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Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clichd, il est filmd & partir de Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche A droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. rrata to pelure. n d □ 32X 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 w ^u ^utjidttjt^ |»9 t|i( tf0uncU 0f fluMtc Jnttruction of 9ntact0. tf miabmn Stxm jof St^ool ^jaohs. FIEST LESSONS ON AGRICULTURE; FOR CANADIAN FARMERS AND THEIR FAMILIES. Bt EGERTON EYERSON. SECONb EDITION. " The success of a Farmer depends on hin understanding and Coiuplyiug with the laws and principles on which GOD bestows a harvest." TORONTO: COPP, CLARK 4 CO., KING STREET EAST. 187 1. IS7I * Entered according to Act of tha Parliament of Canada, in the year One Thousand Eight Hundred and Seventy, by the Rev. Egerton Rykrson, LL.D., Chief Superintendent of Edu- cation for Ontario, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture. ^^O^A: •H. PKEFATOPwY NOTICE. The selection of topics, arrangement, many of the defini- tions, explanations and illustrations of this little t)Ook, are my own , but the materials and much of the phraseology have been compiled and condensed from the most approved modern works on Chemistry, Botany and Agriculture. Should any profits arise from the publication and sale of this book, the Author will not participate in them ; the prepa- ration of it is a humble but gratuitotis contribution to a most important branch of Canadian education and industry. Toronto, August, 18*70. DEDICATORY PREFACE. To the Honorable Commissioner, Fret'dent and Members of the Board of Agriculture for Upper Canada, Gentlemen, I beg permission to present to you, and, through you, tO Canadian Farmers and their Families, the following book, which I have prepared as an humble contribution to the great work which, by your voluntary and intelligent labours, you have done so much to promote, and which forms the basis and life of our country's wealth and prosperity. Identified as I am by birth and early education with tho agiicultural population of this country, I regret to see so many of our agricultural youth leave the noblest of earthly employments, and the most independent of social pursuits, for tho professions, the counting room, the warehouse, and even for petty clerkships and little shops. I know that persons in public offices, and inhabitants of cities and towns, who have no farms, must, for the most part, bring up their sons to other employments than that of agriculture ; personal peculi- arities and relations may prompt to the same course in regard to some farmers' sons ; and a divine call may select from the farm, as well as from the shop and the college, for a divine vocation ; but that, as a general rule, the sons of farmers, as soon as they begin to be educated, leave the farm, is a misfor- tune to the parties themselves, a loss to agriculture, and to the country. A boy's leaving the farm because he has or is acquiring a good education, is an assumption or admission by all consenting parties, that a farmer does not need such an education ; and as long as this error is admitted, by farmers not being educated, agriculture will be loolsed down upoUf VI DEDICATORY PREFACE. instead of being loohed up to, as a pursuit for educated men. Politicians are accustomed to call farmers, by way of compli- ment, the hone and sinew of the land ; and hone and sinew they will remain, and never be anything else, without educa- tion. It is a supreme law, illustrated by all history, that head rules mmcle ; and all farmers who educate only their muscles, and not their heads, must occupy the inferior re- lation of muscle. It is true that such farmers, as well as mechanics, may be and feel themselves quite as good as other people ; but if they are not as intelligent — that is, as well educated and informed — their goodness will be . associated with ignorance, and their social position will necessarily be one of inferiority. But let the boy he educated to make him a hetter farmer, as well as a better citizen ; let it be assumed, and become a recognized fact, that a farmer must be educated to be a good farmer, as a lawyer, doctor, or clergyman, must be educated to be master of his work, and agriculture will hold a rank equal to, if not above, that of law or medicine. Educated farmers, educated merchants, and educated manu- facturers and mechanics, will not only develope and advance the material interests of the country, but its civil and social interests, by enabling the people to select chiefly intelligent and well-to-do men from these classes as their representatives — men not needing an office for support, or making politics a trade — affording the best chance of practical wisdom and Honesty in legislation and government, and the best hope of producing the great public desideratum — a generation of honest politicians and patriotic statesmen. I know it may be said by some, " Our fathers were not educated, and yet were successful farmers." But those very fathers will bear witness that they would have done and felt much better had they been educated. Besides, the soil was then new and more productive, and the mode of cultivating it most simple ; but the culture of the soil, the growing of crops, ^he raising of stock, and the business transactions and social relations of the farmer, are very different now from what they were in former years. The old methods and instruments of *i ' )f^.u¥' DEDICATORY PREFACE Vll agriculture can no more compete with the present, than the old modes of travelling or of manufactures. If the farmer keeps not up with the improvements and intelligence of the age, he will sink down into a mere animal of burden, instead of standing among the peers of the land.''' It has indeed been said, that •' common sense alone is suffi- cient to make a good farmer." It is true, a man cannot bo a good farmer without common sense; but common sense never manufactured a steam-engine, or constructed a rail-road, or even made a plough, or planted an orchard, without being properly instructed or educated to do it. In the following pages, after noting the nature and impor- tance of the farmer's profession, and the education demanded by his employment and position, I have sought to prepare an Elementary Grammar of Agriculture Tor his use — interspers- ing the text with notes (in smaller type) which may be inte- resting to the more advanced and general reader. The first and great staple interest of our country requires young men who will devote to agriculture their talents, their attainments, their fortunes, and their livQS ; and in no other pursuit is a wider and more inviting field of enterprise open to them. If this little book shall, among other things, tend to show how much science, art, refinement, and pleasure, as well as profit, are involved in the true pursuit of agriculture, and thus elevate it in the esteem and occupation of the agri- cultural youth of Canada, I shall be amply compensated for the labour of preparing it. I have the honour to be, • Gentlemen, Your fellow labourer and obedient servant, E. RYERSON. Toronto, August, 1870. * In tlie Lesson on Ecoiwmy of the Household, will be fbuud remarks on the cilucation of farmers' daughters, and of women generally, especially iu refe- i-ence to the domestic part of it. See pages 173, 174. CONTENTS. PART FIRST. PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE. Lesson I. Tho Farincr, and u , profession ; what he has to do ; what he ought to ki .w ; how he may learn ; tho substances with whio.i lie has to do 9, 15 Lesson IL On the two ids ol" subs .mces with which the Farmer has to do— orpmic and inorganic; tho proportions of these substa. ocs in soils, plants and animals 16, 17 Lesson IIL On the organic co: otituents of plants and animals 18, 10 Lesson IV. The fifteeii elementary s.ibstances ; their names, symbols, and equivalent numbers 20, 21 Lesson V. Explanation of chemical terms 21-25 Lesson VL Definitions of the acids, bases, and salts ; of the terminations, ide, uret, ous, ic, ite, and ate ; of the prefixes hypo, per, proto, deuto or bin, trito or ter 20-33 Lesson VII. Some account of the nature and properties of four of the fifteen elementary substances — oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon 83-38 Lesson VIII. Chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus 38-42 Lesson IX. Metals — potassium and sodium 43-45 Lesson X. Calcium and magnesium (metals of alkaline earths) 40-48 Lesson XI. Aluminum and silicon (metals of earths) 48-51 Lesson XII. Metals employed in the arts — iron and manganese '. 51 56 ' X CONTENTS. Lesson XIII. Other useful metals — tin, copper, zinc, lead 5G-CG Lesson XIV. The noble metals — mercury, silver, plati- num, gold 63-66 Lesson XV. Kinds of soil 66-70 Lesson XVI. Structure of plants and offices of their organs 70-76 (NoTK.~Tho stuilent-faniier (unless proiiaring to toacli) neod only cnmmit o memory the text (in large ty])c) of the First Part of this book, excepting the 1st, 14tli, and 15th Lessons ; an attentive perusal, with references as occasion may require, will enable him to master the subjects of the Second Part, for all prac- tical purposes.) f SECOND PART. . PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. Lesson XVII. Composition of soils and plants, and their relations to each other 77-80 Lesson XVIII. Soils adapted to different kinds of grain and vegetables 80-82 Lesson XIX. How to conserve soils. Soils, how used ; constituents of good soils; object, nature, and classi- fication of manures 82-85 Lesson XX. How to conserve soils {continued). Vege- table manures 85-87 Lesson XXI. IIow to conserve soils {continued). Ani- mal manures 87-88 LsssoN XXII. How to conserve soils {continued). Mixed manures 88-92 Lesson XXIII. IIow to conserve soils {continued). Inorganic or mineral manures, lime 92-95 Lesson XXIV. IIow to conserve soils {continued). Inorganic or nuncral manures — marls, gypsum . . . 95-98 Lesson XXV. How to conserve soils {continued). Ashes 98-100 Lesson XXVI. How to conserve soils {continued). Other inorganic or mineral manures — soot, nitrates, old lime plaster, broken brick, burnt clay 101-105 f^^ CONTENTS. XI Lesson XXVII. How to conserve and improve soils (contintced), Amendments, irrigation, drainage, sub- soil ploughing 105-113 (Note.— No. 28th Lesson.) Lesson XXIX. Rotation of crops ; nature of rotation of crops ; advantages of it ; order of rotation ; courses of rotation in Great Britain and United States .... 113-122 Lesson XXX. Sowing, care, and harvesting of grain crops (wheat, 122-127; rye, 127, 128; barley, 127- 130 ; oats, 130, 131 ; Indian corn, 132-138 ; buck- wheat, 138, 139) 122-139 Lesson XXXI. Leguminous crops — beans and peas 139-142 Lesson XXXII. Roots or es«ulent plants ; potatoes, turnips, carrots, parsnips, beets 143-151 Lesson XXXIII. Grasses, meadows, pastures ; harvest- ing, curing, and care of hay 152-157 Lesson XXXIV. Fruits 157-158 Lesson XXXV. Plants used in arts and manufactures ; flax and hemp 158-102 Lesson XXXVI. Economy of the farm, its importance ; farm house, barn and sheds, waggon house, farming tools, shade trees, wood lands ; proper care of stock ; poultry ; accurate accounts 162-171 Lesson XXXVII. Economy of the household, its im- portance ; cleanliness and good cooking ; cultivation of flowers ; piety ; remarks on household economy ; milk, its properties, care and uses ; how to make good butter and good cheese ; practice and philosophy of bread-making ; properties and cooking of meat ; cooking potatoes ; manufacture and properties of soap 171-188 Lesson XXXVIII. Miscellaneous questions and answers relating to natural history — water, soils, fishes, birds, animals ; illustrative of Divine wisdom and benevo- lence 188-203 Index and Explanation of Terms 204-216 ■mwpM* ^— ^wwy^wyii miwiiiijiinii, l. ■SiiJP '■'■'*t»r *r^^*«» » !i ! PART FIRST. PEEPARATORY KNOWLEDGE. » LESSON I. TBIC FARMER AND niS PROFKSSION ; WHAT BS HAS TO DO ; WHAT BB OUGHT TO KNOW ', HOW HK MAY LEARN ; THE SUBSTANCES WITH WHICH HE HAS TO DO. . 1. What is agricultui'cf — Agriculture (from two Latin words, ager, field, cultura, cultivation) is the art of cultivating the soil, so as to produce the largest crops at the sraallest cost and the least injury to the soil. It also includes the raising and feeding of stock, and whatever relates to the farm buildings and domestic economy, the care and improvement of the land. He who thus cultivates the soil is a farmer. 2. Js not the farmer of great importance f — ^The, farmer, who understigLnds his business, is of great importance, and is entilied to high honour. It has been well said, that " the first farmer was the first man, and all nobility rests on the possession and use of lands ;" and another writer has remarked, that "the social angel, when he descended to converse with men, (Gen. xviii : 8) broke bread with the hus- bandman beneath the tree." The patriarchs of ancient Scripture tilled the soil. Abraham was a farmer, rich in cattle, gold, and silver; and Job farmed on a large scale — having 7000 sheep, 3000 camelS; 500 yoke of ozen, and 500 she asses. . 10 PJBEPAEATORY KNOWLEDGE. In Greebe, agriculture was tlio theme of the popular poets, and the various improvements in husbandry, such as the introduction of nutritive grains and the invention of useful implements for tilling the soil, were ascribed to the immediate bounties of the Gods. Later, the land was the chief article of property, and the freemen who cultivated it were honoured above manufacturers, mechanics, and traders. Among the anciejit Romans — in the purest times — g-griculture was held in still greater honour than among the Greeks. The proudest patricians and most illustrious citizens lived on their farms, and worked with their own hand8„ In England, at this day, the nobility shrink from manufactures and tradeSj and stand aloof from the professions of law and medicine ; but Earls, Dukes, and even Princes, cultivate lands, preside at agricultural festivals, compete for prizes at agricultural exhibitions, and write treatises on the rotation of crops, the culture of roots, and the manufacture of manures. The most illustrious men in America have been farmers. 3. Whi/ is the fanner considered as of so great importance f — There are three reasons why the farmer is considered of great importance. (1) His employment is that first assigned by God to man, and approaches most closely to the works of the Divine Being, who gives to tlie earth its fertility and adorns it with beauty. (2) His employment is the source of wealth and comfort to the whole country. "W"hen agriculture declines, the country declines. When harvests are abundant, the country prospers. The failure of the crops for a single year deranges every branch of trade and commerce, and causes general disaster and suffering. Agriculture furnishes daily bread to the whole population. The chase and the fisheries yield something; but the PREPARATORY KNOWLEDQE. 11 produce of the soil, in the form of either vegetable or animal food, spreads the table, and constitutes the mass of the food, for the whole community. The chief materials of our clothing are derived from the same source — wool, ilax, leather, and in neighbouring countries, cotton and silk ; but cotton and silk are procured by the other productions of our own soil. (3) The employment of the farmer is the true element of independence, freedom, and virtuous enjoyment. It is true, that by the law of our constitution and being, we are all, to a certain extent, dependent upon each other ; but, within this divine limitation, none are so independent, and, therefore, none so free, as the farmer; and none so favourably situated for the cultivation of the quiet virtues of the heart and fireside. It is also true, that among farmers, as among merchants and traders, there is great diversity of wealth and fortune — the one ownmg his thousands of acres, his herds of cattle, his flocks of sheep, his ample range of pastures, and his broad fields of tillage, and another being scarcely able to winter his single cow ; and another still, not even able to hire a farm, but must toil as a farm-labourer ; yet, in the widely diffused ownership and cultivation of the land by an independent yeomanry, there is the best material guarantee for the freedom and virtuous prosperity of a country, and the most abundant source of individual and social enjoyment. 4. But has not the fanner often to do hard and dirty work f — Yes ! the farmer often has hard and dirty work to do; but so has the chemist in the laboratory, the surgeon in the dissecting room, the physician often in his practice; and the advocate, and even judge upon the bench, have sometimes much more onensive work to do, both intellectually and morally, than the farmer in his furrows or in his stables. It is not what is worn, or what attaches ZSSSE 12 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE. V from without, that defiles or degrades the farmer ; it is that which is wanting, or comes from withiu. • 5. What shoxdd a farmer knoiv in order to suC' cced in his employment and to fulfil the ficnctiona of his social position f — The larnier should know all that is essential to his employment, the same as a lawyer or physician should know what belongs to his profession, and a carpenter or shoemaker should know what appertains to his trade. Many a man who works on a farm is no farmer, as there is many a quack in trades, law and medicine. A farmer should know something of the nature and formation of the crust of the earth wliich he culti- vates, of the manures which he applies, or should apply to enrich it ; of the crops he raises ; of the animals he rears, the kinds of food and treatment they re(iu.irc, their milk and other ])roducts ; of the tools he uses and the principles on which they arc constructed ; of the food and beverages on which he subsists, and how they arc best prei>ared ; of the atmosphere and climate in which lie lives, and their influence upon all his operations and interests. He should know the language in which he speaks, and how to keep his accounts. He should know the geography, history and institutions of his own coun- try, and something of those of other countries. He should also know and discharge his religious duties, cultivate and practice the moral and social virtues. C. ^Yhy shQuld a farmer hiow these things f — K farmer should know these things for tlireo reasons: (1) because the knowledge of them will enable him to know the why and wherefore of all he plans and does, to avoid many mistakes and losses, and to em- ploy his strength and means to the best advantage ; (2) because such knowledge will convert what seems a mechanical, if not useless drudgery into a rational and noble employment, unfolding the laws and PREPARATORY KNOWLBDOE. 13 beauties of the material world ; (S) because he will thus be mialified to enjoy the fruits of his industry, and to discharge his personal, social, and public duties. , 7. ITow may a farmer learn tJiese things ? — Every farmer, with his sons and daughters, has learned some of these things without any apparent study or labour ; but, for purposes of both practice and enjoy- ment, he, with the older members of his household, can learn all that is contained in the following pages, in the course of three months, by devoting an Jiour's lamily study and conversation to them each evening, and that without the aid of teacher or school, other than this little Ixjok and their own good sense. The writer of these pages, between tilteen and twenty years of age, learned the greater part of the languages, literature and science that he then acquired, during the evenings, and between tlie hours of three and six o'clock in the mornings. Any farmer's son who will carry a copy of this little book in his pocket, and learn a section or two of it, at each interval when he is resting his team, tfec, will be gratified and surprised to lind, at the end of the weelc or month, how much he has learned that will be useful for life, and how many idle thoughts and idle words he has avoided. AVlien I was a lad, and before I was sixteen years of age, 1 leai*ned a much larger and more difficult book than this in a single month, and that, too, while working daily very hard on the farm. If a boy is nided by a school and teacher, so much the better ; but if he has not such advantages, he can learn what will make him an intelligent and useful man by seizing the odds and ends of time during his daily labour. It is what is in the boy, and what he resolves, and does, and not outward circumstances, that will make the man. 8. But are not the terms used in the chemistry and science of agriGidture very hard words^ and 14 PREPAEATORT KNOWLEDGE. very hard to learn f — The terms used in the chem- istry and science of agriculture appear to be hard words and hard to learn ; but they are not so many nor so hard to learn as the alphabet of twenty-six letters, which every child has to learn ; not so many nor so hard to learn as the terms which must be ^ot by heart in learnhig the elements of grammar, or geography, or arithmetic. Besides, every term employed in agricultural chemistry, and in agricul- ture, represents some substance with which the farmer has to do, and which he can see, or feel, or taste, or smell — which is not the case with the ABC which every child has to learn. The alphabet of agricultural chemistiy, like the longer alphabet of our language, has to be learned only once for life, and may then be applied to an endless variety of purposes. The vocabulary of agricultural chem- istry consists of the names of fifteen simple sub- stances with which the farmer has to do, and which, witli their combinations, constitute the chief parts of all that we sec in nature above, around and beneath us. The farmer, and every member of his family, able to read, can learn the names of three of these fifteen substances in a day, and thus learn the names of all of them in less than a "week. lie can learn and remember tlem as easily as he can learn and remember the np.mes of his neighbours, or of the kinds of grain, vegetables and trees on his farm. 9. WJiat are the names of these suhstances ? — The hames of these substances are oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, sulphur, chlorine, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, silicon, aluminum, iron, manganese. These fifteen words are the alphabet of agricultural chemistry ; and as, by combining in various ways the twenty-six letters of our common alphabet, we express all that we think, or feel, or know, and all that is contained in all the books of our langua^e^ so the substances PREPAEATORY KNOWLEDGE. 15 expressed by these fifteen cliemical terms, variously combined, form the chief elements of our own bodies and of the visible world around us. 10. Will you explain these chemical terms f — In the following lessons of this book I will explain them, the simple substances they represent, the com- binations they enter into, and the terms and symbols employed to express these combinations, in forming the varied materials of the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms with which the farmer has to do. But I will here give familiar examples of the mean- ing and application of these fifteen terms, which make the basis of scientific agriculture. We all breathe the air^ and the air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen. We all drink water ; and water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen. Many of us burn coal; and pure charcoal or mineral coal is carbon. We all use lucifer matches^ to light fires and lamps ; and on one end of those matches is sulj)hur, tipped with phosphorics. We all eat common salt/ and common salt is composed oi chlorine and sodium. We could not get our soaj), so important to cleanli- ness, without potash ; and potash is composed of potassium and oxygeii. We could not have com- fortable houses without lime ; and lime is composed of calcium and oxygen. We have all come in con- tact with satid ; and sand is composed of silicon and oxygen. We have all met with clay^ in more forms than one ; and clay is composed of aluminum and oxygen. We could not be a civilized people without iron I and we should be badly off without gla^s, in the manufacture of which manganese is much used. Thus, by thinking of air, water, coal, matches, salt, &Q., and of what they are composed, we are reminded of the names of the fifteen substances which form the basis of scientific agriculture, and of most of our manufactures. This will be shown in the following lessons. 16 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE. LESSON II. ON THE TWO KINDS OF SUB8TANOK8 WITU WHICH THE FARMER HAS TO DO — ORGANIC AND INORGANIC ; THE PROPORTIONS OF THESE SUB- BTANCES IN ROOTS, PLANTS AND ANIMALS, 11. How is matter divided; and in what foi'm does it exist f - The matter, or substance, of ^vliich the world around us is composed, is either organic or inorganic, and exists in a solid, liquid, or aeriform state ; that is, in the form of wood or stone, of water, or of air. 12. ^Y^lat is meant hj organic and ijiorganio sub- stances? — Organic substances are such as possess organs, by means of which they grow and continue in being, as the roots and leaves of plants, the lungs, stomach, &c., of animals. Inorganic sub- stances are such as have no organs and do not grow, as minerals, water and air. 13. Of which of these substances are soils, plants Und animals composed? — Soils, plants* and ani- inals are composed of both organic and inorganic substances. 14. IIoio do you distinguish between the organic and inorganic parts of soils, plants and animals? — You may distinguish between the organic and inorganic parts of the soil, by placing a portion of it on a piece of sheet iron, or on the end of a knife, and holding it in or over the fire, when the organic part will first turn black and then burn away, eva- ])orating in smoke ; and the inorganic part will re- main, assuming a grey, brown, or reddish color. If you burn a straw or bit of wood in a lamp or candle, the organic part of the plant burns and passes away * By the term plant is meant all vegetable productions, from the garden rose to the forest oak. J ill ■■M PBEPABATORir KNOWLEDGE. 17 in smoke, the inorganic or mineral part remains as ashes. So, if you put into the iiro a morsel of the fleslijOr bone, or skin, of an animal, the organic part is consumed, the inorganic part becomes an ash, and remains. Thus, the organic parts of soik, plants, and animals, are combustible and may be burned up ; the inorganic part cannot be burnt, but are incombustible, and remain as ashes. 15. IIoio can you find out the proportion of or- ganic and inorganic matter in soils, pia?its, and a?iimals ,' and what is that proportion ? — You may lind out the proportion of organic and inorganic matter in soils, plants, and animals, by weighing the (dried) portions of them used in the experiment be- fore they are burnt ; and tben weighing the residue or ashes remaining unconsumed. It will be found that rich alluvial soils or loams contain from 5 to 10 per cent, of organic or vegetable matter ; that some peaty soils contain more than 50 per cent, and other poor soils, not more than 1 or 2 per cent, of vege- table or combustible matter. It will be found, also, that the ashes, or niin&ial portion, of dry wood is from 1 to 4 per cent. — that dry straw contains 5 or 6 per cent., and dry hay from 8 to 10 per cent, of mineral matter ; that the mineral matter of dry flesh, skin, or hair, is only 5 per cent. These experiments show, that the soil contains much inorganic or mine- ral matter^ and little organic or vegetable matter ; that the plant contains much organic and littlo mineral matter ; that the soft parts of animals con- tain little, and the hard or solid partSy much mine- ral matter. 18 PBEPABATOBY KNOWLEDGE. LESSON III. ON THE OROANIO CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS AND ANIMAUk (Note. — Before noticing the mineral and simple ctiemical sub- stances wliich constitute plants and animals, it will bo proper to state their orrfanie constituents, which may be understood without any knowledge of chemistry or of chemical terms, and which will prepare the way for considering the simple elementary substances of which these oiganic constituents themselves consist. The or- ganic constituents of tiio soil are, of course, the remains of dead plants and animals, which are mixed with the mineral earth. As the organic substances originate entirely in plants, and then pass, under new modifications, into the systems or animals, we will first consider the organic constituents of plants, and then those of animals ; after which we will enquire into the simple elementary substances of which these coD6tituents of both plaats and aDimaU are composed.) 16. What are the organic constituents of plants? —The organic constituents of plants are four — woody -Jihre^ starch, gluten, oil or fat. 17. What is woody fibre f — Woody-fibre is the most abundant product of vegetation, and is the substance which forms the bulk of all trees, giving them firmness and strength ; and exists in straw, hay, chaff*, the bran of wheat, the husks and skin of seeds, the stones and shells of fruit, and the fibres of flax, hemp, cotton, &c. By nitric acid, those fibres are converted into gun cotton. 18. What is starch f — Starch is well-known froin its use to stiffen cotton, linen, and other cloth ; is a white powder with no smell, very little taste, and gives a very peculiar sound when squeezed between the fingers , is the chief ingredient of bread, forms more than three- fourths of the substance of the dried potatoe, and about half the weight of oaten and Indian corn meal, and of rye flour, &c. 19. What is gluten ? — Gluten is a tough, elastic, grey substance, which forms an essential part of wheat, constitutes the chief nutritious parts of grains, and gives to dough all its tenaciousness. It 18 also callS vegetable jibrin, from its identity ol PREPARATORY KNOWLEDOK. 19 composition witli tlio fihrln^ or inuscular fibre of flesh, or lean meat. 20. What is the fourth ortjnnk conMvent of plants f — The fourth organic constituent of plants IS oil or fat, which occurs more or less abunaaiitly in all plants ; even in those where we should not expect tu find any — such as f^rains and grapes ; but It is generally most abundant k\\ tlio seeds or nuts of certain plants, as in linseed, hempsecd, poppy- seed, walnuts, hickory-nuts, tfec. 21. What arc the organic constituents of tJie dry^ solid parts of animals f — The organic constituents of the dry, solid parts of animals are the same in number as those of plants ; namely four — muscle or lean fleshy fat, hone and shin. {Johnsto^i.) 22. Can you descinbe each of these substances ? — (1) The dry muscle or lean flesh consistp chiefly of blood and a white fibrous substance, called fwrin, which enters largely into the composition of the blood, and forma tlie basis of* the muscles. It is nearly identical with the gluten of the plant. ^NoTK. — The term drv is used in connection with flesh, because, in its natural state, fresh lean meat contains about the same per centago of water as potatoes — that is, 75 per cent.) (2) The fat of animals is similar in composition and properties to the fixed oils of vegetables, as the solid fat of olive oil. (3) The organic part of bone consists chiefly of gelatin, or glue, to which bone may be reduced by being boiled long in water. (4) The skin consists also of gelatin, or glue, like the organic parts of bone. When boiled some hours with water, the skin dissolves into a liquid, which, on cooling, coagulates into a tremulous jelly. This, when dried, forms the well-known glue. (Note. — The relatioos of plants and animak will be explained in a fature leeson. 20 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE. m LESSON IV. TUE FIKTEEN ELEMENTAttY SUBSTANCES, THEIR NAMK8, SYMBOLS, AM> EQUIVALENT NUMBERS. (Note. — Ilftving ia tho preceding lesson stated that the organic constituents of plants are four — nutnely, woody fibre, starch, ghiton, and oil or fat ; and having likewise stated that the orgonic constituents of animals are also four — nunioly, muaclo or lean flesh, fat, bones ond skin ; the next inquiry is, of what simple substances are these organic constituents tlieiuselves composed, and how aro they formed in plants and onimals; ond then what arc the inor- ganic or mineral constituents of plants and animals, and also of soils and how aro they formed ? But before answering these inquiries, It will be pr.)pcr to explain tho terms which wo rausj necessarily employ. These terms are tho alphabet of ngricultur*. chemistry — indeed of chemistry itself, with respect to agriculture. — and must bo acquired by all who would learn tho materials cV earth, air, and ocean, and their productions, tho sajno as every cldld must learn tho alphabet of letters in order to read and undeiv stand the interesting things contained in books. In tho last part of tho I'-irst Lesson (8, 9) it was stated that a^ the simple substances with which tho farmer has to do are only fifteen, and how they might bo easily learned and remembered. Chemists indeed have discovered upwards of sixty simple sub- stances ; but all aro rare and enter little into tho purposes of practical life except fifteen. Tho terms by which the names of these substances aro known, and their ccMubinations explained and understood, should be well learned by every student of nature and every intelligent farmer.) 23. WTiai are the names of the fifteen elementary substances with which we have to do f — The follow- ing are the names of tlie litteen elementary bodies which, in various combmations, form all organic bodies on the surface of the earth, all rocks and soils, together with the atmosphere and waters of the ocean :* (See Note 1 on page 84.) Nora:. — Under the name of each body will be written thelett,er or symbol by which it is known and read, and the number — calbd the equivalent number— expressing the quantities according to which each substance unites with other substances, and which will be soon explained* Tho symbolic letters and equivalent numbers, as well as the names of the elementary substances, ahoald be thoroughly committed to memory.) • About fifty other elements have been discovered by Chemists in very minute quantities iu rocks, soils, and organic bodies. PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE. Sfi NAMES OP ELEMKNTAUY SUBSTANCES. 1. Oxygen. 9. Sodium. 0=8 Na=23 2. Ilydrofxen. 10. Calcium. ii-i Ca~20 3. Nitronrcn. 11. Magnesium. N=i4 Mg— 12 4. Carbon. 12. Silicon. C-6 Si-21 5. Sulphur. 13. Aluminum. S-16 Al=14 6. Chlorine. 14. Iron. Cl-35 Fe=28 ■ 7. Phosphorus. 15. Manganese. P=32 Mn-28 8. Potassium. K-ao (XoTK. — It will bo observed that the symbol of Potassium is K. the first l(!tter uf the Latin word Kalinm — tlio former chemiral name of Potassium. So the symbol of Sodiiun i.s Na, from the Latin, Natriuni ; and the symbol of Iron is Fe, from the Latin, Fa',nivi. It was by these Latin names that chemists formerly desigviatcd those substances ; and the symbols of them are still retained in use, though the namea have been changed. LESSON V. EZFLANATIOK OF CnSMICAL TERMS. 24. What are chemical symJbols f — Chemical symbols ?fre the first or initial letters of the names of elementary substances, and are a short method of expressing those names. Thus, O expresses Oxy- gen, 11, Hydrogen, CI, Chlorine, Al. Aluminum, &c. 25. ^Yllat are chemical atoms f — The word atom means that which cannot be cut or divided ; and a chemical atom is, therefore, the smallest particle in, the composition of a body supposed to result from the division of a body. Bfi^y ri m PBBPABATOKY Kl^OWLEDQE. 26. What are atomic nwribers ot' cJiemical equiva- lents f — Atomic numbers, chemical equivalents, as also definite proportions and combining numbers, are terms used to express the same thing, and mean the atom^ or atomic weighty according to which one simple body unites with other bodies. Experiments have shown that all elementary bodies unite with each other in fixed quantities by weight. Hydrogen being the lightest of all known bodies, is taken as representing 1, or unity ^ and all other elements are compared with it. Thus the water we drink is composed of two gases — Hydrogen and Oxygen — chemically expressed H d. It requires just one ounce of hydrogen to unite with eight ounces of oxygen, to form water, which has this composition the world over; and were these two elements to unite in any other proportion than 1 to 8 by weight, some new compound, dificrent from water, would be the product. Therefore the atomic number, or chemical equivalent of H (hydrogou) is 1, and that of O (oxygen) is 8. The same principle, as to the fixed and invariable composition and properties of bodies, applies to all substances, however compli- cated. The law of definite proportions is universal and permanent, and is the essential basis of the science of chemistry. (Note. — The simplicity, beauty and importance of the applica- tion of this principle in matters of practical agriculture, will appear in subsequent lessons.) 27. Do the figures tinder the names of* the fifteen simple bodies mentioned in the preceding lesson, express these equivalents f — The figures under the names of the fifteen simple bodies mentioned in the preceding lesson express the equivalent numbers, and are founded upon tiie fact, ascertained by chemists, that the elements and their compounds unite in coi** Btant proportions, or, in other words, " that whateves be the proportion by weight in which any one body PBKPABATORY KNOWLEDGE, *2a combines with another, it preserves tlie same relative proportion in ita combinations with all other bodies." •Hydrogen is assumed as 1, oxygen as 8, carbon as 6, sulphur as 16, and so on with tlie fifteen substances named in the preceding lesson. These are the chemi- cal equi/valentSf or combining numbers, or atomic numoers. . Between these 15 dissimilar bodies there is a peculiar kind of attraction, called affinity i and the hgures express the number of parts by weight in each body which have an attraction equal or equiva- lent to those of another body. Thus the chemical energy of 1 part of hydrogen is equivalent to that of 8 parts of oxygen, to that of 14 of nitrogen, to that of 6 of carbon, to that of 39 of potassium, and so on. Thus also 8 parts of oxygen are equivalent, in attractive force, to 1 part of hydrogen, to 14 parts of nitrogen, and so on in regard to tlie equivalent or combining numbers of all the elementary bodies. Therefore, as has been stated, 8 parts of oxygen unite with 1 part of hydrogen, to make water — chemically called oxide of hydrogen ; 35 parts of chlorine and ■23 parts of sodium combine, making common salt — chemically called chloride of sodium ; 8 parts of oxygen and 39 parts of potassium combine, making potash — chemically called oxide of potassium. (Note. — It is not to be understood that these figures express the absolute weight of the parts of simple bodies, but merely the pro/K>rtional weights in which those bodies combine. It is assumed that every simple substance or element is composed of small parti- cles or atoms, but so minute as not to be visible even with the aid of the most powe'-ful microscope. Nothing, therefore, is known of ths size, shape, or absolute weight of those ultimate atoms. Taking hydrogen as representing one, or unity, the figures repre- sent the smallest equivalent or atomic weight in which any body will combine with one part by weight of hydrogen or eight parts by weiglit of oxygen.) 28. But do not these elementary bodies combine in more proportions than one f — These elementary bodies combine in more proportions than one ; and several of them present a great variety of combina- 24 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE. tions in form and colour, as well as in more essential qualities ; but the combining proportionals of these compounds are fixed and invariable. For example, nitrogen and oxygen combine in several different quantities; but the larger quantities are multiples of the smaller, and take place in the ratios of 1, 2, 3, (fee. (Note. — lu the five compounds which ax'c formed by the combi- nation of nitrogen and oxygen, the amount of nitrogen is constant, but the quantities of oxygen arc as the numbers 8, 16, 24, 32, 40 — the last four numbers being multiples of the first ; and in no other proportions will nitrogen and oxygen combine. These compounds may be thus stated, omitting fractions: One equivalent (14 parts) of nitrogen, combined with one equivalent (8 parts) of r-\ en, forms nitrous oxide, or the prot oxide of nitrogen, called lat .iung gas, of which the chemical formula is NO. One equivalent of nitrogen (14 parts) united wit'i hoo equivalents (16 parts) of oxygen, forms nitric oxide, or deut-oxido of nitrogen — formula NOj. One equiralent of nitrogen (14 parts) united with three equivalents (24 parts) of oxygen, forms hi/po-nitrous acid — formula NO3. One equivalent (14 parts) of nitrogen, united with four equivalents (32 parts) of oxygen, forms 7iitroiis acid — formula NO4. One equi- valent (14 parts) of nitrogen, united with. /?t;c equivalents (40 parts) of oxygen, forms nitric ack^formula NOs. Thus in these five compounds the proportion of nitrogen is the same in all — its eraallest equivalent. The smallest proportion of oxygen is its equivalent 8 ; in the next higher compound it is 16, or twice 8; in the fourth 82, or four times 8 ; in the fifth 40, or five times 8. Carbon &nd oxygen combine in two proportions. The union of one equivalent of each forms carbonic oxide — formula CO ; the union of one equivalent of carbon with two equivalents of oxygen, forms carbonic acid — formula COa. ^ 29. What is this principle of proportional com- bination called? — This principle of proportional combination is called the law of mitltiple propor- tions^ and teaches, '* that when one body combines with another quantity larger than its regular equi- valent, or lowest proportion, that larger quantity, whatever it may be, is an exact multiple of the single equivalent number ; " or, that the other pro- portions are multiples of the first. 