer to our queries, he stated that he was sixty- one years of age, and had been on the water ever since he was ten years ohl. He had himself saved in his life- time, off the Goodwin Sands, rather more than a hundred men and women ; and on this subject, no sooner did he enter into details, than it was evident that his mind was rich in pride and self-satisfaction. Nothing could be more creditable to human nature, nothing less arrogant, than the manly animation with which he exultingly de- scribed the various sets of fellow-creatures, of all nations, he had saved from drowning. Yet on the contra side of his ledger he kept as faithfully recorded the concluding history of those whose vessels, it having been out cf his power to approach, had foundered on the quicksands only a few fathoms from his eyes. In one instance, he said, that as the ship went down, they suddenly con- gregated on the forecastle like a swarm of bees; their shrieks, as they all together sank into eternity, seemed still to be sounding in his cars. Once, after witnessing a scene of this sort, during a very heavy gale of wind, which had lasted three days, he stretched out to the southward, thinking that other vessels might be on the sands. As he was passing, at a great distance, a brig, which had foundered two days before, with all hands on board, its masts being how- ever still above water, he suddenly observed and ex- claimed that there was something " like lumps" on the foremast which seemed to move. He instantly bore down upon the wreck, and there found four sailors alive, lashed to the mast. With the greatest difficulty he :'! I. 10 i. ENGLISH CIIAlllTY. jiud his crew saved tlicm all. Their thirst (and he had nothing in the boat to give them) was, he said, quite dreadful. There liad been with them a fifth man, but '' his heart had broken;" and his comrades, seeing this, had managed to unlash him, and he fell into the breakers. In saving others, Phiilpotts had more than once lost one or two of his own crow; and in one case he ex- plained, with a tear actually standing jn the corner of each eye, that lie had lately put a couple of them into a vessel in distress, which in less than ten minutes was on the sands. His men, as well as the w'hole crew, were drowned l)eforc his eyes, all disappearing close to him. By inconsiderately pushing forward to save his comrades, his l)oat got between two banks of sands, the Avind blowing so strong upon them that it was utterly impossible to get back. For some time the three men who were with him insisted on trying to get out. " But," said Phiilpotts, who was at the helm, " I told 'em, my lads, we're jnly prolonging our misery — the sooner it's over the better !" The sea was breaking higher than a ship's mast over both banks, but they had nothing left but to steer right at their enemy. On approaching the baidi, an immense wave to wind- ward broke, and by the force of the tempest was carried completely above their heads ; the sea itself seemed to pass over them, or rather, like Pharaoh, they were be- tween two. " How we ever got over the bank," said Phiilpotts, who, for the first time in his narrative, seemed lost, confused, and incapable of expressing hira- a. ^J.A- GEORGE PIIILLPOTTS. 105 self, " I can tell no man ! " After a considerable pause, he added, "It was just God Almighty that saved us, and I shall always think so." On the surface of this globe, there is nowhere to be found -so inhospitable a desert as the " wide blue sea." At any distance from land there is nothing in it for man to eat; nothing in it that he can drink. His tiny foot no sooner rests upon it, than he sinks into his grave ; it grows neither flowers nor fruits ; it offers monotony to the mind, restless motion to the body; and when, be- sides all this, one reflects that it is to the most fickle of the elements, the wind, that vessels of all sizes are to supplicate for assistance in sailing in every direction to their various destinations, it would almost seem that the ocean was divested of charms, and armed with storms, to prevent our being persuaded to enter its dominions. But though the situation of a vessel in a heavy gale of wind appears indescribably terrific, yet, practically speak- ing, its security is so great, that it is truly said ships seldom or never founder in deep water, except from acci- dent or inattention. How ships manage to get across that stiil region, that ideal line, whif;h separates the opposite trade-winds of each hemisphere ; how a small box of men manage, unlabelled, to be buffeted for months up one side of a wave and down that of another; how they ever get out of the abysses into which they sink; and how, after such pitching and tossing, they reach in safety the very harbour in their native country from which they originally departed, can and ought only to be accounted for by acknowledging how truly it has F 3 106 ENGLISH CHARITY. !i! been written, " that the spirit of God moves upon the face of the waters." It is not therefore from the ocean itself that man has so much to fear ; it can roar during tlie tempest, but its l)ark is worse than its bite ; liowever, althouj^h the earth and water each afford to man a life of considerable se- curitv, vet there exists between these two elements an everlasting war, — a dog-and-cat battle, a husband-and- wifc contention, — into which no passing vessel can enter with impunity ; for of all the terrors of this world, there is surely no one greater than that of being on a lee-shore in a gale of wind and in shallow water. On this ac- count, it is luitural enough that the fear of land is as strong in the sailor's heart as is his attachment to it ; and when, homeward-bound, he day after day approaches his own latitude, his love and his fear of his native shoi'cs increase as the distance between them diminishes. Two fates, the most opposite in their extremes, are shortly to await him. The sailor-boy fancifully pictures to himself that in a few short hours he will be once again nestling in his mother's arms. The able seaman better knows that it may be decreed for him, as it has been decreed for thousands, that in gaining his point he shall lose its object, — that England, with all its ver- dure, may fade before his eyes, and "\^^lilo he sinks, without an arm to save, His country blooms, a garden and a grave!" And yet there exists, on the shores of Deal, a breed of amphibious human beings, whose peculiar profession it is to rush to the assistance of every vessel in distress. GEORGE PHILLPOTTS. 107 In moments of calm and snnsliinc, they stand listlessly on the shore, stagnant and dormant, like the ocean hc- fore them ; but when every shopkeeper closes his door, when the old woman, with licr umbrella turned inside out, feels that she must either lose it or go with it to heaven ; when the reins of the mail-eoaehman are nearly blown from his hand, and his leaders have scarcely blood or breeding enough to face the storm ; when the snow, drifting across tiic fields, is seeking for a hedgerow against which it may sparkle and rest in peace ; when whole families of the wealthy suddenly stop in their dis- course to listen to the wind rumbling in their chim- neys ; when the sailor's wife, at her tea, hugs her infant to her arms, and, looking at its father, silently thanks Heaven that he is on shore; — tuks has the moment arrived for the Deal boatmen to contend, one against another, to sec whose boat shall first be launched into the tremendous surf. As the declivity of the beach is very steep, and as the greased rollers over which the keel descends arc all placed ready for the attempt, they only wait a moment for what they call " a lull," and then cutting the rope, the bark, as gallantly as themselves, rushes to its native element. The difficulty of getting from broken into deep water would amount sometimes almost to an impossibility, but that word has been blotted from their vocabulary; and although some boats fail, others, with seven or eight men on board, are soon seen stretching across to that very point in creation which one would think the seafaring man would most fearfully avoid — the Goodwin Sands. To be even in the neigh- 108 KNGMSII CIIAIUTY. !!! boiirliood of such a spot in the stoutest vessel, niul witli the nbU'st crew thut ever sailed, is a fate whieli Nelson himself would have striven Lo avoid; but that these poor nameless heroes should not only be williu}^ but ea^er to go there in a hurricane in an open boat, shows very clearly that, with all his follies and all his foibles, man really is, or rather can be, the lord of the creation, aiul that within his slight frame there beats a heart eajjable of doing M'hat every other animal in creation would shud- der to perforuj. The lion is savage, and the tigei U ferocious, but where would their long tails be, if they were to fiml themselves afloat with luuglish boatmen? It must be evident to our readers that the Deal boat- men often incur these dangers without any remuneration, and in vain, and that half-;i dozen boats have continually to return, their services after all not being required. So long as a vessel can kcej) to sea, they are specks on the ocean, insiguiricant, unvalued, and lumoticed ; but when a ship is drifting on the sands, or has driick, then there exists no object in creation so important as themselves. As soon as a vessel strikes the sand, the waves in suc- cession break upon as they strike and pass her. Under such circumstances, the only means of gettii);rhcr afloat, is for the shore-boat to eon:e under her bows and <i." y oflf her anchor; which, being dropped at sobh- rli .'i.ii' to w indward, enables her to haul herself into deep water. To describe the danger which a small open boat experiences, even in approaching a vessel to make this attempt, is be- rcad the povcr of anj^ painter; in fact, he has never w'.v ■x'gt'^.' It, an'l even were he to be granted the oppor- GKOIIGE Pl( II.POTTS. iro timity, it is quite certain that, thou^'i he hhonhl paint, to use a sailor's phrase, " till all was blue," the artist would himself look ten times hluer than his pieture. ( H. iill the most unwieldy {guests that could »eek lor l(idg;!i" in a snudl boat, a larj^e ship's anchor is perhaps l^e worst; to receive or swallow it is almost death — to get rid of it or disgorge it is, if possible, still worse. Eacu in a calm, take it by Avhich end you will, it is an awkward customer to deal with ; and though philosophers have said, "Le\e fit quod l)ene fertiu' onus," yet if it weighs sixteen or eighteen hundredweight, carry it in a gale of wind which way you will, it is heavy. ^Vhen a vessel, from bumping on the sands, has become unable to float, the last and only resource is to save some of the crew, who, lashed to a rope which has been thrown aboard, are one by one dragged l)y the boatmen through the surf, till the boat, being able to hold no njore, they cut the only thread on which the hopes of the remainder had depended, and departing with their cargo, the rest are left to their fate. But our readers will probably exclaim, "What can all this have to do with the three Poor-Law Comnnssioners for England and Wales?" We reply, "Is George Phill- potts, then, so soon forgotten? we have only verbally digressed from him — he sits still at our side." "Tinu's have now altered with us!" with a look of calm mt'laneholy he observed; * vessels now don't get S>1 a ton, where a few years ago they got £37." Wc asked him what a crew received for going oft' to a vessel. "The lw)at that first gets to her," he said, "receives 25*. K;i 110 ENGLISH CHARITY. >i for going back and bringing off a pilot; if it blows a gale of wind it's three guineas ; the other boats get no- thing." " Well, Phillpotts," v/c observed, " we now want you to tell us honestly how it is you all manage to live ?" He replied (we are copying verbatim from our Note- book), "Many don'i live at all! They only, as I call it, breathe ! We often don't taste meat for a week together! Many that knock about for a covple of days, and when they come home they have nothing — that's the murder : single men can just live ; for myself, I have not earned a shilling (it was then the 2nd of February) this year." After sitting in silence sone time, he added, "But I shan't be able to hold on much longer." By this he meant that he should be forced to end his days in Deal workhouse, which already contains nineteen old weather- beaten boatmen, whom that same morning we had found, like other paupers confined to the house, sitting silently round a stove. The total number of Deal boatmen, or, as they are nicknamed, "Ilovelers," amounts to about five hundred; of these, none but the aged will consent to enter the workhouse ; about seventy of their families arc now receiving from the parish a weekly allowance, but the overseer stated that, in many instances, individuals ac- cepting relief had sent to say that they coidd now do without it. It used, for about two years, and until two years ago, to be the custom for any wives or children of the boatmen who required relief, to be admitted into the workhouse twice every day, at meal-times : this arrange- GEORGE PHILLPOTTS. Ill lows a [Ct 110- ment, however, was found to encourage dcpeiiclence, and it was tlierefore changed for the present weekly allow- ance of bread and potatoes. It is to be hoped that, while the Poor-Law Commis- sioners perform the painful duty of keeping the improvi- dent sturdy pauper below the situation of the indepen- dent labourer, they will in no instance neglect to bring before the attention of the public every case of merit which has hitherto lain neglected in the mass ; and, strongly impressed with this feeling, we earnestly sub- mit to our readers in general, and to the Government in particular, that something better than the confine- ment of a workhouse should be the fate of the few vete- rans who have exhausted their strength in so brave, so useful, and so honourable an occupation as we have been now describing. So long as they are young, and can keep to sea, it matters comparatively but little on what they subsist ; for as their power lies in their hearts, it may truly be said that that engine requires little fuel; and to the credit of human nature, most true it is, that the worse a young man fares, the less value does he place on the bauble of existence. But when a Deal boat- man grows old, when the tempest gets too strong for him, the Avaves too many for him, and when he is driven from his element to the shore, for the sake of those he has saved, his old-age, like his youth, should be gilded with honour; and, by a wealthy and generous country, ought he not to be raised above the idle, the profligate, and the improvident pauper — particularly now that float- ing lights have, fortunately for all but him, blighted the f! ' 113 ENGLISH CIIAllITY. ) ^ harvest l)y wliicli he once might have provided for his own retirement ? Whether or not sueh a man as George Phillpotts wonld shed lustre or discredit on Grecnwieh Hospital; whether or not he woidd he welcomed or spurned be- neath such a roof l)y those who still talk of the tempest, and who well know what is due to those who possibly have saved many among them from a watery grave, may be a subject deemed fit for discussion ; but that these men should at least enjoy their liberty, that they should be enabled in their old-age to pace the beach, and help at all events to launch their children into the surf, is what, we fervently trust, no English legislator will deny. ANECDOTES ILLUSTRATING THE OLD SYSTEM. I> I It : One fine morning the Assistant Commissioner called upon the overseer of a parish near Ash ford, to in(iuire why he had not filled up the new return which had been required of him, and which all the other overseers had completed. The poor man, who was dressed in a dirty smock-frock, actually shed tears as he delivered his ex- planation, verbatim as follows : — " Sir, tlie Captain wants lo go to church in his carriage tbrougli the little gate tlmt the cori)ses go through — there's a great gate agin the little one — the altlernian won't let it he unlocked, and there's no friendship atween them. We never has no vestry in no furni ; two or three of us come grumbling about what we don't understand, and then 'tis postponed a week, and we never settles nothin— we can't do nothin iu no form, because the genuneu won't attend. I'm no scholar ANECDOTES ILLUSTRATING THE OLD SYSTEM. 113 myself, the sclioolniaster's adoing it for me — aud I beg your pardon, Sir." One other example of Poor-Law administration under the Old Svsioiu we will offer to our readers. We feel lauch pain in doing so, as the inquiry to A\hich it relates has ended tragically. From several parishes a petition was forwarded in November last to the Poor-Law Commissioners, for the ibrmation of a Union. On the Assistant Commissioner repairing to the spot, he was received with acclamation by all classes of society ; hut, without any reason being known or assigned, a strange prejudice seemed every- where to exist among these amorous parishes against any matrimonial connection with the parish A. The mayor of the most influential parish in the proposed Umon assured the Conunissioncr that he would do any- thing to facilitate the project, provided his dominions were not to be united with the parish A. Go where he would, the Conmiissioner met with the same answer, the blooming parishes all saying, " Wc w ill do anything you Mant, but piiAV don't unite us with parish A. !" No one however had any reason to assign, except that so often used 1)y man, namely, that neighbour A. was a being much more den: oraliy-ed than himself. The Commissioner being ivuluced by these objections to direct his attention to the common enemy, found that, during the last five years, four members of poor jarish A. had been hung j — that nine had been trans- ported for fourteen years ; — and that the number of con- victions, in proportion to their population, had trebled 114 ENGLISH CHARITY. ■I '. • V. that of any of the contiguous parislies. With a popula- tion of eight hundred and fifty, the poor-rates amounted to c£1300 a year, being about £1. lis. 6d. per head on the number of inhabitants ! On inquiring who might be the overseer, the Com- missioner learnt that this unpaid individual had virtu- ally reigned ten or eleven years ; that he lived at his farm-house, and was himself a large landholder. On calling upon and demanding an inspection of the parish books, the overseer appeared confused, and said he would send for them ; but Mahomet insisted on going to the mountain, and accordingly the Commissioner and. the overseer proceeded together to a large shop (in the village), on the counter of lohich lay the volume. This shop was kept by the overseer's brother, who was also his servant, and on passing the threshold it was evident to the Commissioner that he had reached a bazaar of considerable importance. Three hundred loaves were sitting on the shelves, — more than two slieep were hang- ing in joints, — bacon, groceries, and draperies of all sorts filled up the interstices, — and with these articles arrayed in evidence against him, the officer confessed that, besides being overseer of the parish, he was a farmer, a n\iller, a baker, a butcher, a grocer, a draper, and a general dealer in all sorts of provisions and cloth- ing. With this scene before his eyes, it was impossible for the Commissioner to help silently comparing in his own mind the thriving business of the overseer with the profuse expenditure and consumptive symptoms of the parish funds; and indeed the parochial books, as they n '/ ANECDOTES ILLUSTRATING THE OLD SYSTEM. 115 This lay on the counter, clearly hinted that between the pa- rish account and the shop account there existed a con- sanguinity, — in fact, that they Avere cousins barely once removed. Accordingly, a few days afterwards, the Com- missioner unexpectedly appeared at the vestry, held as usual at tlic public-house, and as soon as the pipes and ale were finished, the business of the day commenced. As the paupers successively appeared, their cases were heard, and in every instance they were desired to attend " at the shop" the following morning, when the decision of the vestry woixld be communicated to them : — this had been the constant practice. On arriving " at the shop," the pauper was freely per- mitted, if he chose, to receive the whole of the relief ordered by the parish for his support in money; but, odd as it may sound, he generally found out that some- how or other he happened to be in debt at this very shop. ]Jy all of his class, moreover, it had long been remarked, that they were dealt with by the vestry ac- cording to their docility at the shop. The sum of j£1200 a year transferred from ratepayer to rate-receiver had thus annually passed over the overseer's own counter; and if, as was generally said, his goods had been sold at forty per cent, above the usual price, it was not surpris- ing he had made no complaint against the inconvenience of such an arrangement. The overseer himself confessed, that the paupers were sometimes in his debt for half-a-year's wages ; but as on his counter there was also lying the book of " casual re- lief," the parish was the shopman's security, and so what ,,;,: m 1 ' i • ,) 1 * i; / i '■?; ■ I s 116 ENGLISH CHARITY. the vestry did not decree to him as a creditor, he himself had the power to award ! The overseer, besides tlms picking up the crumbs wliich fell from the rich table of the parish, was also the proprietor of fourteen cottages, the rent of which was paid by the parish, that is to say, by himself to himself! It may appear strange, and " passing strange it is," that this man should have managed to maintain his iu- fhience m the vestry ; but the paupers becoming depen- dent upon him, in proportion to their insubordination and degradation, their aggressions were successfully lu'ged by him as a plea for gaining the confidence of tliose whose concurrence he required. In short, he had the entire control over the colleetion as well as distribu- tion of the rate; and when the little shopkeepers became occasionally indignant at seeing their fair-dealing profits thus absorbed by their overseer, thoy were bribed to si- lence by being left out of the rate altogether ; nay, even the vicar of the parish honestly declared to the Commis- sioner that, thougli but too well aware of the existing oppression, he also had been left out of the rate, on the distinct understanding that he was not to interfere in any of these concerns. In fact, so completely was the overseer triumpliant, that he had even dispensed with the usual form of making a rate, but when he wanted more cash, laconically stuck on the church-door the following official notification : — "A rate wanted." In obedience to this mandate, "a rate was granted;" and the said rate was then collected by his brother and servant, who Mas also the paid servant of the parish ! ANECDOTES ILLUSTRATIN'G THE OLD SYSTEM. 117 As a sample of this overseer's conduet to his inferiors, the following ease may be selected. A man with his family, consisting of a wife and four children, many years ago, solicited permission to live in a hovel belonging to the parish, with an understanding that he should pay no rent, but shoidd support himself by his OAvn exertions. He performed his contract, vmtil at last a small sum was requested and allowed him for the maintenance of his ninth child, aiv idiot. The poor man kept his dwelling in tenantable repair, and for eighteen years spent his money in "the shop." At length having ascertained that half-a-crown would go elsewhere as far as four shillings there, he deserted " the shop ;" however, no sooner did the stream of his earnings cease to flow over that counter, than a sheriff's officer demanded from him the sum of ,£1 for forty weeks' rent in arrear. The debtor w as insolvent, and his very bed was sold to satisfy his creditor. On hearing this tale the Commissioner again inspected the overseer's books, and he there found, in his own handwriting, a single charge of £1(5. 10a\, for rents paid by himself to himself! The above facts, duly attested, being forwarded to the Poor-Law Commissioners for England and Wales, they deemed it their duty to order that this overseer should instantly be dismissed. No sooner did he fall from his exalted station, than the base feelings which his own demoralizing system had created, unkindly turned upon him. Among the loAver orders there was left lio senti- ment of generosity to pardon his errors, — no disposition i' -t 118 ENGLISH CHARITY. ) 1 i ,i;' f '^ '■ • to overlook liis frailty, — no reluctance against trampling on a fallen foe; — the poor wretch fell a victim to vices of his own creation, his life became a burden to him, and, with regret we add, he has ju^it ended his career by suicide ! In many eases, on calling on the overseers, the Assis- tant Commissioner found that the parish aecoinit was kept by their wives ! In one instance, on his insisting to see the " Laird his-sel'," the old lady answered that he was forty niiles off at sea, fishing ; and it turned out that this was the overseer's regnlar trade. In another instance, calling on a fine healthy yeomau who had neglected to make out his return, the Commis- sioner found he was out ; but a man with a flail in his hand, protruding his red-hot face from a liarn-door, ex- plained that the yemman might easily sec the parish ac- counts, as the person who kept them was within. The gcmman accordingly dismounted, entered a most excel- lent house, and in less than five mimites found himself in a carpeted parlour, seated at a large oak table, with the parish accountant on a bench at his side. She was the yeoman's sister, a fine ruddy, healthy, blooming, bouncing girl of eighteen. As her plump red finger went down the items, it was constantly deserting its official duty to lay aside a profusion of long black cork- screw ringlets, which occasionally gambolled before her visitor's eyes. She had evidently taken great pains to sepa- rate, as cleverly as she could, the motley claimants on the parish purse, just as her brother had divided his lambs from his pigs, and his sheep from his cows. She had ANECDOTES ILLUSTRATING THE OLD SYSTEM. 119 one long list of "labonrcrs with families;" "widows" were deninrcly plaeed in one corner of her ledger; "cesses" stood in another; "vagrants or trampers" crossed one page ; those receiving " constant relief" sat still in another ; at last the accountant came to two very long lists, — one was composed of what she called " loio women" — the other, veiled by her curls, she modestly muttered were " hilly jittimites." The Assistant Commissioner observing, in a parish book, constantly repeated, the charge of " for sparrows 2s. i\(l.," ventured to inquire what was allowed for de- stroying them. "Why, fourpence a dozen !" the over- seer instantly replied ; but how it happened that the parish gun always killed exactly half-a-erown's Morth, never more or less, the man in office could only explain l)y observing, as he scratched his head, "Yes, and we're eaten up by 'em still !" One parochial item was — "To John Bell, for cutting his throaght, 12s." The following is, verbatim et literatim, the copy of an overseer's answer to a printed circular of grave inquiries forwarded to all the parishes by the Poor Law Board : — " It will never do we any good to alter the law in our parish, as our parish is very small, and there is no probabilits of alter our kcarse at all. There is no persons titter to manage the parish better than ourselves. T. T., oversear." "Why have you so long continued this charge of a shilling for tolling the church-bell at the death of eveiy pauper?" said the Assistant Commissioner to a parish overseer. "Why, Sir," replied the small man, in a '■ m U 1 (( u i Id M 120 ENGLISH CHARITY. whisper, " the clerk is a clre.'ulful man, and always threatens to fight me, whenever I wants to stop that 'crc charge !" Ahont five weeks ago a parish clerk gave notice, chu'ing divine service, of a rate, and then added, "And T am further desired, hy the poor of this parish, to give notice, that they mean to hold a meeting this evening, at seven o'clock, nnder the rook-trees, to consider on the best means of doing for themselves." The mcciing was accordingly held in the dark, and its ohscure atte^idants resolved inianimonslv "to do no more work." In one parish it appeared that there existed a person in the community almost fit to rival ]\[r. ^Mathews or Mr. Yates : — Q. WIu) is the overseer 1 . . . . Q. Who is assistant overseer ? . . Q. Who is the warden ? . . . . Q. Who colleets the rate ? . . . Q. Who is master of the workhouse 1 Q. Who determines on the rates 1 . A. Mr. Parker. A. Mr. Parker. A. Mr. Parker. A. Mr. Parker. A. Mr. Parker. A. Mr. Parker. Besides these trifling duties, Mr. Parker performed also in the public characters of butcher, a farmer, a qnarrier, a carman, and a constable. " Well, Mr. Parker !" said the Assistant Commissioner, "you seem to have got all the parish affairs on your hands ; I only hope you take care of these poor children, and give them a good educa- tion ?" " No, Sir/' replied Mr. Parker, " God forbid ! all the six-and-thirty years I have been overseer, I never gave children no /«rwe»^." "Why not?" "Why, l^ir, it be a thing quite injurious; wc have no long-legged ANECDOTES ILLUSTRATING THE OLD SYSTEM. 121 children in our parish turned out of school; wlicu I finds a promising child I sets him to work." Aeeord- ingly it turned out that there was not one of the poor children in Mr. Parker's parish that could write or read. The master of a Avorkhouse was asked by the Com- missioner for how many persons he was serving up dinner; in fact, how many paupers there were in his house. The man could not tell, but he said he would " send and ask Mrs. Smith, because she be got a won- derful memory, and will recollect all about it." This Mrs. Smith was an old blind pauper, who at the moment was up two pair of stairs. On descending, and on hob- bling into the room, she instantly solved the problem, by stating that there were thirty-seven people in the house. In one instance, an assistant overseer replied, repeated, and persisted, to the Commissioner, that his parish had "no population.'* It turned out he did not know the meaning of the abstruse word. In a large poorhouse, the Commissioner, wishing to know exactly how the paupers were fed, desired the go- vernor to produce his " dietary." His Excellency hesi- tated so much, that the Commissioner suspected he had not got one; the governor persisted that he had, but said he could not possibly bring it into the vestry-room, for it was a fixture ! " Well," said the Commissioner, " if the dietary cannot come to us, let us go to the dietary ! " The governor slowly led the way, until lie reached the great hall, when, pointing to a thing about eighteen feet VOL. I. a ;;;.! !ti 122 ENGLISH CIIAllITY. i-\ 'n h '\ lit. by four he said, " Here it is, Sir! " It was the paupers' dining-table ! As a national jest-book, the history of our parishcn, aiul the contents of their kulgers, stand, we must confess, in iri vailed ; but when we reflect that the sum-total of this expenditure has annually exeeed(;d seven millions, that the Poor-rates of any country are the symbol of its improvidence, and the sure signal of its distress, we must also admit that there exists in the history of our king- dom nothing more sorrowful, nothing more diacrcditable, than our late Poor-law system. Suj>posing that any person were gravely to inform a serious, sensible, right- minded body of commercial men, — say, for instance, the partners in Coutts's bank, — that there existed, in a cer- tain part of this globe, an establishment, the annual re- ceipts of which amounted very nearly to the enormous sum of eight millions, to be collected as well as expended in small sums, as changeable as, and actually influenced by, the weather ; — that this immense establishment had no officers of any sort at its head, no well-educated re- sponsible people to overlook its general management, to govern or control its expc" liture; — that there were no people appointed to audit these accounts, but that the whole capital, left to the dictates of almost any one's heart, was governed by no man's head; — that in exe- cuting the duties of this immense business, particularly as regarded both the collection and expenditure of its income, it was exceedingly popular to act wrong, exces- sively unpopular to act right, yet that such duties were imposed upon unpaid men, who were often extremely un- in THE NEW SYSTEM. 123 willing to servo at all; that these impressed accountants were often grossly illiterate, and in many eases, dressed in hobnailed shoes and common smock-frocks, were scarcely able to read or write; — that, lest by practice they should U'cirn the business, it had been established as a nde that they should be changed (nery year ; — that in all eases they had also their own private ])usiness to attetul to, and that the good account was consequently often left to their wives, and even to their young j)layful daughters ! Now, if Messrs. Coutts and Co. were re- quested to be so good as, from the above data, to state what, in their opinion, would be the result of this vast establishment, can there be any doubt but that their ver- dict would unanimously be — Inevitable Bankkuptcy? and, after death, what sentences could the coroner pro- nounce over such a carcase, but those of " Imaniti/" and "Felodese"? W THE NEW SYSTEM. HaAang submitted to our readers a few plain sketches illustrating the Old Pauper System, we will now inform them in what manner the Assistant Commissioner pro- ceeded cautiously to carry into eflfeet the Poor-Law Amendment Act in East Kent. We need hardly observe to our readers that the county of Kent is one of the most favoured regions on the surface of the habitable globe. Sit\iated between the steep Surrey hills and the flat land of Essex, its un- dulating surface enjoys a happy medium, alike avoiding g2 124 ENGLISH CHARITY. 1 ! U hi i ' the abrupt inconvenience of the one landscape, or the dull insipidity of the othci'. Its villages, and the houses of its gentlemen and yeomen, shaded by the surrounding trees, are scarcely perceptible; and from any eminence, looking arc and in all directions, there is a tranquillity in the scene which is very remarkable. It seems to be a country without inhabitants, — it looks like Paradise, M'hen Adam and even Eve were asleep. Its hop-gardens, in the winter season, resemble encampments of soldiers ; its orchards ornament the rich land, as its woods do the barren. Little is seen in motion but the revolving sails of white windmills, which, on various eminences, are in- dustriously grinding the produce of the season's harvest. The low, unassuming, flint-built village church possesses, in its outline and architectiu*e, an antiquity and a sim- plicity peculiarly appropriate to its sacred objec , while the white tombstones, and the dark gnarled yew-trees that surround it, seem to be silent emblems, speechless preachers, of death and immortality. After traversing the county in various directions, and comparing its actual state with the reports of the popu- lation, poor-rates, number of people out of employment, etc. of each individual parish, it appeared evident that, as the population of the parishes was eccentrically un- equal, it would be quite impossible strictly to bring them under the New System, or under any one system which could be devised. In one instance there were but seven individuals in the whole parish, in another only fifteen ; three other parishes united did not amount to a hundred souls J twenty of the parishes were below 100 ; there were \ THE NEW SYSTEM. 125 fifty-one below 300 ; while in the larger parishes the po- pulation amounted to 1200, 1900, and in some cases to 5000. It being impossible, therefore, advantageously to give to each parish any government which could enable it inde- pendently to take its part in a general system of amended administration, it apjxjared advisable — particularly for the small parishes, which could afford no independent government whatever — that the whole county should be grouped into convenient unions of parishes, which, by a subscription from each, to be fairly levied only in pro- portion to its late actual cxjxjnditure, might be governed with a due regard to economy, and with a sensible but humane provision for the poor ; in short, it seemed that it would be generally advantageous that the parishes, which, like loose sticks, were lying scattered over the country, should be gathered together in faggots for the benefit of all parties. But there ap^Kjared, at first, to be many difficulties in carrying this plan into execution; for, l)csidcs the eccentric shapes of tlie parishes, there were other lines equally jagged, which, to a certain degree, it seemed necessary to attend to. AVe allude to the divisions of the Lathes, the divisions of the Hundreds, the dominion of the Cinque-Ports, the corporate boun- daries, and last, though not least, the magisterial divi- sions of the county. The Island of Sheppey, the Isle of Thanct, Oxney Island, and Ilomnoy Marsh, had also limits which it appeared equally advisable to attend to. On entering into a scrutiny of all these various divisions and subdivisions, it turned out, however, that several 1' 1 1 'If ^'.^i- '/i I •1., 1^ ''ii' ,« ! % f w B.^1 126 ENGLISH CHARITY. were of little importance. The boundaries, for instance, of the hundreds were in many cases rlmost obsolete. Some of the corporate proved to possess a smaller popu- lation than many of the county parishes. With the (Cinque-Ports, from their locality, it would not be neces- sary to interfere, and the boundaries of the Lathes and of the magisterial divisions proved to be in many cases identical. The boundaries, therefore, which on reflec- tion it seemed most advisable to follow, were the magis- terial divisions of the county. In grouping the parishes into Unions, it seemed not only advantageous, particularly for the poor, that they should continue to remain under the parental government of their own magistrates — of those they had all their lives l)cen accustomed to respect — ^but that it would be exceedingly inconvenient to the parish officers of a Uiiion if they had weekly to transact business with two benches of magistrates, each separated at a considerable distance, and each holding its meeting on a different day from the other. For these reasons it appeared proper that the magiste- rial divisions of the county of Kent shoidd be the gu>'lj for the Assistant Commissioner, and, accordingly, that he should form each into a Union or Unions, to be submitted by him for aj)proval to the Board in Whitehall. But there arose in Kent an insuperable objection to an arbi- trary execution of this drrangeraent ; for although the Poor-Law Amendment Act, by clause 26, enacts — " That it shall he lawful for the said Conunissioners, by order under their hands and seals, to declare so many parishes as they may think fit to be imitcd for the administration of the 111 THE NEW SYSTEM. 127 laws for the relief of the poor, and such parishes shall thereupon be deemed a Union foi- such purpose ;" Yet the Commissioners are strictly denied the power of altering or dissolving existing Unions ; it being by clause 33 distinctly declared — " That no such dissolution, alteration, or addition, shall take place or be made, unless a majority of not less than two-thirds of the Guardians of such Union shall also concur (by consent in writing) therein." Why the Legislature gifted the Poor- Law Commis- sioners with the bump of ' philoprogenitiveness,' and withheld from them the organ of ' dcstructiveness/ — why it granted them the power of forcing alliances be- tween parishes without granting them the power of divorcing bad matches, — need not be argued, it being sufficient to state that such is the law of the land. As there existed eight large Unions in East Kent, formed under the 22nd of George IIL, it was evidently impossible that the Assistant Commissioner could, under the authority of the Poor-Law Amendment Act, carry into cflect his proposed Unions, without first obtaining the consent in writing of the respective Guardians for the dissolution of these existing Unions. But the reader may possibly feel disposed to ask, what necessity was there for the dissolution of these old Unions? Why might not they exist, and the remaining parishes follow by matri- mony their example? A map of the localities of the parishes comprehended in the old Unions, would, at a single glance, show not only that the old Unions were evidently, for their own interests, and especially for the If 128 ENGLISH CHARITY. i :•:' interests of tlic poor, most inconveniently formed ; but that, instead of forming a dense phalanx or congrega- tion of interests, they madly straddled over the country without any apparent rule whatever. For instance, the pauper of Swingfield parish lives only three miles and a half from the gi-eat River Union Workhouse, and only seven from tlie ^Martin Union Workhouse ; and yet, after passing the former workhouse, he had eight miles further to walk before he could get to his own Union at Eastry ! Again, the pauper from Walmer, after walking above three miles, actually passed the gate of the Martin Union Workhouse, axid then had five more weary miles to trudge, in order to get to the workhouse at River, to which he has been irrationally sentenced to belong. One of the old Unions belonged to three different benches of magis- trates ; and a number of parishes were so remote from their poorhouses, that it was banishment to the pauper to send him there. The Assistant Commissioner had consequently the double duty of forming and nnforming Unions; and though it at first appeared that the regular mode of pro- ceeding would be to attempt to level the old Unions before it should be proposed to build up the new ones, yet, on reflection, for the following reason, it was de- termined on pursuing the contrary course. It was per- fc'tly evident to the Commissioner, and indeed to every- body, that there existed in the county a considerable prejudice against, or rather an utter ignorance of, the new law ; and in order to encounter that prejudice, it seemed better that he should appeal to large bodies of I THE NEW SYSTEM. 129 but men, among wliom he would, at least, have the ad- vantage of meeting with many well-educated persons, whose presence Mould probably smother the expressions of narrow interests, than to risk an application to the petty tribunal of the Guardians of the old Unions. It appeared better he should commence his labours by recommending the formation of new Unions, armed by the power he openly possessed under the new Act of carrying them (uidess good reasons were shown io the contrary) into eft'ect, than defeneelessly to sue, in. formd pauperis, for permission to dissolve existing Unions, some of which might, or might not, be cemented by private rather than public interests. It was evident that if he should happen to succeed in large meetings, his success would carry with it considerable weight in the minds of the Guardians, whereas their approbation M'ould avail him nothing before the county at large; while, on the other hand, their rejection of his proposi- tion would practically amount to its final condenmation. His project being to divide the magisterial divisions into Unions, by circular letters he separately collected together the magistrat(.'s, parochial officers, and principal ratepayers of every division in East Kent. As the subject was one of intense interest, these meetings were attended by almost every magistrate in the county, by many of the clergy, by all the parish officers ; and when it is stated that the magisterial divi- sions in East Kent are composed of fifty-six, fifty, forty- two, twenty-five, and twenty-six-parishes, it may easily be conceived that the assemblage was so large, that it G 3 'fi li 130 ENGLISH CHARITY. 'J I > W P^ I ;-: was, in general, necessary to repair to the National Sehool, to obtain admittance for eveiy one. Among the parish otficcrs the feeling towards the Poor-Law Amend- ment Act was generally hostile ; and not only did most of them leave their houses, intenduig individually to oppose the measure, but before the meeting took place they in many instances met together, talked the alfa'r over, and, having no idea of the plan to be proposed, several of them collectively agreed together that they would hold up their hands against it. The Commissioner, being perfectly aware of the existence of these feelings, knowing also they were engendered only by ignorance, as soon as the meetings were assembled, requested the magistrates to pardon him if he should commence his duty by endeavouring to explain to the parish officers — what he was .sensible the magistrates much better under- stood than himself, namely, the real object of the Poor- Law Amendment Act; and, with their permission, he then read to the overseers a memorandum, which, he truly enough stated, had been hastily written, under the idea that in the disturbed parts of Kent he might at once come into collision with the labouring classes, to whom it might be very desirable he should clearly explain his object. From his address " To the Labouring Classes of the County of Kent," which he then read, we extract what follows. ADDRESS TO THE LABOUEINa CLASSES. " In old times, the English law punished a vagrant by cut- ting oif his ear ; and, said the ancient law, 'if he have no ears* ADDRESS TO THE LABCtJRINO CLASSES. 131 (which means, if the law should have robbed him of both), ' then he .shall be branded with a hot iron ; his city, town, or village being moreover authorized to punish him, according to its discretion, with chaining, beating, or otherwise.' The Legislature, driven by the progress of civilization from this cruel extreme, most unfortunately fell into an opposite one, wearing the mask of charity. Instead of mutilating indivi- duals, it inflicted its cruelty on the whole fabric of society, by tlie simple and apparently harmless act of raising the pauper a degree or two above the honest, hard-working, hard-earning, and luird-faring peasant. The change, for a moment, seemed a benevolent one, but the prescription soon began to under- mine the sound constitution of the labourer ; — it induced him to look behind him at the workhouse, instead of before him at his plough. " The poison, having paralyzed the lowest extremity of society, next made its a[»pearance in the form of outdoor relief, and it thus sickened from their work those who were too proud to wear the livery of the pauper. In the form of labour- rate, the farmers next began to feel that there was a profitable, but unhealthy, node of cultivating their land by the money levied for the support of the poor. He who honestly scorned to avail himself of this bribe, became every day poorer than his neighbour .fho accepted it : until, out of this disteinpered system, there grew up in every parish petty laws and customs which, partly from ignorance and partly from self-interest, actually threatened with punishment those who were still un- contaminated by the disease. " To the provident labourer they exclaimed, * You shall have no work, for your dress and decent appearance show that you have been guilty of saving money from your labour ; subsist, therefore, upon what you have saved, until you have sunk to the level of those who, by having been careless of the future, have become entitled more than you to our relief!' l \ I l 'I 'l 132 ENOLISH CHARITY. V' f! " * You Imve no faniily,' they said +,o the prudent lahourcr, who had refrained from marrying because he had not the means of providing for children ; 'you have no family, and the farmer therefore must not employ you until we have found occupation for those who have children. Marry without means ! — prove to us that you have been improvident ! — sa- tisfy us that you have created children you have not power to support ! — and the more children you produce, the more you shall receive !' " To those who felt disposed to set the laws of their country at defiance, ' Why fear the laws ] — the English panjjer is better fed than the independent labourer ; the subjected thief receives in jail considerably more food than the jxiuper ; the convicted tJhief receives still more ; and the transported felon receives every day very nearly three times aa much food as the lionest, indejjemlent peasant ! ' " While this dreadful system was thus corrupting the prin- ciples of the English labourer, it was working, if possible, still harder to effect the demoralization of the weaker sex. On re- turning home from his work, vain was it for the peasant to spend his evening in instilling into the mind of his child that old-fashioned doctrine, that if she ceased to be virtuous she would cease to be respected ; — that if she ceased to be respected she would be abandoned by the world ; — that her days would pass in shame and indigence, and that she would bring her father's grey hairs with sorrow to the grave. " ' No such cruelty shall befall you,' whispered the Poor-laws in her ear : ' abandoned, indeed ! you shall not be abandoned : — concede, and you shall be married ; and even if your seducer should refuse to go with you to the altar, he or your parish shall make you such an allowance, that if you will but repeat and repeat the offence, you will at last, by dint of illegitimate children, establish an income which will make you a market- able and a marriageable commodity. With these ad- s ADDRESS TO THE LABOURING CLASSES. 133 one vantages before you, do not wait for a seducer — be yoiu'self ! ' " To tlie young female who recoiled with horror from thia advice, the following arguments were used : — ' If you do insist on following your parents' jirecepts instead of ours, don't wait till you can provide for a fanuly, but marry ! — the parish shall support you ; and remember that the law says, the more children you bring into the world, without the means of pro- viding for them, the richer you shall l)e !' " To the most depraved portion of the sex : — ' Swear ! — we insist upon your swearing — who is the father of your child. Never mind how irregular your conduct may have been ; fix upon a father ; for the words, ' Thou sluilt not hear false witness ayainst thy neif/hbour,' are not parish law — what's lorouy be- fore the altar, we have decreed rlyht in the vestry ! Swear, therefore ; and though you swear ever so falsely, you shall immediately be rewarded !' "I have now endeavoured to explain to you the two eX' tremes of error under which the English Poor-laws have hitherto existed : the ancient error having proceeded from the vice called cruelty ; the modern one, from false virtues assuming the name of charity. Of these two extremes, there can be little doubt that the latter was the worst. However, it is useless to argue, — both are now at an end. The new Act reigns in their stead, and we have therefore now only to consider what this really is. . . . Those who arc enemies to its meclianism tell you, that this new Act has '; grinding propensity ; but so has the mill which gives us our bread. The Act truly enough does grind ; but before we condenm it, let us clearly understand who and what it is that will be ground by it. " The Act rests upon that principle which, whether ad- mitted or not by law, is indelibly imprinted in the head and heart of every honest person in this country, namely, that no individual, wlather ahle-hodied, impotent, or vicious, \ 11 v^ ■i ■ 5'i \ i if m w 134 ENGLISH ClIAllITY. "i 1« '11 i' sltoiM he lefl to siiffivfrom ahsohite want. To tliis principle of common social justice there is uttached a liberal feeling almost aH universal, namely, that the poor of this wealthy country shouhl not only he barely supported, but, totally regardless of expense, they should receive as many comforts and as much alleviation as can by any man's ingenuity jjossibly be invented for them, without injuring, corniptiny, or devioralixhuj ot/ier memlters of society. " Upon this liberal principle — upon this Christian-like feel- ing, but with this salutary coution always in mind, — the Act of Parliament in question has been framed. . , . The Cen- tral Board has no power to punish the vicious, — no right to revile the improvident, — no authority to neglect the impotent. Their wants alone constitute their legal passport to relief, which is to be administered to them with an equal atten- tion to generosity on the one hand, and justice on the other. Every comfort, every accommodation which the indigent can name, they are strictly entitled to, jn'omded it does not raise them above the provident and independent labourer : — but if a pauper, improvident and dependent, should insist on being placed higher up on the scale of society than an inde- pendent labourer, — then, indeed, the Bill becomes a grinding one, and it will continv.*; lo grind imtil it has reduced this man to his projter level. The Central Board has no power to pre- vent a lad without a shilling from marrying a girl without a sixpence ; the couple and their offspring, the moment they are in want, are strictly entitled to relief; — but if, not satisfied with this, they moreover demand (according to the late system) that the unmarried, hard-working, prudent labourer is to lose his employment, and to take a berth in the workhouse instead of tliem, then the Bill will grind down their pretensions. The Central Board cannot discard the most abandoned women who solicit support for themselves and their illegitimate otfsjjriug ; — their prayer for relief will at once be granted ; but if such ADDRESS TO THE LADOUHINO CLASSES. 135 pi oplc presume to (Hsorgninze society l»y raising their guilty heads above the honest, virtuous peasunt-wonian and her children, then the Bill will grind them down, but only till they reach their ])roper station. With the same impartial justice should people in a much higher class endeavour to maintain an exalted station, and at the same time draw illicit assistance from the rt)or-rates, tims secretly existing on money which has been collected from ratepayers infinitely poorer than them- selves, — then will the machinery of the new Bill come quickly into action, while exclamations against its grinding nature will be uttered and advocated in vain. To every sober, reflecting mind, it must surely be evident that the substitution of the present Act of Parliament for the late one, will slowly, but most surely, confer inestimable advantages on our society in general, an I on the provident, industrious, and independent labourer in particular. All that he gains will in future be his own ; — he will no longer be afraid of appearing decent and ckanly in his person ; — with honest pride he may now dis- play the little earnings of his industry, without fear that they will throw him out of work, — and from his examjde his children will quickly learn that, in England, honesty has become once again the best i)olicy. " In gradually withdrawing, even from suspected impostors, out-door relief (offering them as a test the workhouse instead), individual cases of real as well as of apparent hardship nnist occur ; bui deeply as such cases ought to be lamented by us, yet, on the other hand, it should always be kept in mind that the greatest degree of misery which in its very worst form can exist under the New Poor-Law Amendment Act, amounts, after all, to food, raiment, bedding, fuel, and shelter ; and the man can have seen but little of this world, — he must be sadly ignorant of tlie state of its immense population, — he can him- self have suffered very little from adversity, if he presume to declare that such relief is absolute misery. But whatever may 186 ENQLISH CIIAIIITY. I i be its clinraotor, I horr Icftvo, in cnnoliuliiig, mont partieulnrly to iniprt'Srt upon you, that this relief (iiad as it may he called) is piven as charity, and is hy no means inflicted as a ]mnish- mont ; all benevolent people, who really wish to raise tho situation of the lower classes, have now only to bestow their charity on tho independent labourer, and by doinj^ so they will instantly enable the Central IJoard to better, exactly in the same proportion, the situation of the pauper ; for tlio Central Board will always be happy to raise the condition of the pauper as high as it can be raised without dis- organizing society. The independent labourer is entitled, in coni.non justice, to rank above, and not below, him who is dependent on bis parish for support, for that simple reason which every just man must admit, namely, that the luDujer-oa oitijht not to be raised hlyher than him on whom fie hanf/s. "(Signed) F. B. HEAD." tfi t t'te Hi :)! ADDRESS TO THE RATEPAYERS. On concluding tins Address, the Assistant Commis- sioner explained to his audience that, as the whole country was under the New Poor-Law Amendment Act, it was now only for parishes to determine whether each would still endure the expense of a separate poor- house, separate officers, etc., or \>hether, by congrega- tion, it would be most for their interest to avail them- selves of the immense advantages of the wholesale management. He observed, that the Poor-Law Board had neither made the law, nor were responsible for its existence, — their only duty was to accommodate it, as far as it alloAved them, to all existing interests; — that to attend, de die in diem, to the complaints of all ADDRESS TO THK RATKPAYKHS. 