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Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont film4s en commen^ant par la premiere page qui comporte une empreinte d'Impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la dernlAre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. Un dee symboles suivants apparaTtra sur la dernlAre image de cheque microfiche, selon ie cas: le symboie — ^ signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN". Les cartes, planches, table&ux, etc., peuvent dtre filmte d des taux de rMuction diff^rents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atre reproduit en un seul clichA, il est filmA d partir de Tangle supArieur gauche, de gauche A droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images n6cessaire. Les diagrammes suivants iiiustrent la mAthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 «k^?*!S5, de Q#^ U S^ro itiasre 3, rue de yOoT?' etsit^ Qoflaeo 4» a^ , ..W' %'ir (Z^dcu^ Morangs Educational Series r^t c^- '"^y^ Latin Grammar BY CHARLES E. BEN Professor of Latin in Cornell uBve TORONTO GEORGE N. MORANG & CO. LIMITED First edition printed February, 1891;. Reprinted April and September, 1895; April, 1896; July, 1897; >^pnl, 1898; May and September, 1899;' April and November, 1900. ' Copyright, 1895, By CHARLES E. BENNETT. Norinooti Ij^ttse 3. S. Cufhiiig & Co. - Berwick ft Smith Norwood Mass. U.S.A. PREFACE. »»« The object of this book is to present the essential facts of Latin grammar in a direct and simple manner, and within the smallest compass consistent with scholarly standards. While intended primarily for the secondary school, it has not neglected the needs of the college student, and aims to furnish such grammatical in- formation as is ordinarily required in undergraduate courses. The experience of German educators in recent years has tended to restrict the size of school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded an incorporation of the main principles of the language in com- pact manuals of 250 pages.' Within the past decade, several gram- mars of this scope have appeared which have amply met the exacting demands of the full Gymnasial Latin course, — a period of study representing quite as much reading as that covered by the average American undergraduate. The publication in this country of a grammar of similar plan and scope seems fully justified at the present time, as all recent editions of classic texts summarize in introductions the special idioms of grammar and style peculiar to individual authors. This makes it feasible to dispense with the enumeration of many minutiae of usage which would otherwise demand con- sideration in a student's grammar. In the chapter on Prosody, I have designedly omitted all special treatment of the lyric metres of Horace and Catullus, as 1 One' of the most eminent of living Latinists, Professor Eduard WSlfflin, of Munich, has expressed the opinion that the essentials may be given within even smaller compass than this. See his Preface to the Schmalz-Wagener Lateiniiche GratHnf^tik, 1891. iu IV Preface. well a, of the measure, of the comic poets. Our standard editions t.on tha repetition in a separate place seems superfluous In the matter of .hidden quantities,' I have conformed to l^J^^'^LatmnUHonaryy^r School.,. r^A the same editors latr ^''"'"■'^ry LaHn nicHcnary. In several cases this procedu e has involved a sacrifice o." convictions as to the actual quantity of vowels; but the advantages of uniformity in our educatona sion of personal views. The discussion of inflectional forms and of the development of case and mood constructions has been reserved for the Appendix for Teachers where these and some other matters receive full and systematic consideration. ng of h,s book, I desire to offer my sincerest thanks, especially to Professors H. C. Elmer and B. I. Wheeler, of Cornell Univer sity Professor Alfred Gudeman, of the University of PennsylvanL Profe.or George L. Hendrickson, of the University of C X,' and Professors Francis W. Kelsey and John C. Rolfe of the University of Michigan. ' Ithaca, N. Y., Dec. 15, 1894. C. E. B. PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION. In this edition I have marked all long vowels in conformity with the lists contained in my Appendix for Teachers (p. 52 ff.). Lewis v^hose Lann Dutionaries I had originally followed, has mianwhile,' m the last edition of the Elementary Dictionary, accepted my markings in a majority of the cases wherein I had expressed dis- sent from him. K^ ^ t. C rl,. B. Ithaca, Feb. 10, 1896. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part I. SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC The Alphabet Classification of Sounds Sounds of the Letters Syllables Quantity Accent . Vowel Changes Consonant Changes Peculiarities of Orthography PAGE I I 3 4 4 5 6 7 7 Part II. INFLECTIONS. chapter \.~DecUn A, Nouns. ston. Gender of Nouns . Number Cases . The Five Declensions First Declension . Second Declension Third Declension , Fourth Declension Fifth Declension . Defective Nouns . B. Adjectives. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions Adjectives of the Third Declension lO II II 12 13 «4 i8 28 29 30 34 36 vi Table of Contents. Comparison of Adjectives . Formation and Comparison of Adverl)» Numerals . Personal Pronouns Keflexive Pronouns Possessive Pronouns . Demonstrative Pronouns The Intensive Pronoun The Relative Pronoun . Interrogative Pronouns Indefinite Pronouns . Pronominal Adjectives. CHAFFER II Verb-Stems • • • The Four Conjugations ' . Conjugation of Sum . First Conjugation Second Conjugation Third Conjugation Fourth Conjugation . . Verbs in -io of the Third Conjugation Deponent Verbs .... Semi-Deponents .... Periphrastic Conjugation Peculiarities of Conjugation , ' Formation of the Verb-Stems List of the Most Important Verbs with Irregular Verbs .... Defective Verbs . . Impersonal ^'"erbs C. Pronouns. Conjugation Principal Parts PACK 40 43 45 48 49 49 50 SI 5« Sa 52 53 54 55 56 58 62 66 70 74 76 78 78 79 80 83 95 102 104 Adverbs Prepositions Interjections P'ART III. PARTICLES. 106 107 108 Table of Contents. vii Nouns Adjectives . Verbs . Adverbs Part IV. WORD FORMATION. I. Derivatives. II. Compounds. Examples of Compounds 109 III 113 114 "$ Part V. SYNTAX. CHAPTER Classification of Sentences . Form of Interrogative Sentences . Subject and Predicate . Simple and Compound Sentences I. — Sentences. CHAPTER II. —Syntax of Nouns. Subject Predicate Nouns Appositives The Nominative The Accusative The Dative . The Genitive The Ablative The Locative CHAPTER III. - Syntax 0/ Adjectives. Agreement of Adjectives . Adjectives used Substantively Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs Comparatives and Superlatives , Other Peculiarities "7 117 119 1x9 ISO 120 121 122 122 129 142 152 »S3 »S4 156 156 VUl Table of Contents. CHAPTKR IV. - Syntax of Pronouns. Personal Pronouns Possessive Pronouns . Reflexive Pronouns . Recijmjcal Pronouns . Demonstrative Pronouns Kilative Pronouns Inilelinite Pronouns . Pronominal Adjectives CHAPTER V. - Syntax of Verbs. Agreement of Verbs . Voices Tenses . Of the Indicative . Or the Subjunctive . Of the Infinitive . Moods . . » In Independent Sentences Volitive Subjunctive Optative Subjunctive Potential Subjunctive Imperative In Dependent Sentences Clauses of Purpose . Clauses of Characteristic Clausf-s of Result Causal Clauses . Temporal Clauses Introduced by Postquavi, Ut, Ubi, etc C«w Clauses Introduced hy Antequam and Priusquam Introduced by Dum, Donee, Quoad Substantive Clauses . Developed from the Volitive Developed from the Optative Of Result . After r,on dubito, etc. Introduced by Quod Indirect Questions Conditional Sentences Use of Si, Nisi, Sin . PAGV '57. «57 '5« '59 '59 I6i '63 164 • 165 • 167 . 167 . 171 • »74 . 176 176 . 176 . 178 • »79 . 180 181 181 182 184 '85 187 187 188 190 191 192 192 194 195 '95 196 197 198 202 Table of Contents, \r Conditional Clauses of Comparison Concessive Clauscti Adversative Clauses with Quamvh, Quamquam, Clauses of Wis! and Proviso ... Relative ( lauses Indirect Discourse Moods in Indirect Discourse Tenses in Indirect Discourse Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse Implied Indirect Discourse Subjunctive oy Attraction .... Noun and Adjt.ave Forms of the Verb Infinitive •■...,. Participles ••..... Gerund Supine , etc. ao3 303 203 205 205 206 206 208 209 211 212 212 213 7.17 220 223 CHAPTER Wl. — Particles. Codrdinate Conjunctions Adverbs CHAPTER VII.— Word-Order and Sentence-Structure. Word-Order Sentence-Structure Nouns Adjectives Pronouns v'?rbs . The Cases CHAPTER Wm. — Hints on Latin Style. 223 227 227 232 233 235 236 236 238 Quantity of Vowels and Syllables Verse-Structure . The Dactylic Hexameter The Dactylic Pentameter Iambic Verses Part VI. PROSODY. ;s . 240 • • 243 • . 245 . 246 • . 246 Table of Contents. SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR. I. Roman Calendar .... n. Abbreviations of Proper Names .'''"• "I. Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric . " * ' " PAOS 249 249 Part I SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY. THE ALPHABET. 1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, except that the Latin has no w. 1 . K occurs only in Kalendae and a few other words ; y and z were introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign words — chiefly Greek. 2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as vcwel and consonant ; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write i and u for the former, j and v for the latter. Yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u in the function of consonants as well as vowels. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS. 2. I. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are Consonants. The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui. 2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and Spirants. 3. The Mutes are p, t, c, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, ch. Of these, — a) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,^ i.e. sounded without voice or vibration of the vocal chords. b) b, d, g are voiced,2 i.e. sounded with vibration of the vocal chords. 1 For ' voiceless,' ' surd,' ' hard/ or " tenuis ' are sometimes used. 2 For ' voiced,' ' sonant,' ' soft.' or ' media ' are sometimes used. B I Sounds, Accent, Quantity. top + h,t4ho + h .° ,"!"'« '"^'"''•"d were equivalent with a fol,„^;° brt ; ■ « '"V^'fP""*"" voiceless mu.es horn,. , *^ *' "' '" ^"S- '"">''""'■. I^t-house. bhck- 4. The Mutes admit of classification also as ^'"^'f' P,b,ph. Dentals (or Unguals), t, d, th Gutturals (or Palatals), c, k, q, g, oh. 6 Th^ N ''"f "■' '- '■ '^''"^^ ^°""ds were voiced anceps, ,/^;,<5/^, pronounced angceps. 7. The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f « h These were voiceless. ^'^tivcs,; are f, a, h. 9 Souble'rr'^' '" ' '"' ^- ^^^^^ -^^- voiced. equivalent : csThri"^ ^- ^?' ^' ^^ ^^-^' ^ -« See § 3. 3 ' ^'^' '^' equivalence of z is uncertain. • 10. The following table will indicate the relatinn^ , the consonant sounds : — relations of Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, Spirants Semivowels, Voiceless. t, c> ^> q, Voiced. b, a, m, n. J, v. Aspirates. . Ph, th, oh, (Labials). (Dentals). (Gutturals). (Labial). (Dental). (Guttural). ""^'^^^:^^s^.Tt:i:tiT^r--< Sounds of the Letters. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that employed by the Romans at the height of their civilization; i.e. roughly, from 50 b.c. to* 5c a.d. a 1 o u y I. Vowels. 2i% xw. father ; ft as in they ; g as in machine; \ as in note ; 5 as in mete; fi like French u, German ii. as in the first syllable of ahdi as in met; as in pin ; as in odey, melody i as va put; eu with its two elements, g and tt, pro- nounced in rapid succession ; ui occurs almost exclusively in cui and huic. These words are pronounced as though written kwee and wheek. 2. Diphthongs. ae like ai'xn. aisle; oe like oi in oil; ei as in rein ; au like ow in how; 3- Consonants. b, d, f, h, k, 1, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that ba, bt are pronounced ps, pt. c is always pronounced as k. t is always a plain A never with the sound of sh as in Eng. oration 6 always as x'^get; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of gw, as in anguis, languidus. 3 has the sound oi y as in yet. r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue, s always voiceless as in sin; in suadeo, suavis, suSsco, and in com- pounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound of sw V like w. X always like ks ; never like Eng. gz or z. z uncertain in sound ; possibly like Eng zd, possibly like z.' The latter sound is recommended. The aspirates ph, ch, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed Eng /, ^, /-so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter sounds suffice. Doubled letters, like 11, mm, tt, ./., should be so pronounced that both members of the combination are distinctlv articulated. Sounds, Accent, Quantity. SYLLABLES. 4. There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels and diphthongs. In the division of words into syllables,— ge-lit.^ single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat, vit^ta,^^::!;^"""^'^^^' "'^ "' "' ^^-^ ^'-^ ^'-^^ -P--ed; as, the\ec!innTn' n^f °'^'" '""^'"^!^^"^ ^^ consonants, such as can stand at QUANTITY. 5. A. Quantity of Vowels. A vowel is loug or ^/wr/ according to the length of time required for auanr^of'f :•"■ ""^ f'"^"^^ ^"'^ ^^" ^^ ^^ '^ ^^ deterZ ^g the quantity ot Latm vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in farge measure, by experience ; but the following principles are of aid : - I. A vowel is long,i_ a), before nf, ns, and before gn in nouns and adjectives in -gnus, -gna, -gnum ; as, Infans, dignus, signum. b) when the result of contraction ; as, nllum for nihilum c) before j ; as, hujus. 2. A vowel is short, a) before nt,nd; as, amant,ainandus. A few rare exceptions occur in cases of compounds whose first member has a Ion- vowel; as, nondum (nou dum). ** b-) before another vowel, or h ; as, meus, traho. Some excep- tions occur, chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek • as, AenSas. ' shofJ^^'s ~,^'''''r'"^ "" ""'"' ""'^ "°^^"'^ *h^' ^'^ sometimes long, sometimes short. Such vowels are called commor,. The variation appears o:^; in poeTrv Examples are th e first vowel in Diana, She. ^ ^" ■^ In this nnnlr l/^nrrif/-»»i«i<. ^^.^ :^j*. « , , ^ ~ """ — ^— __ ft ! fi ,tr \7"' T"^ ""u" "' muicutcd by a horizontal line above them; as Accent. B. Quantity of Syllables. Syllables are distinguished as long or short Siccordxng to the length if time required for their pronunciation. Their quantity is governed ly the following principles : — 1. A syllable is long,i — a) if it contains a long vowel ; as, mater, mSgnus, dius. b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus. c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two con- sonants (except a mute with 1 or r) ; as, axis, gaza, rests. 2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a single consonant ; as, mea, amat. 3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, viz. when its vowel is short and is followed by a mute with 1 or r, i.e. by pi, cl, tl ; pr cr tr, etc.; as, 5grT, volficris.^ Such syllables are called common.' In prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as long at the option of the poet. Note. — These distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary and artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syllable requires more time for its pronunciation ; while a syllable containing a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it takes less time to pronounce it. In case of the common syllables, the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes scarcely more time than a single consonant. Yet by sepa- rating the two elements (as ag-ri) the poets were able to use such syllables as long. ACCENT. 6. I. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first ; as, tdgit, morem. ' 2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the ante- penult (second from the last) ; as, amSvi, amintis, mfserum. 3- The enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum always throw an accent back upon the preceding syllable, when the simple word is ac- cented on the antepenult ; as, miserique, homindque. 4. Sometimes the final -ec)f -ue and -ce disappears, but without atiecting^he accent ; as, t antou, iatic, illdc, viddu (for vide'sne). 1 To avoid confusion, tlie quantity of syllables is not indicated by ^i^n ~ svlll^l , r "" '"^'■^''r'' '•'' '''°"'^ P^""* °^ ^ compound, the preceding syllable IS always long ; as, abnimpo. * \ Somids, Accent, Quantity. 5- In utrftque, each, and plBrlaue ,„„,. enclitic; yet these words accent the ^S "'" '"^ "°* '^^"^^^^^ ^" of their other cases, -utdrque utrdir ', """"^ '^ *^« '"«"ence 6- But in other words a^.l ""^^"^"^^^^^ plfirtfmque. it i-s a true enclitic Jan', ^ ' TLrretT.'"'' ^" ^^^^"^ -^- -itique, itaque ; but if itaque teal ,17^"^^^^^; ^'"*^"«' ^"^^^-^ «t is accented itique. "^ • ' '" (-^/,. diSs, day; mSns, mind, ' 9 10 Inflections. Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns • as, legifi, Ax7,v/ ; comitStus, /v//////> Vergil (instead of Vergilil, Vergilie). In such words the accent stands upon the penult, even : ough that be short. 2. Nouns in -ius and -ium, until after the beginning of the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -I (instead of -il); as, — stem is further Second Declension. ij JVom. Ingenium flllus Gt'n. iug^nl fm These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short. * 3. FTlius forms the Vocative Singular in -I (for -ie)\ viz., fill ' son ! 4. Hewn, god, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is inflected Is follows : — No/n. dl Gen. deOrum Dat. dl8 Ace. deOa Voc. dl Abl. dis (del) (deum) (dels) (del) (dels) 5. The Locative Singular ends in -I; as, CorinthI, ai Corinth. 6. The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of -aniin, — ^0 in words denoting money and measure ; as, talentum, of talents; modium, of pecks. b) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir ; as, duumvlrum. c) sometimes in other words ; as, liberum, of the children ; socium, of the allies. Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension. 26. I. The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception : — a) Names A countries, towns, islands, trees -according to the general rule laid down in § 15. 2. b) Five special words, — alvus, belly; oarbasus, yfar; colus, distaff; humus, it^ronnd; vannus, winnowing-fan. c) A few Greek Feminines ; as,~ atomus, atom ; diphthongus, diphthong. 2. The following nouns in -us are Neuter : pelagus, sea ; virus, poison ; vulgus, crowd. c I (I'll '^ Inflections. Greek Nouns of the Second Declension. 27. These end in -os, -6s, Masculine or Feminine ; and -on Neuter. They are mainly proper names, and are declmed as follows: — Barbitos, m. and f., lyre. Norn, barbitos Gen. barbiti Dat. barbitS Ace. baibiton Voc. barbite Abl. barbito Androgeos, m., Androgeos. Androgeos Androgeo, -I Androgeo Andiugeo, -on Androgeos Androgeo illon, n., Troy. Ilion Ilil Tlio Ilion Ilion Ilio ^ I. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um instead of -on ; as, Dglum, Delos. ' 2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular. suited. '^'^ ^'''"'' ""^ ^'""^ "°""' ^^^ ^'^^'^" "^^y^^ co»- THIRD DECLENSION. 28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -i -6 -y, -c, -1 -n, -r, -s, -t, -X. The Third Declension includes several distmct classes of Stems, — I. Pure Consonant-Stems. II. i-Stems. III. Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted themselves to the inflection of l-Stems. IV A very few Stems ending in a long vowel or a diphthong. V. Irregular Nouns. I. Consonant Stems. _ 29. I. In these the stem appears in its unaltered form m all the oblique cases; so that the actual case-endino-s may be clearly recognized. ^^ 1 0: Mi. , as 4 Third Declension. 19 ion. eminine ; and nes, and are illon, n. ; Troy. Ilion Ilil Ilia Ilion Ilion Hid ingular in - urn, lally regular. n may be con- I -a, -e, -1, -6, ion includes ly adapted vowel or a 'tered form ise-endings 2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, a'^cording I as the stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Naaal, or Spirant. A. Mute-Sterns. 30. JVlute-Stems may end, — • 1. In a Labial (b or p); as, trab-s ; prlncep-s. 2. In a Guttural (g or c) ; as, remex (rSmeg-s) ; dux (duo -a). 3. In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); miles (mllet-s). I. Stems in a Labial Mute (b, p). 31. Trabs, f., beam. Prinoeps, m., chief. Norn. trabs Gen. t labia Dat. trabi Ace. trabem Voc. trabs Abl. trabe Nom. trabes Gen. trabum Dat. trabibus Ace. trabSs Voc. trabes Abl. trabibus SINGULAR. ' prTnceps principis principl principem princeps prlncipe PLURAL, principis prTncipum principibus prTncipes prlncipes principibus Termination. -s -I -em -a -e -6b -um -ibus -is -Ss -ibus 2. Stems in a Guttural Mute (g, c). 32 In tliese the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites ^ith the guttural, thus producing -x. ^ Remex, m , rower. singular. plural. Noni remex remiges Gen. remigis remigum Dat. remigi rcmigibus Ace. remigsm remiges Voc. remex rcmiggs Abl. remige rcmigibus Dux, c. , leader. singular. plural. dux ducSs ducis ducum duel ducibus ducem dux duces duce ducibus ao Inflections. 3. Stems in a Dental Mute (d t). 33. In these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the Nomi- native Singular before the ending -s. Lapis, m., stone. ' SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. lapis lapidSs lapidis lapidum lapidi lapidibus lapidem lapidgs lapis lapides lapide lapidibus Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. MTlea, xa., soldier. SINGULAR. PLURAL. miles militis mllitl mllitem miles mllite militSs mllitum mllitibus mllitgs militSs mllitibus B. Liquid Steins. 34. These end in -1 or -r. Vigil, m., watchman. Nom. vigil Gen. vigilis Dat. vigill Ace. vigilem Voc. vigil Abl. vigile Nom. vigilSs Gen. Dat Ace. Voe. vigilSs Abl. vigilibus vigilum vigilibus vigilSs Victor, m., conqueror. SINGULAR. victor victoris victor! victorem victor victore PLURAL. victorSs victorum victoribus victorSa victdrSs victoribus Aequor, n., sea. aequor aequoris aequorl aequor aequor aequore aequora aequorum aequoribus aequora aequora aequoribus 1 . Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Nomi- native and Vocative Singular without termination. 2. The termination is al«n InrHnz. tussSa Gen. tussium ■i^^z^. tussibus -^^<:". tussls or -Ss ^oc. tussSa Abl. tussibua SINGULAR. Ignia ignis Ignl Tgnem Ignis ignl or -e PLURAL. ignSa ignium Ignibua ignis or -ea ignSa ignibua hostls hostis hosti h OS tern hostis hoste hostSs hostium hostibus hostis or -gs hostSs hostibii,'! Termination. -is -is -I -Im, -em -is -e,-I -St -ium -ibus -18, -6s -Sa -ibus I. To the same class belong — ♦amuaaia, rule. corbia, basket. apia, bee. auria, ear. avia, bird. axia, axle. *'^^xiB, J ' mgh-beam. clavia, key. collia, hill. crStis, hurdle. *febri&, fever. orbis, circle. oviSj sheep. pelvis, '!osi}i. puppis, stern. scobia, sawdust. *aecuris, axe. agmentia, sowing. *aitia, thirst. torria, brand. *turria, tower. trudia, pole. vectia, lever. reatia, rope. and many others. Word, marked with a siar have Ace, -Im, Abl. -I, Of the others manv atttmesshowi-forms. Town and river names in -is regular^haveCl ative Singu- Originally ive Singular ese endings 5s, the end- "hrmination. -is -is -I -im, -em -is -e,.I -Ss -ium -ibus -IS, -6s -Ss -ibuB vdust, e. lowing. id. r. r. Third Declension. 33 B ems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, nota- bly, cams, dog; juvenis. yoiit/t.^ ^ ' * 3- Some genuine I-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative ..ngular; as pars, part, for par(ti)8; anas, duck, for a^artDs- so ISO mors, .Av;//.; dos, dowry; nox, nig/U ; sors, /./; r^fins, W- irB,«r/; gSns,///^^; and some others. > »nna, D. Neuter l-Stems. 39. These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al and •. They always have -I in the Ablative Singular, -ia in [he Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and -ium the Genitive Plural, thus holding more steadfastly to le i-charactcr than do Masculine and Feminine I-Stems. Sedlle, seat ; Animal, animal; Calcar, sdur : stem, sedm-. stem, auimaii-. stem, calciri- Notn. Gen. Dat. Ace. Vac. Abl. Norn. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl sedlle sedllis sedlll sedlle sedlle sedril sedflia sedllium sedllibus sedriia sedilia sedllibus SINGULAR. animal animalis animall animal animal animall PLURAL. animalia animalium animalibus animalia animalia animalibus calcar calcaris calcarl calcar calcar calcanT calcaria calcarium calcaribus calcaria calcaria calcaribus Termination. Wanting -is -\ Wanting Wanting -I -ia -ium -ibus -ia -ia -ibu"* I. In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lo.f in tK« Nominative Singular; in others it appears as -e. "' '"^ *^' ! 2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e- as S5ra«t« foracte ; so also sometimes mare, sea. ' SSracte, cr^':;iS.°*^L3Z"^rr.;~ 34 Inflections. III. Consonant-Btems that have partially adapted themselves to the Inflection of /-Stems. 40. Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted them- selves to the inflection of l-stems as to take -ium in the Genitive Plural,, and -Is in the Accusative Plural. Their true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is shown by the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singu- lar, or -I in the Ablative Singular. The following words are examples of this class : — Caedis, f., slaughter; Arx, f., citadel; Linter, f., skiff; i stem, caed-. stem, arc-. SINGULAR. stem, liutr-. Nom caedfia arx linter i Gen. caedia arcis llntris ':\ Dot. caedl arcl lintrl ,1 Ace. caedem arcem lintrem ■j Voc. caedSa arx linter -■| Abl. caede arce PLURAL. lintre '1 Nom. caedSa arcSs iJntrSs A Gen. caedium arcium lintrium 'fl Dat. caedibus arcibus lintribus 'fl Ace. caedSs, -19 arcSs, -is lintrgs, -Is ':fl Voc. caedSs arc6s lintrSs V Abl. caedibus arcibus lintribus 'a^l The following classes of nouns belong here : — a) Nouns in -es, with Genitive in -is; as, nfibgs, a^ js, ciadSs, etc. b) Many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one or more consonants ; as, urba, mons, stirps, lanx. c) Most nouns in -ns and -rs ; as, cliens, cohors. d) Uter, venter; fur, lis, mas, mus, nix; and the Plurals faucSs, penatgs, OptimatSs, Samnitgs, Quirltea. Sj Sometimes nouns la -tas with Genitive -tatis ; as, clvitas, aetas. d themselves a(3ted them- -ium in the ural. Their is shown by ative SingLi- )wing words ir, f., skiff i 1, liutr-. iter itris itrl itrem Iter itre itrSs trium tribus trgs, -Is trSs tribus Third Declension, IV. Stems in -f, -r7, and Diphthongs. 35 41 Vis, u force ; stem, vl-. Bfls, c, swine ; stem, stl-. SINGULAR BOa, c, ox, cow ; stem, bou-. Jflpiter, m. Jnpiier ; t ♦•m, Jou-. Norn. Gen. Dat. Ace, vis vis vl vim sua suls sul suem bos bovis bovl bovem Jupiter Jovla Jovl Jovem Voc. Abl. vis vl sus sue PLURAL. boa bove Jupiter Jove Nom. virSs SU68 bovSa Gen. virium suum \ bovum ( bourn Dat. vTribuB \ suibus / subus \ bobua / bubua Ace. vTrSs .suSs bov6a Voc. vlrSs suSa bovSa Abl. vTribus \ .suibus / subua \ bobua { bubua 1. Notice that the oblique cases of bUh have tt in the root syll xble. 2. Grus is dech"ned like sus, except that the Dative and Ablative 'liiral are always gruibus. 3. Jupiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem is in Jov-is, Jov-I, etc. 4. Navis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has pas.sed over to the i-stems (§ 37). y ibgs, a.<. js, V, Irregular Nouns. one or more 42 . Senex, m., old man C?ctQ,i., flesh. OS, n., bone SINGULAR. . Nom. senex caro OS 1 the Plurals J Gen. senis carnis ossis rites. Dat. seni carni ossi ; as, civitas, 3| Ace. senera carnem OS Voc. senex caro OS AU. S«IM oftrne osse 36 Inflections, JVom. senfa Gen. senum Dat. setiibua Ace. seni« Voc. senSs Abl. senibuB PLURAL. carnfs canjium carnibuB carnis carnSs carnibuB ossa osslum ossibus ossa ossa ossibua Itlner""'' *"°''''' "^ ""'^' " '""^'^■"^'' "^^^'-'^ «'>-"K»>o"t fro... the stem 3. Jecur, n., Uver, forms its ohliciue CLa'-.co. from ♦..,« .. Jeolnor-. Thus. Gen. Jecori8 ..r jeclnorls »»"'". -Jecor- and 4- Femur, i... th,^r/,^ usually forms its ohliciue cas*.^ from ♦),„ .. but sometimes from the stem femln-. Thus. GrfroJ^o, JemlnTs. """""'' General Principles of Oender In the Third Declension. 43. I. Nouns in -8, -or, -6s, -er, -Sa are Masculine. 2. Nouns m -as, -Ss, -Is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant)- 3. Nouns ending in -a. -e. -I -v .« 1 « * Neuter. ^' ' ' ""' "*' "*'' -"'' "<*» are Chief Exception, to Gender In the Third Declension. 44. Exceptions to the Rule for MascuUnes. I- Nouns in -5. a. Feminine: car6,/w>i. 2. Nouns in -or. a. Feminine : arbor, tree. b. Neuter: aequor, sea-, cor, heart-, marmor, marble. 3- Nouns in -oa. a. Feminine : d6s, dowry. b. Neuter: OB (oris), ;/w«//i 4- Nouns in -er. a. Feminine : linter, skiff. Third Declension. 27 from the stem b. Neuter: oadiver. corpse ; Iter, way; ttlber, tumor; Ober, udiier. Also bi)tanical names in -er ; as, aoer, mapii. 5. Nouns in -is. a. Veminine : segei, crop. 45. Exceptions to the Rule for Pemlnlnei. 1. Nouns in -fta. a. Masculine, as, an as (coin) ; vfti, bondsman. b. Neuter : va«, vessel. 2. Nouns in -8s. a. Masculine: ariSs, ;v////; pariia, 7/v///; pf 8, /<;<>/. 3. Nouns in -is. . a. Masculine: all nouns in -nis and -guis ; as, amnls, rtver; Ignis, //;v; pSuis, bread; BSLngnis, b/ood ; unguis, nai/. Also — a'KiB,ax/e. piscis,yfj/i. collis, /////. postis, pos/. fascis, bi/nd/g. pulvis, dust. lapis, ^/(>,ie. orbis, circie. mSnsis, mon/Zi. sentis, brier. 4. Nouns ir, -x. ■ a. Masculine: apex, peak ; c^Aex, tree-trunk ; ^ex, flock; imbrex,///^; poWex, thumb; v ex te:&, summit ; oalix, cup. 5. Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant. a. Masculine : d6ns, toot/i ; fSns, /ountain ; mSns, mountain ; p5ns, bridge. 6. Nouns in -d6. a. Masculine: cardS, /w>/^ ^»''-"" cupe„n.;./„,/., Plural °a'r-l"°™' "'"" °"' ^"'''"' '" '"' ^'"«"'"' ^"o'''^- » 'he SINGULAR. balneum, n., ^«//;; epulum, w., feast', freaum, n , bridle-, jocuB, \\\.,jest', locus, iw., place; rastrum, n., rake; PLURAL. balneae, f., bath-house. epulae, f., feast. frSnl, m. (rarely frgna, n.), bridle. joca, n. (also joci, m.), jests. loca, n., places; loci, m., passages or topics in an attthor. rSstri, m. ; rastra, n., rakes. a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites as in case of the first two examples above. Plurals with Change of Meaning. 61. The following nouns Singular, and another in the have one meaning in the Plural ; — SINGULAR. aedes, temple; auxilium, help; career, prison; caBtrnm, fi?rt ; copia, abundance; finis, end; f ortuna, fortune ; gratia, favor ; impedimentum, hindrance; littera, letter (of tlie alphabet); mos, habit, custom ; opera, help, service; (ops) opia, //llum. tivei ^25. tives itive Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions. 35 64. Masculine like puer : — Tener, tender. SINGULAR. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Norn. tener tenera tenerum «• Gen. teneri tenerae teneri Dat. tenerS tenerae tenerS Ace. tenerum teneram tenerum Voc. tener tenera tenerum Abl. tenerS tenerS PLURAL. tenero . Norn. teneri tenerae tenera Gen. tenerorum tenerSrum tenerSrum Dat. teneris teneris teneris Ace. tenerSs teneras tenera Voc. teneri tenerae tenera Abl. teneris teneris teneris 65. Masculine like ager : — Sacer, sacred. J ANGULAR. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Nom. sacer sacra sacrum Gen. sacrl sacrae sacrl Dat. sacr5 sacrae sacrd Ace. sacrum sacram sacrum Voc. sacer sacra sacrum Abl. sacro sacrS PLURAL. sacro Nom. sacrl sacrae sacra Gen. sacrorum sacrarum sacrorum Dat. sacrls sacrls sacrls Ace. sacros sacras sacra Voc. sacrl sacrae sacra Abl. saciis sacrls sacrls I. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following are declined like tener: asper, rough; lacer, torn', liber, free; 36 Injltctions, mUer. 7.vrA/W; p.fl.per. prosperous t comp„uiuIs n -fer and -ger • somclimos dexter. ;7v///. •«»» .inu ger , 2. Satur,/),//, is declined : sBtur. satura, ■atunim. Nine Irregular Adjeotivea. 66. Merc belonj:^-- aliua. ,;„.///.;.. alter,//,..,///,;.,. **""•"':"'; nOllu., ,,.„,,. liter, T.../M / (of two) ; „e„ter, ue.Ueri aOlua, ,,/„„.; tOtua, «,//,,/, . They arc declined as follows : — MasCUMNR. FKMINtNK, Nin-THH. A^otn. alius alia aliud Gen. altcrlus allerlna altoiiu8» vSIN(JULAR. Dot. alii .4cc. alium Voe. W/'/. ali6 JVotn. liter C/^«. utrlua Daf. utiT u till in utr6 alir aliam alia utra utilus utrl utiam una alil aliud NfASCtJUNH. FltMININF. NrUtTKR. alter altera altcium allerlus alterlus alteiiua alteiT alter! '^ alter! altiMum alteram alteram alls iitrum utrlua util utrum utra altera altera altera totua t6t!ua toti totum tote •tot a totlUB tot! totam tota tdtum totlua *^)ti totum AH those words lack tl.o Vocative. The Plural is regular. Neuter is declined like uter. tota ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 67. These fall into three classes, — .. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative Smo-uiar, — one for each gender. 2. Adjectives of two terminations. 3- Ad jectives of one terminaticn. ^ This is almost always usoci i„s,..ui of alius in .■;;7^;~;~~ A Dative bmgular Fe.nininc alterae also occurs. Adjectives of the Third Declension. 37 tl -ger ; a. Willi the exception of C^onipuratlvcs, and a few other words incntioiietl helow in § 70. 1, all Adjectives of the Tliird Declension follow the inflection of I-sten>s ; r.e. they have tlie Aidalivc Sin|;nlar in -I, the Oenitive I'lural In -lum, the Accusative 1'lui.il in -Is (as well as -fla) in the Mascniitie and Kcniinine, and the Nominative and Acctisativc I'hual in -la in Neuters. tcrum tcrluB Icrl tenim lei-a lum iTus 1 um tive Adjeotives of Three Termination*. 68. These are declined ii.s follows : — Acer, sharp. SINGULAR. Mascui.inb. Fkminine. Nkiitir. Norn. Acer acris acre Gen. acrlB acrls acrls D'lt. acrl acrl acrl Ace. acrem acrem .Icre Voc. acer acrls acre Abl. acrX acrl PLURAL. acrl Nom. acrfii acris acrla Gen. acrium acrium acrium Dat. acribuii acrlbus acrlbus Ace. acrBs, -Ito acrfis, -Is acrla Voc. JicrSfl acrfis acrla Abl. acribuB acrlbus acrlbus 1. r.ike acer are declined alacer, lively; oampester, level; cele- ber. famous; equester, equestrian; palilster, marshy; pedester, pedestrian; puter, rotten; aaluber, wholesome; Biivester, woody; terrester, terrestrial; volucer, winged; also names of months in -ber, as September. 2. Celer, oeleriB, celere, srvift, retains the e before r, but lacks the Genitive Plural. 3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Femi- nine form is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true ... , , ._. , ,..j nij.j voiicatiia. i u ^.asc ui thc omcr worus in the list, the use of the Feminine for the Masculine is confined chiefly to early and late Latin, and to poetry. 38 hijlictiotts. Adjective, of Two Teimlniitlou.. 69- These arc declined as follows : — Fortl«, strong. M ANl> V. Nfltn. foitla ^fn. CorUs /W. foitl Ace. fort em VOC. fi)i(lB Abl. forti Norn, fortia tTtv/. foitium Dat. loitibus Ace. fDitSs, -la Voc. forte* -^^/. fortibuB Nkut. fi)rte foitis forll forte forte fortI fortla fortium fortlbue fortia fortia fortibuB SlN(iULAR. Tortior, strongar I'LUKAL. M. AND F. fortior forliorlB fortiori fortiorem fortior fortiOre, -I fortiorfie fortiorum fortiOribuB fortiOrSfl, -Ib fortiorfiB fortioribuB NlUT. fortius fortidrlB fortiori fortius fortius fortioro, -l fortiora fortiorum fortioribuB fortiora fortiora fortioribua I. Fortior is tlie Comparative of fortia All /- regularly declined in the sa.^ way. T^T^ pi^: 1^1^^^^ ^" 70. Norn. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. Adjeotivea Ffillx, happy. of One Termination. M. AND F. folfx feliciB felicl felicem felfx felicl felfcSa felFcium fellcibua felTcSa. -la fellcSa fellcibuB Neut. fellx fellcla felfcl fellx felix felicl SINGULAR. PrfldBns, prudent. felicia felFcium felicibua felicia felicia fellcibuB PLURAL. M. AND F. prudens prudent* prudetiti prude ntem prudens prudenti prudentfia prudentium prudentibuB prudentSa, -la prudentSs prudentibuB Nkut. prudens prudentla prudenti prudens prudens prudenti prudentla prudentium prudentibuB prudentla prudentla prudentibuB Atijutwes of the Third DicUmion. 39 VotUB, old. Norn. Gen, Dal. Ace, Voc. AbL Norn. Gen. Dal. Ace. Voc. Abl. M. APTO P. vet US vclerl» vcterl vetfiem vet us vutcro vctcrfin vetcrnm vctoribus veterfia vctoifis vett'iibuB VINOl/LAU. NtUT. vetus vclerU vcterl vetus vetus Vetera ri-UIlAL, Vetera veterum veteribu* veter« Vetera vcteribu* P1Q>, mart, M. ANI. I' NiOT. plus pliirlB plus — — pi lire plur«s plflra plurlum plurium pluribus ])lurlbu« plurfiB, -I« plQra pIuribuB pIuribuB I. It w. I he observed that vetuB is dechued as a pure Consonant- S cm ; ;... AbhU.v S.npdar in -e, Genitive Fh.ral in -um, Nominative Iknal Neuter ,n -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine in -S.y.nly. In the same way are declined compoB, conlrollin^', dlvea, rich; particepH, .sharing, pauper, poor, prInoepB, ./;/./; BS.pe. safe; BupeiBtea, surviving. Yet dIveB always has Neut. Plu. ditia 2 InopB, needy, and memor, mindful, have Ablative Singular luopi, memoir, but Genitive Plural inopum. memorum 3- Participles in -ana and -Sna -ollow the declension of I-stems. But they do not have -I m the Ablative, except when employed as adjec- tives ; when used as participles or as substantives, they have -e ; as,- a sapienti vir6, by a wise man ; but ft Bapiente, by a philosopher , TarquiniS i Sgnaute, under the reign of Tarquin. 4- 5- Plfla, in the Singular, is always a noun. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives, - a) usually retain the adjective declension ; as, — aequftlis, contemporary, Abl. aequall. cSnBuiarla, ex-consttl, Abl. cSnaulftrl. So names of Months; as, Aprlll, April; Deoembrl, De- cember. b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative Singular; as, Celere, Celcr; Juveuale, :^uvenal. / ^ Injii'ctutHS. Patrials In -1.. -ttl. and -I«. ^itu, wIkm. cle.siK„a,in. .lacen regularly have -I ; as, In Arplalltl, .„ the estate nt . LoZl yet .., when used of pcsons ; as. ab Arpl„«ta. .. Ti:;- 6. A very Jew in(Ii.dinal)le adjcciivcs occur, tlic chief nf ui.i i COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. Folltivetl^T '"'" "?''' ^''^^'''*'' "^ Comparison. -the Fosit.ye. the Comparative, and the Superlative m""" /r' ^^'^H'^^'-^^^ive is regularly formed by adding -lor Neut. -lu.). and the Superlative by adding -l..,m«. Uu^ to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowil ;'as.^ «^tus» %^, altlor, At^A^r, altU.imu., | ^''W-'^A ' fortis, W, fortlor, fortI..lm... ""''^ ^'^*' fel.x, /.,•/;.«„/., fehcior, feifci«.Imu.. d.ves. ;..^, rilvitior, drvitl..lmu«. So also Participles, when used as Adjectives ; as, - doctus, iear^r,/, doctlor, doctl.slmu. egens, .eeUy, egentlor, egentl..lmu.. rositive. I he Comparative is regular. Thus : — asper. roujfA, pulcher, beautiful^ acer, sharp, celer, swift, pauper, poor, asperlor, pulchrlor, acrior, celerlor, pauperior, asperrltnuB. pulcherrimu*. acerrimus. • celerrimua. pauperrimus. «. Notice maturu., nuturlor, maturlsaimu. or m;iturrimu«. .0 1 'zx^:i^^^^:z^z^ r? ■""™ tive is regular. Thus:- is> nuai vowel. The Compara- facilis, easy, difficilis, difficult, similis, like, dissimilis, unlike, humiiis, low, facilior, difficilior, similior, dissimillor. humilior, facilllmua. difficillinius. siniillimus. HtCloirv.:t11 humillimus. Comparison of Adjectives, 41 5. Adjectives In -dlons, -flou», and -volui, form the Comparative and Superlative as lliuugl) fr.,in fornKs in -dioiui, -floind, -volini. Tluis : — malediciH, xhnderous, maledfcentlor, maledicentltolmu.. maK'iuficus, ma^^nijUent, maKnificentlor. inagnitictMitlsBlmu* benevolus, kindly, l)enc'voltntior, benevolentlMimu.. a. Positives in -dlofin. and -vol8n« occur in early Latin ; as, maledloeiis, benevolSus. Irregular Compariton. 72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Compari- son ; viz, — bonus, fTood, mellor, pgjor, minor, major, plus, frugallor, ncquior, I. Observethatthelof-iorbecomesj — between vowels — in pejor and major. Defective Comparison. 