30. Does this law of definite proportions extend to the union of compound bodies, as well as of eh- PREPARATOBT KNOWLEDGE. 25 mentary bodies f — This law of definite proportions extends to the union of compound bodies, the combining proportion of which is the sum of the combining numbers of the elementary bodies of which they are composed. " The equivalent weight of a compound is the sum of the equivalents of its constituents.'* Thus, as one equivalent of carbon, whose combining number is 6, and two equivalents of oxygen, whose combining number is 8, forms carbonic acid (with which the farmer has much to do) the equivalent or combining number of carbonic acid is 22 — the sum of 6 and twice 8. Lime is composed of one part each of calcium and oxygen — chemically called oxide of calcium. Tlie combining number of calcium (see Lesson lY.) is 20, that of oxygen is 8 ; the equivalent of lime is, therefore, 28 — the sum of 20 and 8. The equivalent of marble is 50 — it being composed of carbonic acid, whose combining number is 22, and of lime, whose com- bining number is 28 — 50 being the sum of 22 and 28. Sugar is composed of 12 equivalents of car- bon, each 6=72 ; 10 equivalents of hydrogen, each 1=10 ; and 10 equivalents of oxygen, each 8=80. The sum of 72, 10 and 80, is 162 — the equivalent number of sugar. Thus, " The equivalent or com- bining proportions of a compound body is the sum of the combining ju'oportions o^ its elements." Note. — Some .terras have been necessarily used ia the foregoing lesson, which have not yet been explained : but they will be ex- plained in the following lesson. It is the establishment of the above simple and comprehensive laws of numerical proportion, which has led to the invention of the symbolic language of chemistry, explained in Lesson IV., which enables one to express in the shortest manner the constitu- tion of every compound body, and which is used by physicians in prescrfliing to druggists the preparation of medicines. We will now proceed to explain the chemical terras, without the knowledge of which much that is written on agnciilture is utterly unin- telligible, and the mastery of which (and this can be accomplished in a single week) will open up to the reader a simple and beautiful language of great practical utility.) mems ■HH 20 PREPABATORT KNOWLEDGE. ii I LESSON VI. DEFnflTIOKB OF THE AOIDS, BASES, SALTS, ETC., Or THE TBRlflNATIOyS IDE, URBT, OUS, IC, ITS AND ATE, OF THE PREFIXES BTFO, FEB, PHOTO, DEUTO OR TBIS, TRITO OR TER. (Note. — The terms defined in the preceding lessons are not re- peated in the following lesson.) 31. W7mt is the result ef the union of elementary substances f — The elements uniting with each other produce compounds^ and these compounds uniting with other compounds produce more complex com- pounds. 32. WJiat are these compounds called ? — These compounds are called oxides, acids, hoses, and salts. 33. What is an oxide f — An oxide expresses a Compound (which does not possess acidity) formed by the union of oxygen with another element (called a metal.) Oxygen and all the elements ending in ine, when united with one another, taking the ter- mination, ide, when the compound is not an acid ; as oxide of calcium (lime), chlor^^ of sodium (com- mon salt), oxide of iron (rust.) (Note. — In some instances, however, the oxygen is not repre- sented by the termination ide, but by the termination a ; as soda, for the oxide of sodium, potassa, for the oxide of potassium, silica, for the oxide of silicon. Other elements, not forming acids, take the termination uret, instead of ide ; as sulphured of iron, carburet of hydrogen. European chemists prefer the termination ide io uret; but many American chemists use the termination uret, instead of ide, u'pon the ground that there is more euphony in snlphuret that in sulphide, though meaning the same thing.) > 34. What are acids f — Acids, in common lan- guage, are sour substances ; in chemistry acids are compounds Avhicli usually have a sour taste, and change vegetable blues to red, though not always possessing these properties. Acids also possess the property of combining with, and neutralizing alka- lies ana other bases. PREPARATORY KNOWLRDGE. 27 36. How are acids formed t — Most of the acids connected with agrieufture are formed by the union of oxygen with other bodies. Thus carbonic acid, which forms to a great extent the food of plants, gives to water and some other drinks their spark- ling brilliancy and agreeable taste, consists of one equivalent of carbon united with two equivalents of oxygon (formula N O2). Nitric acid (aqua fortis), so essential an element in manures, consists (as was shown in the 5th lesson) of .1 equivalent of nitrogen and 5 equivalents of oxygen formula N O5). Phosphoric acid, which, in combination with bases, forms salts of the higliest importance in agriculture,' consists of 1 equivalent of phosphorus and 5 equivalents of oxygen (formula r O5). Silicic add, perhaps the most important inorganic acid in its relation to agriculture, consists of 1 equivalent of silicon united with 3 equivalents of oxygen (formula Si O3). Sulphuric acid, extensively used by some good farmers, either directly as a manure, or for dis- solving bones, is composed of 1 equivalent of sulphur united with 3 equivalents of oxygen (formula S O3), &c. Note. — It is from tliis property of oxygen converting, by com- bination, so many other simple bodies into acids, that it originally received its name, wiiich is derived from two Greek words, one of which signifies acid, and the other to generate, though some acids do not contain oxygen, as hydrochloric acid, or muriatic acid, which consists of 1 equivalent of chlorine united with 1 equivalent of hydrogen (formula H CI.). Chlorine forms 65 per cent, of com- mon salt, in union with sodium — chemically called chloride of sodium, as stated in a former lesson, and is also largely used for bleaching and other purposes.) 36. How are acids named f — The large number of acids which are formed by th*^ union of oxygen with other bodies, are named from ihe element with which the oxygen unites ; as carbonic acid -ccn^-.'s^t- ing of carbon and oxygen; sulphuric acid — con- sisting of sulphur and oxygen ; phosphoric acid — consisting of phosphorus and oxygen. But acids in 1 !i >l I 28 PRErATlATOBT KNOWLEDGE. which there is no oxygen, are named from loth their elements ; as hydro-chloric acid, consisting of the nnion of hydrogen and chlorine. '37. But what different adds are formed hy the Pinion of the same dements in different proportions^ how are they distinguished? — When difterent acids are formed by the nnion of the same elements, in diifcrent proportions, they are distinguished hy the terminations ous^ ic, and the prelixes hypo, hyper, and p)^^' I^JiG termination «' Preparatory knowledge. 83 (ro-positivo eleracut; tho other U (hldrlno, au electro-nfgativo clement. " Choniists nccordincly, distinguish two great classes of salts :— 1. Oxygeii salts, or siUts resulting from the combination of on oxygon acid, like sulphuric or phosphoric acid, with oxygon baso — ns, lor instance, soda or ])Otash. 2. Haloid saH.^, or salts result- ing from the combination of a metal, or a body icting like a metal, with ^ii'h a substance as chlurine. Common bait ia a familiar ex- ample of haloid salt." •LESSON VII. SOME ACCOUNT OK THE NATURK AND rROFERTIES Or FOVR Of THtf riFTKKN ELKMKNTARY SUBSTANCES. (Note. — The foregoing lessons have inado us familiar with the two kinds of substances (organic and inorganic) with which tha farmer has to do ; the proportions of these substances in soils, plants and animals ; the four organic constituents, respectively, of plants and animals ; the names of the fifteen elementary substances, with their symbols and equivalent numbers: some of the acids, bases, and salts formed by their union, and tho terms by which thuir corabinotions are indicated and distinguished. We are now prepared to inquire into tho nature and properties of tho Aftoen elementary bodies which constitute the great bulk of earth, sea and air The account of these bodies will be purely elementary, given In as few words as possible, and limited to tho purposes of agriculture, except occasional remarks In tho notes of a general character. We will treat first of the seven metalloids or non- nietalllc bodies — namely, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, chlorine, sulphur, and phosphorus. The first four of these will be the subject of the following lesson.) Oxygen. Symbol O : Equivalent 8. 45. What is oxygen ? — Oxygen ia a kind of air or gas, and, like the air, transparent, without colour, taste, or smell. It is about one-tenth heavier than the air ; it cannot be frozen i il is that ingredient in the air which makes things burn, and supports life in animals. It ' combines with all known elements except .one — Fluorine. (Note. — Oxygen is the most abundant and the most important of all .substances in nature. It constitutes by weight neany one- fourth of the atmosphere, eight-ninths of water, and about one* third of the earth's solid mass.) 2 ■■ I 34 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGK. I M Hydrogen. Symhol IT : Efj[uivalent 1. 46. Mliat in hydrogen ? — Hydrogen is a kind of air or gas, colourless, and, when pure, without odour or taste. It does nol; support respiration ; for an animal soon dies when confined in it. Nor does it support combustion ; for a lighted candle will go out in it. Yet it is highly inflammable, for, when mixed with common air, and brought near a flame, it will explode. It is the lightest of all known sub- stances, being fourteen and a half times lighter than common air, and is therefore the best material for inflating balloons, though coal gtis, on account of its greater cheapness, is most used for that purpose, (NoTRH. — (1) Hydrogen signitica water-former — being derived from two (ireek words, hndor, water, and gennao, I form or geno- raio. United witli oxygen, it forois one ninth in weight, and two- thirds in bullc or volume, of water. The chemical name of water \i, protoxide uf hydrogen. Hydrogen is held with such affinity by oxyp;cn and otlier bodies, tliat it is not found in nature in a free state , but, in the form of water and aqueous vapour, hydrogen is diffused universally over the globe ; like oxygen, is an important constituent of animal and vegetable matter ; in union with carbon forms a large number of gaseous, liqjiid and solid compounds ; and nssocinfed with carbon and ox^'gcn, is a constituent of inflamm'xblo substanoos, such as ether and alcohol. (2) But though hydrogen is inflammable, and therefore burng, it does not support combustion. Oxygen gas does not burn itself, but it aids the decomposition by fire of bodies that are combus- tible, and is therefore a supporter of combustion. But hydrogen gas, though it burns itee//" (yielding a feeble yellowish blue light), will extinguish a flame immersed in it, and is, therefore, an inflam- mable body, or a body that will burn, but does not support com- htstio7i. (3) It may appear singular that while hydrogen ia the lightest of all gases, it is also spoken of as a solid body. The reason is, that although in its aerial state it is the lightest of all known sab- stances, yet when imbibed hy living vegetables it becomes solid, and forms oil, wax, resin, dice. ; and in combination with oxygen, it forms water, which has the property of becoming either solid, liC|Uid, or aeriform. Nitrogen. Symhol N : Equivalent 14. 47. Whai is nitrogen f — Nitrogen, like oxygen and hydrogen, is an air ur gas, transparent, witnout rREPARATOttY KNOWLEDGE. Z6 iikind of out odour i; for an 3r does it B will go for, when ,r a flame, iiown Bub- ajliter than aterial for account of ,t purpose. )eing derived form or geno- ight, and two- amo of water ch affinity by iture in a free [•, hydrogen is an Important n with carbon npounds; and )f inflamiP'xblo erefore burns, lot burn itself, it are combua- But hydrogen ish blue light), ore, an inflam- it support com- ia the lightest The reason is, all known sub- becomes solid, I with ■oxygen, ig either solid, ike oxygen 3nt, witnoiit colour, taste, or smell. Like hydrogen, it does not Bupport combustion or animal lite ; but unlike hych'ogen, it does not take fire whe. brought near tlic Ihime of a candle. Nitrogen is a little lighter than the atmosphere, and constitutes four-fifths of it. (NoTKij.— From the fact timt aiumals placed within it immcdi- ntcly die, it has boon called azote — life dostroyer — from two Greek words, a, privative, and zoe, life; and it is still so called by the Froncli clicmists, thou![5h that name would bo equally applicable to all the other gases except oxygen, lint tiiough animals speedily die in nitrogen, it does not act as a poison ; for the air wo breathe is four-lifths nitrogen. It is because animals cannot live without some oxygen in the oir whicli they breathe. 2. The name nitrogen, assig!ied to this element by English chemists, is based upon its property with oxygen of producing nn acid whicli is the principle of wire, made gaseous by combination with caloric. 3. Nitrogen, while found abundantly in t'lo mineral kingdom, is one of the most important constituents of organic substances, as has been stated in a previous lesson. It exists in the tissue and muscle of the animal body to the amount of 1 7 per cent In on uncombined or free state, it constitutes by weight nearly four- lillhs (79 parts out of 100) of the atmosphere. But while nitrogen forms a most important element in both the vegetable and animal kingdoms, it hu!"! not yet be«n decided by chemists wliether plants derive their nitrogen through their loaves directly from the air. or dissolved in v/ator, through their roots, or whether the animal system has tlie power of using or assimilating it when absorbed from the oir by the lungs. 4. It has been shown in Lesson V , that nitrogen forms five compounds with oxygen. Among the native mineral substances mentioned in I^esson II. nitrogen iorms 14 per cent of the nitrate of pot:,;h, and 1(3 per cent, of tlio nitrate of soda. With hydrogen, nitrogen forms cimmonia — one of the mo3ti)owerful medicines, as well 08 OT^o of 'he most important elements of manure. 5. I*, is ft c uious fact, that while animals immediately die in i)ure u'tiogeo, and while the atmospero is composed four fifths of nitiago'i and one-fiftli gf oxygen, that oxygen and nitrogen united in eqi:« 1 v lumes, constitutes the nitrons oxide, which causes such pleaaui alie excitement, causing merriu Imost to insanity, to those *ho inhale it, so as to be called the laugking gas. The reason assigned is, that it introduces into the body more oxygen than cf.n be consumed, and therefore derr.nges the nervous system, and, as a powerful stimulant, gives an unnatural activity to the nervous centres of the bram.) 36 J PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE. Carbon. Symbol C : Equivalent 6. 48. What is carbon? — Carbon (from the Latin carho^ coal) is a solid substance, usually black, -with- out taste or smell, and more or less combustible. Its purest form is diamond^ which is crystalized carbon, as is also plumbago, in a less pure form. The most common form of carbon is wood-charcoal. Lamb-black is a variety of carbon ; and it is found as anthracite and bituminous coal in vast deposits in the earth — formed from the vegetation of an earlier period. (Notes. — 1. Corbon abundant and important. This important sub- stance is essentially an element of the organic kingdom, and its various compounds are more widely and abundantly difTused than any other substance. It is the solidifying clement of all living structures, whether vegetable or animal. It < ^titutes nearly half the weight of the dried substance of vo;^\ i»i>les Oi* animals. In the vegetable kingdom it forms the skele r n ■ -.z j/iaiii, or the tree — a fact witnessed in wood-charcoal, ofter. ictaiai ig the shape of the very fibre, knots and rings of the t/oc \, fro.n which it ;3 obtained by smothered combustion. Carbon performs an cqual'y important part of the structure of animals at in that of plantd. In the mineral kingdom, besides the deposits of coal, it is one of t!T^ ingredients of limestone, marbles, chalks, cor Js and shells ; and in the atmosphere it is present everywhere unit..d with oxi'gen to form carbonic acid, which contains by weight tweuty-seve'^ ppr cent, of carbon. 2. Carbonic acid. In Lesson V., p. 24, it has been sln.'^n that carbon forms two compounds with oxygen — carbonic oxide, and carbonic acid. The latter of these compounds is by far the most important; and its importance and curious phenomena will justify a few remarks upon it. (.arbonic acid is a colourless gas, of s)i£;' '.' y sour taste, and about one and a-half times heavier than air. 1 h s gas is one of the products of all ordinary combustion. The brriiiji^ of fuel yields it in vast quantities. The combustion of a V .x-l )f charcoal produces 2,500 gallons of this gas. It is forn,'>J vv'i. t the bodies of all animals by the union of the oxygen of the ntn> f»here with the carbon of the system, and escapes, 'trough ilio ungs, by respiration into the air. Sir H. Davy says — " Each adult man exhales about 140 gallons per day." It also results in great abundance from the decay and putrefaction of animal and vegetable substances, and is generated from the earth in vo'canic districts, and sometimes collects in large quantities at the bottom of cellars and wells, and in mines, under the name of choke-damp. 3. It is essential to the growth gf plants; but it extiriguishes burning substances, of all kinds, and is fatal to animal life. It ^ ^ PEBPABATORT KNOWLEDGE. 37 destroys life, not merely because, like nitrogen, it shuts ont oxygen from the blood in the lungs, but, even when diluted with ten times its bulk of ail', it acts as a narcotic poison gradually producing stu- por, insensibility and death. It is thus that persona sleeping in a, close room are sometimes suffocated by the fumes of burning char, coal — carbonic acid gas. When breathed pure, carbonic acid gas, as it is said, produces spasms of the glottis, closes the air-passages, and thus kills suddenly by suffocation. Thus the Lake of Alvcrno, in Italy, evolves so largo a quantity of carbonic acid gas, tliat birds flying over it drop with suffocation ; and a dog entering the cele- brated Grotto del Cano (cave of the dog) falls down dead, though a man may enter the cave without feeling the effects of the poison. The reason is, that the gas flows along the floor of tho grotto not more than to tho height of the knees, while tho head of a man rises above it, nuH ho breathes the nir. 4. It is a singular fact that while carbonic acid gas is a deadly poison to tho blood, wlien taken into tho Innc/s, it is not injurious, and produces nn agreeable sensation, when ttikcn into tlie stomach — arising f.-om tlio different chemistry of these or;^ans. Tims all kinds of goxl spring otul well wa' or (which sparklo when poured from ono vessel to aiioiher) owe tlieir pleasant flavour to tlio prc- senco of carbonic acid, as do soda waters, champagne, beer, porter, Ac, tli';lrclfurvcsccnce and pungency. 6. Of tho compouiula formed by tho xmion of carbon with ]i5'dro. gen, nitrogori, clilorine, and sulphur, I will not here speak. I may, however, remark, that with hydroi^-cn carbon f jrma a gas, cidled Ih/hi c zt'hui'ettod hi/drogrn (0 Hi), — ihe /li'e-dimp oi tlie cojil niitu's tlio f;it;d explosions of which prompted the rivoution of Sir H. Davy's s if tUt/ -lamp; also tlic inflammabU air of mara/ws, formed abuudimtly in sfingnantpools during the spontaneous tlocoinposition of vegetable matter. The explosion of this gus in t!io iniiics pro. duces carbonic acid by tho combustion ; so that tho uuforUmnte miners who are not burned are suffocated.) REMARKS ON THE FOUR ELEMENTS ABOVE DESCRIBED-. OXYGEN, HYDROGEN, NITROGEN AND CARBON. The four elements — oxygen, liydrogen, iiltrogon and carbon — which have become familiar by the above statements and explanations, and ]>y refer- ences in previous lessons, arc the chief cleincntd ot all vegetable and animal substances — " the four hit- ters wliicli compose the alphabet of organic nature, and have been termed organogens (generatoi-s ot organization.)" It is true that in some organic structures other elements are used ; as calcinm and phosphorus in the bones, iron in the blood, silicon I I i S8 PEEPARATOBf KNOWLEDeE; in the stalks of erains and gi'asses, giving them their stiffness, and other elements to a hmited extent for various purposes. But these elements occur in very small quantities. The organogens — the generators of organization — are the four grand elements which chiefly build up the structures of vegetable and animal life. Only one of them as has been shown, is a solid, while the other three arc gases — invisible gases, wlioso properties arc only known from their effects — all without taste or smell ; and the one solid clement is in its ordinary form of a dark colour ; but these few materials procluce the endless variety of forms, colc'.irs, odours, tastes and other qualities presented in the living substances of the animal and ' ^'cgetable kingdoms. " Then of substances not liv- u\g^ (it lias been well observed) the earth's envelope of air, fifty miles thick, is a mixture mostly of two elements, oxygen and nitrogen, and all the water ia (jomposed of oxygen and hydrogen. And to como to the solid crust of the earth, curbon is seen in the cnoriuous quantities of coal treasured up in the bowels of the cartli for the use of man ; carlwn and or^ygen united with a metal form the limc-stono rocks and ranges of mountains ; oxygen is a large constituent of tlio granite and other hard rocks ; aiid of tlie com])ouud mixture under our feet, which we call earth, tlieso four grand elements form a "N'ery Itirge proportion." LESSON yiii. CHLOUINK, SULPHUR, AND rilOSPnonUS; * Chlohine. Si/mhol 01. : E(/aivalent 35. ^ 40. What is cJdoHne ? — CMorino (I'rom the Greek Kloros, green) is a gas of a yellowish-^^roen colour, of u disagreeable odour, and is about two and a liall times heavier than common air, ^ rBEPABATOBV EXOWLEDGB. a9 them their extent for cur in verj generators ents which Btable and jen shown, —invisible from their e one solid lolour ; but vanety of I* qualities knimal and * 368 not liv- *s envelope »tly of two :ic water ia id to como seen in the up in the ;ar]x»n and limc-stono L is a luri»;a rocks ; and , which we )Ym a "Ncry I the Groels iQn colour, and a liall (SToTES. — 1. Cliloriao cliifers from tlic throo colonrlesa gases ali-enflv mtlccfl (oxygen, hj-tlrogen nml nitrogen) in tliis, that li li.is ;; (ie^'itled colonr, thougli the muriatic «icul (when pure), which results frcn Uio union ot chlorine vriUi hyili'ogon, is colourless. The muriilic ncltl ia the ohl name of this nciil ; the now name is hifdrorfJoric flciJ — from the words liydrogcn nr.tl c'.iloriiic. But tfio cM narric is inof^t used. It i? curious t'mt the chl)niio and liydrogca (H CI) will not unite to form this acid in tl:o dark, only i.i dajiidit. 2. (Jhu>rine wnited with the metal sodium (chloride of sodium) r)rm.i common enU — being C5 per cent, of it. It i-j thereforo called n Haloid Salt producer. The chloride of soda (in which chlorine pas is combined with the nlknli soda) is a ])oworful tlisinfcctant or destroyer of offensive smells and deleterious nirs in houses, stables, . find especially in a lime of infectious disease, sneh. «3 the cholera, «tc. One of the most important properties of cldr hydrogen, w^hich it takes oway from colouring and [lutrcsccnt substances, thus dccoiujw)siiig them. Stuukap.dt re- in.arks: "All anim.al and vogctablo substances con t;iin hydrogen, Whicli is taken from tliem by chlorine. IJut if u siiv^le chemical p'llar f did the v/holo chemical strueturo tutubiis wltli it. l>y tlio nbstr.iction of the hydrogen the colouring natter becr.ncs olour- less, the o lorous principles scetitless, the norbillc Matter iano.\ious, tlio insoluble substances arc frequently rendered soluble." lloouctt further I'xpl.diis this fact so important lu iimnuractures. "Tho chlorine taking tho hydrogen of the water (for an article cannot bo bleached without being inoiatoned) sets free tlio oxygeii, and this in its nascent state (tliat i^, tho moment it is produced) has Bpoci.d chemical power, and attacks tho colouring matter, destroy- ing it or burning it up as we may say, f»r tho union of oxygen with othiT elum"nl3 is cssenlially a combustion. It is oxygon tlion that rually d'ws tho bleaching lu re, just as in tho ciso of the sun- bleaching. IJut the question arises, why does tho oxygen burn up the cdonrin:? m:ittr and not tho cloth itself? Tliis is from a j)i'inoIj»!Q Well Cat-vblislied in cliemislry, na!uely, that tlio more ingredients there are in a comnoutul tho mora easily is It decom- posed. While tho vegetable tissue or substance is composed of three elements, carbon, oxygen and hyi!ro:;en, tho colouring matter is composed of those witli nitrogen in addition, and is tfierefore more readily demoli'^hod by the oxygen than the dijUi is. But sijmetiines the cloth is somewhat buiued in the process; that is, Bome of the tissue are destroyed by tho released oxygen, and the cloth is consecjueut ly weakened. This is done whenever after the cldorlMo has released suflicient oxygen (by abstracting the hydro- gen of tho water) to destroy tho colouring matter, it continues to ralease more. The point tlien to be aimed at by tho bleacher is, to set free only enough oxygen by meaiiB of tUe culorlno to ozldiio i' ' \ 40 PKEPARATORT KNOWLEDGE. (that is, burn up) the colouring matter and not the substance. There is the same dnnijGr that the pi-ocess may be carried too far in the common sun-bleaching, or grass bleaching, as it is called." On this process the same author observes : " By the inlliioiico of the snn's light the oxygen of the air is made to unite with the colouring matter of the cloth, and so this is burned up (oxidized), the product passing off in tlic air just as the products of ordinary combustion do. ]f tlie clotli is exposed too long, some of the substance itself is burned up, lessening tiio strength of the cloth and rotting it as it is commonly ex])ressed. Tiie reason that the coloured matter is affected before the substance, is that it is more combustible, or, in other words, more readily oxidized." Sulphur. Symbol S : Equivalent 16. 60. What is sulphur? — Sulphur, or brimstone, is a brittle inflammable crystaline solid Bubstance, of a pale yellow colour, with little taste or smell, but omitting a peculiar odour when rubbed or heated. It is about twice as heavy as water. (NoTRS-^l .This important substance occurs as a mineral in vol- canic districts, as in Italy and Sicily. Theie are largo deposits of it Spain and Iceland; and it is found less abundantly in some gv^isum bods in Uuropo. Tt is separated from «)tliur miiiters, and prepared foi' use by n process of distillation. Mucli of tlio sulphur in uso is obtain«Kl from a sulphide or snlphurct of iron — the i"on pyrites — whicli contains about 64 per cent, of sulphur, ond yields it by distil Ifition. 2. Sulphur combines with metals, as iron, silver, copper, Ij.id, zinc, «t'c., forming sulphurets or sulphides of those metals. Tliough described as n miiioral, it enters into the composition of many vegutablo and animal substances • as turnips, beaus, peas, horse- radish in the vegetable world, and in the hair, horn, hoofs, nails, feathci's t&c., in the animal. It exists iu eggs, and discolours the silver spoons xised iii eating them, forming the black sulpliide or sulphurot of silver. It is extensively used in medicine, and i.i the arts, being emj>!oyed in the manufacture of gunpowder, fricti()n, matches, vcrraillion, taking impression of seals, Ac, Ac. .Sulphur is the strongest chemicui substance next to oxygen, and has a powerfid affinity for roost of the other elements either directly by itself, or indirectly through its combinations; as acida and sul- phates. Combined with oxygen, it forms sulphurous anti sulphuric acids, which are extensively used in manufactures, and form new and important compounds with other substances. S. Sulphurous acid is composed of one part sulphur and two parts oxygen ( S Os), and is produced by burning sulphur in the air, when it unites with oxygen, forming a colourless gas, of a disagreeablo taste and suffocating smell. Bulphuvous acid is used PBEPARATORY KNOWLEDGE. 41 for bleaching or whitening silk, woollen and straw goods, as chloride of lime is used to bleach linen and cotton goods. It also extinguishes combustion. It is therefore often used to quench the burning soot of chimneys by sprinkling some sulphur on the coals. The sulphurous acid rising drives out all the air, and thus stopping the supply of oxygen to the burning soot, puts out the fire. 4. Sulphuric acid has one-third more of oxygen in it than sul- phurous acid has — being composed of one part sulphur and three parts oxygen ( S O3 ). Stockiiardt says: "What iron is to the machinist, sulphuric acid is to the chemist. As the former makes out of iron not only machinery of all sorts, but also instruments, by which he can work up every other material, so sulphuric acid has for us a double interest. It not only forms the bases of important salts, but we employ it also as the most useful chemical means for producing numerous other chemical substances and changes. It stands as it were, the Hercules among the acids, and by it we are able to overpower all others, and expel them from their combinations. It occurs in commerce as a liquid only. It is about twice as heavy as water. It is commonly called the oil of vitriol, as it was formerly obtained from green vitriol. It is now manufactured on a large scale from sulphur. Besides innumerable chemical uses, it is extensively used in t'^.a arts ; in dyeing, calico printing, refining gold and silver, purifying oil and tallow ; in the manufacture of blacking and various paints, of soda water and various acids, such ,as the muriatic, nitric, otassiu7)i f — Potassium is a bluish or silver- white metal of great lustre, and so soft at common temperatures tliat it may be marked by the fingers like wax. It is so light that it swims on the water, and has so great an affinity for oxygen, that its cut surface immediately tarnishes on expo- sure to the air. It caimot be kept in the air at all, but is kept in naphtha — a liquid containing no oxygen, but consisting only of carbon and hydrogen in equal quantities. It is never found free in na- ture, but occurs abundantly in rocks and soils com- bined with oxygen as potash, and in this form it enters largely into the composition of plants and the interests of agriculture and manufactures. (Notes — 1. Potassium has so strong an affinity for oxygen, that a little piece of it thrown upon the surface of watx'r, instantly decomposes the water, taking the oxygen to itself to f(»rm potash, and setting free the other ingredient of water, hydroijen, which takes fire from, the heat produced by the sudden union of the oxygen and potassium, burning with a flame of a beautiful violet colour. The contact of potassium with ice produces the same phenomenon of instant flame. 2. But it is the compounds which this metal forms with oxygen 'which are so important to agriculture and manfactures. Potassiuni ! 'I:,|' I i 44 I'KKI'AUAToUV KNOWLEDOK. and oxygen combined in equal equivftlpnta (K O) form a coDipuuiid well known as pfjtasli — a stronij alkali, possessing powerful basic properties, as will bo explained hereafter. Pi^tash (oxido of potas- sium) con)bineil with tlio ncidn forms sull:^, ns was explained in Lesson V.I, such a.i carbonate of potash, nitrfito of potash (salt- petre) Ac. 8. Potash, or potassa, derive.q it.^ common name from liavln;^ been first obtained from the ashes of vegetable substances w hich had been burned in iron-pots, — henco named pot-nhhes. Crudo potashes and ponrl ashes are prepared in large quantities in tho woody parts of this country. "When tho wood or the leaves of any tree aro burned n whitish aah remains behind, which contains variable quantities of carbonate of potash. 'I'his ash washed with water, and tho washings evaporated in largo iron cauldrons, and calcined, furnishes tho commercial potashes. From these potni^hes pearl ashes, n purer kind of carbonate of potash, aro obtained by adding a small quantity of water, decnnting tlio liquid from tho insoluablo impurities present in the crude potashes and evaporat- ing to dryness. (" London Encyclopedia.") 4. Caustic potax/i (wliich derives its name from its uso in mecli- cino in tho form of small sticks to cauterise or cleanse ulcers and foul Bores) is a hydrate of potash, containing sinirle oquivalenits of potassa and water. When not hardened as a white solid, it is n white powder. In both its powdered and solid state, it has a powerful alKnity for water, possesses in tho highest degree alkaline properties — completely neutralizes tho acids — restores to bluo the vegetable colours which tho acids havo reddened — changes vegetable yellows to brown — decomprses animal and vegetable substances whether living or dead— has strong cleansing powers, and is therefore used in tho making of soap; and potassa salts aro among tho most valuable of manures as will bo seen hereafter. Indeed its uses can hardly bo enumerated, and its compounds aro almost endless as chlorates, sulphates, carbonates, nitrates, &c. &c. Tho sulphate of potash is an essential ingredient of alum ; and tho nitrate of potash is saltpetre, or nitre, is of special interest as being one of tho three ingredients of gnnpoioder, — which is composed of nitre, charcoal and sulphur. The philosophy of gunpowder explosion is thus explained by Fowxf.s: "When gunpowder is fired, tho oxygen of the nitrate of potassa is transferred to tho carbon, forming carbonic acid; the sulphur combines with the potassium, and the nitrogen is set free. The largo volume of gas thus produced and still further expanded by the very exalted tem- perature, sufficiently accounts for its explosive effects.") Sodium {Natrium). Symbol Ka. : Equivalent 23. 55. WTiat is sodium f — Sodiuiii is a bright metal somewhat like silver, and very much resembles potassium both In appearance and properties. It is PREPARATORY KNOWLEPaE. 45 CODipUUUll erfiil basic le of potfts- plnincd in jtash (salt- om linvin^ ncea whicli OS. Cnulo ilies in tlio avea of nny h contain ^ ashed with tdrons, and «ft potashes )btRincd by d from tho d cvapornt- iso in nieiVi- 5 uloers and uivalwita of julid, it is ft e, it has a rce alkaline '03 to bluo td — chanffcs 1 vt'gctaulo ing powers, jsa salts aro n hereafter, ipounds aro ites, ifec. put tu no use art % metal, and is only procurable by difficult ihemical process, but ia widely known and used in its combinations. Its compounds are numerous and of the highest importance to the agriculturist, the manufacturer, and the artibt. 2. Calcium with oxyj^en (Ca O) forms lime, and with carbonic acid (Ca 0, C O2 ) forms cavbonoto of lime, or limestove, composing whole ridges of mountains and known as one of the principal con- Btituents of our earth. The varieties of marble consist essentially of this carbonate of lime, or limestone .* it forms more thun half of chalk, IS the base of plaster of puris and alabaster, and constitutes the greater part of the mineral portion of the bones of animals. 3 Lime is the protoxide of calcium, and is produced by burnin^; limestone ^carbonate of hme) in larger ".es in kilns, l^hesioiplo object of this burning is to drive oif rbonic acid into the air by the heat, when a white substance .ns, sufficiently hard t« be transported without crumbling to pieces, called quick lime, or caustic iirae. One ton of good limestone (or carbonate of lime) yields about eleven hundred weight of quicklime. When quicJc- limc 13 exposed to the air, it rapidly imbibes moisture and crum- bles to powder ; it then gradually absorbs carbonic acid, becomes less caustic, and Anally regains the neutral condition of the carbo- nate. The air-slakdd-lime is a mikture of the hydrate and carbo- nate of lime. 4. Hydrate of lime is the chemical name for flaked lime, and is produced by pouring about one pound of water upon three "pounds of quicklime, which then melts to thrice its original bulk, and' crumbles to a fine white powder, called the hydrate of lime. During the process of slaking a large heap of good lime, the heat evolved is sufficient to scorch wood. This rise of temperature is caused by the solidification and combination of a portion of the water with the lime. But if the water is added too rapidly in slaking, it seems to chill the lime and pro(iuces gritty lumps, which impair its value for both building and agricoltaral pur- poses. PREPAUATOBT KNOWLEDGE. 4T i r\i\i carbonic 6. Mortar. One of t*ho most important uses of lime is iu makinfir mortar, wliich conaisti of lime and sand (silica) made into a paato ■with water, and which is employed by imildora to cement stonet and bricks together. The (xcellenco of the mortar depends ijiiich upon the quolity of the lime (which should be perfectly caimtlc) and the selection of the sand, which shoidd be simrp and rather coarse grained, and free from the least impregnation of clay. It ehouid bo spread thinly and not allowed to dry too rapidly ; to prevent which the surface of the brick or stone is sometimes saturated with water before- the mortar is applied. It hardens gradually by a chemical action between the lime and the sand : and as the mortar becomes dry by the evaporation of the water, carbonic acid is attracted from the air and unites with a portion of the lime • so that tiiere is in the mortar, a mixture of the hydrate and carbonate of lime, which has more firmness than either sub. stance separately. Hence Ihe remarkable hardness of the mortar of old buildincs. 6. Hydraulic cement. But ordinary mortar wi)i not solidify, or long resist disintegration under water. Hydraulic cement pos- sesses this property. By burning limestone containing clay (which is the silicate of alumina) a burnt lime is obtained which, •when mixed with water and sand, yields a mortar that solidifies quickly and becomes as hard as a stone under water. This is called hi/draulic cement, and is therefore used in building piers of bridges and other structure • under water. 7. Of the many other compounds of calcium and their uses I will not here speak. The chloride of lime, so extensively used for bleaching cotton and linen goods, I have mentioned in the notes on chlorine. 8. Lime, as a constituent of good land and its importance as a manure on clay and vegetable soils, will be noticed hereafter. Some idea may be formed how largely lime enters into the system of plants and is abstracted from the soil, from facts stated by Professor Johnston as to the amount of lime removed from an acre of land by the following crops, including hops, straw and grain : Wheat, 25 bushels Sf lbs. Barley, 38 " 15 *' Oats, 50 " 8i " Turnips, 25 tons 138| " Potatoes, 9 " 266 " Red clover, 2" 126 " Johnston remarks that " Grain grown on well-limed land has a thinner skin, is heavier, yields more flour— and that richer in gluten — than if grown on aniimed land," Magnesium. Symhol Mg : Equivalent 18, 57. What is magnesium ? Magnesium, like cal- cium, is a silvery-white, ductile, malleable metal ; I u I % ! H 48 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE. not found native, but chemically obtained by de- composing the chloride of magnesium. (Notes. — 1. Mognesium forms several useful compounds, as oxide, chloride, nitrate, carbonate, phosphate, sulphate, silicate of maj^nesia. Its best known and most useful compounds are mag- nesia — the oxide of magnesium — consisting of the union of equal equivalents of oxygen and magnesium (Mg 0) ; and Epsom salts — sulphate of magnesia (Mg O, S O3 + 7 II 0) — whose constituents, as the formula shows, are sulphuric acid, the base magnesia and water. 2. Magnesium was long considered of no use separately ; but it is now beginning to be largely used for illuminating purposes, r3pecially in mines, in pl;otogrnphy, a. Feldspar and many other crystallized minerals are chiefly composed of silicates of alumina, as are granite, prophyry and other ancient unstratified rocks. Silicon. Symhol Si; EgidvoJent 22. 59. What is silicon ? — Silicon (sometimes called Bilicium) is a dark brown powder, not occurring free ft- f C2" p.' <«« 1**1 i 50 PSEPABATORY KNOWLEDGE. in nature, but produced by chemical process. The word silicon is derived from silex^ the Latin term for Jiint Silicon is chiefly known in its union witli» oxygen forming silicic acid, silica, or sand — which is estimated to form about-one sixth part of the surface of the globe. While carbon is the main cc.istitutent of the organic kingdom, silicon in the form of silicic acid, is the chief constituent of the mineral kingdom. (Notes. — 1. The union of silicon with oxygen in proportion of one to three ( Si Os ) foriria silicic acid or silica, which is the chemical name for what in common longuage is called flint. It Beems «trango to one unacquainted ...h chemistry, that a hard tasteless solid, such as we have in iiint, quartz, .<1ec., should be called an acid. It is so called because it unites with oxygen to form compounds, termed silicates, just as sulphuric and nitric acids unite with oxygen to form sulphates and . itrates. 