187 tlic paupers of 1 1,()()() distinct imrishcs would bo utterly impossible ; bi\t tliiit it' JCiist Kent, for instanee, sliouUl approve of being grouped into conipaet luiions of pa- rishes, it would then be perfectly in the power of tho I'oor-Law (^onunissioners to attend to their colleetivc interests, and to take an especial care that the poor of each Union were sensibly and humanely provided for. As far as regarded tlu; interests of the ratepayers, ho shoM'cd them what an immense diminuti(m of expen- diture had invariably taken place wherever a body of steady, j)ractical men had zealously uiulertakeu the ma- nagement of their own parochial interests ; — that though no one little parish of seven, twenty, or a hiuidred individuals could produce this jury, yet the Guardians of each Union wo\dd form such a body; — that that body would have the pleasure as wcdl as the popidarity of ex- pending every shilling collected for the poor ; — while, on the other hand, all that was unpopular would fall upon the Poor-Law Amombnent Act, upon the Poor-Tjaw Commissioners for Kn^I.ind and Wales, and upon their Assistants; — that undvr theOldSystem, theOversecrsand Guardians, they well knew, had been looked upon as the composci's as well as the executors of the Poor-law ; — and that they must be perfectly sensible that not only had they themselves been reviled by the laboiu'crs, unless the law, as well as the relief proceeding from it, had beeu modelled to meet their demands, — but that labourers who had beeu rct'used relief had been heard to leave their vestries saying, almost aloud, " You all want a few more youd jires !" That intimidation, however ashamed they : \ •J . 138 ENGLISH CHARITY. I I i 1 .». I might be to confess it, in many cases had been success- fully exerted, and accordingly that designing men were at that moment endeavouring to promulgate to the dis- affected that tire would produce relief, and that relief alone could extinguish fire ; but that henceforth, in a iinion of parishes under the new law, the Guardians would stand before the poor in the same situation as county magistrates, who, having been enabled to refer to and actually to read aloud the law to every oficndcr, had been able to carry all its severest sentences into execution, without losing their well-earned popularity; — that if men for pleasure could walk, in order to go to fairs, five miles (which was about the greatest distance any pauper in any of the new pro])Osed Unions could live from its centre) ; — that if they thought it no hardship to go the same dis- tance to their market-towns ; — that if they cheerfully went a still greater distance to ask for relief at the ma- gisterial beuch ; — there was neither hardship nor injus- tice in requiring them to proceed a similar distance to a Union Workhouse, to be there clothed and supported by the sweat of other men's brows ; — that although their diet, Avhen they got there, might be what in this country alone would be termed low, yet, after all, would they be fed there better than the Russian peasant, the Prussian peasant, the French peasant, — than almost every inde- pendent labourer in Europe ; — in fine, that to feed its paupers better than the independent labourer of Europe was what no comitry in the world could afford ; — that our having weakly attempted to do so, without at the same time increasing the fare and condition of our ADDRESS TO THE RATEPAYERS. 139 honest labourers, had brought us to a condition in which the farmer was now scarcely able to cultivate his land, — and that, if we should continue to pride ourselves on such a sin, we should soon, as a nation, be deservedly humbled to the dust. With respect to the houses of the proposed Union, the Commissioner suggested, that, for the interest of the lowest orders, it would be highly advantageous that classification to a certain extent should be eft'ected. He detailed to the parish officers the various scenes he had witnessed, and the melancholy results of depravity which a promiscuous intercourse was even still creating. He appealed to them as fathers, whether they did not think that it was their duty, at least, to shield the rising gene- ration from the vices and errors of the present day ; — whether it was not benevolent, and not cruel, that the children of those who Avere unable to support their offspring should receive education as well as food ; and that, if improvident paupers called upon an enlightened country to support their progeny, it should be permitted for the public good, to insist on mingling moral instruc- tion with the sustenance Avhich, in the name of charity, they received : — whether, in fact, it was more cruel for a pauper's child to be sent to school than for the chil- dren of our most wealthy classes ? As to the provision for the aged, the Commissioner submitted to the opinion of the meetings, that, in- stead of being thrown among children and young men and women, their comforts would be materially increased by their being kept together. He asked In , ' i- *i! 140 ENGLISH CHARITY. „ ( l^f; 'I! ii whether quietness was not one of the kindest cha- rities which couhl be bestowed on age? whether a diet as well as a home miglit not be provided for them properly suited to their infirmities ; — and last, though not least (if there was no one to deprive them of this benefit), whether many additional comforts and indul- gences might not be granted to old people, beyond what could or should be aftbrded for every description of applicants ? He observed, that for the aged, as well as for the children, no expensive government was requisite, inas- much as a respectable pauper and his wife could always be found capable of superintending the children, while the aged, if they enjoyed but rest and quietness, scarcely required any government at all ; — that consequently it was not only demoralizing to the children, and dis- tressing to the old people, but destructive of the powers which would be necessary to control the able-bodied labourers, to think of congregating all classes together in one large building; that such a building would dis- figure the face of an agricultural county, and would unavoidably assume the revolting appearance of a prison or a jail. With respect to the government of the able-bodied paupers, the Assistant Commissioner submitted, that, for the welfare of society, the whole powers of their parochial resources ought in prudence to be concentrated on that difficult object, and not to be unscientifically spread over a vast promiscuous assemblage of all the paupers in the Union. He contended that all the able- ADDRESS TO THE RATEPAYERS. 141 if bodied paupers ought to receive sufficient food, clothing, firing, lodging ; that arrangements ought to be made for giving them also work ; but that, with every disposition to be charitable to them, their situation on the whole ought, in spite of clamour, unavoidably to be made such that they should be unwilling to come and anxious to go, — that they should feel disposed in the New System to break rather out of the workhouse, than, according to the Old System, to break into it, — that to create such a feeling was the only solid basis of social life, and that if we wished to restore the invaluable distinction which once existed between the English labourer and the pauper, could only eflect that object by resolutely creating a ''/j'erence between them. In regard to able-bodied paupers haughtily refusing to go fiv3 miles to the proposed New Union Poorhouse, or rather to the old existing poorhouscs, — for he was anxious, if possible, to erect no new buildings, — the Commissioner observed, that a vessel in distress ought thankfully to go to the harbour, not to expect that the harbour is to come to it ; that when an able-bodied man asks for relief, to use an old adage, "the beggar should not be a chooser ;" that, even after a long day's march, our soldiers abroad had occasionally five miles to trudge to get to their billets for one night's rest ; and most espe- cially, that in East Kent such an objection should not be urged against the Toor-Law Amendment Act, inas- much as in the Old Unions many of the parishes were nine and twelve miles from the Union Workhouse ; in- deed, at the old Coxheath Union, paupers had been, and !l) 142 ENGLISH CHARITY. m fi V'i 9 I were, sent by parishes to poorhouses situated twenty miles distant ! The Commissioner's Addresti was generally followed by very long and anxious discussions. There was however one great practical question which at all the meetings Avas invariably addressed to him, namely, " Does the new proposed system offer us any means of employing the immense number of labourers, who, with every desire to seek employment, are now totally out of work?^or that is our sole evil." To this all-important question, which appeared uppermost in every one's mind, the Commissioner replied, that he conceived the Poor-Law Amendment Act did not pre- tend to find these men employment ; — that the new law was a system against a system ; — that it was the Old System, and not the new one, that had created more labourers than M'ork ; — that any man of common sense might, twenty years ago, have prophesied that such would be its r-'jsult ; — and that it required no gift of pro- phecy to foretell, that if the Old System were to continue, the most dreadful of all revolutions would shortly ensue, — namely, that the upper classes would lose all they possessed, while the lower classes would gain nothing but depravity and demoralization ; — that if intimidation had not arrived, it was at least clearly in view ; — and that the instant the lower orders succeeded in establishing that, property and instittitions of all sorts would be at an end. That to arrest this system was the avowed and determined object of the Poor-Law Amendment Act ; — that if a vessel v/ere sinking, it would be a false argu- ADDRESS TO THE RATEPAYERS. 143 wenty Uowed , which o him, us any bourers, ire now I." To )permost , that he not pre- ! new law s the Old ited tnore non sense ithat such riftofpro- » continue, rtly ensue, all they n nothing itimidation and that ■stablishing rould be at avowed and lent Act ; — false argu- *. ment to use against the carpenter, .vho was ordered to stop the leak, to say, that he should not do so unless he could tell what was to be done with the water which wa«3 already in the hold ; for that, in the execution of his duty, it mattered to him not one straw whether there was five feet of water aboard or ten. What would be ;he carpenter's reply, but " Pump it out or drink it, if you choose; my duty is to stop the leak"? It would be for the Legislature, by other Acts, to provide for the alle- viation of the evil to which these inquiries so natiu-ally referred. Emigration to the colonies might and should be encouraged ; the Allotment System might and should be encoui'aged; but that even the Poor- Law Amend- ment Act, though it could not undertake directly to meet the evil, would, if it had fair play given to it, so operate as indirectly to diminish the evil to an enormous extent. He appealed to the parish officers whether it was not undeniable that every farm in the county could employ many more labourers than it did, if the farmer had it in his power to threaten the labourer with his discharge ; — that hedges might be put into order; — that even a different style of husbandry might be introduced, and that the necessity of overlookmg ever;' labourer would cease if the farmer could only .say to him, " If you will not serve me faithfully, I will discharge you !" But he asked them whether at present the very best labourer did not often say, "Master, I have no complaint; but I don't see why I should be working hai'd for you, when 1 can live better and work more lightly for the parish ! " The Assistant Comm' sioner read to the meetings a 144 ENGLISH CHARITY. ill P' il ' nmunication which the Poor-Law Board had lately i jived from Manchester, earnestly begging for la- bjurers, and saying, " When a family in a Sussex village is starving on 7*. per week, or living hardly in a workhouse, a letter from some friend settled in Lancashire, stating that he is getting 25s. and 30». weekly, will electrify him into the means of arriving at the land of promise. Give the wish, and the means he will find himself" But he asked whether it was likely that the labourer would take the trouble of migrating (not to a foreign climate, but even to a neighbouring shire in liis own native kingdom), — whether it was likely that he would take the trouble even to cross a hedge, — so long as there was nothing to oblige him to do so ; in short, so long as his energies were undeveloped by necessity ? He asked why it Avas that the Irish managed to rob the English labourer of his employment. Was it by over-working him ? No ! but it was by under-living him ; and so long as the diet of our poorhouses created indolence and pampered sloth, so long would the English peasant be beaten out of his own field by his inferior. As soon as the discussion had worn itself out, the Assistant Commissioner declared to the meetings that having concluded his endeavours to show what advantages society in general, and the poor in particular, would de- rive by the formation of the new proposed Unions, he would now beg leave to take the opinion of the magi^i- trates and parochial officers of the division on the sub- ject. Before doing so, he would only observe, that ADDRESS TO THE RATEPAYERS. 145 although it was not with him to meddle with, alter, or pi'esurae to avert the Amendment Act, which had just become the law of the land, — although the Poor-Law Commissione-s had power arbitrarily to create the Unions he had submitted to their consideration, — yet ^hat, without going against it, he had so far the means of evading the law, that in ease a majcn-ity of those pre- sent should, after all he had said, deliberately express a Avish to remain as they were, he could, and if the Puor- Law Commissioners for England and A\'alcs should permit him, he would, meet their wislies by proceeding at once to some of those districts in England which were eagerly requesting to be reformed. They had therefore now to determine whet! .e should remain in East Kent, with every desire to forward its interests, or at once proceed elsewhere. The Assistant Commissioner then produced and read to the meetings the following paper : — " Sir Francis B. Head, Assistant Poor-Law Commissioner, being desirous to obtain the sentiments of the Mugistrates and Parochial Officers of the Division of the County of Kent, on the important subject of a Union, or Unions of Purishes, re- (piests the sense of this meeting on the following i)ropositiou : "It is Proposed, That the Division of , in the County of Kent, should (subject to the approbation of tlie Poor- Law Commissioners for England and Wales) consent to resolve itself into Unions of Parishes, for the purpose of establishing within each of the said Unions classified and well-regulated workhouses, in which the paupers (especially those that are able-bodied) may be set to work. " (Signed) F. B. Head." VOL. I. H ni ;!i"M 146 ENGLISH CHAUITY. ■I On tlio sense of the meetings being taken on the above proposition, the following was the result : — Meetings. Nunilier of Parishes. I'opiihition. No. of Miipis- ti'iitcH, Piu'lnh OlIlctTH, olc. present. For the I'ropu. Hition. AgiiiiiMt it. Upper Division of tlio Lath of Scrav 50 35,510 197 191 3 Archbishop's Pahico, Cantorburv . . 25 0,071 42 42 Wiiigliam Division of St. Augiistino Latli .... 5(5 2G,fi(?l 19G 195 1 Ashford Division . 12 22,()()!> 171 170 1 Elhani Division 2G 11,899 lai 101 199 101,8-13 710 705 5 j n h CONCLUDINa OBSERVATIONS. In the history of the Poor-Law Amendment Act, it is with pleasure Ave record, that every magistrate who Avas present at these meetings (as well as every clergyman not a magistrate) not only refrained from opposing the proposition, but gave to the Assistant Poor-Law Com- missioner the most generous support."*^ " Clearly seeing," he says, " that I was both incompetent and unqualified for the arduous duty I had to perform, in every instance they generously crowded around me, encouraged me by their speeches, maintained me by their intlueuce, and nothing can be more true than that, without their assist- * Tlie Ciiairmen of the several meeting.^, namely Lord Har/is, Bev. C. Ilallelt, T. P. riuiutrce, Esq., M.P., E. Knight, Esq., W. Deedes, Esq., and tlie Earl Amherst, most particularly supported him by their speeches and arguments. CONCLUDING OUSEKVATIONS. U7 le u- 1. A((iiin.sl it. ' 3 t 1 » 1 t » 5 fincc, I could not liave succeeded in any object." On entering East Kent, it had more than once been hinted to him by several individuals that the magistrates were .igainst the new law, because, depriving them of- the ex- penditure of the Poor-rates, it would leave them nothing but painful duties to pc form. The tlicory was certainly a plausible one ; but those; who jealously urged it little knew that it is by disregarding petty interests and paltry distinctions tliat he who is really a gentleman invariably disap[)oints the calculations of the vulgar ! The magis- trates of England have, we believe, been very unjustly accused of having been the cause of the profuse expendi- ture of our Poor-rates. That thev have been the instru- ments, we do not deny ; but with no controlling power, with no public accountants, with no assistance, with no support, and with the storm of false luimauity against them, we contend it was utterly impossible for them to govern a vessel which had neither rudder, compass, nor pilot ! That they Avould willingly have done their duty in this matter, as they have done it in all others, is in- disputably proved (at least as far as regards East Kent) by the manner in which they unanimously supported the New Poor-Law Amendment Act; and should that Act eventually confer on society the blessings which its framers contemplate, we conceive that 'these Kentish magistrates will, by having set this example, be allowed optim^ meruisse rei/mblica. The Assist.\nt Commissioner, having obtained from the magistrates and parochial officers their approbation of his project, protocded to the Guardians of the respcc- 2 1,4! I I I., '). 1 > iil r 148 K.NOLISil CHARITY. lil tivc Unions, Avhieh had all been formed nnd(T the .'ijind of George III, Wc will not tire our readers by detailini; the very great dittieidties he encountered in persuading these people to put hand to paper, signing the death- warrant of their own authority : in several instances ho was obliged to have three meetings on the sulyect ; but the snp})ort he had met with was eventually irresistible, and the (iuardiansof nine Unions, comprehending ninety- nine parishes, at last signed the paper submitted to them, and their dissolution was immediatelv declared. In the whole of Kast Kent there was one little Union of three parishes, which alone resisted every argument that the Assistant Commissioner could use. We will not even mention its name, it being quite sufKeient to observe that the governor of the workhouse, ordered by Gilbert's Act to be appointed by the Guardians, received his salary without even living in the poorhouse, and that this said governor was actually one of the Guardians ; in fact, the good man had appointed himself. With this trifling exception, the old Unions in East Kent having been, by consent of their Guardians, all levelled to the ground, and the whole district having willingly submitted itself to the recommendation of the Poor-Law Board, it was divided into sixteen new Unions, most of which comprehend, w khin a circle of about ten miles' diameter, a population of nearly ten thousand. Although a general fear to undertake the novel duty naturally exists, several most respectable Guardians for these Unions have already been appointed, and the As- sistant Commissioner is now attending on each, to lend '(5 (leatli- C«)NCLUDING OnSEHVATIONS. 149 liis assistance in their first steps, wliicli must unavoid- ably 1x3 attended with considerable difficulties. That many little embarrassments will at first occur, — that those most competent to discharfjc the duties of (juar- dians will at first hang hack, — that some incom[x;tcnt to the duty will be appointed, — that prejudice aiul ignorance, that the narrow-minded, that men of sickly judgment, that false philanthropists, in short that all descriptions of " Second -chance men" will do their utmost to im- jiedc the progress of the Pooi-Law Amendment Act, there can be no doubt whatever; but as our readers pro- l)ably, like ourselves, are sleepy, and for the moment dead tired of the subject, we will conclude by observing that, if a dozen or two sensible Guardians of a compact Union, supported by the strong powers of a Ceuti'al ]?oard, shall provi: incapable to govern their own affairs, it is perfectly evident that no Inmian jxjwcr can assist them. With respect to the I*oor-Law Commissioners for England and Wales, we know but little of them, but what little we do know we will stale. Out of about two thousand applications which tliey have received for the situation of Assistant Commissioner, they have selected twelve individuals, to at least ten of whom they were ])reviously total strai.gers. Their ui'banity has already gained for them the zealous co-operation of their ser- vants, and, since their own appointment, they have un- remittingly devoted themselves to the laborious duties of their office. The creation of a Central Board for the adniinistra- S ! ! I a ! i k i m\ 150 ENGLISH CIIAUITV. tion of the Poor-Law was strongly and repeatedly nrgcd in the ' Quarterly Review,* h)ng hcfore the new Act had been framed, or, we believe, thought of: we are of opinion now, as we were then, that sneh a Hoard, if judieiously constituted, must eventually act on the best possible in- Corniation ; that this information must become better than any opinion of any individual, of any parish, or of any district ; and that it is particularly for the interest of the poor that a corps of Assistant Commissioners should henceforward be circulating among them, ready to listen to their complaints, and eager to remedy their grievances. ; ; 131 1 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. Thkrk is, wc humbly tliink, something impressively ap- [)alling ill the reflection that everything in ereation has been immutably fixed, by a strict entail, save and except the march, jjrogrcssive or retrograde, of human reason. The velocity of lightning, the sound of thunder, the power of the wi:ul, which still goeth where it listeth, do not increase. The heat of the sun, the blueness of the sky, the freshness of mountain air, the solemn grandeur of the trackless ocean, remain xuialtered. The nest of the bird improves no more than its plumage, — the habitation of the beaver no more than its fur, — the industry of the bee no more than its hone. ; aid, lo\ely as is the melody of the English lark, yet tlic un- changed accents of its morning hymn daily proclaim to us, from the firmament of heaven, that in tue conjuga- tion of the works of Nature there are no distinctions of tenses, for that what is, what was, and what will be, are the same. But it is not so with human reason. Man alone has the power to amass and bequeath to his posterity what- I' 1)1 rfn 153 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. y J 'li ever knoAvlodgc he acquires, and thus our condition on earth may be improved ad injinitum by the labour, intel- ligence, and discoveries of those who have preceded us. Human reason being therefore a fluctuating series, while brute instinct is a fixed quantity, there is some- thing encouraging in reflecting that the high degree of instinct with which animals are gifted, coupled with our promised dominion over every beast of the field, foretell the superior eminence which human intelligence sooner or later is destined to attain. For instance, the powerful eyesight of the eagle might have almost led a philosopher to prophesy the invention of the telescope, by which we have been permitted to siirpass it. The astonishing in- stinct of those birds of America, which from the luxury of a southern latitude annually return to a wilderness nearly a thousand miles di.-tant, to build their nests on the very trees upon whose branches they were reared, might have led hira to foretell the discovery of the compass, whi(!h enables men, not only in one direction, but in all directions, to probe their way to the rem« .est regions of the earth. The strength and ferocity of the lion, the tiger, and the rhinoceros, might have foretold the invention of fire- arms, which have empowered us, with fearless confidence, to seek rather than avoid every beast of the field. The immense size of the whale, so fortified by the boisterous element in Avhieh it lives, might have led a man to prognosticate the simple apparatus by which it is now captured. The speed of the horee, — the strength of the ox, — tho LOCOMOTION nV STEAM. 153 acute sense of smell in the dog, — the patient enduranee of "the ship of the desert," the camel, — the stupendous power of the elephant, — and the; swiftness of the cnrricr- pigeon's Aving, have already, by the ex(>i*tion of the hu- man mind, one after another, been made subservient to the interests of man, for whose dominion they were created ; and, though we cannot deny that in certain instances human reason has not yet surpassed brute in- stinct, yet we should rememl)cr that in science, as well as in religion, it has beneficently been declared to us, " Seek, and ye shall find ; knock, and it shall be opened imto you." If this train of reasoning had been applied to the sud- den discovery of America, as well as to our almost simul- taucous acquaintance with other immense uninhabited regions, whose mountains, ])lains, lakes, rivers, and cata- racts, on a scale of stupendous magnificence, totally un- snitcd to the means wc then possessed, had apparently been created altogether too large for us to grapple with ; — if the same train of reasoning had becji applied to the fearful increase of population, simultaneously observ- able among every nation on the globe ; — it would surely only have been placing due confidence in the wisdom of that Providence which " knoweth our necessities before we ask," had wc from these data prophesied the advent among us of some new gigantic power, strong enough to enable us not only to travei'sc these new countries, but to mingle with their inhabitants with a facility pro- portionate to the increased wants of the human family. This new gigantic power has very lately arrived ; and, II 3 ip;;' ! . 1 'I; i » ', 111 I 154 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM ON THE although the distances as well as difficulties wc have to soiitend with have, during the last three centuries, greatly increased, yet most true it is that we are at this moment more competent than ever we were before the discovery of America to contend with the amount of dangers which assail us by land and sea. In truth, we have attained more power than at the present moment we have courage to wield ; and, instead of being alarmed at the distances which separate us from remote nations, we actually tremble at the means we possess of approach- ing them, by sudden subjugation of elements which have hitherto proverbially been invincible. Time and tide once waited for no man. Now no man waits for them. Of the long-bewailed tyranny of the winds, it may truly be said, " Le congres est dissous." Science has, at last, ended the quarrel which since the beginning had existed between fire and water, and by the union, or belle alli- ance, of these two furious elements, she has created that gigantic power of steam which the subject at present before our mind leads us for a few moments to consider. I. stea:m power on the aqueous surface of THE GLOBE. If the wild tribes of Lake Huron were even at this moment to be told that the white man's recipe for con- quering the waves of the great fresh-water sea before them was to take up a very small portion of it and boil it ; — if sixty years figo Dr. Johnson had been told (as, exhausted by a hard day's literary labour, he sat rumi- AQUEOUS SURFACE OF THE GLOBE. [Oii nating at his fireside \vaiting for his favourite heverage) that the tiny volume of white smoke he was listlessly gazing at, as it issued from the spout of his black iron tea-kettle, was a power competent to r. bukc the waves, and to set even the hurricane at defiance, — the red children of Nature would listen to the intelligence with no greater astonishment than our venerable lexico- grapher would have received it. To credit such a statement, hoM'evcr gravely uttered, would have been almost impossible ; indeed how many among us can now scarcely l)ring our minds to believe it, though we see it? Not only at its birth did the vigorous infant run alone, but, quickly breaking the apron-string that tethered it to our side, it fled we hardly know where. Let us, thcrefoi'c, for a moment endeavour to follow it. Those who have traversed the Pacific, as well as the great Atlantic and Indian Oceans, have ever been ac- customed to observe a small, dark line or thread which every here and there perpendicularly connects the clouds with the waters. We need scarcely say that we allude to waterspouts, which, especially in fine weather, when siuldonly summoned into existence, leave the human mind in doubt whether they are messengers descending to us from heaven, or spirits rising from the vasty deep on which we sail. In addition to these symbols, whose antiquity is coeval with creation, a modern hieroglyphic lias become one of the well-known characteristics of the ocean, and now on almost every portion of the aqueous globe the appearance of a slight horizontal stain in the rfS I m ) 1 15G LOCOMOTION BY STEAM ON THE ^).I i . ,M' V atmosplicrc dcsignarLS, according to its colour and its form, that a steam «i' is or has been beneath it. These self-proprllea vessels have not only made their way round the Cajjc of Good Hope to Iiuiia, where the new power is regularly plying on the Ganges, but our readers are aware they have just successfully crossed the Atlantic, in consequence of which not only are immense vessels — one of them thirty feet longer than the largest linc-of-battle ship in the Britisli service — now building on both sides of the water, in order to establish a regu- lar steam-communication between the Old World and Amr>vica, but arrangements have been commenced and companies formed for connecting our trade across the Isthmus of Daricn with steamers which are to ply on the great Pacific Ocean between Valparaiso and Panama, a distance of about :i500 miles; — by whicli means the voyage round Cajjc lloi'u to Lima, which has hitherto occupied our trading-vessels about four months, will, it is said, be reduced to about thirty days, T'> the Mediterranean, steam-vessels are used by Christians, Jews, and Turks. Our garrisons of (Gibral- tar, INIalta, aiul Zante, no longer, as in old times, are doomed to lie becalmed without letters from England, although two or three packets might be due ; but to a day, and almost to an hour, they calculate upon the arri- val of the welcome messenger ; and, whether the wind be too great or too little, whether it be gregale or potiente, the prediction in the almanack is verified by the appear- ance through the telescope of the distant black breath of the English postman, — we mean, of the approaching steamer, which is bringing them their mail. AQUEOUS SURFACE OF THE GLOBE. 157 by In 182 i the 'Hugh Lindsay' steamer, of 411 tons, made four successive voyages Ijctwecn Bombay and Suez ; and, notwithstanding the south-west monsoon, — notwitli- standing that the vessel req\iircd to be propelled, without her engine being stopped, 3000 miles against a strong wind, lieavy sea, and lec-eurrcnt, — the voyage has been made against the monsoon to Suez from Bombay. Tlie intricacy of the passage of the lied Sea, — the local and unusual difficulties which characterize it, — the savage ])assions of some of the nations which inhabit its coast, — add to the triumph of the ethereal power whicli has suc- cessfiilly wormed its way through all these dangers, for the important object of communicating prompt intelli- gence to those hundred millions of inhabitants who ani- mate the eastern portion of the British empire. The number of steamers which from the port of Lon- don alone radiate in almost every direction, is a fact which a few years ago could not have been conceived possible. The old Leith, as also the Aberdeen smacks, whose un- certain passage to London w as from three days to a fort- night, have been now nearly superseded (as far as passen- gers arc concerned) by steamers, which perform the dis- tance w ith such regularity, that — whether the wind be fair or foul — families at Edinburgh, vhen the appointed hour arrives, drive to Newhaven to greet their expected liondon friends, who, if they have not actually arrived, will, they know, almost immediately be seen, perspiring in the offing. The steamers which ply from England to Calais, Boulogne, Havre, Diejjpc, Granville, St. ]Malo, Dublin, 158 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM ON THE / ii Mr ■ Bonlciiux, R' ttcrdam, Cologne, ]\Tcntz, Cobleiitz, !MaT)- heim, and to the various towii;- and villu^xs on the biuiks of the llhinc, perform their respective passage * with equal punctuality ; and. ospeciall; at tlie latter places, the hurried ringing of the bell, which announces their close approach to their r(>;pective liu'/ens, eoiueiiles very ncai'lv with th*' slow striking of the parish elock, whici , in simple jnono3yllal)les informs the little coniniiiuity that tho hoiiv apjKiated for the appearance of their snioke-i.(/ .V has arrived. With similar precision do steamers within the Conti- nent of Europe (which may almost be sniJ to be girt round with a chain of them) ply to Antwcj), Ostend, Hamburg, Zwolle, Amsterdam, Saardam, Strasburg, Kiel, Copenhagen, LUbeek, Gothenburg, St. Petersburg, Dobberan, Stockholm, Christiania, Bergen, Schaffhau- sen; — across the Lakes of Constance, Ziirich, Wallen- stadt. Lucerne, Thun, NeufchAtel, Morat, Lago Mag- giorc, Como, Guarda, etc.; — on the Danube, from Galatz to Pesth, Vienna, Linz and Ratisbon; — on the Save, from Belgrade to within eighty miles of Fiume, an Austrian seaport on the Adriatic ; — from Drontheim to Hammer- fest; far within the Polar Circle, in latitude 70° ; — from Stockholm to Upsala, Tornea (the most northern town in Europe), Abo, Revel, Cronstadt, etc. etc. In the Thames alone, steamers are plying in all direc- tions. Almost every five minutes throughout the day, a communication is going on between Hungerford Stairs, London Bridge, Blackfriars Bridge, Waterloo Bridge, Kew, Richmond, and Twickenham. Below London AQUEOUS SURFACE OF THE GLOBE. 159 Bridge, tlie tortuous course of the river is, dux'iug every day of the week, singularly designated by innumerable dashes of horizontal smolce; and, as the steamers from ■which they have proceeded — reckless of wind or tide, and with velocities proportionate to their different horse- ])owers — pass and repass the noble Hospital where the elite of our weather-beaten sailors are reposing in peace, one can hardly help reflecting with what astonishment their old admiral. Nelson, if he could be conjured up among them, would gaze upon this wonderful picture of the march and progress of human reason ! The Irish Sea, in various directions, is traversed by steamers; and between Dublin, Wicklow, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Limerick, Galway, Donegal,' London- derry, Belfast, Isle of Man, Liverpool, Holyhead, Bristol, . etc., there is a never-ceasing communication. In the inland lakes of Ireland, from Shannon Harbour to Ath- lonc, Lough Ree, Carrick, and by Limerick to the sea, these waters are partially navigated for 150 miles by steam- vessels, carrying goods and passengers, or acting as tugs. From below Limerick, steamers now ply to Clare, Kilrush, and Tarbert ; the immber of passengers between those places having amounted, in the year 1830, to 23,851. In short, so rapid has been the increase in steam-vessels throughout the British empire, at home and abroad, that, although in 1814 mc possessed only two, the united tonnage of which was 450 tons, we have now a fleet of GOO, whose tonnage amounts to 07,909 tons. The victory which the power of steam has gained upon 160 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM ON THE i' iil h i the aqueous surface of North America is even j^foatcr than that Avliich we have already dcseribed. Thirty years ago the United States had but one steamer — tlioy have now between 500 and 600. Mr. David Stevenson, in his late narrative, states that abreast of New Orleans may be seen numerous tiers of steamboats, of gigantic dimensions, just arrived from, or preparing to start for, tlie upper countries, through mIucIi passes the Missis- sippi, whose tributary streams Mould, it is said, in length twice encircle the globe. Mr. Stevenson says — " At every hour, I had almost said at every mirnite of the day, the magnificent steamboats which convey passen- gers from New Orleans into the heart of the western country fii'c off their signal guns, and dash away at a rate which makes me giddy even to think of." Steamers were first introduced on the Mississippi in 1811; and by 1831, 318 had been built for the navigation of the western waters. In the very heart of the continent of America, at Pitts- burg, may be seen moored in the river Ohio a fleet of thirty or forty steamers, some of which have meandered from New Orleans (about 2000 miles) through the waters of the Mississippi and Ohio. The deck of the ' St. Louis,' which plies on the former of these streams, and carries about 1000 tons, is 230 feet. On the Hudson River, the passage from Albany to New York is regularly performed at the rate of 15 miles an hour. The steamboats which ply between New York and the ports of Providence and Charleston are of stupendous dimensions. The Narragausett's keel is 210 AQUEOUS SURFACE OF THE OLOIIE. 161 feet in leuf?tli. These sea-stcamcrs aflbrd moat cxecllcivt accommodation, and often contain about four hurulrcd berths. The cabins are from IGO to 175 feet in length ; and it is not unusual to see nearly two hundred people dining together. The power of the engines is propor- tionally great : that of the ' Narragansett ' equals 773 horses ; that of the ' Rochester,' 748. The great North American lakes, or rather seas, of fresh water, are so admirably adapted to steamers, that they are there seen, as might be expected, in vast num- bers. They are strongly built vessels (furnished with masts and sails), propelled by powerful engines, some of which act on the high-pressure and some on the low- pressure principle. liuke Eric alone is traversed by be- tween forty and fifty, from 200 to 700 tons register. The St. Lawrence steamers, all of which are owned by Ikitish subjects, are also fine, powerful vessels. Mr. Stevenson fovnid the deck of one, the ' John Bull,' to be 210 feet in length. In this vessel he passed from Quebec to Montreal, a distance of 180 miles, in forty hours, against a current averaging three miles an hour. Upon this occasion the * John IJull' had a fleet of five vessels in tow, — one drawing 12^, another 10 1, two 9, and one 7 feet of water ; and it is not uncommon to sec a steamer, with 1200 or 1500 passengers, towing (or, as it is termed, tiiyyiny) through the Scylla and Charybdis difficulties of the St. Lawrence, six of such vessels, against the current of a river which is supposed annually to discharge into the sea 4,277,880 millions of tons of water ! Of the various modes of water-conveyance to which li 1G2 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM ON THE m ii'iii J- 'i ' the traveller on this glohe is suhjectcil, thcTC is perhaps T10 one more curious than tliat Avhieh wc lately enjoyed of descending one of the great rapids of America, in a small bark-canoe, under the command, as is customary, of two Indians; and the anxiety to witness this spectacle is perhai)s not at all disagreeably spiced by that still, warning voice of reason, which gravely admonishes the adventurer that his undertaking, interesting as it may be, is not altogether divested of danger. For lK->ide8 the rocks, shoals, and snags which are to be avoided, unceasing attention must be given to innu- merable logs of hewn timber, which, having been wafted by the hunbcrers to the commencement of the rapid, have been left to be hurried for eight or nine miles to- wards their market, — sometimes 8ei)arately, sometimes hustling each other, sometimes floundering, and some- times, if anything irritates or obstructs their passage, rearing up in the water until they almost reel over. As soon as a berth or clear phiee is observed between these masses of floating timber, the elder Indian, who is seated at the head of the canoe, his yoimger comrade being at the stern, and the passenger in the middle, calmly lets go his hold of the bank, and the two Indians, each fur- nished with a single paddle, immediately standing up, the frail bandbox which contains them floats indolently until it reaches the r Ige or crest of the rapid, — which is no sooner passed, than the truth rushes upon the mind of the traveller that all possibility of stopping has ceased, and that this "hubble-bubble, t( 1 and trouble" must continue until the eight or nine miles of the rapids shall be passed. I ^ AQUKOUS SURFACE OF THE OLOBE. 103 In the apparent turmoil of this seene, in wliieli the canoe is preceded, as well as followed, by masses of heavy timber, tlie slightest touch of Avhieh would annihilate it, — the icy-cold judjj^nient of the old Indian, — his collected but lightning-like decision, — the simplicity and trancpnllity of his red, beardless face, thatched over ])y his blulT-cut, black, lank hair, — his total absenco of either fear or bravado, — his iuimutable presence of mind, — and, in places of the greatest possible noise and confusion in the waters, the mild tone of voice with which he softly utters to his young comrade the mono- syllable that directs him to steer the stern of the canoe in the direction opposite to that which he himself gives to its head, — form altogether a most striking contrast with the boisterous scene, the sudden kaleidoscope- changes of which it is utterly impossible to describe; — for one danger has no sooner been avoided than, instead of having time to reflect on it for a moment, the eye is attracted to a second, as sn.ddculy passcid and as in- stantly succeeded by a third. Sometimes the canoe rapidly dashes over a sunken rock, or between two barely-covered fragments, which to have touched wouhi have been ruin. In avoiding these a snag is passed, which would have spitted the canoe had it impinged on it. Sometimes the middle of the stream is the safest. Some- times the Indian steers close to the steep, rocky bank, where it becomes evident the velocity of the current is so great, that if the canoe were to be upset, its passen- gers, even if they could snatch hold of the bough of a tree, coulil not hang on to it, without being suffocated . >' I i \ : ti ^ f 'i ' ! 16i LOCOMOTION HY STEAM ON TUB by the resistance wliidi in that position they wouhl ofl'ci' to the rushin}jj waters. Sonietinu>s, at a moment when all is apjjarently prosperous, md the water, on account of its }j,reater depth or breadth, has become eoniparatively tranquil, some of the timber ahead, proceeding; encUforc- most, strikes either against the side, or some sunken rock in the middle of the stream, in which case tlic tree sud- denly halts, and, veering round, impedes the rest of the timber until the congregated mass, forcing its way, clears the passage, perhaps just before the canoe, which cannot stoj), reaches it. At other times, in traversing the stream to avoid dithcultics, the pursuing tind)cr approaches the canoe nearer than is agreeable. In some places the river suddenly narrows, and here, the waves are not only tre- mendous, but the whole character of the torrent seems to be changed, for the water ai)parently ceases altogether to descend the channel, doing nothing but as it were boil- ing and bubbling up from the bottom. In approaching this cauldron, the case seems hopeless, and often con- tinues so until the canoe is close ujjon it, when the In- dian's eagle-eye searches out some little aqueous furrow, through which his nutshell vessel can pass, and, though his countenance is as traucjuil as ever, yet the muscular exertion he makes to attain this passage will not easily be forgotten by any passenger whose fortune it has ever been to observe it. As soon as the declivity of the rapids has ended, the water instantly becomes tranquil, the two Indians sit down in the canoe, and, on reacshing the shore, one of tlu^m with perfect ease carries it on his shoulders during the remaiiuler of the day. ^ i AQUEOUS SUIIKACK OF THE ULOIIE. 105 1(1 ofUu' t wl»(Ml iccount •ativclv ft i(l-forc- cii rock •oc siul- t of tlio ^, elciira L cannot ? stream :;hcs the the river )nlv tre- \i sccnis together ere boil- roach in g ten con- the In- i furrow, , thongh iniiscnlar ot easily has ever T of the tranqnil, rea(!hing it on his It would, of course, be inipossibh; for any vessel to nneend a torrent siniilar to that down which, by a digres- sion that we hope will be pardoned, onr readers have just unexpectedly been precipitated ; yet on the St. Law- rence it is not unusual to sec a steamer cliiiib a long ra[)i(l of very considerable violence. From the deck of a vessel in this situation, it is very iiitercstiug to deter- mine, by the relative bearing of fixed objects on shore, the slow but sure conqui'st which the power of steam is nudving over the elements of wind and water, both of which are occasionally seen eond)ining to oppose its pro- gress. In places where the current is the strongest the ascent for a time is almost imperceptible; every moment we expected that the engine would l)c beaten, and that the vigorous strength of the steam would be exhausted by the untiring force of its adversaries ; but no, — the hot water in the long-run beat the cold ; the fire conquered the wind. — And, though the liquid element was continu- ously slipping from luiderueath the vessel, and though the air in close column was unceasingly charging to oppose it, yet — " at spes infracta" — in spite of all these dittieulties, the steamer triimq)hantly reached the sum- mit of the rai)ids, and then merrily glided forward on its course. Until last year's disturbances in the Canadas it had been considered impracticable for steamers to navigate the great fresh-water seas of America in winter. The Lakes Huron and Ontario, which, from their iinmcnsc depth, arc never frozen over, are subject to sudden and most violent gales of wind ; and, as soon as all the rivers, '( , *L!6 1G6 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM ON THE mil li'm m I. liarboiirsj and bays become hard enough to bear the pas- sag3 even of artillery, no liaven is left in which a vessel can seek refuge from the storm. For the coast, which, generally speaking, is in summer of easy access, becomes gradually incrustcd ■with ice ; against ihis barrier the ■waves break, and, as the water is no sooner motionless thun it freezes, the whole shelving beach gradually be- comes, and, until the hot season melts it, remains, a reef of rocky ice of a most forbidding and inhospitable appearance. Notwithstanding these disadvantages, the steamers of Upper Canada conti'ived last winter to navi- gate the lake until the 4th of February, when, after a short refit, they again went out, and patiently contimied their services until " the sun strengthened and the days lengthened;" in short, until, their rppuMlican invaders having been everywhere repulsed, warm, peaceful weather arrived. Nothing, but the imminent danger which threatened the Canadas from the perfidious conduct of the United States' authorities, in allowinq the artilU^ry and muskets of their public arsenals to be hostilely turned against a high-minded, generous nation with which they wer.3 trading under a solemn treaty of peace, could have war- ranted the desperate experiment of trying to transport arms, artillery, and troops during the winter from Kings- ton to Toronto, Niagara, and Hamilton. It was confi- dently predicted that the paddles would become clogged Avith ice, that the boilers would burst, and that the ves- sels would even become water-logged from the weight of the frozen element on their bows; however trip after AQUEOUS SURFACE OF THE GLOBE. 167 .e pas- I, vessel wliich, ecomes ier the tioiilcss allv be- laiiis, a suitable 5CS, the to navi- , after a jntiniied the days iiwaders I weather eatened United muskets gainst a icy wcr-i ave war- Lransport n Khigs- as confi- clogged the ves- ■weight of np after trip was effceted with impunity, and the important ser- vices required from the captains of the steamers were thus manfully performed. In traversing the lake at this inclement season, the helmsman stood upon the upper deck in a glass lantern or case. Above us was the clear, exhilarating, deep blue Canadian sky, into which the suddenly-condensed white steam rapidly disappeared. Around in all directions were waters of the same dark ethereal hue, diversified every here and there with different-sized white patches of floating ice. The American and Canadian shores, covered with sparkling snow, were bounded by the dark, bristling outline of the pine-forest. On approaching the points at which the guns or sol- diers were to be disembarked, much embarrassment and even danger were caused by the undulating surface of floating ice ; but the greatest apparent difficuliy was, for these steamers, which always during the night became firmly frozen in, to break their fetters in the morning, and regain their liberty. The manner in which this ope- ration was daily effected, was as follows : — As soon as two or three of the vessels lying close togothci could get their steam up, the ice was cut away by axes just sufli- cient to allow the paddles to turn. Tliis having Ix^eu done, the vessels simultaneously worked their paddles, which by all revolving together caused such a hubbub and tiirmoil, that the water, forming into angry waves, wrenched up the ice for a considerable distance. The steamers being thus enabled to get headway, and their bows being shod Mith iron, they charged the ice, and, by 1 1 . ;■ 168 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM ON THE T'i the crew continually running in a body across the deck irom starboard to larboard, a rocking motion was also created which, with the impetus of the vessel, enabled it to force its prow through the ice into the clear water. By these means the lake, for the first time in its life, was not only in winter traversed by day, but on several occasions, during the most tempestuous weather, by night. AVith every harbour closed, — with the air, the concen- trated essence of cold, feeling as if it would freeze the blood in the veins, ^ — it may easily be imagined that there Wcas something very appalling, even in a calm winter's night-passage — as the red embers of various sizes slowly descended from the invisible top of the funnel, till, on reaching the water, they suddenly vanished — in reflecting that the British steamer was a solitary vessel on the lake. In heavy Mcather, however, such trifles were unno- ticed, the whole attention of the crew being occupied in searching through utter darkness for that friendly red shore-light, which no vessel but one under the powerful and providential protection of steam could have ventured to approach. As a striking contrast to this frozen scene, let us view the following vivid description, by a very young travell(!r, of his passage up the burning river of Calcutta. ill] " We have been steaming up the Ganges for about eight days, and we have seventeen more before us. Fancy a set of people belonging to the most civilized nation in the world, surrounded by European luxuries and machinery, living in a little world of itself, which, with its crew of inhabitants, is whizzing along iu the torrid zone, for upwards of GOO thcrd 3 deck IS also bled it iter, its life, several yniglit. coneen- 3CZC tlie ^at there winter's 3s slowly , till, on fcflccting the lake. [re unno- ipied in lly red powerful ventured zcii scene, jy a very river of ibout eight uiicy a set the world, , living iu Buhabitants, (Is of GOO im AQUEOUS SURFACK OF THE fiLOHE. 1G9 miles, through a perfectly uninhahited country — sonietinios traversing a river twice or three times as broad as the llliinc. and sometimes stealing along a creek so nurrow, that tlu- thick bamboo jungle overhung on both sides of the deck. This tract (the Sunclerbmul) we have however passed, and w<' iire now scuflling up the broad, rapid Ganges. Tlic country on each side is cultivated, but as flat as a table, while tlie banlvs are constantly crowded with the natives, wlio rush out to see fite ^re-shlp pass " Ou salt water as well a^ on fresh ; — rocking and funuiig under the Line, as well as in frozen re gions ; — on crowded rivers, as well as on those whose shores are desolate ; — on large streams as avcII as on small ones; — in hays, har- boiu's, friths, estuaries, channels ; — on the small lakes of Ireland, Scotland, and Switzerland ; — on tlie large ones in America; — on the Red Sea; — on the Black Sea; — on the Mediterranean; — an the Baltic; — in fair wea- ther, — in foul weather, — in a calm as well as in a hurri- cane, — with the current or against it, — this power, when tested, has most successfully answered the great puri^i^jie for whioh it was hcnietieially created ; and it is ini|)os- sihle to reflect on the thousands of human beings who at this moment arc being trans])orted by it \t is im- possible to summon before the imagination the various stcinners, large and small, wliich in all directions, in spite of wind and weather, are going straight as arrows to their targets, — without feeling most deeply that, after all, there is nothing new in the discovery that " t/te Sjjirif <if God moves upon the face of the waters.'" VOL. I. 170 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM ON THE 'I- ^ ht. f' II. STEAM POWEE OX THE TRERESTRIAL SUEFACE OF THE GLOBE. Although the power of steam lias not, geographically spedviiig, made the same extensive progress on land as on the aqueous surface of the glohe, yet in science it has established a simple fact, the utility and importance of ■which almost surjjass the value of the steamer. Although ]\PAdam's roads are the best on the globe, — although our horses (bone, l)reeding, and condition Ijcing duly considered) are the most powerfid in the world, — although capital, experience, competitiou, and an unpa- ralleled propensity among Anglo-Saxons to travel fast, have, during the lapse of ages, united in creating a system which, without being guilty of national vanity, we may say has nowhere been etpialled, — aiul which, with humility we acknowledge, we had often fancied could not be surpassed, — yet, by the application of the locomotive engine on the railway, the infant power of steam, by its first earthly stride, has suddenly trebled, even in England, the speed of our ordinary conveyance for travellers, and has more than three times trebled the s})eed of our heavy goods by the public v.aggon ! On the results, even to ourselves, of the sudden gift of this new velocity, it is almost awfid to reflect ; but when we consider that the railroad principle is very nearly as applicable to every region of the globe as it is to our own, and consequently that countries Mhieh have bad roads, and even that coiuitries which have no roads at all, with- out passing through the transitionary processes to which man's •ftratc! out o' course lft| ibr a ij curioul W'hicli| with if TERRESTRIAL SUHF-M^K OF THE GLOBE. 171 'ACE hically iuu\ as B it has auce of rlobc,— 3u being rtorlii,— lu uupa- ivcl fast, •eating a v\ vanity, lieh, with couhl not eoniotive mi, hy its England, filers, and our heavy \\cn gift of hut when ' nearly as lo our own, bad roads, |t all, with- es to which ive have been siibjccted, may suddenly travel with this velocit}', we cannot but admit that the power of steam on land, as on water, is prodigious. There are no doubt many of our readers who have yet to receive those connnonplai'e impressions whieh are made upon the mind of the traveller m lien for the first time he sees and heSrs the engine, as from a point in advnnce on the railway it slowlv retroj^rades iu order to he hooked on to a train, composed, us on the London and Liver- pool line, of eighteen or twenty huge ears, besides private carriages on runners, caravans full of horses, waggons of heavy goods, etc. etc. etc. Th(» immense weight, upwards of eighty tons, to be transported at such a pace to such a distance, when compared with the slight, neat outline of the engine, the circumference of whose black fnnnel-pipe woixkl not twice go round the neck of the antelope, and whose bright copper boiler would not twice ecpial the girth or barrel of a race-horse, nn'ght induce the stranger to apprehend for a moment that the approaching power must prove totally inadequate to its task; l)ut the tear- ing, deafening noise with whieh ti.'s noble animal of man's creation advances to his work very quickly demon- strates that it has itself no fear, but, as a bridegroom (mt of his chamber, is rejoieing, like a giant, to nm his course. If the character of this powerfid creature be considered for a moment with that of a horse, the comparison is curious. With sufficient (,'oals and w^ater in his manger, whieh, it must be observed, Avhcrever he travels he takes with him, he can, if the aggregate of his day's work be r 2 i * _^»^Z._i_._i 172 LOCOMOTION lU' STEAM ON THE m '' ' ■ if.i^ vf 'I considered, earry every day for ten miles, at tlie rDte of sixteen miles an hour, tlie weight of an arinj' of 21,501 men, of 10 stone 10 lbs. caeli ; uhereas a good liorse could not, at the same pace, and for the same distance, continue to carry every day more than one such man. For a distance of eighty miles he can carry the v.'cight of 2G88 men at a rate (sixteen miles an Iiour) that neither the hare, the antelope, nor the race-horse could keep up with him. No journey ever tires him ; he is ne^ ( r heaixl to grumhle or hiss hut for want of work ; the faster he goes, the more ravenously he feeds ; raid for two years he can thus travel without medicine or surgery. It re- quires, however, ahout €2000 a year to support him. We might to these observations add the graver reflec- tion, that, as hy the invention of the telescope man has extended his vision heyond that of the eagle, so by the invention of the locomotive engine has he now surpassed in speed every quadruped on the globe ; we will, however, detain the engine no longer, but for a few moments will, with our readers, accomuTiv the train with which it has now started. On recovering from the confusion consecpient on pass- ing rapidly through the air, one of the most pleasing novelties which first attract the attention of the railway traveller, as seated in his elbjw-chair he joyously skims across the green fields jf merry England, is to see the horses grazing at liberty, in rich pastui'c ; for it reminds him that the power of steam has at last emancipated those noble quadrupeds from the toilsome dutie> which, in the service of our mails and coaches, they have so I, (' TiniKESTHTAL SUKFACE OF Tllli GLOllE. 