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DESCRIPTION / , OP TH» EMPIRES, KINGDOMS, STATES, AND COLONIES; WITH THE OCEANS, SEAS, AND ISLES; IN ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD s INCLUDING THE MOST RECENT DISCOVERIES AND FOLITICAL ALTERATIONS. DIGESTED ON A NEW PLAN, BY JOHN PINKERTON. /A THE ASTBONOMICAL INTRODUCTION BY M. LA CROIX, • t TRANSLATED BY JOHN FOND, ESQ. ASTRONOMBR-ROt^&V r- -* ^ CAREFUXLT ABRIDGED FROM THE LAROL^; WQ&I^ IN TWO VOLUMES, QUARTO. ' '^'^ WITH MAPS, To the whole are addtdf A Catoiogw iff the left McfSt md Books ofTraodt and foyages, in aU And an ample Index. THE THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND BNLABOUl BY THE AUTHOS. ri->>- ...I lONDON: if/ tRIMTED roft T. CAOUt Afro W. DAVIES, ITRANO ; AMD LOtTOMAM, BOWT, ltUI||i ORMt, AN0 >«OWN, PATKBNMTWKOW. ^ ^^9b^. '-T\ :,., £: ''l ■■ G'-'-- , iiB , . , *-^- '■.fu H>il « StrahananclPrcftoo, IVmten-Screct, London. ■ *" . -'- ■-■"»'■ I ■■feii PREFACE. 4» THE Importance of geography as a f:ience, and f!ic exuberant variety of knowleHge and amufemjnr which it exhibits, are themes too trivial for argument or illuJlration. Eagerly attached to this ftudy from his early years, the author always cherifhed a hope that he might contribute his labours to its advancement. For (nuch remained to be done ; and many literary men have long ad- mitted, that great advantages might be derived from a new and^m« proved fyftem of modern geography, the lateft popular works of this nature not only abounding with numerous and grofs millakes, but being fo imperfeft in their original plans, that the chief geo- graphical topic6 have been facrificed to long details of hiliory, chro- nology, and commercial regulations, wholly extranrous to the vry nature of fuch a defign. When to this it is added, that the molt recent and important difcoverics are either omitted, iraperfedly illuilrated, or fo defectively arranged as to embarrafs and baffle: the refearch of the moft patient inquirer, there is no reafon to be fur- prifed at the general confeflion, that fuch compilations are only ufed becaufe there is no better extant. The fucceffive difcoveries in the Pacific Ocean, and other parts of the globe, have, within thefe few years acquired fuch a certainty and confiftency, that they may now be admitted and arranged, in a regular and precife diftribution of the parts of the habitable world; while the recent difcoveries of La Peroufe, Vancouver, and other navigators, nearly complete the exa^ delineation of the continental ihores. No period of time could be more favourable to the ap- pearance of a new fyftem of geography, than the beginning of a new century, after the elapfe of the eighteenth, which will be memorable in all ages, from the gigantic progrcfs of every fcience, and in par- ticular of geographical information; nor lefs from the furpruing changes which have taken place in moft countries of Europe, and ivhich of themfelves render a new defcnption indifpenfable. Whole kingdoms have been annihilated -, grand provinces transferred} and liich a general alteration has taken plac:f in ftat^s and boundatieSy that a geographical work pubiiflied five years ago may be pronouuccd to be already aati^uated. A i| A new JV PREFACE. A new fyflem of geography is alfo fpccially autliorized and atl- tlienticated, by the fingular advantage of feveral important booics of travels having appeared within^hcfe few years, which introduce far more light and precifion into our knowledge of many regions. The embaflies to China, Tibet, and Ava, for example, prefent frefli and authentic materials, without which recourfe muft have been had to more remote and doubtful information ; and the Birman empire is unknown to all fyftems of geogrnphy. The Rcfearches of the AHatic Society, and other late works, difFufe a new radiance over HindoHan, and the adjacent countries. The labours of the African Society, the Travels of Park, Browne, and Barrow, have given more precifion to our impei:fe«Sl knowledge of Africa : and the journeys of Hearne and Mackenzie have contributed to difclofe the northern boundari^rs of America. In (hort, it may be fafely af- firmed, that more important books of Travels and other fources of geogrsfphical information, have appeared within thefe few yearsy than at any period whatever of literary hiftory. Nor mull the rapid advances of natural hiftory be forgotten, which now confer fuch fuperior precifion on tlie natural geography of moft countries. Not only have zoology and botany received the grcateft improvements" ; but geology and mineralogy have, within ."thefe twenty years, become entirely new and grand fciences ; the ■fubftances being accurately arranged, and defcribed with fuch clear- nefs, that throughout the literary world they are exa£ily known and difcriminated. . Yet even with fuch advantages geography is far from being per- fe£l ; and the familiar exclamation of D'Anville in his old age may ftill be adopted : " Ah ! my friends, there are many errors in geography." This fcience may indeed be regarded as imperfe£l in its very nature, as no reafonable hope can be entertained that all the habitable lands (hail, at any period of time, pafs under a trigo- nometrical furvey, the only ftandard of complete exa£tne(s. The chief defeats are the interior parts of Africa, and many portion* even of the fliores; Tibet, and fome other central regions of Afia, nay, even Perfia, Arabia, and Afiatic Turkey ; the weftern parts of North America ; and the Spanifli fettlements in that part of the new continent ; with the central and fouthern parts of South Ame- rica. Of New Holland little is known, except the (bores : and many difoovcries remain to be made in the Pacific Ocean, parti- cularly the extent and interior part of New Guinea, and other large lands in that quarter. Even in Europe the geography of Spain and Portugal is very imperfe^i:, though not fo defeftive as that of European Turkey; nor can we loudly boail while, as Major Ren- TiCll informs us, there is no exaft chart of the Britiili Channel ; and the trigonometrical furvey, fo far as it has extended, has de- tected grofs errors in the maps of the counties. We have indeed been generally more attentive to remote regions, than to our native country ; and could a new fyflem have been pubiiftied with mord advantages, than in the kingdorc which has given birth to the greatell modern dircoveries and tn orovciuents in geography? :: X With k PREFACE. ^ With the advantages, above enumerated, of new and important difcoveries, of recent and authentic intelligence, and of the parti- cular period of publication, there cannot be any great claim of merit in prefenting a more complete fydem of geography, than has yet appeared in any language ; for the Spaniards and Italians have been dormant in this fcience, the French works of La Croix and others mre too brief, while the German compilations of Bufching, Fabri, Ebeling, &c. ice. are of a mod tremendous prolixity, arranged in the moft taftelefs manner, and exceeding. In dry names and trifling details, even the minutenefs of our Gazetteers. A defcription of Europe in fourteen quarto volumes may well be contrafted with Strabo's defcription of the world in one volume : and geography feems to be that branch of fcience in which the ancients have eila* hliftied a more claflical reputation than the moderns. Every great literary monument may be faid to be erected by compilation, from the time of Herodotus to that of Gibbon, and from the age of Homer to that of Shakfpearc, but in the ufe of the materials there is a wide difference between Strabo, Arrian, Ptolemy, Paufanias, Mel;i^ Pliny, and other celebrated ancient names, and modern general geo-* graphers } all of whom, except JD'Anville, feem under-graduaces in literature, without the didinguiflicd talents, or reputation, which hzvt accompanied almoft every other literary exertion. Yet it may fafely be affirmed, that a produ£lion of real value in univerfal geo- graphy, requires a wider extent of various knowledge than any other literary department, as embracing topics of the moft multifarious defcription. There is however one name, that of D*AnviUe, pe- culiarly and juftly eminent in this fcience ; but his reputation is chiefly derived from his maps, and from his illuflrations of various parts of ancient geography. In fpecial departments Goffellin, and other foreigners, have alfo been recently diflinguiflied ; nor is it neceflary to remind the reader of the great merit of Rennell and Vincent in our own country. With fuch examples, the author confefles hi} ambitious defire that the prefent work may, at lead, be regarded as more free from de-> fcGts than any preceding fydem of modern geography. By the liberality of the publifhers, no expence has been fpared incolle£ling materials from all quarters; and the affemblage of books and maps would amount to an expence hardly credible. If there be any failure^ the blame mud folely red with the author ; who being however «onverfant with the fubje£t, from his early youth, when he was ac* cudomed to draw maps, while engaged in theiftudy of hidory,and -never having neglected his devotion to this important fcience, he hopes that the ample materials will be found not to have been en- truded to inadequate hands. He may affirm that the mod fedulous attention has been exerted, in the fele^ion and arrangement of the jnod interefting topics ; and he hopes that the novelty of the plan will not only be recommended by greater eafe and expedition, in vfing this work as a book of reference % but by a more drifl and cUffical connexion, fo as to affisrd more clear and fatisfa^lory in- A 3 formation vt PREFACE. formation on a general perufil. The nature and ca(es of t!ic plan ihall be explained in thf preliminary obfervations, as being inti- mately connected with other topics there inveftigated. It may here luffice to obferve, that the obje«Sts mofl eflentially allied with each other, inftead of being d fperfed as fragments, are here gathered into dillinft heads or chapt< s.i, arranged in uniform progrefs, ex- cept where particular circumltances commanded a deviation : and inftead of pretended hiftories, and prolix commercial documents» the chief attention is devoted to ful)je£ls ftriftly geographical, but Vrhich in preceding fyftems have often appeared in the form of a were lift of names, the evanefcent (hades of knowledge. Meagre- , details of hiftory can be of no fervice even to youth, and are foreign to the name and nature of geography, which, like chronology, only afpires to illuftrate hiitory ; and, without encroaching upon other provinces, has more than fufficient difficulties to encounter. The States are arranged according to their comparative importance, as it is proper that the obje«Sts which deleave moft attention (hould be treated at the greatefl: length, and claim the earlieit obfervation of the (Indent. Mr. Pond has rather chofen to tranflate the able introduc- tion of M. La Croix, to the French editions of this work, than to difplay his own talents on ihe parts of aftronomy, which are con- nected with geography. For the botany of the feveral countries this work is indebted to Mr. Arthur Aikin, a zealous and intelli- cent cultivator of natural hiftory. It may be necelTary to remind the unlearned reader, that the Latin names in this part are una- voidable, becaufe plants not known in England muft rarely admit of Englifh appellations. Amid ft other advantages already indicated, the regular reference* to the authorities, here obferved for the firfl: time in any geogra- phical fyftem, will be admitted to be a confidcrable improvement, not only as imparting authenticity to the text, but as enabling tht reader to recur to the bed original works, when he is defirous of more minute information. Yet this improvement is fo fimple that the omifTion might feem matter of furprize, were it not that former works of this nature will gv^ierally be found to be blindly copied from preceding fyftems, with the Ible claim of fuperiority in error, as muft happen in fucli calVs, where miftakes multiply, and an old hallucination becomes the father of a numerous progeny. The ftrirt quotation of authorities might alfo be rather dangerous in erroneous details } and the omiftion is as convenient, as it is to pafs in filence geographical doubts of great importance, which might prove peri- lous ordeals of fciencc. Accuftumed to the labours and plcalures of learning merely for his own mental.improvemtnt, as the delight of his eafe, the relief of care, the folace of misfortune, the author never helitates to avow his doubts, or his ignorance i nor fcruples to Ticrifjce the little vanity of the individual to his grand obje^, the advancrment of fciencc. An emphatic Arabian proverb de- clares tlut ihe tmrs of tht learned ar4 itarmdt. and «vcii the mif- PRtVACt. Vli tatces ol^ a patient and unbla£ted inquirer may often excite dlfcufnony and a confequent elucic'ation of the truth. A few words remain to be faid concserning the principles on which the prefent abridgment of the original work has been formed. The quarto edition, from its magnitude and confequent price, is little calculated for general ufe as a fchool book, and for the fame teafons may not be eafily acceflible by many who would gladly avail themfelves of it in a cheaper form. To fupply this want, the edition which is now fubmitted to the candour or the public, has been prepared with much labour and pains. The ftyle of the original, being for the moft part as concife as is confident with per* fpicuity, has allowed, comparatively, but few opportunities for fuc- teeding condenfation •, but wherever this was poflible, it has been carefully pra£lifed. The geographical difcuflions interfperfed throughout the work, as being the lead neceflary to the young iludent in th*s fcience, have been curtailed with lefs referve i much alfo of the technical and lead interelting parts of the botany and mineralogy has been omitted. Other abbreviations of fmaller con- fequence have been made, which it is unnecefTary to particularize. Many particulars have been added from the late general enume- k-ation of the inhabitants of England and Scotland ; the provincial fubdivifions of the European dates have alfo been inferted, and fuch other additions and alterations made as might give to the work a fair claim on the patronage of the public. To this new edition of the Abridgment is fubjoined an ample index, which will be found ufeful) as it may often fupply the want of a gazetteer. The plan of the prefent work has met with general approbation at home and abroad, as being more clear and conne£ted than any before adopted. The proper arrangement, indeed, of any book of fcience is judly regarded by all judges as the mod eflential quality. In the education of youth, in particular a clear and lucid order be- comes indifpcnfable, as imparting pleafure in the middof indruc- tion, and as tempting to read what was before dudicd as a talk, or only recurred to in cafes of neceflary confultation. Youth is often deterred from improvement by the ufe of confufed and an* tiquated fydems, at which even knowledge would revolt, and eru- dition itfelf be embarrafled. Throughout the whole of this abridg- ment accuracy has alfo been dudied as far as human frailty would permit } for in education ignorance itfelf is preferable to error. The fcientific works of France have been long celebrated for clearnefs of arrangement *, yet the prefent abridgment, even at a period of violent animofity, has been preferred to their own elementary books of geography, and adopted in their colleges and academies $ and experience has declared, that the attempt has been followed by more fpeedy and folid indru^on. Al ( *"« ) V LIST OF THE MAPS, With DireFlions for pbcing them. ' No. I. Plamfphere, 2. Europe, 3, Brttiih Ifles, „ 4. France, 5. RuQia in lEurope, 6. Spain and Portugal, 7. Italy and Turkey, 8. Sweden, Denmark, &c. 9. Germany, ip. Afia, ,, II. Eaft Indies, 12. North America, , 13. Weft Indies, 14. South America, 15. Africa, to face Page i • 4 10 • 115 140 >93 212 234 284 3'4 414 535 - 658 74* .*- ■" . .' «• .. , ,■ ; r. •• tf TABLE OF CONTENTS. I 4 o 5 3 2 4 4 f INTRODUCTION, p. i. -- Jpommlcal Elements necejfary for the Study of Geography. — Co.'iJIruSIwi and Ufe of different Reprefentations of the Earth and different Parts of the, Earth, Tables relating to the Magnitude and Figure of the Earth, p. Ixxv. Table of Latitudes anp Longitudes, p. Ixxxv. Preliminary Observations, p. i. . EUROPE, general View of, p. 4. — Extentt Limits, Anciemt Population, Progrejftve Geography, Religion, Climate, Inland Ssas, Sand-banks, Rivers, and Mountains, — Governments^ Arrangement, England, Chap. i. p. 10. — Names. — Extent. — Original Population, — Progrejfve Geography. — Heptarchy, and Shires or Counties. — Hijhricol Epochs. — Antiquities^ Druidic, Belgic, Roman, Saxon, Danifli, Norman, Chap. ii. p. 17. — Religion, Ecclefiajlic Geography and JurifdiSliou, SeSlaries. — Government. — Judicature and Laws. — Population. — Army,'^ Navy, — Revenue, — Political Importance. * Chap. iii. p. 28. — Manners and Cujloms. — Language. — Literature. — Artf. — Education. Univerfities, — Cities and Towns ; Ltndon, Tork, Liverpool, Bri/fol, Bathp Manchefler, Birmingham, Sheffield, Falmouth, Dorchefler^ Sali/bury, JVinche/ler, Portfmouth, Lewes, Brighthelmjlontf . , Canterbury, Hereford, Gloucejler, Worceffer, Coventry^ Norwich, Yarmouth, Lincoln, Lancqfter, Hull, Leeds^ Durham, Stockton, Newcaftle, Berwick, CaermarthentCaer" tiarvon. — Edifices and Gentlemen* s Seats. ^Bridges. — /«- landNavigationandCanals.—Manufa^uresandCcmmeree* SnCLAMD, Chap. iv. p. 49. — Climate and Seafons, — Face of tht Country,— SoilandAgiculture,^^ Rivers; Severn,Thames, Humbtr, Merfey^ \sfc» — Mountaim*^' Fmllt, — Botany, . , • ^'Zoology* ^mm f CdNtENtS. •—Zootog^, — Mineralogy i Titty Copper^ Leaa, irotty tloait Rock/alt. — Mineral Heaters. — Natural Curiqftties. — Englijh IJlands : Wight y Guernfeyy Jerfey^ Eddi/lone, Scilly IJleSf Lundayy Atiglefey^ Mali. SCOTLAND) Chap. i.p. 64. — Nantes, — Extent. — Civil I^ iv'tftoni.-^ Original Population. — Progreffive Geography. — Hijiorical Epochs. — Antiquities. Chap. il. p. 6g. — Religion. — Ecclejiqjlic Geography, — Go- vermncnt. •— Laivs. — Population. Chap. iii. p. 71. — - Afanners and CttJloiHs. — Language. — Literature. ^— Education. — ■ Univerfities. — Cities ana Towns : Edinburgh^ Glafgonvy Perthy DundeCy Aberdeen,, tsfc. — Edifices . — Inland Navigation. Chap. iv. p. 79. — Climate and Seafons. — Pace of the Coun^ try.— 'Soil and Agriculture. — Rivers; Eorthy Clydcy Tayt Tweedy Decy Speyyl^c. — Lakes; Lomondy Tayy Nefs, . Awcytj^c. — Mountains y Lead hills y Ochillsy Grampians. — Parens. — Botany. — Zoology . — Mineralogy. — Mineral Waters. — Natural Curioftties. — Scotifj IJlesy Hebudes, OrkncySy Shetlands. IeELANDi Chap. i. p. 99. — Names, — Extent. -^Original Population, •—Progre/ftve Geography, — Hijiorical Epochs . — Antiquities, Chap- ii. p. 102. — Religion. ^^ Eccleftajlical Geography,-"* Government. — Civil Diviftons. — Population, — Army, RevenueSy Political Importance. Chap. iii. p. 104. — Manners and Cujloms, ^^ Language, — Literature. — Education and Univerfities, — Cities and Towns ; Duhliny Corky Limericky Galwayy Londonderry, Belfafly Wexfordy Waterfordy lie. — Edifices. — Roadi, — Inland Navigation. — ManufaElures and Commerce. Chap. iv. p. log, '^•Climate and Seafons. — Face of the coun-* try. — Soil and Agriculture, — Rivers ; Shannony ^c, — Lakes; Neagh, Earn, Killarney. — Mountains.—" Forefls. — Bogs. — Botany. — Zoology. — Mineralogy ; Goldy Silvery i^c. — Natural Curioftties. — Ifiands. FllAMCE« Chap. i. p. 1 15. — Names. --^ Extent. — Original Popula- tion. — Progrefjtve Geography ; Ancient Provinces j new Departments. —Hi/lorical Epochs. — Antiquities. Chap. ii. p. lao. — Religion. — Eccleftajlical Geography, — Government. — Population. — Colonies. — Army, — Navy. — Revenue, — Political Importance, Chap. iii. p. 123. — Manners and Cujloms, — Language.—^ Literature — Education — Univerfities. — Cities and Towns ; Parisy Lyons y Marfeilles, Bourdeaax, Brejiy Nantes y t^c. Edifices. — Inland Navigation,—- Manufa6ittres and T^ade, Chap. iv. p. 128. — Climate and Seafons — Face of the Country. — Soil and Agriculture. — Rivers ; Seine, Loire, Rfjone, Garonne, — Lakes, — Mountains ; Vofges, Mount Jura, Franc I CONTENTS. i& yurOf Cevennes, Pyrennees. — Forefls,—- Botany. -^Zoo* logy. — Mineraloi.>;y. — Mineral IVaters. — Natural Cw rioftties. — French IJles ,• Corfica^ HyereSy Oleron^ l^c. Netherlands, p 135. — Names.— ^Extent. — Original Population, — Antiquities. — Religion . — Population — Manners and Cujlonts. — Literature. — Education. — Cities and Towns g Brujfelsy Ghenty Antiverf> — Sea Ports. — Edijices. — In- land Naingation ManufaBures and Commerce. — CYz- mate and Stafons. — Rivers , Scheldt Dy^'t ^c. — Moun^ taint f ^c. — Botany . -^ Mineralogy. Russia in Europe, C'lap. i. p. 140. — Extent. — Boundaries."'- Names. — Original Population. — Progrejjive Geography* —^ Provinces. ■"^Hiflorical Epochs. — Antiquities, Chap. ii. p. 143.— i2f//g^/o« and Eccleftaftical Geography,-^- Govern ment .—'Laws, — Population , — Navy, — Revenues* Political Importance. Chap. ill. p. 148. — Manners and Cujloms. --^^ Language, •-» Literature, — Education. '^Cities and 7 owns i MofcoWf Peter/hurgf A/lracan, ^c, — Inland Navigation. — Ala- nufaSlures and Commerce. Chap. iv. p. 152. — Climate end Seafons. — Face of the Country. — Soil and Agriculture,,— Rivers ; VolgOf Don^ Nieper^ Niejier^ Dwina^ isfc. — Lakes. — Mountains ; OhnetZt Uralt ^c. — Fore/Is. — Botany. — Zoology, — Minerahgi).— Mineral Waters. — Natural Curiofities.-^^ Rujfic.n IJles ; Cronftadty Novaya Zemlia^ Spitzbergen, Austria, Chap. i. p. 162. — Names. -^Extent and Provinces,--^ Original Population —^Provrefjlve Geography, — Hi/lorical Epochs ; of Auflrietf of Hungary^ of Tranfylvania, of Bohemia t of Venice. — An Equities. Chap. ii. p. i6B. — Religtofi. — Government. -"-LaiuT,-^ Population. — Army.—Riz enue. — Political Importance, Chap. iii. p. I'jo.^-' Manrt \' t and Cudoms.— Language,-^ Literature. — Education md Univerfities, — Cities end Townf ; r? fna^ Venice ^ Pi t gue,GratZi Pre/burg^ Budafira* ccw, Trie/le, ^c.-^-EdiJices. —Manufa^ures and Commerce, Chap. iv. p. 175. — Climate and Seafons . — Face of the Coun» try. — Soil and Ai>r>rUiture. — Rivers s Danube, Tiejs, Inn, Elbty Adige, i^.—Lnkrs, "^Mountains ; Tyrolefe Alps, Er%-ehergy Carpathian. — (Forefts.'— Botany,-^ Zioloay.— Mineralogy t Qo/d, Silver, ^tickftlyer, Upalf Rock flit, Soda, isfc. — Natural Curiftties. pRUISIA, Chap. i. p. 1 3 2.-^ Names. —Extent. — Suhdivifons, and Population, — Original Population. — Progrefftve Geogra* phy. — Hi floriral Epochs, of Brendenburgh, of Prujffia, $f Poland. — Antiquities . I^AQStlA, Chap. U. p. \Z6.'-—ReUgionandEccleliaJiicalGeography.'-* Ge/vernmetUt'^Army. -^-'Revenues, — Peiitieal Importance, laf Ch-i^:. Xu CONTENTS. If . V ■' Chap. m.^»li'].'-- Manners and Cujioms.^-Langtiage.'— . , .., Literature. — Education and Univerftties. — Cities and Towns i Berlin, Konigsburgi WarfaWi BreJlaUi Dantzic, ' .. Pot/dam, ^c. — Edifices. — ManufaElures and Commerce. ■ •. Chap, iv, p. 190.-— C/r'wfl/^ and Seafons. — Face of the Country. — Soil and Agriculture. — Lakes; Curifch-Hoff, Frifch.Haffii^c. — Mountains ; Sudetic, iSc. — Forejls. — 'Botany. — Zoology. — Mineralogy ; Amber. — Mineral Waters. — Natural Curioftties. Spain^ Chnp.i. p. 193.^ — Names. — Extent. — Original Population.— ^ ' _ Progrefflve Geography.'-^ Hijlorical Epochs. — Divifions — Antiquities ; Alhambra. Chap. ii. p. 197 — Religion and Ecdefiqjlical Gengrrphy. — Government. — Laws. — Population. — Colonies. • — Army and Navy. — Revenues . — Political Importance. Chap, iii.p. 199. — Planners and Cujloms. — Language. — Literature. — Univerftties. — Cities and Towns ; Madrid, ^ Cadiz, Afalaga, Barcelona, Corunna, Saragojfa, Toledo, . /, . . Badajos, Granada. -^-^ Edifices, Efcurial. — Inland Navi- gation. — ManufaSiures and Commerce. « Chap. iv. p. S06. -— Climate and Sca/hns. — Face of the ^ Country. — Soil and Agriculture. — Rivers. — Lakes. — Mountains, of Gallicia, Mcntes Carpentanos, Sierra Morena, , . Sierra Nivada, Montferrat.—Forefis. '•^Botany. — Zoology, fc • ^"Mineralogy ; Mines of Almaden. — Mineral Waters. — Natural Curioftties. — Spanifi) Ifles ; Majorca, Minorca, ^ - Eviza, Turkey in Europe, Chap. i.p.2i2. — Names and Provinces. — . , ,. Extent, — Original Population. — Progrejfive Geography, — Hiftorical Epochs. — Antiquities, Chap. ii. p. 216. — Religion.'— Government. ~—P(ipt4lation, ^ • — Army and Navy, — Revenues. — Political Importance. Chap. iti. p. 218. — Manners and Cti/Joms. — Language and Literature. — Education. — Cities and Towns ; . Cottflanti- nopU, Aprianople, Belgrade, i^c— Edifices.-— Mantfac- tures and Commerce. Chap. iv. p. 221. — Clitnate and Seafons. — Face of the ^ , Country. — Soil and Agriculture. — Rivers \ Danube, Maritz, tlfc. Lakes, — Mountains ; Bajlarnic Alps, .' Hamus, Pindus, Olympus, OJfa, Atbos. — • Botany. — ^ } . Zoology. — Mineralogy, «— Natural Curiofties > Grotto of Antiparos.—- I/lands ; Crete, Eubeea, the Cyclades, HoLLANDi Chap. i. p.225. — Names. — Extent. — Diwfians.-^ Original Population. — Progreffive Geography. — Hifiorical Epochs. — Antiquities. Cliap. ii. p. 228. — Religion and Eeelefiafiic Geography.--^ Government, — Laws. — Population. — Colonies. -^ Artriy tin.d N(ivy.--'.Iitv//- verftties. — Cities and Towns ; Copenhagen, Bergen, Altona, Chrifliana, Drontheim. — Edtfices. — Inland Navigation.— ~ Manufa£lures and Commerce. Chap. iv. p. 243. — Climate and Seafons. — Face of the Conn" try. — SoilandAgriculture.- — Rivers. — Lakes. — Motintainsg) Lang fiall, Dofrafiall, Kolen. — Forejls. — Botany . — Zoology* — yiineralogy ; Silver Mines of Kongjherg, Copper Mines of , Rorast — Mineral Waters .•'— NaturalCuriofities : Maljlrotttf Mt, Hecla. — Danifli Iflands i Ferroe, Iceland^ isfc. Sweden, Chap. i. p. 249. — Names. — Extent. — Divifions. — Origi' eal Population. — Progre^vcGeography,- '•Hi/loricalEpocl.vl — Antiquities, Chap. ii. p. 25s. — Religion and Eccle/tTjiical Geography,— ^ Government t-— Population, — Colonies, ~ Army and Navy, — Revenue.— -Political Importance, Chap. iii. p. 2$'^,-— Manners and Cu/loms. — Language.— m Literature. — Education,— Cities and Towns; Stockholm, Upfid, Gothenburg, tsfc— Edifices, — ^Inland Navigation, — ManufaElures and Commerce, Chap. iv. p. 256. — Climate and Seafons. — Face of the Coun^ try. — Rivers; DahltTornea^lsfc. — Lakes; WenertJVeter, ,.. Afeler,Enara,Pejend. — Mountains. — Forces. — Botany."^ Zoology. — Minerahgy:GoldMincsofAdelfors,Coppi'r Alines cfFahlun, Iron Alines of Danemora, Taberg, and Lulea.— Swedijh IJlands; Rugcn, Oeland, Gothland, ^c, Portugal, Chap. i. p. 262. — Names, — Extent, — Progrejfive Gea- grophy, — Hijlorical Epochs. — Antiquities, Chap. ii. p. 263. — Religion. — Government.'^ Divi/ions and • " Population,- Colonies. — Army and Navy, — Revenues.—' . ' . Political Importance. Chap. iii. p. 264. — Aianmrs and CuJloms, — Language,— • Literature, — Education. — Cities andTowns; L'Jhon, Oporto^ l^c, — Edifices, — Alanufa^ures and Commerce, 1 8 . Portugal, >«M xlv CONTENTS. FoRTUCrAL) Chap. iv. p. 267. — Climate mid Seafons — Face of ihs Country, — Rivers. — Motwtuins. — ZoJjgy. — Mineralogyi Roman Alines. — Mineral Waters. — Natural Curiofiiics, SwiSStRLAND, Chap. 1. p. 27 1. — Names.— r Extent. -^Divijtom- — Orig'mal PopuLtion. — Frogrejfive Gejgraphy.'-fHtJiorical Epochs. — Antiquities. Chap ii. p 27 J . — Religion. — G^ivermnrnt. — Pcpulation.— Army — Revenue. — Political Importance. Chap. lii. p. 274. — Manners and Cujloms.-r- Language.'— ' laiterature. — Education. — Cities ndToivns; Bajel.Bernet Zurich, Laufanne, ^c. — Edifices. — Commerce ana Manu' fflElm'es. Chap'. iv. p. 116.— Climate and Seafons. — Face of the Coun- try. — Rivers t Rhine, Aar, Reufs, Limtnat, Rhone, Thur, — Lakes { of Confiance, Geneva, Neufchatel, Zurich, Istc. — 'i ^ Mountains^ Alps, St. Gothard. Mt. Blanc, ^c. — Botuny. •— Zoology. — Mineralogy . — Mineral Waters . — Natural Curioftties i Glaciers, Avalanches, Source of the Rhone, Waterfalls. German States, Chap. i. p. 284. — Extent. — Original Population. — Pr^grcffiveGeography. — Hifiorical Epochs . — Antiquities, —•Religion. — Government. — Populati n. — Face of the Coun- try. — Rivers i Elbe, Wefer, Rhine, Dafwbe, Neckar — Lakes. — Mountains ; Hartz, Ertzgeberg, Schivartzivald, ^c. — Fore/Is. — Botany. — Zoology, Chap. ii. p. 289. — Saxony { Hifiorical Epochs^ Religion, Government, Army, Literature, Cities and Towns, Manu- failures. Minerals. — Hanover ; Extent, Population, Hifiory, Literature, ManufaRures, and N.'tural ProduBs. — Ofna- truck. -—Hejfe.'— Mecklenburg. — Brunfwick. — Hamburgh, tsfc. Chap. iii. p. 2^)^.^— Bavaria and the Palatinate.-— 'Wurtem- burg. — Anfpach and Bareuth . — - Salzia . — Baden. — H^e Darntfladt. — Nuremburg. IfALT^ Chap. i. p. 299. — Divifons. — Boundaries.— Face of the CouH' try.— 'Rivers $ Po, Arno, Tiber. — Lakes, — Mountnins i Alps, Apennines, Vefuvius, Etnay Stramboli, ^c. — Fonjls. '•^Botany. — Zoology, Chap. ii. p- 305. — Naples and Sicily; Extent, Population, Hifiory, Religion, Cities and Towns, ManufaElures, Reve» nue, Army, Navy. — Malta. Chap. iii. p. 3 07. — Papal Territory, Rome. — Tifcany, Lucca, —Ifie of Elba. Chap. iv. p. 3 10. — Piedmont. — Cifalpine Republic.-^ Man- tua. — Alodena. — Parma and Placentia, — Ligurian Re* public, Genoa. ASIA| p. 314. — Extent. — Original Population. — ProgrefftveGeogra- fhy,— Religions, — Scasj Red ^Perftan Gulf, Cafpian,Aral^ Baiktd, CONTENTS, Xf Baihali Beering*s Straits. — Rivers. '•^Mounte^ns.'—Gf^ vermnents. — Arrangmetit. "JTUHKET in Asia, Chap. i. p. 321. — Extent. -^Divifions, — OW- ginal Population. — Progrejfive Geography. — Hijlsricd ■ . Epochs. — Antiquities s Palmyra^ B^l^ec, Plain of Troym Chap. ii. p. 322. — Population, ^c. Chap. iii. p. 323. — Manners and Cufloms.-^-^ Cities and Towns ; Aleppo^ Damafius, Smyrna^ Prufoy Angora f^^ohctt^ Ba£oray Bagdad, Jerufalem. — Manufa&ures. Chap. iv. p. 325. — Climate and Seajons. — Face of the Coutt'* try. — fivers; Euphrates, Tigris, Halys, Maander, Oron- tes, ^c. — Lakes; Dead Sea. — Mountains; Taurus, Ara^ rat, Lebanon, Olympus, Ida.— -Fore/Is . — Botany. -^Zoology. -—Mineralogy. — Mineral Waters. — IJlands j Lejbos^ Chios, Samos, Rhodes, Cyprus. llussjA in Asia, Chap. i. p. 331. — Extent. — Boundaries. — Ori~ ginal Population. — Names. — Progrejftve Geography.'-^ , Hiftorical Epochs. — Antiquities. Chap. ii. p. 334. — Religion. — Government.— 'Population, Chap. iii. p. 335. — Manners and Cujloms, Monguls, Kal- muks. — Language. — Cities and Towns; AJlracan, Tobol/k^ ^c. — Manufailures. — Commerce. Chap. iv. p. 339. — Climate and Seafons Face of the Coun» try. — Soil and Agriculture. — Rivers; Ob, fentjei, Selinga^ Lena, Onon,^c.— Lakes. — Mountains ; of Altai, of Ner.- fhink, of Caucafus. — Forejls. — Steps. — Botany. — Zoology, — Mineralogy; Gold, Copper, Iron, Topaz, Beryl, Jafper^ Lapis Lazuli. — Mineral Waters. — IJlands. China Proper, Chap. i. p. 350. — Names. — Extent.-— Original Population. — Progreffive Geography. — Ht/lorical Epochs, — Antiquities ; great Wall. Chap. ii. p. 352. — Religion. — Government.— -Laws, --^ Population. — Political Importance. Chap. iii. p. 355. — Manners and Cufloms. — Language.—-^ Education. — Cities and Towns ; Pekin, Nankin, Canton, — Edifices. — Roads. — Inland Navigation.— Manufac^ tures and Commerce. Chap. iv. p. 359. — Climate and Seafons Face of the Coun*. try. — Agriculture. — Rivers; Hoan-ho, Kian ku.— Lakes, — Mountains. — For efts. —Botany. — Zoology,— ^ Minera- logy. — IJlands ; Formofa, '• • ^ Chinese Tatary, Chap. i. p. 363.— JVaw^j. — Extent. — Original • ^ Population, — Progriffive Geography. — Hijlorical Epochs, — Antiquities, Chap. ii. p. 365. — Religion, — Government. — Population,—^ ' Diviftons : Mandftjurs, Ccreans, Alonguls. — Army. Chap. iii. p. 366. — Manners and Cujloms. — Language,'-^ Literatttre. — Cities and Towns; Cnjhgar, Turfan, ^c— Trade. Chinese Tat^rt, Chap. iv. p. i69.— Climate,— Face of the Coun- xvi CONTENTS. f ty)\— 'Agriculture. — Rivers; Amm'^ tsfe.—^Lakes.--^ Mountains. — Botany. — Zoology. •— 'Mineralogy, — IJle of Sagalian, Tibet, p. 371. — Names. —'Extent. — Boundaries and Provinces.— ^ Progreffive Geography. •■ — Hijlory. — Religion.'— 'Govern" ntent. — Revenues. — Manners and Cujloms. — Language, — Cities and Tovtns. — Edifices. — ManufaSlures. -—Trade, — Climate.— 'Face of the Country. — Rivers ; Berhampooterf Gagra, ^c. — Lakes. — Mountains. — Fore/Is. — Zoologys fait Mufk Deer^ ^c.—^ Mineralogy i Tincal, Japan, Chap.i. p. 379- — Names. — Extent. — Progrejftve Geography, — Hijlorical Epochs. — Antiquities. Chap. ii. p. 381 . — Religion. — Government. — Laws. — Population. — Colonies. — Army. — Revenues. Chap. iii. p. 384. — Manners and Cujloms. — Language.'— Literature.'^ Education. — Cities and Towns j Jedo^ Miaco^ Nagafahi. — Manufadlures and Commerce, Chap. iv. p. 2^1 '-^Climate and Seafons. — Face of the Coun- try. — Agriculture. Rivers. — Lakes, — Mountains. — • Volcauces.-r-'Botavy. — Zoology. — Mineralogy; Goldj Sil' vert Copper, BiHMAN Empirf., Chap. i. p. 390. — Name. — Extent and Bounda- ries. — Original Population , — Progressive Geography.'— Hijlory. Chap. ii. p 393. — Religion.— Laws.— 'Government. — Popu- lation — Army and Navy.— Revenue. — Political Importance. Chap. iii. p. 395. — Alanners and Cujloms. — Language and Literature. — Cities; Ummerapoora, Ava, PegUf Rangoon j l^c. — Edifices. — ManufaHures, — Commerce. Chap. iv. p. 398. — Climate and Seafons. — Face of the Coun- try. — Rivers. — Mountains, — Fore/Is. — Botany. — Zoo- . logy^ — Mineralogy: Rttby^ Sapphire. MalATA or Malacca, p. J^oi.— Progreffive Geography. — Name.— . Language. — Produ^s.'— City of Malacca. — Manners and Cufioms. — Andaman I/lands. — Nicobar Ifles, Sum, Chap. i. p. 40^.'— Name. — Extent and Boundaries, — Pro- greffive Geography. — Hifiorical Epochs. Chap. ii. p. 406. — Religion. — Government. — Laws.—Popu- , , : j tation. — Army.— Navy. — Revenue. — Political Importance, Chap. ill. p. 407. — Manners and Cufioms, — Language.— Literature. — Cities and Towns. — Edifices. — Manufac- tures and Commerce. Chap. iv. p. 410. — Climate and Seafons, — Face of the Cotitt" try. — Soil. — Agriculture. — Rivers. — Mountains, — Zco- logy, — Mineralogy.— Laos. — Cambodia,— Siampa,'— Co- chin China. — Tunquin, HinDOSTAN; Introduction, p. 414. — General Geography.'— -Gene" rat Divifions ; Gangetic Hindofian^ Sindetict Central and Southern. — Political Divifions ; Briti/h Pojfeffions, Britijb Allies, Maratta States, Soubah of the Deccan, Seih, •■ .,; ^:r- '•■ m'- '-"■*' - HiN- CONTENTS XT» riiNDOSTANt Chap.i. p.418. — Name, — Boundaries, — • Original Population, -^ProgrejUlve Geography.— 'HiJiory'-^ChronO'' logy. — Hijlorical Epochs. — Ancient Monuments, — Mytho' s r vn logy,— ^Religion. — Government.-— Laws.— Population,-^ ^, *■ Revenues. — Political Importance.— ^Manners and Cujloms, • . r; \ - — Languages. — Literature, — Univerfities. — Manufac* j,t^„ tures, — Climate and Seafons.—Face of the Country. ^—^Soil, — Rivers i GangeSfBurrampooter,Jemma, Indus iGodaveri, V. i Nerl/udda, Ki/lna, isfc. — Lakes.— ^Mountains,— Fore/Is.— .1. Botany. — Zoology; Elephant, Tiger.— Mineralogy, Dia-' . mond Mines, — Natural Curiofities, Chap.ii. p.437. (Gangetic Hindoftan.) — Extent and Divi- "■- , fons. — Briti/h Pojfeffions. — Revenue. — Government.— At" my.— Cities and Towns ; Calcutta, Dacca, Patna, Benares, Delhi. Chap. ill. p.440. (SIndetic Hindoftan.) — Extent,— Cities: and Towns ; Sirhind, Lahore, Cafljmir, Tatta, Chap.iv. p.443. (Central Hindoftan. )—J?o««/.—C/riVx. and Towns ; Amedabad, Surat, Bombay. — Pirates. Chap.v. p.445. (Southern Hindoftan.) — Boundaries,—^ Briti/h Pojfejftons. — Cities and Towns; Seringapntam, Call* cut, Madras, Arcot, Cochin, Goa, Hydrabad, ^c. Ceylon, p.447. — Extent and Names. — Religion. — Pcpulation.—* Manners and Cujloms. — Towns; Kandi, Columbo, Trin- eomali. — Manujfaflures. —Climate. — Rivers. — —Mountains.^ — Deferts.— Fore/Is. — Botany. — Zoology.— Mineralogy. — Mineral Waters, —■■ Natural Curiofities ; Naphtlni Springs at Baku, Independent Tatary, Chap.i. (General Obfervations.) p. 47 2. . . *' ^ v.'i Name, — Extent. — Divijions.—v Progrejfive Geography, t- Modern Geography. -^ — Towns. -— Hijlory,— ^Religion. Chap.ii, (Defcription.) p.47j. — Kirgufes; Stepp of Ijftm. Manners and Cujhms, Trade, Hifiory.—IChari/m. — Great — ..vj, Bucharia; Extent and Boundaries, Hijlory, Religion, ,ag\jtv*&^ii Manners aftd Cujloms, Provinces^ Cities, Samarkand, ,'ViV!*\ . J|:^ , ., , Bokhara, V if* XvlU CONTENTS. ^AMp-^ jSolharot Balk, tsfe, — ManufaEiuteSi Climate^ Rivers, jium, Sirr, SsV-.; Lakes, Mountains, Belttr, Hindoo Kohs Mineralogy, CharaBer of the Country and People. ARABIA) Chap.i. p. 484. — Boundaries,— Population. — Progrefflve Geography. '-^Hifiorical Epochs, — Religion.— Government, -i' • .: , > „^ Manners and CuJioms.'-'Drefs. — Language,'-^duea» .>>i*:--^ tion, -— Cities and Towns; Mecca, Medina, Jedda.—^ ■ Edijices. — ■ MamtfaBures. — 'Commerce. Chap. ii. p. 49 1. — Climate and Seafons.—^Face of the Country* "•'• ■ '~'- — Soil and Agriculture. — Rivers,-— Mountains, Deferts.-^m .' Botany, — Zoology.'—Mineralogy. --'Natural Curiojities,^^ yies; Socotra, Bahrin. Asiatic Islands {Introc!u£lion.)» P'495' — Boundaries and Extent, '—Aufiralafta. — Polynefta, Ifles of Sunda, p.497. — Sumatra,^— Banca—Najau I/les.—^ • "' Java, Batavia. — Madura, Borneo, p. 501. ■ .4..: ., Manillas, p.502 — Luzon, Manilla.^ MinJano. — Pula» wain, ^c. Celebezian Ifles, p. 503. — Celebez, — Sanguy.—Bouta/t.—^ * ■ Sola. Spice Iflands, p.504.— G/7c/(j. — Ceram. — Bouro'-^Myfol,'— *"" .. ' Ouh: .'-Batchian. — Mctir. — Tidore. — Ternat. — Amboyna, •:••'*'-' —Banda. Australasia, P.50S. — Neiv ihlland; Englifj Colony, Natives; ClimntP and Seafons, Zoology, — Papua, or New Guinea; Population, Birds of Paradife. — New Britain, New Ire., "' ^ land, Solomon IJles. — New Caledonia. — New Zealand; Manners and Cujloms, — Van Dieman*s Land, Polynesia, p. 5 18. — Pelew Ifles. — Ladrones. — Carolines. — Sand-* wich Ifles ; Manners, Climate, Zoology. — Marque/as. — ' Society Ifles ; Oiaheite; Natives, Religion, Zoology, Mine- -u'V ,..;; ralogy, ^c; Eajler IJland. — Friendly IJles ; Tongataboo, IJles of Navigators. — Botanfofthe A/iatic Ifles, AMERICA, p.530. — Extent, — Progrejive Difcovery and Settle- ments. --7- Population. North America, p. 535. — Boundaries, — Original Population.— > Language.- — Progrefftve Geography . — Religion. — Climate,. •—Inland Seas ; Gulf of Mexico, of California, of St. Law- "" ranee, Hudfon's Sea, Davis* s Gulf. — Laket of Canada, ,1..;^,. Slave Lake, ^c. — Rivers; MiffiJJippi, Mijpiuri, Ohio, St'.Lawence, t5'f.'= — Mountains; Stony Mountains, Apa- lachian, l5?c. United States, Chap.i. p. 543. — DiviJtons.-^-^Boundaries — Ori» ginal Population — Hiflorical Epochs, Chap. ii. p. 54^. — Religion. — Government,— Laws,'^PopU' lation, — Army, — Navy,— ^Revenue.— Political Importattee. Chap.iii. p. 548. — Manners and Cufioms,— Language, — Literaturef—'Univerfiti€S»'^itietand Jnvn/i Wajhingtony Phila^ s -•;ntt.iS';/v. / CONTENTS. SIS • P«/tf- ZettU' \tion.—-' \.Laiu''' lanadaf \y OhiOy Ape ■OrU -PopU" Xrtatwe. ingtorty \Pbila^. \ - ** .,;.-; f Thila^elph'iat New Tork, BoJIott^ ^altitnore.'^CharlJfownp • r \a <. (sfc. — Edific(S,--~ Inland Navigation^'—Manufa^ures,-—* Commerce. United States, Chap.iv. p.553.— CA'nw/^.^— S^^«x.— i^'-aw of the Country. — Soil, — Agriculture, ^ — Rivers; Hud/on, Delaware, Pafomai, — Lahei,^-^ Mountains,^- Forejls and ... Swamps. — Botany. — Zoology, — Mineralogy. •^^ Mineral Waters. — NaturtU Curiojities, — IJlands. Spanish Dominions in North America, Chap.i. p.551.— Boundaries a nd Diviftons. — Original Population, -^Hi/lo^ rical Epochs ,• of Mexico^ of Cal^ornia, ^ Louiftana, efthe Fhridas. — Antiquities. ■■'■' •, Chap. ii. p« 5 7 *• — Religion. — Government. — Population,-'^ Army, Revenue, tsfc. — Political Importance, Qlaz'p.\\\,^.^Zo.—~Manners and Cujlonu. •— Language.— » Cities; Mexico, Guatirnala, Acapulco, ^c.-^Edifces.--* ManufaElures and Commerce, Chap. iv. ^.612*— Climate and Seafons.—-Face of the Country, '—Rivers; Rio Bravo, Guadalapcara. — Lakes. — Mouji-^ tains.-^Botany.-- merce. — Zoology. — Botany. — Mineralogy; Silver, Met-., cury, Platina, (ffc. — Natural Curiofities. Portuguese Dominions, p. 735* — Brazil, — Rio Janeiro.— Dia-^ monds.— Botany. French Dominions, p. 737. DtJTCH Dominions, p. 738. — Guiana.— -Paramaribo,'— Demarara, Natives Tribes, p. 739. Islands, p. 741. — Juan Fernandes, — Chiloe, — Falkland IJles, — Afcenhn I/le* II AFRICA, .«« XX- CONTENTS. AFRICA , p. 742. —-Extent. — Orighial Populat'iott. — . Progrejftve Geography. — Religion. — Rivers; Ni/e, Nigir^- Seriegal.-— Mountains; Atlas, Egyptian Mount ainst Abyffmian Moun- tains. ^—Def arts.' Abyssinia, p. 748. — Eatent. — Original Population. — Progreffive Geography. — Religion. — Manners and Cujioms.—Citels ; Gondar, Axum. — Climate and Sea/ons, — Rivers. — Lakes of Dewhea and Zaivja. — Mountains, — Botany. — Zoology and Mineralogy. J Egypt, p. 752. — Extent. — Religion. — Manners and Cujloms.—^ Cities ; CairOi Alexandrioy i!fc. — Cotnmerce. — Climate. — Face of the Country. — Rivers.-— Lakes ; Alenzaleh, Berelos, •»-»^« oj" Natron f isfc. — Mountains. — Botany. — Zoology. — Ethiopia or Nubia. Northern States, p. ']^'j.— -'Tripoli. — Tunis.— -Algier. — Morocco. — Botany. "Western Coast, p. 761. — Jalofst Foulahs, ^c. — Slave Coajl ; Be7iin. — Loango. — Congo. — Botany. Cape of Good Hope, p. 763. — Extent and Population. — General Defer ipt ion. — Botany^ isfr. Eastern Coast, p. 765.' — Natal. — Delagoa. — Mocaranga.—^ Mozumbiquc. — Zanguebar. — Adel. Madagascar, p. 767. — Extent. — Natural ProduHions. — Inhabi- tants, Manners and Ciijloms. — Botany. Smaller African Islands, p. 7<59. — Pemba. — Comoro. — Mauri- tius. — Bourdour. — Kergnelen^s Land. — St. Helena Afcenftou. — Zt. Thomas. — Cape Verd JJJes. — Canaries, Madeira, Azores. Discoveries and Conjectures concerning the central Parts ov Ai rjca, p. 773. — Travels of Park and Broicne^ Ptclemfs Mapy l^c, — Olfiaclcs to JXf cover y. .-l-tci •/ A »%.^ •v^ •M^ '%4 jy / ■^ 'J:.. K'> INTRO. ogrejjlve legal.— '■ Moutt' ^grejlve 'Citelsi -Lakes Zoology . .,..■■♦ 'omt,—' nate.—^ 3erelos, . 'gy- ~ ^orocco. Coajl; ^eneral la. nhabi- lauri' ^i. a. — aricsy PR AT. n^r^^i00^9ff^' 10- 9 ffi~<*J m ilMHiili ' I\ /i (- 13^ - — ' y ^ **' Sk ■ ; ■M I"'* I- 1 : ?J ,t; 1 1- . n . ..1... \ ^ :/1 rsa: ' iNf iiGDtJcf ic)iT id MAtHEMAtldAL AND CRITIGAIi dEOGRAMt* tRAilBtATED FROM THE FRENCH Off fe.F.LACROiXi • Gfe66RAPliY is diyipears id the J. \n thff jrt of fets;f JiguiHi Ech i< (kable Itmarkable from Us apparent immobility ; fome migbf ren be fee "o complete the circle, if the light of the fun by eflFaciiig heir luftre id not caule them to difappear. As all the ftars appear to revolve in the fame direftion round one point, we are immediately led to confider this point as the centre of a motion common to all the ccleftial bodies, and in which the fun himfelf partakes, fince he revolves in the fame direftion as the ftars. This was for a long time the opinion of aftronomers ; they fuppofed the fun and ftars attached to a folid vault which carried them with it in its revolu* tion round the earth, in the fpace of twenty-four hours. When it was dilicovered that all the cekftial bodies were not at the fame diftance from the earth, and tl.at many of them approached and receded fucceflively at certain periods, it became requifite to reform the preceding conjec- ture, and at length they began to imagine that the general motion of the ftfirs might be only an appearance produced by the real motion of the earth in a contrary diredlioii, round a diameter or axis which if pro- longed would pafs through that ftar wh'ch appeared ftationary. In faft, when we are in a boat pafling iinilormly, and no abrupt mo- tion reminds us that we are changing our fituation, it is the objects on the bank that appear to mov? in a contrary diretrtion. We may, there- fore, ealily attribute the motion which we obferve in the fun and ftars to the earth, and this explanation, which its fimplicily alone renders' extremely probable, is confirmed by the exaft analyfis of the phe- nomena, and by the coincidence of the refults we obtain from it with* obfervation. t. The point round which the heavenly bodies appear to move, i* called the celejiial pole s the ftar which indicates it, and which is very near it, is the polar Jlar ; the axis of the earth being direfted to this point, marks on the furface of our globe two oppofite points, which are the terrejlrial poles ,• that which correfponds to the polar ftar is called the north or arSicpoht and the oppofite one \.\\s/outh or antardic pole. That point of the horizon which is below the north pole is called tie north, the oppofite fide is thefou(h. If we fuppofe a circle to pafs through thefe two points the plane of which fliall be perpendicular to the horizon, it will neceiferily paf» through the two poles ; this circle is called by aftronomers the mfridian g it divides the celellial hemifphere abo\re the horizon into two equal parts^ fo that the ftars which are obfervcd on this circle are in the middle of their apparent courfe, and it is the tranfit of ths fun over this circle tliat marks the moment of noon. The line whicli joins the north and fouth points of the horizon is called the meridian line ; if we draw a litie perpendicular to it, and fup- pofe it prolonged on both fides till it meets the horizon, it marks on this circle two oppofite points, which are called the ett/i and we/l, OP thepoints of rylng ^ndjettifij. Tliefe latter denominations are intended to fignify that one of thefc points is on the fide where the heavenly bodies appear to begin their daily courfe or ri/e, and that the other is on the fide where they feem to pafs below the fame circle, or to fet, and that their apparent diurnal motion is direfted from eaft to weft. It is proper to remark that when we look towards the foutb> th^ weft is on our right and the eaft on tmr left ; and if we mark on a ho- rizontal plane two points in the diredion of the polar ftar, they will b a d«terinioe MHKi W INTRODUCTIOI^. dcterisiino a line which will differ but little from the meridian line, t fliall give hereafter the meana of tracing it corrcAly. 4. ^o comprehend with precifion the remarks contained in the pre', ceding fedions, it is neceffary to have recourfe to a figure. The circle M£NO, fig. ^. reprefeuts the horizon, in the centre of which, the oblerver A is placed j £CDt B'C'D* are portions of the circle which the heavenly bodies fcem to defcribe round the celeftial pole. Thole whole diftance from the pole is lefs than the arc PNi vrhich marks the elevation of this point above the horizon, appear to defcribe entire circles, fuch as GHIK; N is the north point of the horizon, M the fouth ; and confcquently MN is the meridian line. The femicircle MZNf the plane of which is fuppofed to be perpen- dicular to the horizon AIENOt and which pafles through the points ilf A^ is the cekilial meridian, which divides the arcs BCD, B'C'D' into two equal parts, at the points C C\ The point £ is the eaft point of the horizon, and the point 6 the weft ; the heavenly bodies ieem to move from £ towards 0,'and to paft in the middle of their courfe through fome point of the circle MZN. $. Thefe appearances are now to be explained, and to comprehend the fubje£t properly the reader ihould imagine himfelf removed from the earth, and confider it only as a globe placed in the midft of fpace fuppofed to be indefinitely extended in every dire£lion. Figures, reprefents the terreftrial globe infulated ; the point ^ il the fuppofed place of the obferver, £MON his horizon, and the flraight line PP' defignates the axis round which the earth performs its, motion of rotation from weft to eaft. It is evident that the horizon of the obferver turning with him during the rotation of the globe advances succeifively towards the ftars fituated in the direction of its motion, which confequeutly feem to be moving in an pppofite direction to approach him. The plane MZN of the meridian line NM perpendicular to the hori- zontal plane ENOM turns alfo with this latter, and direfls itfelf fuc-^ ceflively towards the fame ftars which are then in the middle of the courfe which they feem to defcribe above the horizon. When the weftern edge of the horizon touches a ftar it appears to let, and ceafes to be vifible till the motion of the earth brings the eaftern edge of the horizon to it ; becaufe during this interval the vifual ray* which touch the earth pafs above the ftar. This^explanation then applies to the phenomena which take place, ia the moft corre£t and fimple manner, and accounts perfe6tly for the dailf appearance and difappearance of the celeftial bodies, by which circiim* ftance the fun produces the alteration of day and night. 6. A remarK very important to be made is, that all the motions allud-. cd to in the preceding fedions are onl^ meafured by their angles, without any confideration of their abfolute diftanceSf In fa(£t when a ftar. Ft after having appeared in the direftion of the vifual ray ^F in the plane of the horizon, is obferved in the diredion of the ray ^F', in the plane of the meridian, the fpedator has only obferved the angular fpace contained between the two ftraight lines jIJF and jIF'i an^ wiiich appears to include an arc of a circle in the heavens* whofe radiua it is impoflible to eftimate. It follows from this remark, that we mayi when we are confiderine t\\t ftars, fubftitutc inftead of the tangent plane ^ATOilf a parrild plane pafling through the centre of the earth j for when a ftar placed at INTRODUCTION. ▼ «t G would appear in that horizon which is a tangent to the point yf, an obferver placed at the centre of the earth, ieeing the fame ftar on the line C G, would behold it elevated only "by the angle € G«, which is fo much the fmailer as the point G is farther remoytja* as we fee by the point G. Now the diitance of the cele.i^ial bodies ifi fo great that this angle is infenfible with regard to snoft of ^thein, and very fmall for the others. After what has been faid^ we may be allowed to fubftitute lig 4,. inilead of the preceding; but let the plane £ A^ il/ pafling through the centre of the earth parallel to the plane which reaches it at w^, or which is the fame thing, perpendicular to the radius C/i drawn front this point to the centre ot the earth, be taken for the horizontal p]ane» relatively to the ftars. Snppofe the plane MZN of the meridian to be prolonged indeBnitely round £7, the centre of the earth, through which It mull pafs, fince it is drawn through the axis PP', It marks then on the terreftrial furface a circle PAP* pafling through the poles, which is called the meridian of the point A, and of al) the points fituatcd on its circumference. The horizon E NO Mi» called the rational Aorixon, to diftinguilh it from that which is a tangent to the furface of the earth, and is called the /ettfilie hori%on. The point Z, which is the point of the heavens perpendicularly over the head of the obferver is called the %enithy and from the fphericity of ■ the earth the line CZ prolonged downwards indicates another point Z' Vhich is called the nadtrt it is oppofitc to the Hrll, and is the zenith of (the place A'^ which is diametrically oppofitc to A* The poiition of the right line ZA' which is called the vertical, is ii)* dicated on the earth by the direction of the fall of heavy bodies* as that of the horizontal plane is by the furface of a ilagnant fluid of fmall extient, to which the vertical or line marked by a plumb-line, is perpendicular. As the action of gravity tends every where towards the interior of the earth, it afts at A' according to the dire^ion Z' A' oppolite to ZA ; )>odie8 at this place fall therefore to the furface of the earth on which men are retained by their weight ; thofe who arc at A' having their feet oppofite to thofe at /f , are the antipodes of the latter^ 7. Ihe at,tentive obfervation ,of theceleftial bodies foon caufed them to be diftinguifhed in,to two j:lafles, one of which always preferve the fame dillance and arrangement among themfelves, and only feem to be affeAed by the apparent motion which refults from the rotation of the earth on its axis; the others have a motion of their own, relatively both to each other and to the firft -mentioned clafs. Thcfe are QT^tkjixed ftars, or fimply ftars ; the others are fubdivided into different cta/fes, namely, //tfitf/i, fubje& to motion^ the periods of wtiich are known, and eometst the times of the appearance and diifi^ppearance of which vary. Thefe are generally envetope,d in a paie and diffufed light, which fometime« furrounds them in the form of f croM^n, and Cbnvetimes followa them in a long train of light. The obfervation of the fixed ft '.rs is one of the moft iimple means of knowing (he relative pofition of places fituatted on the fame meridian, and fulty confirms what 'was advanced in the fccond fe£lio{i concerning the fpherical form of the earth. 8. After the dej^nition that has been given of the horizon, it may be eafily comprehended that it (hould chapge its pofition relatively to the ftars, when the obferver changes his place. If he moves, for example, fjova A to jV fig* 5. going diredlly north 9r fouth, following the dircc* * ■ b 3 tiui^ •1 INTRODUCTION. l: ' tion of the meridian, the horizontal viFual ray wliich was NM will be- come N'M', fo that a ftar E pUced o;i the prolong itiou of this ray, will be elevated above the horizontal ray N' M to A' by the angle £CM't equal to that formed by the radii CA and C'A' drawn to the centre of the earth. In fad the angles yiCM and J' CM being right angles (feftlon 6.)» if we fubtraft the common angle MCA\ the remainder MCM' and ^'C^ will be equal. It wns by this means that Poflidonius having remarked that a very brilliant ftar, known by the name of Canopus, appeared in the horizou at Rhodes, and was elevated above it by a 48lh part of the circle, or 7 1 at Alexandria in Egypt, concluded that Rhodes was feparated from Alexandria by a 4yta part of tl\e circle, in the diredion of the meridian. The Greek philofopher alfo made this important dedudion from the fame obfervation ; that the diftaiice from Alexandria to Rhodes being known in linear meafure, and the proportion that the arc of the meridiaj\ included between thefe two cities bore to the whole circumfeicnce, the length of the circumference of the earth expreffed alfo in linear meafure might be known. . From the length of the voyage, and the fpace that a velTel could pafa over in a day, the diftance between Alexandria and Rhodes was eftimated at 3,750 ftadia, this diftance repeated 48 times produced 180,000 ftadia for the circumference of the earth. The accuracy of this refult cannot be afcertained, becaufe the value of the ftadium in- which it is expreffed is unknown, and bcfides it '\% founded on rather vague eftimations ; but the principle is the fame on which the moft exad determinations of the prcfent day are founded. It is always required to find what is the proportion between the arc jtl^f of the meridian paffing through the two points of obfervatioti, and the whole circumference ; the linear diftance between the two placei is afterwards meafured. 9. By this* obfervation we arc enabled to compare a place y/ with another place ji', but to determine abfolutely the pofttion of thefe pointS| it is neceffary to alTume a fixed term of comparifon. For this purpofo we fuppofe a plane to pafa through the centre of the 'earth perpendicular to its axis of rotation, which marks on its cir^ cumfcrence a circle dEF^ fig. 6, of which all the points are at an equal diftance from the poles Pand P', and which is called the equator. To a fpedator placed on this circle the two poles are in the horizon, but as lie recedes from it to approach one of the poles, this one becomes ele- vated while the other is dcprclfed. Thus at A fig. 5 . the pole P appears elevated above the horizon, by the angular quantity PCNt and at y/ the angle i* augmented by NCN' and becomes PCN. The oppufite pole P' is dt-proffud on tlic contrary below the horizoa by the angle MCM' equal to NCN\ the angles being vertical. The angle which meafures tlie elcvati«)n of the pole above the hori- zon is equal to that which meafures the angular diftance of a place from the equator, eftimated in the diredion of the meridian. To afcertain this, il is fufBcient to obferve that the angles ylCN and GCPt fig. 6, being right angles, if we fubtrad the common angle jlCP, the remainders ACG and NCP will be equal. It may be feen alfo by the fame iigure tlvat MCGt the height at which the equator «pp«'ar3 above the horizon, is the complement of the angle jfCG. As foon then as the height of the pole above tlic horizon can be de- termined for any placci the angular diftance of this place from the equator INTRODUCTION. vu equator is known^ or the number of parts of the meridian intercepted between this place and the horizon. lO. The circumpolar ftars, which never fet in thofe places where one of the poles is elevated above the horizon, determine this im- tnediately. For, fince they appear to defcribe circles round the celeftial pole, they are equally diftant from it in every direAion, and as they pafs twice over the meridian during the diurnal revolution of the earth, namely, once above the pole and once below it, if we mi-ature their angular elevation in each of thefe pofitious, and take the mean of thefe two refuUs, we Hiall obtain the elevation of the pole. This is /hewn in fig. 7 ; vvheji the ftar partes the meridian above the pole, its angular elevation above the horizon is EON ; when it is at E' below the pole its angular elevation is E'ON. The angles EOP and E'OP Being equal, the angle PON is the mean between EON and E'ON, and is equal, confequently, to half their fum. Moreover, if we take half the difference EOE' of the angles EON and E'ON raeafured between the ftar and the horizon, we fhall obtain the angle EOP^ which will give the angular diftance between the obferved ftar and the celef- tial pole. ' Thus by meafuring, for example, at Paris, during a long winter's night, the two meridian heights of the polar ftar, we find *, When it pafles above the pole - - 50® When it pafles below the pole - "47 1 f nearly Their fum being The half 97 4a ;t 48 51 • f». will be the height of the pole above the horizon of Paris, or the dif- tance of this City from the equator. If, on the contrary, we fubtra6^ 47® 5' from ^6^ 37' we fhall find for their difference 3" 32' of which the half i" 46' will give the dif- tance of the polar ftar from the pole, which, we find, does not exaflly occupy this point, but is only very near to it. II. The knowledge of the diftance of a place on the* earth from the equator, is not fulRcient to determine the pofition of tho place, becaufe' the fame diftance will agree with all the points 'fituated on tlie inter« fedtion of the fphere and a plane parallel to the equator, which irtter- fcAion gives a circle parallel to the equator, but of which the radhit is fmaller, and which for this reafon is called a le/fer circle. All the points of this circle can only be diftingnifhtd by their meridians, which are different for each of them, and the obfervation of the celeftial motions aft'ords the means of afcertaining them. The planes of the different meridians Pj1P\ PLP\ PMP\ &c. fig. 8, ail tnterfe^ each other in the axis PP\ and tumii.g upon this line correfpond fucceffivcly to the fame ftar, and between the paffage of the fame ftar over aivy two meridians, a period of time elapfes which is to the whole time of rotation as the angle made 1)^ thefe meridians ' • Convinced that »he defcrlption of 11ftronomic.1I lnftnithenf< it lUtcrty !nra|HiMe of Cflti'i^ying any idea topeii'unt who have iiwer Iceii ihrm, I have tliuup.ht it udvilibU not to introducf any in thii introdu^Uoii. Bcfidrs the form of thefe iitftrumenti, the objeme account of thefe motions. 13. BcHdei the diurnal motion which the fun has in common with the nars during the courfe of the year, he feems to advance alternrtelv towards one or other of the poles ; moreover, if we compare him with %\\t ftars, by obfcrving one which fets a little time after him, we fin^ that thp interval between thefe two phenomena diniinifhes every eyening» and Wf fpon ceufe to perceive the ftar, being effaced by the light of the fun, which conftquently is aavanced towards thp eaft ; a few days, afterwards the fame ftar reappears in the eaft a fliort time before fun rife ; the interval between his rifin^ and that of the ftar augfnent^ every day, and aft^ i^ period of about 365 days the ftar and the fun are founo to be in the fande relative pofition in which they were originally ob« fenred. The fun th) n appears to be influenced by two motions, one whofe direction is fr()m fouth to north, then from north to fouth» anc^ tke other fram the weft towards the eaft. ^ Thcf^ INTRODUCTION. Thefe appearances mav be explained with great fimplicity, by ^^tributin? to the fun one inotion alqne, whic;h is 'repeated every year or ftnHualtyt and which is performed in a plane inclined to the axis of the farth, fincc he approaches both the poles alternately. But the cir- fiumftances of the motion pf the other planets do not yield readily to ^ny plauftble explanation, when we cpnfider thefe bodies as moving round the earth ; whereas by fuppo^ng theqj to move round the fun, and by attributing alfo to the earth the apparent annual motion of this body, the combination of thefe two al^folute motioi^s, eives to each of the pli|nets, as feen from the earth, a relative motion, which agrees perfedly with all the phenopnena they prefent,, apd is capable of Explaining them witl) the greateft precifion. It was by this means that Copernicus reftored to the fyftem of the world the fimplicity and cor^eftnefs which Jt had entirely loft by the inuhiplied efforts which the partizans of the theory which fuppofed the earth immoveable, had made after Ptolemy, to explain how the planets fhould appear fometinies ftationary, and at others change their 4ire6tipu. Copernicus fnppnfed then, that at the fame time that the earth turned on its axis from weft to eaft in the interval of a day, (fedtibn 5) it w;is carried in fpace from eaft to weft, making an entire revolution round tiie fun in a plane inclined to the equator, during the interval of p y<-ir. \''^e have every day before our eyes a multitude of examples of thefe two fimultaneous inotions in the fame body. The top with which dv.ldreq a:rKr\^t: themfelves is one of the moft familiar ; whik- it turns rapidly upon the iron peg that paffes through it, and whi^u forms its axis, it aU'o defcribes on the ground various curves, which depend on the manner in which it was originally pro- jeded ; a bowJ that has hteti ftrtj»,k in a diredtion not pafling through its centre, acquires a rotatory niuiion on itfelf, befides the progreflive inotion which refults fron> the impuUion it received. — Thefe elucida* tions ought to fufiice to render intelligible what follows concerning the two motions of the earth. i^ To conceive how the phenomena of the fun's apparent change of place are produced by the annual motion of the earth, it is only requifite to obferve the confequences produced by the parallelifi^ which |ts axis preferves in all the pontions it fucceflively occupies. This axis, which is inclined to the plane in which the centre of the earth moves round th; fun, remaining always parallel to itfelf, prefents pUernately each of its extremities, or poles, towards the fun. This may be leen by fig. 9. where the lines PP' parallel to each other reprefent the axis of the earth, and S the centre of the fun. This • parallelifm caufes the pole P, which is neareft to the fun when the jcarth is at Bt to become the moft diftant from it when the earth it 9X D i becaufe, in the Hrft fituation, the inclination of the part BP pf the tcrreftrial axis is turned within the curve ABCD^ while at the point D it is on the outiide of it ; there are two intermediate points^ A and C, in which the axis PP' does not incline either towards the fun or from it ; and the line CSA^ which joins the centres of the fun and earth in thefe two oppoike pnfitions, is perpendicular to its axis PP*, In all the other points of its orbit ABCD^ the terreftrial axis muft neceflarily incline either towards or from the fun ; and as it is thefe $wo pofitions which produce the (cafuns, I (hall confidcr them feii the frigid zones, and are called temperate zones. .I^aftly, the fpace between the tropics, over every point of which tlie fun is vertical twice a year, and to which the rays are alwayi left oblique than to any o^her part of the globe, fuffering on this ac« ^ount a confiderable degree of heat, is called the torrid zone. The conftant prefencc of the fun over this zone, and the force of llis nys, which tall almoft pei-pendicularly upon it, ought at length to eominunicate to the earth a heat fufBciently powerful to extend to the Interior, even as far as the poles, and to produce that uniform tem- perature which is preferved in caves and deep mines, notwithftanding the alterations of heat and cold which ^take place on the furface of the globe, whether by the greater or Icfs degree of obliquity in the rays of ie fun at the different feafons of the year, or by the eff^e6t oi me- teorological phenomena. 30. The ancient geographers eftabliihed a divifion of the earth into tlimatesf founded on the comparative duration of the day and night at the fummer folftice. The firft climate commenced at the equator, where the days, equal to the nights, are each 12 hours, and terminated at tliat parallel of latitude on which the longeft day is i a hours ^p minutes ; the fecond clinriate terminates at the parallel, on which the longeft day is 13 hours, and fo in fucceffion fpr every half hour of increafe in the duration of the fulftitial day, as far as the polar circle, where the day contains 24 hours. After this boundary the difference of plimate was reckoned by months, becaufe each pole paffcs the whole interval tNTRODtJCTlbN. aciii interval between the equinoxes, or fix months in the fun*ff light, and fix months in darknefs ; and the intermediate points arje enlightened for a longer or fliorter time, according to the diftance, they are from the pole. The firft climate, reckoned, by months, terminates at the parallel of latitude placed at the polar circle, all the points of ^hich arc expofed to the fun for a month, and thus on to the pole, where day lafts fix months of the year, and night the other {ix months. " 21. The different diftribution of the feafons in the northern and fouthern hemifplieres, was thtf caufe of t'^e inhabitants of the earth being ranked under denominations which a? > na longer ih ufe, but which' ought to be known, becaufe they are met with fometinAes in rather an- cient authors. The people who are fituated, one to the fouth and the 6ther to the north of the equator, but under the fame meridian and the fame"* latitude in each hemil'phere, are Antacians ; they reckon the fame hour*' at the'fame moment, but are in oppofite feafons. I'hofe who are on the fame fide of the equator, but und.*r opjpofite meridians, are Periacians ; they reckon onpofite hours a^ the ikfne inftant, it being midnight with one when trie others are at noon, and vicr verfat but being both in the fame hemifphere they have the fame feafons. The ancient geographers have alfo eftablifiied a divifion of the in- liabitants of the earth from the fituation of their (hadnws. They called tteterofctansy thofe who are placed in the temperate zone> becaufe their ihadow is always turned towards the pole. ^ Perifclanti thofe who, inhabiting the frigid zones, and enjoying the prefence of the fun during one period of the year for 24 hours, behold this body revolve round their horizon, and projed their ihadow in every dire£iion. Amphiifeians m Af clans ^ the inhabitants of the torrid zone, who(b Ihadowt at noon are alternately projefled towards either pole. By thus turning their attention to confider locrj phenomena, they eftabliih three fituations of thefpherct that is to fay of that aflemblage of Tmrious circles of which I have fpoken, and to which we refer the pofitionsof the ftars. They faid that to the inhabitants df the eauator the pofition of thefe circles was that of a right fpherct becaufe the plane of the circle theu pafling through the zenith is perpendicular to the horizon, and that confequently the ftars, which in their diirnal motion feemed to defcribe circles parallel to the equator, appear to rife anddefcend perpendicularly to the horizon. To the inhabitants from the equator to the poles, as the circle cuts the horizon obliquely* the fphere is oblique, becaufe the diurna) motion of the ftars is inclined to the horizon. Finally, at both poles the ho- rizon is the equator itfelf ; and the ftars feem to move parallel to this circle, the iahabitants, therefore, of thefe two points, have the fphert faraltel. a«. The extent of the zones and climates is determined by the in- clination of the axis of the earth to the plane of the ecliptic ; and this inclination is difcovered by obferving at the fame place^the greateft and leaft altitudes of the fun, when it pafles the meridian at the iummer and winter folftice. For fincc it deviates equally on each fide the equator, at both thefe periods the points of the equator ought to pafs the meridian at the mean altitude between the two extreme altitudei of the fun, and their differcoot itit INTRODUCTION. difference is double the angular diflance by which the fun is e!evatcd[ and depreffed above and below the equator ; we determine, therefore, at the fame time this quantity and the pofition of the ^qwator to the horizon, which gives the latitude of the place of obfervation. At Paris, for example, the altitude of the fun above the horizon is 64° 38' at the fummer folftice, and only 17° 42' at the winter folftice. 64° 38' 17 42 The fum of thefe altitudes is The half 82 20 41 10 gives the altitude of the equator above the horizon at Paris, and takingf, the complement to 90^ we find that the dittance from the equator to the zenith or the latitude of Paris is 48° ^o'. Subtracting one from the other. The altitudes We find the difference And the half 640 38' 17 4I 46 23 56 28 gives the arc by which the fun deviates from the equator towards cither pole. This arc, which meafures the angle FOH, fig. lO, meafures alfo that which the plane of the equator and ecliptic make with each other, or the ohltquity of the ecliptic with regard to the equator. . The complement of the angle FOH is the angle POH which mea-^ fures the inclination of the terreft-ial axis OP on ihe plane of the ecliptic reprcfented by the hne St and taking 23° 28' iVora 90° we get 66" 32 . It is to be remarked alfo that the arc IP which meafures the dif- tance of the polar circle IK from the pole P, being the complement of the arc PH, and confequently equal to FH' is 23 28' ; the com- plemetkt 66° 3«' of this arc expreffes the value of the arc /£, or of the latitude of all the points of the polar circle. The latitude of the tropics GH and C H' is equal to tlxe arc EG, and confequently is 23^28'. 23. We may deduce from thefe refults the extent of the different tones. The frigid zones include 23° 28' of latitude on each fide the pole. The temperate zones, or the fpace between the polar circle and the tropic, or between 66° ?2' and 23" 28' of latitude extend 43° 4' ; finally the torrid zone terminated by the tropics at 23** 28' diftance oa each fide the equator, includes 46** ^6' of latitude. From thefe data« by the afliftance of elementary geometry, the fuperficies of thefe zones may eafily be calculated, and it is found that 83, 519, 796, re- prefent refpedlively the frigid zone, the temperate zone, and the torrid zone, or taking the whole area of the globe as unity. The frigid zones occupy The temperate zones The tornd zone Thefe dimenfions are not condant, for obfervation and the calcu- lation of the caufes which produce the planetary motions, have proved that the in«liuation of the terreftrial equator relatively to the ecliptic diminifliet 81 T'On ) 198 TutW INTRODUCTION. %t dimiiuflies every century by 50", till it arrives at a term which is not yet exaftly afcertained, after vvliich it will begin to increafe. 24. It is by the apparent motion of the fun that time has been regu> lated. The duration of the qftronomical day is marked by the period that elapfes between two confecutive tranfits of the fun over the meridian of the fame place : it is divided into 24 hours ; ihe'tropical year is the period between the paffage of the fun through one of the equinoftial points and its return to the fame point ; it includes 365 days 5 hours, 48' 48". As the pofition of the equinoxes on the plane of the ecliptic depends on the iituation of the terreltrial axis, it changes relatively to the ttars in confcquence of a flight motion of this axis, fo that the equino£tial points retrogade about 50" a year, with reference to the liars which conftantly appear to advance this quantity in the direftion of the ecliptic, and this circumftance prolongs a little the annual revolution of the earth, when compared with the liars ; it is then called the Jidereal yeart and its duration is 365 days 6 hours, 9' 12". The revolution of the earth is performed in a period rather lefs than 24 hours, becaufe in this fpace of time the earth not only defcribes one revolution but as much more as is requifite to bring the fame terrellrial meridian to the fun, and which angular fpace is equal to that which it defcribes in the fame time in a contrary direction in its annual revolu- tion round the fun ; fo that the interval between two tranfits of a fixed ftar over the fame meridian which meafures the real duration of the ter- rellrial rotation, is only 23'' 56' 4". From this difference the liars ap* pear to gain upon the fun every day about 4' of time in their tranfit over the meridian. The period of the rotation of the earth is always uniform, but it it not thus with the duration of the day, which is compofed, as we have juft faid, of the time of its rotation, and of tliat which it employs to defcribe round its axis, an angle which compenfates the quantity which it has turned round the fun by the efFcft of its annual motion ; for this other motion which is not performed in a circle but in an ellipfe, of which the fun occupies one of the foci, is not uniform, and takes place in the plane of the ecliptic, which is inclined to that of the equator. From the concurrence of thefe caufcs the duration of the day, compared with that of the rotation of the earth, is fomctimes lefs and fomeiimes greater than 24 hours ; and the ferics of thefe differences conftitutes what is called the equation of time f which mud, in fome feafons be added and in others fubtradled from the hour marked by a clock regulated by thie fun or true time^ to obtain mean timCf to which adronomical tables refer, and by means of which we at prefent calculate with great pre- cifion the motions of the heavenly bodies, and particularly thofe of the fun and moon. 25. The lad mentioned body is confidered as a fatcllite of the earth, becaufe revolving round it, it accompanies the earth in its revolution round the fun. The revolution of the moon round the eartli, when referred to the cquinoAial points is accompHlhed in 27 days 7 hours 43^4"; but when compared with the fun, which during this time appears to advaiwe in the fame direAion, it employs 29 days 1 2 horrs 44' j" to pafs through, the whole circumference of the heavens, with the fpace defcribed by the fun added. This is the fvnodical revolution or the lunar month, Which begins at the moment when the moon is directly between the fun and xn INTRODUCtlOWi and earth, which is called in eonjunaioti: This afpe^ is re^refetiMd (ri fig. 12, where 5 is the fmi, jTthe eartfi, and L the moon. . During this revolution the rpoon affunijes ifelative to the fiin all pof- fible fituations, fron:^ which refult her difftrcnt appearances or phafes { in fa£t, the moon being an i>pake body like all the planets; c^ri. only be feen wh?u (he reflefts to the eavth the lymiuqus rays received from, thp fun, and it is requifite for this that Hie IhouM turn towards us at leaft a portion of that hetnifphlrt whicii being diredly oppofite to the fun is iemightened by ity ^ , The moon then only becomes vifible to iis when having paiied the Soint L' ihe begins to turn tovvrards the edrth a poi-tibn or fegment of er enlightened diflc, which infereafett as fhe feparates from ihe fun t<| pafs to the other fide, Z,^, the iearth then being between the fun and inoon fees the whole enlight,ened hemifphere of the lune> which in thit ftate appears full or in uppqjfition to the fun; > mh The conjunflion and oppofition of the itiobn with regard to the vm* or the new and full moon, are the fyxygies. When the moon is diftani from the fun by a quarter of her orbit, as at IJ and L"i Hie is in quO' jrature ; we then only perceive half her enlightened hemifpheire; It i< called her Bru or laft quartet- accdrd^ing as heir convexity is turned to the well or eaft. 26. This explanation of the phafes of the moon. leemS immediately ful^e^l to a dim'culty which leads to the caufe of eclipfes. We are tempted to believe that the moon ought always, when ihe is in conjun£lion with the fun) to conceal his dilk totally, or at lead par* tially; and when it is in oppofition, to be imUheried in the Ihadow which the earth curries behind it, and ceaHng to be enlightened by thfl fun (hould become invifible. There would take place in the firft cafe an eclipfe of the fun, and in the fecond an eelipfe of the mnoH. Thefe phenomena, in fa£t, often take place under the circumflances I have defcribed, and indeed often in a year ; but they do not happeit at all the new and full moons, becaufe the orbit defcribed by -the moon round the earth not being in the fame plane with that of the earth round the fun, it happens mod frequently that the conjun£^ion of the moon is a little above or below the fun, and a little above or below the fliadovr of the earth at the oppofition. However as the orbit of the moon interfe6ls the ecliptic in two points called nades^ its coniun6tion and oppofition which may happen at the points of her orbit, lometimes take place near the nodes, and then there 18 an eelipfe of the fun or moon. To explain this circumftance better, I have joined to fig. la, which reprefents the orbits of the earth and moon on z »eometrlcei planet fig. i$i which Ihews the feSton ox profile following the line ST* This line ST reprefents the plane of the ecliptic, and LL" that of the lunar orbit» The iufpe6lion of this figure .is fufficient without any explanation to ihew when there will or will not be an eclipfe. fiefides the detail of tbefif circumftances and of the calculation ot eclipfes belongs to aftiuo noRiy, and I have only to fpeak of that fcience as far as regards the ob« fervation of thefe phenomena, for the purpofe of afcertaiuing the Ion* gitude of a place on the earth. 27. It has been already feen ^11) that this depends on the df^Prmin* atioD of the time reckoned at toe fame inftunt in two different^laccs* by the obfervation of au inAantaneous phenomenon that can be obferved at both points. « 7 ' nt ^ INTRODUCTION. s?ii The ecHpfes of the moon accompliih this perfeAly ; for a given point of the lunar dific is immerfed in the earth's fhadow at the fame inftant to all the places where the moon is viiible. And the fpots fcattered over its diik afford the means of making many obfervations during the fame eclipfe, by marking carefully the time of the difappearance of each fpot at its entrance into the Hiadow or smmerjion, and that of itd coming out of the (hadow or emerfion. If the fame obfervations have been made at a place the pofition of which is known, the difference between the time determined at each place by the fame phenomenon gives the difference of longitude. If all the re- fults do not exa£ily agree, the mean muft be taken. It is not always neceflary to have obfervations correfponding to thofe made at the place, the longitude of which is to be determined. If the point is very diftant and has not yet been determined with great preci- fion, the calculations made in good almanacks, fuch as the Gona'tjfance des terns .of the French, or the Nautical Almanack of the Englifh, are fufficiently exadl to fupply the place of thofe obfervations which we are deprived of. It is thus that the eclipfe of the moon on the 30th of July, 1787, obferved by the aftroiromer Beauchamp, at CaJbinCi a place fituated in the vicinity of the Cafpian fea, enabled Mr. Lalande to determine the longitude of that place.. The end of the eclipfe or the total emerfion of the lunar diflc took place at Cafbine at 7" 45' 30" fo^*"" t^™e » And the calculation for Paris gives 4 36 38 The difference 3 8 52 correfj^.onds to the difference of the meridians of Paris and Cafbine. If we convert it into degrees at the rate of 15 to an hour, which gives 15 minutes of a degree for a minute of time, and 15 feconds of a degree for a fecond of time, we find For 3" For 8' For 52" 13' Tota. 47 n nt This, then, reckoning from the meridian of Paris, h the longitude of Cafbine, refulting from the above obfervation. There may be fome uncertainty in this refult, not only oecaufe there was no correfponding obfervation at the place, the longitude of which was known, but alfo, becaufe we cannot be certain withm a few feconda of the phafes of an eclipfe of the moon, and that 4' of time give a mi* nute of a degree. Notwithftanding this imperfedion the obfervation of lunar echpfes ought not to be neglefted whenever an occafion occursy when we travel in a country of which the latitudes and longitudes ar» but little known, becaufe the means of determining the longitude are few, and have all fome degree of uncertainty. FrM» what has been faid the reader fhould comprehend, that if amonKphe planets which, like the earth, dcfcribe orbits round the fun, tnere fhould be any with fatcUites revolving round them, thefe l^odies being in fimilar circumstances to thofe which produce eclipfes of the mooni will be immerfed in the fhadow of their planet ; and if their C difappearance SVUI INTRODUCTION. difappearance and reappearance could be obferv#d iti different placet at the fame time, they would enable us to determine longitudes in the fam« manner as the eclipfes of the moon. This is the important use to geography, that is made of the eclipfei of the four fatellites that accompany Jupiter, a planet remarkable for its magnitude and the brilliance of the light which it reflects to us. There are also two other planets, Saturn and Herfchel, which are ac- companied by fatellites, but their minutenefs and diftance rendering them fcarcely perceptible but in the moft powerful telefcopes ; the obferva* tion oi their eclipfes is hardly pradticable. The utility of the eclipfes of Jupiter's fatellites has induced aftrono- mers not only to obferve affiduouily all thofe which are vifible, but alfo to calculate tables to predift them, with fuch exaftnefs, that, like the lunar eclipfes, the correfponding obfervations are not requifite. 