2. Silicic acid, is better known hy the names tilica and siliceotts earth. When pure, it is a light whitish power, which feels rough and dry when rubbed between the fingers, and is both insipid and inodorous This compound is an abundant natural product. In some of its forms this mineral is found everywhere. It is a con- stituent of every soil ; and under the form of sand and sandstone It covers a great part of the earth's surface. It constitutes a large portion of many mountain ranges, the sand and gravel of soils, and the pebbles upon the sea-shore. It forms gun-flints, grind- stones and the porous burr-stonet>, Msed in flouring mills for grind- ing grain. It is an essential constituent in the mineral part of organic matter. It forms the outer-coat of the grasses, and of the husks of grain; and from this covering the long, slender, hollow stems of grasses and grains derive their strength, as the bodies of animals do from the ekeleton. According to Professor Johnston, silica forms 74 per cent, of the ash of rye-straw, and 65 per cent, of the ash of wneat straw. If there is a deficiency of silicic acid in the soil, the gr< ';> stock will be weak and therefore liable to fall down or lodge. ..c is the silica which chiefly blunts the edges of scythes and other instruments used in cutting the stalks of grasses and grains. S. The crystallized forms of silica are numerous and important. Quartz and flint are nearly pure silica, and feldspar and mica are silicates. Various precious stones : eamelian, amethyst, agaU, opal, jasper, &G., are silroa, and their different colours are caused by the J>re8ence of metallic oxides. Crystallized silica, when colourless, brms quartz or rock crystal ; when violet coloured, it is the anuihytt, which owes its '^lour to traces of iron and manganese ; , irhea greea it ii the proNf or green qoMrtSi and is goIootm with fl^ PBEPAEATORY KNOWLEDGE. 61 the oxide of iron ; when tinged with a delicate apple-green, it is the chrysoprase, coloured by the oxide of nicljel ; when red, it is rose yuarlz, and owes its colour to the presence of manganese ; when possessing red veins or spots, caused by the per oxide of iron scattered through it, it is blood-stone or heliotrope ; when deposited from water, it is chalcedony, of which the milk-white variety forms white carnelian and the red variety red carnelian. The onyx, the sard, and the sardonyx, are varieties of chalcedony ; the fir8t,.brown and opaque white in alternate laj-era ; the second, a deep brownish red; the third, alternate layers of red and milk white, forming a beautiful arrangement of colours in cameos, urit.y, nnd so hard to fuso that It hns not \n>v,n nppllcd to any mo. It is only used in its compounds. The moHt. important of these is tho pcr-oxido of tnanganeae (Mn Oa ), wldoh is employed ns a cheap method of procurltijf oxyj^en on n, larj^o Hcalo, atid'in enormous auantittos, in tho preparation i)t a snuiU vein ill the White Mountains of New Iljunpshire. « IIkh I hi Jti'i'ii loiKj in tf.'^r / Vi's, tin was in com- mon use in the linn! oi* Mosis, as was ^old and >ilver, U'ass, iron and lead (N umbers xxxi. 22). 'I'lie smeient Pho'iiicijiiis nnd Uonnins om|)loycd it in the nianutaeturo ot*I»roii/e; and they arc sup- posed to have obtained it tVom Britain and Spain. I/oiv /.v fiu ('))}-4>f(>u<':-;i, with watei. to wiiudi aro added tin filiim's. t^r tinelv li'raniihilcd tin. The pins soon Itecome coated witii a film of tin an2)er found? — The richest co])por mines are those of Cornwall, in England, which are supposed to have been worked long before the Christian era. It is an abundant metal found in various countries, as Sweden, (Tcrmany, Kussia, youth Australia, Chili, Cuba, cVrc, and there is much of it in the neighbourhood of Lake Superior, one piece of which was taken to AVashington, and weighed 3,4:0-1: pounds. In what date is copper found f — Copper is often found native (as in the region of Lake Superior) ; and hence it became known to the ancients long before iron, which required science and skill to reduce it to the metallic form. But copper more frequently occnrs in ores, of which there are several kinds. ()f these the most important are the va- rieties of coppcT pyrites — a double sul])huret of iron and copper (Cuo S -|- Yq., Sy) ; that is an ore in which the sulphur is chemically combined with both of these metals — the particles of the two sul- phurets or sulphides being most intimately mingled together. There are also other ores of copper — red or cuprous oxide (Cu., O), pure cuprous sulphide (CuaS), carbonate or malachite (2 (Cu O) C ()., II O). Large quantities of valuable ore, chiefly carbonate and red oxide, have been of late years taken to Eng- land, from South Australia and Chili. ■t4:- nn:rAl; ATOiiv know lkdge. 50 Ifnin h copyter used.'' — Copper i.-; largely used iir Hlioathing sliip:', a;^ it does not tiiniisli oi" oxldij^o at> eiisil y a-i ii'oii ; it \a al.s(j woi-ked into a variety ot' domestic iiten;;il^, a.s tea-kettles, boilers, saiieepanp, Are., cV:e., and \\ employed iW various uieeluuiieal and ortistieal purposes. (XoTi:. — Vci^*i'tiilili5 nciiln (I'issdIvo copper in ii cold Kf'ttr, but not in n Ii"t sfutr. .Siiiifc'.s coMtiiinin.'^* vuu'^^Jii' or miythin;^ tart, and prc'servi'd fniiti-i antl ji'U'u's, sliould nut tlicrct'nro bu allowod to rcniaia in conpur VftedL'lsi, us tbo suits produce'?^ uro poisonoud.) .Doe-':i copper comhuie with other metah ? — Copper eondjines with several metals, as tin, zinc, lead, tCc, to form many useful alloys. Bronze, which was especially used in ancient tiuie.-'. for the fabrication of utensils and works of art of every kind, consistii of from 85 to 1)7 per cent, of coppei* and from 15 to 3 per cent, of tin. Gun-metal, of which cannons are cast, contains 90 per cent, of copper, with 10 ])crcent. (ditin. 1>ell-metai< and Gong-metal arc formed of 75 to 80 parts copper and 25 to 20 tin. SrKcuLUM-MErAL, witli which mirrors of telescopes arc made, consists of 2 parts of copper and 1 of tin. The speculum of Lord Rosse's celebrated telescope is composed of 1264 of copper to 58*9 of tin. Bkass is an alloy of copper and zinc — 71 per cent, of the former and 29 per cent, of the latter. Rkd-jjuass, termed tonibac, Dutch-gold, and pinchbeck, consists of 85 per cent, of copper to 15 per cent, of zinc. Gekman-silver consists of 2 parts of coppjer., 1 of niclicU iiud 1 of zinc. Gold and silver coin is a^^)yed with from one-tenth to one-twelfth of copper, by which its hardness and wearing aro greatly improved. (Note. — Tho several compoimds of copper are not noticed.) Zinc. Sr/mlol Zn : Lquivalejit 33. 61-. What is zinc .?— rZinc is an abundant and use- ful metal of bluish-whitOj colour, of bright metallic I ■V,,-) rr I f f i 1 I I M .1 0»i riiErARAToUY KNuVVLEDGi:. •lii^ti'C, closely resciiiLlinj;- mn'^iiesiuin in \i^ clicniical <'lmriici(M'. At low iuid liii^-li doiiTCH'S ol* lieut, it iti iiatiirully so hard uiid hrittlo us nut to l»o ■workable; when heated to l)etween 250° and .')20'^ it becomes malleable and ductile, and may bo easily hammered and rolled into leaves, and drawn into wire; and what is remarkable, it afterwards rc^tains this nudlc- ability and ductility ^vhen cold. ]>ut it* heated to a high degree,, /inc again becomes brittle. It is harder and lighter than lead, cheiipcn* than copper, and not ailectcd by the air and water so readily as iron. Where V.y .^//Jf' ohta'uied ? — Zinc is found al)un- dantly in Great liJritain and on the continent of Europe, and also in immense quantities in the State of New Jersey. Lh what state is :tlno found ? — Zinc is found in a state of carbonate, silicite, and sulphide, associated M'ith lead ores in many districts. The chief ores are the sulphide or zinc-ljlendG^ and the carl)onate usually called calamine. Iloio is zhie cmjdoyed ? — Zinc is employed in the form of sheets for roofing, gutters, gas-pipes, gaso- meters, lining refrigerators, sinks, ifcc, itc, protect- ing the lioor or carpet from the heat of stoves, and in various other ways. It is also used by the chemist for preparing hydrogen, and in galvanic batteries. It is likowiso used as a protecting cover- In- j'or iron. The slu-fir' of jjoii are piun:i<;«ni>ituUit>nrt ol' loiul will* owjVM^ tornuuvv t>\i(loM : nwd llu» )»vo(i»\iili> nT loml r\>vn\>» iio\ovi\l K>tuls, with t1\o u«mMm, I will iiionllitii <\\o or t]\v«sv /\\)/ryvuff< isf h\u^ \Vh K)\ \^ lumlo (o «?*«\n\\o \Hlo\\t'ii !m« nwoil Tor illllortMil )M\r|>oso!i. \Vli(>n \\"m\ iw 1\o;U(m1 in nir ;i ?/.'/»>?/» ^\^o\l l>v pninliM-n. niitl in (lio i\MupxN!4iti\>i\ v>roiu(n\on(^ \\\\^ )»lM>>liM"» oT tluMipnili(>. oiWV. tf »un!*8ioot bo n»ol(o«l i( orviilnlli/o;* on oool- iujf \\Uv^ «\ 'iwhfiah ifi-Jh^fi' or iM'ioK \hhI o.loin'od ni!U>:>, vSMwposovi \^{ lM"illi:n>t !»('!»loi> or ll.iKos. \\\\y\ is onlK>tl Uih>r}\h\ This is o\(on;Mvol\ \i-o.l in (homM!>; in the n^!\nnr!\otu»v ol' tlint jrl:«^'^ ooutoiriii!.*; on il hi'il lijuh'v !\]\vl insihilitv; in torniinr: with linwoo*! oil thv"* Viwnish i>i" (lu^ o;\MniM in;\l\(M*; in »n;\lvini':, on Iving boilovi in oil, iho stiokin;\' nhishM* ol' tho mn' si\\>n ; in \\w \\\\\\\\\\\w\\\\\^ o( roti lou.l. whilo load, vVx\» vVo. Whon (ho ,';/,?,v\\v'<\v' is lu\'i(or air tlow ;n;>: ovor ils fuuiaco, it tonus ?\v//<.?,/, vM' r,)hu'u}}u whioh is ol'a hoiUilifill \\\^ ivlour. nn^i tisovl in p;nnt.;n^{i:» Ivn'riiinj*: a. ohoiip jtnUstituto lor \ orn^illion. W/ n'iv\^ hodv \o othoi* )\>^inr^ is a onrhonato ^^r salt o( \o-m\ \^Ph (>, (' O,). t''.\ v^V4/<' s\y.:i<' x^f fh<^ ,///o//.s' «y7 ',?(/. -I.oavl, like <\>pjvr, tonus with othciMnotaK^ Uv^ol'nl alhns. /}//m mrfii^ is afi allov otVv^f*/ and ijnfhnomj. Tin toork' <^<\<\vWartsot' loavl and tin ; W.t tho /V?//.'*/v>vv* soldor is oonllH^sod o( t\\n> parts* of IcAvi to ouo of tin : eonunon /v/oAv* is oojupom^d of thnv parts of tin to ouo of load. L<'iiJ s/u)/ arc tvui^Msoa of an alloy of had and frrsynt<\ i>\\ot ia made br |vnnuir uioltod load through an iron cul- K^iider or str:uucr. portoratod with holes according vimvww'iimy K^fowf.rf»fH!'liiti|': flin wnli'i'. A HiiKill (jiiimfily <»!' nr^fnip, ifl fnldcd In flip Inml fo fi'iMlcr tliu (Irnpf^ jirTlnetly |r|(||)||ltiC. la ' ■.■«i'i'i»fciM:«r rriifl«»f»Hiitiir^iriiiiiii mro' i ■■■ m lil<:HH(>N XIV. T'tW Miiftftit Mti:tAt<»— Mti-lti'tWiV, «1M veil, l'f,Atf»J(Mf, A-^n flOtT»< 7'V Mi;iM'i'uv oif (^i!i('KMn,vf:if (Lnfin /fijdrinyi/nnn), i^'t/nif'iif 11";: /'.''/iniui/f/i/ |0(). (Vmi|i), -->fi'('i>iii'y, "llvt'i', fl'illritiiii Mfi(| (j'»|(l (ir'< miUo'I ti'ifi/f vtftiitH. ficcMH'ii' llicy It'll. riiHf ilidl, )q, c'/ttiliirio with 'ixyi^'ifi 'if ll'.i' nil' III, nnlliiniy |t>m|ii'(riluiiii.) Mi'ifciiKv if* n, i^ilvcry wIiIIm km-ImI of h very lirilliiiiif iiiofiillii' liiUic. If. \i\ (JlKliMjniiKlird fV(;iri nil of Ikm' clniit'iifH liy hi'Iii/r II(|iii(| jif, ordliHiry inin- pi'i'af.iircM. i'Voiii ifst lirjiiiil clinr/icf*'!* fui'i Hilvfi* coloiii' if w\\i\ ciillcil Iiy(lnii7';yniiri (from /n/f/o/\ wiiliM', III' liijiiiil, nml iin/in'oii,, Hllvnr), n\\(\ luin rri'iMvcd flic nnliii;iry iiMtiio of tfii'n'lu'il iirr. \\, hccoiiicK r.oliil or I'r(!i'/,('f4 only uf. forfy i\vi^ve<\9, hclow /,iM'o. (hilikf) vviih'.r, il, confrnclH iiiHt,f;ad of cNpiuidiii^!; iif, lli.i inoiiiciil, (»f <'oiif.rf!ln,f ion, MiTciiry in Hoiii('liiric,4 found nnfivr-, hiil; if, ia cliiclly oliliiincd from nn oro cidhid r'mndhar^ wliicli i^ II mil|)liid<5 of incrciiry. It, in found in Kniull (|tiiinf ifici4 ill Minrliind Jind l''rnnf;o, in Sihr^ria, the Va\A< IndicjH, iiiid ill Soiifli Africriffi; l»nt tlio prin- cipal niiiic'i IVoin wlildi if Iiiih Ix-cii olitainod arc those of Idria, in Illyria, and Alniadcn, in Spain, and in ('liina and .lapjiii. Latterly it lia.-i hccri din- covorcd in fvrcat almndancu and pm'ity in (Jalifornia and Austnilia. Mercury h\ (!,\t(!iiHivcly iiHod in tlio constniotion of tlicnnoincturB and barunietoi'r^, and lor extracting n^4 j U a I 4, 64 rREPAKlTORY KNOWLEDGE. gold and silver from their ores. Witli tin it forms an anmli^am for silvering mirrors, and with tin and zinc it forms the amalgam for electrical machines. Tlio componnds of mercury, though poisonous, are used as medicines and for many other purposes. Calomel is a compound of mercury and chlorine subc'ldoride of mercury (ng.Cr), as is co/'rosirc suUiiuate — chloride of mercury. A^ermillion is sul- phide of mercurv (IFg S). ]\[ercury is a constituent of numerous otfier compounds and anuilgams, and is employed for various medicinal, ai'tistical and mechanical pui'poses. 71. SiLVEK (Latin, Aiu/entum). Symbol Ag : Eq^idmlent 108. Silver is the whitest of metals and second to i one in lustre, wliicli it does not lose in jnire air at any temperature. It is very malleable, and so ductile that a single grain mav bo drawn into a wire 400 feet long. In malleabilitv and ductilitv it is oniv inferior to gold. Silver is found in the native state, as well as combined with sulpluir and chlorine, as a sulphide, and chloride. Its mines are discovered and worked in various countries. Silver is nsed in every country for coin and for various articles of ntillty and ornament. Silver coin is always alloyed with copper to increase its hardness and t«> resist the wear of use. Iw (Jroat I^ritain the standard silver coin is composed of one- oleventh copper ; in France and the United States one-tenth ; in Prussia twenty-iive per cent. Silver does not oxidize or rust in air or water ; but it becomes tai'mshed from the action upon it of hydro-sulphuric acid, traces of which the air always contains, derived from organic bodies, Tlie gas is also produced diu'ing the combustion of mineral coal, and escapes from the stoves, fnriiacrs and grates into the rooms or cabinets where article? of rREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE 65 silver are kept. It is because they contain a small quantity of sulpliur, tliat eggs, mustard and horse- radish tarnish silver spoons. Silver forms com- pounds with oxygen, sulphur, chlorine, iodine, and bromine, all of whicli are darkened by tlie action of the light — a property which contributes to the beautiful processes of photograpliy. Platinum. Symbol Ft : Equivale7it 90. 72. Platinum is tlie heaviest of known metals (except iridium), being twice as heavy as silver; has a bright colour like that of steel ; is very duc- tile and malleable like gold ; cannot be melted by the heat of the hottest furnace ; can only be melted by the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe; is about half as malleable as gold ; docs not tarnish by exposure to the air, or to any acid except aqua regia — a inixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids. It is harder than oopper but softer than iron. Being very malleable and ductile, it can be easily wrought into vessels. NoTHS. — 1. The crucibles of the cliemist are often mode of pliitituini, and it is also used in the manufacture of oil of vitriol, and in enamelling on glass and porcelain. 2. Platinum forma several alloys with iron, copper, silver, zinc, lead, ttc.) 73. Gold (Latin Aurum). Symbol An : Equiva- lent 98. Gold is the most precious and widely diffused of all metals — being found in most countries. It is of a bright yellow colour, and so malleable that it may be extended into leaves two hundred and eighty-two thousandths of an inch in thickness, or so thin that 1200 of them pressed together would be no thicker than a leaf of this book, and it is so ductile that a single grain may be drawn into 500 feet of wire. It does not tarnish by exposure to air or any acid oxcc])t aqua regia. C^V()TKs. — ]. Tlie vnriuu.'i u^ics of gold arc tuo well known to rt-quire e.\i)lanation.) I : m a 1 ■'J I i; Is if*; % 0* 66 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE. 2. Gold occurs in nature in the metallic state, soraetimea boau- tifally crystallized. It is found disseminated in primitive rocts and in the sands of the beds of rivers, formed by streams from the mineral veins of rocky mountains. When these sands are washed, the gold dust heini^' of greater speciiic gravity than the sand, is left behind, while the sand is washed away '<« ! tii ,ii LESSON XV. KlXnS OF SOIL, (Note. — I have now given some account of the two kinds of sul)- stances — organic and inorganic — which exist in nature ; the pro- portions of these substances in soils, plants and animals ; the organic constituents of plants and animals ; the fifteen elementary Bubstances with which the farmer has to do, their names, symbols, equivalent numbers ; tho definite proportions in which tliey com- bine to form acids, bases, salts, i Boils, the following directions are given: " To lUO grains of the di y .'^uils diffused through half a pint of cold water, add half a glassful IN >; I l-i I 1 c^ i in; fi:' Sf 1 >»u» » Lk ■ m 1 w IP i^-.r, am' i-*t W ]n^ '•ifti um. <*«■ %«k I-*,, X' Sn Iff. ifp **'l IP *■** m< '* -J^- * ,5 1-J (ii m^'- * • . K » -S^ ■1 ' 1' * *■> :!;■ If ■It. i £« wrr Ir 70 rREl'ARATORY KNOWLEDOK. of niurintic acid, (the spirit of salts of llic shops) stir it oroasionnlly (hiring the dny, ntul lot it stand over iii^lit t(i ssfttle. I'oiir oll'tiio clear li(|iior in tl»o inoriiiji{ij and fill up the ve^sol witli water to wash away the excess of acid. "When the water is a;;ain clear, pour it olF, dry the soil and weifj^h it — the l()^ss will amount gener- ally to one per cent, more than tlic (piantity of lime present. The result will be sutHeiently near, however, for the i)urpose3 of classi- fication. Jf the loss exceed 5 grains from the 100 of the dry soil, it may be classed among the marls ; if more than 20 grainr, among the calcareous soils." 3. "The nietliod of determining (says Jobystnn) the amount of vcgetahh matter for the i)urposes of classification, is to dry the soil well in an oven, and weii:;h it, then to heat it to didl redness over a lam]) or a briq.'htfire, till the combustible matter is carried away. The loss, on again weighing, is the quantity of organic matter." LESSON XVI. STRUCTURE OK PLANTS AXD OFFICES OF THEIR ORGANS. (Note. — In lesson II. I have stated the organic constituents of plants. I now propose to give some account of the parts and structure of the plants which it is the chief object of the farmer to produce. It is scarcely more important for the builder, in order to do his work, to master the plans and specifications of the architect, than for the farmer to acquaint himself with the structure, elements and habits of the plants on the right culture of which his wealth 60 essentially depends.) 80. ^Vhat are the prinGi2)al 2>Ci'r'ts of ^^lantsf — Plants consist chiefly of three parts — the, root, ti.o stem, and the leaves. 81. ^Vhat are these jparts of a plant called f— These parts are called the organs of the plant — the instruments of its growth, (as the mouth, teeth, stomach, arteries and veins are the organs or instru- ments of life and growth in the animal economy) and are, therefore, called the organs of vegetation. 82. But do not plants co?isist also qjr flowers^ and fruity and seed? — Plants ]}vo^mgq flowers^ from which comes i\\Q fruit, and from this the seed ; but these take no part in nourishing the plant. Their use is to reproduce, multiply and ])erpetuate the species, and they are therefore called mgans of reproduction. ") ri:ErAKATUKY KNOWLEDGE. 71 83. W/ial u the root f — Tlio root is the part wliieli p:i'o\vs from the light into the earth, gives tlie pLiiit footliokl, aiul tlie means of nourishment. The root usually branchcrf into snuxller roote, and rootlets, and iibres, mcM'o and more slender; the cells along the sides and at the end of whieh are the real mouths by which most of the food of the plant enters into its circulation. (XoTK.— ^Tho roots of plants nro ns iiiiiiiltcly diversified in size, sli!i]i(' niid form, as tlio brandies and tops. When the roots pro- duco fruit and die in the same season, tlie planta are termed annuals, as wheat, oats, barley, and many otiiers; when the plants grow two years from the same roots, they are called hlenniah ; and when the plants o-row for a suecesbion of years from the samo roots, they are called pcrouiials). 84. W/iat is the stem f — The stem is the part of the plant which grows upwards into the air and liglit, and bears the branches, leaves, flowers and iTuit. (Notes. — 1. The point at or near the surface of the ground, where the root and stem join, is called the crown or collar of tho plant, 2. Aa the roots of a ])lant greatly vary in size, length, form, duration, etc., so the same A'ariety prevails in the stem, which is A'ai'iously named atcording to tlu! appearance it i)ie.-;ents; for in- stance, the stem of a tree is termed tlio trunk; the stems of wheat, barley, rye, and tho f:;rasses, are termed straw; the stems of Indian corn are called stalks; the stem of the sti-awherry is termed the runner ; the stem of the grape and the melon is called the vine.) 85. What are ihQj)a'/'ts of the stein ? — The parts of the stem are the pith, the wood, and the bark — the garment or protecting covering of the wood. (Notes. — 1. The forms, of. jcs, and various growth of the difl'er- ent parts of the stems of plants, are treated at large in works on Botany and Vegetable ^hysiol()^•v. 2. The stems of some plants, like the animal body, grow by (ho increase and formation of new material wilhin, as Indian corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye, the onion, asparagus, all the grasses, ttc. The new fibres as the}' continually form, grow in the inside of the stem. These plants arc called endopenous plants — the word endo- genous meaning, in plain English, insidc-r/rowers. 3. But those plants whose stems grow by the formation of new tissue near the outside of the stem, are called exor/enous plants — m '■''m 1 'lit 72 rRKPARATORY KNOWLEDGT:. i OHhIfJe ff)'ou'fii's ; Midi as tlie forest trees, tlio bonn. tho pea, tho clovor, pot.ftto, beot, turiiii), Hiix, tfec. In plants tlmt live niid f,'n)W many yoars, as trui-s niul shrubs, u now layer is; added to tho wood on tlie outsidt', next tiio bark, every year as lonej as tlio tree or shrub lives. Tho new rinj^ of fibre, always formed on tho oul^ido (jf the old ones, may be seen in many ai;ricultural plants, as, for oxam)ile, the i)otatoe and bent; but it is more obvious in i>lants of liiirder texture and larger growth. The inner or heart-wood of a tree soon dies. Tho .sap-wood is tho only active part; "and this, with the inner bark, whieh is renewed from its inner faeo every year, is all of tho trunk that is concerned in tl)e life and ijrowth of the tree." (Jray, in Ids Jiotmif/ for You, hi People, remai'ks, that " riants with exof^fonous or outside-f^rowinij stems, especially those that live year after year, almost always branch freely. All com- mon shrubs and trees of tho exogenotis class make a new set of branches every year, and so presont an aitpcarance very different from that of most of those of tho ondogenous or insiilc-growing class." 4. By observinii' tho layers f wood, tho r^f^o of a tree may be readily ascertained. A strikin<^ illustration of this is given by Aihinti^ou, Avho relates that in visiting' Cape Verdo in tho year 174S, ho was struck with tho venerable appearance of a tree 50 feet in circumference. lie recollected having read in some old voyages an account of an inscription on a tree thus situated. No traces of such an inscription remained, but tho position having been .iccurately described, Adaiiixon, was induced to search for it by cutting into the tree, when to his extreme delight, bo discovered tlie inscription entire imder no less than three hundred layers of wood — proving that each now layer is formed on the outsule of the last preceding one, and that tho inscription had been ado three hundred years before.) 86. W/uit are ilie leaves? — The leaves (which make the foliage) are generally liat and green bodies, variously shaped, one side upwards to the sky, and the other downwards towards the ground ; they are intersected with ribs or veins, and their surface on both sides is covered with a coating (called epicler- inls) which is provided with nun;iberless invisible (to the eye) domata^ mouths, or '' breathing pores," by means of which the intercellidar s^^aces in tlie interior of the leaf are brouglit into direct com- munication with the outer atmosphere. (Notes. — 1. These stomata or iiiotUhs or pores, are wanting in the submerged leaves of a• . • ■ if !r- m th \m '] fl u. 7»RKPARATOTlY KN'OWLKDOE. 8S. What is tJic ilower? — Tho llowor is an ornjan or collection of orii^fiii'^, by means of which llic Rcodg are 1)1*0] »iire(l ; one L,n"o;it oI)jecl of tho plant bcin;^ the production of fniit containing seeds. (Xorr-, — Tlicri! nrc jicciiliar nltrnctlona to tho stinly of flowers Ro uni\(':'-i;illy iKlmiri-iI ninl clici'l-^liod from their beauty and fr.Tj^ram ft, iho i'xt|ui^:l<; aiTaii!;x'm(;iit and fonn.s of their parts, ami tho oikUcss variL'ty they exhibit.) SO. liV/'// ar<' ilx' jmrU of ihe flovfer? — By ex- aniininic u ruse, one will see that the llower consists oi calyx, covolla, fr, calyx, corolla, stamens, pistils, and the ])arls of those also, and lea.-n to distini;uisli them in all common bhjssoms Ik; mav meet with, he will have mastered the f^erin or ruiliments of floral Botany, and will have acquired the means of mmdi entertainment and pleasure in his visits to every garden and his labours in every lield and forest. 2. The f^rand function of the flower is //•«r//^Vn!/;o», and the parts essential to this are the Btamens and pistils. The ferlilizini^ dust, ov pollen of the antlur, carried by the wind, insects or other a<^en- cies, falls upon the miisb sl>>/iiia or luiked tip of the p'isfU, and ponds out a slender nucroseopie tube or root, which i)enet rates the interior of the pistil to the .s^//e or base until it enters the ovary, or seed-sack, and comes in contact with the ovule (little e;^i;) or younj; seed, which it fertilizes, by producing withia it an embrijo, or minute future plant. 3. When the seeds are fertilized, the flower, havini; fultilled its functions, begins to fade ; the corolla and stamens u-iually fall off or wither, while the base of the pistil, the ovipy and inrludi'd ovulrs (ecfg seeds,) swells and rapidly increases in s'ze imtil the seeds are ripe, or become fmit, when the ovary or seed-sack, falls to the ground, or opens to release its O'ontents. 4. Whatever contains the seed is called the fruit of the ])lant. In case of some seeds each kernel is at the same time both a see 1 and fruit, as wheat, rye, barley, etc; but for the most j)art, tl;o fruit contains several or many ^cah, as the bean or pea pod, ajtple, pear, melon, tfec. 5. The fruit is the ripened ovary, or seed-vessel with its appen- dages, and may be a berrj', a grain, a I'od, a nut, such as the acorn, chestnut, beech-nut. hazel-nut (the cup of the acorn and 'lie burr of the others being a sort ot lleshy calyx ; a stone fruit, ^a'•h OS the peach, cherry, i)luni, walnut, butter-nut, and hickory i.ut. Thus the ovary or seed-vessel ripened, consisting of the liase of Ihe pistil in its matured state (says Johnston), exhibits a great variety of forms antl characters, whicli serve chiefly to detiae the different kinds of fruit. ■m ■ k '\ I ruKrAiJATtnfv knowt.kdok ('. Ill {\[\> suinniiiry iio(i<'o of Uio Howcr — one of tlio niofit bonn- tifiil (Tciitioiis of diviiu' jLCoodiii'ss ; tlio reader can linrdly linvo failed 1.0 iidinii-e and even adore the display of inlinile .sl-.ill ninl Ix'nevolenee. as also in t-lie works and laws of nature ref 'rred to in preei'dinu; lesson;- Til e reason, and ])rineii)k', and ov ii mod OS of many of these opiTations, are beyond (he. search a',d eompre hen^ion of man. but nonelhe loss real.thonj^h tliemoro voiulorfnl. If I'Ncry jiau'e of the Mower book of nature nbounda ir. nii/xtrrirK, the hiii-her hook of reve1a(iot\ eould not have ory'inated with tlic Author of nature \\;'re it wilhout mys'.ories. I I SECOND PART. l^KKl'AUATOKY KNOAVLElXiK AiTLlED. If mm St (XoTi;. — Tlinn<;li I liavc inadi' iiuiny jiractinil reinnrk.s in tlio iioU'rf, ill coimc'dion willi (ho di'liniliiMm ami cxplaniit.iotiH ot" t.lio prt'iMMliii^' licssous, I now jii'iicccd lollio iiioro foi'iiial ami ext.mdfd ;i[il)li('alii)ii ofUuMn to ilio hii-^iiicss and inl(^ri':its of tlio fariuor ; and in iloiny s^o \ "• ill cndKKly in tlic iilainc-l- and hricfcst nianiKJi' I ran the vcsnlls of my own uh.sorvution-:, 'iml examination of (.Ih; liitcst, ami must ju'ccjitcd works i-ti nn'i'i(:nltui"(! pnMirihcd both in l']ni;land and Amri ica, (il, bcini;' always midci'slnod (hat, 1 pix'tond to advancti no fnrthierita"y std)stance.s v.ith which Uie fanner has to do, and iii';^'a'!i'; .".(i ' mineral (H)nslituen(,.s of bo(,h soils am' plant-, (he tir.-.t ^tep iii ilie praotieal ap|)lieation is, to ascertain (hi; proportions,, or t'H'oo HubsUimes in both soih aiul plants, and thu reiutiuus uf it,.' . }\>- !•> the niher.) LKSSOX XVII. ■ "Mi'UalTlO.N Of .-OILS AM> I'IAMS VNU llll.lll l;l.i.AIJoNH lO t.A'.'K OTHER . i'l. M7iat has heeii shoion Vy vhemical anal //sis to he the eo}nj><}s/t/'o)i of rich and iwor soifs f — Tlie Ibllowiiig table sIioa'S the eoinj)Osition of soil fertile Avitliout and with manure, aii«l very barren : HWMPMI ;8 riiEPAltATORY KNOWLEDGi; Al'PLIKD. n't i ii In Onk JIlmjreu Tolnds. Ors^'aiiic matter Silica Alumina Lime Alaij^nesia , Oxide of Iron Oxitlo of Manganese. Potash Soda ...... . Cliloi'ine Sulphuric Acid Phosphoric Acid . . . , Carbonic Acid Loss during- analj'sis Soil V 1 KUTILK ! WnnocT 1 Ma> unu. {I .7 61 .8 5 .1 5 .9 .9 6 .1 .1 .2 .4 .2 .2 4 4 1 4 1-';:rti;,k WITH Man cm:. 5.0 8o ti ') , f"> 5.1 1.8 S.O Vkky JJauui:n. 4.0 77.8 9.1 .4 .1 8.1 .1 (XoTKS. — 1. By turniii!;!; to Lessnii IT., ]iaa;c 17, the rei^ i r /ill see that I have shown how to distinguisli between the orgii-.ic nnd inorganic parts of plants, and that the average per cent, of organic matter in good soils is from 5 to 10, the jiroportion of organic matter stated in the above table— the reuiaiulng 90 to 95 i)er cent. of the soil being inorganic or mineral matter, except in peat lands. 2. It Avill also be observed that the inorganic substances named in the above table, are the same which I have mentioned in lesson VL, l)age 27, in describing acids, and in lessons IX and X,, pages 43-47, linder the heads of Lime, Potash and Soda, as contained in farm ])roductions. 3. Every farmer knows the existence of the differences of soils mentioned in the above tal)le. In the third column one half of the inorganic bodies present in ttie first culumn are entiridy want- iug.andtwo others, lime and magnesia, are reduced to a nunimum. To apply a sufficient quantity of manures to make the very barren soils fertile, "would not pa}-, except in places ■where jtroduce is high and manures cheap. Tiie above talde shows clearly the dilTerences in soils which cause fertility and barrenness. The barren soil is barren because ot an excess or deiicieney of certain substances. Agricultural cheniistr}- is com])eteut to ascertain the defect and prescribe the remedy, the application of whicli becomes simply a question of expense. 92. W/iat has heen shown to he the composition of the chief productio?is of the firm f — The ap- proximate composition of tiie most common culli- vated crops is siiown" in the following table, which has been conijtructcd chiolly by bi'KKNOtL, and I'jfctEi'AR.vroKv k.\owli;ix;k aim'lied. 79 l)iiYt\yhy Jo/in,^t 0)1, (]iioted iVuui ilic ^^eic A?ncrlcafi Booh of the Farm : •B'« 000 T .\\V.\.\A Ki 'iv.uvL •* JO a o 1- X ?. "Ti o ■= o rr -ii f-* •<< -^ c/i -** o 0> .— vj '£> -n ci 1- — -r T -/. -r -r r. r; CI •- t- ^i v3 r: i -i '— x !• m >-c •■; :~. '.\ 1- I- = r- r- — I -T c" •/)' o ■;> x -c •* "i -f — " r^ .-c *i o c^ '.■> r- 71 f?J r3 U) Tt« ;^ i-» »-* 1.- *. I ••aSH.»CV!)KV]t JO aaixQ ■ '.1 '• i 1:5 .0 ./- CI CI ;- iC r- . I' -T -i ci ci . . 1- — e c- Cl ;c I- :c o ■ ■ :* Z. • ~ — T Z- -r • ■Oi-'M-COO'-iOO ■ • -Z: •axiao'iii3 •uiov oiHOiidsoir,! ^ — _ <=- T. O C/J O O T. 3 O O Ci 1.. 1— 1 O CO -l" -o O CC 1- I- 1- "-0 CI rH:Or-"l-i— IC.Of-l'*XJCOr-HOCIV;Or-<00 OOOOOOOOOOOO OK II ».! 1- -* O O '^^ o S O CI •£■ ^ CI •;. O O O t- O CO t— O ' C 1- 1-.- i" i~ r- '0 1- 1-1 -r o c. ': 1 C". 'I" 1" w. r: ?. i.c t-i ci o o d r-( CI r-i d o d w ■; 1 c I r-' * 1 ' ' o -i >■■; •aijy OmAHd'l.l;^ O '-' o ci c: ) - ri y; i.ci ST. tc o C-, -<< -:i 1- -)• CI o CI 1 - c cc 1 - -r 10 ;c i.c ri c^ 1- I- «:> cc 10 ?-, uc »;< z) ■--.> 71 r- •■> — ■-■: ©O rlOOC-rHOOOM CI i: -v n •vonif," -t* rr 1- C1 '^ "( cr *4J t- • -• ■» ■— -■ ••.» '/■. *^u r. X "' '. t J , ; C l- ■Jj '■'; t- i/j - as .11 CI "_ c. c « ■^^ •0 I-. •r: 1- T). X — I X ~. iC rH CI I n rH ;•; — I -r c 1 : I -** ~* ^ r-f I-* I - : ■V.MK viy •visa.'vUYK •aivii •:; — 'i -t "C -J- i.i •* 1= Cl Ci CI -r r-l Cl CI y; r-- CI 2 'i5 Zt •0 _^ 6 rs ^ ci ©OOr-iOO 00000 r-l CI -i I- CI .!? CI r. CI T! Ci n '73 1- Cl •<»• rH uC CC c.?;o •t ?■; 1- 16 c. CI ut -f o CO 1- 5 ;c .c OOr-iOOOOOrHHr- -'' '"' ?c ;c •0 -= •;: -* -i ci ci -A 1.C -c r. OS -r a; >.c CI J - ci to rH S Jc d c^ _ t-ci !.-: ;2 ^ - r. •0 T C-, X -M 0»1i-l>nOr-lrtrHr-l«OOI- ffl !0 1-1- M •vaog O Ci O X Cl Cl r-l ■£■ O Ci ^ CI C rf :C O ^ r- rH O CO cioCIOrHO © OQ O 1- -CI rH 71 -t r. CI CI cc s. -r CI CI o -f r. r. :c o o ci c I- Ci ci 1. •HSVXOJ cc _ c£ :c Ci I.- CU 7! © © O Cl ei i.C> -5 © i."! CI © ct M re 1- rH 1- ,.T CI CI 1- CO Oi-' rj « rH .- rH cc © rH jc c< uo © ce c: o ci d ci i-i r4 cc o © ■* d -r. ci ^ cc ci rs « si >= ^ j: c is" ^ 2^ : : -: : J a "5 £ ? d s a J ^ P 5 r C5 3S c 2 i: n ■= d ;:- ^ t ^ cq o « t.^PP' . . . « .^ . 2.*' i y'-.i so riiEPAr.AToiiv NXoWT-Enr;!-: atmtjed. ti t (XoTK,*.— ]. T?y oom]i!ii'iii!j; (lie |ii'occ(lii)o' l\v) tahlos. il, will ])() PCon tliiit. >.<>i\< coiitiiiii tilt' :iimii' sii1ist!wir(.'s ;n IIk' crops wliichgrow in tlicm. 2. IJut it will lio noticed that tli;' a^lioi^ of the ditYcront graiii.-< ami routs vai'_, luuoii in coniposiiiini. I'liosphovic- acid is tlio cliief inj,'rt'di(>i.t in '. iio as1i03 of the graiiiis. wlieat, corn, rye and oaLa, but not so with the vo^'ctahlos, potatoes andtiirni]).s ; while potash I'xist.s in lav(;-e jjvoportion in all, hut more hari^'cly in the voi;-etable3 than in the ^'raiiis. Phosphoric acid is the laruost i>i<:jrcdient in I'vo and oats ; and the same is true of barley and buckwhoat ; but avevy small per centago of it is foinid in the straw. In the i^-rain, there is less than ono and a h.ilf per cent, of pilica. while in the straw tliere is a very large percentage. It is Hilica that gives strength nnd elasticity to straw. "VVlient straw, on acconnt of its having to bear ii heavy lioad, requires more strength tlian that of hay; ihc silica in the former is nearly twice that of the latter, in addition to the straw being hollow for obvious reasons, this is one of the ranny indications of design and windom in the works and laws of nature, though more strictly speaking in the Avorks and laws of God. ;;, Without entering into further details, T may remark, that by comparing tiie preceding tables, it will be seen tliatin the ashes of grains, phosphoric acid predominates, but in those of I'oots, potash and soda abound ; that lime is all important to the grasses, and silica to the straws ; while the other ingredients, though small in (juality, are, nevertheless, essential to the growth and perfection of botii grains and vegetables, as will appear more fully hereafter. 4. From the analysis of soils and crops in the two tables, the i!;'iimate relation of the one to the other is manifest. The soil buj)plies the food of plants which can no more grow to luxuricancc and perfection without an ample supply of appropriate food, than can animals become strong and lat without a sufliciency of proper provender. Hence the necessity of seeing that the "ioil of each tield possesses the requisite supply of the substances essential to feed the crops which are growing upon it.) 7 ; . LESSON xvth. . TiOn.S SU.M'Cr.l' TO liH FKRKNT kinks ok t;R.MN>: AND VKGV.'f M?t,K». (y,vrK. — In l.os-on X\'I. i )>u\e stated the olassiticatiou of suiK«, Mild how they may bo ast;ertaiued. 1 n ihe preceding s-ection, X Vll. L have, in two tables, given an analysis of rich, common and bar- ren soils, and of the most common grains and vegetables grown by the farmer. It will now be proper to show how the different kinds of soils are adapted to the growth of different kinds of graina and vegetables.) 03. IToio will a farmer obtain good croups ? — The farmer will obtain good crops hy selecting sioils tcr. the foil ancc um PEEPAEATOHY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 81 adapted to the diiferent kinds of crops, and then cultivating his crops as he would take carc.of his cattle — according to the laws of nature. 94. But if his soils arc not goody what is he to do? — lie is to improve his soils, by culture and manures, the best way possible for this purpose. 95. What is said of clay soils f — The strongest clay-soils are suitable for wheat and beans, and the less stiff clay-soils are suitable for oaty and clover. They are so excellent for meadows and pastai'age, that they are styled grass lands. They are strong and lasting soils for their special purposes. 9G. What is said of sandy soils ? — Sandy soils are peculiarly fitted for the growth of barley and Indian corn, turnips and other green crops. The lighter sandy soils are the best for growing rye and buckwheat. 97. What is said of loamy soils f — Loamy soils are intermediate between clay and sand, and are the richest natural soils, uniting all the materials necessary for the growth of crops. (Note. — Clayey soils are often called heaty lands, and sandy soils, light lands. Loamy soils are called clayey, sandy, or cal- careous loama, as they incline to clay or sand or lime in their composition.) 98. What are alluvial soils ? — Alluvial soils are such as are formed by the washing of streams, on the low banks of which they are formed, and they vary in their characteristics from a mixed clay to almost pure sand ; but in general they combine the components of loamy soils and sandy loams. When the streams on the banks of which they are situated, have their sources among mountains and hills, and bear in their current the dissolving portions of vari- ous rocks and quantities of leaf and other vegetable mould, and overflow their banks winter or spring, 4 ' 11 ■Mi » U,' „.' 82 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. J i'!l the bottom lands formed and enriched by such de- posits possess almost inexhaustible fertility. 99. What is said of peaty soils? — Peaty soils consist almost wholly of decayed plants, and are frequently ^called vegetable soils. They generally occupy low, swampy levels; the* peat exists in various stages of decay, from the parti all v decayed fallen trees, stumps and leaves to a woody mass of impalpable powder. (Notes. — 1. In thia natural state, peaty land is mostly unfit for any profitable vegetation or culture ; but should the Act of our Legislature for draining swamps and marshes, passed in the Ses- sion of 1869-'70, be successfully carried out, hundreds of thousands of acres of most valuable land will be added to the domains of agriculture. 2. Though the soils mentioned above are thus distinguished by external characters, and therefore by peculiar qualities of different value and special productiveness, they pass into each other, like the colours of the rainbow, by such minute gradations, that it ia Bome'^imes diflScult saying to what class they belong. The inter- mediate classes are the most numerous, as they are the most useful — another indication of the wisdom and bountifulness of Divine Providence.) ^,, i I ji 1 I M i < ii LESSON XIX. BOW TO OOMSXRVK AND IHFROVR SOItS. {^8cil»~~h(yu) uatd ; contents of good goils ; object, nature, classification of manures.} 100. Sow should a farmer conserve his soils f — By using and feeding them well, as he would his horses, ii he would conserve and keep them fit for labour. 101. Sow should a farmer use and feed his soils well t — Bjr so tilling and cropping them with dif- ferent grains, grasses and vegetables in succession as to exhaust nis soils least, and by restoring to them, in the form of manures, what he takes from them in the form of crops. ^^ra PREPARATOEY KNOWLEDGE AI^PLIED. 83 102. Btit will not the same crops grow in the same soil year after year f — Yes, if the soil receives an annual coat of manure by the overflow of some stream like the banks of the Nile ; or if the soil is annually supplied by artificial manure with the substances extracted by the crop, as gardens ; but if the same kind of cropping be carried on in the same soil year aft3r year without the addition of manures, the land will yield less and less, until it becomes poor or barren. 103. Are tJtere any examples of this? — Yes; there are many examples in almost every County of Canada, where farms have become unproduc- tive and poor by this hard usage. They have been worked to death without being fed, like hardly used cattle. 104. Why do lands thus hecome impoverished? — Because the crops draw so largely certain sub- stances from the soil, in a shorter or longer time, that it cannot furnish a sufficient quantity of such substances to the growing crop. A cistern from which water is daily drawn for family use will, in time, become dry, unless replenished by rains or otherwise. If a man, from time to time, is taking money out of his purse, and putting none in, his purse will at length become empty. A farmer will inevitably reduce his land to poverty if he con- stantly take:, out of it the money*of his crops without paying anything into it in return. 