173 3 to <lf horse .taiice, I man. i<^!;1it of icithcv pep up r heard ?ter he vcars It rc- rt him. reilec- fian has ) hy the irpassecl lowevor, uts -will, i\\ it has oil pass- pleasinu; > railway (Iv skims see the reminds lueipatcd |cs which, have so luiig and so gallantly undergone, — in fact, that he is tra- velling on land, withont the slightest infliction of animal suffering. Although everyhody comprehends perfectly well in theory ^^hat moving in a carriaj;e at the rate, occasion- ally, of thirty or forty miles an hour means, yet, luitil a person /iun performed it on a railroad, he can scarcely conceive the sensation he experiences in practically find- ing every hoiu' that he is gliding past some place which in ordinary travelling he wonld scarcely have reached under fonr or perhaps live hours' labour. The dashing at full steam-speed into the small black orifices of the tunnels, — the midnight darkness that prevails there, — the flashes of light which occasionally denote the air- shafts, — the sudden retnrn to the joyous sunshine of this world, — the figures of the company's green servants, who, as the train whisks past them, stand all in the same attitude, motionless as statues, Mith white flags (the emblem of safety) in their extended rig] t-hands, — the occasional shrill, plaintive whistle ending in a scream, by which the engine, whenever ucccssary, scares the workmen from the rails, — the meteor-like iiieeting of a retnrn train, of which, in traislta, no nu)re is seen than of the coloured figures on one of the long strips of painted glass, which, after flow exhibition before children, arc by tlu^ showman rapidly draMU across the lens of his magic lantern, — all these sensations unite in making the traveller |rjaetically sensible of the asto- nishing velocity with which not only he and his fellow- passengers, each seated in his arm-chair, but heavy goods, can now be transported. %l . t M ' l! fii' m mm 174 LOCOMOTION UV STK.VM ON THE ^ , ft ■ ; 4 r But let us descend from the train, seriously to consider Avhat is the amount of danger attendant upon this nc^v mode of travelling ; for there can be no doubt, if it be suicidal, it ought not to be continued. That death is everywhere, — that he levels his shafts at the throne, the bench, and the cottage, — that the rich and the poor, the brave and tlie timid, are alike the vic- tims of his power, no one will \)c disposed to deny ; and it is, perhaps, ecpially true that, where he is oftencst en- countered, he is, generally speaking, the least feared, and that, on the contrary, he is invarv..bly the most dreaded where he is least known. The human mind becomes callous to dangers to which it has been long accustomed, while, on the other hand, it is often over-sensitive re- specting those which are new ly born. That these obser- vations arc peculiarly applical)le to the dangers attendant upon railroad travelling, will appear Iroin the I'oUowing comparison between it and that to which the public had been hitherto accustomed. The dangiMs of travelling by either mode may be divided into four heads, namely : — 1. The dangers of the road. 2. The dangers of the carriage. 3. The dangers of the locomotive power. 4. The dangers arising from momentum, or from the M-eight of the burden, multiplied by the velocity at which it is conveyed. As regards the first of these, wc are certainly of opinion that, cuiteris punhit.s, a railroad nmst be less dangerous than a high-road ; because it is fiat instead of hilly ; because a surface of iron is smoother than a sur- hors of cert T be TEHRESTRIAL SURFACE OF THE GLOBE. 175 divulcd face even of broken stones ; hccausc the lip of the rail which confines the wheels is an extra security which the common road docs not possess; and because waggons, vans, carts, private carriages, and all other vehicles, as well as liorses and cattle, belonging to individuals, are rigorously excluded. As regards the second of these dangers, we submit that a railway car must be less dangerous than a stage or mail-coach, 1)ecausc its centre of gravity, when empty, is low instead of high ; because its passengers sit low in- stead of high, inside and not outside ; l)ecause its axles, receiving no jerks, arc less liable to break ; and conse- quently because altogether it is less liable to ovc'sct. As regards the third of these dangers, we conceive there can be no doubt whatever that a locomotive engine must be less dangerous than four horses, because it is not liable to run away, tiunble down, or shy at strange objects or noises ; because it has no vice in it ; because it is not, like a horse, retained and guided by numberless straps and buckles, tlip breaking of any one of which might make it take fright. And lastly, because by the opening of a valve its daring, restless, enterprising spirit can at any moment be turned adrift, leaving no- thing behind it but a dull, harmless, empty copper-vessel. It is true that it is possible for the boiler, unlike the horse, to ex[)lodc ; yet, as the safety-valve is the line of least resistance, that accident, Avith mathematical certainty, can be easily provided against. Witli respect to the fourth of tlujsc dangers, it must be admitted that both the speed and the weight of a I 'i I re LOCOMOTION BY STEAM OX THC h ! I railwjiy-truiii arc iiifiaitcly greater tluiu the momciituui of II luuil or stage coach ; yet if the latter, in case of serious accitlcuts, ])e sulHcieut to cause the death of the jjasseiigers, it might be suggested that tlielornier can do at) more, just as it is practically argued Ijy old soldiers, when tliey rebuke recruits for dreading artillery, that a uuisket-ball kills a man as dead as a cannon-shot. If ii "ailway-traiu at fidl speed were to run against the solid brickwork of the tunnel, or to go over one of the steep cmljaukments, the eli'ect would nu'eiianieally be iuliuitely greater, but perhaps not tnorc fatal to the ])as- scngers, than if the mail at its eummon pace were to do the same .— besides which, it iuust always be remem- bered that, though the stage may profess to travel at the safe lukewarm pace of eight miles an horn", yet anything that f!'if:,'iu is its hordes may suddenly accelerate or boil uji it s^sCL'd to that of the railroad, uacier which cireum- staucc; i!ic carriage becomes ungovernable. In going downhill, if a link of the polc-chaius break, — if ,'ie reins snap, — or if the tongue of a li^ttlc bucldr bends, thu scared cattle run away : and it is this cataMrophc, it is the latent i)ropensities and not the ordinary appearance of the horses, which should be fairly considered, when a comparison is made between railroad and common-road travelling; for we all know thci'c is infinitely less danger in galloping ahorse that obeys the bjidle at thirty miles an hour, than there is in demurely trotting at the rate of eight on a runaway brute that is only waiting for the shade of the shadow of an excuse to place his rider in u ].redicament almost as unenviable as ^Nlazcppa's. < i TEIUIKSTIMAL SURl'ACK OV THE flLfJlIE. 177 ^loiH^ovcr, wo hiivc^ iili'caily slinwn tliat the o1):it:' ic- tioiis which exist on a raih'oacl are iiiiinitelv less tiiau those uhieh exi-^t on a liigh-ioad, — inasmuch as from the former is cxehuled every human ' ■' animai, and veliielc (e\(;epting those safdy inel '^le train). It is true tliat in case of an unforc.- i tion u coach eau pull uj), s; y in twenty yan .u a train at full speed cannot he stopped in less than, say two hundred ; but, on the other hand, it must he recollected that, assisted by the signal-men, who by tla;4's or Ituglcs (especially in a fog) can eommuuicate, like telegraphs, one with another, the conductor of a train may be said to see considerably more than ten times further before him than the driver of a mail-coach, and he is therefore better able to avoid the obstrr.etion. Indeed, if any one would take the trouble to watch the sinndtaneous depariure from the London Post-oflice of our mails, in a foggy or sn(^wy winter's night, he would probably feel that nothing short of a miracle could enable the men ami horses, against wind, weather, and all obstruc- tions on the road, to keep their time ; in short, that the danger of travelling by such a conveyance Avas infinitely greater than in a railroad train, flying along the iron groove of its Avell-proteeted orbit. So much for theory. In practice the precise amount of the danger of railroad travelling, even at the com- mencement of the experiment, will at once appear, from the following official reports, to have been about ten jMissetif/cru killed out of more than forty-four vulUous ! k V I 3 «. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I l^|28 |2.5 |50 ■■^ ll^H 2.2 1^ ^ 1^ 10 1 Ul U^ 11X6 ^ 6" ► Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WeST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. M580 (716) 872-4503 .^ .% 1 ( M t I I 178 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. o -a ^f^ ;3 J « tM o rA S? en S -a § 3 I 2 iM f-i i^'i K'i » lO '3 i-H ,o eo CI (M w lO J>- w o o 2 in U3 in \.1 00 r— 1 30 O — 00 ?» in (M >(5 CO 05 1> 05 (M rH O c. 05 rH t>. r^ 00 O X m <n — o 71 I-l im" TjT sg 00 00 00 S S S 2 - - X X X 00 _- _•■ X K " W W — J X ^ I-l rH c^ ,-1 " (M rH Sh & o o '■;? c >?; CO §g ^ o c^ «D 5 S ^ O rH X fl s •* S -^ 6 E a< •r 2 C ^ !U) — E tS 9 'S tc _ ;?; W i^ O (^ Q CO 68 2 §§ S •-* r-l 3 'J' c pi •S 5, g ■fgg S c C 2 a ffi 4i C * p 0-5 i! S " E *= " -^ 01 o „ ■£ »■ S -.9 c.S o S-- fe ^-§?.§^ o « 5: £3^ 5 -9 Hi fcSaS ii a " ■^ra 9 tuts '■S^i ■ S " J a p a * s RESULTS. 179 Our readers have now, we conceive, sufficient data to enable them to form their own conclusions on the com- parative danger between railroad and highroad travelling. III. RESULTS OF THE LOCOMOTIVE POWER OF STEAM. What will be the advantages and disadvantages to mankind of the locomotive power by steam, on the aqueous and terrestrial surface of the globe, we submit that it is impossible for philosophy accurately to define, for the simple reason that the power in question is undetermined. When Archimedes in his study hud calculated, 1st, the amount of requisite power, and, 2nd, the weight of the world, he did not fear to declare, that with sufficient lever and fulcrum he could move the globe ; he would not however have said this had his power been, as is termed in mathematics, an unknown quantity. In tliis latter predicament we stand; for though we have seen the birth of our new-born power, we have yet to leai-n what is its real strength. jMr. Booth (Secretary to the Liverpool and Manchester Railway Company) observes, that a speed of thirty miles an hour, with the luxury of the smoothest motion which springs and cushions can afford, is considered by many as merely our starting-point. We ourselves humbly believe that that rate will ere long be doubled ; and, if travellers can fly backwards and forwards at the rate of sixty miles, one can hardly say why infinitely lighter engines (on the tooth-aiad-pinion system for instance) n 1] 11 1 ' 1 il ft If 180 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. might not, Avith larger driviug-Avht'cls, ti'uvcl on this iron orbit at the rate of a hundred miles au hour ; for, to return to our old argument, au accident at that pace could hardly do a passenger moie mischief than at the rate to which we are already accustomed. It will be evident that tlie lirst eltcct of this increas- ing series niust be the gradual annihilation, approaching almost to the iinal extinction, of that space and of those distances which have hitherto been supposed unalterably to separate the various nations of the globe ; and that in proportion as this shall be cfi'ected, the centralization, whether for weal or woe, of the human family, must be accomplished. For instance, supposing that railroads, even at our present simmering rate of travelling, were to be suddenly established all over England, the whole population of the country might, speaking metaphori- cally, be said to have at once advanced en masse, and to have placed their caairs nearer to the fireside of their metropolis 1) )-thirds of the time which but lately separated th. . ^rom it j they m ould also sit nearer to one another by two-thirds of the time which now re- spectively alienates them. If the rate were to be again as greatly accelerated, this process would be repeated ; our harbours, our dockyards, our towns, the whole of our rural population, wouhl again not only draw nearer to each other by two-thirds, but all would proportionally approach the national hearth. As distances were thus annihilated, the snrl'ace of our country would, as it were, shrivel in size until it became not much bigger than one immense city, and yet by a sort of miracle every man's RESULTS. 181 field would be found not only where it always Avas, but us large as ever it was ! This magic process would be as applicable to all oilier countries as to our own. In Germany, for instance, ii'om time out of mind, men as well as mile-posts have been reared \ip inider the idea that a league and an hour are synonymous. Indeed, in some parts of that country dihtances are still expressed by the number of pipes which it has invariably taken men to smoke in going from plag(j to ]ilace : thus the midwife is said to live " two pipes otl," tlic doctor " three pipes," and so on. If railroads at the rate of thirty miles an hour were suddenly to be established, the small family of one hour (cine Stuntic) or "two-pipe" men, who now live not exceeding sixty minutes from their metropolis, or from any great city, or from one another, would sud- denly be fratei-nally increased by the two-hour, three- hour, and four-hour men, with whom previously they had been but very distantly connected ; in short, circles being to each other as the squares of their diameters, the one- hour area would, as a hen gatheis her chickens, collect within its circumference all the men and all the mile- posts of sixteen times its original space. While this Birnhani-wood-eoniing-to-Dunsinanc pro- cess was gradually congregating the population of each particular country on earth into a national family, our steamers, by the same process, would unite into one huge society all the nations of the globe. Since the brown leaves, now rustling on the ground, burst into verdant existence, we have seen the power i i f r ' 1 t 1 1 183 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. of steam suddenly dry up the great Atlantic Ocean to less than half its breadth ; and thus, to the British as well as to the American mcrelKiut, who for the advan- tage of communicating with each other have hitherto paid to Neptune his customary charge of thirty-five days* passage. Science has proclaimed, " For thirty-five, write sixteen .'" Our communication with India has received the same blessing. The Indian Ocean is not only infinitely smaller than it used to be, but the Indian mail, under the guidance of steam, has been granted almost a miraculous passage through the waters of the Red Sea. The Mediterranean, Mhich is now only a week from us, has before our eyes shrunk into a lake ; our British and Irish Channels have become scarcely broader than the old Frith of Forth : the Rhine, the Danube, the Thames, the Medway, the Severn, the Shannon, the Hudson, the IVIississippi, the Ohio, the Ganges, etc., have contracted their streams to infinitely less than half their lengths and breadths, and the great lakes of the world are rapidly drying into ponds ! The ideas which rush into the mind when it attempts to contemplate this astonishing congregation of the human race, are so vast and overpowering, that it is almost imjjossible to think of the future but as an undiscovered country totally beyond our ken; and, as children feel disposed to be frightened whenever they ai'e in the dark, so it Mould not be diflicult to conjure up in this new region apparitions of a ghastly and terrific figure. AVe entertain, however, a firm reliance that so great a power as steam would not have been let loose IlESULTS. 183 upon us, but for our advantage. AVhcu a congregation of cannon-balls of various sizes, each covered not only with the mud and dirt of different countries, but with the rust and scoriie which are common to all, are shut up, and made very quickly to revolve together in a large, hollow, iron-lined cylinder, the operation, though rude, rough, and productive of no little noise and internal confusion, invariably ends by their quietly coming forth to the world clean as from the hands of the founder. jMau is capable of being polished by a similar process ; and though the prescription may or may not be agree- able, yet there is nothing we hold dear in our insti- tutions that we should tremble to see subjected to that state of the world in which it has been prophesied by Daniel, that " men shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall increase." The disadvantages we notoriously labour under from national ignorance no one can be more anxious to see removed than ourselves ; and as we believe nothing can be more true than that a people will never accept the advantages of experience until they have purchased them for themselves, avc hail rather than apprehend that sa- lutary intercourse with our fellow-creatures which the power of steam is about to introduce. For instance, if we look to Ireland, we find ourselves, by all practical men, constantly taunted with our igno- rance of that country. AVe do not allude to the opinions of the party opposed to the present Administration ; but we will take the deliberate verdict of their own servants, selected and appointed by themselves. 1 ,' I !l tiir 18A LOCO.MOTION 1»Y «'n;A.M. The Raihvav ConnnissioiuTa for Iri.'ljnul, in their second report, iuldres^sed " lo the (iueeu's ^Mosst ]!xeel- lent ^Majesty," and " 15y I'onuuand of lier Maji'sty pre- sented to both Houses of rarliaineiit," after minutely examining tlie moral, statistical, and politieal state of the country, boldly iiiform her ^Majesty (, ce page '.):2) that — " IrcUuul, tliDUgh for years past u siilijcct of anxious atten- tion and disuiJssion in public, is iikally vkhy m i'ti-k known TO TUK BiUTisu rEoi'Lii ; (iitd till' dhudvantofie to both coun- ti'ieti, arlsliKj j'rotn thiif circiiinntuuce, is much yrealer than Is (jenerally siijtjMsed." We might offer many other instances of the general advantages which society is likely to derive from the application of the new-born power of steam ; but if our readers will only relleet on the immense improvement which, since the last Peace, has taken place in the man- ners of our eoimtrymen, who, within these i'vw years only, have left off hard-driid\ing, attending prize-fights, bull-baits, wearing Beh'her licekeloths, aft'ecting to dress, nod, spit, and meet each other like st;ige-coach- mcn, etc. etc. etc., — thev niav calculate for themselves tliC aggregate advantages which the whole world will de- rive when, by the power of steam, every nation is enabled to see, without ilatlery, its own faults clearly reflected in its neighbour's mirror. >, Among the various problems of minor importance which have arisen from a consideration of the general results of railroads, it is constantly asked. In lohat manner ivill they affect our Metropolis ? There are many who argue that the facility ^ith which people who are HKSULTS. 185 HOW iminurod in London will be cniibk-d to gut into the country must have the cU'eet of diminishing the popula- tion of the Mi'tropoli.s. "We must however difl'er from this opinion. As travelling has been found by the Irish Railroad Commissioners invariably to inerease in proportion to the facility with whieh it can be ell'eeted, it would follow that so many railroads, converging upon Lcnulon as a centre, must, at all events, daily bring thilher large crowds of passengers; besides whieh the railways would inject provisions in such quantities that their price would inevitably iall. On looking at those statistical tables whieii show the prices of provisions idl over the United Kingdom, it is vi ry curious to ol)serve with what exactness these prices decline on the dillerent roads, in proportion to the distance from the capital, — so that if a man with these tables in his pocket were to fall from the clouds upon any given ruad, by simply asking the iirst person he met to tell him the price of butter, for in- stance, and by then looking at his tables, he would be able to determine very nearl; iis precise distauce from the Metropolis. Now, when L( ndon, ius.tead of being supplied with expensive milk, fruits, and vegetables, pro- duced on land and gardens of an exorbitant rent, can be readily furnished with these articles from a distance; — when bullocks, instead of being driven at great expense, " larding tlie lean earth" as they proceed, can be killed 100 or 2U0 miles otf, and be thus despatched to, instead of in, tlie ^Metropolis, and when all sorts of provisions can be forwarded thither with equal facility, it must ^ ♦I I i .1 >l 18G LOCOMOTION UV STKAM. ^-i inevitably follow that the prices of these commodities will be more equally adjusted throughout the country than they hitherto have been. London must thus be- come a plaee of much cheaper residence; and we think there can be no doubt that, in proportion as the pecu- niary objections to living in it are removed, its po- pulation must increase. When a powder-magazine by exploding creates a vacuum in the atmosphere, the windows of the adjacent houses are not, as most people would be led to expect, forced inwards, but the air within their rooms breaks the glass outwards in rushing to restore the equilibrium of the atmosphere. On similar principles, the population of the country will, we con- ceive, rush towards the London markets, whenever by any commercial convulsion the price of provisions is suddenly lowered; and thus will the eft'cet of the rail- roads upon the Metropolis be, wc conceive, centripetal, and not, as has been siq)posed by many, centrifugal. It is true that the twenty minutes, thirty minutes, and sixty minutes City-men (we mean those whose af- fluent fortunes allow them now to live those periods of time from the Metropolis) will, instead of residing at Hackney, Putney, and other such retreats, rush away to Maidenhead, Watford, Tunbridge, and other places from ten to thirty miles from London. The houses they abandon, falling in rent, will attract a new de- scription of men, — besides which, inasmuch as, where a man's treasure is, there is generally his heart, so, wherever these gentlemen may sleep, they will still hnd fide be actual inhabitants of the Metropolis ; indeed, in- RESULTS, 187 steatl of deserting the Mctroiiolis, it may be justly said they will earry it with them, and that the real limits of London will liecome, as indeed they now are, that radius to which its population can at night conveniently retire to their pillows. If our sole object was to advocate the railroad and steamboat system, we should now conclude our imper- fect observations ; but, as our desire is to bring the im- portant subject of steam locomotive power fairly before the consideration of our readers, it is necessary that, in the words of Portia, we should say, " Tarry a little, there is somethiny yet !" " Your Lordship will observe," wrote the Duke of Wellington in his celebrated despatch from the iicld of Waterloo, " that such a desperate action could not be fought, and such advantages gained, without great loss, and I am sorry to add, that ours has been im- mense." In science, as in warfare, victories, however brilliant they may appear to the public, invariably leave behind them anguish and misery which even the flourish of the trumpets cannot conceal from our ears. The invention of any new machinery in our manufactories has always, more or less, been productive of such re- sults ; but the power of steam is about to produce eflccts which it is not only painful but absolutely fearful to contemplate. It is mideniable that the wooden walls of Old England (we mean our mivy as it floated in the days of Nelson) do not aflbrd the same protection to our island, since the invention of vessels which, against wind and tide, and especially in calm weather. 188 LOCOMOTION IIY STl'.AM. 'ii ! Clin penetrate' our fogs for tlio pm-jiosc of invasion. Our insular dcfcnir, which, duriuj^ the rcifjn of Xapoloon, uniountcd, in round muiihrrs, precisely to the (numtuni of dilliculty that then existed in ii Heel's erossinj; the IJritish Channel, has of course been suddi-nly weakened exactly in the same ratio as that dilliculty has heen im- mensely diminished ; ami when wc recall to mind with what eonlidenee we have been accustomed to look to the British navy for defence, it is melancholy to reflect that men-of-war, whose names in letters brighter than gold ure most gloriously recorded in the naval annals of our country, might now, in u dead calm, hear the cannon of our assailants, — without the power of i)ouring into them British broadsides, in the old boatswain's phraseology, " as hot us they could suck 'em." In short, the mari- time defences of the country must be weakened. On shore not oidv will the face of Old England be scared and furrowed by railroads, re> ambling the straight, cross-barred lines tattooed across the countenance of a New Zealander, Imt some of our noblest establishments have already received what may truly be termed their sentence of death. The first among these is our mail-coach establishment, so long our just pride, and still the admiration and won- der of all other countries. Those well-built carriages which have hitherto with imerring uecuraey conveyed our correspondence to the remotest points in the United Kingdom; — those skilful eoaehmeu who, against all weathers and in all seasons, have, with rarely an excep- tion, kept their respective times; — those guards who, ni:sri,Ts. 1K() an gold v.itli uupi'C'tciuHii}; coura^'i!, have niitlifiilly protected tlio eoimneirial ti'caaure ooniinitted to tlieir eli!ir}j;e, must, it is {'oresecn, l)C soon east aside. Our iuinienso stage system, witli all its eoaelies, enaelinieu, horses, aud liorseUcepers, is nearly also on its last legs. Our post- iuij system, with its expensive hotels, built at convenient sl(>eping-plaees by enter|)rising people Tor the comfort ami luxury of travellers, post-houses, post-horses, and postilions, is luuloubtcdly in e([ual danger. Our i'»d)lie roads, as well as our i)ri\ate roads, have scarcely, at an enormous cxpciisc, been brought t(^ a stulf of perfection, when it is notilied to us that the ^['Adam svstom has been supplanted by a new power which is to leave it de- serted. It is estimated that there arc about ^'( ),()()() com- mercial t"avellers : — this intelligent body of uien will be considerably injured. The connnunieation from Lon- don to Leith and Aberdeen by smacks, which, at great expense, had been* fitted up for public conveyance, is alriady superseded by the power of steam ; and those noble American packets, so beautifully built, so liberally ])rovided, ami so ably navigated, ;ne now about to make way for steamers, in the building of which tlie Bristol, Liverpool, and New York merchants arc all combining against the " old liner," that faithful and veteran servant who has hitherto in all weathers transacted their business witb credit and success. Wc will now proceed to endca\"onr to apply the whole of the foregoing general observations on the power, progress, and probable cflccts of steam, to a iiscfid and practical result. 190 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. Civilization has never been granted an opportunity of suddenly making such an immense step, or rather such an incalculable stride, as is now offered ; nevertheless it is humiliating to reflect how little apprehension we have shown for the heavenly gift M'hieh has been imparted to us ; — how strongly onr conduct respecting it exemplifies the observatio'i. " Nescis, mi fili, quantulA, sapientM gn- bernatur mundus !" In private life a man would be considered as insane who should begin to build for himself a house before he had settled upon its plan ; and yet we have scarcely become acquainted with the locomotive power of steam on land, tlian wc have at once jumped upon its bare back, riding it roughshod in all directions before the breadth of the rails has been determined, or before the nation has settled, or even considered, upon M'hat scien- tific principles these immense new works ought to be constructed. ♦ In order to form some sort of notion of the responsi- bility Avbich we arc thus taking on us, let us for a mo- ment, by multiplying the amount of work in a single railroad by the number which in such a hurry are to be constructed, roughly estimate the quantum of expense which either has been or is about to be incurred. Mr. David Stevenson says, — " The Americans now number among their many wonderful artififiiil lines of communication a Mountain Railway, which, in boldness of design and difficulty of execution, I can compare to no modern work I have ever seen, excepting perhaps the Passes of the Sinq)lon and Mont Cenis ; but even these remark- RESULTS. 191 nl)k' Passes, viewed as engineering works, did not strike mc as l)cing more wonderful tlian the Allegliany Railway in the United States." ^Ir. Lccount, Civil Engineer, speaking of an under- taking to which he has from the first been professionally connected, Mritcs as follows : — "The London and Birmingham Railway is unquestionably the greatest jiublic work ever executed, either in ancient or modern times. If we estimate its importance l)y the hxbour aloiu v'hich lias bocu expended on it, perhaps the Groat Chinese Wall might compete with it ; but when we consider the inunense outlay of capital which it has required, — the great and varied talents which have been in a constant state of re- quisition during the whole of its progress, — together Avith the unprecedented engineering difficulties, which we are hajipy to say are now overcome, — the gigantic work of the Chinese sinks totally into the shade. " It may be amusing to some readers, who are imaequainted with the magnitude of sucli an undertaking as the London and Birmingham Railway, if we give one or two illustrations of the above assertion. The great Pyramid of Egji)t, that stu- pendous monument which seems likely to exist to the end of all time, will aftbrd a comparison. " After making the necessary allowances for the foundations, galleries, etc., and reducing the whole to one uniform deno- mination, it will be found that the labour expended on the Great Pyramid was equivalent to lifting fifteen thousand seven hundred and thirty-three million c\d)ic feet of stone one foot high. This labour was performed, according to Diodorus Si- eidus, by three hundred thousand, to Herodotus by one hundred thousand men, and it required for its execution twenty years. " If we reduce in the same manner the labour expended in constructing the London and Birmingham Railway to one !<1 10-2 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. .1 ' I,.' i' I f 1 i.i w Pdnimon dononiination, the result is twenty-five thousand mil- lion cubic fi'ot of material (roiluccd to tlie same weight as that used in constructing the Pyramid) lifted one foot high, or nine thousand two hundred and sixty-seven million cubic feet more tlian was liftoil one foot high in tlio construction of the Pyramid ; yet this innnen.sc undertaking has been performed by about twenty thousand men in less than five years. "From the above calculation have been omitted all the tun- nelling, culverts, drains, ballasting, and fencing, and all the he.avy work at the various stations, and also the labour ex- pended on engines, carriages, waggons, etc. ; these are set off against the labour of drawing the materials of the Pyramid from the quarries to the spot where they were to be used, — a much larger allowance than is necessary. " As another means of comparison, let us take the cost of the railway and turn it into pence, and allowing each penny to be one inch and thirty-four hundredths wide, it will be found that these ])encc laid together so that they all touch would more than form a continuous band rcjund the earth at the Equator. " As a third mode of viewing the magnitude of this work, let us take the circumference of the earth in round numbers at one hundred and thirty million feet. Then, as there are about four hundred milli<«i cubic feet of earth tf) be moved in the railway, we sec that this quantity of material alone, with- out looking to anything else, would, if spread in a band one foot high and one foot broad, more than three times encom- pass the earth at the Equator." AVe havo lyiuf' before lis dcscriptioiis of a similar iintuvc of the Liverpool aiul Birmingham, of the Great Western, of the Brussels and Antwerp Railways, ete. etc., but tlic two sketches we have just given will pro- bably be deemed sufficient as multiplicands, and with RESULTS. 193 and nill- t as that high, or ubic feet )n of tlu> erformed I. I the tun- (1 all the xhour cx- irc set off Pyramid ! used, — a i\c cost of ich penny- it will be all touch e earth at this work, 1 numbers there are moved in one, with- baud one 103 enconi- a similar the Great ways, etP. will pro- and with these before the reader we will proeecd to show by what immense figures they are about to be multipled. In the United States we have already stated that there were, in the year 1837, eompleted and in full operation, no less than fifty-seven railways, whose aggregate length amounted to upwards of 1600 miles; that thirty-three railways were in progress, whieh, when completed, would amount to 2800 miles ; and that, in addition to this, up- wards of one hundred and fifty railway companies had been incorporated. In Great Britain, the Irish Railway Commissioners state that the amount of capital authorized to be raised for making railways, under Acts passed in 1833, 1834, 1835, and 1836, was £29,000,000. The estimate for those for which bills were Petitioned in 1837 was very near jE3 1,000,000. In France, the Government, on the 15th of February, 1838, proposed, in the Chamber of Deputies, bills for a general system of railroads, which was to extend in aggregate length to the enormous dis- tance of 1100 leagues of railway, without reckoning the branch-roads. The estimated expense mounted to £40,000,000 sterling. In Belgium, it is proj)osed to throw a network of railroads over the whole surface of the country, and vast projects are in contemplation in Holland, Prussia, and in various other countries in Europe. In the development of this enormous new power, which is to compress the world quite as much as by a very small application of the same power we compress our hay and cotton for exportation, it cannot, we con- VOL. I. K -^emm (. ' y. |( \ n m •tl iff. ■ 'I 194 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. ceive, be denied that the British nation^ whether for good or for evil, is furiously leading the way. We do not mean, by this observation, to withhold from the Americans the applause due to them for the activity and enterprise which in their railroad undertakings have distinguished that shrewd and industrious people, but we have already shown that their railroad system is one adapted only to their own peculiar political transitionary state, and that, between their course and ours, there ex- ists the same important difference as between field and permanent fortification; and as it is our permanent, and not their temporary system, which is adapted to Europe, it would be with pride, if we could record that we were ably, or even to the best of our ability, perform- ing the duties of the high station which we have been called upon before the world to occupy. It is, however, with feelings of humiliation and re- gret, we must acknowledge, that we have failed to re- ceive the new power which has lately visited the earth with the attention due to its importance. If an illus- trious stranger had landed on our shores, considerable expenses would have been incurred, and deliberate ar- rangements would have been made, to have imparted to our guest the honours suited to his rank : — but this great mechanical Power which, without metaphor, we may say has lately descended from Heaven, permanently to reside with us on earth, has been most culpably neg- lected. Against prejudice and ignorance it was at first left to contend, unassisted and unattended ; and even when^ having trampled both these enemies under its DEFECTIVE LEGISLATION. 195 3r good lid from activity igs have pie, but n is one iitionary here ex- Reld and •manent, apted to ;ord that perfonn- ave been and re- id to re- che earth an illuB- isiderable lerate ar- Iparted to -but this |phor, we lanently ibly ueg- is at first md even Luder its feet, it was seen in all directions moving triumphantly among us, by the Legislature as well as by the Govern- ment it was .""I'.ffcred for a considerable time to exist totally unnoticed. If we were gravely to be asked, before the woild, upon what system and upon what principles the various En- glish railroad bills have hurriedly been passed into laws, with shame we have to confess that neither system nor principle has been considered. In the animal frame. Nature has not only, by great arteries, projected from the heart to every part of the body, however remote, nourishment exactly proportionate to its support, but, by astonishing foresight and reflection, she has placed these arteries in sheltered situations in which they are admirably protected from outward accidents ; — the good of every part has been scrupulously attended to, and yet in no instance has the general welfare of the whole been neglected. But in the arterial system of our raUroads, no such considerations have for a single moment been attended to. Disregarding all private suflering, the Le- gislature has, on the face and surface of the country, made incisions he.'c, and circumcisions there, of the most serious and lasting consequcinccs. Unguided by science, and without due attention to the general anatomy of the country, we have decreed tliat a little artery shall diagonally flow here, and a large one there ; — one lon- gitudinally in this place, another latitudinally, almost at right angles, in that. " It would be a good thing," argues one company of specvdators before the Legislature, " to grant us a railroad here ;" — " It would be a very ■ pll - I M ,.~nl I c »l t I 196 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. fine thing, indeed," argues another self-interested body of engineers and attorneys, " to give us one there ;" — the prayers of both have lieen conceded ! And thus have monopolies been granted for ever to an incongru- ous mob of inexperienced joint-stock, zigzag Companies, who, strange to say, are to settle at what hours the British public is to travel, — at what rate it is to travel, — and, up to a certain point, at what price it is to travel ! The details have been as little regarded as the outline or building-plan. The width between the rails of one of our railroads has been decreed to be four feet eight inches and a half; of another, five feet; of another, four feet six inches; of another, six feet; and of another, seven feet. In the line from London to Liverpool, the space between the double sets of rails has been fixed at four feet eight inches and a half for the Liverpool and Manchester Company, and six feet for the rest of the distance, be- longing to the other two brother Companies. Again, the driving-wheels of the engines of one Company are four feet ; of another, four feet six inches ; of another, five feet ; of another, six ; of another, seven ; and of another, ten feet in diameter. In short, village lawyers, country sur- veyors, and speculators of all descriptions, who knew but little of the great principles upon which railroads should be constructed, have appeared before the Legislature, who knew less, to advocate the interest of the public, who, taken collectively, absolutely knew nothing at all on the subject. That the blind have thus, not only in Europe, but in America, been led by the blind, will appear from the fol- lowing statement : — A body !re;"— id thus congru- (ipaiiies, »ur8 the ravel, — travel ! ! outline )f one of it inches r feet six ven feet, between eet eight mchester ance, be- gain, the are four five feet ; )ther, ten ntry sur- knew but ds should ture, who ilic, who, ill on the pe, but in m the fol- DEPECTIVE LEGISLATION. 197 On the 8th of May, 1837, the French Government brought forward six bills for six railroads, whose united length amounted to two hundred and thirty leagues, all planned on the most different and inconsistent principles ; and, on the 15th of February, 1838, a general system was proposed, copying the British. In Belgium various pro- jects are in embryo. In the United States, Mr. Ste- venson says that no two railroads are constructed alike. The fish-bellied rails of some, weighing forty pounds per lineal yard, rest upon cast-iron chairs weighing sixteen pounds each ; in others, plate rails of malleable iron, two and a half inches broad and half an inch thick, are fixed by iron spikes to wooden vafters, which rest upon wooden sleepers ; in others, a plate-rail is spiked down to tree- nails of oak or locust-wood, driven into jumper-holes bored in the stone curb ; in others, longitudinal wooden runners, one foot in breadth, and from three to four inches in thickness, are embedded in broken stone or gravel : on these runners are placed transverse sleepers, formed of round timber with the bark left on ; and wrought-iron rails are fixed to the sleepers by long spikes, the heads of which are countersunk in the rail ; in others, round piles of timber, about twelve inches in diameter, are driven into the ground as far as they M'ill go, about three feet apart ; the tops are then cross-cut, and the rails are spiked to them. The cost of the American railways, having generally oidy a single pair of rails, which are almost every- where of British manufacture, was from ^€6000 a mile to £1800. • lt\ 1.1 u 'Mk S! ^Vfj 198 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. in fj The cost of the Liverpool and Manchester M'as €30,000 ; of the Dublin and Kingstown, .€10,000 : the estimated cost of the French is about j£ 15,000 j of those to be made in Ireland, about .€10,000 per mile. This conflicting want of system was at last carried to an extent which, as our readers must perceive, has be- come truly alarming. Our unconnected projects received the sanction of Parliament, and yet, during the scrutiny which ought to have sifted these undertakings, there ex- isted no master mind, no disinterested scientific autho- I'ity, whose duty it was to collect and record the import- ant facts which experience was daily eliciting, or to give to the Government, to the Legislature, or to the public, such scientific information or such sound advice as it might be deemed advisable to require. The House of Lords, becoming at last fully sensible of the imminent danger of the course which had been pvu-sued, resolutions and an address were moved by the ^larquis of Lansdowne, in accordance with which his late Majesty was pleased, on the 20th of October, 1836, to appoint (after the mischief had been done in England) a Commission " to inquire into the manner in which railway communication could be most advantageously promoted," and " to consider and recommend a general system of Railways in IRELAND." The Commissioners, Lieut. Thomas Drummond, R.E., Colonel Sir John Fox Burgoyne, R.E,, Peter Barlow, and Richard Griffith, Esquires, thus appointed, delivered their first Report on the 1 1th of March, 1837; and their second and final Report on the 13th of June, 1838. The IRISH RAILWAYS. 199 recommendations contained in these important docu- ments are as follows : — 1. The Commissioners "come to the conclusion that the two great lines which would open the country in the most advantageous manner, confer the most extensive accommodation at the smallest outlav, and afford the greatest return on capital," would be — A. A railway from Dublin to Cork, with branch lines to Kilkenny, Limerick, and Waterford. B. A railway from Dublin to Navan, at which point the said railway is to fork into two directions, — the one through Castleblancy and Armagh to Belfast, the other through KcUs, Virginia, and Cavan, to Enniskillen. 2. The Commissioners recommend that a uniform breadth should exist between the rails of the railway lines in Ireland, and that this breadth be six feet two inches. The Commissioners state as their opinion, that, if the utmost economy be observed ; that, if provision be made by the Legislature, for reducing the great expense hitherto commonly incurred in obtaining railway bills, and for granting only a just and reasonable compensa- tion to the Irish proprietors, .€10,000 (.^r ^612,000 a mile may generally cover all the charges of construction and appointments on the two lines they have recommended. The Commissioners estimate that, under these circum- stances, the main trunk-line from Dublin to Cork would give a dividend of from 4*82 per cent, to 5*18 per cent.; the Kilkenny branch, of twenty-six miles and a half, one of two per cent. ; the Limerick branch, of thirty-five ■•: I 200 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. If ) miles and a half, one of only yV P^^* ^c"*- Total dividend of the main trnnk-linc and of these two branches, 3i ])er ecnt. Ditto of the Watcrford and Limerick branch, 3'8 per cent. As regards the great north line, the Commissioners estimate tliat the dividend would be on an average about 4' 75 per cent. 3. The Commissioners consider that, under present (Mrcumstauccs, Cork will answer every purpose for which a winter-port can be required to promote a steam-com- munication with America. 4. The Commissioners, after exposing several of the serious errors which have been committed, as regards the privileges granted to railroad companies in England, examining the great principles by which a general sys- tem of railways in Ireland should be regulated, and laying down the lines which, in their opinion, would be most beneficial to the country, offer very important sug- gestions as to the means and the manner of carrying these projects — cither altogether or in part — into execu- tion, with some sensible observations upon the principles on which railwav bills should be framed, for the common benefit of the public and of the Companies, which we re- gret ovxr limits do not allow us to extract. It would of course have been possible, and there can be no doubt it would have been the safer course, for the Commissioners to have contented themselves with giving their opinions, or, as it may be termed, passing their judgment, on conflicting railway interests, without re- vealing to the public the high-roads and bye-roads through "-^l ■»■ ■._ -J.1 -,. IRISH RAILWAYS. 201 which tlicy had arrived at their decisions. Tlicy how- ever determined on tlic opposite eonrsej and, although giving reasons for difhcult decisions is always attended with danger, especially where the verdict has hcen in- fluenced by moral circumstances, which it is generally almost impossible to describe, yet they determined to throw before the public, without reserve, if not all, as many of their data as could possibly be collected. With this view, tliey appended to their Report a valuable mass of original maps and documents. We have no desire, and even if we had, it would alto- gether exceed our limits, to attempt a discussion of the various local objections which have been raised against the recommendations of the Commissioners by those whose latent expectations they have disappointed, as well as by those whose private speculations they have in their Report openly opposed. Without personally alluding to any of these complainants, we will simply observe, that one might as well expect that a deep incision could be made in the human body without the infliction of pain, as that any public line of railroad could possibly be projected which would not give excruciating anguish in some private direction or other : indeed, the more lustily selfish theorists arc heard to cry out, the greater reason is there for by-standers calmly to infer that the interest of the public is receiving adequate attention. The Commissioners have been blamed, especially by specula- tors in railways, for estimating the dividend to be pro- duced by the lines of railways they have themselves re- commended, at the low amount of 3^ or 4 per cent. K 3 : '^'i r ' t' :t ( i'lf m^mmitm I I I. ', [j ;»02 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. Had thoy felt themselves authorized to indulge in even their own Et Dorado anticipations, they Mould prohably have raised this dividend to a higher figure; Idt, an pub- lic servants, it was undoubtedly their d"'y, in liu- •.''»'m <^f speculation that was raging around tluim. to des'Tibo no more than they could clearly sec ; and li, under this conscientious feeling, they confined their calculations to plain black and white, whf>ever may be dispntisfied is, of course, at full liberty to colour their Indian-ink drawing as highly and as gaudily as he may choose. Time alone will show whether the Commissioners have really underrated the profits of the great Irish railroads or not. In the meanwhile we have no hesitation in say- ing that, in our opinion, the anticipated profits of our English railroads is " a false creation, proceeding from the hcat-opprcssed brain." Against the Commissioners' Report there have been raised many other objections. On a consideration of the whole, however, we own that Ave feel disposed to approve of the two great lines they have proposed j and our rea- sons for so doing arc positive and negative. First, their recommendation appears to ua to be supported by facts and calculations unanswerable, and by arguments and observatioht, t-cii:- li^'^, and apparently disirtercsted. Se- condly, wo ;'rc' t!iu, ,.s no indi lualcanbe in possession of as mucii general information, united to as much locui knowledge, as the Commission collectively has amanjHxl, bad as may be its opinion, it is nevertheless, in our present circumstances, the best we can possibly obtain. Thirdly, we feel that we should appear before the civilized rrrrrrrr IRISH »AILWAY«. 203 world in n moat cxtraoidinary position, wore we to cou- tiiiiio, as wc hitherto liavc done, to proiJeed on our rail- road career in utter darkness; not bccaviac, as former/ v, want of liglit was luiavoidablc, but been use, when Scieii(> had presented to us her lamp, wt- no sooner rcccivi?d it than wc wilfully blew it out and cast it from us ! The country may go wrong in following the two mcs of railways recommended by the Commissioners, and it may go wrong in not following them (^ouly one of these catastrophes can happen) ; but c u supposing the chance equal, yet, in the opinion of the |- resent age, as well as in history, there would be great exci ><(• for the first error, none whatever for the second. If , man-of-war, groping its way through imknown waters ou a voyage of disco- very, were to run upon rocks during' utter darkness, l)y all liberal men would the captain be acquitted ; but it it were proved that he had wilfully pro-ecuted his course, after the man he himself had sent to t ic main-mast had sung out, in clear daylight, "Breakers ahead!" the com- mander's character, as well as his vessel, v ould be wrecked. Although, however, wc arc disposed t ) approve of the professional recommendations of the Co nmissioners, so far as the two lines of railway are concericd, yet we cer- tainly feel that their recommendations i especting what amount of assistance ought or ought not to be granted by Parliament to the undertaking, — as well as their opinions whether the work should be pri\ate or public property, — are questions extra-judicial. We therefore beg leave to join with the public in freely discussing these important questions. n 204 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. f There can be no doubt that the interference of Go- vernment in any speculation shouUl he tlie exception rather than tlio rule. In ordinary cases a wise (lovernment sliould eneoiirage, rather than presume to contend witli, that daring spirit which has so remarkably characterized British capitaUsts. To check, to suppress, or to compete with it, would not only involve the CJovernment in diificulty, and the nation in ruin, but we can conceive nothing more distasteful to our great capitalists than to be told that they can never embark in a voyage of speculative discovery until they shall have received from the Government its " passe- avant." Nay, it has become theoretically a maxim in political economy, that a Government has a dull, heavy, lumber- ing gait about it, — that in pursuit of small objects it is practically incompetent to move with the activity or nim- bleness of private speculators. Indeed, nothing but a most violent competition between man and man coidd have so lowered the prices, and so hastened the pace at which the British public has hitherto travelled. If any single capitalist had, a few years ago, been offered by Government the exclusive privilege of carrying heavy people every five minutes from Padding- ton to the Bank for sixpence, he would most surely have conceived that the secret object of her Majesty's Ministers was to ruin him ; and if alone he had accepted the under- taking, there can be no doubt he would have been ruined : but when all our horse-keepers and coach-proprietors were encouraged openly to compete for the job, such a variety as«4*6* DEFECTIVE LEGISLATION. 205 of economical arrangements were invented, that the spe- culation has not only answered, but the London public has so materially benefited by it, that it is now truly ob- served, " It has become cheaper to ride than to walk." Again ; as regards the sea, how justly would the pub- lic have complained if the Government had attempted to monopolize, or even to interfere with, the transport of our merchandise and of our passengers ? For it is a fact which cannot be denied, that the IJritish merchant's steam-vessel practically crossed the Atlantic before any Government steamer dared to do so. And if the power of steam, elicited by ])rivate enterprise, has just beaten Govern- ment arrangements on the aqueous surface of the globe, why, it may be boldly asked, should it not l)c permitted to proceed equally free and unfettered on land ? With no object in view, but to arrive, if possible, at a just conclusion, we will endeavour to answer this important q\U!stion. If our present locomotive engines were like steam- vessels, or like public or private carriages, there could I)e adduced no more reason for Government interfering Avith the former than with the latter ; but the eases are widely different. If steam-vessels are badly constructed, the pu1)lic cease to emliark in them. If they arc mis- suited to one water, they can sail to another, just as the ' Sirius-' steamer, when found too small for the New York passage, was despatched to St. Peter.sl)urg. As new in- ventions arise, this process can be extended; — vessels which arc now on the ocean may ply in channels; — those on channels may retire into rivers; and even if vl'f!. n 111 m "hi ' i ll 'OMaNntoMM ilPT" \H 206 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. S ,N* they were all suddenly to vanish, the noble element on which they had moved would be left uninjured, track- less, and unaltered. Again, if any description of land conveyance be found to be dangerous, it can be avoided. If stages on any particular road are no longer required, they, and their horses, and their horse-keepers, may go where they are wanted, or, in simpler terms, where they choose. If our omnibuses should be superseded by a better conveyance, the public can at once leave them to be sold or destroyed, as their proprietors think best. The Strand, Oxford- street, and Cheapside, would remain, however, as they were; and in like manner if every public carriage in England, in consequence of some new invention, were to be suddenly removed, housed, and the horses turned out to grass, there would, after the first shower, be left on the roads scarcely a mark of the tires of the wheels, or an impression of the horses' iron-shod feet. In all these changes the public would continue, as they ever ought to continue, on sea and land, the lords and masters of the way on which they travel ; this right being unsurren- dered, the competition of capitalists would always, as we have shown, be made subservient to the interest, and subject to the sovereign will and pleasure of the com- munity; — and if steam -carriages eovild contend with mails and stages on public roads, tliey would in like manner take their chance of being either patronized or condemned, as the community might think proper. But on railways, the cas(>, regards the public, is essentially different ; — and it is with pain we reflect that, when our ■ J.