28. The folar eclipfes are alfo employed in the determination of Ion. gitudes ; but the calculation is not fo fimple as for eclipfes of the moon ; they can only be performed by thofe very converfant with aftronomy ; Mr. Lalande, by paying great attention to this fubjeA, has, by means of them, redified the portions of a great many important places. The caufe of the difficulty of this calculation isi that the relative fitu- ations of the fun and moon are not the fame at all the points of the earth where thefe two bodies are fecn at the fame time. What takes place on this occafion may be obferved with the clouds, which, when feen from a particular point, appear under the fun, and caft their fliadow over a limited fpace, out of which the whole diflc of the fun may be feen. A fpedlator on the edge of the Hiadow perceives a part of the fun's disk, and the different appearances* change every inllant by the eSe&. of the relative motions of the fun, the cloud, and the fpe£lator. , To apply the obfervation of an eclipse of the fun to finding the lon- gitude of places, it is requifite to have different phafes determined as tne beginnm^ and end, and from thence deduce the middle ; the data proper to alcertain the refpedtive pofition of the lines traverfed by the centres of the fun and moon during the eclipfe muft be taken from the aflronomical tables, to enable us to calculate the inflant when thefe two bodies were in conjunftion. Knowing the hour when* this happened at a given place, we deduce from the difference of thefe times the dif> ference of longitude. It often happens that the moon eclipfes the fixed flars; and by de- termining from obfervation of the circumflances of this phenomenon, which is called the occultathitt the moment when the centre of the moon is in conjunAion with the flar, which afcertains the abfolute pofition of the moon, we may, either by calculations made for this purpofe in the aftronomical almanacks or by correfponding obfervations, find the time of this conjunction, at a place the pofition of which is knovrn, and the difference of longitude is found as in the preceding cafes. 29. The obicd of all thefe methods, in fa6t, in this: to determine at the place, the longitude of which is required, the pofition of a ce- leflial body at a given inftant, and to deduce from this pofition the time which is reckoned at the fame inftant at a place whofe pofition it known. It may be perceived by this defcription of the probkM^that the celeftial body fhould have relatively to the earth amotion fiqppRitly rapid, that its pofition with regard to the fSxed ftars or other celefHi^ barallel. The angle yiGCt formed as we fee by the diredlion of the iues iu which the ftar would be feen from the centre of the earth, and from a point on its furface, is called parallax. It changes with the altitude of the ftar, and becomes notliing in the zenith, bccaufe the centre C and the , the place ^and the liar arc then all on the fame ftraight line j but it is a maximum in the horizon ; it amounts to 8" 6 for the fun, and for the moon it varies from 54' to 6i' according to its different diftances from the earth. It is the exa«5l determination of thia angle, for the fun and moon, that ha? made us acquainted with the ablolute diftanee of thefe bodies froni the earth, the laws of Kepler, the dillances of the other deduced. The effeft of parallax being contrary to that of refradlion, it muft be added to the obferved altitude to bring it to ; and it fhould be taken into conftdcratioi; as well as refra£tion, in all angles obfcrved or calcu« lated that depend on altitude. It is the difficulty of appreciating the effeft of thefe correftions, on the apparent diftanee of the moon from the fun or ftars, to convert it to the real diftanee, that renders the calculation of the longitude by thi» method fo complicated. When the fituation of a celeftial body, fuch as the fun or moon, whofe difk has a perceptible diameter, is required, it is the limb that wc obferve, and the femidiameter must be addtd or fubtradted from this to get the pofition of the centre ; bccaufe this is the point always given in aftronomical calculations. 32. By the alTiftanceof thefe corrections, for which there are tables ready conftrufted, we can deternunc with precifion the real altitude of « celeftial objedt above the horizon. If we take it on the meridian, and its diftanee from the equator ifl known, we may d<;duce the latitude of the place. The tables of the fun's motion, or the ephcmcridcs of this body, which are previoufty calculated, give its diftanee from the equator, or t/ec/ination, for every day in the ytur. We may therefore find the latitude of a place at any time, becaufe we get the height of tlie e(juator above the horizon, by fubiradlinjr the fun's declination from its altitade.if it is above the equator, ana adding it if it iu below ; n circumftance thnt we may always afcertaiir ky the fituation of thi diadrjw and by the fcafon. After having found, a priori, either by the method dcf';ribcd in lo or in 22, the ktitudcof their obfervatory, aftronomerti have endeavoured to determine the diftances of the principal fixed ftars from the equator, and the time which elapfes between their refpedlive tranfits over the meridian, and the point of the ecliptic correpfonding to the vernal equinox. They have conftiucted cutaloguei, in which thtfc rcfultsaro fiveni and by the afltftaiicc of which wc may at any time fubftitute 5 lliC INTRODUCTION. xx! the ftart for the fun in finding the latitude, and which multiply the means of determining this important element of geographical polltions. 33. All thefe obfervations prefuppofe the pofition of the meridian to be known. The polar ftar indicates it very nearly in the northern hemifphere, but it is the fun's motion is the moft convenient way of afcertaining it with any degree of accuracy. For, on the day of the folftice, the fun, which does not change it« diftance from the equator perceptibly, feems to defcribs a circle parallel to it, and of which the portion BCDtfg. l, included above the hori* zon, is divided equally by the meridian, it therefore follo\y8, that ita altitude is precifely the fame taken at equal intervals before and after its tran&t over the meridian, and that, reciprocally, if we take the fun's altitude in the morning, and wait for the moment wlien it returns to this altitude in the evening, tlie moment of its meridian tranfit will be the medium between thefe two. We may eafily comprehend that the length of the (hadows of bodies depends not only on their own height, but on that of the fun above the plane on which they reft. If this plane is horizontal, and we raife a vertical yiD upon it, Jg. 14, SD being the diredtion of the folar ray, its length will depend on the angle SC/i^ which is evidently the height of the fun above the horizon. When the fun, therefore, having paffed the meridian, is found to b« at the fame altitude on the other nde, in the direflion S* D, the (hadovr ^B of the vertical /iD will again become equal to the Hiadow jlC i and taking the medium between the dirc6tion of both, by bife^- ing the angle BjIC with the right line jfNy we (hall obtain the meridian. It ought to be obferved, that if we meafure at the fame time the length ot the fliadow and of the ftick, we may, by the folution of the rectilinear triangle CyfDf in wliich the fides y/Z) and jiC are known, calculate the angle j4CDt or the fun's altitude. We get the meridian altitude if we meafure tlie length of the fhadow when it falls in the dire£lbn jIN. It is by this means that the early ailrunomers got the altitudes of the ftnrs ; the estrornity of an obelidc, or an opening in •n upright wall, gave the vortical /ID. This fimple inftrument ig called 9. gnomon ; but it has been abandoned fince inilrutnents have been brought to great perfection, of fmall dimenlions, which meal'ure angles direftly by the arcs of circles. Thefe latter are ufed even for the determination of the meridian, by combining them with clocks of extreme regularity. For this purpore an altitude of the fun is taken in the morning, and the time marked ; we then wait till the Tame time in the «nening, when the fun has the /ame altitude, and taking the mean of the interval, we get the time which has elapfed between iti* meridian traiifit and one, the obfer* vationi. If, fur example, the clock marked at the fame altitude in the morning, - - - - ^^ 45' 30" In the evening . . • - 2 23 i a ^^ quator, ver the vernal ults are bllitute the The interval between thefe two moments being - 4 37 4? The half • . . . . • aiS5( Added to the time of the fir(l altitude • • 9 45 30 Givci ft • ilili ^"'^ ^^*^''" meridional diflance 78,830 toifes, which gives the degree equal to 57,057 toifes : the mean ultimately adopted was 57,060 toifes. 37. The circumference of the earth, fuppofed circular, is eafily deduced from thefe data, fince every circumference contains 360 de- grees : dividing every degree into 20 parts, called marine leagUes, each equal to 2853 toifes, the circumference of the earth will contain 7200 of thefe leagues. It now appeared, that if the figure of the earth was not exa^'^ly fpherical, it at leaft differed from that form but a very fmall quantity. It may be obferved that, independently of the remark (No. 2}, the circular form of the earth's fhadow, in eclipfes of the moon, and the fpherical appearances of the celtiUal bodies that admit of examination, feemed to indicate, in a decided manner, the true figure of the earth j neverthelefs it might have happened, that a confiderable variation from a pcrfeft fpheie might have fubfilted, which would not eafily have been deteded. But llronger argument in favour of this hypothefis was deduced from this circumilance, that navigators had always em- ployed one meafure of a degree on every part of the globe, without any fenfible error ; for, had very great variation fubfifled, they would eafily have perceived it, from tiieir daily praflice of comparing their 4ifFerence of latitude with the edimuted run of the (hip. The fpherical hypothefis being thus confirmed, Its diameter, calculated from the computed 1 . circumference J '^ "92 leagues. The radius , , 1146 And its fuperficial furface ' 16,501,200 38. Notwithflanding the oxaAneps of Picard's meafurement, aflro. nomy foon indicated methods of afcertaining, with greater precifion, the hgure of the earth, and likewife a proof of its diurnal rotation ; an hypothefis that had long been adopted, to rive a more plaufible explanation of the apparent motion of the celcftial fphere. Huygheui was the fiifl phiiolophcr who, refle«ftinj' on the centrifugal force acquired by Jl bodies turning on an a\'u (and exemplified in the path of a (lone prgjeAcd ^om a Hiag), fufjpccUd that the fluid matter ^ ^ diilhbuted INTRODUCTION. XXV [■agues. diftributed on the furface of the globe Ihould neceffanly yield to this influence, and that the portion near the equator (hould become elevated, while that in the vicinity of the pole (hould become neceffa- rily more deprefled. According to the calculation made by this phi- Ir/fopher, the equatorial axis (hould exceed the polar axis by the ^f* part, which correfponds to about four leagues. This hypothefis of Huyghens may be experimentally illuftrated by caufing a wet bladder to revolve round an axis, when it will be feen to alTume a fpheroidicdl figure, flattened at the extremities of the axis on which it revolves. Newton, who had been led to the difcovery of the principle of uni- ▼erfal gravitation by meditating profoundly on the laws di (covered by Kepler relative to the planetary motions, diflPered from Huyghens in not confidering gravity as a force conftantly direfted to the centre of the earth, but refulting from the mutual gravitation of all the par- ticles of which the earth is compofed to each other. Upon this fup- pofition he found the force of gravity on the furface would be fubje^ to fome fmall variation, both in direftion and intenfity ; that the figure of the earth would be an oblate fpheroid, compreffed at the poles and elevated at the equator ; but he eftimated the quantity of this com- prefTion at ^^^, nearly double that alfigned by Huyghens. 39. Thefe refults, which agree as to the nature, but diflFer as to the quantity of the compreflion of the earth's (igure, admit of a very wtisfaftory verification, by means of degrees meafured on different parts of the terreftrial meridian ; for if this hypothefis be corrett, the degrees (hould be greater in the more comprefTed parts ; that is, at the poles, and lefs in the moft elevated or equatorial regions. This confequencc is deduced from principles (lri6tly geometrical, and has never been called in queftiun but by thofe who have quite mifconceived the nature and definition of a degree of meridian. The importance of the fubje£t requires that it (hould be entered into with confiderable minutenefs. It is a h&. univerfally acknowledged, and confirmed by experience^ that the dire£^ion of gravity, or the vertical^ is always perpendicular to the terreftrial furface, whatever may he its form. We are aflfured of this by various r: ?ans ; by aftronomical obfervation, by levelling, and by obferving the hori/on as bounded by the fea. From this con- fideration a degree of the meridian may be defined, " the /pace luhich it Is neceffary to pafs over on this curve^ fugal force in producing a fpheroidical figure. The difference of tht two diameters of this planet rp pears by exaft meafurement with a micrometer to be nearly -^^ of the whole, and if by analogy we compute the comprellion of the poles of the earth, by comparing the time of its rotation with that of Jupiter, we find the clHpticity or compreffion to be about j^^ or jj^ which is nearly the fame as that found by other methods' Many other phenomena, the inveftigation of which is foreign to the plan of this treatife, indicate a fimilar compreflion ; fo that we may confider this compreflion as a fail no longer disputed, being verified both by experiment and analogy. See Mechanique Celeile, tom. II . &III. 41 . The principal dimenfions of the earth from the latefl meafurement are as follows : The arc of the meridian bet^veen Dv. kirk and Montjou contains 9* of the wholecircle ; its length is equal to 275,792 modulesj the module being a rod of platina equal to 199,862 toifcs. Thetoife employed in this comparifon was that which ferved for the meafure of the degree in Peru, reduced to the length it fliould hare at the mean temperature which prevailed during that operation, and the module taken at the mean temperature of the operation executed in France. The mean of the meafured arc correfponded to latitude 46° ii'5". Hence it was computed that The quadrant of the terreftrial meridian is equal to 513,074 toifes, The whole circumference is equal to 2,052,296 which amounts to 7,193 leagues of 2853 toifcs each*. ; Thefe new meafures, determined with fuch great exadlnefs, differ but feven leagues in the whole circumference from the meafurement of Picard, from which we may judge of the very fmall degree of uncer- tainty that at prefent remanis on this fubjedl. The mdrc or the ten millionth part of the quadrant appears from the preceding determinations to be equal to 513,074 toiles, 443,296 lines. With this (landard as unity larger meafures are taken by decuple progreflion, and fmaller ones by decimal fubdivifion ; a method ex- tremely well adapted to geographical computations, as will be feen in the following pages. The terreftrial radii not being equal to each other catmot be com- puted as in the circle ; formulse mud be inveftigated to exprefs the relation of the arcs of an ellipfe with the axis of this curve, and it has been found that if the compreflion is taken at -j^^ the fame axis £ [[fig. 18.) or the equatorial radius, contains 2,273,279 toifes, and the femi axis P, or the polar radius, is equal to 3,263,050, the difference being equal to 10,229. Particular formulte :jre likcwife neceffary for compiiting the value of the meridional degrees for every latitude ; thefe are obtained by fiudinor the point of interfe6tion of the perpendiculars or Normals with each other Thefe and all other requifite formuln for calculating the po-> •itions of different points on the terreftrial fpheroid may be lound in a publication by Delambre, entitled, " Methodes Analytiques pour la l'. * If d re^^refent the polar radius of the earth, md b the equatoTMl radius ; then, • — 3*17 1 a6 toiles h ~ 3261432 toifes. • '•^ = 6375737 metres. 6356649 metres. = 30918230 EngMkh feet. %o%Si^%% £n|ljih fatt. T. ^f /' Detcrmi" INTRODUCTION. XXIS Determination d*an Arc du Meridien ;" to which intelh'gent work the reader who wi(hes for further information is particularly referred. I ftiall only mention the value of the degree in 45% as that is nearly the mean between that of the pole and that at the equator. It is 56,960 toises. This ellipticity of the earth, viz. ^y^, producing in the two diameters a difference of only feven leagues, would only give a difference of I { line in a fpheroid of three feet diameter ; no attention need be given to this fmall quantity in the conftruftion of our terrellvial globes, this difference being too inconfiderable to deferve notice relative to the whole fphere. Becaufe ftill lefs important in the details of geography, and may be entirely neglefted in the conftruflion of geographical charts, I fhall therefore throughout tbia introf^udion, confider the earth a perfeA fphere. The quadrant being divided into 90 equal parts, the mean degree will be 57,000 toifes, and the marine league 2850 toifes. Thefe obfervations apply flill more forcibly to the fmallnefs of the terrellrial mountains, compared to the diameter of the earth. The higheft known mountain not exceeding 3000 toifes in its perpendicular elevation, or a little more than a marine league, and the diameter of the earth contBining 2292 of thefe, a mountain of this height would only have one line of elevation if rcprefcnted on a globe of 30 feet diameter. SECT. II. Construction and use of different representations of the earth and different parts of the earth. 43. The moil accurate method of reprefenting the furface of the earth is certainly by means of a terreftrial globe, and indeed it is the only one in which the relative pofition and magnitude of different regions can be given in a fimple form. The moft fimple and exav^ method of conftvufting them is to deli- neate on the furface (according to directions hereafter to be given) the various countries intended to be reprefented. Let two points be taken diametrically oppofite to each other, to re- prefent the poles, through thefe the axis of rotation must neceffarily pafs. With one of thefe points ao a centre, and at an equal diflance from each, let a circle be defcribed which will reprefent the equator. Any great circle paffing through the poles, may be taken as the firfl meridian, and of which each quadrant beginning from the equator mull be divided into 9©*. The equator, likcwife, reckoning from the meri- dian, muft be divided into 360°. This being done, it will be extremely eafy to allign the true pofition on the globe, of any place whofe lati- tude and longitude are known. All that is rcquilite is to mark the latitude with a point on the firfl meridian, and through this point with the pole as a centre, defcribe a circle which will be a parallel to the equator paCing through the place, then a great circle is to be drawn through the poles and through the point of the equator corrcfponding to the longitude, and the interfe6tion of thefe two circles will be the pofition of the place. 4|. The latitude of a place being reckoned from the equator, its origm is determined by circumftances depending on the rotatory motion of the earth, but it is otherwlle with the longitude of a place beiog reckoned from a meridian, and there being no dccifive reafon for pre- ferring one meridian to another, geographers in their choice of this nave differed much from each other. Ptolemy, mmm txx INTRODUCTION. Ptolemy, who has tranfmitted to us the moft ancient geographical chart upon record, reckons from the meridian of the Fortunate or Canary Ifles, from tlieir being fituated at the weftward extremity of that portion of the world which was known in his time. And this por- tion extending farther in th«.' eaft and wefl direction than from north to fouth, tlic firil meafure was called longithde or length) the other latitude or breath, names ftill retained to this day. That all longitudes might be reckoned in a uniform manner, Louis XIII. ordered that the firft meridian (hould be placed on the ifland of Ferro, the moft weftward of the Canaries ; and Delifle, who firll introduced a confiderable precifion into our maps, fixed the longi- tude of Paris 20° to the eaftward of this meridian. More recent obfer- vations have determined the difference of longitude between Paris and the principal town of the ifle of Ferro to be 20" 5' 50", fo that it be- came neceffary to advance the firft meridian 5' 20" to the eaft, hence it is now merely an arbitrary circle, not palling through any remarkable place on the earth . The Dutch reckoned their firft meridian from the peak of TenerifFe, a mountain fituated in an ifland of that name, formerly fuppofed to be the higheft in the world. Geographers reckon their longitudes eaftward of the firft meridian : they have made choice of continuing round the entire circle j thus a place one degree to the weftward has evidently, according to this method, 359® of longitude. Thefe method? luve undergone confiderable alterations, efpecially by mariners, fiace ailronomical obfervations have become generally adopted in the fciencc of navigation, for fince the time at which any celeftial phenomenon happens, and from which the pofitisn of a place is calcu- lated, is always given in tlie tables for the principal obfcrvatory of the country for which they arc conftrtifted, it has been found much more commodious to refer the difierence of longitude to the exadl point for which thefe tables are made. For this reafon French manners reckon their longitude from Parie, and the Englifti from Greenwich. More- over, when the longitude of a place is deduced from the diiference of time which clapfcs between tfie pafTage of the fame ftar over the meri- dian, or by the difference of time as reckoned at each place, the dif. ference of longitude may be confidered in two different ways ; for in tra. veiling towards the eaft, the computed time is greater than at the point of departure, and this may amount to 24 hours in making a circuit of the whole globle in an eaftward direiflion : the contrary happens in tra- velling weftward ; it therefore becomes neceffary, in announcing the difference of time, to ftate whether it arifes from a change of fituation towards the eaft or weft. And it is the cuftom in making marine charts, to reckon the longitude from the neareft diftance from the firft meridian, fo that the longitude fliall never exceed tlie demi-circumfe- rence or 180°. The globe being thus divided into two hemifpheres re- latively to the firft meridian, thofe places on the eaftward hafr are faid to have eaft longitude and thofe in the other weft longitude. 45. Hence we fte the neccflity of being able to reduce the longitude referred to one meridian after the manner of geographers, to thofe reckoned from fome other according to the method ufed by navigators. For inrtance, in the cafe of longitudes reckoned geographically, by making the whole circuit of the globe in an eaftward direction, if we v?i(h" to compare two meridians, the difference of longitude muft be taken } aud if the meiidian from which the ncvr longitudes are to be / ^ ^ reckoned :ii :■ INTRODUCTION. xxxk gators, ly, by if we lua b« to be rkoned ^teckoned 18 weft of the other,' tbis difference is to be added to thefe longitudes, and on the contrary is to be' fubtracted, if fuuated to the caftward. For example, the peak of Teheriffe being fituatcd one degree to the eaftvvard of the ifle of Ferro, all the longitudes reckoned accordinjf to the Dutch manner from this mountain, being augmented one degree, wifl give the longitudes reckoned from the ifle of Ferro ; it would be •eceflary on the other hand to fubtradl one degree from thefe latter longitudes to obtain the former. But when they are reckoned from the fame meridian, all the longi* tudes eaftward as far as iSo** are the fame in both methods, but the lon« gitudes weftward muft be fubtra6ted from 360° to reduce them to geo- graphical longitudes ; and reciprocally, we may reduce a longitude which furpafl'es 180° to a weft longitude, by fubtrading it from 360% as in the following example : - Carthegena in America, according to the tables, is fituate in longi- tude 281* 57' from meridian of Paris ; taken from 360, the difference 78* 3' is the longitude ; this being 17' beyond the oppofite point, we have 179*43' ^o'" its longitude, eaft of the meridian of Paris. 46. The points which are firft placed on the globe . are thofe whole longitudes and latitudes have been accurately determined ; they are cfually the capital cities of different kingdoms, celebrated maritime ports, and the points which ferve as boundaries to fome of the moftf . remarkable finuofities of the ocean ; the intermediate fpaces are filled up from drawings geometrically conftrufted on a plane furface, or from the defcription of travellers ; to this is added'the boundaries of different ftates and the courfe of the principal rivers. 47. By means of a globe we may with great facility determine the diftance of two places from each other, and meafure the extent of dif- ferent countries. The Ihorteft diftance of two points on a fphere is' meafured on an arc of a great circle pafllng through them, and as all great circles are equal, the degrees of any great circle are of equal value with thofe of the meridian; the arc required may be therefore eafily meafured by r^pplying it by means of a pair of compaffes either to the meridian or equator, which are ufually graduated. If, for example, the arc contained between two places and referred to the meridian con- tains 29° 45', the Jhorteft diftance between thefe points will be obtained by converting thefe degrees and minutes into nautical leagues of 20 to a degree ; the 29* will equal 580 leagues, and each minute being equiva- lent to one third of a league or nautical mile, the45' v/ill equal 15 leagues, and the total refult will be 595 marine leagues. For the preceding operation may be fubftituted a more exaft calcu- lation. For this purpofe we muft folve the fpherical triangle j^PL (fig. 8.) formed by the meridians jIP PL pafling through the points ^ and L whofe diftance is required, and by the arc jiL which joins them in-this triangle ; the fides ^P, PL are known ; for they are the co-latitudes or distances of j1 and L from the pole P, and the angle ^PL is their difference of longitude ; by the rules of fpherical trigono- metry the arc y^Z, will be found in degrees and minutes, which may be converted into linear meafure as above. If ^ and L are fituatcd ia different hemifpheres, one of the polar diftances will be greater than 90* by the latitude of one, the points of Carthagena weftward of Paris, as k is ufually jiven in marine charts. ..•.-.,^; -^i^ -.-v ■■■;''-" '■■■^ '■--*.*** »-"■ The xzxu INTRODUCTION. il ?l The bay of Otallipiha, in the ifland of Otaheite, has been determined by navigators to be in longitude 151** 55' 45" weft of the meridian of Paris ; the geographical longitude is found as follows : ^ 360 00 00 ^5t 55 45 The difference 208 4 15 is the longitude required. When longitudes are reckoned from two different meridians, and diftinguifhed into eaft and weft, it becomes neceffary to "notice on which fide the meridian is fituated to which the required longitudes are to be referred, then the difference of longitude of all the longitudes of the fame denomination with this fide arc to be fubtra£ted, and thofe of a contrary denomination added. Example. — The meridian of the obfervatory of Paris being 2* 2af eaft of that of Greenwich, all the longitudes eaftward of Greenwich muft be diminiftied to be reduced to the meridian of Paris, and thofe longi- tudes which are weft mull be augmented by that quantity. Thus the longitude of the Cape of Good Hope being 18° 23' 15" eaft of the me- ridian of Greenwich becomes 16° 3' 15" ealt of Paris* On the contrary the bay of Otallipiha, placed by Englifli navigators 149" 35' 45" weft of the meridian of Greenwich, becomes 151" 55' 45" when referred to that of Paris. There is a cafe wHich lometimes gives rife to a little difficulty, that is, when the place to be reduced lies between the two meridians or their oppofites, the place being thus eaft with refpe6l to the one and weft with refpeft to the other : for inftance, in the firft cafes the dif- ference of the meridians muft not be fubtrafted from the longitude to be reduced, but the contrary which changes the denomination. In the other cafe the number which refults from the addition of the difference of longitude to the longitude reckoned from the meridian intended to be changed exceeding 1 80*, will be beyond the oppofite meridian of the place to which it is referred, it muft therefore be taken from 360, and confequently its denomination changed. Example. Dover being i. 18. 30. eaft of Greenwich, this fubtratStion muft be mado: 2® 20' I* 18' 30" The difference i" i' 30" is the longitude of Dover weft of the meridian of Paris. Turtle JJlandy in the Pacific ocean, is placed by the Englifh in '77* 57' ^^^ longitude ; this, added to 2° 20' equals, 180" 17'. When the places whofe diftance is required are fituated on the fame meridian, nothing is more requifite than to convert their difference cf latitude into linear mcafure. The latitude of a place is found on a globe by meafuring the fiiortcft diftance of the place from the equator^ or from a known parallel of latitude, and referring it to the graduated meridian, the number of degrees intercepted on this arc is that whicb muft be added or fubtraded from the latitude of this parallel, to obtain the latitude of the place propofed. 48. But the difference of longitude of two points fituated on the fame parallel are by no means the meafure of their diftance, except when they are on the equator itfelf j for thefe paralleh being leffer circles, wbefe radii dtminini as they approach the poles, their degrees have not the 'A INTRODUCTION. sxxut of the rlifh in lie fame ence of on 3 juator* Iduated whicK obtain j» |e fame when :ircle8( live not the ^nc fame value as thofe of a great circle. And a remark wliicli is fome- tiriics omitted fliould be made, that tlie abfolute length of thefc arcs is Jiot lI.c fhorteft diftance between their extreme points, through which *i grest circle muft always be conceived to pafs ; for the radius of the paiailel being fhorter than that of the great circle, its arc is more con- vex, and its curvature greater than thac of a great circle paffing through its extremities, and confequently it is longer. In following conltantly the fame alinement, it is impofiible to describe aiiy other than a great circle of a fphere, becaufe the fhorteil line in this j;ale is taken from one point to another. Notwithftanding the degrees are different on different parallels, yet the abfolute length of the degree on any given parallel is eafily con- -cluded from the known value of the meridional degree ; for the degrees of thefe circles are proportional to their radii, and the radii of the equator and its parallels are perpendiculars let fail from the different points of th? meridian upon the diameter of the circle as reprefented in (lig. 8.) by the lines EC, HK ; therefore, if the radius EC be taken as the meafure of a degree on the equator, and it be divided into twenty parts', or murine leagues, the number of parts which the radius HK. contains will be the value of the degree of the parallel LM. Hence it follows, that to determine the length r f the degree for ^ ach parallel, it will be fufficient to defcribe a qua.icroi a circle round tipon a line ECy taken to rcpreft nt the equatorial degree, to divide this quadrant into degrees, and to draw perpendiculars f;om t -ch point of divifion to the radius CP, thefo lines will be n ipeftivc lengths o- the degrees at the points to which they correfpond, or to every deg: »'. of latitude. The line II K being the fine of the arc P//, and the coflne oi the arc EH, of which one meafuros the diitance of the paral' ^ 7 TIf from the pole, and the other the latitude of the parallel, it h evid >nt that, taking for unity the degree at the equator, the degree A any parallel whatever will be the cufme of the latitude as given by the trigonometri- cal tables. The latitude of Paris being 48° 50', and the cofine of this angle 0.684 of the radius, the degree of longitude is found by multiplying this number by 20 marine leagues, which will give 13.16 leicgues, which ja fpace that mull be taken on this parallel, to produce a change of one degree of longitude. At 60'^ of latitude the degree of longitude is only 10 leagues, becaufe the cofine of 60° is equal to the radius. 49. The meridian being a great circle, it will be dcfcribed on the earth by following the diredion of a meridian hne traced in any place whatever, and every 20 leagues defcribe.l o' this line will produce a change of ov.e degree of latitude ; but a i.;... v. -l to the equator will not be defcnbed by following a direction perpendicular to the meridian on the eaft and v/eil line ; for this alineilient would determine a plane perpendicular to the meridian, and which '.ontinually deviates from the parallel as it recedes from their common origin : this is fliewn in fig. 19, where PEP reprefeuts a meridian, E-Jl t'.:e equator, IILK a parallel, and HIK the great circle perpendicular to the meridian 2A. H. It may be obferved likewife, that v}\ th.c great circles perpendicular to the fime meridian meet in two oppolitc points / 7', which are the poles of this meridian ; thefe great «;ircles, therefore, continually approach to each other, and it is only in a very fmall fpace on each fide the meridian PEPt that thefe circles lEI', IHP can be confidered as ])arallc}, and for the fame reafon it is only in a very fmall fpace that the call and well d lines, xrfxiv INTRODUCTION. lines, or pei-pcndlculars to the meridian, can be confidered as a parallel to each other. The great circle JHK^ perpendicular to the meridian PEP, cuts the other meridian P' LP in angles which are different for each ; but the narallel HLQ^ cuts them all at right angles. Hence, hi proceeding from the point H to the point L on the parallel, it is neceflary to de- fle6l at every inftant from the fir ft direftion, to keep at right angles to the different meridians which are fucceflively pafTed over, and which all tend to the pole P. It is only, therefore, by the affiftance of a com- pafs, or by fome fimilar but more exadl method of determining the po- rtion of the meridian, that we can, by continuai^j- advancing in a direc- tion d\ie eaft or weft, maintain always the fame diflance from the equator, and proceed upon the fame parallel. And in general when, by means of a compafs, we follow a direc- tion which,cuts all the meridians at the fame angle, that is, when we keep on the fame rumb, the alincment is changed at every point, to preferve a conftant angle with the new meridian which converges with the preceding ; hence a fort of fpiral line is defcribed, called a loxodrome, and of which a more particular account will be given in the method of conftrufting charts for the purpofes of navigation, 50. Tc meafure commodioufly the extent of any region traced upon the globe, we may conceive Mts furfacc divided into quadrilateral figures by meridians, and their parallels drawn cither to every 10° or 5% that is, generally into portions fufficicntly fmall that any irregular fpace may be compared without difUcuIty with the quadrilateral figure which contains it. Tive fuperficial extent of each quadrilateral, con- tained by two meridians and two parallels, is found by firfl determining that of the entire zone contained by the two parallels, and this will be to the area of the whole fphcrc as the diftancc of the parallels which terminate it is to the diameter ; which diflaiue coiivfponds on the dia- meter to the difference of the fines of the latitudes of each parallel, a» appears in fig. 8, where the line CK n-prefents the difference between €P and KP. For example. For the zone contained by the parallels 48' and 49% and in which Paris and its environs is fituateJ. The fine of ^9° =1 0,75^ 48 = 0,743. Difference 0,012 its half, 0,006, indicates that this zone contains i^^, or t-((t of the total furface of the globe, and this being cAimated at 16,501,200 fquare leagues, the above zone may be tiUmated at 99,007 fquare leagues. As to the magnitude of this zone contained between two given meri- dians, it evidently bears the fame proportion to the whole quantity as the difference of longitude to the whole circumference ; the extent^ therefore, of a quadrilateral ctMitaincd by one degree in the longi- tude of Paris, is the 360th part of 99,007, or about a; 5 fquare leagnen. A fimilar calculation being madr for n auadrilateral containing one degree of longitude for every dcgne of latitude from the equator to the pole, will give a table of refults, by means of which the ex- tent of any r 'on may cafily be computed, eitlwr on a globe or map. 51. To pla.. a globe conveniently, and that it may (erve for many mK'fuI purpo8CB| iu axi» is usually fixed in a diameter tu a graduated circle INTRODUCTION. XSxV circle of brafs, and which reprefents the plane of any celeftial meridian whatever : this circle pafTes through another fixed to the fuppovt of the gIobe> called the horizon, becaufe the axis of the globe admitting of every poffible inclination with refpeft to this circle, it may be thus made to reprefent univerfally the horizon of any given place. The poles may thus be fet at any elevation above the horizon, and the globe turned on its axis independently of the mefidian» which always remains fixed ; the axis of the globe carries an index, which is adapted to a dial divided into 24 parts or hours, and to the whole is fometimes added A compafs, to place it in the direftion of the meridian. To facilitate the meafuring of the diftance of one point from another^ a thin moveable arc is added, called a quadrant of altitude, and which may eafily be applied in any direction, and being tht arc of & great circle, it meafures, on its graduated limb, the fhorteft diftance between any two points to which it is applied. When the upper point is fixed iii the zenith, the lower coincides with the horizon, and it thert tnarks the diitance from the horizon of every point through which it paffes, or the altitude of any ftar that may be at the time vertical to that point. 52. The following are the moft ufeful problems that may be folved by thefe inftrnmcnts : 1 . The latitude of any place is found by bringing it under the brazen meridian, whofe graduated edge will indicate the dillance from the equator. 2. The longitude of a place is found byobferving the point on the equator interfered by th-: meridian which pafles throMgh it. 3. And reciprocally the pofition of a place is found, when its latitude iind longitude is given by bringing the point of the equator correfpond- inff to the longitude under the meridian, where the given latitude will indicate the required place. 4. The hour reckoned in one place, at the moment of noon at any other, is found by bringing the latter under the meridian, and placing the index of the dial at 1 2 ; then turning the globe till the other place h brought under the meridian, the index of the dial will mark the time required : the time will be afternoon., if the globe be turned towards the call ; and before noon, \\ tunu-d towards tTie weft. 53. The length of the loiigell day for every place in either hemif- phcre (for initance the norlhcni) is found by elevating the meridian W fuch -.1 manner that the ardic circle may j'.ill become a tangent to the hori/.ou, the horizon will then reprefent the circle of illumination } then» if the place .••eqnired be brought to the meridiiin, and tl>e hour index f)lact-d at 12, the globe beintr turned round till the place comes to the lorizon, the index will nr.irk the time at which the point pafles from the enlightened into tlie obfcure hemilphcre, or tl>e time of lunfet: the number of hours will !»e half the length of the day required. By pljcing the pole neairr to the horizon, this circle takes the po- fition of the circle of illununation : for periods precedtng the foHliccs^ and the length will giyc at r and s the projections pf the points ^and N. In afl'ur a point vilual ray will be the diameter of the projection of thi^ parallel. If, therefore, the circle ADBE be brought to the pofition of the firft meridian in this motion around the line DE, the right lines BN, BN', will not change their rcfpeCtive fitiiations | and there may be defcribed on / s\ as a diameter, the arc Ns N', which will be the projection of the parallel pafling at the latitude AN. 60. All this conftruCtion, which may be effeC^ed on one figure, is tonly intended to ^nd the graduation of the diameter ^Bj which r^pre- ii M leiitc / 3tl INTRODUCTION. fents the equator, and that of the axis ED, which is alfo the meridiswi of the middle of the map ; for the points m and «, combined with th^ poles, give three points of each meridian, and there are alfo three fov the parallels in combining the tv/o extremities N and A^' with the point s determined on the diameter DE. The lines C«, Cm are eafily calculated in the reftilinear triangles DCn, DCm, reilangular at Cy whence we know the common ,fid,e CD, and the angles CDn, and CDm, meafiued by the halves of the arcs NE and ME^ which are the complements of the longitude of the meridians. The triangles BCr, and BCs, give in like manner the diftancbs Cr and Cs, which form the graduation of the meridian in the raiddlei of the map. 6i . The conftnidlion of the polar pro] cBlon confifts in the determinatioo of the degrees of the meridian, and 'fig. 22. indicates the operation. The circle ADBE reprefenrs a meridian upon which the eye is at D at one of the poles, and whofo projeftion is the diameter AB : the arcs AM, MN, NE, are projeded upon that line in Am, m «, « C, by tjic vifual rays DM, DN. It may be then conceived that the phlne ADBE, turning round AB, may apply itfelf on the equator ; and from the centre C, with the radii 6'//, Cm, circles are dcfcribcd, which ai'e the projeftions of the parallels to the equator, palling by latitudes equal to the arcs y/iV and ^i1/. As to the meridians, as their planes mtcrfedl each other according to the axis of the poles, which is at the fame time the optical axis, their projeftions are the radii CjM, CN, cor- refponding with the longitudes AM, AN. 62. In the hort%on!al projsBion, the circle ADBE, fig. 23, indicate* the meridian of the place propofcd, which divides its horizon into two equal parts. The eye being always af D, the vifual rays DP, DN, DN', drawn to the fuperior pole P, antl to the extremities A'' and A" of wliatever pai-allel, mark upon AB, which is the projeftion of the femicircle y^^i?, the projeftion ^ of the pole, and the diameter tin'' of the parallel Tlie equator is obtained in the fame manner, FF'- denoting its diameter, while ff is that of its projcdtion. This pr(v- jeftion, and that of the parallel, may be traced in conceiving tluit t!ic circle ADBE is*turned around the diameter y/Zf, to fall ou the hori- zon ; the equator being the arc EfD, and the parallel being tlic circle « «'. To determine the projeftions of tlie meridians, firft is fought that of the inferior pole P', wliich the vifual ray DP being prolonged, gives at p'. Conceiving then the circle ADBE to be applied anew ou the horizon, there is dofcribed on the diameter />/»' a circle which riprefcnts the proje6lion cf the meridian perpendicular to that of the place. As they muft all pafs throtigh the points /',/»'» the pro);:dtion3 of the meridians will have their centres in the line de perpendiciihir upon the middle of pp' { and to finilli tlieir determination, it is fiifficient to find a third point, which may be done in many ways. Tiiat whicl: 1 am about to give refts upon a conllrudlion which agrees with all fimilar determinations, and which confids in referring or projediing tlie different points of the equator upon the hori/on, by right lineu perpendicular to the plane of the latter. For this purpofe, I affume an arc BL, equal to the longitude of the propofcd point of the equator, and lay down GL perpendicular to DE, then bring GL to CF from C to /,", and drawing L"L' parallel to DE, the point L' of the intcrfcdlion of the liuca L'L" and GL i» the INTRODUCTION. nU 13 pnv- i;;t tiie lioii- ig tliv; bt tliat giv(<3 )u the ixfcnts As of tlic ion the to fi'.xj 1 1 iUU fimilai" iffcrcnt ular to ucle of liar to jarallcl GL\* the tlie projc(!^Ion vequlred, or the foot of the perpendicular let down froin the point of the equator, of which the longitude is equal to BL on jthe horizontal plane *. This being done, if we obferve that the plane, pafling through the fi T-ht and the propofed point of the equator, being drawn by the line CD, perpendicular to the plane of the horizon, neceffarily contains the perpendicular let down from that point at L', it will be feen that its interf'e6tion with the horizontal plane is the line CL' drawn by the centre of the horizon. This right line will determine at / on the arc pf the circle EJD, which is the ilereographic projeftion of the equator, the projeftion of the point propofed. In repeating this conftniftion, that of the equator may be ealily gra4uated, conformably to the laws of the pro'iedlion. It will alfo be remarked, that the line CO is the projeftion of the circle of altitudes (fcft. 51.) drawn through the fpot which occupies the centre of the map, and by the. propofed point of the equator, fince the planes of the circles ot altitude palling by the line DE necef- farily haVe for pvojedlions, lines drawn by the centre C of the map. 63. The inequality of the fpaccs of the graduation of the Ilereo- graphic projetlion does not, in general, permit the application of a retSilinear fcale to compare the refpeftive diftances of places, diilances which are mcafurcd according to an arc of the groat circle wliich joins f hefe places two and two ; but we may always, by mc'.ms of the gra- duation itfelf, meafure the diftance between the centre of ihe map and any one of its points ; and we may, in confeqlicnce, find upon a hori- zontal projeftion, referred to Pans, for example, the diftance from this pity to all the other points of the globe. This property is the con- fequence of a projection in which all the great circles which pafs by the centre of the map, interfering each other according to the optical ;ixis, have for their perfp( ftivcs right lines drawn by that centre, and admit a graduation fimilar to that which is marked upon the equator pf maps of the world conllrueted on the plane of the meridian. In placnig the point of view at the centre of the fphere, and afTum- ing for the pifture a plane tangent to its furface, there is obtained a pcrfpeftive of the globe, in which all the great circles are reprefented by right lines. It alters like the preceding, and Itill, in a greater degree, the extent of the countries in proportion as they are diftant from the centre of the map ; nor can it even rcprefent an entire jiemifphere, becaufc the vifual rays, drawn by the circumference which terminates this hemifplicre, are parallel to the plane of the pifture ; but it may be very uleful for portions of fmall extent, and admits a kind of fcale of which the conftruftion is not difficult. It is doubtlefs for this rcafon that Prony propofed its ufe in furvcying lands. This projeftion is further remarkable, as it is employed in making fun dials. It will not be difficult to modify in this cafe the procedures which I have already eivcn for the conftrutlion of meridional, polar, and hori- zontal projeAions. There muil be drawn from the point C of the figure cited in thefe articles, the vifual rays which determine the fec- tion made in the cones, perpendicularly to the circles which arc to be •»TIiis prorofs will he fvidcnt by its defcription .ilone to readers who have fludied iht (irometry of planes and rurfacet; they will perceive th.it the angle FCB is that which formi the plane of the equator witli the horiion ; and that in conlequcnce wo have, in order to C'niftrud the |)ointi tif the Krft, its common fei'-lion DF. with the ItCvUd, and the angle which they comprehtr.d. Sec Com^ltmftif ite^ EUmcm «/c (Jnmttric, reprcfcDtcd xlii INTRODUCTION. reprefented, and the plane muft be affumed parallel to that which paffei by the centre and is tangent to the circle ADBR, It will then be feen that, in the projeftion on the plane of the firft meridian, the meridian* will be ftraight lines, perpendicular to the equator, which will alfo be a right line ; and the parallels to the equator will be hyperbolas. In the polar projedlion the meridians will be ftraight lines, drawn from the centre of the map, and the parallels to the equator circles having their centie at that point: in fine, in the horizontal projedion the meridians will be right lines drawn through the projeftion of the fuperior pole. The parallel of the place to which the projedlion is referred will be reprefented by a parabola, thofe which are nearer the pole by ellipfes, and the others on each fide of the equator by hy- perbolas. 64. If we conceive the point of view carried to an infinite diftance from the pi6ture, the vifual rays will become parallel among them- felves ; and fuppofing them then perpendicular to the plane, we fhall have the Orthographic ProjeSlotiy in which the meridians and parallels are in general reprefented by ellipfes, excepting in the polar projeftion, where the meridians are right lines, and the parallels concentric circles. The whole of the vifual rays, direfted to the different points of the circle to be reprefented, then forms a cylinder, of which the axis is parallel to the line marked CO, fig. 20. To form an idea of this it is lufficient to infped fig. 24, analogous to fig. 21 ; the vifual rays Mm, Nn drawn by the different points of the circle ADBE, confidered as, the equator, will determine on its diamieter, the graduation conformably to the laws of the projeAion. The fpace m m' comprifed between the two perpendiculars Mm, M' m', led from the two oppofite points of the meridian, is the lefTer axis of the ellipfis, which this circle has for ,its projeftion j and the great axis is the diameter of the fphere, or of the firft meridian which remains circular. The parallels to the equator, having their planes perpendicular to that of the firft meridian, are there reprefented by their diameters, as NN'. After the manner in which I have modified the defign of the meridional proje£lion, it is eafy to find the changes which that of the two others muft undergo. A very fimple fkctch will inftantly difplay the orthographic pro- je£lion of any place on the plane of the meridian, and its diftance per- pendicular to that plane. Having drawn upon the plane of the firft meridian ADBE, by the latitude AN of the place propofed, the diameter A^A^' of its parallel, the circle is defcribed, and we take the arc NL equal to the longitude, then drop upon NN' the perpendicular JLl, the point / being the orthographic projeAion of the place, while X/ is its diftance on the plane of the meridian. The fame ficetch executed for another point alfo giving its projedlion, it is eafy to find the right line acrofs the globe which iniQ^ediately joins thcfe two^ places. The operation Is Amplified when prbje^ed on the plane of the equa- for. There is formed the angle ACB, fig. 25, equal to the difference of longitude of the places propofed ; the arcs AM and BN are affumed as equal to their refpe^tive latitudes ; the right lines Mm and Nn, per* pendicular on AC and BC, give the projections m and n of thefe places,^ %vhile m R is that of their diftance. If then you ralfe on m a the per- pendiculars mM" tiN", refped^ively equal to the right lines Mm, Nn, and draw M" N", this right lie will be the chord of the arc of th« ^reat circle ^ompiifcd within the tjwo places propofed { and in carrying; INTRODUCTION. xliil )hic pro- ince per- the firft fed, the take the :udicular while ilcetch yr to find cfe two it to the meridian divided into degrees, we (hall obtain, as in feflion 47, the meafure of the (horteft road from the one point to the other. If the point N was in the hemifphere oppofite to the pofition of the point M, it muft be conftrufted at N' beneath BC, its projedlion on the plane of the meridian being ftill « ; but y /e mull carry the per- pendicular N'n beneath the right line m n, and the fliorteft redtilinear diftance from the two propofea points will then be M" N'". 6s- The orthographic projection has, with regard to fpaces, the contrary defeft from the preceding, as it diminilhes them from the centre to the circumference, on account of the obliquity under which the lateral parts of the fphere are prefented to its diametral plan. La Kire thence concluded, that in prolonging the optical axis out of the fphere, the plane or pidlure Hill pafling by the centre, there exilled on that axis a point where the inequality oi fpaces was the fmalleft poilible j for it is evident, that when the point of view is at fuch a diftance, that the obliquity of the rays which tends to enlarge the fpaces, becom<* ing fmaller, may be compenfated by that of the proje6ted furfaces which tends todiminifh them, and their increafe muft be changed into decreale. There cannot be abfolute equality in all, becaufe the law of their varia- tion depends on their particular fituation ; but at the limit which we have afllgned, their differences are fufficiently fmall to be negledled in a general map. La Hire * has afTumcd the point of view of his projection, at th* diftance from tlie fphere equal to the fine of forty-five degrees. Fig. 26. ihews how the graduation of the equator is obtained, when the pro- jection is made on the plane of the meridian, placing the eye at the point d, fnch as Dd =r FG, the arc BG being the half of BEt whence Cg is the half of EC. It might alfo be required to place on the line DE the point //, fo that^tlie degrees of the equator contiguous to the point C, or to the meridian of the middle of the map, and to the point j4, or to the firft meridian, fhould occupy the fame fpace on the dia- meter jiB ! which is eafily accompliflied by means of the trigono- metrical formula:, which exprefs the fize of any fpace m n. I do not know if maps have been conftruAcd on this projection, and I am furprifed that it fhould not become common, for it appears to me preferable to the common projection, of maps of the world. It will be m vain objected, thtit the meridians and the parallels being therein re- prefented by eUipfes, it muft be more difficult to trace, for it is evident that the method of the projection muft always be for a fkilful geo- grapher the fmalleft of the difficulties prefented in the execution of a map. There are numerous fmiple and convenient methods of drawing ellipfes through points; and we are often obliged to employ them for the circular meridians and parallels, placed towards the centre of maps of the world on the ftereographic projection, becaufe their radius is too great to be defcribed wiih compafles. The horizontal projec- tion performed after the principles of La Hire, would be capable of giving diftances as well as the ftereographic. In fine, I cannot fee that any property of the ftereographic projection can recompence in planifpheres the inconveniences of the difproportion thence arifinip between equal fpaces ; and the error into which a difciple would be led who wifhed to compare, for example, India with Novaya Zemlia or the Red Sea with Hudfon's Bay. arrymg * Mem. dc TAcad. d«8 Sciences, Z701, p. 260. 66. The x\W INTRODUCTION. ' 66 The ftereographic projedion is little nfed in particijlar mnps, and the Germans aluiie have introduced it, particularly Halius, who cotnpofed the greater part of the maps in tiie Atlas of Homanir, in much requell towards the middle of the lafl century.' The four parts of the world, feparatcly reprefented in this proje6lion> are only pov- tions of a planilphcrc couftrudcd on the like diraenfion, on the plane of a meridian perpendicular to that which pafle* through the middle of the map, the eye being placed in the plane of the latter. The excef- five length of the radii of the circles renders them very difficult to obfcrve; and the alteration of the fpaces and diftances is not lefa than in other piojettions of more eafy execution ; whence thefe maps, are little known in France. The inequality of the fpaces rnay, however, be diminifhed, as in the planifpherc, by placing; the point of view out of the globe ; but the diftancc to which it muft be carried, depending on the extent of coun- try contained in the map, will diminifh in proportion as this extent bC" comes fmallor, ai;d may be cafily calculated by comparing the degree on the mrugins of tlie map with that which is in the middle, " It will be eafy to peri'ons familiar with gx^onietry and trigonometry, to deduce fiom fedion 59 and feilion 62 the procedures of the calcu- lation in order to con ilrucl thefe maps, and to draw the arcs of thf^ circles which they miu'l contain by points, in referrinij them to their chords or to their tangents ; but thefe details would here pafs- the bounds which I h;^ve prefcrihcd to this difcourfe. 67. The inod limple of the projections by dcvelopemcnt, is what is called the Ccuicil Prycciion ; it being, in fac\, natural to compare a fpherical zone to a tniticated cone, and thence toct»nfl;ru6\ its develope- ment. The parall-ls become circles, defcribed from a fummit of tlve eone taken I'S a centre ; and the meridians are right lines fubjetSled to pafs through that point. It is vifible that the refult will approach tUo nearer, in proportion as the map flvall embrace lefs extent in latitude. This pvoji'ftioii may vary in difFercnt ways ; for it may be fuppofed that the cone h a tanger.t to the middle par.allel of the map, and hi con.*^ fequeiice, exterior ; or that it may be in part infcribed in the fphere», that is to fay, formed by the feeants of the meridians. In the firft cafe, the map will not be p'erfcv^ly oxaft, except on the middle paralleV which will prcferve in its deve'jpeinent the length which it rtally pof- fellVs on the Iplicre ; but the parallels placed above and beneath will exceed thofe wiiich on the fphere are correfpondent. Murdoch, an Englifh geometrician, has propofed to fubftitute to the tangent cone, a cone partly infcribed, and determined by this condition, tlocit the part of 'tis area compr.'hftuJed in the map, fiould he equivalent to that of the fpherical zone ti'hich it r.'prffctits. The whole conilruft^jii of this kind of map rcfts on the determina- tion of the fummit of the cone, and on the amphtude which the circle ferving as its bafe mull affuine in its developement. When the cone is tangent to a point E of the meridian yIP, fig. 27, its fides will be obtained in prolonging *he tangent of that point till it fliull meet the axis CPt alfo prolonged ; the line E R, being then the fide of the cone, and its bafis the circle, havifig Ee for its radius. The dcvt lopemeut is cffetted by known means, for which the Complanetit da , El?neri Je (Jeometrie r.iay be confnltcd. To fornt^ th;' dcsrrces. of longitude, we muft take the three hundred and fixtieth part of the arc, defcribed from the fummit R as the centre, 12 wi^H INTRODUCTION. -iif. uith a radius RE, and which reprefents the developemcnt of the pa- rallel pafling by the point £, then drawing right lines through the di- vilions of that arc and the fuminit of the cone, we (kill have the meri- dians, which correfponding with an arc of a greater radius than that of the parallel, will intercept an angle fmaller than a degree. In order to procure the degrees of latitude, we muft bear upon one of thefe meri- dians, beginning at the point E, as well above as beneath, parts equal to the developtixient of the aics of the tcrreftrial meridian. In fine, we dcfcribe from the point P, and, by the divilions of the meridian, con- centric circles which will reprefcnt the parallels. When the cone ought to be partly infcribed, there is drawn by the points ji and F^ in which it mull interfeft the meridian, a fecant AF, of which thejunftion IV , with the axis CP, "ives the point of concourfe of the right lines which reprefent the meridians, or the fummit of the cone ; the right lines AR' being its fide, and A a the radius of its bafe. The fpace A Ft being that which correfponds wiih the arc AEF^ ought to be divided like that arc. By this conftru6tion we take the i;hord AF for the arc AEFy and the degree of latitude is a little tea imall, when referred to the degree of longitude on the parallels of the points A and F ; but the difference is a trifle when the arc of the meri- dian has little extent. Nevcrthclefs, a perfeA equality may be efta- blifhed between the degrees of latitude on the map, and thofe of the meridian of the fphere, by afTuming, inftead of AF, the developement of the arc Al'. Ft this circumllance, augmenting the didance of tlie radii A a and F/oi'the parallels, fomewhat prolongs the point of concurrence «f the lines AR and CP. The point R' is obtained in gcp.eral by reference to fimilar triangles : R'Aa, R' Ff, which give A a: Ff:: AR' : FR' . . AaFf:Aii:: AR' : FR' or AF : AR. When we willi to have regard to the difference between the arc and its chord, we fubllitute to the line AF the developed length of tl)e arc /lEF. 68. The aftroiiomcr, Dellile (de la Croycre), who was charged with the conftruftion of a general map of the Riiffian empire, wilhing to avoid the inconveniences of the ftereographic projcftion ibove-men- tioned, cliofe the conical j^rojeftion ; but in order to perfeft it, he thought of making the cone enter into the fphere in fuch a way that it ihould interfect it according to two parallels, each placed at an equal diftance fnim the middle parallel, and from one of the extreme parallels. The map had, by this mean, on the two parallels jull mentioned, the fame diiaenfions as the correfpondent part of the fphere ; and its total extent diifered little from the country to be reprefented, becaufe the excef* at the two extremities of the map was at lead compenfated in part by the deficiency of the infcribed portion of the cone, with re- fpcft to the fpherical zone. The map comprifing from the fortieth degree of latitude to the feventieth, the middle parallel anfwered to 55" ; and the parallels common with the fpheres were thofe of 47® 30', and 62" 30'. Euler occupied himfelf with this projeftion, but he fubftituted to the determination of the parallels, which mull be common with the fphere, that of the point of concourfe of right lines which reprefent the meri- dians, and of the angle which they make among tKemfelves in the com- prehended degree oi longitude. His calculations are fupported on the icjlowing gruundi. z. That the errors are ec^ual on the fouthern and northern Hhi INTRODUCTION. northeirn extremities of the map. 2. That they* 9re alfo equal to the greatell of thofe which happen towards the middle parallel. He tnence concludes that the point of concourfe of the meridian ought to be placed beyond the pole by a quantity equal to five degrees of latitude, and that the angle of two confecutive mtryy^.'.s ought ta be of 48° 44' * He then enquires how much the arcs of the great ciiCl t v -^Lla isiea- fui-e the diftances on the globe differ from the right line:, Miich are fub- ftituted to them on the map ; and he finds that an arc of 90* will luive on the map a length of 90*. 791 of the exaftwefs of lefs than a hundredth part of its extent. 69. There may be fubftituted to the conical projeftion made on the two parallels of the globe, a map which may coincide with three, by defcribing the extreme parallels and the middle parallels cither as right lines, or as concentric circles of A given radius, then by dividing thcfe parallels according to the law of the deereafe of degrees of longitude, we fhall procure three points for each meridian, which will be reprc- fented by the circle drawn through thefe three points. I fhall not dwell on this projeftion, indicated, I believe, by Bion, in hi&book on the Ufe of the Globe ; and which, like that of Ptolemy, is only the conical projeftion disfigured. 70. Some geographers have alfo entertained the idea of developing in 3 tight line all the parallels, and one of the meridians, that palling through the middle of the map ; thus the parallels, which are all perpendicular to- this meridian, correfpond in fpacea with the globe ; there are then affumed in each the degrees of longitude according to the law of their deereafe, that is to fay, proportioned to the co-fines of the latitude ; in fine, there paffes through each feries of the correfponding points of the divifion a curve line, which repreients the meridian. From this conilrudtion, of which fig* 28. offers an example, it follows that, in refpeft to its parallels, the map prefents throughout dimenfions equal to thofe of the fphere ; but the configuration is confiderably altered on the fides by the obliquity of the meridians, fo that the fpherical reftangular quadrilaterals, comprifod between the mendians and the parallels, are reprcfented by mixtilinear trapeziums, of which the angles are very unequal, but the areas are in truth equal. This projeftion has been employed in the Atlas CclelHs of Flamftcad ; in the four parts of the world by J.B. NoKn ; and by fe- veral other geographers. 71. Eafy to trace, and prcferving the relations of fuperficial extent among the different countries, this projeflion mull have iiitereftcd geo- graphers ; and an eafy mean was foon difcovered of correcting the dcfedt occafioned by the obliquity of the meridians, by fubftituting to the right lines reprefenting the parallels, concentric circles defcribed from a point taken in the axis of the map, and pafTing by the divifions of that meridian, the pofition of their common centre is fixed according to the curve which it is proper to give them, that they may interfeft all the other meridians with as little obliquity as pofTible. This proje6lion, re- prefented at fig. 29, is the moft ufed in Fiance in general maps, fuch as thofe of the four parts of the world ; and among others, DeliUe and D'Anville have employed it* The quadrilaterals, comprized between the parallels and meridians of this projeftion, are, as in the preceding, equivalent to thofe on the fphere. In both thefe, diflandes cannot be exactly meafured, except on the meridians and parallels : and the fcales * A6la Aiiadeniiac Pvtropolitansr, torn, x; pus z* of introduction; xlvii of •fiich" maps only prefent approximations, which are, however, fuf- ficient for the common purpofes of geography. 72. M. Delorgna has pvopofed a new projcftion, pofleffing the pro- perty of reprefcnting, by equal fpaces, countries of equal exrt nt *. In order to conftruA the map of ahemifphere, he conceives it to be divided into half-fpindles or half-gores, to ufe the mechanical term, by planes drawn through its axis ; and upon the centre of the great circle per- pendicular to that axis, he defcribes another, of which the area (hall be equivalent to that oFthe hemifphere. It is eafy to perceive that each half fpindle will be reprefented on the circle in quellion by a feftor, of which the angle will be equal to that formed by the two planes com- prehended in the fpindle. This is demonftrated, fig, 30, in which P reprefents the pole, ABD the plane of the equator, APB a half fpmdle comprized between two meridians and the equator, the circle A' B' D' is that of which the area is equal to that of the hemifphere PABDE. It will be difcovered, without difficulty, that the radius AC muft, in general, be equal to the chord AP of the arc of the me- ridian, comprized between the pole and the plane, which terminates the fpherioal cup to be reprefented f , In the polar proje^ion traced after this principle, the meridians are the radii of the circle which terminates the map ; the parallels are cir- cles concentric to the firft, defcribed with a radius equal to the chord of the complement of the latitude ; the quadrilaterals formed by the meridians and the parallels which terminate a zone, are equal and rect- angular as on the fphere ; and for this reafon the configuration of the countries is not much altered. The diftances are not meafured imme- diately by the right line which joins the two points to be compared ; but it does not differ much, and the exa£l: proportion may be eafily de- duced. Thefe properties, which cannot be denied to the projection of M. Delorgna, conftitute in his opinion, thofe effential to a good geo- graphical projection ; and, in faCt, it muft be ufeful to adopt in common maps this projection ; which is very eafy to conftruct when a hemifphere is wanted, terminated by the equator. The author has alfo pointed out the method of applying it to particular maps ; but the drawing becomes complex when there is queftion of hemifpheres terminated by the hori- zon, becaufe we muft then fubftitute to the meridians and parallels the azimuth circles, and the alimicanters, or thofe parallel to the horizon of the place afTumed for the centre of the map ; circles to which we cannot refer the latitudes and longitudes, except by a particular con- ftru&ion or calculation. The inconvenience is the fame with regard to hemifpheres terminated by the meridian ; but, as I have faid above, the difficulties of projection are of fmall account, when advantages will refult from ic in the daily ufe of maps. 73. The operations effeCted in the preceding century, in order to de- 'tcrmine the figure of the earth by the meafure of the degrees of the meridian, and of the parallels, have given birth to a very important kind of projection, as it is that of the grand map of France by Caffini, the moft beautiful geographical work which has been executed to the pre- fent day. * Prindpi di Geographia Aftronomico-Geometiica, Verona, lySfj, 4to. •f- In fiitt, if n reprefent the relation of the circumference to the diameter, R the radius of the Iphere, h the height Ptoi the cup Pabd, and r the radius of the equiva- lent circle, we ihall have : a n J?^ r: n »•*» from which we draw r^zz% Rh; r is then the poportionnl middla between the diamstvr of the fphere and the fej^ment P e. S Whea INTROJDUCTIOi^. When the admeafuremeiit of a degree of longitude was liridertaiteri^ the difficulty was feen that there is in drawing cxaiilly on the eartli a parallel to the equator *. Infadt, ifby an alienation, direfled by the means of vertical rods, and perpendicular to the meridian of a plafce^ we may determine a lerie^ of points, it is evident, that fnppofnig the earth fpherical, they Vv'ould belong to a great circle determined by the verti- cal plane, drawn perpendicularly to the meridian in qucrtion, and whicli ujion tlie earth anfwers co the cek-flial circle, whicli is called the firft vertical. The parallel foon leaves that circle, which it only touches at the point where it interleits the meridian (fe6lion 45^). In a fpheroid, the curve perpendicular to the meridian has a double bend, and the enquiry into it3 qualities has occupied many geometricians f , The meridian and its perpcndicuhus being lines which are the moft eafdy drasvn by allronomieal and gcodefiac operations, it is to the meri- dian of the obfcrvatory at Paris, and to its perpendiculars, that the {)oints of the* nuip of I'rancc are immediately referred, their latitudes and ongitudes having only been concluded a pojhnor't and by calculation*". In order to form an idea of the manner in which this projection repre- fents terreihial fpaces, it muft be obferved that the great circles per- pendicular to the meridian, fuppofing the earth fpherical, all intcrfeft each other at the polcj of th ^it meridian, and, in conCccpicnce, converp-e one towards the other (fcAion 49) ; while upon the map, where the fame mcridinn is a ftraight line, they become parallel to each other. It thence follow:;, that the portions determined by two circles, perpen- dicular to tbe mctidiaii, are reprcfcnted by redanglesof the fame length, but larger towards their extremities. Thus the dillances and the areas cannot be mcafured on the great map of France, but, by approximation, and bccaufe the extent in longitude is not fo confiderable, tliat the con- vergence of the perpendiculars to the meridian fhould produce an error of any confequence in the common occafioiis of geography, 74. The rliumbs of the wind, or the directions indicated by the com- pafs, which have the property of interfoding under the fame ancle all the meridians which they ncct, and which, for this reafon, bear on the globe the f(jrm of fpiral lines, are alfo reprefented by curved lines of that kind in all tt;e mp.ps where the meridians are not parallels. Mariners, who dired all ihcir c» urfos by thefo lines, cannot, therefore, conve. iiiently refer to tliat kind of r/.ap the courfe which tlu-y have made, cor find that which they mean to perform, becauO^ of the diliiculty of iiicafuriiig with compafles the arcs of a curve, and have, in confequence, fought a prcjettion in which the meridians fliould be Itraight parallel lines. When there is only occaHon to reprefent very fmall fjjaces, or, at Icall, little extended in latitude, there may be lubllitutcd ,) the fphe- rical /.one the devilopcment of a cylinder, liilier infcribed or circum- fcribed on that zone, and of whicli the axis may coincide with that of the globe. The meridians which rvfult from fei'-tions of tlie cylinder by planes pafTing through its axis, are reprcfcnted by right lines parallel t(» that axis j the planes of the parallels interied the cylinder according tt> circles parallel to its bafe, and which become right lines in the dcveldpe- nient. iiuch is the coniixutWonoi Jlut tuapsy of which the invention i» • Mem. de Ciid'ni, Acnd. ties .Stieiioes i?.}^. ^ + Mem. dc r.Vcic'cinit! dt'j SciohCoj, nniuc I7,^j. \ Soetle r'ail^ unJytlqu,' de, Mouvnnau nf,p\„,,„ J,., C„rp, ilktttt, br Dufejour, t> lu, «uu ihe Vijii :j iuii J^iumetrijtic dc lu Jr'iana, I7 Cadiiii, ftfcribed INTRODUCTION k1i xux or, at Iplie. cum- lat of (T by Icl t(» injr ti> plope- tiuu it afcribed to Don Henry, Prince of Portuojal. Their defefts are analo- gous to thofe of the conical projcAion, and even more confiderable ; for in this there may be given to two parallels their real lengtli with regard to the degrees of latitude, and to one only on the flat maps, namely, to the inferior for the developement of the circumfcribed cylinder, and to the fiipcrior for the developement of the infcribed cylinder. We might alfo employ the cylinder conftrufted on one of the intermediate paral- lels, and which would be in part interior nnd in part exterior to the fphere ; but in this way, the extent in longitude would o;ily be exa6t toward* the middle, though the error would be divided betwixt the two extremities. Qu;.'rtions alf) prefent themfelv>^s here limilar to thofe which liulcr has reiolved for the conical projeftion. It is evident, for Cjcample, that the parallel vvliich ferves as a bafe to the cylinder, might: be placed in fnch a manner tliat the area of the developement fhould be equal to that of the fpiierical zone. T!ie drawing of thefe maps may be effected without difficulty, as foon ns the pofition of the ton-eflrial parallel to be developed is fixed ; the only ohjtci: .being to give to the degrees of longitude on that parallel the fi7.e which they ouvjliL to have, in regard to that alllgned to the de- gree of latitude. The line // G, fig, 27, being fnppofrd parallel to the axis C P, and equal to the developement ok tlie arc B F, will be the meridian of the nap. intended to reprefent the zone comprehended between the parallels of tlie points i? and F. The developement of tlie middle parallel^ wliofe radiu^j is E c, will give tiie degrees of longitude. From the fame figure may be obicrved the deficiency of the map on the extreme pa- rallels, fmce the radius 6'°- is fmaller than B h, and the radius H h greater than F f. Thefe maps being only proper for very fmail parts of the world, are xiow nearly abandoned ; and in the gr..>ater part ot thole to be met with, which arc Dntch, there is no icale of longitudes, but only of latitudes and the rhumbs ot the wind. 75 Tlieufe wliicli mariners make of charts is only to trace eyat'^ly irt its Kngtli and direction the conrA.^ which t!iey have made, a;.d to de- termine tlie dJllance from different parts of the coaiis, ai.d the diredioa whicli they muil obferve to arrive at or to avoid them. Tt nu:ll be re* niarked, that by the ciirection to i.".- fdlowed to proceed from one point to another, manners do ii'.t uiideiiland the neat. 11 coiirle,vvhieh upoa a fpliere is a circle, for the inilrnment of which they make ufe, the compafs, ilof^s not indicate innnediUely the neareft eourie, which inter- fcds the different meiidiai,^ ui.der nn< quid angles (fcdtio-a 49). Mercator and Edward Wright have imagined the prv/ie(fl:on o£ redui-fd titiips, which perfcvi^ly aiiiwer the coiuliiions required. The meridians are there ilraight parallel lines, equiddlunt, and inierfttled at right angles by tl»e paiullela to the equator; but the interv:ds whicli Separate them, increale in proportion as we advance towards the poles, in a relation precifely the inverfe of the dininntion of the dtgrecs o£ longitude upon a gh)be. Thence it fo!h)WH, however, that the dif- tauccs in longitude, meafurid upon each parallel, have, with regard to the correfpondent diHaiices in latitude, the fame relation ai on a globe. The drawinir of thefe mnps is attended with no diHiculty, cx.cept the conflruftiouoJ the fcalc of latitud.-H, for which there are tables calculated %vith great care, even obferving the oblate figure of the eattlu They lieir fio iiarae of tables of incieafing latit.idos, becaufe of the angmcnt- fitiou wf tlie lenj^tU gf ^Ach degree of latitude, in proportion ms they I- INTRODUCTION. approach the pole, and I (hall indicate lit another place the principles of their formation. It is evident that there muil not be fought on the reduced maps neither the' relations of the extent of countries, nor the cxaftnef* of their configuration, for this projeftion confiderably augments the re- gions whicli are placed near the poles, although it fhare with the fte- reographic projetlion, tlie. quality of preferving fimilitude in very fmall parts of the globe ; but thefe dcfefts are not attended with inconve* nience in charts, which may be regarded as inftruments, defigned gra- phically to refolve the principal qneitions of pilotage, which they do with the greateft exadlnefs and facihty. 76. It IS to the dcvelopements of the globe that we mud refer the conitrudlion of fpindles or gores, which are drawn upon paper, in order to cover globes of a moderate fize. The furface of the globe i» divided into twelve or eighteen parts, according to the iize of its dia- meter, by drawing meridians from 30° to 30°, or from 20° to 20°. The fpace comprehended between two of thefe meridians having a very fmall curve in regard to breadth, may be confidered as forming part of a cylindHcal furface, circumicribed on the fphere, according to the meridian which divides it into two equal parts. This meridian being developed in bearing perpendicularly on each lide, according to the law of ordinates, the half-widths of the portions, or parallels comprehended between the meridians, which terminate the fpindle, we obtain the form of its entire dcvelopement. Sometimes it is truncated at the two ex- tremities, at fifteen or twenty degrees from the poles ; and thefe two zones are drawn apart as if they were flat. This procedure, as may be feen, is only an approximation, and can only ferve for the manufafture of globes, as it admits the advantages of engraving in multiplying the number ; for the drawing thence obtained, only prefenting disjoined portions, cannot fcrvc as a map. For this reafon I (hall not dwell on the fubjei't, which more properly belongs to the conflru£iion of geo- graphical inftruments. 