105. But where is the farmer'' s profit^ if he puts as much into the la/nd as he taTces out of it f — He takes off the land wheat, oats, potatoes, turnips, &c., which he sells for much more money than he pays for the manures which he puts into it. " He puts in the land what is cheap, he takes off what is dear." 106. What elementary substances should the soil contain fo7' the nourishment of plants f — The Boil f :^ '. ( i^^- Wit i ii ht-1 i ill 8^ PBEPARATOBY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 'I! M ! t bIiouIcI contain the various elementary substances which are found in plants* (NoTB. — These siibstanceB, organic and inorganic, have been stated in LesBon III., and the composition of them explained in the fourth and following lessons. ) 107. Nmne these substances. — They are, 1. Oxy- gen ; 2. Hydrogen ; 3. Nitrogen, in the shape of Ammonia; 4. Carbon; 6. Sulphur; 6. Phospho- rus; 7. Chlorine; 8. Silicon; 9. Sodium, in the shape of common salt ; 10. Calcium ; 11. Potas- sium ; 12. Magnesium ; 13. Iron ; 14. Manganese ; 15. Aluminum, as the basis of clay. (NoTKS. — 1. In some plants there is also a minute quantity of fluorine, and certain marine plants contain iodine and bromine. But with these Canadian farmers have nothing to do. 2. The first four of the above-named substances are atmospheric elements, but are always found in combination — sulphates, phos- phates, silicates, nitrates, carbonates and fluatea of lime, soda, pot- ash, magnesia, iron, alumina, manganese, or in other more complex combinations. N.B. — For the meaning of these terms and terminations see the explanations given of them. Lessons V. and VI. — pages 21-32.) 108. But does every plant contain all these ele- mentary substances? — They are all found in the ashes of some plants, and are tlierefore essential to them; but many plants contain only a part of them ; very few contain them all. Some plants contain also more of certain substances than other plants, ajid require, of course, a larger supply of such substances in the soil. 109. What are the substances called which the farmer thus uses to remedy the defects and improve the qualities of the soil? — They are called manures,, and are anything which furnishes food for plants, and thereby enriches the soil. 110. HcM are manures classified? — They are divided into two classes, organic and inorganic, but are usually treated under the heads of vegetable manures, animal manures, and mdneral manures. JrtJEPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 85 t Some mention another class called mixed manures, consisting of mixtures of vegetable and animal maiitires, with the addition also, in some caseSj of mineral manures. LESSON XX. now TO coNflKEVB AND IMPROVE THE SOIL (Continued). (Yegetable Manures). 111. What are the vegetable manures ? — They are such parts of plants as are put into the soil to make it inore productive ; such as different kinds of clover, buckwheat, cabbage leaves, radishes, turnip-tops, potato tops, stalks of Indian corn, rye straw, hay, hay-stuff, &c. The former of these are green ma- nures, the latter are dry. 112. To what kinds of soils are the green crops best suited? — The green crops are best suited to light and sandy soils and calcareous soils, which need no lime. 113. Why ? — Green crops are best suited to light and sandy soils, because they supply such soils with what they are deficient in — vegetable mould, re- tentive of moisture, and containing ammonia and nitric acid ; they add to the land organic substances which it did not before possess, and are therefore a clear gain to the soil in every respect. (Note. — Johnston says, " A green crop ploughed in ia believed by some practical men to enrich the soil as much as the droppings of cattle from a quantity of green-food three times as great." (Agri- cultural Chemistry. ) The author of the New American Farm Book remarks, that " Lands in mnay of our Eastern States which have been worn out by improvident cultivation, and unsalable at $10 an acre, have by this means (of manuring with green crops), while steadily remu- nerating their proprietors for all the outlay of labor and expense, by their returning crops, been brought up in value to $50." Of clover for green manures, the same author observes, " This is suited for all soils that will grow anything profitably, from sand if posses- ifSlill ;!!il 80 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. (I V i Bing an adequate amount of fertility to the heaviest clay, if drained of its supertluous water" (pp. 82, 83.) 114. What is said of dry vegetable manures ? — Straw and hay are usually ted to cattle and horses, or trodden upon by them, and afterwards put upon the land, mixed with their manure. But long straw ploughed or buried into stiff clay soils serves to loosen and mellow the clay, and let in the air, and cause the decay not only of the straw, but of other organic matter previously existing in the soil. (Notes. — 1. Norton, in his Elements of Scientific Agriculture (to which tlie prize was awarded by the New York State Agricultural Society), eays — " It hj»v been iound good practice, in many parts of the country, to draw' cut straw in the autumn, and lay a thin covering of it over winter grain. This serves a protection during winter, and retains moisture when necessary during a dry spring or early summer. By the time that the stubble ia ploughed, it has decayed so as to turn under easily, and forms quite a rich coating in the way of manure." 2. In the Afannal of Agriculture, by G. B. Emerson and C. L. Flint (the latter Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture), it is remarked, that " Straw and leaves of particular vegetables are the best manure for those vegetables — wheat straw for wheat, potatoe tops for potatoes, and the leaves and pruning of grape vines for those vines." The leaves of different trees have different degrees of value. Poplar leaves, oak, chestnut- leaves, beech and maple leaves, are rich in nutritive matters, while thinner leaves and pine leaves contain very little nourishment for plants. 115. What is said of hay -stuff or swamp or rnarsh mud as a manure ? — It is applied to light soils, or such as contain little organic or vegetable matter ; and is applied with most advantage when mixed with barn-yard manure, in the proportion of about one-third of the latter. ( 11 •^ \)i li) I'REFARATORV KNOWLEDGE APPLIEIV. 87 LESSON XXI. HOW TO coNftBttVB AN& IMPROVE THE SOIL — (Continued). (Animal Manures.) 116. W/ial is said of animal manures ? — This class of manures is far more powerful than the vege- table manures. (Note. — In Lesson III. T bavo stated the organic conBtituents of animals as well as of ]>laiit9. Animal manures contain a great quantity of nitrogen aud the important salts. The nitrogen unites with the hydrogen and forms ammonia, and this the araraoniacal salts. These dissolve other mineral substances, and are absorbed by water, which carries them down to the roots of plants, and constitute tlieir most nourishing food. The dry flesh of dead animals — including quadrupeds, birds, fishes, 3 Pij^eon's dung 6 Liquid blood 15 Dry blood 4 Feathers 3 Cow hair 3 Horn shavingB 3 Dry woollen rags 2| (NoTK, — Dry substances ar« longer in dissolving and becomiii;^ decomposed in the soil, and do not Bh(»w so immediate and sensible effect upon the crop as more fluid mtinures, but continue to evolve fertilizing matter much longer. It is tluis seen that n few pounds of some of the manures mentioned in the above table, or two pounds and a-half of woollen rags, are equal in virtue to 100 pounds of farmyard manure. Yet most of those manures, so vaiuubiu an fertilizers, are neglected by many farmers !) LESSON XXIII. BOW TO C0N8KRVE AND iMFBOTE THE SOIL — (Continued.^ (IiTOEGANic OR Mineral Manures.) 126. What are inorganic or mineral manures ? — Theee are various substances belonging to the min- eral kingdom which promote the growth of plants and contribute to the fertility of soils. (N^OTK. — Many of these manures are called saline manures, as they consist of salts of certain minerals, such as carbonate of pot* ash (pearl or potashes), carbonate of soda (or common soda of tha shops), sulphate of potash, sulphate of soda (or Olauber salts), sulphate of magnesia (or Epsom salts), sulphate of iron (or green vitriol), nitrate of potash (nitre, or saltpetre), nitrate of lime, chloride of potassium, chloride of sodium (or common salt), sili- cate of potash, silicate of soda, sidphate of ammonia, chloride of ammonium (or sal-ammoniac), carbonate of anomonia (or smelling salts), and several others. N.B. — For the chemical meaning of the terras carbonate, sul- phate, nitrate, chloride, and salts, and how they are formed, see Lesson VI., pages 26-33. 126. What are the chief m^anurea of a saline and mineral character f — They are lime, marl, gypsura, PREPARATORY KJfOWLEDQE APPLIED. 03 [e, sul- ^d, see and common salt, wood and coal ashes, peat ashes, «fec., in the form, fur the mot part, of nitrates, sulphates, phosphates, and othur chemical compounds. 128. Give some accoimt of lime as a inanure. — Lime has been called '* the prince," and is the most abimdant of all mineral maniii'es. It is usually found in tlie form of common limestone, which is the carbonate of lime, being a combination of lime with carbonic acid. Every 100 pounds of pure lime- stone contains about 44 pounds of carbonic acid gas and 66 pounds of lime. The carbonic acid is separated from the limestone by burning it, as in lime-kilns, when the lime that remains is called caustic or quick-lime, but is slacked ^or its thirst satiated by about one-fourth its weignt of water being poured upon it, when it swells, cracks, heats and linally crumbles to a line powder. The heat during slacking is caused by the chemical union of water and lime. (Notes. — 1. Different kinds of limestone, difTering in pnrity. sucli as magnesian limestones, or dolomites, roper quantity to lio iii»cd. Marl should ho carried out and cxposca In email heaps b-foio 8i)r('ndipff on the laud. Exposure to the sun, and ospocial!^ tu the iVosts o? Aviuter, is necessary to prepare it for use." 2. Marl of any sort is good in composts, but chiefly so in tlioso in which peat and decayed vegetables arc mixed with it. o. In order to ascertain tho presence of lime in what is supposed to be marl, or in any fiQil, it has been rcuounnendcd tu.put sumo of the sol], cr supposed marl, in a glass, and pour upon it vinegar, or spirit of salt (muriatic acid), when u bubbling or effervescciico will take place if llmo is present, caused by tito escape ui cai'bunio acid gas contained in tho Hoil or mnrl.) 131. W/iat is Gypsum ? — Gjpanm, or plaster of Paris, — the common name of the sulphate of lime, or plaster-stone — is a combination of sulphuric acid and lime. Wlien pure, gypsum is composed of 43 per cent, sulphuric acid, 33 per cent, lime, and 2i per cent, water. (Note. — Tho name of tho plaster of Paris was given to this sub- stance from its abounding m tho neighbourhood of that capital, where it was first burnt into powder, and extensively used for malcing cornices of rooms, ornamental fi«[uroe and designs upon the walls, called stucco-work, and for making casts of statues and medals, and for various other ajiplications.) 132. What is said of the use of Gypsum as a manure? — Gypsum is used, both in the United States and Canada, more extensively than any other artificial manure; and many of the most experienced farmers consider it indispensable to good farming. In many instances a few bushels per aci*e have brought up land from poverty to a very good bear- ing condition; but crops require other food than that with which g^sum supplies them; and if a farmer takes by his crops from liis land a variety of substances, and adds gypsum only, he will iniurc and exhaust his land. What has been said of lime manure alone, is equally applicable to tho exclusive use of gypsum manure : " Lime and lime wtlhout manure Will make both land and fu'mor poor." l»aBPARATOUY KNOWLKUOR APPI .ED. 07 133. On wliat soih is gypsum used to most ad- vantage f — The New American Farm Book says : " Like all saline, and indeed like all other manures, frypsum acta heneticially only on soils which are free from standing water, or whicli may bo saturated with sucli water. It is felt most on sandy, loamy, and generally on clay soils, requiring nioro for the latter, and for all such soils as contain a large proportion of vegetable matter. From two pecks on sandy soil, to fifteen bushels on clay soil, have been applied per acre ; but from two to lour bushols is the usual quantity." 134. On what hind of crops does gypsum produce the greatest effect ? — Tnose crops of which gypsum is a constituent. C. W. Johnston, in }iis Planter^s and Farmer^ s Encyclopedia^ says — " Wheat, bar- ley, oats, beans and peas do not contain a trace of this salt; and the farmer tells you that gypsum is of little or no service to these crops, however the application may be varied." But on the growth and productiveness of such plants as corn, potatoes, turnips, and on clovers, its effects are most beneficial and profitable, increasing the crop to twice, and in some instances, to thrice the quanty produced with- out it. 125. TTA^n and how should gypsum he applied ? — The NewAm^erican Famn Book^d^y^ — " It should be sown broadcast as soon as the leaves have expanded in the spring. For corn, potatoes, turnips, . 100.00 ne : part of this was \n com- iiotash, soda, lirao and mag- N'lRToN, in hid New York State Prize Essay on the Elements of S<-ietitiJic Ai/Hcnlture, after quotin;^ the above table, remarks — " The substuiicos coinposin<^ these ashes are seen at a glance to be of a voluablu character for applying to the soil. It will be noticed that tlic proportion of potash luui soda is very considerable. Be- sides these, there is quite an ^I'lJiocioble proportion of phosphoric acid, and a very large quantity c*" " bination with phosphoric acid. Tii nesia were doubtless for the most } .irt comblnud with carboaic acid, forming carbonates." ' 2. Ashes, it is thus seen, ar lado up of s -'is, such as silicates, ihosphates, sulphates and carbonates . 'I lie carbonates and sul- >hattt8 of potasn and sod.-^, as founr! i,. ashes, are soluble or may )e dissolved oul by boUmff. TV ''liicatoo, phosphates and car- )ouates of lime, ma<> nesia, irou and manganese are insoliihle, and thus remains in leached asites. A por!:on, also, of silicate of pot- ash remain undissolved. Far the larger part of leached ashes is carbonate of limo. The next i^ phosphate of lime, or buuu d'lat. 3. It is remarked in the JVew England Manual of Agriculture, that " unleached wood ashes are of great value in the cultivatioa of many crops, especially Indian corn, turnips, beets and potatoes, because of this great amount of carbonate aud other salts of potash which they contain ; and so important is potash to these plants, that they are often called potasn plants. L:achf:d oshes are of less general value, but still are a very valuable fertilizer, by reason of the salts which they contain, and which, though not soluble in simple water, may be rendered soluble by the influence of other salts, of air and of the vital power of plants, and may be thus taken up into the circulation, and again perform the service they had performed in the plants from the combustion of which they come, fhey have important effects when mixed in compost heapa." 4. It is also interesting and important to note the relative quan- tities of diifurent elementary substances contained in the ashes of the more important objects of cultivation. This will be seen by referring to th« table, given in Lesson xviii, p. 79. From thot table the farmer will readily see the great value of ashes to his crops, and that good husbandry dictates to him not to lose a pound of them. They are c<;teemed tne best of all saline manures, and in this country, they are' the most economical, as from the free use 1 z «' 4t 1 '' w.» ! 'i 'V il ■''; ' 7 il ' ( ' '? T J ' ,1 * L!; f 5 ■ ?1 '! 100 l'UKl»ARATl>UY KNOWLKnUK Ari»t.!ttD. * f: I of t\uA i\\oy nr«» |m>i1uoocl In ovory hon«olu>M, nnd incjro or 1pm «h»jinlrt«My «>» rvory frtrni. 5. Somo of il»> ("ubBlAuron which form fho «»n«nill,«pnt« of tho nnhon of |>lun»« inwy Room vory unmll In coni|»nrl«i»n with Ihn whole weight of t,h(> vr^;<>ntiiln<< iliRno mib- PtiuiooH In vory unmll qumitltlow . nnd tho nnnnnl oxhnuHtlon of %{\v\\ (•nils A'oni lnr)j[o oropn of \f\'n\u, rootn nnd ffrftsn, uuint'noon intpovoriNh tho i*oil, nnlonrt thoy nrn roplnoud by tnnnurus, uf which nsh.'* lire ono of tho nioiit IntporUnt.) \l\7. In whiit quantitit\'i s/fou/d (ht/i.^,9 he applhd /,) ih(* noil f — -The /Vf'»r Am^'n'tuiti J*arm Ihmh sayw : " Tho (iiumtity of \\A\m that hIiouUI bo applitMl to tho rtoro must tlopoud on tho soil ami crops oulti- vatotl. IVtatoos, tiirnipfl, and all roots, clovor, hu^orn, posia, boans, ami ttio jjjrassos aro groat ox- haustor* ot* tho salts, and thoy aro consecniontlv nnifh bonofitcd by ashos. Thoy aro usoci witli docidod advantjigo tor tho above crops in connection with bono duvst; and for clovor, pease and roots, their cfFocts aro mncli enhanced when mixed with gypnm. Light soils should have a smaller, and rich lands or clays, a heavier ilressing. From 12 to 15 bushels per acre for tho former, and 30 to tho latter, is not too much ; or, if thoy aro leached, tho ipuiutity may bo incrcjused one-half, as thoy act with loAs energy. RcpeaU'd dremnromoteB tho vegetation of grasa, while it doBtroys moHS. Three large crops of clover arc Baid to liavo been got in ono year by tho use of it. 140. What in said of comnum salt as a ma/imre f —Common salt has been used as a manure from an(5ient times. It bIiouM not bo used in large quan- tities, nor in tho neighbourliood of tho sea coast, whore tho sea breezes carry auaatitios of salt spray and deposit them on the land. For some plants, as UHoaragus, for example, it is of the highest value as H tbrtilizer, and may be employed in. large quanti- ties, — both enriching the soil for asparagus, and killing; nearly all the weeds. It is also a valuable addition to the farmyard and to the compost heap. Salt that has been used in curing fish or meat is cheaper and far better than pure salt. T^e Nmo Aimricwn Farm Book says, "When naeu at tho rate of from three to sixteen bushels per %(^^ ^n*' crops of grains, roots, or grasses, have been ^n^" *ia3C •trom 20 to 50 per cent. It may be apiMiec^ u. \ ■ N I '\'- MHH tBmasms^fa^^fBmmmmm 102 PBEPARATOKT KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. minute portions in the hill, or scattered broadcast, or mixed with the muck heap." " The compound thus formed (says Norton) is very energetic in its action upon vegetable substances, and has been found an admirable application to many soils, par- ticularly on those where there is much inert vegeta- ble matter, that can only be decomposed with great difficulty." (NoTB. — It has been shown in Lessons Y. and IX., pp. 28, 89, that common salt is the c^ilorlde of sodium containing 60 per cent, of chlorine and 40 per cent, of sodium. Sodium chemically com- bined with oxygen forms soda, as has been shown in Lesson X., p. 48. It will be seen by referring to the table which I have given in Lesson XXV. pp. 98-9, that salt furnishes two essential constitu- ents in every vegetable. Its composition, therefore, as well as experience, evinces its importance as a manure. 141. What other combinations of sodium are good manures f — Besides the combination of sodium with chlorine, its combination with sulphur and nitrogen form excellent manures. Notes. — 1. The combination of sulphur and sodium forms sul- phate of soda, the common name of which is 61aub<;r's salts ; the combination of sodium and nitrogen forms nitrate of soda, com- monly called saltpetre. Th6 reader is reminded of the explana- tions given in Lesson YI. of the import of the termination aie. signifying a salt, which always involves the combination of at least three elementary substances, one of which is always oxygen as explained in Lesson YI., p. 81. It will be remembered that the combination of oxygen with a metal, forms an oxide or a base (Lesson YI., p. 28), and that the union of an acid and a base forms a idt, which is indicated by the termination ite or ate. Thus the union of oxygen and sulphur forms sulphuric acid, and the union of sulphuric acid with the oxide of sodium (called base, see p. 81) forms the sulphate of soda, or Glauber salts. It will be observed that there is oxygen in both sulphuric acid and in the oxide of sodium, so that in Glauber's salts there are oxygen sulphur and sodium. Thus also in the nitrate of soda there is oxygen in the nitric acid (the union of oxygen and nitrogen), and in the oxide of sodium, or soda, forming nitrate of soda, or soda-saltpetre. The same remarks apply to carbonate and ptiosphate as to sulphate and nitrate, substituting carbon and carbonic acid, phosphorus and phosphoric acid, for sulphur and sulphuric acid. I repeat these remrks, and refer to the explanations given of them in the preparatory part of this book, in order that the reader may become perfectly familiarized with their import and (he relations they PBEFABATOBT KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 103 !-vr tS STll- the com- plana- ate. of at union p. 81) eerved clde of IT and in the ddeof The Iphate phorus Irepeat lin the )aui Uihey implj, as the clear understandiog of them and even familiarity with them are requisite to the intelligent reading of any work on agriculture and manufactures, and to the appreciation of its expla- nations, recommendations and reasonings. 2. Nitrate of potash and nitrate of soda, being found in a crude state, in native beds, are sometimes sold at a price that may justify \heir use — both yieldiug not only nitrogen but potash and soda to plants, and are said to be particularly beneficial to wheat and barley. They give a dark green color to the leaves, promote more rapid growth ; they increase the weight of clover grass and the straw of grain, increase the yield of grain, and produce a marked improvement in grass crops and pastures. 8. On the use of these saline manures, Mb. Kortok, in his prize essay on the Elements of Scientific Agriculture, has the following suggestive remarks : " When the farmer intends to use any of these manures, it is in nearly every case better to make a mixture. One hundred weight of the nitrate of potash and soda, of common salt, sulphate of soda, and sulphate of magnesia, all mingled together, and applied with a few bushels of gypsum, would be much more likely to meet the wants of any soil, than a hundred weight of either one alone. Such mixtures are found remarkably effectual, and they are the basis of the artificial manures now gradually com- ing into vogue. These manures are very exceuent, if the price ia reasonable, and the farmer assured of their purity. The farmer should not buy these manures unless he has perfect confidence in the manufacturers, or unless, as was recommended with regard to guano, they furnish analysis by competent chemists, and warrant the manure sold co be equal in quality.") 142. What is said of. old lime plaster fr&m the walls and rooms of buildings as a manure ? — This ia' formed mostly of sand and lime, chemically com- bined, and is therefore the true silieate oj lim£. This is worth twice its weight in hay for meadows, and for most other crops, especially on clayey and loamy soils ; and it will produce a large growtii of grass for years in succession without other manure. 143. Are not hroTcen brick and burnt clay also used as manures? — ^YesI being composed mostly of silicate of alumina, mixed with the silicate of potash and other substances, they are valuable as a top-dressing for meadows. It is said, that, "In addition to their furnishing in themselves a minute quantity of the food of plant, like old plaster, they eerve a much more e^^tended purpose^by cond ensing •t {; ll 111 i\ l,c ifismu^'^-mmsaaM 104 PBEPARATOBY ENOWLEDOB APPLIED. ammonia, nitric acid, and the gases of the atmcs- phere." (Note. — The farmer Hhonld, however, remember, that old lime planter, broken brick, burnt clay, as well as all other saline ma^ uuies, supply but a part of the ingredients which enter into tho compositi) of vegetables ; and without the addition of the others the soiiwiU sooner or later become exhausted. The authors of the Kew England Manual of Agriculture have well observed, that " The object of manures is to give the soil whatever is wholly or partly wanting to it, whether of a combustible or an incombustible nature. The use of organic manures is to furnish with humm, geine or mould, which shall serve as a reservoir, to hold in readi- ness, for the use of plants, all the kinds of food necessary to their growth. And the use of humtti is to furnish and keep a ready supply of carbonic acid, ammonia and water, which three are the last result of the decomposition of vegetable substances.") 144. But, is it not discouragina that after all the pains thefa/rmer taJces to jm his soil with valu- able ma/nure, it should all he washed away into the deep earth hy the rains ? — To this question which has agitated the minds of so many farmers, the Manned of Agriculture (published under the sanc- tion of the State Board of Agriculture for Massa- chusetts) returns the following satisfactory answer : " It would be very discouraging if it were true, but fortunately it is not true ; as is made very appa- rent by a simple experiment or two. If a funnel be filled with the soil, and a dilute solution of the silicate of potash be poured upon it, there will not be found in the water which passes through it, a trace of potash, and, only under certain circum- stances, silicic acid. " If a funnel be filled with earth, and water hold- ing in solution ammonia, potash, phosphoric acid and silicic acid, be poured into it, none of these substances will be found in the water, escaping from the funnel. The soil will have completely with drawn them and incorporated them with itself. " Or make another experiment. Take a portion of garden soil ^11 of potash, silicic acid, ammonia or phosphoric add, put it into a funnel and pour PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 105 water upon it. The water will not dissolve out a trace of it. The most continuous rain cannot remove from a field (except mechanically, t;hat is, unless it carry off soil and all) any of the essential constitu- ents of its fertility. It is a common fear that tlie nourishing substances in liquid manure and in guano, will, if not immediately taken up by the plants, be lost. But the fear is wholly unfounded. From liquid manure diluted with much water, or from a solution of guano, soil, when used in sufficient quan- tity removes the whole of the ammonia, potash, and phosphoric acid which they contain. Kot a trace of these substances can be found in the water which flows from the soil." LESSON XXVII. HOW TO CONSERVE AND IMPROVE 80IL8 — (OonttHUed.) (Amendments — Irrigation — Drainage.) (Note. — I have spoken of tho different kinds of soils — their composition, the vegetable and mineral manures adapted to im- prove them, and the several kinds of grains and roots for which they are suited. I now devote a Lesson to consider how defective fioils may bo amended by modifying their physical qualities, by irrigation, by deep ploughing, and by drainage). 145. How 7nay defective soils he amended? By lessening the tenacity of heavy soils and increasing that of light soils, by diminishing the humidity of moist soils and increasing that of dry soils, and by other changes of their texture. 146. How can the texture of clayey or argilla' ceous soils he improved f — As the defects of clayey soils are their stiflhess, compactness, and consequent coldness and often wetness, these defects are reme- died by the addition of anything that will render them more open, loose, and penetrable by air and Avater, such as sand, gravel, broken brick, chips 6 •«.■■ •II % Mill If *• ■' !»« i'' m' ' 4 >- 106 PKE1»AKAT0RY KNOWLEDGE APPLlEt). corn-stalks, straw, &c„ and by deep ploughing and drainage. (Notes. — 1. In England, clayey land is often much improved by burning over the snrface, or oy burning a portion of the clay and scattering it. upon the land. By burning, the clay changes its properties, and It becomes more like sand, and in this state loosens the soil. 2. In the previous Lessons, I have stated how clayey soils are anrielioratcd by manures, both vegetable and mineral ; but one of the most effectual methods of improving the clayey soils, is under- draining, which draws off, imperceptibly but rapidly, the excess of moisture, opens the soil to the free admission of atmospheric air, and this in its passage through the soil imparts heat and such of the gases it contains as are useful in sustaining vegetation. The clay is mellowed, made less retentive, dries sooner in the upring, and does not bake so bard in summer.) 147. Holo are the defects of sandy soils reme- died ? — As the character and defects of sandy soils are mostly the reverse of those of clayey soils, the treatment of sandy soils should be the reverse of that which has been recommended in regard to clayey soils. Sandy soils possess not the property, of adhesiveness, have little affinity for water, which escapes from them almost as soon as it falls ; they are loose in their texture, and have but a slight hold of the manures difluaed through them. As clayey soils are improved by a mixture of sand, so are sandy soils improved, but in a much higher degree, by the addition of clay. Clay and sand are necessary to each other, as they both contain quali- ties which are essential to a good soil ; and that is always found to be best which has the proper propor- tion of each. The frequent use of a heavy roller also improves sandy soils, as any treatment which ren- ders them more compact is advantageous to them. It is said that " sandy soils can never be profitably cultivated till they have acquired sufficient com- pactness and fertility to sustain a good crop of grass or clover ; and when once brought to this condition they are among the most valuable." PBEPABATOBT KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 107 m- hass Lou (Note. — It is eaid that sandy soil amended by the addition of clay becomes permanently better. The clay can neter be ex- hausted, and will always give to the soil the power of absorbing and retaining the elements of food for the sustenance of plants. In previBua lessons I have sufficiently referred to the manures best suited to sandy soils. I have also sufficiently referred to the treat- ment proper for peaty soils.) 148. What oilier tiuaiis are emj[>loyed to improve the texture of soils? — There are three — irrigation, subsoil ploughing, and draining. 149. What is meant hy the irrigation of land ? — The irrigation of land is watering it by means of little streams, which overflow it at certain seasons, when in grass or growing grain. It is remarked, that " all water, except ram water, even that from the purest springs, has mineral and organic sub- stances in solution. As it flows over the surface among living plants, and in sinking through the soil comes in contact with their roots, it yields up these substances for food. Beside such solid bodies, it contains in solution carbonic acid and oxygen, both of which the plant receives with avidity. (Notes. — 1. Norton thus describes this method of irrigating land : — " The surface of the field to be irrigated must, of course, be somewhat sloping, and the water is brought on by a main ditch at the liead of the slope. In this main ditch, at proper distances, are gates to regulate the flow of water into smaller ditches, from the sides 'and ends of which again run small cuts ; these are so arranged that every part of the field shall be flowed over by a thin but regu- lar sheet of water. At the foot of the slope is another ditch, Tor the purpose of conveying away, such of the water as may not sink into the earth. Where water is scarce, and the slope long, it is occasionally used several times in succession. When the flow has continued for ten days or a fortnight at a time, the supply gates are shut down ; and the field allowed to dry. The operation is repeated once or twice in a season. Here there is no stagna- tion, as in swamps and wet land ; the water is always running and fresh. Land that is intended to be irrigated should have a porous subsoil, or, if not, should be underdrained ; in either case, the water sinks away as soon as the flow is stopped, the soil dries, and the plants get at once the full benefit of the fertilizing matter that has been deposited." 2. The productiveness of much of the low bottom lands on our Canadian streams, is largely owing to their imnttal overflow from ' . s lilj f i 'i m 41 ! 108 PBEPARATORY KKOWLEDOE APPLtSD. the streams on which they are situated ; and this is the case with the lands on the low banks of many rivers and streams in America. Sucli waters as flow out of the sewers of cities and towns, or past slaughter houses and certain manufactories, and receive the rich vegetable food thereby afforded, are the most beneficial to ycfieta- tion. It is said that meadows thus irrigated in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, have rented by the acre at the large sum of |260 per annum. 3. In the countries where rain seldom or never falls, the large demand by vegetable life for water, though partially supplied by heavy dews, has given rise to extensive irrigation, which has been practised from ancient times wliere husbandry has attained in any ran'n, as in Kgypt and the Barbary States of Africa, Babylon, Syria, and in some countries of Europe ; also in parts of both South and North America. It is said that when the Mormons first settled in Salt Lake Valley, the country was a barren wilderness, from perpetual drought in the growing seasons of vegetation ; but by aid ot irrigation, it has become one of tho most productive countries in the world — the Egypt of America in productiveness, though without the Nile.) 150. What are we to understand hy stibsoil plough- ing ? — Subsoil ploughing is loosening the soil some distance below the ordinarjjr furrow. The subsoil plough is an implement designed to follow the fur- row after the common plough, and to loosen and break up the lower layers of the soil without bring- ing them to the surface. The subsoil plough, made expressly for the purpose, goes down as deep as it can be forced — m some cases to the depth of eighteen to twenty-four inches. In the first snb- solling, it is difficult to go down more than a few inches below the ordinary furrow ; but the depth is increased at each subsequent subsoiling until the greatest depth possible is attained. The process is repeated once in five or six years. (Note. — The objects proposed by subsoiling are to loosen the hard earth below the reach of tbe ordinary plough, and permit the ready escape of the water which falls upon the surface, the circulation of air, and a more extended range for the roots of plants, by which they procure additional nourishment and secure tlie crop against drought, by penetrating into the regions of per- petual moisture. The roots of some plants, as, for example, those of corn, potatoes, beets, (be, penetrate two or three feet when the soil permits. Sabsoiling is said, in some cases, to add from 80 to PBEPARATOBT KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 109 le lit he of ar- ise khe to 60 per cent, to the crop ; but its greatest influence on stiff soil is only reached where the land has been thoroughly under-draiaed (Dbainage of Soils.) (N< Tc. — Many volupnes have been written on the subject of drainage. In what follows on this subject, both in the text and notes, will be found a condensed abridgment or summary of what I have collected from the most recent and practical works ou Agriculture.) 151. What 18 drainage of the soil? — Drainage 18 an operation by which we draw off the surplus water from the soil and from the sub or under-soil, where it would not otherwise escape. 152. JIow is this effected? — It is effected by means of drains, covered or open, dug from two to three feet in depth, and running in parallel lines from twenty to forty feet distance of each other, and with a descent of at least an inch per rod. 153. What are the effects of drainage upon the soil? — 1. Drainage takes away the surplus water that exists in heavy and tenacious soils, which in wet seasons is a serious itnpediment to the successful growth and perfection of vegetation. 2. It allows of early cultivation in spring and autumn, by fur- nishing a dry, warm soil, which would not admit of cultivation except in the warm part of the season ; thus enabling the farmer to grow a greater variety of products where only a few were adapted to the soil before, and to these it gives several weeks additional growth. 3. It saves all the trouble and waste of surface drains and open furrows, which require that much of the land be left almost in an unproductive state, to serve as conductors of tlie surplus water. 4. The dense mass of saturated soil is impervious to air and remains cold and clammy. By draining below the soil, the warm rains pene- trate the entire mass, and thus diffuse their genial temperature through the roots. Immediately press- ing after these, the warm air rushes in and supplies • 1 fl ^ 1 1 1> :; »: ; 110 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. " its portion of augmented heat to the land. Porons Boils thus readily imbibe heat, and they as readily part with it ; every portion of them radiating it wlien the air in contact with them is below their own temperature. This condition is precisely what is adapted to secure the deposit of dews^ so refresh- ing during a season of drought, and so indispensable to tlie progress of vegetation. 5. Rain water is cliarged witii some of the most important elements of nutrition to plants, and especially contains con- siderable proportions of carbonic acid and ammonia. If these be permitted to percolate through the soil, the roots of the plants, or in their absence the elements of the soil itself, absorb and form perma- nent combinations with them. Air holds, also, vegetable food, and it is necessary that this should penetrate through every portion of the soil where the Hbres of the roots exist. 6. Tlie earth being rendered less moist at the surface, far less evapora- tion takes place there. Whence, as evaporation always cools the surface very considerably, a drained field keeps the heat better than one not drained ; and the natural consequence is that the crops ripen earlier. The grain on a drained field is generally fit for the sickle some days, often some weeks earlier than that on other fields. 7. Lands well drained and deeply tilled, bear the drought better than others. The reason of this seems to be, that the pores are always open in deeply tilled, well-drained land, to an unusual depth. Evaporation cannot reach to a great depth, and, in season of drought, the open pores allow moisture which has been kept in the* deep earth to rise by capillary attraction. 8. In a well-drained field, the spring rains, instead of being allowed to run away and be lost, are saved, as in a reservoir against the heats and drought of summer. 9. Another essential benefit of under- draining arises from advantage thereby conferred > i PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. Ill in subsoil ploughing. If there be no escape for the moisture which may have settled below the surface, the subsoil plough is of littlo benefit ; but by loosening the earth it admits a larger deposit of water, wliich requires a longer time tor evaporation and insensible drainage to discharge. When the water escapes freely, the use of the subsoil plough is attended with the best results. The broken earth thus pulverized to a much greater depth and incor- porated with the descending particles of vegetable sustenance, affords an enlarged range for the roots of plants, and in proportion to its extent furnishefl them with additional means of growth. The far- mer thus has a means of augmenting his soil and Its capacity for production wholly independent of increasing his superficial acres ; for with many crops it matters not in the quantity of their production, whether he owns and cultivates one hundred acres of soil, one foot deep, or two hundred acres of soil half a foot in depth. With the latter, however, he has to provide twice the capital in the first purchase, is at twice the cost in fencing, planting and tillage, and pays twice the taxes. The underdrained and Bubsoiled fields have the further advantage of security and steady development in seasons ot drought, as they derive their moisture from greater depths, which are frequently unaffected by the parching heat. This secures them a large yield while all around is parched and withered. (Note. — The effects of drainage have been illustrated by the following comparison : — " Plants which are kept in flower-pots would soon rot at the root if the water with which they are watered were left to stagnate at the bottom of the pot without any means of escape. For this reason, the bottom of the pot has a hole in it, to let the superfluous water run out. Now drainajre does the same service for the field that the hole in the bottom does for the earth In the flower-pot." Note os the Draixaqe of Swamps and Pbat Beds. — Tn different parts of the Province there are extensive plots of wet, boggy lands whose only use now is to mire cattle, and bear certain kinds of i ' |lfi :'i w 112 PREPARATORY KNOWI-EDOE APPLIED. wild berries and a small quantity of inferior bog hay. Our LegiS' Inturu \\m appropriated a Inrjjo sura of money to reclaim, by drain, oge, tliese swamps and marHliuH to tiie purposes of afjriculturo, aa hurt been done with ^reat success and with largo profit in similar circumstances in other countries. There is many a farmer a por- tion of whoso land U useless, and often worse than useless, from tlie same causes. Swamps, peat-beds, nnd marshes occur frequently in a liilly rei^ion of country, forming low, l«vel, wet lands, wiiose constant siiturution with water prevents their cultivation with any useful phuits. The first object in effecting their improvemaut ist^ find uu outlet for tiie e8caj)e of tlio water from tliree to five feet below tlie surface, and tlien to intersect tlie land to be reclaimed, with drains accordingly. If tlie water in tlio swamp has its origin in numerous springs f'rom tho adjoining hills, a ditch should be dug around tlie entire«outer edge of it, where it meets the ascend- ing land, nnd the water conveyed in a.draiu sufficiently deep to a ravine or rivulet.) 