-— I.IJ ■OBi.'- DEFECTIVE LEGISLATION. 207 English railway bills were brought forward, the Legisla- ture as compietcly neglected to calculate what was to be the real result of the simple-sounding petition before them, as in common life two young people, barely able to provide for themselves, come before the altar hand in hand, without ever having reflected how fearfidly their marriage must multiply their wants. Tiic i)etitioners who most humbly applied for an Act of Parliament in favour of their railroad, avowed their desire to possess themselves of whatever private property might stand in their Avay ; — but they did not avow, nor did the country appear to perceive, that, in addition to this request, the projectors hoped, expected, and indeed perfectly m'cU knew, that they would draw all the passen- ger traffic to their line, — or, in plainer words, that they woidd ruin every mail-coach, stage-coach, chaise, and public carnage in the neighbourhood; — in short, that they Avcre about to desolate the M'Adam road, which, for aught they cared, might be again " peopled with wolves, its old inhabitants." Now let us suppose for a moment that twenty years ago any body of ignorant speculators, however respect- able, had obtained from the Legislature an Act by which the property in all the leading roads in the country, with all the horses, carriages, waggons, and other means of conveyance whatsoever, had been consigned to them, to be dealt with as they might think proper : — that the public were to travel on the said roads, at such pace as the said " body" pleased, at such hours only as it pleased, and very nearly at such prices as it pleased : — that this 4 m -»m» ..»j§m»i ,'tiJ-!H.'""-i«J :.i-«MH s ,..,. .. M^ " -- 208 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. I'Kli r: .1-' t' i i ■ I monoply was to last, not for ten years, or for twenty years, or for a hundred years, but for ever and over; should we not now most reasonably complain of the im- providence and injustice of this Act? Yet such is pre- cisely what will take place, so soon as the English rail- roads shall have superseded, as from their nature they 7nust supersede, all other modes of travelling on the lines where they are established. Again, suppose that on the discovery of some new sys- tem of paving, the property in streets, which had hither- to belonged to the public, had also by x\.ct of Parliament been surrendered in like manner to the profit, caprice, and exaction of another " body" of capitalists, we should now be at its mercy to get out of our houses ; — ^just as we shall soon be at the mercy of railroad companies to get out of our towns. If our English railway companies had petitioned Parlia- ment to be allowed to avail themselves of an invention, the Avhole and sole product of their own brains, still we maintain that for no pecuniary advantage whatever should the public have been directly or indirectly deprived ])y Parliament of their right of way, which by competent legal authorities has been thus defined : — " every way from town to town may be called a highway, because it is common to all the King's subjects ; the freehold of the highway is in him that hath the freehold of the soil; but the free passage is for all the King's liege people." (I Haw. c. 70, § 1.) Again, "In books of the best au- thority a river common to all men is called a highway." (1 Russ, 418.) But the grand discovery, we mean the m nam^MM DEFECTIVE LEGISLATION. 209 locomotive power of steam on the terrestrial surface of the globe, which has secured to the English railway com- panies an absolute monopoly of " the ivay from town to town," was not their property, but the property of the public, the gift of Heaven to mankind ; and the Legisla- ture might as well have granted to a London company the exclusive use of the compass, or to a Birmingham company the exclusive use of daylight, as have granted to a Stock Exchange railway company privileges over private property amoimting in fact to the exclusive use of the locomotive power of steam on land ; — and ye"" it has been and still is gravely argued, on the lucus a non lucendo principle, that because open competition on the road has hitherto invariably been found to succeed, pri- vate railroad monopolies ought to be established ! Tn every point of view the contradiction is monstrous. We are told that, to make way for a railroad, private property of every description must be sacrificed and sur- rendered to the 2>ublic ; and yet, seizing this property under false pretences, we no sooner possess it, than, by a mis-translation of the word respuhlica, we hand it over to a company of private individuals, whose undisguised object in obtaining it is to deprive by it, the public, of their most ancient right ; in short, to make the public the servants, instead of the masters, of the high-road or " wav from town to town." It is rumoured that some of these railroad companies already talk of not allowing the public to travel on Sundays. — Now suppose that the groat railway between Loudon and Manchester were suddenly to become the 210 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. \4 f i property of wealthy Jews, who, under the same consci- entious feeling, Avere to declare, on the day they had purchased a majority of the shares, that they could not think of allowing the British public to travel on Satur- days : — could any of us plead that a Jew's Sabbath ought not to be as sacred to him as a Christian's ? And if it were attempted by force to persuade him to the contrary, might he not, in demanding his right to stop the public, exclaim with Shylock, — " If you deny me, fie upon your laws ! There is no force in tlie decrees of Venice ! " Under controlling circumstances of this nature, in what a predicament would the public be placed ! What would become of the commercial correspondence of the country, — or, in moments of emergency, of the transport of our troops? A company of high-spirited sporting young proprietors of railway stock might take a pride in hurrying the mails and the public infinitely faster than was safe ; a company of old gentlemen might, from over- caution, convey them too slowly ; — and if the extremity of a long line were to be found not to be profitable in winter, any company might merely continue to work the rich portion of their lode, and for half the year leave the poorer vein very nearly untouched. But let tis suppose that all these conjectures are vision- ary, and that the railway companies, although there is no locomotive poAver to compete with them, will honestly carry the public as fast, as safely, and as cheaply as they can aflford to do, still it is necessary to consider what DEFECTIVE LEGISLATION. 211 consci- hey had 3uld not n Satur- th ought Ud if it jontrary, e public, ature, in 1! What ice of the transport sporting I pride in ,ster than om ovcr- 3xtrcmity >fi table in work the leave the ire vision- 1 there is honestly y as they ider what compensation the public can receive for the loss of their right of way. The advocates of our English monopolies answer -nis question very shortly, by saying that the travelling com- munity will be carried cheaper by what they oddly enough term " public competition," than they could be carried if the railroads were, as they are in Belgium [where the fares are excessively low and the accommodation most admirable), the property of the public; but when our readers consider that (thanks to the power of steam) no- thing can compete with the railroad, say from London to Liverpool, and that this line is governed by three sets of directors, who, with infinitely more respectability than experience, may meet perhaps but for a few hours every week; — sometimes one set of wealthy individuals, some- times aiiother, — without responsibility or control, — and well knowing that whatever may be the expenses they incur, they can make the public pay for them all; — it must surely be evident that a network of railroads, under such a variety of systems, must in the end be in- finitely mere expensive to the public, than if it were placed under the control of scientific persons selected for the purpose, having no other business to attend to, no inter- est to consider but that of the traveller, and responsible to Government, the Legislature, and public opinion, for the safety, comfort, economy, and speed of the conveyance. If the right of way thus belonged, as it ought to do, to the piiblic, and if a control over the creation as well as the management of our great arterial railroads were thus vested, as in law it surely ought to be, in the 212 LOCOMOTION nv 8TKAM. / ' Government, as largo, and pcrliaps a much larger field for real eompctition might he opened to enterprising capi- talists hy these railways hoing made, maintained, and worked hy puhlic tender. We fully acknowledge that the less Goverimient meddles with the details the hettcr : all wc desire is, that the great arterial railroads of the country should he the property of the puhlic : — wc mean that they should he the Queen's and not the Company's highways ; and that, for the protection of life and limb, .ind for the maintenance of low fares, they should be scientifically controlled l)y a responsible authority. If all the great railroads in the country, instead of being disjointed into separate interests, belonged to one great body of capitalists, the latter desideratum, namely their scientific management and responsible government, might be, perhaj)s, as perfect as if they were the property of the State ; l)ut it appears to us that one might as well expect that our blood, instead of receiving one noble impulse from the heart, could be healthily propelled throughout our body by a variety of little independent zigzag forwarding authorities, as that the mail and pas- senger traffic of the United Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland can be successfully transported by a verte- bratlon of railroads, no one bone of which professes even to think of any broader ol)jcct, interest, or profit, than its own marrow. There can be no doubt that the public ought to be made to pay a fair remunerating price for the lu.vury of travelling, or rather of flying, by railroads j and if these gigantic concerns were under the supervision of one DEFECTIVE LEGISLATION. 213 field for iig capi- icd, and Igc that ; better : 9 of the ive mean mpany's tid lirab, lould be istead of 3d to one I, namely ernment, property it as well ne noble propelled ependcnt and pas- it Britain f a verte- ?sses even t, than its gilt to be Inxnry of d if these n of one authority, this price might everywhere be settled, if not to the satisfaction, at least for the interest, of the public; but if it be left to a series of disjointed authorities, those speculators who by Act of rarliamcnt have cunningly got possession of the great towns, with all their restless in- habitant s,will be as much overpaid, as the proprietors of railways passing through more remote, unpeopled districts will be underpaid ; and if should hajjpen, as it probably will, that the unprofitable portions must eventu- ally be purchased and worked by the Government, shall we not then deeply regret the narrow-sighted policy which has so incautiously alienated from the public to the Stock Exchange the profitable portions of oui' rail- roads for ever ? Again, in answer to those who strangely argue that the interests of the public and of private monopolists must necessarily be identical, wc beg leave to observe that a toll is abstractedly a very imperfect measure of the public utility of an undertaking, and, consequently, that a railroad, though it does not "pay " its proprietors, may be productive of immense revenue to the country. Even common roads may be enormously beneficial to the public, without being remunerative to those who make them. For instance, a mile gained by cutting through, say Highgate Hill, is a mile gained, not only to the inhabitants of Barnct, etc., who pay for it, but to all the inhabitants of every town and village between Lon- don and John-o'-Groat's. Waterloo Bridge, as far as the speculation aft'ccts its proprietors, has hitherto proved a total failure; but let any one who recollects the swamps I 1 214 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. ■ Si and desolate places Avhich existed on the Surrey side of the Thames, compare that picture with the wide hand- some streets and lofty buildings which in all directions have undeniably been created by the project of the new bridge, and he will admit that that noble undertaking, though as yet unfortunate for the proprietors, has in fact been highly beneficial to the public. And if the addition of one bridge to hai ' a-dozen, if the opening of a com- munication of a f^w hundred yards, has been productive of this immense benefit, how overwhelming are the ideas which rush into the mind, of the incalculable advantages which the public might derive from a scientific, well- organized system of railways throughout the United Kingdom, — never mind whether they everywhere paid their ,'i >prietors or not ! The trifling example of Waterloo Bridge might, we are aware, possibly induce a person without reflection to argue that " as fools build houses that wise men may live in them," so we should allow capitalists to ruin themselves in making railroads . c the public use. "\Vc answer that, though Waterloo Bridge has not yet paid, it is nevertheless firmly retained by its proprietors, who would be enabled to obtain for it almost any price, if all the other bridges (like our M 'Adam's "oads) could be suddenly ruined. But, after all, the casts are not iden- tical, for, however poor might be the proprietors of a railway, and however inadequate their funds might be to continue to work their line, yet there arc plenty of long- headed people on the Stock Exchange, who know very well that railroad shareholders can always hold out, or DEFECTIVE LEGISLATION. 215 r side of Ic hand- ircctions the new ?rtaking, IS in fact addition ■ a com- 'oductivc the ideas Ivantages fie, wcll- e United lierc paid night, we reflection men may to ruin use. We yet paid, itors, who rice, if all could be not iden- tors of a ight be to y of long- now very d out, or rather stand still, longer than the i)ublic ; — that, having once tasted the speed of the locomotive engine, however fiercely they might threaten it, the latter would never relish returning to their old roads ; — and, consequently, that every company which found their speculation did not answer, eoidd always, with apparent fairness, offer it to the country " for no more than it hnd cost." And thus would every item of fraud, extortion, improvidence, and ignorance, in all our railroad undertakings throughout the empire, be eventually saddled upon the public at prime cost, while all that was really profitable on the different lines might be irrevocably withheld from them; — by which system, not only would the general price of travelling on our railroads be raised, ])ut, as it appears from a very sensible letter addressed by jNIr. Loch, M.P., to Lord Morpeth,* that high rates are repellent, and low rates powerfully attractive, it would follow that the country would lose by the friction of high fares a very large proportion of the immense fiscal advantages which the establishment of the cheapest possible system Mould have obtained for it. For the foregoing reasons, we must say, we cordially agree with the Irish Railway Commissioners in their re- commendations that the two arterial lines of railway they propose should be treated as one great concern, and that no monopoly of the most productive portions only should be bestowed upon any party. We must also confess oiu" opinion, that, although the execution and even the * Appendix A. to tlie Second Report from the Kailwiiy Cominis- sioncrs, Ireland, page 78. iH 216 LOCOMOTION DV STEAM. working of these two linos should, as much na possible, be oflercd to capitalists, yet that the property and con- trol of these Irish railroads, instead of being taxed by an animal profit to conipanics of specidators, should hv vested in the State, for the sole benefit and protection of the pid)lic. Having now laid before our readers the reflections which have occurred to us during an attentive perusal of the Rei)orts of the Railroad Conunissioners for Ire- land, we shall conclude our notice of these two public documents by endeavouring to extract from them a use- ful moral. No one, we think, can read the many voluminous Reports of the Parliamentary committees on railroad bills, without appreciating the anxiety which both Houses have evinced to investigate as deeply as possible the new power suddenly forced upon their attention; but the masses of evidence to which we allude, demonstrate that much delusive as well as irrelevant matter was artfully made the subject of reiterated discussions. The enormous expenses (exceeding in many instances .€1000 a mile) which railroad companies have incurred before Parliament by the conflicting statements and opi- nions of individuals more or less professionally interested in the struggle ; — the repetition of these expenses in con- sequence of a separate investigation being required before each House; — the heavy bribes M'hich (concealed by a fictitious valuation of the property required for the rail- road) have been paid to people of large property in order to secure their support, — the unconscionable demands DEKKCTIVE LEGISLATION. 217 \9 possible, ^ and con- j tiixcd by , sliould hv protection reflections ive perusal rs for Ire- two public hem a use- voluminous an railroad otli Houses jIc the new i; but the iistratc that ivas artfully ly instances vc incurred its and opi- y interested iscs in con- lired before sealed by a for the rail- rty in order Ic demands for compensation which have been awarded ; — the ficti- tious opposition, got up by interested parties, under the names of landowners eariii}^ nothiu}^ about the matter; — the illusory lines got up as competition lines witlumt any intention of ever being nuide; — the common habit of landowners disputing and even opposing a railroad merely for the sake of getting an excessive price for their land, notwithstanding they well know the measure will confer great benefits on their property; — the erroneous esti- mates which, though " imiovko" before Parliament, have turned out (in one instance by more than a million and a half) to be deficient ; — the extravagant haste with which railroads have occasionally been constructed; — all these unnecessary expenses must, it is evicK-ut, in the form of a tax which to the jjoorest classes will almost amount to prohibition, eventually fall as heavily upon the public, as the responsibility of these measures must in history rest upon the Parliament which sanctioned them. In the racanwlule, the experience gained on railroads which are actually to be paid for by public traffic, surely ought to be national property ; whereas Mr. Joseph Pease, M.P., in his honest letter to the Irish Railroad Commissioners, states, " The Reports, Plans, and Acts of Parliament, respecting the Stockton and Darlington Railway, have long ago disappeared, having been bought up at extravagant prices. Whither to go to find them I should not know, though I have belonged to the under- taking since the first prospectus. I am litei'ally stripped of these documents." To conclude. Under this miserable want of system VOL. I. L a ' !■■'!, 218 LOCOMOTION BY STEAM. f' must the public suffer, so long as our Parliamentary com- mittees shall continue to be unreasonably saddled with the whole responsibility of deciding upon railroad bills, without the assistance of an Official Board competent (like the establishment of the " Fonts et Chaussees" in France) to afford to the country such professional infor- mation and reports as new measures may require. Not only does our national character require that we should scientifically, instead of ignorantly, govern and direct the new power which has been bestowed upon us; but, as railroad scars cannot easily be obliterated, surely it is our duty to save the surface of our country from being barbarously disfigured by any more rude unskilful inci- sions. We desire not the creation of irrcsjjonsible power ; but feeling confident that, under sound legislation, the public would be in favour of, instead of being prejudiced against, railways ; — that landowners would, under' a sen- sible, honest system, come forward to assist, rather than to oppose them ; — and that the revenue would be enor- mously increased if the public were, under the aegis of science, to be conveyed in the cheapest, safest, and quickest possible manner ; — wc feel it our duty to urge the absolute necessity of constituting, without further delay, a Department, or Board of Government officers, in Downing-street, competent, among other duties, to ex- ercise, cautiously, firmly, and scientifically, such control over the railroads of the Empire as the Imperial Parlia- ment from time to time may think proper, pro bono publico, to direct. 219 ;ary com- llcd with oad bills, ompetent ssees" in iml infor- re. Not vc should direct the ; but, as rely it is om being ilful inci- le power ; ition, the trejudiced er ■ a sen- ;lier than be enor- aegis of fest, and Y to urge further officers, es, to ex- h control al Parlia- pro bono BRITISH POLICY. A STRANGE STORY. The laM'-officers of the CroAvn, in England, having re- ported that a certain ordinance, issued at Quebec by Lord Durham, was illegal — an opinion confirmed by the highest legal authorities in the realm — her Majesty, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons, deemed it necessary, by an Act of Parliament, to screen or shel- ter the Lord High Commissioner from the consequences of his illegal proceeding. Not only, however, did their Act of Indemnity carefully abstain from passing the slightest censure upon his Lordship, but her Majesty's Minister, in a despatch dated 15th August, 1838, gene- rously, and, we think, very properly, transmitted the said Act to his Lordship, with the following febrifuge : — " I cannot conclude this despatch Avithout expressing the deep regret Avhich her Majesty's Government have felt at the embarrassment to which you will have been subjected by the recent proceedings in Parliament, regarding the dilficult and delicate question of the disposal of the persons charged with treason in Lower Canada. On a deliberate review of the whole case, her Majesty's Government are enabled distinctly to repeat their approbation of the spirit in which those measures L 3 .1 : 220 BRITISH POLICY. ' 5 i>ll I were conceived, and to state his conviction that those measures have been dictated by a judicious and enlightened humanity, and were calculated, under your authority, to satisfy the ends of justice, although in some respects they involve a departure from its ordinary forms. The Government are also persuaded that your Lordship will be equally anxious with themselves to avoid, as far as possible, giving even a plausible ground of cavil or objection to hostile criticism. " It only remains for me to assure you of the undi- minished confidence which her Majesty's Government repose in you ; and of their earnest desire to afford you the utmost support in the discharge of the arduous duties with which you are entrusted. " I have, etc., " Glenelg." On tlie receipt of the foregoing communication, it must, of course, have been evident to Lord Durham that if bis ordinance, wbicb on sucb liigli authority liad been declared to be illegal, was legal, the Act of Indemnity became null and void, its effect inoperative, its protection worthless, and its provisions discreditable to the Parliament from which it had proceeded ; and as, proverbially, there is no finer sight than that of a just man struggling with adversity, so there never was offered to any individu al, conspicuously holding an ardu - ous and important station, a nobler opportunity of duti- fully submitting to an authority which he was bound to obey those arguments by which truth and justice, in every region of the globe, invincibly support a man labouring in an honest cause. Had the Lord High Commissioner adopted this course — however omnipotently and however obstinately Parliament might have adhered to its deci. ■':i A STRANGE STORY. 221 measures minanity, the ends departure persuaded iiselves to id of cavil the undi- !ut repose he utmost ith which BNELO. 3ation, it Durham authority e Act of )perative, ircditable ied ; and that of a lever was an ardv.- j of duti- bound to , ixi every abouring missioner however its deci. siou — tlie voice of the country would loudly have reversed it by a verdict of acquittal. But Lord Durham was pleased to adopt an opposite course. Instead of appealing to the justice of his Sove- reign, to the wisdom and liberality of Parliament, or to the consideration of her Majesty's Government, his Lordship determined, without authority, and in defiance of authority, to abandon his post, although, in his own opinion, and in the opinion of Parliament, the safety and security of the Canadas rested upon his pro- tection. At a moment when the Lower Province was in open rebellion against its Sovereign, and when it required the presence of a powerful army to suppress the con- spiracy, which existed not only in the Canadas, but in the United States, to subvert the authority of the British Crown, his Lordship was pleased, not intemperatcly and abruptly to throw down his powers, but, with wilful mis • chief and with malice prepense, deliberately to exercise them, by issuing, under the Queen's Great Seal, a pro- clamation, in which, as her Majesty's accredited repre- sentative in the North American colonies, he directly appealed, not unto Caesar, but against Caesar — to the PEOPLE ! In this document, as well ac in others of a similar tendency, which we shall quote. Lord Durham strongly contrasts a solemn Act of the Queen and both Houses of the Imperial Parliament, which he reviles, with his own conduct, upon which he passes the highest enco- miums. ! . I Mkm I h it I i! I S ' m M ^^ ! il ' 222 BRITISH POLICY, "A PROCLAMATION. " In conformity with one of its provisions, I have this day proclaimed the Act 1 and 2 Victoria, chap. 112. " I have also to notify the disallowance by her Majesty of the ordinance 2nd Victoria, chap. 1, entitled, *An Or- <linance to provide for the security of the Province of Lower Canada.' " I cannot perform these official duties without at the same time informing you, tlie people of British America, of the course which the measures of the Imperial Government and Legisla- ture make it incumbent on me to pursue." After detailing in glowing terms the benefits he had intended to perfect, his Lordship proeccds to address the inhabitants of the British Ameriean Colonies vla follows : — " In these just expectations I have been painfully disap- pointed. From the very commencement of my task, the mi- nutest details of my administration have been exposed to inces- sant criticism, in a spirit which has evinced an entire ignorance of the state of this country, and of the only mode i»i which the supremacy of the British Crown can here be upheld and exer- cised. ... I also did believe," adds his Lordship, " that, even if I had not the precedents of these Acts of Parliament, a Government and a Legislature, anxious for the peace of this unhappy country and for the integrity of the British Empire, would not sacrifice to a petty technicality the vast benefits which my entire i)olicy promised." Instead of obeying the explieit recommendations of her Majesty's Government, by concurring with the Spe- ^. ^n A STRANGE STORY. 223 'e this day sr Majesty 'An Or- ! of Lower t the same f the course id Legisla- its he had ;o address )louies ad fiilly disap- jk, the nii- jd to inces- e ignorance which the [1 and excr- that, even trliament, a ace of this sh Empire, Qefits which dations of 1 the Spe- eial Coiincil in an ordinance to prevent the persons lie had illegully banished to Bermuda from returning to the province without the Royal permission, Lord Durham thus deliberately, under the Great Seal, officially sanc- tions their return : — "Her Majesty having been advised to refuse her asRent to the exceptions, the amnesty exists without qualification. No impediment therefore exists to the return of the i)erson8 who had made the most distinct admission of guilt, or who had been excluded l)y me from the province on account of the danger to wliich its tranquillity would be exposed by their pre- sence. . . . " If the peace of Lower Canada is to be again menaced, it is necessary that its Government should be able to reckon on a more cordial and vigorous support at home than has been ac- corded to me." Not satisfied with this appeal to the people of the British North American colonies in general, against the solemn Act of the British Legislature, and against the deliberate instructions of her Majesty's Government, Lord Durham, as the representative of his Sovereign, addressed to the deputies of Nova Scotia, New Bruns- wick, and Prince Edward's Island, a written proclama- tion, of which the following is an extract : — " I assumed the Government of the North American provinces, with the pre-determination to provide for the future welfare and prosperity of them all. ... In this, I trust useful course, I have been suddenly arrested by the interference of the British Legislature, in which the respon- sible advisers of the Crown have deemed it their duty to acquiesce." 224 BRITISH POLICY. iiiv ; i As the representative of his Sovereign, his Lordship next addressed to the inhabitants of the capital of Lower Canada a similar communication, of which the following is an extract : — " I do not return to England from any feelings of disguai at the treatment I have personally experienced in the House of Lords. If I could have been influenced by any such mo- tives, I must have re-embarked in the very ship which brought me out ; for that system of ParHame'niary perse- cution, to which I allude, commenced from the moment I left the shores of England. " I return for these reasons, and these alone, — the proceed- ings in the House of Lords, acquiesced in by the Ministry, have deprived the Government, in this province, of all moral power and consideration. They have reduced it to a state of executive nullity, and rendered it dependent on one branch of the Imperial Legislature for the immediate sanction of each separate measure. In truth and in effect, the Government here is now administered by two or three Peers, from tlieir places in Parliament." In re-publishing the above sentiments, the Toronto ' Patriot' thus informs its readers of the effect they had produced at Quebec : — " Various placards have been posted in different parts of the town, expressive of the feelings of disgust entertained by the loyal portion of the inhabitants at the conduct of the Lords who have assailed Lord Durham, and interfered in his administration of the government of this country. As a specimen of the spirit in which they are conceived, we select the following : — " * Tfie Earl of Durlutm proceeds to England to defend his conduct froTi' unjust and cowardly aggression. The British , .-.- ^. -^Snaf A STRANGE STOUY. 225 I and IrisJi jx^mlatwn, covjident in the justice of their cause, have all to hope, frmn his talents, his integrity, and hisjirm- ness, lolien lie shall liave met his foes tmthin the walls of Par- liament.'' " As the representative of the Queen, Lord Durham next addressed to the inhabitants of the capital of Upper Canada a written communication, of which the following are extracts : — " Mr. Mayor and Gentlemen, — For the reasons wliich have induced me to return to England, I must refer you to my proclamation of this day's date, in which they are fully set forth, and the state and condition of the Canadas amply ad- verted to. " It is at the same time a great consolation to me to reflect, that, notwithstanding my 1« iving heen so abruptly arrested by the jyroceedlngs in t/ie House of Peers, in tlie arduous task of restoring peace, and providing for your future prosperity, I have yet done much to justify your confidence and gain your approbation. What was the state of the Canadas when I assumed the government ? Rebellion had been but recently quelled — martial law had been proclaimed, and the Habeas Corpus suspended! " In three mantlis wltitt teas the cliange ? Martial law was superseded, the Habeas Corpus restored, not a political criminal remained in confinement in the Lower Province, nor was there any symptom of the existence of any seditious or treasonable movemnets until the arrival of the intelligence of the inter- ference of the House of Lords" As the Queen's representative, Lord Durham ad- dressed to her Majesty's Secretary of State a despatch, dated 25th September, 1838, of which the following are extracts : — L 3 \ ij pn. ,), ! I; U: LH'f i' \S. Wi ffT'' 226 BRITISH POLICY. If! : \\ ■M " Tlie proceedings in the House of Lords, from the moment of my leaving the sliores of England, showed but too distinctly that the support so essential to m/ success was not extended to me. I allude in i)articular to tlie speech o/t/te Ihihe of Wel- lington on the 4 th July, and to the expressive silence of the Prime Minister on that occasion. ... In forty-eight hours after the speech attributed to the Duke of Wellington had been j)ublished here, the tone of that part of the press which repre- sents the disaffected exhibited a remarkable change ; — giving evidence, no longer of submission, however unwilling, to extraordinary powers unhesitatingly exercised, but of dis- content, irritation, and seditious hopes. . . . You will easily understand, therefore, that no sufficient allowance was made here for the nature of those party motives which had dictated the proceedings of t/ie Opposition and tlia Government in respect to my mission." This series of documents proves that Lord Durham did not apoplcctically fall from his post in a fit of passion : for it is undeniable that his Lordship could not have penned the elaborate documents we have quoted without liaving had ample time to reflect upon their consequences as to his own character, as well as the colonies to which they were to be addressed. Lord Durham's proclamation and mischievous appeals, not only to " the People" but to the officers of the Queen's G uards, having been promulgated, — the seeds of sedition having been sown and harrowed in, his Lordship became of opinion that the hour for the abandonment of his post had at last arrived, and accordingly, having by an act of political arson set fire with his own hands to his own authority, he took unauthorized possession of '■' itvM A STRANGE STORY. 227 e moment distinctly extended ke of Wel- lee of the gilt hours I had been lich reprc- -giving villi ng, to it of dis- will easily was made d dictated in respect irham did passion : not have i without sequences to whicli 8 appeals^ rs of the c seeds of Lordship nment of laving by hands to cssion of one of her Majesty's ships of war, and then retiring from the flames of a rebellion wliiob naturally enough buret out only four days after his departure, as a private gentleman functus officio, he sailed in the 'Inconstant* from Quebec, and after a blustering passage arrived off Plymouth, accompanied by a storm singularly em- blematic of the political state of the provinces he had abandoned, and of the boisterous reception in the House of Lords which he was fairly entitled to expect. Although in sight of an English harbour, the raging elements for several days still claimed him as their own. The thunder rolled around him; the lightning flashed upon his brow ; the winds, as if proud of their victim, refused to surrender him ; and certainly if the Demon of Discord himself had majestically visited our shores, he could not have come attended by more terrific honours : but the gale at last subsided, the tempest at last relented, and accordingly, after having been griev- ously shaken both in body and soul, his Lordship safely landed on British soil. As Lord Durham's authority over the North American colonics, having devolved upon Sir Jolui Colborne, could not occapy two places at the same time, his Lordship in England was no longer, as the representative of his So- vereign, answerable for any opinions he migbt publicly promulgate ; and being therefore undeniably as mucli at liberty as any other nobleman or gentleman in the country to utter whatever political sentiments he chose, it is irrelevant to our present inquiry to consider what he may have thought proper to say, after having railed the I M 228 BRITISH POLICY. . !,'i i I '■ it Heal from his commission, he had returned i > and min- gled with the community in " plain clothes :" still, how- ever, a few short extracts, from his written replies to addresses he received, may be adduced as being singularly characteristic, not of the Lord High Commissioner, but of the unquenchable vanity of " the man." To an address from the borough of Plymouth his Lordship read a reply, of which the following is an ex- tract : — " Gentlemen, — If I have, ns 1 Imve, more numerous testi- monies of regard from all classes in the North American pro- vinces than ever before were presented to any of their rulers, it has been owing to my determination to recognize no pnrty distinctions, to act with justice and impartiality to all, and to lay the foundation of those wise and safe araelionitions in the institutions of the Colonies, which were so imperatively required. " I have the happiness to know that, in effacing the remaiihu of a disastrous rebellion, and administering justice, I have not found it necessary to shed one drop of blood, or confiscate the property of a single individual. " I had conciliated tlie esteem of a great and powerful na- tion, in which were to be found all the elements of danger or security to our North American possessions ; I had seen com- merce and enterprise revi,ving, public confidence restored, "tc. etc. " In this career of, I humbly but fearlessly venture to assert, complete success, I have been suddenly arrested." To the people of Devonport his Lordship read i<«com- muuication, of which the following is an extract : — I " Mr. IVIayor and Gentlemen, — You will never have reason A STRANGE STORY. 229 to repent the confidence you liavc placed in me, or the declara- tion which you have this day made, of your approbation of my government in Britiwh North America. Upon that sub- ject I shall, when Parliament meets, be prepared to make a representation vi /ads w/iolli/ unknown here, and disclosures of which the Parliament and people of this country have no conception ; / shaH t/ien fearlessly demand frmn t/w, assevihlcd Legislature that justice which neither they nor the people of England will ever deny to a public servant who has faithfully and honestly discharged the duties assigned to him." But before Lord Durliam, the trumpet-major of his own procession, could pompously reach Exeter, intelli- gence had arrived from Quebec by a fast-sailing vessel (propelled by the very gale which had prevented his landing at Plymouth), detailing a general outbreak in Lower Canada, and an invasion by the Americans, which made it necessary for his Lordship immediately to change his tone — not at all as regarded self-adulation, but, with respect to the assertions he had made at Plymouth, that " he had cftaccd the remains of a disastrous rebellion — that he had conciliated the esteem of a great and powerful nation — that he had seen commerce and enter- prise reviving, and public confidence restored." Accord- ingly, in his vvitten reply to the Corporation of Exeter (of which the following are extracts), it will appear that, while he still most affectionately lauded himself, — while he still reiterated the circumstances, " deeply to be de- plored," which had caused his return ; yet his Lordship felt it prudent no longer to conceal the awkward truth, that it was from the field of battle, and not from the bosom of peace, that he had so suddenly decamped ! 230 BRITISH POLICY. % " I am i)rou(l," sftjR his Lordship, " to sny that my adminis- tration of affairs in British America, which you arc pleased to proise, fut» vjoii me, tlw reyard nntl conjulence of all the loyal, well-affected, and enlightened classes in that vast country. " You know, and have adverted to, the circumstances which compelled me to terminate this course of action. They are, indeed, deeply to be deplored. And the late intelligence from Canada shows how injuriously the best interests of the empire are affected by proceedings founded on party feeling and poli- tical animosity. " That the lamentable events in Canada would inevitably take place vuts foreseen hy me; and every preparation was made, consistently with the means at my disposal, for meetiwj them vigorously and efficiently." In Honiton, Totncss, Asliburton, and elsewhere, he managed to address as many of a certain class of her Majesty's subjects as could be induced to assemble : but his march of glory came to an end, and his Lordship at last found himself once again in Cleveland-row — " the monarch of all he surveyed." On his arrival at this residence, his Lordship haugh- tily forbore personal communication with her Majesty's Ministers; his noble consort resigned her appointment in the Queen's household ; and these notes of war having been sounded, his Lordship appeared to expect that Parliament would immediately be convened to re- ceive him. Many concurred in this opinion : indeed, such was the excitement in the mother country, as well as in the colonies, that the Queen's proclamation, ap- pointing the meeting of Parliament at the usual period, was treated by the newspapers as an affected calmness A STRANGE STORY. S81 y adminifl- irc pleased I tlie loyal, untry. [ices which They are, [(cnce from the empire f and poli- incvitahly ration wan "or meetiiuj (vhcrc, he ;8s of her nhle : but )rdship at iw — " the ip haugh- Majcsty's lointmoiit s of war to expect icd to re- : indeed^ V, as well ition, ap- al period, calmness on the part of the Cabinet, strangely contrasted with the fearful tempest which ragod Avithin it. Now, if at this awful moment any man had dared to prophesy that on the meeting of Parliament a single day would be permitted to elapse without her Majesty's Mi- nisters arraigning Lord Durham for the serious conse- quences of the insults which from the Castle of Quebec he had, under her Majesty's Great Seal, offered to the Queen's authority, to the authority of Parliament, and to themselves, would even their enemies have credited so extraordinary a prediction ? Would any one but a maniac have ventured to foretell that Parliament, taking its regular holidays at Easter and Whitsuntide, would remain in session seven months, without a single mem- ber demanding of Lord Durham by what authority he had re-appeared among them, by what authority he had abandoned his post in the hour of da gcr, and in virtue of what clause of his commission he had presumed to appeal to " the people" of the Canadas against a solemn Act of the Imperial Parliament. When Lord Durham, on the very first day of the ses- sion, with unexampled recklessness o])truding himself upon notice, interrupted the grave consideration of the Queen's Address by claiming the previous attention of the House to his own personal ease ; when on following nights his Lordshi[) again and again reiterated the same demand for preee(icnce, with what breathless attention would t\w House of Peers have listened, — with what feelings \\n\\\A Lord Durham have shrunk for ever into retirement, had the veteran leader of the House — that m 232 BRITISH POLICY. ■i ! t^ • ill li soldier of our empire who has ever yet faced mth tri- umph the enemies of his Sovereign — risen from his seat but calmly to exclaim, " Quousgue tandem abutere, Cati- Una, patientid nostrd?" But neither by her Majesty's Ministers, nor by their opponents, nor by either House of the Imperial Parliament, was Lord Durham thus arraigned or conjured : on the contrary, in the face of all parties, and in flagrant violation of public pride and public principle, a deed was imagined and perpetrated by her Majesty's Ministers, which we venture to as- sert stands unparalleled in the political history of the world. Of all the weaknesses which characterize human na- ture, there is no one more common than tliat of linger- ing over by-gone subjects which once strongly attracted the attention. When a man has suddenly l)een divested of authority, his mind almost invariably flies back to the unwholesome food from which it has been weaned : and, accordingly, it is proverbial, that, of all the button-hang- ing bores who pester society, an ex-Governor of a Colony is the most annoying : for until he has cleansed his mind by the publication of some heavy book, or of a series of pamphlets which, like a string of boils, eventually restore him to health, it is in the nature of the animal unceas- ingly to rave about his own abolished consequence, — about what he might, could, should, or would have done had he continued in power, and about some political nostrum only to be obtained from the laboratory of his own pocket. This being the case (and that it is the case, our readers' mth tri- ri his scat ere, Cati- Majesty's or House lam thus face of )ri(le and irpetrated re to as- •y of the aman na- of linger- attracted 1 divested ick to the led : and, ton-hang- ' a Colony his mind I scries of ly restore 1 uneeas- pience, — lave done political >ry of his r readers' A STRANGE STORY. 233 experience as well as the records of the Colonial Office will abundantly testify), it was reasonably to be expected, that, inasmuch as Lord Durham's most unusual powers had suddenly expired, a literary phoenix of magnitude would ere long be seen to arise out of the pale ashes of his extinguished authority. Accordingly, the strangers who had accompanied him employed the interval between his arrival in England and the meeting of Parliament, in collecting from individuals residing in the Canadas, motley opinions on various sub- jects. On the meeting of Parliament a portion only of these data had arrived; — several were " supposed" to be on their passage ; — several actually had not left Quebec ; however, his Lordship framed liis report without its foun- dation, and having transmitted this omnium gatherum to the Colonial Department, of which he well knew it might justly be said, — "Ante fores atri foccunda papavera florcnt," and printed copies of it having been simultaneously trans- mitted to the 'Times ' newspaper and to Lower Canada, he next day stood up in the House of Lords, and before even the amiable Secretary of State had read the Report, he expressed his impatience that it should be immediately considered by Parliament. Now, without taking into consideration Lord Durham's repeated acts of insubordination, we beg leave to observe that very grave, and, we must add, insuperable primd facie objections existed against even her Majesty's Go- vernment receiving, as an official report from the ex- Lord U . ( \\ \m 234 BRITISH POLICY. il' 1 *il High Commissioner of the Canadas (the government of which had, by his own act and deed, devolved upon Sir John Colborne) , a pamphlet signed, rather than written, by Lord Durham — after he had been superseded in his office, and of which the appendix actually had not arrived from Quebec. If Lord Durham had been relieved from his station with the most honourable encomiums that ever were heaped by a British Government upon a retiring Vice- royj yet it would have established a bad precedent to have continued to treat him as the Governor of the Colony after his authority had been extiu -i: for, setting all personalities aside, every man wl; , ^yielded authority must surely know, that unless a public servant be heavily laden with the responsibility of his station, he can never safely declare what measures he would really recommend. If an ex-Governor can, as from his grave, continue officially to report after his authority is defunct, there seems to be no reason why Parliament should not con- sider as Secretary of the Colonies, not the individual vir- tually responsible for the Department, but him out of all preceding secretaries — who may be deemed to be gifted with the highest talent. But as regards my Lord Dur- ham and his pamphlet, the case was altogether different : for, instead of having bt^eu regularly relieved from a post of high confidence, his Lordship had, without waiting to be relieved, abandoned it ; instead of having received en- comiums from his Sovereign and from Parliament, his Lordship had unconstitutionally appealed to " the people" A STRANGE STORY. 235 >vernment of 'ed upon Sir han written, •seded in his i. not arrived 1 his station .t ever were tiring Vice- precedent to nior of the i: for, ^ ^ »vielded iiblic servant is station, he would really ve, continue jfunct, there uld not con- dividual vir- im out of all to be gifted r Lord Dur- er different : from a post it waiting to received en- liaraent, his the people" against the solemn act of both. His very appearance in his place in the House of Lords was an act of insubordi- nation, as well as a contempt of Sovereign authority; and therefore, whatever might be the intrinsic value of his unfinished pamphlet, even to receive it as an official document, after he had su'cidally annulled his own coia- mission, was, on the part of the Queen's Government, to ratify desertion and sanction mutiny. But could any one have believed that besides receiving among themselves this pamphlet as a "Report," her Majesty's Ministers would have advised a youthful, inexperienced, and con- fiding Queen not only to accept )t — not only to pass imnoticed Lord Durham's proclamation against her in Canada — but, as if in approbation of his Lordship's unauthorized return to England, herself to transmit his opinions to both Houses of Parliament, as official in- struction to the very Legislature whose character and motives he had branded with reproach — whose solemn Act of Indemnity he had publicly reviled ? What were our Colonics to think of such a recommen- dation from the British Crown ? What were the Courts of Europe to think of it ? What was the civilized world to think of it ? Could five months' experience possibly enable Lord Durham to offer to Parliament any informa- tion that could compensate for this irreparable violation of just pride and principle? Would any mercantile body of Directors, who had been openly denounced to their shareholders by their agent, before as well as after he had, witliout authority, abandoned their service, deign to transmit to them his advice? Would any private gentle- y s ■i ? Mi' I 236 BRITISH POLICY. I, Ml man in England, who upon hia own estate had been pub- licly insulted by his factor, transmit to the consideration of his tenants any opiuion, however valuable, written and addressed to him by the said agent after he had con- temptuously throvm up his trust ? As there is no limit to the mercy o*' the British Sove- reign, 80 Lord Durham's offences, whatever they might have been, might, in her Majesty's wisdom, have been graciously overlooked — forgiveness would perhaps have been the most appropriate punishment that could have been infli'^ted ; but for the Queen to force his Lordship upon both Houses of Parliament as their legal and poli- tical adviser, ought surely, as the act of Ministers, to have been made (especially by the Peers) the subject of immediate, respectful, but unflinching remonstrance. Will posterity believe that in neither House of Parlia- ment did there rise up a single member boldly to say to the Ministers of the Crown, Why do you insult us by requiring of us to participate in our own dishonour? What reason have you to urge, for forcing upon our con- sideration this posthumous Report, until at least we shall have received from its pretended author some atonement for the indignity he has publicly offered to the Sovereign, to us, and to the public service? If Pope's maxim. ''How can we reason but from what we know," be correct, upon what is Lord Durham's claim upon our attention based? Is it upon the legal ignorance he has shown in framing ordinances which have been annulled, and which made it necessary for Parliament to grant to him an Act of In- demnity? Is it upon the unconciliatory disposition he has m0t>' A STRANGE STORY. 237 1 been pub- nsideration written and e had con- ntish Sove- they might have been rhaps have could have is Lordship al and poli- inisters, to B subject of strance. le of Parlia- ly to say to nsult us by dishonour ? an our con- ist we shall atonement Sovereign, ixim, '-'How irrect, upon tion based? in framing ich made it Act of In- ition he has evinced in removing twenty Special Councillors appointed by his predecessor as possessing the highest character, greatest experience, and largest stake in the country, and replacing them by five of his own household or personal staff, of whom, to say the least, it was perfectly impos- sible that the people of the Provinces could feel the slightest assurance that they either knew or cared for their wants or interests? Is it upon the utter disregard he has shown for the welfare of the British North Ame- rican Colonies, by i^cserting them at a moment pregnant, as he himself has avowed, with difficulties and dangers ? Is it upon the want of deference he has shown to the advice and injunctions of the Sovereign and of the Ministers from whom he received his authority ? What public principle has Lord Durham observed in his ephe- meral governmeat of the Canadas, but an utter disregard of the control of his superiors, an entire want of consi- deration of any authority but his own ? Ought we, with the eyes of the world upon us, even to listen to the ad- vice of a public servant to whom her Majesty's Ministers have declared in a despatch (which they themsehes liave published), that the terms of l''s Lordship's proclamation to the inhabi<^ants of our Colonics have " appeared to her Majesty's Ministers calcidated to impugn the reverence due to the Royal authority — to derogate from the charac- ter of the Imperial Legislature — to excite among the dis- affected hopes of impunity, and to enhance the difficul- ties with which his Lordship's successor tvould have to contend ? " It is with the deepest regret we record that no such at; ..■ "m^msr^^lfm 238 BRITISH POLICY. Il '111 ^ questions were asked — no such objections raised. Lord Melbourne has since unblushingly declared (at a moment when the houses of respectable inhabitants of Birming- ham had been gutted and their chattels fired by the Chartists) "that in his opinion a man's being a member of a political union ought not to operate as a disqualification for subsequent employment as a magistrate in the public service!" On precisely the same principle her Majesty's Ministers advised their Sovereign to transmit Lord Dur- ham's Loudon Report to both Houses of Parliament. " Faa est ab hoste doceri." Let us now proceed to consider whether her Majesty's Government and the Imperial Parliament have duly considered the allegations contained in Lord Durham's Report? When an individual or a legislature departs from the direct road of honour and principle, the angle of aberra- tion is often so acute, that a considerable time elapses before the error is detected. One petty offence insen- sibly leads to the commission of another; and thus it every year happens, that it is not until the criminal has received the awful sentence of death, that, of his own accord, he attributes his miserable fate to an early de- secration of the Sabbath, to an unfortunate introduction to a vicious companion, or to some small evil propensity the consequences of which he had neglected to antici- pate. It might, therefore, have happened that the ob- jectionable presentation by her Majesty's Ministers to Parliament of the pamphlet of a nobleman who had in- A STRANGE STURY. 