77. I have now dcfcribed the different kinds of maps, and fliewn their properties and defeats ; but it mufl be obferved that the word dcfed only refers to the coirmon way of confidering maps : for if we regard them with Eulcr and Lagrange*, as a transformation of co- ordinates, it is always mathematically poflible to obtain on a map all the geographical relations whicli may be required. Only, as we have already obferved, fome relations are more eafily obtained tiian others. In faft, the pofit'on of different points of the fphere being de. termined by their latitude and longitude, as the different points of lliC plane arc by two co-ordinates, if we affume on a map lines fubjedlcd to a mathematical law, in order to rrpreient thefe c; uiuinaies, we ftiall eftablifh, between the points of the map and tlijfe of the fphere, fuch a relation that we may afiign on the map the equation of the lines, whicli correfpond with circles, or even with any curves traced on the fphere, and compare the relative fpacca -vith each other. Reciprocally it may be aiked, what ought to be the nature of the co-ordinates of the map, that r., of the Vine: w;'icli rcprefcnt the meridian* and the paral- lels, in order that the parts of that map may have fuch and fuch « re- lation with thofe of the fphere ? In reiolving this laft queilion by the mod refined analyfis, Euler and Lagrange have dcternained a fritn the • Mrmnir* d'Euter, A{}a AtaJcm, Fttr^tl, tom. l p. I. Memoir* da L*jran|'*, Acid. dc Jbcrliu, aanc* 1 799. COS- INTRODUCTION. m The I flievvn le word if we of co- all the already con- conftrudion of different kinds of niapsi according to the qualities which they ought to pofTefs. It is unneceflary further to enlarge on this way of viewing maps. In this circnmllance, as in moll others, neceflity has condufted, by par- ticular and indireft paths, to refults immediately ufcful, long before the difcovery of the general theory. 78. VVhen we h..e chofen the projedlion of the map about to be conftrufted, and traced the meridians and the parallels according to the law of that prc'jeition, the whole is divided into quadrilaterals, in which are infcribed, according to their longitude and their latitude, the points which have thus been dt^hiwrd. This operation becomes the more eafy when the meridians and lU<^ parallels are reftri6ted ; and they are placed in confeqttei>r;e from 10' to 10°, or from 5** to 5°, or even each degree, according to the extent of country given in the map. Maps are alfo diR.ingmttiQd into gittcrai or geographical, as the planifpheres, the four parts of the world, the great ft, or 10, which are exadl i.v Tons in the O' cimal fyftem ; and, in like manner, for the degree rei'.i'tii^ *"rom the d.mrpfions of the topographic plan, with regard to the dei.,'v » ( f ^'le chiivograplir: map. A colTedlion of maps, either of the wor r of a country, is tailed an Atlas ; and the molt convenient above all thofe which ferve to faci- litate the reading of a work, and not I'lo";. in the largeft form, but thofe which lead to the details by a gra'^.l '1 iuccenion of maps more and more particular. The eye can rarely embrace without f!iiHculty the confiderable fpace comprized in a flieet of the largeft paj r, above all, when it mull be unrolled, and numerous names are fo. „ .L , but there are fome cafes in which the neceflity of pail^.ng too frequently from one map to another becomes an inconvenience to be (hunned, a.^d -naps of a large form are then more expedient. 79. After thcfe explanation;?, it may be conceived that the fize of a map (nay be reguhtud according to the intention ; and that maps ^ught e 2 t« •.^*j d m T-NTRODUCTIO-N-. to be conftrudcd inllie inverfe order of their details ; namely the topo- graphical plan reduced from plans taken trigonomctrically upon the laud ; cliorographical maps from an afl'emblage and redudion of topographical plans ; and, in fine, geographical maps, properly fo called, from an aflemblage and rcdu£liOa of chorograpliical maps. I fliiall not here explain the rnetliods of taking furveys, as they belonpj to geometry and trigoiiometry ; but fliall content myfelf with Ihewinjj how feveral furveys are united in one topographical plan. In order that two particular plans may be joined, they mud have two common points, or a line of the one may he applied on a line of the fame denomination in the other. Tlien defcribing this line on the paper defigned to receive t!- ; topographic plan, fo that there may be on each fide a fpace proper to comprise that about to be drawn, it only remains to combine by triangie;>, either with the points of that line common to the two plans about to be united, or with the points to be placed after- wards, all thofe comprehended in each plane ; and, by conftruAing equal triangles, in a fimilar pofition \\\l\\ regard to the leading line on the topographic plan, the two plans may be united without difliculty. But if they muft be reduced, as moil commonly happenii, triangles mult Be formed on tlic topographic plan, like thofe on the fliects of the fur- vcy, fo that the fides of ilie firfl. may be to thofe of the fecond in the relation exacted by the reduelion. When the leaves of the furvey arc marked with the meridian, cither true or magnetic, and that this line is the icmc in all the lliects to be. reunited, then the points of each leaf are referred to the meridian, and to a perpendicular drawn on that line, by a point common to two con- tiguous leaves. The dillancfj-o of all the poims from each or thcfc right lines is meafured parallel lo the other, and thcfe diilancea arc referred, either fuch as tiiey are, or reduced to the meridian and perpendicular drawn in the topographic plan, to rcprefent thofe which arc common to the fliccts about to be joined. This leads me to fpeak of the frame divided into fquarcs, employed in reducing all drawings, and which ia ' very convenient for the conllrui-tion of the details of maps. The Ihccts which are to be united arc divided into fquares by parallel lines, pcrpendicuhir to tiiat which is common to the Ihcets, and the more they are n\ulliplied tiicre is the more facility in judging of the place to be occupied in each Iquare, by the ptjints and ciicumftanccs herein contained, and inTcribing tlicm v/ith a (l:ic1 refemblance ia the correfponding Iquarcs trai'ed on the reduced pLu;. Tliis operation is repn fentcd in tig. 31. 'i'iie fiieets ABCD, EFGHt having in comn.on the right lines CD and ZT/, arc divided into fquares* of which the iides are i)araU( 1 and perpendicular to thefe right lines ; the leduced plan, a t'fc, it; divided in llie fame manner, in regard to the lli.e 4 rts, proportioned to the itinerary meafmes contained ».■ this dift:;acc, the riglit hnc which joins thefe two points; which thus bec.inies the fcale of the map, and fiiews he didance oi alt the other point;^ from each otiier. 8 rhe paffage from chorognip'.ital mips to a general or geogra- phical map is analogous to that from topographical plans to the choro- graphic map, by tianlpufing into the qnadnlaterals, formed by the meridians ar.d the parailclb of the geographical n ap, what is contained in the correfpondent quadriltvlcrals of the chorographic maps, which are aifenibled and reduced. It is abo\'e all in this la(l operation that we perceive the nrccfllty of aftionomical obfervations, in urdcr to li^. t'ne pufition of points at lonie diilance from each other; it may in fad happen, that in the topog»-a- phical maps, which ferve for the conftrudtion of the chorogi-aphic, there may be errors common to all points of the map, as dillances too fmall or too li.vge in tlie fame direction, and that thef;.' errors remain on the chorographic mnps ; and, in re-uniting the latter upon h general map, the large (paces which it reprcuiits will be fjniid too much redriftcd or ddated vvitlMiul theenois bjiug perceived. But when tlierc is placed ftirci^tly on the chot'ugraphic ii>iips, or at lealt ou the gcograpluCi « rer- e 3 tai» I l!v INTRODUCTION. tain number of points, of a latitude and longitude finally determined, thefe points will define upon the map certain fpaces, in which thefe points and intermediate details may be laid down ; and if this do not happen, the excefs or deficiency perceivable, arifing from the errors of many maps aflembled, is divided among all the points of each, and thence becomes almoft infenfible, except there be fome reafon to afcribe the inaccuracy to particular points which muft be corrected by theaftro- nomical obfervations upon others. To lend more exaftnefs to the copies of their maps, it is upon the copper itfelf that the geographers of the Depot de la Marine execute their graduation ; and they even attend to the alteration of dimenfions occafioned by the drying of the paper. The procedure followed in thefe operations may be found in the Voyage of the fhip Flora, drawn up by M. de Fleurieu, and the article Carte of the Encychpedte Me- thodique. 82. It is not difficult to perceive that we may, by the means above indicated, transfer upon globes the details marked in chorographic and geographic maps. This operation, which I have mentioned in feft.46», confifts in dividing, by meridians and parallels, the furface of the globe into quadrilaterals fo fmall, that the curve of that furface may be little fiF^nfible, and to draw in thefe quadrilaterals what is contained in the correfpondent quadrilaterals of the maps of vaiious parts of the earth. Such would be the procedure in the conftru6ticn of maps, if wc might in all countries begin with topographic maps, and materials reduced to the fame mea Cures, cqwally accurate and perfectly accordriut ; but unhappily this is not the cafe, there being but a fmall number of countries, and France alone completely, which have been trigonome- vric-dly fnrveycd. As to the oti^:M- parts, there are only maps con- flrufted after different methods, and upon data which are little exa£^. It is only in endeavouring to rec jncile all tliofe that rcprefent the fame country, that we know the degree of confidence that may be placed in each, and that wc may approach the real delineation. After fome obfervations on itiuerar}- meafures, M. Lacroix thus proceeds : When we have eftablilhcd the agreement of the meafures, or of the fcalcs employed in different maps, we can conflruft a graduation to thofe which are deflitiite of it, as foon as we know, either immediately, or by the diftinces oF given points, the latitudes and longitudes of whatever poir.t ol thefe maps. We may in confequence compare, by the latitiides and longitudes which they affign to the fame places, the maps which comprehend the fame rcj^n ms ; and this manner is the more r'. ;veniei)t, becaufe it eafily permits a reference to the difFcrencc of pr. ,(.£^10118 in thefe maps. The fame point being thus placed under different latitudes and lon- gUiides in fcvcral ma',)K in r'er to procure to thefe data the degree of c(>i^fidence which they merit; it nalt he obfcrved how thefe maps prcfint ot.icr circumiian -es, as the reip-.v live fituations with .egard to points well determined, Inch as the capitals of large countries, or of th ir provinces, the diilanccs of thefe towns from places of leis con- frquence, thi.' configmationi of the fliores, of the '.ourfes of the rivers, cf the chains of mountains, of the high roads, the limits of territory j and to «xamiiie in what they agree and in what they differ under each of thefe relations. The latitudes, more eafy to be obfcrred than tha longitudes, are generally better cflabliflicd upon maps drawn on the relations of truvcUcis, The common dcfcft of the ancient maps it 1 ^ ctiuridcrablj' INTRODUCTION. H Ion. degree maps ird to or of s con- rivers, tory; confideraWy to augment all the diftances of the places in the diredtion of eaft and weft ; and the error becomes the greater in proportion as the points are diftant from the principal meridian, whch regulates the longitudes of the others. This fault is very remarkable in the maps of Ptolemy with regard to the differences of longitude between Alex- andria and the other, towns upon the fliorcfs of the Mediterranean. The maps of the Sanfons, of Juillot, and others, compiled towards the end of the feventeenth century, alfo extend all the countries in the dire£lion of the longitudes. Such maps ilill furnifh ufcful materials when the pofitions are corre6led in the diredlion of caft and weft, by dividiiig, proportionally to the diftance from the principal meridian, the difftrence between the h)ngitudes alfigned in thele maps, and thofe which refult from new determinations. In his Companion to a Map of the Worlds (London 1794, 4to.) Mr. Arrowfmith offers the following practical remarks on projeftion *. ** As the Earth is of a form approaching very near to a globe, or fphere, it is evident that the only map which can truly reprefent the figure of the various countries, and their relative bearings and diftances, muft be delineated on the furface of a Globe. " But as globes of a fize proper to exhibit a map fufficiently accurate, and containing all the information that is neceflary or de- firable, muft be very bulky, and very expenfive, it is neceffary to have more portable and cheaper Maps, executed upon a flat furface ; thefe, fiace the art of copper-plate printing has been iu ufe, have generally been made upon paper. ** It is obvious, that fuch a map, wherein is attempted to reprefent upon a plane furface that which is really fpherical, muft depart con- (iderably from the truth ; efpecially if it comprehends the whole, or a confiderable portion of the world. It has, therefore, been an objeft which has engaged the attention of the moft eminent geographers, to difcover a projedion (or arrangement, of the proportional parts of the map) which Ihould be liabl< to the feweft errors- " The moft natural method of reprefentiiig a fphere upon a plane feems to be to divide it into two equal parts, and inicribe each of them in a circle : but as the equator, and the polar axis, which interfe^s that circle at right angles, and makes one of the meridians, muft be fuppofsd equal in length to the half of the periphery, (of which it is not quite two-thirds), it follows, of courfe, that the countries delineated upon, or near, thefe lines, muft be reduced to fome\vhat lefs than two- thirds of the fize of the countries of equal extent, vhich lie at the extremity of the circle; and ih-^t the lines drawn to meafure the latitude, which are parallel to each other, or nearly fo, mull, in order to preferve as nearly as poflible their proportional angles at the points of iiiterfedion with the meridians, form fegments of circles, of which no two are parallel or ctaiccntric. •• There may be as many different projeftions as there .are points of vinv, in which a globe can be feen, but geographers have generally chofen thofe which reprefent the poles, at the top and bottom of the map ; thefe, from the ddiiieation of the lines of latitude and longitude, are called tlie fter'.ograpfac, orthographic, and globular projections. *' I do not propole to detain the reader with a defcription of all tlie projv^ionsj lome of whicb are fo erroneous (for the purpofe of • Tbe sTjimruitlc^ errors .ire p«^y correled. c + conftruftingr •I'll Iv] INTRODUCTION. conftruAing of maps) as to deferve being configned entirely t<| -oblivion. But as projeftions of maps form a plcafing and irftruftiva exercife, and indeed indifpenfably ncccfTaty to the right underllaiiding of Geogrnphy. by ltud(!i.ts, 1 fliall delcribe the rr.nnncr of conftruding the map tii?t accojrpar.ief this work. t'V.i firll hirt at the Stereogram phic Projedior. . Among the various p litions aflignable to the eye, there are chiefly two that have been adopted, wherein the eye is placed, either in the points (i9, fig l-) or removed to an infiiiite dillance; and hence this projedtion is liable to tlie great error of diltortiug the form of the countries reprefeiitcd upon it, much more than is ntceflary. The only advantage is, that the lines of latitude and longitude inters ' fed each other at right angles. " This being obforwd by that excellent allronomer. M. de la Hire f , he invented a remedy for the inconvenience, by afiigning to the eye a polition at the point (fjg i.), the diflance of which, from the globe at Z>, is equal to the right fine of 45 degreer, ; and hence the right line CO, .which bifeds the quadrant I3C, alio bifeds the radius £C, and produces the fimilar triangles OFC't and OEI j and thus the qther parts of the quadrant £C, and in like manner of the whole femi- circle jIBC, are rcpvefented in the pro]t6tiou nearly proportionable to each other, and to the eye perfetlly fo. ♦* This projedion, as coming the ncareft to a true reprefentation of the globe, is called the Globular Projedion : it is equal to the Stereo- graphic in point of facility, and valUy fupciior to it in point of truth, ** Gcomeirical Co7iJi-u£llon of the Glolular Projinlcn. " From the centre C (Og 2.) with imy radius, as CB, defcribe a circle; draw the diameters u'lBt and 90, yo, (be careful to duiw them at pcrfo6"t right angles,) aid divide them into nine equal parts ; like- wife divide each quadtant into liine equal parts, each of which contains ten degrees ; if the fcale admits of it, every one of thefe divifions may be fubdivided into degrees : next, to draw the meridians, fnppofe the meridian Sc" W. of Gicenwich, we hove given the two poles 90,90, and the point So in the equator, or diamtter y/^ ; defcribe a circle to pafs through the three given points as lollows ; with the radius 90, fet one foot of the compiifils on the point 90, and defcribe the femi- circles XX and ZZ, then remove the ci,mpaffcs to the point 80, oa the equator, and dcfcrilc the arcs 1, i, and 2, 2 ; uhere they interfed: the femicircle, make the point, as at i and 2, and draw lines from a through the point i, till they interfed the diameter B^l, continued in E, then will E be the centre tron-. wlsence the meridian 90, 80, 90, muil be drawn, ;-nd will e.\j'o° W. longitude tVoin Greenwich. The fame rauius will draw the meridian exprelling 140* W longitude, in l;ke uianuer. Draw the next meiiJian with the ra- diu» CB, fet one loot of ti.e c<.tnpifres in the poii.t before, will give the point /), the centre of 90^ W. U)ngilude, and fo of all the refl. " Tne parallels of latitude are drawn in the fame manner, with this ditference, that th-: leuiciixles XV and Z2'. n.ufl be drawn from the poiuts A and B, the extremities of the equator. • " Tlie iireat gcogrnphcr l}'Anvi|!(«, l,.is cciidrix^cil Iiis mnp ft" tlie World upon tfcjj pT"!e<»lon, aJapiinK it to Caltiiii'!. fyltem of ilit figure cl the li;uth, which nukes ihfc pol r (liiinc-rr iongci than ihc t\u.iiorialt •f HJiLAcdfl. .KicttC, J7CX, u In INTRODUCTIOK u\ rom a tiiiued o, 90, tVoin le ra- licribQ lit D, :h thi» III tlic d upon " In ^ M Tn tlie manner above defcribed, with great labour and exaftnefs, I drew all the meridians and parallels of latitude to every degree on two hemifpheres, which laid the foundation of the map now before us* " We fliall now dtop a few hints on the advantage and difadvantage of Meicator's Projeftion. «' A method has been found to obviate fome of the difficulties attend* ing all the circular projeJ'.^ions by one, which, from the perfon who iirft nfed it, (though not the inventor, ) is called Mercator's Projeftion» In this there are none but ri/rht lines ; all the meridians are equidiftant, and continue fo through the whole extent ; but, on the other hand, in order to obtain the true l:)earing, fo that the compafs may be applied to the map (cr chart) for the purpofe of navigation, the fpace* between the parallels of latitude, (which in truth are equal, or nearly fo,) are nitide to increafe as they recede from the equator in a propor- tion which, in the high latitudes, become prodigioufly great.. *• The great advantages peculiar to this projettion are, that every place drawn upon it retains its true bearing with refpeft to all other places ; the diftances may be meafured with the niceil exaftnefs by proper icales, and all the lines drawn upon it are right lines. For thefe rcalons, it is the only proje6lion in drawing maps or charts for the life of navigators, " Its o'lly difadvantage is, that the countries in high latitude* are of n^'^eflity increafed beyond their jull fize to a monflrous degree^ *♦ Thus it appears, from this fliort view of three of the bett modes of projf IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1.1 1.25 ut Ui |?2 U 1 1.6 PhotogFaphic Sciences Corporation 33WnT WIMTM, MAIN STniT N.V. I4SM •n.4S03 j^^.n^iS^^'ititi^^ u mTRODUCTION. He relates, that in the Ifle of Thule, fituated to tlie north of th© Britannic iflea, and the moll r.orthern land known at that time* there was no night at the folftice of fummer, nor no day on the folftice •f winter. This phenomenon places the ifland, mentioned by Pytheas, under the polar circle, and can only agree with Iceland ; and this feem$ confirmed by what the ancients relate of the magnitude of this ifland ; iieverthelefs, fome difference of opinion ftill fiibfifts on this fubjeft, partly becaufe of the great dillance of the place from the Britannic iflands, and the difficult navigation incidental ta fo inclement a climate ; and partly becaufe later authors than Pytiieas havefpoktn differently of it. Stephanus of Byzantium, for example, defcribes the day as 20 hobrs long in fummer, and four hours long in winter ; this would bring it much nearer, and within a few degrees of the Britannic ifles. But the account given of it by Procopius, the Greek hijlorlarit would make V8 imagine it to have been ftill farther north. Without entering into this controverfy, I fball only obfervc, that the knowlctlge of geography has varied fo much in different ages, that fome countries have become unknown and forgot, while new ones have been di'icovcred ; fo that the tidxat .oi Thule may really have been given to very diHerent places. If we pixfer the authority of Pytheas, whofe defcription feems very exaft, and moreover relates to a phenomenon which mull have appeared very remarkable to the fouthern inhaijitants of Europe, we mull fup- j)ofe the place under the polar circle ; and to deduce the latitude, we» mull take into confideration the diminution of the ecliptic fince the time this author lived. Admitting the change to be 50" for every cen- tury, the total change for about twenty-one centuries will be 17' 30" | the prefent obhquity being 23 ' 28', in the time of Pytheas it rnuft have been 23° 45' 30". Hipparchus, who lived near two centuries later than Pytheas, fuppofed it 23'' 51' 2o", an«J whichever of thefe deter- minations we adopt, the Thule of Pytheas would be under the r;arallei «f66. But if we adopt the length of the folftitial day, as given by Stephanus of Byzantium, we Ihall only have 63'' for the latitude of Thule. The fame Pytheas relates, that at Marfeillcs a gnomon divided into ISO parts, projeded at the fummer folllice a fliadow vhofe length W88 equal to 41^ ofthtfe parts. By conllruding a right angled triangla whofe fides are in this ratio, it appears that the altitude of the fun muft have been 71"; if from this the obliquity of the ecliptic as eftablifhed by Hipparchus at 24®, in round numbers be taken, there will remain 47" for the height of the equator at Marfeilles, or 43" of latitude. Sometimes the Greek allronomcrs have indicated the height of the fun in cubits each of 2". According to Hipparchus, the fun's altitude •t the winter's fuUlice was onlv nine cubits on the parallel of latitude ^MjiTuig through the mouth ufthe Boryfthcnes (at prefent the Dnieper). This luppofeu the altitude of the fun 18", and the latitude computed from this is 48 , which diifem but little from modern deter^iinations. It was from this kind of data that Hipparchus divided the whole diftance from north to fouth of the known world into parallels. The table of climates (N'. 20) calculated by this aftronomer, indicated the principal cclcftial phenomena for evciy degree of latitude, and thereby enabled attentive travellers to verify or improve the (late of gcographi* Cal knowledge. 89 • It is not now exaiSlly known in what manner Eratollhenos, and iftcrwaids Hipparchus, fettled their longitudes, the works of thefa «arl/ INTRODUCTION. fa rth of tTj9 that umcj, the folftice y Pytheas, this feems his ifland ; lis fubjeft, E Britannic a climate ; fFereiitly of day as 20 •ould bring ides. But rould make tering into geography ave become fo that the >laccs. feems very ve appeared e muft fup- atitude, we ic fince the r every cen- be i7'3o"i it riuift have iituries later thefe deter- tbe parallel s given by latitude of divided into tofe length ;led triangle e fun muft abliftted by remain 47" • |ight of the altitude of latitude Dnieper). computed binations. the whole llels. The licated the Ind thereby 1geographi« ihen«8, and of thefa eai-ly tarly geographers ndt having been tranfmitted to us ; it is fuppofed^ kowcver, that it v/as by the mean* of itinerary diltances, which wa»' very applicable to places in the Mediterranean, and along its coafts^ which lay in an eaft and weft diredlion. With refpedl to places not fo conveniently fituated, they combined thefe diftances into a fyllem of triangles, which method I fliall ex- emplify by a cafe taken from the work of M. Gollelin, entitled,- ** Recherches lur la Geographic fyftematique et pofitive des Anciens." From the defile called Calpiae Pylae to Babylon, Hipparchus reckons 6,700 lladia. From Babylon to 8uza 3,400, in the direAion of % parallel to the equator upon which he fuppol'ed both thefe cities to be iituated ; and lallly from Suza to the Calpiae Pylae 4,900 ; thele three places form the triangle /?, .S, P, (fig. 32.) the initials of the place*- reprefcnted. If a perpendicular PA be drawn from the fummit P of this triangle to the oppofite fide B St which reprefents the parallel paff- ing through Babylon and Suza, the length of this perpendicular 4,705 ftadia,. will be the difTerence of latitude between the Cafpiae Pyias and- . Suza. This dillance, 'cftimated in degrees, (700 ftadia to a degree) gives 6" 43', for the difference of latitude, and that of Suza being fixed by Hipparchus at 33° 34', the latitude of the Cafpis Pylae would be 40° 17'. Tht didanco iS"-.^, contained bet^v^en the extremity of the perpen- dicular P^and Suza, 1,370 ftadia, gives the diftance between the two places mcuiarod from eaft to weft. To conclude with fonie d-'gree of prt'cifion the difference of longi- tndo expreiied in degrees, it would be roqiiifite to attend to the dimi- nution of the dfgrees between tliefe parallclo, and which are inter- ft'dted by the oblique line joining thcfo two points ; but this corredVion would be very liale in compaiiiou of the error which more modern obfcrvations have dctcdtod in thefe ancient determinations, and whicU arifcs, not only from the curvature of the enrth being neglcfted, but bccatife the itiner.iry meafurcs were eilimated in a very vague and inaccurate manner, by days jouniios eitlier by land and lea, in which . were reclcoiifd the different windiii<^-'i of the road and the finuofity of the Ihore. It is only therefore, by a very careful invcftigation of dif- ferent authorities and by a judicious choice of difl'ereI^t data, that the errors of one can be re£\iiied by ihofe of another, 'i'he circuniftance on wluch critics place tlicir gteuteft reliance, is the probability that tlie mean of a great number ot tbcfe dcterminatiops will not differ widely from tlie truth, fince it generally ha])pL'j!» that when an error has been found in one direction, th.' fear uf falhng into llie fame, produces another n\ an oppofite direction, and iroin tlu-K* coniiderations refults tolerably accurate are fomctnnes obtained from very defeclive materials. But it is the detail of the particular conllgination of each country that has been of the greateft ufe in improving our knowled-fc of ancient. ?;eography, for ihcie local circumlhuic^js have been uiually very faitJi- iilly delcribed, not only by hiftorians but by potts. Our modern geo- craphers make the ancient map which they propofc to conftrud\ lub- lervient to the confi'juration of the country as recently determined, and by this mean* are able to explain the meaning ot many p.ifl'tgcs in ancient authors, and to determine the poficion of places wiiich they have deftribcd. It is thus that the Travels of M. Choifeuil Gouvirr into Greece, and M. Chevalier to the Plains of Troy, have •ffordcd very valuable documents to M. Baibier du Boccagc, fur the conftiudion of his atlas to the TraviU oj.Ana;harJ'it t and it it . .^E^Sf~ Ti^S^^S!^^^^ ^ txii INTRODUCTION; well known what utility D^Anville derived in conftru6ling his maps of Italy and Greece from a judicious comparifon of ancient and moderft xelatioos. Hillorians who often had nothing in view but to relate the marches of armies, only indicate the route by the fuccelHon of places, without noticing the turnings and change of direction. In this manner military maps were fometimes conftrudlcd ; for example» the one found in 1547 among the papers of Peutinger. This chart, though 22 feet long, was only one foot broad ; it appears to have been con(lru6ted in the time of Tbeodofius the Great ; it embraces all the extent of the then known world, but diminifhed in breadth, fo as to appear abfurd, till we reflefi that it is only intended to indicate the diftances of places, and not their felative pofitions, or the configuration of the country, which could not have been preferved in this form, which was fuited to be rolled up in a imall fpace ; yet this map is extremely valuable, iince the diftances of thofe places which are known appear to be very exa€l, from which we conclude, that thofe which are now deilroyed or forgotten are fo like wife. It viras by a flmilar comparifon, and from a knowledge of modern geography, that M. Goflelin, in the work above-mentioned, fixed the extent of the navigation of the Carthaginian Hanno, and the hiftorian Folybius along the coafts of Africa. By thefe methods the ftudy of ancient geography has been reduced to a fyftem, by which the identity of ancient cities and places is ellab- lifhed with thofe more recently difcovered. And this is acconipIKlied cither by the fimilitude of the country with that formerly delcribed, its relative fituation with refpeft to others that are known, and fome^ times by ancient monuments and traditions ; and laftly, by the fimilarity of name» conformity of language, and by the manners of the inhabit- ants. This method alfo is fometimes applied to the long voyages un> dertaken in the 1 6th century, the tradition of which is often extremely confufed, the narrative of them being ufnally drawn up in too confufed a manner to afford the requifite data for the determination of the fitua* tion of the different places which were viflted by thefe early navigators. 91. It has already been remarked, (N" 88.) that beddes the itinerary or linear diilancc of a place, it is neccffarr alfo to have its dire£Uon. Before the difcovery of the compafs this could not be very accurately afcertained. The ancient navigators, unprovided with mftruments* directed their courfe by the circumpolar ftars, chiefly by thofe in the Great Bear, our prefent polar ftar being 12° from the pole in the time of Pytheas. They divided the horizon into a few fubdtvifions, often determined by local circumllanccsy at appears by the names they gave to the winds. The Greeks at firft gave only four names to the winds* correfponding to the four points, north, fouth, eafl and weft) called afterwards tht cardinal points. Thefe names were Eurus or the Eaft Zophyrus - Well Boreas • * North Notus - • South. They afterwards added four others, correfponding to the four polott in which the fun rofe and fct at the winter and fnmmcr folftices. Scacca in his QucUioncs Naturalcs* has given their names* 8ubf6l8ni)| INTRODUCTION. biii^ Eaft wind. Winter rifing. Between this lait and the fouth. South wind. Between the fouth and winter fet* ting. Winter fettinp. Weft. Summer fetting. Between this and the north. North. Between this and fummer rifing. Summer riiing. From this table are derived twelve diviHons, which if equal would contain each ^o°, but the rifing and fetting points determined by the folftitial amplitudes of the fun, depend on the obliquity of the ecliptic and the latitude of the place. This method of fubdivifion was therefore too local and partial to continue long in general ufe. Vitruvius has tranfmitted a divifion of the horizon into twenty-four parts of 15 degree» each, and the names afligned to each wind are as follows: Subfolanus or Apeliotes. Vulturnus. £uru3. Euronotus. Aufter. Notus. Lebonotus. Africus. Lebs. Favonius. Zephyrus. Corus. Argeftes. Thrafeias. Septentrio. Aparetias. Aquilo. Mefes. Cxceas. Solanus. Eaft wind. Favonius. Weft wind. Ornithiae. Eteliz. Cccias. Arcius. EuruB. Cauru£. Vultarnus. Corus. Euronotus. Thrafeias. Auftra. South wind. Septentrio. North wind* Altanus. Gallicus. Lebonotus. ' Supernas. Africus. Aquilo. Subvefpenii. Boreas. Argeftes. Carlas. By this diftribution, it is eaf^ to aflUrn the angle which any parti- cular wind makes with the meridian ; for example the direction of the wind Boreas being the fourth after the north, neccflarily makes an angle of 60* with the meridian line. Modem navigators divide the horizon into thirty >two parts or rhumbs, each quadrant, containing eight. Ir. the ocean thefe are denominated after the cardinal points, but in the Mediterranean they are known moft commonly by particular names. The following table will (hew in what manner thcfc correfpond with csich other. It ocgins from the eaft that it may the mdre eafily be com* par^d with the preceding. In the Ocean. East. . E.byS. E.S.E. S.E.byE. Ji.E. S.E.byS. S.S.E. S.byE. In the Mediterranean. Lf.vante. Quarta di levante firocco. Levante firocco. Quarta di firocco levante. tilROCCO. Suarta di firocco oftro. ftro firocco. Quarta dcU' oftro lirocco. Im Uu INTRODUCTIOtT. In the Oceak. South. S.byW. S.S.W. S.W.byS, S.W. S.W.byW. W.S.W. W.byS. West. W. by N. W.N.W. N W. by W. N.W. N.W.byN. N.N.W. N.byW. North. N. by E. N.N.E. N.E.byN. N.E. N.E.byE. E.N.E. E.byN. In the MediterranCaiI4 OsTR0< Quarta dell oftro garbino* Oibo garbino. Quartu di garbino oftrp. Garbino. Qiiarta lii garbino poncnte. Ponente garhiiio. Quarta di ponente garbino. PONENTE. Quarta di ponente maeftro. Ponente marltro. Quarta di maeftro ponente. Makstro. Quarta di maeftro tramontana< Tramontana maeftro. Quarta di tramontana maeftro^ Tramontana. Quarta di tramontana greco. Tramontana greco. Quarta di greco tramontana. Greco. Quarta di greco levante. Greco Icvantc. Quar a di levante greco. Each of thefe divifions containing \ of the whole circumference, is •qwal to 11*15'; therefore if a fliip fails N.E by E., this rhumb being the fifth from the N» ia equal to five times x i" 15', or 56" 15' ; in like manner all the other angles are attained, oaly care muft be taken to obferve if the dircdtion is eaft or weft of the meridian line. By reckon- ing either from the N. or S. point, the obtufe arigles which the above metiiod introduct s are avoided, S.W.Jjy S. for example being the third ireckoniiig fror.i S. towards W. corrcfponding to three times n" ij' or 33" 45' from S. towards W. Notwithftanding the facility of this re- difference of latitude and longitude ex« preffed in linear meafure. Let one of thefe be reprefented by the tri- angle y/5C (fig. 33.) ; by trigonometry ^j5 .• yiC ;: I. cos. J9^C hence y/6' = JB. COS. BylC. but the angle jBj^C being conftant for all the meridianG interfedled by the courfe, the difference of latitude proper for each fmall triangle will h.. .e the fame faftor, and the fum of all thefe differences, or the total difference of latitude of the extreme points will be equal to the fum of the portions, or the total length of the traft de- fcribed, multiplied by the cofine of the angle which it makes with the meridian,- as in the preceding cafe. The rcdudtion into degrees is cf- fedled in the fame manner. The difference of longitude correfponding to £C may be found by means of the difference of latitude j^C. for yiC : BC ,•.•!: tang. B/lCt hence J?C = AC. tang. BAG. But to know this difference in parts of the equator we mud refer t9 what has been faid, (N*48.) where it is fltewn that if Z, reprefents the latitude of the parallel pamng through the pomt A. then B : to the correfponding arc of the equator : : cos. Lit. and confe* quently this arc it ^V^IZTT^ ^»' ^^ fttWUtute iu valut found at above, and, Tht cot. ^ f ' diffiertnct MMmmmmm. .,^i. Ixvi INTRODUCTION. difference of longitude = X tang. SJC, The fam therefore C08.L of all thefe elementaiy differences of longitude vnW be obtained by multiplying the fum of all the values of the Tatiable h€tor =• COS. L by the conftant faftor tang. SjtiC. If theTe portions be taken fuch that the difference jfC may equal i' of the meridian or equator, then fince COS. Z, =: fecant L. the above expreffion becomes difference of hngitnde rr i' X fee, X. tang. BAC, and the fum of the fadtors i' X fee. L vrill be obtained by adding all the fecants for each minute* for the whole are between the point of de- parture and that of arrival. ' This method, however, is only an approximation. Since even the arc of a minute is not rigoroufljr a ftrait line, it may be made more exadl by taking the fecants for every loth, or even for every fingle fe- cond ; this procefs would be extremely tedious, but the integral calculus gives the exaft expreffion for this fum to difference of latitude* or intercepted arc of the meridian being fuppofed divided into an infinite number of portions. It is in this manner that the values of all poffible arcs have been calculated in the tables of meridional parts mentioned above. The ratio of the degree of latitude to the degree of longitude being as 1 to cos. latitude, to preferve this ratio wheu the meridians are fup> pofed parallel, it is neceffary that, i' of the merid. : V of the paridlel i: i : cos. lat. or I'of the 1 ' of the parallel , r , r » mer. =: v = i' of the par. X fee. L» cos. L ' If we calculate therefore from ©• the fucceffive minutes of the meri- dian, taking thofe of the parallel equal to the equator, we fliall be led to each parallel by the fum of the fecants, calculated from minute to minute, from o' to that parallel. The exaft method of calculating thefe tables is derived from the pre- ceding confidcration, as likewife the conftruAion of a traverfe upon a reduced chart. But for the object I have in view the two following ruJes are to be obferved. For the firft queftion. — After having obtained, as in N® 92 the la- titude of the pomt of arrival, take in the table of meridional parts, the difference of the numbers correfponding to the two latitudes, and mul- tiply it by the tangent of the angle which the courfe or rhumb line makes with the meridian, and the refult will he the difference of longi- tude expreffed in minutes of a degree. In the fecond qucftion, the angle which the rhnmb-line makes with the meridian is not given, but it may be deduced from the difference of latitude reduced into leagues, and by the diftance defcribed ; with thefe data the difference of longitude may be computed as above. For example, fuppofe a veffel fets out from a point, fttuated in lati- tude 42* 3' iforth,. and has defcribed a C2 leagues N.£. bv E. which is equivalent to An angle of 56" 15' with the meridian, it will be found that the difference of latitude, reckoned on the line N. and S. is 140 leagues, or 7^ towards the N. This difference being of the fame denomination, muli be added to the latitude of the point of departure, which givet 4Q« 4' for the latitude of the point of arrival. INTRODUCTION. Ixvu The number is then to be taken from a table of meriilional parts, ccoy Ihefponding to 49* 3', viz. - • 3386,7 then for 42* 3' = 2785,8 the dilTerence • - 600,9 the log, of which is to be added to the tangent of the angle 56* 15', and therefult, which anfwers to 899', or 14* 59', as the difFerentfe of longitude towards tlie eaft. 94. Thefe ryles being founded on ftrift geometrical principles would be perfe£lly exadl, if the data were fo likewife, but the direftion of the tra« defcribed as given by the compafs, is fubjeft to much uncertainty, from caufes well known to mariners, fuch as the variation of the needle, not always eafy to determine, and the drift or lee way which a (hip makes by the adion of a contrary or fide wind, which prevents it from following exaftly the direftion of the keel. Thefe circumftances were very imperfedtly attended to by navigators till within the laft century. The meafure of the dillance actually defcribed is alfo fubje£t to coa* fiderable uncertainty. ■ The ancients often exprefs it by the numbert of days* march or navi- gation, and it is frequently a queftion of great difficulty to afcertain the value of thefe quantities, which vary in a variety, of ways, and in different ages, according to linear meafures in ufe at the time, to the particular region, the manner of travelling, and the fize of the veffel. By duly confidering all thefe circumftances we obtain a mean value, which is to be depended on, in proportion to the number of fa£):8 from which it is derived. By attending to the forms of the various inflec- tions of the roads in countries interfe£fced by mountains, or by the courfe of confiderable rivers, and likewife in level plains, general refults may be obtained concerning the increafe of length in the roads, produced by the interpofition of thefe obftacles, and by which the diftance muft therefore be diminished, to obtain the rcfult on a llrait line. To eftimate the diftance palTedover by a fhip, it isrequifite to know the effect of currents, which a£t at the fame time on the vefTel, and on the piece of wood or /og which failors throw into the fea, confidering it as a fixed point, and reckon how far they recede from it in a given time, ufually half a minute a rope divided into knots, the diftance of which is the hundred and twentieth part of a nautical mile, becaufe half aminmc is the hundred and twentieth part of an hour, as uXed for this purpofv*. ^ut if the velTel and the piece of wood are Jpoth a£led on by the fam« current, the diftance of the fhip from the log will ojily fliew the relative velocity of the fhip with regard to the current, and the velocity which this current imprelTes at the fame time on the veffel and the log, ftill re* mains to be determined. It is partly from thence that the difference, which is often very confiderable, arifes between the fituation of the Aip, as eftimated by the pilot, and that where fhe really is. , From thence alfo it happens that the countries difcovered by ^fage^an, Mendana and Quiros, have been fo ill deianed with regard to their lon- g'tude, that it was with difficulty that they were again found. The >1omon iflandi, remarkable from their extent, and the circumftantial defcription of them left us by Mendana who difcovered them, have varied '» fituation almoft through the circumference of the globe. None of the navigators who took this route after him, beginning with Quirot who had accompanied him, and who followed him immediately, could find them. At length their e](iftence even became doubtful, but M. Buaiche hai at length proved that they were the Tern de» Arfocidet f 3 . and _«iiiii.,-. :^.>aaitmi'W'iiiiitiiS!iri IxTiii INTRODUCTION". and the adjacent iflands^difcovered by M M. de Bougainville and ^eSur* ville. Their latitude was found to be correft, bijt the currents that run from eaft to weft in tlie Southern ocean had very much increafed the diftance traverfed by Mendana, of which he was not confcious ; fo that he imagined himfelf to be 1500 Spanifli leagnes, or 1700 French nautical leagues from the coaft of Peru, when he was in reality 2400 leagues. The voyages round the world, particularly thofe of late years, in which the frequent obfervation of the longitude has enabled the navi- gators to make a comparifon between feveral corredt points of the courfe and thofe obtained by eftirtiation, have procured many very important data concerning the velocity of currents in different parts of the ocean. Thefe data are colle£led and carefully difcufled in the Voyage dn Capitaine Marchand, publiflied by M. de Fleurieu. The fame work contains an hydrographical nomenclature of feas, gnlphs, bays, &c. which it would be very convenient to adopt in geogra- phy and in charts. 95;. When a refult has been adopted for the value of the diftances in a ftrait line, the application of the ''procefs defcribed in No 92 . will almoft always fuffice to conftruA the geometrical plan, from rfie dath deduced from hiftorical or itinerary narrative ; for thefe dift'ances can only be correft in proportion as they are fmall, in which cafe the pro- jeftion (No. 78.) may be neglefted ; and when th?y are large their un- certainty often iurpaffes the reductions which the laws of projeAion re- Jiuire, which therefore may be always omitted in the conftrud^ion of thia pecies of chart, recollefting, however, to take them into confideration when thefe materials (No. 81.) are applied to geographical charts, fubje& to aftronomical projections and obfervations. By the perufal of what has preceded, we may judge of the extent and variety of knowledge which a geographer fhould poflefs, of the courfe of reading which he fliould affiduoufly purfiie, the notes which he (hould colleft, and moreover difcufs and clafs according to the rules of found criticifm. I have been obliged in an Introduction to confine myfelf to general ideas on the fubjeft, and to refer for particular examples to individual treatifcs. It is m the writings of Dehfle, D'Anville, of Buache, and of GoiTelin, that the elements requifite for geographical combination muft be fought. At the end of the voyage in the interior of Africa by Mungo Park, we find notes by the learned Major Rennell, which prefent a coUeClion of difcuflions, as well adapted to render intelligible the nature and objett of critical geography, as they are important in defining the ftate of our knowfedge of the interior of Africa. 96. Having briefly expofed the principles of the conftruftion of chartSf it rema.in8 to fpeak of their ufes. Of thefe the greater part are obvious, or onl^ require the knowledge •f a few marks eafily recognized, and which formerly were explained in a reference placed at one fide of the map. Thefe figns mark the fituations of places, and are modified according to the imjiortance of the places, and the rank which they bold in the civil, military, or ecclefiaftical government of the country. The very fmall circle which is adjacent or attached to each of thefe fiffns, muft always be obferved, becaufe it is the c«ntre of this circle wki«h marks tke pofttioA tf Uie plucc. I* 3f INTRODUCTION, Uix 'By taking its diftance from the neareft parallel of latitude in the direc- tion of the meridian, and meafuring this diitunce on the graduated v(ievi- dian, we get the latitude of the place ; its longitude is obtained by the meafure of its diHance from the neareft -^eridian^ taken in the diredlion of the parallel. Thefe operations require a little attention in charts, where the meri- dians are not parallel ftrait lines. The graduations marked on the edge of the chart being then oblique with regard to the meridians and the parallels the diftaiices taken as defcribed and referred to thefe graduations, will not give exafliy the differences of latitude and longitude between the place required and the ueareft parallel or meridian. In this cafe it is requifite, either to find the proportion between thefe diftaisces, and thofe of the parallels and meridians on the map, or elfe to draw the parallel and meridian which pafles through the place required, a^d prolong them to the edges of the chart. This latter operation is very eafy on the conical projeftion relative to the meridians which are itrait lines ; and the parallels, which are poncentric circles, may be alfo drawn by following the neareft with pne poin.t of a compafs, whofe opening is equal to the dijBTerence of latitude. It is not neceffary to obferve, that tlie diltance of the two places ought to be meafured from the centre ■ of the little circle which indicates their poiition ; but it (hould be remarked, that whei) the itinerary diftaace is required, and the roads are marked, the length of thefe lines ought to be meafured, by taking between the compaffes every individual length of the parts included between the turns of the road. When the map admits of fufficient detail, the plan of the cities is a little extended, and the principal points of them are marked ; and it muft then ^e indicated to which of thefe points the geographical po/i« tion refers. 97. A fimple line marks the courfe of fmall rivers; and the two banks are marked feparate, when the fize of the river is fulBcient to ^dmit of its being eftimated on the fcalc of the map, which happens xnoft frequently at their mouths. The mores of the fea arc marked by a very fine line, edged with crofs fading. In geographical charts thefe Hiades are exterior with regard to the land, and feem to indicate the undulations of the fea on the coafts ; while in nautical charts the (hades are turned towards the land, as indi- icating the fteepnefs of the coafts. Navigable canals are reprefented by broken lines, to diftinguifli them from natural water courtes, which arc reprefented by undulating or waved lines. High roads are often diftinguifhed by fine double lines running parallel to each other, and fometimcs by fingle lines, either continued ,or (lotted, though thefe laft are ufually referved to diftinguifh the boundaries of different ftates, kingdoms, and provinces, the magnitude and diftance of thefe points being varied accordingly. Maps are rendered ftill more intelligible by being coloured. In fome countries, particularly in Germany, the fame colour is fpread over the whole furface of the country which is to be diftinguiflied fi;om the others ; this mode of colouring is perhaps lefs beantitul than that ufed }n France, but it has the advantage of rendering th? Hze of the country^ fu^d form of its boundariesi more obvious, ^3 In -.^.^..aMiaPIWmmwrn Uk INTRODUCTION. In meafuring the extent of a countij, two cafes are to be diftin* guifhed ; that in which the proje£tion of^ the chart reprefents, by ecfbal larfaceS) regions of equal extent upon the earth ; in this cafe their area is meafured like that of plane figures, by infcribing redlangles on the fpace contained within their boundaries j or by reducing them, at lead by ai)proxin?ation, to regular figures. In the other cafe the fuperficies mud be divided into quadrilateral figures, formed by the parallels and meridians taken fufficiently near to each other, as has been defcribed in No. 50., fpeaking of the globe^ and the areas of thefe quadrilateral figures mull be meafured according to the prpcefs defcribed in that number. 98. Maps of the world may ferve for the fame purpofe as general charts ; and thofe which are projected on the plane of the horizon may befides be employed for the (olution of the queftions defcribed iu K08. 54. and ^$. The difference of longitude contained between two meridians which terminate in the fame parallel, being converted into time at the rate of one hour to 15 degrees, gives the time which a celef- tial body, correfponding to the propofed parallel, remains above the horizon, and confequently gives the length of the day, when thofe parallels are taken, ou which the fun traveld from one folftice to the Other. If, for the plane of projection or horizon, a circle of illumination be taken ; that, for example, which correfponds to our fummer folftice* and which is confounded with the horizon in the latitude 66* 32', the map which will refult indicates the duration of the day for all the lati* tudes, by converting into time the difference of longitude of the meridians which terminate thefe parallels of latitude m each hemi- iphere. In general we may, by projeflions on the different circles of the fphere, refolve the fame queltions as by means of a globe ; and for this purpofe, charts have been drawn, to which, on account of their pro- perties, the name of planifpherfs have been given. Father Chryfologue of Goy has publifhed maps of the world on the horizon of Paris^ carefully conilrudled, conveniently mounted^ and adapted to folve many problems, both aftronomical and geographical, explained in a pamphlet which accompanies the maps. The fame author has brought this work to perfe£iion, and has conftruAed new planifpheres on a much larger fcale. 99. It is not fufficient to reprefent in charts the iituation of places, the connexions of countries, their extent, their divifions, and their boundaries, circumftances which belong to mathematical and political geography j it is likewife required to know the form of the terreftrial furface in thefe regions, that which is called the fdOi of the c»untry ; that is to fay whether it is flat or mountainous, open or wooded, dry or marfhy. Engravers have devifed means, fometimes pi£lurefque, fome* times arbitrary, to exprefs upon trigonometrical furveys and topogra- phical charts, thefe different circumftances which, combined with the climate, and the meteorological phenomena of each country, conftitute its phyfical Eeography. It is fiiificient to look at a map of this kind jto recollect the ugns which are employed, and to obferve that the partu,, more or lefs flrongly fhaded, reprefent declivities more or lefs fteep, oti which the light lofes itfelf in proportion as they are more perpen* dicular. . * The defigns of geographical charts have been very much behind thofe for topographical purpofesy particularly with regard to the mountain! s INTRODUCTION. Ixxi mountains ; becaufe the extent of the foreils being confiderahly dimi- niflied in civilized countries, they have nearly difappeared from all maps ; but the inequalities of the ground, from the moil lofty chains of mountains} to hills of the loweft order, (hould be expreifed in a manner correfponding to all the other geographical circum (lances, and confequently (hould have a place in the details proportionate to their fize. Peaks, or infulated points, in general, reft upon elevations more or lefs confiderable; but the extent of which gives the outlines which determine the form of the vallies, like the finuonties of the coafts, which are, with regard to the fea, like the hollows of mountains. It may be perceived by thefe remarks how vague and infignificant are thofe iofuiated points which mark the mountains on the majority of maps. We fee nothing but that the country they occupy is moun- tainous, and it would be as well to write here are moumains y nothing indicates the courfe of their chains, their various depreflions, and their connexions either with each other, or with the iflands formed by the fummits oT the chains, of fubmarine mountains. Philippe Buache is the firft who has attached himfelf efpecially to phyfical geography, and who has given a precife idea of the branches of the different chains of mountains on the earth conne£led with the inequalities of the bottom, of the depth of the fea, by means oi found' ingt marked on nautical charts. lie conftrufled, with great care, a globe, on which thefe forms were expreifed in relief, certainly in aa exaggerated manner with refpeft to the diameter of the globe, becaufe, without this, it is impoflible to render them perceptible. fN®42.) la the charts which he compofed on this fubjedl, he indieatea the chains of mountains by the outline of their fummits, to which he joined pro- files or feAions, following given lines, on which he conftruAed, from a convenient fcale, the heights of different points of the terreftrial furface. He traced with particular care, in I736» a fe£tion following the line which pafles from Cape Tagrin to Rio Grande, in which direc- tion Africa and America approach the nearell to eai'Ji other, and which pafles near the iflands fituated in the middle of the great ocean which •feparates thefe two continents. Several authors, taking advantage of this original idea, and afllfted by new information acquired on tliis lubje6l, have publiflied maps of the world, and charts which may be confulted with great propriety tQ acquire a knowledge of the great inequalities of the terreilrial furiace ; but precife means are yet wanting to reprefent them, and to render their rcfpedive altitudes obvious. lOO. Profiles leave nothing to be defired with refpe6t to precifion ; but it is fcarcely poflible to multiply them fufliciently to give in every ^redlion the form of every part of the furface of the earth. It is obvious, that if upon a nautical chart all the points where the foundings are equal be conne6led by a line, the form of this line will h^ that of a fe6tion Ofiade at the bottom of the fea, by a horizont^ plane, deprefled below the furface of the fluid, by a quantity equal to the number of the ineafures or fathoms contained in the founding. M.Duflain Triel has devifed a method, as ingenious as fatisfaftoryt to reprefent geometrically the form of the furiace of a country. This method confiits in tracing on the map to be conftrui£led lines which pafs throuffh ppints at the fame level or altitude above the furface of th« fea } unc9 which would iucccflively becoo^i ban^s, if the fea could, *4 ty '^■■^...Ljmmfmmom-,^m^^ Ixxl! INTflODUCTION, by any canfe whatever, be raifed to that altitude : as the lines wbiofiij! join the equal foundings would become banks, if it could be ft^nk ttbe Cafpian, the Mediterranean, and the Perfian gulf. The Cafpian fea, the lake of Aral in Afia, and that lake where the Niger lofes itfelf jn Africa, are, on the contrary, the low parts where thofe declivities meet on which the rivers flow that defcend along their fides. 103. Having explained the aftronomical methods for the determi« nation of places diftant from each other, and the means of delineating thefe places, either by the con(lru6tioD of globes or maps, and alfo fiiewn how thefe maps fhould be tilled up, by the combination of trigo- Bometrical plans, with the narratives of travellers or hiftoiians, the ufe that may be n.ade of thefe various reprefentations, and the conclufions that may be drawn from them relative to the inequalities of the furface of the earth, I have fulfilled the objeft which I propofed to myfelf in this Introdu6tion. In only contains, in fadt, the rudiments of the im- portant fubjefts which I have treated ; but it k t}ie firft time that they Bare been coUefted and methodically arranged. I therefore flatter myfelf that I have fome claim to the indulgeiice of the reader, who bemg put into the proper rqad to purfuc thi^ ftudjr, cannot fail of finding fources from which he may obtain more detailed information. The original works are well known : the improvement which geography has received from the meafurc of the arc of the meridian ; from the great ynilitary operations, and from the recent labours of government, are con- tinually improving thefe methods, and obtaining more fatisfadlory re* fults*. • Th« topographical «nd millttry memorSit, ab-idgfd for the v»r department, prefentt a methodiMl expoGtioR. I'here is aifo in Geruuiiy a Jouriflii devoted to Kcogtaphy, coiiduiUd bj M.de Zocb. TABLES INTRODUCTION, Ixxff TABLES RELATINO TO THE MAGNITUDE AND FIGURE OF THE EARTH. TABLE. L A Table of the Meridional Degrees of the Terreftrial Spheroid calcu- lated to every Degree of Latitude. Englifh Feet. Diff. Lar.ofthe middle Point. Englifti Feat. DiflT. ^1 Engliih Fc«i. Diff. o I 2 3 4 7 H 9 lO II 12 >3 «4 i5» i6 »7 i8 «9 20 21 22 *3 *4 29 362909 362910 362913 362918 362925 362934 362945 362958 362973 362989 363007 363027 363049 363073 363099 363127 $^V57 363189 363**3 363258 363*95 363333 363370 363410 363451 363494 363538 363583 363629 363676 I 3 5 7 9 II »3 15 16 18 20 22 26 28 30 3* 34 35 37 S^ 39 40 4» 43 44 \i 47 48 30 31 3* 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 5» 5* 53 54 5S 5iff 365094 365360 17 365920 *7 X 365095 2 3» 365377 i8 ,61 365937 9 16 a 3^5097 2 32 365395 18 62 365953 16 15 14 13 12 3 4 365099 365102 3 4 33 34 365413 36543* 18 18 63 64 365969 365984 5 365106 ■ 4 3S 365449 19 ^s 365998 6 365110 • 5 36 365468 19 66 366011 7 8 » 3651 15 365120 5 5 37 38 365487 365506 19 19 67 68 366023 36*035 12 9 3^5^^5 6 39 ^655^5 19 69 366047 II 10 365131 7 40 365544 19 70 366058 11 ij 365138 8 41 365563 19 71 366069 10 12 365146 8 42 365S^^ 19 72 366079 10 13 365156 9 43 365601 19 73 366089 10 H 36J163 • 9 44 365620 19 74 366099 Q 15 365172 9 45 365640 19 75 366 I oS 9 16 365181 10 46 365660 19 76 366117 Q '7 365191 10 47 365679 19 77 366126 8 j8 365201 10 48 365698 19 78 366134 19 365211 11 49 365717 19. 79 366141 20 365222 11 50 365736 19 80 366148 21 365233 12 5» 365755 ^9 81 366154 22 365245 12 52 365774 19 82 366159 23 365257 12 53 365793 19 83 366164 24 365269 .3 ^+ 365812 19 84 366168 ' 25 365282 365831 18 85 366172 26 365296 X 15 56 365849 18 86 366176 27 36531 1 16 57 365667 18 87 366179 28 365327 16 58 3658H5 18 88 366181 »9 365343 * »7 59 ^65903 17 89 366183 30 1 3<5^3^ I 60 365920 90 3661U4 fKl'RODUCTION.. Ixxvii TABLE in. Tabic of the Degrees oT Longitude on the Spheroid ; to every Degree of Latitude, computed in Fathoms, the EUipticity being fuppofed ^\-^, »7 i6 i6 »5 12 » 12 II II 10 10 10 9 9 9 8 7 7 6 5 5 4 4 4 3 2 a 1 Lat. O I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 ^3 H 15 16 '7 18 »9 20 21 22 »3 »4 25 26 Degrees of Longi- tude. Fathoms. 60849 60840 60812 60766 60702 60619 60518 60899 60261 60105 59931 59738 59527 59299 Diff. 9 28 46 54 83 lOI 119 138 156 174 192 210 228 246 59053 I 25^ 282 ad Dii ffi «7 38 39 JO 58789 5S507 58207 57890 57554 57209 56828 56438 56031 55608 55169 547 H 54H3 53756 y3a53 300 318 33<> 354 372 390 407 423 489 455 471 487 503 519 «9 18 18 19 18 18 »9 18 18 18 18 18 18 iS 18 18 18 iS iS 18 18 '7 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 Lat. 30 31 32 33 34 35* 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 Degrees of Longi- tude. Diff. Fatlioms. 52734 I 536 52198 ■ 51646 51078 55^ 568 584 5^494 600 49894 ' 615 49279 ' 630 48649 48004 47344 46670 45982 I 45280 ' 44564 43834 ' 43091 ! 2d Diff.j Lat. 645 660 674 688 702 716 730 743 1756 +"35 769 41566 ig^ 40784 39989 3918 1 3836X 37530 36688 $59^5 34971 34096 332x1 31409 i^o^ 795 808 220 842 853 864 875 886 896 906 916 16 16 16 16 J5 15 '5 15 H H '4 H 13 13 13 13 Degrees of Lbiigi- turfe. '3 XI II SI II II II II 10 xo 10 m 60 61 62 65 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 ••7 8S 89 ill F.-ithoms. 30493 29568 28634 27691 2673* 25778 24810 23835 22852 21863 20866 19863 18854 17839 1 68 18 15792 14762 »3727 12687 1 1 643 10596 9546 8493 7437 6379 SS19 4*57 3194 2130 1065^ 0000 Diff 925 934 943 952 960 968 9,76 983 990 997 1003 1009 1015 102 1 1026 1030 »035 1040 1044 1047 1050 X053 X056 1058 1060 1062 1063 1064 X065 1065 ad Diff 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 ,'i 6 6 6 6 5 4 S 5 4 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 I I I Ixkviii INTRODUCTION. TABLE IV. Table of Degrees of Longitude on the Spl lore to every ' Degree of Latitude. Lat. Fathoms Diff. Diff.j ^''*- Fathoms. DifF. Id Diff. Lat Fathoms. Di£ < DifF. O 60758 9 • ^\ • 30 53618 538 16 ,60 30379 923 f\ I 50749 28 ^9 31 '""°'S5* 16 61 29456 932 9 2 60721 47 '9 18 18 f f^ 32 J'^^^Uyo * \J 15 16 62 28524 940 9 3 60674 65 33 5°9;« ; jgj" ^5 27584 949 9 4 60610 83 34 j »5 »5 15 H 15 •3 15 »3 H >4 64 26635 958 9 5 6 60527 60425 102 120 ^9 18 35 36 '59770|6,6 49b-4 63, 65 66 25677 24712 965 972 7 60305 139 '9 37 48523 646 67 23740 979 8 60166 156 17 1 r\ 38 47878 660 68 22760 986 ' 9 60010 175 '9 18 39 47218 675 69 21774 993 6 6 lO II 59835 59642 193 212 »9 17 19 t8 40 4» 46543 45855 688 703 70 7» 20781 19782 999 1005 12 »3 59430 59201 229 248 42 43 45152 4443<5 716 730 72 73 18777 17766 JOII 1017 6 H 58953 26? 1 44 43706 ^^^ 74 16749 1022 5 '5 58688 ^g; 19 45 ^'^^' 756 12 13 «3 12 1 2 75 15727 1027 5 i6 58404 301 »7 iH 46 42206 769 76 14700 1032 5 4 4 3 3 »7 i8 58103 319 337 18 «7 17 47 48 4>437 40655 782 794 77 78 13668 12633 1006 1040 '9 57447 354 49 39861 S06 12 79 »«593 »043 20 57093 371 50 39054 818 12 1 1 80 10550 1046 21 56722 ssr, •7 18 f ^ 5» 39235 830 81 9505 1049 3 22 5O334 406 52 37406 841 I I 82 8456 1052 3 23 55928 423 »7 17 x6 »7 »7 16 53 36565 852 12 83 7404 1054 2 4 24 55505 440 54 35713 864 10 84 635* 1056 I I t 25 36 55065 54609 45fi 473 5S 56 34849 33975 874 884 10 10 85 86 5295 4238 1057 1058 27 54»3<5 <90 57 33091 894 10 87 3180 1059 r 28 53646 see 16 58 32197 904 1 v/ 88 2121 1060 A 29 53»40 522 1 v 59 3»293 914 1 w 89 1060 1060 1 i _ 30 1 520x81 •M 60 1 30379 1 1^,^ 90 cooo 1 introduction: *M^ TABLE V. Table of Decimal Degrees of Longitude on a Spliere. Degree of ^^B Latitude in Decimal Degrees. Degrees of Longitude. Latitude in Decimal Degrees. Degrees of Luiigitude. Latitude m Decim.il Degree«. Deirees 433 70 45.399 W g I 3 99,889 37 83.5«' 7« 43.994 93* 9 I 4 99,803 38 82,708 72 42,578 94^ 9 I 5 99,692 39 81,815 73 41,151 949 5 1 6 99>556 40 80,902 74 39."5 I 958 7 ■ 7 99.39<5 4« 79^968 75 38,268 ! 965 7 I 8 99,211 42 79»oi5 76 36,812 972 7 I 9 99,002 43 78.043 77 35.347 .979 7 986 I 10 98,769 44 77*05 > 78 33.874 j I II 98,511 45 76,040 79 32,392 993 6 1 12 98,229 46 75,on 80 30,902 999 6 ■ '3 97,922 47 73.963 8f 29,404 1005 g I H 97»59* 48 72,897 82 27,899 JOII g I 15 97*237 49 7'.8i3 83 26.387 1017 I 16 96,858 50 70,711 84 24,869 1022 I «7 96^456 5« 69,591 85 23.344 1027 I 18 96,029 52 68455 86 21,814 1032 1006 I »9 95^579 53 67,301 87 20,279 ( I 20 95,106 54 66,131 88 18,738 1 1040 I 21 94,608 1$ 64,945 89 17.193 1 1043 3 104.6 1 22 94,588 5<5 63.742 90 15.643 1 23 94.544 57 62,524 9* 14,090 1 *049 3 1 24 92,978 58 61,291 9^ 12.533 1052 1 25 92,388 59 60,042 93 io>973 >o54 a 1056 J 1 26 91.775 60 58,778 94 9,411 1 27 91,140 61 57»5oo 95 7.846 \ »0S7 , 1 28 90.483 6a 56^208 96 6,279 1058 1 29 89,803 63 54,902 97 4.7 u >059 1 1 30 89,101 64 53.583 98 3»»4» 1060 ^ 1 3' 88,377 65 52,250 99 i.57« 1060 , I 3» 33 87.631 86,863 66 67 50»904 49,546 100 0,000 6cx» iNTRODUGTiON. tABLE VI. ' Of ISecimal Degrees of Latitude, the EUipticity being fuppcfed -j'^l Lat. Degrees ol Latitittie. Differ. i..it. Degrees of Latitude. Differ Lat. Degrees of Latitude. Differ. ; o. Metres. M. G. Metres. M. G. Metros. M. ; o 99552.5 0.4 0.9 »-3 1 8 35 99802.2 127 70 100269 I 99552.9 36 998149 71 100280 2 1 1*2 ! 2 99; ^3-8 37 99827.8 12.9 131 132 '34 13.6 72 100291 1 10.9 106 3 99555 •» 3« 99840.9 73 10030 1. 7 1 '^ 99556.9 2 I 39 99854.1 74 1003 I 2 .0 10.3 1 5 99559.0 2 8 40 99867.5 75 JOO322.O 1 0.0 ; <5 99561.8 3-0 3-5 3-9 4-3 4.8 5.1 5-6 5-9 6.4 6.7 . 7'i 74 8-0 8.3 8 6 4» 99881.0 76 ICO33I.7 9-7 7 99564.7 42 99894.6 "77 10034 1. 1 94 i 8 99568.2 43 99908.3 '37 138 '39 '39 14.0 14.0 14.1 14.1 14.1 14. 1 14.0 140 139 T 5 n 78 100350.1 90 8.7 8.4 9 99572.1 4+ 99922.1 79 100358.8 : lO 99576.4 45 99936.0 80 100367.2 III 99581.2 12 ^5J??86.3 46 47 99950.0 99964.0 81 82 100375.1 100382.7 7-9 7.6 13 99591.^ 48 99978.0 83 100389.9 7-2 6.9 6.4 6.1 56 5.2 4.8 44 14 99597.8 49 99992.1 84 100396.8 '5 99604.2 50 100006.2 85 100403.2 16 99610.9 51 100020.3 86 100409.3 17 99618.0 52 IOQO34.4 87 IOO4I4.9 18 99625.4 53 100048.4 88 IOC42O I 19 20 996334 99G41.6 54 55 ICC062 4 ICOO76.3 89 90 100424.9 100429.3 13 9 3 9 21 99650.2 8.9 9-3 9.6 9.9 10.2 10.5 10 8 56 1 00090.2 137 '3-7 136 «3 4 15 9 91 100433.2 36 2.6 2 2 1.8 1-3 0.9 0.4 22 99659.1 57 IOOIO3.9 92 1C0436 8 23 24 «5 99668 4 99678.0 99687.9 5« 59 60 IOOII7.6 JOOI31 2 IOOI44.6 93 94 95 1004^9.9 100442.5 100444.7 26 99698.1 61 100157.9 ^3-3 131 13.0 12.8 12.6 123 12.2 96 100446.5 27 99708.6 62 IOOI7J.O 97 100447.8 2B 29 30 99719.4 997305 99741.9 II. Z 1 1.4 .t.6 1 1.8 63 64 65 1 00 1 84.0 100196.8 ICO209.4 98 99 100 100448.7 100449.2 31 99753 5 66 ICO22I.7 3* 99765-3 12. 1 67 100233.9 12.0 33 997774 12.3 12.5 68 100245,9 11.7 1 1.5 34 99789.7 69 100257.5 35 99802.2 70 100269.0 mmmm i^,i'V>- INTRODUCTION. Ixxxi TABLE VII. jofed 7*^; 3 9 I •9 •3 56 5.2 4.8 4.4 39 3.6 2.6 2 2 1.8 1-3 0.9 0.4 Of decimal Degrees of Longitude, the Ellipticity being fuppofed ^ |^. Lat. G. O I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 »3 H >5 16 »7 18 19 20 21 22 23 H «5 26 27 28 29 30 s* 33 34 Degrees of Longitude. Metres. IOOI49.4 IOOI37.I 1 001 00.3 100038.9 99953-0 99842.5 DU&r. 99707.6 99548.2 99364-3 99156.2 989*3-6 98666.8 98385.8 98080.6 9775>-3 97398.1 97020.9 96616.9 96195.1 95746.8 95274.9 94779.6 94260.9 93719.1 931542 92566.4 91955.8 91332.6 90666.9 89988.9 89288.6 88566.4 87822.4 87056.7 86269.5 M. 12.3 36.8 61.4 85.9 110.5 1349 159.4 183.9 208.1 232.6 256.8 2810 305.2 329-3 377-2 401.0 424.8 448.4 471.9 495-3 518.7 541.8 564.9 587.8 610.6 633.2 655-7 678.0 700.3 722.2 744.0 765.7 787.2 808.5 Lat. G. 35 36 37 Degrees of Longitnde. Differ. Metres. 85461.0 84631.4 83780.6 38 I 82909.7 39 82018. 1 40 4« 42 43 44 45 8iio6.a 46 47 48 45> 50 51 52 53 54 55 80174.1 79222.3 78250,9 77260.1 76250.1 75221.3 74173-8 73108.0 72024.0 70922.1 69802.6 68665.8 67512.0 66341.3 651542 56 51 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 ii 66 67 68 69 63950.9 62731.7 61496.8 60246.7 58981.5 57701.6 56407.4 55099.1 53777-' 52441.7 51093.1 49731.8 48358.3 46972.4 .8 yp.'i^m M. 829.6 850.5 871.2 891.6 911.9 932.1 9518 971.4 990.8 1010.0 10288 1047.5 1065.8 1084.0 1 101.9 IU9.5 1136.8 "53-7 H70.7 1187.1 1203.3 1219.2 '234-9 1250.1 1265.2 1279.9 1294.2 '308.3 1322.0 '335.4 1348.6 i36'3 I37J6 1385.8 1397.^, liab G. 70 7' 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 l^ 84 86 87 88 89 90 9' 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 w Degrees ot Longitude. Differ. Metres. 45574-8 44165.9 42746.0 4'3'5-3 39874*4 38423.4 36962.8 354930 340'4-2 32527.0 31031 6 29528.5 28017.9 26500.3 24976.1 23445.6 21909.2 20367.3 18820.3 17268.6 15712.6 14152.6 12589.0 11022.3 9452.9 7881.0 6307.2 473 '-8 S'55-7 1577.8 0.0 M. X408.9 I4I9.9 '4307 '440-9 1451.0 1460.6 1469.8 1478.8 1487.2 1495.4 1508. 1 1510.6 1517.^ 1524.2 '530.5 '536.4 '54'»9 15470 '55'-7 1556.0 X560.0 i563»6 1560 7 1569.4 1571.9 1573.8 '575-4 1576.1 '5779 1577.8 hixii INTRODUCTIOK. NEW FRENCH MEASURES. Millimetre • Centimetre Dicimetre Metre Decametre .Hecstometre • Chiliometre Myriometre - S^8t EagUih tnclief, .39371 3»937JO 39»37ioo 593,71000 3937,10000 . 3937i/X}ooo 393710,00000 A Mietre i0.t,o936]f yards^ tie nearly one yard i| nail, or443«S959 line» Fr., or ,513074 toifes. A Decametre is 10 yards, 2 feet, 9,7 inches^ ,A Hecatonietre is 109 yards, i foot, i inclv. A Chiliometre 4 furlongs, 213 yards, i foot, t inch. A Micrometre,, 6 miles,. I furlong, i^6yard8,^o feet,^6 inches. Eight Chiliometres are nearly five- nules. An inch is 40254 miles, 2441 inches, 62 metres,. 1000 feet, nearly 303^ metres^ An Are, a iquare deeametre, is 3,95 perches,. E. t A Hecatate, 2 acrest 1 rood^ 35,4 perehesti. Cubic Inches. Millifitre • • • ,06103 Centilitre ,61628 Decilitre- - - - 6.10280 Litre, a cubic Decimetre 6y 102800 Decalitre - - - 610,28000 Hecatolitre . • - 6102,80000 Chiliolitre - . . 61028,00000 .Myriolitre . - . 6IO28O1OOOOO A Litre it nearly 2} wine pints ; 14 Decilitres are nearly three wior pints ; a Chiliolitre is i tun, 12,75 ^'"^ gallons^ A Dedftre for firewood is 3,5317 cubic feet £• A Stere, a cubic meafure. ^ .4... A TABLE M'-f iree wine- TABLE OF THE LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES • OP THE PRINCIPAL PLACES ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE. 1. f» . ^JltKit-^.. MS TABLE OF THB LATITUDES and LONGITUDES OF T«E PJUNCIPAL PJ ACES ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE. « a 1 A Names of Platoes. C!ont. Sea or Ccmtry. Latitude. Longitude. In Degree?. In Time. H.W. - O 11 / // h » " h ' AbbeviUe Eur. France 50 7 4N I 49 43 E 7 >9E Abo Eur. Finland 60 27 loN %% 13 30 E I a8 54 E Achem Afla SumatM 5 a» oN 95 34 oE 6 aa 16 E Advtnture (Bay) Adventure (Ifle) Afia N.Holland 43 as S 147 30 E 9 50 oE Afia Pac. Ocean 17 J 15 s 144 17 45W 9 37 "W Agde Eur. France 43 18 43 N 3 »7 55 E 13 5a E Agen Eur. France 44 i» saN 36 10 E a a5 £ St Agnes (lights) Eur. Scillies 49 56 oN 646 oW oa7 4W Agra Afia India a6 43 oN 76 44 E 5 656E Aire Eur. Firance 43 41 5»N 4 55 51 E 19 43 E Aix Eun France 43 31 48 N 5 a6 3» E ai 46E Alby Eur. France 43 55 36 N a 8 18 E 8 83E Aleppo Afia Turkey 35 " »5N 37 «o oE a a8 40E Alexaddretta Afia Syria 36 3J a7N 36 15 oE a a5 o£ Alexandria Af. Egypt 31 II a8N 30 10 %% E a 41 £ Algiers Af. Alters 36 49 30 N a i» 45 E 8 5xE Amboire Eur. France 47 14 54 N 059 7W 3 56W Ambrym (Ifle) Afia Pac. Ocean 16 9 30 S 168 la 30 E II ia 50 E Amiens Eur. France 49 5i 43 N a 17 56 E 9 laB Amfterdam Eur. Holland St 11 56 N 4 51 30 E 19 a6£ 3 8 30 Amfterdam (Ifle) Afia Pac. Ocean ai 90S 174 46 oW II 39 4W Ancona Eur. Italy 43 37 54 N 13 a8 5a E 53 56 E Angers Eur. France 47 a8 9N 33 X5W a 13W Angouleme Eur. France 45 3857N 9 15 £ a6E Angra Eur. Tercera 38 39 oN a7 la 15 W I 48 49W Annamocka Afia Pac. Ocean 10 16 30 S 174 30 30W II 38 aw St. Anthony's (Cape) Am. Suten Land 54 46 4? S Antibea Eur. France 43 34 4iN 7 7 »oE a8 «9E Antigua (St. John's) Am. Carib.Se« 17 4 30N 6a 9 o\i 4 836W Antwerp Eur. Flanders 51 13 15 N 4 »» 45E 17 31 £ 6 Anvers Eur. Netherlands 51 13 15 N 4 »4 15 I 17 37 E Ap« (Ifle) Afia Pac. Ocean 16 46 15 fl 168 *7 30 E II 13 JO E Aia£la Afia Turkey 36 1 ON 38 30 El a 35 ao TL\ ^\ The I«i '!Ji2i3£ii«iuA> Imvi INTRODUCTION. Thi Latiiudet and iMigitudes of Placet, i NanetofPUcei. Cont Sea or Gauntry. Latitude. Longitude. In Degrees. In Time. H.W. 1 n / ff h ' » h ' ARbamel Eur. Ruflia 64 3.3 36 N 38 59 "5 E » 35 57 E 6 Arica Am. Peru 18 s6 38 S 70 25 ow 4 41 40W Arlea ' Eur. Franca 43 40 »8N 4 37 ME 18 30 £ Am» Eur. France 50 17 30 N 2 46 12 £ It 5 E AlcenlioB (lile) Af. S. At. Ocean 7 57 OS 38 5 ON 13 59 «W 55 56W Athens Eur. Turkey 23 5» 30 E 4^5 30 E Aueh ^ Eur. France 43 38 39 N 34 56 F o^» 18 E St.Auguftia Af. MadagaTcar a3 35 a9 S 43 8 oE 2 52 32 E Aurillae Eur. France 44 55 IPN 2 27 OW 9 48W Aurora (Ifle) Afia Pac. Ocean 15 8 ON 168 17 o£ II 13 8£ Autun Eur. France 46 56 48 N 4 17 44E 17 II E Auxerre Eur. France 47 47 57 N 3 34 6E 14 16 E Auxonira Eur. France 47 II 24 N 5 a3 35 E 4 48 xo £ 21 34 E Avtgnoa Eur. France 43 56 j8N 19 13 £ Avranchet Eur. France 48 41 21 N X ai jiW 5 »7W 11 Babelmandel Stnha Af. j0 Abyfllnia X2 50 oN 43 50 E 2 55 ao E Babylon (Ancient) Afia Mefopotam. 33 ON 42 46 30 E 2 51 6E BagLi Afia Mefopoum. 33 19 40N 44 U 30 E a 57 38 E Balafere Afia India XI 20 oN 86 oE 5 44 oE y B4llabea(Ifle) Afia N.Caledonia 20 7 S 164 22 E 10 57 28 E Banguey (Peak) Afia Malacca 7 18 cN H7 17 30 E 7 49 to E Bantry Bay Eur. Ireland 51 06 oN 10 10 CW 40 40W Barbadoei, B.Town Am. Atl.Oceaa 13 oN 59 50 oW 3 59 aoW Barbat (Cape) Af. Sanhaga 23 15 30 N 16 40 OW I 6 40W Barbuda (ide) Am. AtL Ocean 17 49 45 N 61 J6 oW 4 7 »oW Barcclma Eur. Spain 41 »3 oN » 13 o£ 8 52E Bamevelt'a (Ifle) St.BartlKilomewVIfle) Am. T.delFuego J5 49 OS 66 58 6W 4 »7 5»W A6a N.Hebrides 15 42 S 167 17 30 E II 9 loE Bam Eur. Switserland 47 35 oN 7 29 30 E 2Q 58 E BaflkTcirt Am. Guadeloupe 15 59 30 N 61 59 «5W 4 7 57W Bauvia Afia Java 6 12 S 106 53 46 E 7 7 35E Bath Eur. England 51 22 30 N 1 21 30W 9 26W Baycux Eur. France 49 «6 34 N 42 llW S49W Bayonna Kur. France 43 »9 >5N X 28 4i^V J55W 3 30 Beachy Head Eur. England 50 44 30N 19 40 E I 19 E 10 12 Bau (Ifle) Am. HudHBay 54 34 oN 79 56 oW 5 X944W Beauvoii Eur. France 49 26 oN 2 4 4* E 8 19E BeUalfla Eur. France 47 17 >7N 3 5 oW 12 20W » 30 Bembridga Point Eur. IflaofWt. 50 40 15 N I 445W 4 19W Bencoolan Afia L matra 3 49 »6 S 102 10 30 E 6 48 4« £ Berlin Bur. Germany 52 31 30 N 13 22 (f£ 53 28 E Bermudu (Ifle) Am. AtL Ocean 3» 35 ON 63 28 oW 4 13 5» E 7 Be(kn$on Eur. France 47 14 i»N 6 2 46E 24 It E Bcfiers Eur. France 43 ao 2.^ N 3 i» a4E 12 50 E Blanco (Cape) Af. Negroland 20 S5 30 N 17 10 oW I 8 40W 9 45 Blanco (Cape) Am. Paugonia 47 20 S 64 41 oW 4 18 48W Bloi* Eur. France 47 35 »<-*' I 20 10 E 5 ao E Badaior (Cape) Bolabola (Ifle) Af. Negroland 26 12 30 N 14 27 OW 57 48W Afia Pac Ocean 16 32 30 8 151 52 OW to 7 28W Bologna Eur. FraiKk 50 43 33 N I 36 33 E 6 26E 10 30 Bolflfna Eur. luly 44 X9 36 Nl II tt 15 E 45 »5 E i c c c C Ci Ci TJk$ INTRODUCTIOW. The Latitudes and Longitudes of Plaets* lx»«ft 3 30 o 10 lis o a 30 7 o 9 45 o o 10 30 Names of l^laces. Cont. Sea or Country. Latitude. Longitude. In Degrees. In Time. [»«-1W • 1 II t II h ' It h ' Bdfchereikoi Afia Siberia Si 54 30 N 156 37 30 E 10 a6 3o£ Bombay Afia India 18 56 40 N 7a 38 E 4 JO 3» E ■ , Bonavifta (Ifle) Af. .^tl. Ocean 16 6 oN aa 47 tjW 131 9W Bflfton Am. N. England 4* %% XI N 70 J9 oW 4 43 J6W Bouny Bay Afia N. HoUand 34 S tji ai oE 10 J 34 £ ■ ■ Botany (lOand) Afia N. Caledonia 24 a6 40 S 167 16 4j E H 9 7E Bourbon (Ifle) Af. [nd. Ocean ac) 51 43 S 55 30 E 3 4a oE Bourdeaux. Eur. France 44 JO 14 N 34 14W a 17W 3 Bourges Et*r. France 47 4 59 N * a3 4J E 9 3jE Breflaw Eur. Silefia 5» 3 oN 17 8 45 E I 83JE Breft Eur. France 48 aa /la N 4 ay 19W 17 J7W 3 45 Bridge Town Am. BarhadoM t3 5 oN J8 3J OW 3 J4 aoW St. Brieux Eur. France 48 31 at N a 4.^ 17W 10 J3W Brighton Start-Houfe Eur. England 50 49 48 N 6 a8W a6W Briftoi (Cape) Am. Sandw. Land 59 a 30 S a6 JI oW I 47 a4W Brufleli Eur. Brabant JO JO J9 N 4 ai IJ E 17 aj E Buenos Ayres Am. Brafil 34 3J a6 S J8 .11 ijW 3 54 JW BuJureft Eur. Wallathia 44 a6 4j N a6 8 oE I 44 3a E Buller(Cape) Am. '>. Georgia 5i 58 30 S 37 40 oW a 30 40W Burgeo (Me) Am. NewfoundL 47 36 aoN J7 36 30W 3 JO a4W Buttings 1 Eur. Portugal 39 40 N 9 36 45W 38 a7W CabeUo (Port) Am. V TenaFirmalio 30 50 N| 67 3d oW 4 30 8W Cadis Eur. Spain 36 3a oN 6 16 ijW oaj jW ,4 30 Caen Eur. France 49 II laN ai 53W I a8W 9 Cahon Eur. France 44 a6 49N s a6 aa E J 4jE Cairo Af. Egypt JO 3 laN 31 18 16 E « 5 49E CalaU Eur. France 50 57 3a N X JI t E 7 a4 E II 30 Calao Am. Peru la 1 Si s 76 j8 oW J 7 jaW Calcutta (F.Will) Afia India a* 34 45 N 88 a9 30 B J 53 58 E Calmar Eur. Sweden 56 40 30 N 16 ai 4j E I 5 a7 K Cambray Cur. France JO 10 37,N 3 13 3» E la 54 E Cambridge Eur. England ja 14 35 N 4 ijE 17 E Cambridge Am. N. England Cannries 4a »3 a8 N 71 4 oW 4 44 i6W 1 a3jW Canary (Ifle) NE.Pt. Af. a8 13 N ij 38 45W 3 Candi.i(lfle) Eur. Medit.Sea 3J 18 35 N aj 18 E I 41 la E Candlemas Ifle* Am. Sandw. Land 57 10 S a7 13 oW I 48 #aW C.uifo (Port) Canterbury Catliedral Am. Nova Scotia 45 ao 7N 60 jj oW 4 3 40W Eur. England 51 18 a6N « 4 53 E 4 19 E Canton Afia Chinn a3 8 yN III a 30 E 7 33 10 E Cape Capricorn Afia N. Holland aj a6 40 S ao8 j4 aoW 13 JJ J7W Cupe Clear Eur. Afia Ireland Ji 15 oN 9 JO oW 39 aoW 4 1 Cape Colenet N.Ctlcdoiiij ao 30 08 164 j6 E 10 J9 44 E Cape Comorin Afia India 7 56 oN 78 J oK J aa ao E Cape Coionation Afia N. Caledonia aa 5 s 167 8 oE II 8 3aE Cape Cumberland Afia N. Hebrides 14 39 30 S 166 47 E II 7 8 E Cape Florida Am. Florida »5 44 oN 80 44 oW J aa j6W Cape Howe Afia N.Holland 57 3» 57 S aio 39 3W 4 a 36W Cape Table Alia N.Zealand 39 6 40 S 181 J7 41W la 7 J«W Carlltroon Eur. Sweden Ii6 aj7N IJ a6 IJ E' I I 4j El || Thi -'•liS^i^tamntiifi-- hmwL 1 i INTRODUCTION. The Latitude* and Longitudes of Placet", . Namet^of Flukes, Cont. Sea or Country. Latitude. Long! In Degrees. tude. In Time. H.W. / II / // h ' " h ' Carthagena Eur. Spain Terra Firma 37 37 oN I 8 30W 434W Canhagena Am. lo iS 19 N 75 4» 54W 5 »5aW Cafan Afia Siberia S5 4358N 49 8 15 E 3 16 33 E Caflel Eur. Oermany 51 19 aoN 9 35 3 E 38 ao E Caftre* Eur. France 43 36 II N a 14 x6 E 8 57E ShCad)erine'a(Ifle} Am. AtL Ocean 47 35 OS 49 17 oW 3 17 30W Cavan Eur. Ireland 54 51 41 N 7 23 oW a9 3aW Cayenna Am. Ifle Cayenne 45615N 5a IS oW 3 a9 oW C«ylon,S. Point Afia India 5 47 oN 81 a o£ 5 a4 8E Cetta Eur. France 43 »3 51 N 3 4a 7E 14 48 E CliaUon Eur. France 46 46 54 N 4 51 a/E 19 34 E Chalous Eur. France 48 57 »8 N 4 ai a9 £ 17 a6 E Chandemagor Afia India %% 51 a6N 88 39 15 E 5 53 a7 E Q. Charlotte Sound Afia N. Zealand 41 5 58 S 174 13 3« E n 36 54 E 9 Q. Charlotte Foreland Afia N. Caledonia »a 15 S 167 la 45 E 11 8 ji E Q.Charlotte** Cape Am.- S. Georgia 54 3» OS 36 11 30W a 34 46W Charlton Ifle Am. Kudf. Bay 5» 3 oN 79 J oW 5 16 20W Chartrei Eur. France 48 a6 54 N I 49 35 E 5 56 E Cherbourg Eur. France 49 38 31 N I 37 18W 6 a9W 7 30 Chriftmat Sound Am. T.dclFuego 55 ai 57 S -70 a 50W 4 40 iiW a 30 St.Chriftopher's(ia«) Am. Carib. Sea 17 15 oN 6a 43 oW 4 10 jaW Churchill River Am. Hudr. Bay 58 47 3» N 94 7 30W 6 16 30W 7 30 Ctvita Vecchia Eur. Italy 4» 5 a4N 15 46 15 E 47 5E Clerke'i Iflet Am. All. Ocean 55 5 30 S 34 4a oW a 18 48W Clermoat Eur. France 45 46 44 N 3 5 a E la aoE Cochin Afia India 9 33 ON 75 35 E 5 a aoE Colmar Eur. France 48 444N 7 aa II E 39 39 E Colognt Eur. Oermany 50 55 it N 6 55 E 37 40 £ Compiegne Eur. France 49 a4 59 N a 49 41 E II 10 E Conception Am. Chili 36 41 5i S 7a 40 oW 4 50 40W Conftantinople Eur. Turkey 41 I a7N a8 55 E I 55 40 E Cooper's Id* Am. Atl. Ocean 54 57 OS 36 4 aoW a 34 17W , Copenhagen Eur. Ocnmark 55 41 4N la 35 15 E 50 31 E Coauimbo Cork Am. Eur. Chili Ireland 29 5» S 51 5i 54 N 71 19 oW 8 a8 X5W 4 45 3W 33 53W 6 30 Corvu Eur. Asorc* J9 4» N 31 6 oW 3 4 a4W Couvtancei Eur. Fiance 49 » 50 N I a7 ajW 5 ioW Cowei Weft, Fort EMr. Ifie of Wight 50 46 18 N I 17 I7W s 9W 10 30 Cracow Eur. Poland 49 59 »o N 19 50 E I 19 ao £ Cremfmunftor Eur. Germany 48 3 »9N 14 7 oE 59 a8 E Croiiic Eur. France 47 17 40 N 3 31 4aw 10 7W Cummin (Ifi«) Afia Pae. Ocean 31 40 oN lat 4 E 8 4 i6£ Cyprus , Afia Syria 34 30 N 33 x6 £( a 13 4 El M Danttic Eur. Poknd K4 SI 9N1 x8 38 oH| I 14 .n ^ Dardanella'i Straits Eur. Turkey 40 10 oN a6 a6 ol I 45 44 E Daflkn tfland Af. Caffrtcs 31 45 S 18 a o£ I la 8B Dax Eur. France 43 4S 19!^ t 3 i«W 413W Deal Caftia Eur. Knj!and I. Bourbon 5> t3 5N I at 4 19 aoW Etiglifh Road Afia Eaoowe SI ao 30 S 174 34 cW II 38 x6W Erramanga (Ifle) Afli Pac. Orean 18 .'f JO S 169 18 30 Eit 17 14 E Erzerum Afli Armenia 39 56 iS N 48 ZS 45 E 3 M 33E Eiiltachii (Town) Am. CariS Sea 17 a? oN 6? 10 oW 4 13 40W Evout's Iflei Am. T. d. Fuego 55 3-. 30 S 66 :,) oW, 4 27 ^6W Evereul Eur. France 49 I 30N 1 ^ 54 K 4 .