154. What 18 said as to the construction of drains for the drainage of lands ? — There are two kinds of drains — o^yen and covered. But open drains, or ditches, occupy much ground wliich might other- wise be productive, leave a great deal of water in the soil, and carry oli' with the water that enters them many substances of fertility to the soil. They are now generally disapproved of by practical agri- culturists. Covered drains are constructed of stones of brush, of logs, or of pipe tiles made for tho purpose. (Notes. — 1. To lay a stone drain, it is necessary to dig a large treucli, which involves much labour, and would not be done unless there were many rubble stones on tho land which the farmer desires to get rid of; and even then the tile drain costs less, and is better. 2. Where neither tiles nor stones can be procured the brush drain is sometimes made by digging a trench, and tilling it up to a certain depth with small brush. When this is done, the sticks are or should be laid with the larger ends down. The brush la then pressed down nnd covered over with sods with the grass side down. This is better than none. The same may be said of log drains, which are made by laying down two logs in a trench, within two or three inches of each other, and a third log upon the other two. The earth must be pressed down solid over the st mes, brush or logs, which are, of course, always below the level of the plough. ush to k3 lia side log Qcb, the ines, the PREPABATORY KMOWLEDOE APPLIED. 113 8, "But two recent improvorncntH," fiays Iho Xrm American Farm Book," " have bi-en inlioduccd, which groatly enhance tlio benefits of draining Tlu-y conHHt in Hliiiiing lliu drain llircc feet in dftpth, and then using pipe lilcs nnc mui u liiiif to two inches in dianietur, and twelve to ei;^lilt.en inches in lenj^llj, connected by laying them simply end to end, or better, by shoi-t collara made of aectlona of a size larger tile. The triHitig opening at each joint is found to bo sufficient to ndnilt all the water wliieh the drain can carry ; while the Increased depth nt which tlie drainage tnkes place, draws the water from a much greater distance. With the di'pth of three feet, it has been found that the drains, instead uf being required once in sixteen to twenty-five feet, miiy be placed at intervals of thirty to forty feet, and accomplish tlio object with equal success and in loss time. It has of late been n.-certained, that in heavy soils, tliree feet is a sufficient depth and liiirty feet is about the proper distance apart for the most ('ffective drainage," 4, The best shape for the pipe tile (which Is made In many of our brick-yards) is found to oe a simple round tube. For the interior drains which enter into the largo main drains, a tube of two inches in diameter la said to bo about the right size. The fall should not be less than one inch to the rod, A drain properly laid Id this way may be expected to last and answer a good pur- pose for half a century.) LESSON XXIX. ROTATION or CBOr 8. 153. What is meant hy the rotation of crops f — The word rotation signifies turning round as a wheel on its axis, until a complete revolution is made; and when the terra is applied to agriculture, it denotes a succession of different crops, instead of a succession of tlie same crops, and the order in which different crops are made to succeed each other on the same soil, as, for example, (as in the county of Norfolk, England,) a crop of turnips is followed by a crop of bai-ley, and this by a crop of clover, and this again, after one or two years, by a crop of wheat, when the rotation again commences with turnips. 1 51. What is the ohject of the rniation. of crops f — The object ot the rotation of crops is to economize, in the best manner, the resources of the farm, so as to make each field yield, with a certain amount of labour • » 1 %. m\ if 1^ Hi m ' ?n ■ 1 ? if ^ ■ -Mil » M iJ ■ l«lf 114 PBEPABATOBT KNOWLEDGE APFUED. and manure, the greatest possible amount of valuable crops with the least possible exhaustion to the soil. 155. What reason is aiven for the rotation of crops /—The reason for the rotation of crops is, that no two plants of different kinda require the same sub- stances in the same proportion for their nourishment. 1 have shown in the table on page 115 the substances of which the different plants, and the different parts of the same plants, cultivated on the farm, are com- posed. It will there be seen that the grasses, and the straws of different kinds of grain, eontam a large proportion of silica, and they therefore soon exhaust the soil's supplv of it, and they should not, there- fore, iinraediately succeed each other in rotation in the same soil, and they should be each followed bv a crop which needs less of silica but more of pocasn or some other mineral salts. A field which would not yield a second ^ood crop of wheat, may, even without manure, yield a good crop of clover, or turnips, or carrots. Note. — In further illustration Oi this Important subject, may be properly added the following remarks taken from the New Ameri- can Farm Book : " The system of rotation is one of the first and most important principles of general husbandry, and it cannot be omitted without manifest disadvantage and loss. The place of rotation was formerly supplied by naked fallouoa. This practice consists in giving the "oil an occasional rest, in which no crop is taken off, and the soil is allowed to produce just what it pleases, or nothing at all, for one or more years, when it is refreshed and invigorated for the production of its accustomed useful crops. This system, it will be perceived, implies the loss of the income of the soils for a certain portion of time, and it can be tolerated only where there is more land than can be cultivated. Modern agricul- tural science has detected, in part at least, the true theory of the necessity for rotation. It has been discovered that every crop robs the soil of a portion of its elements, fifteen or sixteen elementary substances contained in various forms and proportions,) and that no two dissimilar crops abstract these elements or their compounds from the soil in the same proportion. Thus, if we consider the amount of the salts taken out of the soil by a crop of turnips, amounting to five tons of roots per acre; of barley, thirty-eight bushels ; one ton each of dry clover or rye prass, an^l iiil ill", •J. t lir re lof PEEPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 113 of wheat twenty-five bushels, we shall find the exact proportions ^ of the various elements which the dilloreut vegetables have appro- f)riated. As given by Johnson, they will be iu pounds as fol- ows: — Barley. "2^ u 45.0 12.0 63.0 7.6 0.3 8.0 10.0 16.0 8.0 O 28.6 9.0 16.6 2.0 0.8 62 8.0 0.6 9.1 Wheat. O 39 4.6 1.1 12.9 1.8 3.4 90.0 2.8 3.7 1.6 a d o 3.3 3.6 1.6 1.5 0.4 6.0 0.8 0-6 2 g -♦-» 99 0.6 0.9 7.2 1.0 2.7 66.0 1.0 6.0 0.9 Potash Soda Lime 145.6 64.3 45 8 16.6 2.2 23.6 49.0 22.4 14.6 5 6 5.8 2.1 3.6 0.6 23.6 1.2 4.2 0.4 23:1 99.6 149.0 Magnesia , 32.9 Alumina Silica Sulphuric acid Phosphoric acid .... Chlorine 10.3 299.2 72.8 51.5 26.6 Grand total (exclusive of turnin tons^ 970.9 x r / ------•--•'- " Besides the elements above noted, all crops contain oxide of iron, and uearly all oxide of manganese and iodine ; and ol the organic elements associated in various combinations, they appro- priate about ninety-seven per cent, of their entire dried weiyht. Now it is not only necessary that all the above materials exist in the soil, but they must also exist in a form precisely adapted to the wants of the growing plants. If a succession of any given crops are gathered and carried off the land, without the occasional addition of manures, they will be found gradually to diminish in quantity till they reach a point when they will scarcely pay the expenses of cultivation. We mean to be understood as offering this of all crops and of all soils, however naturally fertile the latter may be, unless they are such as receive an annual or occasional dressing from the overflow of enriching floods, or are artificially irrigated witn water, which holds the necessary fertil- izing matters in solution; and such are not exceptions, but receive their manure in another form, unaided by the hand of ^he husband- man."— (Pp. 296-299.) 156. On what fact is the theory of the rotation of crops founded? — Some of these facta are tlie following : 1. The soil contains only a limited sup- ply of the mineral foodf necessary for a particular plant, though it jnay contain all the mineral sub- stances necessary for the nourishment of every variety of plants. 2. Some plants, as the grains i{!5 i, : il I Ml. i ^1 i ^ I m i-fl I wmsA 116 PEBPAEATOBY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. ♦for example, draw their nourishment from near the surface ; while others, like carrots and parsnips, draw much of tlieir nourishment from a greater deptli. 3. Some plants, as those which have abun- dant foliage, draw much of their food from the atmosphere; while others, as the grains, depend more upon the materials contained in the soil. 4. Particular insects live upon certain kinds of plants, for example, certain flies live on grains and grapes, and continue to multiply as long as the same crop occupies the soil from year to year; but when a crop intervenes on which these insects cannot live, as beans or turnips aftor wheat or oats, then they perish for want of proper nourishment for their young. I or. crops f 157. What benefits result from the rotation of Some of the benefits resulting from the rotation of crops are the following : 1. The preserva- tion of the soil from being impoverished by a suc- cession of tne same kind of crops. 2. The develop ment of all the various fertile elements of the soil in the production of different kinds of agricultural plants. 3. The manuring of such crops as cannot receive it without hazard or injury if applied directly upon them. Thus wheat and the other white grains are liable to overgrowth of straw, and rust and mil- dew, if manured with recent dung ; yet this is apolied without risk to corn roots, and most of the head crops; and when tempered by one season's ex- haustion, and tfte various changes and combinations which are effected in the soil, it safely ministers in profusion to all the wants of the smaller cereal grains. 4. By bringing the land into hoed crops at proper intervals, it clears it of any perniciouu weeds which may infest it. 5. The cutting off the appro- priate food of insects and worms which often become numerous and destructive under the continuance from year to year of certain kinds of crops. A PttSPABATOST KKOWLEDGE APPLIED. 117 |i' change of crops, and exposnrc of insects to frosts, and the change of cultivation which a rotation of crops insures, will, in all cases, greatly diminish their numbers, and, in most instances, effectually destroy them. 6. Each crop, in* succession^ may find in the soil valuable matters which were unne- cessary to the preceding crops. 158. Wliat is the period assigned hy agrieidUi- rists for a eompl-ete rotation of crops f — The period depends upon the crops that constitute the rotation, upon the fancy and experience of different indi viduals^ upon their need of certain productions, npon the different kinds and qualities of soils culti- VHted, and there is, therefore, no fixed period fol- lowed by all. Five, dix, or seven years is the usual time, unless in case of lands that may advantage- ously remain a long period in grass. l'^9 What is the order in which crops should succeed each other? — It has been laid down as a principle of husbandry that the two classes of crops — cnlmiferous and leguminous — should uninter f'iptedly succeed each other. The former include w'eat, oats, barley, rye, Indian corn, and most of the grasses — all of which have stems mostly joined ; the latte?' include peas, beans, and other pulse ; also, by some writers, potatoes, turnips, carrots, beets, cabbages. &c., especially in reference to rota- tion of crops. (^oTEs.— 1. Cvlm, among botanists, sij^nifies straw, and is the S roper stem of grasses and plants which elevates the leaves, cwere and fruit. This sort of stem is hollow, and has frequently knots or ioints at certain distances, as the straws of wheat, barley, Ac. Legumtnous plants (from legumen, seed-vessel or pod) are such as bear po(U. as beans, peas, Ac. ; but the term here includes also, what are tcrbnicnlly called, and described in another place, as root crops, such as potatoes, turnips, beets, carrots, cabbages, clover, Ac. 2. The reason of this two-fold classification of plants is, that culmiferous plants, including wheat, oats, barley. Ac, are regarded as robbers and exhausters of the soil, somft much more so than dthars. They wre pattioularly bo tbtrit*g tht proce$$ of riptring I i 1 i 1 k||9 J *Wm W 1 .f'^^^B «!,»t: 118 PEEPABATOBY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. the')' seeds. Hence, if cat green, or when in blossom, they are far less exhausting to the soil than when allowed to mature their seeds. " Leguminous plants (says the English and Scotch Farm- ei'a and Planter's MiMydopcedia), according to the strict agricultural acceptation, include beanE>, peas and other pulse. But the class is made to embrace a much more extensive range of plants, namely, al! such as are considered as ameliorating or enriching crops, such as clover, potatoes, turnips, carrots, beets, cabbages, (fee. These latter are far less exhausting than the culmiferous or grain plants, as few mature their seeds, and ail, on account of their broad leaves, draw more or less nourishment from the atmosphere. They also ameliorafe the condition of the soil by dividing and loosening it with their tap or bulbous roots, As they usually receive manr.rc and boeing" or drill culture, they are pecuhariy adapted tc • ch and prepore the soil for culmiferous or grain crops.'' 3. Tlio differences in the roots of these two classes of plants is worthy of remark, and accounts, in part, for their different effects upon the soil. The roots of culmiferous plants are generally more fibrous and more divided, spreading themselves near the surface, and they draw their nourishment chiefly from the upper stratum of the soil. Many of the so-called leguminous plants have spindle- formed or tap roots, with few radicles or little roots, and con- sequently draw most of their mineral nourishment from the lower stratum of the soil, and through the lower extremities of their roots. 4. Two analogous facts may be stated in further illustration in favour of a change or alteration of crops. The one is, that trees of the same species will not Nourish in succession in the same place. Hence, if a worn-out peach orchard be removed, and young trees of the same species are to occupy the same ground; instead of being planted in the holes from which the old ones were taken, they must be arranged in rows intermediate to the old ones. The same remark applies to all fruil trees, unless a sufficient period is allowed for producing the decomposition of the roots of the removed trees for supplying the earth with fresh manure. A second fact is, that in forest lands, the new growth seldom resembles altogether that which has been felled. Hard wood frequently succeeds the pine and hemlock, while the pine and cedar, in numerous instances, succeed the primitive growth of hard wood. Of this latter, 1 observed an example in 1869, on some of the woody parts of the farm on which I was born, near Vittoria, in the County of Norfolk, where a new growth of pine and cedar is succeeding the primitive hard wood growth of fifty years ago. Johnston, in his Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, remarks that " Plants seem to alternate with each other on the same soil Burn down a forest of pines in Sweden, and one of birch takes its place for a while. The pines, after a time, again spring up, and alternately supersede the birch. The same takes place naturally. On the shores of the Rhine are seen ancient forests of oak from two to four centQries old, graduallj giving place at present to a natural growth of beech ; FBEFABATOBT KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 119 the iries ecb; and others, vhei'e the pine is succeeding to both. In the Palatinate, the ancient oak-woods are followed by natural pines ; and in the Jura, the Tyrol and Bohemia, the pitiC alternates with the beech.") 160. But in what order do the different crops of these two classes of plants succeed each other? — C. W. Johnson, in his English Farmer'' s Enc]/cloj)cedia, says: "The ordinary course of rotation of crops under which the light lands of England are com- monly cultivated, is either on what is denominated the four-course or shift system, or the five-course or shift. T\iQ four-shift system, commonly consists of fallow, manured : 1, turnips, fed oif ; 2, oats or bar- ley; 3, grass seed; 4, wheat. The ^6-S/^i/i{ system which is, in many situations, a much more advan tageous course of husbandry, is commonly fallow 1, turnips; 2, oats or barley; 3, clover; 4, peas 5, wheat. " On the clays the course varies. On some kinds of heavy clays, it is usually fallow, with manure ; wheat ; beans ; wheat, manured ; clover ; oats or wheat. On other clays, the system pursued is fal- low, with manure ; wheat, or oats ; clover ; beans ; wheat. The variations, however, are of necessity exceedingly various." In the United States, the rotations of crops vary considerably in different sections. In Massachusetts and the New England States, it appears, according to Mr. Coleman, uiat " Little of what may be called systenvatic husbandry prevails, the succession of crops being dictated rather by accident or conveni- ence, than by any well considered principles." The following is a fair specimen of rotation, as given in his Fourth Report on Agriculture : " The first year the land is broKen up, corn is planted and manured : the second year, oats are sowed without munure, and the land laid down to grass. It is continued in grass five years, and then broken up, and the same course repeated " \ '■*■ ^h 1 v -t , 'i \ - ''■' •'1 ij »{' 'i m ■i p\ 1 X \i '.:m i - f ■•3 • 4* 'i •1 ^ V ff i i i .1; Mi ^1 %■ M i. w '"m 120 PREPABATOKY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. It is said that in the oldest cultivated sections of Pennsylvania, the rotations have been conducted with much sound judgment. The system mo?t highly approved is set forth in the fol'owing ex- ample, hrst published in the Farmers' Cabinet • "The example is that of an old, practical, hard- working farmer, who commenced in the world as a day-labourer, and who is now worth at least $100,000, not taking into account many heavy pecuniary losses he has, at various times, sustained. This man, when 30 years of age, by the avails of his industry, added to a small legacy, was enabled to purchase and pay, in part, for a farm of 130 acres of jand, 100 of which was under cultivation, but in a very low state. This farm is altogether upland, with a soil composed of lime, clay and sand, in the chief of which the latter preponderates, the former being least considerable. When he commenced farming, he adopted a parti- cular system of rotation, to which he has implicitly adhered from that time to the present, whicn is 40 years, and his success is the best comment on the worth of his experiment. His mode was as follows : having divided his farm into eight fields of equal size [12| acres each], as nearly as possible, three of these fields are sown with wheat each year; one with rye; one planted with corn; two in clover; and one an open fallow, on which corn had been raised the year previous. One of the two clover fields is kept for mov/ing, the other for pasture; both of which are ploughed as soon after harvest as possible, and prepared for wheat in the fall, till the manure, which is made on the farm for one year, is hauled, in the spdng, on the field intended for open fallow, which is then ploughed, and after one or two cross-plonghings through the summer, is also sown with wheat in the fall. The field on which rye is sown, is that from which a crop of wheat had lieen taken the same year, and which bad yielded r * t rKEPARATORT KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 121 three crops of wheat, alternating with crops of clover (.)«trn is p uuter' on the Beld from which rje had been gathered the year previous, the stub- bles of which are ploughed down in the fall. Clover seed is sown early in the spring on two of the wheat fields, those which have been most recently manured. By this method, each field yields three crops of wheat, two of clover, one of rye, and one of corn^ every eight years. Each field, in the mean- time, has lain an open fallow, and received a heavy dressing of manure, perhaps at an average 15 four- horse loads per acre. His crop of wheat is seldom less than. 1,500 bushels, but often much more. His average rye-crop is about 450 bushels ; and his corn- crop, annually about 600 bushels — all which grain, at the present low prices, would amount to more than $2,000 annually, and at former prices to double tiiat amount ; and his farm is with all very highly improved." Notes. — 1. The author of the New American Farm Book gives "for the purpose of Illustration, and the s^uidance of such as may have little experience in rotation," the following Five Systems which, he says, have been pursued with advantage in this country:" " 18/ Course — On grass sod, broken up. with a heavy dressing of barn-yard manure, and muck, aahes, and lime, if necessary. First, year corn, with gypsum scattered over the plants after first hoeing, which (hoeing) should be immediately after its first appearance ; second year, roots with manure; third year, wheat, if adapted to the soil . if not, then barley, rye, or oats, with grass or clover seed, or both ; fourth year, meadow, which may be continued at pleasure, or till the grass or clover gives way. The meadow may be followed by pasturing if desired. Clover alone should not remain over two years as meadow; but for pasture, it may be continued longer " 2nd Course — First year, corn or rOi.*8 on grass or clover hay, with manure; second year, oats and clove: w^th q too dressing of ten to twenty bushels of crushed bones per acre ; thr,\l year, clover pastured to the last of June, then grown until fully matured in August: when it is turned over, and a light dressing of compost of 40 to 80 bushels of leach ashes spread over it. and wheat and timothy seed sown about the fifteenth of Septembor. If desired, the following spring, clover is sown and lightly harrowed. Tliis gives for the fourth yenr. wheat ; fifth and sixth, and if the grass coutiuues good, the seventh 3'ear also, meadow. « n ■ i '■'fl ' 1 i/:^ 1 K w ' A ^ - i 't ' • 1 T^jH , ^ (m i ( 1 hi m 1 % PI ■it m 'I A 122 PREPlBATORT KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. ' Zrd Course— F\r it, corn on grass eod heavily manured, and a half gill of ashes and gypsum, mixed at the rate of two of the former to one of the latter, put in the hill, and an equal quantity of pure gypsum added, after the corn is first hoed ; aecund year, oats or barley, with lime at the rate of twenty to thirty bushela per acre, sown broadcast after the oats, and harrowed in ; third year, peas or beans removed early, and afterwards sown with wheat ; fourth year, wheat with light top dressing of compost, and salineinnnures in the spring, and clover, or grass and clover seed; fifth, two or three years in meadow and pasture. " ilh Course — First, y/haat on grass sod; scco;u/, clover ; third, Indian corn, heavily manured ; fourth, barley or oats, with grass or clover seed ; Ji/'th and following, grass or clover. •' bth Course— A good rotatiou for light, sandy lands, is first, corn, well manured, and cut off early and removed from the ground, whicli is immediately sown with rye. or the rye hoed in between the hills; second, rye with clover sown in the spring, and gypsum added when fairly up; third, clover cut for hay or pastured, the latter being much more advantageous for the land." 2. Morton's English Cyclopaedia of Agriculture remarks, that " it is impossible to specify any course of crops which can be recom- mended as best under all circumstances. The principle laid down is, what succession is best suited, in a given locality, to draw from the soil the largest net return, while the capabilities of the soil are, at the same time, maintained and increased. 3. The rotation of crops as a settled part of the syctem of agri- culture originated with the Flemings, who insisted that where it was practised, the land did not need rest ; and it was this system which gave their husbandry a pre-eminence over that of every other country at that period. They relied so much upon it, that in some instances they were able to obtain two crops the same year. In Scotland, it has been scrupulously pursued with the best results, — the improvements in Scottish agriculture being almost incredible. It has been introduced with equal advantage in Eng- land, where it has become general ; and it is now being widely introduced in America. LESSO>^ XXX. SOWING, CARK. AND HARVESTING OF GRAIN CROPS. (NoTB. — In the precedinj? (29th) Lesson, page 113, it has been shown that farmers cultivate two classes of crops — culmiferous, straw and stalk benring crops — sfrains and grnsses; leguminnus, pod-1 earing and root crops — vectetnhles. The former are called cereals (the term cereal heinar derived from Cere», the fnblod god- dpss of corn), and include wheat, rye, oats, barley. Indinn com, rice and millet, though the tw^o latter are not cultivated in Canada. In a practical classiiication, buck-wheat, though not included among PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 123 the cereals, may be added to this class, as its seeds are similar ia quality and use to the cereals properly so called. The following lesson will be devoted to brief suggestions on the culture of this closs of crops.) 161. What is said of wheat as a farm produc- tion ? — Wlieat is the most important and most generally cultivated of the cereal grains : it is found in every latitude except those approaching the poles and the equator, but is prolitably cultivated only in what are termed temperate climates. There are from manv varieties of wheat, resultinor differences of climate, soil and culture ; but those commonly cultivated may be distinguished by the general terms of lointer and spring wheat. 162. What are the differences between winter and spring wheat ? — Winter wheat requires the action of frost to bring it to full maturity, and is sown in autumn ; its roots are peculiarly fitted to endure the severe colds of winter ; the main seminal root is pushed out at the same time with the germ, and nourishes the plant in its early growth. Winter wheat is more productive than spring wheat ; the straw is harder and more erect ; the grain is plumper and heavier ; and the price from ten to twenty per cent, higher than that of spring wheat. (Note. — The difference in Ihe price of winter and spring wheat depends upon the appearance and greater whiteness of the flour of winter Vheat, rather than on any deficiency in nuritive properties of the flour of spring wheat. Sir HuMPnRBY Davy gave the analysis of 100 parts of winter and spring wheat as follows : " Good English winter wheat, gluten, 19 ; starch, 17 ; insoluble matter, 4, Spring wheat, gluten, 24 ; starch 70 ; insoluble matter, 6." This analysis gives the greater nutritive value to spring wheat, as gluten constitutes the most important element of flour, resembling so nearly the fibrin or muscle-giving property of animal food. See Lesson III., pp. 18, 19.) 163. What is the prcpamfinn of the land needful for sowing winter wheat ? — Tliorough cultivation is requisite, that the land should be as clean as possible from weeds and noxious plants at the time of sowing. ^■' -V, !»' '■■% I '\ , mroteetion, but tho sown grain must bo thoroughly harrowed in, or (which is better) lightly ploughed in. 167. What is said of the sowing and culture of spring wheat? — Spring wheat requires a soil similar to that for winter wheat, but of a quick and kindly character, as the spring wheat has a much shorter time to mature. The ground should be fertile and well pulverized. It is said that the best crops arc raised on land which has been ploughed in tho autumn, and sown without additional ploughing in the spring — care being taken to harrow in thoroughly. Spring wheat should be sown as early as the condition of the land will allow, though, under favorable circumstances, good crops have been obtained from later sown s|)ring wheat. (Note. — I omit nil reference to the insect nnd other enemies of both winter and spring wheat (especially tho former), and tho many methods which have been tried to destroy tliem, ns also tho application, in somo instances, of tho raker and harrow to the growing crops.) 168. What is said of the harvesting of wheat ? — Wheat should be harvested before it gets dead ripe. The grain should be cut immediately after the lower part of the stalk becomes yellow, just after the grain Tms ba;;:un to harden, but while it is still so soft as to 1)0 easily crushed between the thumb and finger. Itepeated experiments have shown that wheat cut then will yield more in measure and weight, and a larger quantity of sweet, white flour, If the wheat is not gathered at this time, it changes rapidly, especially in favorable weather: the grain and straw grow less valuable — a part of the starch of which the grain is composed becoming bran. Exposure to rains after catting is also very injurious to wheat. ha% fori ; fREfARATORY KNOWLEDGE AITLLED. 127 inger. fit cut land a jwlicat I straw Iwhicli lure to srbeat. It makes both grain and straw darker in colour, and is apt to cause partial decay on the surface. Tho parts thus all'ected mix with the rest in grinding, and give the tlour a darker hue. Kurly cut grain requires a longer time for drying or airing bttoro boing threshed or stored ; but it should bo stacked or housed as soon as possibly lit, after reaping, lor the sake of both tho straw and grain. (Notes. — 1. Tlirealuntr, aa well as rcapinfy machines, are now extensively used by jjood furmers ; a great improvement on tlio old methods of cutting and threshing grain — n greut saving of manual labour, securing tho earliest markets, when tho price of grain is high, saving much expense and trouble of moving, storing, loss from shelling, vermin, &c. I3ut tho thresliing machine should be a good one and properly manned ; otherwise there will be greut loss of grain and enormous waste of straw. 2. No farmer can afford to throw awiiy his straw, or leave it to be trodden down by cattle running over it in tl>e field, or blown and wasted by storms. In the winter season, the straw, if bright and clean, is valuable as a coarse fodder for young, or store stock, and as a bedding for any stock in stables, or sheds, where it may be conveniently worked into manure. No matter how rich the land, manure on some part of it will be wanted. 8. when the grain is stored in the straw, cnro should bo taken to prevent it from heating or mo\ilding. It should, therefore, bo very dry before being carried into tho barn or borraek. If stacked, it should be elevated above the ground ; and if the stack is large, a sort of chimney should bo left from tho bottom, running through the centre to the top ; which may bo made by keeping a largo bundle perpendicular at the surface in the centre, and drawn up- wards as the stack rises, thus leaving an opening from the bottom to the roof. Sometimes additional security against heating and moulding is provided by similar openings horizontally at intervals. Mice and rats may bo avoided by laying the foundation of tho stack on posts or stones, covered at the top with projecting cnps. Much may be said in favour of storing grain in the straw in barns or barracks, and threshing it out at leisure when the hurry of har- vest is over.) Etu. 169. What is said respecting the sowing and harvesting of rye ? — 1. The .preparation of the soil for rye is similar to that for wheat ; and rye occu- f)ie8 the same place in the rotation of crops on ight soils that wheat does on heavy ones. Keither m ^ r.i. At :|i im ti m ^ mMM i n iiWi tmi ^sssmamm im rRKrAUATont knowi-kimik AnMJttft. 11 rytft. A rii'li Pivmly lotvin Ih (Iu» tiivtiuul m»il U)\- j|, though it |i;h)WB WviAy on liglil Piuidrt niul grMV«>lrt >vl\i«'h vol\tHO to |Mv)»ln»^o oillu r w Ileal, Imrlcy oMHii**. \\\ \w'\\\\. \)[' [\w{, vyo iH Uf^unlly howii upon iln> jmoi'- 08t Foilfl ot lhi» liu'in, iUou^U tonniy poIIh >v1iI«1i niv lov> rioh for whi^al, niu! vm wiiidi it liMl^rop, >vill iViMpUM^tly prmluoo an omtIIoiH no)) (»l lyc, il« pU'o!Ijj:im' Ptom ona!>linjr ji to Piiwtain JtR'H \\\\\\vr iU luxurumt growth. 2. Tho tiino t'oi- powiiig ryo is iVoiw tho aoth of AiiguPi to tlio 2(Mh ol Hojttcliibcu' — tlu» oarliopt ponvh iNM|uiving Ippp pitiI, np It. Imp ri longxn* tiino to tillor or pproail ilw n>otp, atul till up tlu> gwund. Tho (pumtity Ho\yii, yaricp I'loiu olio to two l>U!*]\olp iHM' \U'\v, ju'oonliiitf to tlin quality <»!' the poil, tho rionopt p^mI (loinaudiniy!; inopt, pord. B. The early outtiufv of ryo, m ol wlioat, producort tuvnv woij^ht, largor inonsuri*, and whitor Hour; lnit. what IP iutondod tor sood, must ho allowed to rij'oii fully on tho jvro'ind. ^ /NiivK. — Uyo Rfviuv is polid, IIm' lntort\n1 yMl hv\\\ff filled \\\\h n plln ; ii is thoM'or*^ so toujrh n\u\ oonrnr, lhi\t U Is iinl rclii^lu'd ity oftttlt'' nul»^!»s rtrtilioially )>»'0|M>iv«i. \\ i« Honnlli\irB (Mil Flmit nml i»1o»motl, nilxod with Inrnnn or linpood iii«'nli«, F^hiulp v\' ndn'C film ftvd, nnd i^Mitnliis In vt>rtlity nn^io mitiinu'hl, lliiiii llin pIihw of whcftt, tlu\n wluoh It Is mor<> viiUmhlo ns liKcr, niul p(ill iimro bo for (hiUhm^j bi^rrftokn, pUoKs t^t' wliont. barloy, ontR, iiuy, do ) 170. For fr^(?f pri'uh'iiritif is harh>y rft)\mh\hh? — As l>arloy grows and rinons with wonderful ra- pidity, it is ouUivatod and coniop to pcMiection in n iTTt^ator variety of eliniates than any other of tlio ceival sirains, ati H|»riii^. (Nuiir. — 'riii'ii' (itf Hnv»'nil VHticilt'H fif l»nil»'y, ba of wlionf, ; hut iliMy iiio lutt, milJiHMl III tlit'fla Klirtt. hcflHdtin.j IT2. IIVm/. /.<» 'fiiif/ ({/' f/i'' nuf't/'/' aiuf iH'fpitraflon of ilh' fioi/ f'nt' harh'ij ami l/h> f,unt> af Hoinimj /// — hiirli'V i'(M|iiir('H H li^liliT Hoil llmi) will ^row ^o'kI wliiMil, niitl a iMMivitfr Kuil IIimii will ^row tolroMMo ryoi Itiil II rtuil wliiiili, ill nil raflw, ftli(»iild Im wnll (Iniiiind, wi;ll |Milv(}ri//«Ml, mimI IVcii Iroiri wj hIioiiIiI lullctw [\ 1h»m1 (M'oji, if poBHihlr, ilioii^h it limy lin howii on u ^niHf4 or (ilovru' (iold, turned over tlio pnM'fMliiijr autumn. I'lit Ixirh^y bIi(»uI(I not follow otiior vvfiito pjraitiH; aiii'viimlndH por aoro — poor and rnf;IIow Hoiln, oarly bowii, rLMjiiiring tli(5 h^ant. Tlio BOf?(l may hn Biinply liarrowod in on Btiff BoilB, or liar- rowod and roll(?d on light ones. (NoTi'V~T!i»Hlifrorr»nrmlti Uio Htnicttjro ofUift roof,B of tlio whoftt ninl II;. b>« oy ;ilniitfl, ftnf(iiir«'/l in ilm « il, t raUior Its condition, hv eauli plnnfc, is thus forcibly at;M,o<8 liy U. (>. I'niNor.ii! (editor of tho N^fottinh Farrnnr) mi\ I'ro- Aim', iVIimnAY, of EdlnburKli, In n recflntiy published book on Tk« (Mh>r» I f Farm Vropn : " Tho root^ of thf> whent hnvo a rem»rk- iiblo howdonry to jiubIi thomwdvefl dec ...> tho wAl as woll m iff rniiil v ill nll'dirootlonre in A given tlmo tbt.b tho vheAt r«H>ti. This (|aiok abstraction of the a I! 1 ) ill 4 1 I. ; 'i .31 I " fl 130 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. food from tho soil by the barley plant is also aided by a peculiar- ity wliich distinguishes it, namely, tJie number of root fibres or ' hair-like processes,' by which the roots are suppli^id, and which Professor Lindlay calls, ' the mouths of the roots.' A quick drawer and a greedy drawer of tho raanurial matters contained in the soil, and that soil conhned by the habits of growth of tiie plant, thu inference is readily drawn, that the crop which precedes the barley crop should oe that which leaves tho soil in tho condition beat fitted for these habits, and rich in manurial constituents. These conditions indicate, therefore, a root crop . that which should precede the barley.") 173. When should the barley he harvested ? — If barley is cut too soon, the grain will shrivel ; but if cut late, the grain is injured, and there is a great waste of it by shelling. It should be harvested before the grain is fully ripe, as the Q-^n.y larvested grain is brighter than when left to fu^t i ijjeo ds, and is of better quality. (Note. — The author of the New American Farm Book says, — " We have seen the maltster make ten to twentj' cents difference 1 i the price of the same description of grain, solely from the time d cutting." The Rev. W. L. Kham, in his English liHiouary of .') e Farm, says, — "As soon as the ears of the barley bo^in to dn p and lose their purple hue, acquiring a light straw colon.', bcf'"--*^ tho grain is quito hard, it should be reaped," Barley may be stacked like wheat.) Oats. 174. What is said of the climate and soils for thp. cultivation of oats? — Oats are cultivated througho'^o a wide range of latitude and on a great variety oi soils. Oats will grow on rich or poor, on 'ly or moist soils, on the heaviest clays or the iiglie. sands; but they do best in a damp clima;3 (as iu Scotland) and a moist soil, with a moderate summer temperature. 175. JTow should the soil he prepared for oats f — The authors of the Culture of Farm Crops, sp.y, — " The oat plant, resembling in its habits of growth the wheat more than the barley plant, a good. deep, well stirred soil is necessary for it ; the roots iia v I'*"' more of the descending vertical development, r^ i;he ^' I'KEl'AKATUEY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 131 ol ?— wheat, than the lateral development of the barley plant. Further, although loving a moist climate and soil, a thoroughly wet one is prejudicial in a liigh degree to the oat; well drained, in addition to deeply stirred soil, is therefore essential, if indeed the one can be separated from the other." ITG. At what time should oats he sown^ and in what quantity per acre f — The New American Farm Booh says : — " In this country oats are sown at the rate of two four bushels per acre [accord- ing to the richness of the soil and the purpose of the sowing], during all the spring months, and some- times, though rarely, in June. The earliest sown are --isnally the heaviest and most productive. The seed should be well harrowed in and rolled, and no other attention is required except to destroy the prominoi:' vocr." The roller is especially useful on light hinds, as the compression of the soil affected by it hastens the germination of the seed and causes it to spring up uniformly, 177. When should oats he harvested ? — Oats should 1)0 cut before i\\:. ztv^vr has turned completely yel- low. Oats .:o: otimes ripen imevenly, and if a lirge proportion of zudr are backward, the proper tiaie for cutting will be as soon oz the latest may be nibbed out of the straw by hand. The oat is sufH- ciently matured for harvesting after it has passed the milk state, and is easily compressed between tJie thumb and finger. The lower part of the stalk will then have assumed a yellow colour, and it ceases to .•aw nutriment from the soil. If cut at this time, the straw is better for fodder and for other uses; the grain is fuller; the husk is lighter; and the loss from shelling, which is often a great item when left too late, is avoided. (NoTS. — Oata may bo slaoked like wheat, but are far better housed iu tha barn.) i^ i |i 132 PREPARATOET KNOWI-EDGE AIU'LIED. Indian Corn, or Maize. 178. What is said of Indian corn as a cereal f — Indian corn is an annual cereal plant of great im- portance to agriculture on the American continent. It docs not ripen in Great Britain, on account of the dampness of the atmosphere and the want of the sun's heat. It seems to have been specially created for the Western Hemisphere ; is ^rown in great luxuriance from the northern regions of Canada to the Straits of Magellan ; it attains its '^^liest perfection under the fierce blaze of a cloud- N^'s sun, and its most prolific area is between the 4:Uth and 38th degrees of north and south latitude, excepting a limited portion of the equatorial regions. Much care is necessary in the colder regions of its growth, on account of the shortness of the seasons and the deficiency of sun for ripening it. In such localities the smaller and earlier kinds of corn should be planted on a warm soil, so as to mature before the frosts. (N'oTE. — Of the varieties and uses of table nncl field corn, it is not my purpose to speak, any more than of the varieties and uses of wneat, rye, barley and oats.) 170. Whit hinds of soils are lest suited for the groioth of Indian corn f — The soils adapted to the culture of Indian corn are such as are permeable to heao and the roots of the plant, and embrace those denominated sandy, gravelly, and loamy. Corn will not succeed on strong clay, wet, or poor lands. The roots grow to as great length as the stalks, and the soil must be loose to permit their free extension. Though corn adapts itself to a variety of soils, light and porous loams, a little sandy, are most likely, if well tilled, to yield large crops. Land can scarcely be too rich for corn„ and the fresher and less fer- mented the manure applied to it is, unless on light, sandy soils, the better it will be for the crop. Corn is a very hearty feeder; it has a large amount of ^, it- PBEPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 133 stalk, leaves and grain to provide for in a few weeks, and its increase will be commensurate with the sii;)- ply of food. 180. How is th^^ soil prepai'ed for com? — It is said that the best prepara' ion for a corn crop (except newly cleared land) is a clover or other grass hi^', or Bod, well covered with long manure, recently sjiroad, neatly ploughed, and harrowed lengthwise of the furrow. A roUer^ may precede the harrow with advantage. The time of ])erforming these opera- tions depends upon the texture of tlij soil and the quality of the sod. StiiT lands are ameliorated and broken down by fall ploughing : but M'here sand or gravel predominates, or the sod is light and tender, it is best performed in the spring, and as near to the time of planting as convenient. The harrow, at least, should immediately precede planting. 