239 lised. Lord at a moment of Birming- fired by the ' a member of squalification in the public icr Majesty's it Lord Dur- arliament. her Majesty's it huve duly ord Durham's )art5 from the igle of aberra- ! time elapses offence insen- ■; and thus it 3 criminal has it, of his own o an early de- te introduction Gvil propensity cted to antic i' i that the ob- 's Ministers to an who had in- sulted the authority of the Legislature and of the Crown might for a considerable time have been productive of no serious inconvenience, and that those -who had weakly argued, " What harm will it do?" might with equal fallacy for a considerable time, have demanded, with apparent triumph, " What harm has it done ?" Such, however, has not been the case, for the fatal effects of this misconduct have already become apparent ; — the punishment has already followed thr offence ; — the cause and effect are visibly in juxtaposition ; indeed, the thun- der of heaven does not more surely follow the momentary flash in the firmament, than the loud murmuring of despair is now throughout our North American Colonies foliv- ^ig that fatal, ill-advised message of her Majesty, which transmitted to Parliament Lord Durham's posthu- mous Report. What in theory might have been expected from the angry counsel of a proud radi. nobleman who had con- tumaciously fled from difficulties he had neither time nor temper to investigate, is an idle speculation, which it is not now necessary to pursue, because the actual result is before us to speak for itself. We will not ofler to our readers anything so little worthy of their attention as our own opinions of this ex- traordinary document, of which we will merely say, that it accurately fulfils what might have been expected from its real authors ; but will simply state what have been the official opinions of the most competent authorities on the subject. As regards Lord Durham's observations on Lower f 1 240 BRITISH POLICY. m i !! V Canada^ it seems to be generally admitted that his Lord- ship i":, as accurate in his declaration, as voluminous in his proofs, that the rebellion in that province " is a war between races." Considering, however, that long before Lord Durham left England I'or Quebec, the British po- pulation and the British troops on one side were ranged together, in open day and in open conflict, against Mon- sieur Papineau and his deluded French adherents on the other, it must be observed that it did not require a magician, or even a politician, to make this sagacious discovery. As regards his Lordship's Report on Upper Canada — (that keystone of our North American Colo- nies) — we must observe that his allegations against the Lieutenant-Governor, Executive Council, Legislative Council, Commons House of Assembly, and people, have been unreservedly, and, in most instances, oflicially, de- nied and disproved by the following competent authori- ties, whom we will name in the order in which they have expressed themselves : — 1. Sir F. Head, the late Lieut.-Governor of Upper Canada. 2. The North American Colonial Association. 3. Sir John Colborne, Governor-General of the Ca- nadas. 4. Sir George Arthur, Lieutenant-Governor of Up- per Canada. 5. The Executive Council of Upper Canada. 6. The Legislative Council of Upper Canada. 7. The Commons House of Assembly of Upper Canada. A STKANOE STOllY, 241 at his Lord- uraiiious iu c" is a war long before I British po- jvere ranged gainst Mon- iherents on lot require a lis sagacious )rt on Upper lerican Colo- 1 against the Legislative I people, have officially, de- tent authori- ich they have lOr of Upper ation. il of the Ca- ernor of Up- Eida. lada. ly of Upper 8. Ilor Majesty's Attorney and Solicitor General. 9. The Grand Jury of the Newcastle District. 10. Lieut. -Gen. Sir Peregrine jNlaitland, who was ten years Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada. The following brief extracts will, we believe, suffi- ciently show the nature of the evidence to which we have referred. 1. Sir Francis Head, in his ' Narrative/ has thus re- plied to Lord Durham's allegations : — " With respect to Lord Diu'lmni's report to the Queen, that my Kxeeutivo Couneil 'seem to hiive taken oflieo ulniost on t/ie exjircss coiulUion of hvimj iiirri' cijihers,' I be<^ leave most solemnly to deelare that aueh a eondition was neither expressed nor understood. . . . " With res])ect to the allefi;ation affeotinj^ my own character, namely, that ' the elections were carried by the unscrupulous exercise of tlie inflnence ot'tiie CJovernmcnt,' I beg leave calmly, hilt imecpiivocally, ti- '^''>?y '<• . . . " It would not be difficult to proceed with the whole of Lord Durham's Report on Upper Canada as \ have commenced, but as I have no desire unnecessaiily to hurt his Lordship, I have sufficiently shown its inaccuracy, to vindicate my own character from its attacks," etc. etc. 2. The North American Colonial Association, com- posed of most respectable merchants in the City of Lon- don, declared, in a scries of formal Kcsolntions, that Lord Durham's — " statements and opinions relative to the condition of parties in Upper Canada and the other North American Colonies ap- pear calculated to shock and irritate the great body of loyal inhabitants, and to indu^j a belief iu the people of this couuJry VOL. I. M : . '1 '■ ■t If \m m i i «, 242 BRITISH POLICY. r ■ 0. il that tlic disloyal clnsa is rmnicrous nntl resppctiiMc, instond of hoiiitr, lis it rciilly is, a ('((mpiirntivoly snmll mid contemptible minority." 3. The prcaotit Tjicntcnant- Governor of Upper Ca- nada, Sir (loorj^e Arthur, in a despatcli, dated Toronto, J7th Ajn'il, 18.'M), says, with referenee to Tjord Durham's Report — " The Momhcra of both TTouscs, I find, {i;onornl1y consider parts of tlio IJoport which refer to Upper Canada to ho in ninny particulars incorrect; and a Coininittec of the House of Assem- bly has been consofiuently ai>i!ointed to draw up a Report upon the subject. " Thci/ regard the Karl of Diivhavin scheme for the fnttire governnient of Canada as essentUiIJi/ tin' same as that which teas advocated h;/ Mr. IHdirell, Dr. lud^th, and Maclioizie^ and to which the great' majority of the people of this Province ex- pressed their xuiecpiivocal <lissont." 4. A Report from the Legislative Couneil of Upper Canada states — " After an attentive and disinterested consideration of this subject, your Coniniittce arc led to the conclusion that the adoption of the plan proposed by the Earl of Durham must lead to the overthroii^ of the i/reat Colonial Kmjnre of En* fl and." 5. The Commons' House of Assembly of Upper Ca- nada, in an Address to the Queen, dated 11th of INIay, 1839, and by her IMajestv's eommand laid before both Houses of the Imperial Parliament, state — "Since the commcncenient of the present Session of the Provincial Parlian cut, the final I'eport of your Majesty's High Commissioner on the affairs of Ih'itish North America has been received iu this country. In this Report your Majesty's faithfnl A stuanok story. 243 , inRten<l of mtemptiblo Tppor Ca- :1 Toronto, Durham's illy coiiHidor > 1)0 in many w of Asscni- Ucport Mpon rr the fithire at ivliirh ini.f p)iz!e, antl to Province ex- il of Upper iition of this (ion tliat tlio )iirliaii» nnist of Kwihmd." Upper Ca- tli of IMay, before both V'ssion of the klajesty's High erica has been ijcsty's faithful Huhjocts fiii<l ninny stiitcnionfs deeply nffecting the social and political relations and conditions of Upper and Lower Canada, and the reconnnendations of several iin|)ortant elumj^es in the form and practice of the Constitution. It is with nuich con- cern tliat your Majesty's faitid'ul sidijecta tind that your JSbt- jcsty's 1 li;;h ConimiHsioner has strongly urufed the adoption of these i'liang(S hy your Majesty and the Imperial Tarlia- ment, without waiting for the opinion that may be formed of them by tb<> ])eo]ile who arc to be nn)st deejily and im- mcdiatclv nlTeeted bv them. Under those cireunistances, wo have caused a l\e]iort ti> be drawn U]i by a Select Committee of till' House of Assend)ly, which contains matter referring to this subject, which we re.speclfuUy submit for your Majesty's cousi- dcration." Tlie Report above alluded to, submitted to the (iueeii by the House of Assembly, states — "A dociunent, purjiortiug to be the Ueitort of her Majesty's liitc HI;^h Cummissioiur, the Karl of Durham, adihr.ssed to her Majesty, on (he allairs of I'ritish North America, contains mat- tor so deeply alTccting the social as well as political relations of all the Provinces, csjiocially of Tapper Canada, that it would ill become your Committee to jjhss it over in silence. At this lato period of tlio Session, it is impossible to ^ive the statemeuta and ojiinious advanced by his Lord.^hip the extensive investi- yation thi'ir inii>ortaneo di iiiaiils ; but yiair Conuuittee will ajiply themselves with ealnnicss to vindicate the peoi)lc of Upjier ( 'inada. their (b)V('rnnicnt and Legisla lure, from charges that imply a want of patriotism and integrity, which they know to be unjust, which they did n»t expect, and which they grieve to find advanced by a nobleman who had lieeu scut to these Pn)vinct's to heal rather than foment dissensions, and who certainly should have carefully gu.nded against giving currency to i()iJi)/ni(/<-(f, tiilsr/iicntnn, iiml 'lUihcrat rinitutirs,J'or t/ie truth of which he mhnlts loc is ninthly to vouch." iki 2 \h 111 2U BHITISII POLICY. M The Committee coueliule their Report with the foUow- in{? ohservations : — " Your Coiniuittec will licrc close their remarks on the viirious alU'j,'titions, in the lU'port of the lli;,'h Conuuissioner, that apprarcMl to then) to ri'(|uiro particular aiiiinadversioii. If, in the eourse of tlicir remarks, they have heen hetrayed into too stroufif an expression of re])roaeh or in(li;,'!uint refutation, they trust that it will not be ascribed to a wanton inditterence to that courtesy and respectful deference that sliould mark the proceedings of a piddic iiody towards those of hii^di rank and station ; and, on the otiicr hand, they trust that they will n<tt be denied the credit of having forborne to apply aninuidversions of far greater severity than (hey have used to many j)arts of a I»ci)ort which they can truly affirm, and which they believe they have clearly jiroved lo fie, moat unjust itnd vnfoii ruled, anil wliielb (ire cdlrnJnli'd fo luive <i most mlschievomt influence on the future de.stlnleti of thene (^olonles. " Your Committee, however, are not willing to believe that the great nation to which these Provinces lielong, aiul which has hitherto extended to them its powerful, its parental ])rotec- tion, will hastily, and without the most full and amjle informa- tion, adopt the opinions and act upon the recommendations of any individual, however high his rank, or great his talents, that involve the future destinies of her Majesty's faithful sub- jects in these Provinces." G. The Grand Jury of the Newcastle District (whicli contains two counties, forming one of the most valuable sections of Ui)i)er Canada) unanimously adopted a Pre- sentment, of which the following is an extract : — " District of Xeiccastk, 1 The Jurors of our Lady the Queen TO wn : J upon their oaths present, that a printed book or pamphlet, entitled ' Report ou the Affairs of IC follow- ks oi) the lunisHioner, tTsiou. If) trayctl into refutation, indiftorcncc (1 murk the I rank un<l u'y will not nadversions y jmrts of a tln'y believe 7i'itJ'i)ii ruled, (w injlaence, liclieve that f, and whieh •ental i)rotee- ijle iufonnu- iK'iulations of t his talents. faithful sub- itrict (which lost vahiahle iptccl a Prc- ,ct :— idy the Queen esent, that a the Affairs of A STRANOE STORY. 215 British North Aiiicrica, from the Earl of Durham, hor Majesty's High Commissioner, etc. etc. etc.,' has been brou^^dit under their notiee ; and the Jurors aforesaid, upon their oaths afore- said, further present, that they have oarefu .; •xamined the said book or pamphlet ; and the Jurors aforestiid, upon their oaths aforesaid, further present, that the mihl hook or painph/el in calculiited to excite j hfle couteinpf <t)i<J oiliiim dijiuiist the (tovei'iiineiit anil iVtif/i.itror// of thin I' •orbire ; and tlie Jurors aforesaid, upon their oaths aforesaiil, further i)resent, thi.t the said book or ])aniphlet is .ilso calculated most injvrlousfi/ to vil-aleud tin; Meinherti of the Inijierlai PcifHami .1 and the Jirllis/i jutbllc, by ereatinj,' in their minds erroneous i 1 false opinions relative to the state and condition of this rmvinee, and with respect to the wants, feelings, sei;.'. '-cuts, and wishes ■-■? n very large majority of the inliabitanti^ thetoof; to dUxemlnnte and perpetuaie. In. thin J^rovhice, jtrtnrl/ifen of dfiinocrari/ vholli/ In- ^^omputlbh', with inonarehlcal Inntltntlons ; to loosen the ijonds of affection which unite ns to our tj radons Sovei'eUjn, to the Hritish Empire, and to the venerated constitution of our an- cestors ; to resuscitate and fomeM that factious discontent and disorder which jiroduced such deplorable and disastrous con- sequences, but which, though not extinguished, had in a great measure subsided ; and, generally, to endanycr the peace, hap- piness, and pros])erlti/ of this Province, atjainst the peace of onr said ISoverelyn Liuhi the Queen, her crown and dlgniti/. " GramlJury .'.';.;., May lo, 1839." 7. Lieiitcnant-Gencral Sir Pcrogrinc Maitland, who during ten years was Licntonant-Cjlovcrnor of Upper Canada ; vho was afterwards Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia : and who has Lately returned from an important government in India, avowed " his decided condemnation, with full liberty to disclose his sentiments, of Lord Durham's Report ; his opinion that it yives an ;l 246 BRITISH I'OLICY. \l,'\ I I- V ! inaccurate and unfair description of the Province and people of Upper Canada, and that it censures, iynorantly and unjustlij, t/use who have administered the government of that Province." Now with tliis overwlicliiiing mass of evidence (almost the whole of which has been pi'iiited and [)resciitcd to Vav- liameiit before them, were not her ^Majesty's ]\Iiuisters and the Imperial Parliament bound by honour and com- mon justice to I'epair the error that had been committed? If the meanest of her ^Majesty's subjects, having been accused before Parliament by the most powerful Peer in the realm, had submitted, in vindication of his in- nocence, one-twentieth j)art of as unanswerable evi- dence as that Mhieh has been just adduced in defence of the Legisliiturc and people of Ui)per Canada, would the Imperial Parliam:.nit have left him, at tlie proroga- tion, without relief — without the acquittal to which it knew him to be entitled ? Would any court of justice, — would any jury in the country, with such a case before t! em, have withheld from a man, falsely accused, their verdict? And if a solitary individual would have received this common act of justice from those before whom he had been arraigned, how inlinitely more entitled to acquittal were a brave and loyal people, who, under severe suHerings, and by the most determined bravery, liad I'epelled her Majesty's enemies in all directions — and who, tlu'ough the severity of two Canadian winters, had maintained for the liritish Crown its noblest (U-pendencies ! And when the whole history of their loyalty, when the mass of corroborative evidence wince and lyHorantltj /overiunaU ICC (almost itcd to Par- j ^[inistcrs r and com- oininittccl ? laving been vci'ful Peer I of his iu- erablc evi- iu tlcfenec lada, would he pi'oroga- .1 to which ly court of with such a nan, falsely y individual justice from ow inlinitcly i and loyal jy the most ity's enemies crity of two ritisii Crown hole history tive evidence A STRANGE STOilY. 247 which we have just adduced is weighed against the asser- tions of au individual who had insubordinately fled from his post ; — and who had brought away from it nothing but the records of five months' blundering legislation, which it had required the interference of ParHament not only to correct but to palliate ; — it seems incredible that the legislative authorities of Upper Canada should, in the name of the people of that Pi'ovince, have demanded in vain that this painted butterHy should publicly be broken on the wheel upon which of his own accord he had alighted ! The Imperial Parliament, however, not only neglected to resent the insults offered to them by this public servant, — they not only failed to arraign him for having deserted his post, and for his seditious appeal to " the people" against the Sovereign authority ; but although, during the whole sesi«ion, there were recom- nicnded to their consideration remedial measures based on a " Report," which they perfectly well knew had been written by others and not by himself, they averted their minds from the mass of evidence by which it had been contradicted, and actually allowed a bill to be proposed, argued, and passed for the government of Lower Canada, — they even allowed liord Durham himself to stand up before them in his place, and publicly address them on the subject, without one Member rising to offer a single objection to his conduct, or a solitary observation on the calumnies he had unolHcially submitted to them ! Among those wlio listened to him with mysterious silence there were many who could have chilled him by their frown, and who could have annihilated him by their I \ . f 1 ' I' I i J 'mi \'v< 4 Hi \ I. 'HI II 248 BRITISH POLICY. ii ;t I iX I reply ; but liis triumph was inexplicable, and, as if gifted with the power of repressing the noble elements that sur- rounded him, the imperious Dictator passed through the ordeal of the Session unharmed, unpunished, and even imanswered ! Without pausing to reflect upon the consequences at home of such silence, what, we ask, were our North American Colonies to think of this denial to them of justice? What other moral could they possibly draw from it than that, in return for their loyalty, — in return for the sacrifices they had made in defence of their glorious institutions, — the Imperial Parliament had con- demned them to be democrats, and, consequently, that it was useless, as it was hopeless, for them to avert the decree ? Under these appalling circumstances, who can wonder that the loyal po]uiIation of the Canadas now feel it is necessary to secure their lives, their families, and their farms, by bending to the storm which they have not power to resist ? Accordingly, men who have hitherto been distinguished both in the field and in the Senate for their loyalty and devoted attachment to British in- stitutions are now, we have too much reason to know, prudently yielding to circumstances, and are adapting their political confessions to those democratic j)rinciples of government which her Majesty's Ministers and the Imperial Parliament seemed determined to establish. The accounts which by every packet arrive from Canada attest the fatal influence of Lord Durham's uncontra- dicted Report. A STRANOE STORY. 249 s if gifted i that sur- rough the and even [ucnces at ur North i them of iihly draw -in return ; of their t had eon- sntly, tliat ) avert tlie an wonder I feel it is and their have not e hitlierto the Senate British in- II to knoiv, e adapting ; ])rineipk'8 rs and the establish. jm Canada uncontra- Besidcs the testimony of tlie provineial press, we have before us many letters from persons in Canada, some connected with the Government and Legislature, others not so circumstanced, bat feeling and possessing a deep interest in the Colonj', stating in the strongest language the incalculable injury which Lord Durham's lleport is doing in the hands of the most notorious enemies of the Crown. One gentleman (a Canadian) says — " Lor<l Durham's name is used as a cloak for tlie most treasonable desiijns : indeed, anything may now be attempted under the pretext of sustaining the plans proposed in the ' Report; " Another letter from a Canadian of great talent, pro- bity, and influence, states — "Lord Durham's Report is working its sure and certain mischief: it lias revived the schemes and spirits of the Re- volutionary party. ' Durham and Reform,' ' Durham and Liberty,' arc now inscribed on flags, and paraded about by those, and those onh/, who are known to be disloyal, and who aim at separation from the mother country. Whatever may be said to the contrary by a venal press, there is not an honest or loyal man in Upper Canada that docs not execrate Lord Durham as the greatest curse that has ever yet been in- flicted on these Provinces." Another letter from Sir George Arthur, the present Lieutenant- (j over nor of the Provinces, states — " The ' Report' has set all the Reformers and Republicans in motion again, and whilst they were cautious under M'Ken- zie's banner, they are exceedingly bold under the Earl of Dur- ham's colours." M 3 ' i i t' *'r 250 BllinSII POLICY. i ' I "NYliat ail afFectiug aud mclauclioly picture do the fore- going letters portray ! Our argument ends in a circle at the point from which it started. ^V/ly, we ask, ivas Lord Durham allowed to act officially as Lord High Commissioner of the Cunadas AFTER HE HAD DESERTED FKOM HIS POST ? As a question diametrically opposite to the above, let us now ask, why have her Majesty's Government and the Imperial Legislature neglected to weigh evidence contained in public documents Avliich, early in the Ses- sion, like Lord Durham's " Report," were printed and laid before bo*h Houses of Parliament ? On the Duke of Wellington forcing Lord Melbourne (notwithstanding his Lordship's prophecy that it would prove "exceedingly inconvenient") to produce Sir Francis Head's despatches, it appeared that the late Lieutenant- Governor of Upper Canada, in his concluding despatch from Toronto, dated 19th December, 1837, had maUe, through the Govci'nmcut, to his Sovereign the following plain statement : — " My Lord,— It has long been notorious to every British subject iu the Canadas, that your Lordship's uuder-yeoretary, the author of our C<jlonial despatches, is a rank llepublieau. His sentiments, his conduct, and his poUtical character, arc liere aHke detested, and I enclose to your Lordship Mr. M'Ken- zie's last newspa})er, which, traitorous as it is, contains nothing more conducive to treason than the extracts which, as its text, it exultingly ijuotes from the pubHslied oiiinions of her Ma- jesty's Under-Secretary of State for the Colonics ! "As I eutertjiin no sentiment of animosity against Mr, Stephen, it has been with very great reluctance timt I have the forc- )ra whicli lloived to Canadas ibove, let nent and evidence the Ses- luted and Iclbournc t it would ir Francis ieutenant- ; despatch liad made, ; following ery British r-Secretary, llepublicun. aracter, are Mr. M'Keu- iins nothing I, as its text, of her Ma- agaiust "Mr. that I have A STKANGE STOllY. 251 mentioned his name ; hut, being deeply sensible that this Pro- vince has been signally protected by an Omnipotent Providence during tlie late unnatural rebellinn, I feel it my duty, in re- tiring from this continent, to divulge, tbniugh your Lordship, to my Sovereign, my opiui(jn of the latent cause of our un- fortunate misgoverument of the Canadas. •'I have the houour to be, my Lord, etc. etc., " (Signed) F. P. Head." This plain statement to the Queen by her Lieute- nant-Governor was corroborated by the f llowing offi- cial documents,''*' addressed to her Majesty by the two other branches of the Canadian Parliament : — 1. Extract of a "Report, dated 8th February, 1838, of a Select Committee of the Commons' House of As- seiribly, on the Political State of the Provinces of Upper a!vd Lower Canada. Printed by order of the House, with an Address to the Queen." "In the year 1828, Janios Stcplien, Esquire, then Counsel, and since advanced to tht ,iffice of Under-Secretary of State to the Colonial Department, in his evidence before the Sehjct Committee of the House of Commons on the affairs of (Janada, advanced the following opinions with reference to these Pro- vinces : — " ' The ties by which the people are bound to their Sovereign are not of the same strong and enduring character as the cor- responding obligations between the King and the people of the old Lv^Topeau States. It is impossible to suppose the Cana- dians dread your power : it is not easy to believe that the abstract duty of loyalty, as distinguished from the sentiment of loyalty, can be very strongly felt. The riy/ii of rejecting * These two documents and the concluding remarks arc taken from Sir ¥. Head's subsequent publiuutions. I'M i 11 253 BUITiSH I'Of.ICY. ■'- ii }■•■'• m \ EuDpean douijiiiou i)ns 'jeeii sr ift.n asserted in North and South A merica, i'V<< revolt can scarceli/ be esteetm.d in those con- fimnts us itimimd or diayniceful. Neither does it seem to me that the sense if national pride etui importance is in your favour, It ijannot be vcgard d as an enviable distinction to remain (fif- onh/ (leppndent porfi.m nftlieNeio WorhV "Your Coaiihittee p; . . mhI luit to say that any individual was influenced by ihe use made of Mr. Stephen's oi)inions— they hope otherwise ; but they well know that their promul- gation ha;; excited a deep feeling of regret in the minds of a very numerous and respectable class of the learned gentleman's fellow-subjects in these Provinces, and lias led many to con- sider whetlior past maladministration of our afi'airs may not fairly be aifributable to the influence necessarily exercised by a person holding his highly responsible and confidential situa- tion in Dowiiing Street ; and if so, whether that influence can be continued without danger to our future prosperity." 2. Extract of a " Report and Address to the Queen, dated 28th February, 1838, by tlie Honourable tlie Le- gislative Council of Upper Canada, and ' printed by order of the House ' : " — "Neither the rebels in these Provinces, nor their American auxiliaries, thought it by any means certain that the British Government would make the exertion necessary for retaining these Colonies. They persuaded themselves, on „he contrary, that they would not. They have, for many years i)ast, observed some of the more influential journals in the motlier country denouncing the impolicy of retaining the Canadas ; and they have read declarations opeidy made to a Conunittee of the House of Commons by a gentleman in the Colonial Depart- ment, who, from his station and duties, has probably exercised, and still exercises, as great an influence in the government of the American colonies as any other individual in the Empire — A STRANGE STORY. 253 ttr" *^orth and <, those con- eem to me is in your tinction to individual Dj)inions — ir promul- ninds of a [entlenian's ny to con- 's may not corcised by ntial situa- Hucncc can \c Queen, c the Le- i l)y order American the British r retaining e contrary, it, observed ler country and they ttee of the ial Depart- y exercised, rnment of ! Empire — in which declaration the positions are advanced, that allegiance to the British Crown must be expected to be regarded in Canada rather as a sentiment than a duty ; that no fear of the power of Great Britain can reasonably be entertained by its inhabitants ; that ' revolt against Euro])can dominion cannot be considered anywhere upon the continent of America as criminal or disgraceful ; and that it can be regarded as no enviable distinction to be the only dependent portion of the New World.' * From all which, it would follow that rebel- lion in Canada would be merely matter of taste ; that it would be a safe experiment as far as British power is concerned ; that it could neither be looked upon as wrong or disreputable . and that, in fact. It will be rather a reflectioii upon the spirit of the people of Canada, if they remain attached to the British Crown longer than they can help. It is fit the British nation should know that the leelings and consciences of the great mass of the people of Upper Canada revolt against these sen- timents." Now, as it was notorious in England as well as throughout our North American Colonies, that Sir Francis Head had been removed from Upper Canada, by the Colonial Office, for having adhered to the loyal majority of its inhabitants, and, jjer contra, for having refused to elect and place above them on the bench of justice an individual whose whole life had been hostile to British rule, and who has since, in the United States, publicly " abjured his allegiance to the Crown of Great Britain," it might have been expected that the Imperial Parliament would have deemed it their duty to investi- gate — • As an encouragement to rebellion, these words were quoted and placarded by Mr. M'Keuzie ou the day of his iusurreetiou in Upper Canada. I ; 1. '.■■ ■ I 254) BUITISU POLICY. 1. The uUcgalious against the loyalists iu Upper Ca- nada contained iu that " Report," signed by Lord Dur- ham, which three Licutcuant-Governors and tlie Legis- lature of Canada liad declared to be untrue, and utterly unsafe to be relied on. 3. A counter-allegation by the three branches of the Canadian Parliament, complaining of a well-known de- mocratic influence in the Colonial Office. AVithout, however, bothering tlicmselves with either of these investigations, the Imperial Parliament, under the protest of the late Duke of Wellington, deter- mined to adopt or swallow as the basis of a new system of legislation for the Canadas, and for the rest of our North American Colonies, Lord Durham's posthumous Report, although they well knew that a considerable portion of it had been written by two persons who had been convicted by the tribunals of England of offences of an unusual character. Indeed, that not only had one of them, as a felon, been sentenced to imprisonment in Newgate for three years, but that on the Cth of June, 1827 (see Hansard), Sir Robert Peel, in the House of Commons, in denouncing " the fraud, the forgery, and the villany he had practised, added: — "Hundreds of de- linquents, much less yuilty, laid been convicted of capital felonies, and had forfeited their lives," I. 1! As a single example of the natural consequences of an Imperial Parliament presuming to legislate on the allegations and recommendations of such persons, wewill briefly state that — A STUANOG STUllY. 255 LTpper Ca- Liord Dur- tlic Lcgis- iid utterly 1C8 of thl3 iuowu (Ic- rith either cut, under on, deter- lew system est of our osthumous jusidcrablo 18 who had of ofl'ences ily had one ionment iu ;h of June, } House of jrgery, and Ireds of de- l of capital iqucnces of ate on the ons, wevvill Dr. Joliu Rolph, a practising midwife at Toronto, for whose apprehension " for a traitorous attempt to subvert the Government of Upper Canada" a reward of ,t;500 Avas oft'ered l)y lloyal Proclamation, dated December 11, 1837; Who, on the 18th of December, 1837, had been ex- pelled " as a traitor" from the Canada Militia; Who, on the 20th of January, 1838, had been unani- mously expelled " as a traitor" from the Commons' House of Assembly ; Who, on the 21st of December, 1837, had been de- nounced bv the American Ministcr-at-\Var, in a commu- nication laid 1)cfore Congress as " one of the leaders of the insurrection in Upper Canada;" Who, in a despatch, dated 2Gth January, 1838, and laid before both Houses of the Imperial Parliament, from Lieutenant-Governor Sir Francis Head, had been de- scribed " as the most crafty, the most bloodthirsty, the most treacherous, the most cowardly, and, taking his character altogether, the most infamous of the traitors who lately assailed us;" Who, in a despatch, dated 17th of April, 183U, from Lieutenant-Governor Sir George Arthur, had been de- scribed as "a leader of the late rebellion;" Who, in the printed journals of the Canadian Legisla- ture, had been publicly designated by Mr. M'Kenzie " as a despicable and deceitful coward, that had instigated him to the rebellion, and then, like a coward, had de- serted him, and sneaked oft' to the United States ;" — This Dr. llolph (under the new system li-amed by the li A 250 HKITISH POLICY. l-ji Imperial Parliament, from Tiord Durliain's Report) was, in the Queen's '(Jazette,' headed by Her Royal Arms, selected and appointed — 1. President of the (Canadian lioard of Agriculture, with a salary of CHOO a year. 2. Head of the Medical Roard of Canada. 3. Her Majesty's Commissioner of Oovvn Lands, and of ('lcr};y Reserves in Canada. 4. President of the Privy or Executive Council of Ca- nada (by whoso advice the Governor-General is constitu- tionally obliged to act). Lastly. By a Royal * Gazette ' E.vtraorilinary, which conferred upon Dr. llolph the title of" IIonourahle," ho was authorized for the remainder of his lil'e to take pre- cedence in society of almost every loyal British subject in the Canad.as ! In the Mother Country, besides receiving a pension and a lucrative appointment, Mr. Stephen was created one of her Majesty's Privy Councillors, also a Knight Comnuxnder of the Most Ilonoural)lc Order of the Bath. Mr., Lafontaine, who on being charged by Governor- General Sir John Colborne with treason had absconded from Lower Canada, was made a Baronet. The Cana- dian Loyalists were treated with marked neglect; and thus ends, fur the present, what the English historian, " With a smile on his lips, and a tear in his eye," will, no doubt, in due time, briefly designate A STRANGE STORY. port) was, yjil Arma, p'iculturc, 257 i.aiuls, niul THE TRINTEirS DEVIL. icil of Ca- i coimtitu- inj, wliicli i.vHLE," he take prc- sh subject a pension as created a Knight the Bath. Governor- absconded The Cana- ;lect ; and istorian, "And noo, ma freends," — some fifty years ago, said an old Ilighhmd preacher, suddenly lowering a voice which for nearly an hour had been giving fervid utterance to a series of supplications for the welfare, temporal as well as spiritual, of his Hock, — "And nuo, 7na freends" — the good man repeated, as, willing his bedewed brow, he looked down upon a congregation who, with outstretched chins, sat listening in respectful astonishment to this new proof that their pastor's subject, unlike his body, was still unexhausted; "And noo, ma free n da" — he once more exclaimed, with a look of parental benevolence it would be utterly impossible to describe — "Let us pruiyh for the puir Deil ! There's nakhody praighs for the pair JJeil!" To our literary congr< .';;iiiou, we beg leave to repeat very nearly the same two exclamatio'v for, deeply as we all stand indebted to the British j'.css, it may truly be said " There's nacbody thinks of its puir deils," nor of the many kiiulred spirits, " black, white, and grey," who, above ground as well as below, iuhabit the great printing- i-yix^tt^ Ml. 258 Tin; PHINTKUS DKVIL. houses of the land wc live in. \Vc slmll, therefore, at ouec proeeed to one of these estublishnients, and by our sovereign power sunrnon its motley inmates heft)re us, that they may rapidly glide before our readers in review. In a raw December morning, just before the gas-lights are extinguislu'd, and just before simrisc, the str(>ets of London form a twilight pieture which it is interesting to contemplate, inasmuch as there exists perhaps no moment in the twenty-four hours in which they present a more guiltless aspect ; for at this hour luxury has retired to such rest as belongs to it — vice has not yet risen. Al- though the row s of houses are still in shade, and although their stacks of chinmeys appear fantastically delineated upon the grey sky, yet the picture, chiuru-oscuro, is not altogether without its lights. Tlie wet streets, in what- ever direction they radiate, shine almost as l)rightly as the gilt printing over the barred shops. At the corners of the streets, the gin-palaces, as they are passed, ajjpear splendidly illuminated with gas, showing an elevated row of lettered and numbered yellow casks, which in daylight stand on their ends unnoticed. The liishionablc streets are all completely deserted, save by a solitary policeman, who, distinguished l)y his warm great-coat and shining belt, is seen standing at a crossing, drinking the cup of hot saloop or cottee he has just purchased of an old banow-woman, who, with her smoking kettle, is quietly seated at his side, while the cab and hackney-coach horses, with their heads droojiing, appear as motionless as the brass charger at Charing-Cross. An Irish labourer with an empty hod over his shoulder, MESSllS. CLOWKs's PIIINTINO ESTAHLISU.MENT. 251) Lii'cforo, at 11(1 by our bijloru lis, in review. gas-lights stirets of cresting to lo inomcut at a more i retired to risen. Al- 1(1 ul though (lelincateil euro, is not l», in what- l)rightly as the corners ssed, appear elevated row in daylight lable streets f policeman, and shining ; the cup of [1 of an old le, is (iiiictly .ckney-coach s motionless bis shoulder, a man carrying a saw, a tradesman with his white apron tucked up ibr walking, a few men, " few and I'ar be- tween," in fustian jackets, witli their hands in their pockets to keep thcni warm, arc the only percej)tii)lc atoms of an enormous mass of a millicni and a half of people ; t.'l the rest being as ('(nupletely buried from view us if they >\ jre lying in their graves. liut as our vehicle proceeds, every minute imparts life to the scene, until, by the time Blaekfriars Bridge is cros8(!d, the light of day illumines the figures of hundreds of workmen who, unconnected with each other, arc, iu various directions, steadily proceeding to their tasks. Among them, from their dress, gait, and general appearance, is it not ditlieult here and there to distin- guish that several arc printers ; and as wc have now reached the gate of one of the principal buildings to which they arc marching, we must alight from our "cab," that wc may, by a slight sketch, delineate its interior for our readers. The printing-establishment of ^Messrs. Clowes, on the Surrey side of the Thames (lor they have a branch-otfice at Charing-Cross), is situated between Blaekfriars and AVaterloo Bridges. Their buildings extend, iu length, from Princcs-strcet to Duke-street, and iu breadth about hulf the distance. The entrance is by rather a steep declivity into a little low court, on arriving at which, the counting-houses arc close on the left ; the great steam- presses, type and stereotype-foundry, and paper- ware- house, ou the right; and the apartments for compositors, readers, etc., iii front. \ I I'll! ■ ! ««fwl 200 THE printer's DEVIL. 1 ■ J In the last-mciitioiicd Iniikling there are five composi- tors' halls, the largest of which (on two levels, the upper being termed by the workmen "the quarter deck") is two hundred feet in length. The door is nearly in the centre, and, on entering this apartment at daybreak, the stranger sees at a covp tVml before him, on his right and left, sixty compositors' frames, which, though much larger, are about the height of the music-stands in an orchestra. At this early hour they are all deserted, their daily tenants not having arrived. Not a sound is to be heard save the slow ticking of a gaudy-faced wooden clock, the property of tlio workmen, which faithfully tells when they ai^. entitled to refreshment, and which finally announces to them the joyful intelligence that the hour of their emancipation has arrived. On the long wall opposite to the range of windows hang the printed re- gulations of a subscription fund, to which every man contril)utes 2d., and every boy \(l. per week, explaining how mucli each i;^ entitled to receive in the sad hour of sickness, with the consoling intelligence that £5 is al- lowed to bury him if he be a man, Q'i, lO.v. if merely a boy. Along the whole length of the building, about a foot above the floor, there is a cast-iron pipe heated by steam, extending through the establishment upwards of three-quarters of a mile, the genial efl'ect of which mo- destly sjjcaks for itself. On the right hand, toucliing each frame, stands a small low table, about two feet square. A hasty traveller would probably pronounce that all these frames were alike, yet a few minutes' attentive observation not only dispels the m ! composi- tlie upper deck") is irly in the break, the his right ugh much uds in an rted, their id is to be ;d wooden if ally tells ich finally t the hour long wall jirintcd rc- 3vory man explaining ad hour of ,£5 is al- f merely a ig, about a heated by upwards of which mo- nds a small ellcr would B alike, yet dispels the MESSRS. CLOWES's PRINTING ESTABLISHMENT. 261 error, but by numerous decipherable hieroglyphics ex- plains to a certain extent the general occupation of the owners, as well as the particular character of each. For instance, tlic height of the frames at once declares that the compositors must perforin their work standing, while the pair of easy slippers, which are underneath each stand, suggest that the occupation must be severely felt by the feet. The working jacket or apron, which lies ex- actly as it was cast aside the evening before, shows that freedom in the arms is a requisite to the crait. The good workman is known by the regularity with which his co/hj hangs neatly folded in the little wooden recess at his side; the slovenly compositor is detected by having left his !MS. on his type, liable to be blown from the case; while the apprentice, like " the carpenter, known Ijy his chips," is discovered by the quantity of type which lies scattered on the floor on which he stood. The relative stature of the workmen can also be not inaccurately determined by the different hciglits of their frames. Tlie roomy stools which some have purchased (and which are their private property, for l)e it known that the estalilishment neither furnishes nor approves of such luxuries) are not without their silc.it moral ; those with a large circumference, as well as those of a much smaller size, denoting the diameter of a certain ireum- bent body, while the stuffed stool tells its own tale. The pictures, the songs, the tracts, the caricatures, which each man, according to his fancy, has pasted against the snuill compartment of whitewashed wall^vliich bounds his tiny dominions, indicate the colour of his leading propensity. ?i| 13 L 1 ! \ ' Jl[ ] * mw' i 1 1 iJ. .; ,! ■ ,: ^^ ' 1 1 i. Ti 1- ) i ..©Pi 263 THE printer's DEVIL. St I Wi r. One man is evidently the possessor of a serious mind, another is a follower of the fine arts. A picture of the Duke of Wellington denotes that another is an admirer of stern moral prohity and high military honour ; while a rosy-faced Hebe, in a very low evening-gown, laugh- ingly confesses for its owner that which we need not trouble ourselves to expound. Iii the midst of these studies the attention of the solitary stranger is aroused by the appearance of two or three little boys dressed in fustian jackets and paper caps, who in the grey of the morning enter the hall vith a broom and water. These are yoixng aspiring devils, who, until they have regidarly received their commissions, are employed in cleaning the halls previous to the arrival of the compositors. Besides ventilating the room by opening the windows in the roof, beginning at one extremity, they sweep under each frame, watci'ing the floor as they proceed, until they at last col- lect at the opposite end of the hall a heap of literary rub- bish J but even this is worthy of attention, for, on being sifted through an iron sieve, it is invariably found to con- tain a quantity of type of all sizes, which more or less has been scattered right and left by the diftbrent com- positors. To attempt to restore these to the respective families from Avhich they have emigrated would be a work of consideraljle trouble ; thov are therefore thrown into a dark receptacle or grave, where they patiently re- main luitil they are remelted, recast into type, and thus once again appear in the case of the compositor. By this curious transmigration Boman letters sometimes re- appear on earth in the character of Italics ; the l.-izy ^ MESSRS. CLOWES'S PRINTING ESTAliLISIIMENT. 2G3 vm ions mind, turc of the in admirer 3ur; while \vn, langh- ! need not it of these is aroused dressed in ^rey of the ;er. These e regularlv leaning the 3. Besides in the roof, eaeh frame, at last col- itcrary rub- >r, on hcing and to con- lore or less ferent com- e respective ■• would be a •fore thrown latiently re- le, and thus )ositor. By »metimes re- ; the hizy z finds itself converted into the iibiquitous e ; the full stop becomes perhaps a comma ; while the hunchbacked mark of interrogation stands triumphantly erect, a note of admiraticm to the world ! By the time the halls are swept some of the composi- tors drop in. The steadiest generally make their ajj- pearance first; and on reaching their frames their first operation is leisurely to takt^ off and fold up their coats, tuck up their shirt-sleeves, put on their brown l.oUand aprons, exchange their heavy Malklng-shoes for the light brown easy slippers, and then u)ifolding their copy they at once proceed to work. By eight o'clock the whole body have arrived. IMany in their costume resemble common labourers, others are better clad, several are very well dressed, but all bear in their countenances the appearance of men of considerable intelligence and education. They have scarcely assumed their respective stntions, when blue mugs, containing each a pint or ball -pint of tea or coflfce, and attended cither l)y a smoking- hot roll stuffed with yellow butter, or by a couple of slices of bread and butter, enter the hall. The lit 'r girls, who with well-conibcd hair an»i clean shining faces bring these refreshments, carry them to those who have not breakf:ipted at iic)UM\ Before the (Mupty mugs have vrniished, a bey enters the hall at a fast walk with a largo bundle under his arm — of morning news- papers : this intellectual luxury the compositors, by a friendly subscription, allow themselves to enjoy. From their connection with the diftbrcnt presses, they manage to obtain the very (earliest copies ; and thus the news of t i ! 264 THE PRINTERS DEVIL. >!,• the day is known to them — tlie leadings artichis of the fliffereut papers are criticized, apphuided or condcrr\ned — an hour or two hefore the great statt^snien of the country have received the ohservations, the castigation, or the intclHgence they contain. One would think tliat com- positors woukl be as sick of reading as a grocer's boy is of treacle; but that this is not the case is proved by tlie fact that they not only willingly pay for these newspapers, but often indemnify one of their own community for giving up his time in order to sit in the middle of the hall on a high stool and read the news aloud to them Avhile they are labouring at their work ; they will, more- over, even pay him to read to them any new book wluch they consider to contain interesting information. It of course icquires very great command of the n\ind to be able to give attention to what is I'cad from one book, while men arc intently em[)loyed in the creation of an- other. The apprentices and inferior Avorkmen cannot attempt to do this, luit the greater niunber, astonishing as it ir ly sound, can listen withoiit injury to their avo- cation. Very shortly after eight o'clock the whole body are at their work, at which it may be observed they pa- tiently continue, with only an liour's interval, until eiglit o'clock at night. It is impossi])le to contemplate a team of sixty literary labourers, steadiU working together in one room, without immediately acknowledging the important sen'ice they arc rendering to the civilized Morld, and the respect which, therefore, is due to them from society. The mi- nutia; of their art it might be deemed tedious to detail ; CiXVBACTERISTlCe. OF THE WORKMEN. 2g: ;.-• cl'is of the (Ion 'lied — !ic country ion, or the that com- ;cr's boy is )ved by the lewspapers, nuinity for (hlle of the lid to them will, more- book wliieh don. It of mind to he 1 one book, atiou of an- meu cannot astonishing their avo- wholc body ed they pa- [, until eight dxty literary lom, without sen' ice they the respect y. The mi us to detail ; yet ■with so many operators in view it is not difficult, even for an inexperienced \isitor, to distinguish the dift'e- rent degrees of perfection at which they have individually arrived. Among compositors, as in all other professions, the race is not always gained by him who is apparently the swiftest. Stcpdiness, coolness, and attention arc more valuable qualifications than eagerness and haste; and, jieeordingly, those compositors who at first sight appear to be doing the most, arc often, after all, less service- able to theras(!lves, and consequently to their employers, than those who, with less display, follow the old adage of " slow and sure." On the attitude of a compositor his work principally depends. The operation being performed by the eyes, fingers, and arms, which, with considerable velocity, are moved in almost every direction, the rest of the body should be kept as tranquil as possible. However zealous, therefore, a workman may be, if his shouldei's and hips are seen to be moved by every little letter he lifts, fatigue, exhaustion, and errors are the result ; whereas, if the arms alone appear in motion, the work is more easily, and consequently more successfully, executed. Tlie principle of Hamlet's advice to the players may be offered to compositors : — " Speak the speech, I pray yon, as I i)ronom)ced it to you. Do not saw the air too mucli with your hand, thus, but use all gently. Be not too tame neitlier, but let yoin- own discretion bo your tutor : suit the action to the icord, the uord to the action." ^m VOL. I, N !i i 266 THE PRINTER S DEVIL. Before a compositor can proceed with his copy, his first business must evidently be to fill his " cases," which contain al)out a hundred pounds weight of type of nine sorts, viz. — 1. capitals; 2. small capitals; 3. Roman letters (for Italics separate cases are used) ; 4. figures ; 5. ■•uiuts and refenmces; 6. spaces; 7. em and en quadrats, or the larger spaces; 8. double, treble, and quadruple qTiadrats ; 9. accents. There are two " cases ;" the upper of a\ Inch is divided into ninety-eight equal com- partments ; the lower into fifty-three divisions, adapted in !4ize to tlie number of letters they are to contain. In the Englii^h language the letter e inhabits the largest box ; «, c, d, h, i, m, n, o, r, s, t, u, live in the next-sized apartments ; b, f, y, k, 1, p, v, w, y, dwell in what may be termed the bedrooms, while/, q, x, z, ce, and w, double letters, etc., are more liumbly lodged in the cupl)oards, garrets, and cellars. And the reason of this arrange- ment is, that the letter e being visited by the compositor sixty times as often as ~ (for his hand spends an hour in the former box for every minute in the latter) it is evi- dently advisable that the letters oftencst required should be the nearest. Latin and French books devour more of c, i, I, m, p, q, s, u, and v, than English ones, and for these languages the "cases" must be arranged accord- ingly. The usual m ay of filling cases with letters is by distri- buting the typc-]tages of books which have been printed ofl". Although the ideas or words of one author would not, especially in his own opinion, at all suit those of his brother writer (for instance, supj)ose the type-pages of opy, his /' which I of iiiuc . llomau , figures; and en cblc, and " cases ;" qual coni- (, adapted itain. ;hc largest next-sized what may [ (p, double cuplioards, s arrange- ompositor an lu)ur in f) it is cvi- ircd shoidd )ur more of cs, and for red accord- is by distri- lecn printed Lithor woidd those of his rpe-pages of DlSTRinUTION. COMPOSITION. 2G7 ' The Diary of the Times of George TV.' wore distributed to set up the 'The Bishop of Exeter's Charge to his Clergy') — yet the letters which compose them arc found in practice to bear to each other exactly the same pro- portion. The most profligate pages arc, therefore, quite as acceptable to the compositor who is about to print a sermon, as a volume on cookeiy, or even on divinity ; and thus, in death, books, like their authors, are all de- mocratically equal. The distributing of the letters from the type-pages, into the square dens to which they respectively belong, is performed with astonishing celerity. If the type were jumbled, or, as it is technically termed, " in pie," the time I'cquisite for recognizing the tiny coimtenance of each letter would be enormous ; but the compositor, being enabled to grasp and read one or two sentences at a time, without again looking at the letters, drops them one by one, here, there, and everywhere, according to their destination. It is calculated that a good composi- tor can distribute 4000 letters per hour, AAhich is about five times as many as he can compose; just as in common life all men can spend m(mey at least twenty times as readily as they can earn it. As soon as the workman has filled his eases, his next Sisyphus labour is by composition to exhaust them, ^jlancing occasionally at his copy before him, he con- secutively picks up, with a zigzag movement, and Avith almost the velocity of lightning, the letters he requires. In arranging these types in the " stick," or little frame, which he holds in- his left hand, he must of course place N 2 '^! i SI U ^: IM I 1:1 268 THE printer's DKVIL. them Avith their heads or letter-ciuls uppermost : hcsitles whieh tljcj' must, like sohliers, he made all to mareli the same way j for otherwise oue letter in the pajjje would he "eyes ri<;ht," one "eyes left," another "eyes front," while another would he looking to the rear. This insubordi- nation would produee, not only eonfusion, hut positive errors, for p would pass for d, n for u, y for h, etc. To avoid this, the types are all purposely east with a "niek" on one of their sides, by whvh simple arrangement they arc easily recognized, and made to fall into their places the right way; and compositors as regidarly place the nicks of their type all outermost, as ladies and gentlemen scientifically seat themselves at dinner^ with their nicks (wc mean their mouths) all facing the dishes. In short, a guest sitting with his hack to his plate is not, in the opinion of a comi)ositor, a greater breach of decorum, than for a letter to face the wrong way. The composing- stick contains the same sort of relative proportion to a page as a paragraph. It holds a certain measure of type, and, as soon as it is filled, the paragraph, or fragment of paragraph, it contains, is transplanted into the page to which it belongs. This process is repeated until the pages composing a sheet, being completed, are firmly fixed by wooden quoins or wedges into an iron frame called a "chase," which then assumes the name of a " form ;" and after having thus been properly prepared for the pi'oof-prcss, a single copy is " pulled off"," and the business of correction then begins. As the conijjositor receives nothing for curing his own mistakes, they form the self-correcting punishment of hesiclca himih tho would be it," while \su1)oV(li- t positive etc. To a " nick" incut they iciv places place the fontlcmen heir nicks lu short, not, in the f decorum, coniposing- lortion to a lire of type, or fragment to the page ed until the , are firmly iron frame name of a rly prepared 3ft;" and the ring his own nishment of DISTRIBITION. — COMPOSITION. 3G9 liis oflence. The operation is the most disagreeable, and, by jjressure on the chest incurred in leaning over the form, it is also the most unhealthy part of liis occupation. " A sharp bodkin and i)atience " arc said by the craft to be the only two illstrumcnt^ which arc recpiired for cor- rection. By the former a single h.'tter can lie abstracted and exchanged ; by the latter, if a word has been im- properly omitted or repeated, tlic type in the neighbour- liood of the error can be expanded or contracted (tech- nically termed "(b'ivcu out" or "got in"), until the adjustment be efl'ected. But the compositor's own errors are scarcely put to rights before a much greater dilHeulty arrives, namely, the unt/wr's corrections, for which the compositors arc very properly paid dd. an hour. It can easily be believed that it id as difficult for a compositor to produce a eori'ect copy of his ^IS., as it is for a tailor to make clothes to fit tlie person he has measured ; but the simile must stop here, for what would be the exclamations of Mr. Stultz, or Madame Maradan Carson, if they were to be informed that the gentleman or the lady whom they had but a few days ago measured, had, while their clothes were a-making, completely altered in shai)e, form, and dimensions V — that, for instance, the gentleman had lost his calves — had "an increasing belly, and a decreasing leg" — that from being a dwarf, he had swelled into a giant — or that his arms had become shorter — and that his frame had shrivelled into half its bulk ; — that, again, ^Miladi's waist had suddenly expanded — that her " bustle '' had mate- rially increased, while her lo\ely daughter, who, but a %\ 270 THE PHINTEll S UEVL. .; ,' h I week ago, was measui'cd as a mop-stick, had all at onco what is usually termed " come out." , Now, ridiculous as all these eliangrs may soumi, they arc — to say nothing of the hoart-uehe caused hy " had copy," in which, hesides heing almost illcgihlc, the author himself evidently does not know what he means to say — no more than those with which coinpositors are constantly afliicted. Few men can dare to print their sentiments as they write them. Not only must the framework of their composition he altered, hut a series of miimte poisl humous additions aiul suhtnietions arc ordered, which it is almost impossihle to cflect ; indeed, it not mifrcquently happtins that it would be a shorter operation for the compositor to set up the types afresh, than to disturb his work piecemeal, by the quantity of codicils and alteration^ Avhich a vain, vacillating, crotchety writer has required. A glance at the dift'erent attitudes of t!ic sixty com- positors V )rking before us is sufficient to explain, even to a stranger whether they are composing, distributing, cor- recting, or imposing ; which latter occupation is the fix- ing corrected pages into the iron frames, or " forms," in which they eventually go to Press. But our reader has probably remained long enough in the long hall, and we will therefore introduce him to the very small cells of the Readers. In a printing establishment "the reader" is almost the only individual whose occupation is sedentary ; in- deed the galley-slave can scarcely be more closely bound to his oar than is a reader to his stool. On entering his THE READER. 