^5 E Exeter Eur. lEiigland '5044 oNI i :^ 30W 14 30WI Falmouth Enr. En;;lind 50 8 oNl s a icAV ' 30 loV ;5 3^: Falfe (Cape) Af. Ciiffroa ,;.; 16 c ■ x8 44 t B I 14 56 I FalTe Bay At; Catfii'i J4 10 Oh 18 a E I 14 It F Farewell (Cupe) ^m. ( irtieiilmd 59 38 o N 4- 4» ■^^'^ » ^o 48M Farewell (Cap ■) Afia N. Zenland 40 37 S 171 ..t J'J l 1' .10 .x'tT^ Fi yal Town Eur. .\zor(:t 38 3a aoN ii .11 iW I /4 4 iW » :c Ferdinand Noronha Am. iirazii 3 56 ao S 3a 3:^ CAV an iW Perrara Bur. Italy 44 4; j6 N n 36 Hi F ^:.' :. ; T I'erra Ifle (Town) .\t. Cauiriei i7 47 20N 17 4V 50Vi I i: oW Fniiilerre (v. ^pe) Eur. S'liiin »* 54 'aN 9 17 U'W 37 vw _ I'iainlioroujK Heid Eitr. EngijtMl J4 8 oN 11 ■.) K C .\.4 £ lU J;^H'>ii''Jbis.&i Xt INTRODUCTION. ''^V The Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, ■ Names of Places. Cent Sea or Country. Latitude. Longitude In Degrees. In Time. H.W. f tf / n h ' " h ' Florence Eur. Italy 43 46 30 N IX 3 30 E 44 14 E Floret Eur. Asores 39 34 oN 31 oW a 4 oW St Flour Eur. France 45 I 55 N 3 5 30E la aa E Fortaventure (W.Pt.) Af. Canaries 18 4 oN 14 3' 30W 58 6W Foul Point Af. Madagafcar 17 40 14 S 49 53 3 19 3a E France (Ifle of) Af. Ind. Ocean io 9 45 S 57 a8 oE 3 49 5a E Francforr (on the Ma.) Eur. Germany 49 55 oN 8 35 oE 34 ao £ Francois (Cape) Am. Hifpaniola 19 46 30 N ,7a 18 oW 4 49 laW Old Ca)ie Francois Am. Hifpaniola 19 40 30 N 70 a oW 4 40 8W Frawenburgh Eur. Pruflia 54 az 15 N ao 7 30 E I ao 30 E Frejus Eur. France 43 »5 5a N 6 43 54 E a6 56 E Frekel (Cape) Eur. France 48 41 3 N 6 oW a4 oW Friefland's Peak Am. Sandw. I 55 9 ''■ 27 41 E Gratiofa Eur. A:tore« 39 a N n 58 ovv I 5' 5aW (Jral/. Eur. (•erm.iny 47 4 9N >5 a.j 45 K I I 48 F. Gravcliiics i'lur. I'Lindeis .vo .59 4 N a 7 3a E 8 30 E f;reenwicl> (Obfcr.) Eur. England .51 j8 40 N 000 000 Greofnobie Eur. Franco 45 n 4aN 5 43 34 K 21 54 Grypliifvvald Eur. Gtirmany 54 4 a5N »3 38 30 •• 54 34 jGuadaloiipc Am. ('arib. Sea »5 59 .10 N (it 48 nvv 4 7 13W ^G)iai4(|tiil Am. Peru a II ai S 81 II 30W 5 »4 46W 1 TU INTRODUCTION. Tie LaiitttJe and Longitude of Places, %Q\ aw. 1 Names of Places. Cont Sea or Country. Latitude. I^ongitude. In Degrees. In Tinie. H.W. ■ 1 II / II h 1 ft h / ^1 Gurief Afiji Siberia 47 7 7N 51 56 oE 3 27 44 E H Guernfey Eur. Brit. Chan. 49 30 oN a 47 o.W n 8W .,. r ■ ^ H , ', .' '■ \ ■ Hague Eur. Netherlands 54 4 loN 4 17 30 E 17 10 E « 15 I ^H Hamburgh Eur. Netherlands Si 3i 3N 10 I II E 39 ao E 6 I ^H Hang-lip (Cape) Af. Caflfres 34 i6 S 18 44 E I 14 56^ J ^1 Hanover Eur. Germany ja ai 18 N 9 4« *5 E 38 57 E I ^H Harborough (Mark.) Eur. England 5a a8 30 N 57 25 W 3 50W I Harlem Hsttings Eur. Eur. Netherlands England 5a aa 14 N 50 ja 10 N 4 37 E 41 10 E 18 38 E a 45W £ / ■ ^H Havaunah Am. Cuba a3 If 5 N 8a 18 30W 5 49 mW ^ ^H Havrc-de-gracc Eur. France 49 39 14 N 6 a3 E a6 E 9 IT ^ \% 4 1 Heele (I.a) Eur. Netherlands 51 a3 aN 4 45 30 E 10 a E St. Helena (Ja. Town) Af. S.Atl.Ocean i,- a 30 H Java Hcnd Afia J.va 6 49 S 106 50 E 7 7 ao E tV I 30 H Jerurnlena Afia P.ilelline 31 46 34 N 35 so ^ E a ai 30 E X* H St lldefoitfo's Iflei Am. r del Fnego S5 .n S 69 21 oW 4 37 5aW H Inrncr (Ifle) J\fi.i Pac. Ocean 19 16 .S 169 46 E II 19 4 £ E IV 7 c E ^H hicollladt i-ur. Germany 48 AS AS N II az 30 £ 45 30 E St. John's Am. Antigua 17 30N 6a 9 oW 4 8 36W W 1 St. John's .Am. Nftwtbimdl. 47 31 oN 5a a6 oW 3 39 44W 6 R H Jop))a Afia Syrii ,5a AS oN 36 cW a 34 oW E c ■ St. Jofcph's Am California 23 3 4a S 109 4a 30 W 7 18 50W I Irraname (Iflt) Afia Pac. Ocean 19 31 S 170 m E 11 at 34 F 1 IflamnbaH Alii India aa ao oN 91 AS £ 6 7 oE I Ifle of Pinet Afia f'ac. Ocean 11 38 S 167 38 E II 10 33 E "~ ■^— 1 Ifpahan Afia Perfla 3a IS oN 5a 50 E 3 3» «'?E 1 St Juan (Cape) Am Staten Lind| 54 47 10 S 63 47 oW 4 15 8E J iBBBS V TU h a TAt xcu INTRODUCTION, The Latitudes and Longitudes of Places* Names of Places. Cent. Sea or Country. I--"'^'- .„D.sJ^''t-T,„e. 1 H.W. o ; // j 1 II h / If h / Judda Afia Arabia zi 29 N'i 39 aa E 2 37 a8 E St. Juliana (Port) Am. Patagonia 49 10 S' 68 44 oW 4 34 56W 4 45 Juthia AHa India 14 18 N xoo 50 £ 6 43 20 £ V : ■ ' ^■^ 1 Kedgeree Afia India 31 48 oN 88 50 15 E 5 55 21 E Kiow Eur. Ukraine 50 27 oN 30 27 30 E ^ I 50E J^l» ■ .: '.-,■ Eur. Lapland 68 Si 30 N 33 30 E a 12 2 E i - ,- ,, , f (. •- ^A/.i " 'li-: ■-■li;...^ ■--■; ■ [ Ladrone (Granrf) Afia Pat-. Ocean az a oN If? 56 E 7 35 44 E I 5 I3W Laguna Af. EeuerifFe 28 28 57 N i6 i3 15W Ltncarota (E. Pt.) Af. Canaries 29 14 oN 13 26 oW 53 44W I^andau Eur. France 49 11 38 N 8 7 30 E 32 30 E Landfcrnon Kur; Sweden 55 J» 31 N 1 2 50 46 E 51 23 E Lands-End F.ur, England 50 4 7N 5 41 31 W 22 46W Langres Vur. France 47 5a 17 N 5 19 23 E 21 18 E Lauinnne Eur. Switzerland 46 31 5N 6 45 15 E 27 I E Lcf^cure Eur. France 43 j6 2N 36 53 K 2 28 E Leeds Eur. England 53 48 o^ I 34 15 W 6 17W Leghorn Eur. Italy 43 .13 oN 10 as E 41 40 E LeiceWer Eur. England 51 38 oN I 8 30W 4 34W Leipiic Lur. Saxony ji 19 14N I z 20 E 49 20 E Le)>er'* inaml Afu Pac. Ocean ij »3 30 •'' 167 5B 15 F- ro n 53 E Lefkeard Eur. J-'ngland 50 26 55 N 4 41 45W 18 47 w Lefparra Eur. France 45 18 ^i N 57 3W 3 48W Leyden . ' Eur. HoUand 53 8 40N 4 a8 oE 17 52 E Liege Eur. Netherlands 50 37 30 N 5 35 E 22 20 E Lima Am. Peru la I 15 s 76 49 30 w 5 7 18W I>iinoge8 Eur. France 45 49 A4 N I 15 50 E 5 4E — — Lint* Eur. Germany 48 16 ON «3 57 30 K 55 50 F. Lifieux i ;" '■■''• Eur. France 49 8 SO N 13 3^ P- 54 f: Line Eur. Flanders 50 37 50 N 3 4 16 E 12 17 E Lilbon Eur. Portugal 38 4a 25 N 9 4 40W 36 40 W » 15 Lion's Bank Eur. Atl. Ocean 56 40 N 17 4i o\V I II oVV Lidinrnt (Cape) Alia N. Hchrides IS 40 45 t^ i66 .57 E II 7 48 E LTver|KM)l Eur. England 53 22 oN 3 10 oW 11 40 W Licard Fhgftaif Eur. |Eiii;land 49 57 56N 5 ti i8W 20 4.5 W 7 30 Lambes Eur. 1 France 43 »8 30 N •0 55 9 1*^ 3 41 E r..ondon (St. Paul's) Eur. Envjland 5* 31 oN 5 37VV 22^W 3 Lorenio (Cape) Am. Peru I 2 S 3c3 17 o\V 5 ai 8\V St. Louis (Port) Am. tlilpanioLi 18 iS 50 N 73 16 OW 4 53 4W St. Louis (Port) Af. Mauritius i.0 9 45 S .57 28 F. 3 49 Si I' Louifbourg Am. Cape Breton India 45 53 40 N 59 'SS 0^^' 3 59 40W Louveau Afia 12 43 30 N loi I 30 F. 6 44 6 V Louvaiii Kur. Netherlands 50 53 3 N 4 44 15 F 18 57 E Lowefloflfe Eui. England SI 29 o^ I 44 9 !'■ 3 57 E St. Lucia (lfl«) Am. Antilles 13 24 30 N 60 .51 3o\V' 4 3 a6W Lunden Fur. Swoden 5.5 42 26 N 13 12 27 I 52 JO F Luneville Eur. France 48 35 33 N 6 30 ft F 26 F 1 ne INTRODUCTION. The Latitudes and Longitudes of Places. %tm\ Names of Places. Cont Lufon Luxembourg Lyme Steeple Lynn Lyons Macao MacafTer Madeira (Funchal) Madras Madre de Dios (Port) Madrid Magdalena (Ifle) Mahon (Port) Majorca (Ille) Malacca Eur. Eur. Eur, Ewr. Eur. Afia Afia Af. Afia Afia Eur. Afia Eur. Eur. Afia Sea or Country. Latitudes. I^atitudes. In Degrees. In Time. France ' 46 27 15 N Netherlands 49 37 6N England 51 4 2oN England 5 a 45 16 N France 145 SS 5*^ H.W. » II 10 34W 11 45 E I «a E aj 45 K 49 9 E / II 4 4»W 24 47 E 4 JE X 35 E 19 17 E h / Malines Malicola (Ifle) St. Maloes Malta (Ifle) Manilla St. Margaret's Steeple Marigalante (Ifle) Marfcillcs ^ St. Martha St.Miriin*s(Ifle) Eur. Afia Eur Af. Afia Eur. Am. Eur. Am. Am. China Celebes Atl. Ocean India M.nquefas Spain Pac. Ocean Minorca Medit. Sea India M 21 12 5 9 3* 37 13 4 9 55 40 25 10 25 39 50 39 35 2 12 44 N' o S 40 N 54 N 30 S 18 N, 30 S 46 N oN oN 113 46 119 48 1656 80 28 139 8 3 la 138 49 34« 2 29 102 J Netherlands Pac. Ocean France Modit. Sea Pliillipines England Atl. Ocean France Terra Firma Carih. Sea Martinico (Port-royal) St. Mary's (Ifle) St. Mary's (Town) Maflcelyne's Ifle Si. Matthew ^iglits) Mauritius Mantua (Ifle) Mayence Mayne (John's Ifle) Mayo (Ifle) Am. Eur. Eur. Afia Eur. Af. Afia Kur. Eur. Af. AtL Ocean Scilly Ifles Azores Pac. Ocean France Ind. Ocean Pac. Oce.m Germany North Ocean Cape Vcrd Meaux MeccH ,^ Meude Mergui Metr. Mew Stone Mexico Mczii're* Miatea (Itle) .St. Michael's (Ifle) Mlddlcbur; (Ifle) Milan MUo (IfW) [Minorca ( Ft. 9t. Phil.) Eur. Afia Eur. lAfia Eur. Afia Am. Eur. Afia Eur. 5« 16 48 35 14 51 15 43 II 18 15 B 45 E oW 45 E 40W oW oW 30 E 45 E oE 7 35 5 F'l 7 59 «5 B I 7 44W 5 41 55 E 9 16 35W o 14 8W 9 15 16W o 15 14 E o 9 S9E 6 48 20 E 12 4 % 30 14 49 36 16 48 20 16 49 71 15 iS 55 N 57 30N 56 40 N 32 o S 19 5»N I 50N 4 28 45 E| o 17 SS E 15 30 S 167 39 15 E It 10 37 E 38 59 N 2 2 22W o 8 9W 53 "47 N 14 28 30 E o 57 54 E 36 8N120 52 oE 8 3 28E 9 14N I 22 7 E O 5 28 E SS 15 N 61 II cW 4 4 44W 17 43 N 5 21 43 Ei o 21 27 E 26 40N 74 4 30V/ 4 56 >8W 4 20N 63 2 oW 4 la 8W 9 43 9 9 »5 54 10 10 45 40 S ON oN oN France Ar.ibu France Siam Fnince New Holland Mexico France Pac. Ocean Azores Afia Eur. Eur. Eur. 4857 21 40 44 3» 12 12 49 7 43 48 «9 25 49 45 t? 5a 37 47 Pac. Ocean Italy Medit. Se« 40 N oN aN oN 10 N o 50 S 47 N o S oN 61 6 »5 167 59 4 47 57 »9 15a 3a 8 20 9 23 6 o 49 5 oW oW 15W 15 E 25W 15 E 40W oE 30W oW % 41 3 146 1 100 4 148 15 4 o I II o 3 4 26 40 II 19 49 10 10 o 33 39 1 32 36W jaW 37W 57 E loW 57 E liW 20 E I8W aoW J 45 21 ao 30 s 45 a7 57 N 36 41 N Madit.Sca 39 51 oN 5a 30 E o oE a9 35 E 845F to 13 E 37 oE 45W 16 E oW oW 5 43 6 4» 174 34 oW 9 iz 45 B t5 o oE 3 54 oE II 30 E 44 oE I3 5«E 3a 3S^ 24 41 E 45 48 E 40a3W x8 53 B 58 14W 4a 48W n 38 16W O 36 47 E; « 40 oE o ij 36 E kj rt$ itclv IJITRODUCTION. Thf Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, Namts of Places. Cont. Sea or Country. Latitude. Longitude. In Degrees. , In Time. H.W. / II / // h ' " h ' Modena Eur. Italy 44 34 N II 12 30 E 44 50 E Mont Eur. Netherlinds 90 a; 10 N 3 57 15 E 15 49 E Montagu (Cape) Am. ^andw. Land 58 33 OS a6 46 oW I 47 4W Montagu (tHe) Alia Pac. Ocean 17 26 S 168 31 30 E II 14 6 E Montmirail Eur. Franca 48 52 8N 3 3» 16 E 14 9 £ Montpellier Eur. France 43 if> 29 N 3 S^ aj E 15 30 E Montreal Am. Canada 45 50 oN 73 II oW 4 5a 44 W Montlerrat (Ifle) Am. Carib. >Sea i6 47 30 N 6a 17 oVV 4 9 8W Monument (The) Ada Pac. Ocean 17 M ij S 168 38 15 E II 14 .33 E Mdcow Eur. Mofcovy 55 45 45 N 37 3» 45 E a 30 II E Moulins Eur. Fiance 46 34 4 N 3 19 59 E 13 20 E Munich Eur. Bavaria 48 9 55 N 11 30 E 46 E Mulkctto Cove Am. Greenland 64 55 13 N 5a 56 45W 3 31 47W 10 I? Mufwell Hill Eur. England Iji 35 3*NJ 7 aoWl l^Vik ' 1 c . N 1 Namur Eur. jNetherlands .P 28 32 N( 4 44 45 K' 18 59 T^f 1 Nancy Eur. France 48 41 SS N 6 10 i6 E 24 41 E Nangafacki Ada Japan 3» 3Z oN 128 46 15 E 8 35 5 E Ndiikin Afia China 3Z 4 40 S u8 47 OE 7 S5 8E Nantes Eur. France 47 t3 6N I 32 59Wi 6 12VV 3 Naples Eur. It.il) 4C 50 15 N 14 17 30 E 57 10 E N:irhonne Eur. France 43 10 58 N a 59 59 E » la oE Nevers Eur. Franca 4^ 59 17 N 3 9 16 E 12 37 E New Year's Harbour Am. Staten Land'54 48 SS S 64 II o\V 4 16 43W Niigara Am. Canada 43 4 »5N 79 7 Ji^V 5 l6 31 W Nice' Eur. I'ranct 43 41 47 N 7 16 22 Ej 29 5 E yt.Nicluibs Mole Am. Hil"|'rtniofa 19 49 20 N 73 29 45W 4 5'^ 59^V Nieuport Alole Eur. JFLnideis 51 7 41N a 45 E! ji E U Ningpci .Afii IChiii.i »9 57 45 N 120 18 El 8 I 12 E Nifmes Fur. iKraiice 43 50 ^'^^ 4 18 39 e! 17 15 E • Noir (Cape) Am. i'l". del Fiiego 54 3» 30 S 73 3 15 W 4 48 13W Nootka Am. jPac. Ocean m^ 36 6N 126 4 30W 1 8 26 50W Norfolk rn.ind Afi.i (Fjc.<)ce.Mi 'ay i 45 N 168 10 E^n 12 40 E Noriron .\m. iPLiiniyivania40 9 56 N 75 «3 30W 5 1 .14W North Cupc Fiur. jLapland 171 10 oN 25 57 E I 45 48 E 3 Cape North Am. |.S. Georgia 54 4 45 N: 38 15 oW a 37, cW Noyon Eur. JFrance '49 34 59 N 3 59 4^ E II 59 E \ Nuremhere iiur. IGeimauy '41^ 26 JJ N n 4 oE 44 16 E »■ -^ ' 1 Oaitipeht Bay Afa Orn»-,eito 17 29 17 S|i49 3.? 45W 9 56 5/W Ocho» Afia Taury 59 20 10N1143 »a 30 E 9 32 50 E Olnmsn^no Harbour Afia Uliit^dh 16 45 30 .«;i5l 38 5W iQ 6 32W 11 ao Ohcvahoa (Ifle) Atia P.»c. Ocean 9 40 40 S|i39 * 40^^' 9 16 7W Ohitahoof[(le) Afia Fac. Ocean 9 55 30 *< 139 6 oVV 9 16 24W a 30 Olerqii (Ifle) Eur. Franco 46 2 50 N I 25 I3\\' 5 41W Qlinije Am. Brazil 8 13 35 5 30W 2 ao aiW St. pmerffl Eur. Flanders JO 43 4^ N * 14 51 E 9 oW Ohateavio (Iflt) A^ia Pac. Ocean 9 .cS s 138. n cAV »9 15 29W i ^■""^ « . 7'A^ INTRODUCTION. XCT Tie Latitudes and Longitudes of Places. Names of Places. Cont • Sea or Counuy. Latitude. Longitude In Degrees. Ir • 1 Time. H.W.! t It / ff h / // 3 h ' j Oporto Eur. Portugal 41 lO N 8 aa oW 3i 8W Orenburg Ada Tatary 51 46 5 N SS 4 30E 3 40 18 E ;^ Orleans Ei'r. France 47 54 to N 1 5 ■ a7 E 7 38 E 1 Orleans (New) Am. Louifiana *9 57 45 N 89 58 45 W| 5 59 5sW Oraiava Af Teneriffe 28 43 ^^ N 16 a4 iiW I 5 37W Ordc Afia Tatary ji la 30 N 58 30 45 E 3 54 ? E 1 Ortagal (Cape) Eur. Spain 43 46 30 N 7 39 oW 30 36W Olnabiirg (Ifle) Afia Par. Ocean 17 49 30 S 149 a6 :5W 9 5a a4W ,^ Oftend bur. Neitherlatids 5« 13 SS N 3 SS 45 E II 43 E la < Owharre B.iy Alia Huahind 16 44 S 151 3 15W10 4 33W I Oxford (OWcrvatory) Eur. England 51 45 38 N P 45 1.1 40 N I 15 3tWl i iW 1j Pat^ua Eur. Italy II 5a 30 E 47 30 E i Paita Am. Peru 5 I* S Palliler's (Ifles) Afia Pac. Ocean 15 38 15 « 146 30 ijW 9 46 iW ,; PalliCet's (Cape) Alia N. Zealand 41 ^8 S 175 i8 E II 44 30 E Palma (Hie) Af. Caniiries z8 36 45 N 17 50 oW I ti aoW I'ainwrfton's (Ifle) Afia Pac. Ocean 18 6 1 6a 57 oW 10 51 48 w I'anama Am. Mexico 8 47 48 N 80 ai oW 5 a I a4W Paoom (Ifle) Afia Pac Ocean i6 30 .S 168 a8 45 E II 13 45 E Pans (OlUerv.) Eur. France 48 JO 14 N a ao E 9 ao H, PatrixAord Eur. Eur. Iceland 65 25 45 N a4 10 oW I 36 40 w Pau France 43 »5 oN 9 oU 36 vv St. Pauls (Ifle) Af. hid. Ocean 37 51 S 77 48 E 5 II 12 E St. Paul de 1/v.on Eur. France 48 40 5.5 N 4 aiVV 16 i\V 4 Pekin Afia Chin.1 J9 54 13 N 116 a; 30 E 7 45 50 E t'erigueux Eur. I'rance 45 II 8N 43 9 E a S3 E Pennaldi Hur. Italy 43 Si aoN 7 40 !■ 30 40 IL Perpigoan Eur France 41 41 53 N » Si 35 E II 34 E St. Peter's Fort Am. Ma^tinico 14 44 oN 61 21 16W 4 5 a.5W St. Peter's (lilt-) Am. Atl. Qce.in 46 46 30 N 56 17 OVV .. J 45 8VV Pcterfturgh Kur. Ruflia 59 56 23 N 30 19 [•- a I 16 E l*elit Ooave Am. Hil'paniola j8 17 oN 7a ja 30W 4 51.30W Petro lawlolkoi Alia Kamchatka Si 1 aoN 158 4^ E 10 35 I.-. E Philadel| SS"^ 79 51 45 E 5 19 31 E ■ Ponoi Eur, L^aptan^ 67 4 30N 36 33 15 E a a5 3"^ E Pontolfe Eur. Fiance 49 3 aN a 5 37 E 8 aa E PoitlandLisht-houfe Eur England 50 31 aiN a 26 4>;\V 9 47W Porto Btllo Am. Mexico 9 il 5 N 79 50 aoW _5 19 21 VV Tie iiinawWiSiafcigait .,:,i SCVI INTRODUCTION, v T/je Latitudes and Longitudes of Places* ^^^^^^^H Namei of Places. Cont. Sea or Country. Latitude. Longitude. In Degrees. In Time. H.W. '^^^H / // / // h ' « h ' ^^^^1 ' Porto San£lo (Ifle) Af. Madeira 3a J8 15 N 16 a5 15W 1 5 4iW ^^^^H Port Royal Am. Jamaica 18 oN 76 45 30W 5 7 4W '^^^^^1 PortRc^l Am. Martinico 14 55 55 N 61 9 oW 4 4 36W ^^^^^B Portfmouth Church Eur. £ngland jO 47 27 N » 557W 4 a4W XX X5 I^^^^^^^^H Portfmouth Academy Eur. England 50 48 »N I 6 iW 4 24W Portland (Me} Eur. North Sea 63 «» oN 18 54 oW 1 15 i('^ ^^^^H Portland (Ifle) Afia Pac. Oce in 39 45 S 178 la oW la 5a 48 E ^^^^^B Fort Faix Am. Kifpaniola 19 58 oN 73 a oW 4 48 8W ^^^^B Port Picay* Af. St. J ago M 53 Si N a3 89 aaW i zi 57W XX ^^H Prague Eur. Bohemia 50 5 47N 14 84 E 57 36 E :|^^H Prince of Wales's Fort Am. New Wales 58 47 3»N 94 7 30W 6 16 30W ^^^^^H Providence Am. N. England 41 50 40 N 71 a6 oW 4 45 44W '■H^H Pudyoua Alia N. Caledonia >o iS S 164 41 14 £ 10 5 8 45 E 6 3c ■^^^H Pulo Condor (Ifle) Afla [nd. Ocean 8 40 oN to7 ao E 7 9 ao£ ^^n^H Pulo Timor (Ifle) Afla Gulph Siam 3 N 104 a« E 6 45 40 E |H Pyleftaarfs(lfle) Afia Pac. Ocean |za 23 S t75 41 30W II 4a 46 w • |H Quebec Am. Canada 46 47 30 N ft 10 oW 4 44 40W 7 30 ^^^^^H Quimper Eur. France 47 58 »9 N 4 6 oW 16 a4W l^^^^^l St. Quinton Eur. France 49 50 51 N 3 »7 a3 F 13 ID E ^^^^^H Quiros (Cape) Alia N.Hebrides 14 56 8 S 167 ao E II 9 ao K ^^^H' Quito Am. Peru p 13 17 s 77 55 oW J H 40W '!^^^^^^B Rakah (Ancient) Afia Mefopotam. K 36 X oN'i 3? 50 oE\ a ^5 aoF. 5Q 18 40 N 4 ao 15WI 17 aiV7 ^^^^^H Ramhead Eur. Englind ^^^^^K Romfgate Windmill Eur. England 5« 19 49N I a4 4 E 5 36 J\ II I^^^H Rhe (Ifle) liur. Fniice 46 1448N I 34 a8W 6 18U 3 i ^^^H. ' Recif Am. Brafil 8 10 S i5 35 oW a aa aoW 1' ^^^^H Reikianefs (Cape) Eur. Icel.ind 6.? 55 oN aa 47 30W I 31 loW ^^^^^^^^^H i< ennes Eur. France 48 6 45 N I 41 53W 6 48W Relblution (Bay) Afia Ohiatoo 9 55 30 J' ■ 39- 8 40W 9 16 35W a 30 ^^^^^^^^^^^^K Relblution (Ifle) Afia Pac. Ocean 17 a3 30 S 141 45 oW 9 a7 cW ^^^^^^^^B ^^^^^^^^H I efolution (Port) Afia Tanna 19 3» 45 S 169 4» 5 E XI 18 44 £ i ^H Rheims Eur. France 49 15 i6N 4 I 48 E 16 7 E \ i^^^^^H Rhodes Eur. France 44 ao 59N a 34 17 ^^ 10 17 F ^^^^^^^^^^1 Rhodes Afia Archipelago 35 a7 N a8 45 E I 55 oE ^^^^^^^^H Rimini Eur. Italy 44 3 43N la 34 is E 50 X7 E Rhj Janeiro Am. Brazil aa 54 10 S 4a 43 45W a 50 55W ^^^^^^^^H Rochelle Eur. France 46 9 ai 15I 19 55'^ 4 4o^^ 3 45 ' I^^I^^H Rochfort Eur. France 45 50 loN 57 49W 3 5iW 4 15 ^^^^Hjj^^^H Rock of Lifbon Eur. Portugal 38 45 30 N| 9 35 30W 38 aaW ^^^^^m Rcdrigues(lfle) Af. Ind. Ocean 19 4t> 40 Si 63 lo I 4 xa 4o£ ^K^k Rome (St. Peter's) Eur. Italy 41 SZ 54 N la a9 15 E 49 57 I ; ^^^H Rotterdam Eur. Holland 51 55 58 N! 4 19 OE 17 5* I • 3 fl^^^H. Rotterdam (Ifle) Afia Pac. Ocean ao 16 30 S174 30 3oWiix 38 a\V r B ' Rouen Eur. Franc* 49 a6 a7Ni x x jaWj 4 6VI ' X X Tbi H.W. II 25 IX 6 3© 7 30 3 o » 3° f E 1 E )E »E ;W )W 3 45 w 4 15 kW >E rE >E 3 .W w I I INTRODUCTION. Tbe Latitude* and Longitudes of Places, xcvu 1 Namei of Places. Cont. Sea or Counuy. Latitude. Longit In Degrees. uds. In Time. H.W. Q 1 II 1 II h 1 II h / SAa (Ifle) Am. Carib. Sea 17 39 30 N 63-17 15 W 4 13 9W Sable (Cape) Am. Nova Scotia 73 *3 45 N 65 39 15W 4 22 37W Sag«n Eur. Silefia 51 42 It N 15 2a 15 E I I 29 E Sauites Eur. France 45 44 43 N 38 5W 2 36W Sainfe-Croix Eur. Fnmce 48 35 N 7 33 SS E 29 36 t Salilbury Spire Eur. England 51 3 43 N I 47 oW 8 8W SaU (Ifle) Af. Atl. Ocean i6 38 15 N 22 56 13W I 31 45W Sanolique Eur. Turkey 40 41 10 N aj 8 E I 33 33 E Salvages (Ifles) Af. Ad. Ocean 30 N] r T5 54 oW I 3 26W Samana * Am. Hilpanioia 19 15 oN 69 16 30W 4 37 6W Samos Afia Archipelago 37 46 oN a7 13 cE I 48 5a E Sandla Cruz Af. Tcneriffe a8 ^^ 30 N i6 16 15W I 5 5^^' Sandwich (Bay) Am. St. Georgia 54 5* S 36 I a oW a a4 48W Saiidwch (Cape) Afia MallicoLi 16 28 OS 167 59 E II II 56 E S.indwich Harbour Aiia Mallicola 16 25 ao S 167 53 • E I n 3a E Sandwich (Ifle) Afia Pac. Ocean 17 41 OS 168 33 c E II 14 la E Saunders's (Cape) Am. Saudw. Land 54 6 30 S 36 57 30W a 27 50W Saunders's (Ifle) Savage (Ifle) Am. S. Georgia 58 S 2658 oW 1 47 53W Afia Pac. 6ccan 19 2 15 S 169 30 30W n 18 aW Scarborough Head Eur. EngUnd 54 18 oN 13 cW jaW Schwezingen Eur. Germany 49 13 4N 8 40 45 E 34 33 E Scillv Ifles (I-ights) Eur. Eng.Channel 49 56 oN 6 46 o\V 37 4\V Seballian St. (Cape) Af. Madagafcar la 30 S 46 25 E 3 5 40E Sedan Eur. France 49 4» 29 N 4 57 36 E 19 50 E Seez Eur. France 48 36 23 N 10 44 E 40 3 E Senegal Af. Negroland 15 S3 oN 16 31 30W I 6 6W 10 30 Scnlis Eur. France 49 12 28 N a 34 58 E 10 aoE Sens Eilr. France 48 II 55 N 3 17 31 E 13 6 E Senonef Eur. France 48 23 7 1^ 6 57 oE 27 48 E Sheeincfs Eur. England 5^ ts o^ j» E 3 aoE Shepherd's (Ifics) Afia Pac. Ocean i6 58 S 168 42 £ u 14 48 E ' Shirbum CalUe Eur. England 51 Z9 «5N I oW 4 oW Siam Afia India 14 ao 40 N 100 50 o E 6 43 20 E Si>ngham*fu Afia China 34 16 30 N 108 43 45 E 7 14 55 E Sifteron Eur. France 44 II 51 N 5 56 18 E 33 45 E Sligo Bay ' Eur. Ireland 54 15 oN 9 18 oW 37 laW Smyrna Alia Natalia 38 28 7 N «7 6 35 E I 48 26 £ Snxfell (Moui;t) hur. Iceland 64 ja 20 N 23 54 oW I iS 36W Soiflbiu Eur. France 49 22 ja N 3 19 16 E rs 17 E Sombavera (Ifles) Am. Afi» Carib. Sea 18 38 oN 63 37 30W 4 14 3o\V Sodo India 5 57 oN 121 15 30 F 8 5 2E Southampton Spire Eur. England 50 53 59 ^ 1 23 56W 5 36W Southern Thule Am. Sandw. Land 59 34 OS 27 45 oW I 51 oW « Speaker Bank AAa Ind. Ocean 4 45 S 73 57 oE 4 51 48 E Stalbrldgc Eur, England 50 J7 cN a 23 -30W 9 34W Star-Point Eur. Englaiid JO 13 26 N 3 38 2iW 14 33W Stotkholm Eur. Sweden . S9 20 31 K 18 3 45 E I 12 10 E Stonehengt Eur. England 51 10 44 K I 49 8W 7 i6\V Straumnefit Eur. Iceland 65 39 40 N 24 29 15W » 37 57W . Stratabourgh Eur. France 48 34 56 N 7 44 36 E 30 58 E Tb4 ..,sdM^^. ■ • I iiiwiiWawiMliiH scvm INTRODUCTION. T^e Latitudes and Longitudes of Placet, \ 1 Namrs of Places. Cont Sea or Country. Latitude. Longitude. In Degrees. In Time. H.W. O 1 II / H h / n h / Succefs Bay Am. T. del Fuego 54 49 45 S 6s 25 oW 4 31 40W Succefs Cape Am. T. del Fuego 55 I o S 6s 27 oW 4 21 48WI II Suez Af. Egypt 29 50 oN 33 27 oE 3 13 48 E Suits Eur. France 47 Si 10 N 7 14 32W 38 58W Surac Afia {India \ti lo oN 73 22 30 E 4 49 30 E Table Mand Afia N. Hebrides 1 15 ."JS S 167 7 oE II S2SE 3 Tanna Afia Pac. Ocean 19 3» aj S 169 41 J E II 18 44 £ Taoukaa (Ifle) Afia Pac. Oceao 14 30 30 S 145 9 30W 9 40 38W Tarafcon Eur. France 43 48 30 N 4 39 36 E 18 38 E Tarbes Eur. France 43 13 J»N 3 59E j6 £ Taflacorta Af. Ifle Palma a8 38 ON 17 58 oW I II 53W Temontengis Afia Soloo 5 57 ON «3o'53 30 E 8 3 34 E Tencriffe (Peak) Af. Canaries 28^7 ON x6 40 oW I 6 40W Tercera Eur. Azores 38 45 N 27 6 oW I 48 34W Texel Ifle Eur. Holland 53 10 oN 4 59 oE 19 56 E Thionville Eur. France 49 ai 30 N 6 10 30 E 34 43 E Thomas St. (Ifle) Am. Virgin Ifles 18 ai ss N 64 51 30W 4. 19 36W Thule (Southern) Am. Sandw. Land 59 34 S %-i 45 oW 1 51 oW Thury Eur. Fr.yice 49 21 38 N 3 i8 30 E 9 14 E Timor (S.W. Point) Afia India 10 23 OS 133 59 E 8 15 56 E ThnorLand (S. Point) Afia India 8 15 OS 131 54 E 8 47 36 E Tobolflc Afia Siberia 58 12 30N 68 35 E 4 3.1 40 E Tolaga Bay Afia N. Zealand 38 21 30 S »78 3i 45 E II 58 15 E Toledo Eur. Spain 39 50 N 3 30 oW 13 3CW Tomflc Afia Sibtria 56 30 oN 84 59 30 E 5 39*58 £ Tonga Tabu (Ifle) Afia Pac. Ocean 21 9 S 174 46 oW II 39 4W 'I'onnerre Eur. France 4751 8N 3 58 44 E »5 59 E Torbay Eur. England 50 34 oN 3 36 oW 14 34W Tornea Eur. Sweden (>S 50 50 N 34 13 £ I 36 48 E Toulon Eur. France 43 7 16N J J5 26 E 33 43 E Touloufe Eur. France 43 is 46 N X 36 31 £ 5 45E Tournan Eur. France 48 43 57 N 3 45 15 E II X K Tours » Eur. France 47 23 46 N 41 32 E 2 46 £ Traitor's Head A!ili Erramanga 18 43 30 S 169 30 30 E IX 17 33 £ Trieile Eur. Adriatic Sea. 45 51 oN 14 3 oE 56 13 E Tiinidad Am. Atl. Ocean 20 15 S 126 43 oW 8 36 48 W Tripoli Af. Barbary 32 Si 40 N 13 5 15 E 53 31 E royes Eur. France 48 18 5N 4 4 34E 16 18 E Turin Eur. Italy 45 4 14N 7 40 E 30 40 E Turnagain (Cape) Alia N. Zealand 40 38 h 176 56 E II 47 44 E Turtle Ifland Afia Pac. Ocean 19 48 45 S 177 57 oW II 51 48 vv Tyrnaw Eur. Hungary 48 23 30 N TT 17 33 45 £ X 10 15 E Uliateah Afia 'Pac. Ocean u 16 45 8151 31 oW| 10 6 4W Unlal Eur. jSweden 59 51 50 N 17 38 45 E t,..io 3S E Uranibsrg Eur, :Denniark 55 54 38 N 12 43 44 E 50 51 E Ulhant Eur. ; France 48 a8 30N 5 4 33W 20 18W 4 13 T&i INTRODUCTION. Tie Latitudes and Longitudes of Places. XCIX V Names of Places. Cont Sea or ■ Country. Latitude. Long In Degrees. tude. In Time. H.W. / // ' ti h / n b / Valenciennes Eur. France JO ai 27 > 3 31 40 E 14 18 E Valery, St. Eur. France 5° n 1.1 ^ I 37 6E 6 a8E VaUery,St. Eur. France 49 ja laJN 41 10 £ a 45 E ValjKiraiib Am. Chili 33 a 36 S 72 19 15W 4 49 I7W Van Dieman's Road. .Vfia Tonga Tabu ai 4 ij S 174 56 24W II 39 46W Vannes Eur. France 47 39 14 N 2 46 26W II i7W Venoc Eur. France 43 43 16 N 7 7 a8E 28 30 E Venice Eur. Italy 4J a6 7N 12 22 45 E 49 31 E Venus (Point) Afia Otahcite 17 29 17 S 149 35 45 W 9 58 23W lo 30 Vera Cruz Am. Mexico 19 9 38N 96 oW 6 24 oW V«rd (Cape) Af. Negroland 14 43 45 N 17 3045W Tio 3W Verdun Eur. France 49 9 a4N 5 aa 41 E 21 31 E Verotja Eur. Italy 45 a6 7N n 18 30E 45 14 E Verfailles Eur. France 48 48 aiN 2 7 7li 8 28E Vienna (Obftrv.) Eur. Hungary 48 I a 36 N 16 16 22 £ I 5 30E Vigo Eur. Spain 42 14 24 N 8 28 oW 33 5aW Vincent, St. (Cape) Eur. Spain 37 3 ON 8 59 26W 35 58W Vintimiglia Eur. Italy 43 53 20 N 7 37 30 E 30 30 E Virgin Gorda (Fort) Am. Well Indies 18 18 oN 64 oW 4 16 oW Virgin (Cape) Am. Patagonia ja 23 S 67 54 oW 4 31 36W Viviers £ur. France 44 a8 J7N 4 40 55 E 18 44 £ w 1 Wakefield Eur. England S3 41 ON I 33 30W 6 14W Prince of Wales's Fort Am. New Wales j8 47 30 N 94 7 30W 6 16 30 W Waiiftead Eur. England 51 34 19 N 3 30E 10 E Wardhus Eur. Lapland 70 22 3^N 31 6 45 E 2 4 27E Warfaw ¥.MT. Poland 5* 14 aSN 21 oE I 24 2 E Weftman (Ifles) Eur. N. Ocean 63 20 30 N 20 27 45 w I 21 51W Wexford Eur. Ireland 52 22 oN 6 30 oW 26 oVV Weymotith Eur. England ja 40 oN a 34 oW 9 36VV Whitehaven Eur. England 54 25 oN 3 15 oW 13 o\V Whitfuntide (Ifle) Afia Pac. Ocean 15 44 20 S 168 ao 15 E II 13 ai fi * William (Fon) Afia Beng,il aa 34 45 N 88 a9 30 E 5 53 58 E Willis's (Ifles) Am. S. Georgia 54 S 38 29 40W a 33 59^^' WUua Eur. Poland 1 54 41 oN 25 27 30 E I 41 50 E Wittenburgh Eur. Germany 51 S3 oN la 44 30 E 50 j8 E Wologda Eur. Ruflia 59 19 oN Worcefter Eur. England 5a 9 30N a ijW 8 iW Woflak Eur. Rullia 61 15 oN Wyke Church Eur. England 50 35 57 N a 18 loW 9 53W Wurtzburjjh Eur. Frauconia 49 46 6N 10 ij 4.) e; 40 ss E| Ylo \m. l»er» Y 17 36 15 s ;r T3 cW 4 44 Styf York J Eur. ingl.md 93 59 oN r 6 40W 4 a7W York (New) \m. lerl'ey 40 40 oM 74 II oW 4 56 44W 3 Yorkminller A.m. r. del Fue^o 55 a6 29 S 8 o>\ 4 40 33W MODERN '^ai4*ia£:^**'. ,.*»l*.,--^-'A^ wi-r ' i> if H-Jt- i ■- '♦'. n- def f' j'i . '-.' V ■ ."< f ■■i,.j r. -f :-i -■«'] ""■■ ', ! MODERN GEOGRAPHY. ' •' PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. ;^ _. ^ -| nPHE word geography is derifed from the Greek JJEFINITIONS.J J^ language, and implies a defcription of the earth* It is fometimes contrafted with hydrography^ which fignifics a defcriptisn of the water, that is, of fe^, lakes, rivers, &c. thus including marine charts: but in. general hydrography is rather regarded as a province of geography. Both were anciently confidered along with aflronomy as parts of cofmographyy which afpired to delineate the univerfe. Geography is more juftly contrafted with chorography, which illuf- tratcs a country or province ; and ftill more with topography^ which de . fcribes a particular place or fmall diftridt. What is called Genetal Geography embraces a wide view of the fubjeft, regarding the earth aftronomically as a planet, the grand divifions of land and water, the 'winds, tides, meteorology, &c. and may extend to what is called the mechanical part of geography, in direftions for the conftruc- tion of globes, maps, and charts. Among the other divifions of this fcience may be named Sacred Geo- graphy, lolcly employed in the illuftration of the Scriptures ; Ecclefiaftic Geography, which defcribes the government of the Church, as divided into patriarchates, archbiihoprics, biflioprics, archdeaneries, 6cc. with their refpedlive boundaries, often varying much from thofe of the fecular provinces : and Phyfical Geography, or Geology, which inveftigates the interior of the earth, fo far as real difcoveries can be made ; for what have been ftyled fyftems of the earth, which have confumed the labours of many ingenious men, have no connexion with the folid fcience of geology, but ought rather to be flyled cofmogonies, or ideal creations of planets. But Geography, popularly confidered, is occupied in the defcription of the various regions of, this globe, chiefly as being divided among vari- ous nations, and improved by human art and induftry. If a fcientific term were indifpenfable for this popular acceptation, that of Hiftorical Geography mignt be adopted } not only from its profefled fubfervience to hiftory, but becaufe it is in fa£l a narrative fo nearly approaching the hiftorical, that Herodotus, and many other ancient niftorians, have di- ▼erfiiied their works with large portions of geography, and the celr< brated defcription of Germany bv Tacitus contains moft of the mate- rials adopted m modern treatifes of geography. Divisions of Geoor aphy.I In this popular point of view hiftorical geography admits of three diviflons : i. The Ancient or Clailical, which defcribes the ftate of the earth fo far as it was difcovered at diiferent periods, but not extending further than the year of Chrift 500. 2. That of the Middle Ages, which reaches to the fifteenth century, when the difcoveries of the Portuguefe began to lay wider foundations of the D fcience. ■^Hl^SS&miim'ii^- 2 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. fcience. 3. Modern Geography, the fole fubjedl of the prefent work, which, while it embraces the molt recent difcoveries, ftill remains capable of great acccfllons, particularly in Africa j not to mention more minute deficiencies.. The chief objoft of modern geography is to prefent the moft recent and authentic information concerning the numerous nations and ftate* which divide and diverfify the earth ; but on this fubjedl it is impofllble to attain accurate ideas without a brief introdudlory view of the progrefs of each nation and ftate. Thougli in fome few inftances natural barriers have divided, and continue to divide, nations, yet in general the bound- aries are arbitrary ; fo that the natural geography of a country, though forming an efTential feature, hitherto treated with too much negleft in geographical works, cannot be admitted to a predominance, but, on the contrary, as matter yields to mind, may rather be regarded as a fequd in hiftorical geography, which is chiefly occupied in defcribing the diverfi- t"s of nations, and the conditions of the vatious races of mankind. On this fubjeft there is no doubt room for a variety of opinions ; but, after long conlideration, it has appeared moll eligible to prefer the following order; i. The hillorical or progreflive geography of each country. 2. Its pohtical llate, including moll of the topics wliich recent German writers, by a term of dubious purity, call llatillic. 3. The civil geo- graphy, including objefts not fo immediately conntdted v/ith the govern- mcnt, as an account of the chief cities, towns. See. 4. The natural geography. QtAUTiiUs OF THE vvoKM).] Tlie ancients confiJeredthe earth under the three grand divifions of Alia, Euro|)e, and Africa ; yet, as they all form one continent, the diliindions were arbitrary, as they often included Egypt under Alia, and they had not difcovercd the limits of Europe towards the nt)rth-eall. Modern difcoveries have to thefe added a fourth divilion, that of America, which, exceeding even Afia in fize, might per- haps as well have been admitlod undc r two grand and diftinA denomina- tions, limited by the Illhmus of Dari'-n. It was fuppofed, till within thefe thirty years, tliat iIktc exilled a vail continent in the fouth of the globe, and many fchemes were formed fur coloniziiuj the wide and opu- lent Terra yliijiralh ; but the fccond navigation of the inuiiortal Cook difpelled this yilionary land from ge<5graphy, or dcmonltratcd, that if any continent there exilled, it mull by loll in the uninhabitable ice of tiie South Polo. Yet the vvido extent of New Holland rewarded the views of enterprile. Too large for an iilandj too fmall lor u continent, New Holland, like the other works of nature, eludes the petty dillindlions of man ; and while geographers hefilate wiietlier to afcribe it to Afia, or, with De Brolfes, to denominate it a fifth fpecific divifion of the globe, it is not improbable that the popular divilion of four quarteri of the world will continue to predominate over any Icientific difculllon. Of the grand (Uvifions of the earth, Afia has ever been the moll populous, and is fup- pofed to contain about 500,000,000 of fouls, if China, as recently averred, gomprife 330,000,000. The population of Africa may be 30,000,000, of America 20,000,000, and 150,000,000 may be affigned to Europe *. Face ok tub globk.] Recent difcoveries have evinced that more than two-thirds of tins globe are covered with water ; and thefe waters, whe- ther oceans, feas, lakes, or rivers, arc contained in hollow fpaces more or Vih large, which late French geographers have called li^mt% or baConajby * Auflralafia and Polynefii, or Niw Holland, inii tits iflcs in Uie Pacific, probably d* not loutiiiii abuva half a niilliva. a tcri« l»RELIMmARY OBSERVATIONS. a term of little dignity. They may as well be called concavities ; while, on the other hand, the chief convexities or protuberances of the globe, ty the French llylcd plateaux^ confifl: of elevated uplands, fometimcs crowned by monntains, fometimcs rather 'evel, as in the extenfive central protuberance of Aiia. ^ In eitlier cafe, long cJiains of mountains com- monly proceed from thofe chief convexities in various direftions ; and the principal rivers ufually fprir.g from the moll elevated grounds. Though the low and fertile plains generally perceivable for a long fpace before rivers enter the fea areofteji depolked by their waters, as in the Delta of Egypt and other initances, yet the geologift wbuld in Vain attempt go- ncral rules ; while as on a fmall fcalc deep glens are found without any rivulet, fo on a large one, vaft and extenfive hollows will appear without the fmalleft trace of their having been pervaded by a river. Oceans.] The grandcft concavity of this globe is filled by the Pacific ocean, occupying nearly half of its furface, from the ealtern fliores of New Holland to the Wellern Coail of America ; and diverfified with feveral groups of iflands, which feem as it were the fummits of vaft mountains cmerHng from the waves. This chief concavity, feparately confidered, receives but few rivers, the chief being the Amur from Tar- tary, and the Hoan Ho and Kian Ku from China, while the principal rivers of' America run towards the eaft. The next great concavity is that of the Atlantic ocean, between the ancient continent and tlic new. A third is the Indian ocean. The feas between the ardlic and antarftic circles and the poles haver been llyled the Arftic and Antarftic oceans ; the latter having fup- planted the Terra Aultralis, and being in faft only a continuation of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans ; while the Arftic fea is partly em- braced by continents, and receives many important rivers. Such are the moft profound concavities of the globe, while others are filled by more minute feas, as the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and others of yet fmall^'r extent till we defcend to inland lakes of frefh water. Riviais.] Oblong concavities, fometimes of great length, mark the courfes of the rivers ; which generally at firit interfed the higher grounds,- till the declivity liecome more gentle on their approach to- wards their inferior reccpt:iclcs. But as gi neral views are feldom precifc, it mult not be forgotten, as already hi part obfervcd, that even large rivers fometimes fpring from lowland marfhes, and wind through vaft plains unaccompanied by any concavity except that of their immediate conrfe ; while, on the other hand, extenfive vales and low hollow fpaccs frequently occur dellitute of any llream. Rivers will alfo fometimes force a piiflage, where nature \\^ erefted mountains and rocks againft it ; and where the bajtn of the French would appear to be in another direc- tion, which the river might have gained witn more eafe : fo eflrangcd is nature from human theory. In like manner though the chief chains of r mountains in Europe extend in a fouth-eallcrly andiiorth-wefterly direc- tion, yet there are fo many exceptions, and fuch numerous and ini- portant variations in other parts of the globe, that theory in vain attempti to generalize. As mountains may be found in every dircAion of the compafs, fo a river may rife from an inland lake or marfh, and force itt way through rocky barriers of great elevation. In fhort, the theory of the French geographers, though juft in general, mull not be too widely accepted : and tl:e book of nature mult be regarded as the chief code of confnltation. CoNTiNKNT?.] From the vaft cxpnnfe of oceanic waters arifes in the 9nciej)t hcntifphere that wide continent which contains Afia, Europe, £ i aud •;>vV '^' ^ •^ ..^ife«i»i*fe- X, 4 PRELIMINARY^ OBSERVATIONS; and Africa, and in the modern hemifphere the continent of America, now difcovered to form as it were a'feparate ifland, divided by a ftrait of the fea from the ancient continent. In the latter many difcoveries of -the ut- moft importance to geography are of very modern date j and it is not above fixty years fince we obtained an impeffeft idea of the extent of Siberia and the Ruffian empire ; nor abdve twenty years fince ample, real, and accurate knowledge of thefe wide regions' began to be diffufed. So that vu faiideration» arc -',., lO EUROPE. are foreign to an exa<^ fyilcm of geogr.'.pliy, detailed in a precife order of topics, and extended witli impartial views over the whole circle of human affairs. Foreigners may objcdt that too much fpace is allotted to the Britifli dominions ; but the fame objeftious might extend to every fyilcm ancient and modern, as the authors have always enlarged the dcfcription of the countries in which they wrote. His native country ought alfo to he the chief fubjcft of every reader ; nor can mych ufL-ful kr.ov.'leJge (for our knowledge chiefly fprings from compaiifon) be inilituted concerning foreign regions till after we luivc formed an intimate acquaintance with our native land. It will alfo be underftood, that tliough no point of fcience is more fimple or cljar than the arrangement of ftatcs according to their feparate orders at a given period, yet it would be alike idle and preftunptuous to decide the precife rank of a rtate in each order ; for inltancf, whether France or Ruffia be the mon? powerful. This part of the nrra.igcment mull therefore be i;U ftive ; ar.d it is fufiicient that the Hates cf the fame order be treated with a funilar . length of dcfcription. At tlie beginning of the nineteenth century the European Hates com- prized in the tiril order are : i. The united kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland : 2. France : 3. Ruflia : 4. The Aullrian dominions : 5. Thofe of Pruflia : 6. Spain : 7. Turkey : which laft cannot be fo jnilly reduced to the fecond order ; for though perhaps approaching its fall, dill it boafts the name and weight of an empire. Under the fecond order have been arranged: i. Holland or tha United Provinces : 2. Denmark : 3. Sweden : 4. Portugal : 5. Swif- ferland. In the third are confidered the chief Hates of Germany, that labyi inth of geography, and thofe of Italy. Tlie kingdoms ot Sicily ' nnd Sardinia miglit perhaps, if entire and unfliaken, afpire to the fecond order : and an equal Itation might be claimed by the jundtive Elcftorate Palatine and Bavarian, and by that of Saxony. But as fuch ftates only form rather fuperior divifions of Germany and Italy, it appeared more advifeaiile to confider them in their nati-ral intimate connexion with thefe countries. This explanation being prcmifed, the firfl dcfcription fhall be that of the Britidi dominions. ENGLAND. :■>*■ \ CHAPTER I. • , ' irr.«.Tonir,M. on I'liociUKssiVK (iF.oGnAi'nv. Karnes. — T.xt. nl. — Original Popultitlon Roman, Saxon, and Nonpar Uco^f(iphy. — hijiurical Epochs, and /tntlquUies. ry IIP. Phenicianoarp generally fuppofed to have difcovcrcd ^ A \n-^. J J^ C'.reat Britain and Ireland at a period of very early ant iq^ui. ty ; and fome fwppofe that the name of Britain originates from a Phenlcian word, wliile others with more probability infer it to have been an indigenal trnn derived from the Brets, tribes of which appellation may be traced iu Gaul and iSeythia. Among the firft objca» of the Phenician in- Ivrcouiftt •ecife order ; circle of ; is allotted lid to every iilargt'd the ive country nych iif-jful ;aiifon) be an intimate flood, that rrangtmciit riod, yet it rank of a )e the more kftivo ; and ith a fimilar ftates com- reat Britain dominions : innot be fo reaching its land or the al: 5. Swil"- rmany, that ns ot Sicily to the fecond e Eleftorate :h ilates only •pcared more jii with thcfe ill be that of , and Norman vc difcovercd early ant iqui- m a rhenician n an indigenal nay be traced Plienician in- tvrcouiftt £? If^ ■^^^ > I j* > : V ..I ^ "^^IX, '. 5- * ^-sr.ui(i£' .1 r 1 |: ! nation ENGLANP. tx tercourfe was tin, whence the Greek name of Cafilterides or the iflands of tin, a name which in its firft acceptation feems to have extended to Great Britain and Ireland, though afterwards confined to the ifles • of Scilly, wher.* the metal does not appear to have been trSced in modern times, , . - The name of Anglia or England is well known to have origmated from the Angles, a nation of the Cimbric Cherfonefe or modern Jut- land, who fettled in the northern parts in the ilxth century. The eccle- fiaftical hiftory of Beda, written in that part of the country which was pofTefled by the Angli, feems to have contributed greatly to the extenfion and general acceptation of the modern name. Extent.] The ifland of Great Britain extends from fifty to fifty -eight and a half de.grees of north latitude, being about 500 geographical miles in length. Its greateil breadth, from the Land's End to the North Foreland in Kent, 320 geographical miles. In Britilh miles the length may be computed at 580, and the breadth at 370. England is bounded on the call by the German ocean ; on the fouth by the Engliih channel ; on the v^'eft by St. George's Channel ; on the north by the Cheviot Hills, by the paftoral river Tweed, and an ideal line falling fouth-well down to the Firth- of Solway. The extent of England and Wales in fquare ]Xi'\\cs is computed at 58,335 ; and the po- pulation being eftimated at 9,500,000, the number of inhabitants to a fquare mile will be about 162. Original population.] The earlieft inhabitants of England are fup- pofed to have been tlie Gael or Southern Celts, called Guydels by the Welfli, who regard them as their predecefibrs. Thofe tribes feem to have arrived from the nearefl: fliores of France and Flanders, and were followed by the Cymri or Cimbri from the fame regions whence the Angles after- wards proceeded. But the Cimbri were northern Celts, the anceftors of the modern WelHi. The Scythians or Goths from Afia having fclzed on Germany and a great part of Gaul, gradually rrpelhng the Celts towards the weft, appear to have fent colonies into England three or four centuries before the Chriftian era ; for Caefar found many tribes of the B( Igs, a German or Gothic nation, eftabliflied on the fouth and eaft of Britain. Tliofe Belgae may be juftly regarded as the chief anceftors of the Englifli nation ; for the Saxons, Angles, am. other northern invaders, thougn of •'.iftinguiftied courage, were inconfiderable in numbers, and the Englifh languajre bears more affinity to the Frific and Dutch than to the Jutlandic or Daniih. In the courfeof four Cvi.ituries of fubjcftion to the dominion of the Romans, even the Bdgic colonies, unaccuftomed to the ufe of arms, had forgotten their former valour. Preffed by ferocious invaders, they feem to have ir.vited to their afllftance ilangeruus allies from the continent. The Jutes arrived in the year 449, and founded the kingdom of Kcr.t about the year 460 ; they alfo took poflefllon of the ifle of Wight. In 447 the Saxons firft appear, and the kingdom of the South Saxons commences at that epoch. The Weft Saxons, arrived in the year 495. The fixth century was confiderably advanced when thofe barbaric colonies were increafed by the Ealt Saxons in the year 527 ; but the firft appear- ance of the great branch of the Angles, who were to perpetuate their name in the country at large, did not occur till the year 547, when the vahant Ida led his troops to Beruicia. The Eaft Angles taking poffef- fion of Norfolk in the year 575, the fouthern and eaftern coafts were almoft wholly in the power of the invaders, who, foon extending their 4Jonqucft» into the interior of the country, founded in the year 585 the ^ . kingdom s <|r' ENGLAND. kingdom of Mercia, the laft of the Heptarchy. Bedc pronounces Mercia to have been an Anglic kingdom ; and if fo, the Angles might perhaps have equalled in number the Saxons themfelves. Progressive geography.] The knowledge of the progreflive geo- i-aphy of any country is indifpenfably neceflary for the elucidation of its iiftory. In the Roman period England was divided into the following large provinces. Britannia Prima, the whole fouthcm part as far as the mouths of the Severn and the Thames. . . Britannia Socunda, Modern Wales. • . - Flavia CEefarienfis, from the Thames to the Humber. Maxima Caefarienfis, from the Humber to the Tyne, from the Merfey to the Solway, A more detailed account of the Roman divifxons of England properly belongs to ancient geography ; and the curious reader may be referred to the works of Horfley and Roy, authors of defcrved eftimation. Of the Saxon geography an idea may be derived from the following table. 1. Kent comprehended the county of Kent. ■ 2. Suffex, or the South jSuffex. Saxqns. "[Surrey. f Norfolk. - ^ . 3. Eaft Angles* < Suffolk. [Cambridgefhire, withthcifleof Ely, Cornwall. Devonfhire, Dorfet. Somerfet. Wilts. ' Hants. . ' Berks. Lancafhirp, Yorkihire. Durham. * ' ^^.- • ' . Cumberland. ' ' '" ^' ■■ Weftmoreland. ■ ' Northumberland, and the parts of Scotland to the Frith of Edinburgh. rEfTex. MiddlcfeXt , Htrtfordfhire in part. 'Gloucefter. Hereford. Warwick. " • " Worcefter. Leicefter. Rutland. , '' Northampton. " . . * Lincoln. '• " " - Huntingdon. ' • . Bfedford. '. : , .' Buckingham^ ' .,. Oxford. Stafford. Derbjv ' >. Salop. • 4. Weflex, or the Weft Saxons. r. Northumberland, 6. Eflex, or the E«ft Saxons, 7. Mercia. ■'.: > ENGLAND. Salop. Nottingham. The reft of Hertford, «3 The divifion into {hires is faid to have been kiftiCuted by the great Alfred. Thefe departments are alfo ftyled counties, as having beftn each governed by a Count in the Saxon times, ftyled Ealdorman, and after the Danifti conqueft called Earl, from the Danifli larl, implying a great man. The dignity and title becoming hereditary, the governmeJit of the county devolved upon the Earl's deputy the Shire-reeve, fheriiF or manager of the (hire. Yorkftiire being very extenfive it was divided into three parts called in Saxon trithings, as a farthing is a fourth part, and now corruptly called Ridings^ England proper is divided into forty counties, and the principality of Wales into twelve, thus making the whole number of counties in South Britain fifty-two ; of which the following is a lift, together with their rcfpedtive chief towns. Six northern counties Four bordering ■ on Wales Twelve midland Eight eaftcrn Three fouth* eaftera Nvimbw of thluliitants V according to the lute Chief Towni. Enumeration. " Northumberland Cumberland ^ Durham Yorkftiire " ^ Weftmoreland Lancaftiire ■ > i'Cheftiire Shropftiire Herefordftiire Monmouthftiire Nottinghamftiire Derbymire StafFordftiire Leicefterftiire Rutlandlhire Northamptonftiire Warwickftiire Worcefterfhire Gloucefterftiire Oxfordftiire Buckinghamftiire . Bedfordfhire Lincoln ftiire Huntingdonftjjre Cambridgefliire Norfolk Suffolk Effex Hertfordftiire . Middlefex Surrey I Kent SufTex 117,230 160,361 858,892 4i»6i7 672,731 191.751 167,639 89,191 45,582 140,350 161,143 239.153 130,081 16,356 131.757 208,190 >39.333 250,809 109,620 107,444 63.393 208,557 37.568 89,346 273.371 210,401 226,407 97.577 818,129* 269,043 307,624 '59.3" ■X * ExcIufvJ of tht capital. Newcaftle • Carlifle Durham York Appleby Lancafter Chefter Shrewfbury Hereford Monijiouth Nottingham Derby Stafford Leicefter Okeham Northamptoa Warwick Worcefter Gloucefter Oxford Aylefbury Bedford Lincoln Huntingdoa Cambridge Norwich Ipfwich Chelmsford Hertford London Guildford Maidftone Lewes r » ♦ '•i t To lU" i ♦' \ ENGLAND. Number of Inh ibitains according ti» tlie late Chief Towiw. Enumeration. Four fouthcrn Three fouth- weitem pBerkdiire ) Wiltlhire "l Hainpfliire [_Dorfetfhire {Somerfelfhire Devoiifliire Cornwall f Flint fliire ■ Denbiglidilre c- XT ^1 TTT 1 ! Caernarvonfhire Six, North Wales ^^^„g.I^.f^y I Merionethfliire [ Montgomeryfhire f Radnorfliire .1j\ s IX, I Cardiganfliirs South Wales \ Pembrokelhire Caermarthenfliire '" Brecknockihire ^ Glamorganfhire 109,215 185,107 219,656 1 15.319 273»750 343,001 188,269 39,622 60,352 41,52' 33,8of) 29,506 47=978 i9>o5o 42,956 56,280 67.317 31.633 71,525 Reading Sail (bury Wiuchelter Dorcheflcr Taunton Exeter Launcefton Flint Denbigh Caernarvon Beaumaris Bala Montgomery Prefteign Cardigan Pembroke Caerinarthcn Brecknock CacrdifF It 18 alfo generally believed that Alfred founded the fubdivifions of counties called Hundreds and Tytliings, now^ feldora mentioned except in hgal proceedings and in topographical defcriptions. The Hundred probably contained one hundred farms, while the Tything was reltridcd to ten. In the Norman period of EngliHi liiftory few alteratior.s of confequcnco nppcar in the geography. Cumberland and Weftmorelai.d were wrclted froiT) the Scots, and the provinces nprth of the Humber, which had main- tained a kind of independence after the cxtindion of tlic Dajiifh kiii^r. dom of Northumbria, were completely incorporated v\it}i the monarchy. On the weft Henry I. about the year 1 120 having conquered a part of Wales, invited and eftablirtied a FlcmiHi colony in rv mbrokcfiiire, and one or two others of the moft fouthern counties, whieh afterwards he- came remarkable for induftry. The fubfequent conquell of Wales Ly Edward I. and its gradual affociation with England, are fufficiently keown. Historical kpochs.] Geography has been ftyled one of the eyes of hiftory, a fubfervience to which Itudy is undoubtedly one of its grand ob- jefts ; but it would at the fame time be foreign to its nature to render it a vehicle of iiiltory. The proper and peculiar fubjedts of geographical < fcience are fo ample, and often attended with fuch difficult refearch, tliat it becomes equally rafh and unnecefl'ary to wander out of its appropriated domain. In this work therefore it is only propofed briefly to mention the grand hiftorical epochs of nations, and thofe events which have altered their ^boundaries and geographical relations. , 1. The population of England by the Celts. 2. The Belgic colonies, who introduced agriculture. 3. The Roman conqueft. Britain was little more than feen by JuHiii Cxfar. 'The Roman conqueft began in the reign of Claudius, and ia that of Domitian the Roman Eagle had been difplayed as far as the Grampian mountains. 4. The arrival gf tlic Saxons and Angles in the fifth century. 5. The ENGLAND. equcncc wixlled id n:ain- itiarcby. part of lire, and ards be- ales by iciently L eyes of Irand ob- Indor it a Graphical ■rcb, tbal Toprialed [iition tbe altered jy Juliui ^, and in ir as the :. TUc ^, The Danifli conqiieft, A.D. 1016. The Danifh monarcbs of Eiiffland were Canute, Harold, and Hardicanute; but the fceptre returned to the Saxon line A.D. 1042. 6. The Norman conqueft, A.D. 1066. 7! The great charter granted by John at Runnymede. 8. Not to mention the conqueft of Wales and the temporary fubjuga* tion of Scotland, the civil wars between tlie houfes of York and Lan- taller may be regarded as the next memorable epoch. g. The reformation introduced by Henry VIH. and Elizabeth. 10. The civil wars under Charles I. 11. The Revolution of A.D. 168S. 12. The war with the American colonics forms not only an epoch of fiiirrular novelty, but of the moft important confequences. ANTIQUITIKS.3 Tlie ancient monuments of a country are intimately ■ connected with the chief epochs of its hiftory, and particularly with the revolutions it has undergone by foreign conqueft or new population. Tlie Enfi"h(h antiquities fall into fix diviiions. i. Thofe belonging to the primitive Celtic inhabitants. 2. Thofe of the Belgic colonies. 3. Thofe of the Roman!). 4. Thofe of the Saxons. 5. Rcliques of the Danes. (,, Norman monuments. Few of thofe remains, it muft be confeflcd, throw much light upon liiftory ; but many of tliem being intereftiiig and curious in themfelvcs, they deferve the attention of the traveller and • geographer. Tliole of the firft Celtic inhabitants were probably, as ufual among fav;ige nations, conftruded of wood, and of courfe there can be no re- mains. Some rude barrows and heaps of ftonCs may perhaps belong to the Druidic tribt^s, but Stonchcnge, the large Barrows or tumuli, &c. S:c. more probably l;)i.'K>ng to the Bolgic colonics. Stonehengc is fitu- at.'i near the capital 0*" the aacicut Relgx, and tliere is a fimilar monu- ment, but faid to.be of far greater extent, i^oar Valines, a town on the French coaft which was poifofred by the Bclgx. Similar monuments alfo occur in Denmark aiul Sweden, and in Iceland even the date of eredion is fom'-timm iileertaincd, thefe circles being familiarly known by the name of Domh-r'iiigr, that is literally Doom-ring or Circle of Judg- mont, being tiie foleinn places where courts were held. Yet Stonehenge will he found on infpcction to fall fliort of the ridiculous exaggerations of antiquaries, imprefilng every tr.iveller after tlie perufal of fuch accounts with difappointed ideas of fmallnefs and wa.it of importance. Such idea» are however unjuil, as it i^ a noble and curious monument of early times. Tl'.ere appear to be tiirce princi])al circV's of ftones, the outer connefted together by an uniform pavement as it were at the top, to which the chiefs migfit afcend and fpeak to the furrounding crowd. A fccond circle conlilLi of detached upriglit ftones about five feet in height, while the higheft are eighteen. Within this is a grand oval, originally confift- ing of five trilithons of two huge ftones eroded by another at the top and inclofing fmaller ftones, which feem to have been feats, and a large flat ftone commonly called the altar, ibut which feems to liavc been the throne or feat of judgment. There is bcfides a very high ftone, towards the north-eaft or rifing fun, and near this a large flat ftorre cncompafTed with a mound, which is probably the real altar on which human viAims were fometimes facrificed. There arc alfo two other ftones at a confider- able diftance to the E. and W., and the whole feems to be in the midft of a very extcnfive circle, marked by an earthen embankment almoll effiiced by the lapfe of years, and afibrding fuflicient fpace for all the males of the tribit or pation. The largcil ftones arc of filiclous fand' iloncy I^ ENGLAND. ftonej but the altar, or rather throne, is a calcareous fand-ftone *i The finaller ftones are of grunftein or hornblen J mixed with felfpar. On its flrft ereAion the appearance mull have been flriking, the large ftones be- ing of pure white and the fmaller black. After the eftablilhment of Chrillianity the circles of judgment, which had been polluted with human facrifics and other pagan rites, were aban- doned, and the great courts were held on wliat were called Moot-hills or hills of mcetiv j^, many of which flill exift in the Britifh dominions and in the Netherlanils. The Roin-.m antiquities of England have been repeatedly illuftrated. The greatell number of Roman infcriptions, altars, &c. has been found in the north along the great frontier wall which extended from the weft, em fea to the efhiary of Tyne. The Romnn roads were alfo ftrikiiag monuments of their power. A grand trunk, as it may be called, to an. ticipate the language of our inland navigations, pafied from the fouth to the north, and another to the welt, with branches in almofl every direc- tioN tliat general convenience and expedition could require. What is called the Watling-ftreet led from Richborough in Kent, the ancient Rutupiie, N. W. through London to Cheller. The Ermin-llreet paflccl from London to Lincohi, thence to Carlille and into Scotland, the name being fuppofed to be corrupted from Hcrmariy which means, warrior, as the chief wars lay in the north. The Folic way is fuppofed to have led from Bath and the wcllern regions N. E. till it joined the Ermin-ftrcet. The lail celebrated road was the Ilkenild, or Ikneld, fuppofed to have extended from near Norwich S. W. into Dorfvtfhire f . The Saxon antiquities in England are cliieHy edifices, facred or fecu- lar ; fome churchej remain which were for the moll part conllrudled in the Saxon period, and fome are extant of the tenth or perhaps tin; ninth century. The vaults eredled by Grimbald at Oxford in the reign of Alfred arc jullly elleemed curious relics of Saxon architeAure. Mr. King has ably ilhiilrated the remains of the Saxon caltles. The oldeft feem to coniift of one folitary tower, fquare or hexagonal : one of the rudell fpecimens is Coningfturg Caftle in Yorklhire ; but as that region was fubjeft to the Danes till the middle of the tenth century it is probably Danilh. Among the fmaller remains of Saxon art msty be mentioned tlie Ihrines for preferviug relics, which fome fuppofe to prefent the diminutive rudiments of what is llyled the Gothic architcfture ; and the illuminated manufcripts, which often afford curious memorials of the ftate of manners and knowledge. ' The Danilh power in England, though of confiderable duration in the north, was in the fouth brief and tranlitory. The camps of that nation ivere circular like thofe of the Belga; and Saxons, while thofe of Roman armies are known by the fquare form : and it is believed that the only diilindl relics of the Danes are fome caftles to the north of the Humber and a few ftones with Runic infcriptions. The monuments ftyled Norman, rather to diftinguifh their epochs than irom any information that Norman architedls were employed, are reputed to commence after the conqueft, and to extend to the fourteenth cen. tury } when ^vhat is called the rich Gothic began to appear, which ia the fixteenth century was fupplanted by the mixed ; and this in its turn yielded to the Grecian. In general the Norman ftylc far exceeds the Saxon in the Oze of the edifices and the decoration of the parts. The f hurches become more extenfive and lofty, and though the windows rsr tain t doors mals J ..or to\ courts ditche the cal monun and W( rally fi next it great b ed with into vai note, w College The fp] about t! dimiiuTli * T»\vnfon'$ Tiafts, aa8. f Cough's firit. Topog. i, lo. taia Religion.- and Rt Rkligioj A STIC iftic of a 1 tremes, tl and defpoi people, pr while the other extr the only i its ancient ;inark, Swe of the clei with irenat( bifliops are bUitv. Ye Lutheran. explained ii will be moi Upon hi! Henry VI Next in dig the firft beii England. royal family province, ar Oas^Ifofou^ ENGLAND. 17 tain the circular arch they are larger and more diverfified j the circular doors are feilooned with more freedom and elegance, and uncouth ani- mals begin to yield to wreaths of leaves and flowers. The folitary keep ^or tower of the Saxon caftle is furrounded with a double wall, indofing courts or dwellings of large extent, defended by turrets and double ditches, with a feparate watch-tower called the Barbican. Among others the cathedrals of Durliam and Winchcller may be mentioned as venerable monuments of Anglo-Norman architedture, and the caftles are numerous and well known. What is called the Gothic or pointed arch is gene- rally fuppofed to have firft appeai'ed in the thirteenth century, and in the next it became univerfal in religious edifices. The windows diffufed to great breadth and loftinefs and divided into branching interftices, en;-ich- ed with painted glafs, the cluftering pillars of exceflive height fpreading into various fret-work on the roof, conftitute, with decorations of fmaller note, what is called the rich Gothic ftyle, vifible in the Chapel of King's College, Cambridge, and many other grand fpecimens in this kingdom.. The fpire of thole edifices correfponds with the reft, and begins about the thirteenth century to rife boldly from the antient tower and diminiili from the fi^ht in a gradation of pinnacles and ornaments. CHAPTER II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. HO. Religion. — Eccleftajl'ic Geography. — Government.'-— Judicature an J La^- SO England. 5- 6. 7- 8. 9- 10. II. The next court is that of preroffative, which jad^s of eftates fallen by will, or inteftate ; the prerogative office is likewife in Doftors Com^ mens. The court of peculiars refers to feveral peculiar parifhes exempt from the jurifdiAion of the bifliops, but here amenable : the judges are fole and without jury. The ecclefiaftical geography of England may be fetn in the following fable : Province of Canferbvry. The Archbiftiop, Canterbury and part of Kent. 1. Bifhoprick of London, containing Effex, Middlcfcx, and part of Hertford. 2. Winchefter.— Surry, Hampftiire, Iffes of Wight, Jerfey, Guernfcy, and Aldcrncy. 3. Litchfield and Coventry. — Stafford, Derby, and part of Warwick and Shropfhire. 4. Lincoln. — Lincoln, Leiceller, Huntingdon, Bedford, Bucking, ham, and part of Hertford. Ely. — Cajpbridgefhirc. Salin>ury. — Wilts and Berkfliire. Exeter.— Cornwall and Devon. Bath and Wells. — Somerfetihire. Chichefter. — Suflex. Norwich.— Norfolk, Suffolk, and a fmall part of Cambridge. Worcefler — Worcefter, and part of Warwick. 12. Hereford.— Hereford and part of ShropfKire. 13. Rochefter. — Part of Kent. 14. Oxford. — Oxfordfhire. 15. Peterborough.— Northampton and Rutland. 16. Glouccflcr.- Glouccftcrfliirc. 1 7. Briftol. — The city of Brillol, part of Gloucefterfiiirc, aiid count jf of Dorfet. 18. Llandaif.-'OIamorgan, Moiunouth, BrecknoQk, and Radnor. 19. St. David's.— Pembroke, Cardigan, and Caermarthen. 20. St. Afaph. — The greatell part of Flint, Denbigh, and Mont. ^omcry, and fomc part of Shropfhire. 2 1 . Banggr.— The counties of Anglefcyj Caernarvon, Merioneth^ and part of Denbigh and Montgomery. Province of Tort* The Archbilhop, the Counties of York and Nottingham. 22. Durham.— Durham and Northumberland. 23. Carlille. — Great part of Cumberland and Weftmorcland. 2I. Cheller. — Chefhire, Lancaihire, Richmundfhire (wliidi iipartoC York ) ; with part of Cumberland and Weftmoreland. 2C. Iflr of Man. 1 ne valuations in the king'* books are omitted, becaufc even the com- parative valuation would lead to ideas whollv erroneous. Several change* nave taken place in the number and fituations of the bifhopricks fnicc Chriftianity was firfl eftablifhcd in this country, but thcfe rather belong to the province of the antiquary. Thofe who differ in tenets or forms from the eftablifhod church m«)', in general, be flyled Diffenters, though the term be more ftri6Uy apphed to the Prefbytcrians and dependents. The otlier principal claMcs of the diifidents are the Pauw^s, Methodifts, Quakers the fiaptifts, tlio JBwcdenborgianS) and the Unitarians \ tlie kft cla£i dciiyinj^ the Trinity, uiii) ENGLAND. St and believing only in one God, is now intermingled with the two firft, who have confiderably relaxed the llridlnefs of their diicipline. The Independents affert, that each congregation has a right to regulate itfelf, while the Pren}yteriaiis unite churches under various divilions, provincial and national. The clerical arittocracy of the Prefbyterians was obtruded with great haughtinefs upon the Engliih nation during the civil war in the laS century, and was rendered the more odious, becaufe it admitted no toleration : hence the EngHHi found that they had only exchanged one yoke for another, or rather for flavery, as ten prefbyters amounted to one bifhop, and fuperadded the petulence and mArofencfs of individual inquifitors. Milton and other friends of freedom foon began to fatirize the whole fe£l, and to fly for refuge to the independents, whofe bene- volence or addrefs granted univerfal toleration. To this body Cromwell lent an iron hand ; and after annihilating the Prefbyterian power in Eng- land, in a great meafure fubverted that of Scotland. The intolerant fpirit of the Prefbyterians originated with their apoille Calvin, whofe cruelty to Servetus was balanced by furprifing talents in clerical po- lity : It rendered their power Hngularly adverfe to letters and tafte | and no man of fciencc who had Itudied the literary hiftory of this coun- try would wifli for the revived of fuch domination. But at prefent Calvin would not rccognife his difciples, as they have abandoned their polemical thilUes, and cultivate the molt elegant productions of the li- terary Beld. The papills ufed chiefly to abound in Lancafhire, Stafford* (hire, and Suflfex ; they had potent chiefs, and were a formidable body ; but the paflage from fuperllition to contempt is fo natural, that many have flei to the oppofite extreme. Thofe who retain their faith gene- rally difplay moderation, which has been naturally increafed by the late privileges extended to them. The methodiils are extremely numerous and refpcftable. They feem to allow the propriety of the creed and government of the church of England ; but they require a more ftri£t lite, more fervent devotion, and more frequent and ferious attendance upon divine worlhip than is en- fi)rced by the eRablifhment. A philofophcr may well envy the mild creed and univerfal charity, or fraternal love of the quakers ; while we mud allow with a figh that a nation of quakers could not exill, except all nations were of the fame perfuafion. The Baptifts difovvn infant bap- tifm, and bathe the adult difciple. The learned Whi (Ion admired their tenets and their prai^icc of anointing the Tick with oil, which,' as he be- lieved, operated with miraculous power. The Swcdenborgians derive their name from the Baron Swedenborg, a nobleman who exchanged his native country of Sweden for a rclidence in England. After liav- iiig publifhed two folio volumes in the Latin language upon the art of exploring mines, he was fcized with a violent fever, and with great dif- ficulty recovered. In his difordered imagination he fcemcd to maintain a frequent intercourfe with the fpiritual world ; and he has publifhed twenty or more vaft volumes in quarto, alfo in the Latin tongue, replete with curious metaphylicul ratiocuiation, interfperfod with vilions, which are fometimes narrated with higii poetical fpirit and elegance. His fyilem is fo much adapted to the (Irongeil propendties of human nature, that his difciples encrepfed with great rapidity. His chief tenets are, that there is but one perfon of the Deity, namely, the Lord Jefus Chrilt | that the day of judgnu-nt is already paffed, &c. &c. | but his moll allu- ring tenets partake of Muhometanifm, in reprcfcnting the connubial plea^ tares and the other enjoyments of a futua* worldj wluwh he paints at C 3 finuUr ^^|i: -jTlt'itfiiiMilifci *a ENGLAND, fimilar to this ftate of exiftence, but far exceeding it in the gratifications of every fenfe whether mental or corporal. For the following obfervations on this important fubjedl the author is indebted to a well-informed friend. ** Although the denominations Prejbyter'tan and Independent are ftill *' applied to two large bodies of diffenters, yet it may be queilioned *' whether either of thefe parties coincides exactly in principles and dif- ** cipline with its predeceffors. With regard to the tiril, it is certain ** that in both refpeAs they have deviated widely from their ancettors. *' With the exception of one only in the moft northern part of Eng- ** land, there is at this time no Englijh Prejhytery ; the Englifti Diflent- •• ers, who ftill go by the name of Prefbyterians, have aflumed the con- ** gregational independuMice of the other ftdt, and each fociety is now *• governed, by different methods indeed, by its own members exclufive- •' ly, without being in the leaft fubjedted to the domination or interfer- ** ence of any other, or of any fynod of miniilers. The congregations ** ftill denomniated I^reft)yterian, have alfo changed their rehgious creed. ♦* None of them nov^ are Calviniftic, and they differ widely from each ** other ; fome being Amiinian, others Avian, others Unitarian, but moft ** of them compofed of a mixture of thefe ; ftritl uniformity of opinion *• being feldom found' in large focieties. *♦ The Independents have adhered more clofely to the difcipline of <♦ their anceftors, though among them ihades of difference appear in ** their internal management. They are now univerfally Calviniils, *• though fome hold the dodriiies of the reformer lefs ftridtly than *♦ others. <♦ The Baptifts, who form the next great clafs of Englilh diffenters, ** are divided into two bodies, which are denominated Particular and <* General Baptifts. The former are Calvinifts, and differ from tlie In- " dependents only on the fubjcft of baptifm. The Gnft'ral Baptiftn ** derive their name from being advocates of general redemption— that <* is, being Arminians. Many of them are now SabeUiaiis, Arians, and ** Unitarians ; but ftill all of tliem oppofe tlie baptifm of infants. *• The appellation //n^-baptift is not admitted by this refpedible body ♦• asjuft or appropriate. It was originally applied to tluni by way of ** reproach as iv-baptifers of thofe wi;om they received into their com. *• munion by immerfion. As however they did not confider infant .** fprinkling to be a Chriftian ordinance, or the baptifm which Chrillianity •* required, they regarded their own baptifm as the only one which the ♦* party had really received. In their opinion, therefore, lie was not ** ana-baptifed. The term Anabaptift, as it ought, is now difcarded, ♦• and that of Baptift properly fnbftituted in its Head. * " It is to be obfervcd, that what is called the • General body of Dif- •♦ fenters in London' confift^ of thefe ihrce claffcs only : that is, the •* Preft)yterian8, Independeiii ,, and Bantiils, including the General and *• Particular Baptifts. They hold a friendly conference once a year al «• the great room in Dr. Williams's library. Red-Crofs-ftreet, which is »♦ lent to them for the purpofe by the trullees. It is at thefe annual *• conferences, or at fpvcial meetings of the fame denominations convened " for the purpofe, that all public incafnres relating to tlie diffentersj ^* fuch as addreffes to the throne, &c. ori^;inate, or are carried on. Upon ♦♦ occafions of importance, however, they advife with their brethren in ♦• other parts. The congregations of thefe denominations have befides ** a body of deputies, two from each, who arc deputed as a ftanding • ^ " committee ENGLAND. 23 and ul h is ual ncd ITS, poll I ill ides liiiK ttto u ({ « committee to watch over their civil rights, with power to refort to u legal profecutions in defence of any privilege which may be encroached " upon by ignorant or bigoted perfons. « The Metbodt/is are divided into two claffes, the followers of Whit- « field, who are Calvinifts of the llridleft kind, and of Wefley, wIk) are «« Arminians. Both claffes, altb lugh they had feparate chapels for wor- « (hip, which they conduced ">i\ lI"; plan of the generality of diffenters, « without a fet form or liturgy, .-etained their allegiance to the Church «• of England, by remaining in communion with it, and refraining from «' adminiftering the Lord's fupper in their chapels. I believe the Whit- «* fieldian Methodifts ftill preferve this rule. A fliort time fince a grand *« fchifin took place among the Wefleyans on the fubjeft. The leced- «* ing party, confiding of about one half, more or lefs, of the body, " feparated on the ground of a total nonconformity with the eftablifiied " church, and have introduced the praftice of adminiftering the ordi- «* nance of the Lord's Supper in their own places of worihip, as done '< by the other diffenters. They ftill retain generally, however, the difciphne of Wefley in their internal government, *« The Unitarians until lately were only found fcattered as individuals in other congregations. Of late, however, their number has confi- « derably increafed, and there are, at this time a confiderable number of " congregations avowedly Unitarian in different parts of the country, " and feveral in the metropolis and its neighbourhood." Government.] It is difficult to give a brief idea of the Enghfli con- ftitution, which prefents an infinite number of pradlical ramifications, and is intimately connefted with the fpirit and martners of the people. A mere outline muft here fuffice. It is a limited monarchy, counterpoifed by two feiiates, one of hereditary peers, the other of reprefentatives, who are or ought to be chofeii by tlie people. The liability and real power of thefe fciiates depend on a general coiicurrencc with the popular voice, arifing partly from the mode of elcdioii, and partly from the fympathetic grar dation of ranks. Our lawyers pronounce that the king of England unites in his perfon the dignity of chief magiftrate with the fandlity of a prieft ; and the title of Sacred Majefty appears to have commenced when he affumed the fanftion of Head of the Church. So auguft is his perfon that even to imagine or intend his death is a capital offence, when in all other cafet the deed alone is punifhable. Fortefcue in his old emphatic language has defcribed the office of tlie king of England to be ** to fight the battles of his people, aiul to judge them with moft righteous judgment,'* At his coronation he foloniiily Iwcars to govern his people according to parliumeutary ftatutes, and the law of the country \ to maintain the Proteftant religion ; and to preferve the legal rights ajid privileges of the hilhops, clergy, and rhurch. The ackiiowledijed prerogatives of the monarch arc chiefly to declare war and to make peace, a power udoh which the whole of public pro. fpority may be faid to depend ; to form alliances and treaties ; to grant toniniiffion for levying men and arms, and even for prefiing mariners. To the king ulfo bektiig all magazines, ammunition, caftles, iorts, ports, huvens, and iliips uf war ; he lias alfo the fpecial management of the coinage, and determines il)c alloy, weight, and value. The prcrogative likewife extends to the affembling, adjournmcut, prorogation, and difp Solution of parliament, and to its removal t«) any place. The royal »ffent is neceffary to give validity to an aft of parliament. The fovoreign alfu viijoyi the iiuminatiun uf all officcr.H on fca or land i of all ma> C 4 giilrates, wnmsmimim^- H ENGLAND. giftrates, counfellars, and officers of ftate ; of all blfliops and other great ecclefiaflical dignitaries ; and is not only the fountain of honour but of juftice, as he may pardon any offence, or mitigate the penalty. As head of the church he may call a national or provmcial fynod, and with its confent enaft canons either relating to faith or pra£^ice. The other prerogatives are more minute and more adapted to jurifprudential enumeration. The more important exceptions are, that he cannot enadt new laws or impofe new taxes without the confent of both houfes of parliament. This grand national council claims the next confideration. Origi- nally both the nobles and the commons met in one houfe, and it is not impodible that the mere inconvenience of not finding halls large enough for our then ambulatory parliaments might have occafioned the divifion into two houfes, unknown in any other country, and which in fatt may be regarded as the fole foundation of Englifh liberty. The houfe of peers may be faid to have exifted from the earlieft period of our hiftory, but concerning the origin of the commons there is a difpute between the Tory and the Whig writers. The prcfent conftitution of the parhamcnt of England may however be traced with certainty to near the middle of the tliirteenth century ; but it remains unknown at what precifc time happened the important feparation of the commons from the peers. The peers are hereditary fenators in their fevrral degrees of duke, mar- quis, earl, vifcoimt, and baron. The duke ife fo ftylcd from the Latin f BiiiMr'y«-- ■ 96 ENGLAND. Kent. In no country arc wills fo much venerated by law ; that of Mr. Thelluflbii furnifhes a recent exaniple. The foreft laws relate chiefly to offences committed in or near the pre- cis fts of the royal forcila, and were formerly regarded as a confiderable portion of the national code. But a more vigorous branch of EngliOiju- dicaturc muft not be forgotten ; martial law, or the Lex Cqflrenfis Anglic cana-, may be clearly traced to the reign of Henry V. who iflued a code of military ftatutes publiflied by Upton and Grofe. The ftatutes chiefly relate to facrilege, prifoners, robbery of merchants, &c. &c. and refer folely to the a6iual exercife of war ; thi* pain of death rardy occurs ex- cept in the cafe of any perfon who cries havoc^ an exprefllon feemingly equivalent to " no quarter," Martial law may be proelainned by the king, regent, or lieutenant-general of tlie kingdom ; and even in time of peace, though the prerogative be rarely employed except during war. It is in faft a diftatorial power never exerted except on great emergencies. The trials are fummary and fevere as the neceflity of the cafe authorifes. Among the courts of law the next in dignity to the Houfe of Lords i:. the Court of Iving's Bench, fo called becaufe the fovereign was un- derltood to judge in perfon ; and its jurifdittion of courfe extends to the whole kingdom, the preliding judge being denominated Lord Chief Juihce of England. The Court of Chancery judges caufes in equity to moderate the rigour of the law, and defend the helplefs from oppremon, and efpccially to extend relief in three cafes, accident, fraud, and breach of trult. The Court of Common Pleas determines, as the name imports, the common fuits between fubjeA and fubjeit, and tries all civil caufes, real, perfpnal, or mingled, according to the precife precepts of the law. The Court of Exchequer, fo termed from the ancient mode of account- ing upon a chequered board, decides all caufes relating to the royal trea- fury or r^y.-nue. There is alfo a court for the duchy of Lancaiier, having cogni/ar.ce of the revenues of that duchy aimexed to the crown by Henry IV. The judi^es pcrfoi'm their circuits in the fpring and autumn, and in tlte mean while more n-'nute cafos are determined by the juilices of the peace, who may be traced to the fourth year of Edward HL Every three montlis the juftices of the county meet at what is called the quarter feffions, and the grand inqueft or jury of the county is here fummoned, which inquire^ concerning crimes, and orders the guilty to jail till the next circuit or aflizcs. The ofiice of the (heriff is to execute the royal mandates, to impannel juries, to bring perfons for trial, and to fee tho fentcncc's executed ; to coUeft fines and remit them to tlie tixchequcr, and to preferve the tranquillity of the fliire. I'here was formerly a bailif. in every hundred, but the office is now rarr. Thj conftables perfonally aflilt in the prefervation of the peace, and cxcv ute the warrants of the juilices. The coroner inquires by a jury of neighbours into cafes of violent death. The clerk of the market fuperintends the weights and meafiires { and it were to be wiflied for tlie benefit of the poor that the office were multiplied and ItriAly en- forced. Such are the chief magiflrates and ofHues in the country. Cities and towns are generally ruled by a mayor and aldermen, or by fimilar magi- Ifrales under different appellations* wiiofe juridical power little exceeds that of juilices of the peace. To enumerate the various punifliments inflifted by the laws of Eng- land would be an unneceffary talk. It has been julUy obferved that they are too fanguinary, ar tn 1 . — — — . 4 (/I j; '. _ 1 tn > •^ . Stations. C ^ 1 .tJ) n 2 1 U *-< * c II c I-; ^ Downs - . - 17 4 4 .^■^ North Sea and Baltic 10 I ( 11 c 2' 5 <> 6z Englilh Channel und Coaft of Fruicc V 2 II V c 16 1 i 64 Irilh Station - - - 9 6 c > 1 1 < 28 Jerley, Guernfey, &c. 3 1 c * / 2 (4 .1 16 Spain, Portugal, and Gibialtar 19 3 1; / 3 9 1 2 ,5« Mediterranean, and on Pafliige - 12 2,7 14 3 16 c 2 79 Coart of Africa I I c 1 c 3 Halifax, Newfoundland, &c. I I 9 9 I 6 c 1 1 3« \\r at J . S l-eeward lilands ^•^^'"''"^'^amaica.anaonPafrage 3 3 I 11 V 14 14 c c 22 3 »3 .5 67 46 South America I X 1 2 c 6 1 IS Cape of Good Hope, and Southward 2 3 4 5 c c c 1 15 Enit Indies, and on Palfage Total at Sea 4 91 2 14 2C 124 5 1-9 6 6 1 3» »3V 24 70 s;6 In Poit and (iiting 13 4 3« 3? \ .S6 7 25 '93 Guard Ships - . . 4 2 4 ."i I 1 I 18 Hofptal Ships, Prifou Ships, &c. Total ill Commitnon 33 5 5 i6v 2 151 c c r 46 ' 12 '9A 3» . 97 «33 Ordinary and lepaiiini; fur Service 63 14 7c 34 4 24 1 6 >i6 Uuildini; • . . Total - 1 • P II 41 156 c _ 39 4 189 - ■' -■; 16 c ' 64 219 33 »«3 lit '3 For ■^ 28 ENGLAND. For this immenfe fleet the number of feamen amounts from one hun- dred to one hundred and twenty thoufand, a number which no other country ancient or modern could have fupplied. The naval power of Great Britain conflitutes fo ftrikin? and im- portant a feature in the national portrait, that it merits particukr illuftra- tion. Even in the Saxon times we find confiderable fleets mentioned of the fmall vefiels then in ufe. One of the Northumbrian monarchy afTemblod a numerous fleet near Jarro, the monaftery of Beda, in an exten- five haven of the time, now become a fait marfh. About the year 882 wc Hnd that Alfred directed a powerful fleet againft the Danifli in- vadcTS. The fleet of Edgar is alfo celebrated, but the armament of Ethelrcd tJic fecoiid in the year 1009 exceeded any which England ever before had beheld, probably amounting to five hundred of the fmall (hips then known. But the devaftations of the Danes and Normans Oixafionod fuch a decline in the naval power of England, that Richard I. was obliged to have recourfe to foreign veflels for nis crufade. In the reign or John we, for the firft time, find commemorated a fig^al victory of the Engliili and Flemings over the French fleet of Philip Augiilhis, which was computed at 1700 fliips, or rather boats. The Englifli monarch in the pride of his triumph was the firil who ordered the sAhUTii to bi.' paid. by foreign veflels to the national flag. The fleet of England thenceforth continued to be always refpeftable, and gene- nilly vicloi-ious ; but the preponderance of the Engliflt armaments over tlioie of France only became pennanent and decifive a little more than a rentury ago, after the battle of La Hogue. Spain had yielded the con- teft fiiice tha deftruftion of her great Armada, and Holland had been greatly reduced in her naval conflicts under Charles the Second ; fo that no other rival remained, and Great Britain maintains a fixed fuperiority over the ocean. The fpfcial fuperintendance of the navy is committed to the Board of Admiralty, compofed of admirals of known flcill, and of peers whofe im- partiality gcniTuily regards jnerit alone in tliis important fervice. Tlje n'cent condiift of maritime war has been crowned with dillinguiflied fiicoefs ; ancj wiiiHl the admirals mull be allowed to rival any names in naval liiftory ancient or modern, the fame of Nelfon has been confecrated by his glorious death. Rf:vi'A'UK.3 111 ancient times the royal revenue chiefly arofe from the domains, or l.mds appropt-iated to the crown, from amerciaments civil and criminal which paifcd lo tlie fife or treafury, and from cuftoms on goods imported and exported. As in war each foldier was obliged to mamtain himfelf for a certain time, tl>e expenditure was not much increafcd, Ifpcm extraordparv emergencies, it appears that a contribution was raifed by the confent of the national council. In later periods fubfidiei were granted to the amount of a fifteenth or a tenth of landed income, und a proportionable rate on moveable goods. As fociety advanced, taxes began to be impofed on the materials tnemfelves ; and from a fmall plant an enormous tree lias rifen, with a labyrinth of roots, which in the opmion of fome politicians undermine the ifland, while others believe that they only produce a more lirm confolidation, 'Pije exciie forms one of the moft productive branches of the revenue, amoui.tiii'T to between feven and eight millions. Next ftand the cuftoms, vvliich proiiuce about half that fum. The ttamps and incidental taxes, as they art' temu-d, arife to near three millions. The land-tax has re- ctiitly bicn reiidircd perpetual, and fold to proprietors of eftates and other individuals. But JnlUad of tlie land>tax, now appear thofe on ENGLAND. 