73. I. Positive lacking entirely, — (Cf. prae, in front of ) prior, former, primus, first. citerior, on this side, citimus, near, uhttriox, fr-t/ier, mains, bad, parvus, small, m.lgnus, larf^e, mult us, much, frugl, thrifty, ncquam, worthless, optimus. pessimuB. minimus. maxlmus. plfirimus. frugalissimus. nequissimuB. (Cf citra, this side of) (Cf ultra, beyond.) (Cf. intra, 7t7'////>/.) (Cf. prope, near.) (Cf. dS, down.) ultimus, farthest interior, inner, intimua, inmost^ propior, nearer, proximus, nearest. deterior, inferior, deterrimug, worst. (Cf. archaic potis, possibU.) potior, prefe ible, potisaimus, chief est. 2. Positive occurring only in .special cases,— postero die, anno, etc., ' the following day, etc.; [ ^^^,^,^^^^ ^^^^^,. poster!, descendants, exteri, foreigners, nationes exterae, for- eign nations^ ^ _ latest^ postremus, , ' • ' [ last. I I late-horn, '- M posthumous. exterior, outer, \ e^trSmus, extimus, \'>''termo5t fnflmus, 1 , . • lowest. imus, In/lections, \nhr\,gods of the lower world, ' Mare Inferum, Mediterranean Inferior, lower oea, ' superi, g-ods above, Mare Superum, Adriatic Sea, superior, h:gAer, I ""P'^enius, last. ' ^ ,1 summus, Ai^/iest 3' Comparative lacking. vetus, old, , fidus, faithful, novus, new, ^ sacer, sacred, falsus, false, Also in some other words less frequently used. 4- Superlative lacking. alacrior, ingentior, Ji salutarior, junior, senior. veterrimus. fidissimus. novissimua,3 last. sacerrimus. falsissimus. alacer, lively, ingens, great, salutaris, wholesome, juvenis, yojing, senex, old. .4 .6 " -ms "irt-r " '!.''"^ ^^^° ^" --^ -^i^ctives in -«is Ills, -Ihs, -bihs, and in a few others. ' Comparison by MB.sis and Ma^xime. son^uf f7„.^t'r"" '^ "^^ ^^^"^ terminational Compari- son but form the Comparative and Superlative decrees bv prefixmg .asis (...) and ...i., (..^ Here bdoT.^ -iL, S;"^"'^^^ ^"^^"^ - -^"«' -^^^^^ -i^"s, -His, -icus, -imua, _____J^^^_^^;;«t^^ cases IS not a vowel, but a consonant. 1 Supplied by vetustior, from vetu.stus "■ Supplied by recentior. 3 TT riclvrSi . r-wcentissiiuus is used. * Supplied by minimus nata. * Supplied by maximus nata. lowest. last, ighest ,8 last. -aiis, 3an- 5 by aus, ted) ule. Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs. "^ Adjectives not admitting CompariBon. 75. Here belong — 1 . Many adjectives which, from the nature of their signification, do not admit of comparison ; as, hodiernus, of to-day ; annuus, annual; mortalis, mortal. 2. Some special words ; as, mirus, guSrus, merus ; and a few others. FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjec- tives, and depend upon them for their comparison. I. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive by changing -I of the Genitive Singular to -S ; those derived from adjectives of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive Singular to -iter ; as, — carS, dearly ; pulchrS, beatitiftdly i acriter, fiercely ; leviter, lightly. earns, pulclier, acer, levis. a. But Adjectives in -ns^ and a few others, add -ter (instead of -iter), to form the Adverb ; as, — sapiens, sapienter, wisely; audax, audacter, boldly; soUers, sollerter, skillfully. 2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accu- sative Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective ; while the Superlative of the Adverb is formed by changing the -I of the Genitive Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to -6. Thus — (carus) carS, dearly^ (pulcher) pulchrS, beautifully., (acer) acriter, fiercely. (levis) leviter, lightly, (sapiens) sapienter, wisely, (audax) audacter, boldly, cfirius, pulchrius, acrius, levius, sapientius, audacius, carisBim6. pulcherrimS. acerrimS. levissimS. sapientissim6. audacissimfi. 44 inflections. - ' ' pejus, magnopere,^r^a//K, magis, multum, w,^/,, pj-* ■ nonmultum, I ,.^^, ' 'parum, Y»tte, minus, - ' . '''^' diutius, nequ.ter, worthlessly, nequius, saepe, .//.«, ^^^p.^^^- mature, betimes, maturiui, optir-a. pessime. niaxim6. plurimum. niinltne. prope, near, nuper, recently. 4- secus, otherwise. diutissimS. nequisBimS. saepissimS. I maturrimg, I maturiasimfi. proximS. "Qperrime. potius ..M.. Potissimu^,,,,^,,^,^. prlus, / A^^'^/«/k, I , -^ sedus, /tfjj. propius. continue, immediately • '°' ^""^''^^ ' ' rarn-C' / ^''^^^^^ suddenly ; raro, r^;.,/,. and a few others. '^^ cito, ^/w/&/k, has -fi. multum, much; paulum, little; minimum, lea^st; facile, easily. 4- A few adjectives of the First pnH q Positive in -iter ; as, _ '' '"^ ^^^^^^ Declensions form the f^rmus, fTrmiter,yfrw/j/; Jargus, largiter,r.;/w;,j/j,. «. violentus has vloienter. humanus, humaniter,^«^,^«/.. 5- Various other adverbial cffl which are -tn« ^pd I - '"^-^"^ ^^C"'"' the most In,^ , , Sradually. ' ^^' antiquitus, a«./.;,//,. pamatj^^ Numerals. ^ NUMERALS. 78. Numerals may be divided into — . j, I. Numeral Adjectives, comprising — a. Cardinals', as, linus, one; duo, two: etc. b. Ordinals', as, primus, yfrj/ ; secundus, j^r<7«a?; etc. c. Distributives ; as, singuli, one by one ; binl, ttvo by two; etc. II. Numeral Adverbs ; as, semel, f7«^ ™d. § 56. duorum a - " dunbus H -7™ *"™™ duabus ^ -u duos, duo duas t'^""' ^"^b"« duabus H ° - So amb6,..,/, except that its final o is W " 3- Tresis declined,— ^om. tres ^ . tria Lren. trium . • -^rt^- tnbus . ., . Ace. tres (tris) ^j-j^ bonus.'''' hundreds (except oentun,) are declined like the Plural of enumerated ; § 201. i), and is dechned, -- '' '''' °^^'^*^ ^i^/ (something distinct from the speaker)- is, that (weaker than ille) ; pwser; , Idem, the same. Hic, //5«. SINGULAR. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Nom. hlc^ Gen. hujus » ■^^/. huic Ace. hunc WM hoc haec hujus huic hanc hue hoc hujus huic hoc hoc Masculine. hi 'iorum his hos his PLURAL. Feminine. hae hanjm his has his Neutbr. haec hoi-ura his haec his S] Nom Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. late, that, that of yours. SINGULAR. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. iste istlus istl is turn isto ista istius istr istam ista istud 8 istius istr istud isto PLURAL. MAscufriNH. Feminine. jsti istae istorum istarum jstis istrs istos istas istis istis 1 Th« ..„, I • . ~ Neuter. ista 8 istorum istIs ista 8 istis 1 The vowel is sometimes short in poeti^Tl^ * For illud. UlQc sometimes occurs. ' ' ^*^^°- The Intensive Pronoun. — The Relative Pronoun. 5 1 ular of the •articuJarly «, or as he First, Is, he., this that. SINGULAR ** PLURAL. Masculine. Femininb. Neuter. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Nom. iS ea id ei, if, (T) eae ea Gen. ejus eju' ejus eorum earum eorum Dat. ei el ei els, ils eLs, ilii eis, iis Ace. eum earn id eos eas ea Abl. CO ea eo idem, the eis, ils same. els, ils eis, iis SINGULAR PLURAL. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Nom. Idem eadem idem J eldem | \ iidem | eaedem eadem Gen. ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem eorundem earundem edrundem Dat. eldem eldem efdem elsdem elsdem eisdem Ace. eundem eandem idem eosdem easdem eadem Abl. eodem ciidem eodem elsdem eisdem elsdem The Nom. PIu. Masc. also has Idem, and the Dat. Abl. Plu. isdem or Usdem 'eutbr. laec lorum is aec is :UTER. :a8 orum Is a« is icine. V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN. 88. The Intensive Pronoun in Latin is ipse. It corre- sponds to the English myself, etc.; in '/ myself, he himself* 1 SINGULAR PLJRAL. Masculine Feminine. Neuter. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Nom. ipse ipsa ipsum ipsi ipsae ipsa Gen. ipsius ipsius ipsius ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum Dat. ipsi ipsi ipsi ipsis ipsis ipsis Ace. ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsos ipsas ipsa Abl. ips5 ipsa ipso ipsis • ipsis ipsis VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 89. The Relative Pronoun is qui, w//'">ni, any one. N«m'. .. ADJECTIVES, quid J '"^'W^. I Nkut. '\a.yiki„g. qur. quafe..qua. q„od.a.^. a liquid. M'""""'''. I ,. ?.m.M.V. la^qur aliqua. aliquod..;«, quidqiiam, | '^"J^'^<. •" ' at,ythi„g ^o corresponding adjective, quidpiam, | '"<)'"»'odque. .a.>4. quil.bet.quae]ibet,quidUb;t. ^".'//i/*^ p"'':'^' qnaevis, quodvfs f^y ^^j'-'^-^-p"'"^'^'' q^aeiibet, quodli^ J ^-« QUiJ«ui,quaedam,quiddam /"/'''""'( '■^''^ i,e„, ,Hou ^as,, f„i,tis, y,u Ha.e he„7yo72e, fuit, he has been, he was', '"" tx^, I shall be, eria, thou wilt be, erlt, he will be; ^ ^ I have been, I was, fueram, I had been, fuera«, thou hadst been, fuerat, he had been ; fuerS, I shall have been, fueris, />^^/^ wilt have been, fuerit, he will have been : fuSrunt, ! ,, , fuSre, I *^^ ^^'^^ been, they were. Pluperfect, fuerSmus; we had been, fueratis, you had been, ^^^xant, they had been. Future Perfect. fuerimus, we shall have been, fueritia, you will have been, fuerint, they will have been. 1 The Perfect Participle is wanting in sum. Conjugation of Sum. 57 SINGULAR. sim, may I be, SIS, mayst thou be, sit, let him be^ may he be; essem,2 / should be, esses,=2 thou wouldst be, esset,2 he would be ; fuerim, / may have been, fueris, t/iou mayst have been, fuerit, he may have been ; SUBJUNCTIVE.1 Pri:sent. PLURAL. sImuB, let us be, sitis, be ye, may ycu be^ sint, let them be. Imperfect. essSmus, we should be, essStis, you would be, essent,2 they would be. Perfect. fuerimus, we may have been, fueritis, you may have been, fuerint, they may have been. Pluperfect. fuissem, / should have been, fuissSmus, we should have been, fuisses, thou wouldst have been, fuissStis, . ou would have been, fuisset, he would have been ; fuissent, th.y would have been. Pres. es, be thou, Fut. esto, thou shall be, esto, he shall be; IMPERATIVE. este, be ye. estote, ye shall be, suntS, they shall be. * INFINITIVE. Pres. esse, to be. Per/, fuisse, to have been. Fut. futurus esse,8 to be about to be. PARTICIPLE. Fut. futflrus,* about to be. JZ . f ^''^"■'"* *""'"' °^ '"^^ Subjunctive are so many and so vaned particular y >n suHordinate clauses, that no attempt can be made to give them here. For fuller information the pupil is referred to the Syntax. t, esseno, ihe forms forem, fores, foret fcent are sometimes used. For futQrus Declined like bonus the form fore is often used. -a., -um. 58 Inflections, 101. Pres. Ind. am6 SINGULAR. amfi, / love, amfts, you love, amat, he loves ; FIRST (OR A-) CONJUGATION. Aotivt, Voice. -Am6,/^z,^. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres, Ink. Vtrnv Tm.^ v> amare .l^g^i •""«v* amatuB INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. PLURAL. amamus, we love, aniatia, yo/t love, aniaiit, l/iey love. amftbam, / was lovini^, arr.^. >aa, you were loving, ' amSbat, he was loving i ^m9Lh6, / shall love, amabis, you will love, ^rn&hit, he will love ; Imperfect. amabamus, we were loving, amabatls, you were loving, amabaut, they were loving. Future. amabimus, we shall love, aniabif;is, you ivill love, amabui?t, they will love. Perfect. ^"^^vl, / have loved / lo7fffi r,^.- • amavisti, you have lovZtu r^'"™"«' ^'^ ^^^'^ ^-^^^> -- ^ove.^, loved, ' ^''' amavi8tis,^.« have loved, you loved, amavit, .. has l^ed, he loved; ^r...,r..t,.',r., they have loved, they loved. Pluperfect. amJveram, / had Imto/f , -f naa loxiea, amaveramus. we had In^,^^ amaveras, you had loved, amav«riiH« ""' ^""'^ "'"'^y amaverat, /I, ha., ^-£>-,v iiv/^// will have loved, aniaverint, they 7v ill have loved. First Conjugation. 59 Partic. IB SlNntJI.AR. am em, may I love, amSs, may you love, amet, let him love, amftrem, / should love, amftrSs, you would love, amSret, he would love ; SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESKNT, IT.URAT.,. am6muB, let us love, amStia, may you Igve^ ament> let them love. Imperfect. amftrSmUB, we should love, amarStis, you would love, amftrent, they would love. Perfect. amfiverim, / may have loved, amaverimus, we may have loved, amaveris, you may have loved, amaveritis, you may have loved, amaverit, he may have loved; amaverint, they may have loved. Pluperfect. amavisBem, / should have loved, ^m^\iab^m\xa,we should have loved, amavisaSa, you would have loved, amavisaStis, you would have loved, amaviaaet, he would have loved; amaviaaent, they would have loved. loved, loved, i,they IMPERATIVE. Pres. ^m% love thou; amsito, love ye. Fut. amatS, thou shall love, amatote, ye shall love, amatS, he shall love ; amantS, they shall love. INFINITIVE. Pres. am are, to love. Perf. amaviaae, to have loved. Fut. amatiirua eaae, to be about to love. PARTICIPLE. Pres. amans,! loving. (Gen. amantis) Fut. amatflrua, about to love. GERUND. SUPINE. Gen. amandl, of loving, ^ , Dat. ^m^nA6, for loving, ^./t t r'i^fl^^ - Ace. amandum, /^w«^, Acc. axn^^yim, in love. ^^^' amandS, by loving. Abl. amatG, to love, be loved. ^ For declension of am&ns, see \ 70. 3. 6o Inflections. 102. FIRST (OR A-) CONJUGATION. Passive Voice.- Amor, lam loved. Prbs. Ind. amor SINGULAR. amor amSris amatur PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Inf. am§ri INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. I am loved. Imperfect. amabar ^'^"^ ^''"'^^ amabaris, or -re ( amabatur Future. amabor ^shallbe loved amaberis, or -re amabitur Perfect. /have been loved or I was loved. Perf. Ind. amatus sum PLURAL. amSmur amaminl amautur amabamur amabamini amabantur amabimur amabimini amabuutur amatus (-a, -um) sum i amatus es amatus est amatus eram ^ amatus eras amatus erat Pluperfect. I had been loved. amatus ero i amatus eris amatus erit Future Perfect. I shall have been loved. amati (-ae, a) sumus amatl estis amati sunt amatl eramus amati eratis amatl erant amati erimus amatl eritis amatl erunt fi '/"^' ^^iati, etc., are sometimes used for sum ea »/. « * ' etc., for eram. etc. ; fuerC, etc., for erO, etc fueram, fuerfts, First Conjugation. 6i i ii SINGULAR. amer amSris, or -re amfitur SUBJUNCTIVE. r'RESENT. May I be loved, let him be loved. PLURAL. amSmur amSminX amentur Imperfect. I should be loved, he would be lo'ved. amSrer am5r6mur amSrSris, or -re amarEminl amSrStur amatus aim ^ a>natuB sis amatus sit am&rentur Perfect. / may have been loved. amati simua amati sltds amatI sint Pluperfect. I should have been loved, he would have been loved. amatus essem i amati essSmus amatus essSs amati essStia amatus esset amati esaent IMPERATIVE. Pres. amSre, be thou loved; am5minT, be ye loved. Fut. amStor, thou shall he loved, amator, he shall be loved] amantor, they shall be loved. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. amSri, to be loved. Perf. amatuB esse, to have been Perfect. amiitua, having been ^'^^^^^- loved Fut. amatum iri, to be about to Gerundive, amandua, to be loved, ^^ ^^'^^'^- deservintr in h, ■J -- — loved. I 1 Fuerlm, etc., are sometimes used for sim ; so fuissem ttc. for essem. 62 Inflections. 103. SECOND (OR B-) CONJUGATION. Active Voice. — Moneo, I advise. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. Prhs. Inf. Perk. Ind. moneO monSre monul INDICATIVE MOOD Present Tense. I advise. Perf. Pass. Partic monitUB SINGULAR. moneS mon6a monet PLURAL. monSmua monStia monent monSbam monSbfla mongbat monSb5 monSbia monSbit Imperfect. I was advising, or I advised. Future. / shall advise. monSblmua monfibatia monSbant monfibimuB monfibitia monSbunt Perfect. Thave advised, or I advised. monul monuiati monult Pluperfect. monuimuB njonuistia monuSrunt, or -8re monueram monuerSa monuerat I had advised. Future Perfect. monuerSmua monueratia monuerant monuero tnonueria monuerlt I shall have advised. monuerimuB monueritia monuerint Second Conjugation, 63 RTIC SUBJUNCTIVE. PRKijKNT. May I advise^ let him advise. SINGULAR. PLURAL. moneam monean}UB moneSa moneatis moneat moneant Imperfect. / should advise, he would advise. monSrem mon6r5mus monSrSs monSrStis monSret mon§rent Perfect. / may have advised. rnonuerim monuerimuB monueris monueritis monuerit monuerint Pluperfect. / should have advised, he would have advised. monuissem monuissSmus monuissSs monuissStis monuisset monuissent IMPERATIVE. Pres. monS, advise thou ; monSte, advise ye. Fut. mon§t5, thou shall advise, monetote, ye shall advise, vaon&tb, he shall advise ; monento, they shall advise. INFINITIVE. Pres. monere, to advise. Perf. monuisse, to have advised. Fut. moniturus esse, to be about to advise. PARTICIPLE. Pres. monSna, advising. (Gen. moncntia.) Fut. moniturua, about to advise. GERUND. Geu. monendi, of advising, Dai. monendo, for advising, Ace. monendura, _advising, Abl. monendS, by advising. SUPINE. Ace. monitum, to advise. Abl. m onitu, to advise, be advised tflHectioHS, -SIXONU ,0K 6.; CONJU(IAIl„N. 104. P...„.v„,„. M„„c.„. /„„,„„„;„,,. J'ks^. Ink tnoneor SIN(!li|,AR. inoueor niouAtur IMtlNl ll'AI. I'AUrs. I'wKs. Ink nuineil INDICATIVE MOOD. I'KlvSKNI I UNSK. tnonltiM aum moiiibar nionebftrU, ,>r -ri mon«b«tur luonibor nn>n8beri«. ,»; -re inonSbitiu- I'lnURK. rti'HAt,. tiionflmur iiionimliir inoneatur mon«bflmiir nioiiSbamiiii ■nottflbautur Pkrikot. momtus aum itionitus es monitua eat n)on6bimur moiiSblmiui nion6buiitur inoniti aumua "lonitr estia '»"onitr aunt monitna eram mouitua erRs monitua erat '♦t.trPKRKKCr. / AaMt tuivised. monitua erfi monitua erit Fixture Pf.rfkit. / s/tall h regere ^^^^ rectus INDICATIVE MOOD. SIN(!UI,AR. rega regis regit Pkksknt Tensk. 'rule. PLURAL. regimus rcgitis regunt IMPERFKCT. regfibam reggbSs regfibat ^•^as ruling, OX I ruled. ' regSbamus regSbatis regSbant Future. regam regfis reget I shall rule. Perfect. regSmus regStis regent rexl I have ruled, or /ruled. rexIstI rexit Pluperfect. reximus rexistis rexSrunt, or -«re rexeram rexerSs rexerat ^ had ruled. Future Perfect. rexeramua rexeratis rexerant rexera rexerit ^ shall have ruled. rexerimTis rexeritis rexerint ITIC Third Conjugation. SUBJUNCTIVE. F^RESENT. May I ride, let him rule. SINGULAR. PLURAL. regam reg&miis regfts re^ltis regat iMPbTRFECT. regant / shoidd rule., he would rule. regerem regerSmus regerSs reger6tiB regeret PERFECr, / may have ruled. regerent rexerim rexerlmus rexeris rCxeritis rexerit rexerint Pluperfect. / should have ruled, he would have ruled. rexlssem rexissSmus rexiss6B . rexissStia rexisset rexissent IMPERATIVE. Pres. rege, r?de thou ; regite, rule ye. Fut. regito, thou shall rule., regitote, ye shall rule, regitS, he shall rule', reguntS, they shall rule. 6; V INFINITIVE. Pres. regere, to rule. Perf. rexisae, to have ruled. Fut. recturuB esse, to be about to ride. PARTICIPLE. Pres. regSns, riding. (Gen. regentia.) Fut. recturus, about to rule. GERUND. Gen. regendi, of ruling, Dat. regendo, for ruling, Ace. regendum, ruling, Abl. regendS, by ruling. SUPINE. Ace. rectum, to rule, Abl. rectii, to rule, be ruled. 68 ^*i/it'ttlOHS, 106 P....v.V,„„„ 1<,.«,„,,„„,„,„,^ •'"HH. Ino. ''•;lt»n •vuiinliiT iv^imtur 1 M I'l- K Mcr r. ivK«brti /WW////,-,/. tt'uflbflMg. .v .,.^» K'KflbJImur tVKeb*tm ivuflbAiuiiil • cj^abHutui I'I'll'RK. it',;>iir ^ ^^f^^iHh nihd. n\^«il«, ,,^. ,,.9 i(',n8nuir tt»R«tlU' iixfimlnl H'gentur \-t. inimtir; cniiii /•'. /'. inirfitus cro Pres. niirer Imp/, inlriircr Per-/, nilriitus sim /'////. nuriitus (!ss(!in II. ve'rf!()r vcicris vcn-tiir vciciiiiir vcromini voir nil If vert-bar vordhor viTilus sum veritus cram verilus ero III. »c(|uor Hcqucri.s HCf|iilliir sc(|iiiriiiir HfC|iiimini .scf|uunlur .sc(|uctjar soqtiar srcuhiH Hutn srciitus cram S(;ciitu.s cro IV. largior largiris Inr^itur l.'irj^iinur larKiminI lar^iuntur largicbar larKiar largilus Mum largitu.s cram largilus ero in (in -lor). pafior puteris patiUir patirnur pati mini |)atiuntur f)atichar patiar passus sum passus eram passus ero SUBJUNCTIVE. vcrear vcrercr veritus sim sequar largiar patiar snqiicrcr lar^irer paterer sccutus sim iar^itus .sini passus sim veritus essem sccutus csscm largitus essoin passus essem /'tfS. Put. mi rare mirator verere veretor IMPERATIVE, seqiiere st^quitor largire largitor patere patitor INFINITIVE. /^r^ mirar! vererl spq„i ,arglrl pa.i /•«/. m.raturus esse venturus esse secQlurus esse largiturus esse pa.ssQrii3 esse Pres, mirans Put. mlraiurus Per/, miratus Ger. mlrandus mlrandl, mlrando, etc. mirjitam, -tu verens veritfirus veritus verentius PARTICIPLES. scqucns seciitiirus sccutus scquondus largiens largiturus largitus iargiendus verendi verendo, etc. GERUND. sequcnd? largiendi scquendo, (T/t. iargiendo, ^-/r. patiens passurus passus patiendus patiendi patiendo, etc. SUPINE. verifum, -tu seculum, -ta iargituoi, -tu passu m. -su I ^ Inflections. SEMI-DEPONENTS. 114. I. Semi-Deponents are verbs which have the Pres the p' '" " l'' ^'^"^ """^''^ ^"^ ^^^ P-f-t System in the Passive without change of meaning. Here belong^ audeS, audSre, ausus sum, /^ ^«^^. gaudeS, gaudSre, gSvIsus sum, to rejoice. soleo, solgre, solitus sum, /^ ^, «;^«/. «dO, fidere, fisus sum, to trust. Acti;eltn[ng?-' "^'^ '^^'^ ^ ^^^^^^ ^-«^- ^-ticiple with adol68c5, ^..e, ,,^ . ^^^^.^^^ having grown up. pranaere, lunch ; prSnsus, //«z,/«^ /;,,,,/,,^. potare, ^r/«/& ; p5tu8, /,^^,>,^ ^^,,^j^ jurare, .^e/.«r ; ■ jurStus, having sworn, a. JQratus is used in a passive sense also. revertor, revertt (Inf.), revertj (Perf,), /. r.tor«. dSvenor, divert. (Inf.), dSvertl (Perf ■,',,. /«.«1^, PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION. lis. There are two Periphrastic Conjugations - the Active and the Passive. The Active is formed by com! bmmg the Future Active Participle with the auxiliary urn luxilfa'rr' """""'"^ ''"-' ''"""'"" "'* *^ ^=> "^ Active Periphrastic Conjugation. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. Imp. Put. Per/. Plup. amaturus (-a. -urn) sum, lam about to lave. amaturus eram, /was about to love amaturus ero, I shall be about to love ZJ.^f ""' I"'' ''""'^ '''" ^'"''^ ^'o^^'o love. amaturus fueram, I had been about to love i « 1= % /r^./ D =«.-=.^, "■' ' ""^^ oeeu aoout to love. Put. P amatarua fuer5, / ..«/, ,ave been about to love. i Pres. Imp. Per/. Plup. Pres. Perf. Pres. Imp. Put. Perf. Plup. Peculiarities of Conjugation. SUBJUNCTIVE, amatttrus slm, / ,nay be about to love. amfttarus esaem, / might be about to love. amatarus fuerim, / may have been about to love. amatQrus fuiasem, / might have been about to love. INFINITIVE, amatarus esse, to be about to love. amatarus fuisse, to have been about to love. Passive Periphrastic Conjugation. INDICATIVE, amandus (-a, -urn) sum, lam to be loved, must be loved. amandus eram, / ivas to be loved. amandus er5, / shall deserve to be loved. amandus fui, / was to be loved. amandus fueram, / had deserved to be loved. 79 Put. p. amandus fuero, / shall have deserved to be loved. Pres. Imp. Perf. Plup. Pres. Perf. SUBJUNCTIVE, amandus slm, / tnay deserve to be loved^ amandus essem, / tnight deserve to be )oved. amandus fuerim, / may have deserved to be loved. amandus fulssem, / might have deserved to be loved. INFINITIVE, amandus esse, to deserve to be loved. amandus fuisse, to have deserved to be loved. Il h PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION. 116. I. Perfects in -Svl, -gvl and -ivl, with the forms derived from them, often drop the ve or vi before endings beginning with r or 8. So also novi (from nosco) and the compounds of movl (irom moveo). Thus:— ^ amavisti amasti delevistl delestr amavisse amasse delevisse delesse amaverunt amarunt deleverunt delerunt amaverim amarim deleverim delerim amaveram amaram deleveram delerani amavero amaro delevero delero novisti nosti noverim norim novisse nosse noveram noram audivistl audJsti' audivisse audlsse So Inflections. 2. In the Gerund and Gerundive of the Third md FnurfU r • ga,,o„, ,h, e„di„,s -unau., .„„aT, „f,.„ o Jr ^t d of^e^aus Id' -endl, as faciundus, faciundl. o"«u8 ana 3. Dice, daca, faciS, form the Imperatives, die, dflc fao n.,t compounds of facia form the Imperative in -flc; .s c5nHc« r pounds of drc6, dac5 accent the ultima; as, Sddc, fid^ '^°"- 4- Archaic and Poetic forms : — a. The ending -ier in the Present Infinitive Passive- as amaner, mcnerier, dicier, for aman, monsri, did ' ^n-' /"'' ■'''T ^°'" "'^""^ '" ^"^'^^'■'■^^t^ '^f the Fourth scIbS, for sciSbam, solam ' ^. Tlie endings -im, -la, ./.. (for -am, -Ss, ./..) occur m a few Subjunctive forms ; as, edim (.«/;, duint, perduint iar/esl: L'^ftirT^itd'^I^l^^^^^ T"^^^^ ^"'^"'^^^^' ''^ -^'^- for gjectua eaae ' ' '""" ''"■ "'^'^^^"^ ««««; «Jectua FORMATION OF THE VERB-STEMS. Formation of the Preaent Stem. Mem as, dxcere, ducere, amSre. monSre, audlre. Others form the Present Stem variously, as follows : - I • By appending the vowels 5, 6, 1 ; as, — juvare, Present Stem juva- (Verb Stem juv-) By adding i, as capio. Present Stem capi- (Verb Stem c.n ^ 4. By appending -n to the Verb Stem ; as, - ^^' °®J"'° Pell-6 (for pel-no). 2. 3- .» ■f Formation of the Verb-Stems. g] 5. By appending t to the Verb Stem ; as,— flecta. 6. By appending bc to the Verb Stem ; as,— ^^^S^O-S 8CI9C-5. *K ^v ^y j^^^"P''';^t'«"' that is, by prefixing the initial consonant of the Verb Stem with i ; as, — gi-gn-S (root gen-). •i-at-6 (root Bta-). i Formation of the Perfect Stem. 118. The Perfect Stem is formed from the Verb Stem — 1 . By adding v (in case of Vowel Stems) ; as, ~ amav-T, del5v-i, audlv-I. 2. By adding u (in case of some Consonant Stems) ; as, - strepu-I, genu-i, alu-I. 3. By adding a (in case of most Consonant Stems) ; as,— carp-6. Perfect carps-i. 8crib-6, " 8orIp8-I(forscrIb-8l). rid-eo, " ri8-I (forrld-al). sent-io, « Bgns-I (for aent-al) . dic-6, " dix-l {i.e. dIc-Bl). a. Note that before the ending -si a Denial Mute (t, d) is lost; a Guttural Mute (c, g) unites with s to form x; while the Labial b is changed to p. 4- Without addition. Of this formation there are three types : a) The Verb Stem is reduplicated by prefixing the initial' con- sonant with the following vowel or e ; as, — curro, Perfect cu-curri. posco, " po-posci. pello, " pe-puli. fh.^l7''r'*~^^"T""'^'' ""■'"' '^'^ '^■^^-■■iMion of dO, stS, disco, posco omit the reduplication. Thus : com-puli, hut re-poposci. r.y^?^^ ^'~7'''^^ beginning with sp or st retain both consonants in the redu- Phcafon, but drop s from the stem ; as, spondee, spo-pondi ; sto, stetl h) The_ short vowel of the Verb Stem is lengthened; as, lego, legi ; ago, ggl. Note that S l)y this process becomes §. c) The _voweI of the Verb Stem is unchanged ; as, verto, G IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 |50 "■■ 156 2.5 ■ij If III ^'^ U III 1.6 Hiotographic Sciences Corporation i\ ^^ L1>^ V JV .ili^. ^. 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 X' '*?> u. \ 82 Inflections. Formation of Participial Stem. Participial Stem is derived by dropping -us, is formed:-. the Vefb'stef;f J:,-^""^"™^ '° '"^ ''--»' Stem, sometimes .0 am£-re. Participle amS-tua. dgl6-re, audi-re, Isg-ere, scrib-ere, senti-re, caed-ere, u a a a dglS-tua. audi-tua. I6c-tus, scrip-tua. s6n-aua (for aent-tua) . cae-aua (for caed-tua) . a. Note that g, before t, becomes c (see 6 8 c^ h h. dt or tt became as, which was .J'Zi l^r^^^^;^^^ ^''^ 2. After the analogy'of Participles like sSnaua and caeaua wh.r. ISb-i, Participle ISp-aua. ffg-ere, " ^.^ug, '' ll\leZs7Z""' ''rr °'^"'' ^" ^PP^"^-^ ^his ending -sua to the stem as m the case of the Perfect ending -si (see § ii8, 3,%. 3- A few Verbs form the Participle in -Itua ; as, — dom5-re, ^om itua. mon6-re, mon-itua. moniturua. But- ' ama-tus, amSturus; monitua, juv5-re, Perf. Partic. jutua. lava-re, par-ere, ru-ere, a a a a it ' 7 lautua, partus, -rutua. u ii a J.- Ul ii ii ii /A. CI. ii ii rarn a a c. juvaturua. lavaturua. pariturua. Bec5-re, a a sectua. u ii ii ruiturua. fru-i, mor-T, oriri, i( a -fructua. a i( ii a aeoaturus. f ruiturua. a a mortuua, ortua. ii ii ii a moriturua. . oritiirua. 1 Buuhe compound. oa-- - • lorms oi rero lack the nnnnpoti"" "o— -1 Third Conjugation. ' ' °"°'' '^" '"^^"'^^ '"A^'^ti"" of verbs of the af ai cc di ef in ol re Irregular Verbs. 99 mt.i Passive Voice. feror^ ferri, latus sum, to be borne. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. feror, ferris, fertur ; ferimur, feriminj, feruntur. Imp. ferebar ; ferebamur. Put. ferar ; feremur. Perf. latus sum ; lati sumus. Plup. latus eram ; latl eramus. Put. P. latus ero ; latl erimus. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. ferar ; feramur. Imp. ferrer ; ferremur. Perf. latus sim ; latl sTmus. Plup. latus essem 5 . latl essemus. IMPERATIVE. Pres. ferre ; feriminl. Put. fertor ; fertor ; feruntor. INflNITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. ferrl. Perf. latus esse. Perf. latus. Fut. latum iri. Ger. ferendus. So also the Compounds ■ owe], f the affero afferre attulT allatus britig toward aufero auferre abstuli ablatus take away confers conferre contull collatus compare differo differre distull dllatus put off effero eiferre extull elatus carry off Infero Inferre intulT Hiatus bring against offero offerre obtulT oblatus present refero referre rettuli reiatus bring back Note. — The forms sustuli and sublatus belong to toUo. roo 130. Inflections, Vols, n616, mal6. PRINCIPAL PARTS. "^oW, velle, voiul, ««16, nolle, noluT, »nai6, maiie, maiui, Pres. Imp. Put. Per/. Plup. volo, vis, vult; volumus, vultis, volunt. volebam. volam. voliA. volueram. to be willing, to be unwilling, to pre/er. Put. P. voluero. INDICATIVE MOOD. nolo, non vis, non vult ; nolumus, non vultis, nolunt. / nolebam. nolam. nolul. nolUeram. noluero. malo, mavis, mavult; malumus, ma vultis, malunt. malebam malam. malul. malueram maluero. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. ve]im,-rs,-it,^/^. nolim. ^»tp- vellem,-es,-et,^/^. nollem. Per/ voluerim. noluerim. Plup. voluissem. nolulssem. IMPERATIVE. 1. Pres. noli, nollte. Put. nolito, nolitote, nolito ; nolunto. Pres. Per/ velle. voluisse. INFINITIVE. nolle, noluisse. PARTICIPLE. Prts. volens. nolens, malim. mallem. maluerim. maluissem. malle. maluisse. Irregular Verbs. I lOi 131. PI5. PRINCIPAL PARTS. fX5. fieri, factua sum, to become, he made. Pres. Imp. Put. Perf. Plup. Put. P. Pres. Imp. Perf. Plup. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. fio, fls, fit ; flmus, fitis, fiunt. fiebam ; fjebanus. flam ; flemus. factus sum ; facti sumus. factus eram ; factl eramus. factus ero ; factl erimus. SUBJUNCTIVE. flam ; fierem ; factus sim ; factus essem ; IMPERATIVE. Pres. fi ; INFINITIVE. Pres. fieri. Perf. factus esse. Put. factum Irl. fiamus. fieremus. factl simus. factl essemus. fite. PARTICIPLE. Perf. factus. Ger. faciendus. Note. — A few isolated forms of compounds of fI6 occur; as, dgfit, lacks ; infit, degins. 132. E5. PRINCIPAL PARTS. •», Pres. Imp. Put. Perf Plup. ire. ivi. itum (est), to go. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. eo, Is, it ; imus, Itis, eunt. ibam ; ibamus. Ibo ; ibimus. Ivimus (iimus). Iveramus (ieramus). TvT (vi\ : iveram (ieram) ; Put. P. ivero (iero) ; iverimus (ierimus). ro2 Pres. /wy. SINGULAU. earn ; from ; ivenm (ieiim) ; Inflictions, SUBJUNCTIVE. Plifp. Ivissem ( iissem, fssem ) ; IMPERATIVE. •'I.IIRAL. eamus. iicmus. ivcrinnis (icrinuis). ivissCmus (iissc-mus, issLMniis). Pres. IWs. Per/, Put. '; Tto ; Ito; INFINITIVE, ire. ivisse (isse) itfirus esse. GERUND. eundi, etc. ite. rtote, eunto. Pres. ions. {Cen. eiintis.) P^ut. iturus. PARTICIPLE. SUPINE. itiiin, iiil. as;aaei:::it;™~r' ^' ^"'™" '"^ f-" "-^^ '-"-io-i DEFECTIVE VERBS. Defective Verbs lack certain forms Th^ f.ii • the most important : - ' followmg are 133. Used MAINLY IN THE Perfect System. Coepi, / W ^.^.«. Meminr, I remember. INDICATIVE MOOD. Perfj^ coepl. ^,,^j„- Plup coeperam. memineram. Put. P, coepero. meminero. -^eak. This is inriectcd legiilaily in the perfect tenses. In the J'resent System it has — INDICATIVE MOOD. jyes. Flit. •SINCUI.AU. fatur. fflbor, Pl.URAr,, fabitur. -- ,^ Jf»P fare. /«/. fan. Pres. Partic. fantis, fanti, etc. OtrimiiyG., {7x.vida\ D.and AbL.i^x^Ao, Gerumiive fiiiuUis. Note. - Forms df fftrl are rare. More ftrquent are its compounds ; as. - ftfffttur, he addresses; praefamur, we say in advance. 137. OriiKR Defective Forms. 1. QueO, quire, qulvl, to be able, and nequeO, nequire, nequlvl to be unable, are inflected lilI ''""'""''' ^''''''"' '''' ^'"'''''' "' ^^^^^^""^ t^nrxs, as far 4. Cum is appended to the Pronoun of the First and Second Persons, and to the Reflexive Pronoun usually also to the Relative and Interrogative. Thus : — ^vciauve secum quocum or cum quo quacum or cum qua quibuscum or cum quibus mecum tecum noblscum vobiscum !l * On quTcum, see § 89, Footnote i. 143. Two Prepositions, m and sub, govern both the Accusative and the Ablative. With the Accusative they denote motion ; with the Ablative, rest; as, — in urbem, into the city ; in urbe, in the city. Ablativ!"^^^' ^""^ ^"^" ^'' ^^'"^ occasionally construed with the 144. Relation of Adverbs and Prepositions. r. Prepositions were originally Adverbs, and manv of them still retain their adverbial meaning; ^s,vo^t, afterwards; ^nte, previously; contra, on the other hand, etc. ^' .mni ^T^'^^^^ '""''■'^ ''^''^'' "'"^"^ ^^^^^bs, are occasionally employed as prepositions ; as, — ^ clam, prldie, with the Accusative. procul, simul, palam, vdth the Ablative. 3- Anastrophe. A dissyllabic preposition sometimes follows a relative pronoun which it governs ; as, — ii, quos inter erat, those among whom he was. INTERJECTIONS. 145. Interjections are Particles expressing emotion. 1 hey may express — 1 . Surprise ; as, fin, ecce, 6. 2. Joy : as, io, euoe. 3- Sorrow and Pain ; as, heu, Sheu, vae, pro. 4- Calling ; as, heus, eho. I I I i Part IV. WORD-FORMATION. I. DERIVATIVES. 146. Derivatives are formed by appending certain ter- minations called Suffixes to stems of verbs, nouns, or adjectives. A. NOUNS. 1. Nouns derived from Verbs. 147. I . The suffix -tor (-sor), Fern, -trix, denotes the agent; as, — victor, victrix, victor; defensor, defender. Note. — The suffix -tor is occasionally appended to noun stems ; as, — gladiator, gladiator (from gladius). 2. The suffix -or (originally -6s) denotes an activity or a condi- tion; as, — amor, iove; timor, fear; dolor, pain. 3. The suffixes -tio (-sio), Gen. -onis, and -tus (-sus), Gen. -iis, denote an action as in process; as, — venatio, hunting; obsessio, blockade; gemitus, sighing; cursus, running. Note. — Rarer endings with the same force are : — a) -tiira, -sura • as, — sepultQra, burial ; mSnstira, measuring, V) -ium; as, — gaudium, rejoicing, c) -ido, as,— Cupld0, desire. 109 1 10 IVonf- Fonnation. denote ///^ w^,j«j or p/ace of an action ; as, ~ » u um. Iflmeii (Iflo-s-men), /(^r/u ; vooabulum, w./; Ornamentum, .;,;/./,//,',// ; dooumentum, firoofi Bepulorxxm, ^^rrav,. aratrum, ;)/.;/,^/,,. vehlculum, carriai^e. When the root ends in c, the c of the suffix disappears; as,- jaoulum for jac-cnlum (from jaci6). 148. as,— 2. Nouns derived from Nouns. Diminutives end in — -ulus, (-ula, -ulum) -olus, (-Ola, -olum), after a vowel -cuius, (-cula, -oulum) -ellus, (-ella, -ellum) -iUus, (.ilia, -ilium) nidulus, virgula, oppidulum, flliolus, opusculum, tabella, lapillus, (nidus) ; (virga) ; (oppidum) ; (fllius) ; (opus) ; (tabula) ; (lapis). /////i/f, for lapid-lua. 2. The suffix -ium appended to nouns denoting persons designates either a collecUon of such persons or their function; as, - collegium, a corporation, body of colleagues (coUfiga) • sacerdotium, priestly function (sacerdos). 3- The suffixes -arium, -gtum, -ile designate a place where objects are kept or are found in abundance; as,- columbaiium, dove-cote (columba) ; oiivetum, olive-orchard (oliva); ovile, sheep-fold (ovis). ^■. ■ Nouns. — Adjectives. Ml 4. The suffix -atus denotes official position or honor \ as,— cSnaulfltus, consulship (cfinsul). 5. The suffix -Ina appended to nouns denoting persons designates a vocation or the place where it is carried on ; as, — dootrlna, teaching (doctor, teacher) ; mediclna, the art of healing (medioxxB,' physician) ; Bfltrlna, cobbler"^ s shop (siltor, cobbler), 6. Patronymics are Greek proper names denoting son of . . . daughter of. . . . They have the following suffixes : — a) Masculines : -idfis, -adfis, -Idfis ; as, Priamid8s, son of Priam ; Aeneades, son of Aeneas ; PSlIdfis, son of Peleus. b) Feminines : -Sis, -is, -ias ; as, NfirSis, daughter of Nereus', Atlantis, daughter of Atlas] Thaumantias, daughter of Thaumas. 3. Nouns derived from Adjectives. 149. The suffixes -tfts (-itas), -tfldS (-itadS), -ia, -itia are used for the formation of abstract nouns denoting qualities ] as, — YiOxAt^ji., goodness] oeleritSLa, stviftness ; xaSigait^dd, greatness ; audft- oisif boldness ; sivnloitia, friendship. B. ADJECTIVES. 1. Adjectives derived from Verbs. 150. I . The suffixes -bundus and -cundus give nearly the force of a present participle ; as, — tremebundus, trembling) IrScundus, wrathful. 2. The suffixes -ftx and -ulus denote an inclination or tendency., mostly a faulty one ; as, — loquAx, loquacious ; crfidulus, credulous. 3. The suffix -idus denotes a state; as, — calidus, ^<7/ ; timiduB, timid ; cnpidviB, eager. 4. The suffixes -ills and -bilis denote capacity or ability, usually in a passive sense ; as, — ix^^iB, fragile {i.e. capable of being broken); dooilis, docile. 112 IVoni-FotffiatioH. 2. Adjeotlves derived from Nouna. «/) /•)»//; Onnmon Nouns, 151. I. riic .surtixes -eu. and -Iniw arc appnided to names of sub- stances or materials ; as, — aiireui, ofg;oU; ferretw, of „on ; fSglniw, of bmh. 2. The sntrixcs -i«i, -lou., -111., -ftlk, -a,i«. .»,,„., .„„,, .g„„, -InuB, -Iviw. -e„.i, signify /W„;,^./„^. /„, connected with ; as, ~ OratOrius, or/onc,rv ; belliouB. pettamiHg to war ; paternuB. pafemai ; ' crvIllB, avi/; urbainiB. o/' tlw ctty, r«gailB, ^/////m ; as,— perrciildBUB,/,/// ofiianirer, giarlOBua, >:lorious ; d,jniieroNS ; opulentim! wea/t/ty. 4' The suffix -tuB has the force of provided with ; as, — barbfttuB, fiearded ; stellltuB, set with stars. b) From Proper Names . 152. I. Names of persons take the suffixes: -anu», -iSnus -Inus; as,— ' ' CatdnianuB, belonging: to Cato ; Plautlnus, belonging to Plautus. 2. Names o{ nations take the suffixes -Icub, -Iub ; as,— GennaiiicuB, German; ThraoiuB, Thracian. 3- Names oi places take the, suffixes -aims, Inus. -gnsis, -aeiia -Ills : as. — ■ y i RSmanus, Roman ; Ath6ui6nBls, Athenian ; AmerluuB, of Ameria ; S.nyraaeua, ,y Smrna; Corinthius, Corinthian. Note. - -flnus and -finsiB, appended to names of countries, desig- nate sotiiething stationed in the country or connected wtih it, but not indigenous; as. — bellum Africaniim, a war {of Romans with Romans) in Africa. beiiuiii iii»pauieu8e, a war carried on in Spain. legiSuSs Oallicanae, ^Roman) legions stationed in Gaul. Adjectives, — Verbs. 3. Adjeotlvea derived from Adjeotivei. 153. Diiiiiiuilivcs in -liiB Hometiincs occur; uh, — parvolus, little ; mlBelluH passer, /xw little sparnnv; pauperoulua, needy. • 4. Adjeotives derived from Adverbs. 164. These end in -ernus, -ternus, -tlnun, -tlnus ; as,. hodierinis, of to-day (hodlB) ; i»3 hesternits, of yesterday {hm\) ■ intestlnus, ititenuil (intus) ; didtinus, long-lusting (dlfl). c. vi:Kr3S. 1. Verbs derived from Verbs. 155. I. InckptivI',.s OH Inchoativks. These endin -soS, and are formed from Present Stems. They denote t/te beginning of an action; as,— labaacS, begin to totter (from lab6) ; horrSBoo, gro%v rough (from horrefl) ; tremeacd, begin to tremble (from tremS) ; obdormlaoS, fall asleep (from dorml6). 2. Fkkqukntatives or Intensivks. These denote a repeated or energetic action. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and ^\\f\ in -t6 or -s6. Tliose derived from verbs of tlie First Conjuga- tion end in -lt6 (not -fttfl, as we should expect). Examples of Fre- quentatives are — jacto, toss about, brandish (from jaci6, hurl) ; curso, run hither and thither (from curr5, run) ; volitS, /lit about (from vo\6,/ly). a. Some double Frequentatives occur; as, — cantit5, sitig over and over (cantfl) ; CUrsitS, keep runniHsr nfiout (Gurs5l • ventitS, keep coming. b, agit5, set in motion, is formed from the Present Stem. 114 Word- Formation. 3. DEsrnERATiVHs. Th^^s^ A^^^ox^ a desire to rin^rf„.t/,, am in labor (pariO). 2. Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjective. (Denominatives). .I„«f„f ":""'"'""''™^"f .'l'<^ fi«t Conjugaeion are mostly transitive lose of the .Second exclusively intransitive. Those of the Tl,irrt nln |.our,h^Conj„ga.ions are partly tt^nsitive, partly imratit ' Ex2' a) From Nouns : — frauds, dej^-aud vestiS, clothe flSreS, bloom b) From Adjectives : — llberS, free oaeviS, be fierce (fraus) ; (vestis) ; (flSs). (liber) ; (saevus). D. ADVERBS. ' S. "by Ltears^ftle :r tT i:. ^'' '"'""' '™'" '"' '"^^''^^ certatim, etnulously (certS) ; cursim, in haste (curr6) '; statim immediately (st6). 