271 all at once • oimd, tlicy a by " bad igiblc, the '. he means lositors are print their must tlie ivit a series let ions are :;t ; indeed, i a shorter pes afresh, le quantity vacillating, sixty com- iiin, even to )nting, cor- i is the fix- ' forms," in reader has all, and we all cells of '' is almost sntary ; in- )sely bound utering his cell, his very attitude is a striking and most gra])hic picture of earnest attention. It is evident, from his outline, that the whole power of his mind is concen- trated ii! focus upon the page before him ; and as ^i rnidi 'amps of the mail, which illuMiinate a s-u.;] portio' ii 1, seem to increase the pitchy darkness which _, Jier direction prevails, so does the un- divided attention of a reader to his sidyeet evidently abstract his thoughts from all other considerations. An urchin stands by, reading to tlie render from the copy — furnishing liim, in fact, with an aditional pair of eyes ; and the short(!st way to attract his immediate notice is to stop his boy : for no sooner docs the stream of the child's voi(;e cease to flow than the machinery of the man's mind ceases to work ; — something lias evidently gone wrong ! he accordingly at once raises his weary licad, and a slight sigh, Avith one passage of the hand across his brow, is generally sufficient to enable him to receive the intnuler with mildness and attention. Although i\w general interests of literature, as well as the character of the art of printing, depend on the grammatical accuracy and typographical correctness of " tl>e reader," j'ct from the eold-heartod public he re- ceives punishment, but no reward. The slightest over- sight is declared to be an error; while, on the other hand, if by his unremitted application no fault can be detected, he has nothiiig to expect from mankind but to escape and live uncensured. Poor Goldsmith lurked a reader in Samuel Richardson's office for many a hungiy day in the early period of his life ! 5i! \l \ I IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I IA5I21 |2.5 |50 ■^" H^S 1^ |j4 ii- ^ y£ 112.0 12.2 M 1.25 1 1.4 1 1.6 ^ 6" ► V] vl / ^.^j '^^y '^j" V ^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRUT WEBSTER, N.Y. MSSO (716)872-4503 6^^ 272 THE PRINTER S DEVIL. It ; iV'li In a large printing establishment, the real interest of which is to increase the healthy appetite of the public by supplying it with wholesome food of the best possible de- scription, it is found to be absolutely necessary that " the readers" should be competent to correct, not only the press, but the author. It is requisite not only that they should possess a microscopic eye, capable of detecting the minutest errors, but be also enlightened judges of the purity of their own language. The general style of the author cannot, of course, be interfered with; but tiresome repetitions, incorrect assertions, intoxicated hy- perbole, faults in grammar, and above all, in punctuation, it is the reader's special duty to point out. It is, there- fore, evidently necessary that he be complete master of his own tongue. It is also almost necessary that he should have been brought up a compositor, in order that he may be acquainted with the mechanical department of that business ; and we need hardly observe that, from the intelligent body of men whose presence we have just left, it is not impossible to select individuals competent to fulfil the important office of readers. But even to these persons, however carefully selected, it is not deemed safe solely to entrust the supervision of a work : out of them one is generally selected, upon whom the higher duty devolves of scrutinizing their labours, and of finally writing upon their revises the irrevocable monosyllable, " Press." We have already observed that while " the reader" is seated in his cell, there stands beside him a small in- telligent boy, who is, in fact, the reader ; that is to say. THE READER. 273 nterest of public by >ssible de- that "the only the that they detecting judges of il style of yith; but Lcated hy- uctuation, ; is, there- master of y that he order that epartment that, from have just competent Y selected, grvision of ited, upon zing their revises the reader" is small in- is to say. he reads aloud from the copy, while the man pores upon and corrects the corresponding print. This child — for such he is in comparison with the age of the master he serves — cannot be expected to take any more interest in the heterogeneous mass of literature he emits, than the little marble Cupids in Italy can be supposed to relish the water which is made everlastingly to stream from their mouths. The subject these boys are spouting is generally altogether beyond their comprehension ; and even if it were not so, the pauses that ensue while " the reader" is involved in reflection and correction would be quite sufficient to break its thread : ])ut it often happens that they read that which is altogether incomprehensible to them. Accordingly in one cell we found the boy reading aloud to his patron a work in the French lan- guage, which he had never learned, and which therefore he was thus most ludicrously pronouncing exictly as if it were English. "Less ducks knee sonte pass," etc. etc. (i. e. Les dues ne sont pas, etc.) To " the reader's" literary ears this must have been almost as painful as, to common nerves, the setting of a saw : yet he patiently listened, and laboriously proceeded with his task. On entering another cell, a boy, who apparently had never known sickness, was monotonously reading, with a shrill plaintive voice, from a page entitled " Tabular Abstract of the Causes of Death," the following most melancholy catalogue, of the dismal roads by which eleven hundred and four of our fellow-countrymen had just departed from life : — 5 «i:fi i •nU:^ IIP :-4 N 3 274 THE PRINTER'S DEVIL. I|!|:il * ) Cholera. Erysipelas. DeluTium Tremens Teething. Influenza. Syphilis. Laryngitis. Gastro-Enteritis, Smallpox. Hydrophobia. Quinsey, Peritonitis. Measles. CephaUtis. Bronchitis. Tabes Mesenterica, Scarlatina. Hydrocephalus Pleurisy. Ascites. Hooping-cough. Apoplexy. Pneumonia, Ulceration. Croup. Paralysis. Hydrothorax. Hernia. Thrush. Convulsions. Asthma. Colic. Diarrhoea. Tetanus. Consumption. Constipation. Dysentery. Chorea. Decline, Worms. Ague, Epilepsy, Pericarditis. Hepatitis. Typhus. Insanity. Aneurism. Jaundice. As soon as the last " reader " has affixed his impri- matur on the labours of the compositor, the forms con- taining the type are securely fixed, and they are then carried to the Press-room, to which, with them, we will now proceed. Descending from the " readers' " cells to the ground- floor, the visitor, on approaching the northern wing of Mr. Clowes's establishment, hears a deep rumbling sound, the meanj^ f which he is at a loss to understand, until the doers I'e him being opened, he is suddenly intro- duced to t'venty-five enormous steam-presses, which, in three compartments, are all working at the same time, rhe simultaneous revolution of so much complicated machinery, crowded together in comparatively a small compass, coupled with a moment's leflection upon the important purpose for which it is in motion, is astound- ing to the mind ; and as broad leather straps are rapidly revolving in all directions, the stranger pauses for a moment to consider whether or not he may not get en- tangled in the process, and, against his inclination, as authors generally say in their prefaces, go "to press.'* STEAM-PRESSES. 275 ing. j-Enteritis. initis. Mesonterica. ;s. ation. ia. ipation. ns. titis. dice. his impri- orms con- y are then m, we will le ground- u wiug of ing sound, tand, until enly intro- , which, in lame time. Qmplicated ly a small upon the s astound- are rapidly uses for a ot get en- iuation, as ) press." We will not weary our reader by attempting a minute delineation of the Monderful picture before him, or even introduce to his notice the intelligent engineer, who, in a building apart from the machinery, is in solitude regu- lating the clean, well-kept, noiseless steam-engine which gives it motion; we will merely describe the literary process. The lower part of each of the twenty-five steam-presses we have mentioned consists of a bed or table, near the two ends of which lie prostrate the two sets of " forms " containing the types we have just seen adjusted, and from Avhich impressions are to be taken. By the power of machinery these types, at every throb of the engine, are made horizontally to advance and re- tire. At every such movement, they are met halfway by seven advancing black rollers, which diagonally pass over them, and thus, by a most beautiful process, impart to them ink sufficient only for a single impression. As quickly as the types recede, the seven rollers revolve backwards till they come in contact with another large roller of kindred complexion, termed the " doctor," which supplies them with ink, which he, the " doctor," himself receives from a dense mass of ink, which, by the con- stant revolution of yEsculapius, assumes also the appear- ance of a roller. When iron first began to be substituted in our Navy for purposes for which it had hitherto been deemed to be totally inapplicable, it is said that an honest sailor, gravely turning his quid, observed to his comrade, " fVhy, Jack, our purser tells me that the Admiralty are going I V ^ 276 THE PRINTER S DEVIL. »'! » 'it to provide us with cast-iron parsons !" The " doctor " of a steam printing-press is already composed of this useful material, but the other seven rollers are of an in- finitely softer substance. They are formed of a mixture of treacle and glue ; and in colour, softness, and consis- tency they are said, by those who have studied such sub- jects, exactly to resemble the arm of a young Negro girl. Above the table, the forms, and the rollers we have described, are, besides other wheels, two very large re- volving cylinders, covered with flannel ; the whole ap- paratus being surmounted by a boy, who has on a lofty table by his side a pile of quires of white paper. Every time the lower bed has moved, this boy places on the upper cylinder a sheet of paper, which is in- geniously confined to its station by being slipped under two strings of tape. It is however no sooner affixed there, than, by a turn of the engine, revolving with the cylinder, it is flatly deposited on the first of the " forms," which, by the process we have described, has been ready inked to receive it j it is there instantaneously pressed, is then caught up by the other cylinder, and, after rapidly revolving with it, it is again left with its white side imposed upon the second ''form," where it is again subjected to pressure, from which it is no sooner released than it is hurried within the grasp of another boy at the bottom part of the machinery, who, illumined by a gaslight, extricates it from the cylinder, and piles it on a heap by his side. By virtue of this beautiful process, a sheet of paper, by two revolutions of the engine, with the assistance doctor " of this jf an in- mixture d consis- mcli sub- egro girl. we have large re- vhole ap- >n a lofty )oy places Lch is in- )ed under er affixed J with the "forms," leen ready y pressed, and, after its white it is again 3r released ler boy at lined by a piles it on ; of paper, assistance HAND-PRESSES. 277 only of two boys, is imprinted on both sides, with not only, say sixteen pages of letter-press, but with the vari- ous wood-cuts which they contain. Excepting an hour's intermission, the engines, like the boys, are at regular work from eight a.m. till eight p.m., besides night-work when it is required. Each steam-press is capable of printing 1000 sheets an hour. The apartments to the left of the machinery we have described contain no less than twenty-three common or hand-presses of various constructions ; besides which, in each of the compositors' rooms there is what is termed a proof-press. Each of these twenty-three presses is attended by two pressmen, one of whom inks the form, by means of a roller, whilst the other lays and takes off the paper very nearly as fast as he can change it, and by a strong gymnastic exertion, affording a striking feature of variety of attitude, imparts to it a pressure of from a ton to a ton and a half, the pressure depending upon the size and lightness of the form ; this operation being performed by the two men turn and turn about. By his steam and hand-presses Mr. Clowes is enabled at this moment to be printing simultaneously. Brown's folio Bible, Vyse's * Spelling Book,' * First Rcj)ort of St. Martin's Subscription Library,' ' Eeligious Tracts,' * Penny Cyclopaedia,' * Penny Magazine,' * The Harmo- nist' (in musical type), 'The Imperial Calendar,' Book- sellers' Catalogues, ' Registration Reports,' ' The Chris- tian Spectator,' 'Pictorial Shakspere,' Henry's folio Bible, Butler's ' Lives of the Saints,' * Registration of Births and Deaths/ Boothroyd's Bible, 'Life and Ad- ' I 3 ' f j ?! I n '! A ''^ u \lf> I;, 278 THE PRINTER 8 DEVIL. V ventures of Michael Armstrong/ * Palestine, or the Holy Land/ ' The Way to be Healthy, Wealthy, and Wise' (300,000 copies, of which 20,000 are delivered per day), ' The Quarterly Review,' etc. Notwithstanding the noise and novelty of this scene, it is impossible either to contemplate for a moment the machinery in motion we have descnoed, or to calcu- late its produce, without being deeply impressed with the inestimable value to the human race of the Art of Printing, — an art which, in spite of the opposition it first met with, in spite of the " envious clouds whicli seemed bent to dim its glory and check its bright course," has triumphantly risen above the miasmatical ignorance and superstition which would willingly have smothered it. In the fifteenth century (the era of the invention of the Art) the brief-men, or writers, who lived by their manuscripts, seeing that their occupation was about to be superseded, boldly attributed the invention to the Devil, and, building on this foundation, men were warned from using diabolical books " written by victims devoted to hell." The monks in particular were its inveterate opposers ; and the Vicar of Croydon, as if he had fore- seen the Reformation which it subsequently effected, tridy enough exclaimed, in a sermon preached by him at St. Paul's Cross, " JVe must root out printing, or printing will root us out!" Nevertheless the men of the old school were soon compelled to adopt the novelty thus hateful : in fact, many of the present names of our type have been derived from their having been first J*. THE DINNER-HOUR. 279 the Holy nd Wise' per day), his scene, oraeiit the to calcu- jssed Avith he Art of position it uds which it course," ignorance smothered ivcntion of d by their IS about to ion to the ere warned tns devoted inveterate e had fore- [y effected, led by him mnting, or he men of the novelty mes of our been first employed in the printing of Romish prayers; for in- stance, " Pica," from the service of the Mass, termed Pica or Pie, from the glaring contrast between the black and white on its page ; " Primer," from Primarius, the book of Prayers to the Virgin ; " Brevier," from the Breviary ; " Canon," from the Canons of the Church ; "St. Augustin," from that Father's writings having been first printed in that sized type, etc. etc. How reluctantly however the old prejudice was parted with, even by the classes most interested in the ad- vancement of the new device, may be inferred from Shakspere's transcript of the chronicle in which Jack Cade, the Radical spouter of his day, is made to exclaim against Lord Say, " Thou hast most traitorously cor- rupted the youth of the realm in erecting a grammar- school ; and whereas before our forefathers had no other books but the score and tally, thou hast caused Printing to be iised ; and, contrary to the King, his crown and dignity, thou hast l/uilt a paper-mill !" But we must pause in omv quotations, for the wooden clocks in the compositors* 1 jj.Is have just struck "one," the signal throughout the whole establishment (which, we may observe, contains 340 workmen) that the welcome hour for rest and refreshment has arrived. The extended arm of the distributor falls as by paralysis to his side — the compositor as suddenly lays down his stick — the cor- rector his bodkin — the impositor abandons his quoins, reglet, gutters, scaleboard, chases, shooting-sticks, side- sticks, and his other " furniture" — the wearied " reader" slowly rises from his stool, his boy, like a young kid, h I;' 280 THE PRINTER 8 DEVIL. having already bounded from his side. Tlic wheels of the steam-presses abruptly cease to revolve — " the doe- tor" even beeomes motionless, — the boys descend from the literary pinnacles on which they had been stationed, — the hand-presses repose — and, almost before the paper- men, type-founders, and other workmen can manage to lay down their work, in both Duke-street and Stamford- street printers' boys of various colours are seen either scudding away in all directions, or assembled in knots to play at leapfrog, or at whatever other game may happen to be what is technically called " in." A fat, ruddy, faced boy, wearing a paper-cap, is seen vaulting over the back of a young, tight-made devil, while " a legion of foul fiends" appear gamlioUing in groups, or jumping over each other's shoulders.* While this scene is passing in the middle of the street, steady workmen who are going to their dinners are seen issuing in a stream out of the great gate, while at the same moment, by a sort of back cm'rcnt, there is enter- > !', • Whenever a printer's devil, in the morning, at noon, or at night, is about to be let loose upon an author, " the proofs" he is ordered to con- vey are secured in a leathern bug, strapped round liis waist. Some tune ago, however, a young, thoughtless imp, from Messrs. Clowes's estabhsh- ment, chose to carry upon his head a heavy packet, addressed by his employer to " Lieut. Stratford, R.N., Somerset House." " You young rascal!" exclaimed a tall thief, who, after having read the inscription cunningly, ran up to him, " Lieutenant Stratford has been waiting for the last two hours for this parcel. Give it to me ! " The devil, con- science-stricken and crest-fallen at the recollection that he had twice stopped on liis road to play at marbles, delivered up his packet to the conveyancer ; who, on opening it in his den, must have been grievously disappointed to find that it contained nothing but some proofs of " The Nautical Almanac for 1840." BIRTH AND PHOOllESS OF PRINTING. 281 wheels of "the (loc- cend from stationed, the paper- manage to Stamford- icen cither in knots to ay happen uddy- faced r the back ion of foul uping over the street, rs are seen lile at the fc is entcr- or at night, ia rdered to con- Somo time I's's cstablish- ressed by his You young lio inscription n waiting for 'he devil, con- he had twice packet to the cen grievously roofs of "The ing the yard a troop of little girls with provisions for those who prefer to dine at their posts. Most of these children are bearers of one or more sixpenny portions of smoking-hot meat, with penny portions of potatoes or cabl)nge, in addition to which some of the little girls, with their longing eyes especially fixed on the dish, arc carrying great twopenny lumps of apple-i)U(lding, or of lieavy pieces of a cylindrical composition, commonly called " roUy-poUy pudding," which very closely resem- bles slices of the " doctor." Besides these eatables, a man is seen gliding hastily down the declivity of the yard, carrying in each hand a vertical tray glistening with bright pewter pint-pots. A remarkable silence now pervades the establishment. The halls of the compositors appear to be empty j for while enjoying their humble meal, sick of standing, they invariably seat themselves underneath their frames, and thus, like rats in their holes, they can scarcely be disco- vered. The care-worn reader, in solitude, is also at his meal ; but whatever it may consist of, it woiUd be hard to say which he enjoys most — food for the body, or rest for the mind. The great steam-engine, which works the twenty-five printing-presses, is also at its dinner, which consists of a liberal allowance of good neat's-foot oil and tallow. As this scene of rest and enjoyment is to last for a whole hour, we perhaps cannot better employ a small portion of the interim than by a few reflections on the history of printing. The labour attendant upon propagating manuscript M Hi m I i », i I I' '' 1 !i If;? I t 'I I- 282 TIIK PRINTER S DEVIL. copies of volumes has been thus very feelingly described by William Caxton : — "Thus end I this huok ; niul for as moche ns in wrytynrj of the same my peiine is worn, myn hiinde wery, and myn eync dimmed with overmoche lookyng on the whit paper, and that ago crcpeth on me dayly ..." Accordingly fifty years were sometimes employed in pro- ducing a single volume. At the sale of Sir W. Burrell's books. May, 1796, there was displayed a MS. bible on vellum, beautifully written with a pen, and illuminated, which had taken upwards of half a century to perform ; the writer, Guido de Jars, began it in his fortieth year, the period of life at which Sir Walter Scott began 'Waverley'), and yet did not finish it till he was up- wards of ninety. The expense attendant upon the ancient operation will be sufficiently explained by the following extract of a translated epistle from Antonio Bononia Becatello to Alphouso, King of Naples : — "You lately wrote to me from Florence that the works of Titus Livius are there to be sold in very handsome books, and that the price of each book is 120 crowns of gold : therefore, I entreat your Majesty that you cause to be bought for us ' Livy,' whom we used to call the king of books, and cause it to be sent hither to us. I sliall in the meantime procure the money which I am to give for the price of the book. One thing I want to know of your prudence, whether I or Poggius have done best : he, who, that he might buy a country-house near Florence, sold Livy, which he had writ in a very fair hand ; or I, who, to purchase Livy, have exposed a piece of land to sale 1 Your goodness and modesty have en- y described in wrytyiif? ry, and myn it paper, niul )yed in pro- »V. Burrell's [S. bible on illuminated, to perform J ortieth year, Scott began he was up- peration will extract of a Becatello to lat the works dsome books, (vns of gold : to be bought of books, and be meantime B price of the ence, whether might buy a le had writ in lave exposed a lesty have en- BIRTII AND PROQRESS OP PHINTINO. 283 couragcd me to ask these things with famiHarity of you. Fare- well, and triumph!" Gaguin, in writing from France to a friend who had sent to him from Home to procure a Concordance, says,— " I have not to this day found a Concordance, except one that is greatly esteemed, whicli Paschasius the bookseller has told me is to be sold, and it may be had for a hundred crowns of gold" (about £83). On the last leaf of a folio manus 'lipt of the 'Roman de la Rose' (the property of the late Mr. Ames) there is written, — " Cest lyuir costa au palas de Parys quaraute coronncs dor, sans mentyr." About the time of Henry II. the works of authors were, it has been said, read over for three days succes- sively before one of the Universities, or before other judges appointed for the service, and, if they met with approbation, copies of them wore then permitted to be taken by monks, scribes, illuminators, and readers, brought up or trained to that purpose for their mainte- nance. But the labours of these monks, scribes, illumi- natoi's, etc., after all, were only for the benefit of a very few individuals, while the great bulk of the community lived in a state of ignorance closely resembling that which has ever characterized, aud which still chai'acter- izcs, savage tribes. The hcaven-bom eloquence of many of these tribes has been acknowledged by almost every traveller who 1 1 "fffii! M !V^ i Ir if ! I li !; 1- * 1 if ': . 1 i • i - 'V ' ill *af'-.,-..l ■mmriiii 284 THE PllINTER S DEVIL. I'i ;!' n ' U has enjoyed the opportunity of listening to it with a translator. Nothing, we may affirm, can be more striking than the framework of their speech, which, commencing with an appeal to "the Great Spirit" that governs the universe, gradually descends to the very foundation of the subject they are di -^ _olng. Nothing more beautiful than the imagery with which they clothe their ideas, or more im- posing than the intellectual coolness with which they ex- press them. From sunrise till sunset they cau address their patient auditors ; and, such is the confidence these simple people possess in their innate powers of speech, that a celebrated orator was, on a late occasion, heard to declare, " That had he conceived the young men of his tribe Avould have so erred in their decision, he would have attended their council fire, and would have spoken to them for a fortnight !" But what has become of all the orations which these denizens of the forest have pronounced ? What moral efl'ect have they produced, beyond a momentary excite- ment of admiration, participated only by a small party of listeners, and which, had even millions attended, could only, after all, have exteiided to the radius of the of the speaker's voice? From our first discovery of their country to the present day, their eloquence has passed away like the loud moaning noise which the wind makes in passing through the vast wilderness they inhabit, and which, however it may affect the traveller who chances to hear it, dies aAvay in the universe unrecorded. i it with a ng than the ng with an le universe, the suhject 111 than the jr more im- ich they ex- cau address idence these 's of speeeh, ou, heard to men of his n, he would have spoken whieh these What moral itarv excite- small party ns attended, radius of the o the present ke the loud sing through 1, however it hear it. dies BIRTH AND PROGRESS OF PRINTING. 285 Unable to read or write, the imcivilizcd oratoi of the present day has hardly any materials to build with but his own native talent; he has received nothing from his forefathers — he can bequeath or promulgate little or nothing to posterity ; whatever, therefore, may be his eloquence, and whatever may be his intelligence, he is almost solely guided by what resembles brute instinct rather than human reason, which, by the art of writing, transmits experience to posterity. iicfore the invention of printing almost the whole herd of mankind were in a state of moral destitution, nearly equal to that which we have thus described ; for, although various manuscripts existed, yet the expense and trouble of obtaining them was, as we have endea- voured to show, so great, that few could possess them in any quantities, except sovereign prince-, or persons of very great wealth. The intellectual power of man- kind was consequently completely undisciplined — there was no such thing as a combination of moral power — the experience of one age was not woven into the fabric of another, — in short, the intelligence of a nation Avas a rope of sand. Now, how wonderful is the contrast be- tween this picture of the dark age which preceded the invention of printing, and the busy establishment which only for a few moments we have just left ! The distinction between the chrysalis and the butterfly but feebly illustrates the alteration Avhich has taken place, since by the art of printing science has been enabled to wing its rapid and unerring course to the re- motest regions of the globe. Every man's information r. 'i rW M t! I i! I mm 286 THE PRINTER S DEVIL. ' : is now received and deposited in a common hive, con- taining a cell or receptacle for everything that can be deemed worth preserving. The same facility attends the distribution of information, which characterizes its col- lection. The power of a man's voice is no longer the measured range to which he can project his ideas ; for even the very opinion we have just uttered, the very sen- tence we are now writing — faulty as they may both be — printed by steam, and transported by steam, will be no sooner published than they will be wafted to every region of the habitable globe, — to India, to America, to China, to every country in Europe, to every colony we possess, to our friends and to our foes, wherever they may be. In short, the hour has at last arrived at which the humblest individual in our community is enabled to say to those, whoever they may be, who are seen to wield authority wickedly, — " Si vous m'opprimez, si vos grandeurs dedaignent Les pleura des innocens que vous faites couler, Mon vengeur est au ciel ! apprenez h, trembler ! " As railroads have produced traffic, so has printing produced learned menj and "to this art," says Dr. Knox, " we owe the Reformation." The cause of re- ligion has been most gloriously promoted by it ; for it has placed the Bible in everybody's hands. Yet, not- withstanding the enormous mass of information it has imparted, it is however a most remarkable fact, that printing is one of those busybodies who can tell every man's history but his own. Although four centuries have not elapsed since the in- REFLECTIONS ON THE HISTORY OF PRINTING. 287 hive, con- lat can be .ttends the es its col- longer the ideas; for 3 very sen- ay both be im, will be d to every 3 America, ^'cry colony i, wherever t arrived at nmunity is be, who are lent r, •!" las printing " says Dr. ause of re- )y it ; for it Yet, not- ation it has c fact, that m tell every since the in- vention of the noble art, yet the origin of this transcen- dent light, veiled in darkness, is still a subject of dis- pute ! No certain record has been handed down fixing the precise time when, the person by whom, and the place whence, this art derived its birth. The latent reason of this mystery is not very creditable to mankind ; for print- ing having been as much the counterfeit as the substitute of writing, from sheer avarice it was kept so completely a secret, that we are told, an artist, upon offering for sale a number of Bibles, which so miraculously resembled each other in every particular that they were deemed to surpass human skill, was accused of witchcraft, and tried in the year 1460. Gutenberg, we all know, is said to have been the father of printing; Schoeffer, the father of letter-founding; Faust, or Fust, the generous patron of the art ; and by Hansard these three are termed " the grand typographical triumvirate." On the other hand, Hadrianus Junius, who wrote the history of Holland in Latin, published in 1578, claims the great art for Haarlem, assigning to Lau- rentius Coster the palm of being the original inventor. Neither our limits nor our inclination allow us to take any part in the threadbare discussion of the subject. On the front of the house inhabited by Gutenberg, at Mcntz, there is the following inscription : — " JOHANNI GUTTEMBERGENSI Moguntino, Qui Primus Omnium Literas -^re Iinprimendas Invenit, Hac Arte De Orbe Toto Beue Merenti." ' il II tamaaa 288 THE PRINTER S DEVIL. •i : !:: Besides this, a fine statue by Thorwaltlsen, erected in tlie city, was opened amidst a burst of enthusiasm. " For three days/' says a late Avriter, " the population of May- ence was kept in a state of high excitement. The echo of the excitement went through Germany, and Guten- berg ! Gutenberg ! was to.astcd in many a bumper of Rhenish wine, amidst this cordial and enthusiastic people." But while "Gut! Gw^ew .' Gutenberg!" arc thus resounding through Germany, the web-footed in- habitants of the city of Haarlem, nothing daunted, still paddle through their streets, with their burgomasters at their head, holding annual festivals, and making public speeches, in commemoration of the grand discovery of the art by their " beloved Coster," to whom various monu- ments have been erected. But two o'clock has arrived, and we therefore most readily al)andon the history of printing, to return witli Mr. Clowes's people to his interesting establishment. On entering the door of a new department, a number of workmen, in paper caps, and with their shirt-sleevrs tucked up, may be seen at a long table, immediately under the windows, as well as at another table in the middle of the room, intently occupied at some sort of niggling operation ; but what wholly engrosses the first attention of the stranger is the extraordinary convulsive attitudes of ten men, who, at equal distances from each other, are standing with their right shoulders close to the dead wall opposite to the windows. These men appear as if they were all possessed with St. Vitus' Dance, or as if they were performing some Druidical ctcd in the m. " For )n of May- The echo k1 Guten- a bumper iithiisiastio |iekg!" arc footed in- luntcd, still )ma8ters at king public ovcry of the iou8 monu- refore moat return with shmcnt. t, a number shirt-slccvfs immediately table in the ome sort of scs the first y convulsive s from each 5 close to the issed with St. me Druidical TVPE-CASTIXG. 28:) or Dervishical religious ceremony. Instead however of being the servants of idolatrous superstition, they are in fact its most destructive enemies : for, grotesque as may be their attitudes, they arc busily fabricating grains of intellectual gunpowder to explode it; we mean, they arc type- casting. This important operation is performed as follows : — In the centre of a three-inch cube of hard wood, which is split into two halves like the shell of a walnut, there is inserted the copper matrix or form of the letter to be cast. The two halves of the cube when put together are so mathematically adjusted that their separation can scarcely be detected, and accordingly down the line of junction there is pierced, from the outer face of this wood, to the copper matrix, a small hole, into which the liquid metal is to be cast, and from which it can easily be extricated by the opening or bisection of the cube. Besides this piece of wood, the type-caster is provided with a little furnace, and a small caldron of liquid metal, projecting about a foot from the wall, on his right. This wall is protected by sheet-iron, which is seen shining and glit- tering in all directions with the metal that in a liquid state has been tossed upon i : to a great height. On the floor, close at the feet of each " caster," there is a small heap of coals, while a string or two of onions hanging here and there against the wall, sufficiently denote that those Avho, instead of leaving the building at one o'clock, dine within it, are not totally unacquainted with the culinary art. The ladles are of various denominations, according to VOL. I. O W:':. >^4 -' m 290 THE PRINTER'S DEVIL. if** the size of the type to be cast. There arc some that con- tain as much as a quarter of a pound of metal, but for common-sized type the instrument does not hold more than would one-half of a shell of a small hazel-nut. With the mould in the left hand, the founder with his right dips his little instrument into the liquid metal, instantly pours it into the hole of the cube, and then, in order to force it doivn to the matrix, he jerks up the mould higher than his head ; as suddenly he lowers it, by a quick movement opens the cube, shakes out the type, closes the box, re-fills it, re-jerks into the air, re- opens it — and, by a repetition of these rapid manoeuvres, each workman can create from 400 to 500 types an hour. By the convulsive jerks which we have described, the liquid is unavoidably tossed about in various directions ; yet, strange to say, the type-founder, following the gene- ral fashion of the establishment, performs this scalding operation with naked arms, although in many places they may be observed to have been more or less burned. As soon as there is a sufficient heap of type cast, it is placed before an intelligent little boy (whose pale wan face sufficiently explains the eftect that has been pro- duced upon it by the antimony in the metal), to be broken ofif to a uniform length : for, in order to assist in forcing the metal down to the matrix, it was necessary to increase the weight of the type by doubling its length. At this operation a quick boy can break off from 2000 to 3000 types an houi*, although, be it observed, by handling new type a workman has been known to lose his thumb and forefinger from the eflfect of the antimony. THE TYPE-FOUNDRY. 291 that con- il, but for lold more zel-nut. '.vith his id metal, and then, jerks up he lowers cs out the le air, re- anoeuvres, s an hour. ribed, the ircctions ; the gene- s scalding ilaces thev rned. cast, it is pale wan been pro- al), to be o assist in necessary its length. rom 2000 served, by to lose his timony. By a third process the types are rubbed on a flat stone, which takes ofl' all roughness, or "bur," from their sides, as well as adjusts their "beards" and their "shanks." A good rubber can finish about 2000 an hour. By a fourth process, the types are, by men or boys, fixed into a sort of composing-stick about a yard long, where they are made to lie in a row with their " nicks " all iippermost: 3000 or 4000 per hour can be thus arranged. In a fifth process, the bottom extremities of these types, which had been left rough by the second process, are, by the stroke of a plane, made smooth, and the letter-ends being then turned uppermost, the whole line is carefully examined by a microscope; the faulty type, technically termed " fat-faced," " lean-faced," and " bottle-bottomed," are extracted ; and the rest are then extricated from the stick, and left in a heap. The last operation is that of " telling them down and papering them up," to bo ready for distribution when required. By the system we have just described, Mr. Clowes possesses the power of supplying his compositors with a stream of )iew type, flowing upon them at the rate of 50,000 per day ! Type-founding has always been considered to be a trade of itself, and there is not in London, or we believe in the world, any other gi'cat printing entablishment in which it is comprehended ; but the advantages derived from this connection are very great, as types form the life-blood of a printing-house, and therefore whatever o2 im H' ml ■". n ■ M ii»>i, i m WW 292 THE PRINTER S DEVIL. facilitates their circulation adds to its health aud pro- motes science. Small, insignificant, and undecipherable as types ap- pear to inexperienced eyes, yet, when we reflect upon the astonishing effects they produce, they forcibly remind us of that beautiful parable of the grain of mustard-sccd, " which indeed is the least of all seeds, but when it is grown it is the greatest among herbs, and becometh a tree, so that the birds of the air come and lodge in the branches thereof." But, casting theory aside, we svill endeavour to demonstrate the advantages which not cnly the esta- blishment before us, but the whole literary world, bond fide derives from a cheap, ready, and never- failing supply of type. By possessing an ample store of this primum mobile of his art, a printer is enabled, without waiting for the dis- tribution or breaking up of the type of the various pub- lications he is printing, to supply his compositors with the means of " setting up " whatever requires immediate attention; — literary productions, therefore, of every de- scription are thus relieved from unnecessary quarantine, the promulgation of knowledge is hastened, the distance which separates the writer from the reader is reduced to its minimum. But besides the facility which the possession of abun- dance of type gives both to the publisher and to the public, the printer's range, or in other words the radius, to the extent of which he is enabled to serve the world, is materially increased; for with an amply supply he can manage to keep type in "forms" until his proofs ADVANTAGES OF ABUNDANCE OP TYPE. ?93 from a distance can be returned corrected. In a very large printing establishment, like that before ua, this radius is very nearly the earth's diameter; for Messrs. Clowes arc not only enabled, by the quantity of type they possess, to send proofs to the East and West Indies, but they arc at this moment engaged in printing a work, regularly published in England every month, the proof- sheets which are sent by our steamers to be corrected by the author in America ! Again, in the case of books that are likely to run into subsequent cditioiis, a printer who has plenty of type to spare can afford to keep the forms standing .until the work has been tested; and then, if other editions are required, they can, on the whole, be printed infinitely cheaper than if the expense of composition were in each separate edition to be repeated : — the publisher, the printer, and the public, all therefore are gainers by this arrangement. In bye-ways as well as in high- ways, literary labourers of the humblest description are assisted by a printing es- tablishment possessing abundance of type. For instance, in its juvenile days, the ' Quarterly Review' (which, by the way, is now thirty years old) was no sooner pub- lished than it was necessary that the first article of the follo^^•ing number should go to press, in order that the printer might be enabled, article by article, to complete the whole in three months. Of the inconvenience to the editor attendant upon this "never-ending-still-be- ginning" system, we deem it proper to say nothing : our readers, hoM'Cver, will at once see the scorbutic incon- i :' ■I- ; ■ f ! ■Mm* •29 1 THE PRINTER S DEVIL. venicucc whu'h they themselves must have suft'crcd by having been supplied by us with provisions, a consitlcr- uble portion of whieh had unavoidably been salted down for nearly three months. Now, under the present system, the contents of the whole number lie open to fresh air, eorrection, and eonvietion, — are ready to admit new in- formation, to receive fresh facts, to so late a moment, that our eight or ten articles may be sent to the printer on a Monday Avitli directions to be ready for })ublieation on the Saturday. But notwithstanding all the examples we have given of the present increased expenditure of type, our readers will probably be surprised when they are informed of the actual quantity which is required. The number of sheets now standing in type in Messrs. Clowes's establiHhraent, each weighing on an average about 100 lbs., are above IGOO. The weight of type not in forms amounts to about 100 tons ! — the weight of the stereotype plates in their possession to about 2000 tons — the cost to the proprietors (without including the original composition of the types from which they were cast) about €200,000. The number of woodcuts is about 50,000, of which stereotype-casts are taken and sent to Germany, France, etc. Having mentioned the amount of stereotype plates in the establishment, it is proper that we should now visit the foundry in which they are cast. The principal piece of furniture in this small chamber is an oven, in appear- ance such as is commonly used by families for baking bread. In front of it there stands a sort of dresser; and THE 8TKRE()TYP£ FOUNDRY. 205 fl-' ffbrcd by consider- tcd down it system, fresh air, t new in- moment, le printer ublication avc given ur readers ficd of the in Messrs. II average f type not i,'lit of the 00 tons— e original ast) about t 50,000, iermany, plates in now visit pal pieee 1 appear- r baking ser: and elose to the Avail on the right, and adjoining the entrance door, a small table. The " forms" or pages of types, after they have been used by the printer, and before the ste- reotype impression can be taken from them, require to be cleaned, in order to remove from them the particles of ink with which they have been clogged in the process of printing. As soon as this operation is effected, the types are carefully oiled, to prevent the cement sticking to them ; and when they have been thus prepared, they are placed at the bottom of a small wooden frame, where they lie in appearance like a schoolboy's slate. In about a quarter of an hour the plaster-of- Paris, M'hich is first dabbed on with a cloth and then poured upon them, be- comes hard, and the mixture, which somewhat resembles a common Yorkshire pudding, is then put into the oven, where it is baked for an hour and a half. It is then put into a small iron coffin with holes in each corner, and buried in a caldron of liquid metal, heated by a small furnace elose to the oven ; the little vessel containing the type gradually sinks from view, until the silvery glisten- ing wave rolling over it entirely conceals it from the eye. At the bottom of this caldron it remains about ten mi- nutes, when, being raised by the arm of a little crane, it comes up completely incrusted with the metal, and is put for ten minutes to cool over a cistern of water close to the caldron. The mass is then laid on the wooden dresser, where the founder unmercifully belabours it with a wooden mallet, which breaks the brittle metal from the coffin, and the plaster-of- Paris cast being also shattered into pieces, the stereotype impression, which, during this v'!l ;."jo THE PhlNTHaM DEVIL. ■«.i; nulo operation, has remained unharmed, is introduced for the first moment of its cxistenee into the lij;ht of (hiy. The birth of this phite is to the literary worhl an event of no small importance, inasnmeh as lOO.OOO copies of the best impressions can be taken frori ' id vith care it can propagate a million ! The jilai r-, af un* Ijci iig rudely cut, are placed on a very inge^iouj :U iption of Pro- erustesian bed, on which hev .• • by u nnuhinc not only all cut to the same length and lu'cadth, but with equal impartiality planed to exactly the s;mic thickness. The plates ai'e ne\t examined in another chamber by men termed " pickers," who, with a sharp graver, and at the rate of about sixteen pages in six hours, cut out or off any improper excrescences ; and if a word or sentence is found to be faulty, it is cut out of the plate and rcjdaced by rvid type, which arc soldered into the gai)s. Lastly, by a circular saw the plates are very expeditiously cut into pages, which are packed up in paper to go to press. Wc have already stated that in Messrs. Clowes's esta- blishment the stereotype plates amount in weight to "2000 tons. They are contained in two strong rooms or cellars, which appear to the stranger to be almost a mass of metal. The smallest of these receptacles is occupicil entirely witi: the Religious Tract Society's plates, mauy of M-hich are i'>!\ entitled t" *^ -^ rest they are enjoying, having al: .. ■ giN-u hundreds of thousands of impres- sions to the world. It is very pleasing to find in the heart of a busy bustling establishment, such as we are reviewing, a chamber exclusively set apart for the propa- gation of religious knowledge ; and it is a fact creditaljlc mif r 1 THE STERKOTYPF, FOVMiBV. 29: ntroduccd iht of (lay. I an event copies of vith care If? rudely n of Pro- e not only vith equal amber by er, and at out or oft' cntoncc is 1 replaced Lastly, iously cut to press, ves's csta- weiglit to rooms or )st a mass I occupicil tes, mauy cnjoyinj,', tf imprcs- nd in the 18 we are he propa- sreditablc to tli(> country in {jeruTul. as well as to the art of ))rintin<j; in parliculur, that, ineludin^ all the publications printed by Messrs. Clowes, one-fourth are self-devoted to r(>li^ ■*- The larj-er store, wliich is a hiuidnvl feet in Icuj^th, t^ a dark omiiimn yatlwntm, contiuainji the stereotyjx i)late* of publications of all dest riptions. But even tii this epitome of the literature of the age, our renders wiP n- gratified to learn that the sacred volumes of t^he L a- blished Church maintain, by their own intrii.-«ic vali a rank and an importance, their possession of which ha- been the basis of the charact i- and unexampled prosperit of the British Empire. Ai.oug the plates in this stoi there are to be seen reposing those of thirteen vurictii- of bibles and testaments, of mmcrons books of hymns and psalms, of fifteen diflcrc it dictionaries, and of a nnmber of other books of acknowledged sterling value. We have no desire, however, to conceal that tje above are strangely intermixed with pi.blieations of a different description. For instance, next *o ' Doddridge's ^^ orks' lie the plates of 'Don Juan'; close to ' Ilcrvey's ^Medi- tations' lie * The Lives of IligliM ;iymen,' ' Henderson's Cookery,' 'The Trial of Queen Caroline,' and '!Mac- gowan's Dialogue of Devils.' In the immediate vichiity of the 'Pilgrim's Progress' repose the 'Newgate Calen- dar' (0 vols.) and 'Religious Courtship;' and lastly, in this republic of letters, close to ' Sturm's Reflections,' ' Ready Reckoner,' ' Goldsmith's England,' and ' Hut- ton's Logarithms,' are to be found ' A Whole Family in Heaven,' ' Heaven taken by Storm,' ' Baxter's Shove to ^•Jt^fr^fr^f.^t^f**^ Christians/ etc. etc. etc. o3 II Hi ■1 I Sj I ' •*) I • ■ !\i 1_ w 298 THE PRINTEK S DEVJL. ■y . |l : 1 On the whole, however, the ponderous contents of the chamber are of great literaiy value ; and it is with feel- ings of pride and satisfaction that the stranger beholds before him, in a single cellar, a capital, principally de- voted to religious instruction, amounting to no less than €200,000 ! In suddenly coming from the inky chambers of a print- iiig-of!ice into the paper-warehouse, the scene is, almost without metaphor, "as dift'ercnt as black from white." Its transition is like that which the traveller experiences in suddenly reaching the snowy region wliich caps lofty mountains of dark granite. It must be evident to the reader that the quantity of paper used by Messrs. Clowes in a single year must be enormous. This paper, before it is despatched from the printer to the binder, undergoes two opposite processes, namely wetting and drying, both of which may be very shortly described. The wctting-roora, which forms a sort of cellar to the paper-warehouse, is a small chamber, con- taining three troughs, supplied with water, like those in a common laundry, by a leaden pipe and cock. Leaning over one of these troughs, there stands, from morning till night, with naked arms, red lingers, and in wooden shoes, a man, whose sole occupation, for the whole of his life, is to wet paper for the press. The general allow- ance he gives to each quire is two dips, which is all that he knows of the literature of the age; and certainly, when it is considered that, with a strapping lad to assist him, he can dip two hundred reams a day, it is evident THE DRYIXG-ROOM. 299 ats of the with feel- r beholds ipally de- less than 3f a print- is, almost n white." iperienccs caps lofty uantity of r must be printer to s, namely ry shortly a sort of nber, con- c tliose in Leaning 1 morning in Mooden hole of his eral allow- is all that certainly, id to assist ia evident that it must require a considerable number of very ready writers to keep pace with hira. After being thus wetted, the paper is put in a pile under a screw-press, where it remains subjected to a pressure of 200 tons for twelve hours. It should then wait about two days before it is used for printing, yet, if the weather be not too hot, it will, for nearly a fortnight, remain sufficiently damp to imbibe the ink from the type. We have already stated that, as fast as the sheets printed on both sides are abstracted by the boys who sit at the bottoms of tlie twenty-five steam-presses, they are piled in a heap by their sides. As soon as these piles reach a certain height, they are carried oflp, in wet bundles of about one thousand sheets, to the two drying-rooms, which are heated by steam to a temperature of about 90° of Fahrenheit. These bundles arc there subdivided into "lifts," or quires, containing from fourteen to sixteen sheets ; seven of these lifts, one after another, are rapidly placed upon the transverse end of a long-handled " peel," by which they are raised nearly to the ceiling, to be de- posited across small wooden bars ready fixed to receive them; in which situation it is necessary they should remain at least twelve hours, in order that not only the paper, but the ink, should be dried. In looking up- wards, therefore, the whole ceiling of the room appears as il an immense shower of snow had just suddenly been arrested in its descent from Heaven. In the two rooms about four hundred reams can be dried twenty. hours * , : I m H-i \^ When the operation of drying is completed, the " lifts' I' ' ! 4:' i I ;300 THE PRINTER S DEVIL. are rapidly pushed by the " peel" one above another (like cards which have overlapped) into a pack, and in these masses they arc then lowered ; and again placed in piles, each of which contains the same " signature/' or, in other woi'ds, is formed of duplicates of the same sheet. A work, therefore, containing twenty-four sheets — marked or signed A, B, C, and so on, to Z — stands in twenty- four piles, all touching each other, and of which the height of course depends upon the number of copies com- posing the edition. A gang of sharp little boys, about twelve years of age, M'ith naked arms, termed gatherers, following each other as closely as soldiers in file, march past these heaps, from every one of which they each abstract, in regular order for publication, a single sheet, which they deliver as the complete work to a " collator," whose duty it is rapidly to glance over the printed signa- ture letters of each sheet, in order to satisfy himself that they follow each other in regular succession ; and as soon as the signature letters have either by one or by repeated gatherings been all collected, they are, after being pressed, })laccd in piles about eleven feet high, composed of com- plete copies of the publication, which, having thus \m- dergone the last process of the printing establishment, is ready for the hands of the l)inder. The group of gathering-boys, whose " march of intel- lect " we have just described, usually perform per day a thousand journeys, each of which is, on an average, about fourteen yards. The quantity of paper in the two drying-rooms amo\ ts to about 3000 reams, each weigh- ing about 25 lbs. The supply of white i)aper in store, THE PAPER WAREHOUSE. 301 kept in piles about twenty feet liigh, averages about 7000 reams J the amount of paper printed every week and delivered for publication amounts to about 1500 reams (of 500 sheets), each of which averages in size 389| square inches. The supply, therefore, of white paper kept on hand, would, if laid down in a path 23 y inches broad, extend 1230 miles; the quantity printed on both sides per week would form a path of the saine breadth und 2(53 miles in length. In the course of a vcar jNIessrs. Clowes consume, therefore, white paper enough^ to make petticoats of the usual dimensions (ten demys per petticoat) for three hundred and fifty thousand ladies ! The ink used in the same space of time amounts to about 12,000 lbs. The cost of the paper may be about €100,000 ; that of the ink exceeding £1500. In one of the compartments of Messrs. Clowes's esta- blishment, a few men are employed in fixing metal-typo into the wooden blocks of a most valuable and simple machine for impressing coloured maps, for which the inventor has lately taken out a patent. The tedious process of drawing maps by hand has long been superseded by copper engravings ; but, besides the great expense attendant upon these impressions, there has also been added that of colouring, which it has hitherto been deemed impossible to perform but by the brush. The cost of maps, therefore, has i\ot only ope- rated, to a considerable degree, as a prohibition of their use among the poor, but in gencrd literature it has ni i'-^ ■4L- 302 THE PRINTER S DEVIL. very materially clieckcd many geographical elucidations, ■vvliich, though highly desirable, would have been too expensive to be inserted. By this beautiful invention, the new artist has not only imparted to woodcut blocks the advantages of im- pressing, by little metallic circles and by actual type, the positions as well as the various names of cities, towns, rivers, etc., Avhich it would be difficult as well as expensive to delineate in wood, but he has also, as we ^will endeavour to explain, succeeded in giving, by ma- chinery, that bloom, or, in other words, those colours to his maps, which had hitherto been laboriously painted on bv human hands. On entering the small room of the house in which tlie inventor has placed his machine, the attention of tlie stranger is at once violently excited by seeing several printer's rollers, vhich, though hitherto deemed to be as black and as unchangeable as an Ethiopian's skin, ap- pear before him bright yellow, bright red, and beautiful blue ! " Tcmpora mutantur," they cxultingly seem to sav, " nos ct mutamur in illis ! " In the middle of tlie chamber stands the machine, consisting of a sort of open box, which, instead of having, as is usual, one lid only, has one fixed to every side, by which means the box can evidently be shut or covered by turning down either the lid on the north, on the south, on the east, or on the west. The process of impressing with this engine is thus effected. A large sheet of pure white drawing-paper is, by the chief superintendent, placed at the bottom of tlie '>'" u MACHINE FOR COLOURING MAPS. 303 box, where it lies, the emblem of innocence, perfectly unconscious of the impending fate that awaits it. Before however it has any time for reflection, the north lid, upon which is embedded a metal plate coloured blue, suddenly revolves over upon the paper, when, by the turn of a press underneath the whole apparatus, a severe pressure is instantaneously inflicted. The north lid is no sooner raised, than the south one, upon which is em- bedded a metal plate coloured yelloiv, performs the same operation j Avhich is immediately repeated by the eastern lid, the plates of which arc coloured red ; and, lastly, by the western lid, whose plates contain nothing but black lines, marks of cities, and names. By these four operations, which are consecutively performed, quite as rapidly as we have detailed them, the sheet of white paper is seen successfully and happily transformed into a most lovely and prolific picture, in SEVEN coloiu's of oceans, empires, kingdoms, principa- lities, cities, flowing rivers, mountains (the tops of which are left white), lake -^ etc., each not only pronouncing its own name, but declaring the lines of latitude and longi- tude under which it exists. The picture, or, as it terms itself, " The Patent Illuminated Map," proclaims to the world its own title : it gratefully avows the name of its iugenious parent to be Charles Knight. A few details arc yet wanting to fill up the rapid sketch or outline we have just given of the mode of im- printing these maps. On the northern block, which imparts the first impression, the oceans and lakes are cut in wavy lines, by which means, when the whole block is y 11 : H li 1 m not THE PRINTER S DEVIL. II coloured blue, the wavy parts are impressed qiiite light, while principalities, kingdoms, etc., are deeply desig- nated, and thus by one process ttvo blues are imprinted. When the southern block, which is coloured yelloio, descends, besides marking out the principalities, etc., which are to be permanently designated by that colour, a portion of it recovers countries which by the first pro- cess had been marked blue, but which, by the admixture of the yellow, are beautifully coloured green. By tliis second process, therefore, two colours are again im- printed. When the eastern lid, which is coloured red, turning upon its axis, impinges upon the paper, besides stamping the districts which are to be designated by its own colour, it intrudes upon a portion of the blue im- pression, which it instantly turns into purple, and upon a portion of the yelloiv impression, which it instantly changes into broivn ; and thus, by this single operation, three colours arc imprinted. But the three lids conjointly have performed another very necessary operation, namely, they have moistened the paper sufficiently to enable it to receive the typo- graphical lines of longitude and latitude, the courses of rivers, the little round marks denoting cities, and the letterpress, all of which, by the last pressure, are im- parted, in common black printer's ink, to a map, dis- tinguishing, under the beautiful process we have de- scribed, the various regions of the globe, by light blue, dark blue, yellow, green, red, brown, and purple.