29 fuffar, tobacco, and malt, amounting to two millions feven hundred and fifty thoufand pounds ; the other fupplies arife from the Eall India Com- pany, lotteries, &c. In addition to thefe the income-tax is fuppofed to yigld'y,joo,oool. In the year 1799 it was fuppofed that the additional fums raifed by loans, and other methods, fwelled the national expendi" ture to near fixty millions fterling. Of the permanent taxes the greater part is employed in difcharging the intereft of the national debt, which after the American war amounted to more than 239 millions, while the intereft exceeded 9,000,000. At prefent the national debt is about 480,000,000) and the intereft about 19,000,000. To alleviate this growing burthen, a fmking fund was inftituted in 1786, by which between 20 and 30 millions may be confidered as already redeemed. The national debt began in the reign of William, and grew into what are called the funds or ftocks, only fynonymous terms for the public debt. The civil lift," from which are defrayed the falaries of officers of ftate. Judges, ambafladors, &c. together with the expences of the royal family, amounts to i ,000,000 annually. Political importance and relations.] With fuch a prodigious command of national treafure, the political importance and relations of Great Britain may be faid to be diffufed over the world ; for wherever monny influences man, there may her power be perceived. The union of Scotland with England delivered the latter country from the perpetual check, exercifed by politicians ancient and modern, of exciting an enemy from behind, and thereby dividing the power of an antagonift. That with Ireland, if preferved by wife and lenient meafurea* muft alfo impart additional energy. The moft important political confiderations are thofe between Great Britain and France. If this countr)' muft not be ftyled the natural enemy of Great Britain, flie has yet for many centuries been a conftant and jealous rival, eagerly embracing every opportunity to leflen Britifti profperity and power. Such being the cafe, it has been regarded as the politicsu intereft of England to balance and divide the «nmity of France by a ftrift alliance with fome limitaneoi?3 ftate. None of the German ftates bordering on France, nor even Switzerland itfelf, are capable of much exertion. Hence it might feem that found policy would didate as complete a confolidation of German power as could be effeAed, in order to give a decided and vigorous check to that of France from behind. Holland prefents a connection of fuperlative importance to England, being her grand mart of trade from the continent. The amity of Ruflia is valuable in a commercial view, as ftie might by no great ftretch of oriental power detach an army into Hindoftan, and over- turn our opulent pofTelfions. The connexion of Portugal has been enforced by mutual advantagr^g of commercial intercourfe, and by the family compa£l between France and Spain. The friendfhip or enmity of Denmark^ and Sweden is little momentous ; but as this latter country has long maintained a ftri6( con- nection with France, it is moft natural that Britain ihould balance It by qiltivating that of Denmark. CliAP. 30 ENGLAND. CHAPTER III. Civil Geography. Manners and Cujloms — Language — Ltteratttre — the Aris-^Editcai'tnri'-^ Unlverfith's — Cities attd Towns — EJifces— -Roads — Inland NavlgU' tlon — MaiiufaSures and Commerce. M wvFR • AKT1 • \ 1 Tpi^E fingularity of manners in England ' *-' X has often excited the furprife of fo- feigners, and the jlttention of Our own ethic writers, whb have attempted to deduce the fources from moral and phyfical caufes : ellimating as the firll, the freedom diffiifed over the country, which permits the indulgence of individual inclinations i asd recurring for the latter, to the perpetual variations of the climate. The conlideration of nationcil manners may be conveniently referred to three divilions ; firft, diet ; fecondly, houfes and drefs j thirdly, amufem- The fimplicity t)f tlie Englifli cookery ftrikes foreigners as much as that of the dri.'i's, which even among the gi-eat is very plain, except on the days of court gala. The houfes in England are peculiarly commodious, neat, and cleanly ; and domeftic arcliit^'dnre feems here arrivetl at its greatell perfeftion. The amufements of the theatre and of the iield, and various games of fkill or chance, are common to moll nations. The baiting of bulls and bears is, it is believed, nearly difeontinued : cue of the moft peculiar amufements of the common people is the ringi.ig of long peals, with many changes, whicli deafen thofe who arc fo unliappy as to live in the neighbourhood of the church. • Prior to the middle of tlie pAteenth century, the Englifli and Frencli were regarded as barbarous nations by the more poliflicu Italians. The reign and female blandilhments of the court of Elizabeth feem to have had a wonderful c(L£t in civilizing the manners. The iraulition has b^i-n well pourtrayed by an ancient writer, whofe liinple language, given in modera orthography, may perhaps aniufe the reader. " There I ENGLAND. J« « Thei'e are old men yet dwelling in the village where I remain, who " have noted three things that are marvelloufly altered in England within *< their found remembrance. One .is the multitude of ohimnies lately ♦« erefted : whereas in their young days there were not above two or « three, if fo many, in many uplandiOi towns of the realm (the religious «« houfes, and manor places of their lords, always excepted, and perad- ♦« venture fome great perfonages), but each one made his fire againft a « rere dojfe in the hall, where he dijied and dreffed his meat. The fe- « cond 18 the great amendment of lodging ; for, faid they, our fathers, « and we ourlelves, have laid full oft upon ftraw pallets, covered only " with a (heet, under coverlets made of dagfiuain or hopharlots ( I ufe *« their own terms) and a good round log under their heads inilead of a *« bolfter. If it were fo that our fathers, or the good man of the houfe, " had a mattrefs or flock bed, and thereto a fack of chaff to rell his " h'.ad upon, he thought himfelf to be as well lodged as the lord of the «♦ town, fo well were they contented. Pillows, faid they, were thought *' meet only for women in childbed. As for fevvants, if they had any " flieet above them, it was well, for felejom had they any under their «♦ bodies, to keep them from the pricking llraws that ran through the " canvas, and razed their hardened hides. " The third thing they tell us of, is the exchange of woqden platterS «* into pewter, and wooden fpoons into filver or tin. For fo common " were all forts of wooden velfels, in old time, that a man fliould hardly " find four pieces of pewter (of which one was peradventure a falt-feller) " in a good farmer's houfe ; and yet, for all this frugality, if it may be ** fo juilly called, they were fcarce able to live and pay their rents at *« their days, without felling of a cow, or a liorfe, or a mare, although " they paid but four pounds at the uttermoft by the year. Such was " alfo their poverty, that if a farmer, or huibandman, had been at the " alehoufe, a thing greatly ufed in thofe days, amongft fix or feven of " his neighbours, and there, in a bravery, to fliew what (lore he had, " did call dq^n his purfe, and therein a noble, or fix fliillings in filver, " unto them, it is very likely that all the reft would not lay down fu " much againll it ; \. hereas, in my time, although peradventure four " pounds of old rent be improved to forty or fifty povmds, yet will the " farmer think his gains very fmall, towards the midil of his term, if he " have not fix or feven years rent lying by him, therewith to purchafe a " new leafe ; befides a fair garnifti of pewter on his cupboard, three or *• four feather beds, as many coverlids, and carpets of tapeftry, a filver ♦' falt-feller, a bowl for wine, if not a whole neil, and a dozen of fpoons *' to furiiilh up the fuit. This alfo he taketh to be his own clear ; for " what llock of money foever he gathereth in all his years, it is often " feen that the huidlord will take fuch order with him for the fame, when •♦ he reneweth the leafe ( which is commonly eight or ten years before it •* be expired, fince it is now grown almoit a cullom, that if he come not " to his lord fo long before, another fiiall ftep in for a revcrfion, and fo "defeat liim outright), that it Ihall never trouble him more than the •♦ hair of his beard, when the barber hath waflied and Ihaven it from his «Vchin*." , ■. :, , > . Under this divifion of geography have been generally arranged what are called national charadcrs, but which, in fad, are commonly monu- ments of prejudice and injuftice, and particularly noxious to the minds of youth. It thall therefore only be remarked, that the cold rellraint which • Defcription of Britain, in Holinflitd's Chronicle, vol. i. W. 8;. 3* ENGLAND. fome foreigners have afcribed to the £iig1t(h« has been candidly judged, by a recent traveller, to exill only in appearance. A more genuine at- tribute of the Englifli is integrityj wnich has carried their credit and commerce to an extent before unknown in the liHtory of nations* Language.] Moll European languages are derived fromthe Goiir' or the Latin. To the Latin origin belong Italian, French, and Spanii: to the Gothic, the German, Dutch, Flemifli, Danifh, Swedifli,and Nci wegian. From the fituation of the country, and other caufes, the Enghfh participates of both thofe grand fources ; and unites, in fome degree, the force of the Gothic with the melody of the Latin dialers. The ancient ground, and native exprellion, originate from the Gothic divifions of the Belgic, Saxon, and Danifli ; but particularly from "the Belgic, as will appear from comparifon with the Dutch and Frific. The languages of Latin origin have, however, fupplied a vaft wealth of words, Ibmetimes neceflary, fometimes only adopted becaufe they are more fonorous, though not fo emphatic as the original Gothic. There is no evidence of the exiftcncc of Celtic words in our language, whatever fome antiquaries have imagined, for the words they indicate may alfo be found in Iceland, a country never peopled by the Celts. Numerous manufcripts cxift, written in the Anglo-Saxon or old EngliHi language, and one of its molt claflic authors is the great Alfred himfelf. It appears from many works, written long after the Conquelt, that the Frencli language, though colloquial among the great, fcarcely imparted any tinge to the national tongue. The conqueils of Edward III. in France, and other circumftances, effefted, in the fourteenth cen- tury, a change in vain attempted by the Norman conqueror. Chaucer, who wrote at that period, prefents almoll the firft rude dawn . of what may be termed the Englifli language In the fame century, that fabu- lous traveller Sir John Manderville fupplies one of the bell fpecimens of Englifh profe. In the fucceeding century, the fpeech had made fuch rapid advances, that even as early as the reign of Edward the Fourth, we find it vary very little from that of the reign of Henry the Eighth. The works of Fortefcue, in the reign of Edward the Fourth, fctting afide the ortho- graphy, might even be perufed by the common reader. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, a century after, the Engllfh language liad acquired fuch copioufnefs, dignity, force, and melody, that perhaps in the eye of very diftant pofterity, moderns may be fuppofcd never to liave exceeded, what is gained in elegance being generally loft in power. Sydney's defence of poefy may be regarded as a good fpecimen of Engliui profe, not to mention Hooker's ecclefiallical polity, and other large works of that period, which continue to be read and admired. The common trandation of the bible is a noble fpecimen of the dig- nified profe of the following reign, beyond which it is unneceffary to condudl this fketch, as our ubraries abound with the fucceeding publi- cations. The conftruftion of the Englifh language is peculiar, and renders the ftudy of it very difficult to foreigners. Tne German and other Gothic dialc<^3 prefent declenfions of nouns, and other correfpondencies with the Latin, while in the Englifh all fuch objedls are accomplifhed by pre- fixes. Anomalies alfo abound, and are too deeply rooted, ever to be eradicated by ^mmatical rules. Farther remarks would be foreign to the plan of this work, which however requires, occafionally, ftiort fpe- cimens of the various languages of the globe, to enable the reader to judge •4$bc relative origins ofnaUons : for Uus ptirpofc the Lord's prayer is 14 ' generally ENGLAND. 35 fenerally chofen, which (hall be here given in Anglo-Saxon and modern ingliHi. uren fader ihlc arth In htofnds, Ste gehalgud thin noma* To cy- meth thin rye. Ste thin willay fue is itt heofnas and iff eottho. Uren hlaf oferwijllit fel us to daeg. And forgeve us fcylda urna fue we forgefan fcytdgum urum. jind no inlead ufig in cuftnutig. Ah gefrig tjich frim tflt. Amen. Our father^ which art in heaven, hallowed be thy naftte ; thy king- dom come, thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven ; give us this day our daily bread, and forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors ; and leiid us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. Amen. LiTKRATURE.] Englifh literature is a valt and inviting field ;'but a few fugitive remarks muft here fuffice. Of the traditionary terfes of thtf Druids, no rclie probably exifts ; and the Roman conquefl; does not ap> pear to have inculcated letters with much diffufion, for no author of thofe periods claims a. Britiih origin. The country was feized by the Saxons^ before Brithh Hteraturc faintly dawned in Qddas, A. D. 560. Irifti li- terature commenced about the fame period, and continued for fome cen- turies to fupply numerous writers in the Latin language, while England remained almoft dellitutc. But Bcda in the eighth century redeemed this defect, in himfelf a hoft, aiid, like Chaucer, the wonder of his time- The Danifh invafions were ruinous to literature, both in Great Britain and Ireland, and the great Alfred was obliged to exert his utmoft en- deavours in order to reftore fome degree of learning even among the clergy. That admirable prince himfelf tranflated fome works of merit and utility, as the hiRorics of Orofius and Beda into the Anglo-Saxon^ Of the interval between tlie age of Bcda and the year 1100, the Saxon fhronicle is a noble but negle<^ted monunicnt, being the only civil hiftory of England, for a fpacc of 400 years. About the year iloo, Enghfti Jiterature commenced a firm and Heady pace ; a numerous train of hifto- rians, poets, and other writers, fills the pages of biography. In the four- teenth century, Roger Bacon afpires even to the praife of eminent ge- nius. In the foUowmg century, the civil wars between the houfes of York and Lancalter were doftruAive of literature and the afts ; nor will it be eafy to name an illuftrious avithor of that period, though the intro- du^ion of printing in the reign of Edward the Fourth forms a memo- rable epoch. The writers of the fixtecnth and following centuries are numerous and well known. The grand feature of EhgliHi literature is original genius, tranf- mitted even from Roger Bacon to our Shakefpeares, Miltons, Newtons, and Lockes, not to dwell here on claims more minute, but equally firm. In fcientific departments, England mull yield to France, except in the various branches of mathematical knowledge ; the inll'.ution of the royal fuciety, and the genius of Newton, having attracted the greateft talents within their fphere, to the negle^ of other branched of curious^ invcfti- g^tion. The Englifli clergy, who far exceed in learning any other budy of that defcriptiou in Europe, have always cultivated -Ciaflical iiteraturo with diftinguiihed zeal and prediledion. Arts.]] The prefent ftate of the artstn England is worthy of fe opu- lent and reiined a country, and the progrefs has been rapid beyond ox- ample. Some faint traces of painting occur in the thirteenth century 9 but the names and country of the artifts do not appeat, except that of William of Florence, M'hcre the art had faintly begun to revive. In the reign of Edward I. the magnificent cailles built m Wales atteil the geuiui and Ikill of the architcdtsj while tlieir indif idual fame is loft in ob« V , . D fcurity » 34 ENGLAND fcurity : and towards the end of the fourteenth century, rich monumMti of architedure and fculpture are interfperfed with fome few remains of painting. But England continued, till the laft century, to import her chief painters from abroad ; as Holbein, Antonio More, Zucchero, Janfen, Mytens, Rubens, Vandyke, Lcly, Kneller, Sec. &c. Yet in miniature and engraving, there were excellent native artifta in the feven- teenth century, and an eminent native architect, Inigo Jones. In tht: beginning of the eighteenth century, even the noble architcfture of St. Paul's did not redeem the other arts from great decline, till Hogarth inftituted examples of ethic antl charadoriftic painting, which have de- fervcdly excited the admiration of Europe. The prefent reign has not only been diftinguifhed by patronage of the arts, but been fortunate iu exuberance of artifts of deferved reputation. In painting, engraving, architeAure, and fculpture, we now alfo boalt of many diftinguilhcd native names ; but in mufi ; we ftill revere the fuperior ikill of the Ger- mans and Italians. Education'. 3 In a view of any country, education forms one of the moft important topics, as its coafequences extend to the effence and well- being of the community. The education of the lower claflea in England had become extremely negledled, before the benevolent inllitution of the Sunday fchools. There can be no doubt that where the common people are the beft inilrudled, there they will be found the moil quiet, contented, and virtuous ; as they feel a confcious felf-refpedl, are accuilomcd to be treated with regard by each other, and will chearfully extend the faro* reverential condu£l towards their fuperiors in the favours of fortune ; and a pra6lical eftimatc of the advantages of general education, muy be formed by comparing the neglefted pejfaiitry of Ireland, with the peace, able Highlanders of Scotland, whore public fchools exUl in every parilh. The middle and higlier ranks of Engliih fparc no expence in the educn. tion of their fons, by private tutors at home, or at what are called day fchools and boarding fchools. Our mott eminent public fchools art thofe of St. Paul's, Wertmiiiller, Eton, and VVinchclUT ; and from them have arifen fome of the nio(l diAinguidied ornaments of their country. The fcholars in due time proceed to the univerfities of Oxford and Cambridge ; foundations of an extent and grandeur that impivGi vi*. neration. Tlie number and lera uf the colleges will appear from the iul* lowing liil : . * Univerfity of Oxford. Baliol College — Founder, John Baliol (father of John, king of Scotland), and his wife, Dcrvorgilla, countefs of Galloway. Merton College, firll eivAed at Maiden, near Kingllon, in Surrey, A. D. 1260, ami ten years after removed to Oxfird. The founder was Williatn de Merton, Lord Chanceliur tw Henry III. — Walter Merion, bifhop of RocUeller. Univerfity Collegt- — William, archdeacon of Durham*. I3I6. Exettr College — Walter Stapleton, bi(hop of Exeter. * l^fj* Oriel College»~Adam de Bronu", almoner to £d>^rd II. Queen's College — Robert Eglesficld, chaplain to queen Philippa, New College — William of Wickham, bifnop of VVincheiUr. Lincoln College — Richard Fleming, archbi(hop of York. AlKSouIi — Archbifhop Chicheley, archbidiop of Canterbury. Magdalen College — William of Wainflet, bifhop of WinclHrller. Braiea Nofc— 'William Smith, billiop of LiACwln. 1270. 1292. «340 «379' 1420. «437' 1458, • Ceti|b'i Canid. I f, y.k f. 1516. ■-»( -^ijjt' ENGLAND. ZS 1516. 151 8. 1437- 1571. 1613. 2624. Corpus Chrifti^-Richard Fox, bifliop of Winchsfter. Chnft Church— Wolfey and Henry VIII. Trinity College — Thomas HatHeld, biihop of i^urhain, and completed by Sir Thomas Pope. St. Jomi's— -by archbilhop Chickeley, re-endowed by Sir Thomas White, 1557. Jefus College— Dr. Price. Wadham--Nichola8 Wadham, Efq. Pembroke— Thomas Tefdale, Efq.* There are befides feveral halls or fmaller colleges, and fome reeent foundations. The laudable favour of the Oxonians adores Alfred as th« founder of what is called the Univerfity College, and even alfigns the date of 886 ; biit candid antiquaries affert, that the paflase in one or two old chronicles alleged in lupport of this idea, is a manifeft interpo- lation, not to b« found in the beft manufcripts : and though great fchools of divinity may have previoufly exifted at Oxford, fuch were alfo knowa at other places which lay no claim to the title of univerflty. 1257. •344 »343 1348; »35» Univerflty of Cambridge. Peter-houfe — Hugh Balfham, biihop of Ely. Clare-hall — Elizabeth de Burg, couutefs of Ulfler. ii'embroke-hall— 'Mary de Valentia, countefs of Pembroke, and 1557. Gonville and Caius — The Doctors fo named. Trinity-hall — William Bateman, biOiop of Norwich. 1356. Benc't or Corpus ChrilU — Hei^ry Duke of Lancafter. 1443. King's College — Henry VI. 1448. Queen's College — Margaret of Anjou. , 1475. Catharine-hall — Dr. Woodlark. 1496. Jefus College — .Tuhn Alcock, bifhop of Ely. 1506. Chrid's College 1 Margaret, Countefs of Richmopd, mothei of 1 511. St. John's J Flenry VII. Magdalen College— Thomas, Lord Audley. Trinity College— Henry VIII. Emanuel — Sir Walter Mildmay. 596. Sydney College^— Frances Sydney, countefs of Sufiex. 809. Downuig Cohere— now erc<^ing, in purfuance of the will and bequell of Su- George Downing, uart. 1542 1546 1584 Of the two univcrfities, many minute defcriptions have appeared. Ox- ford is the more majeilic ; from the grandeur of the colleges and other public buildings, and the fuperior regularity and neatnefs of the llreets : but the chapel of King's College, at Cambridge, is fuppofed io excel any finale edifice of the other univerflty. Both of thofe mag'Mficent femi- naries imprefs every feeling mind with reverential awe ; not only by their architectural dignity, but by <\ thoufand collateral ideas of ancient great- iiefs and fcience. Cities and Towns.] In giving a brief account of the chief cities and towns in England, a few of the mod important (hall be arranged according to dignitv, opulence, and population : and the others (hallbe ftated without preference, in a kind ot progrefs from the fouth>weft to theogrtb. ' * Cou|h*s Camd. i. p. 30S. Iic Da Losnoovi 3<5 ENGLAND. London, the metropolis cf England, is fituatcd in an cxtcnfivc plain or valley, watered by the Thames, and only confined on the north by a few fmall elevations ; being a place of great antiquity, and firft men- tioned by Tacitus. It now includes Southwark, a borough on the other fide of the Thames, and Weftminfter, another city on the well ;• fo that, like fonie places of ancient geography, it might be named Tri- polisy or three cities. The noble river Thames is here about ^sfo yards in breadth, crowned with three bridges, crowded with a foreft of mails, and conveying into London the Ivealth of the gh)be, forming an excel- lent port, witliont the danger of expofure to maritime enmity. It is, however, a great defedt, that inllcad of open quays and ftrects on the banks of the ftrcam, the view is obilrudled on both fides by irregular mafTes of building, which do not even admit of a path. London prc- fents almoft every variety w]\ich diverlifies human exiftence. Upon the call it is a fea-port, rej)lete with mariners and with the trades conncfted with that profefRon. In the centre, it is tho feat of numerous manufac- tures and prodigious commerce ; while the weJtern or faOiionablc extre- mity preiVnts roval and noble {plendour, amidlt fcencs of the highcH luxury and mofl ruinous didipation. r'ew cities can boafl a more falubrious filuation, the fubjaccnt foil ^eing pure gravel ; by which advantage, united with cxtenfive fewer*, the houfis are generally dry, cleanly, and healthy. Provifions and fuel are poured into the capital, even from diflant parts of the kingdom ; the latter article being coals, from the counties of Northumberland and Durham, transferred by fea, and thence denominated fea-coal*. Lon- don requires in one year 101,075 beeves, 707,456 Iheep, witii calves and pigs in proportion : the vegetables and fruits annually confumcd are valued at a million lltTlingf. The population <»f London has by fome been exaggerated twa million of fouls ; but by the late enum-'ration it contains about 860,000. Its length from Hyde-jiark Corner on the well to Poplar on the eaft, is about fix miles ; the breadth imequal, from three miles to one and lefs ; thtf circumference may be afjout iixteen miles. The houfes arc almoft univerfally of brfck, and difpofed with inlipid limilarity ; but, in rf- compence, moll of the ftreets are excellently paved, and have conve- nient j)atli3 for foot pallengt r.i ; a mark of refpea to the common people almoil unknown to the capitals on thi- Continent. Another national feature is the abundance of charitable foundations for almoft every infir- mity and dillrefs incident to human nature. Tlie multitude and rich difplay of the Ihops inprefs llrangers with alloiiiniment ; nor are they lefs furprifed at the cunflant t(»rrent of popufation rolling through the principal flreets, nor at the fwarm of carriages at all times crowdnig all the roads to the capital, and the norturnal illnminationi which extend even to four or five miles of the environs. 'J'hough the iniprellion of tiie tid« be feh ..» far an Staines, the 'i'hame.s at London, and a confiderable way below, is untninted with fait. It water.s are raifed by machinery, and conduced in innuintrable pipes for domellic ides ; while the party wore remot' an* Inpplied w ith water from finne fmall pond"* near Hamp- flead, and fr»m that laudable work »f Middl -ton, the New River, which conveys a copiotis additiou from the north. • Mr. MiJdlctoi'. in his X'ie^v of Middlrfr-x, iSr 7, lupivlcd fhlf "OO.OOC chlMfoni ■r^ vemiv cr)iifum<"'t in fli ir rdunijr. Sf«««rton C'o.il, |>. 171, liyv 8X6,167. t Iliht. 6.1 \. Mr. IVnn.int, Urit. /ool, 4. j>. bys, to,OCO lobftcri we Jonua'.ly broiifht Cf Loudon tVoin iitiir Momioic, province. The njime which den I'mporary venf rable « »i cdcbra ENGLAND. 37 •XI lonal ntlr- rich lliiy \ the inul of thf erabte iiinrry, party iamp- liver» nldron* brourhi The environs wf London prefcnt a fijeftacle almoft as grand and inte- reding as that of the metropolis itfelf. Exteniive llreets of villas and houfes are continued in almoU every direftion within feven or eight miles. Yet few of the public edifices in London can pretend to much magnificence. The catliedral of St. Paul's forms one of the chief ex- septions ; the exterior archit^fture of this principal cathe' al of the Pro- teftant faith being majeilic to a degree of fublimity, but the interior is deffftive in decoration. Weftmin'js cieling of Irifh oak, and apartmcuta on the fide, in which are hold tlic principal courts of ju (lice. The churches and chapels exceed 200 In number, and a few are of beautiful architefture. Some are the produclious of Initro Jones ; as is alfo the noble banqueting-houfe at Whitehall, with a malLrly cieling painted by Rubens, reprefenting the apotheolis of .lamc^ I. The new theatre of Covent-garden may be added as doing honoiu: to the taile of the archite^ and managers. Near London bridge, a pillar of 193 feet elevates his bold front abova nx)rt of the fpires, and is called the Monument, being dellined to com- memorate the conflagration of London in the reign of Cliarles IL The Tower is only venerable from ancient fame, and remarkable for the cu- jiofities which it contains. The royal palace of St. James's is an irre- gular building, of very modcft afpe£\. The Queen's palace, formerly Biickingham-lioufe, only afpires to elegant convenience, bu; n ntains fome valuable paintings, and an excellent library formed fulely i>" the talle of the reigning monarch. The palace of Kenfingtor pr-' ;<.s «i< exuberance of vaKiahle pid^ures, little known, and rari-l/ vilitt '. llw houfes in the weft -end of tiie town of llienifelves Ihew tl«»* gen<.- grada- tions of rank in England; thofe of the lev-houfe f Cliefterfield-houfe ; Lord Spencer's, in tlic Green.p;u-k , Mirqi'^^ o'" L;uifdownc'«, Derkeley-fquare ; Duke of Northuniberl.i'v" , ai Cha- ring-crufs ; Burlington-Iioufr, with a fine coloimade behiiu' me front wall ; and thofe of thf Duke of Devoiifliire and the Earl o*" Bath, all m Piccadilly ; nor mull Cumbi rlaiid-houfe and Carleton-hou'^ , in PalU inall, be forgotten, York. Next to the i:apitul in dignity, though not in exiont nor opulence, i# York; which' is not only the chief of a large and fertih province, but may be regardid as the metropoliRof the Noithot England. The niune has been gradually corrupted from the ancient Eboracum ; by which denomiufttion it was remarkiutle, even in the Hontan times, for the temporary refidence and deatliofthc Roman Emperor Sevcrus. Thii vcnrrable city is divided by the river Oufc ; »iid ti>e (»othic cathedral U /of celebrated beauty, the wtllern front bemg pctuliurly rich, th(,' chief P I lOWCf m J 3« ENGLAND. tower very lofty, and the windows of the fmcft painted glafs. York ditidcs with Edinburgh the winter vifits of the northern gentry. Its inhabitants, acco;rding to the late enumeration, amount to 16,145. Liverpool. But Liverpool, in Lancafhire, is now much nearer to London in wealth and population : being the feat of a vaft commerce, which has been continually on the increafe fince the beginning of the lad century, when it was merely a village. In 1699, Liverpool was admitted to the honour of being conftituted a parifli. In 17 10, the firft dock was conftruftcd ; and the chief merchants came originally from Ireland, a circumflance which has given a (Mftiiift tinga to the manners of the town. Thenceforth the progrofs was rapid, and in 1 760 the population was computed at 25,787 fouls*. In 1773, they amounted to 34,407 ; in 1787, to 51*5,670 ; and by the enumeration m 1801, they were found to havt* increafed to 77,65?. The number of (hips which paid duty at Liverpool in 1757, wag 1 37 1 ; in 1794, they amounted to 4265. In the African trade, once a diftinguifliing <..\'ture of Liverpool, there was only one (hip employed in 1709 ; in 1792, they amounted to 132. In the recent aft for the con- tribution of feamen *m xhc royal navy, according to the (hips regiftered in each, the eflimatc is as follows ; London, 5725 Hull, 731 Briftol, 666 Liverpool, 171 1 Whitehaven, 700 Whitby, 573 Newcaftle, 1240 Sunderland, 669 Yarmouth, 506 Bristol is ftill a large and flourifhing city, though much of its com- merce with the Weft Indies and America have pafled to Liverpool. This metropolis of the weft of England gradually rofe to eminence in the Anglo-Saxon period ; and was fo flourifhing and opulent in the reign of Henry II. that, befidcs other charters, he granted the polFeflion of Dublin, in Ireland; and a colony from Briftol was accordingly tranfplant- edf. The trade with Ireland has continued chiefly to ctntfr in tliif city : even in that reign, as ancient writers inform us, the port of liriilol was replete with vcfTels from Ireland, Norwayv and other parts of Europp. Briftol is plcafantly fituated at the confluence of the Froonie with tlie Avon. The hot-wells in the neiglibotn-hood appear to have been known in 1480 : but the water was chicHy iifcd externally till abojit the year 1670 ; when a baker dreaming tliat his diabetes was reheved by drinking the water, he tried the expertmcnt and recovered I . Since that p<'riod its reputation has iiicrcaftd, and many conjmodious and tlegant erriitions have contributed to recommend thefe wells to invalids. In the adjacent rocks arc found beautiful cryflafs, which before the introdui'lion of artificial gens, were j^reatly in failiion for female ornaments. The trade of Briftol is chi»;ily with Ireland, the Weft Indies, or North Americii, Hamburgh, and tlie Bahie. ; that with Guinea, not the niort laudable, had been refigned to Liverpool. By tlie navigation of the two ri\'ers Severn and Wye, Bn'ilol alfo enj^roffes much ot the trade of Wale<;. In 1787, Briftol employed about i^ioo coafting veffels, and 416 (hips en- gaged in foreign commerce [|. Inhabitants in i8oi, 68,645. B;\TH. The proximity may herir authorife the mention <»f Bath, efteemed the moll elegant town in England. The hot. baths, from which it derives its name, were known in the Roman times ; nor was their celebrity loft, even in the dark period of Anglo-Saxon hiftory. But the • AikiiiS Man. J3J. ct feq. I Barrctt'i Briftol, 190* f Barrel's Briftol, 49. 57, town ENGLAND. S9 town has been greatly enlarged and decorated in the laft century. The ^vater8 are ufed both internally and externally, chiefly in gout, bilious, and paralytic cafes ; being frequented at two times in the year, what is called the fpring feafon from April to June, and the autumnal from September to December. Two thirds of the company are attracted merely by amufement, fociety, and diflipation ; in all which it is only fecond to London. Situated in a vale, Bath is very hot in fummer. The houfes are conftrufted of white limellone, which abounds in the vici- nity. Its inhabitants in 1801, amounted to 32,200. But next to Briftol, in point of opulence, mulk be claffed the towns of Mancliellcr, Birmingham, and Sht'lfield. Mancheiler, in JLancafhire, was known in the Roman times under the ii-nne of Mancuiiiimi, ? fmall Roman ttation ; but it continued in obfcurity till the tiiv.e of Elizabeth *, when Camde:. mentions its manufafture of w()ollen-cloths» then called cottons. During the civil wars under Charles I., Maiichclter remained in the hands of the parliament. In 1708, the inhabitant*! were only computed at 8000. In 1757, they fell fliort of 20,000 ; at prefent, they amount 10,84,020. The cotton manufaftures (if Manchefler are fufHciently known over Europe ; and the machinery, greatly indebted to the genius of an Arkwright, excites ailonifhment at ti e progrefs of human art and induftry f , Birmingham, in Warwickfhire, was originally a village, belonging to a family of the fame name, whofe monuments remain in the old church. Leland mentions it as a town inhabited by fmiths and cutlers, in the time of Henry VIII. ; and by lorimers, now called bit makers. The extenfjoH and improvement of Birmingham originated in a great degree from Mr. John Taylor, who introduced the manufacture of gilt buttons, and japanned and enamelled works ; but the toy manufadlure was known ill the reign of Charles II. The great fsbrick called Soho, belonging to MelFrs. Boulton and Watt, is fituated about two miles from Birming- ham, but in Staffordfhire. Between the year 1741 and 1 790, Birming- ham had received an augmentation of feventy-two llreets, 4172 houfes, and 23,^20 inhabitants \ : the population iu 1791, amounted to 73,670. iihefiield, in the moll foutheni part of Yorkihire, is ftylcd by L.*-land the chief market-town in Hallamlhire (for in th? north 'nany particular fliftridts ufurp the name of (hires. ) The compar;y uf cutlers of Hallam- Oiire was eilablilhed by ai't of parliament in 1625 ; biu Sheffield bad been diflinguilhed for a kind of kniws i-alled whitties, and other articleH nt cutlery as early as ::> thirteenth rentury ; yet l\\\ within the laft hiilf century, the manuladtures of Sheffield were conveyed weekly to the metropolis, on pack horfes. In 1751, the river Don was rendered navigable to within two miles of the town ; which facilitated the export. i'h.' plated goods cot^imenced about 1758. In the year 1615, tlie popu- lat on only amounted to 2152 ; in 1755, to 12,983 ; in I78<;, about ^o,ooo||. At prefent, it is ♦•qual to 35,000. The other chief towns in England, not afpiring to fuch pre-eminence, t'lough feveral be of far more importance than otners, fliall be clafled, as h iore-mentioMcd, in a kind of geographies! order, beginning at the fo ith-weft, and proceeding to the north. Falmouth, in Cornwall, the moll wefterly port in Eiigland, with a po|)ulation of 3,684, is tMefly remarkable for the arrival and difpatch of picket-boatt and irs now forming into a naval depdt ; but Exeter, \\\ • Aikin'n Man. I44 thf ENGLAND. I* the adjacent county pf Devon, is an ancient and refpcAable city. It is the feat of an extenfive commerce in coarfe woollen goods, raanufa^ured in a part of Somerfetfhire and i" Devon and Corn- wall *. • They are exported to Italy, and other parts pf fhe con- tinent, to the annual value, as is fuppofed, of 6op,oool., and the Ead India Company purchafe yearly to a conliderable amount. Befidea the native wool of the above mentioned counties, Exeter imports frora Kent about 4000 bags a year. Some (hips are alfo occupied in the cod- fi(hery of Newfoundland, and in the Greenland capture of whales. The imports are from Spain, Italy, Hamburgh, and the Baltic ; and coals from the north of England and Wales. It is, moreover, the refidence of many genteel families ; and the frequent refort pf others from the neighbouring counties. Inhabitants, 17,398. Plymouth is a celebrated port, with a population of 43,194. Dorcheller, the chief town of the county of Dorfet, is a place of confideriible antiquity, fituated on the river Froni^ j but has no maini- fa«Stures, and is only celebrated for its malt Uqiior. Inhabitants, 2,402. Salilb'ury, the principal town of Wiltlhire, is chiefly rei^iarkable for extreme neatnefs ; and for its cathedral, a boautiful piece of Gothic arcbitt 'ibire, with the loftied I'pire in England, the height being 400 feet. There is a manufaftiiro of flannels, and another of cutlery goods ant) ';i irdware. the fuperiority of the fciflars being particulnrlv noted, I.'ihabi mis 7,668. Wilton, in the fame county, ii> famed Tor the manu- fachii-e of beautiful parpets. W; I heftet the chief city of J^lanipfliire, was for many centuries the vnt tvopolis of England ; :> pre»eminence which it did not >vholly lofe till •the if>n teenth century f . The port was Southampton ; but tlie fuivrior faf I" .nd convenience of that of London jri .dually reftond the latter to that nietropohtan dignity which it held lu t!>e Roman period. Win- cheller remains a venerable city, witli mi'KV veiliges of ancient fame and fplendour. It is fituated in a bottom, amid open chalky downs, upon the fmall river Itchyn. The cathedral rather impreffes the idea of ma. jeftic gravity than of magnificence ; and has no fpire, having been eredled before that mode of architedure was ufed. 1 he afhes of feveral Saxon monarghs are here preferved with reverence. Not far from the cathedral ftands the celebrated eollrge founded by William of Wick- ham, and which has fent tbrvh many illuilrious characters. The regula- tions of this fchool are 'u fome inllaiices peculiar and fevere ; but in this, and the other gra id Enghfh feminaries, the equality of the pupils, except in refpe«ft ot ag< and abilities, and even the fubfvrviency in which the younger tire 'leld by the elder, tend to Heel .nd fortify the mind «ffainil the fub"" quent cares and emulations of life, tff the centre of the city is ^ fmall ' an epifeopal fee. The callie, fuppofed to have been founded in the reign of tiie Confeflbr, was on the left banlj of the river VV^ye. 'I'he cathedral is large ; but the town prefents little remark- al)i«', having gone into great decay ; the only manufacture is that of gloves*. Inhabitants, 6H2H. s Gloi'cefhr, tlu^ capital of the cqiuity fo called, is admired for the re- gularity of the four principal ilreets joining in tht- centre of the town. It avails itfelf of the traffic of the Severn j which, among other (i(\\ jifFords a luxurio;4S tupply of lamprrys. Tliis town has been recently eelebrated for ifs neatnefs, and the chfapnef;, of provijlons. Inhabitants, 7.579- Worcefler is alfo fituatcd on the nobte river Severn, over which there i'j a beautiful bridge. The manufactures are chiefly gloves and woollen (luffB ; and the p«>reelain maintains a high reputi-tion. Inhabitants^ On the eaft, the firlt town of no e is Cov Mitir, elfeemed the moft inlanci and centrical of tf»e Englifh towns ; v.lieuce, prrhaps, the militarv phrafe >>f fcnduig a man to Coventry, win re he would be thi moil remote from • Go\igh 'f Camden, li. 450. frrvice. ■■SV: 42 ENGLAND. fervice. The manufa£liires are chiefly ribbons, with a few gauze? and cainleta. The beautiful crofs erefted in 1 541, after being much da- maged by the lapfe of years, has been taken down*. Inhabitants, 16034. The next memorable place is the city of Norwich, the capital of Norfolk. It is, however, not mentioned till the year 1004;, when it was ruined by the Daneit. The worfted manufaftory is fuppofea to have been introduced here by the Flemings, in the twelfth century, and was followed by that of fayes, arras, bombazeens, &c. Of late tne damafks, camlets, crapes, ftuffs, &c. here wrought, have been computed at the yearly vaJue of 700,000!. ; but the falhionable ule of cottons, and the interruptions of commerce by war, have confiderably Icffcned the con- fumption. The wool is chiefly from the counties of Lincoln, Leiceiter, and Northampton ; the chief exports, to Holland, G»*rmany, and the. Mediterranean f . Nonvich is of courfe opulent and extenfive, but the ftrrots are confuied and devious. Inhabitants, 36,8510. Yarmouth is a noted fea-port, wth a beautiful quay ; and remarkable for its fifhcries of mackarol in May and June, and herrings in Opulatioi> of about 1 1,000 fouls. In 1734 the firll mill for throwing filk was htrc eilablilhed, the model having been brought from Italy. There in a celebrated and imique manufacture at Derby, celebrated all over Europe, that of the fluor, which is railed from the lead mines, in mafll's of fuch a fi/.e and beauty as have never yet been difcovei'cd in any other regi»ni ot the world. In a cTiorographv of England, Leicefler and Slirewfljury might dcferve defcriptioi^ but its geography can only embrace the moil important topics. The city of Chefter muil claim the next confideration. It is of Roman origin, and the chief ftreets are fingiilar in their conilrudion, being excavated beneath the level of the ground, while a covered portico, in the front of the houfes, affords an elevated and flieltered foot-path ; beneath are the fliops and warelionfes, on t!;c level of the ilreet, to which *lxc pallniger defcends by occafional Itairs. 'I'lie trade of Clieiler is not «u)nfi derable, but it carries on a Ihare of the tiiiflRc with North Wales j a;id its two aimual fairs are famous f,tr the lale ot Iriih linens. It is the favotirite refidt'nce of many genteel families froni Waks |. luhaibitanl!<, 15,052. * Near an prtcnfivc bay of the Irifli fea, which might now be termed the bay of Lancailer, while antiquaries aflVcl to retain t!ic Roman name of Mor'tcamie, ftands Lancafter, an ancient and populous town. The name is iu the north pronounced Loncalter, the proper etymology, ab it Uands upon '^he rivtr Loii. W hen the counties olCumherland and W«?fU morelanU beitrnged to the Scots, this was regarded at; a kind of frontier place ; and wah def»*nded by a ilroug caitje, iituated on a commanding • fJoUith's Cjrmfi.n, vol li, p. 74^% t A kin, 316. tmtner royal 1 well ki into a I with tl kennie On \ ing tov On the fea-pori that of vileges ■ Itoek-fii Hull di bour is dom. ' but chie them \v wool an( thern co other br Ihire*. Leeds the great pal mart is iituatei the parifl villages ; approprii «icted wit elevated thiiuier w on the ea «>!> Jicfou: ''uait, an Durha eminence renders i wh\ch litt pleafnnt p thepeninj lituation, the banks nature, w leiice of t cuted ; b wAi, that tile archo! crols ; w bloody CO the lowei architedu ten Son emmeno ENGLAND. 43 tminence. Lancalter aftemards gave the title of Duke to princes of the royal blood ; and the contentions of the houfes of York and Lancafter are ^vell known. There is a bridge of five arches over the Lon ; which opens into a coufiderable haven, the feat of a moderate commerce, efpecially with the Welt Indies. A noble aqueduft has been conitru£ied by Mr, Rennie. Inhabitants 9t030. On the call, the extenfive province pfYorkfhire contains many flourifli- ing towns, belides the capital York, and Sheffield, already defcribed. On the Hufnber, the wide receptacle of many rivers, Hands the great fea-port of Hull, or Kingiton-apon-HuU ; the latter name being only that of the rivulet. The town was founded by Edward I. Several i-ri- yileges were pbtained from Richard II. ; and the firft ftaple of trade, was lloi-k-filh imported fron> Iceland. In the civil wars of the 17th centurj', Hull difplayed the firll flag of defiance againft the monarch. The har- ^jour is artificial, and is fuppofed to prcfent the larged dock in the king- dom. Tiie trade is important with America and the fouth of Europe, but chiefly with the Baltic ; and fcveral (hips are' employed in the nor- thern whale filhtry. The coaftiiig traffic is extenfive in coals, corn, wool and manufaftures : and Hull fupplies the commerce of many nor- thern counties ; having not only communication with the Trent, and other branches of the Humber, but with the rivers and canals of York- ihire*. Its inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 29,516. Leeds, )3radfield, Hahfax, and Wakefield, are the chief centres of the great manufaftures of woollen cloths and fluffs. Leeds is the princi- pal mart for brpad-cloths, or what foreigners term fine Englifli cloth. It is fituated on the river Aire, in an exteniive vale ; and the population of the parifti amounts to 5'^, 162 : the cloths are woven in the neighbouring villages ; but are dyed, prepared, and fold at Leeds. The cloth-hall uppropriated to the fali", is a vail edifice ; and the whole bufinefs is tranf- jictod within the fpac.e of an hour on the market days. Halifax is an pK'vated fituatipji, and very populous. It is the chief market for the thinner wouUtMi clptljs ; fuch a$ fluffs, culimancos, &c. Scarborough, on the eaflern coail, is a place of celebrated refort ft)r fca-bathing, and oi) Jiciount ()f its mjnoi-al Myatcr ; the fite is romantic, but the port is iuiall, and chiofly frequented by liiliing vi-fTols. Durham is a pleafant and veiicrnb|e city, extending partly over an eminence : tlic river AV'ere, winding aroijtiu in tho form of a horfe-fl\be, renders it peninfular.* Near the neck of land is placinl the caftle, of winch little more than 1 he keep remains ; which is furroiuided by the pleafant garden of the bilhop's adjacent palace. Tp^^'ai'ds the point of the peiiinlula Hands the cathedral ; a moil aiigiill editice, in a moft augufl litiiation, with deep declivities on the foutli and well, down to the river; the banks of which are finely wooded, and rich in the wild beauties of nature, which have been improved, not injured, by the tafte and opu- lence of the clergy. The bridge on the call is narrow, and meaidy exe- cutt'd ; but on the foiith, there is an elejraiit modern bridge ; and on the wi'fl, that of hilhop Flanibard is admired foe thelightnefs and beauty of the arches. About a mile from the town, on this fide, ftands Nevil's crols ; where David II. king of Scot1:uid, was taken prifoner after a bloody confli(ft. The cathedral wab built about the year 1004, at leaf! the lower part, which belongs to what is called the oaxon form of architerture, and is now repairing at the expencc of the bifhop and chap, tcr. Some branches of the woollen nuuiutadlure are carried on at Dur« • Aikin, Engl dcliit. 56. ham, I ENGLAND. ham, and a Few elegant carpets have been lately made there in a kind of Mofaic form. Inhabitants, 7530. Stockton on the river Tees, .Sunderland at the mouth of the Were, and South Shields on that of the Tyne, are fea-port towns in the l)i(hopric (for fo the county of Durham is commonly ftyled in the north) of confiderable fize, trade, and population. .Hart-le-Pool is only a bathing places On the river Tyne ftands Newcaftlc, fo termed from a fortrefs crefted by Edward I. This large and populous town, containing 28,366 inha- bitants, is placed in the centre of the g.*and coal-mines in the counties of Durham and Northumberland, which have for centuries fupplied Loi;don and moft of the eaft and fouth of England with that fuel ; which hn ,, perhaps, contributed more to the manufaftures and commerce, and cou- feqiient wealth and power of this kingdom, than any other material or circumllance. The coal fleets fometimcs amount to five hundred fail ; their ftation is at Shields, and the quays Jarrow and Wiliing^ton. Even as a nurfery of feamen, the trade is invaluable *. In all parts of the neighbourhood are feen large carts laden with coals, and proceeding towards the ports, on inclined planes, without the help of horfes or men, to the great furprife of the ftrangcrf . Near NewcalUc are alfo fowiul quarries of grind-ftonc ; and many glafs-houfes fmoke around, the pro- du^lions of wliich have been recently of remarkable purity. Other ex. ports are, pickled fixlmon, lead, fait, butter and tallow. The fuburb •f Gatefliead flands on the fouth of the Tyne, and is jConneAed with the city by a grand bridge. The fhops and crowded ilreets recal the idea of London ; but the latter are generally narrow, fteep, and incom* modioirs. Berwick-upon-Tweed, being on the Scotifli fide of the river, fliall be referved for the defcription of that country. The chief remaining town ^n England is Carlifle, the capital of the county of Cumberland, placed at the confluence of the rivers Pettril and Caldew, with the Eden|:. The old fortifications remain nearly entire. It is fuppofed to have been the ancient Luguballia ; but neither the callle nor cathedral are remarkable, The chief mancfaftures are linens prifitcd and checked, whips, and fifti hooks. The town is little, but populous, containing 10,2 2 1 inha, fcitants ; and is chiefly memorable for tranfaftions in the ancient wars Jjetween Scotland and England. Walps, a country abounding in the fublime anti beautiful features of liature, contains many towns of note ; and the defcription of a few has been referved to this place, for the greater clearnefs of arrangement. Swanfea is on many accounts entitled to be ranked as the firll town in Wales. By the returns its population is eftimated at 6099, which ig ponfiderably under the real amount. It poJTefl*es a very commodious and fafe harbour, lately greatly improved by the ereftion of two fine piers. Its trade in cpal and copperas is very er.tenfive. It Hands at the inou^h of the river Tawey, which is navigable about three miles above the 0wn. It once poflefled a fine caftle, very confiderable remains of whicb ^re ftill preferved in fine repair. It is a laftiionable refort for bathers in the fummer feafon. The coal is remarkable in mineralogy. Caermarthen, the capital of a county, is alfo regarded as the principal ^town in South Wales : it Hands upon the riyer Tovry, and was anciently defended by a caftle, now demolilhed. The haven ia (hallow, gind th« Jtrade, of courfe, not very confiderable j|. Inhabitants, 5)548. * GoDgli's Camden, iii. 251. + Paujas, voyage en AngJ. i. 163. I Uo'tgh's Ciimdcn, iii. J 75. || Gouj^h's Camden, 11.504,507 Wincf Su( Richi Ker funom M pcmbrok^y ENGLAND; 41 ind of Were, n the north) only a ;refted S inha- iitics of jOiidon ;h ha:;, iid cou- erial or cd fail ; Evea I of the cecding or mfii, b fouiul he pro- ther ex- fuburb with the the idea I incom* (hall be ng town , placed n^. The jecn the rarkable, \ips, and Zi inhur snt wars atures of few has ent. i town in which i« imodious two fin« ids at the ibove the of which tathers in 1 principal anciently jflid. th« II. 163. »,5C7 Pembroke, on a creek of Milford haven, is a fmall town of little com- merce. Caernarvon is efteemed the chief town of North Wales, for the beauty of the fituation, regularity of the llreets, and above all for the gran- deur of the cattle, one of the moft magnificent in Europe, founded by Edward I. in 1282. Here was bofn Edward II. furnamed of Caernar- von, who was immediately created the firft Englifh Prince of Wales ; liis father having equivocally promifed to the vanquiihed Wclfh a prince bora in their own country, and who could not fpeak one word of Engliih. The town has a confiderable trade with London, Briftol, Liverpool, and Ireland, and has a beautiful quay along the fide of tlie Menai, a ttrait between North Wales and Anglefea *. ^ Edifices.] In a brief enumeration of the principal edifices in Eng- land, the royal palaces demand of courfe the firft attention. Windfor caille, fituated on an eminence near the Thames, has an appearance truly grand, and wortliy of the days of chivalry. The view extends as far as the cathedral of St. Paul's; and the wliole fccne ftroiij^ly impreflVs the circumftances fo vividly delineated in Gray's pathetic ode on Eton College. This palace contains many noble paintings. Hampton Court is in a low fituation, ornamented with aquedu6ls from tl"* river Colne. This palace is alfo replete with interefting pictures. Tli ;'l garden* at Kew are truly worthy of a great and fcientific prim ae ground, though level, is diverfified with much art ; and the collection oi plants from all the regions of the known world, fills the admirer of nature witk delight and furprife. They are fo difpofed, that every plant finds, an it were, its native foil and climate ; even thofe that grow on rocks and lava having artificial lubftitutes. The royal palace at Greenwich has been long abandoned, but the ob- fervatory does credit to fcience. It is a plain edifice, well adapted t& aitronomical obfcrvations, and at prefent ably fuperintended by Mr. Pond. ~ ■ " - - - - fcope, whi-'re ledge. Dr. Herfcliell's obfervatory, inftead of containing his tele- is fufpended from it in the open air, at Slough, near Windfor, he is continually extending the bounds of attronomical know- Among the houfes of the nobility and gentry, or palaces, as they would be termed on the continent, the firli fame, perhaps, belongs to Stowe, the feat of the Marquis of Buckingham ; which, Jor its enchant- ing gardens, has been long celebrated. When Mr. Beckford's magnifi- cent ercttions at Fonthill are completed, that fame will be far furpaffed. The prefent intention, however, will be better accompliftied by a brief view of the edifices, as they occur in the order of counties above ar> ranged. Cornwall. — Mount Edgecombe, Lord Edgecombe. Devonihirc. — Powderham-caftle, Courtney family. Wiltfliire.— -Wilton, Earl of Pembroke's ; Fonthill, Mr. Beckford's, Hampihire. — The Grange, Mr. Henley ; the Vine, Mr. Chute. Surrey. — Earl Spencer'^ at Wimbleton ; Farnham-cattle, Bifliop of Winchefter. Suflex. — Arundel-caillc, Duke of Norfolk ; Goodwood, Duke of Richmond. « Kent.— Knowle, Duke of Dorfet ; Penftiurft, near Tunbridge, a fanusus feat of the Sydneys. * Pennant's Walei, ii. aaj, 127, EiTex. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) < ^ V V ^ %" 1.0 I.I 11.25 ut 1^ 12.2 HA pIi^ w /. Photographic Sciences Corporation ^ s> 13 WIST MAIN STRUT WIMTIR.N.V. 14SM (7l*)in^S03 '4S^J.%. 6^ ^A. f^w ^ ^ ;\ 4S englAni^. '1U !>£■.>?,••«-'/ N 1 > ) Effex.— Wanftead, EarlofTilney. , Middlefex.— Sion houfe, Duke of Nortlmmberland. --'.■.^ ■ Bucks Stowe ; Bulltrode, Duke of Portland, &c. &c. '""" ' Oxfordfhire. — Blenheim, Duke of Marlbofough ; Newnham, Earl of Harcourt, &c. Gloucefterihire.— Berkeley-caftle, Earl of Berkeley ; Kmg'8 Wefton, Lord de Clifford. Herefordfliire.— Acoabury, Duke of Chandos ; Clifford-caille, Lord Clifford. Worcefterlhire.— Hagley, Lord Lyttleton. The Leafowes of Shen. ftone is in Shropfhire. Warwickfliire.— Warwick-caftlc, Earl of Warwick. Northampton. — ^Althorp, Earl Spencer; Burleighj Earl of Stamford ; and Apthorp, Earl of Weftmoreland. Bedfordflure.— •Woobum-abbe)', Duke of Bedford j Luton, Marquis of Butew Hertfordfliire. — Hatfield, Earl of SaliHmry ; Gorharabur)' (once the ieat of the great Bacon), Lord Grimilone ; Moore-park, Lord Dundas. Huntinjrdonfhire.— Kimbolton-caille, Duke of Manchefler ; Bugden, Bifliop of Lincoln. Cambridge{hire..—Thorney -abbey, Duke of Beaufort. Suffolk. — Eufton-hall, Duke of Grafton, r Norfolk. — Houghton, Lord Cholmondeley ; Raynham, Lord Townf* £end. Lincoln.— Grimfthorpc, Dukcof Ancafter. Rutland(hire.— Okeham and Burley, Earl of Winchelfea: Leicefterfhire.— Belvoir-caftlc, Duke of Rutland. Nottinghamihirc. — Welbeck, Duke of Portland ; Workfop, Duke of Norfolk. Derbyfhire.— Chatfvvurth, Duke of Devonfhire; Keddlafton, Lord Scarfdale. StafFordfhire. — Beau Dcfurt, Earl of Uxbridge j DuJley-cadle, Lord Dudley, &c. Shropfhiro.— Okelev-park, Lord CHvc ; Atcham, Lord Berwick, &c. Chefhire. — Cliolmonde'ey-hall, Earl of Cholmondeley; Eaton4iall, £arl of Grofvenor. Lancailer. — Kuowflcy, Earl of Derby. Yorkfhire. — Sheflit Id-manor, Duke of Norfolk ; Wentworth-caftle, Earl of Aylefbury ; Hornby naf tie, Earl of Holdernefs ; Kivcton, Duke by-calllc, Earl uf Darlington; Biihop's«AuckIand, Bifhpp of Durham. Nc^rthumberland.— Aln.vick, Duke of Northu'mJberland; Morpeth* caftlc. Earl of Carliile,.&c. Wales abounds in elegant edifices : as Winftay, the feat of Sir WatkiA Williams Wynn ; I^ord Bulkolcy's, near Beaumaris t Duke of Beaufort's, in BrecknocKfhirc ; C^liirk-callle, in Denbighfhire ; Hawardenfeven yards perpendicular. Thia beautiful canal is brought over the river Irwell, by an arch of thirty- aine feot in height, and un.ier which barges pafs without lowering their mails. The Duke of Bndgewater fuon afterwards extended a canal of twentyventy4four miles. * 0«N)gh'» Csmdaa, iL 417. t Fbilips, HiA. oflnLiRd Ntv^stioa. The iiuiaiiiJa^' ' 48 England. • The canal from Leeds to Liverpool, direAed in a northerly courfe by Skipton, winds through an extent of 1 17 miles ; and from this canal a -branch alfo extends to Manchefter,, begun in 1771. From Halifax to Manchefter is another confiderable canal, commonly tailed that of Rochdale ; length thirty ^ne miles and a half, begun in 1 794. Anotlier canal extends from Manchefter towards Wakefield; and another called the Peak Forell canal, ftretches from the former, fouth- cail, about fifteen miles. Another joins the river Dun, feveral miles above Doncaller, to the ' river Calder, near Wakefield. To pafs feveral of fmaller note, the Chefterfield canal extends from Cliellerfield, in the county of Derby, to the Trent at Stockwith, a courfe of forty-four miles and three quarters,' begun in 1770. In Lincolndiire, one canal extends from Lincoln to the Trent, and another from Horncaitle to Sleaford. Granthan canal reaches from that town to the river Trent, a courfe of thirty miles. The grand defign of Brindley was to join, by inland navigation, the four great ports of the kingdom, liriftol, London, Liverpool, and Hull. Liverpool is accordingly connected with Hull by a canal from that long navigable river the Trent, and proceeding north to the Merfey. The canal which joins thefc? two rivers is llyled the Grand Trunk ; and wat begun in 1 766, under the diredion of that great engineer ; but was not completed till 1777 : the length is 99 miles. It was attended with great difficulties, particularly in palling the river Dove, in Derbylhire, where there is an aquedu£i of twenty-three arches, tlie tunnel through the hill of Hare-caiUe, in Sta^rdOiire, is in length 2880 yards, and more than 70 yards below the furface of the ground, and was executed with great labour and expence *. But the utility correfponds with the Iprandeur of the defign : fait from Chefhire, coals and pottery from ^taffbrdfhire, and manufactures from various places, arc tranfported on this canal. From the Grand Trunk five or fix branches extend in various direc- tions ; among which muil not be omitted tliat to the river Severn, near Bewdley, which connects the port of Briftol with thofe of Liverpool and Hull ; the length is ±6 miles ; completed in 1772. From the city of Chelcer one canal extends to the Merfey, and an< •titer to Namptwich } another proceeds fouth to Sln'cwlbury, uniting xbt Merfey and the Severn ; with north-welt and fouth-cafl branches of confiderame length. From Coventry, in the centre of the kingdom, canals extend to tlic Grand Trunk ; to Alhby-de-!a-Zouch, and to tlie Braunilon, or Grand Junction canal. What is called the StaffbrJihire canal, extends from the Grand Trunk |0 the riwr Severn ; and is met by the Kington canal, which reaclu » to Kington, in Htrcfordihire, fo as almoit to join the rivers Trent am! Wye. It may be h -re oltferved, that in this defcription the gprand courfts of navigation arc att.'uded to, rather than the minute names and divifions of the canals. Several inland nnvigations pafs by Birmingham. The Union canal completes a courfe of forty-three miles and three-quarters, from Leiccftcr to Northampton, whence the river Nen is navigable to the £ea. various c( • C.'rv'« Plant, >>. 16, 27, jj?. The anount of the GranH Trunl; in Phllipi, is very tfr!te>'ltve { lie may here be rcietred to in gcucral tor die «}U>«f a. tf alfo HtHiAimiiiii 122. «r» . j f . . # ., ,; Another ENGLAND. 49 an' the irand rutik ach(9 it ami urft» rifions canal ccftor I n very icmun, jther Another canal extends from Gloucefter to Hereford : and the fouth of Wales prefents feveral navigations of confiderable length, particularly that from Brecon, in Brecknockfhire, to Newport, in Monmouthfhire. The Severn is not onlv joined with the Trent and the Humber, by various courfes of navigation, but is united with the Thames, by a caniil extending by Stroud to Lechlade, a courfe of near forty miles. Other canals branch out from the Thames in various direft''^: s : that of Oxford extends to the Grand Trunk, or rather joins the Coventry canal, after a courfe of ninety-two miles. The Braunfton, or Grand Junftion canal, reaches from Brentford, on the Thames, or even from Paddington, and joins the Oxford canal at Braunfton, in Northamptonfhire, after a courfe of ninety miles. It is ftyled the Grand JunAion, becaufe it may be laid to unite the nume- rous courfes that pervade the central counties, with the capital of the kingdom. On the fouth of the Thames, a canal proceeds from Reading to Bath j and another fi-om Wcybridge to Bafingiloke ; and a third irom Wey- bridge to GodalmiiK A fmall canal or two have been executed in Devonfhire. The Andover canal, in Hampfhire, extends from Andover to Southampton water. SufTex prefents two canals, that of Arundel, and that of Lewes. Manufactures and CoMMERcii.] The manufactures and com- merce of England form fo extenfive a theme, that only .a brief and fu» gitive idea of them can be here attempted. The earlieft ftaple commo- dity of England was tin, a metal rarely found in other countries. The Pliocnicians firft introduced it into commerce, at leaft five or fix hundred years before the Chriftian xra ; and their extenfive trade foon diffufed it imoiig the Oriental nations. The Romans, upon their conqueit of thefe regions, did not neglcdl the fource of wealth ; but as Cornwall was not conquered by the Anglo-Saxons till the reign of Athelilan, we kA>vp not whether the Cornilh Britons carried on any confiderable traffic in this commodity, though it be probable that it was at leaft exchanged for the V, ines of France. Yet even in the reign of John, the product was fo inconfidcrable, that the mines were farmed to Jews for loo marks i Idit in that of Henry III., they began again to yield a large profit, which has gradually increafcd*. Cornwall, like moft countries that abound with minerals, prefents an (xtenfive afpe£t of defolation : a feries of barren hills and bleak heaths pervades its whole length, and the violent winds from the fea check the vegetation of trees and fhrubs. The tin mines are numerous, and of va- rious defcriptions. This metal is either found in the mafs, in what are called lodes •dtid^oo/s ; or in grains, or bunches, in the rocks ; or detached in feparate ftones, called Jhodet or Jlringt ; or in a courfe of fuch ftones called the beuheyl or living Jlr'tng \ or in the pulverized fliape of fand. Af- ter having been pounded in a mill, it is melted into blocks of 420 pounds weight. In the ore it is ftyled black tin, and is fometimes, tnough very. rarely, found in a metallic ftate. The fingularity ^nd importance of this firft national ftaple, may apo- logize for tliis difcuffion ; but the abundance of the other topics will re- quire more brevity. Wool had been regarded aa a grand ftaple of Eng- land, as earlv as the twelfth century, but was chiefly exported in a crudo llate, till Edward III. encouraged fettlements of Flemitn manufadlurers. Wool foon became the ((aadard of private propertyi wid the prime iMTtifilft r. •» tlJ Borlnfe'* CorairalL ^ '!'.4'- i^wiSiMuSUiiiiw-'. 50 ENGLAND. of commerce. Taxes and foreign fubfidies were eftimated by facks of this commodity *. Great quantities of raw wool continued to be export- ed to the Netherlands and Hanfe Towns ; but in the reign of Elizabeth It began to he chiefly maimfaftured at home, andthe'exportatien of wool- len cloths was then valued at a million and a half annually. The ex. portation of raw wool was at length prohibited } and the woollen fabrics preferve great importance^ though they no longer attraiSi fuch particular regard, amidft the exuberance of Englifli manufaftures. In recent times the manufaAures of iron and copper, native minerals^ have become great fources of national wealth-; nor mult the new and ex. tenlive exportation of elegant earthen-ware be forgotten. Tlie cotton manufadture is difFufed far and wide, farming a grand fource of induih-y and profpority. That of linen, except of lailH:loth, is not much culti. vated in England. The manufadlures of glhfs and fine fteel, clocks, watches, &c. afe defervedly eminent and extenfive* As the nation is indebted to Wedgewood for converting clay into>gold, fo to Boy dell for another elegant branch of exportation, that of beautiful prints. BeHdes manufactured articles, England exports a number of native products too numerous to be liere mentioned. . The Englifli manufadlures hsive been recently eftimated at the annual value of 63,600,000/. and fuppofed to employ 1,585,000 perfonsf. Of thefe, the woollen manufa^ure is fuppowd to yield in round fums, 15,000,000/. the leather JO,ooo,ooo/. the iron, tin, and lead lo,oco,ooo/. the cotton 9,000,000/. The other chief manufa<5\ure8, which yield from I to 4,000,000/. n\ay be thus arranged, according to their confe. auence ; fteel, plating, &c. copper aud brafs, filk, potteries, linen and ax, hemp, glals, paper. The commerce of England is, at the preilent period, enormous, and may be faid to extend ta every region of the globe. The trade with the Weft Indies is one of the moil important, and that witK the Eaft Indies alone, would have aftoniihed any of the celebrated trading cities of an. tiquity. From the States of North America, are chiefly imported tobacco, rice, indigo, timber, hemp, flax, iron, pitch, tar, and lumber : from the Weft Indies, fugar, rum, cotton, cofl*ee, ginger, pepper, guaiacum, farfaparilla, mancineal, mahogany, gums, &c. From Africa, gold duft, ivor)-, gums, &c. From Uie Eaft Indies and China, tea, rice, fpiccs, drugs, colours, (ilk, cotton, falt-petre, fliawls, and other products of the loom. Frotp our remaining fetttements in North America, are imported furs, timber, pot-afh, iron ; and from the various ftatcs of Europe, numerous articles of utility and luxury. The annual income of Great Britain was eftimated in 1799 by Mr. Pitt at 102,000,000 ; and including the money, of which the eltimate is fai- from certain, the whole capital of Great Britain may perhaps be calculated at more than one thoufand two hundred millions. In the year 1 797, the amount of the exports, according to Cuftom* houfe accounts, was 28,917,000/. and of the imports, 21,013,000/. yielding, as is fuppofed, clear profits on foreign trad^ to the amount of at leai. 10,000,000/. The number of merchant vefTels amounts probably to 16,000 ; and it is calculated that 140,000 men and boys are employed ao the navigation. * Campbell't Pofiticnt Survey, vol it. p. ijl, rj^. A woik opultat in materia1i,but •f mod teitioiM ami uncouth cxemtion. f Mr. <#r«Ui«r ill tl)« Monthly Ma(.Ianuiryi8oi. . >«. r» ,«« T T'he climate of Great Britain is perhaps Climate and Seasons.] j^ ^^^^ ^^^j^y^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ J^ ^^^^ country on the globe, as the vapours of the Atlantic ocean are oppofed to the drying wmds from the Eaftern continent. The Weftern coans, in particular, are fubje£l to frequent rains : and the eaftern part of Scotland is of a clearer and dryer temperature than that of England. , The humi* dity of the climate, indeed, clothes the delicious vales and meadows with a verdure unknown to any other region : but is injurious to the health of the inhabitants, by cauung colds and catarrhs, the frequent fourcea of more deadly diforders. . In confequence of the mutability of the climate, the feafons themfelves are of uncertain tenour, and the year might more properly be divided into eight months of winter, and four of fummer, than into any theoretic arrangement, originating in the fouthem latitudes. What is called the Spring dawns in April, commonly, indeed, a mild month ; but the eaftern wmds, prevalent in- May, feem commiffioned to ruin the efforts of revivinsr nature, and deftroy the promife of the year. Junc^ Julv, Aujguft, and September, are umally warm fummer months ; but a ni^nt of froft is not unknown, even in Auguft, and fometimes a cold Eaft wmd will blow for three days together ; nor, of late years, are fummers unufual of almoft conftant rain *. The winter may be faid to commence with the beginning of October, at which time domeftic fire* become neceffary } but there is feldom any fevere froft till Chriftmas, and January is the moft ftem month of the year. Yet, as our fummers often produce fpecimens of winter, fo now and then gleams of warm funfliine illuminate the darker months^ though rarely amounting to what the French call un ete de St. Martitit or Martinmas fummer. March is generally the moft unfettled month pi the year, interfperfed with dry firoft, cold rains, and ftrong winds, with ftorms of hail and fleet. Face or the Country.] A chief ftep to the ftudy of Geography confifts in the knov^ledge of what may be term^rl the phyfiognomy of^the country ; yet has no province in this fcience been fo completely neg^^ed. We have even maps of Scotland and Switzerland, without mountains, and maps of China without canals. The chief features of any country are its hdls, vales, and rivers ; and of a maritime ftate, the fea^:oaft. Mr. Pennant, in his ArAic Zoology, has given an admirable defcription of part of the Englilh ftiores, whicn fliall here be abbreviated, with an alter- ation in the arrangement, as be choofes to begin with the Straits of Dover. From the mouth of the Tweed to Bamborough, extends a fandy (horef and the moft remarkable obje£^ is Lindesfam, or Holy Ifland, divided from Northumberland by a level, which is dry at low water, but out of which the flowing tide wozes fuddenly, fo the terror and peril of the un* * Til* fummer of itoo wii rtmarkabic for drynift and warmth, fcarcely any viim Ming fcuni tiis ith of Juns to tht soth of Auguft, when s tbuadw-Aorn fuccsoM £ 3 ■'• 5^ ENGLAND. wary traveller. From Baniborough Caftlcf to Flamborough Head, are moftly low cliffs, of lime-ftone, and other materials ; and at Sunderland* of a peculiar ftone ufed in building, and which feems the work of marine infers. Scarborough Hands on a vaft rock, projecting into the waves ; but Flamborough Head is a far more magnificent objeft, beinff formed of lime-ftone, of a fnowy whitenefs and ftupendous height, vifible far off at fea. Grand caverns open on the north fide, *« giving wide and folemn " admiflion, through moft exalted arches, into the body of the moun- " tain, together with the gradual decline of light, the deep filence of the ** place, unlcfs interrupted by the ftriking of the oar, the coUifion of a ** (welling wave againft the fides, or the loud flutter of the pigeons, af- ** frighted from their nefts in the diftant roof, afford pleafures of fcenery ** which fuch formations as this alone can yield. Thefe alfo are won- *• derfuUy diverfified. In fome parts the caverns penetrate far, and end in •* darknefs } in others are pervious, and give a romantic paffage by another ** opening, equally fuperb. Maqy of the rocks are infulated, of a pyra- ** midicd^form, and foar to a great height. The bafes of moft are folid» ** but in fome pierced through and arcticd. All are covered with the " dung of the innumerable flocks of migratory birds, which refort here " annually to breed, and fill every little projeftion, every hole, which will ** give them leave to reft *." Hence to the Humber are commonly clay cliffs ; and near Spurnhead, amber is fometimes found. The extenfive coaft of Lincolnfhire is flat, and, according to Mr. Pennant's opinion, has been gained from the fea ; though, in fome parts, the fea has in its turn invaded the land, and the remains of a foreft ar& vifible under the waves. The county of Lincoln, and part of fix others, are the low countries of Britain ; and the coaft i» diftineuifhable by cluirdies, not by hills. Tlie fhores of Norfolk and Suffolk prefent fometimes loaniy or clayey precipices, fometimes hillocks- of fand, and fometimes lo\V and flat fpaces. Hunftanton-cliff rifes to the height of about eighty feet, compofed of chalk and friable ftone, rcfting on a bafe of wliat is called iron-coloured pudding ftone, projedling into the fea. The coaft of Eflex is generally low ; but, to the fouth of the Thames, arife continued cliffs of chalk, with layers of flint, refembling mafonry. The north Foreland is a lofty, ciialky promontory j and the Cliffs of Dover arc known to every reader of Shakefpeare. It is to be regretted that Mr. Pennant did not extend his animated defcription to the fouthern and weftern coails : cliffs of chalk and clay are interfperfed with flat gravel, till the ifland of Portland prefents i^s bold rocky front. The weftern fliores abound with gramte» flate rocks, and lime-Kone. Soil and Agriculture.] The foil and agriculture of England ar* topics which have recently beenilluftratei in Tuch a multiplicity of me- ritorious works, that the uibjedl labours under the abundance of^the ma- terials. A few very general remarks muft here fufiice. The foil is greatly diverfified, but in general fertile ; and in tio country is agriculture more thoroughly underftood» or purfued in a grander ftyle, except, perhaps* in Flanders and Lombardy. The nobiUty and gentry mofUy refiding upon their eftates in fummer, often retain confiderable farms in their own lianas, and pra£tife and encourage every agricultural improvement. The writings of^ Mr. Young, the inftitutions in the weft, and the Board of Agriculture, recently eredlcd, have contributed to diffufe a wide and laft- log knowledge of this interefting branch. The intermixture of the green ^"■^W * Pcunant'i Ar^Hc Zooloj/, vol. i. p. kw 8L crop* crops wi the regu the art o] among ti in the bn forgotten Amidfl two circu; vaft exter acres in [ while thof above half fit for plar and three-j Horticn great aflidi and fruits, fpirit of cu about 120/, computed with ajuft i afFedlations tryf. Rivers." important £ phical portr terfeiEled by and the Mer after an eaft( Gloucefter, grefs of abc tributary ftr the Wye t. The Thar tains a fouth. receiving the and Lee. 1 Wye into ths vigable to Cr The Hum ceivcs many c Of thefe the Staflbrdfhire, direft courfe ftire. Theot a navigable ftr and the Caldei the woollen . noble river Vi branch of the omitted, whici the Hull. Th * Firft Report t i-wrd Offo« n ENGLAND. 53 crops with thofe of grain, the ufe of turnips, the irrigation of meadows, the regular fubftitution of crops appropriated to the ftate of the land, the art of driaining condu6led on fcientific principles, may be mentioned among the recent advances of knowledge ; inor muft the improvements in the breed of fheep and cattle, introduced by Bakewell and others, be forgotten, though their utility to the confumcr be doubtful. Amidft fuch topics of juft exultation, it is mortifying to refleft upon two circumftances, the deficiency of a propef fupply of grain, and thet vaft extent of wafte lands in this induftrious country. The cultivated acres in England and Wales are computed at upwards of 39,000,000, while thofe uncultivated are 7,888,777. Of thefe it is fuppoied that not above half a million is wholly unimprovable, and perhaps a million is only fit for plantations, while of the remainder one quarter is fit for tillage, and three-fourths for meadow and upland pafture *. Horticulture, or the art of gardening, is alfo purfued in England with great afliduity and fuccefs. The large fupply of the capital in vegetables and fruits, and the high prices given for early produce, occafion fuch a fpirit of cultivation, that each acre thus employed is fuppofed to yield about 120/. annually, the yearly confumption in the metropolis being computed at more than 1 ,000,000/. Or ornamental gardens, laid out with a juft attention to the beauties of nature, and free from the uncouth afFeftations of art, England is defervedly regarded as the parent coun- tryt- . . . „ Rivers.] But the rivers and mountains of a country conftitute its more important features; and, without juft delineations of them, the geogra- phical portrait cannot boall much truth in refemblance. England is in- terfeAed by four important rivers ; the Severn, the Thames, the Humber, and the Merfey. The Severn rifes from the mountain Plinlimmon, and, after an eafterly courfe to Shrewft)ury, bends its progrefs almoft fouth to Gloucefter, whence it flows fouth-wett into the Brittol Channel, a pro- grefs of about 150 miles, navigable as far as Welch-pool. Its chief tributary ftreams are the Northern and Southern Avons, the Teme and the Wye J, The Thames originates in Cotfwold-hills, Gloucefterfliire ; and main- tains a fouth-eafterly direftion, to its egrefs into the German ocean, after receiving the Cherwel, the Teme, the Kennctt, another Wye, the Mole, and Lee, The Medway flows into the eftuary of the Thames, as the Wye into that of the Severn. The courfe is computed at 140 miles, na- vigable to Cricklade §, The Humber is a name almoft confined to a large eftuary, which re- ceives many confidcrable rivers that fertilize the central parts of England. Of thefe the Trent is the moft important, which rifes at New-pool, in StafTordfliire, and, proceeding north-eaft, enters the Humber, after a direft courfe of about 100 miles, being navigable to Burton ilf StafFord- fhire. The other principal rivers that imie into the Humber are the Dun, a navigable ftream which runs by Doncafter ; the Aire navigable to Leeds, and the Calder navigable to Halifax, both fingularly ufeful in tranfporting the woollen manuradtures ; the Warf, navigable to Tadcafter ; and the noble river Ure, or Oufe, which runs by York, and forms another grand branch of the Humber, navigable to Rippon t nor muft the Dcrwent be omitted, which is navigable to New Matton ; nor, though laft and leaft, the Hull. The Humber may be regarded as the item ofa venerable oak, * Firft Report of the Committee of the Houfe of Commons, p. is. t iiwrd Orford on Modem Guiwing. \ Campbell, l X46. § Ibid.L 139. - ' E 3 , •% which) mfmrnai^aa*-- 54 ENGLAND. which, as ufual with that tree, fpreads its chief branches in a horizontal direAion. Though the Merfey prefent a grand eftuary, its courfe is not of great extent. It arifes in the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, and runs to the fouth-weft ; but the eftuary bends towards the north. The direft courfe is not above fifty miles ; and is navigable to Stockport : as the Irweil to near Manchefter, and the Weever to near Northwich, and the mines of rock-falt. In briefly defcribing the other navigable rivers of this kingdom, it may be proper to return to the Severn, and, proceeding fouth-weft, piirfue the outline of the coaft. The Avon is navigable to Bath« the Perrot to Illchefter, the Tone to Taunton, the Taw to Barnftaple, and another branch to Biddeford: the Camil of Cornwall, to Wedbridge, while the Plym, Dart, and Ex, can alfo be pervaded to a confiderable height= Another Avon is navigable to near Salifbury, the Itchyn to Winchefter, the Arun to Arundel, the Oufe to Lewes : the Rotlier, which forms the haven of Rye, is yet navigable, though fallen in fame. The Stour admits boats even to Canterbury ; but the Medway prcfents a navigable ftream as far as Tunbridge. On the north of the Thames, the Lee is navigable to BiHiop's Storttord and Hertford : the Crouch conveys boats from the fea to Hull-bridge in EiTex j the Black-water to Chelmsford, and another branch to Colchefter. The Stour is navigable to Sudbury ; the Onvell to Stowmarket j, the Deben to Woodbrioge j the Yare and Waveney prefent accefs to Foulfham, Norwich,' and Bungay. Next is the eftuary called the Wafh, which receives the Oufe, 'the Nen, the Welland, the Witham ; all .ftreams of confiderable navigation. On the North of the Humber, the Tees admits veflels to Stockton ; the Tyne to Newcaftle.. On the Weft, the Eden is navigable to Car- lifle ; the Lun or Loyne to Lancafter and Hornby i the Dee taChefter; the Conway to within two miles of LJanrwft ; the Tivey to a little above the tawn of Cardigan. Milford Haven prefents branches navigable to Haverford-weft, and to near Wifton : and laftly, the Wye may be pur- fued as far as Hay in Brecknockfhire. In general it may be Obferved of the Britifh rivers, tliat the length of their courfe is inconsiderable, when compared with that of the Con- tinental ftreams. The length of the Thames, compared with that of the Danube, is only as i to 7, and with that of tne Nile as i to 12. The Kian Ku of China, and the river of Amazons in South America, extend through a progrefs of more than dfteen times the length of that of the Thames. The rivers of the fouthem and middle parts of England prefent a ftrikiog contraft to thofe of the north ; the former purfuing a flow and inert courfe over mud, between level banks* amid rich and extenfive meadows ; while the latter roll their clear torrents over beds of gravel, between elevated banks and rocky precipices ^ and even when verdant levels occur,, the ftream ftill retains its banks and beds of gravel. «. Mountains.] The mountains form another grand feature of geo- H^raphy. They feldom appear iingle, but are either difpofed in lines or ndges» called chains, or m anomalous clufters. When they can be ar. ranged under the firft form or denomination, as the Alps, for example^ or the Pyrenees, they afford great cleamefs to geographical limits and defcriptions. It is not, however to be conceived, that a chain of moun. tains forms one feries, as delineated in fmall maps, for the leading fum- mits diverge on both fides into extenfive ribs, gradually melting into the champaign country. And the clufterSf if accurately furveyed, will generally chain minerals a little traced in gular bri v.liile a of Qogn fliire, Su called tlu ill Ox for tral ridge as a cor BIackdo\ Devon , to the L: in the ifla Wales vinces ; actual fur ' ^iti ENGLAND. 