'All seeds do best when put into the fresh stirred mould. (Note. — It may be remarked, that land should be prepared fior corn much in the same way as for other crops, and the preparation must vary according to the crops for which the land has been used and the state in which it is left; but in all cases, to raise corn profitabl}', the land must be in good condition — well manured at the time .of planting, or by continued and judicious manuring previou-ly. It is not worth while to raise poor crops of corn, or indeed poor crops of any kind. It requires almost as much labour of ploughing, hoeing and harvesting a crop of thirty as of sixty busliels or more per acre. ]fi the culture of corn, as of many other crops, the one thing specially important is thorough and careful ploughing in the tirst place. There can be no successful cultiva- tion of corn without it. Tlie land having been fully prepared by ploughing, manuring and harrowing, the next step is, to plant the seed, whicli may be done by hana ^i' by machine.) 181. How should the seed corn he selected and prepared for planting f — The best seed of the kind or variety desired should be selected ; and this may, perhaps, be best done by the farmer before the corn is gathered in the field, where there is an opportu- nity for comparison, and the best formed ears mav be marked, so that they may be distinguished at harvesting, and saved for seed the next "year. To »■; f ;■ ii in r i f |i 1 r- if |[ . ' i J ! \ ■ ; ^ 134 PSEPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. ■I steep the corn for twenty-four or forty-eight hours in fi solution of saltpetre, is said to be of great utility, accelerating the growth of the plant, and ] protecting it against birds, squirrels and mice, and for a while against worms. But the most effectual protection of the seed against all these enemies, as also tlie best means of promoting its vigorous ger- mination and growth, is said to be soaking it foi* twelve hours in tav umter^ with a few ounces of salt- petre dissolved in it, then rolling it, for a coating, in ground plaster, aslies or lime. 183. At vjhat time should the corn he 2^lcintedf — The old Indian rule was, " When the oak leaves grew to the size of a squirrel's foot, it was time to phi X corn." The time for planting corn is usually w\iiin tlie first three weeks of May; but much uepends on the season. It is best to defer planting until all apprehension of frost is removed. 183. In what manner should corn he planted? — Corn should be planted in hills (not in drills) from three to five feet apart, M'ith from three to five stalks in each hill, according to the variety of corn, the quality of the soil, iind the fancy of the farmer. The corn, whether planted by hand, or a corn planter, should be covered about an inch and a-half or two inches deep ; but on moist or heavy soil, an inch is enough. 181:. ^Yhat after-culture is Tecommended for the groicth and maturity of the ccrn ? — The following directions are given by the most experienced and successful corn-producers: — 1. Hilling or heaping the earth around the plants should always be avoided, except with very heavy soil, or such as is liable to an excess of moisture : in all other cases it should remain flat. 2. The first stirring of the ground, or hoeing, or dressing, should be done as soon as the plants show themsplves, or are about two inches PREPARATOET KNOWI.EDGE APPLIED. 186 high. This is most economically done bv a light plough, or cultivator, or corn-harrow, adapted to the width of the rows, and which a farmer can make for himself, if necessary ; and if the operation be fre- quent and thorough, there will be Httle use for the hoe : otherwise the work must be done with the hoe. 3. The second hoeing should be performed before, or as soon as the tassels appear, and may be preceded by the corn-harrow, a shallow furrow of the plough, or, what is better than either, by the cultivator. It may be found beneficial to run the harrow or culti- vator a third, or even a fourth time, between the rows, to destroy the weeds and loosen the soil, par- ticularly in a dry season. (Notes. — 1. Weeds, besides choking the growth of grain, absorb much of the substance of the soil which should contribute to nourish and mature the plants. Great care should, therefore, be taken to keep the field entirely free from weeds. 2. Stirring the ground in dry weather is peculiarly beneficial to corn and all hoed crops. Some omit it from fear of the escape of moisture, but the effect is precisely the reverse, as has been shown in the Lesson on sub-soiling and draining, pp. 108, 109. The loosen- ing of the soil, and its consequent unevenness and porosity, facilitates the admission and escape of heat, and secures the deposit of large quantities of moisture, even in the driest and most sultry weather. Corn and other crops, which were withering from excessive drought, are said to have been at once rescued from its effects by a thorough use of the plough and the cultivator. 8. But cai'e should be taken not to break or injure the roots of the corn ; the plough should not therefore be introduced between the rows after the first hoeing. The horse-hoe will stir the ground aa deeply as it is safe to go. Three hoeings are thought by some to be requisite for corn ; out, in general, the oftener it is hoed the better.) Harvesting of Corn. (Note. — Perhaps more mistakes are made, and more loss sustained in harvesting corn, than even in harvesting wheat or any other grain. I hope that what follows mr.y prevent tue recurrence of some of these mistakes and losses.) 185. What is said of the harvesting of corn f — There are three methods of harvesting corn : [1] Cutting the stalks at the surface of the ground when the grain^ has become glazed or hard at the if 136 PBEPARATOBY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. outside, putting them immediately into stacks ; and when sutftcientlj dried, separatinoj and securing both stalks and corn. (This, as will be shown, is by far the best method.) (2) Cutting and stacking the tops of the stalks when the corn has become glazed, and leaving the ears on the butts of the stalks until October or November. (8) both corn and stalks standing until the fully ripened, and the stalks become dry, and then Leaving grain has securing both. (Note. — The wasteful and slovenly mode of leaving tl.j butts or entire stalks in the field after the grain is gathered, does not merit notice, except to be reprobated.) 186. W/iat ohjection is there to the third of these methods ? — It is attended with as much labour as the first method ; it greatly deteric>rates the quality of the stalks as fodder, and often injures the grain by exposure. 187. What ohjection is there to the second method ? — Cutting off tlie tops of the stalks and leaving the butts, and then afterwards gathering the" corn, in- creases the labour, impairs the value of the forage, and diminishes the quantity of the grain. The late Judge Euel, of llochester — one of the most dis- tinguished farmers in the state of New York — states, in his book entitled The Farmers'' Instructor^ that he " tried the experiment in harvesting several rows of corn, each consisting of 92 hills, cutting the tops of the stalks in every other hill, and leaving those of the other hill uncut. The result was that the number of ears were equal, but the size of the grains and weight of corn were different. The forty-six hills from which tiie tops of the stalks had been cut, gave forty-eight and a half pounds of ears ; and the forty-six hills on which the stalks had not been cut, gave sixty-two pounds of ears ; mak- ing a difference of 12 bushels 5J pounds per acre. A serious loss of grain, therefore, results from th^ PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 137 ■ ! ! Lcre. Veqiient practice of cutting the tops of the eforc liarvestini; the corn. Tlie Neio Amcri- not uiifn stiilka 1)01 can •Farm Book thus'^gives [he scientitic reason of tills loss, and the superiority of iho first of the above mentioned methods of harvesting corn : " The stalks of corn shonld never be cut above the ear, but always near the "ground, and for this obvious reason : The sap which nourishes the grain is drawn from the earth, and passing through the stem, enters the leaf, where a enange is effected analogous to what takes place in the blood when brought to the lungs of the animal system; with this peculiar difference, however, that while the blood gives out carbon and absorbs oxygen, plants, under tlie influence of light and heat, give out oxygen and absorb carbon. This change prepares the sap for condensation and con- version into the grain. But the leaves which thus digest the food for the grain are above it, and it is while passing downward that the change of the sap into grain principally takes place. If the stalk be cut above the ear, nourishment is at an end. It may then become firm and dry, but it is not in- creased in quantity while, if cut near the root^ it not only appropriates the sap already i7i the plant, hut it also ahsorhs additional matter from the atmos- fhere^ which contributes to its weight and perfection. t must be perfectly dried in the field, and after this husked and carried into an airy loft or stored in latticed or open barracks [or cribs]. The stalks may be housed or carefully stacked for fodder. "When fodder is high, the stalks and leaves will repay the expense of cultivation." (Note. — The experienced authors of the same book remark, that " If there be no danger of early frost, the corn may be suffered to stand until fully ripe ; though if the stalks are designed for fodder, they are better to be cut when the grain is well glazed, and this should be done in all cases when frost is expected. Scarcely anxf injury <-ccurs either to leaf or grain if the corn is stacked, when loth would be seriously damaged from the same exposure if standing.") \ u n i h ,1 •1 II 'if H ' 138 PHEPAKATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 188. What other reasons are given f^r adopting the first of the three methods mentioned above for harvesting corn ? — In addition to the reasons just stated, Judge Buel, in his Farmer's Instructor^ remarks, that " by this method the crop may be secured before the autumnal rains ; the vahie oi the fodder is increased ; and the ground is cleared for a ■winter crop of wheat or rye. (Notes. — 1. The authors of the New England Manual of Agri- culture observe, on this subject, that " The oeet and most enlight- ened practice appears to be to cut the whole plant from the fjround after the stalk has slightly turned and begun to ripen, and stook it or set it in a cluster uf bundles bound together at the top, so as to shed the rain, where it will soon ripen up, when the ears may be taken off as it stands on the field or the whole may be removed to the barn to be husked." 2. — Although in Europe the word corn signifies breadstuflfs generally, and is therefore synonymous with wheat, barley, and other email grains ; yet in America the term used alone applies exclusively to Indian corn or maize. The word corn has been neld by courts in the United States to be the established name for Indiaa corn. It is thus used in Canada ; and I have thus used it in this Lesson.) Buckwheat. 189. What soils are best for buckwheat ? — Buck- wheat succeeds best on light soils, but will do well on almost an^ soil, except heavy clay. But it yields a remunerating crop only on fertile soils. Fresh manure is injurious to it. Sandy loams are its favourite soils, especially those which have been long in pasture ; and these should be well ploughed and harrowed. The usual and only necessary pre- paration for sowing buckwheat is to plough the land once and harrow it lightly. (NoTB.— Buckwheat is frequently sown to plough in green as a manure, in preparing for some other crop. For this purpose it is said to be less valuable than clover, or a suitable mixture of plants ; but if ploughed in when in blossom, it is beneficial in all soils which contain but little organic or vegetable matter.) 190. When is buckwheat sown, and what quantity of seed per acre ^^It is sown in June or Julyj if PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 139 60WI1 late, it may be injured by the early frosts, which arc fatal to it. But good crops of buckwheat have scnictitncs been obtained from seed sown after a crop of barley has been taken from the land ; and some have sown it in August, witii winter wheat. About three pecks of seed per acre, sown broadcast, are enougli, though some farmers sow a bushel. 101. What 2.y .said of ciUtiiig and hai'veding hackwhent.^ — It is cut when the earliest seed is fully ripe. It is then raked and gathered into small bun- dles, which are fastened by twisting the tops, and allowed to stand and dry on the tield ; and as soon as dry, it should be taken and threshed out. (Note. — If not porfectly dry, the straw may bo stacked with layers of other straw, oiid when well cured it is good fodder fop cuttle. It is said that sheep and yoiini^ horses will feed and thrivo as well on this straw as on ordinary hay.) b il )re- md as a lit is of all itity if LESSON XXXI. LROUMINOUS CROPS — BEANS AND PEAS. (NoTK. — Having treated of the crops yielding breadstufFs — wheat, rye, barley, oats, corn and buckwheat — I now propose to notice briefly leguminous crops. It has been shown in Lesson xxix., p. 117, that lef/iimeii or legume signifies pod, and that leguminous plants are strictly plants whose seeds grow in pods, though the term is Boiiietimes used to include root plants. This lesson will be confined to beans and peas.) 192. What soils are proper for leans ? — The authors of the Edinburgh work on the Culture of Farm Crops say, " The soil be«t suited for the bean crop, is a strong rather thar. . moist one, firm in texture, yet so as to enable the plants to send their roots deep into the soil. Lime is an essential ele- ment cf it." The American Farmcr'^s Dictionary says, " All the varieties of bean thrive best on strong clay soils, heavy marls, and deep loams of a moist description." The New American Farm Book says, "The bean is partial to a quick, dry m r I il 1-io PKEPAKATOUV KAOWLElHiE Al'l'LIED. I ! poil ; too <^i'eat strencfth or fresh mamirinir givin<^ a l}irj>o quantity ot vine witlioiit a corru-pondiii^ quantity of fruit." Tiio New England Maniud of Ayrlcn(tur<} Bays: " Hcanrt grow well on a variety of isoils, from very light Hand to 8 rg loam ; hut Bandy and gravelly soils arc betiui- for them than strong and tenacioun elays. On light soilrf the plant not oidy ripens early, hut is cleaner and freer from earth, which frequently adheres to the plant in hirge cpiantities during rains, especially at the j)eriod of rii)ening." 193. How fihould the soil he prepared for hcannf — The Loii should be well ])loughed and harrowed, or dug, so as to he well mellowed or finely jiulver- ized ; if at all inclined to he wet, it should be ringed. 19-I-. Horn should heans he planted f — They arc usually planted in hills about two feet apart, and also in drills covered two inel deep with fine earth. When planted in hill? n four to six plants should be left in each hill, according to their proximity ; or if in drills, about six beans may be planted to the foot. Low or bush beans are the only beans adapted to the field, while pole beans are more frequently plantml in the garden. 195. When should heans he planted f — The time for planting beans varies a little, according to the nature of the soil and the forwardness of the season. Beans are tender plants, and will not bear the slightest frost; and, as they grow rapidly, they will be sure to ripen when frost is no longer apprehended. The seed is liable to rot if put into the ground in a cold, wet time ; and the land should, therefore, be previously well warmed with the sun. Beans are planted from the middle of May to the middle of June; generally the best time is about the first of June. The early ripening of field beans is impor- tant, when other crops are to succeed during the same season. a 1'KEl'AUA.TOKY KNOWLEDGE APPLIKD. 141 uime the i,son. the will Ided. in a be are le of it ot" ipor- the lUtl. W/uct ia mid of the ouliure of beans oftet* plahfintj f — IJ'jans, as wull aa other ])hititH, sljonld ho kept free Irom weeds, and idioidd be lioed the lu'st time as noon us the ])hints luive formed their full sized leaves, the spaee between the hills having been previuusly eleured of weeds if neeessary. l!)7. When and how ahoidd leans he harvedrd ? — l)<'ans should l)e harvested when the leaves shrivel and the pods turn yellow. If the ground is not, wanted for other [)urposes, tliey may stand until the latest puds assume ayellow eolour. The eroj) should be harvested by pulling up the ])lants (by iiand or M'ith an iron lumd-rake), or mowed, if the stalks are partially green. The vines, if not dry, should re- njain for a while 'ii small heaps, and id'terwards be colleeted in larger piles around stakes at convenient distanees, with the roots in the centre, and secured at the top with a wisp of straw ; and when well dried, they should be taken to the barn and threshed out. (Note. — Tlie straw is good fodder for sheep, and should bo stacked for their use. Benna are said to be one of the best kinds of winter food for sheep, wlicn fed in sitiall quantities. Beans are used either green or dry for the table, and are a pahitable and highly condensed food, In proportion to their weii^ht, bwins give more nutriment than any of the ordinary vegetables, yielding 84 per cent., while wheat yields 74, and potatoes only 26 per cent, of nutiiraeiit ) Peas. 198. What soil is lest adapted to peas f — The soil best adapted to peas is a stiff loam, though heavy clays will bear good peas ; but a calcareous or w-iieat soil is better. In general the pea may bo successful ly cultivated on any soil which can be deeply tilled and richly manured, except the stiflest clays and ligiit sands. 199. lloic is the soil pi'epared for peas ^ and when are they to he sownf — ^Peas should have a clean fal- A i m 142 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. low, or fresli rich soil, well harrowed. They are not affected by frosts, and may be sown as soon as the ground is dry. This will enable them to ripen in season ' plough for wheat. Peas are sometimes sown in drills, b: v usually broadcast, at the rate of two or :^-'.>^'^^ bushels per acre. Some recommend their being covered about an inch and a-half cgj^j ; others say it is best to plough them in to the depth of three inches, and afterwards roll the ground smooth to facilitate gathering. 200. S^ow are peas harvested ? — Peas are har- vested by being pulled up by hand, or by cutting with a scythe, or, what is more expeditious, (when fully ripe, so that the roots are easily pulled out) Eulled with a horse rake. When thus gathered into eaps and well dried, they may be thresned out, and the straw carefully stacked for sheep todder. If the straw is secured in good condition, cattle and sheep will do well upon it. (Notes. — 1. Peas may follow any farm crop in rotation, but Bhould never be raised year after year on the same land. Many BOW peas broadcast with oats, and harrow them in, and in thi" way often obtain good crops, which, when thus grown, are feu unground to sheep and sometimes to horses, or made into meal for swine. . 2. Peas must have abundant moisture while in blossom, or their yield will be small. It has been said that strong lands produce the best crops of peas, but the manures should be previously ap- plied, as fresh manures increase the growth of straw, and some- times diminish the quantity and quality of the peas. 3. I do not notice the varieties of garden and field peas. Many varieties are found in the garden and the market, each c " which is marked by some peculiarity, as time of ripening, size, taste, this hills hand to the n the small from red by In , and until —Any lod tnr- >se and crops require so much preparation of tho land as tnrniiDS. But it is only on new land or freshly turned sod, that they are most succsesful. An un- tilled virgin earth, with a rich dressing of ashes after tho recent burning of brush and other vege- table matter, and free from weeds and insects, is the surest and most productive soil for a turnip crop. Such land needs no manure For a sward or grass land, there should be a heavy dressing of iinfer- mented manure, before ploughing. (NoTKS. — 1 . The varieties of turnip are nurnerons. The common flat iiiiglish tuniii), and the Ruta-Bagft or Swedes Turnip are most cultivated. Tho land designed for the Swede or Ruta-Bao-a should be deeply ploughed the preceding autumn — the deeper the better. Two thoroufrh plougliings should also be given in the 8j)ring, followed by a careful harrowing, so as to mellow and ccnnpletely break up and pulverize the soil. The flat turnip requires less depth of cultivation, 2. Experience has shown that it is very advantageous to raise alternately a deep or tap-rooted crop like the turnip, carrot or parsnip, and a surface rooted one like wheat, rye, barley or oats.) 207. WkcU is the time and mannep of sowing or 2>^<^'^^ti^0 turnips ? — The common round or flat turnips are soVn from the middle of June to the first of August ; the earliest sowing givhig a greater yield, the later sown generally a rounder root and capable of longer preservation. The seed may be sown broadcast at the rate of one or two pounds per acre, slightly harrowed and rolled; or, which is better, sown in drills, when a less quantity of seed will suffice. A turnip-drill' w'\\\ speedily accom- plish the furrowing, sowing, covering, and rolling, at a single operation. The ruta-baga is generally sown in drills, about two feet a]^art, and on heavy lands, which should be slightly ridged. The ]->lants should bo necessarily thinned to prevent interfering with such as are intended to mature: and a de- ficiency may be supplied by transplanting during showery weather. They should be left eight to twelve inchess apart in drills, according to the rich- 146 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLI1:D. ness of the soil. The riita-baga or Swedes turnip is a gross feeder, and requires either a rich soil or heavy manuring. Bones ground and drilled in with the seed, or a dressing of lime, ashes, gypsum or salt, is the best application that can be made. The Swedes turnip should be sown from the middle of May to the middle of June, earlier than the English turnip, as it takes longer to mature; and two or three ^"^eeks more of growth frecjuently adds largely to the product. An early sowing also gives time to raise another crop in case of failure of the first. 208. What is the after-culture f — The horse-hoe may be used between the drills when the first rough leaves appear. This sliould be followed by the hand-hoe to clear out the weeds, and stir the soil around the plants. Subsequent hoeings will be necessary to prevent the growth of weeds. 209. When and how should turnips he harvested f — Turnips may remain in the ground without injury until hard frosts begin, when they may be taken up most expeditiously with a root-hook* which is made with two iron prongs attached to a hoe-handle. The use of a bill-hook or sharp knife will enable the operator to lop off the leaves with a single blow, when tliey are thrown into convenient piles, and afterwards collected for storage. The storing of turnips may be in cellars or in heaps, similar to \ otatoes, but in a cooler temperature, as slight heat injures them, while frost does not. If stored in heaps, one or more holes should be left at the top, which may be partially stopped by a wisp of straw or hay, to allow the escape of the gases which are generated. NoTK, — Though turnips have bpen cultivated from the earliest times i'l both the garden and field as a rulinary root, and higldy prized for the table, their true value is as food for store and fattening cattle, railis cows, and slieep, as they furnish a salutary change from dry hay, being nearly equivalent as a fodder to IS in h\ del to Vh 8h( PKEPARATOKY KNOWLKDGE APPLTKD. 147 etirliest highly lore and Ipnhitnry )dder to green sammer food. With an abundance of turnips, and a snmll supply of straw, hay may be entirely dispensed with for cattle and sheep.) Carrots. 210. What is said of carrots and their uses ? — The carrot is one of our most noticeable roots. No root is more relished by domestic animals. Horses are especially fond of it, and when not kept at hard work, should have it as part of their food. It keeps up their condition, and gives them a line, glossy coat ; but weight for weight carrots are somewhat less nutritive than the potatoe. They are good for working cattle and unsurpassed for milch cows, pro- ducing a great flow of milk and a rich yellow cream. Sheep and swine greedily devour them, and soon fatten if plentifully supplied with them. 211. What is said of the soils lest for carrots, and their planting f — The soil which best suits car- rots is a fertile sand or light loam, but they will grow on soils that are more tenacious, if well drained and deeply worked. Deep ploughing and subsoiling are especially important in the cultiva- tion of this crop. The size and weight of the root depend very much on deep tillage. The seed should be new and fresh, and should be sown (about two or three pounds to the acre) in drills, sixteen to twenty inches apart, as soon as the ground becomes warm in the spring. The plant is said to do better if planted while tlie ground is quite moist, since it is very slow in its early growth. The covering of the seed should be slight, not more than half an inch in depth ; any deficiency of plants may be supplied by transplanting in moist weather. 212. What after-culture is required? — Entire cleanliness from weeds is the chief culture necessary to insure a crop. For this purpose, as soon as the plants are well up so as to be distinctly seen, they should be hoed and weede4. It is much easier to 148 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. keep tlie weeds down at the outset than to get them out alter they have overrun the crop. The number of hoeings will depend much upon the character of the soil and the previous culture. 213. irAe;i and how should carrots he harvested? — Carrots may be allowed to stand till the end of October or the early part of November without injury from frost. The harvesting of them may bo facilit-ited by running a plough on one side of the rows, when the roots are easily removed by hand The tops are then cut oif, and the surface moisture from the roots dried, when they may be stored like turnips and potatoes — the tops being fed to stock. Cari'ots ouglit to be kept at as low a temperature as possible al)ove the freezing point. On the approach of warm weather, they will sprout early if left in heaps ; and if it be desired to preserve them longer for use, the crown should be cut off and the roots spread in a cool, dry place. The Parsnip. 214. What soils are suited to parsnips f — The soil may be heavier for parsnips than for cariots, and they will even thrive on a strong clay, if rich, drj^ and well pulverized. Large crops can only be obtained on deep, rich ground, well pulverized. Parsnips will grow well wherever carrots will, and in some parts of France carrots and parsnips jwe cultivated together. 215. When and how should parsnijjs he sow7i? — Parsnips should be sown eai'iy in the spring, as frosts do not affect them, and they require a long time to come to maturity. Drilling at a distance of twenty inches apart, is a proper niode of plant- ing, and they should be thinned to a space of six or eight inches between the plants in the drill. Tlie seed should be of the previous year's growth, as C0\ abli it. in or drie Vai- vnril ^.\ PEErARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 149 )W7l T long ltf\nce i>laut- iiM or TVie tb, as older seed docs not vegetate. It rec|uircs about four or five pounds of seed per acre. 216. What is said of the after-cultivation f — The subsequent cultivation is similar to that of carrots ; but parsnips will yield more than carrots under similar circumstances of soil and tillage, are rather more nutritious, and less liable to be injured by dis- eases or insects. 217. W/ien and how are parsnips harvested f — They may be allowed to remain in the ground all winter and dug up in the spring, unless wanted for winter's use, as they keep best in the ground, where they are uninjured by the severest frost. But par- ticular care should be taken to allow no standing water on them, or they will rot. If taken up in the autumn, the roots should be neither trimmed nor broken, nor should the tops be cut too near the root. They should be stored out of' doors, in a dry place, and covered carefully with earth, so that they can thoroughly freeze, as exposure to air, or even moderate heat, wilts them. (Notes. — 1. There are two varieties of the parsnip, the one round or garden parsnip, the other the long field or Jerijey parsnip. The best variety for field culture is the large Jersey. 2. Tlio parsnip is one of our most delicious table vegetables ; it is an excellent food also, either raw or cooked, for cattle, milk cows, and sheep, and for swine. Qualey says, "it is not so valu- able for horses, for though it produces fat and a fine appearance, it causes them to sweat profusely, and if eaten when the shoot starts in the spring, it produces inflammation of the eyes, and epiphora, or weeping." The leaves of both carrots and parsnips, green or dried, are good for cattle.) The Beet. 218. ^Yhat is said of the Beet? — There are many varieties of the beet, but only two varieties in general use for the field ; the sugar beet and the mangel-wurzel, both of which have several sub- varieties. They are of various colors, red, pink, yellow, wHte, or mottled; but color does not seem 150 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE Ai'PLlEt>. to aff'ect their quality, and they all grow under Biiiiilar conditions. • 219. What soils are hest^ and hoio are they pre- pared for beets f — Beets do well in any soil of sufficient depth and fertility, though they are per- haps most partial to strong loam ; but large crops liave been produced on a tenacious clay wlien well tilled. It is said that a crop at the rate of eight hundred bushels to the acre litis been raised on a stiff clay which had been well supplied with unfer- mented manure. The soil cannot be made too rich. To prepare the land for the beet, it should be deeply ploughed, manured with fresh and unfermented ma- nures, and harrowed. 220. How is the seed sown f — The seed should be early planted, or as soon as vegetation will proceed rapidly, but should first be soaked by pouring soft scalding water on it, allowing it to cool to blood heat, and remain for three or four days, then be rolled in plaster and drilled in. The husk, or outer covering of the seed, is thick and impervious to moisture, and without a thorough previous satura- tion, the seed will not readily germinate. The planting should be in drills, twenty inches to two feet apart, at the rate of four to six pounds of seed per acre, buried not over one inch deep. The distance between the plants in the drill should bo from eight to twelve inches. The mangel-wurzel attains a larger size than the sugar beet, and the spaces between the plants should not be leas than a foot. 221. What is said of the after-culture? — The after-culture, as well as the preparation of the soil, is similar to that of carrots and parsnips. 222. When and how should heets he harvested f — The harvesting of the beets should be commenced Boon after the first leaves turn yellow, and before if h 1 I !1 PREPARATORY' KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 151 to ra- The two seed The [cl bo lurzel the than -The soil, [enced )efore the frosts have injured them. The tops must not be too closely trimmed, nor the crown of the roots or its fibrous prongs cut from such as are intended for late keeping. If the root (especially the mangel- wurzel) is bruised or injured, it is liable to deca;)^, and care should be taken to guard against the possi- bility of this. "When well stored in a cool cellar, or, like other roots, in ^its dug for the purpose, it will keep through the winter. (Note. — The beet is a universal favorite for the table, and of great value for stock. Domestic animals never tire of it, and awine prefer the beet to any other root, except the parsnip. It is said that -swine have often been kept in the Tbest condition through the winter,. on no other food than the raw sugar beet, which possesses tiie additional merit of resisting decay longer than ti\e turnip, and frequently beyond the carrot and parsnip. When fed to fattening animals, the beet should follow, never precede, the turnip. It has been found that such animals continue steadily to advance in flesh after having been carried to a certain point with turnips, if shifted to the beet; but in repeated instances they have fallen back if changed from beets to turnips, • Remarks on the Culture of Cabbages and Artichokes. — The Cabbage is sometimes cultivated as field crap, but is mostly con- fined to the home or market garden. It requires high cultivation, and succeeds best in a rich clayey soil. The seed is usually sown in beds, to be transplanted into hills, where it is hoed and culti- vated like other garden vegetables. The Jerusalem ArVchoke is nearly as nutritious as the potatoe, is used for common food, and its stalks are nearly as valuable as its tubers ; but it is not much, if at all, cultivated as a field crop in this country. It is said to grow well on light sands and tenacious clays, where no other crop would succeed. Its cultivation is much like that of the potatoe, the land being prepared and manured in tne same way. It is very productive, and easily cultivated in drills, three or four feet apart. In countries where this plant is cultivated as a field crop, the stalks are either cut and fed out green, or left to be cut with the sickle, and stooked and dried for winter fodder. After the stalks are cut and removed, the tubers or bulbs are taken up aa they are wanted to feed out, or dug )ate in the autumn and stored, like potatoes, for winter use. Most kinds of farm stock are fond both of the stalks and the roots.) r:i !i t I 162 PREPAEATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. LESSON XXXIII. OttASSKS — MEADOWS — PA8TLBE8 — MOWINGS. 223. IIow are grasses classified f — Grasses, for coiiveiiieuce, are classed under two general divisions, the natural and the artificial. 224. What are the natural grasses ? — The natural grasses include all true grasses or plants with cylin- drical, hollow stems, solid joints, and alternate leaves originating at each joint, surrounding the stem at their base, and forming a sheath upwards of greater or less extent, and the flowers and seeds protected with a lirm straw-like covering — the chafl' of grain and grass seeds. Timothy is the most valued and the most cultivated of the natural grasses, which abound in marshes, woods, and prairie lands, and on which innumerable wild animals and many domestic animals subsist and fatten. ' 225. What are artificial grasses f — The artificial grasses are moritjeguminous plants, which are cul- tivated and used like grasses. The. clovers, lucerne, &c., are included among the artificial p;rasses. (NoTKS. — 1. Arrionc;' the j^rassps said to ho most profitable for mowin2f, are timothy, red-top, white bent, oiciiard ujras?, perennial rye grass, June grass, rougli atnlked meadow grass, fowl meadow grass, meadow fesene, and tall fescne. 'J he artificial grasses com- prise red, white, and other clovers, and some othei's not cultivated in this country. It is said that the grasses cultivated in England for the use of animals comprehend not less than two hundred varieties ; but in America, there are not more than twenty. 2. The subject of grasses, pastures, grass and pasture lands, is too extensive to bo treated in these First Lessons. A few practical remarks only will be made. 8. Lands laid down with natural grasses are designed as more permanent mowings than those sown with artificial ones alone. They are sown with a number of the true grasses, most of which are perennial, and are to be used as mowing lands or for pasturage. The artificial grasses are more frequently intended to occupy the ground for one or two years only, in rotation with other cro])s, and are usually composed of only one or two species, and fhose annuals or biennials. It is not uncommon to sow with the natural grasses one or more species of clover, which, occupies the ground almost m JUd usei of wij] soil, Sam fere; the ffl rREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 153 xUti for IneatloW PS com- livated :nglaBd undred ands. is Wactical las move Is alone. If which listuraffe. pupy the i-ops, and \\ grasses Id almost exclusively one or two years, and tlion gives place to the perennial grasses which form a permanent turf; and this, when left uncut ond fed off by animals, makes what is called pasture or pasturage. 4. Certain situations and lands, if improved at all, must be occu- pied as permanent meadows or pasturage ; such as steep hill sides, where the rains would wash the soil into the valleys below, if broken by the spado or plough; bottom lands on the margins of streams liable to periodical overflows, endangering crops; low marshy lands, which cannot bo drained ; and some heavy, tena- cious clay lands, requiring too much labour to be cultivated with profit ; but, next to self-sustaining bottom lands, are profitable for various grasses. 6. There are great differences between the different kinds and species of grasses, some requiring different kinds of soil, abstract- ing different substances from the soil, and some exhausting it more than others — some longer lived, maturing earlier, and containing more nutriment, than others.) 227. When should grass seed be sown f — The best time for sowing tlie natural grasses is in the early autumn, so that they become aided by the fall rains, strongly rooted before the approacli of winter. If clover Is to be sown on land laid down to grass in September, the seed may be strewn on tlie last light snows of the March following, and they will vegetato without any covering. (Notes. — 1 . The practice of sowing the natural grasses in tho spring with oats or other grain, does not prevail now as formerly, though some still think that grass seeds do best when sown early in the spring on a fine mellow soil. 2. In the Lesson on the Rotation of Crops, I have stated tho manner of preparing the soil for grasses as well as for grains, root and other plants.) 228. What is said of mixing different species of or asses together ? — A greater weight of grass and nay can be obtained from an acre by using several judiciously selected species, than if one or two are used ; since diflerent species require different kinds of nutriment and the number of one species which will grow to vigorous maturity on a square foot of soil, will not be diminished by the growth on the same soil of plants of different species requiring dif- ferent substances to support them. But in selecting the mixture for mowing or for pasturage^ regard saun 164 rREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLlEt). rc, two bushels of seed per acre may be sown ; when sown for the seed, from a h.ilf bushel to a bushel per acre is sufficient. The seed is sown broadcast, and should be lightly harrowed or brushed in and rolled. When three or four inches high it should bo carefully weeded bj' hand by, children or adults barefooted, so as to tranijile down the plants as little and as slightly as possible.) 240. What is said of the harvesting of flax ? — If designed for cambrics and the finest linen, flax is pulled when flowering; if designed for coarse linen fabrics, it is not pulled till the seed is entirely formed and the bolls have turned yellow ; if required for seed, the flax should be left standing till the first seeds are well ripened. (Note. — When the flax plant is cultivated for the fibre '>f all linens made in this country, from ten to twenty-five bushels of seed per acre may also be expected, according to the character of the land and tiie thoroughness of tlie culture.) 