2. Adverbs derived from nouns and adjectives are formed • - rt) With the suffixes -tim (-sim), -atim; as,- gradStim, step by step; pauiatim, gradually; virltim, man by man. b) With the suffix -tus ; as, — , antiquitus, of old; ^^^IcitviB, from the roots. c) Wiih the suffix -ter ; as, — breviter, bri^. Compounds. "5 n. COMPOUNDS. 158. I. Compounds are formed by the union of simple words. The second member usually contains the essential meaning oi the compound; the first member expresses some modification of this. 2. Vowel changes often occur in the process of composition. Thus : — a. In the second member of compounds. (See §7.1.) b. The final vowel of the stem of the first member of the com- pound often appears as I where we should expect 6 or a ; sometimes it is dropped altogether, and in case of consonant stems X is often inserted ; as, — slgnifer, standard-bearer ] tubicen, trumpeter ; magnanimuB, high-minded] mfttriolda, matricide. 159. Examples of Compounds. 1 . Nouns : — rt) Preposition + Noun ; as, — d6-decu8, disgrace ; pro-avuB, great-grandfather, b) Noun 4- Verb Stem ; as, — AQxi-cola, farmer ; fiSitri-ol&a, fratricide. 2. Adjectives: — a) Preposition + Adjective (or Noun) ; as, — per-mSgnus, very great ; sub-obaciirus, rather obscure ; &-mSnB, frantic. b) Adjective + Noun ; as, — magn-animuB, great-hearted; miaeri-cors, compassionate. c) Noun + Verb Stem ; as, — parti-cepa, sharing; morti-fer, death-dealing. u6 Word-Formation. 3- Verbs: — The second member is always a verb. The first may be- a) A Noun ; as, — aedi-ficS, fira'M. b) An Adjective ; as, — ampli-fic5, enlarge, c) An Adverb ; as, — male-dlco, rail at. d) Another Verb ; as, — cale-faci6, make warm. e) A Preposition ; as, ab-jung6, detach ; re-fero, drwg back ; dis-cerno, distinguish ; ex-specto, await. Note.- Here belong the so-called Inseparable Prepositions ambi- (amb-), around; ^^^- i^ir-,dl-), apart, asunder; l£tot- forward ; ted- (xe~), back ; »^d-{B^.), apart from} vS-, without. 4- Adverbs : — These are of various types ; as, ahtea, before ; nico (in loco), on the spot} imprimis, especially ; obviam, in the way. Part V. SYNTAX. ♦ 160. Syntax treats of the use of words in sentences. Chapter I. — Sentences, CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 161. Sentences may be classified as follows : — 1 . Declarative, which state something ; as, — puer Bcrlbit, the boy is writing. 2. Interrogative, which ask a question ; as, — quid puer scrlbit, what is the boy writhrgf 3. Exclamatory, which are in the form of an exclamation; as,- quot libroB scrlbit, how many books he writes ! 4. Imperative, which express a command or an admonition ; as,- scribe, write ! FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 162, Questions may be either Word-Questions or Sen- tence-Questions. I. Word-Questions. These are introduced by the various interrogative pronouns and adverbs ; such as — quis, qui, quSlis, quantus, quot, quotiSns, qu6, quS, eU. ThuS : — quia venit, who comes ? quam diu manSbit, how long will he stay f 117 Ii8 Syntax. I '\ 2. Sentence-Questions. These are introduced^ a) By nfinne implying the answer 'yes ' ; as, — ndnne vldfis, do you not see f b) By num implying the answer 'no' ; as,— num ^:^^^Gt^%,do you expect f {i.e. you don't expect, do you f) c) By the enclitic -ne, appended to the emphatic word, and • simply asking for information ; as, — vidfisne, do you see ? A question introduced by -ne may receive a special im- plication from the context ; as, — s6nsistTne, did you not perceive ? d) Sometimes by no special word, particularly in expressions of surprise or indignation ; as, — ta In jadloum cSDspeotum venire audSs, do you dare to come into the presence of the judges ? 3. Rhetorical Questions. Questions are sometimes tfuch merely in form, being employed to express an emphatic assertion; as, quia dubitat, who doubts? (^ no one doubts), 4. Double Questions. Double Questions are intro- duced by the following particles : — utrum ... an; -ne an ; ■ .... an. If the second member is negative, annfin (less often neone) is used. Examples:— ^ ^ utrum honeatum eat an turpe, " honeatumne eat an turpe, is it honorable base f honeatum eat an turpe, suntne dl annSn, are there gods or not ? a. By an ellipsis of the first member, an sometimes stands alone. Its force depends upon the context ; as, — A rSbua gerendia abatrahlt aenectfla. Quibua? An ela quae juventflte geruntur et viribua? Old age {it is alleged) withdraws men from active pursuits. From what pursuits ? Is it not merely from those which are performed by the strength of youth f Simple and Compound Sentences, 119 5. Answers. a. The answer Yes is expressed by ita, otiam, vflrS, ySJjJ\^^, •fln«, or by repetition of the verb ; as, — 1) 'vlane locum mfltemus?' 'aftne/ 'Shall we change the place / ' * Certainly ' 'estiane v6s IfigatI?' ■ is said, asked, etc. The Predicate is that which is said, asked, etc., concerning the Subject. SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. « 164. Sentences containing but one Subject and one Predicate are called Simple Sentences, those containing more are called Compound Sentences. Thus puer librSs legit, the boy reads books, is a Simple Sentence ; but puer librSs legit et epistuiaa sorlbit, the boy reads books and writes letters, is a Compound Sentence. The different members of a compound Sentence are called Clauses. 165. C06RDINATE AND Subordinate Clauses. Clauses which stand upon an equality are called Coordinate ; a Clause dependent upon another is called Subordinate. Thus in puer librSs legit et epistulfts Bcrlbit the two clauses are Co(5rdinate • but in tjusr libr5s legit quSs pater scrTbit, the boy reads the books which his father writes, the second clause is Subordinate to the first. 1 20 Syntax. Chapter II. — Syntax of Nouns, SUBJECT. ^ 166. The Subject of a Finite Verb {i.e. anv form of the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative) is in the Nomi- native Case. 1. The Subject may be — a) A Noun or Pronoun ; as, — puer aorlbit, the boy writes ; hic acrlblt, t/i/s man writes. b) An Infinitive; as, — decSrum est pr6 patria morl, to die for one''s country is a noble thing. c) A Clause ; as, — opportane accidit quod v6ui8tl, // happened opportunely that yon arriiied, 2. A Personal Pronoun as Subject is usually implied in the Verb, and is not separately expressed ; as, — BcrlbS, / Tvrite ; videt, he sees. a. But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the Pronoun is expressed ; as, — ego Bcrlbo et tQ legis, / 7vr/te, and you read. 3- The verb is sometimes omitted when it can be easily supplied from the context, especially the auxiliary sum ; as, — rfictS ille {sc. facit), he does rightly, cdnsul profectus {sc. est), the consul set out. PREDICATE NOUNS. 167. A Predicate Noun is one connected with the Sub- ject by some form of the verb Sum or a similar verb. 168. A Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject in Case ; ^ as, — 1 For the Predicate Genitive see ^\ 198, 3 ; 303, 5. Predicate Nouns. — Appositives. \2\ Clcerfi Orator f nit, Cicero was an orator ; Numa creatua est rSx, JVnma was elected king^ 1 . When [)()ssiblc the Predicate Noun usiuilly agrees with its Subject in (iender also ; as, — philoBophia est vltae magistra, philosophy is the guide of life. m 2. Hesides sum tlie verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predi- cate Noun are — a) £16, SvadS, exists ; maned ; videor ; as, — Croesus i'6ii semper maasit rSx, Croesus did not always remain king. b) Passive verbs of making, calling, regarding, etc. ; as, creor, appellor, habeoi ; as, — R5mulus rSx appeliatus est, Romulus was called king ; habitus est deus, he was regarded as a god. APPOSITIVES. 169. I. An Appositive is a Noun explaining or defining another Noun denoting the same person or thing ; as, — CicerS cdnsul, Cicero, the Consul', urbs X^oma, the city Rome. 2. An Appositive ;igrees with its Subjec"- in Case ; as, — opera Ciceronis orStSiis, the works of Cicero, the orator', apud HSrodotum, patrem historiaei, in the works of Herodotus, the father of history. . 3. When possible the Appositive agrees with its Subject in Gen- der also ; as, — assentatio adjQfcrIx vitiSrum, flattery, the promoter of evils. 4. A Locative may take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or oppidum, with or without a preposition ; as, — Corinthi, urbe praeclarS, or in urbe praeclara, 126 Synti ax. So also firfl. some though n poscO, repoacO, exposcfi, fiSgii ^l t'^^'^e prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative • 01 the Person ; as, — opem a tS poac«, / demand aid of yon. b) Verbs oi teaching (doceC and its compounds); as,- t« litteraa docQ6, I teach you your letters. c) Verbs of inquiring ; as, — t8 haec rogO, /ask you this; tS aententiam rogS, /ask you your opinion. d) Several Special Verbs ; viz. mone6, admoneS, oommone6 C6g5 accaso, arguS, and a few others. These admit only a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective as Accusative of the Thing t« haec moneo, / give you this advice; mS id accaaaa, you bring this accusation against me id cogit 1168 natiira, nature compels us {to) this. e) One Verb of f<7«r^rt/z«^, CS16; as,— non t« csiavl aermonem, / have not concealed the conver- sat ton from you. 2. In the Passive construction the Accusative of the Person be- comes the Subject, and the Accusative of the Thing is retained L- ™?r'' '^°''"' ''*' ^' "^"^ '''''^'' ^" accomplishments; ' rogatua aum aententiam, / n,as asked my opinion; ahquid admonSmurf.^/. are given some admonition, a. Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction. Two AoousaUves with Compounds. 179. I. Transitive compounds of trSns may take two Accusatives, one dependent upon the Verb, the other upon the Preposition ; as, — mnitSs flOmen tridfloit, he lead, his soldiers across the river. 2. With otlier compounds this construction is rar- .retained ■ t! - "'" "" """""'"^ '''"™''^"' "P°" *^ P^^P°^i«on is mmte, flame,, trSdaoSbantur, ,he soUiers ^ere led across the river. The Accusative. 127 * Syneodoohical (or Oreek) Accusative. 180. I. The Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative denotes the part to which an action or quality refers ; as, — tremit arttts, literally, he trembles an to his linibs, i.e. his limbs tremble ; nQda gena, lit. bare as to the knee, i.e. with knee Ijare ; manas revinctus, lit. tied as to the hands, U. with hands tied. 2. Note that this construction — a) Is borrowed from the Greek. b) Is chiefly confined to poetry. c) Usually refers to a part of the body. d) Is used with Adjectives as well as Verbs. Accusative of Time and Space. 181. I. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are de- noted by the Accusative ; as, — quadraginta ann5s vixit, he lived forty years ; hlc locus passus sescent6s aberat, this place was six hundred paces away. arborSs quinquaginta pedSs altae, trees fifty feet high. abhinc tres annos, three years ago. 2. Emphasis is sometimes added by using the Preposition per ; as, per duos aunos laboravi, I toiled throughout two years. Accusative of Limit of Motion. 182. I. The Accusative of Limit of Motion is used — a) With names of Towns, Small Islands, and Peninsulas ; as, — Romam veni, / came to Rome ; AthSnas proficTscitur, he sets out for Athens; DSlum pervgni, f arrived at Delos. b) With domum, domos, rus ; as, — domum revertitur, he returns home ; rus ibo, /shall go to the country. Note. — When domus means house {i.e. building), it takes a prep- osition ; as, — in domum veterem remigrSre, to move back to an old house. 128 Syntax. 'iff 2. Other designations of place than those above mentioned require a Preposition to denote Limit of Motion ; as,— Ad Italiam vSnit, /le came to Italy . a. The Preposition is also customary when the Accusatives urbem or oppidum stand in apposition with the name of a town ; as, — Cirtam in urbem, to the city Cirta ; Geiigvam ad oppidum, to the town Geneva, h. The name of a town denoting limit of motion may be com- bined with the name of a country or other word dependent upon a preposition ; as, — Thurios in Italiam pervectus, carried to Thurii in Italy • cum Acgn ad exercitum vgnisset, when he had come to the army at Ace. 3. To denote toward, to the vicinity of, in the vicinity of, ad is ad Tarentum veni, / came to the vicinity of Tarentnm ; ad Cannas pugna facta est, a battle was fought near Cannes. 4. In poetry the Accusative of any noun denoting a place may be used without a preposition to express the limit of motion ; as, - Italiam veuit, he came to Italy. 5- The ^,^«/ notion seems to represent the original function of the Accusative Case. Traces of this primitive force are recognizable in the phrase Infitias Ire, to deny (lit. to go to a denial), and a few other similar expressions. Accusative in Exclamations. 183. The Accusative, generally modified by an Adj tive, is used in Exclamations ; as, — me miserum ah, wretched me ! 5 fallacem spem, oh, deceptive hope ! ec- Accusative as Subject of the Infinitive. 184. The Subject of the Infinitive is put- in th^ Ao^,,o„ tive; as, — video hominem abire, I see that the man is going away. The Accusative. — The Dative. 129 Other Usea of the Accusative. 185. Here belong — 1 . Some Accusatives which were originally Appositives ; viz. — id genus, of that kind ; as, homiiiS^ id genus, men of that kind (originally homings, id genus homiuum, nien^ that kind of men ) ; virile secus, muliebre secus, of the male sex., of the female sex meam vicem, tuam vicem, etc., for my part., etc. ; bonam partem, in large part ; mSximam partem, for the most part. 2. Some phrases of doubtful origin; as, — id temporis, at that time ; quod si, dnt if; id aetatis, at that time ; cStera, /// other respects ; dextrum, on the right ; laevum, on the left. THE DATIVE. 186. The Dative case in general expresses relations which are designated in English by the prepositions to and for. Dative of Indirect Object. 187. The commonest use of the Dative is to denote the person to whoin something is given, said, or done. Thus : — I. With transitive verbs in connection with the Accu- sative ; as, — hanc pecuniam mihi dat, he gives me this money ; haec nobis dixit, he said this to us. a. Some verbs which take this construction also admit another, particularly the verbs dono and circumdo. Thus : — Either Themistocli munera ddn&vit, he presented gifts to Themistocles, or Themistoclem miineribus dSnSvit, he presented Themis- tocles with gifts ; urbi muros circumdat, he builds walls arout{d the city, or urbem muris circumdat, he sin-rounds the city with walls. K I30 Syntax. II. With many intrrinsitiv< verbs ; as, — nam labflrl c5dlt, Ae y/Ms to no lahor ; tibi suBcSnseS. /am on^^ry with von. a. Here belong „,a„y verbs signifying favors help injure Pase. ./.y^W, /.../, ,,,trust, unnnuLi. obey. setZ^ amlcra c6nfld6, /trust (to) ..y friends -, ""!'"'""' '' ^'''''''' ^'•^•- ^^"-^^' ^-'^^ *o) the Orgetorix HeivStllB persuaslt, Or.etori. persuaded ^,nade It acceptable to) t/te Helvetian, ■ ^ bonis nocet qui malls parcit, hj i,^nres (does /.arm to) the good, who spares t/te bad. ^ virt^n."/!^::;:: l:^;;;: "'"" ;"" ''''" ^"^^ ^° -^ ^^^^ ♦'- Native b, lish equivalence a,e /^ J ^ ancf ' vc':Th; A I"^' "'"^' '^^^''^^"' ^^"*^ tibi parcitur, you are spared; mihi persuadfitur, /am being persuaded ; el invidStur, /^ ^vmi-rtT. tionf." T^ T'"^ 'f' compounded with the preposi- tions . ad ante, com.,^ i„, j^ter, ob, post, prae, pr6 sub super, and sometimes circum. *' ' p «» V>ro, sub, These verbs fall into two main classes — preposition; as,- ^ '^"^ '' ^'^^" compounded with a afflictis succurrit, he helps the afflicted; exercitui p aefuit, /te was in command of the army • ______^nte«um_consi]l^^ -^' i^ative. Phis was the onginal form of the preposition cum The Dative, 131 2. Many transitive verbs which take only a direct object become capable, when compounded, of taking a Dative also as indirect object; as, — peoaniae pudfirem antepfinit, he puts honor before money ; inioere spem amlola, /o inspire hope in one' s friends ; Labifinum exeroitui praeffioit, he put Labienus in charge of the army. Dative of Reference. 1 188. I. The Dative of Reference denote.s the person to ivhom a statement refers, of whom it is true, or to ivhom it is of interest ; as, — mihi ante ooulds vexB^iiB, you hover before my eyes (lit. hover before the eyes to me) ; illl sevSrit'as am5rem n6n dfiminuit, in his ease severity did not diminish love (lit. A; ///;// severity did not diminish) ; Interclfldere hoatibus commeatum, to cut off the supplies of the enemy. a. Note the phrase alicul Interdlcere aqua et i&ni, to interdict one from fire and water. Note. — The Dative of Reference, unlike the Dative of Indirect Object, does not modify the verb, but rather the sentence as a wliole. It is often used where, according to the English idiom, we should expect a. Genitive; so in tiie first and third of the above examples. 2. Special varieties of the Dative of Reference an'i — d) Dative of the Local Standpoint. This is regularly a participle ; as, — oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab EpIrS, the first town of Thessaly as you come from J£pirus (lit. to those coming from E.). b) Ethical Dative. This name is given to those Dative con- structions of the personal pronouns in which Ihe connection of the Dative with the rest of the sentence is of the very slightest sort ; as, — tfl mihi iatlus audaciam dSfendis? tell me, do you defend that man'^s audacity f quid mihi Celaua agit? ivhai. is my Celsns doin^f quid aibi vult? what does he ?nean? (lit. wish for him- self f) '3^ Sypitax. f) Dative of Peraon Judging ; a«,~ erit lUe mihi semper deus, /t( will always be a ffod to me {if. ii) my opinion) ; quae lata aervitOa tarn oiaiO homlul, /imv oin (hat he slavery to so illustrioNs a man {i.e. to his mind) ! .'/) Dative of Separation. Compounds of ab, dfi, ex, ad which havo tiie «;ontMal sense of talinii ">(''f/ «oveni a Dative of (he person, less often of the thing; as,— hoiiSreni d6trax6rnut homini, t/iey tool' away the honor from the man ; Caeaar rfigl tetrarchiam firipult, Caesar took the tetrarchy away from the kln<^; ailiol acintillam excQdit, //,• stnick a spark from the flint. Dative of Agency. 189. The Dative i.s used to denote agency I. Kegularly with the Gerundive; as,— haec nSbla agenda sunt, these thin^rs must be done by us; mihi eundum est, I must go (lit. // must be gone by me). a. To avoid ambiguity, & with the Ablative is sometimes used with the GiTuiulive; as, — hostibua a nSbla parcendum est, f/,, enemy must be spurred by us. 2. M\Tuch less frequently with the compound tenses of the pa.ssive voice and the perfect passive participle ; as,— diaputatiS, quae mihi nflper habita eat, ///,. discussion which was recently conducted by me. 3. Rarely with the uncompounded tenses of the passive ; as, — honeata bonis viria quaeruntur, noble ends a,:e sought by good men. < Dative of Posaeaaion. 190. The Dative of Possession occurs with the verb esse in such expressions as : — inihi est liber, / hai'e a book ; mihi nomen est Marcua, /have the name Marcus. • '■ J^^'L^^ ''^"'''" ^^* '^'^ ''^'"' ^^ '"o^-e commonly attracted into the Dative; as, mihi nomen eat Marco. The Dative. 133 Dative of Purpose. 191. The Diitivc ot I'urposc designates the end toward which a PI action is directed or for which something exists. It is used — 1. Unaccompanied by another Dative ; as,— oastrTs locum dSllgere, to choose a place for a camp ; legifinfis praesldid relinquere, to lea7>e the teutons as a guard (Ij^ for a i^iiurtl) ; "" receptui canere, to sound the si)^nal for a retreat. 2. Much more ficciuciitly in connection with anotlier Dative of the person : — a) Especially with some form of eB«e ; as, — fortflnae tuae raihi cflrae sunt, your fortunes are a care to me (lit. for a care) ; nObiB aunt odiO, they are an object of hatred to us ; cui bond ? to tuhom is it of advantage / V) With other verbs ; as, — . h5s tibl mtinerl mlsit, he has sent t/tese to you for a pres- ent ; Pausanifts AtticTs vSnit auxilid, Pausanias came to the aid of the Athenians (lit. to the Athenians for help). 3. In connection with the Gerundive ; as, — decemviri ISgibua scrlbundis, decemvirs for codifying the laws. mS gerendo bell6 ducem creSv^re, ;;/^ they have made leader for carrying on the war. Note. — This construction with the gerundive is not common till Livy. ■ Dative -with Adjectives. 192. The use of the Dative with Adjectives corresponds very closely to its use with verbs. Thus : — I. Corresponding to the Dative of Indirect Object it occurs with adjectives signifying : friendly, ufifriendly, similar, dissimilar, equal, near, related to, etc. ; as, — mihi inimicus, hostile to me ; sunt proximi Germtula, they are next to the Germans ; noziae poena pftr estS, let the penalty be equal to the damage. I '34 Syntax. n. For propter and proximu., wi( , the Accusative, see s '4'. 3- 2. C«nc.si„„uling to th. Dative (,f Purpose the Dative occurs with adjectives signifying : suMU; adaptc.i.jU \ as, - oaatrla IdOneus locus, a place Jit for a camP; apta difia BacrificiS, a day suitable for a sacrijice. NOTE. -Adjectives of this last class often take the Accusative with ad. Dative of Direction. 193. In the poets tlie Dative is occasionally used to denote the direction of motion-, as,— '' it clamor caelO, the shout goes heavenward-, clnerfia rive fluenti Jace, cast the ashes toward the f.nving stream, th/nnr^ ? f '""''? ""^ *'"' construction the poets sometimes use the Dative to denote the limit of motini ; as, - dum LatiS dfeSs Inferret, while he was bringing his gods to Latium. Ill * THE GENITIVE. vlrt ^^^ ^^'''^'''^ '' "'^^ ^^'^^ ^°""'' Adjectives, and GENITIVE WITH NOUNS. 195. With Nouns the Genitive is t/ie case which defines the meaning of the limited noun more closely. This relation is generally indicated in English by the preposition of There are the following varieties of the Genitive with Nouns • -- Genitive of Orig-in, Genitive of Material, Genitive of Possession, Subjective Genitive, Objective Genitive, Genitive of the Whole, Appositional Genitive,' Genitive of Quality. 196. Genitive of Origin ; as, — Mftrcl niiua, the son of Marcus. 197. Genitive of Material ; as, — talentunri anri. n //tA.*./ ^f ^^tj . modiuB frumenti, a peck of grain. The Dative. — Ihe Gi nttivf 135 198. Oenltive of PoBBessIon or Ownerahlp ; as, — domus Clcerania, Cicero's house. I. Here l)elonKs the (ienitive with causa and grfltia. T'-,- Geni- tive always precedes ; as, ~ hominum causa,/;;- t/ie sake of men; meSrum aralcSrum gratia, >r the sake of my frienUs. a. Inetar (lit. inw^^e) also takt-s the Possessive Genitive ; as.- equus Instar mantis, a horse as large as a mountain. 3- The Possessive Genitive is often used predicatively, especially with esse and fieri ; as, -— ^ ' i- 7 domuB est rfigis, the house is the kiu(fs ; stultl est in errSre manfire, ;/ /. (the part) of a fool to remain in error ; IS belia jOdicium imperfitSris est, nOn mllitum, the decision con- cermng war belongs to the general, not to the soldiers. 199 Subjective Genitive. This denotes the person who makes Jr produces something or who has a feeling; as, — dicta PlatSnis, the utterances of Plato ; timdrfis llberSrum, the fears of the children. 200. Objective Oenltive. This denotes the object of an action or feeling; as,— -^ metuB deorum, the fear of the gods ; amor llbertatis, love of liberty ; cSnsuSt'-^dO bonflrum hominum, intercourse with good men. I . This relation is often expressed by means of prepositions ; as, - amor erga parentfia, love toward one's parents. • 201. Genitiv of the Whole. which a part is taken. It is used — ^ 1. This designates the whole of V^/ith Nouns, Pronouns, Comperatives, Superlatives, and Ordinal XNurncrHis \ as* — magna pars hominum, a gy-eat part of mankind; duo mnia peditum, two thousand foot-soldiers i quia mortaiium, who of mortals? major fratrum, ike elder of the brothers; gSns maxima Qermanorum, the largest tribe of the Germans • primus omnium, the first of all. 136 Syntax. a. Yet instead of the Genitive of the Whole we often find ex or d5 with the Ablative, regularly so with Cardinal numbers and quldam ; as, — fldelissixnus de servis, the most trusty of the slaves; qviidain ex amicis, certain of his friends ; tlnus ex militibus, one of the soldiers. b. In English we often use <>/ where there is no relation of whole to part. In such cases the Latin is more exact, and does not use the Genitive ; as, — quot vos estis, how many of you are there f trecenti conjuravimus, three hundred of us have conspired t^i.e. we, three hundred in number). •C 2. The Genitive of the Whole is used also with the Nomi- native or Accusative Singular Neuter of Pronouns, or of Adjectives used substantively ; also with the Adverbs parum, satis, and partim when used substantively ; as, — quid consilT, ivhai purpose ? \ tantum cibi, so much food; plus auctorit&tis, more authority ; minus laboris, less labor ; satis pecuniae, enough money; parum industriae, too little industry. An Adjective of the second declension used substantively may be em- ployed as a Genitive of the Whole; as, nihil boni, nothing good. b. But Adjectives of the third declension agree /' -ectly with the noun they limit ; as, nihil dulcius, nothing sweeter. 3. Occasionally we find the Genitivt of the Whole dependent upon Adverbs of place ; as, — ubi tenSrum? ubi goatium? where in the world? I. a. By an extension of this usage the Genitive sometimes occurs in depend- ence upon piidle and postridle, but only in the phrases prldio ejus diei, on the day before that; postridie ejus di^i, on the day after that, 202. Appositional Genitive. The Genitive sometimes has the force of an appositive ; as, — nomen rggis, the name of king; poena mortis, the penalty jf death ; ars scribendT, the art of writ:'/, g. •*-^ >v. a. tive is used to denote quality. This construction presents several varieties^ Thus it is used — The Genitive. 13; 1 . To denote some internal or permanent characteristic of a persoa or thing ; as, — vir mSgnae virtutis, a man of great virtue ; rationgs gjus modi, considerations of that sort. a. Only a limited number of Adjectives Occur in this construction chiefly magnus, maximus, summus, tantus, along with ejus. 2. To denote measure {breadth, length, etc.) ; as, — fossa quindecim pedum, a trench fifteen feet wide {or deep) ; exsilium decern annorum, an exile of ten years. 3. By omission of pretl {price), or some kindred word, tanti, quanti, parvT, magul, minoris, minimi, plurimi, maximi are used predicatively to denote indefinite value ; as, — nulla studia tanti sunt, no studies are of so much value; magni opera ejus existimata est, his assistance was highly esteemed, a. Pluris (not strictly an adjective) follows the same analogy. 4. By an extension of the notion of value, quanti, tanti, plflris, and minoris are also used with verbs of buying and selling, to denote indefinite price ; as, — quanti aedes emisti, at how high a price did you purchase the house? 5. Any of the above varieties of the Genitive of Quality may be ' used predicatively ; as, — tantae mohs erat Romanam condere gentem, of so great difficulty was it to found the Roman race. GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES. 204. The Genitive is used with many Adjectives to limit the extent of their application. Thus : I. With Adjectives signifying desire, knowledge, familiarity, memory, participation, power, fulness, and their opposites; as,— Btudiosus discendi, desirous of learning; peritus belli, skilled in war; insuetus laboris, unused to toil; immemor mandati tui, unmindful of your commission; pl6na periculorum est vita, life is full of dangers. a. Some participles used adjectiveiy also take the Genitive ; as, diligens veritatis, fond of truth ; amana patriae, devoted to one's country. If ' - i 138 Syntax. 2. vSometimes with proprlu* ami oommflnlii ; an,— vlil piopiiA est fortltfldO, bntvnv is (/utriutt'n'xtit of a man> memoiU e«t oommfliiin oinnltttii ..1 tium, mfmoty is copMmon to all professions. (J. pi'oprlUB i>iul oommCliilB cip also ronstniotl wllh ll»o Dutlvo, 3. With iimlli* till' (lenitive is iho eomnioiicr coiiHlnu;tion in Cicero, when the tefcrenee is to hvin^; ohjecL: ; as, — flliviB patii* «linllliimi8 est, t/ii' son is cvtutly likr his fothcr. mrl aimilis, like ntc ; veatil simillB. like yon. When the rctercnce is to thinj^s, both (lenitive and Dative occur; as, — moi« somnS (or somni) «lmlll«* est, (ieotli is like sleep. 4. In the ports luul liUer prose writers the use of tlic (ienitive with Adjectives tsextomlod tiut)ryoiMl euiHrr Minil^ ; as, atrOx VkWixvX, fieriC of Iftitpa ; IncertUB VoOnslllI, Hndfcided hi pMffosc. J # C.KNITIVK WITH VKKBS. 205. The CkMiilivc is used with the following ckiSvSCS of Verbs : — Memini, ReminTscor, Obliviscor. 206. I. Wm:N kki-I'-ukini; to Pkksons — (I. memini takes tlie C.enitive in the sij^nifications / bear in ntitiii (memor sum), iim mindful of or make mention of; but the Accusative in the signification, / recall \ ;isS, — vIvSium memlul. / am mindful of t/ie li7'iniy, Achillea cfljus 8upi*a memiuimus, Ac/iillcs, of tihom %tid> made mention al)Ove ; Sullam memini, / recall Sulla. b. obliviscor reuularlv takes the (lenitive; as, — Bpicflrl n6n licet obllvlsci, 7vc mustn't forget I'lpicurus. 2. Wn»:N KKFKUKtxc TO TiiiNCis, memini, reminlsco:, obli- viscor take sometimes the (icnitivc, sometimes the Accusative, appar- ently without lUtlerencc of meaning; as, — animus praeteritorum meminit, the mind remembers the past ; memiuistlne nSmina, do you remember the names? reminlscere veteris incommodl, remember the former disaster; reminlscSns acerbitatem, rememberiui^ the severity. The Gt'iiitivc, 139 a. Hill nn.irr pr-.tio.,,,.. nn,l fl,IJno(lvr» m^^A Hiilm.„nfivrly. rrKi.lnrly Man.l In the A((:iimilivn; as, -- hfieo tnomlnl, I iftufuihet- tlih; ttiulta romlnlHCJor, / mnmher inatiy (/uhj^h. m«m! J 'T .'''"'T' !"'^? *"*'*• '^''^ ^" ni«ntem venlt, following the analogy of meminl, takes (ho (innllivn; a»,— civlum mlhl In mentom venlt, / remembir the citittnt. Admonoo, Commoneo, Commonofacid. 207. These verbs, in addition to an Accusative of the persan, occasionally take a (knitive of the thing; as, - tfl admoiieO amioltiao no«trae, I remind you of our friendship. a. I5ut more fiP(|unnlly (in Cicero alinoHt invarial^ly) thcue verbs take dfl with the Ablative; as, — dS peoOnia mfi admonSB, yui remind me of the money. b. A neuter |)ronent 0/ having done this; me hoc pudet, / am ashamed of this. 2. Misereor and miserSsco also govern the Genitive ; as, — misergminl sociorum, pity the allies. Interest, Refert. 210. With interest, it concerns, three points enter into consideration ; viz. — a) the person concerned ; b) the thing about which he is concerned ; c) the extent of his concern. 211. I. The person concerned is regularly denoted by the Genitive ; as, — , patris interest, it concerns the father. a. But instead of the Genitive of the personal pronouns, niei, tui, etc., the Latin uses the Ablative Singular Feminine of the Possessive, viz. : mea, tua, etc. ; as, — met interest, // concerns me. Note. — But the Latin says omnium nostrum interest, // concerns us all. The Genitive. 141 2. The thing about which a person is concerned is denoted — d) by a Neuter Pronoun as subject ; as, — hoc rel publicae interest, M^ concerns the state. b) by an Infinitive; as,— omnium interest valgre, it concerns all to keep well. c) by an Indirect Question ; as, — mea interest quando venias, / am concerned as to when you are coming. 3. The degree of concern is denoted — a) by the Genitive (of Quality) : magnl, parvl, etc : as,— mea magnl interest, z/ concerns me greatly. b) by the Adverbs, magnopere, magis, maximS, etc. ; as,— civium minims interest, it concerns the citizens very little. c) by the Neuters, multum, pliis, minus, etc. ; as, — multum vestra interest, it concerns you much. 4. RSfert follows interest in its construction, except that it rarely takes the Genitive of the person. Thus : — mea rgfert, // concerns me ; but rarely illius rgfert, it concerns him. ^ Genitive with Other Verba. 212. I. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the Genitive ; as, — pecuniae indiggs, you need money, a These verbs more commonly take the Ablative (§ 214, i) ; indigeo is the only verb which has a preference for the Genitive. 2. Potior though usually followed by the Ablative, sometimes takes the Genitive, almost always so in Sallust ; and regularly in the phrase : potiri rgrum, to get control of affairs. 3. In poetry some verbs take the Genitive in imitation of the Greek ; as. — desine querellarum, cease your cotn^laints; operum solQti, freed from their tasks. 142 Syntax. THE ABLATIVE. 213. The Latin Ablative unites in itself three cases which were originally distinct both in form and in meaning; viz.— The Ablative or from-case. The Instrumental or with-case. The Locative or where-case. The uses of the Latin Ablative accordingly fall into Genuine Ablative uses, Instrumental uses, and Locative uses. GENUINE ABLATIVE USES. « Ablative of Separation. 214. The Ablat>e of Separation is construed sometimes with, sometimes without, a preposition. I. The following words regulariy take the Ablative without a preposition : — a) The Verbs oi freeing: libero, solvo, levo; b) The Verbs of depriving: privo, spolio, exuS, fraudo, niid5 ; c) The Verbs of lacking: egeo, careo, vaco ; d) The corresponding Adjectives, ITber, inSnis, vacuus, niidus, and some others of similar meaning Thus : — ciiris Woex^tuB, freed from cares ; Caesar hostSs armis exuit, Caesar stripped the enemy of their arms ; caret sSnsxi communT, he tacks common sense ; auxilio eget, he needs help ; bonorum vita vacua est metii, the life of the good is free from fear. / NOTE I. — Yet Adjectives and libero may take the preposition ab, — regu- larly so with the Ablative of persons ; as, — urbem a tyranno liber&runt, they freed the city from the tyrant. Note 2. — Indlgeo usually takes the Genitive. See ^ 212, i, a. The Ablative. 143 2. Of Verbs signifying to keep from, to remove, to withdraw, some take the preposition, others omit it. The same Verb often admits both constructions. Examples: — abstinfire cib5, to abstain from food ; hoates Hnibus prohibufirunt, they kept the^enemy from their borders ; praedSnfis ab Insula prohibult, he kept the pirates from the island. 3. Other Verbs of separation usually take the Ablative with a Prep- osition, particularly compounds of dis- and sS- ; as, — dissentiS & t6, / dissent from you ; Bficernantur a nSbIs, tet them be separated from us. Ablative of Source. 215. The Ablative of Source is used with the part- iples natus and ortus (in poetry also with Sditus, satus, and some others), to designate parentage or station ; as, — Jove natus, son of Jupiter ; summo loco natus, high-born (lit. born fro?n a very high place) ; nobili genere ortus, born of a noble family. 1. Pronouns regularly (nouns rarely) take ex; as,— ex m5 natus, sprung from me. 2. To denote remoter descent, ortus ab, or oriundus (with or without ab), is used ; as, — ab Ulixe oriundus, descended from Ulysses. Ablative of Agent. ■ 216. The Ablative accompanied by a (ab) is used with passive verbs to denote the personal agent ; as, — a Caeaare accusatus est, he was arraigned by Caesar. 1. Collective nouns referring to persons, and abstract nouns when personified, may be construed as the personal agent. Thus : — hostSs a fortuna dSserSbantur, the enemy were deserted by Fortune ; a multitudine hostium mdutes tenebantur, the tnountains were held by a multitude of the enemy. 2. Names of animals sometimes admit the same construction. Thus : — a canibus laniatus est, he was torn to pieces by dogs. 144 Syntax. Ablative of Comparison. 217. I. The Ablative is often used with Comparatives in the sense of ///««; as, — melle dulclor, sweeter than honey ; patria mlhi vita carior est, my country is dearer to me than life. /./' 7^1 construction, as a rule, occurs only as a substitute for quam (M««) with the Nominative or Accusative. In other cases quam must L/C UoCU ■ aS* — ~ tul studiSslor sum quam illlus, / am fonder of you than of him. StudiSsior illo would have meant, I am fonder of you thai: he is. 3- Plfla, minus, amplius, longius are often employed as the equiv- alents of plus quam, minus quam, ^/^. Thus: — amplius viginti urbSs incenduntur, more than twenty cities are jireft f minus quinque milia processit. he advanced less than five miles. 4. Note the use of opinl6ne with Comparatives ; as, - opinlone celerius venlt. he co,nes ,nore quickly than expected iy^X. than opinion). ' INSTRUMENTAL USES OF THE ABLATIVE. Ablative of Means. 218. The Ablative is used to denote means or instru- ment ; as, — '"'""^.1"''"'' '"'»""- "t. ^''-ander ^as bounded by an There are the following special varieties of this Ablative • - the'AbMve • ar:i'""'"' •'°""' ^^'°"' ='"" *''' -"P-><'^ ^^^^ vita fruitur, he enjoys life (lit. he enjoys himself by life) ■ TZZ '"T'' '^r^""" '"^ "'"y <"'■ ' ^"'y "•y^elf^oitk duty) , ^z it-r :* •" ""^"'' ^^'■^"■' *""*« iy """'" of); •^'^'^^^^'-''-/f' possession of the city (lit. made himself pLer- J u,- oy tfis City J . a. Potior sometimes governs the Genitive. See { 212, 2. The Ablative. 145 * 2. With opus est (rarely tlsus est), there is need] as,— duoe nSbIa opus est, ive need a leader, a. A Neuter Pronoun or Adjective often stands as subject with opus as predicate. Thus : — hoc mihi opus est, this is necessary for me. b. An ordinary substantive rarely stands as subject. Thus dux ndbis opus est is a rare form of expression. c. Note the occasional use of a perfect passive participle with opus est; as,— opus est prcperfttC, there is need of haste. ^ 3 With nitor, innlxus, and frStus ; as,— nititur hasta, he rests on a spear (lit. supports himself by a spear) ; frgtus virtute, relying on virtue (lit. supported by virtue). 4. With continSrJ, cousistere, constSre, consist of; as,— nervis et ossibus continentur.^M^?/ consist of sinews and bones (lit. they are held together by sinews and bones) ; mortali consistit corpore mundus, the world consists of mortal sub- stance (lit. holds together by means of etc.). 5. With miscgre and miitare ; as, — mella vln5 miscSre, to mix honey with wine ; pSoem bello mutant, they change peace for war (lit. with war). 6. In expressions of the type : — quid hoc homine facias, what can you do with thi. *nan f quid mea TuUioia fiat, what will become of my dear Tullia ? (lit. what will be done with her?) 7- In the following special phrases at variance with the ordinary English idiom : — proelio coK^3ndere, vincere, to contend, conquer in battle; proelio lacessere, to provoke to battle ; assuetus (assugf actus) labore, accustomed to toil ; curru vehT, to ride in a chariot ; pedibus Ire, logo on foot ; tibiis (fidibus) canere, to play the flute {lyre) ; piia ludere^ to Yflav kail • castris sg tengre, to keep in camp ; and some others. L I 146 Syntax. 8. With Verbs oi fillinv; and Adjectives of plenty ; as, — foBsas virgultiB complfirunt, they Jilled the trenchey with brush, a. But pl§nu8 more commonly takes the Genitive. See ^ 304. i. 9- Under ' Means ' belongs also the Ablative of the way by which ; as, — -^ -^ vliium Tiber! dfivectum, whie brought down {by) the Tiber. 10. The means may be a person as well as a thing. Thus • - milltibua a lacQ LemannS ad montem Jaram mQrum perdQcIt wM {i.e. by n.eans of) his troops he runs a wall from Lake Geneva to Mt. Jura. Ablative of Cause. 219. The Ablative is used to denote cause ; as,— multa glSriae cu-piditate fScit, he did many things on account of his love of glory. I. So especially with verbs denoting mental states ; as, dfilector gaudeo, laetor, glQrior, fido, conndS. Also with contentus • as, — ' forttina amlcf gaudeS, / rejoice at the fortune of my friend (i.e. on account of it) ; ^ victSria sua gloriantur, they emit over their victory • natiira loci conndSbant, they trusted in the character of their country (lit. were confident on account of the character). a. fid6 and c6nfid5 always take the Dative of the person (5 187 II a)- sometimes the Dative of the thing. ' ^' 2. As Ablatives of Cause are to be reckoned also such Ablatives as jussu, by order of injussG, i^ogatu, etc. * Ablative of Manner. 220. The Ablative with cum is used to denote man- ner; as, — cum gravitate loquitur, he speaks with dignity. I. The preposition may be omitted when the Ablative is modified by an adjective ; as, — '^umeu magna gravitate loquitur, he speaks with great dignity. '. .!