55 generally be found to prefent central elevations, whence fmallej: oranchea irradiate. While Bennevis, the higheft mountain in Scotland, is not much above one quarter of the height of Mont Blanc, the fovf :?ign of the Alps, the Enghlh and WeKh fummits afpire to heights ftiUlefs confi- derable ; Snowdon being only 3568 Eng-lifn I'eet above the fea, wliile Bennevis is 4387, or, by other accounts, ^o. Wham, or Wharnfide, in Yorklhire, was eftimated at 4050. . '<;leborough at 5280 feet. A late accurate meafiirement has, however, reduced this latter to 2380 feet, and probably Wharnfide ought alfo to be diminiihed in the fame pro- portion. Evc;n at the prefent day, the geography of fome parts of New Holland is better underllood than that of fome parts of Great Britain. There is not even a feparate map of the Enghfh rivers, though France fet an example of tliis kind, a century and a half ago ; nor has there been any attempt to delineate the chains of mountains in England. The imper- feftlon of, the matorials mull therefore apologize for any errors or deiefts in tlie fubfequent flight iketch- The mountains of Cheviot may be faid to form a regular ridge, running from the foulh-weft, where they join thofe of Gallo-way to the north-eaft. But there is a central ridge which pervades England from north to fouth, beginning at Geltfdale foreft, 14 miles S. E. of Carlifle, and paflingon the well of Durham and Yorkfliire, where it contains mines of coal and lead. The chief elevations, fuch as Kolton-fell, Stanmore, Widehill-fell, Wildboar-fell, Bow-fell, Home-fell, Binihill, 5cc. Sec. arife on the weftern limits of Yorkfliire. Cumberland and Weftmoreland prefent many detached moimtains, Skiddaw, &x. which can hardly be reduced to any (lifting arrangement ; but thofe ofXraven, in the Well Riding of Yorkfhlre, as Wharnfide, Ingleborouj^h, and Pennigent ; and Pendle, .on die eail of' Lancafter, belong to the jcentral chain which proceeds fouth, through Derbyfliire, (till abounding with minerals and natural curiofitiesj buthereit fceinsto terminate, fpreadmg a little into Qlhefhire^ A central chain of fmaller elevation may be traced in a y.igzag line, to near Salilbury, with two divergiuj and irr^ gular branches on the eall, one towards Norfolk, another into Kent, v.liile a third runs fouth-weft into Cornwall. To the firft belong the hills of Qogmagog, in Ciimbridgelhiro, &c. to the fecond the hills of Hamp- fliire, Surrey, and Kent. Another upland trnft of confiderable elevation, called the Chiltern- hills, extends from Tring in Hertfordlhire, to Henley ill Oxfordfliire. Malvern hil's, in Worcefterlhire, deviate from the cen- tral ridge, while thofe of Cotfwold, in Gloucefterfliire, may be regarded as a continuation of it. The bins of Mendip. Polden, Sedgemoor, Blackdown, in iSomerfetlhire ; the Tors and Wilds of Dartmoor, in Devon ; and the hills and upland downs of Cornwall, extend this chain to the I^and's End? and after pafling this lall rocky province, it expires in the iflands of Scilly. Wales is a country abundant in mountains, efpeciaUy the northern pro- vinces ; but their orology jremains indeterminate, and it would require the adlual furvey of an experienced engineer to reduce them to chains or groupes. To begin with the noftli, Snowdon commands the firft atten- tion, a mountain of eminent heiv^ht and fame. The top is called Y Widdfa, or the confpicuous, forming abnoll a point, and prefenting a view of the county of Chellcr, the mountains of Yorkfliire, part of Scotland and jLrcland, and the illcs of Man and Anglefey*. ,? « MMtin I- * Pennant's Junrnry to London, p. 170* E 4 ■ .. - . ■ ^ ^ * -■?! >'* The I« ENGLAND. The ftone that compofes it is petrofilex and argillaceous fchiftus, large coarfe crvftals are often found in the fiflures, and very frequently cubic pyritae, the ufual attendants on Alpine trafts. From Snowdon, a line of mountains extends by the fea to Pbnlimmon, a boundary of North Wales, vrhence iffues the noble rivers Severn and Wye. Of thefe hills, Urrou Seth, Caer Idris, and Moel Vadiau, are the moft memorable. The hills on the eaft of North Wales are far from attaining fuch confiderable eleva- tion, and gradually decline to thehillsofShropfliire, of which the Wrekin IS one of the moft noted. A chain proceeds due fouth to near Cardiff in South Wales ; it is of far inferior height, and a fmall branch diverges to the weft, confifting of Cwm Cothy, Mynydd, Carreg, Brilley, and Cwm Kcrrun-hills. On the eaft of South Wales are the hills of Herefordfliirc, the Black Mountain, Cufop-hill, Hargeft, Stockley-hill, &c. In the northern and wreftern mountains and hills, chalk is unknown, vrhile it forms a chief material of thofe of the fouth and eaft. An eminent naturalift obferves, that a line drawn from Dorchefter, in the county of Dorfet, to the county of Norfolk, would form a boiuidary of the great chalky ftratum which interfefts the kingdom, none being found in any quantity to the north or weft of that line*. The northern mountains are moftly compofed of limeftone, fandftone, (late, or fchiftus, with mines of lead or coal ; thofe of Derbylhire prefent vaft mafles of limeftone, interfered with thick veins of toadftone, and numerous foflils and mine- rals, the confideration of wliich is referved for a future article.. The fummit of Skiddaw prefents white fhivery flate, or argillaceous fchiftus ; but fome of the Weftmoreland mountains contain filiceous fchiftus ; and it is probable that granite may exift in thofe of Cheviot. The vaft bafe of Ingleborough, near 30 miles in circuit, confifts of limeftone ; on the eaft fide full of fhells to near the fummit, whi9h is of grit and fandftone-. flag ; the foflils, black and brown marble, thin flate, near Ingletou, rotten ftone, or tripoli, and fome lead oref .• And fuch is this chain to its ter- mination ; while further to the fouth the eafterly elevations are of chalk; and thofe on the weft, as Mendip hills in Somerfetfliire, are wholly cal- careous. The granite begins at Dartmoor in Devonfhire, and continues through Cornwall, where it occurs of various colours, the grey granite, or moor-ftone j the red, or oriental ; tlie white, the yellow, and the blueifli, or pigeon-coloured ;{:. Near the Lizard and Mullion are rocks of Terpentine and fteatites, together with a dccompofed granite, which is iimilar to the petlmfi of China, and applied to the fame purpofes iu the manufa6lure of porcelain. The Welfli mountains abound in flate, horn-ftone, arid porphyry, ■with large maffes of quartz. The Wrekin, about ten miles eaft of Shrewft)ury, is chiefly compofed of reddifli chert, or petrofilex, with filiceous fand-ftone, bafalt, and a kind of granite ||. The great coal diftrid of Coalbrookdale refts on indurated clay, while that near Briftol is accompanied by black free-ftone, and even the calcareous freeftone near Bath is interfperfed with numerous veins of coal. The Malvern hills, on the S.W. of Worcefterfliire, run N. and S. about ten miles, and afford many granitic rocks with chert and hornblende flate J. Thefe few notices muft fuffice on the compofition of the Engliih mountains. * Pennant's Journey from Chelter to London, p. 214. •f- Guide to the Lakes, 265, 367. J Pryce's Mineralogy of CornwalL Maton's Weftern Tour, &c. (1 Townfon's Trads, p. 163. § Ibid. ai6. afubJ«A ENGLAND. SI a fubje£l which only begins to attradl the attention which its curiofity deferves. Forests.] To the reader of poetry the vfordforefi conveys the idea of a region replete with thick and tall woods, interfperfed with romantic lawns and murmuring rivulets. But in England a foreft is fometimes bare of trees, or not unfrequently only prefents a few withered oaks ; and the term is even applied to upland downs and heaths. Many of the fo- refts were, even in the Anglo-Saxon times, efteemed royal dcmefnes ; but the Norman monarchs were fo. much addifted to the cliace, that up- wards of fixty foretts at one time appertained to the crown ; of which the chief now remaining are the forefts of Dean, in Glor.cefterfliire ; Sherwood, in Nottinghamfhire ; Windfor, in Berkfhire ; and the Newr Foreft, in Hampfliire. The royal forefts conftituting fo large a part of the kingdom, fubjeft to peculiar regulations, many grievances arofe, till the Barons exadled from Henry III. the foreft charter ; in which fevcral defpotic laws were revoked, and more equity extended to the neigh- bouring proprietors and tenants. General Sketch of British Botany.] Among the numerous fpecies of vegetables which are natives of Britain, icarcely any are adequate to the fuftenance and cloathing of man. Our frequent rains, our blafting winds, and the fcanty portion to which we are ftinted of the light and heat of the fun, deprive us entirely of thofe vegetable treafures, which, in the tropical climates, offer themfelves in overflowing exuberance, to fatisfy the wants and luxurious defires of their human inhabitants. The never-failing verdure of our plains and hillS, covered with a rich carpet of grafles and papilionaceous plants, ihews how admi- rably our country is qualified for the fupport of graminivorous quadru- • peds ; and we find accordingly that our ancient forefts abounded in ftags and roe-deer, as our cleared and cultivated lands do now with (heep and cattle. The Flora, of Britain, though it cannot boaft the moft fplendid and exquifite of vegetable productions, yet contains as great a variety of ge- nera %nd fpecies as any other country of equal extent. The inveftiga- tion of indigenous plants is continually carrying on here with increafing ardour, and every year brings new acceffions to our crowded ranks of native vegetables. • The hrft for importance and variety is the family of grasses. Almoft every part of the country that is not under tillage is principally covered with grafs. Under almoft all the differences of foil and fitua- ^ tion, we find the chief covering of the richeft, as well as of the moft barren trafts, made up for the moft part of thefe plants ; to thefe we are indebted for the luxuriant verdure of our paftures, for the clofe velvet carpeting of our downs and fheep-walks, and the more fcanty cloathing ofour mountainous diftridls. Twenty-feven genera, and a hundred ana ten fpecies of grafs, are natives of our ifland, moft of them of common occurrence in Situations where they are found at all. None of them have been proved to be poifonous, either to man or beaft ; on the contrary, whether frefh or dried, they furnifli a grateful food to all our domeftic cattle. The moft important graffes in meadows and paftures are the meadow fox-tail grafs ; two or three fpecies of hair-grals, and meadow- grafs ; the cock's-foot fefcue, and oat-grafs. Other fpecies are natives of marfhes and wet places ; thefe are generally the largeft and moft luxu- riant J and if ;n quality they be fomewhat inferior to the preceding, yet the defcfl is probably more than compenfated by the quantity of herbage that they fupply. Light fandy foils, efpecially the flat parts of the eaftern and fouthern coafts* abound in gralTes that are hardly to he met with 58 ENGLAND. with in the interior of the ifland ; the herbage of thefe affords a coarfe and fcanty pailure, and they are eminently diftinguifhed from their kin» dred fpecies by the length and ftrength of their creeping-roots. The inhabitants of Skey> and the other weftern iflands of Scotland, manu. faAiire them into durable ropes ; and, vvJiile growing, they ferve the very important purpofe of binding together the loofe fand, which other- wife would be drifted far up the country. Upon the fides and fumniits of cur mountains are fbund a few graffcs that do not appear elft^whcre. mixed with fonie others of more grneral occurrence ; as, however, \n tliefe bleak and elevated fituatious, covered with fuow for forae months in the year, and fhrouded in clouds for the principal part of the remain- der, it would be fcarcely poifible for thefe plants to bring their feeds to niUurity, we obferve in them a wife and ftriking deviation from the com- mon courfe of nature. Like tae roil of their tribe, they throw up flower- ing ilems and liear blofToms j but thefe are fucceeded not by feeds, but ly bulbs, which in a fliort time vegetate, and are already furniflied with a leaf and roots before they fall to the ground: all the viviparouykgraffes, except one (Feftuca vivipara), if tranfplanted to a lower and warmor fltuatbn, accommodate themfelves to their new chmate, luid produce feedt. Befides thefe there are others of a more hardy couftitution, ■which appear to be theirue natives of the mountains, and multiply their fpecies by feed in the ufual way*. Nearly allied to the graifes in general hahit, are a number of fpecies, natives of moors, bogs, and pools ; thefe ferve to give confiitency to the deep mud or peat in which they are rooted, and, when young, afford a coarfe pafture to flieep and cattle ; feveral of them are nfed for matting, thatching, and for chair bottoms. The ftately Typha (bull rufh) is one of the principal ornaments of our fens and negle(fted pools, and the fe- veral fpecies of cotton-grafs enliven many a dreary mile of bog, by their gracefully pendant tufts of fnowy white. The Leguminous, or papilionaceous plants, fo called from their winged bloifoms, form a very important diviJion in Britifh botany. The bcrbaf;c of all when frcfh, and of many when dry, is a moft grateful f6od to horfes, cattle, and fheep ; and feveral of them, as the clovers and vetches, are largely cultivated for this purpofe. Many of this clafs are climbers, and adoni our thickets and hedges with elegant feftoons of bloffoms and foliage. Almoll all the Enghih pa])i]ionaceou8 plants flourilh bed in light calcareous foils, either rocky or fandy ; and fome of them, as the lady's finger, and fantfoin, may be reckoned certain indications of chalk or lime-ftone. Tlie umbi.'lliferous plants form another large clafs in the natural ar. rangemcnt of Britifh vegetables, confifling of about fixty fpecies. The roots and feeds of thofe kinds which grow on dry, lignt foils, are frc quently aromatic ; thofe that are natives of marfhes and moift meadows, are, for the moll part, in a greater or lefs degree poifonous. Tho whole clafs, indeed, is a fufpicious one ; and excepting the fennel and ci;lery, not a fingle native fpecies is cultivated for the food of nun or b;aft. Perhaps the moft fpleudid of all the herbaceous plants are the bulbous rooted, which, from their general refemblancc to tne lily, have ohtaimd the name of Liliaceous ; moft of thefe, however, are natives of wannrr climates ; the fandy deferts about the Cape of Good Hope, and the fhores of the Indian ocean, produce the moft beautifiti (pccies. Of thofe which are found wild in England, there are only twenty-eight * 'I'h* iralt r.'llrd fiorin now attraAi much attention, from iu gruwth in cold and niiuiliy fuu40ui.a4 I'u thai liay may be made iii Ciiriltinw. 7 fpccie«| ENGLAND. 59 {pecies ; and the greater number of thefe are of rare occiurence in » truly native ftate ; the fpring and autumnal crocas, the fnow-drop, th« fnow-flake, the three kinds of Narciflus (including the daffodil;, the fritillary, tulip, and lilly of the valley, are more familiar to us as garden plants, than as niitives of our woods and paftures. The common ones of this clafs are Ramfons, a fpecics of garlic, meadow faffron, and the beautiful and fragrant hare bell, or wild hyacinth, one of the principal ornaments of our groves and thickets, even at a time when they are pro- fufe of beauties. Our native fruits belong, for the moft part, to the clafs of Rofaceous plants ; fuch as the wood-ttrawberry, the buUace and black-thorn, the hawthorn, crab, and mountain afh ; the common bramble, or black- berry, the rafpberry, ftone-bramble, and cloud-berry. The cherry, the medlar, the fervice, and pear trees, whofe fruit, when wild, is of fo little aecoimt, and of fuch value when improved by cultivation, belong alfo to this clafs. One of the largeil of the natural clafTes of En^lifli vegetable* it thit of the radiated of compound flowered plants (including about 120 fpe« cies). It is rather remarkable, that out of fo large a number of plantSt many of which are very abundant and of great fize, only a fingle one, the Tragopogon porrifolius (falfafy), (hould be applied to the fufte- nance of man, and not even a fuigle one (hould be cultivated for the ufe of cattle } more efpecially as theJLaftuca virofa ( ftrong-fcented lettuce^ is the only fpecics pofTefTed of deleterious properties. Moft of this cla» have an ungrateful bitter talle, and the fucciilent ones contain a white milky juice, of an acrid flavour. Of all our native vegetables they are the commoneft, thriving by ncgleft, and multiplying under perfecution i the farmer and gardener are unceafingly employed in their deftru£kion, for they contribute little or nothing to the fupport of man and the larger quadrupeds ; nor is the beauty of their appearance fuch as to obtain for tnem a place in the flower garden. The annual kinds, however, pro- ducing vail multitudes of feeds, and the perennial ones being furniflied with rong and deeply ftriking roots, there is no fear of their extermina- tion { they occupy road fides, ditch banks, and all waile places that are incapable of cultivation, and feem peculiarly devoted to the fuilenance of the granivordus birds by their feeds, and of numerous tribes of in- fers by their foliage. The fow thiftle, hawk weed, burdock, thiftle, cud-weed, coltsfoot, groundfcl, dandelion, daify, and yarrow, are the moft commonly occurring genera. Such of our trees and l.*rub8 as h-'.ve not been already mentioned, may be confidered as forminjr a peculiar clafs, and' one of great importance { it is naturally fubdivided into the evergreen and deciduous. The moft valuable of our native evergreens are the box, the pine, the yew, and the holly ; thofe of fecondury confequence are the juniper and ivy } the fpurgc laurel ; the cranberry ; and thofe extremely ornamental plants, the Vaccinium vitis idxa (red whortle berries) ; and ArbutUI uvaurfi (bear-berry). The deciduous tiihbcr-trccs that are either aboriginal, or at leaft have been long naturalized to our foil, are the oak, the cliefnut, and beech, all of which are niq/l'hraring'treest or produce farinaceous oily nuts, the favourite food of hogn, and of many graminivorous quadrupeds { the birch, the alder, the horn beam, the abele, the black poplar, and the afpen, bearing catkin^ { the fycamore, the maple, and tne afli { the lime, the elm, and wych hazle. A middle ftution between the timber- Vtw$ and (hrubtt is occupied by the hazU'» and the uuincrout fpeciet 66 ENGLAND. of willow. The pulpy fruit bearing (hrubs are the currant and goofe- berry, the elder, the barberry, the bilberry, the cornel, or dogwood, the buckthorn, the guelder rofe, and the mezerion ; the four firft are wholefome and grateful to the palate, the reft are either infipid or noxious. ' The ferns coraprife a number of elegant plants that grow in moill, fiiady, and uncultivated places, the ufcs of which have boon but little inquired into ; about forty-four fpecies are natives of Britain ; the roots of moft abound in a mild fwectifli mucilage, which in times of fcarcity has been reforted to for nutriment ; the larger and commoneft kinds, fuch as common fern or brakes, are coUedled and burnt for the potafh which is yielded from their aflies ; the Equifetum hyemale (fliave grafs) 18 much ufed by turners and cabinet-makers, as a fine file to fmooth their work with. The laft clafs of Englifli vegetables that we Hiall mention, is that of the marine Algae, or fea weeds. Between two and tliree hundred fpo- cies are found upon our own fhorcs ; the more tender and gelatinous kinds are eaten either raw or boiled ; and the reft on thofe rocky parts of the cuaft, where the) can be colledled in great quantities, arc burnt into kelp for tlie ufe of the foap-boilers and glafs-makers. ZooLOCiY.3 Mr. Pennant, in his Britilh Zoology, has treated this fubiedl at due extent, and with his ufiial ability. The nature of this work will only admit of a few imperfedl notices. Of quadrupeds, that cele. brated author enumerates twenty genera, from the horfe down to the feal and bat. The birds extend to rorty-K.Mght, the reptile.) to four, and the fifh to forty genqra, befides the cruftaceous and fliell iiih. That noble and ufeful animal,, the horfe, is found in England of many mingled breeds, while moft other kingdoms produce only one kind*. Our race-horfes defcend from Arabian ftallions, and the genealogy faintly ex- tends to our hunters. The great ftrength and fize of the En^lirti draught- horfes are derived from thofe of Gcnnany, Flanders, and Holftcin ; and other breeds have been fo intermingled, that native horfes may be found adapted to every purpofe of pomp, plcafure, or utility. Thofe of Yorkr ihire arc particularly celebrated for their fpirit and beauty ; and tlie grooms of that county are equally noted for their (kill in the manage- ment of this valuable animal. The iiidigenous horned cattle arc now only known to exift in Ncid- wood foreft, in StafTordfhire ; and at Chillingham caftle, in Northum- berland* They are long-legged and wild like deer, of a pure wliite colour, with black mu/.zles, ears, and tails, and a ftripe of the fame l»ue along the back. The domefticated breeds of our cattle arc a^molt as various as thofe of our horfes ; thofe of Wales and Cornwall are fniall, while the Lincolnfhire-kind derive their great fi/.e from thofe of Hoi- ilein. In the North of England we fnid Kylies, fo called from the dif. tridt of Kyle, in Scotland ; in the South we fnid the elegant breed oi Guernfey, generally of a light brown colour and fmall fr/.e, but re- markable for the richnefa of their milk. Of late years Mr. Bakewell, and others, have brought the breeding of cattle and iheep to u regular fyftem, but to the great injury of good beef and mutton. The number and value of fheep in England may be Judged from the ancient ftaple commodity of wool. Of this molt ufeful animal fcveral breed* appear, generally denominated from their particular counties or tliflridti ; thofe uf Hcrefui'dlhire, Devonfhire, and Cotfwuld downs, arc; Ir * Pennant '1 Zoology, vol. it p. 1, noted •'A ENGLAND. # noted for fine fleeces, whfle the Lincolnftiire and Warwickftiire kind are remarkable for the quantity. The Teefdale breed of the county of Dur- ham, though lately negle£ied, continue to deferve their fame. The wool is beautiful, but the length of their legs leffens their value in the eyes of the butcher. The mutton of Wales, on the contrary, is efteemed, while the wool is coarfe, yet employed in many ufeful and falutary ma- iiufaftures. The moft laudable exertions have lately been made by the Board of Agriculture, and by individuals, for the improvement of the Englifh fleece. The goat, an inhabitant of the rocks, has, even in Wales, for the moft part, yielded to the more ufeful (heep ; that country being, like Scot- land, more adapted to the woollen manufacture. The breeds of fwine arc various and ufeful. England alfo abounds in breeds of dogs, fome of which were cele- brated even in Roman times ; nor have their modern defcendants, the inaftiff and bull-dog, degenerated from the fpirit and courage of their anceftors. Of our favage animals the moft fierce and deftruitivc is the wild cat, which is three or four times as large as the domellic, with a flat broad face, colour yellowiih white, mixed with deep grey, in ftreaks running from a black lift on the back ; hips always black, tail alternate bary of b!ack and white ; only found iu the moft moiintainous and W<)ody parts. The wolf has been long extinft, but the fox abounds. The chief of o\ir birds of prey arc, the great eagle, idly called the ;joldcn, fomctimes found on Snowdon j the black eagle has appeared in Derbyftiire ; the ofprey, or fea eagle, fecms extinft in England. The peregrine falcon breeds in Wales j and many kinds of hawks in Engl?.nd. An enumeration of the other birds would be fupcrfluous. The nightin- jrale, one of the moft celebrated, is not found in North Wales, nor any wh'.reto the north, except about Doncafter, where it abounds; nor does it travel fo far weft as DcvonHiirc and Cornwall *. Our poultry feem to ori;jinate from Alia ; our peacocks from India ; our pheafants from Colchis J tiirkies from North America ; the guinea-fowl are from Africa. Our linalli ft bird is the uolden-crefted wren, which fports on the higheft pine trees; and our Targcft the buftard, fome of which weigh twcnty-five pounds, and are found in the open countries of the fotitti and call. The moft uA'ful of our water-fowl is the mallard, or wild-duck, which is chiefly caught in the fens of Lincolnfhirc ; the num« bcrs fent to the capital ahnoft exceed credibility. The reptiles are fro^s, toads, fcvcral kinds of lizards : of our ferpents^ the viper alone is venomous ; other kinds are, the fhakc, fomctimcs found four feet in length ; and the blind-worm, fcldom cxoccding eleven inches. Of fifh, the whale but feldom appears near the Englilh coafts ; the iorpcfs, and others of the fume genu;;, are not uncommon. The baflc- ig fliark appears off the fliorca of Wales. Numerous are our edi- le fea fifh. Some of the moft celcbrAtod arc the turbot, dorcc, foal, cod, plaice, fmelt, and mullet. The cojifumption of herrings ar.d fiackarel extends to moft parts of the kingdom ; but pilchards are con* fined to the Cornifh coafts. Our chief river fifli are the falmon and the trout, wliich arc brought from the northern parts in prodigious ni:m- bcrs, generally packcu in ice. It is faid that not Icfs than 30,000 fal- mon arc brought from one river, the Tweed, to London, in the courfe • rcimmt* D. Z. i. jdDi. ENGLAND* of a feafon. The lamprey is chiefly found in the SeTerii) the charr ii» the lakes of Weftmoreland. The lobfter is found on moft of the rocky coafts, particularly off Scar, boroush; but there is a great fupply from the Orkneys, and the Enelim oyilers maintain then- Roman reputation. The green, from Col. chefter in Eflex, and the juicy white, from Milton in Kent, have the chief reputation. Mineralogy.]] It feldom or never happens that countries, abundant in the production of agriculture ihould at the fame time, prefent an opulent mineralogy. Yet England is far from being deficient in this refpedt. The tia mines in Cornwall have been already mentioned ; and they are ■ot only venerable from their antiquity, but air, it is fuppofed, tlie richeft of the kind in the world. That kind of filver termed by mineralogiftg horn ore,'is alfo found in that diftrift ; but the profound fccrecy obfervcd in working it forbids any inveftigation of the amount. The Huel rock boafts of what is called bell-metal ore ; and of wolfram. Cornwall alfo produces copper at Redruth, Alftone, and the Land's End. The fame metal is found in Yorkfliire and Staflbrdfiiire ; but no where in fuch abundance as in the Parrys moimtain, in the north-weft of Anglefea*. Inftead of dcfcending in veins through various rocky ftrata, the ufual form of metallic ores, it here forms a prodigious heap, and is worked in the manner of a quarry. The mountain is almoft bare of fhrubs or grafs, and is covered with aluminous ftate, under which in grey chert, is the ore, being chiefly the yellow fulphuret, of very variable richnefs. ITiis valuable mine was difcovered about thirty years ago. Lead is found in the Mendip hills, Somerfetfliirc; which alfo produce calamine and manganefe. The lead mines in Derbyshire are well known, not only for that metal, but for the beautiful veins of fluor which accom. pany it, and which is manufaAured into feveral ornamental articles. In, general, the northern central ridge of mountains abounds with lead ore. The lead mines of Allton, on the eafteni verge of Cumberland, employ about iioomen. No metal is fo widely difTufcd, through the globe as iron ; and England ■ot only contains excellent mines, but excels all nations in the variety of fiibrication. The moft remarkable mines of iron arc thofe of Coalbrook. dale, Shroplhire, Dean foreft in Gloucefterlhire, with fome in the north of England, particularly near Ulverftdn, in Lancaihire. Among the minor metals, zinc, in the form of lapis calaminaris, and blende, is found in Derbyihire, Denbighfliirc, Cornwall, and other re. gions. Nickel and arfenic fomctimes appear in Cornwall ; and recently, what is called mcnachanite. But one of the moft important of this kind is plumbago, or black lead, which is found in the ridge of Borrodale, near Kefwic, in Cumberland ; the mine is only opened at certain intervals of time. Gold has been difcovered in Tarious quarters of England ; but the metal has never recompenfed the labour and expence. The real gold mines of England are thofe of coal, found in the central, northern, and weftern parts, but particularly in the northern, around Newcaftle. The coal> of Whitehaven and Wigan are more pure ; and the cannel coals of Lanca* flkire are fo beautiful, that they are fufpeded bv fome to have confti. tuted the ga^atett or jet, which the ancients alcribed to Britain. A lingular fpe«ies of coal ii found in Bovey lieath, Devonftiire, refemblipg • Aikia'i Walci, 1J3. wood ENGLAND. 6S wood impregnated with bituminous matter. Turf, or peat, is common, even in Hampfliire, and other fouthern counties. The mines of rock fait, in Chefhire, muft not be omitted. They ap» pear to have been known to the Romans. Leland has defcribed them ia the time of Henry VIII. ; nor were they unknown even in the Saxoa periods. Thofe of Northwich are tlie mod remarkable : at Namptwich and Middlewich are only fait fprings : and others occur at Droitwich, in Worceilerfliire, and Wefton, in Staffordihire. The immenfe mines on tlie foiitli iide of Northwich were difcovered about the beginnbg of this cen- tury. The quarries, with their pillars and cryftal roof, extending over many acres, prefent a beautiful fpeftacle ; the ftratum offalt lies under a bed of whitifli clay, at the depth of about forty yards. The firft ftratum is about twenty yards thick, fo folid as to be blafled with gunpowder > this fait refembles brown fugarcandy. Next is a bed of hard ftone, under which is a fecond ilratum of fait, about fix yards thick ; in fome parts brown, in others as clear as cryftal. The Witton pit is circular, io8 yarda In diameter, the roof fupported by twenty-five pillars, each containing 294 folid yards of rock fait ; the whole covering near two acres of land. The annual produce of rock faltat Northwich has been eftimated at 65 ,000 tons ; of which about two thirds ufed to be exported to Flanders and the Bahic*. Marbles, and free-ftone, or fine limeftone, of various colours and tex- tures, alfo occur ; the moil celebrated of the latter are thofe of Port- land; Furbeck, &c. Fine alabafler appears in Dcrbylhire ; fullers-eartb in Berklhire, and fome other amnties. MiNEiiAL WATKRs.] Noris England lefs produAfve of mineral waters^ ot various properties and dt-fcriptions. Thofeof Bath have been celebrated ilnce the Roman times. Next to that place of faOiionable refort may be mentioned the hot-wells of Briftol, thofe of Tnnbridge in Kent, and of Buxton and Scarborough in the North. Thofe of Cheltenham in Glou- cefterlhire have been elleemed beneficial in fcorbutic cafe« • but to enmnf- rate the fprings of inferior note would be infinite} as chalybeat wells, at Icaft, muft occur in almoft every county, and new waiters are daily fturtin^ into celebrity. Natural cimiosiTiRs.] Among the natural curiontics, thofe of DerbyHiire have always been efteemed the nioft memorable. Hobbes and uthcrs have long 'fince celebrated the wonders of the Peak, a mountaiti not equal in height to thofe of Wales, or the more northern part of England, but perfomted with fuch vertical chafras, and fuch furprifing caverns, as have dcfervcdly excited admiration. Other remarkable caverns are found in the northern ridge of Englifli mountains. In the vale of Kingfdale, on the weftern extremity of York- fhire, is Yordas cave, which prefent s a fubterraneous cafcade. But the moft noted is Wethercot cave, not far from lugleton. It is furrounded with trees and ftirubt, is in form Uke a lo/.enge, divided by an arch of limeftone { pafling under which you behold a large cafcade, faUing from a height of more than twenty yards ; the lengtli m tliis cave is about futy yards, the breadth thirty. The lakes of Cumberland form another grand fcenc of attrafkion : but it would be idle to attempt td dcpiA, in a fe^ words, beauties whickhavc been defcribed by fo many authors, and particularly by the glowing pen- cil of a Gray. Suffice it to ubfcrve, that tlte three moil celebrated lakct * rtnn«nt*f 7oumey from Cb«(\«t t« LonJon, f, iC> Cough's C'n-dcH, u. 436. Aikio t MsnciitfttCj 427. «re 64 ENGLAND. are thofe of Cbnifton, Windermere, and Derwent. The beauties of the firft have been compared to the delicate touches of Ciaude ; the noble fce?ie8 of the fecond, to thofe of Pouflin ; while Derwent has much of the wildnefs of Salvator Rofa : but moft travellers efteem Ulfwater to be the moft truly fublirfe. The mountainous regions of Wales may well be fuppofed to prefent many natural curiofities ; and the Parrys mine in Anglefea is in itfelf a furprifing objeft. The tatarafts in Cumberland are rivalled by a remark- able fall of the Tees, on the weft of the county of Durham, over which is a bridge fufpended by chains, feldom pafled but by the adventurous miners ; nor muft Afgarth force, in Yorkfliire, be pafled in filence. The fubmarine relics of a foreft, on the coatt of Lincoln(hire, may be defervedly clafled among the moft remarkable natural curiofities. On the N. W. fide of the Mendip hills is a conliderable cavern, at the bottom of a deep ravine, near the little village of Berrington, or Burrington. Here are a number of human bones, gradually incorporating with the lime-ftone rock ; there being a continual dripjyct'; from the rooiand fides, which de- pofits a ftaladtitic fediment on the bones. Several nodules contain perfeft human flcuUs. At the farther end, where the height is about fifteen feet, there is a large conic ftalaftite, wliich nearly meets a pillar riling from tlie floor. This cave was difcovered in 1 796 and as the matter increafes fo faft, it is conjeftured tliat it would fooii have been clofed up*. Hence it is probable that thcfe- bones are of no remote antiquity, and may perhaps be the remains of fome wretches wlio had here taken flicltcr from the cruelty of JefFeries, after the infurredlion of Monmouth. at 20,000 1781, St. was killed valour beii ENGLISH ISLES. .' . v : . - In the Southern, or Enghih Channel, firft appears the Ifle of Wight, by the Romans called FeSllsy by the Saxons Vihtlond, of an oval form, about twenty miles in length, and twelve in breadth. This ifle is fertile and beautiful, and decorated witli many pifturefque villas ; the principal haven is that of Welt Cowes. The chief mineral produd^s are pipe clay, and fine white fand, for the fabrication of pure glafs ; and at Alum Bay, on the north lide of the Needles, are found confiderable quantities of native alum f. One of the moft remarkable buildings is Carifljrook caftle, where Charles I. was imprifoned ; it was built foon after the conquell, as appears from the book of Doomfday. The lofty white rocks ftyled the Needles, feem to have been disjoined from the wcIUtii extremity of the ifle by the violence of the waves. There were formerly three ; but about the year 1782, the talleft, which rofe about 120 feet above tl^e low-water mark, was overthrown, and totally difappenred |. At t\t diftance of about feventy miles from Wight, to the S. W. arifcs the little ifle of Alderney, off the Cape la Hogue ; which is afterwards followed by the more important ifles of Jerfey and Guernfey ; Sark being a fmall ifle interpofed between the two latter. Jerfey, the chief, is about twelve miles in length, and fix in breadth, a well watered and fer- tile ifland, producing excellent butter and honey. The winters are milder, but more windy than thofe of England. The northern fide of the ifland is high, but the fouthern fubfides into pleafant vales, covered with orchards. The remarkable places are the two towns of St. He- • Tranfiid. of the Linnxan Society, vol, v. i Worllcy's Ifle of Wight, p. »74. I Cough's Camden, L 143. •Gu t Got lier ENGLAND. H iter dnd St. Aubin, both {landing on a bay, opening to the fouth ; and the caftle of Mont Orgueil. The inhabitants of Jerfey are computed at 20,000, of whom 3006 are capable of bearing arms. In January 1 78 1, St. Heher was ifurprifed by 800 French, under Rullicourt, who was killed, while Major Pierfon fell on the fide of the Englifli ; his valour being commemorated by paintings and prints, and by a handfome monument in the church of St. Helier. Guernfey is a verdant iflc, though the foil be hilly, and barren of wood. The only town is that of Port St. Pierre*. Alderney is a fmall ifle, with a town, and about 1000 inhabitants in all. Sark has about 300 inhabitantsf . Returning to the Enghfli fhore, we firft defcry Eddiftone light-houfe, beat by all the fury of the weftern waves. This edifice has repeatedly been overthrown ; but the prefent ereAion, by Mr. Smeaton, compofed of valt mafles of ttone, grooved into the rock, and joined with iron, promifes alike to defy accidental fire, and the violence of the ocean, though the waves fometimes wafh over the very fummit in one flieet of foam. About thirty miles to the weft of the Land's End appear the Ifles of Scilly, which have been idly deemed the Calfiterides of the ancients. This clufter is faid to confift of 145 ifles, covered with grafs or mofs, befides innumerable dreary rocks. The lai"^eft ifle is that of St. Mary, which is about five miles in circuit, and has a caftle and garrifon : inhabitants about 600. That of St. Agnes is rather fertile : inhabitants about 300. The whole inhabitants of the Scilly Ifles are computed at about 1000. The cattle and horfes fmall ; but ftieep and rabits thrive well. Confiderable quantities of kelp are prepared amid thefe rocks ^. On turning to the north, firft appears the little ifle of Lundy, fituated in the Briftol Channel, about three miles long, but not a mile in breadth, with about 500 acres of good land, fome rivulets, and a caftle. It was formerly a noted retreat for pirates. Some fmall ifles lie off" the Welch coaft of Pcmbrokefliire and Cnornar- von, fuch as Caldy, Skomar, Bardfey, and others : but the ifle of Angle- La deferves more attention, being the Mona of Tacitus. Anglefea is about twenty-five miles in length, and eighteen in breadth. The chief towns arc Newburgh, Beaumaris, and on the weftern extremity, fronting Ire- land, Holyhead. This ifle is fo remarkably fertile, that the Welfli have emphatically ftyled it the mother of Wales ; and of late has been alfo pro- ductive of rich copper found in the Parrys mountain, in the N. E. part of the ifland, near Amlwch, of which an account has been given in treating of the Englifli minerals. Beaumaris is a large town, with a caftle built by Edward I. Newburgh is a corporation of fmaller moment. Holyhead, originally a fifliing toAvn, has become of confequence, by the Irifli packets which pafs daily, the average time being twelve hours. The laft Englifli ifle worth mention is that of Man ; it is about thirt miles in length, and fifteen in its greateft breadth. In the midft is a high mountain, called Snafel. The chief mineral produftions are black mar- ble, flate, lime ttone, lead, copper, and iron. Man is alfo well ftored with black cattle, and flieep ; and the population has of late years greatly in- creaied. This ifle was fei/ed by the Norwegians, along with tiie Wefteni Ifles of Scotland, in the ninth century ; and remained under tlicfe lords an independent kingdom, till the thirteenth century, when it fell with thofe iflands to Alexander III. of Scotland. The Scots were expelled in the reign of Edward II., but the title continued dubious ; for in he 15th ^ • Guernfey is chiefly remarkable for iti fmall brted of cattle, f Oough'i Camden, iii. 753. J Ibid. iii. jsi tod ^ SCb-TLAND. and 1 6th centimes, Alexander and John, dukes of Albany, ftyledthem- felves lords of Man, and interwove the arms in their heraldry. In the reign of Henry IV. the kingdom of Man was conferred on the Stanleys^ afterwards earls of Derby, and latterly paffed to the family of Athol, by BiaiTiage. This petty fovereignty has been fince purchafed, and annexed to the Englidi crown. The chief places are Douglas and Caftletown, and there are fome confiderable villages. There are alfo fome fmall illands off the eaftern coaft, as Lindisfarn, arid Coquet ifland, near the mouth- of the river oT that name, in Nor- thumberland. The Ifle of Thanet is now joined to the land of Kent ; but Sheppey remains a pleafaut and intercfting ifle. SCOTLAND. \ ' CHAPTER I. ' ' ' HISTOniCAL GEOGRAPHY. ^'ami's. — Extent. — Original Population. — Progrejftve Geography. — fttf. I or leal Epochs. — ^ntlquitiet. SCOTLAND was ftrlt difcovered to the Romans by Agricola ; and, in the works of Tacitus, the northern part of Britain is for the firft time dif- tinguifhed from the fouthern^ by the fpecial and repeated appellation of Caledonia, a name faid to be derived from a Cymraig word, fignifying woodlands, forolls, or perhaps rather a mountainous country ; for the ancients often blended the ideas of forefl and mountain. Tiie names CaUdouioy and Caleilonians, continued to be ufed till the Roman power expired. Bede, the father of Englirtl hiftory, calls the inhabitants of the country by the name of Piaiy which had alfo been ufod by the later Roman writers as fynonymous with tliat of Caledonii. The countrA' he denominates Provincia Pldorumy the province or re- gion of the Picti.- This new name feems to have been native (Piks, or Pehts) ; and to have originated from a country fo ftyled, in the fouthof Norway, whence tliis colony had arrived. The Saxon writers, and among them king Alfred, called the people Peohts, and the country Pfcchtlond. Thefe dilliiiclions continued till the eleventh century* when the new name of Scotia was taken from Ireland, its former obje&, and applied to modem .Scotland. ExrrNT.J Tliat part of Groat Britain called Scotland is about 260 uiiles in length, by about 160 as its greateil breadth ; it extends from the 55th degree oflatitiido, to more than ^^\. The Superficial contents have been computed at 27,793 ^R^^re miles, a little exceeding that of Ireland, aiid conliderably more than l»alf that of England. The po- pulation being cllimated at 1,600,000, there will be only fifty-feven inhabitants for every fquare mile, a proportion of about one-third of that of 1 reliind. This defed of population arifes folely from the mountainoui u:;ture of the country, ainuuuting perhaps to one4ulfy little fufceptiblt ♦)f cultivatjoii. DlTISION3*2 SCOTLAND. 6^ new edto 260 "rom tenti It of po« [eves that bous tible Divisions.] The territory of Scotland is unequally divided into tliiity-three counties, which are as follow, the number of inhabitants being from the enumeration of 180 1 : i- • — 46,844 •' — - 22,609 ' • — 23,117 — 52,291 • ^ — 3'052 — 74,292 — 71,859 — 11,791 — 8,252 — 26,705 — 35>8o7 — 123,082 — 26,349 i- 99'i27 • — 126,366 — 93'743 — 6,725 — 10,858 — 50,825 — 20,710 — 17.844 — 122,954 — 29,086 — 30,621 — 78,056 — 84,306 — 22,918 — 146,699 — 8.735 — 5'07o — 33'682 — 54'597 — 29,211 OnfOiNAL Population.] So far as hiftorical refearches can difcovor, the orifjinnl population of Scotland confirted of CimbrI, from the Cim- bric Cherloncl ■. About two centuries before the Chnllu ,1 jera, the Cimbri feom to liavc been driven to the fouth ut' Sc^ tland by t'.e Cale- doaians, or Pidti, a Gothic colony from Norway. The Cimbri, a con- gem-rovis people with the WeWh, continued to hold the country fouth of the two Firths of Forth and Clyde : but from the former re";ion they were foon expelled by the Picli, who, in this corner, became fubjc is only underlKjod to n-prcfent tlie formerly great oHice of jullicc general. This is the fiipreme court in criniirial caufes, which are determined hy the majority of a jury, and not by the unanimity, as in England. There is alfo a court of Exchequer, confiiling of a lord chief b:iron, and four barons : and a high court of admiralty, in which there is only one judge. The keepers of the gn-at and privy feals, ;nul the lord regiller or keeper of the records, may alfo be mentioned under this head. Laws.] The law of Scotland difl"ers efTentially from that of Enp- land, bring founded, in a great mcafure, upon the civil law. It partly confifls of fliatute law ; but many of tlu ancient flatntos never having been enforced, tlie chief rule of this fort arifcs from the decifions of the feflion, which are carefully prtferved and publilhed, and aflbrd prece- dents, generally deemed Unexceptionable. Of common law there is hardly a trace, while the civil and c;int)n laws may be faid to form thf two pillars of Scotifln judicature. The modes of procedure have, how- ever, the advantage of being free from any of tlioie legal fidions which difgrace the lawr, of fome other couiitriis. The inferior courts are thofe of the Iherifl's, magiilrates, am! jullics of the peace. Under the heredi- tary juriidictions happily aboli!hed, the peers and other great men main- tained a power ahnoll abrohite, over l!i'. ir attrmlanls ar.d followers, fn that there was no law but the will of the mailer, and the cities alone couhl be dfcrncd feat, ot freedoi.i. Poi'LLAilON.") Thi.' popnhition of Scotland in 1755, was compiiteil at 1,265,000; accdrJiii'^r to tl • documents furnilhed by Sir .1. Sinclair's ftalillical account, ih'' numhi is in 17';^ were i, 526,^(^2 * ; and by the government enuineralion in ilioi, the inhabitants aj peartd to amount to \,^ij(),c6H. Tlic army, navy, revenues, political import-nice, and relations of {jcullaud uro now inhparably interiningh d with thoic of England. \\\. XX. p. 6.C, CllAW SCOTLAND. 73 of Enff- t partly liaving IS «if tiio d prccc- tbcrc i"^ 'orm thr f, lu)\v- s wliicb n- llioff hcrcdi- ,tn maiii- wcrr., fii lies aluiie pmputfil tiiiclair's by thi- uuimiiiV Jilions of lid. ICIIAIV CHAPTER IIL CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. • J^anntrs and Cujloms. — Language. — Literature. — Education. — - Ifni- verfitles. — Cities and Towns. — Edifices. — Inland Navigation. -^Ma- fiufailures and Commerce. r^ -, T^HE manners and cuftopis of the Scots Mavners AND Customs.] J_ ^^^j^ ^^ ^^ ^^,^j^ affimilated with thofe of the Enghfli. In their religious ceremonies, attending baptifm and marriages, thfre are variations anfing from the Prefbyterian form which does not admit of god-fathers or god-mothers, but renders the parents alone anfwerable for the education of the child. The clergyman doe« not attend at funerals, nor is there any religious fcrvice, but generally great decency. Among the lower clafies the funerals are generally far more numeroiifly attended than in England ; nor is black an mdifpcnfable colour of drcfs on fucli occafions. In the luxuries of tlie table the fuperior claffos rival the Englifh ; ft'veral national dilhcs, formerly ferved up at the beft tables, and origi- nating from the French cooking, in the reign of Mary, being now vul- gar or negledlcd ; fuch as the haggis, or hachis ; cock a-leekie, or a capon boiled down with leeks ; crapped heads, or haddocks Hewed ; the heads being Huffed with a kind of forced-meat balls, &c. &c. Tiie diet of the lower clafles pafles in a gradual tranfitioii from the north of England. The chief food is parich, or thick pottage, formed with oat- meal and water, and eati-n with milk, ale, or butter ; in a hard lumpy form it is called Irofc. With this the labourer is generally contented twice or thrice in the day, with a little bit of meat for Sunday ; nor does he repine at the bacon of the Engli(h poor, there being a theological an- tipathy to fwine, which alfo extends to eels, on account of their ferpent- like form. The fobrietv of the lower clafTes is in general exemplary ; and the Scotilh maiuifadurer or labourer, iiiHead or walling his weekly gains at an ale-houfe, is ambitious to appear with his fainily in decent clothes on Sundays and other holidays. This may be n-garded as a llriking charartcrillic of the Scotifli peafantry, who prefer the lailing decencies of life to momentary gratifications. To this praife may be added, that of intelligence, arifing from the diirufion tA education, which is fucli, that tven the miners in the fouth poffefi a circulating library. The houfes of the opulent hare been long eredled upon the Englifh plan, which can hardly be exceeded for interior elegance and convenience, t Ev\Mi tlu' habitations of the poor have been greatly improved within thefe ,' f.'w years, and inllead of the thatched mud liovi 1, there often appears the iii'at cottage of Hone, covered with tile or ilatc. ' The drefs of the fuperior clalfis is the fame with that pf the Englil\i. Tlie gentlemen in the Highlands, efpecially in the time of war, ufe the IH'culiar tlrefs of that country. Among the other clalfi Sf the Scotifh bonnet is now rarely perceived, except in the Highlands; it was the nfual cowring for the liead all over Europe, till toward:^ the end of the ** rixti-iiih century, when the hat, formerly only worn in riding or minting, ' canu' into general nle. The anujfements of the rich are on a ])aralli'l with tlu)fe t)f the Eng. • lifli ; but thufc of tlic peafantry have fcveral diverlitai;, which the nadcr- y may, > 74 SCOTLAND. may, perhaps, bed learn from the poems of Burns. That oi curling con. fifts in rolling large ftones, with iron handles upon the ice, towards a fixed mark, a favourite and healthy diverfion in the winter. The Englifh quoits are fupplied by penny Jlanesi round flat ftones, which are tofTed in the fame manner. Two exquifite poems of Mr Burns, his Halloiveen and his Cotter's Saturday N'tghtt will convey more information concern. ing the amufements, fuperftitions, and manners, of the Scotifli peafantry, than the moft long and animated detail. Language.] The Scotifh language falls under two divifions, that of the Lowlands confifting of the ancient Scandinavian dialeft, blended with the Anglo-Saxon; and that of the Highlands, which is Irifti. The Lord's prayer, in the moft ancient language of the Lowlaiads, would be as follows : I Uor fader quhilk becft i Hevin. 2. Hallowit weird thyne nam. 3. Cum thyne kingrik. 4. Be dune thyne wuU as is i Hevin fva po yerd. 3. Uor dailic breid gif us thilk day. . 6. And forleit us uor ikaiths, as we forleit tham quha ilcath us. 7. And leed us na intil tem- tation. 8. Butan fre us fra evil. Amen. The iflauds of Orkney were feized by the Norvegians, in the ninth century, and the inhabitants retained the Noefe language till recent times, when they began to fpeak remarkably pure Englifh. Chamber, layne has given the Lord's prayer in their ancient dialed : 1. Favor ir i chimrc. 2. Hellcur ir i nam thite. 3. Gilla cofdum thite crimma. 4. V\'yn thine mota vara gort o yum fnnia gort i chimrie. 5. Ga VMS da on da dalight brow vora. 6. Firgive vus fuma vora fin vee firgive findara mutha vus. 7. Lyv us ye i tuntation. 8. Min delivera vus fro olt ilt. Amen : or^ On fo meteth vera. In the Erfe, or Irilh, of tlie Higiilands, the fame fupplication runs thus : A n' Athair ata air N^amh. i. Gu naamhaichear t Tinm. 2. Tigt!adh do Rioghachd. 3. Deantliar do Tlioil air an Talamh mar a nithear air Ncamh. 4. Tabhair dhuinn an diu ar n Aran laitheil. 5. Agus maith dhuinn ar Fiaclia amhuil mar mhaitlunid d'ar luchd fia chaibh. 6. Agus na leig am buaireadh finn. 7. Ach faor finn o Ole. Amen. LiTERATUKE.] Thc literature of Scotland rec»)mpcnfe3 for its recent origin by its rapid progrefsand extenfive fame. The country that pro, duced Buchanan in the iixteenth century, could not, in the 12th, boall of one native writiT. Y(.t, it muft not be forgotten, that in this dark period, on the facred ground of Hyona, flourilhi-d feveral refpedlable Iiiflj writers, who |Brc lillo clafled among the apoflles of nligion and learning in England 5 fuch were Columba, who converiod the northern Caltdouians, and his biographers, Cuminius and Adomnan, the latter the friend of Bede. Among the Strathclyde VVclih may be named Patrick, in his turn the apoflle of Irelaiul. One of tlie earliell native writers is Thomas of Erceldon, called thp Rimer, who flouriflicd about the year 1270, and wrote a metrical romance, called Sir Triftrnm. John Barbour, Archdeacon of Aber- deen, wrote his poem on the adions of Robert I„ in thc year 1375. At tlu' fame time flouriflied John Foidiin, the father of Scotiih hiftory. James f. of Scotland, wrote fome excellent pofms early in the fifteenth century ; and he was followed by Holland and Henry the Rimer. In the end of that century arofe Dimbar, the chief of the ancient Srotlfli poets; and, in the beginning of tiie uext, Gawin Douglas and David Liiil^ay. SCOTLAND. 75 Linfay. The Scotirti mufe continued to warble till the middle of the feventeenth century, when religious fanaticifm extinguifhed all the arts and fciencos, but not before Drummond had woven his web of Doric de- licacy. In more modern times the names of Thomfon, Blair, Armftrong, IJcatUe, Burns, &c. are univerfally known. Rude chroniclers continued the chain of events, but hiftory was mute till Buchanan founded his claffical trumpet. Bifliops Lefley and Burnet are not without their merit ; but why repeat to the echoes of fame the ilhiilrious names of Hume and Robertfon. The other departments of fcicnce are of yet more recent cultivation in Scotlind ; even theology fecms unknown till the begiiiuing of the fixteonth century ; and of medicine there is no trace till the feventeenth ; whii 've can nowhoart of Blair ; and Edinburgh ranks among the firll mcu c il fchools of Europe. Natural philofophy and hillory were totally neglcdted till after the Relloration" ; yet Scotland can now produce able writers in ahnod every branch, and equal progrefs has been made in mor il philofophy. Among the few departments of literature in which the Scotifh authors have been unluccefsful, may be named epic poetry, comedy, and the critical illuftration of the clnflics. Eorc/VTioN.]] The mode of education purfued in Scotland is highly laudable, and ti) j idgc from its cfiedls is, p rhaps, the bed pradtical fyilcm purfued in any country ii; Europe. The plan which is followed in the cities is n-arly fimibr to th.it of England, either by private teachjrs, or at large public fchools, of which that of Edinburgh is the moil eminent, and may be traced from the fixteenth century. But the fuperior nd..intage of the Scutifh education confiits in every country parKh podelFing a fchoolmailcr, as uniformly as a clergyman ; at leaft the rule is general, and the exceptions rare. The fi.hoolmailer has a I'mall falary, or rather pittance, whicli enables him to educate the chil- (livn at a rate eafy and convenient, even to indigent parents. In the Hii^hlands the poor clrildren will attend to the flocks in the fummer, and the fchool in the winter. Umvehsitiks.] The univerfities of Scotland, or rather colleges, (for an Englilh univerllty includes many colleges and four.d.itions,) .imoiiut to no lefs tliaii four, three on the eailern coail, St. Andrew's, AIkuKhii and Edinhurgh ; and one on the w« Hern, that of Glafgow. The univerlit} of St. Andrew's was founded by BUhop Wardlaw, in the ve.'.r 1412 ; but as it is now of fmall importance in the proximity of that of Ednihiu-'.'li, it wouKl he a patriotic uieafure to transfer it to the II I'^lilaiuls. Tiiat of GKtlgow wa~! found'-d by Bi(hoi) Tumbull, in the v..!r| 1453, and it has pro(luce«l many illuflrit)us prufeilors and able ih;di'iits. 'I'he late .^Ir. Auderfon, proR Hor of natural philufophy, finiiid 'd an inllitution t(» promote the knowledge of natural pluloU)phy ;ind liidciy, and more efpecially the application of ihcfe fciences to the iiirful purj i)fes of conuntrce and manufiiOlures*. Til' third univerlily, tliat of Aberdeen, wa ; foimded by Birtiop VJ()!iIi (lone, in the year 15CO, and it has alw:'ys fupporlcd its hign (' .after and intentions, lathe year ij'j^, George Keith, fifth Earl ^i rlhall, fouiided a cv)llege at Aberdeen, b"inw. • -*i'atirt. Ac I7i«, SCOTLAND. fr 1 718, when the firft (hip that belonged to Glafgow crofled the Atlan- tic *. The number of (hips belonging to the Clyde, in 1 790, was 476, the tonnage 46,581 ; but before the American war, it was fuppofed to have amounted to 60,000 tons. Though the manufaftures fcarcely ex- ceed half a century in antiquity ,they are now numerous and important f . That of cotton in 179 1, was computed to employ 15,000 looms ; and the goods produced, were fuppofed to amount to the yearly value of 1,500,000/. the manufadlures of linens, woollens, &c. are far from being of fimilar confequence. The ancient cathedral of Glafgow furvived the reformation, when the otlier Scotifli edifices of that denomination funk into ruins. Two convenient bridges are thrown over tlie Clyde. The environs of Glafgow prefent little remarkable. Next in eminence are the cities of Perth and Aberdeen, and the town of Dundee. Perth is an ancient town, fuppofed to have been the Vic-^. toria of the Romans. It is pleafantly fituated on the wcftern bank of the river Tay ; and has been known in commerce iince the thirteenth century, but at prefent the trade is chiefly of the coafting kind, Dundee poflef- fing a more advantageous fituation for foreign intercourfe. Linen forma the llaplc manufafture, to the annual amount of about 160,000/. There are alfo manufa£lures of leather and paper. Perth difplays few public edifices worth notice. Inhabitants 14,878. There is a noble bridge, of recent date, over the Tay, and the environs are interefting, particularly tlic liill of Kinnoul, whicli prcfents fingular fcenes, and many curious mineral produftions. About eighteen miles nearer the moutli of the Tay, ftand Dundee, in the county of Angus, a neat modern town. The firth of Tay is here be- tween two and three miles broad ; and there is a good road for fliipping to the eatt of the town, as far as liroughty-caftlc. On the firll of Septem- ber 651, Dundee was taken by ilorm by General Monk ; and Lumif- den, the governor, pcriihed amidlt a torrent of bloodflied. The population is however, now equal to 26,084 ; the public edifices are neat and com- modious. In 1792, the vefiels belonging to the port amounted to 116, tonnage 8,550. The Uaple manufad\ure is linen, to the animal value of about 80,000/. oanval's, Sic. about 40,000/. Coloured thread alfo fi)rms a confiderable article, computed at 33,000/. and tanned leather at 1 4,00s/ J. Aberdeen firil.rifes to notice in the eleventh century, and continued to be chiefly memorable in etclefialUcal llory. In the fourteenth century it was dcftroyed by Edward III. of En[;!aiid. The population in 1795, v.aa computed at 24,493, but ^''^' enumeration in 1801, reduced it to 17,597. Though tho harbour be not remarkably conunodions, it can bouit a confiderable trade, the ciiief exports being falmon and woollen jjoods. In 1795, ^'"-' Bfitilh fliips entered at the port, were fixty-one, the foreign five ; and the liritiih, ihips cleared outwards, amounted to twenty-ciglit. Tiie chief niauufatluns are woolK-n goods, particularly ilockings, the annual export of which is computed at 123,000/. The coarfe linen mauufatlure is not of much account , but tlie thread is of ttleemed quality. The other chief towns of Scotland (h:\\\ only be briefly mentioned, beginning with the fouth-Oail part of the Kingdom. Berwick is a for- tified town of fonie note, and carries on a confiderable trade in falmon. The veffeU built at tbis port are conllructcd on excellent principles. • Sfatirt. Ace. V. ^98. f Ibid. 501. t StatiiU Ace. viii. p. ao;,X.c. JcdlM:rj;;h, mmm^- 78 SCOTLAND. Jedburgh, on the river Jed, which dcfccuds from- the Cheviot hills, i$ chiefly remarkable for the beautiful ruins of anabbty, founded by David I. Prefent number of inhabitants 3,834. Dumfries ftands on a riiing ground, on the eaftern banks of the Nith, and contains 7,288 inhabitiiuts. Ayr, the chief town in the S. W. of Scotlnnd, is fitunted on a fandy plain, on a river of the fame name. The chief trade is iu grain and coals ; and a few vcflcls arc built. Inhabitants 5,492. Irwin has about 4000. Lanark ftands iu a moft pidlurefque country, near the celebrated falls of the Clyde. It \vas only noted for its acjtdemy, under the manage- ment of Mr. Thomfon, broti.er-in-law of Thomfon the poet, till the recent cotton manufacture, and other ert-^.lions by the patriotic Mr. Dale, rendered this town ftill more worthy of attention. Inhabitants 4,692. Greenock and Port-Glafgow, are confiderable towns, which have arifen to celebrity, by fharlng in the trade of Glafgow. Greenock con- tains 17,458 inhabitants; Port-Glafgow about 3,865. Pailley, in the fame county, is celebrated by its mannfafturc of muflin, lawns, and gauzes, to the annual amount, it is faid, of 66o,oool. The population amounts to 31,179. Dumbarton, on the oppofite fhoro of the Clyde, contains about 2,541 fouls, and is alfo fubfcrvient in the manufafturos of Glafgow. Sterling is rather romarktible for its commanding and truly royal fitu- ation, than for its induRry. The inhabitants amount to 5,256. Between Sterling and Edinburgh Hands Bonefs, formerly called Borrow ilowiufs, in the midtl of collieries and falt-works : the harbour is good, and tlicre are 2,790 inhabitants. The county of Fife contains many towns, fome of which were in a more flourilhing fituation when Scotland carried on a confiderabie inter. coiu'fe with France. Dunfermline h a pleafant town, containing 9,9^0 inhabitants, and carries on a confiderable manufa<^\ure of diapers, riicre are ruins of a pahice, tlie royal rcfulence in the tiuie of Malcolm III, St. Andrews lias about 2,500; it is chiefly remarkable for its ruined catiiedral. Forfar, in Angus, contains 5,165 foulu, and the linen manufadurcs defervc inei.tion. Dunkeld is ot venerabl • and pidurefque fame, but jts linen manufac- ture* are incoiiliderable. I'recln'n tontains 5,466 people: its products are linen, cotton, and tanned le:;tlier. Muntrolo has a population of 7,974, and a few manufadun-; the i)uildings are nioilly modern and neat. The county of Meunis prefents no town .. ortli mention. Peterhead, in Abcrdeenlhirc, contains ab(/.it 2;COO fouls. It has a n\ineral fpring, and carries on i" me tr;ule v.\{\i the Baltic. Fni/erburgh, near the pro- montory of Kiunaird li.ad, has alio a tolerable harbour. Inhabitants 2,215. Portfoy is a fea port town, peopled with al.out 2,coc fouls. In the rcighbourhood, are i!" rocks well kno- n lo niineralogills, c(«itainiiig elegant granites of dilfernt kinds, ft.,j,ri:'.lnes and fte"'tiles, with their ufual concomitants, afhellos a; J amiantlius. Elgin, the capiiul oi the county of Mur.iy, boalls of tlie remains of an elegant cathedral, ;uk1 cowl. .ins 4,3^ , ii hal.i'ants. Iiivcrnefs is an ancient aiul lloiu-'lhing town, the capital of the nortliorn Highlands. The j)()| ulatit-n etpials X,~22. The chief inanufadures are ropes and candles. An academy has luuly becu fyundcd hwrv ou an ex- cellent plan. 5 ' . " • The SCdTLAJfDI. 7f ami f lic- it s are 7.974» ■at. rhcLid, fpriiig, H> pro- abitauts In tlic IS of an ortliern urcs are 1 an ex- The few towns further to the north are of little' account. Port Rofe has only 800 fouls ; but Cromarty has 2»2o8, a fmall manufadture of coarfe cloth, and fome coalting trade in corn, thread, yarn, nails, ii(h and (kins. Dingwall contains 1,418 fouls, and a fmall linen manufa£turc. Tain has 2,277 inhabitants. Dornoch was once the %efidence of the bifhops of Caithnefs : population 2,362. After a dreary interval Wick occurs, the laft town on the eaftern coaft ; the inhabitants, 3,986, chiefly deal in cod and herrings. Thurfo, on the northern fhore, fronting the Orkneys, has manufac- tures of woollen and linen. Population 3,628. Hence there is a lamentable void along the weftem half of Scotland, till we arrive at Inverary, in Argylefhire, 'the foundation of the noble houfe of Argyle, after pafllng a fpace of about 1 60 miles, where only a few fcattered hamlets can be found. Inverary is a neat and pleafant town of about 1,000 fouls ; there are manufaftures of linen and woollen, and a coniiderable iron work. The ore is brought from the weft of England, and is fmelted with charcoal, from the woods of Argyle- fhire. In the fame county is Campbell-town, a royal borough, in the fouthern part of the peninfula of Cantire. The trade is confiderable as it is the general refort of the firtiing veflcls ; and the inhabitants amount to 7,093. The liarbour is excellent, m the form of a crefcent, opening to the eait, in front of the Ifland of Arran. About fifty weavers are employed in the cotton manufafture*. Edifice^.] Scotland abounds with remarkable edifices, ancient and mo- dern. Thofc of the capital have been already mentioned. In its vicinity is Hopeton-houfe, the fplendid refidence of the earl of Hopoton ; Dal- keith palace, a feat of the duke of Buccleugh ; Newbottel, the feat of the marquis of Lothian ; Mclvillc-caftle, the elegant villa of the Rt. Hon. Lord Melville ; and the fplendid manfion of the marquis of Abercorn. Nor mult Pennicuick, the feat of the family of Clerk, be omitted ; but the traveller of taite would be more interefted in Hawthornden, the ancient feat of Drummond the poet. It would be vain to attempt a fimilar enu- meration of the other counties, and only a few of the moft remarkable (hall be mentioned ; fuch as in the fouth, the duke of Roxburgli's, near Kello; the Dukeof (^ueenfbcrry'satDrumlanrig; and Hamilton-palace near Hamilton. Tlie county of Ayr contains many beautiful edifices belonging to the nobility and gentry, among wliich may be mentioned Loudon-houfe, the feat of the earlj of Loudon ; and CoIaiiie-caiUe, the feat of the earl of Caihlis, defjgned by Adiuns, in 1789. Wigton(hire has Culhorn, the feat of the carls of Stair and CalUc-Kcnnedy ; Galloway-houfe, &c. In the vicinity of the flourifliing city of Glafgow, it may be imagined that the villas muft be numerous and elegant ; and, even the fmall liland of Bute can boall of Mount Stuart. The caille of Dumbarton is another re- markable edifice in this region. On pafling the Forth, the rich county of Fife prefents many inte- rcfting edifices, fuch as Lcllie-caftle, the feat of the earls of Rothes ; Wemyfs, and Balcarras, the feats of the earls of thofe titles ; the houfe of Kinrofs, built by Sir William Bruce, &c. Sec. Perthfhire con- tains Tullibardin and Blair, the feats of the Duke of Athol ; DuppHn, that of ♦'!"• earl of Kinnoul ; Drummond, the refidence of lord Perth; Tayi..:i!tli, the fplendid manfion of the carl of Draidalban ; Scone, a • Switft, Account, X. S5i- The royal 80 SCOTLAND. royal palace, S(C, &c. In Angus we find Panmure, the ancient refidenc^ of the earls of Panmure ; and Glammis, the venerable feat of the earls of Strathmore. The Shire of Mearns, or Kincardine, contains Dunotter- Caftle, the elevated manfion of the earls Marfliall, &c. Aberdeenfhire prefents caftle Horbcs. In Bamff-fliire we find Cullen-houfe, the intereft. ing feat of the earl of Finlater ; DufF-houfe, that of the earl of Fife ; Gordon-callle, a beautiful manfion of the duke of Gordon ; in the county of Moray, Tarnaway -cattle, the feat of' the earl of Moray ; Invernefs prefents Fort George, a miUtary eredtion of fome note, about twelve miles to the eaft of Iiivernefs. The line of forts is continued through the centre of the county, by Fort Auguftus, at the further end of Lochncfs, and Fort William, at the northern extremity of Loch Linny, at the bot* torn of the lofty Bennevis. In the county of Rofs, to the north of Ding- wall, is Caftle-Leod, a feat of the carls of Cromarty, New Tarbet, and Balnagowan, command the Frith of Cromai'ty. At Dornock and Dun- robin, are feats of the carls of Sirtherland. The fliore of Caithnefs dif- plays many ancient caiUes, but the modern edifices are few ; the patriotic Sir John Sinclair has a pleafing rclldcnce near Thurfo ; and in the N.W. extremity of Scotland, lord Rcay has two manfions, one near Tong, and another at Durnefs, with an extcnfive wild of rocks, intercepted with moraflcs, called lord Reay's forcll. The wellern coails of Scotland pre- fent an enormous void, till liivcrary, the fplcndid manfion of the dukes of Argyle, rifes like fome oriental vifiou in tlie wildernefs. In/.and Navigation'.] The moll remarkable inland navigation in Scotland, is the excellent and extenfive canal from the Forth to tlie Clyde, commenced in 1768, from a furvcy by Smeaton four years before. " The dimenfions of this canal, though greatly contradled from the *• original defign, are much fuperior to any work of the fame nature in ** South Britain*. Tiie Englifh canals are generally from three to five ** feet deep, and from twenty to forty feet wide, and the lock gates from •* ten to twelve feet ; but they anfwer the purpofe of inland carriage •• from one town to anotlier, for vvhicli alone they were defignedi The *' depth of the can.il ootween the Forth and Clyde is feven feet ; its " breadth at the furface fifty-fix feet ; the locks are fevcnty-five feet " long, and their gut'S twenty feet wide. It is raifed from the Carrcn * ♦ by twenty locks, in a traft of ten miles, to the amazing height of i jj * ' feet above the medium full fea mark. At tljc twentieth lock begins •• the canal of partition on the fummit, between the call and weft feas; *' which cannl of partition continues eighteen miles on a level, tcrmi- *• nating at Ilaniikun-hill, a mile N. W. of the Clyde, at Glafgow. In " fome places tlie canal i;i carried tiirough mon"y ground, and in others *♦ through folij r6ck. In the fourth mile of the canal there a^e ten " locks, and a fine aqueduct bridge, which crofTes the great road lead- *• ing from Edinburgh to Glafgow. At KirkintuUock, the canal is " carried over the water of Logic, on an aqucducl bridge, the arch of " whieh is ninety feet broad, 'i'here are in the whole eighteen draw. " bridges, and fifteen aquedud bridges, of confiderable lize, befide? " fmall ones and tunnels." The fupplyiiig the canal wit]\ water, was of itfelf a very great work. One relervoir is above twenty-four feet deep, and covers a furface of fifty acres, near Kilfyth. Another, about feven niih s northof Glafgow, con. fiftb of fcveiily acres, ar.d is banked up at a fluice, twenty-two feet. The dii paffagc, tl 100. On t to fea, wh Clyde, as prccifely t /liiiflitd. The ger fmallcr cap in the natic Jias been ef exports are The imporJ rum, fugar, lawny, gau foap, iron, rum and col wines from carried to a ruTchandize TJic chief amount, it is carpets feem larly that of tiuual advant • I'hill'i-s, 2;6. The Climate anet Rivers, Miner alo Climate a\ a country fo midity as in E the Atlantic. with rain, an the winter is intenfityof t great power i: tions chiefly a differs but Jitt vales of Mora Face of mountainous, lation is of n JJut the name weft of Perth * 'n 179.'?. th P Ixsv. edit, i ;^ ■■•(!, SCOTLAND. 8t The 'Jlftance bct\YPPn the Firths of Clyde and Forth, by the ncareft paffage, that of the Pcntland Firth, is 600 miles, by this canal fcarccly 100. On the 28th of July, 1790, the canal was completely open from fca to fca, when a hofrflread of the water of Forth was poured into the Clyde, as a fymbol of their jundion. Tne length of the canal is prccifely tUiity-iive miles, and no work of the kind can be more ably fiiiiflitd. The general commerce of Scotland, though on a fmaller fcale, and with fmallcr capitals, is in mod rclpc£ts fimilar to that of EnirUind, and (hares in the national profperlty. That of the capital, through Leith its pott, has been eflimated, as \w have feen, at half a million yearly*. The chief exports are linen, grain, iron, glafs, lead, woollen Huffs, foap, &c. &c. The imports are wines, brandy, and from the Weft Indies and America, rum, fugar, rice, indigo. Glafgow exports cottons of all kinds, mufiins, lawny, gauzes, &c. glafs, ilockings, earthen ware, cordsp^e, fee. candles, foap, iron, leather. Sec. &c. The ch.ief imports are tobacco, fugar, rum and cotton, from the Weft Indies ; Irifh beef, butter, ar.d linen ; wines from Portugal, and other countries. The fifheries of Scotland, if carried to a proper extent, would furnifh a very feonfiderable ftore of nierchandi/e. Tlic chief luanufaftures of Scotland are linen of vr.rions kinds, to the amount, it is faid, of about 750,0001. annually. Or woollers, the Scotifii cnrpets foem to form the chief branch. The iron manufafturos, particu- larly that of Carron, deferve alfo to be enumerated among the chief na- tional advantages. CHAPTER IV. NATURAL CEOGRArilY. Climate anti Senfons.—-Face of the Country. — Soil and jigr'uuliurc.'-— Rivers. — I.ahes. — Mountains. — Fortjls. — Botany. -^Zoology. — Mineralogy. — Mineral Healers.-— Natural Curiqfitii's. _ _ -, np" HE climate of Scotland is fuch asmijiht Climate and Seasons.] | ^^ ^^^^^^^ j,^ ^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^ - ^^ a country fo mountainous. In the eaftern parts, there is not fo much hu» midity as in England, as the mountains on the weft arreft tlie vapours from the Atlantic. On the other hand, the wcftern countries are deluged with rain, an infuperable oljilacle to the progrefs of agriculture. Even the winter is more diftinguifbable by tlie abundance of fnow, than by the intcnfity of the froft ; but in fui -mer the heat of the (v.n is reflected with great power in the narrow vales between the mountains. Thefe obferva- tions chiefly apply fo the north and well. In the caft and fuulh the climate differs but little from that of Yorkfhirc ; and corn fomctimes ripens in the vales of Moray, as early as m Lothian. Face op the Count uy.] The face of the country is in general mountainous, to the extent, perhaps, of two thirds ; whence the popu- lation is of ncceflity flender, in comparifon with the admcafurement. But the name of Highlands is more ftriftly confined to Argylefhire, the weft of Perthfhire, and of Inverucfs ; and the entire counties gf Rofs, * In 179.V *h'' Sf'tilh rxports wer» computed at i,0?4,74il. f Ujv. edit. 17^4. 'll^c IhijM cmi>!oyfd \\cr« 2,834' 'I'- l-'w' iik Chalir.er't r.llimdt«, Sutherland^ ifttMiiawi'i »■ 82 SCOTLAND. Sutherland, .ind Caithnefs. In proceeding from the fouth-eaft, the en. trance into the liighlands near Dunkeld is very impreflive, there'being a conliderable trad of plain, juft before what may be termed the gates of the mountains. Even the eallern parts have httle of uniform flatiiefs but are fweetly diveriified with hill and dale. The rivers in general arc remarkably pure and tranlparent, and their courfe rapid. The rich roughnefs of an Englifli profpeft, diverfified with an abundance of wood even in the hedge-rows, is in Scotland rarely vifible { whence the nudity of the country makes a ilroiig imprefllon on the itrangcr. But the laii. dable exertions of many of the nobility and gentry, w'ho plant trees by millions, will foon remove this reproach. Son. AND AoRicui/ruHE.] For a minute account of the various foils that prevail in Scotland, and the different modes of agriculture, the reader muil be referred to the Statillical Accounts, publiflied by Sir John Sinclair. The excellence of the Engli/h agriculture has juitly entitled it to an imitation almolt univerfal. But this advantage is of recent date ; and, for a long period of time, Scotland was remarkable for pro- diicing the bell; gardeners and the worft farmers in Europe. Rivers.] The three cliief rivers of Scotland are the Forth, tho Clyde, and tlie Tay. Tlu? chief fource of the Forth is from 15;mi I^o- mond, or rather from the two lakes. Con and Ard : the ftream of Go\\. die foon joins it from the lake of Menteith ; and the river Teith, fed by the lakes Ketterin, l^ubnaig, and others, fwells the Forth to a noble ftream, about four mika above Stirling. The Clyde is faid to iffue from a hill in the S. E. corner of Twecdale called Arrick Stane, which is undoubtedly the chief fource of the Tweed, and one fource of the Annan ; but the Clyde has a more re. mote fource in Kirfliop, or Dair water, rifing about fix miles further to the fouth, in the very extremity of Lanarkmirc ; and the true fource of the Annan feems to be Loch Skeen, in the county of Selkirk. How- ever this be, the Clyde pafl'es through Crauford Moor, leaving the range 'of Leadhills on the left, and winding under the lofty hill of Tinto, near Symington, purfues a northerly courfe, till about two miles to the fouth 01 Carnwaith, when it rcfumes its chief wefterly direftion. The principal fource of the Tay is the lake of the fame name, or t!ie river may be traced to the more wefterly fourcesof the Attrick and the Dochart, and the fmaller ftream of Lochy ; which fall into the wellcrn extremity of Loch T.ny. Soon after this noble river iflues from the lake, it is joined by the river Lyon ; and, at no great interval, by the united ftrcams of the Tarf, the Garry, and the Tumel, the laft, a rapid and romantic river. Tlie 11 reams of Ericlit and Hay fwell tlie Tay, about nine miles to the north of" Perth ; afti • palling which city, it receives the venerable ftream of the Eni, and fpreads into a wide eftuary. Next in confequence and in fame is the Tweed, a beautiful and paf- toral ftream, which, receiving the Teviot from tjie fouth, near Kelfo, falls into the fea at Berwick. The Scottifti Tyne is an inconfiderable river, which runs by Had. dington. In the fouth weft, the Annan contributes largely to the Firth of Sol- way, but no town wrth mentioning adonis its banks. Dumfries ftands upon the Nith, a river of longer courfe tiian the Annan, and marked a;* its cftuarj by the ruins of Caerlavroc caftle, an important fortrefs in ancient times. The river Ore, and that recently ftyled Kirkudbriglit, anciently and properly called the Ken (whence is derived the title of Kenmure), aud the Fluct, arc furpaffed by tlic river Cree gr Cricf j which fornnyly SCOtLAND. B3 formerly fplit Galloway into two divifionS} and which opens into the noted bay of Wigton. The rivers of Ayrfhire, flowing iiito the grand eftuary of the Clyde, are of inconfiderable iize. To the north of the eftuary of Forth occurs the Eden, which, after watering the royal park of Falkland, and Coupar the county town, meets the ocean, about two miles to the north of St. Andrews. To the north' of Tay are the South Efk, which paffes by Brecliin and Montrofe ; and the North Efk, a lefs Confiderablc llream. In the county of Kincardine there is no river of confequence. But the Dee is a conliderable and placid ftream, iffuing from the mountains of Scairfoch, and purfuing a due eafterly courfe to Aberdeen. The Don runs almoft parallel, a few miles to the north, joining the fea about two miles from Aberdeen, after palling Old Aberdeen, or rather, in the old orthography, Aberdon. A few miles to the north of the Don, the river Ythan falls into the German ocean, a ftream formerly celebrated for its pearl fiftjeries, of which fomc relics remain. The Uggie is the laft ftream of any confe- tjiicDce in Aberdeenfhire. The following rivers direft their coitrfe to the north. The Devon joins the fea at BaiilF. The Spey is a grand impetuous river, riling from a finall lake, called Loch Spey, in the vicinity of the high mountain of Corriarok, near Fort Auguilus, whence it rolls to the fouth-eaft, amid mountainous wilds, till it fuddenly turns to its fixed direction, the north- tad, being, perhaps, upon the whole, the moft considerable Alpine river in Scotlnrid. The water of LoAle is only remarkable as it walhes the venerable remains of Elgin ; but Findorn, which runs by the Forres of Macbeth and Shakefpeare, is a confiderable torrent. The Nefs, iffuing from the lake fo called, and the Beuly, confpire to form the large eftuaty, vailed Murray Firth ; while that of Cromarty is formed by the Grady, the Conon, and other ftreams. The eftuary of Dornoch is formed by a river which iffues from Loch Shin, by the Caran, and by the intermediate ftream, called Okel. The other ftreams in the furtheft north of Scotland are unhappily of fmall confequence. The water of Thurfo, and that of Naver, are the chief. In the north-weft extremity are the Strathmore, the Strathbeg, snd the Durnefs, which enter the fea to the eaft of the ftupendous pro- montory of Cape Wharf, now moderirized Wrath. On the weft of Scotland there is no river of any moment, but the de- fe(ft is compenfated by numerous lakes, or rather creeks, of which the moll confiderable are Laxford, Calva, Ennard, and that of Broome, ivhich forms a noble bay, lUidded with iflands, nearly parallel with the bay of Dornoch. On its fhore is the proje jibout thirty miles in length, and from oiif * 'fiarnet's Torn-, ir. 1 7j ■f- Pennant's Tour. tl age /liial, tliefirU c Jiy-liijls on the **'^"'t. To the Ledy (3009) (4015}; Shiha SCOTLAND. «5 to t^vo in breadth ; and is fludded w'.th many fmall, woody ides, one of which bears the ruins of a monallery, and another thofeof an ancient fortrefii, the refidtnce of the Campbells of Lochav.