* * Wc ought to observe that nn analogous invention has ah-eady been brought to great perfeetion, by Mr. ilulmamlell, in the department of ite light, y flesig- I printed. I yelioio, ;ics, etc., it colour, first pro- tlmixturc Bv tliis Tain im- ircd red, r, l)csides ed bv its blue inl- and upon instantly iperation, I another loistened he typo- lOlU'SCS of and the are im- map, dis- have de- ght blue, e* Iroady been )artuient of RELFECTIONS. 305 By Mr. Knight's patent machine, maps may be thus furnished to our infant schools at the astonishingly low rate of A\(l. each. Before the wooden clocks in the composilo'V halls strike eicmit, — at which hour the whole esta^)lishment of literary labourers quietly return to their homes, ex- cepting those who, for extra work, extra pay, and to earn extra comforts for their families, are willing to continue their toilsome occupation throughout the whole night, resuming their regular work in the morning as cheerfully as if they had been at rest, — we deem it our duty to observe that there are many other printing; establishments in London which would strikingly ex- emplify the enormous physical power of the British Press — especially that of the 'Times' Newspaper, Avhich, on the 28th of November, 1814, electrified its readers by unexpectedly informing them that the paper they held in their hands had been printed by steam ; and it is impossible for the mind to contemplate also, for a single moment, the moral force of the British Press, without reflecting, and without acknowledging that, under Providence, it is the only engine that can now save the glorious institutions of the British Empire from Lithography. By using consecutively six, ten, or a dozen stones, each charged with its separate colour, the effect of a fine water-colour (h'awing is reproduced in most wonderful liglitness and brilliancy, while (the colour used being all oil-colour) a depth is given to the shadows which the cleverest master of the water-colour school cannot reach in his own original performance. A set of views of FriMicli scenery and architecture, done in this way, may now be seen in the shops : they are, in fact, beautiful pictures; and you get, we believe, twi'uly-six of them for eight guuieas. 'I \ n %' ■ \ 11. ■ 1: 1 , 1 < 1 1* ' ' '; ' ^ ;' '' ' I 306 THE PRINTER'S DEVIL. the impending ruin that inevitably awaits them, unless the merchants, the yeomanry, and the British people, aroused by the loud warning of the said Press, shall constitutionally disarm the hands of the destroyers. We will however resolutely arrest ourselves in the utterance of these very natural reflections, because we have de- termined not to pour a single bitter drop into a literary cup which we have purposely concocted only for Christ- mas use. To " the Governor" of the building through which we have perambulated we cordially offer, in return for the courtesy with which he has displayed it, " the com- pliments of the season ;" and with equal gratitude let us acknowledge the important service rendered to the social family of mankind by the patient labour of each overseer, compositor, reader, pressman, and type-founder in his noble establishment. Let us give them the praise which is due to their Art, and, to conclude, LET US GIVE TO THE DEVIL HIS DUE!" 307 THE RED MAN. There exists no trait more characteristic of that innate generosity which has always distinguished the British nation, than the support which an individual, in propor- tion as lie is Avcak, friendless, and indeed notwithstand- ing his faults, has invariably received from it whenever he has been seen, under any circumstances, ruined and overwhelmed in a collision with superior strength. It little matters whether it be the Poles overpowered by the Russians, or merely a school-boy fighting with a man, for, without the slightest inquiry into the justice of the quarrel, the English public are always prone to declare themselves in favour of the " little one ; " and this assistance is so confidently relied upon, that it is well known the basest publishers, when they find they can attract nothing but contempt, as a last resource wil- fully incur a Government prosecution. Yet, while this has been the case among us at home, the Aborigines of America in both hemispheres have been constantly fading before our eyes ; and this anni- hilation of the real proprietors of the New World has o-*' •';' ,'. li 1 ii 1| Vt 308 THE llED MAX. >i/ excited no more sympathy than has Ijcen felt for the snow of their country, which every year has rapidly melted under the hright siui of heaven ! Sovereij^ns from time immenioriul of the vast territory Ijcstowcd upon thcni ])y the Almighty, they have gradually heen superseded by the usurpers of their soil, until thousands of miles have been so completely dispeopled, that tliero does not remain a solitary survivor to guard the revered tombs of his ancitors, or to stand among them, the mourner and rc))i'cseutativc of an extinguished race I Uy an act of barbarism unexampled in history, their title of " Amcncans" has even been usurped by the progeny of Europe, and, as if to perpetuate the igno- rance which existed at the period of their discovery, we conhnue, in the illiLerate jargon of that day, to call theui *' Indtaiis," although the designation is as pre- })osterous as if we were to persist in nicknaming them " Perskms" or " Chinese." If the annihilation of our Red brethren had been com- l)letcd, it might be declared ♦ be now as useless, as it certaiidy would be unpo^jular, to enter into any painful speculation on the subject; but a portion of their race still exists. By the bayonet, ])y the diseases Ave bring among them, by the introduction of spirituous liquors, by our vices, and last, though not leuj;t, by our proffered friendship^ the work of destruction is still progressing; and if, in addition to all this, it be true, as in docu- mentary evidence it has confidently been asserted, that every day throughout the year the sun sets upon a thousand Negroes, who, in anguish of mind and under fov the i rapitlly bestowed ally been liousands hat there ic revered ;hem, the l\cd race! orv, their cd l)y the the igno- covery, we ly, to call is as pre- ning them )ccii com- eless, as it my painful their race s we bring )\is liciuors, ir proffered rogressing ; IS in docu- scrtcd, that cts upon a and under THE RED MAX. 30!) scii-siekness, sail as slaves from the const of Africa — nun(/uam redituri — surely the civili/ed world is bound to pause ore it be too late, in an ecjually niereilcss course of conduct towards the " Indians," which must sooner or later bring upon us a day of retribution, the justice of which wc shall not be able to deny. Hut even dismissing from our minds the flagrant immorality of such conduct, as well as its possible results, it certainly appears iuuiccountal)le that we should have interested ourselves so little in the philosophical consideration of the condition of man in that uidettered, siniide state, in which only a few centuries ago we found him on the two continents of America. If a flock of wild grey geese, with outstretched necks following their leader in the foi'm of tlu; letter >, and flying high over our heads at the rate of a thousand miles a day, be compared with the string of birds of the same species which at the same moment arc to be seen in single file waddling across their " short commons " to their parish puddle; — if a flight of widgeon, hundreds of miles from land, and skimming like the shadow of a small cloud over the glassy surface of the boundless ocean, be compared with a brood of " lily-white dueks" luxuriously dabbling in a horse- pond j — if the wild boars, which with their progeny arc roaming through the fo- rests of Europe and Asia in quest of food, be compared to our stve-fcd domestic animals, which, w ith every want supplied, lie Avith twinkling eyes grunting in idle ecstasy as the ruddy-faced, bacon-fed attendant scratches their hides with the prongs of his pitchfork; — if a herd of 1' m % > ni \A 810 TllK RKD MAN. ri buffulo with extended tails, rctrcatiiifr across their plains at their utmost speed from that malij^nant speck on the horizon which proclaims to them the fearful (nitline of the human form, he compared with a Devonshire cow ehew- hig the cud before a barn-door, while keepinj; time with John's flail, honest Susan, leaning her blooming cheek against lier favourite's side, with her bright tin milk-i)aii at her feet, jjuUs, pidls, jjulls, so long as she can say, as John Bunyan said of his book, " still as I puU'd it camej" — if the foregoing, as well as many similar comparisinis which might be l)ronght before tin* mind, were duly considered, it would probably be declared that there docs not exist in the moral world, and that there can scarcely exist in the physical, a more striking contrast than that which distinguishes the condition and character of birds and animals in a wild aiul in an artificial condition. Nevertheless there is a contrast in nature even stronger than any wc have mentioned, — we mean that which ex- ists between man in his civilized and imeivilizcd — or, as wc term the latter, his "savage" — state; and yet, great as the contrast is, and self-interesting as it mi- doubtcdly ought to be, it is most strange how small a proportion of our curiosity lias been attracted by it. The scientific world has waged civil war in its geological discussions on the Iluttonian and Werncrian theories. In exploring the source of the Nile; — in seeking for the course of the Niger; — in making voyages of discovery, in order triumphantly " to plant the British flag on the North Pole of the earth," man has not been wantin<; in enterprise. In his endeavours to obtain the most asl cal sul wll po| fat iiol (h'( 'M THE RED MAN. 811 ;ir plains k on thi- iiie of till' ()\v cUl'w- timc with ,ufr check milk-pail an say, as [it came;" miparisons were duly thcvc does jiu scarcely it tliau tliat tor of birds Idition. en stronger tt wliich cx- vilized — or, o; and vet, ig as it un- vow small a u'ted by it. geological un theories. ;king for the of discovery, 1 flag on the )een wantinji liu the most acciiratc knowledge of every ocean, sea, or river; — of every country ; — of every great range of mountains ; — of every cataract, or even volcano ; — and of every extraor- dinary feature of the globe ; — in the prosecution of these and of similar inquiries lie has not been wanting in cu- riosity or courage. Into the natural history of almost every animal, and even of insects, he has microscopicully inquired. To every plant and little Howcr he has [)re- scribcd a name. lie has dissected the rays of light, and has analyzed and weighed even the air he ])reathcs : and yet, with vohmies of information on all these sub- jects, it is astonishing to reHect how little correct phi- losophical knowledge we possess of the real condition of man in a state of nature. The rich mine which contained this knowledge has always been before us ; and yet, although its wealth was almost lying on the surface, wc have been too indolent to dig for it. In short, between the civilized and un- civilized world a bai-ricr exists, which neither party is verv desirous to cross; for the wild man is as much oppressed by the warm houses, by the short tether, and by the minute suftbeating regulations of civilized men, as they suftcr from sleeping with him under the great canopy of heaven, or from following him over the sui'face of his trackless and townless territory ; besides which, if we reflect for a moment how grotesque the powdered hair, pig-tails, and whole costume of our fathers aiul forefathers now appear to our eyes, and how soon the dress we wear will, by our own chil- dren, be alike condemned; we need not be surprised i ■ w % it 312 THE RED MAX. !'i f (I ¥ at the fact, which all travellers have experienced, namely, that on the first introduction to nnclvilized tribes, the judgment is too apt to set down as ridiculous, garments, habits, and customs, which on a longer acquaintance it often cannot be denied arc not more contemptible than many of our own ; in fact, in the great case of " Civiliza- tion versus the Savage '' wc have proved to be but bad judges in our own cause. But even supposing that our travellers had been deter- mined to suspend their opinions and to prosecute their inquiries, in spite of hardships and unsa\ory food, yet when the barrier has apparently been crossed, the evi- dence which first presents itself bears false witness in the case; — for just as the richest lodes are covered at their surface with a glittering substance (termed by mi- nd's "mundic") resembling metal, but which on being smelted flies aAvay in poisonous fumes of arsenic, so is that portion of the uncivilized world which borders upon civilization always found to be contaminated, or, in other words, to have lost its own good qualities, without hav- ing received in return anything but the vices of the neighbouring race. It is from the operation of these two causes, that so many of our travellers in both continents of America, mistaking the mundic for the metal, have overlooked the real character of the Red Man, — lirst, from a disinclina- tion to encounter the question ; and, secondly, having at- tempted to encounter it, from having been at once, and at the outset, disgusted with the task. In order, there- fore, to take a fair view of the Indian, as we are pleased THE RED MAN. 313 ll \, namely, tribes, the •'•avmcuts, aiutance it )til)le than " Civiliza- bc but bad been dcter- iccute tlieir y food, yet 2d, the evi- wituess ill covered at mcd by nii- ^h on being fsenic, so is orders upon , or, in other ivithout hav- viecs of the uses, that so of America, crlookcd the a disinclina- ly, having at- at once, and order, therc- ic are pleased to term him, it is evidently necessary that wo should overleap the barrier we have described, and thus visit him cither in the vast intcrininaldc plains, — in the lofty and almost inaccessilile mountains, — or in the lonclv in- terior of the immense wilderness in which he resides. — In each of thc^e three situations we have had a very transient opportunity of viewing him, but on the more ample experience of others we shall submit the following sketches and observations. It is a singular fact, that while in Europe, Asia, and Africa, there exist races of men whose complexion and countenances are almost as strongly contrasted with each other as arc animals of different species, the aborigines of both continents of America everywhere appear like children of the same race : indeed the ocean itself under all latitudes scarcely preserves a more equaldc coloiir than does the Red JNIan of America in every situation in Avhich he his found. Wherever he has been unruffled by injustice, his re- ception of his AVhitc brother is an affecting example of that genuine hospitality which is only to be met with in what we term sacai/e tribes. However inferior the stranger may be to him in stature or in physical strength, he at once treats him as a superior being. He is proud to serve him : it is his highest pleasure to conduct him, — to protect him, — and to afford him, without expecting the slightest recompense, all that his country can offer — all that his humble wi";wam may contain. If his ob- jeet in visiting the Indian country be unsuspected, the stranger's life and property arc perfectly secure : under VOL. I. P 4 ■': ,.J* *;!'( Hi I I 314 THE HEl) MAN. M such circumstances, we holicvc tlierc lias scarcely ever been an instance of a white man having been murdered or robbed. Mr. Catlin, Avho has had, ]iei-haps, more ex- perience of these simple people than any other white in- habitant of the globe, unhesitatingly adds his testimony to this general remark. From the particular objects of his visit to the Indians, he had more baggage than any individual would usually carry. At no time, however, was his life in greater danger than theirs, and in no in- stance Avas he pilfered of a single article; — indeed, it was not until he reached the contaminated barrier (the region of land occupied by half-castes) that it became ne- cessary even to watch over his baggage; and, it was not until he returned to people of his own colour, that he found it almost impossible to protect the various items of his property. The Indians talk but little ; and though their know- ledge is of course limited, yet they have at least the wisdom never to speak when they have nothing to say ; and it is a remarkable fact, which has repeatedly been observed, that they neither curse nor swear. "When an Indiau arrives with a message of tlie greatest importance to his tribe, — even Avith intelligence of the most imminent danger, — he never tells it at his Hrst ap- proach, but sits down for a minute or two in silence, to recollect himselt before he speaks, that he may not evince fear or excitement ; for though these peojile admit that when individual talks to individual any license may be permitted, they consider that in all dealings between na- tion and nation the utmost dignity should be preserved. THE IIKD MAN. 315 \i iAy ever uirdcrcd norc ex- vliite in- stimoiiy bjccts of than any however, in no in- luleed, it •rier (the eanic ne- ; was not , that he ms items 3ir know- least the ^ to say ; xllv been e {greatest ce of the s first ap- iilencc, to lot evince Iniit that ie may be tween na- [jreserved . The public speakers are accordingly selected from the most eloquent of their tribes; and it is iniijossiijk^ for any one who has not repeatedly listened to them, to describe the effects of the graceful attitude, the calm argument, and the manly sense with which they express themselves. Indeed, it seems perfectly unaccountable how men — who have never road a line, who have never seen a town, who have never heard of a school, and mIio have passed their whole existence either among rugged mountains, on boundless plains, or closely environed by trees, — can manage, all of a sudden, to e\[)ress them- selves without hesitation, in beautiful language, and afterwards as calmly ami as patiently listen to the reply. It has often been said ex cathcdrd that the Indians ai'e inferior to ourselves iu tlieir powers of body and mind. With respect to their physical strength, it should on the outset be remembered that men, like animals, are strong in proportion to the sustenance they receive. In many parts of America, where the country, according to the season of the year, is either verdant or parched, it is well known that not only the horses and cattle are infinitelv stronger at the former season than at the latter, but that the human inhabitants who feed on them are synij)atheti- cally fat and powerful at the one period, and lean and weak at the other. Even in our own country, a horse or a man iu condition'^ can efi'cct infinitely more than when * The Indiana train tluMnsclvos for wai- by extra food, and by swentinj^ thoniselves in a vajiour-bath, wliich l!u\v infji-niously form by covuriug thonirti'lvos over with a skin, uniler wiiich tiny have plaeod hot stones, kept wot by a small stream of water. p2 >1 n ( !i/i \ M:» If ); i;' ]\'! i' 316 THE RED MAN. M I m ^ tlicy arc taken either from a meadow or a gaol ; aiul ae- cordingly a sturdy Avell-fed En«>lislimau may, Avith triith, declare that he lias been able to surpass in bodily strength his Red brother; bnt let him subsist for a couple of months on the same food, or on only twice or thrice the same quantity of food, and he will soon cease to despise the physical powers of his companion. The weights which Indian carriers can convey, the surprising distances which their runners can perform, the number of hours they can remain on horseback, and the length of time they can subsist without food, are facts which unanswer- ably disprove the alleged inferiority of their strength. - In one of the most remote and mountainous districts of their country, when it was eomi)letely enveloped in snow, we hai)peiied, at the bottom of a deep mine, to see a naked Indian in an adit, or gallery, in which he could only kneel. We had been attracted towards him by the loud and constant reverberation of the heavy blows ho was striking ; and so great was the noise he was making that we crawled towards him unobserved, and for a minute or two knelt close behind him. Not the slightest perspiration appeared on his deep-red body; but v,ith the gad or chisel in his left hand, he nnremittingly con- tinned at his work, until avc suddenly arrested his lean sinc>vy right arm; and as soon as lie had recovered from his astonishuient, we induced him to surrender to us the hammer he was using, which is now in our pos- session. Its weight is no less than eighteen pounds, — exactly twice as much as a blacksmith's double-handed hammer ; and we can confidently assert that no miner i>j>^ THE RED MAN. 3i: or labourer in this country coiild possibly uicld it for five minutes; and that, among all the sturdy philoso- phers who congregate at Lord Northamptc ' soiree or ]\Ir, Babbage's converiia::ione, hardly one except Professor Whev ell could use it for a tenth of that time. Mr. Catliu states that, in another very distant part of America, a short, thick-set warrior, known by the appel- lation of " the Brave," amicably agreed, before a large party of spectators, to wrestle with some of the most powerful troopers in a regiment of United States' Dra- goons; and that the Indian, grappling with one after another, dashed them successively to the ground, with a violence winch they did luit at all appear to enjoy, although w ith al)out as much case, seemingly, to himself as they had been so many maids-of-honour. AVith respect to the moral power of the lied aborigines, in addition to the few short spi^cimens of their speeches and replies, which we mean by-aud-by to notice, we raust observe, that the tortures which these beardless men can smilingly and cxultingly endure, must surely be admitted as proofs of a connnanding fibre of mind, of a self-possession, — in short, of a moral prowess wh.icli few of us could evince, and which we ought to blush to deny to them as their due. In justice therefore to them,^^, we deem it a nainful duty tv. .piote a single authenticated \ instance of the triumph of their mind over the anguish y of their body. AVc hope that " the better-half" of our readers will pass it over unread, as revolting to the soft feelings of their nature ; but the cpiestion is too impor- tant for us to shrink from the production of real evi- U 'ti iV i 318 THE KED MAN. !i|! donee; and, having- undertaken fairly to portray tlie chavncter of tlic Red jNIan, we feel we shonld not be justified in suddenly abandoning our task, from the ap- ])riliension lest any man should call it " unmannerly to bring a slovenly unhandsome corse betwixt the wind and his nobility/' The lion. Cadwalludcr Golden, who, in 1750, was one of Ilis Majesty's Counsel, and Surveyor-General of New York, in his ' History of the Five Iiuliau Nations of Canada,'^' says, — " The Froncli, all this suninier, wore obliged to keep xipou the defensive within their forts, while the Five Nations, in small i)arties, ravaged the whole country, so that no man stirred the least distance from a fort but he was in danger of losing his scalj). " The Count de Frontenac was pierced to the heart when he found he could not revenge these terrible incursions ; and his anguish made him guilty of such a piece of monstrous cruelty, in burning a prisoner alive after the Indian manner, as, though I have fi'e(piently mentioned to have been done by the Indians, yet I forbore giving the particulars of such barbarous acts, suspecting it might be too ottensive to Christian ears, even in the history of savages. . . . " The Count de Frontenac, I say, condemned two prisoners of the Five Nat'wns to be burnt, publicly, alive. The Inten- dant's lady entreated him to moderate the sentcT.ce ; and the Jesuits, it is said, used their endeavours for tliC same purpose ; but the Count de Frontenac said, ' There is necessity of making such an example, to frighten the Five Nations from approach- ing the i»lantations.' But, with submission to the politeness of the French Nation, may I not ask whether every (or any) * We quote from the London edition, 8vo, p. 487 (1750). TIIIJ RED MAN. 319 iiornd action of a barbarous enemy can justify a civilized nation in doinij; the like? When the CiDvernor could not be moved, the Jesuits vent to the prison to instruct the prisoners in the mysteries of our holy religion, viz. of the Trinity, the Incarnation of our Saviour, the joys of Paradise, and the pu- nishments of Hell, — to fit their souls for Heaven by baptism while their bodies were condemned to torments, IJut the Indians, after they had heard their sentence, refused to hear the Jesuits speak ; and Ijcgan to pre])are for death in their own country manner, — by singing their death-song. Some charitable person threw a knife into the ])rison, with which one of them (lesi)atched himself. The other was carried out to tlie place of execution by the Christian Indians of Loretto, to which he walked, secnn'iigly, with as nmcli inditference as ever martyr did to the stake. While they were torturing ... i, he continued singing, that he was a warrior brave, and with- out fear ; that the most cruel death could not shake his cou- rage ; that the most cruel torments should not draw an in- decent expression from him ; that his comrade was a coward, a scandal to the Fire Xaflon,'^, who had killed himself for fear of pain ; that he had the comfort to refiect that he had made many Frenchmen sufi'er as he di«l now. He fully verified his words ; for the most violent torments eotdd not force the least complaint from him, though his executioners tried their utmost skill to do it. T'ley first broiled his feet between two red-hot stones ; tl'':.i they put his fingers into red-hot pipes, and though he had his arms at liberty, he v.ould not pull his fingers o\it ; they cut his joints, and, taking hold of the sinews, twiste<l tnem round small bars of iron. All this while, he kept singing and recounting his own brave actions against the Frem'h. At last they Hayed his scalp from his skull, and poured scalding-hot sand upon it, at which time the Inten- dant's lady obtaiuod leave of the Governor to have the coup de gnU'e given ; and I believe she thereby likewise obtained 11 320 THE RED MAN. t ■'.'.[ m M.) u favour to every reader, in (leliveriiifj; liim from u further con- tinuance of this account of French cruelty." We luivc selected this terrific story out of nuiuy, be- cause it ofters a double moral j for it not only evinces the indomitable power of an Indian mind, but it at once turns tbe accusation raised against the cruelty of his nature, upon a citizen of one of the politest and bravest nations of the civilized fjlobe; and M'ith this fact before him, well might the Red ^Man say, " Stio siOi glad'w hunc jtiyulo !" With a view, however, to show that an Indian heart is not alivays unsusce[)til)le of the horror we must all feel at the torture they are in the habit of inflicting -ipou their prisoners of war, Ave have pleasure in oH'ering, es- pecially to the fairer sex, the following anecdote related by Captain Bell and ^lajor Long, of the United States' Army, and cerfified by ^lajor O'Fallan the American agent, as also by his interpreter who witnessed it. A few years ago a young Pawnee warrior, sou of ' Old Knife,' knowing that his tribe, according to their custom, were going to torture a Paduca woman, whom they had taken in war, resolutely determined, at all hazards, to rescue her, if possible, from so cruel a fate. The poor creature, far from her family and tribe, and surrounded only by the eager attitudes and anxious faces of her enemies, had been actually fastened to*tlie stake; her funeral pile was aljout to be kindled, and every eye was mercilessly directed upon her, when the young chieftain, mounted on one horse, and, according to the habit of his country, leading another, was seen approaching the ceremony at full gallop. To the astonishment of every ■ ^•^^-...t^iy^ TUB RED MAN. 321 iitlior cou- nany, bc- riuces the •nee turns is nature, st nations liini, AvcU jiufulu !" iian heart must all ting \\])on ering, es- e related d States' Vnierieau it. iiof 0/</ r custom, they had Lzards, to The poor rrounded !8 of her ike; her ' eye was .•hieftain, liabit of hing the of every one, he rode straiglit up to the pile, extricated the victim from tlie stake, threw lier on the loose horse, and then, vaulting on the liaek of the other, he carried her oft' in triumph ! " Slio is won ! \vc are gone — over bank, bush, and seaur ; * They'll have fleet stit'ds that follow,' ([uoth young Loehinvar." The deed, liowcver, was so sudden and unexpected — and, being also mysterious, it Avas at the moment so generally considered as nothing less than the act of the Great Spirit, that no efforts were made to resist it ; and the captive, after three days' travelling, was thus safely transported to her nation and to her friends. On the return of her liberator to his own people, no censure was passed upon his extraordinary conduct — it was allowed to pass unnoticed. On the publication of this glorious love-story at Washington, the boarding-school girls of Miss White's seminary were so sensibly touched by it, tliat they very prettily subscribed among each other to purchase a silver medal, beai'ing a suitable inscription, which they pre- sertted to the young Red-skin, as a token of the admira- tion of White-skins at the chivalrous act he had per- formed, in having rescued one of their sex from so un- natural a fate. Their address closed as follows : — " Brother ! accept this token of our esteem ; always wear if; for our sakes ; and when again you have the power to save a poor woman from death, think of this, and of us, and fly to her relief." The young Pawnee, although unconscious of his merit, was not ungrateful • — V 3 i U • 1 1 i! i I 322 TiiK ui:d man. " ' Brntlior^i and sisters !' ho oxolalmcfl, e 'eudiiiit tnwaid.-i tliem tlu! iihmIuI \vlii«!li for some nidiiu'iits had Ihtu han;>in;,' oh his red tiake<l breast, ' this will <>nvc in** case more than I ever had, and I will listen more than I ever did to White Men. " ' I am {;lad that my hrotliors and sisters have heard oi" the pood aet T have done. My brothers and sisters think that I did it in ii^noranee ; Imt I now know what I have <h)ne. '* ' [ did it in ij^'noranee, and did not know that I did good ; but by giving me this medal I know it !'" Like the great Atlantic Ocean, the tranquillity and se- renity that characterize an Indian in time of peace are strangely contrasted with the furious passions which con- vulse him in war. Tiie moral thermometer which, in the English character, is generally somewhere ahout '' tem- perate," is with the Indians either many degrees below zero or high above the point at which it is declared that " s/nnts boil." The range of the Red Man's emotions is infinitely greater than that of his AVhite l)rother ; and to all who have witnessed only the calmness, the patience, the endurance, and the silence of the Indians, it seems almost incredible that the most furious passions should be lying dormant in a heart that seems filled with benevolence; and that iinder the sweet countenance, which blossoms like the rose, there should be reposing in a coil a vcnv mous serpent which is only waiting to si)ring upon its enemy ! Although, therefore, it might perhaps be said, that if the two extremes of the Indian character were allowed to compensate each other, they would not be far distant from the mean of our own, yet vices and virtues ought not to be thus considered. In designating the human character, there should be no compromise of principle. THE RED MAX. 323 nsr no hlciuliiif? of colours; and nccordiiif^fly wc confess, without hesitation, that nothinj; eau he more liarharous than the nuuuier in which the Indians oeeasionally treat their prisoners of war : yet in this also they have tMO most remarkahU' extremes of concUict ; for on presenting their eajjtives to those who have h)st rehitions in l)attlc, if they are aoeepti-d, they immediately beeonu; free, and enjoy all the privilej^es of the persona in lieu of whom they have been received. In fact they are adopted, and in one moment suddenly find themssclves surrounded by people Avho address them, and who act towards them, as brothers, sisters, parents, and even as wives ! On the other hand, if they arc rejected by the families of the slain, then their doom is fixed, their torture is prepared ; and when the fatal monumt arrives, there ajjain appear before the observer of the Indian character two extremes, in both of which they infinitely surpass us. For the noblest resif^iation, the purest courage, the most power- ful self-possession are contrasted in the same Ked race with the basest vengeance, the most barbarous cruelty, and the most unrelenting malice that it is possible even for poetry to conceive. "About the time," says Cadwallador Coldon, "of the con- clusion of the Pence at lU'swick, the noted Thonoret died at Montreal. The French gave him a C'hiistian burial in a pompous manner, in conse<iuence of tlie priest that attended him at his death having declared that he died a true Christian. ' For,' said the priest, * while I explained to him the passion of our Saviour, whom the Jews erueiticd, he cried out. Oh, had I been t/tcre I would luive revenged his death, and brought away t/ieir scalps ! ' " \ 32t TIIK UKD MAN. Wc have IK) (li'sirr to attempt to wash out tUc. "damned spot" wliicli wc have just described. Its stain upon the Indian character is indelible : at the same time we must oiler a lew observations on the subject. The feelings which actuate the great armies of Eu- rope are altogether did'ercnt from those under which t\\H) tribes of Indians meet each other in hattle. In the former ease the soldiers but imperfectly understand the political question in dispute, and therefore they come into action very much in the same state of mind in whi(!h an individual woidd take his grouiul to fight a duel for his friend with a ])ers()n he had never before seen, in de- fence of some unknown lady, w ho had received some sort of insult which he eoidd not clearly comprehend. Ac- cordingly, the word of command rcgidatcs their attack ; and at the sound of the bugle or the trumpet they advance or retreat, as the judgment of a distant individual may deem it proper to ordain. Nevertheless, though they be in cool possession of their senses, let any man, — after having witnessed the misery and anguish of a field of bjittlc, alter having mourned over this dreadful sacrifice of human lite, and after having, perhaps a few days later, found on the plain, still writhing, hundreds of wounded men, robbed of their clothes by sutlers, and even by wonnn, who, like a flock of vultui'cs, follow every civilized army to prey upon the fallen, — declare whether, on rcHecting upon such a scene, he has not devoutly wished that it could wholly be attributed to the angry passions of man, rather than to the deliberate judgment of the statesmen of the Tin: 11K1> .MAN. 325 e, and i>n the i-obbed who, luy to gupou couhl rather of the nations that had been enjia^cd. Hnt althoujih to fi^ht in i^noranee of the (jncstion in dispnte is not the habit of the Indians, yet, on the other iiand, if a foreign tribe, with faees painted for war, invade tlieir territory to de- prive them of tlie {^anie on which they snbsist ; — if in time of peace they trcaeheronsly ninrder any of their families, — carry olf their women, — ollcnd their rnde notions of hononr by an insidt ; — in short, wlien enmity against an indivitbial or against a tribe, under such pro- vocation, is once imbibed, it Hows in their veins, — at (!very pulsation it reaches theii* heart, and continues to infect it, until revenge has washed away the injm-y that has been received! \\ ith their passions violently sell-exeited by every artifice in their power, they accordingly prepare for death or vengeance, and, under these circumstances, the sole object they have in view is to take the lite of their enemy, or, if he surrenders, to demonstrate the in- feriority of his tribe by subjecting him to a torture which they themselves, be it always remembered, are fully pre- pared to endure with songs of trimnph, should the fortune of war sentence them to the test. However revolting such barbarous cruelty must be to evci'y mind, yet surely no one can deny that the differ- ence between the two pictures we have described is nothing l)ut the necessary eonsecpicnce of two opposite systems. The eold-bloodeil system of the civilized world is undoubtedly the best : on the other hand, so long as our laws mercifully refrain I'roin punishing with death the man who has destroyed his fellow-creature in a pa- roxysm of passion, we may justly claim for the Indian V 32G THE RED MAN. that tlio same consideration may be extended to his guilt. And, moreover, if Wliite men, fighting in cold blood, be declared by ns to have " covered themselves with glory" by the scenes usually witnessed in European warfare, may not the savage tribes of America humbly sue, at least to Heaven, for comparative pardon for the excesses they have committed in a Jit of anycr? With respect to their scalping system (which is not per})etrate(l by the Indians as a punishment, but on the prinei[)le on which our hunters proudly carry home with them, as a trophy, " the brush'' of the fox they have run to death), it is of course horrible in the extreme : at the same time it may be said, that if war can authorize ?/.v to blow out the brains of our enemies, — run them through the body with our bayonets, — hash them with our swords, — riddle them with round-shot, grape, and canis- ter, — and if, while the wounded are lying on the ground, it is our habit, from necessity, to ride over them with our cavalry, and with our artillery and ball-cartridge carts to canter over them as if they were straw ; — if we can burn them with rockets, scald them with steam, and by the explosion of well-constructed mines blow them by hun- dreds into the air, — surely we are not altogether autho- rized in so gravely de(!laring that, the civilized Avorld having determined the precise point to which war ought to be carried, it is therefore undeniable that all who copy our fashions are " valicntes,'' and that whoever ex- ceed it are " savages" and " brutes \" No doubt Achilles thought himself at the very height of the fashion Avhen he dragged the body of Hector round the walls of Troy. THE RED MAN. 327 I to his in cold emselvcs 'jVii'oi)cau humbly L for tlit> cU is not ut on the lomc -with have run ic : at tlio orizo lis to II through ■with our aud cauis- ic ground, n with our e carts to can burn (1 by the lu by liun- icr autho- izcd world war ought it all who locvcr ex- )t Achilles ihion when Is of Troy. Tlie Phoenicians no doubt thought it exquisitely fashion- able to burn their children in sacrifice. Mauv of us can remember when the guillotine was in fashion ; and, lastly, the alterations which have taken place in our own criminal laws show, that though the scales of Justice re- main unaltered, the goddess's sword has, within the last few years, been deliberately shortened by us to at least a tenth of its ancient length. In the few schools in which they have been educated by us, the Red childreii liavc evinced not only many esti- mul)le virtues, but considerable ability. " ' All the children of Indian schools,' says Dr. Morse, in his Re[)ort to the Sooretary-at-War, * make much greater progress than is conunon in our schools, and the ]\1 issionaries declare that the children arc more modest and affectionate, and are more easily managed.'" To the above statement wc arc enabled to add our own testimony ; for in several seminaries which we have chanced to inspect, we have seen the Indian boys not only perform sums in Practice and in Vulgar Fractions with a surprising (piickncss ; but, on our expressing our astonishment, we have been assured by one of their mas- ters, who for many years had conducted a respectable school in England, that he was delil)erately of opinion that the Red children learnt quicker than those of the same age at home. The honesty of the Indian is sufficiently demonstrated by the \miversal custom of our fur -traders to sell to him almost all their goods upon credit. Beads, trinkets, and paint, gunpowder, whisky, and many other perishable iil ' i 328 THE REI> MAN. f articles, arc readily made over to him, under the mere promise that when the hunting -season is ended he will pay the number of skins that has been settled as their price. The Indian then darts away into his recesses, as the dolphin dives through the ocean from a vessel's side, and, before a month or two have elapsed, he is lost in space, beyond the control of anything but his own honour ; nevertheless, as the " busy bee " faithfully returns to its hive, and as the eagle affectionately re- visits its young, so does the Red debtor reappear before his creditor, silently to liquidate the debt of honour he had incurred. The religion of the Red man in both .j.M-.ents of America consists universally of a belief in a urcat and Good Spirit, and in a " Manito," or Evil Genius. They address themselves to both ; and accordingly the young modest Indian girl, with her arms folded across her bosom, as fervently entreats the Fiend " to lead her not into temptation," as her parents, under every attliction, pray to the Great Spirit " to deliver them from evil." The various nations have different notions of the origin of their race : it is nevertheless an extraordinary fact, vouched for by ^Nlr. Catlin, that of all the tribes he visited there was no one which did not by some means or other connect their origin with " a big canoe," which was supposed to have rested on the summit of some hill or mountain in their neighbourhood. The Mandau Indians carry this vague Mount Ararat impression to a very remarkable extent; for Mr. Catlin found esta- blished among them an annual ceremony held round " a THE RED MAN. 329 he mere 1 lie will as their recesses, 1 vessel's 3d, he is ; but his faithfully Lately re- :ar before ouour he i-.ents of jrcut aud IS. They he young cross her d her not alUiction, n evil." Lis of the aordinary ; tribes he [lie means )e," whieh some hill Maudau iressioii to )und esta- rouiid " a great canoe," entitled in their language " the settling of the waters," which Mas held always on the day in which the willow trees of their country came into blossom. On asking why that tree out of all others was selected, Mr. Catlin was informed that it was because it was from it that the bird Hew to them with a branch iii its mouth : and when it was inquired what bird it was, the Indians j)ointed to the dove, ahich, it appears, was held so sacred among them, that neitlier man, woman, nor child would injure it; indeed, the Mandans declared that even their dogs instinctively respected that bird. In a few of the tribes there exists a tradition that they are tlie descendants of people born aero.- ■ " the Great Salt Lake," but most believe that their race was originally created on their own continent. Some con- ceive that the Great Spirit made them out of the cele- })rated lied Stone, from which, out of a single quarry, from time iunnemorial, tlu>y have made their pipes. Others say they Mere all created from the dust of the eai'th ; but those mIio have become acquainted M'ith white people modestly add, "the Great Spirit must have made you out of the Jhie dust, for you knoM' more than we." In the year 1821, "Big Elk," chief of the O-lMahars, aud some other Sachems, m ho had come to Washington, were examined by Dr. Morse, to whos. queries they gave the following replies : — "Q. Who made the Ixed aud the White people ?— .4. The same Being who made the White people made the lied people, but the White people are better thau the lied. 4 ; H v.,» «.,— - I 330 THE RED MAN. " Q. From wlionco did your futliors oonio 1— A. We have ii tradition aiiiouji; us tliat our ancestors eanie to this country across tlie Cheat Writer ; that ('i(//it i)i''ii were «)rii:;inally nuule by the Cireat Spirit ; and that luaidrind of uU colours and nations sprang; tVou) tlie.'.e. " C/ Do you I)elievc that the (Jret; ' Sjiirit is present, and that he sees and knows what y(m di. ' — A. Yes; wlun we jtray ard denUenite in council, it is not tor. that deliberate, but the CJreat Spirit." The following is from the l^eport of an interview that took place in 1821, between IMajor Cnmmiiigs, of the TI. S. Army, and a nation of Indians formed by the Tuiion of the three tribes, Pottawattemies, Chippewas, and Ottawas : — " Q. What ceremonies have you at the burial of yo.ir dead? — A. These vary. We bury by puttiiii^ the Itody under ground in a case, or wrapped in skins ; sometimes by placing it in trees, or standing it civet and enclosing it with a paling. This difference arises generally from the retpicst of the ri.an before he died, or from the dream of a relative. We place with the (lead some part of their property, believing that as it was useful to them duriiig their life, it may prove so to them when they are gone. " (J. Do you believe that the soul lives after tlic body is dead / — J. We do, Init that it does not leave this v orUl till its relatives and friends feast, and do brave actions, to obtain its safe su]i])ort. Q. Do you believe there is a jdace of hap- piness and of misery? — A. We do ■ the happy are em])loyed in feasting and dancing ; the miserable wander through the air. Q. What entitles a person to the place of happiness, and what condenms a person to the place of misery 1 — A. To be etititled to the place of happiness, a man must be a good hunter, and possess a generous heart. The miser, the envious THK RED MAN. 331 (c llllVO 11 s country ally lumh' lours aiul oscnt, and wluii WP ilolibcrato, view tliiit ;s, of the I by tho liippcwas, •():ir (load? lor ground cin<i; it in nff. This an bofore with the as it was loni wlion c body is orld till to obtain CO of hap- eTni)loyed n)ugh the (inoss, and A. To be •0 a good le envious nmn, the Har, and the cheat arc condcninod to the place of inisory." In rocky regions, wlioro it would bo impossiblo to dig a grave, tlie Indians are in tlio habit of laying out tbcir (lead ou the Hat rock. The son i)la(;('s a bow and ar- row, or even a rifle with [jowder and shot, by the oor})sc of his father, who, with his miistn'n or mi'dicine-baij ou his chest, is then eovcrcMl over with loose stones, merely suflicient to keep off the wild beasts, AV(; have nioro than once had occasion to s'.eep upon the ground, in the open air, among these simple septdehres, which are so religiously resi)eeted by the Indians, that scarcely any- thing woidd induce them to violate their sanctity. A luuiter starving from having exhausted his powder or shot, will occasionally, sooner than die, borrow ammuni- tion from the dead. " ITi' lliouf^lil, us lio tool* it, tlic (k'lid mnn frowned; Uut tlio p;l:in' of the sepulchral light IVrchaucH' liml (lii/,>,li'(l tlu' warrior's sight." But though no human being has witnessed the act, the U(hI man's eoubeienee tells him it was seen by the Great o^.irit. Ilis mind, therefore, is never at rest until, bending in solitude over the mouldering skeleton he has otu^e again mieovered, he honourably repays to it, per- hajjs by moonlight, the debt he has incurred. About a year or two ago, an English female tourist, whose name — though it does not deserve our protection — we are m)t disposed to mention, happening to pass some of these graves, uncovered one, and in the presence of two or three Indiuns, very coolly carried off the sleep- I 332 THE RED MAN. ing tenant's skull, as if it had been a specimen of quartz or granite. The lied witnesses during the act looked at each other in solemn silence, hut on imparting the ex- traordinary scene they had witnessed to their chief, councils were held, — the greates*^ possible excitement was ci'catcd, — and to this day, these simple people (or •■'savages," as we term them) speak with horror and re- pugnance of Avhat they consider an luicallcd-for and an unaccountable violation of ^hc respect which they think is religiously due to the dead. For our parts, we have often felt that we would not be haunted by the possession of that skull, for all the blue-stockings that ever were knit, or for all the acclamations that phrenologists can bestow. People who commit acts of this nature, little think of tlie serious consequences they may entail upon travellers who have the misfortune to follow them. The headless skeleton we have mentioned may yet be revenged, and certainly, if in the neighbourhood of his violated grave the body of a Wliite man should be found, " Cold, and drenched with blood. His bosom gored with mnny a wound. Unknown the manner of his death, Gone liis brand, both fword and sheatli," it might reasonably be noted down, that he had, most ])robably, been made to pay the penalty of the deed of a thoughtless Englishwoman. An Indian mourns for the loss of near relations from six to twelve months, by neglecting his personal appear- ance, and by blackening his face. THE RKD MAN. 333 L of quartz looked at ig the cx- icir chief, jxeiteiuent people (or or and rc- br and aii tluy think s, we have possession ever were iogists can ;lc think of \ travellers le lu'adlcss cnged, and ated grave had, most he deed of tions from lal appear- " A woman," says Dr. Morse, " will mourn for the loss of her liushand at least twelve months, during wliieh time slie ajipears to he very soHtary and sad, never speaking to any one, indess neeessary, and always wishing,' to he alone. At the expiration of her mourning, she will paint and dress as formerly, and endeavour to get another hushand." Wc believe this process is not peculiar to Kcd-skins. The "births" and "marriages/' which, according to the fashionable regulations of the ' jNIorniiig Post/ ought to have been noticed by us before the " deaths/' arc very easily described. The Red infant generally first opens his eyes, or •••^ther, utters his first squall, in a very small, low hovelj or den, made expressly for the occasion of his birth, and, from feelings of delicacy and propri(>ty, purposely removed some distance from the great wigwam of the family. In a very fe hours after his arrival, his mother walks with hini co her tril>e, where he gene- rally finds plenty of brothers, sisters, and young cousins ready to receive him. On suddenly ajjproaching an Indian family in sum- mer, they are generally found grouped together under the shade of some great tree ; and the first observation which strikes the white-faced stranger, is the whole- sale superabundant stock of health which the children possess. At a glance, it is evident that their consti- tutions must be impervious to the elements ; and there is a plumpness in their faces, a firmness in their flesh, and a deep ruddy bloom on their cheeks, which it is very j)leasing to behold. While these children, gam- ^ i I t 334 THE RED MAN. boiling nearly naked, are proelaiming pretty plainly by their outlines what a quantity of soup and food they have just been enjoying, the elder ones with their pa- rents arc generally seen ruminating in silenee, in a semicircle, in the centre of which arc to be observed, also seated on the ground, the grandfathers, great- grandfathers, aiul great-grandmothers of the tril)c. No- thing can be more patrliirchal — more free from can; or suftering of any kind — than the group we have de- lineated, which might justly be termed " a picture of health." The »umiing of an Indian is a serious act, which is always purposely involved as nnieh as possible in mys- tery. His name is to be the leading letter in the alphabet of his life, and, accordingly, as in the case of the Shandy family, it frecjueutly happens that a con- siderable time is suffered to elapse before it can be agreed on. During this period of doubt, the child is often made to fust, until something has been observed or recollected in the elements which have assailed him, — in the difficulties he has overcome, — in the circum- stances which attended his birth, — or in his disposition, to solve the problem, by suggesting an appropriate ap- pellation, which is then solemnly bestowed. And yet, proud as an Indian is of his own name, it is never- theless most singular, that he can never be induced to utter it ! We have often pressed them to do so, but always in vain : in fact, they avert their minds from the question with the same curious attitude in which a dog turns his head away whenever a clean, eiupty )luinly by food they their pa- ucc, in a observed, rs, grcat- ribc. No- froiw cure ; have de- picture of ;, which is le in mys- ter in the the case of lat a con- it can be lie chihl is n observed sailed him, lie circum- dispositiou, opriate ap- Aud yet, t is ncver- iuduceti to do so, but tniuds from e in which can, empty II THE RED MAV. 335 wine-ghiss is presented at him. " Oh no, we never mention him ! " is the modest reply of his countenance, and the most an Indian will ever do, when hard pressed, is to look full into the face of some Red brother at his side, who, without the slightest reluctance, relieves liira from his embarrassment, by smilingly pronouncing his comrade's name; although, if his oivn were to be asked of him, he woidd, in like manner, be suddenly con- founded. Among the Indians in both continents of America, marriage is considered as a civil contract, rather than as a religious ceremony. Polygamy is the excei)tiou rather than the rule, and it is gcneially contincd to the chiefs, and to men whose situations entail upon them the necessity of entertaining a number of guests, and who, therefore, absolutely recpiirc more female assistance than he who has only his own family to pro\idc for. One of the prime objects Avhich a young Indian hunter has in marrying i. to obtain a person who will work for him ; that is to say, who will cook his meals, make his clothes, repair his wigwam, gum his canoe, dress the skins he prociu'cs, etc. One of the great ob- jects which an Indian girl, in marrying, has in view, is to obtain a friend who will protect her in war as well as in peace, and who will procure for her food and covering. The connection, therefore, is one not only of natural and mutual benefit and happiness, but almost of necessity ; for, as there is no such thing known among them ns a hired servant, the greatest varrior can only get his dinner by marrying a woman to cook I 336 THE KED MAN. it; and, on the otlicr liand, tho yonng Indian girl (ac- cording to ^Irs. Glasse's r('ooi[)t of " first catch yonr liare ") cannot become a proi'csscd cook nntil she has managed to engage a hnshand to procure I'or her the game. Infinenccd by these two simple principles of attrac- tion, tliey marry very early; the yonng men being generally about eighteen years of age, tlic girls from twelve to foiu'tcen. If an Indian's possessions incrciisc, he docs not hesitate to add to tlicm another wife, and, accordingly, men arc occasionally found whose amount of property is testified by six or seven wi\ t's ; in which case, we are very sorry indeed to say, tlu; ladies usually rank in his aftectiou inversely as the dates of their com- missions ! That improvident marriages arc occasionally contracted ■will ])e evident, from the following anecdote of a young Indian of about eighteen, whose picture is to be seen in Mr. Catlin's gallery. The father of this lad having bequeathed to hiui nine horses and a wigwam, he naturally enough determined to marry ; and in the operation of reconnoitring for a wife, he found so many who exactly suited him, that his nuptials Avere appointed without delay. On tlu> tribe being assembled to Avitne^.s the ceremony, an old Indian stepped forward, and, delivering over to the man of for- tune his young blooming daughter, received from him in return a couple of horses. But before the ceremony could be proceeded with, three other Indians, with three other equally blooming daughters, successively presented / THE RED MAN. 337 