2il. What is said of the after management of flax ^— The first thing is to remove the seed by threshing or drawing the heads through a comb or rake of finely set teeth, called rippling ; and then the common method has been, dew-rotting the flax, or spreading it thinly on a clean sward, and turning ^ it occasionally till properly rotted, after which it was put into bundles and stored till a convenient time for breaking, swingling, &c. This is said to be a wasteful practice, and to give an inferior quality of fibre. The improved method of preparing the flax is by water-rotting, which is dt)ne in vats or small ponds of soft water, similar to those used for hemp. This is said to give a strong, even, silky fibre, and without waste, and worth much more either for sale or for mauufacturing than the dew- -' S 'M i Ml 160 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. i rotted. The fibre is generally got out on the hreak by hand, when the farmer is most at leisure. (Note. — Flax seed is always valuable for the oil it yields, with the residuum or oil cakes so hi 162 PREPARATOBY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. of this little book will ever use or cultivate it. I have lived jiearly seventy years, and after revolving my recollections on the fiubject again and again, I am unable to call to mind a single instance, within my own varied observation, of a youth who liabitually either chewed or smoked tobacco having, in subsequent years, attained to any respectable, much less distinguished, posi- tion in any profession or pursuit of life. I have known many estimable and able men use tobacco, though soldo;!!, it ever, advance in intellectural or moral power, or professional or eoclai position, after resorting to the habitual use of this pernicious weed — the general precursor, if not parent, of intemperiince and many other vices. Whenever I see a youth, or young man, v-ith a quid of tobacco, a pipe, or a cigar, in his mouth, a feeling of sadness comes over me, and I set him down, from my past e:q)erience and observation, as destined, at best, to mediocrity in whatever pro- fession or employment he pursues, if not to intemperance, failure and ruin. I believe the demoralization of great numbers of other- wise promising young men in our land, is largely attributable to the use of tobaccoj LESSON XXXVI. ECONOMY OF THE FARM. (Note. — It is, of course, for the farmer to select land, as far as in his power, of the best quality and with the best facilities of market ; but having made the selection, the success of the farmer ^vill depend more on the general management of the farm, than on knowledge or skill in any particular dei:)artment. From the pre- ceding pages it is plain that farming is very far from being a mere mechanical employment; that it requires a great variety of know- ledge, sound judgment, much thought in planning and directing, as well as promptness and industry in executing plans devised and in improving times and seasons. Untiring industry is, indeed, essential to success in any pursuit or profession, and not less so in that of agriculture. But sound discretion is requisite to turn that industry to the greatest profit, and in this is involved the economy both of the farm and the household. Of some essential points in reference to farms, I Av.ill briefly treat in the following lesson — offering a few hints on each of them.) 245. WJiat is included in the economy of the farm^ apart from that of the household? — The economy of the farm includes proper buildings with their appendages, good fences, suitable tools, proper care and management of stock, besides the culture of land and crops, treated of in previous lessons. of jer [•e- )W- ^B» in Ihat Imy in the [be ith )er tire PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. Farm Buildings. 163 (1) The FARM HOUSE can, of course, be of any form and size the means and taste of a farmer may dictate; but as the design of a bouse is tbe p^'otec- tion and comfort of its inmates, its location ougbt not to be one of either naked scorching exposure or of bleakness and dreariness. It should occupy a position easily accessible to the other buildings and to the fields, and be within convenient distance of the highway, and be screened by trees — their foliage afibrding a natural protection and ornament not to be equalled by any skill of the architect. Every farm house should have the essential appendage of a cellar — dry, ventilated, cool in summer and warm in winter, for the double purpose of a dairy and the storing of roots. Other obvious appendages of a farm-house need not be mentioned. (2) The next important appendage of the farm, THE BARN, must depend as to its size and form, like that of the house, upon the particular wants of the farmer, or whetlier there should be more than one barn on the premises. The location of the barn and other out-buildings, in relation to both the house and fields, requires careful consideration, as there is dependent upon it much of time, and strergth, and expense of teaming to and from the field, and steps going to and from the house, : all of ' which points have a direct bearing on the profit to be derived from the farm. The JVew Americmi Farm Booh well remarks, that the barn accom- modations " should be large enough to hold all the fodder and animals on the farm. Not a hoof about the jpremises should he required to hrave our northern winters, unsheltered hy a tight roof and a dry bed. Thev will thrive so much faster and consume so much less food when thus protected, that the owner will be tenfold remunerated." "The barn and 164 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. r shed ought to be well raised on good underpinnings, to prevent the rotting of tlie sills, and to allow the free escape of moisture, as low, damp premises are injurious to the health of animals. Every con- sideration ought to be given to the saving of manure. The stables should have drains that will carry off the liquid evacuations to a muck heap or reservoir; and whatever manure is thrown out, ought to be carefully protected. A low roof pro- jecting several feet over the manure which is thrown from the stables, will do much to prevent waste from sun and rains. The mangers ought to be so constructed as to economize the fodder. Box feed- ing for cattle we prefer, as, in addition to hay, roots and meal may be fed in them without loss." (3) Sheds may be regarded as extensions of the barn, and when arranged on the east and west sides of the yard, the barn forming the north side, a good protection is provided for the cattle against the pre- vailing and coldest winds of winter. In the space over head, if properly floored, fodder can be st( ^d. The racks or boxes are placed on the boarded side of the shed, which forms the outside of the yard. If the ground under the shed is not quite dry, it is better to plank it ; and it can then be cleansed with the same facility as the stables. A portion of the shed may be partitioned off for close or open stalls, for colts, calves, and cows and ewes that are heavy with young. The surplus straw and the like can be used for bedding. (Note. — The supply of a barnyard with water, by bringing a running stream into it, if possible, op by a well or cisterns, is a great saving of time and labour, and sometimes of life, in driving cattle to a distance to water ; and all animals require water, except such as have a full supply of roots.) (4) Where the farmer's means permit, a distinct building is wisely provided for the carriage or wag- gon house^ stable, granary, bins, &c. ; and every PREPAEATORT KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 165 good farmer should have a work shop and tool ho^tse^ wliere liis tools should be arranged (the minor tools on shelves or in appropriate niches), that they can be readily found. Ilere the farming tools can bo repaired during rainy weather or leisure intervals. The JVe2V American Farm Booh well says, ''''Ample shed room for every vehicle and implement ahmit the farm, should not he wanting. Their preservation will amply repay the cost of such sliglit structures as may be required to house them. A waggon^ a plough, or any wooden implement, will wear out sooner by exposure to all weathers without use, than by careful usage with proper protection." (5). Fences are indispensable; but the kind of fences, whether of stone or of wood, whether zig-zag or straight, whether post and rail or post and boards, must depend on circumstances, of which each farmer can best judge for himself. The cheapest fences (of whatever kind) are good fences, kept at all times in perfect repair. Most of the unruly animals are taught their bad habits by their owners. Animals will seldom become jumpers except through their owner's fault, or from some bad example set them by unruly associates. Fences which are half down, or which will fall by the rubbing of cattle, will soon teach them to jump, and to throw down such as they are unable to jump over. An unruly animal should be disposed of as soo: as possible. The farmer will find that no animal will repay him the trouble and cost of expensive fences and ruined crops. (6). Farming Tools demand the former's special attention, as on their proper construction and con- dition the economy and success of his operations so much depend. If amazing improvements have been made in the tools and macliinerv for mechanical and manufacturing operations, equal improvements have been made in the construction of tools and machines to diminish the labour and expense, and improve I \\i i '- ill 16G PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. f tlie mechanical operations of agriculture. Much enterprise and keen competition are shown in the manufacture of tlie hest agricultural implements, which can now he ohtained in almost every part of the country. Experience teaches that to liave the best implements, kept in the best state for use, and the best protected from the weather when not in use is the best economy. (7). Shade Trees are both ornamental and profit- able; and their social -and moral influence exceeds the gratification they aflford to the eye, and out- weighs the consideration of dollars and cents. The sweet impressions made by their beauty and grateful shade on infancy and childhood, are often echoed back by the soothing reminiscences of decrepitude and age. "Trees planted for ornamental purposes around the house, and along the road-sides, add not only to the beauty of the homestead and the land- scape, but to the real and permanent value of the estate, and thus pay well for the labour and care bestowed upon them. In the selection of trees (not for the garden or around the house) regard should be bad to their ultimate value as timber and fuel, as also to their beauty and fitness for shade. The isolated ehn is graceful and imposing, growing to an immense size, with its goodly projecting limbs and long pendant branches ; and as fuel and timber it is good for most purposes. Very beautiful is the 7'ock or sugar maple, with its straight trunk and regular upward branching limbs, forming a top of great symmetry and elegance, affording a thick and ornamental shade, giving an annual return in its sap, making excellent fuel and valuable timber, and yielding the lovely hird's-eye majole so much esteemed for furniture. The hlach walnut is a stately graceful tree, of much value for wood and durable timber, of extensive use for plain, substantial furniture, its knots and crotches making the rich (not lould fnel, The »g to mbs liiiber the and p of and In its iber, niicli is a and mtial richi PREPARATORY KNO"VVLEDGE APPLIED. 1G7 dark veneering, whicli rivals the mahogany or rose- wood in biilhancy and lusting beanty. In fertile soil the walnut tree bears a liighly flavored nut. The Imttcniut is also a fine tree for shade, as well as for its rich flavored fruit. The same may also bo said of the chestnut^ which yields a refreshing shade, higldy prized nuts, and fuel and timber of con- siderable value. So too with tlio shell of shaghaTh hicTvory, whose fruit is much valued, and whoso timber makes the best of fuel, and is much used for meclianical purposes. The lohlte ash, though having a more slender and stifler top than any of the pre- ceding trees, is light and graceful, good for fuel, and its timber unequalled in value for the carriage maker. The black and white oak, in soil adapted to them are trees of commanding beauty and stalwart growth, and valuable for fuel and timber. " Their foliage appears hi .•, but is unsurpassed for depth and richness of color, and highly polished surface, and retains its summer green long after the early frosts have mottled the ash and steaked the maple with their rainbow hues." (8) Wood Lands may seem to be a needless care for the farmer who is felling the forest ; but already, in many parts of the country, wood lands have be- come extremely scarce and highly valuable ; and many a farmer who has been puodigal of his best timbered land while clearing his farm, would now gladly, were it possible, repeople many of his fields with the >aks, and maples, and beeches, and hick- ories, and pines, which were once his dread. In the clearing of a new farm, therefore, as well as in the culture of an old one, the farmer should be care- ful to reserve, or conserve, as much wood land as may be to him and his successors a source of supply and profit. In clearing lands, when it is desirable to reserve suflicient trees for a park or shade, a selection should be made of such as are young and II ■■ (i f \f. 168 PREPAKATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. healthy J which have grown in the most open places, with a short stem and thick top. Tlieir continued and vigorous growth will be ])romoted by shorten- ings their tops and leading branches. Large trees will seldom thrive after the removal of the shade and moisture by which they have been surrounded. They will generally remain stationary or soon decay, or will not unfrequently be blown down bv violent winds on account of the slight foothold they have upon the earth by their roots, though it was suffi- cient for their protected situations when surrounded by other trees. (9) The Proper Care of Stock is vital to the success and interests of the farmer. The stock of the farm consists of horned cattle, horses, sheep, swine, and poultry ; but of the purposes and uses of each of these, and of tlieir various kinds, and of the peculiarities and merits of each kind, I cannot here speak. I confine myself to the following remarks and suggestions : {a) Only good stock should be kept on the farm, as it costs no more to keep a good animal than an inferior one. (J) Success in raising Stock depends greatly on its management when young. If it be not then well fed and cared for, tiie grown animal well be of poor quality, whatever may be its breed. Though ail animals require nutriment in some proportion to their live weight, young animals — like youth of the human race — require not only food to supply the daily waste of the system, but also for the additional demand of nutriment arising from continued in- crease in size and weight. Hence young animals should have better shelter and more generous feed than they commonly have. (c) The natural heat of the animal system is kept up by food. When animals are exposed uu- 1^: PREPARATORY KNOWT.EPOE APPLIED. IfiO on then )e ot* )ugh )n to If the the ional in- [mals feed 18 im- eheltered to the cold of winter, the greater part ot tlie food they eat is required to keep them warm, instead of affording them nourishment. Hence they become poor, even when well fed. The less, there- fore, cattle are exposed to the cold of winter, the better, as they eat less and thrive more. Cows give more millc, as well as keep ir better condition on less food, when housed all tlie time during cold weather. In stormy weather, it is recommended as good economy to water them in their stalls, ratlier than to turn them out to seek water in the yard, or at some neighbouring brook. In the care of cattle, regularity in the times and system of feeding, milk- ing, and cleansint; the stables, should be strictly adhered to. {d) Well lighted barns and stables do much for the general health and vigour of the animal system, and a full supply of pure fresh air is as essential as food. Especially is this the case for horses. But animals should not be exposed to currents of air, any more than human beings. The temperature of stables should be moderate — neither very warm nor very cold. Great warmth in a stable, as in a dwell- ing house, is unhealthy, and too great a degree of cold makes a larger quantity of food necessary to keep up the natural animal heat. (e) Humanity dictates kindness to all animals, and prudence suggests it as the most likely means to overcome viciousness, especially in the horse, which is very sensitive, but if always handled gently, can be more easily managed, and be much more useful. {f) In the keeping of sheep, one of the most im- portant matters to be attended to is their shelter in winter, as they require less food and do better when well protected than when exposed. Good ventila- tion is also important to prevent disease and pro- mote thrift, and hence it is best to give them sheds open to the south. UO rur-'rAUATouv rvNoWT.Kixui; ArPMnii). »^ilV»'ViM\oi< in \\w \'oM \\\u 111 \\\f wcnlhov, fov shoop, [\\ t1».' nillilt'V cllinnd' nl' I'ltifiliiinl : ' I'wciil y >voisn\(« wore Ki'|>( nndiT u i'ninri>»liiMii «I»imJ, TIh'V xvi> i' IimI iililtp fx>»' n\o tlwoo winter nnMUh-^i onoh l\nvinu' tMn> linH pnnn'l ol llii«i'i'il OrtKo. ontO»i\lt' pint ol" 1m\(1i>\ , nnil t\ liilli' lin\ nitil -^imIi pi'r iliM', ninl i\« n)rtn\ (ni-niji^ iw \\\o\ wov.M vM, I'hi' •:i\i'i-|i in lln' lii'lil nlo nil t'w Im\vV>\ rtn.j oil \\A\\ i\nA »ho\\\ nin<'li'on pinintl^ nl' Ini'nip'j imii'Ii xov •Irtv, IV- lonji !<■» tho (rial ln'-d'il, i\nil iiuMiMi'-iMl in nil Ovo Imn K tn'ii('V (l s1\im| con'mniiMl nl llr^l fis n\noh f.^^.l ni tntM^ih.'V; Intt ttOiM' ibollilnl wim'K llicy ''lU'li iilt> tnd ptnutil'* lo«M ol (\unip'' pov diiv. nnil in llic ninlh WfcK two ^xonntl"* lo(«> rtii'rtin, <>v onl\ (iOcon ponnil" per ilny. "I' Mm lin^opil Ortko \]\o\ ;>l-o rt(o i\U'>\(( on<'tl\iV(l lo^i (I\nn tin* oilnM' 1n(. fiml \i'\. \niMV;«soi^ in \voiij,l\l ^ovoii l>nn(lvo\l i\nil nii\i'ly pininilp, tn- two i\nu «hv\i rtnil !«o\ ont V oijiht jvninds n» nihcrs.") {if) 1\mi1j\'v in;\v ho ]M'olilMMv Kopl lo m limihMl o\lu^i(^ il' jinlii'ioui^lv nmu towl^ \\\i\\ nil iorfionul»lv jU'olilMhlo, 1\AV0 ji^^nornlly laiKnl. 'I\> ho ol' miiv prolil in win tor, towls roqtn'ro Muimal loo*!, whioh ihov ohliiin nlMin«i;u\lly in smnuior in tho lorm of insotMn nml worms, ir oloi^olv oonfiiiiMl, thov niii^l also lu> mip l^lio^l with nunont^s w I a ii'ravoi and ^^Mnd. {h\ .!<\'?ov)'/<- <7«N\)?/??/.v, in ch^lail, nn* ossonliiil io com _ ocMint Km snooo: j^j4 in tarniina'. Withonl unoh iw. tho tarn\or oaniuM know jnst wIum'o lio HlandM, or in w)\;U part ot' his oiiltnro ho ii^ n\!ikii\i»; or loHing iiu^nov A soparato ao<'onnt shoihl ho k«^pt ot'oiu'li kind ot\iirain anvl voiivtahlo^j, oaoli kin«l ot' stock, ami ot' hon>oliohi annnt of oach liold, ohareinu; it with tlio time, lahvHir, mannro and ^CcHi oxpondod uj^on it. and oroditing it with tho ci\>pji prodncwk Tho hah\iuv will show at tho ond if oacli voar t]\o train or loss tor tho season. Thirt liabit of keeping: aeoounts ot- all ontlays and reeeii)ts in each depart meut, tends to promote system and r "iTid i y tipiiniiTril'w m i n iiiiii j i m ihhhu mi I'UMf'AlfAToRV imowr,Ti'f»nF'', Al'Pf,firf». lYl oi'ilcM' in lliP wliuln fiilliirn of (lin \'m'U\. Tlio liMlo liiih' nwniirnl (m I<»m>ji iIkw fH'CMiinlH vvill Im» n pro- niiiltlc Mini iiImkihI. (Idilv rcvinw of'jMicli liH, fuid tli« ponliii^r (tl* iImmii, will iillurd iiBpriil vu\[i\(tyuwul Wnin JiiiH* lo lime ill riiiiiv wnnllini*. irfcn^«M«iliim i „MiAhM„ Jl. ■ M-i. LKHHON XXXVII. »^ CO Nil Ml' Ml' T M m M I'nrm ; lor if llioru IM Hit lliril'ly miil jiidi«'ioiiH irinriMgf'inr'iit, of iimllrrB williiii llio lioiiBd, if, will Hvuil littln for lli(^ niKMM'KH Mild jM'olil. ol' aliv rfiririiii^r i'\\U\r\n-vm fo build miihdth' l)/inm Miid hImkIr, ri-IocI, ^oofl cow,-^ uu(\ i'l(K'l< Mild jiroporly I'immI t,li(>m, or ciiltivMlo t.lio I'Mriri willi jiid;j;iii('iii Mild iiidiiHtry, 'I'liii I'MriiKir'H wilV; Is nol, l(>MH oMHtMitiiil to hiicci'hhI'iiI liii'iriinir tlnui linic Inm- l»Mtid. Mow iiiiM'li Ik 1(» Imi Mavdd nfid inudo l>y t.) 10 troiMM' cjin^ ol nil ll<, ('icMtiiiiicwK MiKi Hkiii III niMkiriir i<: >iiH(M' Mild <'Imm>ho, oven in cooking diU'cront. kindtt H m»*iil. MH we jiK in Mm n!|»nnitiofi m\< ':HiM)l'llm VfirioiiH |)i'odiu't.i<»nH(jl flic ^Jirdon and tlj(; iarm, and llu^ giMiural <»rdcr and n(!atn<3HB of tlio luniHcliold ! 2. U. would 0X(',(H3d ill(5 BCOpo of tllCHO FivHt f.rsHonH in Af/ricnUifrc, to anU't' into tlif; ifiiiiutf; dotailH of ]ioufi(!lio1d c(;onoiny ; my oMjoct in to irn- prcBH upon tlui partirH conccrncid, tlio importance of economy in tlim whole- )»roccdiin;. Ah one man will frain, the attention and skill of tlie farmer's wife are to the best use and highest value of most of those produc- tions. Carelessness, and waste, and incompetency in the houseliold — the attention diverted there from domestic duties by gossipping, novel reading, fashion, &c. — will paralyze the wisest exertions of out-door industry, and dry up the springs of domestic pros- perity and hap])iness. 3. As it is as cheap to keep good cattle as poor ones ; so it is as easy to make good butter and cheese as poor ; to make good bread as bad bread :, to cook potatoes, peas, beans, asparagus, &c., well as badly. The butter and cheese made by one farmer's wife, will often sell for much more than the butter and cheese made by another farmer's wife ; and there is as great an inequality in the value and economical preparations and use of all the other articles of sale and consumption. And much of the bad healtli and disease in families, is attributable to bad bread and bad cookery. For example, how different is sweet and clean butter from rancid and dirty butter ; ^ PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 173 0\1S, the tlily ;liest omy iably ' and " the arise h-aws ;9 the &, the tually y *'^^'' en t ion m, the to the rodnc- etency e from iBhion, it-door c pros- is poor cheese lo cook [badly. Is wife, ]er and Ihere is lomical 1 of sale 1 health bread :cnt is )utter ; and the same remark applies to cheese! How dif- ferent liible — in large dairies every day, in smaller ones less frequently. After the milk has stood from eiiiihtcen to twenty-four hours in a favorable place, and in suitable pans (tin pans are said to be the best upon the whole), the cream may be removed and ])hu'ed in stone jars, to be kept until the churnin T 180 PREPABATOltY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. dnirninf? 'may be commenced with the cream at fifty-six degrees, and tlie temperature will . IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I m iiiy S ilM '•' illM |il.4 M 2.2 M 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 < 6" - ► V2 ^ /a VI ■^ ^^^: O A ^^/' / / / /A Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) 872-4503 A .^° ^, % ^J. c ^ 6^ %* A 182 PREPAKATOKY KNOWLEIX iJ APPLIED. separation of tlie wliey fiicilitated. Stroiii:^ and good rennet will curd the milk in about luilf-an-liour. It is then allowed to stand from half-an-hour to an hour, when it is cut across in different directions, to allow the whey to work out more freely. 4. Great care is required in the proper prepara- tion of the rennet; and indeed every process in cheese-making calls for the exercise of much judg- ment and experience. It is said tliat many tail in consequence of hurry in the pressing of cheese, which is better if allowed to stand more than one day in the press. The Practice and PiiiLosopnY of Breadmaking. 1. A most, if not the most important branch of domestic economy is that which relates to the great staples of human food, especially the articles em- ployed in making bread. A large part of the ill-health and unhappiness of families arises from bad and defective cooking. The really good and healthy bread commonly used bears no large proportion to that of decidedly poor quality. Much may be, and is doubtless owing to the flour which the housekeeper is obliged to use, but much more is undoubtedly owing to the bad process of making it into bread. 2. Ever}^ hundred pounds of wheat contain from fifty-five to sixty-eight pounds of starch, from ten to twenty pounds of gluten, and from one to five pounds of fatty matter. The relative quantities of these substances vary considerably in different climates and soils. Gluten, as well as starch, exists in most plants, though the proportion in some is far greater than in others. Gluten in plants is nearly identical with fibrin^ or the muscle-forming constituent of meat. Gluten and starch of wheat flour may be easil^'^ separated. The gluten may be washed out of the dough by plajing it upon a sieve or a porous cloth tied over a deep dish, and pouring on water PliEl'ARATOKY K:;o\VLEDGE APPLIED. 183 a^ long as it continues to run tlirongli of a milky colour, and until it runs clear. Tlie starcli is carried through the sieve or cloth with the \\^ter, and the gluten is left on the sieve or cloth. The starch will soon settle to the bottom of the dish. 3. On mixing water enough to moisten the whole mass of flour, the particles stick to each other and from a smooth elastic dough, M''hich consists, not only of starch, but of gluten, so called from its sticky or glutinous character. If we add a little yeast to the Hour while mixing with water to form dough, and let it stand some hours in a moderately warm place, the dough begins to ferment and rise, increas- ing considerably in bulk. In rising, little bubbles of carbonic acid gas are set free throughout the mass of dough ; and this it is which makes bread porous and light, by the stretching or expansion of the tenacous gluten. Put the dough in a hot oven, and the fermentation and rising are at first hastened by the increased heat, but when the whole is heated to the point of boiling water, the process of rising is suddenly stopped, and the mass is fixed at this point by the baking. The reason why the rising is so suddenly checked in the oven, is that the yeast added to the dough is in reality a living plants which grows and increases with great activity when it comes in contact with the moisture of the dough, producins: fermentation or rising. During the pro- cess a part of the starch in the nour is changed into sugar, and this sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. This gas cannot escape from the dough, since the elastic gluten expands, but it remains in the shape of bubbles. At last the heat becomes great enough to destroy the yeast plant, and the process of rising ceases. The alcohol mostly escapes in baking. 4. Newly baked bread is spongy, full of little cavities, made by the gas bubbles during the rising. 'J P !-^ 184 PEEPAEATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. It is then soft and agreeable. But in the course of a day or two the pecuh'ar softness disappears, and this bread seems to be drier, and crumbles readily. This apparent dryness is not, however, caused by a loss of water. Stale bread contains very nearly the same amount of water as that newly baked. Both contain, on an average, from thirty-five to forty-five pounds of water in every hundred pounds of bread. Stale bread, though not generally so agreeable to the taste, is considered more wholesome than new. 5. Flour in its natural state contains from twelve to sixteen per cent, of water ; but it will, in addi- tion, take up about half its own weight of water ; so that a hundred pounds of good flour make about a hundred and fifty pounds of bread. 6. It is a fact demonstrated by analysis and experi- ment, that the bran whioh is so carefully sifted out of the flour, is rather more nutritious than the fine flour itself. The oily parts of the grain are mostly on the surface ; and the grinding of the wheat does not wholly crush the outside covering of the grain, which is narder than the rest. This is usually sifted out from the finer portions in the form of shorts and bran. The less finely bolted flour is undoubtedly more nutritious and wholesome than the finest and whitest samples of the flour itself. 7. Rye flour has nearly the same nutritive value as wheat flour, though unlike it in several respects. Its colour is not white, but greyish-brown ; the bread from it is not so porous as that made from wheat flour, nor the dough so tough. Its starch caimot be washed out like that of wheat flour. Rye bread may be kept fresh and moist much longer than wheat bread. Barley contains about the same pro- portions of nutritive matter. 8. The general principles of bread-making apply to all kinds of flour or meal ; but Indian meal, PREPAlUTOliY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 185 though in composition and nutritive properties not differing miicli from wheat flour, does not make equally spongy bread. Properties and Cooking of Meat. Beef as an example. — 1. Fresh lean beef contains about seventy-eight per cent, of water, including the blood. Wheat flour bread, as stated above, contains only forty-five per cent, of water. But the gluten of wheat has its corresponding element in beef in the Jihren^ of which beef contains nineteen per cent., while wheat flour bread has only sixteen per cent, of gluten. Again, beef contains more or less fat — generally over three per cent, in even lean beef, while tliere is but one per cent, of fat in flour. Th6 chief difference, then, 13 in the starchy which is not found in beef, while in bread it forms more than forty-eight per cent., or about one half of the whole. The fibrin may be ascertained by taking a thin piece of lean beef, and washing it in clean water until its colour is entirely lost, the blood being washed out and only a white mass of fibres being left, which constitutes the muscle of the living animal. This is called fibrin, and takes its name from its fibrous nature. It contains in mixture part of the fat of the animal, and with it constitutes the main substance of the meat. Meat is therefore composed of w^ater, coloured by blood, fibrin and fat. In highly fed animals, the fat is often collected by itself in various parts of the body, as in the suet and around the bones, or is deposited in large masses under the skin, as in fat mutton and pork, instead of being evenly distributed through the fibrous mass of muscular tissue, so as to produce, in the case of beef, what is called well marbled beef. (What is said of beef applies to other kinds of meat, with certain variations.) ' I I into hoi linjjf water at tirst. Tiio true Irish method of l)oilinii; potatoes is as follows; " Cleanly wash the potatoes, and leave the skins on ; then brint^ the water to a boil and throw them in. ^^H soon as l)oiled soft enonjijh for ft fork to be easily thrust throni;h them, tlash some cold water into the pot, let tlie potatoes remain two minutes, and then pour off the water. This done, half remove the pot-lid, and let the potatoes remain over a s ow fiie till the steam is evaporated ; then set them (j)eeled or not) on the tal)lo in an opfM dish. Potatoes of a good kind thus cooked, will always be sweet, dry and mealy. A covered dish is bad for potatoes, as it keeps the steam in, and makes them soft and watery.") The Manufacture and use of Soap form an important part of domestic economy. When oily or fatty substances come in contact witb an alkali in solution at an elevated temperature, they undergo an entire change; and on this change the wbole process of soap-making depends. 2. The soap usually made in tbe farm-bouse is tbat known as softi^oap, aTid is formed by the union of potash witb more or less fatty matter. Hard soaps are made by the use of soda^ witb wbicb potasli is sometimes mixed. Potash "svill not harden when water is present, as it always is in considerable quantities in soft soap. But soap made witb soda will absorb more than its own weigbt of water with- out losing its hardness. 3. In nicvking Castile sonp, olive oil and soda are used, and its ])eculiar n.arbled a]>pearance is produced by tbe mixture of iron met, which, of 7 ■ = 18S PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. course, does not improve the quality of the soap, liosin is often added in tlie manufacture of common or yellow soaps. Tliouojh rosin soaps form a lather readily, and are thus thought by many to be very effective, their cleansing properties are inferior to the soda soaps, and they are less economical. 4. The cleansing properties of soap depend mainly on its alkaline ingredients. When brought into contact with impurities of clothing, or of the skin, which are made up of a greater or less quantity of oily matter derived from the exhalations of the body, together with dust and other foreign substances, tne alkali of the soap readily seizes hold of the oily matters and dissolves or removes them. But if water is used without soap, it often fails to cleanse thoroughly, as it has no affinity for oily substances, and therefore leaves them, and whatever adheres to them, in the cloth or on the skin. An alkali might be used alone, but it would be so powerful as to injure or destroy whatever it came in contact with. Washing fluids are simple solutions of caustic alkali. LESSON XXXVIII. MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS, RESPECTING WATER, PLANTS, BIRDS, ANIMALS, MAN; Compiled chiefly from a book of general Science, entitled " The Reason Why," but derived in part from Paley's Natural Theology. 247. Why does water ^ in freezing., expand? — Because, when water freezes, its particles become arranged in crystalline forms. These crystals cross and intersect each other, and cause numerous inter- stices. Therefore, though the water, in becoming ice, parts witli much of its caloric, the arrangement of its atoms into crystals causes it to become of greater bulk. It also contains numerous bubbles. PREPARATORY KNOWLKDOE APPLIED. 189 2 tS. Why does ire float upon water ? — Bcranso, as it expands in freezing, it becomes specifically lighter than water. 249. Why does the surface of the water heing frozen prevent the frost extending to the depths of the water? — Because ice, like snow, is a bad con- ductor of heat; the covering oi coating of ice, therefore, tends to keep the subjacent water warm. 250. Is ice the only instance of water existing in a state of solidity f — Mo ; water becomes still more solid in combination with lime and other earths ; and the reason is, that it parts witli more of its caloric than in the process of freezing, and is therefore further removed from its natural state of fluidity. 251. Why does frost henefit falloio soils ? — Because it expands the clods, and causes them to break and crumble into fine dust, exposing their matter to the air, enriching them by the absorption of gaseous matters. 252. Why are clayey soils unfavourable to vegeta- tion f — Because the soil is too close and adhesive to allow of the free passage of air or water to the roots of plants ; it also obstructs the expansion of the fibres of the roots. 253. Why are sandy soils unfavourable to vegeta- tion f — Because they consist of particles that have too little adhesion to each other ; they do not retain sufficient moisture for the nourishment of the plants, and they allow too much solar heat to pass to the roots. 254. WT}y are chalk soils unfavourable to vegeta- tion f — Because they do not absorb the solar rays, and are therefore cold to the roots of plants. 255. Why are mixed soils favourable to vegeta- tion? — Because they contain the elenients of nutri- II t M ?! i I I 190 PUKI'ARATORY KNOWf.EDGE APPIJKD. tlon essential to tlie (lovelopiuoiit of tlic ve^xotahles, and tlie plants ab:H)rb IVoni tlunn those constituents which are necessary to their tjrowth. (NoTK. — Soe the RiiUjocts of those qtiosttons oxphiincd nintv fully in Lcsrtoiia 17 niid 18, on tlie " ('oinpiisilion of Soils and I'hmlH, and their lielations to eaelj other," and " iSuils ad.ijiled to didVreiit kinds of Grain and Vej^etabU's.") 25G. What is the dlfcrencc hetween an animal,, a jylant,, and a mineral f — A?u'mals grow, live, feel and move ; plants i»;ro\v and live ; minerals do not live, and tliey grow merely by addition of particles of inoru-anic matter. 257. Why do some plants droop and turn to the earth after sunset? — Ik'caiise, wlien the warmth of the sun's rays is withdrawn, they turn downwards, and receive loarmth from the earth by radiation. 258. IfV^.y does the young ear of corn or loheat first appear enfolded in two or inore green leaves f — Because the light and the air would act too poioer^ fully for the young ear ', two or more leaves there- fore join and embrace the ear, and protect it until it has acquired strength, when they divide, and leave the ear to swell and ripen. 259. Why do the ears of loheat stand up hy day^ and turn doimi hy night f — Because, when the ear is becoming ripe, the cold dew, falling into tlie ear, might induce blight ^ the ears therefore turn down to the earth at night, and receive warmth by radia- tion. 200. Why does the pea put forth tendrils, and the bean not f — Because the bean has in its stalk svffi- cient woody fibre to support itself but the pea has not. We do not know a single tree or shrub, having a Urm, strong stem, sufficient for its support, which is also supplied with tendrils. 2f)l. Why have climhing plants tough, spiral ten- drils ? — Because, having no woody isUdks of their IMlKrARATORY KNOWLEDGE. Am.lKD 191 5 J ] own to support tlicm, tlicy require to take hold of surrouuding oly'eets, and raise themselves from the ground by climhiuii^. Their R]>iral tendrils arc, therefore, so numy hands, assisting them to rise from the earth. 202. ^Vhy have graf^ses^ com, straw, cC'C, joints or knots in their stalks f — Beeause a long, hollow Btem would be liable to bend and break. But the joints are so many points where the fibres are bound together, and the structure is thereby greatly strengthened. 203. Why do ripe fruits taste sweet, and imripo fruits taste soicer .^— JBecause the juices of the ripo fruit contain a large proportion of sugar, which in the unripe fruit has not been formed. 204. Why have trees with large trunks a great number of leafy branches f — Because it is by the leaves that the secretion is formed which supplies the woody fibre. The number of leaves on a tree, therefore, generally bears a relation to the size of its trunk, tlie denseness of its wood, and the number of its branches. Oak trees have an abundance of leaves, because their wood is so dense that they require a larger amount of wood-forming secretion, which is supplied by the leaves. The mammoth- tree {Wellingtonea gigantes) has few leaves in com- parison to the immense size of its trunk ; but the woody texture of this tree is exceedingly light and porous — lighter than cork — and therefore requires less leaf-produce in its formation. 205. Why are the leaves of plants green f — Be- cause they secrete a carbonaceous matter, named Chlorophyll from which they derive their green colour. 2GG. Why do leaves turn brown in autumn f — Because, when their vital power declines, the oxygen r.)2 riiKl'AUATOKY KNOWLEDGK Al'l'LIKD. al)3orl)0(l in tlio carbonic acid, lodges in the leaf, iin[)arting to it a red or brown colour. 207. Why do some leaves turn yellow? — Because they retain an excess of nitrogen. Leaves under- going decay turn either yellow, red, crimson or violet. Yellow is due to the excess of nitrogen; rod and crimson to various portions of oxygen; violet to a mixture of carbon j and green to chloro- 2>hyl. 2G8. Why do leaves fall off in autumn ? — Because they have supplied for a season the natural wants of the tree. Every part has received nutrition through the spring and summer months; and the wants of the tree being supplied, the chief use of the leaf ceases, and it falls to the ground to decay, and enrich the soil. 2G9. Why are grasses and vegetahle productioiis 80 widely diffused throughout nature ? — Because they everywhere form the food of a very large portion of the animal kingdom. Without them, neither man nor beast could exist. Even the flesh- eating animals are sustained by them, since they live by preying npon the bodies of vegetable-eaters. They also enrich and beautify the earth. They present the most charming diversities of proportion and features, from the creeping ivy to the majestic oak ; they spread a carpet over the surface of the earth, and afford fragrant and refreshing shade; they supply our dwellings with furniture of every kind, from the plain deal table to the handsome cabinet of satin or rosewood ; they furnish rich perfumes to the toilette, and various fruits and beverages to the dessert ; they charm the eye of childliood and age in the daisied field ; they adorn the brow of the bride ; they are laid in the coffin of the dead ; and, as the cypress or the willow bend •' ' I'RKPARATORV KNOWLEDGL APPLIED. i'ja over our graves, tliey bcooinc tlio emblems of onr jrrlef. (N'oTK.— See Lesson 16, " On the Strudure of Pltinls nnd the OlHcett of their Oryaim," 270. Why do fishes finnt in strcmriH {irhcn thnj are not swhn?nf7uj) with their hcat/.s toira/w/s the stream? — Because tliey breathe ])y the transmission of water over the surface of tlie ^iils, the water entering in at tlie tnouth and passing over the gills behind. When, therefore, they lie motionless with their heads to the stream, U"\v are in thdt position which naturally assists their I. athiug process. 271. Why have fishes no eye-lids f — T^ecause the water in which tliey swi kec|>s thur eyes moist. Eye-lids would therefore be us( j^s to them. 272. Wliy are the tails of fishes so much larger than their fills? — Because their tails are their cliief instruments of motion, while tlieir tins a^*'^ employed simply to direct their progress, and steady th.jir movements. 