-e, afterwards Dukes of Argylc. This lake empties itlclf, by a confiderable llrcam, near its jiorthcrn end, into the creek called Loch Etif. But the chief diftinftive feature of Scotland confifts in its numerous jTiountains, which interfeft the country in various directions. In the fouth-weft, the ancient province of Galloway prefents an extenfive af- fcmblage of hills, which feldom defcribe any uniform ciiatn, from tlic tay of Glenluce, which extends towards Locli R yan, and thence in a ]>J. E. direftion to Loch Doon, the fource of the river of the fame name. Other ridges nm in various dirLdlions, generally north and fouth, ac cording to the courfc of the rivers, till we arrive at the Nith, near which is Cruffel, a detached fummit of confiderable height. According to General Roy, than whom there cannot be a better authority, the moun- tains of Galloway form a oanjiefted chain with tliofe of Clieviot on the N. E. Cut the chief elevation of this part of Scotland is that metaliferous ridge in its very centre, called the I^ead Hills. The fmall ftream of Elvan conveys particles of gold to the Clyde, and German muiers are faid to have discovered confiderable quantities of that precious metal. The chief fumtiit of this ridge is Hitrtfell, which, according to fome accounts, is 33CO feet above the level of the fea ; but by others 2582. To the ealt we find the uniform ridge of Lamermoor, terminating in St. Abb's Head. Tlie hills of Pentland, on the fouth of Edinburgh, are rather pidlurefque tjjan important, lierwick I^aw, and the romantic fiimmits, in the vicniitycf Edinburgh, clofe thelill of the fouthern hill». The Lead-hills chiefly conlill of argillaceous fchithis ; but the grey gra- nite abounds in the mountains of Galloway. In all, hov.ever, the chief portion feems to be calcareous ; the fummits are round, fome verdant, pthers covered with heath. The red granite, and other grand Alpine rocks, feem here unknown. In the I^othians the calcareous ilrata fup- port vaft mafles of whin, trap, and bafalt, which extend to the northern ihore of the Firth of Forth. ^ On irafllng the Forth appears the range of Ochill-hills, more remark- able for their fingular agates and calcedonies, than for their height, On ihe north-call of Aberdeenfhire is Mormond, a remarkable folitary (uinniit ; whence no moiintuins of note occur till Invcrnefs, on l}^ \v , coiililling of the mountains Morben, Scurahcii, iic. from winch ran in a northerly direction, according to the coiirfe ot" the rivers, inferior chains. The N. W. extremity of Scotland preriin> fome pleafant vales towards the fea, and inland that of Dornadilhi, and an elevated plain on the weft of Loch Loial, called Dirrvnion- foreft X ' further to the well no names occur except tliat of Cape Wrath, and the region is defcribed by an intelligent traveller in the following terms || : " But a will' extent of dcfcrt country lay before us, and exhibiti li •' a nioil an 'lift pii^hire of forlorn nature. The profpect was alto- *' gether inunenfe, but wild and defolate beyond conception. The " nuiuntains piefented nothing to view but heath and rock; between ♦' them fonnlcfs lakes and pools, dark vvith the Ihadea thrown from • St:iti(l. .Ace. viii. 414. f .•\iiv.iys rovt-rcil wit!) inou', nni>, j'crhnps, .is ISIi. A'lkin conroives, higher th..ii Ciiriijioim. At about the liuii;lii ul' .,0^0 feci, limw Lnuint all the year in .S»;ui- land. I Oiiil.ncr'i Lctitr to i'cini.nit, i\ m. II Ibid. X04, ' «' prodigiouii *• proi '< gloc Hav the Sec of the Ib'tiient lands, 1 tain in nf immedia penetrat the Tay vale is of ivhole fni gnnitv. with a fev hluei/li gf iloiie is m fthi/his, i l^ad. Th o^erfjjread contains n chiefly cxhi lime-ftone. Such are uards Ben j is chiefly of Caiitire. £ \yhkh chiefl of which fir coiirfe of pui Inns in t/ie i tiiat the coai in the form ( |K!)bIes of re Mount Scur;| •I'll other mo "' fhe fame 'i'nl micaceoiij The ceiitnl fj'Vii explore pnmitive lime ,'WiiJhis, but if whitv qua ii he/I adaptet I'pon tile V ''if Scotilh m NVvis to I»ort liliial, but the '"I'l fii'id-ftone t'.iiriigorm, ai ('i;i'iipians, w to a German nl • Mr. A SCOTLAND. 87 «« prodigious precipices, gave grandeur to the wildemefs in its moll « jrlooniy forms." Having thus explained, at fome length, the direftions and pofitions of tlic Scotim mountains, becaufe they conftitute the moll remarkable feature of the country, and yet have never received due illullration, their con- (Ijtiicnt parts remain to be briefly examined ♦. On entering the High- lands, near Dunkeld, the firll ridges are alluvial hills of gravel, con- taining pebbles of micaceous fchillus, quartz, and granite. The rocks immediately to the north of Dunkeld are compofed of micaceous fchillus, penetrated in every direftion by veins of quart/.. From the junftion of the Tay and Tumel, vvellward to Loch Tay, the northern bound of the vale is of the fame fubllances, fometimes interfpcrfod with garnets. The whole fummit of the higher chain is covered with large round mafles of frranite. Tlie fouthern mores of Loch Tay confill of micaceou.s fchillus, with a few garnets, interrupted about the middle with banks of compaft hlucilh grey lime-llone. The northern Ihores are fimilar, but the lime- jlone is micaceous. The mountains in Glenlochy are mollly of micaceous fihillus, interfperfed with garnet ; Glen Lyon pirfents fmall veins of Kad. 'I'lic vale of Tumel, between I^ich Tumel and I^och Rannoch, is oveiTpread with rounded fragments of granite and micaceous fchillus, but contains granitoid, and fome granite. The lower part of Glen Tilt chiefly exhibits micaceous fchillus ; the upper, principally granite anj lime-llone. , ^)iicli are the mod fouthern parts of the Highlands. In the weft, to- wards Ben Lomond, micaceous fchillus alio abounds ; but that mountain is chiefly of gneifs, and the like features are found in the peninfula of Caiitire. In the north of Argylefhire appears the beautiful red granite, which chiefly conllitutes the central chain, already indicated; to the north of which firll appears mi«aceous fchillus, and afterwards a remarkable i.oiirfe of pudding-llone, exteniling from Loch Nefs to Oban. The muuiu liiius in the north have been little explored ; but Mr. Jamel'on tells us, that the coall is diielly a coarfe argillaceous fand-ll6ne, often appearing in tlie form of flags, w hilc in fome places are mafles of breccia, being jiihbles of red granite, micaceous fchillus and quart/, in arenacous bafes. Mount Scuraben is fand-llone, with a fummit of white quart/.. Morben, ;ii:J other mountains in this dillridl, from their white colour, feem to be nt" the fame comnolition. About the Ord of Caithnefs aj-^jcar granite ,111(1 micaceous fcliillus. The central and wellern parts of Si'therland and Rofsfhire have not Invn explored; but it would feem that the well of Sutherland is chiefly primitive lime-llone, The mountains feem to be of granite and micaceous iVhillns, but often prefent the lingular feature of vail fummits formed i.f white i|iiart/. Near Loch Broom is found that fort of granite which IS hell adapted for mill-jtones. Upon the whole it would aj)pear, that the chief, or granitic chain of ilic Seotifh mountains, extends in a S. W. and N. E. direction, from Ben Ntvis to Portfoy, In many parts it has funk or fublided, as is not un- iiiual, but the line is marked by the gradual tranlitions from lime-ftone and land-llone to micaceous fchillus, and thence to granite. Ben Nevis, {.',iirii;f')rni, and otli»r lofty fummits, mark this prnuitive chain. The (iriiinpians, which form the outer (Kirt of tliis chain, conlifl, according tu a German mineralogillf, uf micaceous lime-llonc, gneifs, porphyry. • Mr. Aikiii'i Notes. f Kir^^ au'i Gcol. LIHiys, 48(> C 4 fflVC, 88 SCOTLAND. flat**, and granite, altcrnnting nith each other : and another German fays, that the f'ndvuncntal rock of th-> country confifla of granitic aggregates. The mouii' a n3 in the o. W. an* chi>.-f>y fchiltoi-., and the granite is grey, and of an inferior kind ; but Mr. Williams informs us, that Ben Nevis, and other mouatains in thnt quarter, are conipofed of elegant red granite, in which the pale rofe, the bluih, anJ the yellowilh colours, are finely- mixed and (haded *. The like granite is found at Portfoy and Trciip. head, and is probably continued through the whole chain, the fuperior height of th I region being m-Lirkod by the extreme rapidity of the river Spey, This tendency of the leading chain is not only marked out by the Grampians, but by that of the ifiunJs, and of the grand chain in Norway, which, indeed, feems a contin\iatiuu of the Scotilh chain ; ani> tlie lalt, probably, contains filvcr ai \v,\l an the Scandinavian. The U'.ountains on the N. W. of the lakes N^f^ and Li.uiy, are probably only exterior ikirts of the fame chai.i, and prefeat the ufual declenfion of mic jccous fchiilas, terminating in hme-flone and fand-Hone, in the northern parts of SuthiT. land and Caithnefs. The iflar.da of Shetland chieily prefent micaceous fchiftus, interfperfed with a few maffcs of granite; and the Orkneys, 2ic, confiil moftly of fandllor.e. Tlie weilern iflnids may be fuppofed to be chiefly calcareous. It is remnrkable that the fpace from Invernefs to DunoUa, on the weft, abounds with pudding-ilone, compofed of p'.hbles of quartz, probably wuflieddown from the granitic chaiii, and after >vard$ cemented by fome unknown procejs of nature, cither by iron or filiceous earth. General Roy mentions two remarkable features of the Highlands: firft, the moor of Ranuoch, a higli def.rt of twenty miles ftjuare, on the S.E, of Den Nevis, a flat uninhabited morafs. Tlie fecond is part of tlie N.W. coaft txtenJing from Locli I.ichnrd, twenty,four miles to the font}', breadth about ten miles, which proft-'uts a moil fingular appearance, as if mountains had been broken into fragments, interfperfed with pools of water. F0KKSTS.3 The forrfts of Scotland are very rare, in the proper acccpta. tion of the term ; and the Sylv:iCaledoii;i has long iince v.niiflied. The wliole comity of Slkirk w;'.', formerly d'Mominated l.ttric forell. There was alfo aco.:fiderablef<)n.'!t, that of Mar, in the well of Aberdeenfliiro, wlierorow .> n.ihistlie fi.;r.'il of Aberii"thy|-,'">.teMding to Cairngorm. In th:? C(.unty 0/ Su'.h.rl lid was the fir- ll of Sl'-tadalc, on tlu* iiorlh c,t Du;:rob .1, the Kat of the r:\rh of Sutherland ; arid in tht- north of tlie fam** co'Jiity, are marked l*<.iIi"-forefl, betv.wn Afhir and Dunan ; to the foutli oi' wh'cli Wire Reay I'orell, or that of Dirrynion- : wit!i thufo of DirryiiKire and X)irryn-,eiia, on thi* north iind foutli of Locli Sc'iiii. No other fyreft occurs till wr reach the county of Argjlc, wliich cuntaiin 13oHch;ltirc forell on the n Mrtli. BorAVY.] Plaving given a general account of the indigenous plants nf KnglanJ, it will fullice, for the botany of Scotland, to point out the jMrticulara iii which the two floras differ, together witli the caufe of the diflerciice. * Milivr.it King. II, n. Fiom 3 psr-rread hy Dr. Mickiiipfit, rt a mfciln* of ill Wtni'iiiii Si«.kty nf Idm'uiji, Mjio'i 1810, it ai'i'Mrs, th.it tdc hjfc 0}" M i^ ^.«^i> Ik I'J piieij ,41 J imcj-niM. «liuli is followeil by tlio lyriiiti' of Wern.r, or t nin- ti.r.' ( f (*ll|ur 4MiJ liuriibleiid : w!>ile ilic l'ii|i'.iior )»)rtiiiii «)f .^ duk grey colour fecmt In ,tc|>rivn|) to co.nj»adt It lijur, iiuitiirtitly .i.iuglcJ wjili huiablvjuj. — »NuhuUou'» Jduiuj'. T li^. of Mo(4y, Abei, I7<;8. 8vo. p. id;. Th^ The it being nionnta are bur nor any jHand, < We mig ill Scot] in a mil lU'.niber v.ium, n of cli.,:k tracts of CfKitain I h;iiid, tl: l];i(l;noc poffefs m South Bi but tlioil iilaiid, an iiHc ; to foreign c^ j^^raad ri;; botaiii!! i: liihcr ait( filler a;; tf imtiuvd fo i'.y the tre li.ig to tht of live or tuMes \\\\ tr.iihiig/, cu-itHurl:, regard. by the t mountain K'dijes ci:i(iUL-f()i uvii tir/if the fiiow rim;« linu oiir iiativi iSeoihiiid ill Ivighn: Mes; the !».■ m :>t \vi Zooi Ml dillintl fni liave b'l-n thofi' of .•" ilefec] vhi "Jiid qiialit; 'i-^cd breri a:id Gullu SCOTLAND. (^ Tlie northern part of Britain differs from the fouthern as to climate, it being colder and more rainy ; and as to foil, in confifting chiefly of niountai.ious, granitic, or micaceous dilhnfts, the higheft peaks of which are buried in perpetual I'now. There arc no chalk-hills in Scotland ; nor any of that foil which charaiStcrifes the fouth-eaftcrn part of the idand, and is compofod, for the moil part, of fand and.c-ilcai ous marl. We might therefore, a priori, cxpeA to meet with more alpine plants ill Scotland than of tliofe which flourifli bcft in a light, chalky foil, and ilia mild climate ; this is fdnd to be in fa£t the cafe. The greater lujnbor of vegetable fpecios is the fame in both countries ; but the wann, moid region of Cornwall, Dovoiifhire, and Dorfct ; the range of cli iil:-hills on each fide of the valley of the Thames; the dry, fandy tracts ol Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgo, and the fens of Lincolnfliire Cii-.itaia many plants that are unknown to Scotland : as, on tlic other huud, the fnowy fummits of the Grampians, the extcnfive forells of rjucl.noch and Braemar, ^nd ihc bleak, fl^eltcrkfs rocks of the Hcbudcs, poffv.'fs many liardy vegetables which are not to be found in England. Sualh Britain contains a greater number of fpccies peculiar to itfelf ; but thole tliat are finulurly circumilanccd in the northern part of tlie ili;uid, are of more frequent occuiTence, and therefore more charadtcr- iitic : to the Engliih botanilt, Scotland will have more, the air of a foreign country tliaii England will to a Scotifli naturalill. Amidft the grand rcnianfc fcencry of the Highlands the f 'arch of the EnglifK botanill is continually folicited and repaid by llie apj)carance of plants, tulicr altogetlicr new to him, or which he has been acculloincd to coii- fuler a;; th? r.ivc reward of minute invciligation. In travorfing the vail iraturul fonds of birch and pine, although his notice will bcfirll attraiEted i;y the trees themfelves, in every llage of growth, fnim the limber fap- li.ig to the hare and weather-beaten trunks that have endured the llorms ot live or lix hundred winters, yet tlu: new forms of the himibler vege- ti'ples will loo 1 divide his attention: the red and white bloffoms of thft tr.iilii!g/..'«//J potatoes. X'**-" venerable ruins of the au- * This namf was rorniptcil hy lienor Boyre, Into Hchrldei. + I'cnnniit'i Voyage, 168. ^ Statift. Accnunt, rol. ix. p. 169. I! S. A. «i. 178. i S. A. sii. Ji8. fl Koo\*$ \'w\v, li. 451, i| tiuaC 9« SCOTLAND. cient monaftery of Canons regular in Colonfo now cxift: no longer ; tut thofe of the curious priory in Oranfa Itill remain*. The next ifle of any confcquence is that of Mull, one of the largeft of the Hebudea, and furroundcd with fmalkr interolliiig iflands. Mull is about t\rcnty-cight miles in length, by a medial breadth of about cightce:]. An intelligent traveller informs us, that the population it about 7000 f. On the N. E. is the new village of Tobermory. The mofl: curious objcfts in the vicinity of Mull are, Icolm-kill and Staffa. Hyona, or Icolm-kill, is about three miles long, by one broad, and is venerable as the primitive feat of Scotifli literature and religion, founded by St. Columba in the fixtli century. Its hiftory and ruins Iaivc been often defcribcd ; but it may be added, from a recent traveller, that the ifle produces beautiful white marble, and large blocks of indurated fteatites. Staffa, about fix miles to the N. of Hyona, was firft introduced to public notice by .Sir Jofeph Banks. Buchanan has mentioned the ile, but not its grand fiiigularities, its beautiful bafaltic columns, and one of the mofl furpnfing objtcls of nature, the vaft bafaltic cavern, called Au-ua-vine, or the harmonious grotto, either from a melodious found, produced by the percuiVion of th-' waves at the fi:rthefl extremity, or rirom the exaft order in v+iieh the columns are difpofed;]:. Height of the entrance fifty-fix feet, breadth thirty-five, thickuefs of the exterior vault twenty. The depth, or length of the cavern is no lefs than 140 feet. To the N.W. of Mull are tlie ifles of Tirey and Col, the former producing a mofl beautiful marble, of a rofe-colour,, penetrated with fmall irregular chryflals of green hornblende, and which the French naturalills have, from the name of the ifle called Tirite, no fimilar marble being any where found. Tirey is generally plain and fertile; Col, on the contrary, is rocky, but has feveral fmall lakes, replenifhed with fifh. Another group confifls of Skey, in the Scandinavian ftyled Skua, and the furroundmg ifles. Skey is the largefl of the Hcbudes, being about forty-five Engjifh miles in length, and about twenty-two in breadth. Inhabitants about 15,200; chief exports black-cattle and fmall horfes : the land, as ufaal in the Hebudes, rough and hilly. The houfjs are chiefly turf, covered with grafs. The wee of the country wild, heathy, and deluged with continual rains. To the fouth of Skcv are tlie ifles Rhum and Eig ; and to the N. E. of Skey are Raza ani Scalpa. The other ifles in this group ofl'er little memorable. Canna and Eig contain bafaltic pillars, and in the former is Compafs hill, which ftroiigly affedls the needle. It now remains to give fomc idea of the 'Xtcrior chain of the Weflern Ifles, forming, as it were, a barrier againfl the i^tlantic. Two fmall and remote ifles have attradted confiderable notice. The firft is that of Rona, about twelve leagues to the N. W. of Cane Wnith, and about thirty leagues VV. from the Orkneys. This little ifle, with its companioa Sulifka, or Bara, Ikis almofl efeaped from the Scotifh maps, being httle known, and rarely vifit- d. In tlielafl century, Sir Qeorge M'Ken:'!ie, •f Tarbat, afterwards Earl of Cromarty, drew up a fliort account ut' • Sfat. Ace. xii. 317, f St. I'oiid, tDino ii. p. 89. "l lb, ttnic ii. p. 5y. R)na, Rona, (r only of i Thefi notice, e about fix a half Ion to the V fnigular a attention. Having plan here principal : by twent] elevated r the fhores or fouth e called a fo to introdu Stornaway Stornaway an excelle hoiifes cov( rain, as ufi fiJerable fif will thrive! but there ai horfes. To the 1 length fror recent difco other impro Scotifh geo with that of rally cultiva the year. The fmal South Vifl by about tcr alfo throug iiud vcrtlure. are many fm and kelp. No accou ^udcs, the ai tioble propri that fcicnce, year iSootl jflaiid of I Mr. Hcadri forth the pi Mtradled. • \fonro'i T.'io .Stat. Ace. SCOTLAND. 93 [kua, leing in and The mtry ISkcv ana anna hich ;ftern fmall Ihat of labout ^aniou little len?.ie, luut of lionai from the oral information of inhabitant?, at that time confifling only of five families *. The fmall ifle of Hirta, or St. Kilda, mull have attraftcd mucli notice, even in Leflcy's time, for in his map he has reprefented it as about fix times the fize of Skey, whil? in truth it is only two miles and a half long, by one mile in breadth. St. Kilda is about twelve leagues to the weft of North Vi(l ; and has been repeatedly defcribed, tlic fingular and fimple manners of its inhabitants having excited confiderable attention. Having thus briefly mentioned thefe remote and little vifited iflcs, the plan here followed muft be refumed by fome account of I.euis, the principal ifland of the wellcrn chain. It is about fifty miles in length, by twenty in breadth. The face of the country confiils of a heathy elevated ridge full of morafies from the S.W. to N. E.; but near the fliorcs are feveral verdant vales capable of cultivation. The Hams, or fouth end of this ifle, is flill more mountainous, and prcfents what is called a foreft, becaufe fome deer are there found. James VI. attempted to introduce induftry into the Hebudes by planting a Dutch colony at Stornaway, in Leuis ; but it was foon extirpated by the Inhabitants. Stornaway is, however, now a confiderable and fiov.rifhing town, with an excellent harbour. Befides cottages, there are about feventy houfes covered with flate. The feafons in Leuis are oppreffed with rain, as ufual iu the weilern Highlands and iiles ; but there is a con- fiderable fifhery. The crops are oats, bigg, and potatoes ; no trees will thrive except alder and 'mountain afli ; and hardly a fhrub appears : but there are many black cattle and flieep ; nor is there any want of finoQ horfes. To the fouth of Leuis is North Vift, about twenty-^iwo miles i:i length from E. to W. and about fevcnteen in breadtli N. to S., for recent difcovcrics have relloivd this illeto its proper form, among many other improvements which have taken place within thefe few years in Scotilh geography. The face of the country correfponds in general with that of Leuis ; and trees are ctjually unknown. Potatoes are gene- rally cultivated. Weik-rly wlnds^ with rain or fog, ufurp two-thirds of the year, l^ord Maedonald is the pn)pri^'ti.r f. The fmall ifle of Benbecula, and fome others, lie betwixt North aiid South Vill ; the latter is about twenty-three mil.'s in length N. to S. by about ten in breadth W. to E. The morafTy central chain extends alfo through this ifle ; but to the eall are di y hills covered with heath ;uid verdure. The produdl^jus alfo rufemble thofe of Leuis ; and there are many fmall lakes full of excellent trout. Chief cjwporls, black cattl* and kelp. Tliis ifle is alfo naked of r.ood. No account having appeared of the mincralorjy of the exterior IL'- V.ides, the author was anxious to remedy that defeiJt, and applied to the noble proprietor the Earl of Seaforth, who is hinifelf converfant with that fcience, and wha kindly remitted fome interelling materials. In the year 1800 there was privately printci^ at Edinburgh, a ♦« Report of the iflaiid of Leuis, and Eftates of Kintai^ and Lochaldi, by the Rev. Mr. Hcadrick, coutained in letters to the Right lion. Lord Sea- forth the proprietor ;" from which the mincralogieal portion fliall be extradled. it I R )na, • Nfonro'j Dcrciipt. of t*ie W. Idei, in r T!io Mat. AiT. xix. 2;i, n^cis u ith iij. \ iit4t. Acc. «i i. 300. SA9- Eiin 17:4. HuoUecm ?, p. 63. " A vast ■^4 SCOTLAND. ** A vafl body of breccia, or coarfe plum-puddinff flonej nins fi-oni ih^ weft of Arniih to beyond Grace. The ftones of which it is com- Jjofed have evidently been worn and rounded in the bottom of the fea. The harder fpecies of this ftone are cemented by filex and iron, which feem to have undei'jijonc a partial vitrification. In other parts, the ce- ment rs an indurated clay, which diffolves by the weather. In the pe- ninfulaT about Aignifli, and on the oppofite fliore, near Back, the ce- ment is a red calcareous clay, or fpecies of clay-marl, which (lightly eftervefces with an acid. *' Through this body of plum-pudding Hone run various veins of fpar of lime. There are alfo various veins of whinftonC, running nearly from fouth to nortlu Tlie moll remarkable of thcfe is one to the call of Grace, and which alfo appears on the oppofite fliore near Garra- boft. It is compofed of large cubical Hones, arranged in the form of a regularly built wall. There is another remarkable dyke of this fort at Stornaway, on part of which the old caftle Hands. There it af. fumes the fliape of rude columnar bafalt. " To the eail of Grace, where this plum-pudding rock joins the granite, I found a body of limeftone interpofed betwixt them : alfo, below Garraboft, where the plum-pudding rock is cut oft* on that fide, I found a vein of fpar of linle. To thefe veins of limeftone I impute the ftalactites, and italagmitic incruftations, which are found in the feal cove of Grace, and in many other caverns which the fea has formed along thefe coafts " At the head of the bay, fouth-eaft from Aignifti, the plum-pud- ding ftone exhibits a fitialler grain, like red freeftone, and is arranged iu regular ftrata. j\\l the plum-pudding rocks are ftratified ; thougli moft of the ftrata are of great thicknefs, and many of them irregular. They are interfccled by cracks, which run either from eaft to weil or from north to fouth. *' The plum-pudding rock is cut off towards Chicken Point and at Garraboft by a very mattery fpecies of lava, which includes veins of iron ftone, and in foine places of terras, or pu/'/olaue earth. The fame ajjpears at Tolfla Point, and in fome places on the weft fide of Nefs. " All the other rocks I have feen in Leuis are granites, of various fpecies and qualities. Near Stornaway they are extremely fliattery and full of cracks. Towards Birken Illes Loch, or Loch Erifort, they he- come micaceous ; towards Loch Dungeon, and in various parts of Loch Seaforth, they are arranged in thick ftrata, which might aftbrd good ftones for building. Thefe rocks inclfide many beautiful filiceous cryftals, and nodi:les of chalcedony. , " All thefe rocks are interf-d'tcd by veins or dykes of whin-ftonc, which run ncar'y from fouth to north, inclining a few points towards north-weft and fouth-eaft. Some of thefe veins are decompofed by the weather. Others are compofed of ilones built into the form of a regular wall, like that at (*race, and a few affeft a columjiar form. Many of thefe veins, efpecially in the di^lridl of Uig, are filled with talcite, a very hard porous fpecies of Hone, of which tliey make mill-ftones. In fuch cafes, the interftices are filled with a foft fpecies of talc, in fmall lamin:p, called hcrcjjjcfp*sfi!iur. " In the mouniains of II ig are many veins of this foft talcky matter, and alfo in other placi's ; ior they all run acrofs the country in the di« rcCliyii already fpccified. ^ ' "With The bafal «^<' "ot complete «ilke plage ill bi SCOTLAND. 55 lonc« ?ards |y the rular ly of In IfrnftU latver, lie «i"»' *« With the whin-ftonc veins or dykes already mentioned, which in- terfc6l the rocks, are conneAed veins of fpar of lime. Many of thcfe alfo include veins of iron-llone, or ore of iron. « The molt curious veins of that fort are at Rebbock Head, and woftward. There I found the moft beautiful, regularly formed, and ftuii-tranfparent rhomboidal cryftals of lime, both arranged in veins, and alfo in detached nodules, in the hollows of the rocks. In fimilar hol- lows I faw alfo nodules of chalcedony,' which on one fide adhered firmly to the rock, and even included loofe chips of Hone ; on the othet tide they appeared blillery, like feme metals which (brink after fufion. Here alfo I faw a vail viiin, conipofed of rounded Itones, which are cemented by means of fpar of lime, regularly cryltidlized. " Befides the whin-ftone and talcky veins which interfeft the granite, tlicre are iimumerable veins of filiceous fpar ruiniing in all diro(£tions. There are alfo veins of foft micaceous fchiftus, chiefly towards Loch Seaforth, which feem to indicate that veins of flate are not remote. •' The Schaut Ifles are certainly the greateft cvuiofities my eyes ever contemplated ; and were they known, men fond of viewing all that is grand and uncommon in the produtlions of nature, would come from the remotell corners of the world to fee them. " They confi ft of two ranges or llrata of bafaltes placed above each other, with limeftone, fchiftus, and a ftratum- that feems to be fulphur, or hepar of lime, interpofed between them. This laft ftratum lias al- ways been taken for common •limeftone by the people, which it very much refembles ; but it does not efFervefce with acid, and contains thin veins of beautifully cryftallized gypfum, formed from its oxygenation within its cracks and cavities. " The limeftone is of three colours, blue, whitifh-grey, and fparrj'. Much of it is contaminated by martial pyrites, beautifully cryftallized, and many of them indented into each other in a curious manner. The limeftone, and feveral. of the rocks contiguous to it, contain various fpecies of fea-fliells, petrified, and of tlie moft perfeft form. The lime- iioiie and other ftrata appear at various points along the north fide of Garve I Hand. They appear alfo in the neck that joins a remarkable black rock with that iiland, where there is a commodious bav, witli * good anchorage. " This black rock is a ledge of bafaltes, lefs perfectly fornied tliaii the mafs which refts upon it. It is the bafis, or inferior ftratum, on which the colnmiw of the Garve Ifland reft. It dips rapidly to the I'outh-weft, and rifes to the north-eaft. This rock has a remarkable natural arch under it, which is the common paflage for boats. " Pafllng over to the Green I (land, wliicli projects a lodge of rock, covered by the tide, to meet the black rock, we find it wholly compofed of the fame fort of bafalt with the latter. It every where affects a con lumuar appearance, though the columns are rude and ill-formod. " On Its north-weft corner are feen all the ftrata of fchiftus and lime- (lone, which run below the columns of Garve Kland. 0;i the fouth-weit lide the limeftone projects like a vein ; and there is iiere a vaft mafs of excellent clay marl, formed from its decompofition. Above this place a vaft body of fchiftus is ex poled to view: it refembles that which ac-. companies coal, only more indurated ; and, like coal fchiftus, it con- liiins many ftrata of iron-ftonc. " The bafaltic columns of Garve Iiland, though ama/.ingly high, «re not completely ^etached, with fmooth furfaces and regular joints, at^ t;ike place in bnfaltK columns of the moft perfect kiild. "Tl.ey have all St ;light gS SCOTLAND. a fl'ght inclination towards the fouth-wcft, and are interfered f)v vn<. nous cracks or planes, running moftly at an angle of /j.^ witii thcr columns. A tail of rocks prdje. 14, ray^iJ0!iSfl4l|a|iiQui|i'ile«. an4 mmm^^ lOO IRELAND. and the Voluntii, Eblani, and Cauci on the eaft ; fucceeded by tha fouthern tribes of the Menapii, Brigantes, Bodii» Ivelni, Velabn, and Luceni. Ptolemy alfo mentions ten towns; of which the chief is Eblana, now Dublin. In the middle ages we find the Dalriadi on the north-eaft, and the Crutheni on the north-weft. The large tribe of Nelli occupy much of the centre. The Voluntii feem transformed into the people of Ullagh ; the Erdini of Ptolemy yield the name to ArgiaUi • and the Nagnati to Maigh Nais. The Gangani of Ptolemy feem the Galeng of the middle ages. The Menapii, &c. muft be traced in Mu- man, or prefent Munfter. The towns mentioned by Ptolemy might alfo be traced with fome degree of accuracy. The ravages of the Danes, in the ninth and following centuries, can. not be fuppofed to throw mucli light on the progrefuve geography of Ireland ; but the fettlements of the Enghfh under Henry II. certainly contributed to th^t end, for Giraldus Cambrenfis at that period com- pofed his defcription of Ireland, which, ■amidft numerous fables, con- tains fome curious fa£ls ; and the geography of Ireland was little better known till the reign of Elizabetn, when Stanihurft publiflied his de- fcription, which was foon followed by that of Spenfer the poet. The moft remarkable diftiniflion introduced by the new invaders into Ireland was that of the EngliHi pale, or circuit of a few counties around Dub- lin, within which the Enghfh language was chiefly fpoken. So incon- fiderable, indeed, were the Englim poflefllons in Ireland, that the mo- narchs only affumcd the ftyle of Loills of Ireland, till the reign of Henry VIII. when King of Ireland became a part of the fovercign^j ftyle. Nor was Ireland completely fubjugated till the reign of the firll James, who adds this merit to that of founding the American colonies ; but mankind will ever be infatuated by the triumphs of war, and prefer a meteor to the pure light of a pacific reign. Historical Epochs.] The firil hillorical epoch of Ireland is its original population by the Celtic Gauls, and the fubtequent coloniza- tion by the Belgx. 2. The maritime excurfions of the Scoti againft the Roman provinces in Britain. , 3. The converfion of Ireland to Chriftianity in the fifth century, which was followed by a fiilgular efFcA ; for while the mafs of the people retained all the ferocity ot favage manners, the monafteries produced ' many men of fuch piety and learning, that Scotia or Ireland became celebrated all over Cnriltendom. ±. Tliis luftre was diminifhcd by the ravages of the Scandinavians, which began with the ninth century, and can hardly be faid to have ccafcd when the EngliHi fettlemcnt commenced. The iiland had been fplit into numerous principalities, or kingdoms as they were ft) led ; and though a chief monarch was acknowledged, yet his power was feldom efficient, and the conftant diflcntions of fo many fmall tribes rendered the ifland an eafy prey. 5. In the year I170, Henry II. permitted Richard Strongbow Earl of Pembroke to cfTeft a fettlemcnt in Ireland, which laid the foundation of the EiigliOi pofTcfTions in that country. There are however coins of Canute, king of England, ftruck at Dublin, perh^s in acknowledg- ment of his power by the Danifli fettlers. 6. Ireland began to produce fome manufadtures about the fourteenth century, and krr-fayes, or thin woollen cloths, were exported to Italy. It Ih probable that llicfe were produced by riie Briftolian colony, which had palfcd to Dublinf as mentioned iu the defcription of England. 7. Richard • See I,ed*ich's 1 "^my of C«Juw , iJ IRELAND. lOI 7. Richard II. king of England, attempted in perfon the conqueft of Ireland, but being imprudent and ill ferved, nothing of moment was effected. The fubfequent attempts of the EngliAi monarchs to accom< pli(h this purpofe need not be enumerated. 8. In the reign of James I. Ireland became entirely fubjugated ; and colonies of Engufli and Scots were eftabliflied in the north. g. The chief mean of the aflimulation of the countries having been coi.ipletely negle&ed, namely, the univerfal inftitution of parochial fchools, for the education ot children in the proteftant religion and Englifli language, the Irifli continued a diftinft people ; and, oeinig in- ftigated by their fanatic priefts, executed their dreadful mafl'acre of the Englifli fettlers in 1641. This infurreftion was not totally crufhed till Cromwell led his veterans into Ireland. 10. The appearance of James II. in Ireland to reclaim his crown may alfo deferve a place. 11. The amazing progrefs of Ireland in manufa6lures and commerce, within thefe twenty years, may be claded as the moft illuftrious of its hiftorical epochs. 12. The deplorable events which have recently happened in Ireland have led the way to its union with Great Britain ; a meafurc which, it is eagerly to be hoped, will be produ6tive of great reciprocal ad- vantages. Antiquities.] Upon a review of the more ancient of thafe hifto« ileal epochs, and of the monuments which may be confidered as belong- ing to each, it muft be confidered that the edifices having been con- ftruAed of wood till the eleventh or twelfth century, it cannot be ex- peded that any remains of them (hoiild exift. Stone was chiefly em- ployed in the conftruAion of funeral cre£^ions of various kinds ; nor are barrows wanting in Ireland, being hillocks of earth thrown up in com- memoration of the illuftrious dead. Other monuments, commonly ftylcd Druidic, may alfo be found in Ireland ; fuch as finglc ftones eredl, cir- cular temples, or rather places of judgment, and tlie like, which may more properly be afcribed to the Belgic colony *. The converfion of Ireland to Chriilianity was followed by the erec- tion of a vail number of churches and monaftcries, the latter being com- puted to exceed one thoufand in number ; but all thefe edifices were ori- ginally fmall, and conftrufted of interwoven withes, or hewn wood ; for St. Bernard, in the twelfth century, mentions a itone church as a fm- gular novelty in Ireland. But the Scandinavian chiefs mud before this period have introduced tlie ufe of ftone into the caflles neceffary for their own defence againft ft nation whom they opprefled. To the Scandinavian period alfo belong what arc called the Danes Raths, or circular intrencnments ; and pro- iiably fome chapels. Of the eleventh and twelfth centuries many monuments, caftellated or religious, may probably exiit in Ireland. Brian Boro, king of Munfter, having been declared fovereign of Ireland in the year I002, dilHnguHhed himfelf by his virtues and courage; an^ Dcrmid III. A. D. 1041 — 1073, was alio an excellent and powerful prince. Under thefe monarchs mi their fucceifors, Tudflvac and Moricrtac, the power of the Oilmen, or Scandinavians, was confiderably weakened. The native chiefs had been taught the neceflity of fortreflei, and were generally devoutly at» * See I.eHwich's introduction to Orufo'i Antiqiiiilot of IreUnd| fur Cromltclu in (ha (uunty of Culuw, ami a cave in Meath. II 3 . tachfd mmt-^^i 102 IRELANP. tached to religion } it is therefOTe to be infemed thtt lOiiiy eaftlet churches, and monafteries now began to be partly conftrufLed in ftone, by archite&s invited from France ar.d England ; out perhaps the round towers were ere Aed by native builders. The caitles, churches, and monafteries erected fince the period of the Englifli fettlen>ent might be counted by hundreds, and for them one ge. nerd reference may be made to the works of Ledwich aud Grofe. Among fmaller reliques of antiquity, the golden trinkets found in a bog near CuUen, in the foiith, deferve mention ; as gold was found in Gaul, they are perhaps .ornaments of the aucient chiefs brought from that region. rians meet . CHAPTER II. ft POI^ITICAL GEOGRAPHY. Religion* — Eccleftajlic Geography. — Civil Divijiont. •»— Government. — Population. — Army. — Navy. — r Revenues, — Political Importance ana Relations. Religion Under the archbifliop of Armagh are the bifhops of ^'T'HE legal religion of Ireland is that of the church of '-' X England ; but it is computed that two-thirds of the people are Catholics, and of the remaining tliird the Preibyteriaus are fuppofed to conftitute one half. Ecclesiastical Geography.]] The ecclefiaftic geography of Ire- land comprizes fopr arch-bi{hopric8, in themfelves an evidence of the great number of churches formerly exiiling ; and eighteen bifhoprics. Meath Kilmore and Ardagh Dromore IClogher Raphoe Downe and Connor Derry {Kildare Ferns and Laughlin * Offory Waterford and Lifmors Limerick Killaloe ' . Cork and Rofs ■' ^Cloyne [■ Elpnin Cloync ^ Killala and Achonry*. The catholics have alfo a hierarcliy nearly fimilar, but the metropoli. tans and bifhops are confidered by the proteftanti as merely titular. The prefbytcrians, though here dillcnterB, partake in fome degree of the nature and privileges of an eftablifhment. They are chiefly dcTcendcd from the Scotifli preJbytcrians and Englifh puritans, whom James I. eiuouraged to fettle in UHler. The preftyterian form of government is in lime degrw retained, and the miniftcrs of nf«rly all the preftyte- • Oough'i C«mden, iii. 487- The pr'nfucy !■ worth 8000L a ytar, Dsrry 7000L tho ©ther bUhoprici from 40COI. t9 ao^'- Youu^, U. 189. Under ths archbifliop of Cafliel Under the archbifliop of Tuam IRELAND. m rians meet annually in the fynod of Ulfter, in which all the general concerns of the body are difcufled. The number of prefbytenana ic eftimated at half a million. Since the repeal of the ten aft they are free from all thofe reftriftiens to which the diflenters in England are fubjed. Government.] The government of Ireland was conftrufted upon the plan of that of England, being vpfted in the houfe of commons^ and another of peers, while the- king was reprefented by a lord lieutenant or viceroy. But no a£l of importance was confidered as valid, till it received the fanftion of the king and council of Great Britain. At prefent Ire- land being united to England, the form of government is of courfe iden- tically the fame. There are fome minute variations between the ftatute and common laws of Ireland and thofe of England. Civil Divisions.] Ireland is primarily divided into four province.^, Ulfter to the north, Connaught to the Weft, Leinller to the Eaft, The fubdivifions arc counties, of which In Ulfter VIZ and Munfter to the South. the following is a ItH: : r Antrim Down Armagh Tyrone Londonderry Donegal Fermanagh Cavan Monaghan ILeitrim Slii.^o Rofcommon Mayo Gahvay In Lcinfter In Munfter Louth Meath Dublin Wicklow Wexford Kilkenny • Carlow Kildare Queen's-county King's-county Weftmeath Longford Xlare Limerick Ke-ry Cork Waterford (_ Tipperary Population.] The population of Ireland has been varipiifly ftated. Many contend that it dues not exceed three nuUionSf while others fweU it to above five millions. As the number of houfes, according to the official return of 1791, was above 700,000, allowing fix inhabitants to each houfe, it would exceed five millions, which is probably mMch be- low the real number. AitMY.] Belides large contribution!* to the Britifli army, Ireland in 1780 raifed upwards of 40,000 volunteers, and has recently equipped ft confiderable militia and yeomanry. If we fupppfe every eighth perfon capable of arms, Ireland might raife a force of more than $00,000 mep. of mariners Ireland contributes a refpectable proportion, and maoir naval officers from this part of the united kingdom have diftinguiihea themfelves by their courage and fkill. Hevenurs.] The pui>lic revenues of Ireland were ppmputcd by an intelligent traveller * at abc 'it one million fterlingt or 6/. 9d» a head» when thofe of England ftuod at 1/. or. This was in 1778, and great changes have taken place fince. In the year ending cth January l8o5» lu:cording to an accuuut laid before the Houfe of^C«m|iu)nS| the fum * Young'i Tour in Irrland* H4 r«irt4 mm^.^^m 104 IRELAND. raifed for Ireland exceeded ten millions, of which 4,729,406/. was the net produce of the ordinary revonne, and the reft was procured by a loan. By the terms of the Union Ireland pays 2-1 yths of the general expences of the empire, and this fum, in the fame year, amounted to 5,081,474/. Political Impoutance, &c.] The political importance and rela. tions of Ireland are great, but intimately blended with thofe of England • while her weftern pofition imparts fingular advantages in the commerce with America and the Weft Indies. CHAPTER III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. Manners and Cujloms. — Language. — Literature. — Education. — Un'iver- Jities. — Cities and Towns. — Edifices. — Inland Navigation..— Manu- failures and Commerce. - . . «, r^ nOPENSERthe poet, in his view of the MANVERSAyn Customs.] J^ ^^^^^ of Iix-land. has preferved feveral curious particulars concerning the national manners in the reign of Elizabeth. As that work, though fandtioned by an illuftrioua name, is little read, two fpccimens (hall be tranfcribed ; one concerning what M»ere then termed the Irifli horfe-boys, and the other giving fome account of the bards. After defcribing the favage manners of the Gallow. glaifes or infantry, and the Kernes or predatory cavalry, that venerable writer thus proceeds : ** And now next after the Irifli Kernes, methinks the Irifli horfe- boys would come well in order ; the ufe of which though neceflity (as times now be) do enforce, yet in the thorough reformation of that realm they fliould be cut off. For the caufe why they are now to be permit- ted, is want of convenient inns fftr lodging of travellers on horfeback, and of oftlers to tend thcii* horfos by the way. But when things fliall he reduced to a better pafa this needeth fpecially to be reformed. For out of the fry of thcfe rake- hell boys, growing up in knavery and vil- lainy, are their kerns continually fupplied and maintained. For having once been brought up an idle horfe-boy, he will never after fall to labour, but is only made fit for the halter. And thefe alfo (the which is one foul ovcrfight ) are for the moft part bred up amongil the Engliflimen ; of whom learning to fhoot in a piece, and being made acquainted with all the trades of the Englifli, they are afterwards when they become kern, made more fit to cut their throats. Next to this is another much like, but much more lewd apd difhoneft, and that is of their Carrows, .which is a kind of people that wander up and down to gentlemen's houfes, living only upon cards and dice ; the which though they have little or nothing of their own, yet will they play for much money; which if they win, they wafte moft lightly ; and if they lofe they pay as flen- dirly, but make rccompence with one Health or another { whofe only hurt is not that they themfelves are idle lofTels, but that througfi gaming they draw cilheri to like lewdnefs and idlenefs. And to thefe may be added unutlK;r fort of like loofe fellows, which do pafs up and down amongft gentlemen, by the name of jefters, but are (indeedl notable rygues, and partakers not only of many flealths, by fetting fortn otltiT mill's goddn to be ftolen, but alfo privy to many traitcrous prac- lites, and comiuou carriei* of news." AftLC IRELAND. 105 After delineating the diflblute life of an IriHi chieftain, Spencer thus introduces the bards : « In which if he (hall find any to praife him, and to give him en. couragement, as thofe bardes and rithmers do, for little reward or a Ihare of a ftolen cow ; then waxeth he moft infolent, and half mad with the love of himfelf, and his own le ivd deeds. And as for words to fet forth fuch lewdnefs it is not hard for them to give a goodly and painted ihew thereunto, borrowed even from the praifes which are proper to virtue itfelf. As of a moft notorious thief and wicked outlaw, which had lived all his life-time of fpoils and robberies, one of their bardes in his praife will fay, that he was none of the idle milkfops that was brought up by the fire fide, but that moft of his days he fpent in arms and valiant enterprifes ; that he did never eat his meat before he had won it with his fword ; that he lay not all niffht (lugging in a cabin under his mantle, but ufed commonly to keep others waking, to defend their lives, and did light his candle at the flames of their houfes to lead him in the darknefs ; that the day was his night, and the night his day ; that he loved not to be long wooing of wenches to yield to him, but where he came he took per force the fpoil of other men's love, and left but lamentations to their lovers ; that his mufic was not the' harps, nor lays of love, but the cries of people, and clafhmg of armour; and finally, that he died not bewailed of many, but made many wail when he died that dearly bought his death." Tlie manners of the fuperior claffes of people in Ireland now nearly approach to the Englifh iCandard, except that excefs in wine, unfafhion- able in England, continues to prevail too much in the fifter ifland. The Iriili gentry are alfo feldom addifted to literature or the arts ; but amufe themfelves with hunting and other robuft excrcifes. Hence an overflow of health and fpirits ; and the obfervation of an able writer, that Ireland produces the ilouteft men and the fineft women in Europe, muft not be confined to the inferior clafTes. The common people of Ireland ftill re- tain too many features of national manners. A funeral is joined by all the men and women of the vicinity, and is accompanied with dreadful howls, and other barbarous ceremonies. Their diet confifts chiefly of potatoes and buttermilk ; and the rural cottage is a wretched hovel of mud. The favourite liquor is ufquebaugh, or tl>e water of life ; but more properly the water of death, being an ardent and pernicious dif- tillation from corn. The Englifh language daily gains ground in Ireland, and might, if proper attention had been befiowcd on the national education, have be- come, ere now, the general idiom of the country. The ancient Irifh is a dialed of the Celtic intermingled with many Gothic words, imported by the Belgic colonies, by the Scandinavians, and by the Englifli. The Lord's prayer in the Irifh idiom runs in the following terms: Ar nathair ata ar Neamh. Naomhthar Ha'tnm. 7\^rii(ih do Rioghachif, Dciintar do Thoil ar an Ttalamh mar do nithear ar Neamh, Ar tiiiran la tjthitmha'd tabhalr dhu'mn a tiiu. Agus inaith dhulnn ar lihfncha mar nha'tthm'idne dar bhfatheamhnuibb fein. Agus na leigjinn a caihugbadh, Achd fair Jin no Ok, Amen. LiTEUATURi':.] The literature of Ireland has a venerable claim to antiquity ; for, as has been already mentioned, in the centuries imme- diately following the introduction of Chriftianily many writers arofe, whofe works conlift of lives of faints, and worku of piety and difcipline, prcfenting to the inquilitive reader many fiiKTiilar features of the biftory uf the Imraaii miud. The chief glory of the ancient Irilh literature ariies from ''■'^'S*^r*(,h 'f" io6 IRELAND. from the repulfion of the rays of fcience, after it had almoft periihed in Europp, on the fall of the Roman Empire in the weft. The Anglo- Saxons, in particular, derived their firil illumination from Ireland ; and in Scotland literature continued to be the fpecial province of the Irifh clergy, till the thirteenth century. ]&>ucATiov.] In no quarter of the Britifli dominions has education been condudled upon a more folid and rational plan than in Scotland ; 9ud no where has it been fo much neglefted as in Ireland. It is to be Iioped that one confequence, and not the Icaft important of the Union, will be the introdu£lion of parochial education into Ii^land, a fure mean of preventing the ebullitions of ignorant difcontent. Univeusities.3 With four archbiflioprics Ireland only pofTefTes one wniverfity, that of Dublin* This inft^.ution was firft proje£ked by archbifhop Leech, about the year 131 1 ; but death having interrupted his defign, it was revived and executed by Bicknor his fuccefibr, and enjoyed moderate profperity for about forty years, when the revenues failed. In the reign of Elizabeth the univerfity was refoundcd by voluntary contribution, under the aufpices of Sydney the Lord Deputy. It con, fills of a chancellor, vice-chancellor, provoft, vice-provoft, twenty-two fellows, and thirteen profeflbrs of various fciences. The number of ftudents is commonly about fix hundred, including feventy on the foun- t^a'ion. The building confifts of three quadi'angles, and it contains a library of fome account, and a printing-office. At Maynooth there is a royal college for the education of young men of the RomiHi church. There are many endowed fchools in Ireland, of which that at Kilkenny is one of the bcft. Tlie education of the higher and middle ranks is as much attended to as in England, and fci'.ools of all defcriptions are rapidly improving. The Dublin Society for the improvement 01 Agriculture and Manu- failures was inftituted by the efforts of the patriotic Dr. Samuel Madden in 1731, being the earlieft of the kind now exiiling in Europe f. Cities and Towns.] Dublin, the capital city of Ireland, feems to be the Eblana of Ptolemy ; but continued little known till the tenth century, when it was mciitioned in th& Saxon dironicle ; and in the beginning of the next century, we have coins of Canute ftruck at Dub- liu. The fituation is delightful, in a bottom, bccwecn ranges of hills on the fouth and north. It is pervaded by the river Liffy, and by fome rivulets. The inhabitants have been cftimated at 1 70,000 ; this capital beiirg juftly accounted tlie fecond in the BritiOi dominions. Tlie circumference of Dublin may be about ten miles, being about t\Tx> miles and a quarter in length, and au much in breadth. The har- bour is incommodious, being impeded with two banks of fand, called the north and fouth bulls, which prevent fliips of large burden from pafiing the bar ; but fome improvements have been made, and otherii might be carried into execution. A mole has been conftru£ted four mi^s in length : and thv? quays are fpaciuus* and beautiful. There arc fix bridges, the chief of which is thut called Carlifle. The caftlc waj foundt'd about the year 1205, but it has been fmce rebuilt, and is now the town refidence of the viceroy, and the fanAuary of the public re cords. The parliament-houfe is a fuperb building, ercfted at coniidcr- able cxpence. The church of St. Patrick is the cathedral ; a venerabK- which was begun in the end of the twclftli century ; butt'i." buildiiij;, • Coiigli's Camden, iii. SSS> f Youtig, ik aio. • Mr. Yonng:, vft dmm of the h.rhoul t Oough'j Caindl t Beauf. 9. ftccplc, IRELAND. 107 ftreple, the higheft in the city, was not erefted till the year 1370. The royal exchange was completed in 1779; and, amon^ other beautiiul edifices muft not be omitted that whirlpool of expenditure the cuftom- houfe ; and the houfes of the Duke of Leinfter, the Earl of Charlemoi;t, and others. Dublin has an ample fupply of native provifions ; buf coals are im- ported from Scotland and Cumberland. In proceeding to eive a brief account of the principal towns and cities of Ireland, Cork and Limerick attra£l the |irft attention. Cork is a city of confiderable importance, fituated on the fuuth-eaft fide of the ifland, and fuppofed to contain about 80,000 inhabitants. The haven ranks among the mod capacious and fafe in Europe ; and the exporta- tion, the largeft in the fifter kingdom, confifts chiefly of beef, hides, tallow, and butter. It is the grand market of Irifh provifions ; and it was computed that not lefs than a hundred thoufand cattle were here annually killed and falted, between the months of Auguft and Januar}'. This city lies chiefly in a marfhy ifland, furrounded by the river Lee ; but the marihes on the oppofite fide of the river having been drained, ample fpace has been given to the recent improvements*. Limerick unites the fortunate fituation of being almofl cetitral to the /■Quth of Ireland, with an excellent haven formed by the long eftuary of the river Shannon. The city is accounted the third in Ireland, and was formerly fortified with great care. The cpifcopal fee is faid to have been founded in the year 652. The Danes held tlie city from the ninth century to the eleventh. There are three bridges over the river,' one of which confifts of fourteen arches. The number of inhabitants has been computed at 50,000. The chief exports are beef and other provi- fions f. The other chief towns in Ireland (hall be briefly mentioned, in a geo- graphical progrcfs from the fouth towards the north. Galway is a town of confiderable note, and carries on an extenfive trade with the Weft Indies. The port is commodious and fafe, but diilant from the city, which can only be reached by veflels of fmall bur den: the number of inhabitants is computed at 12,000. Greater trade is now carried on in the bay of Sligo than at Galway J. On Klew bay, in the centre of the vt-eft of Ireland ftands Weftport, but by fomc fatality the advantages of the county of Mayo have not been improved, nor are there any towns of much confcquence upon the whole weftern coaft. Sligo is, however, increafing in trade, and the inhabitants are computed at 8000 ; and Caftlebar is alfo a profperoui town 11 . Londonderry is more remarkable for its ancient and military fame than for its prefent commerce, though not unimportant. It ftands on the river Foyle, over which a wooden bridge of fingular conftruAion, one thoufand and fixty-eight feet in length, was throwrt in 179 1. Ik'lfaft on the north-eaft, is in the centre of the linen manufactures, and may almoft t)e regarded as a Scotifli colony. Tiie inhabitants arc computed at 20,000. The chief manufactures, cotton, cambric, fail- cloth, linen, white-glafs, fugar, and earthen ware. It maintains con- *-'^ • Mr. Yonng, vol. i 417, expreflei hiiaftoniftiment at the p«puloiifjiefs of Cork. Tiie diities of the h«rhoiir were, in f 75t,6>,oOOl. in 1779, 140.C09I. t Cough's Camden, iii. J17. I Beauf. 9. II Itpd, 7 a. xo8 IRELAND. fiderable intercourfe with the commercial city of Glafgow; and the grand exports are to the Weft Indies and America. Dundalk has alfo its manufadures of linen and muflin. Drogheda imports fea-coal and goods from England, and exports confiderable quantities of grain. It is a well built town on the Boyne : the inhabit, ants on enumeration in 1798, were found to exceed 15,000. Towards the fouth-eaft, Wexford claims the firft notice, being re- markable for its woollen manufadlures ; but the haven, though fpacious, is not fufficiently deep for large veffels. The inhabitants are 9000. Waterford is a city of confiderable importance, fituated on the river Suir*, and is fuppoledto have been founded by the Danes. A noble quay extends the whole length of the town, to which large veflels can come ; and. a fin" wooden bridge has been lately thrown over the *^uir. The population is about 35,000. The chief exports are beef, pork, occ. and linen. Packet boats fail regularly betwixt Waterford and Milford Haven. The fea-ports of Dungarvon and Youghall are loft in the fuperior confequence of Cork ; but Kinfale is a maritime arfenal, and is fuppofed to contain 8000 fouls. The chief towns in the interior, Armagh, Tuam, Cafhel, &c. &c. are rather venerable from their ecclefiaftical antiquity than important in themfelves. Kilkenny is, however, an exception ; a handfome town, with 16,000 inhabitants. Edifices.] Many of the chief edifices of Ireland have been already mentioned in the defcription of Dublin. The cathedrals feldom afpire to great praife of architefture ; and the villas of the nobility generally yieUl in fplendour to thofe of England, and even of Scotland. RoAns.3 Though the turnpike roads in Ireland be rather neglefted, yet the crofs roads are admirable ; and Mr. Young has explained at length the principles upon which they are conftruftedf . Inland Navigation.] The advantages derived by England from inland navigation foon attrafted the attention of Ireland; and, not many years after the example fet by the Duke of Bridgewater, a grand canal was begun from the city of Dublin to the river Shannon, and was actually carried on to tlic bog of Allen, at the expence of 77,oco/.|. But the engineer's want of ability occaiioned great errors in the original plan and furvey ; and the work was interrupted in 1770. It has llncc been completed to the Shannon, near Banagher, and to the Barrow at Athy, fo as to join Dublin by inland navigation with Limerick and Waterford. A canal is completed from tlic town of Newry to Lough Neagh, and thence to the collieries of Drumglafs and Dungannon. But the original intention to fupply Dublin with Irifh coals, has not fuccecded. MANUFACTUHiis AND CoMMEUC'i:.] Though we find, as has been already mentioned, that Ireland was diftinguifhcd at an early period for her manufadhire of woollen llulfs, yet the fpirit of indflftry made littli; progrefs, and'the chief Irifli manufadhires are of recent inftitution. But the linen manufadure was not unknown in Ireland in more early times, as appears from the afts of parliament in the reigns of Henry VIII. anJ Eli^abeth. The annual produce of the linen manufadure was com- f Vol. li. tji • — Thnt gentle Swire, lliat making w.iy, Cy fwect Clonmel, udonis rich Waterford. Sl'l-NSER. \ l*hilliliE, 2:^0, )UtCd IRELAND. 109 puted at about 2,000,000/. fterling * 1780. In the year ending January I799> the value of .Irifti linen exported to Great Britain exceeded 2,500,000/. exclufive of that fent to America, and the home confump- tion ; and it has fince confiderably increafed. But a grand portion of the commerce of Ireland arifes from her abundant ftores of black cattle, the moifture of the climate rendering the pafturage remarkably luxuriant. The average annual exports of Ireland for the feven years previous to 1 791 > amount, according to Dr. Beaufort, to 4,357,000/. From.^ the annual average taken of the three years preceding the 5 th January, 1799, it appeared that the total value of exports from Ireland to Great Britain alone was 5,612,689/. • . ' , > ■ ... CHAPTER IV. IJATURAL GEOGRAPHY. Climate and Seafons. — Face of the Country. — Soil and AgricuUure.—^ Rivers. — Lakes. — Mountains. — Forejls. — Botany. — Zoology. — Mine- ralogy.-— Mineral Waters. — Natural Curiofities. -| TRELAND lyihg nearly in the fame parallel with Eng- "J jI^ land, the difference of climate cannot be fuppofed to be very important. The mean temperature of the north is about 48, of the middle 50, and of the fouth 52 of Farenheitf. Face of the Country.] In confidcring the face of the country it muft be remembered, that Ireland forms a ftriking contraft to Scot- land, being moftly level, fertile, and abundant in pafturage. The chains' of hills, for they can hardly afpire to the name of mountains, are few and unimportant. Soil and Agriculture. ] The foil and agriculture of Ireland are topics which have teen ably illuftrated by an intelligent writer |. He' obferves, that the quantity of the cultivated land exceeds in propor- tion, that of England. The moll ftriking feature is the rocky nature of the foil, ftones generally appearing on the furface, yet without any injury to the fertility. The ftones are, for the moft part, calcareous, and appear at no great depth, even in the moft flat and fertile parts, as Limerick, Tipperary, and Meath. The climate being more moift than that of England, the verdure never appears parched with heat ||. 'Til- lage is httle underftood, even in the beft corn counties ; turnips and clover being almoft unknown:, the wheat fown upon fallow, and followed by feveral crops of fpring corn. The farmers are opprefled by the (hocking fyttem of middle /nen, who rent farms from the landlords, and let them to the real occupiers ; who, as well as the proprietors, fuffer greatly by this ftrange praftice. Lime ftone gravel is a manure pecu- liar to Ireland ; having, on uncultivated land, the fame wonderful effects as lime, and on all foils it is benelicial^. • Young, ii. 438. f x Tranf. R. t. A. vol.!!. % Young's tour, ii. 72. II The Currsigh of KilJarc is a moft beautiful lawn, of abouc 4000 Englilh acres, a flicep-walk of the lofteft turf, and moft delicious verdure. Young, ii. 7. ^ Young, 171, Since Mr. Y«ung wrote there has been greu improvement in agti. culture. 9 . . ' Rivers.] mms-^mii 110 IRELAND. Rivers. 3 Among the chief rivers of Ireland muft firft be mentioned the Shannon, which rifes from the lake of Allen, and pafling throutrh two other large lakes, Lough Ree and Lough Derg, afterwards ex- tends below Limerick, into a vaft eftuary or firth, about fixty miles in length, and from three to ten in breadth *. This noble river is, almoft through its whole courfe, fo wide and deep as to afford eafy navigation. Boate informs us that the celebrated Earl of Strafford deiigned to re- move a rock fix miles above Limerick, which forming a cataract, im- 4>edes the intercourfe between the upper and lower parts. It has fmcc been deemed preferable to conneft the navigable parts of the river above and below the cataraA by a canal. The whole courfe of the Shannon may be computed at 1 70 miles. The other rivers of Ireland have little of this majeilic charafter. The river Barrow rifes about forty miles to the welt of Dublin, near the fource "of the Boyne ; and, after a courfe of about one hundred miles, enters the fea on the fouth-eail, having received the rivers Nour and Suir, and formed the harbour of Waterford. The Blackwater, another confiderable llream in the fouth, enters tlie iS^a at Youghall bay. > The Slaney forms the harbour of Wexfora. The Liffy is an inconfiderable ttrea.m, ennobled by the capital. The Boyne, after a courfe of about fifty miles, alfo enters the eaftern fea ; the other rivers on the eaft, are fmall and unimportant. In the north the Bann is a confiderable ftream, which pervades Lough Neagh, and enters the fea after a courfe of about 70 miles. By the canal of Newry it communicates with Carlingford bay ; and thus infulates the north-eall projection of Ireland. The river Foyle pafles by Londonderry, and has a confiderable eftuary called Lough Foyle. The Swilly is of confiderable length, but forms a long elluary. On the N.W. Lough Erne ifTucs into Donnegal bay by a confiderable ftream ; but no other river of confequence occurs till we reach the eftuary of the Shannon ; nor arc the rivers on the S.W. of much note. The lakes of Ireland are numerous, and fome of them extenfive. "The term iougb correfponding with the Scotidi loc^t is fometimes applied to an eftuary, or to an inlet of the fea, fuch as the Swilly, the Foyle, that of Strangford in Down, &c. The chief lake of frefli water is that of Erne, which exceeds tliirty Britifii miles in length, and twelve in its greateft breadth ; it is dividt-'d by a narrow outlet from the fouthern part into the nortliorn, of about four miles in length. Next in magnitude is Neagh, about twenty-two miles in length, and twelve in breadth. Both thefe lakes are ftudded with fmall ifiands; and the latter is faid to pofFefs a petrifying quality. The lake of Corrib, in the county of Galway, is about twenty miles in length, and from two to five wide. Thofe of Ree and Derg are lefs confiderable in fize ; and there is a fmaller lake alfo named Derr, in the N. W. which was remarkable in fuperftitious times for a little ifland, containing what was called the purgatory of St. Patrick. Among the lakes of the fecond magnitude muft be firft named the beautiful and interefting Lough of KiUarney, in the 8. W. abounding with romantic views, and fringed with the arbutus, no where elfe a native of the Briti/h dominions. This is almoft the only lake in tlie fouth of • BoatCj p 36 Ireland; IRELAND. Ill Ireland ; and the ofafenrations may be extended to the eaft. On the ^. W. are the lakes of £a(k, Tiierty, Melvin, Macnean, and GiGL "That of Allen, aa already mentioned, is a chief fource of the Shannon, into which the Gara and Key alfo pour their waters. Further to the weft are two coniiderable lakes, the Conn and the Maik ; nor mud thofe of Curraiin be forgotten. MouJiTAiMs.] The fhountainous chains in Ireland are neither nu- merous nor important ; but an upland ridge divides the country from the N. E. to tne S. W. giving birth to feveral of the rivers. The Irilh hills generally form fliort lines, or detached groups. One group of con- fiderable height appears on the weft and fouth of Lough-Leane, or what is called the lake of Killarney ; of thefe Mangerton is 2500 feet above the fea. A fmall line of hills extends on the north-weft of Bantry-bay, and paffes to the eaft, under the name of the Shehy mountains*. To the north of this is the line of Slieblogher and Nagles, followed by the Galtee mountains ; and towards the eaft, are thofe of Knochmeledown, which bend fouthward towards the bay of Dungarvin. A fmall chain alfo appears to the fouth of Tralee, which, with a group to the N. E. may be faid to complete the enumeration of the mountains of Mun* fter. In Leinfter is the mountain of Leinft"&r, the line of Sliebh-bloom «n the S. W. and a confiderable group to the fouth of Dublin, ftyled the Kippure mountains, or thofe of Wicklow. The extent of this group is about thirty Englifli miles in length, by about twelve breadtn. in In Ulfter is a fmall group, called the monntains of Mournc, in the S. E. corner of the province: one of them, Donard, is faid to be about the height of Mangerton. The hills of Sliebhcroob (in the Irifti knguige Jlifiht fignifics a mountain), form tlie centre of the county of Down ; and feveral hills are fprinkled over the eaftern half of Antrim. On the north-weft of Loughneagh arc tliofe of SHebhgallan and Carn- togher. Sliebh Snaght is a conuderabl* mountain N. W. of Lough Foyl, whence other lines and groups extend down lo Longh Em'*. "The eallern part of Connaught prefents numerous marlhes, but few mountains, except thofe of Baughta on the fouth. The extreme weftern peninfula, is one of the moft mountainous regions in Ireland. Among ether names may be mentioned, Mount Ncphin, in the county of Mayo, a folitar)' hill of .2640 fe?t, and one of the moll confiderable in the illand. That of droagh Patrick, on the S. E. of Clewbay, a cone of 2666 feet ; the Fernamoor mountains to the weft of Lough Maflc ; and the Twelve Pins, a line of fo many fmall peaks in Ballinah'nch ; with others to tlie fouth of Lough Corrib. Forests. 3 Scarcely the fomblancc of a foreft remains in Ireland; and Boate has long Hncc obfervcd, -that the woods have been greatly diminiftied fince the entrance of the 5ngli^» partly from the cxtenfion of tillage, and partly from the neceffity of opening up the recefles of ban- ditti. Another great caufe was, the confumption in domeftic fuel, and in the iron manufafture, the coal mines not having been explored. Boos] The place of the forefts is unhappily ufurped by the mnor$ or bogs, which form a remarkable feature of the country. Boate divides them into ieveral genera and fpecics, forming an elaborate fcale of fterility. The dry heaths are generally confined to the mountains. The bogs he fub^ditiaes into four defcriptions : i. The gralfy, in which (he water being concealed by herbage, they become extremely perilous • Beaufort's Memoir of a Map of beknd. mmm:im«'>.m>^Mt>.- jia IRELAND. to travellers : fome of thefe are dry in the fummer. 2. The pools of water and mire. 3. What he terms haflbcky bogs, or (hallow lakes iludded with tufts of ruflies, which are chiefly found in the province of Leinfter, efpecially in King's and Queen's counties. 4. The peat moors. Ornaments of gold, and other rehcs of antiquity, have, h-om time to time, been difcovered in the bogs at great depths ; and there are other indications that they are of comparatively recent formation *. It is hoped that the hand of induftry will, in time, remove many of thefe blemishes ; and one of the greateft ihiprovements of modern agriculture is that of reclaiming peat moors, by means of calcareous manure. The Irifli bogs differ from the Englifh moraffcs in being rarely level, but rifing into hills ; and there is a bog in Donnegal that is a perfeft fcenery of hill and dale. The plants are heath, with fome bog myrtle, and a little fcdgy grafs. Botany.] The ftudy of botany has been lefs cultivated here than ia any other part of the united empire ; and the neighbourhood of Dublin, which has been the beft explored, affords no rare, and few charafteriftic plants. . From the general mildnefs of the climate, the extenfive trafts of bog, and the vaft mountainous ranges that interfedt the country, and afford capacious bafons for its numerous lakes, it is obvious that the flora of Ireland, when complete, will probably contain fevcral fpecies that are ilrangers to the reft of the Britifli iflands. On the mountains of Sligo is found the Saxifraga umbrofa, (known in our gardens by the xiimie oi London frl Jet) and the romantic fcenery of Killarney in the county of Kerry, is the moil northern habitat of the Arbutus Unedo: the heaths abound with the ftateiy Erica Dabbeci, and the mountain avens, bear-berry, with other Alpine plants, already noticed in the botany of Scotland, expand their negle£led bloffoms, and trail their glowing fef. toons of clullered berries, unnoticed amidft the wild folitude of their rocky faftneffes. Zoology.] In paffing to the zoology of Ireland it may be cxpefted that not many varieties (hould be found between the Irifli animals and thofe in England. The Irifh horfes, called . hobbys, are of a fmall breed, remarkable for the gentleness of their pace. The Irifli hound is one of the noblefl; animals of the clafs, and formerly celebrated for his fize and vigour, but the breed is now almofl: extinft. Bede has commemorated the praife of Ireland for abundance of honey, and of milk, fo that the country feems, even in early limes, t© have abounded in cattle. He nlfo mentions the numerous herds of deer, which animal the progrefs of cultivation has now rendered rare. In various parts of Ireland are dug up enormous horns, probably belonging to a fpecies of deer now extindl. Some of thefe horns have been found of the extent of fourteen feet from tip to tip, furniflisd with brow antlers, and weighing three hundred pounds ; the whole flceleton is fre- quently found with them. It is fuppofed that the aninud muft have been about twelve feet high. Mineralogy.] The mineralogy of Ireland has been recently enno- bled by the difcovery of confiderable maffes of native gold in the county of Wicklow, to the fouth of Dublin. Thefe were found in a brook, running weft to eaft, to the river of Avonmore, where it is joined by the river Aghran ; and on a declivity of the mountain called Croughan Kinflielly, about feven Englifli miles weft of Arklow, and fix fouth-well • See Di*. Campbell's Pliilofophical Survey of the South of Ireland, afciibed to Dr. Wilkintou, to whom it is dedicated. ■ > fometimes falfeljr of PWof.' IRELAND* tij of the noted copper mines of Cronebane *. It is faid that a jeweller, who lately died in Dub'lin, often declared, that gold from that fpot hadpaffed through his hands to the value of 30,000!., tlxe fecret being retained for many years, and fome piecea weighing to the amount of 70 or 80 juineas. It is now worked for government, and it is faid that a very iTialTy vein has been recently difcovered, which, it is hoped, will greatly benefit the country ; for mines have, in all ages, ancient and modern, en* riched and improved the countries where they were foUnd, apd the excep- tion, if fuch» of Spaniih America is to be afligned to caufes of a differcat nature. The filver found in the Irifli mines deferves more attention* Boate nicntions a mine of this metal, intermingled with lead, which was wrought in the county of Antrim, ' and yielded a pound of pure filver from thirty pounds of lead. Another, lefs produftive of filver, was found near the harbour of Sligo, in Connaught \ and a third in the county of Tipperary, twelve miles from Limtrick. The ores of thid lall; were of two kinds, moft generally of a reddifh colour, hard, and gliftering ; the other, which was the richeft in filver, refembled a blue marl. The works were deftroyed in the Irifli infurret\ions undet Charles I. ' Copper has been recently found in the county of Wicklow, and at Muccrofs, in Kerry. One of the chief mineral produAIons of Ireland is ironj the mines of which were little known till the time .of Elizabeth. The beds of coal to be feen in various regions of Ireland have not yet been explored to their proper extent. That of Kilkenny, found at Caftlecomer, is defervedly celebrated among mineraldgifts as the purell which has yet been traced in any quarter of the globe. One of the mod beautiful marbles of Ireland is found near Kilkenny, and others have been difcovered in various parts of the iilandt Slate, of Various kinds, is alfo abundant. Natural curiosities ] Among the natural curiofities of Ireland would, in ancient times, have been mentioned the purgatory of St. Patrick, a mifefable monkifh delufion. At prefent the lake of Killar- ney attraAs more deferved devotion. This piAurefque expahfe of water is about ten miles in length, and from one to feven in breadth : it i|j divided into three parts, called the upper, lower, and Muckrufs lake ; and is fur- rounded by an amphitheatre of mountains, clothed with trees, whofe verdure iscontraftcd with intervening rocks. The arbutus, with its fear- let fruit and fnowy bloflbms, here vegetates in great luxuriance. Nor are cafcades, and other features of rural beauty, wanting to complete the fcene f . The ifle of Innisfallen is not only romantic, but of venerable fame for the annals there written. What is called the Giant's Gaufey muft be diftinguilhed among the moll remarkable of the curiofities of Ireland. When we recoUeft that 9 fimilar produAion, the celebrated ifland of Stafia, remaiped unnoticed till within thefe thirty years j we (hall be the lefs inclined to wonder that the Giant's Caufey is an objeA of recent obfervatiofl. The firft account is that given by Sir R. Buckley, in a letter to Doftor Lifter, J 693. This furprifing colledion of bafaltic pillars is about eight miles N.E. from^oleraine. The adjacetit coaft is verdant, but preci* pitous, and from it the Caufey projeds into the fea, to an unknown ex- tent. The part explored is about 600 feet in length i the breadth from •rhiloT.Tnmf. 1797. t Young, i, 444, &c. 240 •114 IRELAND. ,240 to 120; the height from 16 to 36 feet above the level of the llrand. Tt confiftsof many thoufand pillars, moUly in a vertical pofition • fome of them high, others broken, and, for a coufiderable fpace, of an equal height, fo as to form a pavement. They are clofely compacted to- gether ; though the form be various, trigonal, tetragonal, pentagonal, hexagonal, and heptagonal ; the mod numerous are the pentagonal. The pillars are rarely compofed of ono entire piece, but molHy conhft of fliort or long joints, either plain or alternately concave and convex. They are from 15 to 24 inches, or more, in diameter. Towards the N,E. is what is called the Organ, in the fide of a hill, confiding of fifty pillars ; that in the middle is 40 feet high, the others gradually diminifli. iiTg. Similar pillars, are alfo found a mile and a half inland, four miles to the W. of the Giant's Caufey, and at the capes of Bengore and Fairhead. The bafalt of the Giant's Caufey is of a very compaA texture, and the angles of the pillars have preferved their (harpnefs, though expofed to the Tea lor perhaps two or three thoufand years *. The fame Ihorealfo prefents horizontal and bending pillars, like thofe of StafFa ; the attendant minerals are zeoUte in the irregular bafalt, deatite^ and bits of agate, red ochre, and iron ore. IRISH ISLES. ..vi.-Jln ,r The few and fmall ifles around Ireland are unimportant, but muft not be wholly omitted. To the N.E. of Dublin is Lambty, a fmall ifland already mentioned : and at tlie S.E. extremity of Ireland appear the rocks called Tafliard and the Saitee ifles. At the fouthern extremity is the ifle of Clare, about three miles and a half in length, and more remarkable for its fouthern promontory called Cape Clear, than for any other object Turning to the N.W. are the ifte of Durfey, thp Hogillands, and the Skellig.'J ; to the north of the latter is Valentia, off the coatt of Kerry, which is followed by the Bla/ltets, or Ferriter illands. The fouth Arran iflands he at the n\outh of the noble bay of Galway, and are remarkable for a fmall kind of oats without any hufk, and for large calves ; the chit f is near feven miles in length. A number of fmall iflands encircle the coait, which projects furtheit into the Atlantic, fuch as Garomna, Littermore, Minifli, Inifney ; and further to the N.W. Dunloghan, Omcy, Crua, ^^c. UoAn was famous in the days of monadic fand\ity, and has retaiiial ii> ancient appellation, 'i'o the N K. are the Inilture, and another Clare .it the mouth of Clew bay j at the bottom of which is a numerous group 01 fmall iflands. 'i'o the norih is Achil, the Urged of the Irifh ifles being about twelve miles long by ten broad. It is feparated from the et>ait ot Mayo by a narrow channel, but no minute defcnption of it has appeared Inifmurry is a fmall ille at the mouth of the bay of Donegal ; and wj other iilcs worth mention apptar till we arrive at the northern illands ot Arran, off the coad'of Douegiil. 'I'he N.W. extremity of Ireland i^ marked by Tory ifle ; and r« turning towards the ead, we meet wjtii Inif- trahull ; and after an equal liillance, Raehlin. the Racina of Ptulctny. auJ jTTPiuwable as the retveat of Robert f. of Scotland. * • . , ', *ift:^jj«Nl.V FRANCr Calais >o-'^, 'f-KH/A I jmnitnn '' || M M_:^,.. ^ij^dl ">■ *.>niiiii>.-r liiii.i\ \ E . 1 " / ,, '^ i" *' '• '\ ..aii.Ui.k ^„^ '^*">?' AI.1ICII. r'^> r »l iJ/ , 'Vm.Ii.Ii fjj i_^>' £-wy.-.^. \^^y^ „. ■ c \,' ^"■""■■'■^ f'ljg!-* "'^''"" V^-T^' • ":vik.n/vfS. ,¥ •\ II V. r Ai.i.ri Y O n\n :k\\h e r...i„.„„ Ha>T (^ C f ». «. J ■ *'"•♦•''' "I \ /M./rC./. M'ulii I, I. ii V. IV UWM'.r/'f-']' S\' ' ,. "^ r i 1 ITmih llfllri'llh"! I ! •k^ -•*..' ' w /■„i liriJu "fMhy^M/ ,,. \^\. J i Cologne tfl to n /7^ O. 'rrfirnnts: "(' v. Vcrrin iFEAXf CE M aI ';!'(»/» r Laon ^ • f.'1''>~ ^ '1<7. JiVl J , , !^ INK ) F/u-,-^ >l K: , \M.Iiiii ^^. 7 %Ijl j./fi'm i?//il Frflli'h Lnitfiif*: I !C T. i" IP TO ,T<» Sri jfo K t ISi^Atif' II ' ) '■^'"■•"VMoHrvr ■,■.- t/ ' / "''ill V fl A\h ." \C i t>T /l»i-,-«>- U V AJ'»'>' ' iiiiU •LU • L_ . /<*/'' •/.•,,,//.< /V..,<..i- .Iff i/i I., ,,nmm •S'tf't^r ISittf ■ , iv/fi'( jfi£tiiflM.^-.^'. ""^"^.«.^r-; rt iJ J^-- ^^*^*NN.; ; ) 1 I ^11 ""*"' >>.'■•"■'• "''1 1 j ' }• ' 1 I \, .'V. m\ if. n(ci ■•> ' i I ^"^ V D K K ^^^»•o I „ ,t' J c . P' i'omsir a' ' i,j^ l^ •• i; 7 . A V O t/>" 1\ I T7-. ^ „i _^ Lwc* l«h— ("5) i,' r.r': I .. *•.. ♦. FRANCE. , , . . CHAPTER I. ' . " . , HISTORICAL GEOGRAPttV. ' ' " iVdjRW. — Extent. — Boundaries.