-.7^^ preposition is regulady omitted in the expressions iiire injuria, joco, vi, fraude, voluntate, furto, silentio. The Ablative. H7 3. A special variety of the Ablative of Manner denotes that in ac- 'ordanceivithxvhich kix in pHrsHance of ivhich anything is or is done. It is generally used without a preposition. Thus : — mea sententifl, accordint^ to my opinion ; •uls mSribus, in accordance witji their custom ; suft sponte, voluntarily, of their own accord; ea condicidae, on these terms. Ablative of Attendant Circumstance. 221. The Ablative is often used to denote an attendant circumstance of an action or an event ; as, — bonis auspicils, under s;ood auspices ; nulla est altercatiS ciamSribus umquam habita majoribus, no debate was ever held under circumstances of greater applause; exstinguitur ingentl IGctfl prSvinciae^ he dies under circumstances of great grief on the part of the province ; longo intervailo sequitur, he follows at a great distance. Ablative of Accompaniment. 222. The Ablative with cum is used to denote accompa- ninient ; as, — cum comitibus profectus est, he set out with his attendants ; cum febri rediit, he returned with a fever. I. In military expressions the Ablative may stand without cum when modified by any adjective except a numeral ; as, — omnibus copiis, ingentl exercitu, magna manu ; but always cum exercitu, cum duabus legionibus. Ablative of Degree of Difference. 223. The Ablative is used with comparatives and words involving comparison (as post, ante, infra, supra ; superare, surpass) to denote the degree of difference ; as, — dimidio minor, smaller by a half; tribus pedibus altior, three feet higher; paulo post, a little afterwards ; quo plura habSmus, eo cupimus amplidra, the more we have, the more we want. 148 Syntax. Ablative of Quality. 224. The Ablative, modified by an adjective, is used to denote quality ; as, — puella eximia fSrma, n (^irl of exxeptional beauty ; vir singuiarl induatriA, n man of sint^nlar industry. I. The Ablative of Quality may also be used predicatively ; as,— est magna prfldentia, he is {a man) of great wisdom ; boD6 animS aunt, t/iey are of good courage. a. In place of the Adjective we sometimes find a limiting Geni'ive ; as, — aunt specIS at COlOre tauri, they are of Ihe appearance a' d color of a bull. 3. In all numerical designations of weight, value, dimension, etc., the Genitive of Quality takes the place of the Ablative of Quality. See \ 203. a. » Ablative of Price. 225. With verbs of buying and selling, price is desig- nated by the Ablative ; as, — servum quinque minis 5mit, he bought the slave for five minae. 1. The Ablatives magno, plQrimS, parvo, minimo (by omission of pretio) are used to denote indefinite price -y as,— aedgs magno vSndidit, he sold the house for a high price. 2. For the Genitive of Indefinite Price, see § 203, 4. Ablative of Specification. 226. The Ablative of. Specification is used to denote that in respect to which something is or is done; as, — Helvgtil omnibus Gallia virtute praestabant, the Helvetians sur- passed all the Gauls in valor', pede claudus, lame in his foot. 1. Note the phrases : — major natu, older (lit. greater as to age) ; minor natu, younger. 2. Here belongs the use of the Ablative with dignus and indlgnus; as,— di&'n? hr»nrti*o mtn^il.., -^ /-.-•• - fide indignl, unworthy of confidence. The Ablative. 1 1 149 Ablative Absolute. 227. The Ablative Absolute is grammatically inde- pendent of the rest of the sentence. In its commonest form it consists of a noun or pronoun limited by a participle; as, — urbe capta, Aeneas fflgit, when the city had been captured, Aeneas fled (lit. the city having been captured). 1. Instead of a participle we often find an adjective or noun; as,— vlv6 Caeaare rSs pflblica salva erat, while Caesar was alive tht state was safe (lit. Caesar being alive) ; Tarquin-d rSge, Pythagoras m Italiam vSnit, in the reign of Tar- quin Pythagoras came into Italy (lit. Tarquin being king). Cn. PompSjS, M. CrassS oSnaulibua, in the consulship of Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Crass us. 2. The Ablative Absolute is generally used in Latin where in English we employ subordinate clauses. Thus the Ablative Absolute may correspond to a clause denoting — a) Time, as in the foregoing examples. b) Condition; as, — omnSa virtutSs jaceat, voluptate dominante, all virtues lie prostrate, if pleasure is master. c) Opposition; as, — perditis omnibus rSbus, virtus sS sustentare potest, though everything else is lost, yet Virtue can maintain herself, d) Cause; as, — nail5 adversante rggnum obtinuit, since no one opposed him, he secured the throne. ''^ Attendant circumstance ; as, — pasals palmia pacem petlvSrunt, with hands outstretched they sued for peace. « 3. An Infinitive or clause sometimes occurs in the Ablative Abso- lute construction in Livy and later writers ; as, audito^eum fugisse, -vhen it was heard that he had fled. 4. A noun or pronoun stands in the Ablative Absolute construction only when it denotes a different person or thing from any in the clause in > which it stands. Exceptions to this principle are extremely rare. Syntax. LOCATIVE USES OF THE ABLATIVE. Ablative of Place. \ A. Place where. ^28. The place where is regularly denoted by the Ab- lative wit It a preposition ; as, — in urbe habitat, he dwells in the city. I. But certain words stand in the Ablative without a prepo- sition ; viz. — a) Names of towns, — except Singulars of the First and Second Declensions; as, — Carthagine, at Carthage-, AthSnis, at Athens] VSiis, at Veil. b) The general words loco, locTs, parte, also many words modi- fied by totus or even by other Adjectives ; as, — hoc loco, at this place] totls castris^ in the whole camp. c) The special words : forls, out of doors ; ruri, in the country] terra marique, on land and sea. d) The poets freely omit the preposition with any word denot- ing place ; as, — stant lltore puppgs, the ships rest on the beach. B. Place from which. "^ ^ 229. Place from which is regularly denoted by the Ablative with a preposition; as, ab Italia profectus est, he set out from Italy] ex urbe rediit, he returned from the city. I. But certain words stand in the Ablative without a prepo- sition ; viz. — a) Names of towns and small islands ; as, -— Roma profectus est, he set out from Rome] Rhodo revertit, he returned from Rhodes. I Place from whiro, though strictly a Genuine Ablative use, is treated here for sake of convenience. M The Ablative. 151 from country. i) domS, from home ; rQr c) F/eely in poetry ; a •., — Italia dScessit, he withdrew from Italy. 2. With names of towns, ab is used to.mean from the vicinitv of or to denote the point whence distance is measured; as -- ^ ^' \ R5mrx ^'T^T' ^' ^^^^^^->-- the vicinity of Gergovia. a Roma X mxha aberat, he was ten miles distant from Rome. Urbe and oppido, when standing in apposition with a town name are accompanied by a preposition ; as ' Curibus ex oppido Sablnorum, /...,, Cures, a town of the Sabines. Ablative of Time. ^ A. Time at which. 230. The Ablative is used to denote the time at IV men; as, — quarta h6ra mortuus est, V died at the fourth hour • anno aeptuagSsimo oonsu. creatus, elected consul in his seventieth year. . I. Any word denoting a period of time may stand in this con- struction particularly annus, vSr, aestas, hiems, diSs, nox Vsra comztia (Election Day), ludl (,he Games), etc. ' ' 2. Words not denoting time require the preposition in, unless accompanied by a modifier. Thus : ^ in pace, in peace; i„ bell6, in war; but secundS bell6 PflnicS, in the second Punic War. 3- Expressions like in e5 tempore, in summa senectflte take the preposition because they denote situation rather than time. B. Time within which. - 231. Time wti/tm which is denoted by the Ablative either with or without a preposition ; as, ■— Stella Saturni trl^inta annis cursum cSnfioit, the planet Saturn completes its .r, bit within thirty years ; ter in annA ^Uvi/.^ v^ *z.^ .. . /• .> 7 '■"■ «c .« trie i-uurse Of me year. I. Occasionally the Ablative denotes duration of time • as _ blemaa prflsperds rSs ^-''^^Xit, for tv^o years He had a prosperous administraHon, 152 Syntax. THE LOCATIVE. 232. The Locative case occurs only in the following words : — 1 . Regularly in the Singular of names of towns and small islands of the first and second declensions, to denote the place in which ; as, — Romae, «/ Jiome ; CorinthT, a/ Corinth ; Rhodi, at Rhodes. 2. In the following special forms : — domi, at home', humi, on the ground; belli, in ivar ; * militiae, in war ; . vesperi, at evening; hexl, yesterday. 3. Nqte the phrase pendgre animi, lit. to be in suspense in one's mind. 4. Consonant Stems occasionally form a Locative in -I; as, — Lacedaemoni, at Sparta ; Carthagini, at Carthage ; Tiburl, at Tibur. " ... Chapter III. — Syntax of Adjectives, 233. I. The word with which an Adjective agrees is called its Subject. 2, Attributive and Predicate Adjectives. An Attribu- tive Adjective is one that limits its subject directly ; as, — vir aapiSuB, a wise man ; A Predicate Adjective is one that limits its subject through the medium of a verb (usually ease) ; as, — vir est sapifins, the man is wise ; vir vidSbatur sapiSns, the man seemed wise ; vir judicltus est sapiSns, the man was judged wise. 3. Participles and Adjective Pronouns have the construction of Adjectives. Agreement of Adjectives, 153 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 234. Agreement with One Noun. When an Adjective limits one noun it agrees with it in Gender, Number and Case. ' r. _Two Adjectives in the Singular may limit a noun in the Plural- as, prima etvlcgsima legiones, the first and twentieth legions. 2 A Predicate Adjective may stand in the Neuter when its Subject IS Masculme or Femmnie and denotes a thing ; as, - mors est miserum, death is a wretched thing. 235. Agreement with Two or More Nouns. A. AGREEMENT AS TO NUMBER. ^ I . When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees m number with the nearest noun ; as, — pater tuus et va^t^x, your father and mother ; eadem alacritSs et studium, the same eagerness and zeal. 2. When the Adjective is Predicative, it is regularly X lurai J as, — pax et Concordia sunt pulchrae, peace and concord are glorious. • B. AGREEMENT AS TO GENDER. ^ ^ I. When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees m gender with the nearest noun ; as, rSs operae multae ac laboris, a matter of much effort and labor. ?. When the Adjective is Predicative — a) If the nouns are of the same gender, the Adjective agrees with them in gender; as,— pater et filius captl &unt, father and son were captured. Yet with feminine abstract nouns, the Adjective is more frequently Neuter • as. stuititia et timiditaa fugienda fixint, folly and cowardice must be s,.unned. I -r=F: i ' t 1 54 Syntax. b) If the nouns are of different gender ; then, — a) In case they denote persons, the Adjective is Mascu- line ; as, — ' • pater et miter mortui sunt, the father and mother have died. ^) In case they denote things, the Adjective is Neu- '. ter; as, — honorSs et vict5riae fortulta sunt, honors and victories are accidental. y) In case they include both persons and things, the Adjective is, — aa) Sometimes Masculine ; as, — domus, uxor, liberi invent! aunt, home, wife, and children are secured. \ Pft) Sometimes Neuter ; as, — parentis, liberds, fratrSs vilia habere, to hold parents, children, brothers, cheap. yy) Sometimes it agrees with the nearest noun ; as, — popull provinciaeque liber&tae sunt, nations and prov- inces were liberated. c) Construction according to Sense. Sometimes an Ad- jective does not agree vi^ith a noun according to strict gram- matical form, but according to sense ; as, — pars bSstiis object! sunt, part {of the men) were thrown to beasts. ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY. 236. I. Plural Adjectives used Substantively. Adjectives are quite freely used as Substantives in the Plural. The Masculine denotes persons ; the Neuter denotes things ; as, — doct!, scholars ; parva, small things ; mal!, the wicked: m§gna, ereat things : Graec!, the Greeks ; utilia, useful things ; nostr!, our men. I. Adjectives used Substantively. 155 2. Neuter Plural Adjectives thus used are confined mainly to the Nominative and Accusative cases. Such forms as m5gn6rum, om- nium; magnis, omnibus, would ordinarily lead to ambiguity; yet where there is no ambiguity, they sometimes occur ; as, — parva componere magnis, to compare small things with great. Otherwise the Latin says : m5gn5rum rgrum, magnis rSbus, etc. 237. Singular Adjectives used Substantively. Ad- jectives are less freely used as Substantives in the Sin- gular than in the Plural. Masculine Adjectives occur only occasionally in this use ; as,— probus invidet ngmini, the honest man envies nobody. a. Usually vir, homo, or some similar word is employed ; as, — homo doctus, a scholar ; vir Romanus, a Roman. b. But when limited by a pronoun any adjective may be so used; as, — hic doctus, this scholar', doctus quidam, a certain scholar. Neuters are likewise infrequent ; as, — vSrum, truth ; jvLatnm, justice; honestum, virtue. a. This substantive use of Neuter Singulars is commonest in the con- struction of the Genitive of the Whole, and after Prepositions; as,— allquid veri, something true; nihil novi, notAing new ; in medio, in the midst. 2. 238. From Adjectives which, like the above, occasionally admit the substantive use, must be carefully distinguished certain others which have become nouns ; as, — adversSrius, opponent ; aequalis, contemporary ; amicus, friend ; cognSltuB, kinsman ; vfcXnus, neighbor; etc. hiberna, winter quarters ; propinquus, relative ; socius, partner; sodSlis, comrade; r 156 Syntax. ADJECTIVES WITH THE FORCE OF ADVERSa. 239. The Latin often uses an Adjective where the Eng- lish idiom employs an Ad\ erb or an adverbial phrase; as, — senfttuB frequfina convSiiit, //w senate assembled in gt cat numbers; fuit asaiduuB mScum, /le was constantly with me. y COMPARATIVES AND SUPBPLATIVES. 240. I. The Comparative often corresponds to the Englisli Positive with * rather,'' ' somewhat,' < (00 * ; as, — senectas est loquftcior, old age is ra'her talkative. 2. So the Superlative often corresponds to the Positive with ^very''; as,' — vir fortisaimus, a very brave man. 3. Strengthening Words. Vel ar^d quam are often used with the Superlative as strengthening particles, vel with th'- force of ' very,^ and quam with the force of ' as possible ' ; as, — vel mSximus, the very greatest ; quam mSximae c5piae, as great forces as possible. 4. Phrases of the type ' more rich than brave' regularly take uie Comparative in both members ; as, — exercitus erat ditior quam fortior, the army was more rich than brave. OTHER I^BCULIARITIES. 241. I . Certain Adjectives may be used to denote a part of an object, chiefly primus, extrSmus, summus, medius, infimus, imus ; as, — summus mons, the top of the mountain', extrSma hieme, /;/ the last part of the winter. 2. Prior, primu3, ultimus, and postrgmus are frequently equiva- lent to a relative clause ; as, — primus earn vTdT, / was the first who saw her ; ultimus deoessit, he was the last who withdrew. 3. TT lien multvis and another adjective both limit the same noun, at is generally used ; as, — multae et mSgnae c6gitati6nSs, many (and) great thoughts. Personal Pronouns, — Possessive Pronouns. 157 Chapter IV. — Syntax of Praouns, PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 242. I. The Personal Pronouns as subjects of verbs are, as a rule, not expressed except for the purpose of emphasis, contrast, or clearness. Thus ordinarily : — viAe6,/see; amat, /le toves. But ego t6 video, et tfl m5 vidSs, /see you, and you see me 2. The Genitives mel, tul, nostrl, vestri are used only as Objective Genitives ; nostrum and veatrum as Genitives of the Whole. Thus : — memor tui, mindful 0/ you ', dSsIderium vestri, longing for you ; nSmo vestrum, no one of you. a. But nostrum and vestrum are regularly used in place of the Pos- sessive in the phrases omnium nostrum, omnium vestrum. 3. The First Plural is often used for the First Singular of Pronouns and Verbs. Compare the Eng. editorial *we.' 4. When two Verbs govern the same object, the Latin does not use a pronoun with the second, as is the rule in English. Thus : — virtus amicitils conciliat et conservat, virtue establishes friend- ships and maintains them (not eas conservat) . POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 243. I. The Possessive Pronouns, as a rule, are not employed except for the purpose of clearness. Thus : — patrem amo, / love my father , dS fllii morte flgbSs, j<7« wept for the death of your son. But — d5 morte fllii mel fL%\)^a,you wept for the death of my son. a. When expressed merely for the sake of clearness, the pos- sessive usually stands after its noun ; but in order to indi- cate emphasis or contrast, it precedes ; as, — giiS manu ITlssros QccTdit with his ointt. hn-ttd he slew Hi' children ; me£ quidem sententia, in my opinion at least. Fsm 158 Syntax. 2. Sometimes the Possessive Pronouns are used with the force of an Objective Genitive ; as, — metuB vester, fear of you ; deslderium tuum, /otignijforyou. 3. For special emphasis, the Latin employs ipslus or ipsSrum, in apposition with the Genitive idea implied in the Possessive; as,— mea ipslus operS, dy my own help ; nostra ipsorum operft, dy our own help ; a. So sometimes othei Genitives ; as, — mefi tSnius opera, iy the assistance of me alone. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. u The Reflexive Pronoun sS and the Possessive 244. I Reflexivq suus have a double use : — I. They may refer to the subject of the clause (either principal or subordinate) in which they stand, — ' Direct Reflexives ' ; as, — sS amant, they love themselves ; 8u6s amicoB adjuvat, he helps his own friends ; eum oravl, ut s6 servSret, / besought him to save himself. II. They may stand in a subordinate clause and refer to the sub- ject of the principal clause, — ' Indirect Reflexives ' ; as, — vrk oravit ut sS dSfenderem, he besought me to defend him (lit. that I defend himself^ , mS oravSrunt, ut fortunarum suarum dSfgnsionem susciperem, they besought me to undertake the defense of their fortunes . a. The Indirect Reflexive is mainly restricted to those clauses which express the thought, not of the author, but of the sub- ject of the principal clause. 2. The Genitive sui is regularly employed, like mel and tul, as an Objective Genitive, e.g. oblitus svl, forgetful of himself j; but it occa- sionally occurs — particularly in post- Augustan writers — in place of the Possessive suus ; as, fruitur fama buI, he enjoys his own fame. 3. Sg and suus are sometimes used in the sense, one's self one's own, where the reference is not to any particular person ; as, — 3§ anittie, to love one's self', suum genium propitiare, to propitiate one's own genius. Reciprocal Pronomis. — Demonstrative Pronouns. 1 59 4. Suus sometimes occurs in the meaning his own, their own, etc. referring not to the subject but to an oblique case ; as, ™ Hannibalem aul olvfis 3 olvitate fij6c8runt, his mvn fellow-citizens drove out Hannibal. a. This usage is particularly frequent in combination with quisque; as,— Buus quemque error veacat, his own error troubles each. 5. The Reflexives for the first and second persons are supplied by the oblique cases of ego and ta (§ 85) ; as, — v6b dSf enditis, you * defend yourselves. RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS. 245. I. The Latin has no special reciprocal pronoun (% <;/>%^r'), but expresses the reciprocal notion ly the phrases: inter n6s, inter v6s, inter 86 ; as, — Belgae obsidSs inter ae dedSrunt, the Belgae gave each other host- ages (lit. among themselves) ] amamuB inter noa, we love each other - Gain inter 86 cohortati sunt, the Gauls exhorted ear h other. a. Note that the Object is not expressed in sentences of this type. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. HIc, Hie, late. 246. I. Where hic and ille are used in contrast, hic usually refers to the latter of two objects, and ille to the former. 2. Hic and ille are often used in the sense of ^ the following' ; as,— Themistocl6a hia verbis epistulam misit, Themistocles sent a letter {couched) in the following words ] illud intellego, omnium ora in m6 conversa ease, / understand this, that the faces of all are turned toward me. 3. Ille often means the famous; as, Solon ille, the famous Solon 4. late frequently involves contempt; as, iate homo, that fellow ! 5. The above pronouns, alon.^ with is, are usual] v attracted to the gender of a predicate noun ; as, hic cat honor, meminisse officium auum, this is an honor, to be mindful of one's duty. i6o Syntax. 247. I. Is often serves as the antecedent of the relative qui. Thus : — Maximum, eum qui Tarentum recBpit, dllfixl, I loved MaximuSy the man who retook Tarentum. a. Closely akin to this usage is is in the sense of sttch (= tails) ; ' as, — n6n sum is qui terrear, 1 am not such a person as to be frightened, b. Note the phrase id quod, where id stands in apposition with an entire clause ; as, — non suspicabatur (id quod nunc sentiet) satis multos testSs nSbls reliquos esse, he did not suspect {a thing which he will now perceive) that we had witnesses enough left. Yet quod alone, without preceding id, sometimes occurs in this use. 2. Is also in all cases serves as the personal pronoun of the third person, 'he; 'she; 'it; 'they; 'them: 3- When the English uses 'that of; 'those of to avoid repetition of the noun, the Latin omits the pronoun ; as, — In exercitu Bullae et postea in CrassI fuerat, he had been in the army of Sulla and afterward in that of Crassus ; nfillae m5 fabulae dglectaut nisi PlautI, no plays delight me except those of Flautus . 4- Note the phrases et is, et ea, etc., in the sense : and that too ; as, — viucula, et ea sen^piterna, imprisonment, and that too permanently. \\ • Idem. 248. I. idem in apposition with the subject or object often has the force of also, likewise ; as, — quod idem mihi contigit, which likewise happened to me (lit. which, the same thing) ; bonus vir, quem eundem sapientem appeliamus, a good man, whom we call also tvise. 2. For Idem atque (ao), the same as, see § 341, i, c. Demonstrative Pronouns. — Relative Pronouns. i6l Ipse. 249. I. Ipse, literally i-^-^, acquires its special force from the con- text; as, — efl lps5 dig, on that very day ; ad ipsam rlpam, c/ose to the bank ; ipsS terrSre, dy mere frii^ht ; valvae b6 ipsae aperuSrunt, /he doors opened of their own accord-, ipse aderat, he was present in person. 2. The reflexive pronouns are often emphasized by the addition of ipse, but ipse in such cases, instead of standing in apposition with the reflexive, more commonly agrees with the subject; as, sScum ipsi loquuntur, they talk with themselves ; b6 ipse continfire non potest, he cannot contain himself. 3. Ipse is also used as an Indirect Reflexive for the purpose of marking a contrast or avoiding an ambiguity ; as, Persae pertimuSrunt nS AlcibiadSs ab ipsis dSscIsceret et cum Buis in gratiam rediret, the Persians feared that Alcibiades would break with them and become reconciled with his countrymen. ea iiolestissimg ferre dSbent hominSs quae ipsdrum culpa con- tracta sunt, men ought to chafe most over those things which have been brought about by their own fault (as opposed to the fault of others). RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 250. Agreement, i. The Relative Pronoun agrees with its antecedent in Gender and Number, but its case is determined by its construction in the clause in which it stands; as, — mulier quam vidSbamus, the woman whom we saw ; bona quibus fruimur, the blessings which we enjoy. 2. Where the antecedent is compound, the .^nme principles for number and gender prevail as in case of predicate adjectives under similar conditions (see § 235, B, 2). Thus : — pater et filius, qui capti sunt, the father and son who were captured; stultitia et timiditas quae fugienda aunt, folly and cowardice which rficiSs, irc irmrlncu y honorgs et victoriae quae sunt fortulta, honors and victories which are accidental. M 1 62 Syntax. If :! 3. The Relative regularly agrees witli a predicate noun (either Nominative or Accusative) instcatl ol its antecedent ; as, -- career, quae lautumiae vocantur, t/te prLot \ u i is called LaU' tumitw ; Celtae, quae eat tertla pars, //u; i elts, tv/io . > , '////v/ ^ar/. 4. SouK'times the Relative takes its gehder » ' number from the meaning of its antecedent ; as, — pars qui bfistila objecti aunt, a part {of th. hit,n) who were thrown to beasts. 5. Occasionally the Relative is attracted into the case of its ante- cedent ; as, — nfttus e6 patre qu6 dixl, born of the father that I said. 251. Antecedent. I. The antecedent of the Relative is sometimes omitted ; as, — qui nataram aequitur sapiBns est, he who folUnvs Nature is wise. 2. The antecedent may be implied in a possessive pronoun (or rarely an adjective) ; as, — nostra qui remansimus caedfis, the slaughter of us tvho repnained; (servlll tumultfl, qu5s asus ac diacipllna sublevftrunt, at the up-^ rising of the slaves, whom experience and discipline assisted ^ \ (servlll = servGrum). 3. Sometimes the antecedent is repeated with the Relative: as,— erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus, there were two routes, by which {routes). 4. Incorporation of Antecedent in Relative Clause. The antecedent is often incorporated in the relative clause. Thus : — a) When the relative clause stands first ; as, — quam quisque novit artem in hSc s6 ezerceat, let each one practice the branch which he kno7VS. b) When the antecedent is an appositive ; as, — n6n longS S Tolosatium finibus absunt, quae clvitSs est in prSvincia, they are not far from the borders of the Tolosates, a state which is in our province. c) When the logical antecedent is a superlative ; as, — ThemistoclSs dS servis suls, quem habuit fid61issimum misit, Themistocles sent the most trusty slave he had. Relative Pronouns. — Indefinite Pronouns. 163 d) In expressions of the type — qui es prddeutlA ; quae tua eat pradentia, such is your prudence (lit. of which prudence you are; which i; your prudence) . 5. The Relative is never omitted in Latin as ii is in Knglish. Thus the ooy f saw must he puer quern vidl. 6. The Relative is used freely in Latin, particularly at the he^innin^' of a sentence, where in English we employ a demonstrative; as, — quO factum eat, by this it happened ; quae cum ita aint, since this is so ; quibua rfibua oognitia, when these thinrs became known. 7. The Relative introducing a sub' .;''ate clause may belong grammatically to a clause which is suborutnate to the one it intro- duces ; as, — numquam dignfi aatia laudftrl philoaophia poterit, oui qui pftreat, omne tempus aetatia aine moleatia poaalt dfigere, philosophy can never be praised enough, since he who obeys her can pass all his life without annoyance (lit. he who obeys whichy etc.). Heie oui introduces the subordinate clause poaait and connects it with philoaophia ; but cui is governed by pAreat, which is subordi- nate to poaait. • INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 252. I. Quia, any one, is the weakest of the Indefinites, and stands usually in combination with al, niai, nS, num ; as, — al quia putat, if any one thinks. 2. Aliquia (adj. aliqul) is more definite than quia, and corre- sponds usually to the English some one, somebody, some; as, — nunc aliquia dicat mihi, now let somebody tell me ; utinam mode agSltur aliquid, oh that something may be done. 3. Quidam, a certain one, is still more definite than aliquia ; as, — hom5 quidam, a certain man {i.e. one whom /have in mind). a. Quidam (with or without quasi, as if) is sometimes used in the sense : a sort of, kind of; as, — quaedam coffnatiS, a sort of relationship ,- mors est quasi quaedam migrfttiS, death is a kind 0/ transfer, as it were. I 164 Syntax. It ' ,1 4- Quisquam, a;/>/ ^«^, any one whoever (more general than quia) and its corresponding adjective ullus, any, occur mostly in negative' and conditional sentences, in interrogative sentences implying a nega- tive, and in clauses of comparison ; as, -- juatitia numquam nocet cuiquara,>j//^^ never harms anybody; 81 quisquam, Cato sapiens fuit, if anybody was ever wise, Cato was • potestne quisquam sine perturbatioue animi irasci, can anybody be angry without excitement ? SI ullo modo fieri potest, if it can be done in any way, taetrior hic tyrannus fuit quam quisquam superiorum, he was a viler tyrant than any of his predecessors. 5 . Quisque, each one, is used especially under the following circum- stances : — a) In connection with suus. See § 244, 4, a. b^ In connection with a Relative or Interrogative Pronoun- i as, — ' quod cuique obtigit, id teneat, what falls to each, that let him hold. c) In connection with superlatives ; as, — optimus quisque, all the best (lit. each best one). d) With ordinal numerals ; as, — quinto quoque anno, every four years (lit. each fifth year). 6. NSmo, no one, in addition to its other uses, stands regularly with adjectives used substantively ; as, — nemo mortSlis, no mortal ; ngmo RomSnus, no Roman. / PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 253. r. Alius, another, and alter, the other, are often used correl- atively; as, — aliud loquitui', aliud sentit, he says one thing, he thinks another; alii resistunt, alii fugiunt, some resist, others fee; alter exercitum perdidit, alter vSndidit, one ruined the army, the other sold it; alter! sS in montem receDernnt: aHot-T =.,- ,• ^r ^_ _. • - : "'» j"»ii^c-wHiiiciiLa su contu- lerunt the one party retreated to the mountain, the others betook themselves to the baggage. Agreement of Verb with Subject. i6s 2. Where the English says one does one thing, another another, the Latin uses a more condensed form of statement ; as, — alius aliud am.it, one likes one thing, another another ; aliud aliis placet, one thing pleases some, another others. m a. So sometimes vith adverbs; as, — alii alio fugriunt, some flee in one direction, others in another. 3. The Latin also expresses the notion ^ each other ^ by means of alius repeati d ; as, — Oalli alius alium cohortatX sunt, the Gauls encouraged each other. 4. Ceterl means the rest, all the others ; as, — ceteris praestare, to be superior to all the others. 5. ReliquT means the others in the sense of the rest, those remain- ing, — hence is the regular word with numerals ; as, — reliqui sex, the six others. 6. Nescio quis forms a compound indefinite pronoun with the force of some one or other ; as, — causidicus nescio quis, some pettifogger or other ; misit nescio quern, he sent some one or other ; nescio quo pact5, somehow or other. Chapter V. — Syntax of Verbs. AGREEMENT. ViTith One Subject. 254. I. Agreement in Number and Person. A Finite Verb agrees with its subject in Number and Person ; as, — vos videtis, you see ; pater filios instituit, the father trains his sons. the participle regularly agrees with its subject in gender ; as, — ■6diti5 repressa est, the mutiny was checked. mm i66 Syntax. f ■ _- ■ i 1 ' r > 3. But when a predicate noun is of different gender or number from its subject, the verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive ; as, — Tarquinil materna patria erat, Tarquinii was his native country on his tnother'^s side ; n6n omnia error atultitia est dXcenda, not every error is to be called folly. a. Less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive ; as, — Oorloll, oppldum VolscSrum, captum est, Corioli, a town of the Volsci, ivas captured. 4. Construction according to Sense. Sometimes the verb agrees with its subject according to sense instead of stric*^ gram- matical form. Thus : — a) In Number; as, — multitiidS hominum convfinerant, a crowd of men had gathered. b) In Gender; as, — duo milia crucibus adfIxT sunt, two thousand {men) were crucified. '} ! With Two or More Subjects. 255. I. Agreement in Number. With two or more sub- jects the verb is regularly plural ; as, — pater et filius mortui sunt, the father and son died. 2. But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject ; vis.,— a) Wh«n the verb ^precedes both subjects or stands between them; as, — mortuus est pater e' filius ; pater mortuun est &•: Wbm. d) When the subjects are oonnectea by aut; aut . . . aut; vel , . . vel; neque . . nequo ; as, — neque pater neque fXIix & v^rtuua est, neither father nor son died. 3. When the diflferent subjects are f^k together as constituting a whole, the singular is used ; u5. — temeritSs ignflratifique viti6fia est, rashness nnd ignorance are bad. a. This is regularly the ccse in sonfttua populusque ROmftnus. Voices. — Tenses. \\ 167 4. Agreement In Person. With subjects of different persons the verb always takes theyiW/ person rather than the second, and the second rdX\\^v than the third', as,— Bl tfl et Tullia valStis, ego et CicerS valSmus, if yon and Tullia arc well, Cicero and / are well. 5. Agreement in Gender. With subjects of different genders the participle in the compound tenses follows the same principles as laid down for predicate adjectives. See § 235, />', ^. VOICES. 256. I. The Passive Voice sometimes retains trace^i of its (.riginal middle or reflexive meaning , a.s, -- ego n6n patiar .urn dSfeuidi, / s/iall not allow him to defend himself . 2. In imitation of Greek usage many perfect passive participles are used by the poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as act- ing not upon himself, but as doing something in his own interest ; as,— vgiatuB tempora, having veiled his temples. a. Occasionally finite forms of the verb are thus used ; as,— tunica inducitur artiis, he covers his limls with a tunic. 3. Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the passive ; as,- onrrit'jr, people run (lit. it is run) ; ventum est, he {they, etc.) came (lit. // was come). TENSES. TENSES OF .^HE INDICATIVE. 2^ If". I. The Latin tenses express two distinct no tioiis : — a) The period of time to which the action belongs : Present, Past, or Future. h) The kind of action: Undefined, Going on, or Completed. The I itin with its six tenses is able to express each of the three kinds «i action for each of the three periods of time (making practically nine I ■41 I'll I-! i~\- I i68 Syntax. I i' I 1^ lii tenses). It does this by employing certain tenses in more than one way, as may be seen by the following table : — PERIOD OF TIML:. Present. Past. Future. as o H O < O Q Undefined. Going on. Completed. Present : acribS, / wriie. Present : scribS, / am writing. Present Perfect : Bcripsi, / have ■written. Historiciil Perfect: scripsi, / xvrote. Imperfect : scribebam, / was writing. Pluperfect : scripseram, / had written. Future : Bcribam, / shall write. Future ; scribam, I shall be writing. Future Perfect : scripaerS, / shall have writ- ten. 2 It will be seen that the Present may express Undefined action or action Going on; so also the Future. The Perfect likewise has a double use, according as it denotes action Completed in present tmie (Present Perfect) or Undefined action belonging to past time (Historical Perfect). Principal and Historical Tenses. 258. Tenses which denote Present or Future time are called Principal Tenses ; those which denote Past time are called Historical. The Principal Tenses of the Indicative are : Present, Future, Present Perfect, Future Perfect. The Historical Tenses are- Imperfect, Historical Per- fect, Pluperfect. Present Xv dicaHve. 259. Besides the two uses indicated in the table, the Present Indicative presents the following peculiarities : — I. It is used to denote a genera! truth, i.e. something true not merely in the present but at all times ('Gnomic /resent') ; as,— ▼irtfla ccnciliac amlcitias et cSnservat, virtue establishes ties of friendship and maintains them {i.e. always does so). % Tenses. 169 2. It is used of an attempted action (' Conative Present ') ; as, — dum vitant vitia, in contraria currunt, while they try \o avoid (vltant) vices, they rush into opposite ones. 3. In lively narration the Present Is often used of a past action ('Historical Present'); as,— Caesar Aeduls obsidfia imperat, Caesar demanded hostages of the Aedui (lit. demands). 4- In con- . on with jam, jam diii, jam pridem, and similar words, the Pi is frequently used of an action originating in the past and contn.u. in tiie present ; as, — jam. diu cupio tg visere, I have long been desiring to visit you (i.e. I desire and have long desired) . ties of Imperfect Indicative. 260. I. The Imperfect primarily denotes action going on in past time ; as, — librum leggbam, / was reading a book. a. This force makes the Imperfect especially adapted to serve as the tense oi description (as opposed to mere narration). 2. From the notion of action going on, there easily develops the notion of repeated or customary action ; as, legates interrogabat, he kept asking the envoys; puer C. Duilium vidgbam, as a boy I often used to see Gains Duilius. 3- Like the Present, the Imperfect often denotes an attempted action ('Conative Imperfect ') ; as,— hostga nostros intra munltiongs progredi prohibgbant, ihe enemy tried to prevent (prohibgbant) our men from advancing within the fortifications . 4- The Imperfect, with iam, jam diu, jam dudum, etc., is some- times used of a past action which had been continuing for some time ; as, — _. „^ j««i-.-_-3 jaixi axiiiUM uaoecar, ne had Had fus residence at Rome for many years {i.e. he had it at this 'time and had long had it). ^1 I 170 Syntax. ii HI 1 ■: Future Indicative. 261. I. The two regular uses of the Future have been given above in the Table (p. 168). 2. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the F- .re than is the English. We say : 'If he comes, I shall be glad; where we really mean : V ^'^ ^^^^^^ '^^'''^'^ ^^^- ^" ^"^^ ^^^^^ ^"^^ ^^^"^ ''^'"^^^ ^'SxmX?, the Present, but generally employs the Future. 3. Sometimes the Future has Imperative force; as, dIcSs, sayl Perfect Indicative. 262. A. Present Perfect. Several Present Perfects denote the state resulting from a completed act, and so seem equivalent to the Present; as, — "°^^ ] / know (lit. / have become acquainted with) ; pognovi J consuevi, /am wont (lit. /have become accustomed). B. Historical Perfect. The Historical Perfect is primarily the tense of narration (as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of descrip- tion) ; as, — Rggulus in senatum vgnit, mandata exposuit, reddl captives negavit esse utile, /icguhis came into the Senate, set forth his commission, said it was useless for captives to be returned. I. Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth (' Gnomic Perfect'). Pluperfect Indicative. 263. The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Per- fect, denotes an act completed in the past; as, — Caesar Rhgnum transire dScreverat, sed n5 . Is deerant, Caesar had decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats. Future Perfect Indicative. 264. The Future Perfect denotes an action completed in future time. Thus : — scribam epistulam, cum redieris, / will write the letter when you have returned (lit. when you shall have returned) . The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Per- fect than the EngHsh, which commonly employs the Present Perfect instead of the Future Perfect. a. N Sequence of Tenses. 171 Epistolary Tenses. 265. In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appro- priate at the time of writing, but which will be so at the time when his letter is received; he thus employs tbe Imperfect and the Perfect for the Present, and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect; as,— nihil habebam quod scrlberem, neque enim novl quidquam audieram et ad tuts omngs epistuias jam rescrlpseram / have not/ling to write, for f have heard no news and have already answered all your letters. TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 266. A. In Independent Sentences. See §§ 272-280. B. In Dependent Sentences. In dependent sentences the tenses of the subjunctive usually conform to the so-called Sequence of Tenses. 