Indian f,nrl (jic- rst ciitch your niitil slio lias ro lor licr the pics of uttrao- 1^' men bcinsr :lio f^irls from 'xions increase, tlicr wif(>^ and, vliosc amount vcs ; in wliich ladies usually of their com- dly contracted tc of a young: to be seen in 1 to him nine h detei-nn'ncd loitriiig for a him, that his 3n the ti-ibe n old Indian > man of fo,. fn)m him in »c cenmiony s, with three ;ly prcscjitcd to tlic young bridegroom a wife, for each of whom they received, according to his previous promise, a couple of liorsesj and yet each of the four fath(!rs, all having separately Ikhmi bound to secrecy, had conceived that Ins daughter alone was to be the " wedded wife." While the improvident young man, whose patrimony had thus suddenly dwindled into nothing but one horse, four wives, and a wigwam, was quietly leading away his ])art- ners, two in each hand, to his tent, the spectators, left in the circle in which they had ranged themselves, re- mained for a few moments in mute refhiction. However the act they had witn(>ssed was so imexpcetcd, so impro- vident, and so mmsual, that, not knowing how to digest it, on our old " omne-ignotum-pro-magnifico" principle, they voted it a mystery ; and accordingly at once pro- nouncing the bridegroom to be " a mystery, or medicine man. y "Tlicy left him alone in his glory !" As the anecdote just related does not sound very cha- racteristic of the purity of Indian women, we feel it pro- per to observe that, degraded as their condition cert i inly is, wherever they ha\ e been eoutaminated by tlie vices of the Old World, yet in their natural state they are usu- ally distinguished by an innate modesty, and by a pro- priety of conduct, to which even the trad(n's among them have borne ample testimony. And thus, although these people are always furnished Avith trinkets, of inestimable value to the Indians, to he giv(Mi to them as presents, for the sole object of conciliating the tribe, and though they have too often endeavoured to misapply these presents, VOL. I. Q Iti 338 TIIK RED MAN. yet the trnders do not liesitate to confess how constantly they have fonnd themselves haflkHh While the Red wonum in her wi<?wam is attending to her haby, making mocassins for lier hnsband, preparing gum for his canoe, etc., he is infinitely more actively em- idoycd, either in the prairies, ii\ pursuing the buffalo, or in the forest, in tracking the deer and the bear; but during the Inuiting-scason the Imlians usually wander, Avith their families, over an immense -"gion of country, to many parts of which they must unavoidably be total strangers. On leaving the wigwam in this new region which con- tains his children, and which, in the recesses of the in- terminable desert, can scarcely be seen twenty yards off, the hunter piu'sncs his (U)ursc in whatever direction he tliiidvs most likely to lead him to game. After travel- ling for nnmy hours, he at last comes up with footmarks, upon M'liich, from their freshness, he determines to settle ; he accordingly follows them throughout their eccentric C(mrsc; M'hcrever the animal has turned, he turns; and in this way, for a considerable time, and with his mind highly excited, he prosecutes his game, until he actually has it in view. AVith inicrring aim he then fires his rifle or his arrow ; and when his victim, having fallen, lias been despatchcMl by his knife, leaving the carcase on the ground, and without attempting to retrace his own foot- steps, he instinctively dives into the forest, and proceeds to his wigwam, as straight as an arrow to the target ! This astonishing recollection, notwithstanding the ex- citement of the chase, of the carte-du-j)ays through which TIIR RED MAN. 339 constantly ttcnding to prcparinj? ctivcly cm- bntljilo, or bear; but ly wander, jf country, »ly be total I eou- whicl of tbe in- yards off, iTction be ftcr travel- footmarks, s to settle ; r eccentric ;urns; and I bis mind le actually •es bis rifle Fallen, lias asc on tbc own foot- 1 proceeds target ! iig tbe ex- ngb wbich ho bunted, may be offered as anotber proof against tbc assertion tbat tbe Indians arc our inferiors in mental power. Wben a Red Man returning from liuuting, as we bavo described, enters bis wigwam, it s jbe custom of bis wife to say notbing ; sbc docs not presume to ask wbat suc- cess be 1ms bnd ; for, anxious as sbc is, and as be bas been, on tbe subject, sbc knows be is too tired to talk, and tbat be wants not conversation, but rest and refrcsb- ment. Accord" igly sbc presents to bim dry mocassins, and, as quickly as possible, b ^ food, wbieb, in dead 8ilene(>, be pevtiiiaeiously devt i.r . AVbile be is tlms en- gaged, it may (>asily bt ■oiiccived tbat f mi\o curiosity is almost ready to burst tbc red skin tbat contains it. If tbe Indian bappcns to draw out bis knife, tbc wife's dark eyes eagerly glance ujwn it, to sec if she can dis- cover welcome blood, or a single hair of an animal upon its blade. If b( gives her bis pouch, Avitb an arbi- trary motion of bis band to lay it aside, in oi)eying tbc silent mandate, sbc peeps into it, to see if tbe red tongue- string of tbe (leer, wbieb tbe hunter cuts out as a tro])by, is there. She looks at the lock of bis rifle, to ascertain if it has I). . :• often fired ; or at bis quiver, to count if any of his arrows are missing; in short, she endeavours, by every means in her power, to find out, just as fine Lon- don ladies do, what tbc husbatul bas been doing when from home — at "the club," or elsewhere. Wbile tbe Indian is occupied at his meal, we may take the opportunity of observing tbat these people pride themselves in holding all sorts of food in very q3 340 THE RED MAN. !: nearly equal esteem. A Mohawk Chief told Dr. INIorse, " that a man eats everything without distinction — bears, cats, dogs, snakes, frogs," etc. ; adding, that " it was womanish to have any delicacy in the choice of food." Tliey will take a turkey, pluck off' the feathers, and then, without any further operation, roast it and eat it, just as we deal with oysters. In some tribes, there is no doubt they even eat the bodies of their prisoners. Colonel Schuyler told Dr. Morse, that during their war with the French, he was invited to eat broth with them, which was ready cooked. He did so; until, as they were stirring the ladle in the kettle, to give him some more, up rose to the sixrface a Frenchman's hand, which, as may easily be conceived, put a full stop to his appetite. As soon as the hunter ])cforc us is refreshed and full, of his oAvn accord he begins to relate to the partner of his wigwam where he has been, and what he has done. He tells us where he found his track, where it turned, and how it dodged. He crouches down, as he describes where he first sot a view of his game, and apparently it is again within his savage grasp, as, starting from his seat, he exultingly shows the manner and the vital part in which he stabbed it. When this domestic scene in the picture-gallery of an Indian's fireside is concluded, it is the duty of the wife to go and bring tlie dead animal home — an act which a thoroughbred hunter considers would degrade him. Accordingly from the description which has 1)cen given to her of the spot on which it fell, by retracing her hus- band's footsteps, wherever it is possible to do so, and THE RED MAN. 341 Dr. jNIorsc, ion — bears, it "it was 3 of food." , and then, t it, just as s no doubt Colonel ir with tlie em, whieh they were 3nic more, which, as appetite, d and full, partner of has done, it turned, describes )arently it from his vital part Icry of an f the wife act which ade him. :en given her hus- ) so, and above all by attentively looking out to the right and left for the hanging tAvigs, whieh, she knows, in returning to the wigwam, he will have broken, to show her his path, she manages to arrive at the slaughtered game, of which, it may fairly be said, she earns her share, by bringing it on her shoulders to the den. If our limits could admit them, endless are the sketches that might be offered to our readers of the simple habits and domestic scenes of the Red denizens of America; but it is necessary that we should now turn our thoughts to the more important and more painful consideration of the fatal results which their intercourse with the civilized world has already pro- duced, and must inevitably, we fear, consummate. It is melancholy to reflect in what different colours Columbus may be painted by the inhabitants of the New and Old World. His philosophical calculations, — his shrewd observations, — his accurate deductions from a few simple facts, which, by the dull multitude, had remained almost unnoticed, — his unalterable determina- tion to bring his theory into practice, — his unflinching perseverance, — his victory over the ignorant prejudice and superstition which " like envious clouds seemed bent to dim his glory and check his bright course to the Occident," — his personal courage, — his tact in propelling his crew, — his artifices in supporting their drooping spirits, — the eventual accomplishment of his great ob- ject, — and the accurate fulfilment of his prophecy, com- bine in making us consider him as one of the most distinguished men that the Old World has ever pro- 342 THE RED MAN. ¥ duccd. On the other hand, by the Red Aborigines he may justly be depicted as the personification of their Manito, or evil spirit, — in short, of that serpent which has brought " death into their world and all its Avoe." And thus, however we may bless the name of Columbus, most certainly accursed to them has been the hour when the White man^s foot first landed on their shore, and when his pale hand, in friendship, first encountered their red grasp ! The vast Indian empires of Mexico and Peru have, as we all know, been as completely depopulated by the inhabitants of the Old World as the little cities of Her- culancura and Pompeii were smothered by the lava and and eindei*s of Vesuvius. In less populous, though not less happy regions, by broadsides of artillery, by volleys of musketry, by the bayonet, by the terrific aid of horses, and even by the savage fury of dogs, the Christian world managed to extend the lodgment it had eft'ected among a naked and iuoft'ensive people. In both hemispheres of America the same horrible system of violence and invasion are at this moment in operation. The most bai'barous and improvoked at- tempts to exterminate the mounted Indians in the neighbourhood of Buenos Ayres have lately been made. In the United States, upwards of thirty-six millions of dollars have been expended during the last four years in the vain attempt to drive the Seminoles from their hunting-grounds. What quantity of Indian blood has been shed by this money is involved in mystery. The American General in command, it is said, tendered his THE llED MAN. 343 origiucs he u of their >cnt which its Avoe." Cohimbus, lour when shore, and icountered ^eru ha^e, ted by the 3s of Hcr- e lava and hough not by volleys of horses, tian world ;ed among 3 horrible loment iu oked at- s in the en made, lillions of 'ur years oni their »lood has •y. The lered his resignation unless he were granted^ in this dreadful war of extermination, the assistance of bloodlioiuids ; and it has also been asserted that, on a motion being made, in one of the State Legislatures, for an inquiry into this allegation, the proposition was negatived and the in- vestigation suppressed. At all events the aggression against the Seminoles still continues ; a pack of blood- hounds has already been landed in the United States from the Island of Cuba ; and while the Indian vi^omcn, with blackened faces, are mourning over the bereave- ment of their husbands and their sons, and treudjling at the idea of their infants being massacred by the doj;ii of war, which the authorities of the State of Florida have, it appears from the last American newspapers, determined to let loose, the Republic rejoices at the anticipated extension of its territory, and, as usual, smartly boasts that it is " going ahead \" In the Old World, war, like every other pestilence, rages here and there only for a certain time ; but the gradual extinction of the Indian race has unceasingly been in operation from the first moment of our discovery of America to the present hour ; for m hether we come in \ contact witLour Red brethren as enemies or as friends, they everywhere melt before us like snow before the sun. / Indeed it is difficult to say whether our friendship or our enmity has been most fatal. The infectious disorders which, in moments of pro- found peace, we have unfortunately introduced, have proved inlinitcly more destructive and merciless tluiu our engines of war. By the siuallpux alone it has been 344 THE RED MAN. V 'i I computed that half the Indian population of North Ame- rica has been swept away. There is sometliing particu- larly affecting in tlie idea of the inhabitants even of a so- litary wigwam being suddenly attacked by an invisible, malignant agency from the Old "World which, almost on the selfsame day, has rendered them all incapable of providing for each other, or even or themselves ; and it is dreadful to consider in how many instances, by the simultaneous death of the adults, the young and helpless must have been left in the lone wilderness to starve ! But not only whole families, but whole tribes, have been almost extinguished by this single disease, which is supposed to have proved fatal to at least seven millions of Indians. The Pawnee nation have been reduced by it from 25,000 to 10,000. When Mr. Catlin lately visited the Mandan tribe, it consisted of 2000 people, particu- larly distinguished by theii* handsome appearance and by their high character for courage and probity. They received him with affectionate kindness, and not only admitted him to all their most secret mysteries, but in- stalled him among the learned of their tribe, and afforded him every possible assistance. He had scarcely left them, when two of the fur-traders infected them Avith the smallpox, which caused the death of the whole tribe ! Not an individual has survived ; indeed had not Mr. Catlin felt deep and honourable interest in their fate, it is more than probable it never would have reached the coast of the Atlantic, or been recorded in history. Aiul, thus, by a single calamity, has been swept away a whol'j nation, respecting whom it was proverbial among the THE RED MAN. 345 ^orth Amc- nj? particu- eii of a so- il invisible, , almost on ncapablc of vcs; and it ceSj by tlic nd helpless starve ! ribcs, have sC, which is millions of luced by it itcly visited lie, partien- arancc and lity. They d not only ies, but in- nd afforded :'arccly left them with ^hole tribe! \ not Mr. leir fate, it eached the )ry. And, ay a whole ;imong the traders, who unintentionally exterminated them, "that never had the Mandans been known to kill a lohite man !" Of our destruction of the Indians by the smallpox, it may at least be said that the alfliclion was soon over. There has been however another importation by which we have destroyed them, which has proved not only al- most as fatal, but has been so by a lingering and most re- volting process, — we allude to the introduction of ardent spirit, or, as it is generally called in America, of whisky. In our own country we are all early taught, and we every day see before our eyes as a warning, the miserable effects of drunkenness ; but the poor Indian has received no such lesson or experience ; on the contrary, the white traders tell him the draught will increase his valour and udd to his strength. lie accordingly raises it to his lips, and from that moment he becomes, almost without me- taphor, " a fallen man." The exhilarating effect which it at first produces he never forgets, and when he has been once into icated, there is nothing he possesses which is not within the easy grasp of the trader. The women and the children equally become victims to this thirst for poison ; and it is melancholy to think that, exactly in proportion as the wigwam is denuded by the trader of the furs, skins, and coverings it contains, so inversely are its simple tenants made physically less competent than they were to resist the cold, the inclemencies, the hardships, and the vicissitudes of a savage life. In populous, civilized communities, where, by the di- vision of labour, each man's attention is directed to one minute object, the loss of health and strength is only of Q 3 346 THE RED MAX. i comparative iiiipoitcnioc ; i)ut it is dreadful to reflect upon th.^ sihi's^iou of a ])Oor Indian liunter, Avlicn he finds that hit* iisrths n~o daiiv iailing liim in the chase, that his arrow ceases to go rimight, and that his nerves, he loiows irt why, tremble bit'orc the wild animals it was but lately his pride to eneounter ! The varit't}' of deuiora iziu^ eft'ects produced in a wig- wam, by selling a gallon oi' two of whisky to an Indian family of mec. won; i , and children, could not with pro- priety be deaciibed, and miist be witnessed to be con- ceived. It may easily however be imagined that they end in their sickness, in their infamy, in the destruction of their noble constitutions, and, eventually, in their death. By this liquid tire, whole families and whole nations ha\e been, not as by a conflagration only con- sumed, but they have ended their days in the most squalid misrry and woe, — in long- protracted anguish. The hon'id system has not, however, we regret to say, shared the fate of those it has destroyed ; on the con- trary, every year it has become better organized, and, from the subtlety of the traders, it is now more impos- sible than ever to be prevented. For whatever object a body of Indians is assembled, whether for peace, for war, or even to listen to the doctrines of our revered religion, the traders like wolves come skulking around them, and, like eagles in the neighbourhood of a field of battle, ho- vering just out of the reach of gunshot, they are confi- dent of the enjoyment of their prey. In the vast regions of the prairies alone, it has been accurately estimated that there are at this moment from six hundred to eight THE RED MAX. 317 I to reflect •, when Ijc the chase, his nerves, animaJs it d in a wise an Indian with pro- o be eon- that they estruetion in their md whole only eon- the most ^ anguish, -t to say, the cou- ized, and, re inipos- !• object a , for war, religion, 'em, and, ittle, ho- re confi- ; regions stimated to eight hundred traders (many of whom have fled as outlaws from the civilized world, for the most horrible crii)U"s) daily employed in deluging the poor Indians with whisky. There is another mode in which tlu; Red man is mado to fade away before the withering progress of civiliza- tion; we allude to the rapid destruction of the game necessary for his subsistence. In proportion as the sword, smallpox, and whisky have depopulated the coun- try of the Indians, the settlement of the whites lias gra- dually and triumphantly advanced; and their demand for skins and furs has proportionately increased. In the splendid regions of the " far west," which lie betAveen the Missouri and the Uoeky M untains, there are living at this moment on the prairies various tribes who, if left to themselves, would continue for ages to subsist on the bufl'alo which cover the plains. The skins of these animals however have become valuable to the Whites, and accordingly this beautiful verdant country, and these brave and independent people, have been invaded by white traders who, by paying to them a pint of whisky for each skin (or " robe," as they are termed in Ame- rica), which sells at New York for ten or twelve dollars, induce them to slaughter these animals in immense numbers, leaving their flesh, the food of the Indian, to rot and putrefy on the ground. No admonition or cau- tion can arrest for a moment the propelling power of the whisky; accordingly, in all directions, these poor, thoughtless beings are seen furiously riding under its influence in pursuit of their game, or, in other words, in the fatal exchange of food for poison. It has been '. 318 THE RED MAN. very attentively calculated by the traders, who manage to colleet per annum from 150,000 to 200,000 buffalo skins, that at the rate at which these animals are now disposed of, in ten years they will be all killed off. Whenever that event happens, Mr. Catlin very justly prophesies that 250,000 Indians, now living in a plain of nearly three thousand miles in extent, must die of starvation, and become a prey to the wolves; or that they must attack the powerful ncighbounng tribes of the Rocky Mountains ; or, in the frenzy of despair, rush u])on the White population on the forlorn hope of dis- lodging it. In the two latter alternatives there exists no chance of success ; and we have therefore the appalling reflection before us, that these 250,000 Indians must soon be added to the dismal list of those who have al- ready withered and disappeared, leaving their country to ])loom and flourish in the possession of the progeny of another world ! Among the noblest of the tribes, whose melancholy fate has just been so painfully anticipated, are the " Crows," said by Mr. Catlin to be the handsomest In- dians he ever visited. Their jet-black hair, as they stand, touches the ground, while in riding after the buffalo at full speed, it is seen streaming behind them in the most beautiful form. In their war-dress, the plume of eagles' featliers ornaments their brows, a lance fourteen feet in length giving a wild finish to the picture. Their wig- wam-villages are situated on the verdant prairies, the surface of which is, in some places, as flat as the ocean, in others diversified by undulating hills, which, covered THE RED MAN. 319 lio manage )00 l)ufrulo lis arc now kiUed off. cry justly in a plain lust die of !s; or that ibcs of the pair, rush )pe of dis- herc exists e appalling ians must o have al- country to )rogeny of lelancholy are the omest In- hey stand, buffalo at the most of eagles' en feet in 'heir wig- liries, the he oeean, i, covered with pastiu'c to their very summits, form a striking con- trast with the l)right shining snow that everlastingly caps the Rocky INIountains, and with the dark, deep blue sky which reigns above all. The same system of destruction is at this moment going on in detail, but quite as fatally, throughout the whole continent of North America, including our British North American colonics, where the lands of the Indians arc faithfully secured to them, aiul where every attempt to seduce them to ruin themselves has been, and still is, discoiuitcnanccd. In all these regions, their eventual extinction, by almost starvation, appears unavoidable. Even in Canada, however strictly their hunting-grounds may be maintained inviolate, yet, in consequence of the white population settling around them on lands belong- ing to the British Crown, their supply of food is rapidly cut off, until the poor Iiulian finds, he knows not why, that it has become almost vain to go in search of it ; for the game of America is not like that in England, the produce of the land on which it is found ; but, migrating and wandering throughout the forest, it is not only easily scared from its haunts, but, by tree-cutting and cultiva- tion, it is effectually arrested in its course. The last of the means we shall mention by which white people have prosecuted, and are still prosecuting, their desolating march over the territory of the Indians, is either by persuading them to sell their lands, as the British Government has occasionally done, or hy forcing them to do so, as we regret to say has been too often the case in other parts of America. ^^ 350 THE RED MAN. I fi< ir, Of till the title-deeds recorded in "the chaneery of heaven," there surely can he no one more indisputahlo than the right which the Red ^Fan of Ami r'u a has to inhahit his own hnnting-grounds ; nevertheless, in Dr. Morse's Rejjort to the Secretary at War, he states: — "The relation which the Tiulians sustain to the rjovornmcnt of the United States is peculiar in its nature. Tli;'ir iiulepeu- dence, their rij^lits, tlieir title to the soil which they oceui)y, are all uiijtetfect in their kind. " Indians have no other jjroperty to the soil of their respec- tive territories than that of mere occupancy. . . . The com- ])Iet£ title to their lands rests in the Govermnent of the United tituten /" In support of this urgent decision, the Ilonourahle John Quincey Adams expended tlic following string of fine words : — " There are moralists who have (|uestioned the riglit of the Eur()[)eans to intrude upon the possessions of the ahorij^iuals in any case, and under any linntutions whatsoever ; hut have they maturely considered the whole suhject 1 The Indian riyht of possession itself stands, with regard to the greatest i)art of the country, upon a qaediunnhle foundation. Their cultivated fields, their constructed habitations, a space of ample sutiiciency for their subsistence, and whatever tliey had annexed of them- selves by personal labom-, was midoubtedly, by the laws of Na- ture, theirs. But what is the right of a huntsman to the forest of a thousand nnles, over which he has accide^hhiUy ranged in quest of prey ? Shall the liberal bounties of Providence to the race of man be monopolized by one of ten thousand for whom they are created? Shall the exuberant bosom of the mother- country, amply adequate to the nourishment of millions, be claimed exclusively by a few hundreds of her oflspring ] Shall TIIi: llED MAN 351 luiiccry of idispiitablu ica has to ess, in Dr. tatcs : — jrovcrnmcnt eir imlcpL'U- ! occui)}', uro tlu'ir H'spt'C- . Tlu' com- f the United [loiiourablc iij>- string of riylit of tlio iiboi'ij^iiiiils r ; liut have Iiuliiin right atcat part of ir cultivated k' ssuttififucy xetl of tlu'in- e hiAN s of Nu- to the forest III) ranjj'ed in idence to tho nd for whom f the mother- milliona, be ring } Shall the lordly suvaj^'o not only disdain tho virtues and enjoynienta of civilization himself, but shall he control the civilization of the worlil i Sliidl he l'orl)i<l the wilderness to blossom like tho rose? Shall he forbid the oahs of the forest to fall befoic the ttxo of industry, and rise a<,'ain, transformed into the hal)ita- tutions of case and elegance ? Shall he doom an immense region of the globe to perpetual desolation, and to hear tho howliiiifs of the tiger and the wolf silence for ever the voice of human gladness I Shall the tielda and the valleys, which a beucticent God has framed to teem with the life of innumerable nmltitudes, be condemned t(t everlasting barrenness ? Shall the mighty risers, poured out by the hands of Nature, as chan- nels of eommiuiieation between numerous natioii>, roll their waters in sullen silence and eternal solitude to the deep ? Have hundreds of commodious harbours, a thousand leagues of coast, and a boundless ocean, been 8i)read in the front of this land, and shall every purpose of utility to which they could ajiidy be prohibited by the tenant of the woods ? No, yoierous phl- /loif/irojiists ! Heaven has not been thus inconsistent in the works of its hands ! Heaven has not thus placed its moral laws at irreconcilable strife with its physical creation ! " The award of the Supreme Court of tho United States, on the subject of Indian titles, was as follows : — " The majority of the Court is of opinion that the nature of the Indian title, which is certainly to be respected by all courts, ^ird'd it he leyitimatel ij e.rftiujnid/ied, is not such as to be abso- lutely repugnant to ichm in fee on the part of the State." ! ! ! Although the fort'g<-ing extracts may fail to explain satisfactorily to our readers t'\c tenure of Indian lands, they will at least show the lamentable predicament iu which the Red native landlord stands on his hunting- grounds in the United States. The poor creature is '•1 352 TIIK RED MAN. n ^ ..:i ^'f between Avhitc law on the one side, and wliite whisky on the other; the one disputes his titU', the other obhte- rates it by "dropping a cur on the word, and hbtting it out for ever;" and thus, Sy the co-operation of l)()th, without even the assiatauec of the bayonet, is the tenant finally ejeetcd. In scv(nal instanees, however, the Indian tribes, in- stead of consenting to sell their lands and abandon the homes of their ancestors, have unbiu'ied the hatchet of war, and fought against the regular troops with a despe- ration and a courage whi(;h have proved so invincible, that it has lately been officially announced to Congress, that, notwithstanding the enormous expenses of the at- tack upon the Seminoles, no sensible (iff'ect has been pro- duced. But these are rare cases ; and even in these the ultimate result is quite clear. In many more instances, the Red landlords, seeing their inability to resist, have obediently consented to retire, in which case the Govern- ment of the United States has agreed to pay them one and a half cent (the hundredth part of a dollar) per acre for their lauds, — which lands have been often immediately re-sold by the State for a dollar or a dollar and a half per acre. But besides this profit, the said Government, which always takes very good care to exact from the White purchasers of its own lands prompt payment in silver, not only at best pays the Indians for their lands in paper-money, or in goods, but, when it is convenient, claims as its right that the purchase-money need not be paid until thirty years, by which time the poor Indians, who reluctantly surrendered their territory, will probably THE RED MAN. 353 itc whisky tluT obli te- nd blotting )ii of hotli, the teuunt tribes, in- ibtindoii tbo ; hatchet of ith a despe- ) invincible, ;o Congress, s of the at- as been pro- in these the re instances, resist, have the Govern - ay them one lar) per acre immediately • and a half jrovernment, ict from the t payment in V their lands J convenient, need not be K)or Indians, ivlll probably all be dead ! In short, these sales of land amount so very nearly to an ejectment, that it may easily he con- ceived the Indians only consent to them when; either the power of White man's law, or the strength of his whisky, proves greater than they can withstand. Their attachment to their soil and to their own habits of life, have ever been aflectingly evinced in their various answers to those whose otlieial duty it has been to ad- vocate the (iovernment rec(mnuendation that they should contract their dominions. About twenty years ago, the President recommended to a Pawnee chief who came to Washington on purpose to see him, that he and his tribe should, under the su- perinteiulence of missionaries, till their land like white people. The unlettered " savage," after having listened with the gravest attention, made the following speech, translated l)y a sworn reporter, aiul which we present to our readers as a fair specimen of the clear unpremedi- tated oratory of the Red Man : — " My great Father, I have travelled a long distance to see you. I have seen you, and my heart rejoices : I have heard your words : they have entered one ear and shall not escape out of the other : I will carry them to my people as pure as they came from your mouth. " Mif (jrcat Father, I am going to speak the truth; the Oreat Spirit looks down upon us, and I call him to witness all that may pass between us on this occasion. The Great Spii'it made us all : He made my skin red and yours white. He placed us on this earth, and intended we should live differently from each other. He made the Whites to cultivate the earth and feed on tame animals ; but he made us lied men to rove through the woods and plains, to feed on wild animals, and to dress in 354 THE RED MAN. their skins. He also iuteiuleil that we should go to war to take scalps, steal horses, tiiuinph over our eueinies, promote peace at home, and the hapi)ines3 of each other. I believe tl ^e are no people of any colour on this earth who do not believe in the Great Spirit — in rewards and punishments. We worship Him, but not as you do. We differ from you in I'e- ligion, as we diflier in appearance, in manners, and in customs. We have no large houses, as you have, to worship the Great Spirit in. If we had them today, we should want others to- morrow, because we have not, like you, a fixed hal>itation ; excei)t our villages, where we remain but two moons out o twelve. We, like animals, roam over the country, while you Whites live between us and Heaven ; but still, my Father, we love the Gre»t Spirit. " My great Father, some of your chiefs have proposed to p«nd good people [Missionaries] among us to change our habits , to teach us to work, and live like the white peoi)le. I wil not tell you a He. Yun love your country ; yoii love your jjcople : you love the manner in which they live, and you think your people brave. I am like you, niy great Father ! / love my country ; / love my people ; / love the life we lead, and think my warriors brave. " Spare me then, my Father. Let me enjoy my country, let me pursue the buffalo, the beaver, and the other wild animals, and I will trade the skins with your people. It is too soon, my great Father, to send your good men among us. Let us exhaust our present resources before you interrupt our happi- ness and make us toil. Let me continue to live as I have lived, and after I have passed from the wilderness of my pre- sent life to the Good or Evil Spirit, my children may need and embrace the offered assistance of your good people. " Here, nvy great Father, is a pipe which 1 offer you, as I am accustomed to present i)ipes to all Ived-skins who are in peace with us. I know that these robes, leggings, mocassins, bears'-claws, etc, are of little value to you ; but we wish the THE RED MAN. 355 50 to war to lies, promote r. I believe I who do not ilimcnts. We •ni you in re- 1 in customs, lip the Grreat it others to- hul>itation ; loons out o y, while you y Father, we proposed to ;e our habits , jple. I wil 'It, love your id yuii think ler ! / love ,ve lead, and country, let ild auiuuiLs, is too so(m, us. Let us t our hajjpi- e as I have of my pre- ly need and t'r you, as I who are in , nioc'ii.ssiiis, i wish the to be doiiosited and preserved, so that when we are gone, and the earth turned over upon our bones, our children, should they ever visit this place, as we do now, may see and recognize the deposits of their fathers, and reflect on the times that are past." It will readily be coiircived, that if the Indian Sachems were not afraid to avow to " their great father" their dis- inclination to remove from their lands, they would with less liesitation express the same reluctance to subordinate authorities. By every possible argument, on hundreds of occasions, the officers of the United States' Indian Department have zealously endeavoured to persuade th^* tribes to evacuate their lands ; and the following extract from a speech of Dr. Morse himself to the Ottawas at L'Arbre Croche, on the Gtli of July, 1820, will sufficiently show in what proportion truth, sophistry, and well-dis- guised threats, have been mixed in these sort of official appcjals to the doubts, hopes, and fears of the Indian race. Their attention to tlie important subject of his com- mmiication was thus invoked : — " C^dldren, your father, the President, thinks that a great ehaime in the situation of his Rod children has become ueces- sary, in order to save them from ruin and to make them happy. " Children, listen attentively to what I am now about to say to you. It is for your life, and the life of your posterity." The title of the Whites to the lands they had already cidtivatcd, the especial favour shown to them from heaven, the inferiority of the Red Man, and the desperate di- lemma in which he is placed, were thus explained : — " Chiklren, your fathers once possessed all the country, east and south, to the great waters. They were very uumerous and !■•' 356 THE KED MAN. K i\ I ■; ''..i It-' powerful, and lived chiefly by hunting and fishing. They had brave warriors, and orators eloquent in council. "Two hundred years ago, a mortal pestilence spread wide among the Indians on the coast of the great ocean to the east, and swept away a great part of them. In some villages all died — not one was left. Just after this great desolation, the white people began to come across the great waters. They settled first on lands where no Indians lived- — where they all had died. Other white people, about the same time, settled at the south. " These white people came not as enemies, but as friends of the Indians. They purchased of them a little land, to support them and their children by agriculture. They wanted but little while they were few in number. God prospered the white people. They have since increased and multiplied, and become a great and powerful nation. Tliey are now spread over a wide extent of the country of your fathers ; and are spreading still more and faster over other parts of it, purchasing millions of acres of your good land, leaving for you and your children reservations here and there, small indeed, compared with the extensive hunting-grounds you once possessed. What your brothers, the Osages, said to one of our niissionaries is true : — * W/ierever White Man sets down his /oof, he never takes it vp again. It grows fast and sj/reculs icide.' You have been obliged either to go back into the wilderness, and seek new hunting-grounds and dwelling-places, or to live on your small reservations, surrounded with white people. Indians cannot associate with the white people as their equals. While they retain their present language and dress and habits of life, they will feel their inferiority to the white i)eople. Where they have no game to hunt, to furnish thena with furs for trade, and with food to eat, they become poor, and wretched, and spirit- less, dependent on the white people for their support. They will give themselves up to idleness, ignorance, and drunken- ness ; and will yaste away, and by-and-by have no posterity THE RED MAN. 357 S. They had 3 spread wide in to the east, le vilhiges all lesolation, the waters. They vhere they all ime, settled at t as friends of id, to support Y wanted but jrod the white 1, and become ipread over a are sjjreadiiig ising millions your children ired with the What your ies is true : — er takes it vp u have been md seek new m your small dians cannot While they s of life, they Where they for trade, and (1, and spirit- ppovt. They tnd druidicn- no posterity on the face of the earth. Already, many tribes who live among the whites can never more gain renown in war or in the chase. If this course continues, it will soon be so with the whole body of Indians within the territories of the United States. Indians cannot go to the west, for tiie great ocean would stop them ; nor turn to the north or south, for in e'ther course are the hunting-grounds and dwelling-j:lacr's of other tribes of your red brethren; no, nor can you go to any other country, for all the countries on the globe, where Indians can live as they now live, are already inhabited." Among many very estiniablc people in the United States, it has been a subject of constant regret with what heartless disrcbpcct the ancient burial-places of the Abo- rigines have been treated, and with what sliameless un- concern the skulls uid bones of their ancestors arc every day to be still seen turning over and over muler the American plougli. We cannot admire the crocodile's tears which the paternal a(/ent cfuulesccnded to drop on that subject ;— " Ckihlren, things being so, the wisest men among Indians know not what to ad\ise, or what to do. They imagine that the Grciit Spirit, of whose character and jjOvernment they have but very imperfect ideas^ is angry with the red people, and is destroying them, while He prospers the white people. Aged and wise men among Indians, with whom I have con- versed, think and talk of these things, till their countenances become sad. Otw countenances are also sad, wdien we think and talk of them. Hereafter, when these things shall have come to pass. Christian Avhite people, who loved Indians, and wished and endeavoured to save them, will visit their deserted graves, and with weeping eyes exclaim, ' Here Indians once lived — yonder were their hunting-grounds. Here they died — 358 THE hed man. '.)•■ I in tliese mounds of earth the bones of many pfonemtions lie buried toffcther. No Indian remains to watch over the bones of his fathers — where are they ? — alas 1 poor Indiatis t ' But I forbear to pursue these sad reflections. The prospect mu«t fill your minds with sad apprehensions for yourselves and your children, and sink your spirits, as it does taij oini. " ! 1 ! The hearts of the auditory having been sufficiently depressed, the only means of relief was at last pointed out to them : — " Children, I would not have presented this painful pro- spect before you, had I not another to present, that I hope will cheer your hearts, raise your s])irits, and brin'hten your countenances. I have made you sorry, I will now endeavour to make you glad. " Children, be of good cheer. Though your situation and prospects are now gloomy, they may change for the better. If you desire to be happy, you may be ha])py. The means exist. They are freely ottered to you. Suffer them to be usetl. " Children, listen. I will tell you in few words what your great Father, and the Christian white people, desire of you. We impose nothing on you. We only lay before you oin* opin'ons for you to consider. We do not dictate, as your su- periors, but advise you as your friends. Consider our advice- " Your father, the President, wishes Indians to partake, with his white children, in all the blessings which they fn- joy ; to have ore country, one government, the same laws, Cxqual rights and j)rivileges, and to be in all respects on an equal footing w'th them. " To accomplish these good purposes, your great father, the President, and your t-'hristian fathers, will send among you, at their ovm, expense, good white men and women, to instruct you and your children in everything that j)ertains to the civili>;:d and Christian life." i THE RED MAN. 359 Qfonerations He ovor the bones nd'umis ! ' But prospect muHt selves and your "M."!!! ;u sufKeiently last pointed is painful pro- lit, tliat I hope , l)ri<;hton your now endeavour r situation and • the bettor. If he means exist, be used. w words what eo]tle, desire of before you our to, as yoiu' su- dor our advice ns to i)artako, wliieli they fn- the same law.s, respects on an roat father, the amon;.^ you, at to instruct you to the civili>;?d ; 1 The case and the prerliearaent in which they stood having been pretty clearly stated, the poor Indians were finally summoued to surrender in the following signifi- cant words : — " Cltilihr.n, other tribes are listening to these offers, and, wc expect, win accejjt them. All who accept thera will be in the way to be saved, and raised to respectability and usefulness in life. Thoise who persist in rejecting them nnist, according to all past exjierience, gradually waste away till all are gonr. This we fully believe. Civ'dhdtlon or ruin are noio the unJy altenuitUien of Judlans .'" The alternatives thus oflered may be illustrated by the following anecdote. Once upon a time a w liite man and an Indian, who had agreed that, while hunting together, they would share the game, found at night that the bag- contained a fine turkey and a carrion buzzard. " Well ! " said the white man to the red one, " we must now divide what we have taken ; and therefore, if you please, / will take the turkey, and you shall take the buzzard ; or else, you may take the buzzard, and / will take the turkey ! " "Ah!" replied the native hunter, shaking his black, shaggy head, " you no say turkey for poor Indian once ! " The cruel manner in which the imsuspecting Indians have invariably been overreached has, at last, to a small degree, planted in their bosoms suspicions wiiich arc not indigenous to their natiu'c. " Your hearts seem good outside now,"^ said an Iiuliau to a party of white people who were making to Ills tribe violent professions ( \' friendship ; " but we wish to try them three years, and then we shall know whe^'icr they are good inside'^ 360 TH3 RED MAN. ,11 ! Dr. Morse, in his report to the Secretary at War, says, " Distrust unfortunately exists among the Indians. In repeated interviews with them, after detailing to them M'iiat good things their great father the President was ready to bestow on them, if they were willing to receive them, the chiefs significantly shook their heads and said, " It may he so, or it may be not : we doubt it : WE KNOW NOT WHAT TO BELIEVE !" Now, surely there is something very shocking as well as very hmniliating in the idea of our having ourselves implanted this feeling against our race, in the minds of men who, when any treaty among themselves has l)een once ratified, by the delivery of a mere string of wampum shells, will trust their lives and the lives of their families to its faithful execution ! In order to assist the officers of the Indian Department in their arduoiis duty of persuading remote tribes to quit their lands, it has often been found advisable to incur the expense of inviting one or two of their chiefs 3000 or 4000 miles to Washington, in order that they should see with their own eyes, and report to their tribes the irre- sistil)le power of the nation with whom they were argu- ing. This speculation has, it is said, in all instances, more or less effected its object ; and among ■Nlr. Catlin's pictiu'cs is the portrait of a Sachem, whose history and fate may be worth recording. For the reas<'us and for the object above stated, it was deterniincd that this Chief should be invited from his remote country to AVashington ; and accordingly in due time he appeared there. After the troops had been THK RED MAX. 3(51 it War, says, [lulians. In ing to them "resident was ng to receive ads and said, mbt it: WE eking as well iuir ourselves the minds of ives has been g of wampum their families n Department tribes to quit sable to iueur cliiefsSOOOor ley should see ibes the irre- 3y were argu- all instances, K ]Mr. CatUn's ^c history and 3 stated, it was vitcd from his rdingly in due ops had been made to manoeuvre before him ; after thundering volleys of artillery had almost deafened him j and after eveiy department had displayed to him all that was likely to add to the terror and astonishment he had already expe- rienced, the President, in lieu of the Indian's clothes, presented him with a colonel's uniform, in which, and with many other presents, the bewildered Sachem took his departure. In a pair of white kid gloves, — tight blue coat, with gilt buttons, — gold epaulettes, — red sash, — cloth trousers with straps, — high-heeled boots, — cocked hat surmoiuitctl by a scarlet feather, — with a cigar in his mouth, — a green umbrella in one hand, a yellow fan in the other, — and with the neck of a whigky-l)ottle ])rotruding out of eaeli of the two tail-pockets of his regimental coat, — this " monkey that had seen the world " suddenly appeared before the chiefs and warriors of his tribe ; and as, straight as a ramrod, he stood before them, in a high state of perspiration, caused by the tightness of his finery, while the ^ool fresh air of heaven blew over the unrestrained naked limbs of his spectators, it might, perhaps, not unjustly have been said of the two costumes, " IVhich is the SAVAGE?" In return for the presents he had received, and with a desire to impart as much information as possible to his tribe, he undertook to deliver to them a course of lec- tures, in which he graphically described all that he had witnessed. For awhile he was listened to with atten- tion ; but as soon as the minds of his audience had re- ceived as much as they could hold, they began to evince VOL. I. R 362 TllE RED MAN. symptoms of disbelieving him. Nothing daunted, how- ever, the traveller still proceeded. He told them about wigwams, in which 1000 peojjlc could at one time pray together to the Great Spirit ; of others five stories high, built in lines, facing each other, and extending over an enormous space : he told them of war-canoes that could hold 1200 warriors. For some time he was treated merely with ridicule and contempt ; but when, reso- lutely continuing to recount his adventures, he told them that he had seen White people in a canoe attached to a great ball, rise into the clouds and travel through the heavens, — the medicine, mystery, or learned men of his tribe pronounced him to be an impostor, and the mul- titude vociferously declaring "that he was too great a liar to live" a young warrior, in a paroxysm of anger, levelleda rifle at his head and blew his brains out. Before, however, the civilized world passes its hasty sentence upon this wild tribe for their incredulity, in- justice, and cruelty, we feel it but justice to these Red men merely to whisper the name of James Buuce, of KiNNAIKD ! Although we do not approve either of the extent to which, or of the manner in which, the Indian tribes have 1-een forced to quit their lands in the Republican States of America, yet, in spite of all our regard for this noble and injured race, we cannot but admit that, to a certain degree, the Government even of this country ought to effect their removal. We have painfully and practically reflected on the subject ; and to those who may object to our opinions, we can truly say, that they caimot be more \ s THE BED MAN. 363 luntcd, how- them about ic time pray stories high, ling over an js that could Avas treated when, reso- he told them ittached to a I through the d men of his md the ni\xl- is too great a sm of anger, ns out. 5ses its hasty icrcdulity, in- to these Red ES BuucE, of the extent to an tribes have ublican States for this noble it, to a certain ntry ought to ind practically may object to aunot be more anxious than we have been to arrive at an oj)[)osite con- clusion : but our judgment has reluctantly surrendered to facts which it found to be irresistible, and to impend- ing circumstances, which, when considered upon the spot, appeared to be inevitable. Where the White inhabitants of both continents of America are in possession of infinitely more land than they can cultivate, it is of course an act of unnecessary cruelty, and of greedy injustice, to provide and speculate for the future by taking forcible possession of remote Indian territory, upon which the Aborigines are happily existing. But, from rapid settlement caused by emigra- tion from the Old World, it occasionally happens that a considcrr ,ble tract of Indian land, which has long been in the immediate neighbourhood of Whites, becomes abso- lutely surrounded; or, in military language, invested by agriculturists ; in which case it is as much a stumbling- block to civilization as an ancient rock would be, if left standing in the middle of the Queen's highway. At what rate, and under what laws, civilization oiight to advance, it might be possible to prescribe ; but, \\'hcrever the banks which arrested it have given way, and wherever the torrent, imder such circumstances, has rushed forwards, whether it be right or wliether it be wrong, it becomes practically impossible to maintain anything in the rear. In the instances to which we have alluded, we have seen the agricidtural interests of a vast territory com- pletely beimmbed by the intervention between it and the capital, of an Indian hunting-ground, which, like 3(54 THE lil!;i) MAN. I a ( I ( .'U a, tmu'iiiquct, hns atopprd the circulation that sliniild natiiniUy have nourished it. 'I'his hirgc expanse of rich l.'md is octasiot ally t'onnd to be inhabited by, perhaps, only n hundred, or a luni- dred and twenty Indians, the children of whom are, Avithout a single exception, lialt'-castes; the women dirty, l)rotligatc, and abandoned; the men miserable victims of intem])erance and vice. A considerable portion ol them are half-breeds ; but even those whos(^ red faces, shaggy locks, beardless chins, and small Ixuuitiful feet, prove tht!ni to be Indians, arc so only in name; for the spirit of the wild man has lied from them, and, nn- Morthy i;iuirdians of the tombs of their ancestors, they wandi !• among them, — "like Grccinn <jliosts That in battle weiv slain, anil nnbui'iod remain Inglorious on the plain." Jiut besides their moral degradation, they are often found almost starvhig from hunger, in consccpicncc of their game having, in all directions, been cut ott'. In fact, their country, like themselves, has, a])par(;ntly, lost its character ; and, however mc may have failed to de- scribe it, nothing can be more miserable, .and more affecting than the real scene. In the meanwliile, the murmur of discontent uttered by the AMiite population tigainst the miasmatical existence of such a stagnant evil, is yearly so increasing in tone and in anger, that, unless their cry of " OJf, ojf! " 1)e attend(>d to, there can be little doubt that acts of violence will be com- mitted ; and yet, in s])itc of all tliesc existing and hat should 1 ally found 1, or Ji huu- whotn JU'o, omen dirty, Mc victims ; portion ot o red faces, ;autiful i'cc.t, Lvno ; for the tu, and, un- ccbtors, they mam y are often nse(i\icnce of cut ofl'. In )areutlv, lost failed to de- and more .'ainvhile, the te population h a stagnant 1 anger, that, ded to, there will be com- cxisting and THE RED MAN. 3(55 impending calamities, it is often almost impossible to [lersuade the Indians to consent to move away; for the more their minds are degraded, the greater is the natural apathy they display: besides which, th- _, -re alii invariably under a secret intangible iif'.Hv.u-c, V ' '• some self-interested object or otht; dueci y.;,. I'll y !• them most obstinately to decline changing tlu 1 V .iSt ace. Uniler these distressing circuinstanees, it therefore must eventually become necessary for the Government to exert itself in effecting the removal of a set of beings whose game has li'ijUhnaU'hj been cut off by the sm'rounding " clearances " of European emi- grants, — 'who will neither till the ground themselves, nor allow others, by the sweat of their broWj to do so. To pay down to a squalid, degraded, miserable set of half-castes — who arc evidently in the clutches of design- ing men, and from whom anything paid to them could be abstracted by whisky — as much money as their country is worth to White peopjc for the purpose of cultivation ; — to heap upon them the value of all the water-power, minerals, etc., it may possess, — appears not only unnecessary, but absurd. On the other hand, it would be ungenerous to pay them no more, after all the game has been cut off from their country, than under such circumstances it is actually worth to tUcm. Between these tAvo extremes, it is, we humbly conceive, the duty of a powerful nation and of a just govern- ment, parentally to make such arrangements as shall materially better _tlic conditioE of tlic remnant of any tribe that, under the circumstances detailed, it may be /J A IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) A i 1.0 I.I liiUi IIM 22 Eim" 1^ 1^ ui Hi 1^ m iiii4 V] vl y: ^J> >' > ^, i9^ ».''» '/ yS Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716)«72.4503 366 THE RBD MAN. if absolutely necessary to remove; and if this point be honourably effected, their migration will be certainly one of_those results of the White man's progress^of which they will have the least reason to complain. We have now concluded our imperfect outline or ch art of the mai n roads in both hemispheres of America, upon which the civiliz ed world ha s been , and still is, gradually, recklessly, and culpably p ursuing " its course to the Occ ident ;" and certainly it must be impossible for any just man to witness the se tting s un rest for a moment upon the country known in America by the appellation of " the Far- West," wit ■ out feeling that its blood^rcd brightness which, in effulgent beams, is seen imparting its colour to every cloud around it, is but an appropriate emblem of the Indian race, which, rapidly sinking from our view, will be soon involved in im- penetrable darkness : and, yet, he might as well endea- vour to make the declining planet stand still upon the summit of the Rocky Mountains before him, as attempt to arrest the final e xtermJTiation of t he Indian^ race ; for if, while the White population of North America, before it has swelled into fourteen millions, has, — as has actually been the case — reduced an Indian population of nearly fourteen millions to three millions, what must be the progressive destruction of the remnant of these unfortu- nate people now that the dreadful engine, which, like the car of Jaggemaut, crushes all that lies before it, has got its "steam up," and consequently, that its power, as well as its propensity to advance, has almost indefinitely increased ? From the Pacific Ocean towards THE RED MAN. 367 his point be be certainly 1 progregs^of aplain. t outline or IS of America, and still is, ; " its cg ujBP be impossible lun rest for a aerica by the eling that its beams, is seen id it, is but an which, rapidly irolved in im- is well endea- still upon the im, as attempt dian race ; for Lmerica, before as has actually ion of nearly must be the ;hese unfortu- which, like lies before it, ■ntly, that its ce, has almost Ocean towards the East, the same irresistible power is in operation. Along both the continents, which are bordered by the Pacific, the White man's face is directed towards those of his own race, who, as we have seen, arc rapidly ad- vancing towards him from the regions of tlie Atlantic ; and whenever the triumphant moment of their collision shall arrive, — wliether the hands of the Whiti^ men meet in friendship or in war, — Where, we ask, will be thi: Indian race? — What will have become of "THE RED MAN"? END OF VOLUME I. .tOHN En-.VAllU TAVLOB, I'lltNtKK, LITIIK QCEEN STllEKT, MdCOl-Il's IJfS VIEL09.