273. Why are hi?rls covered with feathers ? — Be- cause they require a high degree of warmth on account of the activity of their muscles; but in providing that warmth, it was necessary that their coats should be of the lightest material^ so as not to impair their powers of flight ; and feathers combine the highest warmth-conserving power with the least amount of weight. 274. Wky have water-hirds feathers of a close and smooth texture? — Becaut^e such leathers keep the body warm and dry, by repelling the water Irom their surface. 275 Why does a hlack down grow under the fea- thers of hirds as win-ter apjjroaches ? — Because the down is a non-conductor of heat, and black is the warmest colour. It is therefore best adapted to lU I»1«EPARAT0RY KNOWLEDGE APl'LIED. 7i'''c>j> hi their bodily wanntli diirino; tlio cold of winter. 270. Why ha ve hlrda glzzanh ? — Because, liaviiif]; no teeth, the tough and HbrouB gizzards are cuiployed to grind the food preparatory to digestion. 277. Why are ,s7naU particle.'^ of sand., stonf., tCv., found in the (jhzards of hirda? — Because, l>y the presence of those rough particles, whi(*h become embedded in the substance of the gizzard, the food of the bird is more elfectually ground. 27b. ^Vhy have biros of puky no gizzardsl — Because their food does not reipdre to he (jround prior to digestion, as does the food of graiu and seed-eating birds. 270. ^Vhy do icoodpecliers tap or peel' at old trees? — Because, by boring through the decayed wood, with the sluirp and liard bills with whicli they are }>rovided, they get at the haunts of the insects upon which the}' feed. 280. Why are woodpecl'ers'' tongues alout three times longer tha?i their hills? — Because, if their bills were long, they would not bore the trees so eihciently; and when the trees are bored, and the alarmed insects endeavour to retreat into the hol- lows of the wood, the long thin tongue of the wood- ])ecker transtixes them on its sharp, thorny point, and draws them into the mouth of the bird. 281. Why are the hones of hirds holloio ? — Be- cause they are thereby rendered lighter., and do not interfere with the flight of the bird, as they would do if they were solid. Greater strength is also obtained by the cylindrical form of the bone, and a larger surface afforded for the attachment of power- ful muscles. 282. Why., if hirds of passage arrive early on their way to the North^ viay ^severe weather he ex- 1 rREPAKATOKY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 195 pectedf — P>ocansc it sliows tlitit tlio iiulicMtlons of nni'avoiiniMo weatliei" Ikvvo set in in the latitndea from which tlio birds come, and that .they iiuve taken early flight to escape it. 283. Why have bats hooked clatvs in their wings ? — l>ecaiise l»ats are ahnost destitnte of Ic'ijs .and feet ; nt h\a3t those organs are included in tiieir wings. If they alight upon tiie ground, they havovgreat dilK- ciilty in again taking to the wing, as they cannot run or s})ring to bring their wings into action uj)on the air. At the angle of each wing there is placed, therefore, a bony hook, by which the bat attaclies itself to the sides of rocks, caves and buildings, laying hold of crevices, joinings, chinks, etc. ; and when it takes its flight, it unhooks itself, and its wings are at once set free to strike the air. 284. Why does the hat fly hy night ? — Because it lives upon moths, which are night-flying insects. 285. Why does the bat sleep during the winter f — Because, as the winter approaches, the moths and flying insects upon which it feeds disappear. If, therefore, it should not sleep during the winter, it would starve. 280. Why has the spider the power of spinning a web ? — Because, as it lives upon flies, but is deflcient in the power of flying in pursuit of them, it has been endowed with an instinct to entrap them, and with the most wonderful machinery to give that instinct eflect. 287. Why do oxen^ sheep, deer, ^c, ruminate, or chew the cud? — Because they have no front teeth in the upper jaw, the place of which is occupied by a hardened gum. The first ]>rocess, therefore, con- sists simply in crojpplng their ibod, which is passed inro the paunch, to be brought up again and ground by the back teeth, when the cropping process is over. \\ . \ 1 • \ 1 ' 1 X § 1 196 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. Another reason is, that in a wild state, they are constantly exposed to the attacks of carniverons beasts ; and as the mastication of the large amount of vegetable food required for their sustenance would take much time, they are provided with stomachs by which they are enabled to till their paunches quickly, and tiien retiring to a place of safety, they bring thei^food up again, and chew it at leisure, in which they seem to have enjoyment; and it is then, perhaps, they best relish their food. 288. Why can ruminating animals recover the food from their paunches f — Because they have a voluntary power over the muscles of the throat, by which they can bring up the food at will. 289. Why can they keep the unchewed food in the paunch from the ^' cud" they have chewed for nour- ishment f — Because their stomaciis are divided into three chambers : 1, the jK'<2'?mc/i, where the unchewed food is stored ; 2, the reticulum^ where portions of the food are received from the paunch and moistened and rolled into a cud, to be sent up and chewed ; and, 3, the psalterium^ which receives the masti- cated food, and continues the process of digestion. 290. Why do quadrupeds that are vegetable-eaters feed so continually f — Because their food contains but a small proportion of nutrition ; so that it is necessary to digest a large quantity in order to obtain sufficient nourishment. 291. Why do flesh-eating animals satisfy them- selves with a rapid meal? — Because the food they eat is rich in nutritious matter, and more readily digestible than vegetable food ; it does not, there- fore, require the same amount of grinding with the teeth. 292. Why^ if cattle run around, in the field or yardf may thunder be expected ? — Because the elec- PEEPABATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 197 trical state of the atmosphere has the effect of makinn^ them feel uneasy and irritable, and tiiey chase each other about to get rid of tiie irritability. (Note. — It sometimes hnppens that rational animals are moro than usually irritable in such a disturbed state of the atoiosphere. It is for the same reason that people feel their corns and decayed teeth ache, and their bones rheumatic, before a storm.) 293. Why has the horse a smaller stomach, pro- portionatehj, than other animals f — Because the liorse was created for speed. Had he the ruminating stomach of the ox, he would be quite uniitted for 4ihe work which he now so admirably performs. 294. Why is the lachrymal secretion of the horse's eye thick and glutinous, and not watery ? — Because, as his eye is large, and constantly exposed to dust on journeys, it is provided with a viscid secretion, which cleanses the eye, and more instantly and securely removes the dust, than a watery secretion would. 295. Why do the furs of animals hecome thicker in the winter than in the summer ? — Because the Creator has thus provided for the preservation of the warmth of animals during the cold mouths of winter. 296.- Why is man hr/m without a coverina f — Be- cause man is the only animal that can clothe itself. As in the various pursuits of life he wanders to every part of the globe, he can adapt himself to all climates and to any season. 297. Why are the eyes provided with eye-lids f — Because the eyes require to be defended from float- ing particles in the air, and to be kept moist and clean. The eye-lids form the shutters of the eye, defending it when waking by closing upon its sur- face whenever danger is apprehended, moistening its surface when it becomes dry, and coverins: it securely during the hours of sleep. covering i \ .i 198 PREPARATORY KNOWI.EDOE APPLIED. 298. Why are the eye-lids fringed vnth the eye- lashes? — Because the eye-lashes assist to modify the light, and to protect the eye, without actually clos- ing the eye-lids. When the eye-lids a^'e partially closed, as in very sunny or dusty weather, the eye- lashes cross each other, forming a kind of shady lattice-work ; from the interspaces of which the eye looks out with advantage, and sees sutticiently for the guidance of the body. 299. WJiy are we abU to see at long or short dis- tances? — Because the crystalline lens of the eye is^ a movable body, and is pushed forward or drawn back, by fine muscular fibres, according to the distances of the object iij)on which we look. By these means \\& focus becomes adjusted. 300. Why do we winh ? — Because by the repeated action of winking, the eye is kept moist and clean ; and the watery fluid secreted by little glands in the eye-lids, and at the side§ of the eye, is spread equally over the surface, instead of being allowed to accum- ulate. But the action of winking, or brightening the eye, is so instantaneous that it does not impede the sight. 80 J. Why do loe perspire ? — Because the skin is filled with very minute pores, which act as outlets for a portion of the water of the blood, that serves to moisten and cool the surface of the body, and to carry away some of the matter no longer needed in the system. 302. Why does a sudden change from heat to cold bring on illness ? — Because the effect of cold arrests the action of the vessels of the skin, and suddenly throws upon the internal organs the excretory labour which the skin should have sustained. 303. Why does a chill upon the shin frequently produce inflammation of the lungs ? — Because the ~ ■ ' , i PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 199 lungs and the skin togetlier discharge the chief pro- portions of the watery fluid of the body. When the skin's action is checked, the lungs have to throw oli" a much greater amount of fluid. The lungs, therefore, become over-worked, and inflammatory action sets in. 304. Why does dea7iliness promoti health? — Be- cause every atom of dirt which lodges upon the surface of the body serves to clog and check the working of those minute pores by whicl.i much of the fluid of the body is changed and purified. In the internal parts of the system, the Creator has made ample provision for cleanliness. Every organ is so constituted that it cleanses and lubricates itself. Every surface of the inner body is perfectly clean, and is as soft as silk. Nature leaves to man tlie care of those surfaces which are under his immediate observation and control ; and he who, from idle- ness, or disregard of nature's laws, is guilty of per- sonal neglect, opposes the evident intentions of the Creator, and must sooner or later pay the penalty of disobedience. A dirty person cannot Ue a good Christian, apart from consideration of comfort and decency. 305. Why does exercise promote health ? — Because it assists all the functions on which life depends. It quickens the circulation, and thereby nourishes every part of the body, causing the bones to become firm, and the muscles to become full and healthy. It promotes breathing, by which oxygen is taken into the system, and carbon thrown otf, and thereby it produces a higher degree of organic life and strength than would otherwise exist. It promotes perspiration, by which, through the millions of pores of the skin, much of the fluid of the body is changed and purified ; and it induces a genial and diflfused warmth, which is one of the chief conditions of a high degree of vitality. s \ 200 PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 1 (Notes. — 1. Questions and explanatory answers similar to the above and on the same and kindred subjects, might be multiplied to any extent; but I have selected and compiled these few as specimens, with a view of giving my young readers information on some objects and facts of everydays's observation and experience, and of suggesting to them how vast and varied a field of delightful and useful instruction is opened to tiiem in the different branches of natural history involved in the foregoing questions and answers. 2. But a higher object proposed is, to direct attention to the evidence afforded by the facts thus explained and observed by everybody, of design, and a Designer ; of law", and a Lawgiver ; of order, and a Ruler ; of benevolence, and a Benevolent Being, in what comes under our notice from day to day, as well as in the vast systems and laws of the universe. The student-reader must have been often impressed with this while mastering the lessons in the first part of this book, in considering the elementary sub- stances by which we are surrounded, and their various combina- tions, the diversities of soils and minerals, the structure and growth of plants ; but in the answer to each of the questions of the above lesson respecting water, plants, birds, or animals, there is proof of wonderful design and contrivance, to say nothing of wisdom, power and benevolence. Take tw^ or three examples which have, perhaps, made the least impression while reading the answers to the above questions. Look at the formation of ice, referred to in questions 247-249, and the fact and cause of its floating on the surface of the water, instead of sinking to the bottom. Now, all bodies — liquids as well as solids — expand by heat and contract by cold. Thus when heat is applied to the bottom of a kettle containing water, the particles heated ex- pand, and thus become lighter in proportion to their bulk, and rise to the surface ; giving place to the colder and heavier particles, which being heated in their turn, ascend ; and this process con- tinues until the whole liquid is of equal temperature, and if heated to a certain degree, will expand into steam and boil over. In cool- ing, the opposite process takes place ; and even steam, which is water expanded to 1700 times its own dimensions will, on the application of cold, suddenly contract to its original dimensions ; and the particles of water as they become cooler at the surface, sink to the bottom, and others warmer or of higher temperature, take their place, and this interchaDge goes on till th« irhol* L I PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 9M of the tons, and id jlids bed ex- land |:les, jon- ited lool- is [the |ns; ice, ire, ol« body of the liquid becomes an cool ns the surface. (It is thus the iiroperty of water, as of other liquids, to communicate both heat and cold, not so much by condnction — that is, from particle to particle, as in solid bodies — but by a motion among the particles themselves.) Now, according to this uriiversal law, the particles of water contracting as they cool, and their relative specific gravity thus increasing, would constantly descend, and when the freezing point was reached, they would convert rivers and lakes, and seas and the ocean itself, into one solid mass of ice — the freezing beginning at the bottom and spreading upwards. The deep waters once frozen solid, would become the grave of all their inhabitants, and would be destroyed as a means of commerce, as they could not be thawed to the bottom by any known natural means : the heated particles being highest, would constantly float at the top. and the warmth, as in solids, could only be diffused by the slower process of conduction, which would be insufficient to thaw water of considerable depth in the intervals of cold and winter in our latitude. But (and this is the point to which I wish to direct the reader's attention), mark the wise and bei^eficent provision of the Crkator. in modifying and reversing this universal law in the freezing of water, which is known to take place at 32 degrees above zero. Now, water continues to contract by the application of cold till it approaches within eight degrees of the freezing point ; but hero, without any cause known to man, the law is suddenly modified or reversed ; for when the water is cooled down to 40°, instead of continuing to contract, it suddenly begins to expand, and proceeds to expand, till at 32° it becomes ice; and in the very act of freez- ing a further expansion takes place. Thus by this mysterious and beneficent operation, the specific gravity of ice becomes less than that of water, is prevented from sinking to the bottom, forms a bridge on the surface of the water, keeps the water underneath above the freezing point (for the most part at 40°), rendering it inhabitable to the finny tribes ; and the ice thus formed on the surface of the water is exposed to the first return of a more genial temperature, ready to dissolve with the earliest influences of a warmer sun. In all this the " fool's heart," and his foolish head, may acknow- ledge no God ; but the thoughtful reader cannot fail to perceive " that the marked and salutary deviation, in this case, from the s 202 TREPARJlTORY KNOWLEDGE APrUED. 11 law by which matter is cxpaiulecl by beat mid contracted by cold, is an arrangement of an intelligent and beneficent Crkator." Take two more illustrations of mechanical and creative design ill regard to two insignificant creatures, referred to in questions 279 and 280 — the hook in the wing of a hat, and the tongue of a woodpecker. " In the angle of the bnt's wing," remarks Paloy, in his Natural Theology, " is a bent claw, exactly in the form of a hook, by whicli the bat attachgs itself to the sides of rocks, caves and buildings, laying hold of crevices, joinings, chinks and rough- nesses. It hooks itself by this claw ; remains susi)ended by this hold; takes its flight from tliia position ; which operations compeH- sate for the decrepitude of its legs and feet. Without her hook, the bat would bo the most helpless of all animals. She can neither run upon her feet nor raise herself from the ground. These inabilities are made up to her by the contrivance in her wing ; and in placing a claw on that part, the Creatoh has deviated from the analogy observed in winged animals." " The tongue of the woodpecker,'^ says Paley, " is one of those singularities which nature presents us with when a singular purpose is to be answered. It is a particular instrument for a particular use ; and what except design ever produces such ? The woodpecker lives chiefly upon insects, lodged in the bodies iif decaj'cd or decaying trees. For the purpose of boring into the wood, it is furniahed with a bill, straight, hard, angular and sharp. When, by means of this pieicer, it has reached the cells of the insect, then comes the oflice of its tongue ; which tongue is, first, of such a length that the bird can dart it out three or four inches from the bill — in this respect difiering greatly from every other species of bird ; in the second place, it is tipped with a stifl', sharp, bony thorn ; and, in the third place (which appears to me the most remarkable property of all), this tip is dentated on bot/^ sides, like the beard of an arrow or the barb of a hook. The description of the part declares its uses. The bird having exposed the retreats of the insects by the assistance of its bill, with a motion inconceiv- ably quick, launches out at them this long tongue, transfixes them upon the barbed needle at the end of it, and thus draws its prey within its mouth. This is accomplished by a most curious piece of mechanism, thus : two curved cartilages, nearly as elastic as steel springs, pass from the bone which supports the tongue, to the back of the neck and round the head ; a muscle is attached to the inner PREPARATORY KNOWLEDGE APPLIED. 203 I ^ curvature of each cartilage, and their combined action projects the tongue to a considerable distance. The elasticity of the cartilages retracts the tongue into the mouth. If this be not mechanism, what is?" . I leave the reader to draw the inferences and make the reflections for himself, in regard to the indications of contrivance, wisdom and benevolence sujfgostod by tlie questions and answers of the fore- going lesson relative to various soils and plants, fishes, birds and animals. In contemplating tliese few of the wonderful works of nature, ho can liardly otherwise than feel and say witli the royal author of the 104th Psalm : " Lono, how manifold arc thy works ! in wisdom hast thou made them all : the earth is full of thy riches." That DiviNK Being, by the highest and most affecting considera- tions, claims oar love and service, as well as our homage and worship. i teiv- lem brey leof Iteel lack Iner 1 I INDEX AND EXPLANATION OF TERMS. The figures in the following tnblo refer to tlio jwjfM. Explanation is given of many terms used hut not ilellnccl in the book, and the less common terms arc acci'iitUHtcd, to assist, as may be reiiuircil, in their correct in'ouuneiation. Abdo^mkn, the region of the body containing the stomach, intestinoa, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys and bladder. It is lined by a serous membrane, called the peritone'um. Abnor'mal, (from the Latin ah, from, and norma, a rule) irregular or unusual ; not conformed to rule : applied to deviations from the ordinary development of parts of animals and plants. Absorb, to soak up a liquid, or to take substances frora air or from watery solutions. Ac'iD, what, 26 ; carbonic, 21 ; nitric, 27 ; nitrous, 24 ; phosphoric, 27 ; sulphuric, 27. Ac'iDS, how formed, 27 ; how distinguished, 27, 28. Ac'ttip, bitter, sharp, or pungent taste ; as acrid salts. Affin-'ity, in natural history, the close resemblance of animals and plants in their organization ; in chemistry, the force which combines dissimilar bodies together in precise proportions, 23. Agriculture, 9; its dignity and importance, 9, 10. Albu'men, (from the Latin albis, white) a chemical term, denoting an organic substance which exists nearly pure in the white i>f an egg. Animal and vegetable albumen are of nearly the same composition — the substance surrounding the embryo ia the seed. Al''kali, a term originally applied to the ashes of plants ; the direct opposite of on acid, with which it has a tendency to unite, and of great importance in manufactures, 43-46. Al'kalink, having the properties of an alkali. " earths, 46-48. Allot'', in chemistry, a compound of two or more metals (except mercury), as bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, brass an INDEX AND EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 205 of Ithe in hot xnd apt Ian alloy of copper and zinc, «fec,, 57-69. In colnafjc, alloy is baser metal mixed with a finer, 69-62. Allu'vium, a deposit formed of matter transported by rivers, floods, or currents of water. Al'um, sulphate of alumina and potash, 44. Alu'mina, 49 ; crystals of, 49 ; silicates of, 49, Alu'minum, 48, 49. Amal'oam, a compound of mercury with another metal, 67-64. Amknd'ments ok soils, 105-113. Ammo'ma, volatile alkali, spirits of hartshorn, an important ma- nure, 85. Ampuib'ious, having the faculty of living in two elements — on land and in water. ANAL''y3is, separating the components of any substance. Animals, organic and mineral parts of, 19 ; bones, hair, Ac, for manure, 87; care and feeding of, in winter, 168, 169. Ammal Manures, 87, 88. An'nuals, plants that grow, ripen their seed, and die in one year, 71. Anther, 74. Aq'ua Fortis, nitric acid, usually diluted, 27. Aqua Regia, royal water, a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids, 66. Ar'ablk Land, fit for tilling. Argilla'ceous Soils, how improved, 105, 106. Ashes, the incombustible part of animal and vegetable substances ; quantity of, left by animals and plants ; udes of, in manufac- tures, and as a manure, 98-100. Assim'ilatk, to convert into a like substance, as assimilated by con- version into animal substances. Atom'ic Weights, or Atoms, 21, 22. . Azot'e, old name of nitrogen, 86. Barley, proper land for, 81 ; how to grow, 128 ; when to bar- vest, 129. Barn, properties of good, 168, 164. Barren Land, 78. Bat, curiosities of the, 195, 204. Bean, proper cultivation of, 139-141. Beet, soils for, cultivation and care of, 149-151. Bien'nials, plants which do not bear flowers and seed till the second year, and then die, 71. ii„ 206 INDEX AND EXPLANATION OF TEBMS. Bi^NARY, by twoa, or in pairs, as acids and bascB, formed each by two elements united, 80. Bleacb'ino, 39, 40. Bones, composition of and value as a manuve, 88. Botany, the branch of natural history which trculd of the struc- ture, properties and growth of plunts from the largest tree to the simplest sea-weed. Bran, voluo of, 184. Britannia Metal, 67. Bread, how to make and bake good, 182-184. Brass, 69. Bronzes, 69. Broom Corn, 161. Buckwheat, culture, care and hnrvestiiig of, 1^8, 139. Butter, how to make good, 178-181. Cal^cium, 46 ; compounds of, and their mechanical uses, 46, 47. Calor'io, another name for heat. Ca'lyx, 74. , ' Car^bon, 86 ; its uses, 86 ; compounds, 37. Carbonates, 31, 82. Carbonif'erous, coal-bearing. CaRBURGT^TED Hy'DROQEN, 37. Ca'sein, 176. Cattle, why to keep warm and how to feed in winter, 168, 169. Caustic potash, 44. CUARCOAL, 36. Cheese, how to make good, 181, 182, CuEMicAL terms explained, 21-27. Chemistry, the science which investigates the nature of matter, and the laws which govern the movements of its atoms. Chlo'bide, 89. Chlorine, 38 ; constituent of common salt, 39 ; bleaching proper- ties of, 89. Choke-damp, 36. Churning, how butter should be churned, 180. Cinnabar, 63. Circulation in plants, 73. Clay, a mixture of two simple earths, alumina and silica, 68 ; clay loam, 68 ; clay soils, 68 ; inilue ice of air, frost and water on, 189. INDKX AND FXPr.ANATIOX OF IKHM^ l!()7 Cloveu, fioils for, SI ; hnrvi'Sling of, ir.t). Coke, cinder of bituminous coals, after bcini^ licalnl for ga«. CoM.AP''sE, fallinij loffi'tlicr, as of tho siilfs of n liollow vosocl ; li>ii ofstn*n<;lh. (".•iiiiiNA'Tioxs, ill cheuiistry, tiic clicmicul union of iitonis, wlicnl^y tlie sensible jiroportit"* tif the cojnhiniiii^ purl'* nrc ftltorod, 'J3, t'oMniN'lNG MMllKKH. 22. t'oMni's'Tiox, burniiii; ; tin- rjic'nii'al coinlju-tioii of a IjoJy i^ Httonded with iicat or lii;lit. Common Salt, as a manure, loi. Com'j'ost, any compound of manurt ■*. (.'oNDicToii, any body which popsc-j^cs [\w property •'!' iiaii^Tt rr iiii^ or passinj; lieot or electricity. Conokla'tion, freezing, or the net of a tliiid pas«inS ; ii-cs and alloy* of in bt-ll- metal, bronze, Dutch gold, Oermnn silver, ito., Mt. CouK, tho bark of a spocifR of oak which grows abundantly i:i Ital}', Spain, Portugal, in snuthci-n provinofM of Frnnro, and in South America. Conx, apjtlied »'». O'reaf Ih'dnlii io wheat, rye, i^als, ami barley, tut in Amnica, restricted, for (he most part, to mni/e. or Indian corn, loS. Corn, IxMAX, how to cnllivafo, ir,2 -K'..") ; liarvcMiMg and can' of 135-lSM. Corolla, 74. Cotvle'don, ft «eed lobe, or mm-iI leal' of .seeds. Cream, composition and care of, 17tJ-l7S. Ciioi's, diftcrent kinds of. a;^ !;rnin, leguminous, eiseuh'nt oi' root, 117, 118 ; rotation of. Ho ; how to secure good, 81. ^'i:d, in cattle, the food iniirst stomnch, which is to be ehewt-d over again, and passed into the third to bo digested, 190. CiiiD, tho coagulated or thickened jiart of milk, which is Iniuurd into ehee.sp, or, in some countriop. oaten as fond, 17ti. Dairv, where and how it should be kept, 17S. Dec.vnta'tion, pouring oft" the clear liquid from any Kcdiment or deposit. Decid'l'Ous, falling ofV, withering ; applied to plants whose leaves fall off in autumn, to distinguish them from evergreens. 208 IN'nFA' AND KXPLANATIOX OF TERMS. l)i;i oMPos/nos, in cliiMnisti-y. ihe separation of llip constitueat pniMs of any coinpounil body or snl)>lttnoo, Avlu'thcp orjjanio or mliici'al. DKini'iis, the pulverized remains oi- depo-^its of i-ock^. The hiiL^cr fraonients are usually termed ris. I'KW, the deposit of the water from the air prodiu'ed liy eold. A-; ~u as the sun sets, the surface of the earth be^^ins to cool by the radiation of \U heal into ^pace. '1 he cold of the siirfu. <• rliills the air lying- aitove it and euii.«es the deposit of it-i water; hence the dew. If tliere are clouds present, the heat »loes not radiate from the earth. Dew, tlierefore, oidy in!!-) on dear ni<^hts, and frost observe-, the same ride. I>i:w I'oiNT, the temperature at whieli dew fall-*. l>ii.i; viiM, deposits of gravelly pebbles, sand, or superHeial loam found upon ordinary rocks, caused by the deluiye or by oncieiil currents of water. l)oR?Ai., belonging- to the baric. DuAiNAOK, drawing- off e.\eess of water fnnii lands by means of ili-nimt : kinds of drains, their depth and distance from each P other, lo'.t; summary of tlie advantages of, lo',t-ll>i t struction of drains, 11-2, li;;. on Urii.i., in husbandry, a long- >traiglit line, in whii-h seeds <»r pl'teli are set ; or a row of grain sowed h}' a drill-plough. l)i'('rii,''iTV, proj)erty of being- drawn (uit without breaking. l)i'N(i, value of difterent kiiuN of, 80; how to ]>reserve for ma- nui-e sn r!«oN''o\iv of tlie Farm, nature and importance of, 16-3-171, KcoNCMV ofthe Household, remarks on, ITl, 17">. Koi'CATiON of Farmers, VI, Ul ; of farmers' sons, 1 -.'! ; <,{ farmers' daughters, nn, 174. l^LASTic'iTV, the power possessed by certain bodies to return back to their bulk or position when compressed or bent, m gase^, India rubber, steel, ttc. El'ements and Ei,kmkntauy Boi'iEs, simple substances, *J0, 21. KM''Bavo, the growing point, eye or chit of a seed. KxDoo'KNOb's Plaxts, inside growers, 7 1. -/ . Kquiv'alkxt (chemical), 2-2, 2^^. Ks'cKLENT Plants, 143. Evapora'tion', the passing of solids or fluids into vapour. J' ■I fj IXDKX AND EXPLANATIOX OF TERMS. 209 nx'«KMH.v.. the matter given out by the oro.an, o, plant, and -una s l>o,no. tho.o parts of tlu-ir food ^hiH. the ^ot Kxof/Kxor.sPLANTs, onlaiile growers. ';}. 72 ^ , Fap.m Accounts, itni)ortai)oo of, 170. Faumer, his dignity, importance and e.lueatioM Jo,, . f AUM-YAnn Maxl'if., SS, 89. ' Kkmhpar. a simple mineral and leading oonstitnen! ol ... unit. •».vcKs, kmds of, economy of -nod, ]Cr, iKUMKXTATio.v, a kind of decomposition 8') » V.nzx, the principal constituent of mn..!... and exists in th. ''lood and iti some ^■e^•etal)les. i'liM; Dami', :;7 T'-Ax, soil for; cidlivation and harvesting of, loS-lGO Hkxib.utv, the capacity of bending without breakino" iLowKR, 74; ])artsof, 74. |;<">DEu, how to bo cared for and fed to cattle. U)l>, IG^ liiiiTs, cultivation of, l,-,7 15s ' " l;,a. ,vl,y r,ext lo ,li„ body of oo,.|«i„ l,i,J, and a„i,„„|, ,,,3 <»As. air, teriform matter. (-'EMS, composition of variou., 4y-51 <'>;oi./oov, its relations to agriculture, G7. C'tzzARD, functions of, \U4. ("i.UE, how made, ID Olctkn, is. «ou., how found, and properties of, .35. G6. <^RAf.SKS, loU. (JREKN Crops, 8.5; as manure, 85. <^^'L-A^o ((Joo-ah^.no), 90, i>l. tJiwrowDr.R, 44. '-.•1|-M, ...„,iv„ S„l,,l,.„„ of li„„., „„.v.,.,C.,l i„,„ ,,l., = ,.,„f,„„,, Oy Hair, asa manure, 87. . , Hai^id Salts, 83. 11 T t210 INDEX AND EXPT.AXATION OV TERM3. H.vv, wlit'ii to 1)0 cut and how to be oaroil for, lri4 loii. IJiMP, cuUiiro and liarv('i=;fiiifj of, ICO, Itil. Hkrbiv'orous, applied to iiltuit or lu'ih catiiii:;' uuiiiial-!, id roritia distinction lo riii'iiiriirini." or lli--li patin^j animals. IImjrogk.v, '.)•{. kio, mystery and wonders in the fonnulittn of, IsS. 189, 2'jO-202. Indian Corn, 132-1. "8. Indio'enous, native of u eonntry. IxcREPiEXT, component i)art. IxoROAxrc, mineral, withont oriijans oi' orii'anizallon, 10. Iron-, 51; U'^osof, 51; ore?, 52; how prodnced, .")'2, r).1 , vaiietiesof, 5-^ Irrigation, methods and henefils of, ]t»7. li s. Ka'i.h'M. the T.ntin iind former name of j).itiissinm, '21. Lai/oratorv, the workshoj) of a cIkiui-I. ^ JiAcrir Acid, the acid of sour milk, 177. IiAM''iN.\, a thin leaf or sliee of any (liiii^-. Lai-'ghing Gas, Ho. I.av'a, sub.stance.s which tlow in a mellcd ^lat<' from volct«noP3. Lawn, gronnd covered wiih the small perennial ij;rasses, kept short by niowinjr, and usualh- sitn.ited in fmi.t of the house. When once established, a hiwn retpiiies little labour to be kept neat i)}' the ordinary routine of rullini;', mowing- and sweeping, ex- cept keeping the .surface j)erfectly even by tilling up the small hollows with .seroened mould early in the spring. I.i;ai),61 ; compounds, alloys and usi's of, (ij ; Icail shut, how made- 02, CO. Lkavks, structure and functions of, 7'1. ' j LK(;f.\[''ic, Leoimkn, a pod (\'\\\\ , as pe.n or bean, 1 17. Lrcit '.MiNoijs Plants, 117. l.iMr., the o.xido of calcium, and how proiliiced, 4tj; mechanical use* of, 47 ; constituent of grains and \ egetables, 47; consti- tuent of good soils, 47 ; use.^ of a-^ a manure. 90 LiN.sKKD Cai;i;, Linskko (^ii., Itio. IjQtlD Maxi'uks, 8'.t. Livio Stock, the cattle, hor-^es, •^hei-j i:iil swine, kept on the farm, 108. Loamy Soils, 81. INDEX AND EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 211 LucERN, French clover, a pcrenuiul, herbaceous, forage plant of the clover faraily. Lucifer Matches, 42. rt en at X- U- Magnesia, Magnesium, 47, 48. Malic Acid, the sour principle of apples and some other fruits. Mammalia, the name of a class of animals which suckle their young. s:^ Manganese, 55, 56. Manures, kinds of, 84, 85. Marls, 69, 95. Matter, how divided, 16. . ' Meadow Lands, 81, 82. . Menstruum (plural, tnc7islrua), any fluid which dissolves a given body. Mercury, or Quick-silver, 63 ; >vherc found and how used, 03, 04. Metalloid, not metal, but resembling it, 29. Membrane, tissue of animal or vegetable matter. ^,, Membranous, skin-like body. ' Metals, classification of, 29, 43. Milk, how to take care of, no, 177. Mineral Manures, 91-104. Mineralogy, the science which examines and describes minerals. Mixed Manures, 88-92. Muriates, salts containing chlorine,' mostly called chlorides: mu- riate of soda is common salt, 81. Muriatic Acid, or hydrochloric acid, 39. Muscle, fleshy fibres, susceptible of contraction and relaxation, by which the plienomcna of motion in animals take place. Kails, the hovny extremities of the skin, modified into claws, talons, hoofs, Ac, are of the same composition as the hair, and yield an equally valuable manure. 87. Naphtha, 43. • Natrium, the German name of sodium, 45. Natural History, a description of natural objects, whether min- erals, plants or animals These productions make up what are called the three kingdoms of nature ; the minzral kingdmn, including the earth, its rocks, metals, crystals, and all bodies not endowed with life, the history of which is called Geologit 212 INDEX AND EXPLANTAION OF TERMS. |i I and Mineralogy ; the vegetable kingdom, comprehending vege- tables and plants, the history of which is called Botant ; the animal kingdom, embracing all animals, the history of which is called Zoology. Meutralize, to overcome the characteristic properties or eflfects of, 31, 32. Night Soil, the contents of privies. KiTRATE, of ammonia, of potash, of soda, 35. Nitrates, 81. Nitre, salt petre, nitrate of potash, 31. • Nitric Acii>, 81; nitrous acid, nitric oxide, 24-27. Ni'trogen, 84, 35. ' >« . Noble Metals, 63. No'menclature, chemical, the system of naming, in which the structure of the terms employed expressed the composition of the substances to which they are applied ; the ipost perfect found in any of the sciences, and very simple, giving the mind great power over the subject, 21. Non-conductor, a body which does not possess the property of transmitting heat or electricity, 193. Normal, regular, according to established rule of principle. Nu'cLEUs, the kernal of a nut ; the central part of any body, or that around which matter is collected. Nutri'tion, the act or process by which the growth of animals or plants is promoted, and by which the waste of animal bodies is repaired. f , Oak, why its leaves are so abundant, 191. Oats, how to cultivate and when to harvest, 130, 131. Oil Cake, 158. Orchard, a collection of fruit trees ; remarks on planting, 118, 157. Organic Bodies, 16; how distinguished from inorganic, 16. Organic Constituents, of plants, 18; of animals, 19. Organ'ogens, 37. O'VARY, 74. • Ox, castrated male of neat cattle ; called a calf until he is a year old, a steer until he is four years old, and after that an ox or bullock. Oxidation, Oxidizing, a slow combution, or burning, 40 ; the act of combluing with oxygen, 27. •^r INDEX AND EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 213 ic of ct id of Oxide, what, 26. Oxygen, what, 33 ; forms compounds with acids and metals, 27, 28. Parasite, a plant which attaches itself to other plants, or an animal which lives in or on the bodies of other animals — so as to subsist at their expense. The mistletoe is a parasitic plant, and the tick is a parasitic animal on the sheep. Peas, soil suitable for, how to cultivate and harvest, 141, 142. Pkacu Trees, how to renew, 118. '^ Peat, use of, 86. Peat Lands, 82. Pabennial, plants that live several years, and bear flowers and fruit often, 71. Petals, 74. Phosphates, how formed, 42. ' * ' PnospiioHous, what 41 ; its compounds and uses, 42. Phosphuret'ted Hydrogen, 42. Pistil, 74. Plat'inum, what, and uses of, 65. Plants, organic constituents of, 18 ; parts and organs of, 70 ; structure and functions of the roots, stem and leaves of, 71-73; flowers of, 74-76. Pollen, 75. Potash, how obtained, properties of, caustic, 44. Potass'ium, what, and compounds of, 48. Potato, composition of, 79 ; soil for, and how to cultivate, 143, 144. Poultry, 170. Preservation of Timber, 167, 168. Pungent, pricking. Pyrites, 52. Quartz, 50. Quick Lime, 46. Quick Silver, mercury, 63, 64. Ir Radiate, to emit or send out from a point or surface, rays, as light or heat. Radical, a base in chemistry. Radicle, a little root; part of the embryo of the seed which grows downward, and homes the roots. Rags, woollen, richest of manure, 92. t IP I 214 INDEX AND EXPLANATION OP TEEMS. Reservoir, a tank or artificial excavation to hold water. Respir ACTION, the art of breathing. Roots of the Plants, 11. Root Crops, 118, 143. Rota'tion of Crops, reason for, object and principle of 118-116; advantages of, 116, 117; order of rotation of, 116-119; hc7/ l^ractisod in Great Britain and the United States, 119-122. Ru'minaxt, an animal wliicli chews the cud, and therefore has fonr stomachs, as the ox, sheep, or deer. Ruminate, to chew tlio cud, 195, 196. Rural Economy, the management of all things, pertaining to the farm, and tlie farm liousehold. Rust, oxide of iron. Rye, soils suitable foi-, and cultivation of, 81, 127, 128. • Safety Lamp, 37. Sainfoin, a long rooted, perennial, leguminous plant with red flowers, wliich greatly improves the value of the calcareous soils. Sal Ammo'niac, muriate or hydrocliloric of ammonia. Salpetre, 31-44. Salts, what, 33; how named, 31, 32; common salt, 23; Fpsoni salts, 83-41 ; Glauber salts, 41. Saturation, the impregnation of one body with another by affinity, till tlie receiving body can contain no more. Saturate, to Jill the pores of any substance, as a sponge with water, or char- coal with ammonia. Sepal, 74. Sheep, manure of, 89 ; feeding and care of, 169, 170. Sil'ica, and crystals of 50, 51 ; silicate. 50 ; siUx, 50. Silicic Acid, 50. Sil'icon, 49, 50, Silver, 04 ; how alloyed in English, French, German, and Amerl^ can coin, 64. Soap, luw mado and kinds of, 45, 187. Soda, 45; properties and compounds of, 45. Sodium, 44, 45. Soil, Soils, wliat and how made up, 66 ; origin of, 67 : organic parts of, 67 ; inorganic parts of, 16 ; kinds of, 08, 69 ; fertile and barren compared, 78 ; how to conserve and improve, 82, 88 ; how to amend, 105 ; soils adapted to differant grains an4 vegetables. 81, 82. INDEX AND EXPLANATION OF TERMd. 215 Sol'uble, susceptible of being dissolved in a fluid. Solu'tion, the act of dissolving a solid substance in liquid, leaving the liquid clear, as sugar or common salt in water. The liquid which effects the solution is called the solvent. Soot, uses of, as a manure, 101. SroNGto-'LKs, spongy tips of the rootlets or little roots. Stable, properties of a good, 164-169. STALL-FEKDiN(i, advantages of, 163-169. Sta'mkn, the principal organ of the flower, 74. Starch, what and how made, 18. Steel, how made, and varieties of, 54, 65. Stigma, the apex of the pistil, 75 ; style, 75. Stoma'ta, pores or mouths of the cuticle or skin of flowering plants. Straw, ashes, care and uses of. Subsoil Plouuiiing, nature and advantages of, 108, 109. Sulphate, Sulpiiaiks, Sulphites, 31. Sulphur, 40; Sulphuret, sulphuretted, 41. SuLPUu-'aic, Sulphurous Acid, 40, 41. Swine, manure of, 89. Symbols, chemical, what, 21. . lie lie Terms, chemical, explained, 21-27. TiMOTHT Grass, 152. Tin, what, 56 ; antiquity, alloys, uses of, 57. Tobacco, cultivation of, why not noticed; baneful influence of, 161, 102. Trees, why different kinds succeed each other 118; kinds and advantages of shade trees, 160, 167 ; age of, how determined, 72. Tubers, the fleshy enlargement of a stem, formed underground, consisting mostly of starch, having eyes or buds, as the com- mon potato and artichoke. Turnip, cultivation, care and ^ses of, 144-147. Ttpe-metal, of what composed, 62. Unripe Fruit, why sour, 191. Vapour, the temporary gaseous condition of fluids ; or, a visible fluid floating in the atmosphere, as steam, fog, or smoke. Vas'culau, containing vessels or tubes. Yboetable Manures, 85, 86. YiTRioi., oil of, sulphuric aoid. 216 INDEX AND EXPLANATION OF TERMS. Vivip'aiious, producing living young, and not eggs, the producers of which are called oviparous, as birds, fishes, insects, and serpents. "Watkb, composition of, 34 ; singular law of the freezing of, 188, 189, 200-202. "Wood Asiiks, how forming potash, 44 ; uses of, as a manure, 98, 99. Wheat, kinds of, 123; soils for, 81; differences between winter and spring, 123; cultivation and harvesting of, 123-127; analysis of the grain and straw of, 115. Woody Fibre, 18. Yeast, 183. Zinc, 59 ; where obtained and how employed, 60 ; peculiarity of its rust, 61 ; how it protects iron against rust, 6Q. GooLOQV, the history and classification of animals. PBINTED AT STEAM PKES3 ESTABLISHMENT OF COPP, CLABK * CO., TOBONTO.