267. I. In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are Principal tenses, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical. 2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are fol- lowed by Principal, Historical by Historical. Thus : — Principal Sequence,— video quid facias, / see what you are doing. vidSbo quid facias, / shall see what you arc doing. videro quid facias, f shall have seen what you are doing. video quid feceris, I see what you have done. vidgbo quid fgceris, f shall see what you have done. videro quid fgceris, f shall have seen what you havi done. Historical Sequence, — videbam quid faceies, / sa~t what you were doing. vidi quid faceres, /saw what you were doing. vTderam quid faceres, I had seen what you were doing. vidSbam quid fecisses, /saw what you had done. vidi quid fecisses, / sa^v what you had done. videram quid fecissgs, / had seen what you had done. 3. The Present and Imnerfert Snhiunrtiim riopr^fp ;„,,,, i.,*- action, the Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the Indicative. 172 Syntax. Peculiarities of Sequence. 268. I. The Perfect Indicative is usually aa historical tense (even when translated in luiglisli as a Present Perfect), and so is followed oy the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive ; as, — dSmSnstravI quftrfi ad causam accSderem, / have shown why I took the case (lit. /showed why, etc.). 2. A dependent Perfect Infinitive is treated as an historical tense wherever, if resolved into an equivalent Indicative, it would be his- torical ; as, — videor ostendisse quSISs del easent, I seem to have si'oivn of what nature the gods are (ostendisse here corresponds to an Indic- ative, ostendl, I showed). 3. The Historical Present is sometimes regarded as a principal tense, i^ometinies as historical. Thus : — Sulla suos hortatur ut forti animS sint, Sulla exhorts his soldiers to be stout-hearted; Qallos hortatur ut arma caperent, he exhorted the Gauls to take arms. 4. Conditional sentences of the ' contrary-to-fact ' type are not affected by the principles for the Sequence of Tenses; as, — honestum tale est ut vel si ignorlrent id hominSs sua tameu pulchritudine laudSbile esset, virtue is such a thing that even if men were ignorant of it., it would still be worthy of praise for its o^vn loveliness. 5. In conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type the Imper- fect Subjunctive is usually treated as an Historical tense; as, — si solos e53 dicerSs miseros, quibus moriendum esset, nSmineni tu quidem e5rum qui viverent exciperes, if you called only those wretched %vho must die, you would except no one of those who live. 6. In clauses of Result and some others, the Perfect Subjunctive is sometimes used as an historical tense. Thus: — rSx tantum motus est, ut Tlssaphernem hostem judicarit, the king was so much moved that he adjudged Tissaphernes an enemy. This construction is rare in Cicero, but frequent in Nepos and sub- sequent historians. The Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents u Sequence of Tenses. »73 Ind '!helT'' "' " ■"' T^'"'' ''^''''''' '^ ''' continuance of the act, and tl^erefore corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direc sta ement Thus, jadlcSrit in the above example corre pond to a jad.cavit, keaHjnU,eU. To denote a result as sLthinsZ^LTs all writers use the Imperfect Subjuncti^^ after historical tenses ' 7- Sometniies perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of Sequence be abandoned altogether. Thus : — "»"Fes ot a) We may have the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an historical tense; as,— VerrSs Siciliam Ita perdidlt u. ea restltuT nSn poBslt lerres so ruined Sicily that it cannot be restored (Direct statement ; n6n potest restitui) • ardgbat HortSnsius dicendl cupiditate ' sTc, ut In nullo flagrantiuB studium viderim, Hortensius burned so with ea^^erness to speak that I have seen in no one a ,ifr eater desire (Direct statement: in nullo vidl / have seen in no one). ' Note. -This usage is different from that cited under 6. Here by neelect of b) We may have a principal tense followed by the Perfect Sub- junctive used historically; as,— nescio quid causae fuerit cQr nnlias ad mS litterSs dargs, / do not know what reason there was why you did not send me a letter. Here fuerit is historical, as is shown by the following Imperfect Subjunctive. Method of expressing Future Time in the Subjunctive. 269. The Future and Future Perfect which are lacking to the Latin Subjunctive are supplied in subordinate clauses as follows: — J. a) The Future is supplied by the Present after principal tenses by the Imperfect after historical tenses. ' b) T1k« Future Perfect is supplied by the Perfect after principal tenses, by the Pluperfect after historical tenses. This is especially frequent when the context clearly shows, by the presence of a future tense in the main clause, that the reference is to future time. Thus : — 174 Synti ax. Gain poUicentur a6 factllrSs, quae Caesar imperet, the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall order ; Gallt poUicfibantur sS f actflrSa, quae Caesar imperftret, /he Gauls protnised they would do what Caesar should order', Galli pollicentur sfi factflrSs quae Caesar imperaverit, the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall have ordered ; Gain polUcSbantur sfi factiirSa quae Caesar imperaviaset, the u'auls promised they would do what Caesar should have ordered. 2. Even where the context does not contain a F'uture tense in the main clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus : — timed ng veniat, / avi afraid he will come ; Caesar exapectabat quid consilil hostSs caperent, Caesar was waiting to see what plan the etiemy would udopt. 3. Where greater definiteness is necessary the periphrastic forms in -uruk aim and -urus esaem are employed, especially in clauses of Result, Indirect Questions, and after non dubito quin ; as, — non dubito quin pater venturua sit, / do not doubt that my father will come ; n6n dubitabam quin pater venturua eaaet, / did not doubt that my father would come. 4. Where the verb has no Future Active Participle or where it stands in the passive voice, its Future character may be indicated by the use of the particles mox, brevT, statim, etc., in connection with the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive ; as, — non dubito quin t§ mox hujua rel paeuiteat, / do not doubt that you will soon repent of this thing; non dubitabam quTn haec rea brevi conficerStur, / did not doubt that this thing would soon be finished. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 270. I. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb on which they depend. Thus : — «) The Present Infinitive represents an act as contemporaneous with the time of the verb on which it depends ; as, — videtur lionores adsequi, he seems to te gaining honors ; vidgbatur honores adsequi, he seemed to be gaining honors. Tenses of the Infinitive. 175 *) The Perfect Infinitive represent, an act as prior to the time of the verb on which it depends ; as,— vidfltur honfirfi. adseoatu. ewe, he seems to have mined honors ; VI.UB eBt honSrSa adaeoflfu. eaae, he seemed to have gained honors. c) The Future Infinitive represents an act as subsequent to that of the verb on which it depends ; as, — " vldetur honSrSa adaecflturua eaae, he seems about to min honors ; vlaua eat honflrfia adaecatflrua eaae, he seemed about to gain honors. 2 Where the English says ' ought to have done; ' mi^ht have done: etc.. the Latin uses dSbuI, oportuit, potul, with the Present Infini- live ; as, — dgbuit dicere, he ought to have said (lit. crwed it to say^ : oportuit venire, he ought to have come ; PotuitvidBre, he might havr seen. " ?.T^T^ ''°'''-' ""^'^ ^""^ '" P°^"y ^"-"^ °*her verbs), may take a iVrfect Infinitive instead of the Present -as - iirL/^r"^'''^"' ^u'"'"'- '^"'"™' Verbs that have no Par- t.c,p a Stem express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore ut or futurnm esse ut, with the Subjunctive ; as, - spSrS fore ut t8 paenlteat levitStis, //„;,.,,„ ^.a repent of your fickleness (ht. hope it will happen that you rehent) • a. The Periphrastic Future I„fi„i,i„e is often used, especially in ,he Passive, even m case of verbs which have the Participial Stem ■ as - spera fore ut hostes vlucaatur, / hope th. ,„em, will I,, 'con. quered. 4. Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infini- tive with fore ; as, — spero epiatulam acrlptam fore, / hope the letter will have been written i puts m6 omnia adeptum fore, / think that I shall have gained everything, * IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) /. X> :/. Ua v.. 1.0 I.I l^|28 — 6" 2.5 122 1.8 iLiS IIIIIM 11.6 w<:'j C/l Ffiotographic Sciences Corporation 4' ^ ^ M ^9>^ l^? o^ r^^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) 872-4S03 176 Syntax. THS MOODS. MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. The Indicative in Independent Sentences. 271. The Indicative is used for the statement of facts, the supposition of facts, or inqiiiry after facts. I . Note the following idiomatic uses : — a) With possum ; as, — possum multa dicere, / might say much ; poteram multa dicere, / m/ght have said much (§ 270, 2). b) In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius est, difficile est, utilius est, and some others ; as, — longum est ea dicere, // would be tedious to tell that ; difficile est omnia persequi, it would be diffictdt to enu- merate everything. The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences. 272. The Subjunctive is used in Independent Sentences . to express something — 1 . As willed ~ Volitive Subjunctive ; 2. As desired — Optative Subjunctive ; 3. Conceived o^ as possible — Potential Subjunctive. VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 273. The Volitive Subjunctive represents the action as willed. It always implies authority on the part of the speaker, and has the following varieties : — A. Hortatory Subjunctive. 274. The Hortatory Subjunctive expresses an exhor- tation. This use is confined to the first person plural, of the Present. The negative is ne. Thus : — eSmus, let us go ; amSmus patriam, let us love our country ; ne desperemus, let us not despair. Sentences The Volitive Subjunctive. ^yy B. Ji'ssivE Subjunctive r Most frequently in the third singular and third plural • as - dicat, let him tell; ^ ' ^' dicant, let them tell; 2. Less frequently in the second person ; as, - isto bono utare, use that advantage: modestS vivas, live temperately. C. Prohibitive Subjunctive n§ repugnStis, do not resist ! tu vsro istan, nS reliqueris, don't vou leave her! a. Neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose ^" ^'""r tr :^:;^;;;-^r ^- - --^- - pe^.. --to those a^r:;^-^—----^^^^ cava n. .ith ^thf'bUctt: T-^' "'"^^^^^' - ^•^■ noli hoc facere, don^t do this (lit. be unwilling to do) ' nohte mentirl, do not lie ' ^ °"%?4"° ''"'*"• * '"" "" ''" («'■ '-■^' -- /«' A Deliberative Subjunctive, 277. The Deliberative Subjunctive is i.<:<.^ .•„ „, The 178 Syntax. Present is used referring to present time, the Imperfect referring to past. The negative is non. Thus : — quid f aciam, what shall / do ? ego redeam, shall I go backf quid facerem, what was / to do ? hunc er ^ non diligam, shall I not cherish this man ? a. These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical in char- acter, and do not expect an answer. E. Concessive Subjunctive. 278. The Subjuncdve is used to indicate something as granted or conceded for the sake of argument The Present is used for present time, the Perfect regularly for past. The negative is ns. Thus : — sit h5q vgrum, granting that this is true (lit. let this be true) ; n6 sit summum malum dolor, malum certS eat, granting that pain is not the greatest evil, yet it is certainly an evil; fuerit mains civis alils, titai quando esse coepit, granting that he was a bad citizen to others, when did he begin to be so toward you f OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 279. The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of wishing. The negative is regularly nS. The use of tenses is as follows : — 1 . The Present Tense, often accompanied by utinam, is used where the wish is conceived of as ''possible. di istaec prohibeant, may the gods prevent that I falsus utinam vStSs sim, oh that I may be a false prophet'. n§ veniant, may they not come! 2. The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the regret that something is not so now; the Pluperfect that something was not so in the past. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by utinam; as, — r j utinam istud ex animo dlcergs, would that you were saying that in earnest, {i.e. I regret that you are not saying it in earnest) • PSlIdSa utinam vitasset Apollinis arcus, would that Achilles had escaped the bow of Apollo ; v*4ia_i jc Msi5,u» «„=,=m, ivOctiu i/tai i naa hoi oeen born. The Potential Subjumtive. 179 POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE. 280. The Potential Subjunctive expresses « /«,„-^//^„ Tlie negative ,s „5„. The following uses are to bf noted - dicat aliquis, some one may say ; dixerit aliquis, some one may say mainl> to a few phrases like those given as examples. .2' '^'^^ ^ v^^"^'^^ Subjunctive may represent something as conthwct difference of meaning. Thus - °"' appreciable forms of statement for volo, malo, nolo. Thus : - velim mihi ignoscas, I wish you would forgive me ■ nohm putSs mS jocSrl, / don^t want you to think Pm joking. When the condition is expressed, we get one of the regular • types of Conditional Sentences (see § 303) ; as, — diss dgficiat SI coner SnumerSre causSs,' time would fail tf /should attempt to enumerate the reasons lar rwith" '^VTf ''' *^' ^'^''"'*'' ^'^"""^ ^" '^'' «^^°^^ P^'-son lingu- lar (with tndefimte force ; § 356, 3) of a few verbs, chiefly the following . - crgderSs, om might have believed-, vidSrSs, cernergs, one might have seen, perceived; putargs, one might have thought. sentn7'''/7"^''* """^ ^^"P''^'"' ^" '"^^ ^P°^°«^« «f conditional sentences of the contrary-to-fact type (see § 304) are also Potential in character. By omission of the Protasis such an Apodosis sometimes stands alone, particularly vellem, nollem, mail em ; as, - vellem id quidem, / would wish that {i.e. were I bold enough) . a. b. I i8o Syntax. The Imperative. 281. The Imperative is used in commands, admonitions, and entreaties (negative nS); as, — Sgredere ex urbe, depart from the city ; mihi ignosce, pardon me ; valS,/arewett. I. The Present is the tense of the Imperative most commonly used, but the Future is employed — a) Where there is a distinct reference to future time, especially in the apodosis of conditional sentences ; as, — rem vobls proponam ; vos earn penditote, I wiU lay the matter before you ; do you {then) consider it ; Bi bene disputSbit, tribuito litterls Graecis, tf he shall speak well, attribute it to Greek literature. b) In laws, treaties, wills, maxims, etc. ; as,— c6nsul53 summum jus habento, the consuls shall have supreme power ; hominem mortuom in urbe ne sepelito, no one shall bury a dead body in the city ; amicitia rggi Antiocho cum populo RomSno his legi- bus et ccndicionibus esto, let there be peace between Antiochus and the Roman people on the following terms and conditions. quartae esto partis MSrcus hSrSs, let Marcus be heir to a fourth {of f he property) ; ignoscito saepe alteri, numquam ti\ii, forgive your neigh- . bor often, yourself never. 2. Except with the Future Imperative the negative is not used in classical prose. Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways, bee § 276, c. ■ ^ ^ 3- Questions in the Indicative introduced by quin {why not?) are orten eqmvalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive; as,- quin abis, go away ! (lit. why don't you go atuay ?) quIn vocem continetis, keep still! (lit. why don't you stoh .our voices/') ■' quIn equ68 cSnscendimus, let us mount our horses (lit. why do we not mount our horses f\ Clauses of Purpose. i8i onitions, only used, especially /// iay the ^ he shall hall have hall bury his legi- ? between ng terms he heir to 'ir neigh- used in ^r ways. 'ot?) are e; as, — op your y do we 282. MOODS IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. Clauses of Purpose. I. Clauses of Purpose are introduced most com- not, lest\ and stand in tlie Subjunctive; as,- "" """ eaimus, ut vIvSmuE, we eal ll,al we may live. ' r Tre trr '^""""' '"" ""' "• -"' """ "•'^ "■'•y ^' """"/rr"'/"! ?'" °'"'"""' '»i«=» "coiperent, /„ dosed Me gales, lest „,e townspeople should receive auy injury. a. Quo as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause e~„:orr::r-!- ^ ------ '^- o-Tai ^' ?hus": -' '""''''"''' ^°""'^' "' "^^'■^ ^'"P^^tic than nS. ut ng quid neglegenter agamus, in order that ^e may not do anything carelessly. "^ c. Ut non (not nS) is used where the negation belongs to some -gle word, xnstead of to the purpose clause af aTo^e ut non ejectus ad alienos, sed invltatus ad tuos vide- ^xe that yon may seem not driven out among strangers but invited to your own friends. ' d. To say ^and that not ^ or ^or that not; the Latin regularly uses neve (neu) ; as, — h^^'^^^^y ut earum rgrum vis minuerStur, neu ponti nocSrent, that the violence of these things might be lessened, and that they might not harm the bridge ; profugit ng capergtur ngve interficerStur, he /led, that he might not be captured or killed. e. But neque (for neve) is sometimes used in the second clause when ut stands m ,he first, and. after the Aueustan er. .ven -^h^n '-^c fir-^ clause is introduced by n§. ~ " ^^"'^ % 1 82 Syntax. 2. A Relative Pronoun (qui) or Adverb (ubl, undo, quS) is fre- quently used to introduce a Purpose Clause ; as, — Helvfitll ISgatSs mittunt, qui dicerent, the Helvetii sent envoys to say (lit. who should say^ ; haec habul, d6 senectate quae dioerem, / had these things to say about old age ; n6n habdbat qu6 fugeret, he had no place to which to flee (lit. whither he might flee). a. Qui in such clauses is equivalent to ut Is, ut ego, etc.; ubl to ut Ibi ; unde to ut inde ; qu5 to ut e8. 3. Relative clauses of purpose follow dignus, indlgnua, and IdS- aeuB ; as, — idSneuB fuit n6m6 quern imitarSre, there was no one suitable for you to imitate {cf. nfimd fuit quern imitar6re, there was no one to imitate) ; dignus e^t qui aliquaudS imperet, he is worthy to rule sometime. 4. Purpose clauses often depend upon something to be supplied from the context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sen- tences; as, — ut haeo omnia omittam, abiimus, to pass over all this (/ will say thaf) we departed. Clauses of Characteristic. 283. I. A relative clause used to express an essential quality or characteristic of an antecedent not otherwise de- fined is called a Clause of Characteristic, and stands in the Subjunctive; as, — multa sunt, quae meutem acuant, there are many things which sharpen the wits. Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which are used merely to state or assume some fact about an antecedent already defined, and which therefore take the Indicative; as,— Cats, senex jflcundus, qui SapiSns appellfttus est, Cato, a delight' ful old man, who was called *The Wise.'' The Clause of Characteristic implies '« man of the sort that does some- thing' ; the Indicative relative clause implies 'a man who actually does something.'' Clauses of Characteristic. n i8) is fre- envoys to igs to say t. whither ubl to ut and IdS- itable for e was no leiime. supplied own sen- ' will say 183 essential wise de- ands in gs which es which itecedent a delight' oes some- actually 2. Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions as est qui; sunt qui; „SmS eat qui; nflllus eat qui; flnus est qui ; sOluB eat qui ; quia est qui ; is qui ; etc. Thus : — sunt qui dicant, there are {some) who say ; nSmS est qui putet, there is nobody who thinks ; sapientia eat flna quae maestltlam pellat, ^^hilosophy is the only thing that drives away sorrow ; quae civitas eat quae nSn fiverti possit, what state is there that cannot be overthrown f n6n is sum qui improbds laudem, / am not the sort of man that praises the wicked. "' a. Sometimes (very rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the clause of characteris- tic IS used after comparatives; as,— nSn longius hostSs aberant quam qu5 tSlum adigl posset the enemy were not too far off for a dart to reach them m. further off than [a point] to which a dart could be cast). 3- The Clause of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion ot cause {since) or opposition {although). Thus : — a) Cause. The relative is then frequently accompanied by ut, quippe, utpote ; as, — fi fortiinate adulSscSns, qui tuae virtiitis HomSrum praeconem invSneris, O fortunate man, since you have found a Homer as the herald of your valor ; ut qui Optimo jure earn provinciam obtinuerit, since he held that province by excellent right. b) Opposition : — egomet qui s5r6 Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen complurSs diSs AthSnIs commoratus sum, /, al- though I had taken up Greek literature late in life, nevertheless tarried several days at Athens. 4. Clauses of Characteristic may also be introduced by quin = qui (quae, quod) non; as,— nSm6 est quin saepe audierit, there is no one who has not often heard', ■' nemo fuit mllitum quTn vulnerarStur, there was no one of the soldiers who was not wounded. 5. Under Clauses of Characteristic belong also phrases of the type • quod sciam, so far as I know; quod audierim, so far as I have I 1 84 Syntax. Clauaes of Result. 284. I. Clauses of Result are usually introduced by ut {that, so that), negative ut nfin (so that not), and take the Subjunctive. The main clause often contains tantus, talis, tot, is ( = talis), tam, or some similar word. Thus : quis tam dfimfins est ut sua voluntate maereat, who is so senseless as to mourn of his own volition f Siciliam ita vastavit ut restitui in antiquum statum n6n possit, he has so ravaged Sicily that it cannot be restored to its former condition ; mSns altisaimus impendebat, ut facile perpauci prohibSre pos- sent, a very high mountain overhung, so that a very few could easily stop them. 2. A^ Result Clause is often introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb, qui ( = ut is), qu6 ( = ut e6), etc. ; as, — n6m6 est tam senex qui b6 annum non putet posse vivere, nobody is so old as not to think he will live a year ; habetis eum cSnsulem qui p5r5re vestrls dScrStla n6n dubitet, you have a consul such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees. a. These relative clauses of result are a development of the Clause of Characteristic, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the two con- structions. It is best to class the relative clause as one of Characteristic, unless the result idea is clear and unmistakable. 3. Result clauses may also be introduced by quin = ut nSn ; as, — nihU tam difficile est quIn, quaerendo invSstigari possit, nothing is so difficult that it cannot be discovered by searching. nSroa est tam fortis quIn rel novitate perturbetur, «^ one is so steadfast as not to be thrown into confusion by a strange occurrence. Note phrases of the type : — fieri non potest quIn scrlbam, 1 faoere n6n possum quIn scrlbam, J ^^^*'*'^i<^'^oid writing 4. Note the use of quam ut (sometimes quam alone) to denote Result after comparatives ; as, — urbs erat manitior quam ut primo impetu capi posset, the city was too strongly fortified to be taken at the first attack (lit. more strongly fortified than \so^ that it rnuld h^ tnb.*. .t.\ S J' J" 'Vu so senseless 'ronoun or Causal Clauses. Causal Clauses . 185 285. Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the fol- lowing particles : — ^ ^ °^ 1 . Quod, quia, quonlam. 2. Cum. 3- Quanda. 286. The use of moods is as follows : -- I. Quod, quia, quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is that of the zvriter or speaker; they take the Sub- j^mctive^when the reason is viewed as that of another. Parthas timea quod difflda capils noatrls, l fear the Parthians, because I distrust our troops. ' ThemiBtoclSs, quia non tfltus erat, Corcyram d6migravit TAe- nnstocles, since he was not safe, moved to Corcyra ' neque mS vTxisse paenitet, quoniam bene vW, / do not resre^ having lived, since / have lived well. SacratSa accflsktus est quod corrumperet juventfltem. Socrates was arraigned on the ground that he was corrupting the yoim^ (Here the reason is not that of the writer but of the accuser Hence the Subjunctive.) AeduT Caeaari gratias gggrunt, quod sS perlculo llberaviaset the Aedui thanked Caesar because he had delivered them from danger. (The reason of the Aedui.) quoniam MiltiadSa dicere non posset, verba pra ee fScit TI- sagorSs, since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras spoke for him. (The reason of Tisagoras.) noctu ambuiabat ThemistoclSs, quod somnum capere nan pos- set, Themistocles used to walk at night because (as he said) he couldn't sleep. ^ Verbs of thinking and saying often stand in the Subjunc- tive in causal clauses as though the act of thinking or say- ing, and not the contents of the thought or language, con- stituted the reason. Thus : — BellovacI suum numerum nan complSvSrunt, quod sS sua namine cum Ramftnls bellum gesttlras dloe- rent, the Bdiovaci did not furnish their complement^ be' a. ' 1 86 Syntax, cause they said they were nving to wafft war with the Romans on their own account. b Nfin quod, nfin qufl (by attraction fo*- n8n e0 quod), nfin quia, not t/tat, not hxntisc; and n/Jn quod nfln, nfin qufl nOn, nfiu quin, not that . . . not; not because . . . not; not but what, are usually employed merely to introduce a hypothetical reason, and hence take the Subjunctive; as, — Id feci, udu quod v6s hano deffinsifinem deslderftre arbltrftrer, aed ut omnes intellegerent, this I did, not because / thought you needed this defense, but that all nu^rht perceive ; CrassS commendatiSnem n6n aum pollioitua, nfln quIn earn valitflram apud t6 arbitrtLrer, aed egfire mihl commendatiSne n6n vidSbatur, / did not promise a recommendation to Crass us, not that I did n,i think it ruould have weight with you, but because he did not seem I to me to need recommendation. c. But clauses introduced by nSn quod, n6n quia take the Indicative // they state a fact, even though that fact is denied to be the reason for something ; as, — hSc ita aentio, 11611 quia aum ipae augur, aed quia alo exiatimare noa eat neceaae, this I think, not because 1 am myself an augur {ivhich / really am), but because it is necessary for us to think so. 2. Cum causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as,— quae cum ita aint, since this is so; cum ala mortalia, quae mortaila aunt, cflra, since you are mortal, care for what is mortal. a. Note the phrase cum praeaertim (praeaertim cuir), especially 'since ; as, — AeduoB accuaat, praeaertim cum eorum precibua ad- ductua bellum auacSperit, he blamed the Aedui, especially since he had undertaken the war at their entreaties. 3. Quando (less frequent than the other causal particles) governs the Indicative ; as, — id omittS, quando vobia ita placet, I pass over that, since you so wish. •• with the lod), nfin , nOn quA . . . not; itroduce a e; as, — fislderare his I did, lit that alt 11 On quin {fire mihi promise a i think it i not seem take the is denied quia Bio ' because 1 because it as, — 'e mortal, n cuir), ibuB ad- e Aedui, at their I governs :e you so Clanses with Poatquam, \j' :tc. 187 Temporal Clauses introduced by Postqix3.m. Ut. XJhi Simul ac, etc. 287. I. PoBtquam (posteaqram), n/trr; ut, ubi, wAr-^ • cum primum, Blmul. .imul ac (.imul .tque). ,,.• soon as, when used to refer to a single occurrence regularly take the Per- feet Indicative; as, — BpamlnOndaB postquam audlvit vIciBae BoeetiflB, ' Satis ' inqult vtel hfiaminondas, after he heard that the Boeotians hai con- quered, said, ' I have lived enoiHi ' Id ut audlvit, Coroyram dfimigravit," ^hen he heard this, he moved to tort I ra • Cae.«r oum primum potuit, ad exeroitum oontendit, Caesar, as soon as he could, hurried to the army ; ^ a , as """' ^^JZTj'^T'"' °''"'^'^ '"°« *""^' ^«6**<5b ad eum mittun t, when they were informed of Caesar^ s arrival, they sent envoys to him. ' "^ a. The Historical Present may take the place of the Perfect in this con- struction, 2. To denote the repeated occurrence of an act, ut, ubi, simul atque, as often as, when following an historical tense, take the Plu- perfect Indicative (compare §§ 288, 3 ; 302, 3); as,— ut quiaque VerriB animum offenderat, in lautumiSs statim coni- ci5baj;ur whenever anybody had offended Verres^s feelings, he was forthwith put in the stone-quarry ; ^ & hoatSs, ubi aliquSs SgredientSs conspexerant, adoriSbantur, whenever the enemy had seen any men disembarking, they attacked them. *' -^ a. In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect Sub- junctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act C Indefi- nite Frequency '); as,— Id ubi dixisset. hastam mittebat, whenever he had said that he hurled a spear. ' 3- Occasionally ^he above conjunctions are followi.l by t.e Pluper- fect Indicative of a single occurrence. This is regularly the rnse with postquam in expressions denoting a definite interval of time (days months^ years, etc.), such as post terticm annum qua.^, tribus poBt ^uaoi. Thus : - - i88 Syntax. paucis post diSbus quam Luc5 discesserat, ad Sardiniam v8nit, a few days after he had departed from Luca he came to Sar- dinia ; postquam occupStae SyrScusae erant, profeotus est Cartha- ginem, after Syracuse had been seized, he set out for Carthage. 4. The Imperfect Indicative also sometimes occurs to denote a continued state; as, — postquam R5mam adventabant, senatus consultus est, after they were on the march towards Koine, the Senate was consulted ■ postquam stracti utrimque stabant. after they had been drawn up on both sides and were in position. .u ^' ..^^'^'^ postquam, posteaquam, following the analogy of cum take the Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses ; as, — posteaquam sttmptuSsa fieri fanera coepissent, Igge sublata sunt after fitnerals had begun to be elaborate, they were done away wUh by law. ' Temporal Clauses mtroduced by Cum. A. Oum REFERRING TO THE PAST. 288. I. Cum, when referring to the past, takes — A. Tne Indicative (Imperfect, Historical Perfect, or Pluperfect) to denote the point of time at which something occurs. B. The Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect) to denote the situation or circumstances under which something occurs. ^ Examples : — Indicative. au turn eras consul, cum in PaiatiS mea domus SrdSbat, or were you consul at the time when my house burned up on the Palatine ? crSdo tum cum Sicilia florgbat opibus et copiis magna artificia fuisse in ea insula, / believe that at the time when Sicily was powerful in riches and resources there were g^cat crafts in that island', ■^ eo tempore paruit cum pSrgre necesse erat, he obeyed at the time when it was necessarv in ohe^' • 1116 diS, cum est lata lexde m6^« that day when the law concern- tng me was pas -^ed. iam vSnit, ne to Sar- t Cartha- Carthage. a coniinued *er they were I up on both cum, take lata sunt, tk by law. •feet, or mething ) denote nething or were '^alatine ? artificia icily was s in that the tit/re concern- Cnm-Clauses. 189 Subjunctive. Lyaander cum vellat Lycflrgl Iggga commtltare, profcibltu. est ''^'"wllii^.r"":-''' '^'^*''^'" "°'^ invSnisset.Ma.Is bovem ImmolSsse dicitur, when Pythagoras had discovered " tltthtluh' '" r'' '"." ""^' ''^' '"^"^"^ - -^h clauses than the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those rases where the main clause has turn, eo diS, eo anno, eo tem! pore or some similar correlative of the cum. Sometimes it depends entirely upon the point of view of the writer whether he shall employ the Indicative or Subjunctive. 2. When the logical order of the clauses is inverted we find e„m a4i,:6ndtm; a^^^^^^^^ ^^"" '"^ ^"^' ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^- ^-^ v^-i jam Gain e^ oppido fugere apparSbant, cum matrga familiae repente procurrSrunt, the Gauls were already preparing to flee, when suddenly the matrons rushed forth (logically, the ma- trons rushed forth as the Gauls were preparingl flee); TrSvmLab.6num adorlrl partbant, cum duSa ifgionsi Vsniaae cognoacunt, //.. Treviri were preparing to attack, when {sud- denly) they learned that two legions had arrived 3- Todenotear^«.rr/;/^«,//^;,inthepastcumisfollowedbytheIn- dicative, particularly of the Pluperfect (compare §§ .87, 2 ; 303, 3) ; as - dSferebatur, whenever he had arrived at some town, he was {always) earned in the same litter to his room • cum equitatua neater aS in agroa gjgcerat, esae^Srioa ex ailvla gmittebat, whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields he zvould send his charioteers out from the woods. ' a. Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive is thus used • as - saepe cum aliquem videret minus bene vestitum, suum ''^'^^HT'^^TTl^ """"^'^^^ effu^iibant, as ofien as tkey ^ad advanced, the Numidians ran away. This construction is frequent in Livy and subsequent historians. 190 Syntax. B. Cum REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE. 289. When cum refers to the Present or Future it regu- larly takes the Indicative ; as, — turn tua r6s agitur, parigs cum proximus ardet,/d?«r own interests are at stake wlicnyour neighbor's house is burning] cum vidSbis, turn sciSs, when you see, then you will know. a. The Indicative of the Present or Future may denote also a recurring action; as, — Btabllltas amicitlae cCnfirmari potest, cum homlnSs cu- pidinibus imperabunt, firm friendship can be established whenever men shall control their desires. C. Other Uses of Cum. 290. I. Cum Explicative. Cum, with the Indicative, is some- times used to indicate the identity of one act with another ; as, — cum tacent, clamant, their silence is a shout (lit. when they are silent, they shout). 2. Cum . . . tum. When cum . . . tum mean both . . . and, the cum-dause is in the Indicative; but when cum has the force of while, though, it may take the Subjunctive ; ss,— cum tS semper dilSxerim, tum tuls factis incfinaua sum, while J have always loved you, at the same time I am incensed at your conduct. Clauses introduced by Antequam and Priusquam. A. With the Indicative. 291. Antequam and priusquam (often written ante . quam, prius . . . quam) take the Indicative to denote an actual fact. 1. Sometimes the Present or Future Perfect; as,— prius respondSs quam rog6, you answer before lask; nihil contra disputabo priusquam dixerit, / will say nothing in opposition, before he speaks. 2. Sometimes fa^ Perfect, especially after negative clauses ; as, - non prius jugulandi finis fuit, quam Sulla omnSs su5s divitils e^pli vit, there was no end of murder until Sulla satisfied all his henchmen with wealth. it regu- n interests a recurring nln§s cu- established IS some- ,s,— they are . . and, '■ force of I, tvhi'k 1 ensed at te . lote an thing in as, — dlvitils sfied all Clauses with Dum, Dfineo, etc. 191 B. With the Suhjunctive, 292. Antequam and priuBquam take the Subjunctive to denote an act as anticipated. I. Thus the Subjunctive may denote — a) An act in preparation for which the main act takes place • as - priusquam dimicarent, foedus ictum est, /... in anticL- tion of thefig/if, a treaty was struck. tr^l \ "''"''°".°f ^^'^ "^^ee, the Subjunctive is sometimes used oi general truths, where tlie anticipatory notion has faded out as - tempestas minatur antequam surgat. //.. 'tanpcst threatens before it rises. b) An act anticipated and forestalled ; as, — priusquam tglum adicl posset, omiiis acigs terga vertlt before a sfcar could be hurled, the whole army fled. c) An act anticipated and deprecated ; as,— animum omit^unt priusquam loco dSmigrent, they die rather than (juit their post. _ 2. After historical tenses the Imperfect Subjunctive is used, espe- cially by post-Augustan writers, where the notion of anticipation has practically vanished ; as, — ^ B51 antequam s6 abderet fugientem vidit Antonium, the sun before it set saw Antony fleeing. Clauses introduced by Dnm, Ddnec, Quoad. 293. I. Dum, zuMe, regularly takes the Indicative of the Historical Present ; as, — Alexander, dum inter prlmorSs pugnat, sagittS ictus est, Alex- ander, while he was fighting in the van, was struck by an arrow • dum haec geruntur, in fings Venellorum pervenit, while these things were being done, he arrived in the territory of the Venelli. ^ II. Dum, donee, and quoad, as long as, take the Indica- tive; as, — dum anima est, spgs est, as long as there is life, there is hope-, Lacedaemoniorum ggns fortis fuit, dum Lycurgl Igggs viggbant, the race of the Lacedaemonians was powerful, as long as the law's •-y ' jK tir ^tt:i xvcrc in jOrcc j Cato, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crgvit, Cato, as long as he lived, increased in the fame of his virtues. tg2 Syntax. III. Dum, dSneo, and quoad, //;////, take : — I. The Indicative, to denote an actual event ; as,— dSnec rediit, fuit silentium, there was silence till he cLe • ' ferrum in co. pore retlnult, quoHd renflatlfttum eBt Boefitlfl. vIol..e //. kept the iron in his body until word was brouglu that the lioeotians had conquered. take tilt- .Stihjunctivc instead of Hr. I.uliiativr- as leclaset, ///,:,. shoxvcd some trep,dainm, untU fear p,oduced quiet, 2. The Subjunctive, to denote anticipation or cv/>ec- taucy; as, — ' ^ .x.p.ct«vlt C„.,r a«m nflvg. oo„v«„Ir.„t, C^.™. „,UMf„, „u s/tips to assemble ; ^ dum hosts, veuiaat, morftbor, / .,/,.// ,..//>■ //,. enemy to come. Substantive Clauses. 294. A Substantive Clause is one which as a whole serves as the Subject or Object of a verb, or denot some other case relation. ucnoies A. Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitlve. 295. These are generally used as object-clauses and occur with the following classes of verbs-- o,^t ns abess, he be^s that you will not ^o away ; mllitSs cchortStus est ut hosHnm t^ ^ ^..,^"'"'' ""''"'•"'^"nf,^. regularly lakes Ihe I„fi„i,|,e. euideV,imp;u6. '""""■■'■ "^'^W. ="»/// • dScrSvit senatus ut Opimius vids;et, the .'Senate decreed that Opi- imiis should see to it ; ^ convenit ut flnrs castrls miscSrentur, // ^as a.^reed that they should be united m one camp. S- With verbs oistrivini:* etc. (conjunctions ut, nS) • as - laborabat ut reliquSs clvitStSs adjungeret, /.. ^as strdi^ to Join the remaining states to him ; contendit n6 ea 5nanti5rentur, /.. ./..,,, /;,^, ,;,,,, ,;,,- ,;,,^^^^ ^^^^ oe reported. a. CSnor, try, always takes the Infinitive, in poe'lry; "''""' "' "' *'' ''°^' '^'^^^^^ ^'■^^ ^^^' '^^ ^"finitive. especially J Especially: permitto. concedo, n6n patlor^ ' ~ 2 Especially : prohibefi. Impedio dftterreS ^^^.^ Especially: constituo. decerns, ^enaeS, placult. convenit, pa- * Especially: labSrS. do operam. id ag6, contendo. impetr5. o 194 Syntax. 6. With a few other expressions, such as necease est reliauum eat, aequitur, licet, oportet ; as,- ' 'eliquum reliquum est ut doceam, // remains for me to shcnvi '■'■cet ledeaa, jyou may re^uru ; oportet loqu5mur, -we must speak. On licet and oportet without ut, see paragraph 8. 7. Here also belong phrases of the type: nulla oa,i«« «-*• «n quarS, quia; non est cur, ./..; nihil est'cur,T as - ' nulla causa est cur timeam, there is no reason why I should fear (originally Deliberative: why should / fear'? 7'/J '""''^'^ J'''^ nihil est quxa dream, there is no reason ^hy I should not s^y iunLf:s;:::^^^rr :ir r ^"^T ''-' "^ ^^-^'^ ^"^- ^ Of ut, but Simply an ^ l^^T Z:^^^!' ^ ea 1 clr ;" """• ^'^'^ ^^ -gularly the case with neceaae est, hcet, and oportet ; see 6. Other examples are : - eos hoc moneo desinant, I warn them to stofi ; huic imperat adeat civitates, /.. orders him to visit the states. B, Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative. 296. Here belong clauses : — i_ With verbs of .vishing, desiring, especially cupio, opt6 vol6 malo (conjunctions ut, ne); as,— ^ ' ' opto ut in hoc judicio nemo improbus reperiStur, / ^.^, that in fnt" ", ''""^"^^''^^^''''^(^-- "* reUritturt^^^^^^ sents a simple optative^of direct statement, viz. reperiatur TJ. no bad man be found!) ; penatur, may cupio ng veniat, /desire that he may not come. " dlr^T^tltrstV^^^^^ ""^"™" occurs with verbsof this • ^^<^<^ !>^ 295, 8.) Examples are : vellemscriberea //-^v/^ ■ i. you .„. .,,„„,, ,eu,„ ,,n^,,,,.,, ,„.„ z::^::izzz' Substantive Clans, reliquum a. W\ eat ciir, wuld fear reason); > y- nple Sub- iny omis- h existed necesse tates, i:ive. o, vols, that in ir repre- ur, may bs of this mid -wish written. ' means t cornel ^come NS nOn sometimes occurs instead of ut esneciallv «,),,« .u u r /earing has a negative, or where the writeV dLTres to e V '"^ °' particular word in the dependent clause ; Is " '''"" ^"'"^ °'°C:" "' "^'^ "'" ^''' ' ^''^ "'' '^^^' ''^' '^'-^ -•'' -' vereor ne exercitum flrmum habere n5n posslt / fear that he ,s unaile (non possit) /. Have a strong arn>y. ^ C. Substantive Clauses of Result. ^297 Substantive Clauses of Result (introduced by ut «t n6n) are a development of pure Result clauses and occur with the following classes of words : - tur' aotid-i-' 7^K "^ """"'^^ "^^Personal verbs, particularly fit, efflci- r^nCTtu"' ':^::^^^' ^^^-^^^^ «err potest, fo.e^seUur, e^ quo efiicitur,ut voluptas non sit summum bonum,>.,« ^^/,^ ztfollcms that pleasure ts not the greatest good ; \Tha^] "" ''°"" ^''*"^' ''"' '' '"^^'"^ ^^-^ - -^ -« accSdSbat ut ;.v6s deessent, ...//... ,;,>,^ ^,, ,,, ,^^, (lit. z/ w«j ^^^/^^/ that ships were lacking) . 3- As predicate or appositive after expressions like jus est mos es^t,^consu6tud6 est; also after neuter pronouns, hoc, iUud, ./.. est mos hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere tt ts the way of men not to wish the same person to excel in many things. D. Substantive Clauses introduced by Quin. 298. Substantive Clauses introduced by quin (used some- times as subject, sometimes as object) occur after negative and interrogative expressions of doubt, omission, and the hke, particularly after non dubito, / do not doubt; quis 196 Synti ax. dubitat, who doubts?; nfln (hand) dubium eat, //.... is no doubt. The mood is the Subjunctive. Examples :- qulB dubitat quln in virtflte divitiae sint , «.^. ^onbts that in virtue there are riches / <'rn*e n6„ dubium arat quln v.„.fl,„, es.et, >h,re ^as „o doubt ,lu,t h. was about to come. a. In Nepos, Livy. and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive sometimes takes the place of the quin-clause after n6n dubltS as 1 '*"""' n6n dubltamus InventSa esse, ... do not doubt that men -were found h. N5n dubltS I do notkeutafe, is regularly followed by the Infinitive though sometimes by a quin-clause. 'nniuve, E. Substantive Clauses introduced by Quod. 299 I. Quod, the fact that, that, introduces Substan- tive Clauses in the Indicative. This construction occurs especially — ^v-mo a) In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as h6c, id, illud, illa, ex eo, inde, ^/^. Thus: — illudest admlratione dignum, quod captlvos retinen- dos cgnsuit this is especially worthy of admiration, that he thought the prisoners ought to be kept • hoc uno praestamus vel maxime ferls, quod'colloqui- mur inter nos, in this one respect are we especially superior to the beasts, that we talk with each other. b) After bene fit, bene accidit, male fit, bene facere, bene mihi accidit, quod mittor ad mortem, // /. well for me that I am sent to death ; bene fgcisti quod mSnsistT, you did well in remaining. of!; ^"°v V'^l beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force of as regards the fact that. Thus : — quod multitadinem Germanorum in Galliam trSdiicS id mel munxendl caust facio, .. regards the fact that lam tr^^ porting a multitude of Germans into Gaul, / am doing it for the sake of strengthening myself-, ^ ^ quod me Agamemnona aemuian putas, fallerls, as regards your mnk:ngthat I emulate Agamemnon, you arc mistaZ ' 're IS no t in 7iirtue 5/ that he sometimes ■werefouud. '. Infinitive. ubstan- occurs h6c, id, retinen- liration, Jlloqui- specially if . facere, well for 'ning, le force d mei trans- ■ it for 's your Substantive Clauses. Indirect Questions. take their verb in ^^^^J^^^;;^ ^^^ (see § 162) they may be introdueed --• ^"'^^'^"^ «) By Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs • as _ die mihi ubi fueris, quid fSceria t.n ' a what you did; ' ^ "'' ^^^reyou were, ooulls jfldican n6u potest In utram partem fl„«. a the following : _ ' ''""''^" ""= «>™ Wears clearly in effugere ngmS id potest quod futiSrum ..f " *./W /. co,ne to pats buf ' "'" """ "'"*' '"'"" ^) By num or -ne, without distinction of meaning; as - Epaminonas, ,„ae„vlt n„„ salvu, asset clipeus or salvusne easet clinpua /-^ , v-npeus, or to sUeU wa, safiT ''*'""""""^' "''"' ^'•'""r disputatur „„„ interire virtS, in hotaine possit Ike ex ^^T:' " '"'"'' '"'•'"•'^ ^'■'■""^ can die in a ,Tan- putaret //„ ,,,,,/„„ ,,^, ^,^,^^ ^/&,.,^„ ,„^,,/,^^ «Srf not timik Arcliclaus Imppy. '""eimr Hi last^ai^p^fb'r '" '°"'"' '="""™= »=-" ™'/»«" O-erS. as i„ .he of the d°[rcrd;:c':tra?-''°" -P--'^ Oeliberati,, Subjunctive ...^«»/»„,. (Direct: .uan.varia^sZttm^iZ'o^plLriT'"'"' 198 Syntax. 3. After verbs of expectation and endeavor (eMpeotO, cSnor, experlor, temptS) we sometimes find an Indirect Question intro- duced by si ; as, — cCnantur si perrumpere pobsint, they try whethet' they can break through. a. Sometimes the governing verb is omitted ; as, perglt ad proxlmam spSluncam si forte e5 vfistlgla fer- rent, he proceeded to the nearest cave {to see) if the tracks led thither. 4. Indirect Double Questions are introduced in the main by the same particles as direct double questions (§ 162, 4) ; viz.: — utrum -ne . . /ask whether it is true or false? . an; . an; . an; _ .... ne. Examples : — quaero utrum vSruni an falsum sit, quaerS vSrumne an falsum sit, quaerS vSrum an falsum sit, quaero vSrum falsumne sit, a. 'Or nof in the second member of a double question is ordinarily expressed by necne, less frequently by an nfln; as, — di utrum siut necne, quaeritur, it is asked whether there are gods or not, 5. Hand scio an, nescio an, by omission of the first member of the double question, occur with the Subjunctive in the sense : / avt inclined to think., probably, perhaps ; as hand scio an hoc vSrum, sit, / «w inclined to think this is true. 6. In early Latin and in poetry the Indicative is sometimes used in Indirect Questions. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 301. Conditional Sentences are compound sentences (§ 164) consisting of two parts, the Protasis (or con- dttton), usually introduced by si, nisi, or sin, and the Apodosis (or conclusion). Wq distinguish the following types of Conditional Sentences: — y c fin or, on intro- an break nlffla for- tracks led in by the orfalse? ordinarily t are gods mber of ! : / avi true. used in tences r con- d the owing Conditional Sentences. ,qq nm Type. -Nothing Implied a. to the Reality of the Supposed Case. 302. I. Here we regularly have the Indicative in both 1 rotasis and Apodosis. Any tense may be used ; as, - Bl hfio crSdia, erras, if you believe this, yon are mistaken : ' ' natflram Bl sequSmur, uumquam aberrablmus, if we follow Natnre.we shall never go astray; ' jouow 81 hfic dixiati, erraati, if you said this, you were in error. lhe?ni^''ti'ef as - """' " '"'"^ '"'^""^^^^^' '''''' ''^ ^^^ ^f .,k^H "r ^''°"^ '^? '^°'' ^^"ditional sentences in which the Prot- asis denotes a repeated action (compare §§ 387, 2 ; 288, 3); as,- 81 quia equltum dSciderat, peditSa circumaiatSbant, tfa^iy one of the horsemen fell, the foot-soldiers gathered about him. a. Instead of t:.e Indicative, Livy and subsequent writers employ the actfon -ir- "''' ''"''' '" ''' '''■°''''' *° '''"°''= "^P'^'*^^ 8i dicendS quls diem eximeret, if^ever) anybody consumed a day tn pleading ; si quandS adsideret. if ever he sat by. t.nt Tr ?' 'Z'^ ^'"'^"'^' '' '^'^ ^P°^^°^i-^ i" conditional sen- T"T TVk' '' ^^P' "^"^^ ^^ "'^ '•"P^'-^^^^^ ^^ °"e of the Inde- pendent Subjunctives (Hortatory, Deliberative, etc.)-, as,- 81 hfic crSditla, tacSte, if you believe this, be silent; 81 hfic crSdimua, taceSmua, if we believe this, let us keep silent. Second Type.-Suppoaed Case repreaented as Contingent. 303. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive (of the Pres- ent or Perfect tense) in both Piotasis and Apodosis; as,- 81 hoc dlcaa, errSa, | if you should say this, you would be mis- si hoc dixena, errSveria, j taken. 8l velim Hannlbalia proelia omnia r^Sa/^rTK«^« m^ > ^.„ . . // T should wish to describe all the battles of Hannibal, time would fail me I 300 Syntax. a. menUar, si negem, / s/,o,i/i f lie, if I should deny it ; h«eo .1 tfloum patria loquStur, nflune Impetrir* dSbeat, tf your country should plead thus with you, would she not deserve to obtain her request t The Suhjunc(iv« in the Apclosis of conditional sentences of this tyoe is of the Potential variety. ^^ Sometimes w. tine! the In.licative in the Apodosi, of sentences of the Second lype. where the writer wishes to assert the consummation of a result more positively ; as, — aliter 81 faclat. nQUam habet auctOrttfttem. if h, should do oth. wut, He hoi no authority. Third Typ. -Supposed Case represented a. Contrary to Faot. 304. I. Here we regularlv have the Subjunctive in both Protasis and Apodosis, the Imperfect referring to present time, and the Pluperfect referring to past; as, — •I amlol mel adeaaent opi. nSn IndigBrem, if ,ny friends were here, /should not lack assistance; " ^^^rm/J"*"' '"*"*"' '•^^'" ^""'^ '"'"^ ''"'' ^"" ""'"^"^ ^^^' .apientia „5n expeteretur, al nihil efflceret, philosophy would not be desired, if it accomplished nothin^r; cSrsllium ratiS, aententia nisi eaaent'in senibua, n5n snmmum oOnallium majfirS. no.trl appelia.aent .enStum, unless de- liberation reason, and wisdom existed in old men, our ances- tors would not have called their highest deliberative body a senate. ■^ ^ i. 2. Sometimes the Imperfect Subjunctive is foutid referring to the pn^^jspecially to denote a continued act, or a state of thfngs still Laelius Purius, Cat6, al nihil litterla adjuvarentur, numquam b6 ad earum atudium contulisBent, Laelius, Furius, and Cato would never have devoted themselves to the study of letters unless they had been {constantly s helped by them • num igitur si ad centSsimum annum vixisset, sineotxitia eum ZL'T^f *' -^ ^' '"'' ''^^^ '" ^" ^^^<^^^^ith year, ■would he have regretted {and now be re^r.HU,.^ J. .il r Conditional Sentences. 20. 3- The Apodosis in conditional sentence., of this type sometimes stands 111 tlie Iiulicative (Imperfect, Perfect, or I'luperfect), v/z.^ a) Frequently in expressions of adi/i/y, flbU^ationy or ntcti^ sity; as, — nisi fflllcUfi. In sOoordiam vertisset, exnere jugum potu«runt, unless their prosperity had turned to folly, they could have thrown off the yoke; Note.- In sontonces o( this typ.-. however, it is not the posubility that is rcpre. sente(lascontrary-to.(ac..b..t so.nelhin^Mo i,e supplied in thought fro,,, the context Ihu, ,n the foroKoioK sentenc- the logical apclosis is et exulsaent understoori {and they would have shaken ,t off). When the poss,bd,ly itself is conditioned ti.r Siii,junctive is used. ' eum patris locfl oolere dfibfibflB, si fllU In ti pietfls esset, you ou^hl to revere him as a /other, if you had any sense of devotion. b) With both the Periphrastic Conjugations ; as,— 8l Pompfiju. occlBUB esaet, fuistisne ad arma itflrl, // Pompey had been slain, would you have proceeded to arms / 8l anum diem morati eaaStis, morlendum omnibua fuit, if you had delayed one day, you would all have had to die. ProtaBis expressed without SI. 305. I. The Protasis is not always expressed by a clause with si, but may be implied in a word, a ])hrase, or merely by the context ; as, — aliSqiil haeo non scrlberentur, otherwise (i.e. if matters were other- wise) these things would not be written ; non potestis^ voluptate omnia dIrigentSs, retinSre virtdtem, you cannot retain virtue, if you direct everything with reference to pleasure. 2. Sometimes an Imperative, or a Jussive Subjunctive serves as Protasis. Thus: — crSs petito, dabitur, if you ask to-morrow, it shall be given you (lit. ask to-mornnv, etc.) ; haeo reputent, vidSbunt, // they consider this, they will see (lit. iet them consider, etc. ) ; cav5 haeo faciSs, beware not tc do this ! (Originally : do this ! then beware! i.e. if you do it, beware! Hence beware not to do it!) 202 Syntax. Use of Nisi, SI Non, Sin. 306. I . Nisi, nn/gss, negatives the entire protasis ; si n6n nega- tives a single word ; as, — ^ ferreus essem, nisi tg ama.em, / should be hard-hearted unless I loved you ] but — ferreus essem, si tg non amSrem, / should be hard-hearted if I did NOT love y 021. In the first example, it is the notion of loving you that is negatived, m the second, the notion of loving. 2. Si non (si minus) must be employed : — a) When an apodosi. with at, tamen, certg follows ; as,— dolorem si non potuero frangere, tamen occultabS, if /cannot crush my sorro%u,yet / will hide it. b) When an affirmative protasis is repeated in negative form; 81 fgceris, magnam habgbo gratiam ; si non fgceris ignoscam, if you do it, I shall be deeply grateful -, if you do not do it, I shall pardon you. a. But if the verb is omitted in the repetition, only si minus is admis- h6c si assecutus sum, gaudeo; si minus, me cons51or if i have attained this, I afn glad; if uot, I console myself. 3. Sin. Where one protasis is followed by another opposed in meamng, but affirmative in form, the second is introduced by sin • as - hunc mihi timorem gripe ; si vgrus est, ne opprimar, sin falsus, ut timere desinam, relieve me of this fear; if it is well founded, that I may not be destroyed-, but if it is groundless, that / may cease to fear. nihil) ;^as, -^' "" ^''"'^''''' ^°' combining with negatives (non, ngmo, nihil cogitavit nisi caedem, he had no thought but murder, a. N5n and nisi are always separated in the best Latinity. 5- Nisi forte, nisi vgro, nisi si, unless perchance, unless indeed (often with ironical force), take the Indicative ; as, — nisi vgro, quia peifecta rgg non est, non v,vi5i-„. ,„-,„.-„^- I.SS indeed, because an act is not consummated, it does not seem to merit punishment. Clauses of Comparison. — Adversative Clauses. 203 307. Conditional Clauses of Comparison. I. Conditional Clauses of Comparison are intro- duced by the particles, ao si, ut si, quasi, quam si, tamquam 8l, velut si, or simply by velut or tamquam. They are fol- lowed by the Subjunctive mood and regularly involve an ellipsis, as indicated in the following examples : — tantus patrSs metus cSpit, velut si jam ad portSs hostis esset, as great fear seized the senators as {would have seized them) if the enemy were already at the grtes ; sed quid ego his testibus utor quasi res dubia aut obscura sit did why do I use these witnesses, as (/ should do) if the matter were doubtful or obscure ; serviam tibi tamquam si emeris me argento, / will serve you as though you had bought me for money. 2. Note that in sentences of this kind the Latin observes the regu- ' lar principles for the Sequence of Tenses. Thus after principal tenses the Latin uses the Present and Perfect (as in the second and third exam- ples), where the English uses the Past and the Past Perfect. Concessive Clauses. 308. The term • Concessive ' is best restricted to those clauses developed from the Jussive Subjunctive which have the force oi grajited that, etc. (see § 278); as,— sit fur, sit s?.orilegus, at est bonus im-^Bx^tox, granted that he is a thief and a robber, yet he is a good commander ; ut hoc verum sit, granted that this is true ; n§ sit summum malum dolor, malum certg eat, granted that pain is not the greatest evil, yet it is certainly an evil. a. Here also belongs the use of the Subjunctive with licet (see J 295, 6) , where licet has the force oi lie may, they may, etc.; as,— fremant omnes licet, dicam quod sentiS, they may all shout, {but) J shall say what I think. Adversative Clauses wit^ luamvis, Quamquam, etc. •__=.. .clauses introduced oy quainvfa, qtianiquani, etsi, tametsi, cum, altJiough, while often classed as 'Conces- sive,' are yet essentially different from genuine Concessive 204 Syntax. tr; . .'' '■"''•'• "^'^ ''" ""' •^'•'"" °^ -""^'^ any- thing but rather st.tc that soiiK-thinK is true h. spite If souutlunx Che. They accrclinsly cn,|,hasi^c the adver- sative ulea and are properly Subordinate Adversative Clauses The different particles used to introduce thele c auses have dilTerent meanings and talte different con- structions, as follows :_ I. Quamvis, lum.mr mm/,, aMm^/,, ,l„cs not ii,|ro,luce i snt, men o, laC, bu. represem.s an .ac. „,e,d,- as concdvccl Lf l.owed by the Subjunct.ve, usually of the present tense ; as - relaxantm ,„ /„„(„,„. ,/,„.,■ ^,^„,,, ^^,^^^ limes they relax llicir ciieixh-s; "l.i'k':, ya at n6n e.t pote.tSs opitulaudj rel pflblioae quamvl. « premStur .4 a «r^— i:^t:T:^sr^:?t;::::;^ r— - quamquam omiiis virtfla u5, allioit, tameu jasti'tia'id maxin,« e«c«, «/*V< .// ././„. attract, us.yj j„stt: ZsTZt Caosar, etsi naudum cSiisilium hoitium cognSv.rat tam.„ .^ quod accidU a„.pio«bttur, CW, M,«4 'X 1 ^^ w //« A,»„ »///.. „,«„j,, yet ,oas suspecting ^,„„ actually icCoZ for Si. (S„ }} 3o4'h ) ■ "°"""""°"^ »<'""«ibl, 3; Cum, «*/„wf/,, is followed by the Subiunctive • a, - Atboua honarea uOn petiit, cum el patSi ent /J 7 , hears, lAaugi, t„ey Jre open I C ' " ''"' '"" "" subjunctive, PrrerorpXl a^!-- " ** " '■■''^■^ *= licet omnSs terrorSs imnpnrJoa„+ ,rL^^r:i::^ '"^ '°'-^^ """^''' '^ »"'" -e1 '» i„.™duce quamquam quid loquor, „„,lyct ^^y ,„ , ,^,^^ , Clauses of Proviso. — Relative Clauses. 205 6 In post-AuRustan writers quamquam is freely construed with tfi- Snh ,unct,ve. while quamvis is often u.se.l to introduce stJcnento fac ar^ takes" either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Thus : — quamquam movSretur hia vOclbus. alihou.^rH He was moved fy these words ■ quamvis multl opinftrentur. //...,./. mi.y tLfrht ■ ' quamvl« infSstS anlmO pervenerae, M.«,./4^.« AadcomewUA Hostile intent. Clauses with Dnm, Modo, Dummodo, denoting a Wish or a Proviso. 310. These particles are followed by the Subjunctive (negative ns) and have two distinct uses : I. They are used to introduce clauses embodying a wish entertained by the subject of the leading verb; as, — multl honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam oanse'quantur, many ncglccl honor in their desire to obtain power (if only thev may attain); •' ■'J' omnia postpo.ul, dum praeceptis patri. pSrSrem, I made everything else secondary, in my desire to obey the injunctions of my father • nil obstat tibi, dum n6 sit ditior alter, not him; hinders you in your desire that your neighbor may not be richer than you. II. They are used to express a proviso {'provided that')] as, — Sderint, dum metuant, let them hate, provided they fear ; tnanent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria, old men retain their faculties, provided only they retain their interest and vigor ; nflbant, dum ne dos flat comes, let them marry, pro^nded no dowry goes with it. NOTK.- Of these two uses of dum, modo, and dummodo, the first is the original one ; the second has grown out of the first, and frequently retains the origi- nal notion of wishing, as in 5derint, dum metuant. Relative Clauses. 311. Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pro- nouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs. 312. I. Relative clauses usually stand in the Indicative Mood, especially clauses introduced by those General Relatives which are doubled or have the suffix -cunque; as,— 2o6 Syntax. quldquM Id ,.,. t.m,a D,„a9. .t as,,. ,.r.„t.., „*,/«w ,/ ,:,, / jr,i, l/ii- I, ,,;■(:, rp„, „,/„■„ ,/,,.,, ,yy,.,. ^,,^^,, , ' q«ldcs mcimmu'il in SS 1ol-j04i iis, _ q..I h«c diolt. e„at. /„■ «./,„ ,,,,.,, //,„ ,;, „,„,, j,,„ |,j , " 0°„aX:r'' '■■ ■■'■■""■' '"■ """•"■"" -'"■ ■'*' '^' 4. M,-.; ,.Scc. INDIRECT DIS0OUR8B (OiJATTO OBLlQUA). «'///,. A ^ '"'•-" turn R«mnln. ISggtO. olro« viol,,.. g,„t«. ml.lt „„i ,ool.tlt.™ nootfl ai.oe,.l,.e, he was mf„n„e.l „,.„ „,t l„„l .iJarleU Z '"!;!T"" ^"''' "^ "" '""'"'' '"""'' '" "-'UrnnM^H 4. Snincdmcs a sxImrilhiHlc clause is sucli only in ii, exlernal form and n, sens. , prinnpal. „ „,,„ ,,,,, „,, .n'ln.iHv. ^ SuW™.' Aa:„.a„v.. rins „.„„s c,, d:,lly l„ case „f relative clauses, where qui IS ecuiivalenl lo et Mo, nam Mo, rfc. ; x>, — dixit nrbem Athe.,«„.i„„ pr«pflg„«o„„,„ oppo.,t„m ..„ b.,. ba.I,, apua qnam jam bl. ola„5, rSglS. f8ol..e naafra- Of the kini; had twice met disaster. when u"refcr'''^ ' ,! "'"""™ "' "'° '"""'"'^^ '» »'""^"™=» <""!"«• When .1 rcfcs 1„ ll,c same person as the siihied of the leadinir v.rl,, or can easily he snpplie.l from the context , al,- * oum la „e.oIre MSg6 dioeret, wl,en Mago said he did not know tnts (lor 88 nesclre). Interrogative Sentences. 315. I. Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon becoming indirect, arc regularly put in the Subjunc- tive; as, — ■' ArioviBtn. Caesarl respondit ; hs prius in Oailiam vgnisse quam populuni RSmanum. Q„id sibi vellet? COr in suas poBBeasiSnes venlret, Ariovistus replied to Caesar that he 208 Syntax. had come into Caul before t,ie Roman people. What did he (Caesar) mean f II 'hy did he come into his domain ? (Direct • quid tlbl vis ? oar In meSs poMeasiSnfla veiils ?) 2. Rhetorical questions, on tlie other hand, being asked merely for effect, and being equivalent in force to emphatic statements, regularly stand in the Infinitive in Indirect Dis- course. Thus: — quid e.t leviu. (lit. ,vhat /c more trivial, = nothing is more trivial) ot the Direct Discourse becomes quid ease levius in the In- rh.L ^'"''"''^^i"^ Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse remain un- changed in mood in the Indirect ; as, — quid faceret, what was he to do f (Direct : quid faclam ?) ^ Imperative Sentenoea. 316. All Imperatives or Jussive Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse appear as Subjunctives in the In- direct; as, — mmtSa certiSrSa fscit pauliaper intermitterent proelium, he told the soldiers to stop the buttle for a little. (Direct • inter mittite.) v^"ci,i. a. The Negative in such sentences is nS ; as,— nS auae virtuti tribueret, /./ him not attribute it to his own valor I TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. A. Tenses of the Infinitive. 317. These aic used in accordance with the regular principles for the use of the Infinitive as given in § 270. a. The Perfect Infinitive may represent any past tense of the Indicative of Direct Discourse. Tims : — acio tS haec Sgisse may mean — T know you were doing this. (Direct : haec agSbaa ^ / Know you did this. (Direct : haec Sgistl.)" ' /know you had done this. (Direct : haec Sgeraa ) Indirect Piscourse. B. Tanses of the Subjunctive. 209 318. These follow the rc^a.hir principle for the Sequence of Tenses, being IVincipal if the verb of saying is Princi- pal ; Historical if it is Historical. Yet for the sake of vividness, we often find the Present Subjunctive used after an historical ten.se ; as, Caesar respondit, si obsidfis dentur, s6s6 pacem esse faotflrum Caesar replied thot. if hosiatres be given, he would make peace, ' a. For the sequence after the Perfect Infinitive, see § 268, 2. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. Conditional Sentences of the First Type. • ^^u ^'. '^"^ ^''Of^osis. Any ten.se of the Indicative is changed to the corresponding tense of the Infinitive (§§ 270; 317, a). .u^'J!'^ ^''''''^'''- '^^^ ^'''^^''' t^^^s those tenses of the Subjunctive which are required by the Sequence of Tenses. Examples: — Direct, sl hoc crSdis, erras, sT hoc crSdSs, errSbis, si hoc crSdideris, errSbis, Indirect. dTco, sT hoc crgdas, te errSre ; dixT, sT hoc crSderSs, te err^re. dico, si hoc crgdas, te errSturum esse ; dixl, si hoc crSderSs, te erratflrum esse. dico, si hoc crSdideris, te erratflrum esse; dixl, si hoc crSdidissSa, te erratflrum esse. si hoc crSdSbas, erravisti, / ^'^°' ''' ^^^ crfiderSs, te erravisse ; [ dixl, si htc crgdergs, te erravisse. a. Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive after a principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after an his- torical tense. 210 Syntax. Conditional Sentence, of the Second Type. 320. A. Tmk Apodosis. The Present Subjunctive of tne Dn-ect Discourse regularly becomes the Future Infini- tive of the Indirect. ./c I"'' ^'^^''^^'^' The I'rotasis take, those ten.scs of the Subjunctive demanded by the sequence of tenses Examples : — 8l hoc orBdfts, errfis, J *^'*^"' »' ^"c orSdas, to erratOrum esse ; I dlxi, si hoc crSderSs, te errfittlrum esse. Conditional Sentences of the Third Type. 321. A. The Apodosis. becoml^-'li"'^'''^''''^ Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse a) In the Active Voice the Future Infinitive *) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futilrum esse (fore) ut, with the Imperfect Subjunctive. ^ ^ becomls^- "^""'^''^ Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse a) In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -Qrua fuiase ^) In the Passive Voice it takes the form faturum fuisse ut with the Imperfect Subjunctive. B. The Protasis. The protasis in Conditional Sen- tences of this type always remains unchanged lixamples: — si hoc crSderSs, errarSa a-^- /j- -x - , , errares, dico (dixi), sT hoc crSderBs, te erra- -,- .,., turumesse; s. hoc Crta.a«s«s, er,a«BsS,, dic6 (d.xt), si h6c crtaidi.B5., te - 1 - - srraturum fuiRRA • s, hoc aixi..gs, panltuB esH,, dTc6 (dTxI). si hoc di.Ua.. ««- rum fuisse ut pflnlrSris. 322. When an anndncJc pf ^ — ^-,^; • Indirect Discourse. 2,j quin-clause (after nOn dubltfl, etc.), It stands in the Perfect Sub- junctive in the form -Qrus fuerim ; as,— lU territi .unt, ut arma trftditQrl fuerint,i „i.i Cae.ar .ubltfl advanisset, they were so fn^htened that they would have given up their arms, had not Caesar suddenly arrived • nan dubltfl quin, bI h6o dlxl8s3s, errStarus fueri.,i / ./. not doubt that, ij you had said ihis, you 7vould have made a mistake. a. This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice. In the Passive, sucli sentences, when they become dependent remain unchanged ; as, — ' nSn dubitS quin, bI hfio dlxlBBBB, vltuperStus esBfl., / do not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have been blamed. b. When an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a con- ditional sentence of the Third Type, -flrus fuerim rrarelv -flruBfuissem) isuscd; as,— ^ quaerS, num, bI h6c dlxiBaSB, erratflrua fuerla ^or fuiaaSa). ^ c. Potul, when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this I ypc. usually changes to the Perfect 8ul;junctive ; as. _ concursQ tStius civitatlB dgfansi sunt, ut frigidlsslmas quoque Sratorea populi studla excttare potuerlnt they were defended before a f:atherh,g of all t/.-e citizens, so that the interest of the people would have been enough to excite even the most apathetic orators. IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 323 The Subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose Indirect character is merely implied by the context; as,- dSmSnatrabautur mihi praetereS, quae SocratSs dS immortaii- tate animorum diBseruisset, there were explained to me be- sides, the arcruments which Socrates had set forth concerning the immortality of the soul (i.e. the arguments which, i^ was said, Socrates had set forth) ; PaetuB omnSB libros quos pater suus reliquisaet mihi donavit, ___^^'^'Sa^'^emealUhe^ks which {as he said) his father had left. Ji^n^^rZt^'^T^'' ""^ ^'^^^"f^is are ,o be regarded as repre- sennng tradittin fuerunt and erratQrus fuisti of Direct Discourse. (See ai9 Syntax, SUHJUNCTIVK HY ATTRACTION. 394. I. Subordinate clauses tlcpondent upon the Sub- jnnctive arc frequently attracted into the .same mood especially when they do not express a fact, but constitute on fsscnttn/ f>(nf of onr cowplcx idra .• as, n«ma Rviru* adhflo Inventu. e.t. oul, quod hiiberet, «iiset .atiH, HO wiser has yrt been fouiui w/i" was satisfied with what he had ; cum dlver.a« oiiu.A. afferrant. dum fOrmmn .ul qul«que et animi et ingeull radder.nt. as they l>rouf>ht forward dijfer- tnt afxioNeMts, while each mirro'red his ,w« individual tvbe of mind and natural bent. ' quod ego fatear, pudoat. should / he ashamed of a thiinr which I admit ? 2. Smiihrly a .suh.mlinato cla.i.HO dqiondpnt upon an Infinitive is put ,n the Subjunctive wiicn the two lorn, one closely m.ited whole; as, — ^ taf,% oat Ath8nl. quotannia In ofintiane laudftrl eda qui alnt In proellla InterfeotI, // is the custom at Athens n>ery year for those to be Publicly euht^n:!ed 7vho have been killed in battle (Here tlie notion of upraising tho.se who fell in battle' forms an inseparable whole.) NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. 325. These are the Infinitive, Participle, Gerund, and Supme. All ot these partake of the nature of the Verb on the one hand, and of the Noun or Ar''ective on the other. Thus:— ' As Verbs, — a) They may be limited by adverbs ; b) They admit an objr :t ; c) They have the properties of voice and tense. As Nouns or Adjectives, — n) They are declined ; b) They take Noun or Adjective constructions. Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb. 21$ TMK INMNITIVE. Inflnltlve without Subjsot AoouMtlve. 326. This may be used -ithcr as Subject or Object rent O«oula nati praer ^ere w! "'"'"•"/'f""''' -• "«« <»ulci- occur. A. As Subject. .»c.l a., the .,ul,jcct ,,f .... a,ul various in,,,cr,,<,„, „ ,, „„, ^,„/ /^'/' ^v/^''.f ant II fry ; " vlrCrum est fortlum toleranter dolfirem patY, // is the part of brave men to emiure pain with patience ; ^ -enatul placuit 18gat6. mlttere, the Senate Uecide, ^M,. it pleased the ^^enate) to send envoys. 2. Kven thouKl, the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may talce a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the Accusative; as,- ^ impilne quaellbet facere, id est rfigem •..•, /. do whatever you please with impunity, that is to be a king. a. Uu. when licet is followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate No..n or A-lj-.tiv,- vvi.l, esse is attracted into the same case as cles to be at leisure, bo sometimes with other Impersonals. B. As Object. 328. I. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Object of many verbs, to denote another action of the same subject, particularly after — vols, cupiS, mal6. nSlfl • o^^-^** ^^--- ... ae,\^^r\ 2, ' "^^^'-^^^'^^^^^^i, purpose, tnienai A^heb, ought; nBg\^g6, neglect i •tatuo, cCnstituo, decide; vereor, time6,/^ar; 214 Syntax. audefi, iiiin- ; ■tudefl, oouteudfl, stth'f ; parO, prepare (so parKtut) ; laoipiO, ooepT, luBtltufl, be^^in ; pergfi, (ontinuf ; d«»iiia, dflaiatfi, ceasi { poaaum, can ; ofinor, fry ; mStflid, featfiifi, properO, ooii' tendfi, liiisten ; aaauflsofi, oflnauiaofl, accustom wyse//\so aiauitua, Inaultua, aaauefaotua) ; diao0, /lUirn ; aolfi, ^fum' /nnc ; aolefl, tiff/ wont ; as, — ta hfia IntuSi I aiidBs, ,/o you (fare to look on t/iese men f DemoatheuSa ad fluotum marla dfioiamare aolSbat, Demosthenes used to declaim by the waves of the sea. 2. A I'rodicatc Noun or Adjective with these Infinitives is attracted into the Nominative; as, — beAtua eaae aine virtflte nfimo poteat, no one can be happy without virtue ; CatO eaae quam vidflrl bonua mSlibat, Cato preferred to be good rather than to seetn so. Infinitive with Subject Aoouaatlve. 329. This may be used either as Subject or Object. A. As Subject. 330. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative (like the simple Infinitive) appears as Subject with eaae and Imper- sonal verbs, particularly with aequum eat, jaatum eat, fltile eat, turpe eat, apertum eat, perapicuum eat, fama eat, opIniS eat, 8p6a eat, faa eat, nefaa eat, opua eat, neoeaae eat, oportet, apparet, cSnatat, praedtat, etc. ; as, nihil in bell6 oportet contemni, nothing oui^ht to be despised in war • apertum eat aibi quemque natflra eaae carum, // is manifest that by nature everybody is dearest to himself. B. As Object. 331. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used as Object after the following classes of verbs : — I. Most frequently aff^r v«irk.. ^f >•■—- ../.,•.. i,-. , . ^ , , , - — .-, oi -^ttjtrc^, cfcinAnngy Knowing, Per- cetvtng, and the like {Verba Sentiendl et Diclarandf). This is the Noun aud Adjective Fonns of the Verb. 215 Bpioarat p„ta„t cum oorpor.bu. .Imul «„,m6. ,„t„I„ «, ,„,■ •ptrS e«m v.ntarum e..e, / ,,,pe „,„, /„ „/// „„,. II. With jabeO, «v/.r, and veti, /„rU,l , a., _ ''""i:^:^^""^ '^°^^^ ^"""' '"'^'^^ ^^^^'^ ^^ -'''- ^ ''' !i'm'.?^ "'" •"""'" °^ "" ''''""" ^''^ '" ""'"-' «r forbidden to do ome.hmg,s omm.d. ,1„, infinHiv,. wi... JubeO and vetfl s 1^ the Passive ; as. Oaeear pontem fieri Juaalt. ^ III. With patior and sinfl, ^vw//, ,///,^ ,. as, _ nfllia .6 implicarl „ee6ti6 pasau. e.t, //. .//./ not permit himself to be involved in any iltjjuulty. ^ IV. With V016, n616, maifl, cupi6, when the Subject of the Infini- tive IS d-ffcrent from thac of the governing verb ; as, - neo mlhi hu„c errflrem extorquSrI vol6, nor do \^ish tk.s error to be wrested from me ; tfi tuls dlvitils frul cuplmus, we desire that you enjoy your wealth. When the Subje-^t of both verbs is the same, the simple Infinitive is regularly used in accordance with ^ 3.8. x. But excepLns oc ur e pecially in case of esse and Passive Infinitives ; as. - CUplO mS esse clgmentem, / desire to be lenient ■ TImoleOn maiuit 86 dIHgi quam matui, TimoUon preferred to be loved rather than feared. (Sei^$ 2^"^ i^^ff "'° ''^"''' '^" ^ Mnr.^^:^^i^, with or without ut. a. 2l6 Syntax. I ''i eau^.«\''\^"'i',°^ ^^«^//^«(>/, sorrow, regret, etc.), especially gaudeo, laetor, doleo ; aegrS fero, moleste fero, graviter fero, al annoyed, distressed; miror, queror, indignor ; as, - gaudeS ^.e salvum advenire, /rejoice that you arrive safely: n6n moleste ferunt sS libxdinum vinculls laxatos esse, they are _ not troubled at being released from the bonds of passion ; miror tS ad me nihil scribere, /wonder that you write me nothing. a. Instead of an Infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a Quod- clause as Object. (See ^"i 299.) Thus: — miror quod non loqueris, / wonder that you do not speak. iJ\ ^""T r'l'J^'"^' ^^"^^ '^''° Accusatives, one of the Person and the other of the Thing (§ 178, i) may substitute an Infinitive for the second Accusative ; as, — cog5 tS hoc facere, / compel you to do this {cf te hoc cogo) • docui tS contentum esse, / taught you to be content (cf te modes, tiam docui, /taught you temperance) . Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs. ,^^l^'J.^.^'^ ^^"^^ ^^hi^h in the Active are followed by the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, usually admit the personal construction in the Passive. This is true of the rollowing: — a) jubeor, vetor, sinor ; as, — mllites pontem facere jussl sunt, the soldiers were ordered to ouild a bridge ; pons fieri jussus est, a bridge was ordered built; mihtes castrls exfre vetiti sunt, //.. troops were forbidden to go out of the camp ; Sistius Clodium accusare non est situs, Sestius was not allowed to accuse Clodius. b) videor, /am seen, /seem; as,— vidgtur comperisse, he seems to have discovered. c) dlcor, putor, exiatimor, jiidicor (in all persons) ; as, - dlcitur^^in Italiam vgnisse, he is said to have come into Romulus primus rgx Romanorum fuisse putStur, /^omu- lus IS thought to have been the first king of the /Romans. Nomi and Adjective Forms of the Verb. 217 d) fertur, feruntur, traditur, trSduntur (only in the third person); as,— ^^'*"//W •"'^'"' ""^'""^ ^"''^^' "''"''' '' '"'"^ ^' ^«^^ *^^« carmina Archilochi contumglils referta esse traduntur Arc/ulockus^s poems are reported to have been full of abuse. ■^ •' v.hT?"::;:^" compound tenses and periphrastic forms, the last two classes of verbs, .), d), more commonly take the impersonal construction- as - 'T./'' ^^"^^^^"^ ^^^-^"^ ^Ui««e, tH. story goes ihat Homer ^as Infinitive with Adjectives. et^'^\.rr^tT" "'' t'^'"'"'" ^"^"^^^ P^^'*"^' ^-"^*-' writ'ers; as,- '''"'' ° ^^ ^' "' ^'°'''^' ""^ P^^^-Augustan prose contentus dSmonstrasse, contented to have proved-, audax omnia perpetl, bold for enduring everything. Infinitive in Exclamations. 334. The Infinitive is used in Exclamations implying scorn, indig- nation, or regjet. An interrogative (or intensive) -ne is often attached - to some word in the clause. Examples : — huncine solem tarn nigrum surrexe mihi, to think that to-dafs stin rose with such evil omen for me I sedere totos dies in villa, to stay whole days at the villa! Historical Infinitive. 335. The Infinitive is often used in historical narrative instead of the Imperfect Indicative. The Subject stands in the Nominative ; as,— interim cottidie Caesar Aeduos frumentum flagitSre, meanwhile Caesar was daily demanding grain of the Aedui. PARTICIPLES. Tenses of the Participle. .I.^R I. The tenses of the Participle, like those of the Infinitive (see § 270), express time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb upon which the Participle depends. 2l8 Syntax. 2. The Present Participle denotes action contemporary with that of the verb. Thus : — audio te loquentem =you are speaking and l hear you ; audigbam te loquentem =you were speaking and I heard you -, audiam tg loquentem =you will be speaking and I shall hear you. a. The Present Participle is sometimes employed with Conative force; as, — assurgentem regem resupTnat, as the king was trying to rise, he threw him down. 3- The Perfect Passive Participle denotes action prior to that o^ the verb. Thus : — locutus taceo = /have spoken and am silent; locutus tacui = /had spoken and then was silent; locutus tacgbo --= / SHALL speak and then shall be silent. 4- The absolute time of the action of a participle, therefore, ij determmed entirely by the finite verb with which it is connected. 5- Certain Perfect Passive Participles of Deponent and Semi- Deponent Verbs are used as Presents; vis. arbitratus, ausus, ratus gavisus, Bolitus, usus, confisus, diffisus, secutus, veritus. ' Use of Participles. 337. As an Adjective the Participle may be used either as an attributive or predicate modifier of a Substantive. I. Attributive Use. This presents no special peculiarities. Ex- amples are : — gloria est consentiens laus honorvLm, glory is the unanimous praise of the good; Conon muros a Lysandro dirutos reficit, Conon restored the walls destroyed by Lysander. 2. Predicate Use. Here the Participle is often equivalent to a subordmate clause. Thus the Participle may denote : — a) Time ; as, — omne malum nascens facile opprimitur, every evil is easily crushed at birth. b) A Condition ; as, — mente uti non possumus cibo et potione complgtl, // gorged with food and drink, we cannot use our intellects. Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb. 219 Manner; as, — Solon senescere sS dicgbat multa in digs addiscentem, Sdon said he grew old learning many new things every d) Means; as,— Bol origns diem conficit, the sun, by its rising, makes the e) Opposition ('M^//^/^'); as,— mendaoi homini ng vgrum quidem dlcenti crgdimus we do not believe a liar, though he speaks the truth, f) Cause; as, — perfidiam veritus ad suos recessit, since he feared treachery, he returned to his own troops. 3. Video and audio, besides the Infinitive, take the Present Par- ticiple in the Predicate use ; as, — video te fugientem, I see you fleeing. a. So frequently facio, flngo, induco, etc. ; as, — els Oatenem respondentem facimus, we represent Cato reply, tug to them ; '^ ■' Homerus Laertem colentem agrum facit, Homer represents Laertes tilling the field. 4- The Future Active Participle (except futurus) is regularly con- fined to Its use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, but in poets and later writers it is used independently, especially to denote purpose; as,- vgngrunt castra oppugnatiirl, they came to assault the camp. 5- The Perfect Passive Participle in combination with a noun is sometimes equivalent to an abstract noun with a dependent Geni- tive ; as, — post urbem conditam, after the founding of the city ; Quinctius dgfensus, the defense of Quinctius ; quibus animus occupatus, the preoccupation of the mind with which; non redditae rgs, the failure to make restitution. 6. Habeo sometimes takes a Perfect Passive Participle in the Pred- \cMe construction with a force not far removed from that of the Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative ; as, — capias quSs coactSs habSbat, the forces which he had collected. 220 Svntax. 7- The Gornndive ilcMiulcs ohlii^ation or urcfssity. I.ike other Par ticiplcs It may be used either as Attrihutivc or Predicate. a) Less frequently as Attrihnlive. TIuis : — liber legendus, n book worth rca.Hn,^ ; ICgfis observandae, /o-cx ihscrvittg of observance. ^) More frequently as Predicate. I) In the Passive Periplnastic Conjugation (amaudus eat, etc^. I„ this use Intransitive Verbs can he used only impersonally, but admit their ordinary case-construction (Gen., Dat., Abl.) ; as,— veniendum eat, // is necessary io come; obllvlsceudum est injuiiamm, one must for(rft injuries • numquam prSditSrl crSdeiidum est, jw. must never trust a traitor ; 8u6 cuique iitendum est jiidiciO, erury man must use his 07vnjuifi;;ment. 2) After euro, prmnde for ; do, trSdo, ^ive over; relin- qno. Iravc', concfido, hon,i over ; and s,)n,e other veri)s instead of an object clause or to denote purpose • as -~ " ' Caesar p6ute,u in Arare faoioaidtun cflrSvit, Caesar i>ro^ _ vuicdjor the construction of a bridge over the Arar ■ imperator urbem mllitibus diripiendam concessit,' the general handed m>er the city to the soldiers to plunder. 8. For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see § 339, i. THE GKRUND. 338. As a verbal nouti the Gerund admits noun con- structions as follows : — I. Genitive. The Genitive of the Gerund is used - cupiditas dominandi. desire of rulintr- ars scrlbendl, the art of writing. ' ' b) With Adjectives ; as, — cupidus audieudi, desirous of hearing. CS With />aiio8 = 4.JK ' — """, Bi«"<* ; as, — discendl causa,/;;- the sake of learning. (V Di Tl (C is cu de Noun and Adjective Fonns of the Verb. 221 2. Dative. The Dative of the Gerund is used _ a) Witli Adjectives; as, — aqua Qtilis est bibendS, water is useful for drinking. b) With Verbs ( rarely ) ; as, ~ adf ul BorlbendS, / was present at the writing. 3. Accusative. The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with I'ropos.fons, chiefly ad and i„ to .l.-noto purpose ; as,- ^ horns ad agendum natua est, man is born for action. 4. Ablative. The Ablative of the Gerund is u.sed- mens discendo alltur et c6gitand5, //;. mind is nourished oy trarntng and rcjlcction. ThemistoclSs maritimSs praedSnBs c6n.ectand6 mare tfltum reddidit, Thennstocles made the sea safe by fol- lowinii up the pirates. b) After the prepositions a, dS, ex, in ; a.s, — Bumma voluptas ex discendS capitur, the keenest pleas- lire IS derived from learuinff; multa dg bene beStSque vIvendS a PlatSne disputita sunt, there ivas much discussion by Plato on the subject of living well and happily. cJ:^ ? "" '"'"'."."'y ^'^^' ^''^"it'^-^' of the Gerund and the Ablative (without a preposition) admit a Direct OI)ject. Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund. ni.^^f n!' ^"'''-"^"^ ^'^^ ^'•-'•"^'^^ ">- Ablative of the Gerund with a ' D uect Object, anc.ther construction may be, and very often is, used. rhis consists in putting the Direct Object in the case of the Gerund (Gen or Abl.) and using the Gerundive in agreement with it. This IS called the Gerundive Construction. Thus : — Gekwnd C0NSTRUCT.0N. Gerundive Construction. cupidus urbem videndT, desirous] ■-' V. •-■• ^ "J- > I - .--tc-.o , dSIector orStorSs legendo, / am | charmed with reading the orators. \ <^^^ector 6r5t6ribus legendis. 222 Syntax. 2. The Gerundive Construction must be used to avoid a Direct Object witli tlie Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon a Preposition ; as, — locus castrls milniendls ^^tnn, a place adapted to f or tifyin(r a camp- ad pacem petendam vSngriint, tluy came to ask peace; multum temporis cousumo in legendls pofitis, / spend much time tn reading the poets. 3- In order to avoid ambiguity (see § 236, 2), the Gerundive Con- struction must not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives used substantively. Thus regularly — philosophi cupidi sunt vSrum invSstigandl, phuosophers are eager for discovering truth (rarely vSri iuvgstigandl) ; Btudium plura cognoscendl, a desire of kncmmg niorl (noi plOrlum cognoecendorum) , 4. From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used in the Gerundive Construction ; but utor, fruor, fungor, potior (oriff- inally transitive) regularly admit it ; as, — hostes in spem potiundorum castrorum vgnerant, the enemy had conceived the hope of gaining possession of the camp. 5. The Genitives mei, tuT, suT, nostri, vestrl, when used in the Gerundive Construction, are regularly employed without reference to Gender or Number, since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjec- tives used substantively. Thus : — mulier sui servandi causl aufugit, the woman fled for the sake of saving herself ', ^ IggSti in castra vgnerunt sul purgandi causa, the envoys came into camp for the purpose of clearing themselves ; So nostri servandi causa, /.;r the sake of saving ourselves. tn H ■ ^'7'°f "y '^' Genitive'of the Gerundive Construction is used to denote ///r/^j'^; as, — 81 arborum trunci sive nSvSs dgiciendl operis essent a barbarls missae, if trunks of trees or boats should be sent down by the barbarians for the purpose of destroying the structure. 7. The Dative of the Gerundive Construction occurs in some ex- pressions which have the character of formulas ; as, ~ o^TnTo'" '"'-''''' l""^""^"' decemvirs for codifying the laws ; qumdecimvin sacris faciundis, guindecemvirs for \.rfn...uL .,, sacrijices. -' ^"-'" -a — ^ Coordinate Conjunctions. 223 THE SUPINE. P^ose ]\l!l ^"^'"' '" ""™ '' "''^ '^'"^ ^^^^^ °f "^°^'°" to express ISgatI ad Caesarem gratuiatum convSnSrunt, envoys came to Cae- sar to congratulate him. a. The Supine in -urn may take an Object ; as, — pacem petltum 6rat6rS8 RSmam mittunt, they send en- voys to Rome to ask for peace. b. Note the phrase : — d6 (C0II0C6) flllam nflptum, I give my daughter in mar- rtage. facUi/dffl.'ir"'." "Lit"'"' *' *" '^'''»''™ "f Specification with le.t nlT^"; '""'"• "'°™'*'"' "P""-' '"■■' •••I'o witli laa eat, netaa est, opus est • as haec res est facilis cognitO, this thing is easy to learn : li6c est optimum factfl, ihis is best to do. a. Only a few Supines in -Q are in common use, chiefly audltfl, cognitii, dictfl, factfl, visu. b. The Supine in -fl never takes an Object. Chapter V\. — Particles. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 341. Copulative Conjunctions. These join one word, phrase, or clause to another. I. w//r^7y^/^„<../...,v.„„^.v, -/. - Coordinate Conjunctions, as, 225 Carnutes, Andes, and Turones. ' ^ 342, Disjunctive Conjunctions indicate an alternative "^x^rr "'"' '""" <^'^^-> -"^' ''-^ - tively rr-"""" °"''''""" ''""J™"'""^ -^ of'^n used correla- aut vel sive . aut, either . . .or; ' vel, either . . .or; • s^v* U" on/. Jon. ^^'''''^^^' Conjunctions. These denote o/^o- I. «) sed, <5«/, merely denotes opposition. 6) vgrum, ^ut, is stronger than sed, but is less frequently used c) autem, 3ut on the other hand, however, marksl trans ufn! It is always post-positive. • Definition. A post-positive word is one that cannot begin a sen tence, but is placed after one or more words. ^ d) at, but, is used especially in disputation, to introduce an opposing argument. e) atqul means but yet. ■^^ af^^r '^'^' "'"^"^ '*^"'^' ^^^^' *^^ emphatic word, but not g) v6r6, /.^ze/.e;.r, .W..^, in truth, is always post-positive. 226 Syntax. 2. Note the correlative expressions : — nan saium (nSn modo) . . . sed etiam, ,toi only . . . but also- n6n modo nSn . . . sed n8 . . . quidem, not only not, but \ot even ; as, — n6n modo tibi n6n IrSacor, sed nS reprehendfi quidem factum tuum, / not only am not angry with you, but I do not even blame your action. a. But when the sentence has but one verb, and this stands with the second member, n5n modo may be used for nfln modo nfln; as, - adsentatlO nOn modo amicC sed nS liberO quidem dl^na eat, fiattery is not only (not) worthy of a friend, but not even of a free man. ^ 344. Illative Conjunctions. These represent the state- ment which they introduce 2.2, following from or as in con- fonmty with what has preceded. 1 . a) itaque = and so, accordingly. b) ergo = therefore, accordingly. c) igitur (regularly post-positive i) = therefore, accordingly. 2. Igitur is never combined with et, atque, -que, or neque. 345. Causal Conjunctions. These denote cause, or give an explanation. They are nam, namque, enim (post-positive), etemm,y^n ^ ^* 346. Asyndeton. The conjunction is sometimes omitted be- irtiorxht:-^^'^^^' '^'''^'-'^ - '-'y - ^— n'ed a) A Copulative Conjunction is omitted ; as,^ avaritia inflnlta insatiabilis est, avarice is boundless {and) insatiable ; Cn. PompSjo, M. CrassS cSnsulibus, in the consulship of Gnaeus Pompey {and) Marcus Crassus. The conjunction is regularly omitted between the names of consulswhenthepraenomenOJ/.>.«.,^,V..,./..)isexpressed. b) An Adversative Conjunction may be omitted ; as, - rationSs dSfugrunt, ubertSs orStiSnis n6n dSfuit, ar^- ments were lacking, {but) abundanc, of n„n.4s -"-- t^ Except in Sallust and Silver Latin. Adverbs. — Word-Order. 227 ADVERBS. 347. I. The following particles, sometimes classed as Conjunctions, are more properly Adverbs : — etiam, also, even. quoque (always post-positive), also. quidem (always post-positive) lays stress upon the preceding word It IS sometimes equivalent to the English indeed, in fact, bui ni . . .quidem means «^/.z;,«; ^^e emphatic word or phrase always stands between ; as, n6 ille quidem, nol even he ^'"''M'! "T' 'If'^t''^ '° '^^'^ "^^ ^' Conjunctions, are often employed as Adverbs. J^^-''^''^^^\ TT ^^Satives are regularly equivalent to an affirmative as m English, as n6n nulll, some; but when „6n, nSms" nihil, numquam,./.., are accompanied by neque . . . neque nSn ;.t. 1 "*" '"°*^°' or ne . . . quidem, the latter particles simply take up the negation and emphasize it ; as, — ^ habeS Mc nSminem neque amicum neque cognfttum, I have here no one, neither friend nor relative. nCn enim praetereundum est nS id quidem,/.^ not even that must oe passed by. a. Haud in Cicero and Caesar occurs almost exclusively as a modifier of Adjec ives and Adverbs, and in the phrase haud sciS an Later writers use it freely with verbs. il:|i Chapter VW.— Word-Order and Sentence- Structure. A. WORD -ORDER. 348. In the normal arrangement of the Latin sentence the Subject stands at the beginning of the sentence, the Predicate at the end ; as, — Darius clasaem quIngentSrum nSvium comparSvit, Darius got ready afieet of five hundred ships. 228 Syntax. 349. But for the sake of emphasis .^c normal arrange- ment is often abandoned, and the em|)hatic word is put at the beginning, less frequently at the end of the sen- tence; as, — mSguus in hSc bell6 Themistoclfis fiiit, ouic.v i was ThcmistocUs in this war ; aliud iter habSmus uQllum, oi/wr course we have none. "Vj. SPECIAL PRINCIPLES. 350. I. Nouns. A Genitive or other oblique case regularly foL lows the word upon which it depends. Thus : — a) Depending upon a Noun : — tribQnua plSbia, tribune of the plebs ; niius rSgis, son of t/ic h'ni; ; vir mSguI auimi, ^ ^°"°^ t^"^ pater meus, my father; homo quida -n, a crtain rnan ; mulier aliqu. some woman. y ' But for purposes of contrast the Possessive often precJ^" Its Noun ; as, — meus pater, l^Y father {i.e. as opposed to^^«r^, his, etc.). d Where two or more Pronouns occur in the same sentence, the Latin is fond of putting them in close proximity; as,- nlsi forte ego vobis cessSre videor, unless perchance 1 seem to you to be doing nothing. 230 Syntax. 6. Adverbs and Adverbial phrases regularly precede the word they modify; as, — valde dlligSns, extremely diligent ; saepe dizl, I have often said; tS jam diii hortamur, we have long been urging you ; paulo post, a little after. . * 7. Prepositions regularly precede the words they govern. a. But limiting words often intervene between the Preposition and its case ; as, — dS communi hominum memoria, concerning the common memory of men ; ad beats vivendum, for living happily . b. When a noun is modified by an Adjective, the Adjective is often placed before the preposition ; as, — mflgno in dolore, in great grief ; summa cum laude, with the highest credit] qua dS causa, />6. Uterque means each of two; amb5 means both; as, — uterque frater abiit, each of the two brothers departed {i.e. sepa- rately) ; ambo fratrgs abigrunt, i.e. the two brothers departed together. a. The Plural of uterque occurs — 1) With Nouns used only in the Plural (see § 56) ; as,— in utrisque castrls, /;/ each camp. 2) Where there is a distinct reference to two groups of persons or things ; as, — utrlque ducgs ciarifugrifnt, the generals on each side (sev- eral in number) were famous. % VERBS. 356. I. In case of Defective and Deponent Verbs a Passive is supplied : — a) By the corresponding verbal Nouns in combination with esse, etc. ; as, — in odio sumus, 7ae are hated; in invidia sum, r am envied; IS Hints on Style. , , 237 admTratiSnl eat, he is admired] obllvioae obrultur, he is forgotten (lit. is overwhelmed by oblivion) ; in usu esse, to be used. b) By the Passive of Verbs of related meaning. Thus : — agitSri as Passive of persequl ; temptSrl as Passive of adoriri. 2. The lack of the Perfect Active Participle in Latin is supplied - a) Sometimes by the Perfect Passive Participle of the Depo- nent ; as, — adhortatus, having exhorted; veritus, having feared. b) By the Ablative Absolute ; as, — hostium agris vastatis Caesar exercitum redflxit, hav- ing ravaged the country of the enemy, Caesar led back his army. c) By subordinate clauses ; as, — eo cum advSnisset, castra posuit, having arrived there, he pitched a camp ; hostgs qui in urbem irruperant, the enemy having burst into the city. 3- The Latin agrees with English in the stylistic employment of the Second Person Singular in an indefinite sense (= 'one'). ^Cf the English 'Vou can drive a horse to water, but you can't make him drink: But in Latin this use is mainly confined to certain varieties of the Subjunctive, especially the Potential (§ 280), Jussive (§ 275), De- liberative (§ 277), and the Subjunctive in conditional sentences of th& sort included under § 302, 2, and 303. Examples : — videres, you could see ; utare viribus use your strength ; quid hoc homine facias, 7vhat are you to do with this man ? mSns quoque et animus, nisi tamquam lumini oleum Instillgs exstinguuntur senectute, the intellect and mind too are ex- tinguished by old age, unless, so to speak, you keep pouring oil itito the lamp : tanto am5re possessiones suas amplexi tenebant, ut ab els — . 1„.. j.,..,:,„._, ^,ivi-,ico, cncj ciun^ lu incir possessions with such an affectionate embrace, that you would have said their limbs could sooner be torn from their bodies. 238 Syntax. PBCULIARITIBS IN THE USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 357. I . To denote ' so many years, etc., afterwards or be/ore ' the Latin employs not merely the Ablative of Degree of Difference with post and ante (see § 223), but has other forms of expression. Thus :— post quinque Ann6B,^ve years afterward; paucSs ante digs, a few days before; ante quadriennium, four years before ; post diem quartum quam ab urbe di8ce8simuB,/^«r days after we left the city ; ante tertium annum quam dSoesserat, three years before he had died. 2. The Latin seldom combines both Subject and Object with the same Infinitive ; as, — RomanSs Hannibalem vioisse constat. Such a sentence would be ambiguous, and might mean either that the Romans had conquered Hannibal, or that Hannibal had conquered the Romans. Perspicuity was gained by the use of the Passive Infini- tive; as, — Romanes ab Hannibale victds esse c5nstat, it is well established that the Romans were defeated by Hannibal. PBCULIARITIBS IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OP THE DATIVE. 358. I. The English/?/- does not always correspond to a Dative notion in Latin, but is often the equivalent of pro with the Ablative, viz. in the senses — a) In defense of; as, — pro patria mori, to die for one'^s country. b) Tnsteadofinbehalfof;^?,,— unus pro omnibus dixit, one spoke for all. haec pro ISge dicta sunt, these things were said in behalf of the law. c) In proportion to ; as, — pro miiltitudine h* tion. "■'JtAXXXXt.AXXX , in proporiio7i to the papula- Hints on Style. 239 Latin b"'' ^"'''' '' "'^" '' '"''^^^^^ -°^'- - rendered in a. Note, however, that the Latin may say either .orlbere ad aliquem, or scrlbere alicul, according as the idea of motion IS or ,s not predommant. So in s vera! similar expressions. takithi^Dativr'Vh"^' of ../«^/>>.^«./M, contending ^ith, sometimes laKe tne Dative. This construction is a Grecism. Thus : - s6 mlacet virls, he mingles with the men; contendis HomSro, you contend with Homer. PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OP THE GENITIVE. the^D!;iven7po^°"'''''' ?'"^'^"' ^''^' ^"^P^^^^^ ^° the /.......^, the Dative of Possessor emphasizes the fact of possession ; as, - hortus patris est, the garden is my father's-, mihi hortus est, l possess a garden. 2. The Latin can say either stultl or stultum est dlcere, it is foohsh to say; but Adjectives of one ending permit only the Gen- sapientis est haec sScum reputare, // /. the part of a wise man to consider this. Part VI. PROSODY. 360. Prosody treats of metres and versification. ^ 361. Latin Verse. Latin Poetry was essentially different m character from English. In our own language poetry is based upon accent, and poetical form consists essentially in a certam succession of accented and unaccented syllables Latm poetry, on the other hand, was based not upon accent, but upon quantity, so that with the Romans poeti- caJ form consisted in a certain succession of long and short syllables, t.e. of long and short intervals of time This fundamental difference in the character of English and Latm poetry is a natural result of the difference in character of the two languages. English is a strongly accented language in which quantity is relatively subord^ nate. Latm on the other hand, was a quantitative lan- guage, m which accent was relatively subordinate QUANTITY OF VOWELS AND SYLLABLES. ^ GENERAL PRINCIPLES. •362. The general principles for the quantity of vowels and syllables have been given above in § 5. Th'e following peculiarities are to be noted here :— * ^ (§5"/JTuttifefT"' "''''' "'^'^ '°"°"^^ ''y -other vowel ^§ 5. A. 2), but the following exceptions occur : — 240 Quantity of Vowels and Syllables. 24, r'i "*' ""^'-"'^^'"^^ «' --^"^l forms where i is followed bv er Thus : flfibam, flat, flu„t ; but fieri, flerem. ^ ^) In a few other words, especially words derived from th. Greek; as, dius, Aeniaa, Darfius, hSrfie., jj 2. A diphthong is usually long (% c. n i\ h„f m, • Prae in co„,p„siUo„ is often .,L„efeil'f„.:a JL :;Sr." (s : ^.' :; ' ^r:::::Lro:r;f7e' ^°"''"^'' ^^ • "-— - insr word- is ttrJJ^ ^ consonants is in the follow- 5- Compounds of jacio, though written Inloit ^a\m*. * u the first syllable long, as though tritten Ij- ta !' Th'kcti 12 nunciation of such words is not clear. RSici6 hj S. ^ °" Quantity of Final Syllables. A. Final Syllables ending in a Vowel. situ'tfons:'- "'' ^ ^^ ""'^ '^'°^^' ^^^ '« ^-« - ^he following a) In the Ablative Singular of the First Declension ; as, porta. 0) In the Imperative ; as, lauda. >*'••«• c) In indeclinable words (except its, quia) ; as, triginta, con- tra, postea, interea, ^/f. '** 2. Final e is usually short, but is long — ""^ ^^'^^^^^"^'^^ Singular of the Fifth Declension; as, di5, re ; hence hodiS, quarg. Here belongs also famS (S 59- 2. <>). ^) In the Imperative of the Second Conjugation; as, monS, nabg, etc. ; yet occasionally cavS, valS. c) In Adverbs derived from Adjectives of the Second Declen- Sion, alonff with ferS anri farmZ T» >■ ... ,w . •^ " jucuu, male, cemerd, saepg have e. ^ , 0*0, ^) In e, de, me, tg, sg, ng (not, lest), ng (verily). 242 Prosody. I 3' Final 1 Is usually long, but is short in nial and qxia.l. Mihl tlbi, aibl, ibl, ubi, have regularly I, but sometimes I; yet always Ibidem, ibique, ubique. 4- Final o is regularly long, but is short — a) In ega, du6, modfi {only), citd. b) Rarely in the First Person Singular of the Verb, and in Nommatives of the Third Declension; as. amfi, Jafi. In a few compounds beginning with the Preposition pro • as, prfifundere, prfinotool, prflfugere. ' 5- Final u is always long. B. Final Syllables ending in a Cons. ant. shn!f ^' t!,' fn"' ■y"^'^'^^^"d'"g i" ^^y Other consonant than s are short. The followmg words, however, have a long vowel- sftl aSl {this). Also adverbs m o ; as, hic, hflo, iatTc, illflo, etc 2. Fmal syllables in -as are long ; as, terras, amSs. 3- Final syllables in -es are regularly long, but are short - '^ JlMToMr'T,"'^ and Vocutive Singular of dental stems (^ II) of the Third Declension whicli have a short pennlt in the Genitive; as, seggs (segetis), obs6s (obsMis), mI16s, t^ f «;.."' ' ^r """'' -'' ' ^'"^ P^"' ^"««' abiSB paries 6) In Ss (t/iou art), pen6a. >*'«'»• S- Final -is is usually short, but is long — a) In Plurals ; as, portis, hortis, nobis, v6bls, nflbis (Ace ) b) In the Nominative Singular of Nouns of the Third Declen '^ t'he'Fou'rrr' '''"?" '"^^" ^'""^'^* ^"^^^^^^^ ^^^^^-e of the l-ourth Conjugation; as, audis. d) In ^l^, force; Is, thou goest ; fis ; sis; veils; nSlIs • vis thou wdt ; (mavis, quamvls, quivis, ./..) . ' ' 6. Final -us is usually short, but is long- a) In the Genitive Singular and in the Nominative, Accusative _____and^catn. Plural of the Fourth Declension; as fractTs ' Rarely Verse-Structure. »43 VERSE - STRUCTURE. as, GENERAL PRINCIPLES. lent to two morae. '"°"S ^yl'^We (_) ,s regaiUed a, equiva- imp'or.ant'i.inltlLri' "''^"""'^- ^"^ ^°"-™« - "- ""o^t Feet of Three Moras. »««. «- r r«rr op Four Morab, — \j I rochee. t-> ^ i — \j^ Dactyl. w _ Iambus. . , , ^ ^ — Anapaest. 3. A Verse is a succession of feet. 4. The different icinds of verses are named Trochaic, Iambic Dae stn't^tr"'^'' ""^'^"^ ^° *^^ ^^°* ^^•^^^^ ^-- the'baw' the?; 5. Ictus In every foot the long syllable naturally receives the gr ter prommence. This prominence is called ictus.x ' it irdenoted 6 Thesis and Arsis. The syllable which receives the ictus is called the thesis; the rest of the foot is called the arsis 7. El^ion Final syllables ending in a vowel, a diphthong, or -m are re,,iarly eljded before a word beginning with a vowel or h Z readmg, we rrd^nanly omit the elided syllable entirely. Probably the anaents sluKed ti. words^together in some way. This m.The indi^ cated as follows: corpore in u.u6 ; multumme^et; monstrumlior. rendum ; causae irSrum. a. Omission of elision is called hiatus. It occurs especially before and ''"^"" monosyllabic Interjections ; as, 6 et praesidium. 1 Ictus was not accent. -neither stress .^cent nor musical accent -but was simply tne quantitative prominence inherent in a long syllable. \ . 244 Prosody. 8. The ending of a word within a foot is called a caeailra {cutting). Every verse usually has one' piominent caesura. The ending of a word and foot together within the verse is called a diaeresis. 9- Verses are distinguished as Catalectic or Acatalectic. A Cata- lectic verse is one in which the last foot is not complete, but lacks one or more syllables ; an Acatalectic verse has its last foot complete. 10. At ;he end of a verse a slight pause occurred. Hence the final syllable may be either long or short (syllaba anoeps), and may ter- minate in a vowel or m, even though the next verse begins with a vowel. 1 1 . Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verses are further designated as dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, according to the number of dipodies (pairs of feet) which they contain. Dactylic verses are measured by single feet, and are designated as tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, accordingly. ■'j^x.. ■ lip'' h#J- SPECIAL PECULIARITIES. 367. I. SynizSsis (Synaeresis). Two successive vowels in the interior of a word are often united into a long syllable ; as,— aureis, deinde, anteire, deesse. 2. Diastole. A syllable usually fV.ort is sometimes long; as,— vidSt, audit. 3. Systole. A syllable usually long is sometimes short ; as,— stetSrunt. - a. Diastole and Systole are not mere arbitrary processes. They usually represent an earlier pronunciation which had passed out of vogue in the ordinary speech. 4- After a consonant, 1 and u spmetimes become j and v. The preceding syllable then becomes long ; as,— J abjete for abiete ; genva for genua. 5- Sometimes v becomes vt ; as, — •^ silua for silva ; dissoluS for diasolvS. r.L-^°"'«"''' ^ ^^''^ ^^' ^" "^^'^ ^y"^'ble. Such a verse is 1 T- ^yP^''"^^*^^- The extra syllable ends in a vowel or sy;:;L^."ThtT- '" "'^^^ ''^'' °^ ^ °^ ''' "-^ -- ^y ' • ' ignarl homlnumque locorumaue^ ©rramu9. V'erse-Structure. The n 245 intotheTeTemente r^f;*_ *^°'"'"'"'"' """^ "» occasionally separated conso„a«!rr_ "" ""'" '"""' '' ^°"="-"=^ ""PP"! between two repostus for repositug. THE DACTYLIC HEXAMETER. except the fifth a spondel r ( ^" '" ="" "'^ ^^^t the dactyl. The sixS^ ft Lie"!! '"' "'"^ °' trochee, since the final wiIm , ^ 'P'""'^e or a long or short (.;. at'^ '^ "^^ ^ -y be either the scheme of the verse : - '"""wing represents "" - --- a.e .enUn--- tiS^ P',- - - . araatumque aur5 ciroumspicit OrtSna . oara deum ,ubol6s, mS6„„„ j^j. .„„,„,„,„^ < 3- Caesura. «) The favorite position of the caesnr;, in fu T^ ,. eter is after the thesis of the SC- t -"''" ""™- arma Wrumque cano || Trojae qui pl^;, .^ 6rb l«a. tors II pater A.nSSa || alo aran, ab altS oat '' .trs':he'ttr™.:r '^'™ "-^ '™ ^-^^t-..!- O paaal gravlSra || dabit den, h,. q„„<,„, „„,„ ' ' ^ This caesura '= ^^ii^^ r._.-„. "^^•rt*^^--., after a ion^srflai;,::":::'""'!!, "^ "yy^^"^. '» '^e caesura -;aWs,,ah,e,whi.rX/^-rctn:r': . ^»Bf 246 Prosody. d) A pause sometimes occurs at the end of the fourth foot. This is called the Bucolic Diaeresis, as it was borrowed by the Romans from the Bucolic poetry of the Greeks. Thus : — sAlstitium pecorX dSfendite ; || jam venit aestAs. DACTYLIC PENTAMETER. 369. I. The Dactylic Pentameter consists of two parts, each of which contains two dactyls, followed by a long syllable. Spondees may take the place of the dactyls in the first part, but not in the second. The long syllable at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word. The scheme is the following : — 2. The Pentameter is never used alone, but only in connection v/ith the Hexameter. The two arranged alternately form the so-called Ele- giac Distich. Thus: — Vergilium vidl tantum, nee amara TibuUd Tempus amioitiae fftta dedSre meae. IAMBIC MEASURES. 370. I. The most Important Iambic verse is the Iambic Trimeter (§ 366, 1 1) called also SenariuB. This is an acata- lec<-ic verse. It consists of six Iambi. Its pure form is : — V^ W W >w' V^ \J BefttUB ille qui prooul negStils. The Caesura usually occurs in the third foot; less fre- quently in the fourth. 2. In place of the Iambus, a Tribrach (www) may stand in any foot but the last. In the odd feet (first, third, and fifth) may stand a Spondee, Dactyl, or Anapaest, though the last two are less riequent. Sometimes a Proceleusmatic (w w w w) occurs. 3. In the Latin comic writers, Plautus and Terence, great free- dom is permitted, and the various equivalents of the Iambus, viz. thp T')nrtvl. Annnapct. Snondp" T.-iKr'"''-' tj-^^^^i^., — _*:« «__ e 1— admitted in any foot except the last. I « SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR. r 1.. II cci)' J- JULIAN CALENDAR. 46 B.C.). Augustus (S«tn .''befo-^hL r ' («•""«'• ' prior ,„ ber, November, Daoember, These wotd?'"''' ^'•''°»''"' °"«- '" ='««en,cnt with men.l, understood ""■" """"'^ Adjectives " ^"17-;-^»"ed fr„™ three points in the n,o„th • ^; 1 He Nones, usually the fifth of th« ^ .u , in March, May, ,Jy, a„d October ""' '"' '"^ ^"'""' O The Ides, usually the thirtPPnti, e *u .eenth in March.Vy, luC^d oltr"""*' '"' "" «" aiii.rre;;rr:ft%r,;:r^'' ^''"='^''-- --"-"x before the Caiends of the ^o^.rn:'.'; rXj:!"""''' ^ ^ -y "a,! de^Lt^r^S^yrr^' -"^^^^^^^ -- -onth . These designations, of course a^r'l ' '"*'■'*• a"'' ™ »"• Romans reci« Of in 4:c1l:4lt;::;/~ added <„ the rom, ^; «^6 quints ante Idus MSrtias • ^) q"Jnt6 ante Idas M5rti5s • ' j) q"In;5(V)idfl8M5rti38-' o,l°/.r"!.'^ ^^.^ R"-"-" year bcfran ;;;;:TT::;:r~ :;:,—— —" ■x«.x^wii3, oextms, September ^/^ #/>* "T". ''^'^ ^^P'^'ns ihe name« .247 S. 'K 248 Supplements to the Grammar. 6. These designations may be treated as nouns and combined with the prepositions in, ad, ex ; as, — ad ante diem IV KaleudSs OctSbrSs, np to the 2W1 of September. ex ante diem qulntum Idus Oct6br5s,y>-r;w the nth of October. 7. In leap year the 25th was reckoned as the extra day in February. The 24th was designated as ante diem VI KalendSs M&rtifts, and the 25th as ante diem bis VI Kal. Mftrt. 372. CALENDAR. W ■V". Days of the Month. March, May, July, October. January, August, December. April, June, Sep- tember, November. February. I Kalendis. KalendIs. KalendIs. Kalendis. 2 VI. Nonas. IV. Nonas. IV, Nonas. IV. Nonas. 3 V. III. III. III. 4 IV. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas, Pridie Nonas. 5 III. NoNls. NONIS. NoNis. 6 Pridifc Nonas. VIII. Idus. VIII. Idus, VIII. Idus. 7 N5nIs. VII. VII. VII. 8 VIII. Tdus. VI, VI. VI. 9 VII. V, V. V, 10 VI. IV. IV. IV. II V. Ill, Ill, III. 12 IV. Pridie Idus. Pridie Idiis, Pridie Idus. 13 III. IDIBUS. IDIBUS. Idibus. 14 Pridie Idus, XIX. Kalend. XVIII. Kalend. XVI, Kalend. IS IDIBUS. XVIII. XVII. XV. 16 XVII. Kalend. XVII. XVI. XIV. 17 XVI. XVI. XV. XIII. 18 XV. XV. XIV. XII. 19 XIV. XIV. XIII. XI. so XIII. XIII. " ' XII. X, 21 XII. XII. XI. IX. 22 XI, XI, X. VIII. 23 X. X. IX, VII. 24 IX. IX. VIII. VI. 25 VIII. VIII. \riT_ ■' V. (VI.) " 26 VII. VII. VI. IV. (V.) " 27 VI. VI. V, III. (IV.) " 28 V. V. IV, Prid.Kal.dll.Kal.) 29 IV. IV. III. (Prid. Kal.) 30 3' III. Pridie Kalend, III. Pridie Kalend, Pridie Kalend, (Enclosed forms are lOf ic3p"yciif.} Figures of Synti ax. 249 373. 11. ABBREVIATIONS OF PROPER A. - ^ulus. App. = Appius. C. = Oaiua. Cn. = GnaeuB. D. = Decimus. K. = Kaeso. L. = Ldciua. M, = Marcus. M'.= Manius. NAMES. Mam. = Mamercus. N. = NumeriuB. P- = PttbUuB. Q. = QuIutuB. Sex. = SejctuB. Ser. = Servius. Sp. = SpuriuB. T. = Titus. Ti. = Tiberius. ni. FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC. •4- rigures of Syntax. 374. , Hiip.!. i, ,h, „„i3^i„„ ^^ ^^^ ^^ 2. Brach^logy is a brief or condensed form of Special varieties of Brachylogy are - «) 2eag„,a, i„ which one verb is made to stand for two ■ as ^ "• ^•■^'•^^^ "■"■-» -1 character were differe^T ' 3- PHona,m is an unnecessary fullness of expression , as _ pnus praeaioam, lit. I ^m first say in advance. Genitive or an Adjective; as,- "°"'' '"^'^^^^^ by a febris et aeatus, the heat of fever • celeritate cursuque, <5y ,«,,// running. ■ I 250 Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric. 5. Prol^psls, or Anticipation, is the introduction of an epithet in advance of the action which makes it appropriate ; as, — Bubmers&s obrue puppSs, lit. overwhelm their submerged ships, i.e. overwhelm and sink their ships. a. The name Prolepsis is also applied to the introduction of a noun or pronoun as object of the main clause where we should expect it to stand as subject of a subordinate clause. Thus : — noBtX Marcellum quam tardus sit, you knonv how slow Marcellns is (lit. you know Marcellus, how slow he is). Both varieties of Prolepsis are chiefly conr^ned to poetry. 6. Anacoltithon is a lack of grammatical consistency in the con- struction of the sentence ; as, — turn And filii . . . impSnsius els indignitSs crBsrere, then the sons of Ancus . . . their indignation increased all the more. 7. H:^steron Prdteron consists in the inversion of the logical order of two words or phrases ; as, — moriamur et in media arma rulmus = let us rush into the midst of arms and die. B. Figures of Rhetoric . 375. I. Litotes is the use of two negatives for an emphatic affirmative; as, — baud parum laboris, no little toil {i.e. much toil) ; non iguoro, f am not ignorant {i.e. I am well aware). 2. Oxymdron is the combination of contradictory concep- tions; as, — ^ sapiens InsSnia, wise folly. 3. Alliteration is the employment of a succession of words presenting f -juent repetition of the same letter (mostly initial); as, sgnsim sine sSnsu aetas seuescit. 4. Onomatopcbia is the suiting of sound to sense ; as, — quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum, ^And shake with horny hoofs the solid ground.'' INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THF MOST IMPORTANT VERBS. -.fI"e,.„'^rS;S!L''" ""' '""■ "'"• "">■ P—' -« ■"•- iiT induo, 122, II. infero, 129. The references are to sections. ferveo, 121, VI. | figo, 122, I, 1, b. findo, 122, I, 2, N. fingo, 122, I, I, a. fio, 131. flecto, 122, 1,1,*. fleo, 121, I. floreo, 121, II, a, N. i. fluo, 122, II. floresco, 122, IV, 2. fodio. 122, III. foveo, 121, V. frango, 122, 1,3. fremo, 122, I, 5. frico, 120, II. frlgeo, 121, II, a, n. 2. fruor, 122, V. fugio, 122, III. fulcio, 123, III. fulgeo, 121, III. fulget, 138, I. fundo, 122, I, 3. fungor, 122, V. furo, 122, I, 7. ingemlsco, 122, IV, a. insum, 125. intellego, 122, I, 3. interficio, laa. III. intersum, 125. invado, p. 87. footnote, invenio, 123, IV. irascor, 122, V. jaceo, 121, II, a. jacio, 122, III. jiibeo, 121, III. jungo, 122, I. I, a. juvo, 120, III. L. I. labor, 122, V. lacesso, 122, I, 6. laedo, 122, I, I, b. lambo, 122, I, 7. largior, 123, VII. lateo, 121, II, a, N. lavo, 120, III. lego, 122, I, 3. libet, 138, II. liceor, 121, VII. licet, 138, II. loquor, 122, V. luceo, 121, III. Iiid5, 122, I, I, b. lugeo, 121, III. luo, 122, II. M. maereo, 121, II, a, N. 2. malo, 130. maneo, 121, III. matiiresco, 122, IV, 3. medeor, 121, VII. memini, 133. mereo, 121, II, a. mereor, 121, VII. mergo, 122, I, i, b. metior, 123, VII. metuo, 122. II. mico, 120, II. minuo, 122, II. misceo, 121, II, b. oj the Most Important Verbs. miseret, 138, II. misereor, lai, VII. mitfo, 122, I, I, b. molo, 12a, I, 5. moneo, 121, II, a. mordeo, :2i, IV. morior, 122, V. moveo, lai, V. N. nanciscor, 122. V. nascor, 122, V. nectd, 122, I, I, b. neglego, 122, I, 3. ningit, 138, I. niteo, 121, II, a, N. i. nitor, 122, V. noceo, 121, II, a. nolo, 130. nosco, 122. IV, I. nubo, 122, I, I, a. obduresco, 122, IV, 3. oblino, 122, I, 6. obliviscor, 122, V. obmutesco, 122, IV, 3. obruo, 122, II. obsolesco, 122, IV, i. obsum, 125, obtineo, 121, II, 0. odi, 133. offero, 129. oleo, 121, II, a, N, I. operio, 123, II. oportet, 138, II. opperior, 123, VII. ordior, 123, VII. orior, 123, VII. P. paenitet, 138, II. palleo, 121, II, a, N. 1. pando, 122, 1, 4. parco, 122, I, 2. pareo, 121, II, a. pario, 122, III. pasco, 122, IV, I. pascor, 122, IV, i. The references are to sectioni. Ipatefacio, 122, III. pateflo, 122, III. patL'o, 121, II, a, N. I. patior, 122, V. paveo, 121, V. peliicio, 122, III. pello, 122, I, 2. pendeo, 121, IV. pendo, 122, I, 2. perago, 122, I, 3. percello, 122, I,'2. N. percrebresco, 122, IV, 3, perdo, 122, I, 2. perficio, 122, III. perfringo, 122, I, 3. perfruor, 122, V. perlego, 122, I, 3. permulceo, 121, III. perpetior, 122, V. pervado, p. 87, footnote, peto, 122, I, 6, Piget, 138, II. pingo, 122, I, I, a. placeo, 121, II, a. plaudo, 122, I, I, b, pluit, 138, I. polleo, 121, II, a, N. 2. polliceor, 121, VII. polluo, 122, II. ! pono, 122, I, 6. posco, 122, IV, I. possldo, 122, I, 4. possum, 126. poto, 120, I. praebeo, 121, II, a. praestat, 138, III. praesum, 125. prandeo, 121, VI. prehendo, 122, I, 4. premo, 122, I, i, b. prodo, 122, I, 2. promo, 122, I, 3. prosum, 125. prosterno, 122, I, 6. pudet, 138, II. pUngO, 122, I, 2. 253 R. rado, 122, I, X, b. rapio, 122, III. reddo, 122, I, a. redimo, 122, I, 3. refercio, 123, HI. refero, 129. refert, 138, II. rego, 122, I, I, a. relinqiio, 122, I, 3. reminiscor, 12a, V. reor, 121, VII. ' reperio, 123 V. I repo, 122, i, I, a. i resists, 122, I, 2. respuo, 122, II. restinguo, p. 87, footnote, retmeo, 121, II, b. rideo, 121, III. rodo, 122. I, I, b. rubeo, 121, II, a, N. i. rumpo, 122, I, 3. ruo, 122, II. niiapro, 122 I. 6. quatio, 122, III. queror, 122, V. quiesco, 122, iV. i. saepio, 123, III, salio, 123, II. sancio, 123, III. sapio, 122, III. sarcio, 123, III. scindo, 122, I, 2, N. sclsco, 122, IV, 2. scrlbo, 122, I, I, a. sculpo, 122, I, I, a. seco, 120, II. sedeo, 121, V. sentio, 123, III. sepelio, 123, T. sequor, 122, V. sero, 122, I, 6, serpo, 122, I, I, a. sileo, 121, II, a, N. 1. sino, 122, 1, 6. solvo, 122, I, 4. sono, I20, II. spargo, 122, I, I, b. sperno, 122, I, 6. splendeo, 121, II, a, N. i. spondeo, 121, IV. statuo, 122, II. sterno, 122, I, 6. -stinguo, 122, I, I, a. 254 Index to the Most Important Verbs, strepi;, laa, I, 5. strideo, 121, VI. stringo, 122, I, i, a. stru5. laa, II. studeo. lai, II, a, n. 1. suSdeo, lar, \\\, suhigo, laa, I, 3. subsum, ia5. sum, lew. sumo, laa, I, 3. suo, laa", II. suptTsum, ia5. sustineo, lai, H, b. taceo, lai, II, a. taedet, 138, II. tango, 122, I, a. tego, 122, I, I, a. temno, 12a, I, i, a. tendo, 122, I, 2. teneo, 121, \\,b. tero, laa, 1,6. terreo, 121, II, a. The references are to »ections. texo, 12a, I, 5. timeo, 131, II, a, N.I. fingo, laa, I, i, a. tollo, laa, I, a, N. tonat, 138, I. tonded, 121, IV. tono, 120, II. torpeo, 121, II. a, N. i. toiquto, 121, III. torreo, 121, 11,^. trado, 122, I, 3. traho, laa, I, i, a. tremo, laa, I, 5.* tribuo, 133, II. trudo, Ilia, I, i, b. tueor, 131, VII. tundo, 133, I, 3. U. uldscor, 123, V. unguo, laa, I, i, a. urgeo, lai, m. uro, 122, I, I, a. utor, 132, V. V. vad5. laa, \,\,b. valeo, 131, II, a. veho, 132, I, 1, a. vello, 122, I, 4. venio, 123, IV. veieor, lai, VII. vergo, 133, 1,7. vend, 122, I, 4. verto, 122, I, 4. vescor, 122, V. veto, 120, II. video, 121, V. vigeo, 131, II, a, N. I. vincio, 133, III. vinco, 133, I, 3. vireo, 131, n, a, N. i. ViSO, 132, I, 4. vivo, 122, I, I, a. volo, 130. VOIVO, 122, I, 4. VOmO, 122, I, 5. voveo, 131, V. at -a- Ab Ab 1 1 GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. -a, ending of nom. sing., ist decl., ao; for e in Greek nouns, 22, i. a, ab, ads, use, 142, i ; with town names, 229, 2. a to denote agency, 216. to denote separation, 214. with town names, 229, 2. -a- stems, 20. Abbreviations of proper names, 373. Ablative case, 17 ; 213 f. formation of sing, of adjs. of 3d decl., 67, a ; 70, 1-5. genuine abl. uses, 214 f. absolute, 227. of agent, 216. - — of accompaniment, 22a. of accordance, 220, 3. of attendant circumstance, 221 227, 2, e). of cause, 219. of comparison, 217. of degree of difference, 223. of fine, 208, 2, 6. of manner, 220. of means, 218. of penalty, 208, 2, d. of place where, 228. of place whence, 229. of price, 225. of quality, 224. of separation, 214. of source, 215. of specification,. 226. of time at which, 230. of time di'Hng which, 231, i; of time within which. 231. of way by which, 218, 9. v/ith/acio, rid, 218, 6. Ablative case, with prepositions, 213 f. 1431 with verbs of filling, 218, 8. with adjs. of plenty, 218, 8. ads, 142, I. absens, 125, Absolute ablative, 227. time, of participles, 336, 4. use of verbs, 174, a. Abstract nouns, 12, 2, b) ; 55, 4, c). -abus, 21, 2, <•). ac, 341. 2, , 151, a. aliMs,66', 93, 1 ; used correlatively, 053, 1. alius ac, 341, t,c). Allia, gender of, 15, 3, N, allicio, 109, 2, d). Alliteration, 375, 3. Alphabet, i. alter, 66; 92, i; used correlatively, 353. I. Alternative questions, 16a, 4; indirect, 300,4. alteruter, ()j, 3. alvus, gender of, 26, 1, i), amandus sum, xig, amaturus sum, 115. amdii, 80, 2, a ; 355, a. amo, loi. amplius = amplius quam, 317, 3. an, 163, 4, and a) ; 300, 4 ; haud scib an, nescio an, 300, 5. Anacoluthon, 374. 6. Anapaest, 366, 3. Anaphora, 350, 11, b). Anastrophe of prep., 141, a; 143, 3; 144. ?• anceps {syllaha anceps) , 366, 10. Androgeos, Accl, 37. animal, decl., 39. animl, 333, 3. annon, 163, 4. Answers, 162, 5. ante in expressions of time, 144, i ; 357, r. Antecedent of rel., 251. attraction of, 251, 4, incorporated with rel., 351, 4. ;. a. decL irely, rect, an, ,1. Antecedent omitted, t$i, i. repeated with re!., 951, 3. Aniept- nult, 6, a. atiUquam, with Ind., 391 ; with suhjv.. 993. Anticljmtion, 374, 5. ■«»««f. 151. a; 15a, i; 3. Aorisi tense, see Historical pertect. Apudusls, 301. In conditional sent, of ist type 30a. 4. Apposition, 169; partitive, 169, 5; with voc. In nom., 171, a; Renitive, aoa. Appositive of locative, ifn;, 4; with ace. of limit of motion, i8a, a, a; with town nunics In abi. of place whence, aa9, a. - — position of, 350, a. Atihia%, 33, afguo, constr., 178, 1, rf). -r/m. 151, 3. -arium, 148, 3. •arius, 151, a. anniger, decl., 33. a. Arsis, 366, 6. a/-^, dec!,, 40. ■as, old Gen. sing., ist decl., case-ending, ai, a, a). ending of Greek nouns, nom. sing. in, aa. atis, abi. of patrials In, 70, 5, c). Aspirates, a, 3, c). Assimilation of consonants, 8, 4 f. ; 9, 3. Asyndeton, 341, 4, «, 157, 3. a/omuf, gender of, 36, i, r). «/<>, 150, 4. boHu^, 03; comparison, 7a. bos, 41. HrHchylogy, 374, 3. Mucolic diaerfsJH, 368, 3, d, -bulum, 147, 4. -biwdux, 150, I. rj. faifrf^r, dpcl.. 40. Cursura, 366, 8; In dactylic hexameter. 368, 3. calcar, decl., 39. • Calendar, 371 ; 37a. Calends. 371, 3, a), canis, 38. 3. ta//^, 110. carbatut, gendrrof, 36 i, b). career, carcetis, 6i. Cardinals, 78, i; 79; 81. 1 ; decl,, Bo. caro, 43. carrus, carrum, 60, i. Cases, 17; alike in form, 19; 170 ff. Case-endings, 17, 3. castrum, castra, 6r. Catalectic verses, 366, 9. caum, nulla causa est cur, etc., 395, 7. Causal clauses. 385; a86; c\9.a%? of characteristic with accessory notion of cause, 383, 3. conjunctions, 345, causa, with gen.. 198. i. Cause, abi. of, 319; 237, 3, d). cavi, 363, 2,b). cave tie in prohibitions, 376, c. -ce, 6. 3 f. ; 87, footnote 3, cedo, cette, 137, 3. celer, 68, 3. c'elo. constr., 178, i, *). cenatus, 114, a, «.V/-a, 185, 3. cwri, 353, 4. Characteristic, clauses of, 283; gen. of, 303, 1 ; abi., 234. 258 I Chiasmus, 350, 11, c). eircumdo, constr., 187, i, a. citerior, 73, i. cito, Tj, 2, a. c'uitas, decl., 40, i, e. clam, 144, 2. Clauses, coSrd. and subord., 164, 165, Clauses of characteristic, 283 ; purpose, 282 ; result, 284 ; causal, 285 ; temporal with postquam, ut, ubi, simul ac, etc. 287; with cum, 288 ; substantive clauses, 294 f. ; condition, 301 f, ; con- cessive, 308; adversative, 309; wish or proviso, 310; relative, 311 f,; 283 f. clipeiis, clipettm, 60, i. Close of sentences, cadences used, 350, 12. coept, 133 ; coeptus est, 133, i. Cognate ace, 176, 4. cbgo, 178, I, d) ; 331, VI. Collective nouns, ^ 2, a), colus, gender of, 26, i, b). comedo, 128, 2. cometes, 22. comitia, 330, i. Common gender, 15, B, N. i. nouns, 12, I. vowels, 5, A, 2, N. syllables, 5, B, 3. cotmnonsfaclb, 2(yj. commoneo, 207. communis, with gen., 204, 2; with dat., 204, 2, a. Comparison of adjs., 71 f. participles as adjs., 71, 2. adjs. in -dicus -ficus, -volus, 71, 5. defective, 73. abl. of, 217. Comparatives, occasional meaning, 240. , two required in Latin, 240, 4. Compendiary comparison, 374, 2, b). Compounds, 158 f. ; separation into syl- lables, 4, 4 ; spelling of, 9, 2. Compound sentences, 164. Conative uses of pres., 259, 2 ; of imperf., 260, 3 ; of pres, partic, 336, 2, a. Concessive clauses, 308; 'altlxnigh' as accessory idea to clause of character- istic, 283, 3. ^Subjunctive, 278. Conclusion, see Apodosis. Concrete nouns, 12, 2, a). Condemning, verbs of, constr., 208 f. % r General Index. The references are to sections and paragraphs. Conditional clauses of comparison, 307. sentences, z%\. type, 302; in indir, disc, 319; 2d type, 303; in indir. disc, 320; 3d type, 304; in indir. disc, 321; abl. abs. equivalent to, 227, 2, i5) ; in- troduced by relative pronouns, 312. c^nfldo, 219, I, a. Conjugation, 11; 93 f. ; the four conju- gations, 98; periphrastic, 115; pecul- iarities of conj., 116. Conjunctions, 341 f. cbnor, with inf., 295, 5, a. Consecutive clauses, see Result clauses. cbnsisiere, with abl., 218, 4. Consonant stems, 29 f. partially adapted to t-stems, 40. Consonants, 2, 2 f. ; 3, 3. , double, 2, 9. combinations of, in division into syllables, 4, 2 f. Consonant changes, 8; omission of fi- nals, 8, 3 ; assimilation of, 8, 4 f, stems, 29; following analogy of i- stems, 40. conspicio, 100, 2, b). cons tare, 218, 4. Construction ace. ic sense, 254, 4 ; 235 B, 2. c). consuetudo est, with substantive clause, 297.3- consuevl = pres., 262, A. Contending, verbs of, with dat., 358, 3. contentus, 219, i, continerl, with abl., 218, 4. contra, 144, i. Contraction, 7, 2. , length of vowel as result of, 5, A, Co^ivicting, verbs of, constr., 208 f. Coordinate clauses, 165. conjunctions, 341 f. cbpia, cbpiae, 61. Copulative conjunctions, 341. ^or, 57. 7. cornu, decl., 48. Correlaiive conjunctions, 341, 3 ; 342, 2. adverbs, 140. cottldie, 9, 2. •crum, 147, 4. -culum, 147, 4. -cuius (a,um), 148, i, cum, appended, 142, 4. cum, ' when," 288-290. 259 cum, adversative, 309, 3. causal, 286, 2. explicative, 290. to denote a recurring action, 288. -i : 289, a. "^ ' when suddenly,* 288, 2. -, with abl. of manner. 220; with abl. of accompaniment, 222. cum , . . ium, 290, 2. cum prlviutn, 287, i. cu7n, spelling of, 9, i. -ci4ndus, 150, I. cupio, 109, 2, a) ; 331. IV. and a cur, nulla causa est cur, 295, 7. Dactyl, 366, 2. Dactylic hexameter, 368. - — pentameter, 369. ^"M 57. 6. liates, 371, 2-5; as indeclinable nouns. 371. 6; in leap year, 371, 7. Cative, 17; irregular, ist decl., 21 2 c) • 3d decl., 47. 5 ; 4th decl.. 45, 2; 3;' 5th decl., 52, I and 3 ; i86 ff. of agency, 189. of direction, 193. of indir. obj., 187. ■ of advantage or disadvantage, so called, i88, i. of local standpoint, 188, 2, a). of person judging, 188, 2, c). ^ of possession, 190; 359, i. of purpose, 191 ; 339, 7' of reference, 188. of separation, 188, 2, d). ■ with adjs., 192. with compound verbs, 187, III. with intrans. verbs, 187, II! with pass, verbs, 187, II, b. with trans, verbs, 187, I. — — with verbs oi mingling, 358, 3. — - ethical dat., 188, "2, b). de, with abl. instead of gen. of whole 203;, I, a. dea, deahus, 21, 2, e). deb'ebam, debut in apodosis, 304, 3, a). debul, with pres. inf., 270, 2. decemvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, b). decet, 175, 2, c). Declaratory sentences in indir. disc, 314. Declension, 11 ; heteroclites, 59. , stems and gen. terminations. 18. General Index. The references are to section, and paragraphs. dedecet, 175^ 2, c). Defective verbs. 133 f. ; nouns. 54 f. ; 5* 4; 57; comparison, 73 Dehberative subjv., 277; in indir. disc„ Demonstrative pronouns, 87 ; 240. Denominative verbs, 156. Dental mutes, 2, 4. stems, 33. Deponent verbs, 112 ; forms with passive meanmgs, 112, b)- semi-deponents, 114. Derivatives, 147 f. Desideratives, 155, 3. deterior, 73, i, deus, 25, 4. devertor, 114, 3. dextrum, 185, 2. Diaeresis, 366, 8 ; bucolic d.. 368. 3 rf) Diastole, 367. 2. die, 116, 3. dlcilur, dictum est, 332, note. dlco, accent of compounds of, in iraper 116,3. " -dicus, comparison of adjs. in, 71. 5. Dido, decl., 47, 8. dies, decl., 51 ; gender, 53. Difference, abl. of degree of, 223. difficile est, 271, i, b). difficilis, comp., 71, 4. dignus, 226, 2; in rel. clauses of purpose 282, 3. Dimeter verses, 366, u. >- Diminutives, 148, i. Diphthongs, 2, I ; 3, 2 ; diphthong stems, 41; diphthongs shortened, 362, 2. diphthongus, gmde- of, 26, i, c). Dipodies, 366, 11. Direct reflexives, 244, i. object, 172. Disjunctive conjunctions, 342. dissimilis, comp., 71, 4. Distributives, 78, i ; 79; 81, 4. diu, compared, jj, i. dives, 70, I. dlxtl, 116, 4, c. do, 127. doced, with ace, 178, i, b) ; with inf.. 331. VI. 4" domt, 232, a. domo, 229, 1, b), domos.^ 182, I, b^ ^" >■» 26o domum, i8a, i, ^) ; ■ house,' in ace, 182, note. domus, 49, 4. donee, with ind., 293; with subjv., 293, III, 2. dono, constr., 187, i, a. Double consonants, a, 9. questions, 162, 4 ; indirect, 300, 4. Dubitative subjunctive, see Dehberative. dubito, dubium est, constr. with, 298. due, 116, 3. duco, accent of compounds of, in imper., 116, 3. duim, duint, 127, 2. 'dum, 6, 3. dum, temporal with ind., 393 ; with subjv., 293, III, 2; in wishes and provisos, 310. dutnmodo, 310. duo, 80, 2. duumvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, b). dux, decl., 32. E. e, stems, 51. •i, ending of Greek nouns, nom. sing, in, 22; in dat,, 5th decl., 52, 3. -e, abl. of participles in -a»s, -ens, in, 70, 3 e, ex, use, 142, a. ecquis, 91, 6. idle, 116, 3. edb, 128. edue, 116, 3. ego, 84. egomet, 84, 2. •n, gen. of sth decl., 52, i. ■iis, 148, 6, b). ejus, as poss., 86, i. Elegiac distich, 369, a. Elision, 366, 7. Ellipsis, 374, I. -ellus {a, urn), 148, i. Emphasis, 349. Enclitics, accent of preceding syllable, 6.3- Endings, personal of verb, 96 ; in forma- tion of words, 147 f. enim, 345. -ensimus (-ensumus) , 79, N. -ensis, 151,2; 152,3. eo, 132; cpds., 132, I. Epexegetical genitive, 202. Epistolary tenses, 265. General Index. The references are to sections and paragraphs. epistula, 9, 2. epitome, 22. epulum, epulae, 60, a. cquabus, ai, a, e). equos, 24, -er, dfcl. of nouns in, 23. ergd,24,A,'^,i>). -emus, 154. -is, ending of Greek nouns, nom. sin^. in, 22. , gen. -is, decl. of nouns in, 40, i, a> esse, 100; omitted, n6, 5. est qui, with subj., 283, 2. et, 341, I, a ; in enumerations, 341, 4, c). et is, 247, 4. et . . . neque, 341, 3. Ethical dative, i88, 2, b). etiam, in answers, i6a, 5, ^/»o«, 341. 2, c). <- Gender. Feniinii^ ' ca.. sura, 368, -x, c. femur 4^, . -fr, deci. vi .j.juns i < 23, 2; adjs,, 65, 1. fro, 129, /^'^"•r. 75. 2. yJ. urce. 5.1- JfJei, 36a, I, d. /ido, 114, I. /'tdo. with abl., 219, i, a. /«V«j. 73, 3. /lerem./teri, 362. i,c). Fifthdecl., sif. iMgures of rhetoric, 375. -^ of syntax, 374. /'/'. 25. 3. /i/ia,/i/id6us, ar, a, tf). Final clauses, see Purpose clauses. Final consonant omitted, 8, 3. Final syllables, quantity, 363, 364. finis, fines, 61. Finite verb, 95. /'"''. 131. fid, with abl., 218, 6. First conj., loi. First decl., 20 f. ; peculiarities, ai. ftagito, constr., 178, i, a). fodio, log, 2, a). Foot, in verse, 366, 2. ' For,' its Latin equivalents, 358, x. fore, page 57, footnote 3. fore tit, 270, 3. forem, fores, etc., page 57, footnote a. forts, 228, I, c. Formation of words, 146 f. fors,forte,e;j,2,a. fortior, 69, fortis, 69. for tuna, for tunae, 61. Fourth conj., 107 General Index. The references are to sections and paragraphs. Future tense, a6i ; with imperative force a6i, 3. time in the subjv., 269. perfect, 264; with future meaning 133. a. ^' imperative, a8r, t. futurum esse ut, wifii subjv., a7o, 3. dat. in -«, 49, 2; dat. abl. plu. in -ubus, Fourth decl., 48 gen. in -J, 49, i ; 49,3- fraude, 220, 2. frenum, plu. of, 60, 2. Frequentatives, 155, 2. fretus, 218, 3. Fricatives, 2, 7. fructus, dec!., 48. //-«^/, compared, 73 ; 70, 6 Awi^'-f, 57. 6. /'«or, wim abl., -T ; in gerundive constr., 139, 4. /«^w, 109, 2, a). fui, fuist't, etc., for j«w. .-., etc., in com- pound tenses, p. 61,, footnote; p. 61, iboinote. fungor, 218, 1 ; in gerundive constr., 339 4 /«/•, decl., 40, I, d). furto, 220, a. G. gaudeo, 114, i. Gender, 13-is; i„ ist decl., 20. 21 ; in 2d dec!., 23; exceptions, 26; in 3d dec., 43 f.; in 4th decl., 50 : in 5th decl., S3; determined by eri.l.ngs 14- by signification, 15, A ; '.eterogeneous riiuns, 60. geucr, decl., 23, a. Genitive, ^^ ; in -/ for -//, 25, i and 2 ; of ^th decl. in -I, 49, i ; of 5th decl. in -i 52, 2; of 5th d-cl. in .«,-, 53^ i; in ^ 52. 3; of isi decl. in -ai, 21, 2,b) ; of :'it decl. in -is, 21, 2. a) ; gen. plu. -i//« ior -arum, 21, 2, rf) ; -um for .o/-«w, 25.6; gen. plu. lacking, 57, 7 ; syntax of, 194 f. of characteristic, 203, i. of charge with judicial verbs, 208. of indefinite price, 203, 4. of indefinite value, 203, 3. of material, 197. ' of measure, 203, 2. ■ of origin, 196. of possession, 198. of quality, 203. of the whole, 201. appositional, 202. ■ objective, 200. ■ of separation, 212, 3. subjective, 199. with adjs., 204 ; with participles 204, I, a. with causa, gratia, 198, i. with -»rbs, 205 f. ; of p/enty and want, 212; with inipers. verbs, 209. position of gen., 350, i. genus, dec!., 36; id genus, 185, i. -ger, dec!, of nouns in, 23, 2 ; adjs., 65, i. Gerund, 338 ; with object, 338, 5. Gerundive, 337, 7, Gerundive const., 339, ih5 ; in passive periphrastic conj., 337, 7 f. ; gen. de- noting purpose, 339, 6: witli dat. of purpose, 192,3; 339 7, 262 General Index. •-(*&-'% I gnarus, not compared, 75, 2. Gnomic present. 259, i ■ perfect, 262 i gradior, 109, 2, c Graiiim.itical gmder, 15. gram, with gen.. 198, ij ^/-«7/a, ^,«-/,W, Greek nouns, ist dec!.. 22; 2d decl., 27- exceptions in gender, 26, i, c) ; 3d peel., 47; Greek ace, 180; Greek nouns m verse, 365. grus, decl., 41, 2. ^//=^, 3, 3. Guttural mutes, 2, 4. stems, 32. The references are to sections and paragraphs, j-stem, vis, 41. /, in abl., 3d dec!., 38, i ; 39. adjs., 67. 3, a ; 70, 5. participles, 70, 3. patrials, 70, 5, c). H. habed, with perf. pass, partic, 337, 6. Hadiia, 21, i. Hard consonants, 2. 3, a), footnote i. hand, use, 347, 2, a ; //aaaT «/5 a«, 300 ■;. '*«^^. 137.5- Hendiadys, 374, 4. ^m, 232, 2. Heteroclites, 59. Heterogeneous nouns, 60. Hiatus, 366, 7, a. h'lc.Z-j; 246, i; 246,2. hiems, 35, footnote. Historical tenses, 258 ; historical present, I 259. 3 ; 268, 3 ; historical perfect, 262, B • ' historical infinitive, 335, honor, decl., 36. Hortatory subjv., 274. hoitus, decl., 23. hoscine, 87, footnote 2. hostis, dec!., 38. hujusce, 87, footnote 2. huini, 232, 2. humilis, comp., 71, 4. '4«/«2/7, gender of, 26, i, b). \ Hyperbaton,3so, II, a). \ Hypermt-ter, 367, 6. Hysteron proteron, 374, 7, I. i, I. I ; becomes/, 367, 4; instead of « in some words, 9, 1. ^.^,.*J-stems, 37; 39; not always ending in -is, -?. gen,of 2d decl., nouns in -iusand -imn vti, 25, I and 2. - gen. of 4th dec)., nouns in -us, 40 i gen.ofsthdecl.. nouns.S2, 2. ' clause of purpose, -ta, 149. Iambus, 366, 2. Iambic measures, 370. ' trimeter, 370. -iatius, 152, I. -ias, 148, 6, b). -Ibam, in imperf., 116, 4, b). -Uo, in future, n6, 4, b). Ictus, 366, s, -/<:«J, 151, 2; 152,2. id aetatis, 185, 2. id genus, 185, i. /V/ ieinporis, 185, 2. ?a' i^«oa', 247, I, b. Ideal -you.' see Indefinite second oer- son. '^ idem, 87 ; 248. idem ac, 248, 2. Ides, 371, 2, c). -Jo'^j, 148, 6, a), -ides, 148, 6, a). -'^^. 147- 3. ^). idoneus, with rel. I 282,3. -«^«J. 150, 3. -ier, inf. ending, 116, 4, «. i>-//a^344, I, c). «^«w, decl., 38. -tie, 148, 3. ///£?;?, decl., 27. -His, 151, 2. -His, 150, 4. Illative conjunctions, 344. Hie, 87; -the following,' 246, 2- 'the former.' 246, i; 'the well-known',' 246 3: position. 350. 5. ^. tlluc, 87. footnote 3. -j7/«j {a,um), 148, i. -m, in ace, 3d decl., 38, i. -im, -Is in subjv , 116, 4, d. impedlmentum, impedimenta 6r Imperative, 2Pt; fen.es m. 94, 3: 281,1; future m do. wi'li /orce of, 261, 3. as protasi -. jf a conditional sent., 305, 2; as apodosis, 302. 4. sen;, in indir. disc, 316. Imperfect tense, 26c; conaiive. 260 q- v/ith/flOT, etc., a6o, 4. i General Index. W f » K- 7*" '■*'■"■'"'="'"' '° "«'=''°"'' =«"d paragraphs Imperfect subjv. m conditional sent referring to the past, 304, 2. Impersonal verbs. 138; gen. with. 209; m passive. 256, 3 ; 187. II, ^ ; with sul> stantive clauses of result, 297. 2; with mfin.. 327. I ; 330. impetus, defective, 57, 4. Implied -idir. disc, 323. tmus, • bottom of.' 241, i,' «'«, prep., 143. in with abl. of time, 230, 2; 231 'tna, 148, 5. Inceptives, 155, i. Inchoatives, 155, i. Indeclinable adjs., 70. 6; 80, 6. nouns. 58 ; gender of. 15, 3. Indefinite pronouns. 91 ; 252.' Indefinite second person. 280 q • qcfi o ■ 302, 2. -^ ' ^^ ' 3 • Indicative. 271. - in apodosis of conditional sent, of 3a type. 304, 3 a) and 6). indited, constr.. 214. i. n. 2. i*»di^nus. with abl.. 226, 2 ; with rel. clause of purpose, 282. 3. Indirect discourse. 313 f. ; impUed indir disc. 323 ; subordinate clauses in ind 314. 3- —- questions. 300 ; in conditional sent of 3d type. 322. iJ. reflexives. 244. 2. object. 187. infer urn. Inferior, 72, 2. tnfimus, 241, I. Infinitive, in -ier, 116, 4. a; meaning of tenses in. 270; 326 ff. ---fut. perf. inf.. 270. 4; periphrastic future. 270. 3. without subj. ace. 326-328 ; 314 q with subj. ace. 329-331. 263 with adjs.. 333. ■ denoting purpose. 326, N — - in abl. abs., 227. 3, • in exclamations. 334. historical inf., 335. tnftids, 182, 5. Inflection, 11. Inflections, ii if. intern, 73, 4. injuria, 220, 2. injussH, 57, I ; 219, 2. inl. = ,7/., 9, 2. inttlxus, 218, 3. inops, 70, 2. inquam, 134. Inseparable prepositions, 159 , n /«J/ar, with gen., 198.2; 58 * Instrumental uses of abl., 31, • otS ff Intensive pron., 88. '"^.aiSff. Intensives (verbs), 155, a. inter to express reciprocal relation 24c interest, constr., 210 ; 211. interior, y^, i. Interjections. 145. Interrogative pronouns, 90. sentences. 162; particles. 162 2- omitted, 162, 2. rf) ; in indir. disc, 31c' Intransitive verbs in passive, 256. 3 lis'; -inus,isx,2; 152,1; 152,3. -/», verbsof3dconj., 109. ipse, 88; 249; as indir. reflexive, 240 a tpsius and ipsorum, with possessive pro- nouns, 243, 3. -ir, decl. of nouns in, 23. Irregular nouns, 42; verbs, 124 f. is, 87 ; 247 ; as personal pron. 247 2 -is, 148, 6, b). ^'' -", accplu., 3ddecl., 37; 40. ■; , -ttis, abl. of patrials in. 70. k t) «j/a^r. 42, I. -itia, 149. -^a'/^. gen. of nouns in. 25, 2; ending of fhT48.-f'"'-'^^'-=3^'^°=^47.3. -ius, gen. and voc. sing, of nouns in 2=; iand2;ofadjs.,63, a: 151.2; 152 2 152.3; -t«J for -ii^j, 362, I, a). -tvus, 151, 2. J. /, I. 2; length of vowel before K A \ c) jacio, 109, 2, a); compounds of '9' o" 302, 5. • :*. o . y^/>/. etc with present tense. 259. 4 ; with imperfect. 260. 4. j'ecur, 42, 3. ■ •-.,., /etc, 220, 2. yof M«, 38, 2 ; 73, 4. -*, I. I. K. L. Labial mutes, 2, 4. stems, 31. Lacedaewon'i, 232, 4. laevum, 185, 2. /rf/w; decl., 33. largior, 113, Length of syllables, 5, B. Length of vowels, 5, A. lenfus, 151, 3. led, decl., 35. Liber, decl., 23, 2. Uberd, constr., 214, i, n. i. Uberta, H6e/ tabus, 21,2, e). liberuw, gen. plu., 25, 6, <:), //^tf/, 29s, 6 and 8 ; with subjv., 308, a. licet, adversative, 309, 4. Lingual mutes, 2, 4. linter, decl., 40. Liquids, 2, 5. stems, 34. Us, decl., 40, I, d). Litotes, 375, I. littera, litterae, 61. Locative, 17, i ; in -ae, 2T, 2, c) ; in -Z, 25. 5; ••iyntax, 232; apposition with, 169, 4; loc. uses of abl., 213; 228 f. loco, locls, 228, I. b. locus, plurals of, 60, 2. Long syllables, 5, B, i. - — vowels, 5, A, I. longius = lojigtus quam, 217, 3. longum est, 271, i, b. lubet, lub'ido, 9, i, ludi, 230, I. ^«^. 57. 7- M. magis, comparison with, 74. ^ tnagnopere, compared, -jt, i. sections and paragraphs. tnagnus, compared, 72. male, comparison, 77, i. maledicens, 71, 5, a), ntalim, 280, 2, a, viallem, 280, 4, w<7/J, 130; with inf., 331, IV, and a; with subjv., 296, I, a. ma/us, comparison, 73. mane, 58. Manner, abl. of, 220. ?nare, 39, 2 ; 7narl, 228, i, c). mas, decl., 40, i, d). Masculine, see Gender. Masculine caesura, 368, 3 c. mUfertes, materia, 59, 2, a). ma/Hre, compared, jj, i. maturus, compared, 71, 3. maxiiiie, compared with, 74. maxumus, 9, i. Means, abl. of, 218. medius, ' middle of,' 241, i. med, 84, 3. Mediae (consonants), 2, 3, b), footnote 2. mei, as objective gen., 242, 2. melius est, 271, i b). memitn, 133 ; constr., 206, i, a ; 2, a. I memor, 70,- 2. I -»?^«, -metitmn, 147, 4, metisis, 38, 2, footnote i. mentem {in mentem venire), 206, 3. -wi*-/, 6, 3 ; 84, 2. Metrical close of sent., 350, 12. metuo, 296, 2. m, dat., 84, i; voc, 86, 2. «««, voc. of tneus, 86, 2. Middle voice, verbs in, 175, 2, rf). 7nlles, decl., 33. mllitiae, 232, 2. wJ//^, miliia, 80, 5. ^minime, in answers, 162, 5, 3). minimum, jj, 3. w/»»j = ?;//««j j?«fl;«, 217, 3. m'lror, 113. /«m«, 75, 2, miscere, with abl., 218, 5 ; with dat., 358, 3. misereor, with gen., 209, 2. miseresco, with gen., 209, 3. miseret, constr., 209. medium, gen. plu., 25, 6, a). WiJt/^, in wishes and provisos, 310. moneo, 103; constr., 178, i, d). months, decl., 68, i ; 70, 5, a) ; names, 371. 1. Moods, 94, a. in independent sentences, 271 f. in dependent clauses, 282 f, tnorior, 109, 2, c). Mora, 366, I. mos, decl., 36; mores, 61. tnds est, with substantive clause, 297, 3. mullebie secus, 185, i, multuin, -jT, 3 ; compared, tj, i. multus, compared, 72 ; witlj another adj., 241. 3- mus, decl., 40, 1, d). mutdre, with abl., 218, 5. Mutes, 2, 3. Mute stems, 30. General Index. The references are to sections and paragraphs. nihil est cHr, quare, qu'in, 295, 7, 265 r- N. « adulter'inum, 2, 6. -««/«, 90, 2, rf. Nasals, 2, 6. Nasal stems, 35. «f /«. 57- 1 : 73. 4. footnotes, 4, 5 ; 226, i. Natural gender, 14. ndtus, constr., 215. ndvis, 41, 4. -ne, 6, 3 f ; 162, 2, c) ; 300, i, ^) ; -«^ . . . an, 162, 4 ; in indir. double questions 300,4. ne, in prohibitions, 276; with hortatory subjv., 274 ; with jussive, 275 ; with con- cessive, 278; with optative, 279; in substantive clauses, 295 f. ne, ' lest,' 282, i ; 296, 2. ne non for ut after verbs oi fearing, 296, 2, a. ne . . . quidem, 347, i. nee, 341, I, d) ; nee usquarn, 341, 2, /). necesse est, 295, 8. w^^;/^, 162, 4. «^ iw, 58. Negativ-es, 347, 2 ; two negatives strength- ening the negation, 347, 2. "^'"0,57,3; 252,6. nequam, 70, 6 ; compared, 72. neque, 341, i, rf) ; „^^«^ j^ purpose clauses, 282, i, e. nequed, \vj, i. nequiter, compared, yj, i. nesciif quis, 253, 6 ; nes'cio an, 300 5. Neuter, see Gender. neuter, 66 ; 92, i. neve {neu), in purpose clauses, 282 i d »iAi/,s8. ' ' ' nisi, 306, I and 4. nisi forte, 306, 5. nist si, 306, 5. nisi vera, 306, 5. nltor, constr., 218, 3. fiix, decl., 40, \,d). noli, with inf , in prohibitions, 276, c. nolini, 280, 2, a. no Hem, 280, 4. «oVJ,i3o: with inf.. 331, IV and a; 270, 2, a; with subjv., 296, i, a. nomen, decl., 35; ndme'n 'est, constr. 190,1. Nominative, 17; 170; used for voc, 171. I ; nom. sing, lacking, 57, 6. Nones, 371, 2, /5). «o//, in answers, 162, 5, ^) ; with poten. subjv., 280; with deliberative, 277. non in ado for non modo non, 343, 2 a. nonne, 162, 2. a) ; 300, i, ,J), n. ' «.?// 4^«/«, with ind., 286, 1, c ; with subjv. 286, i,b. non qii'in, with subjv., 286, i, b. non i^/W.with ind., 286, x,c; with subjv.. 286, I, b. ■ ' nosirl, as objective gen., 242, 2. nostrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2; as possessive gen., 242, 2, a. Nouns, 12 ff. ; 353 ; derivation of, 147 f. in -is not always J-stems, 38, r. of agency, force, 353, 4. used in p'u. only, 56. used in sing, only, 55. used only in certain cases, 57. indeclinable, 58. '^ with change ofmeaning in plural, 61. ■ syntax, 166 f. predicate, agreement of, etc., 167 f. appositives, agreement of, etc 169 f. Noun and adj. forms of the verb, 95, z,. novl, as pres., 262, A. novits, compared, 73, 3, -ns, decl. of nouns in, 40, x, c). nUlIa causa est cUr, qudre, quln, 29c, 7. nuUus, 66; 57,3; .^,1. Number, 16; 94, 4. num, 162, 2, b) ; 300, r, b). Numerals. 78 f.; peculiarities in use o£ 8r. ^ nUper, compared, 77, i. -nus, 151, a. . 266 General Index, The references are to lection* and paragraphi. o. •0; stems in, 93. 0, instead of u in some words, 9, i ; 9, < Oliject, direct, 17a f. ; indirect, 187 f. Objective gen., 200. Oblique cases, 17, a. obltvlscor, constr., 306, i, *; a. odt, 133. olle, archaic for iiU, 87. -olus (a, urn), 148, i. •om, later -um in ad decl., 33. 'OH, Greek nouns, ad decl. in, 87. Onomatopoeia, 375, 4. opera, operae, 61. opln'ione with abl., 317, 4. opis, 57. 6 ; opes, 61. oportet, 395, 6 and 8. oportuit, with pres. inf. ' ought to have,' 270, a ; with perf. inf., 370, 2, a. Optative subjv., 372; 979; substantive clauses developed from, 296. optimates, decl., 40, I, d), optiimm, 9. I. opus est, ai8, a. -or, 147, 2. Oratio Obliqua, 313 f. Ordinals, 78, i ; 79- oriundus, constr., 215, 2. oro, with ace, 178, i, a). Orthography, peculiarities, 9. ortus, constr., 215. OS, 57. 7- OS, 42. -OS, later -«J in 2d decl., 23. .OS, later -or in 3d decl., 36, I. , -OS, Greek nouns, ad decl. in, 37. ■^sus, 151, 3- Oxymoron, 37S, a. P. paenitet, with gen., 209. falam, 144. a. Palatal mutes, 3, 4. Parasitic vowels, 7, 3. paratus with infin., 333. /arw, 109, 2, a). pars, partes, 61. /or/^, 328, 1, b. partem, 185, i. I^rticipial stem, 97, HI; formation, 119- I^articiples, in -ans and -ins, 70, 3 ; syn- tax, 336 fi. Participles, fut. act., 119, 4; denoting purpose, 337. 4- perf. act., how supplied, 356, 3. perf. pass., 336, 3 ; as pres., 336, 5. pres. panic, 336, 3 ; with conative force, 336, 3, a. perf. pass., with active meanmg, 114, 3; with noun equivalent to ab- stract noun, 337. 5; with habeo, 337, 6. with video, audio, /acid, etc., 337, 3- ot deponents, 112, b. Particles, 139 ^- 1 34 ^ '• Partitive apposition, 169, 5. Partitive gen., so called, soi. Parts of speech, 10. parum, comparison, 77, 1. parvus, comparison, 73. Passive, verbs in, with middle meaning, 175. 2. <'); 25^; constr. of passive verbs of saying, etc., 333, and note; how supplied uhen missing, 356, i. patior, 109,2, c); 113; with inf., 331, III. Patrial adjs., 70, 5, c). Patronyms, 148, 6. p,wlum, 77, 3. paulus, 9, 2. pelagus, gender of, 26, a. penates, decl., 40, x,d). Pentameter, dactylic, 369. Penult, 6, a. per with ace. of time and space, iBi, a. Perfect active ptc, how supplied in Latin, 356. 2- Perfect tense, 363; 368, i. stem, 97, 11 ; formation, 118. in -avl, -i-v't, -Ivl contracted, 116, I. historical perf., 363. with force of pres., 363 ; 133, a. Periodic structure, ssi, 5- Periphrastic conj., 115; 369,3; >" <=°"" ditional sentences of the 3d type, 304, 3, b) ; in indir. disc, 322; in passive, 337. 7. *. !• flit, inf., 270, 3. [Persons, 95. 4; ^d sing, of indefinite subject. 356, 3. Personal pronouns, 84 ; 242 ; as subject, omission of, 166, 2; as objective teni- tivrs, 242, 2. endings, 96. pig'et, with gen., 209. Place whence, 229 ; place where, aflS. placitus, 114, a. plibh, 59. 2,d); plebl, 53, a. Plenty and Want, verbs of. consfr.. aia cf. ai8, 8. plenm, aiB, 8. a. Pleonasm. 374, 3. plirdque, 6. 5. Pluperfect tense. 363; 387. a; 388 3- with imperfect meaning. 133 3 Plural. 16; instlideci..sa.4;'ofproper names, 55. 4. a) ; of abstract nouns. 55. 4. c)\ nouns used in, only 56 •' with change of meaning. 61 ; stylistic use. 353. 112. riunilia tantum, 56; 81. 4, h). plus, 70; 70, 4 ; =//«.r ,juam, 317. 3 Polysyndeton. 341. 4. ^). /oJi-J. 178. I, a). Position of clauses, 351, 3. -— of words, 348 ; 350; 351. Possessive dat.. igo; gep.. ,98; con- frast.-d with dat. ofposs.. 359 i Possessive pronouns, 86; 343;' = objec- tive gen, 343. 2; position of. 24:, posmm, 126 ; with present infin. ' I micht • 271. I, rt). " ' post, 144. i; in expressions of time 1 357. I. • I Post-positive words, 343, i, c) posteaquam, 287. 114, posterus, posterior, 73, 2. post,]uam, 287; separated. 287, 3; with General Index. The reference, are .0 section. «nd paragraph., ■ 267 Predicate nouns, 167; ,68; in ace,. ,77. predicate noun, or adjs. attracted to "»*•. iV, a. o/wr, with gen, 213, 2 ; with abl, 318 i- m gerundive constr.. 339. 4. ' ' . adj., Ti, I. potius, comparrd, 77, i. Potui,poteran,, in apodosis of conditional sent. of3dtype, 304, 3. «);ini„dir. disc, 323. C. potu-t, with pres. inf. = • could have' 270, 2. ' Potuerim, in dependent apodosis, 323 c pOtUS, 114, 2. - J -. «■• I praesens, 135. pransus, 114, 2. /r^^J, -m, -e, 57. 5, «. Predicate, 163. gen.. 198, 3; 203,5. 376. Prohibitive subjv., 276. Prolepsis. 374, 5. Pronominal adjs., 353 Pronouns, 82 f. ; personal, omission of. as subject. 166, 3 ; syntax. 243 f. ; per- sonal, 242 f.; possess, 243 f. ; reflex, 244 f.; reciprocal, 245 f . ; demonstra- t.ve 246 f.; relative, 250 f.; indef.. 252f; position, 350. 5 ; 355. Pronunciation, Roman, 3. prope, compared, jj, x. Proper names, abbrevi'ated, 373. nouns, 12, I. propior, compared, 73, i ; with ace, 141. proprius, with dat, 304, 3. a; with gen.. 204, 2. " ^ ' Prosody, 360 f. ^■fnvfjtpf T«H »,T \^- 268 General Index. The references arc to Protasis, 301 ; denoting repeated action, 302, 3; without si, 305; of indef. ad sing., 303, 2. Provisos, 310. proxime, -us, with ace, 141, 3. prud'ens, 70. •Pte, 86. 3. pudet, with gen., 209. puer, decl., 23. Purpose, how denoted, 282; 338, 3; 339, 2,6; 340, i; 191; 337.4- Purpose clauses, 282; independent of principal verb, 282, 4 ; 339, 6 ; 340, i. Q. •qu-, both letters consonants, 74, a. quaerb, 300, i, b), N. guaeso, 137, 2. Quality, gen., 203; 224, 3; abl,, 224. quam,'\n comparisons, 217, 2; with su- perl., 240, 3. quain si, 307, I. quam ut, with subjv., 294, 4. quamquam, with ind., 309, 2; with subjv., 309, 6 ; = ' and yet," 309, 5. quaiitv'is, with subjv., 309, I ; 6; denot- ing a fact, 309, 6. quando, 286, 3, b. Quantity, 5. • ofsyllables, 5, .5; 363 f. of vowels, s, A; 362; in Greek words, 365. quasi, 307, i. quatib, 109, 2, a), •que, accent of word preceding, 6, 3 ; 6 6; 341; I, ^); 2, a) ; 4,^). queb, 137, I. Questions, word, sentence, 162 f.; rhetor- ical, 162,3; double (.ilternative), 162, 4; indirect, 300; questions in indir. disc, 315. qui, re!., 89 ; intern, 90 ; indef., 91 ; for quis in indir. questions, 90, 2, b; with n'e, SI, nisi, num, 91, 5; in purpose clauses, 282, 2; abl., 90, 2, a. quia, in causal clauses, 286, i. quicum, 89. quicumque, 91, 8. quidam, 91 ; syntax, 252, 3. qtiidem, post-positive, 347, i. qui li bet, 91. quln, in result clauses, 284, 3; in sub- stantive clauses, 295, 3; 298; = qui sections and paragraphs. nbn in clauses of characteri~;'c, 283, 4-, with ind., 281, 3; in indir.' disc, 33a and a ; niilla causa est quln, 395, 7. quinam, 90, 2, d. Qulntllis (= Julius), 371. qiiippe qui, 283, 3. Quirites, decl., 40, i, d. y«/j, indef., 91 ; interr., 90; 90, c; 253, I ; nescid quis, 253, 6 ; with n si, nisi, num, 91, 5. qu'is = quibus, 89. quisnam, 90, 2, d. qutspiani, 91. quisquam, 91 ; 252, 4. quisque, 91 ; 252, 5. quisquis, 91, 8. quivis, 91. quo, in purpose clauses, 282, i, a, quoad, with ind., 293; with subjv., 293, 111,2. quod, in causal clauses, 286, . ; ir sub- stantive clauses, 299; 331, V, a; 'as regards the fact,' 299, 2. quod audieiim, 283, 5; quod sciam, 283,5- qufld si, 185, 2. quo III, 9, I. quo minus, 295, 3. quoniam, 286, i. quoque, post-positive, 347. -quus, decl. of nouns in, 24. R. rapib, 109, 2, a) . rastrum, plurals of, 60, 2. Reciprocal pronouns, 85, 2 ; 245 ; cl 253, 3. Reduplication in perf., iiS, 4, a) ; ir. pres., 117, 7. refer t, constr., 210; 211, 4. Reflexive pronouns, 8s ; 244; 249,3. regb, 105. rn, 362, I, *). rcicib, 362, 5. Relative clauses, 311; 312; character- istic, 283. conditional sentences, 312, 2. pronouns, 89; 250 f.; = Eng. de- monstrative, 2c;t, 6; agreement, 250; fondness for sut)ordinate clauses, 355. clauses with dignus, indignus, idd- neus, 282, 3. of purpose, 282, 2; of result, 384, ». General Index. 269 The r«rerences are to sections and paragraphs. Relative, taking ace. and infin. in indir. I Sentences, classification, 160 f. • simole disc, 314, ^. rt/i,;ui, aS3, 5. riiiiex, decl., 3a. reminiscor, < onstr., ao6, 3. reposed, cop ,tr., 178, i, a), rei/uiis, req lieni, requietem, 59, a, c), res, decl., 5,1. Result, a',"", of, 173, D\ 176; clauses of, 284, 297; in dependent apodosis, 322, and a; sequence of tense in, 268, 6. revertor, 114, 3. Rhetorical questions, 162, 3; 277, a\ in indir. disc, 315, 2. Rhotacism, 8, i ; 36, i. rogatu, 219, 2, rogo, constr., 178, i, c) ; 178, i, a). Roman pronunciation, 3. Root, 17, 3, footnote i. -rSy de'.l. of nouns in, 40, i, c). ru e, 229, I, d. ruA, 228, I, c. rus. 1^2. i,b; S7.7' S. -J, decl. of monosyllables in, preceded by one or more consonants, 40, i, b). j-stems, 36, saur, 65; comparison, 73, 3. satpe, compared, jj, i. •f^- 57. 7; sales, 6i. sa.ubris, 68, 3. saiutaris, 73, 4. saJve, salvete, 137, 4. Cuamn'Ues, dec)., 40, i, d). 'arte, in answers, 162, 5. ■fipio, 109, 2, a), ■icio, quod sciam, 283, 5. scribere ad aliquem, 358, 2, se, 244. Second conj., 103 ; dec!., 23 ; peculiarities, 25; second person indefinite, 280, 3; 356. 3 ; 302, 2. Secondary tenses, see Historical tenses. secus, compared, 77, i. secus {virile secus), 185, i; 58. sed, 85, 3. J9, 2; vowels, 5, /i, a. jJ, with indir. questions, 300, 3; in pro- tasis, 301 ; omitted, 305. slgnifer, decl., 23, 2. silei/tio, 220, 2. silvestris, 68, 3. Jm/7/\f, with dat., 204, 3; with gen., 204, 3; comp., 71, 4. St Minus, 306, 2. siinul, 144, 2. j/w«/ ar, 287, I ; 2. si non, 306, i and a. jJ«, 306, 3. Singular, second person .idefinite, a8o, 3 : 356, 3 ; 302, 2. sitio, with inf., 331, HI. Smelling, verbs of, CMistr., 176, 5. Soft consonants, 2, j, iJ), footnote 2. .fot^r/-, decl., 23, 2. socittm, gen. plu., 25, 6, t). ^ol< 57. 7. Jo/tfo, 114, I. solus, 66; j5/«j «/ qui with subjv., 283, 2. Sonant consonants, 2, 3, <>), footnote 2. Soracte, 39, 2. Sounds, classification, 2. of the letters, 3. Source, abl., 215. Specification, abl. of, 226. spci, 362, i,b. Spelling, see Orthography. Spirants, 2, 7. Spovidaic verses, 368, 2. sponte sua, 220, 3. sponlis, -e, 57, 2, <5. Stem, 17, 3. , verb, 97, 117. Style, hints on, 352 f. ' su = sv, 3, 3. sub, with ace. and abl, 143. Siibject, 163 ; nom., 166; ace, 184; sub- ject ace. of inf., 184; omitted 314,5. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) w' y. €^ '-^ 1.0 I.I l.2d l^|2^ |2.5 |jo "^ B^B 1^ mil 2.2 us us I.4Q 2.0 1.8 iA 1116 PhotDgmphic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 672-4503 a? fV iV \ :\ ^, #v ^ Q,\ T 270 General Index. The references are to Subjective gen., 199. Subjunctive, tenses in, 94, 3. in independent sentences, 272 ; by attraction, 324; tenses of, 266 f.; method of expressing future time in, 269 ; volitive (hortatory, jussive, prohibitive, deliberative, concessive), 273 f. ; optative (wishes), 279; poten- tial, 280; in clauses of purpose, 282; of characteristic, 283; of result, 284; of cause, 286 ; temporal c'auses with postquam, posteaquam, 287,5; tempo- ral clauses with cum, 288-290; with antequam and priusquam, 292; with dum, donee, quoad, 293, III, 2; sub- stantive clauses, 294 f. ; indir. ques- tions, 300; in apodosis of first type conditions, 302, 4 ; jussive subjunctive as protasis of condition, 305, 2; with velut, tamquam, etc., 307 ; with necesse est, oportet, etc., 295, 6 and 8; with licet, 308, a; 309, 4; with quamvls, guumquatn, ets'i, c«/«,' although,' 390 f. sublatus, p. 99, footnote. subm- = summ-, g, 2. Subordinate clauses, 165. Substantive clauses, 294 f. ; without ut, 295, 8 ; of result, 297 ; introduced by quod, 299. subter, 143, i. Suffixes, 17, 3, footnote i ; 147 f. su't, 85 ; as objective gen., 244, 2 ; = pos- sessive gen., 244, 2. sum, 100. summus, ' top of," 241, i. sunt qui, with subjv., 283, 2. sudpte, suapte, 86, 3. supellex, 42, 2. super, 143, I. super/is, compared, 73, 2. Superlative lacking, 73, 4; force of, 240, 2. Supine, 340. Surd consonants, 2, 3, a), footnote i. sUs, decl., 41. sustull, p. 99, footnote. suus, 86, I ; 244 ; suus quisque, 244, 4, a. Syllaba anceps, 366, 10. Syllables, 4 ; quantity of, 5, B. Synapheia, 367, 6. Synaeresis, 367, i. . Synchysis, 350, 11, rf). Syncope, 7, 4 ; 367, 8. sections and paragraphs. Synecdochical ace, 180. Synizesis, 367, i. Syntax, 160 f. Systole, 367, 3. T. tciedet, 209. talentum, gen. plu., 25, 6, a). tamen, 343, i,/ tametsi, 309, 2. tamquam, tamquam si, 307. t ant on, 6, 4. -tas, 149 ; gen. -tatis^ decl. of nouns iti. 40, I, (f). Tasting, verbs of, constr., 176, 5. ted, 84, 3. Temporal clauses, 287 ff. temporis {id temporis) , 185, 2. tener, 64. Tenses, 94, 3; 257 ff. ; of inf., 270; of inf. in indir. disc, 317 ; of participles, 336; of subjv., 266; sequence of, 2^6; in indir. disc, 317 ; 318. Tenues (consonants), 2, 3, a), footpotp i. tenus, position, 142, 3. Terminations, 17, 3. -ternus, 154. terra marique, 128, \,c. terrestris, 68, 3. Tetrameter verses, 366, 11. Thesis, 366. 6. Third conj., 105 ; 109 f. ; decl., 28 i. ; gender in, 43 f. -tim, 157, 2. Time, at which, 230; during which, 181 ; 231, I ; within which, 231. timed ne and ut, 296, 2. -tiiius, 154. -tid, 147, 3. Tniesis, 367, 7. -tor, use of nouns in, 353, 4. totus, 66; 228, I, b). trabs, decl., 31. traditur, trdditum est, 332, N. trans, constr, of verbs compounded with, 179. Transitive verbs, 174. tres, 80, 3. tribus, decl., 49, 3. Trimeter verses, 366, 11. trini, 81, 4, i). triumvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, b). Trochee, 366, 2. -trum, 147, 4. tu, 84. -tudo, 149. tut, as objective gen., 242, 2. -tura, 147, 3, a). '«-f. 57. 7. -'«J. 147. 3 : 151. 4- /wjj/j, decl., 38. /«/■(?, iufftnet, 84, 2. U. «, instead of / in some words, 9, i; in- stead of (7, 9, I ; 9, 4. «, becomes v, 367, 4. fi-siems, 48. «-stems, 41. -u, dat. sing., 4th decl., 49, 2. ubi, with ind., 287, 1 ; 2 ; with gen., 201, 3. -udus, dat. plu., 4th decl., 49, 3. ullus, 66. ulterior, compared, 73, i. ultimus, 241, 2. -a/«j, 150, 2; {a, urn), 148, i. -«w, ist decl., gen. plu. in, 21, 2, rf) ; 2d decl., 25, 6. -undus, -undi, in gerund and gerundive, 116, 2. «««j, 66; 92, i; unus est qui, with subjv., 283, 2. -«j, neuter nouns of 2d decl. in, 26, 2. usque ad, 141, i. usus est, with abl., 218, 2. «/, temporal, 287, x\ z; ut, utl, in pur- pose clauses, 282; in result clauses, 284; in substantive clauses, 295 f. ; substantive clauses without, 295, 8; with verbs of fearing, 296, 2. ut ne = ne, 282, i, b. ut non instead of «^, 282, i, c; in clausas of result, 284, 297. ut qui, introducing clauses of character- istic, 283. 3. utsi,yyj, I. uter, 66 ; 92, i. uter, decl., 40, i, d). utercumque, 92, 2. uterlibet, 92, 2. uter que, fj-z, 2; 355,2. utervis, 92, 2. utilius est, 271, i, b). utinam, with optative subj., 279, i and 2 utor, with abl., 218, i; in gerundive constr., 339, 4. General Index, The references are to sections and paragraphs. utrdque, 6, 5. 27X utrum . ..an, 162, 4 ; 300, 4, V. », I, I. V, becomes «. ^67, 5. vali, 363, 2. <>). Value, indefinite, in gen., 203, 3. vannus, gender of, 26, i, b). v^s, 59, I. -»'. 6, 3; 342, i,b). vel, 342, I, b) ; with superl., 240, 3. velint, 280, 2, a. vellem, 280, 4. z/^/w/", velutsi, 307, I, z'^w/.f/-, decl., 40, I, d). Verbs, 94 f.; personal endings, 96; de- ponent, 112; archaic and pot-tic forms, 116, 4; irregular, 124; dffective, 133; impersonal, 138; with substantive clauses of result, 297, 2; omission of, 166, 3; transitive, 174; used abso- lutely, 174, a; passives used as mid- dles, 175, 2. d); of smelling and tasting, constr., 176, 5; not used in passive, 177, 3, a; intransitives im- personal in passive, 187, W, b; 256, 3; compounded with prepj., constr., 187, III; of judicial action, constr., 208; derivation of, 155 f.; inceptive or inchoative, 155, i ; frequentative or mtensive, 155, 2; desiderafive, 155, 3; denominative, 156; agreement of, 254 '^^ Verb stems, 97; formation of, 117 f. vereor, 113; 296, 2. Vergilius, gen. of, 25, 1. ""'"■0, 343. I- g) ; in answers, T62, 5. Verse, 366, 3. Verse-structure, 366 ! Versification, 361. versus, 141, 2. varum, 343, i, b). vescor, with abl., 218, i. vesper, decl., 23, 2. vesperi, 232, 2. vestri, 242, 2. vestrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2; as possessive gen., 242, 2, a. veto, with inf., 331, II. vetiis, 70; compared, 73, 3. vi, 220, 2. vicetn, 185, i ; vicis, vice, 57, 5, b. 2/2 General Index. The references are to sections and paragraphs. Vowel changes, 7. victor, decl., 34. viden, 6, 4. wrf^-o, with pies, parfic, 337, 3. vigil, decl., 34. violenter, 77, 4, a. w/'r, decl., 23. , gen. plu. of nouns compounded with, 25, 6, b). virile secus, 185, i. virus, gender of, 26, 2. VIS, decl., 41. Vocative case, 17; 19, i; 171; in -i for -;>, 25, I ; position of, 350, 3. Voiced sounds, 2, 3, a. Voiced consonants, 2, 3, 3). Voiceless consonants, 2, 3, a. Voices, 94; 256; middle voice, 256, i. Volitive subjunctive, 272 f. volnus, 9, I. void, 130; with inf., 331, IV and a; 270, 2, a; with subjv., 296, i, a. volt, 9, I. voltiis, 9, I. J voluntate, 220, 2. -volus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5. Vowels, 2, I ; sounds of the, 3, i ; quan- tity of, s, A ; cc itraction of, 7, 2 ; par- asitic, 7, 3. vulgus, gender of, 36, 2. -vum, -vus, decl. of nouns in, 34. W. Wish, clauses with dum, etc., expressing a, 310. Wishes, subjunctive in, 279; see Opta- tive subjunctive. Word-formation, 146 f. Word-order, 348 f. Word questions, 162, 1. X. X, 2, 9. -X, decl. of monosyllables in, preceded by one or more cons., 40, i, b). Y. y, I. I. You,' indefinite, 356, 3; a8o, 3; 303, x z,\,i; 2,9. Zeugma, 374, 2, a). *, 11 INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES. sssing Opta- ledby OS, 3. l2mo, cloth, uniform binding. 'THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES was projected for the pur- pose of bringing together in orderly arrang^emeiU ihe best writings, new and old, upon educational subjects, and presenting a womplete course of readinir and training for teachers p:enerally. Itisediud by William T. 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"^ MODERN METHODS IN EDUCATION a rl^o^ern jengHsb (Brammar By HUBER GRAY BUBHLBR This book is an attempt to present the grammar of modern English In th« manner prescribed by modern methods of instruction ; and the method adopted cannot tail to commend itself to all progressive teachers as the simplest, most natural, and most conducive to interest in what is apt to be considered th« driest of all educational subjects. PRICE, 75 CENTS Copies/or examination mailed free on receipt of 40 cents. GEORGE N. MORANG & COMPANY LIMITED 90 Wellington Street West Toronto Morang's 2oth Century Educational Series 1llu0trate^ Claeeical Series TAis nt-w series, prepared by accomplished scholars of great fracttcal experience in teaching, is distinguished by several important features for the first time introduced into Canadian text-books. 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