—-Origmal Population. — Progrejfne GeogrA' phy. — Hiftor'ical Epochs and Antiquities, ^ , T7 RANGE, defervedljr celebrated amoiigll the moft eminent Names.J j^ Europetn ftates, was probably known to the Phoenicians, though tlie fuperior fame of the metalUc riches of Spain have almoft cclipfcd their difcovery of Gaul. In the year 6oo beforf? the birth of Clirift; according'to the chronology of Uflier, the Phucseans failing from Ionia founded Maflilia, or Marfeilles ; yet Herodotus, who lloiiriflied a gentury and a half after that period, fhew^s fo little know- ledge of Gaul, as to fuppofe that the Danube arofe in the Pyrenees. The ancient inhabitants were the Celts, of whom even Ariftotle feems only to have k'arned that they inhabited the region above Iberia or Spain. The t'outliern parts of Gaul became known at an early period to the Romans* who entered tkat region about 1 20 years before the Chriitian epoch, and loon afterwards founded the province termed Gallia Bracata ; but the re- mainder of this large and fertile country was referved for the difcovery and conqueft of Julius Cxfar. The ancients fometimes ftyled it the country of the Celts, but the only general name feems to have been Gallia, which, after the fall of the Roman empire, was fupplanted by that of Francia, or France, becaufe it was fubdued and pofTelTed by the Franks, an alTem- blage of tribes from lower Germany. Extent.] The extent of France, before the recent acquiiitions, was computed at 148,840 fquaremil^s ; and fuppoiing the then population to be 26,000,000, would render 174 inhabitants to each mile fquare. The boundaries were» on the wefty the Atlantic ocean ; on the fouth the Me- diterranean and Pyrenees : on the £. Savoy, Swiffcrland, and Germany ; on the north, the Auftrian Netherlands, the German fea, and Englifli. Channel. It extends from about the 42d to near the 5 lit degree of N. latitude ; from about the 7th degree of longitude weil from Paris to about the 5th on the eail ; being in length N. to S. about 600 Britiih miles, and in breadth W. to £. about 560. Original population.] The original population of Gaul has been ably illuftrated by many authors. The primitive mliabitants were the Celts, to whom no j^terior people can be traced in the weflern regions of Europe ; but on the S.W. the Aquitani, of African defcent, had palled from Spain ; and on the N.E. the warlike German tribes, known by the name of Bclgte, had feized on a third part of the country, • where they introduced the Go- thic language and manners. On tlie S. alfo the German Gauls had dif- fufed thcmfelves into what was called Gallia Bracata : nor mull the Greek colonies be forgotten. The fohdity nnd duration of the Roman tionquelU diffufed the Latin language through all ranks. On the N W. extremity, it is probable that there were remains of the ancient Celts, bofore the Britilh colony proceeded there in the fifth century, and imparted a name tothediftria. I 2 f PMOORESSIVR ^£JEIs^W6ai^&<>. ti6 FRANCE. Progressive GKOGRAFHV.] The Romans firft illuftratedthe geopr phy of Gaul, whiciv they confidered as divided into three chief reeion"^ the Celtic, the Belgic, and Aquitanic ; the Provincia Bracata being alnmft forgotten in the extent of their fubfequent conqueila. Thefe regions were again fub-divided into no lefs than feventeen provinces. On the fubver ilon of the Romun power, new names and divifions fucceedcd, as Flan dria, Lotharingia, Neullria, Burgundia, Vafconia, &c. *: while Aauil tania and Provincia remained ancient names, though not within ancient biundaries, Thefe were fucceeded by divifion» yet more modern, which in recent times, have been fupplanted by more minute departments. Ancient Provinces. Flandre Fran^oife. Artois. Picardie. Normandie. Ifle de France. Champagne. Lorraine. Alfacc. Bretagne. Maine and Perche. Anjou. Tourainc. . Orlcanois- ''^^ Berri. Nivcrnois* ' Departments. Nord. Fas de Calais* Somme. ' Seine Infifrieure.^ Calvados. Manche. Ome. Eure. f Seine. I Seine and Oife. ^ Oife. I Aifne. L Seine and Marne. Mame. Ardennes. Aube. Haute Mame. Mcufi?. Mofelle. Mcttrthe. \ ofgcs. Haut-Rhin. Bas-Rhin. ■ Ifle and Vilaine. C6tc8-du-Nord. Finiftcrre. I Morbihan. l^ Loire Iiiferieure. f Sarthe. ; \ Mayenne. Maycnne and Loire. Indre and Loire. {Loiret. Eure and Loire. Loire and Chen { Indre. tCher. Nievre. ^ Chief Towns, Eille. Arras. Amiens. Rouen. Caen. Coutances. Alen^on. Evreux. Paris. Verfailles. Beauvais. Laon. Melun. Chalons-fur- Mame^ Mezieres. Troyes. Chammont. Bar-fur-Ornain.- Metz. Nancy. Epinal. Colmar. Strafl>ourg. Rcnnes. St. Brieux. Quimper. Vannes. Nantes. Le Mans. Laval. Angers. Tours. Orleans. Chartres. . Blois. Chateauroux, Bourges. Neveri. * D'Anville, Euts form^^ tn £\trop«. jHiu.'M Provence, FRANCE. 117 Departments* C Yonne. )C6ted'0r. J Sa6ne and Loire. ( Ain. f Haute-Saone. < Doubs. C Jura, r Vendue. •I Deux Sevres. (.Vienne. r Haute- Vienne, J comprifing part of *! Limolin. {^Creuze. f Corrcze, < comprifing part of (.Upper-Vienne. Bourbonnois. Allier. Saintonge, comprifing | Charente-Infertcure. Aunis. J Angoumois, 1 comprifing part of >Charente. Saintonge. j . (" Puy-de.d6me. Auvergne. \cAt^\, r rRh6ne. Lyonnow. I r • For^t and Beaujolois. 1 j^^^.^ * ' Hautes-Alpes. Drdme. Jtment Proviitcet. Bourgogne, Franche-Compte. Poitou. Marcl4l Litnofin. Dauphin6. Guyenne, compre* bending Gafcogne. Beam. Comt6-de-Foix, RoufltUon. Languedoc. Provencco Dordogne. Gtronde. Lot and Garonne. Lot. Aveyron. Gers. Landes. Hautes Pyr6n6e8. f Bafles-Pyr^neeB. \ Arriege. Pyr^n^es-Orientales. 'Haute-Garonne. Aude. « Tarn. > Garde. ' ?" Lozere, Ard6che. Haute-Loire, Hiraut. r Bouche8.du-Rhonef { Bafles-Alpei. IVar. Chief TowM * Auxerre. Dijon. Macon. "^ Bourg. , Vefoul. Befangon. . Lons-le-Sauniei;. Fontenay-le-Peup!e« Niort. Poitiers. Liovoge, Gueret,. Tulle. • Moulins. Caintes. Angoulemtv Clermont. St. Flour. Lyon. Montbrifon. Grenoble. Gap. Valence. Perigueux. Bordeaux. Agen. Canors. ' Rhodez. Auch. Mont-dc-Marfan. Tarbe. Pau. Tarafcon. Perpignan. ' Touloufe. Carcaflonne. Caftreb. Nimes. Mende. ' Privas. Le Puy. Montpellicr. Aix. Digne. Touloa* AMieni 118 FRANCE. /inctent Provinces. Corfica. Departments. Ch'tefTowns. fGolo. \ Liamone. Baftia. Ajaccio. The above are the modern departments of old France; the recent conquefts have alfo been moulded to a fim.lar form, under the name of re. united departments ; thefe are the followmg ; Mclent Namis. Rc-mitcd Departments. Chief Tcwn^. Avig- 1 Vauclufe, with the ^^j o„. ^ o* f Bouchcs du Rhone. ^ / Mont Blanc. VThe Maritime Alps. I Mont Terrible. Jemmapes. Lya. Efcaut. Deux Nethes Territory of non, county Venaiffin. Diftridof Apt.. Savoy. County of Nice. Bilhoprick of Bale. Auftrian Hainaut. Weftern part of Auftrian Flanders. Eaftern part of Flan- ders. Eaftern part of Bra- bant. ^ Southern part of Bra- 7 jj^i^ bant. J Part of the country T j^j^^c^^ of Liege, and <>* rinfencure. Gelderland. J Part of the countries of ") Liege, and of Lim- | bourg.with theprin- } Ourthe. cipalities of Strave- lo and Malmedi. J * County of Namur. "Isambre and Meufe, Duchy of J-uxem. > Yortts. > bourg, > Part of the Archbu 1 n^i^j^g gp^ Mofelle. (hopricl^ of Treves. J Part qf the Archbi-l ^ ihoprickof Tr^es.l g^^ i and of the Duchy f of Deux Ponts. J J»art of the ancient" Archbifhopnck of Maytuce, and of ^ Mont Tqoqere, the Duchy of Deux ^ox»t8, Chambery. Nice. Porcntruy, Mons. Bruges. Gand. Anvers. Bruxelles. Macftricht. Liege. Namur. Luxemburgh. Coblcntz. Trfives. Mayen^e. /nclm FRANCE. 119 jindcnt Names. Re-nn'ited Departments. Chief Towns. Part of the Archbi- {lioprick. of Cologne, of the Duchy of JuHers, of Pruflian Gelderland, of Cleves, MtMirs, &c. Of the Territory of" Geneva, of the Diilrias of Gex, Larouge, Thonon, &c. Rocr. Aix-la-Chapelle. 1 ^eman. Geneve *. HisTOiwcAL EPOCHS.] The chief hiftorical epochs of France may be arranged in the following order : 1. The primitive population of the Celts, and the conquefts of the Aquitani and Belgae. 2. The faint notices of the ancients concerning Gaul, from the efta- bliflimcnt of the Phocaean colony at Marfeilles, to the conquefl by Caefar. 3. The complete difclofure of the country to the learned world by that great general ; and the various revolutions and events of which it was the theatre under the domination of the Romans. 4. The Hnal conquell of the country by the Franks under Clovis, about the year 490, and the converfion of the Franks to the Chriftiaa I'aitli, five years after that period. J. The obfcure and dillraded hiftory of the Merovingian race, (France being frequently fplit into fmall kingdoms), till its final extinction in the niiiidle of the eighth century. 6. The Carlovingian race, which afcended the throne in the year 752", and was followed, twenty years afterwards, by the celebrated reign of Charlemagne, who carried the power of France to the utmoll extent and fpleiidour, having, in particular, fubdued the greateft part of Germany, where he became the founder and firil fovereign of what has fmce been ityled the German Empire, A.D. 800, and which remained with his defcendants for near a centur)'. 7. The accefTion of the houfeof Caprt in the year 987. 8. The crufades, in which the French bore the chief fvvay, 9. The wars with England. The acquilition of France by Henry V., and its deliverance by he maid of Orleans, or rather by Charles VII., Ilyled the Viftorious. 10. The reign of I^ouis XL, who, cruihing fuch powerful princes as were left after tlie Englifh ihock, may be regarded ^8 the father of the abfolute monarchy. u. The reign of Francis I., called the father of the arts and letters, during which the French, who had been regarded as barbarians by the more civilized people of Italy, began, on th*.' contrary, to be dilUnguifhed • The recent arqvtifitlons of France, Rmoiif? \\\w\\ tnuft be chiefly placed the UniteJ Pruvincej, not to nitntion tlie new and ful)fervient kingdoms and princiiMlitics, remain to bp Hcfiiifd and wnloliduied by a general jH;ace, l)clbrc ihey can be admitted into cldUical $eograpliy. I 4 Vf ]2d FRANCE. by fuperior refinement. This is alfo the firft epoch of a ftanding army in Europe. 12. The inteftinc commotions with the proteftants, and maflacre of St. Barthelemy. 13. The reign of Henry IV, 14. That of Louis XIV , too much extolled by the French, and too much degraded by other nations. 15. The recent revolution which has artoniHied Europe, and which, in the Singularity and importance of the events, rivals the pag*^ of ancient hiftory. Antiquities.] Several ancient monuments exift in France which are afcribed to the firft epoch. The Greek colony at Marieilles feems to have imparted fome degree of civilization to the country, and the rude Gallic coins arc evidently an imitaftion of the Grecian model , The Roman antiquities in Trance are numerous, and fome of tliem in excellent prcfervation. Thofe at Nifmes are particvlnrly ce'ehr:>,tcd, confiding chiefly of an amphitheatre, and the temple called La Maifoii Carre. The other periods of French antiquity have been ably illuftrated by the learned work of Montfauc^n ; and the difclofure of the grave of Childciic, near Tournay, in the lad century, pni'ented fome of the mod curious. fragments. In an old tower of St. Gennain des Pros are reprefentations of feveral of the firli monarchs of the Franks, and many of their effigies were prcfervcd on their tombs at St. Dennis, and other, places, till the late revolutioiji. The monuments of th:- Carloviii-rian race are yet more numerous, and Roman mofaics have illuiliatcd the fame bf Charlemagne. Of the later periods the monuments are fo numerous, that it would be vain to attempt to ennmerate them. One of the moll fingidar is the fuit of tapeihy, which was preferved in the cathedral church of Bayeux, in Normandy, reprefenting the beginning and termination of the grand conteft. between Wilham and Harold, which- led to the conqiicll of England by the Nor. mans. It ia faid to have been the work of Matilda> wife of William ; %nd beara every mark of that remote antiquity. CHAPTER n. POLITICAL GEOGUAPIIY. /ietipon. — Eccleftajlic Geography. -^Government.-'— Laws,'— ^Popitlation.'-' ColottUst— jinny. — Navy. — Revetiuet,''— Political Importance and Rda- tions* n 1 THHE religion of France is the Roman Catholic ; but KELIGION.J J_ ^j^^. Galilean church, fince its re-eaablifl.ment by Bo. naparte, has been confiderably modified, and rendered wholly independent on Roman influence. Ecclesiastic geography.] The general divifion into archbifliopricks • (n Ficardy, and oihcr parts poffeffcd l>y the Belgre, there are circles, and otlier monii- nents of the kind wliich we call druictic. Near tlie town of ( ariiar, 011 the coal) ut' Vannes, in Bretiigne, there is a {^rand monument of this kind, far exceeding Stonehenge, if the account he notcxncgcratcd, which fays, tlmt there are abuiit 'tOOO liviies^ many as tk>gU M 18 or 2Q K>et, dif^fed ia tUc form of a (luincutui of elevcu rows. (1 »nd fRANCE. tit and biHiopricks remains much the fame as before the revolution; but the revenues and power attached to thefe ecclefiaftical offices are now only fufficient to render them refpedtable, but not formidable. Gov EKVMENT.] The government of France has affumed more fta- [jility fince the firft pubhcation of this work, every effort having beeu uffd to introduce a new dynafty in the family of Bonaparte. The prefeiit llHtf* of the government of France may be moll impar- tially derived from the mouth of a French author, a man of talent and obfcrvation *. « The executive power is lodged, with complete plenitude, in the will of the emperor, who has the power of adopting a fuccelTor. « The new laws are firil propofed by the government to an aflembly o^ jifty members, called the Tribunate, which difcuffes them. They are afterwards debated by '.he orators of government, and of the Tribunate, before the IcgiHative body, which fandlims them or rejefts them, with- out any difculhon by fecret fcrutiny. «' The government may retradt a project of a law, in whatever ftatc^ of difciiflion it may be. « The Legiflacive body, and the Tribunate are renewed in par4 each vear, and the new members are chofen by the confervative Senate, upon Jills formed by the eledloral colleges of the departments, of wliich the members arc for life. Thefe cledoral colleges of the departments arc cliofen by the eleftorr\l colleges of the aroniitfftnaiis, or dillrict? them- fclves, ele6\ed by aifemblies of each canton, or what might be called in old Eiigliih tything, compofed of houfholders. The emperor names the prelident of each affembly of the canton ; and the prelident chufes the Icrutators and the fecretary." Thefe aflemblies, as well as thofe of the eledloral colleges, are convoked and diffblved by order of the empe- ror ; wlio can alfo add to each college of the diilridl ten members named by himfelf, and twenty to each electoral college of the department. " The members of the confervative Senate are for life. The nomina- tion belongs to the emperor, who prefents three, of whom the choice belongs to the fenate itfclf; or, according to another difpofition^ the emperor may prefent one, the Tribunate one, and the legiflative body one. Thefe members muft be taken from a lift, formed by the eleftoral colleges of the departments ; but the emperor may, without the partici* patioii of the fenate, and without any attention to the eleftoral colleges, name any pcrfon member of the confervative Senate, provided that he have attained the age prefcribed by the law, and that the number do not exceed 120. " The fenate cannot proceed to any bufinefs, except it be propofed by the emperor, fave only in cafes of its own arrangements. But by its feiiatus'coiijultust which cannot proceed except upon the proportion of the emperor, it exercifes fupreme power even upon the conlUtutional laws, in adding, explaining, or fufpending the execution ; in diiTolving the legiflative Dody, and tne tribunate $ and even in annulling the judg« ments of the civil and criminal tribunals, when it fuppofes them obnox* ious to the fafety of the ftate. " Excepting the fupremacy of the fenate, and right of pardon, which belongs to the emperor, the tribunal of caffation exercifes the fupreme judiciary power, with a right of cenfure and difcipline over the tribunals ',-,.•■ * M. Walckenaer, in Ills tnnilationof the large edition of tlils Geogrephy, Paris J 804, 1 vol. 8vo. i, 59, Some aUerations have bcea aiionted. in confcQucncc of the recmt 0f 12Z FRANCE. m of appca], and the criminal tribunals, annulling 'their judgments cafes of contradidion to the law, or want of form, and even with il" power of fufpending the judges. There is a grand judge or minifter of juftice, who, on folemn occafions, prefuk-s in the tribunal of cafiation and the tribunals of appeals. There are alfo, unhappily, for certui' crimes fpccial tribunals ; of which the judgments are not fubjeft to an peal, being exempt from the ordinary forms. All the judges, exceui the juftices of peace, are for life, and named by the emperor, nevcrthe lefo for thofe of the tribunal of cafTation he prefents three perfons to the fenate, whofc choice is definitive. Population.] The population of France was formerly computed at us enabled tlicm to increafe their favourite (ity with now and beautiful (Ircets. Next to P.iris in extent and ^.opulation was the noble city of Lyons, vhicli was fuppofod to contain about 100,000 fouls. As the chief itianufaftures were articles of luxury, fdk, cloths of gold, and filver, &c. it was natural that this venerable town (houTd be firmly attached to the ancient ariftocracy, though with confequences incalculably fatal to its profpcrity. During the infatuated reign of the jacobins it was beficged, captured, and, after the wildcft and bufeft mailacres, was doomed to final demolition. But as there are bounds even to rage and folly, this decree was only executed in part ; though Lyons will probably never recover its ancient extent and opulence. The new government lends, however, the moll liberal encouragement. The third and fourth cities of France are Marfcllles and Bourdcaux ; fach peopled by about 80,000 fouls. The foundation of Marfeilles has been already rnentioned, and the city remains worthy of its ancient fame, the p«rt being at the fame time one of the bell and moil frequented in the wholj Mediterranean. The exchange is a noble building, and the new parts of the city are beautiful. Bourdeaux was a profperous city, but the trade mivfl have fuffereJ mat injury. The port is ample and commodious, withextenfive quays. The chief exports are wine and brandy, particularly the vin de Bourdeaux, which we term claret, becaufe it is of a clear and tranfparent red, while tcrt and fomc other wines are opake. The theatre is the mod magnificent in France, and the adlors ufed to receive cKtravagant falarics ; and as much as London exceeds Paris, fo much did Bourdeaux, before the rc« Tolution, tranfcend Liverpool f. In giving a brief idea of the other chief cities and towns of France, it maybe premifed that thofe of the Netherlands, formerly bt-longing to Aiii^ria, arc referved for feparate defcription. But among thofc which formerly belonged to what was lliled French Flanders, may be nainrd Lifle and Valenciennes ; the former more mcmoiahle for its llrcuglli, than for its manufadures of camlets and Huffs. The population is com- puted at 60,000. Valcncicimes is alfo remarkable for the ftrength of its fortifications; yet on the 26th of T-dy, 1793, '* furrendrred to thu Englilh and Aullrian army, under tlu Duke of York ; but was retaken * Young'» t'nnce, i, f 6. + Young, i. 60. by ti6 FRANCE. by the French army in the following year. The chief manufa'^lures are lace, camlets, and cambrics. Amiens is a confiderable town, with a population of about 40 oco- but Rouen, formerly the capital of Normandy, contains 72,000 fouls' and carries on a confiderable trade. Brell is more remarkable as bein ' the chief maritime arfenal of France in the north, than for its extent or population, which does not exceed 30,000. Nantes, with a population of 56,000, is a beautiful commercial city, with a fplendid theatre, and many new ftreets, but the environs are barren and unintcrellin^ * Orleans, a city of about 40,000 fouls, is celebrated by two fieges wlijcli it fuftained, one agninft Attila, king of the Huns, in the fifth centurv the other againft the Englifli in the fifteenth. Nancy, in Lorraine i' not equal to Metz in extent, but is one of tlie moll beautiful cities in France. Strafhourgh is a venerable city, with a population of about 40,000, feized by Louis XIV., in 168 1, and confirmed to him by tin., peace of Ryfwick, in 1697." The fortifications are llrong ; and the Gothic cathedral prefents a fpire of 574 feet in height. Few of the other inland towns dcferve mention, except Touloufe a city of 50,000 fouls ; and the parliament of wliicli was cllcemcd, unda the old government, next in rank to that of Paris ; the extent is great but the manufadlures are trifling, thougli here be the termination of the great canal, opened by Louis XIV., from the Mediterranean to the Ga- ronne, a work truly magnificent, and which alone would prefcrve liis memory to future ages. Mont pell ier, on the Mediterranean, with deli- cious and highly ornamented environs, and a noble aqucdLict, is of con. fiderable extent, but particularly celebrated by the i.ilul;riiy of tin- air and an ancient fchool of medicine. The profpcft is iii).^ularly cxtciuive and interelling, endjracing the Pyrenees on the one fide, iind on the other, the yet grander fummits of tlie Alps f . Edificks.] Several of the moll noble edifices of France are in Paris, and its vicinity. To thofe already mentioned mull Ik- added, the palace of V^erfailles, rather remarkable, iiowever, for the profufiun of expcnfe, than for the (Inll of the archite<5^ ; the part;; being imVl and ui.liar- monious, and the general effeft rather idle pomp llian true grandeur. The bridge of Neuilly, a league from Paris, is ellecmid tlic moll b^-au- tiful in Europe, confitling of five wide arclief of e(iual fi/e. 'I'Ik' ancient cathedrsls and caltles are fo numerous that it would be idle to at- tempt to enumerate them: and the French nobdity were not contcntid, like thofe of Spain, with large houfes in the cities, but had ^rand cha- teaux fcattered ovi r tlie kingdom, to whieii, however, they ieMeii reHred, except when compelled by formal banilhment from the court. Inland N.wigatios.] The inland navigation of France has bivi promoted by feveral capital exertions. The cana! of Biiare, «n!Hr<'.;!'i ityled thit of Burgundy, wis begun by Henry IV., and compktid by Louis XI IL opening a communication Ixtwem the Loire and the .StitK, or in other words, between Paris and the wellfrn provinces, r.iniiij^ by Montargis it joir.s the eanal of Orleans, ai d falls into the Seine ni ar Fontainbleau. This navigation of forty-two lo' li, i* of g-eat utilft) in inland commerc | . The canal of Picardy extends from the Somme to the Oife, beginning at St, Oumtin, and iorming a convenient inlercourfe to the provliicewft the N. E. • Young's Fr»nc«, i. 104« t Youii^'a I'Mnirj i, 4 But FRANCE. ^ Diit the chief work of this defcviplion is the celebrated canal of Lan- criicJoc, fonuncnccJ aud completed in the reign of Louis XIV., by Riquft, tlie engineer, under the aufpices of that able minifter Colbert. Fifteen )Tars of labour were employed, from 1666 to 1681, and the me- chanical i(j[norance of the period was furprier prrttfuc beautiful verdure and rich palluresf. Fmnce may be divided ir.to thro' climates, the northern, the central, and the fouthern. The full yield^ no wines J the fccond no maize ; the third produce wines, maize and o\\\c:. Thefe divifions proceed in an oblique line from the S« W. to the N. E., fo as to demonltrate " that the eallern part of the kingdom is two niid u half degrees of latitude lidttcr than the wcftern, or if nc^t hotter mnief.i. Vourable to vegetation." One great advantage of the climate of Fi;\iuy arifes from its being .idi«l. t. au9. ; 114. i. 9»fi. rally FRANCE* ti^ rHv fert'^^» t^oug^ t^»e large province formerly called Gafcdrty prefent many lanJes, or level heaths. The fame writer has ably illuftrated the defeAs of French a?riculture« which conlUl in frequent fallows, while the Englifh farmers obtain even fuperior crops of corn, by fubftituting turnips and other green crops to the fallows : befides the clear profit from his clover^ turnips or tares. In fume of the provinces, however, the plans of agriculture correfpond with the natural fertility of the foil ; and others difplay a moft laudable induilry* A driking initance of the latter is the artificial fertility conferred on feme of the barren mountains of the Cevennnes *. As the waters which run down the fides carry confiderable quantities of earth into the ravines, walls of loofc Hones are eredted which permit the waters to pafs when they are clear; but when turbid their load of earth is gradually (lepofited againlt the wall, and affords a fpace of fertile foil. Succcffive ramparts arc thus crcfted to the very top of the mountain ; and the wiiter, having no longer a violent fall, only ferves to nourifli the cropg^ which are moreover protected by planting fruit trees at certain intervals, li) as to lend fecurity and confiftence to the new acquifition. By anothef procefs calcareous mountains, which generally rife in (helves, are rendered produftive by cutting away the rock behind the fheif, which fupplies materials for a low wall around the edge. The interval is afterwardii filled writh earth, and the barren mountain is crowned with luxuriant terraces. Rivers.] The rivers of France form the next obje£l of confideration } and among thcfe four are eminent, the Seine, the Loire, the Rhone, and the Garonne. The firft is one of the moll beautiful ftreams of France* riling near Saint Seine, in the modern department of C6te d'Or, a portion of ancient Burgundy ; it purfues its courfe to the N. W. till it enter the Englifh channel at Havre de Grace, after a courfe of about 2^o EngliAt miles. It may here be remarked that the length afllgned to rivers is not calculated with cxadlnefs, a work uf infinite and uncertain labour, but merely affords a comparative fcale, to judge of the relation which the courfe of one river bears to another. The Loire derives its fource from Mont Gerbier in the N. of an* cient Langucdoc ; and after a northern courfe turns to the weft, enter* int^ the ocean a confiderable way beyond Nantes, after a courfe of about 500 miles. Tlip Rhone fprings from the Glacier ©f Furca, near the mountain of Grimfil in Swiiferland ; and after paflin^ the beautiful vales of Valhis, and the lake of Geneva, bends its coi: - towards the fouth) and enier^ the Mediterranean. The comparative courfe 400 miles* The Garonne rifes in the vale of Aran in the Pyrenees. The courfe of this river is generally N. W. It extends to about 250 raileu. After tt« junction with ihc Dordogne, it aifumes the name of the Gironde* The Seine is almoit univerfally pleafing and pi£turefque ; and the Loir? piefents noble features from Angiera to Nantes, but the rell of its immenfe courfe is disfigured with rough gravel f. The Garonne gentrally per* vades a flat country, and is tamely fringed with willows. The Rhone it a noble and rapid llrcam. France is adorned and enriched with many rivers of fmaller courfe and reputation ( as the Saone, which Joins the Rhone near Lyons } the Lot and Dordogne, which joint the uarontic ) and the nuAcrous tributary llreatns of tno Loire. * ^!'H;hotfut>^ Jvwnkt, ill. <)9)' t Voung'iFnincf, i. 30*. ml-'} *-^ m 130 FRANCE. Lakes."] A few final! lakes occur in Provence, among the Vofwpt of Alface, and pcrliaps in (cw of thf? other provinces, but only adapted to the minute delcription of the tO])ographer, France and Spain beiBo- fuiifnlarly deficient in this plcaHnjv fcatnrp of landlcape. ^ Mountains.] Before proceeding to the grand cliain of mountains in the S. of France, ic may be proper briefly to mention a few mountainous tradts in the worth. Thofe of Brittany are granitic and primitive but like thofe of C«.)nnvall of fmall elevation. They divide into branches to. V ards Brell and Alt-n^an, The Vofges, in the department of that name in the S. of ancient I>orrain, are fuppoicd to be connefted with the nioimtains of Swifferland *. Mont Jura, a vanguard of the Alps, forms a boundary between l"" ranee and Swiflerland. If Mont Blanche admitted among the French •nonntains, the other Alps cannot rival its fupreme elevation. The an- cient province of Dauphine difplays feveral Alpine brancheSj which alfo extend through great part of Piovence. The grand chain of the Cevennes pafles from N. to S, and fends out bran.^hes towards the E. and W. In the modem departments of the upper I oire and Cantal, are appearances which, in the opinion of eminent naturi!i • -;, indicate ancient volcanoes. The northern part of this branch is llyl "I the Piiy de Dome, while the fouthcrn is called that of Cantal f . 'i'Ik Monts Dor | form the centre, and are the higheft mcun- f'Ub ;.j Fra; ct The chief elevation is that of the Puy dc Sanfi, winch rifet ..')oti' 6,jOO feet above the level of thefea, while the Puy de Dome is ai our r ,00, -ijid the Plomb du Cantal, the higheft of that part, is abou 6.".. . foet. Near the Puy de Sanfi is the gigantic mountain l'An;_ ->, and Fv uiiade a fhattered and wrecked elevation. The Plomh du Canial in a liVj accompanied by bold rivals, as the PuydeGrioi-, Ic Colde Cabre, lie Puy Mari, and the Violent. This vnormous aficmbiagc of rocks covers an extent of about 120 miles, and according to the FVcnch authors is chiefly bafaltic. The Puy de Sanfi is capped with almoft' perpetual fnow, followed in the defcent by naked rocks and ancient pines ; from its fide ifTues from two fources, the river Dordogne, and w.any pidhirefque cafcades devolve amidll bafaltic coliunns ^. On the 23d of June, 1727, Pradines, a village on the hope of oiie of thefe mouii. tains, was totally overwhelmed, the whole mountain with its baialtic co. lunins roUing into the valley. Tli'.' inhabitants were fortiuiately engaged in the celebration of midfummer r;ve around a bonfire at fome dillance ||. Thefe mountains are in winif r exp(ifed to dreadful fnowy hurricanes, called a^/rj, which in a few hourb «)bhterate the ravines, and even the precipice*, and defcendiupf 'o the paths and ftreets, confine the inhabitants to their dwellings till ;\ . .r n^* to I heavy tu rull, funk vrrtic'a^v, vnd the ikock fctiined hii eikrthqiitlie ' rn ui the (i'.H iikOi' ' t a Ifit^u''. Auothcr uiuum^iu i< laud to luvc recently funk i?.l «iiM^^Iy more than half the European fpecies of plants may be found within its boundaries. The bleak fhores of the North, the fertile plains on the Belgian frontier, the rich vales of the Loire, the Rhone and Gs. ronne, the towering heights of Auvergne, the exterior ridges of the Alps and Pyrenees, the funny expofure of the Mediterranean coaft, offer fuch Ariking differences of foil and temperature, as evince at once a moft abun- dant catalogue of indigenous plants. That country which produces in full and equal perfedion wlteat and apples, maize and grapes, oranges and olives, the oak and the myrtle, muil doubtlcfs exceed all other European countries of equal extent in the variety and richnefs of its vegetable trea- fures. A bare enumeration of them would occupy more room than can be allotted to them in a work like the prefent. We fliall therefore only pcTticularife fuch as are the molt generally intereiling to the £ngli(li reader. Of the large family of compound flowers may be mentioned the laven. der cotton, and common fouthern wood, both of them plentiful on tht rocks of Dauphine and Provence ; the alpine Cacalia abounds on the mountainous frontiers of Savoy and Piedmont, and a few efculent vegeta. bles that are cultivated in our kitchen gardens, but grow wild in Langiie. doc and Provence, arrange themfelves under this cuds ; for inftance, tlie artichoke, falfafy, and ^orzoncra. The cucumber, the melon, the gourd, and other kindred genera, though cultivated largely and with great eafe in the South of France, are yet natives of hotter climates ; only one of this natural family, the Mo. mordica elaterium, /quirltng cucumber^ properly belongs to the French flora ; it occurs in a truly wild Hate, on low loofe rocks, in Provence and Languednc. The nearer in general any country is fituated to the tropics, the greater is the abundance and beauty of the bulbiferous or liliaceous plants that inhabit it : the South of France is particularly rich in thefe fplendid and fragrant vegetables, ffveral of which have bewj natura!ized in our gardens, and conftitute their principal ornament. The large branched A ipnudei, a flower of great beauty and poetic fame, is by no means wncommon in Provence. The tawny dar-lily, clullered hyacinth, and fpiked ftarot\ Bethlehem, all are fouiiJ in the Mediterranean provinces of France, a» arc alfo the orange, p American aloe, nowna- turahzed to tlie foil and climate, raiies her ftately flower-ftem to t^<• hciglil of 20 or 30 feet, and looks down on every herbaceous plant of European origin. Of the papillionaceouK phnts that are natives of this country, feverall (i^fcrvc notice *V»r tht.ir ulc »*( ornament. Lathyrus tuberofus, a vej u. FRANCE. m of the pea kind) grows wild in AIfacc,and is cultivated in many parts of France for its large, efculent, tuberous roots ; the great lupin, varying irith blue, white, or fleHi-cdluured bloflbms, and chick pea, are met with ill the fouthern provinces growing fpontaneouHy, but are more frequently cuhivatcd in large fields, as food both for cattle and man ; in England the former is confidered merely as an ornamental plant, and ia found in f very flower-garden. The broad-leaved myrtle grows with great luxuriance along the whole of the Mediterranean coaft ; the Caper-bu(h, the laurel-leaved and Mont< pellier ciltus, three low (hntbs of exquifite beauty, hang from the fummits, orclufter round the fides of the low rocks about Toulon and Montpellier. In the fame vicinity alfo are found the Pro /ence rofe, the pyracantha, and the pomegranate tree. Zoology.] The horfes of France do not appear to have been cele« brated at any period, and it is well known that the ancient monarchy tvere drawn to the national affemblics by oxen. Many EngUdi horfes are in times of peace imported for the coach and faddle. The beft native horfes are, for draught, thofe of Normandy ; for the faddle, thofe of the Limotjin, which have been recently improved by croffing the breed with the Arabian, Turkifli, and Englifh *., But the greater number of horfes in France confifts of Bidets, fmall animals of little Hiow, but great utility. The cattle of Limoges, and fome other provinces, are of a beautiful cream colour. The meep are ill managed, having in winter only ftraw, inftead of green food as in England f. The confequences are poor fleeces, and rarity of Hieep, fo that the poor are forced to eat bread only, and large Quantities of wool are imported. Of ferocious animals the mod remarkable are the wild boar and the wolf ; tlie ibe* and chamois are found on the Pyrenees and the Alps. MiNEKALOGY.] Gold mines anciently exifted in the South of France, and fome of the rivulets ftill roll down particles of that metal. The an- cient Gallic coins are however of a bafe gold mingled with fdver, being tlie metal ftyled by the ancients eleArum. France can, however, boaft of the filver mines at St. Maric-aux-mines in Alface, and at Giromagny in the department of the Upper Rhine, near the mountains of Vofges, alfo apart of ancient Alface. The fame dillri£l contains mines of copper, a metal not unfrequent in the departments of the Alps, and thofe of the Loire, the Lozere, and the Ardeche. The duchy of Deux Ponts, a valuable acquifition of France on the weft of the Rhine, is celebrated for mines of quickfdver. The mountains which contain this metal embrace a diilriA of ten or twelve leagues in length, S. to N. from Wolfflein to Cruznach and feven or eight leagues in breadth, being of a reddifh brown or grey fand-ilone. In this territory, among numerous mines of quickfdver, are thofe of Stahlberg and Donnerlberg, which have been explored for many centuries. The adjacent part of the Palatinate alfo contains fimilar mines, particularly in the mountain of Potzberg and at Wolfftein. The piinual produdl of thcfe mines may be eftimated at 67,200 pounds of mtrcury t. Two-thirds of the lead of France are from Bretagne, particularly the mines of PouUaouen and Huelgoet ; mines of lead alfo occur in the maritime Alps, and in the mountains of Vofgcs^ in the departments of Lozere, Ardfichc, &c. &c. Antimony occurs in the Ardeche, in the department of the Allier, at AUemont in former Dau- pliinc, and in that uf Mont Blanc. There are noted mines of calamine near Aix-la-Chapdle. Mangancfe occurs in the department of the Loire, • Young'i France, W, i^, f Il>lil i. 4ao. K3 X Journ. d«i Mineii x\. 43. and m mm 'Sia^MSUiMdMk., «34 FRANCE. \% and in that of the Vofges ; iand at Romaneche, in the department of the Saone and Loire ; it is alfo found near Perigou, whence it ufed to be called pierre de Perigord : Cobalt is another produ£l of Alface. The rew acquilitions in Savoy prefent fome mercury ; and there is a mine at Menildot. Iron, t)«at mod important and univerfal of metals, is found in abiin. dance, particularly in fome of the northern departments. In 1798 it was computed that there were 2000 furnaces, forges, &c. for the working of iron and Heel *. • The coal mines of France were ^at the fame time eftimated at 400 conftantly wrought ; and 200 more capable of being wrought. Of thefe coalmines many occur in the provinces which formerly belonged to Flan- ders, "and in the dc|->artments of Boulogne and La Manche. Coal is alfo not unfrequent in the centre and fouth of France. Nearly allied to coal it jet, an ariicle formerly of great confumption, chiefly in Spain, where it was made into rofaries, crofles, buttons for black dreffes, &c. f . France was from time immemorial in poflTeflion of this branch, which was centered in three villages in the department of the Aude, in the S. W. of ancient Languedoc. • Befides excellent free-done, the environs of Paris contain abundance of pypfum. Alum is found in confiderable quantities at Aveyron. The Pyrenees in particular fupply beautiful marbles. - Mineral waters,] The chief mineral waters of France are thofe of Barrege, Bagneres, Vichi, and Plorobieres. The warm baths of Barrege, ill particular, at the foot of the Pyrenees, have been long celebrated, and there the Queen of Navarre lays the fcene of her tales. The baths of Bagneres are in the fame neighbourhood. Natlhal cuRiosiTiiis.] Among the natural curiofities of France, the moft worthy of notice is the plain of La Crau, which lies in Pro. vence, rot far from the mouth of the Rhone. This is the moft Angular llony defert thnt is to be found in France, or perhaps in Europe J. The diameter is abont five leagues, and the contents from 20 to 25 fquare leagues, or about 150,000 Enghfh acres. It is entirely compofed of I (hingle, or round gravel, fome of the ftoneu as large as the head of a man, and the (hingle of the fea ihorc is not more barren of foil. Beneath is a fmall^ mixture of l6am with fragments of ftone. In the winter ! there are Scattered piles of grafa, which, from the vaft extent of the | fpace, pafture a conliderable multitude of fheep. In general, however, France, being moftly a plain country, does not prefent much fingularity j of feature ; and the fcenes of the Cevennes and Pyrenees have been little explored by travellers, who, paffing to the chief cities, generally fee only the moft unintereiling parts of the country. ' Frekch ksles.] The ifles around France are fo imall and unimportant, that they would fcarcely be defervirig of notice, were it not for events that have taken place during the late war. The ifle of Corfica muft however be excepted. From the dominion of Carthage, this ifle paifed under that of Rome,andwas for fometime fubje£tto the Saracens of Africa. In the time of the (;rufadeB it was afligned to the republic of Pifa, and was afterwardu conquered by the Genoefe. In 1736 the malcontents rtjefted the Genoefe yoke, and chofe a German adventurer for their | king. After many ineifeAual ilruggles Corfica was ceded to the French. The Romans certainly (lid not biglily efteem this ifland^ when theyj t'jifOU. JiU ^ «MMJV*'lfe«^-,»iJ '.•fjj itrntii*' -W'- ;iy«]nit\ ?»*ts- • • ThW. Ann. vii, p. X Young, i. a7«. I).:ii 17 If t Joam. desMines, .4nn. ill. N0.4. |i. 41. fficik'' it as a ] geographer, «* th ritory nill of mot lies, nevertheldfs, The ifles called naked appearance, however, contain 1 Hfimer's ifle of C Of.' the weftern niiies long by two ty Richard I. ki ronllituted a porti noted for an exped jsafmall and inflg remarkable in the \ t«oin breadth, it is about nine mi nhich, with the fo UHiant, or Oueflai towards the weft, 1 nine in circumferen Several other fmall cou, about feven ir flnce in our poffefli Norman faint, Mai v.; i:-4. v/; Kmfs. — Extent. — i Religion. — Govei Importance and ratiire. — Educatic land Navigation.- —Face of the —Forejs Bota tural Curiofities. C THOSE provir to the houfe dominions ; and as united to France, it in the defcription, that country. Namks.] The _ nameofBelgic Gau theTungri, the N Franks, this countr * I* Croix, i. i%^. FRANCE. 135 feleilf' it as a place of exile ; and, according to a modern French rreo^rapher, " the air of Curfica is thick and unwholefonie, the ter- ritory fuil of mountains, of little fertifity, and ill cultivated : the val- liest nevertheloTs, produce corn, and the hills wine, fruits, and aU The ifles called Hyeres, near Toulon, have at prefent a barren and naked appearance, and only prefent fome melunchuly pines f. They, lioivever, contain fume botanic riches, and may claim the fame of being Homer's ifle of Calypfo. 0<: the wellern coall firft occurs the ifle of Oleron, about fourteen ntiies long by two broad, celebrated for a code of marit ime laws iffued bv Richard I. king of England, of whofe French territory this ifle conftituted a portion. To the N. is the ifle of Re, oppolite Rochelle, noted for an expedition of the Englifli in the feventeenth century. Yeu jsafmall and inflgnificant ifle, followed by Noirmoutier, which became remarkable in the war of *La Vendee, being :ibout eight miles long and ttto in breadth. BelUfle has been repeatedly attacked by the Englift^ : it is about nine miles long and three broid, furrounded by fteep rocks, which, with the fortiflcatlons, render the conquelt difhcult. The ifle of Uihant, or Oueflant, is remarkable as the furtheil headland of France, towards the weft, being about twelve miles from the continent, and about nine in circumference, with feveral hamlets, and about 600 inhabitants. Several other fmall' ifles may be pafled in iilence, but thofe of St. Mar- cou, about feven miles S. E. of La Hogue, maybe mentioned as being once in our poffefllon : they received their name, it is believed, from a I^orman faint, Marcoul^ abbot of Nanto^ille, who died in 558. ^ (SE NETHERLANDS, ■h^ •:rf ^mts, — Extent, — Original Population. — Hiftortcal Epochs.-^^ntiqmties. Religion. — Government. — Laiuf. — Population. — Revenue. — Political Importance and Relations. — Manners and Citjloms. — Language. — Lite- rature. — Education. — Unlverfitics. — Cities and Towns. — Edijices.'— In- land Navigation. — Manufactures and Commtrce. — Climate and Seafons. — Face of the Country.- — Soil and \/f^riculture. — Rnr rs. — Mountains. —Forefis. — Botany. -^Zoology. — Mineralogy. — Mlnertfl fVaters. — Na- tural Curlofitles. ijIS't? tririfi'im •«#■* THOSE provinces of the Netherlands which yrere formerly fubjeft to the houfe of Auftria, have been recently annexed to the French dominions ; and as this fertile territory may probably continue to be nnited to France, it becomes neceflary to ufe as much brevity as pofllble in the defcription, that it may not be difproportionate to the account of that country. Names.] The Netherlands in general were anciently known by the name of Belgic Gaul, the chief inhabitants of this part being the Mcnapii, the Tungri, the Nervii^ and the Morini. After the irruption of the franks, this cpup^ry formed part of N^u^^^i o>^>iic o^w kingdom,^ (the •r^ • U Croix, i. ja^. For the Ifle of Eltia, fee Italy. K4 . t Young's France, I. \0i. ancient ^ ^ V^. -rv; IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. ^*5^% <" 1.0 I.I ^ ^ 12.2 «* — mi 2.0 I ys 1 u^ |i.6 ^ ^/' » H>otogra[diic Sciences CorporatiGn '^^ > '* ^ VV' as WHT MAM STRUT WHITIR.N.Y. I4SM (7l*)l7a-4»03 ^ ii6 NETHERLANDS. century arofe the powerful houfe of the earls of Flanders ; and the counts of Hainaut commence about the fame epoch. The dtikes of Lowet Lorrain and Brabant are little known tiU the end of the tenth century. Thefe and other great inheritances gradually fell under the power of the dukes of Burgundy) who in the fifteenth century enjoyed dominions worthy of ^e regal title. With the h'eirefs of Burgundy the Netherlands paffed by marriage to the houfe of Auftria. Extent.] The length of the Auftrian Netheiknds, computed from the eaftem limit of Luxembourg to Oftend on the ocean, may be about 1 80 Britiih miles ; and about 110 in lireadth, from the northern boundary of Auibian Brabant to the mod fouthem limit of Hainaut. The extent is computed at.7,52ofquare miles, with a population of 1,900,000. Original population.] The original population was Celtic, but was fapplanted by the Belgse, a German colony, afterwards vanquifliedby the Franks, a kindred nation. The progreffiTe geography may be traced with great certainty firom the time of Julius Caefar through the later Roman writen, and the Franqic hiftorians of the middle ages. Historical EPOCHS.] The chief hiftorical epochs are, i. ThecTenti while the Romans held Gaul. 2. Under the Merovingian race of French kings. ■ 3. The ancient earls of Flanden and Hainaut, ai.d other potentates wma fluired thefe territories. 4. The dukes of Burgundy. Durinjg thefe two epochs the NetherUnds became the g^reat mart of commerce m the well of Europe, and were dilUngmihed by opulence and the arts. 5. The Auftrian domination, accompanied with repeated unfuccefsful ftruffglo for freedom. The feven United Provinces having, however, cftabuOied their liberty, the commerce and profperity of the fouthem regions paifed quickly to their northern neighbours. 6. Tneir conqueft by the French, and annexation to the territory of the republic. Amtiqvitiis.^ The remains of Roman art are little memorable, an4 the chief antiquities confift in |prand ecclefiaftical and civil monuments of the middle ages, when thefe regions concentrated a great part of the wealth of Europe, and abounded in excellent artifts of all defcriptioni. Religion, &c.] The religion of the Netherlands is the Roman Ca. thoUc I and till the French revolution, the inhabitants were noted for bigotry, a great part of the wealth being in the hands of ecdefiaftici. The metropolitan fee was the archbifhopric of Meclilin, or Mdinei. The biflioprics were thofeof Bruves, Antwerp, Ghent, &c., in number niiK- or ten. The goventnicnt and laws had lome features of freedom ; but the decline of commerce having lefTene^ the confequence of the cities and bwrgeflcftf tlds liberty became the monopoly of the noblei and clergy, who often oppofed the will of the fovereign, when exerted in the moft beneficial manne( for the good of the conwiunity. The Jtfeufi Entrii was the magna cbarta of the Netherlands, n con^tutioMl bond of natioMl ynvili^fei. Population* &c.] The popniatton bping computed «( 1,900,000, and the fquarc extent at 7»5ao rnues. there will be $$% inhabitant! to the fquan vIITi whfle France yields only 174. Under the Auftriw poweri Uie • P'ABvUfei tmMkmk en Swope, 701 Ik, rcveaiw NETHERLANDS. 137 ^ne of the Netherlands fcarcely defrayed the expences of govemmenty indthe various extortions of the French rulers cannot afford fufficient jita to compute an equitable and lading revenue. The political import- 20ce and relations of thefe provinces are now immerged in thofe of tiie french republic. Mannebs AMD CUSTOMS.]] The manners and cuftoms of the Nether« lindt partake of thofe of their neighbours, the Dutch and French* the pUegm of the one being tempered by the vivacity of the other. The loirer clafles were fond of religious pageantry, and much addiAed to the fuperftitious obfervances of the Cathohc fyilem. The Flemi(h laaguage partakes of the German and of the Dutch. Literature. 3 Thefe provinces boaft of early literature, after their converfion to Chriftianity in the feventh century, in various chronicles and lives of faints ; but in modem times they have rarely produced writers of gteat talents. The native language remains uncultivatedy and the chief authors have ufed the Latin or the French. FrqiiTart was bom at Valen* citnnes, in French Flanders ; Philip de Comines, at the town fo called^ ibout eight miles to the N. of Lifle, and lituated in the fame divifion. Lipfius, a man of confiderable erudition, was bom near Bmfiels. 'But in Sneral the fouthera Netherlands are more eminent in artifts ; and the nited Provinces in literary charaAers. Educatiok.3 The education was negle£^ed as in moft Catholic? coun< tries, where the Jefuits in vain attempted to bring it to a level with that of the Proteftant dates. The univerfities, which in no country are of equal importance with the fchools, were, however, numerous, confidering the cxtentof the country. Exclufive of Touraay (Dornick), which has been long fubjefl' to the French, there were otlkers at Douay and St. Omer, much frequented by the Englifh Catholics ; and one of ftill greater celebrity at Louvain, founded in 142 c. Cities a\id Towns.] The three chief cities ia what were called the Auilrian NetherkndSf are BiHiiTels, Ghent, and Antwerp. The capital city of Bruflels ItiU contains about 80,000 inhabitants, and ia beautified by a noble fquarey one fide of which is occupied with a vaft guildhall ; and by numerous churches and fountains. It is fituated on the (mail river Sen» or Senne, which runs into the Dyle and the Beheld. It is known as early ai the tenth century, and in the fourteenth was furrounded with walls. The imperial palace, the wonted refidcnce of the governor of the Nether* lands, difplays confiderable tafte and magnificence. Ghent contains about 60(000 fouls, and the circumference of the walla it computed at 15 miles, as it is built on a number of little iilands formed by four rivers and manv canals, and includes gardens, and even fields* Some of the Ibreets are urge and well paved, but only a few churches BOW deferve attention. The inhabitants of Antwerp are computed at 50,000, the fad remains of great population and profperity. This city, being placed upon the noble eftuary of the Schcld, and formerly tlie chief mart of Flemim commerce, poflenes a ftrong citadel, erected by the fanruinary duke of Alva. The harbour is exceUent, and the fuppoied impediments found to be fiibulousk The ftrcets, koufes, ind churches, are woethv of the ancient fame of the city. The exchange is faid to have afforded the pattern for that of London. The churches are decorated with many paintings by Rubenii Vandyke, and other Flemifli nmfters. In ic68 the trade » fuppofed to have been at its grcateft height | and the number of inhabitants was com- puted at soo,ooo. It ftill contains tf number of the rich defcendaiits of f he ancient mcrchanti ) with fome commcrcC| and a few flouriftiing mimi- »38 NETHERLANDS. fa6lures, particularly of lace and linen. Of the other principal towns Mons is computed at 25,000 inlubitants ; Bruges, and Namur, each at 20»ooo; Luxembourg at 12,000; Roermondat 10,000; Limbour?af 8,000. ^ Sea-ports.] The fea>coa(l of Flanders, the maritime province, confift. chiefly of fandy hills and downs, and has few inlets, as molt of the rivers flow into the Scheld. There are, however, two ports which deferve par. ticular notice. The Sluys *, called by the French L'Eclus, derives its name from the fluices, by which the circumjacent country may be laid under water. Guicciardini fays, that the haven of Sluys was capable of containing 500 fliips. The port and population now yield greatly to thofe of Oftend. This latter haven has been confiderably frequented fmce the Scheld was abandoned. The town is IHU computed to contain 14,000 fouls, though it fuffered greatly by the famous fiege which terminated in 1604, when it was gallantly defended by Sir Francis Vcre, at the head of a few Engli(h troops. Many Englifh families were fettled here before Ollend feU a prey to the Firench. Edifices.] In general it may be obferved that, even at the prefent day, every traveller is impreffed with furpiize, not only at the number, but the great extent of the Flemiih cities, towns, and even villages ; in which ccfpeA the Netherlands exceed every country in Europe, only excepting the United Provinces. The chief edifices are the cathedrals, churches, and monalleries ; though a few caftles, belonging to ancient families, or rich merchants, ufed to attradl fome notice ; the talte of the latter buildings being faithfully copied in the Flemiih landfcapes, and more remarkable for little prettinefs, peaked roofs, fandatic ornaments, the muddy moat, and draw«bridge, than for grandeur of deilgn, or amenity of iituation. Inland navigation.] Idle would be the attempt even to enumerate the canals which interfe6l thefe provinces in all diredions. Some of them date even from the tenth century, and the cwal from Bruffels to the Scluld is of the Hxteenth. Other important canals extend from Ghent, Antwerp, Ollend, and other cities and towns, efpecially in the weftem dillrids ; but, under the Auftrian domination, thefe important means uf intercourfe were ihamefully neglc£lcd. MANurACTURES AND COMMERCE.] The manufactures and commerce of the Netherlands, for a long period fuperior to any in the well of £u. rope, have fuffered a radical and total decline, owing partly to the other powers entering into competition, and partly to the eilablifliment of free* dom in the United Provinces, whence Amtterdam arofe upon the ruins of Antwerp. What little commerce remains is chiefly inland to Ger. many, the external employing very few native veflels. The Eaft India Company eftabliflied at Oftcnd was fupprefied by the jealoufy of England and other powers ; a*nd the chief commerce was afterwards carried on by the Englifh eftabhfhed in that city. The prefent trade is chiefly with America. Yet of the uianufadlure s a few fragments reman : Cambray, long fubjeA to the French, is Hill renowned for the cambrics which thence derived their name ; as Toumay, or Dornick, was anciently famous for the (ineft linens. At Bruges there are ftill fome manufaCiurea of broad fays, baize, and other woollens ; confiderable fabrics of broad cloth, druggets, Ihalloons, and ilockings, were condudted at St. Omers, chiefly * Sluyi belonged to tk« UnitMi Prov'nces, but ii here mentioned, eonfiderin;; the Neihrrlands to tlie Rliine lu sa af ^)enil«g'? of Fruice. Nieuport, • Ihtlo fiOiMig town, fcwcely del'ervea notiLC. with NETHERLANDS. '39 ^ji wool fmuggled from England. But the chief manufaftures are of ^ne linen and laces, at Mechlin, Bruii'els, Ghent, Antwerp, Louvain, ffiijcb ftill enrich the country around, and induce the fanners to cultivate flaXf even on the poorell foils. The Netherlands produce, for home ggfumption, abundance of corn and vegetables ; and the coal mines would l^ome important, if the opera;.ion8 were fkilfuUy condud:ed. There isbefides abundance of turf for fuel, with iron, porcelain clay, and other commoditicB. Climate AND SEASONS, &C.3 The climate of the Netherlands confide- fgbly trefembles that of the fouth of England, and is more remarkable for inoitturethan for warmth ; yet the duchy of Luxembourg produces fome wine, which probably has the aufterity of the Rhenifh, without its fpirit. X he face of the country is in general level, and the femblance of hills caa fcarcely be difcovered, except towards the eall, where a few elevations relieve the eye from the general flatnefs of the other regions. The foil is in general rich fandy loam, fometimes interfperfed with Helds of clay, but more often with large fpaces of fand. Such has been, even in diftant ageSv the ftate of agriculture, that the Netherlands werelong eftecmed the very garden of Europe, a praife which tliey ftill (hare with Lombardy ana England. No iironger proof can be adduced of the advantages which commerce confers on agriculture, than this country, tvhich evinces that the latter advantage chiefly arifes from commercial opulence employed in its moll ufeful direAion. Accurate obfervers repeatedly praife the ftatc of agriculture in the Netherlands, and point out many advantages which it maintains over that of England. The repeated crops of excellent clover, the coif, the turnips, the clean crops of flax, barley, and oats, defervedly attraft their attention. The agriculture has been celebrated for thefe 600 years, ever fince their commerce and manufaAures became eminent ; and they ilill poflefs the eflentials of good hufbandry, in the deftrudtion of weeds, and perpetual crops. In pafling through Flanders, in 1805, the author 01 this work was delighted with the perfcd^ion of the agri>. culture. R1VEBS.3 The Netherlands are watered by fo many rivers and canals, that it will be fufficient to mention only a (ivf of the chief Rreams. The Rhine belongs to Germany, palfing at a confiderable diltance to the W. of the frontier ; and but a fmall extent of the Meufe,or Maes, pervades the county of Namur, in thefe Netherlands. The chief river is the Scheld, which receives two other fl reams, the Lys and the Scalpe, the latter near Mortagne, the former near Ghent. All thefe rivers arife ifl tht county of Artois, from no ccnfiderable elevation ; and the whole courfe of the Scheld, or Trench Efcaut, cannot be comparatively ef- timatcd at above 120 miles *. The Dyle rifes not far to the N. W. of Namur, and joins the Scheld above Niel, after receiving from the E> the Dermer, the Nette or Nethe, from the N. and the Senne from the S. Moil of the other rivers yield in importance to the canals, and it would indeed be difficult in many initanires to determine whether their courle be the work of nature or art. There is no lake worthy of com« memoration. Mountains, kc."} Though there be little ridges of hills in the coun- ties of Namur and Luxembourg, the traveller muft proceed to thedilUnt banks of the Rhine before he meets with any elevation that can deferv^ •m '■r.'j ^, with * Thr Schpld propfrly rifes itbout eight miles N. of St. Qiiintin, in the modem depert- p>«at ul die Aii'iie. , tho »4» NETHERLANDS. the name even of a fmall mountain. There are, howev«r( feveral woodi even in the centre of Flanders ; and iii Brabant is the foreft of Soiinit liirther to the E.and S. are immenfc forefts, which almoft penrade Hamaut and Luxembourg, from Valenciennes to Treves, forming ftrikkig remsini of the ancient foreft of Ardennes. B0TASIY.3 The vegetable produ£ltons of the Catholic Netherlands dif.- hr in no reipt€t from thofe' of Holland, and almoft aU the plants that are natiiws of this country mar be met with in the faiidy and marihy diftrids of the fouth-eaft coaft of England. A few fpecies, indeed, wUch are rare with us, are of frequent occurrence in the Netherlands, particularly the marih ragwort, in (hallow ditches; field eryngo, in great plenty by the fide of the roads ; and the elegant fringed water lily, adorning the canals, and other deep flow ftreams. The zoology of the Netherlands affords no remarkable materiak. The breed of hones and cattle is efteemed for fize. MiNKRALOGY.] So plain a country cannot be fuppofed to fupply many minerals : yet coaJ, perhaps the moft precious of them all, is found * j in feveral diftriAs, and the ingenuity of the French has been exerted in ain improvement of the operations. In the county of Namur are aUb found lead and copper ; and Hainaut affords iron and flate. From iti iron works Luxembourg derives its chief wealth ; and the foreft of Ardennes is ftill renowned for the metal of war. MarUe and dabafter are alfo found in the oafteni diftrifts. RUSSIA IN EUROPE. CHAPTER L HISTORICAL OIOORAPHY. Efetentm^-^Atundaria. --^ Names. Original Population. '•"-Prtgnjive Gee^rafif anJpre/aU £otmdanei»'^Proviiuet»"^Hi/icrical Epochi mi jiatiqmtitit Fvrawr 1 nPI^-'^ Ruflian empire is, perhaps, the moft eztenfive that CXTS9T.J j^ ^^^ exifted; the length being about piaoo Engliih milet, and the breadth a^oo *. BouNDAMBs.] Bv the final i>artition of Poland, European Ruflia now extends from wi river Dniefter to the Uralian mountains, that grand chain which naturally divides Europe from Afia, a lenRth of about ifloo miles i and in br^dth above looo Englifli roilct. Toe ex. tent ia computed at about 1,200,000 fqnare miles. Kambs.] Even the European part of the Ruflian empire embracet many ancient kingdoms and ftates ; but the chief name, that of Ruffii, • Tooke'i View of die Ruff. Enip. 3 voU. 8vo. i. p. 0* OfitU *\ The fl&U cc Aallonl wards th pire, the ninth imported In the fu eolighteiu unaccouni an improj: finally exi Origin part of th form an e Goths on wefti muft Europe: form the of the anc itrength. ?H0OREi geography revolutions. unknown to in the Byza phyrogenitu the Ruiliani confined on i ofPruflia. 1 Euxinefea. | wards famout memorable fc Theviftori Kiovtr about t ruined by th< empire. The little embarraj which remain when Ruflia « fent extent ant was Ivan IV., the Tatar kir His fucceflbr^ which has beei known till the tended her lint ' Sample third oj fertile of men i . Divisions.] w regard to its ] the empire int Ihenne II. beg [w provincial < lowing ynr thi ♦^■"WtJ 1 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. (hall only be here confidercd. Amidft the grand conflux of natlcnt to- wards the weft, which attended the decline and fall of the Roman Em- pire, the Slavonic tribe of Roffi efcaped the obfervation of hiftory till the ninth century ; and it . uncertain whether the term were natiTC, or imported by the Scandinavian chiefs who founded the Ruffian monarchy*. In the fixteenth century, when Ruffia fifft attraaed the obfervation of enlightened Europe, we find that the new appellation of Mv/covia had unaccountably pafled among foreigners from the capital to the kingdom* an injpropriety which long maintained its ground, and has not even yet finally expired. Original populatiok.] The grand population of the European part of the Rulfian empire is well known to be Sbvonic. The Slavont form an extenfive original race of mankind, radically diftind from the Goths on the one hand> who, as pofleffing the countries more to the weft, mull have preceded the Slavons in their paffage from Afia into Europe : and equally diftinguifliable in language, perfon, and manners, form the Tatars, and other nations on the eaft. They are the Sarma^ae of the ancients, and were eveir remarkable for perfonal elegance and llrength. re. Phooressive geoghaphy.] To enter much into the progreffive geography of the Ruffian empire, would be to write a hiftory of it* revoluuons. Till the fixteenth century this empire continued ahnoft unknown to the reft of Europe, and its geography muft be ^intly traced in the Byzantine annals, particularly in the work of Conftantme Por- phyrogenitus on the adminiftnttion ot the empire. Even at that period the Ruffians held the fpacious province around Mofcow ; and though confined on the ?aft, extended th&ir power to the Baltic, and the vicinity of Pruffia. Towards the S. the river Boryfthenes conduded them to the Euxine fea* The capitals were Novgorod and Kiow ; the former after- wards famous for its alliance with the Hanfeatic league ; the latter ftill memorable for its catacombs. Theriaories of the Tatars conftrained the Ruffian princes to abandon Kiow about the middle of ti»v twelfth century, and that city having been rumed by the Tatars in the thirteenth, Mofcow became the leat of cmoire. The geomphy of Ruffia, in the middle ages, becomes not a httle embarraffed from its repeated fub^vifion into fmall monarchies, which remained in a ftate of vaffiilage to the Tatars till the year 1462, when Ruffia emerged from thiseclipfe, and gradually acquired its pre- fent extent and confequence. The great founder of the Ruffian power V* !i*" ^Yv ^**® '**S"«^ ^"» ^ y*" '534 to 1584, and fubdued the Tatar kingdom of Aftracan, and fome provinces on the N.W. H» fucceffor, Feodor I., turned his arms towards Siberia, a country which has been, however, moft flowly inveftigated, and indeed forcely T? }^^ if^.Y^ »730- In modern times, Ruffia baa gradually ex- tended her limits at the expence of the Turks ; and the addition of an ^amp e third of Poland has afforded her a fource ftill more ftable, and fertile of men and power. Di visipHs.] No country in Europe has undergone fo many alterations in regard to its poUtico-geognphical dirifion as Ruffia. Peter I. divided the empire into eight governments. In the year 1763, when Ca- therine II. began a great reformation in the colleges of the empire and the provmcial chanceries, they had increafed to aghteen. In the foU lowing year this number was increa(ed by two; and in 1773, ^7^ .V.V" • Gibbo^ X, aifli. .,.(• firlt »4» RUSSIA IN EUROPE. firft diviflon of Poland, two more were added. The empire confided of thefe twenty*two governtnents, when fladtholderniipa or viceroyattiei were introduced in 1776. Before the eftablifliment of them was fully eompletedf Ruflla was enlarged by the acceflion of the Crimea. Of thefe twenty -three provinces, forty-two ftadtholderfhips Were formed ; and this divifion exifted from 1786,10 1794. In the years 1795 and 1706 their number, by new conquefts on the Dneitter and in Poland, and by the fubje6^ion of Courland, was increafed to fifty. The ellabliihtnent of thefe eight new governments changed the political geography in the whole of the fouthern, and in part of the wedern didrids of Ruflla. But fcarcely had thefe extenfive alterations been made, when, in the year 1796, the whole of the political divifion hitherto eftablifhed wat changed, and the fifty governments reduced to forty*one. Other altera, tions were afterwards made ; but on the accefTion of the prefcnt em- peror Alexander I. he thought proper to revive moil of thofe govern* ments which had been aboliftied under the reign of his predeceiTor. An ukafe for this purpofe appeared in the month of September 1801, in confequence of which the forty-one exiiling governments were increafed by five, which had all before exifted; afterwards three were added, which with Grufia made the number again fifty. The following is an enumeration of the governments as they itood in 1803. Moilcva. 2. St. Peterfburg. 3. Novogorod. 4. Olonetz. I. 5. Archangel. 6. Pikove JO. Kaluga. 11. Jaroflaf. logda. ' 15. Nifneygomd. 19. Tobolik. 20. Tomflc. 7. Smolenfk. 12. Koilroma. 16. Wiutka. Irkutflc. Tula. 9. Twer. Vludimir 14. Vo. 1 8. Perm. 21. 13 17. Kafan. 22. Orenburg. 23. Sim. Caucafus. Orel. 32 birfk. 24. Penza. 25. Saratof. 26. Aftrakan. 27. 28. Voronilh. 29. Tambof. 30. Razan. 31. Kurflc. 33. Tho Slobodith Ukrain. 34. Ekaterinaflaf. 35. Tauria. 3^, Cherfon (Nikolayef.) 37. Poltowa. 38. Tfchernigof. 39. Kief. 40. Podolia. 41. Volhynia. 43. Grodno. 43. Vilna. 44. Vitebflc, 4c. Mogilef. 46. Minm. 47. Courlaiid. 48. Livonia. 49. Eftho. ma. 50. Finland. 51. Grufia*. Historical epochs.] The following appear to be the chief hiftorical epochs of this mighty empire : 1 . The foundation of the kingdom by Ruric, a Scandinavian chief, A. D. 862. His defcendants held the fceptre above 700 years. 2. The naval expeditions of the Ruifians againii Conftantinople, in the tenth century. 3. In the fame century the baptifm of Olga the queen, and the fub- fequeot converfion of the Ruifians to Chriftianity. 4. The invafion of the Tatars under Batu Khan in 1236, and the fub. fequent vaifalageof Ruifia. 5. The aboution of the power of the Tatars by Ivan III. who died in 1505. 6. The reign of Ivan IV. fumamed Bafilowitz, known to weftem hiftorians by the ftyle of the tyrant John Bafilides. 7. The death of the Czar Feodor in 1508, with whom expired the long progeny of Ruric. Several impodors afterwards appeared, under the name^f Demetrius, the murdered brother of this fovereign. 8. The acceifion of the dynaily of Romanow, i6i3»"in the perfonof Michael Feodorowitz, fprung in the female line from Ivan IV, He was followed by his fou Alexis, father of Peter the Great. * Raftiiad enter Akxander d«m Erften, bjH.Storik, I'eteriburgh, 1804. '■ i.> ^ 6 y. The "X RUSSIA IN EUROPE. ?4S g. The reign of Peter I. has been juftly confidered as a moft im* portant epoch in Ruffian hiftory ; but on reading tlie annals of the pre- ceding reigns from that of Ivan IV. it will be perceived that a part of onr admiration for Peter arifes from our inattention to his predeceflbrs and that the light which he diffufed was far from, being fo fudden and (rrand as is commonly imaijined. 10. The late reign of Catherine II. deferves to be commemorated tinong the moil brilliant epochs in the Ruflian annals ; nor muft her perfonal crimes exclude her from the lift of great and able fovereigns. Antiquities.] Of ancient monuments, Ruflia cannot be fuppofed to afford great variety. Sometimes the tombs of their pagan anceftors are difcovered, containing weapons and ornaments. The catacombs at Kiow were perhaps formed in the Pagan period, though they be now replete with marks of Chrittianity. They are labyrinths of confiderable extent, dug, as would appear, through a mafs of hardened clay, but they do not feem to contain the bodies of the monarchs *. Tiie converflon of the Rufllans muft of courfe have been followed by the erei^ion of many churches ; biit as Byzantine, or Italian architedls were employed, thofe edifices have but few peculiarities. Per- haps no country of confiderablc extent can aiford fewer monuments of ancient art than Ruflia. . :, „, _ „ . ,...,,.,. Uoi^r CHAPTER II. POLITICAL GEOGIIAPHY. 'ilO Religion. ~-Eccle/!q/lical Geography. — Government. — Laws.—'Pofnilation.'^ Colonies.-— ^rmy.—— Navy. Revenues. '■—Political Importance a$uf Relatione. J, -j '' I "HE religion of Ruflia is that of the Greek church, ' '-^ V X of which, fince the fall of the Byzantine empire, this (late may be confidered as the chief fource and power. . Ecclesiastical oeooraphy.] The patriarch of the Ruflian church had ufurped extraordinary powers, to the great injury of the Imperial prerogative ; but the fpint of Peter I. broke thefc ignominious bonds, and the patriarchs have fince become complaifant inftruments of the court. The clergy are very numerous, and have feveral privileges, pat- ticulafly exemption from taxes. They have been computed at 67,000, fccular and regular. The Greek religion permits the marriage of the fecular clergy. The cathedrals and parifli churches in the empire are computed at 18,350; the monaftenes 31480; nunneries 74; monks fuppofed to be 71300 ; nuns 3000. The monafteries have not been fuch favourite reforts fince Peter I. and Catherine II. opened the fources of lindultry. The bifhoprics amount to about 30. Government.] The government of Ruflia appears to have been always defpotic, there being no legiflalive power diftind from that of the fovereign. What is called the fenate is only the fupreme court of judi- cature. The whole frame of the government maybe pronounced to be military ; and nobility itfelf is only virtually eftimated by rank in the ■army. :>tr ^(^*4'^^'f iWf^-f • * flerbin. CiTptie KijovieafeB. *,*«»*-:.•• Br »4 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. By an viuSc iflued by the prefent emperor Alexander in the month of June 180I) the rank of Senator is declared the higheft in the kinedom. As the guardian of the laws, the fenate watches over the general execu. tion of tnem ; has a vigilant eye to the col1e6ting of the public duties • provides means for relieving the neceflities of the people^ for maintaining public peace and tranquillity, and for preventing all proceedings contrail to law m all the inferior departments. It has the reviflon of all affairs both civil and criminal. From the decifions of the fenate there is no appeal, Torture was entirely aboliihed in 1801 . Laws.] Immediately on the fall of the Roman empire, we find the Gothic tnbes feduloufly coUeding and publifhing their peculiar codes of laws, but it would be difficult to difcover any Slavonic code till the fix- teenth century, when they emanated, not from the national council, but from the arbitrary will of the monarch. The firft Rufltan code dates from the reign of Ivan IV. and the late emprefs had the merit of drawing up a new code with her own hands. Population.] The population of Ruffia is fo diflFufe, and fpread over fo wide an extent of territory, that very oppofite opinions have beeR entertained conceniing it. By mo ft writers it was only eftimated 9s equal to tlut of France, or. about 2C,00O|0oo; and it was at the fame time fuppofed that the recent acquiutions in Poland might add 5,000,000 to the amount: but in 1783, more exaA eftimates were prepared; and in the 41 vice-royalties, then compofing the enipire, the ftate of male inha* bitants * was as follows : — — 107^.08 Merchants, Burghers, Odnodvortzi, and free countrymen, Exempt from taxes, — — Crown boors, — — Private boors, — mm »93»79.5 773»65o 310,830 4,664,603 6,678,239 12,838^529 The number of females being fuppofed to equal that of the males, a population would arife of 25,677,000. The moft important accelfion to the Ruffian population arifes from the partitions of Poland, which, with fmall acquifitions from the Porte, have been thus ftated f } At the firft partition of Poland in 1773 From the Porte in the years 1774 and 1783 From the Porte in the year 1 791 — ^ At the fecond partition of Poland 1793 By the fubjedtion of Courland >— At the third partition of Poland 1 795 1,226,966 171,610 42,708 3»74S.663 387,922 1,407,402 6,982,271 The following account, according to Mr. Tooke, prcfents the whole population of the empire in 1799 : By the reviflon of 1783 there were in the governments, 1 computing the female lex as equal to the male of regillered > 35167 71O00 1 perfons * J * Evtb male UbM «t ioclttdcd In Um c?piUtion tax, vndcr the denotninstioB of diiif | fMnu. tloQkt,l.9ai. ^ , Th« 'Someoftheiiobil RUSSIA IN EUROPE. The amount of Kozacks of the Don and the Euxine, ) according to the moft authentic private accounts at leaft f For the numbered tribes and claiTes, at the time of the*! fourth revilion, we cannot without the higheft improba* > bility allow lefs than J Confequently the Ruffian empire, in the year 1783,1 might have inhabitants amounting altogether to J According to the refults deduced from experiments' and obfervations on the fruitfulnefs and mortality in RulTia, this mafs muft, of itfelf, have increafed annually Qiore than half a million. If, i^ order to keep as far as poiTible from all exaggeration, we dedu6l the half ot this furplus of births, to allow for the dimi- Dutiun it may have fuffered by an extraordinary mortality, as by war; there remains by every year an increafeof 250,000 new citizens, which, exclufively of :ill afcending proportion, in 12 years makes a fum . total of ^ ^ The new ac4uiiition8 fince the year 1783, or the prc-'j fent nine vice-royalties of Taurida, Minlk, Bratzlau, j Vofncfenfk, Podolia, Volhynia, Courland, Vilna, and ^ Slanim, contain, according to a legitimated ftatement ) already mentioned, J Confequently we may admit, by the moil moderate! ellimatc, the population of the Ruffian empire at pre- > fent to be J 220,000 1,500,000 •<.-^ooo 36,152,000 Of this population Mr. Tooke affigns only about three millions and a half to Siberia, or Afiatic Ruffia, which contains the Hve governments of Perm, Vfa, Kolhyvan, Tobolik, and Irkutfk ; bur Perm is itfelf fitu.ited on the European fide of the Uralian mountains, fo that we might, perhaps, allow even 33,000,000 for the population of European RulTia. It is probable, however, that the Gemuui authors, penfioned in Ruiria, have fuelled the accounts of the population, to flatter the fove- reign. Condition of the peasants.] The Ruffian peafants are the ferfs or (laves of their mailers *. But in general each proprietor agrees to i«> ceive from e]fich vaffal a certain fum annually, called obrok, and then he may go where he pleafeH and labour fqr himfelf and his family. For tliiti purpofe he is furnifhed with a pafs, and leaving his village he repairs tufome town or city, even as far as Livonia or Eftnonia, where he workii the whole fummer, as a carpenter, ditcher, &c. and ^ains as much as is fufficient to fupport himfelf and family during the winter months, and alfo to pay his obrok. Thuie who remain at home employ themfelfes in agriculture and other rural occupations. In winter they apply to weaving and other branches of manufa6ture. A proprietor never cares where his vaflals go, provided they are fur* nilhed with a pafs and pay him the obrok or tax impofed upon them. Th? Ruffians are too much attach^ to their country and religion to ever think of emigrating } and the peafants, even when they are obliged by bad treatment or other caufes to change thdr mailer or place of abode» * Some of the iiobUitjr in Rufli* luve begun Utely to give GreedoB to ihmt iUves. L choofa H« RUSSIA IN EUROPE. choofe rather to unite themfeWes to the Coflac« of the Don than to paf$ the boundaries of the empire. Defertimi even to other countries is verv Uncommon among the foldiers. Each bopr, according to his condition and expertnefs, muil pay to his mafte*' five, ten, or more rubles annually. The crown peafants there, fore, ^hopay only three rubles, confider tliemfelves as very fortunate. Eftates properly arc! villages, called Derewni, and the property of a nobleman is eftimated according to the fize of the village and the number of men it contains. But very often one village belongs to feveral noble- inen or proprietors ; and then it is faid fuch a pcrfon poiTefles 50, another J CO, a third 150, &c. fouls, under which appellation males are always imderllood. The value of flaves varies vrith that of provifions. In J 747 Lerch purchafed two men at Mofco and tvro horfes for 60 rubles • and this he conlidered as dear. At prefent (1797) a healthy ftrong man 78 worth 300, 400, and even more rubles ; a female from 100 to 150 and soo. In the bank belonging to government for lending money, a flave is taken in pawn for 40 rubles. Befides the obrok, all boors, whether belonging to the crown or to private perfuns, mtid pay alf« a poll-tax or head-money, which at p^. ient (1797 ) in fome places amounts to a ruble for a man *. Colonists.] It is well known that great encouragement has been given to foreigners to fettle in Ruflia, ana that there are in that country at prefent fome colonies pretty numerous. The following table will ex. hibit a llatc of them as they were in 1803. ". v j . '. .- i Saratof. / Nsw Russu. Colonifts in general Evangelic Brethren, called' the Brotherhood repta Menonifts Culonifts of .Tofephflhal of Yamburgi , called') of Sa- V Swedifh .' ' Dant/ickers 73 30' 100 117 J67 70 "»57)* Hetice it appears that in 1803 there werp eftablifhed in different parti of Ruflia 46,204 coIoniHs^of both fcxes. It appears alfo from a^ithen- tic documents, that government had expended in fupporting the coloniiU • RuMnnd'ii HuiiJcl landwirUifchaftUcke Kultw ural PipduAt von W. C. Fri«be. Pcterf- fcurg, iJ wte. 1706, f*c. , . ! , - , .. ,_ -, , ment or tw RUSSIA IN EUROPE. tlie fum of 6,00^,94.8 doUarS) of which at that time it had received back only i,957»49o dollars. It appears, farther, that m 180} the following number of colonifta mre ellablilhed in Ruflia : Malm. Femaus. Bulgarians . » • £lbiug and Maurunburg Meno-) nifts - • - 3 Germans - Swifs - - Swifs at Grodm* - - Pruifians - . - 313 216 534 521 628 240 of both 529 fexcs 47 33 %'. H 12 Colonies, &c.^ RuflTu bein? a (late new in maritime affairs, cannot boall of any colonies, nor can tnis name be applied to a fmall eftablifli- ment or two in the eaftern parts of Siberia. But on the Ruffian armies I jrreat part of the fate of Europe and Afia muft depend ; and the fub- jcft of courfe defervcs particular attention. Mr. Tboke eftimates the whole amount of the Ruiuan troops at 600,000; of which 500,000 may be cfteemed effeAive. Navy.] The Ruflian navy confifts of feveral det ashed fleets, employed in the remote feas on which the empire borders at different extremities. The chief fleet is of courfe that of the Baltic, which confifts of about thirty'fix fhips of the line. That in the Euxine, or Black Sea, at the harbours of Sevaftopol and Kherfon, was computed at twelve fhipa of the line, but not of a high rate, as the Euxine affurda no great depth of water ; but therq are many frigates, gallies, chebecks, andgun-boats. The fleet of gallics in the Baltic, in 1789, was eftimated at no. Revenues. 1 The revenues of Ruflia are fuppofed to amount to about co,oOo,ooo of rubles ; which, valuing the ruble at four fhiUings, will be equal to io,ooo,oool. fterling. Tlie. national debt is fuppibfed to amount to little er nothing. Political importance, &c.] With all thefe advantages it is no vonder that the political importance and relations of Ruffia are fo pre- ponderant in Europe and Afta. In Europe her recent acquifitions nave contributed to render her more and . more formidable. Poland lias been devoured ; Denmark and Sweden may be confidercd aa fubje£t-allie« ) and if the whole force of Ruffia were bent againfl either Auftria or I'ruffia, it is hardly to be conceived that the fhock could be withftood. It would certainly be for the intereft of Europe that the Ruffian force fhould be divertpo towards Afid, that by extending her dominions in that quarter her (Irength may ftill be more difperfcd, when probably a divifion of the empire would corameuce, to th( latling advantage of the ether continental powers. La CHAP- 148 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. /'•'•■■ ' -■ ' CHAPTER III. ■-• J'^r^■'■•■;-■■•^''■'•■■ CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. Manners and Cufionu.—-Language.-~-Literature. — Education. -^Unherfttie, Cities and Towns. — E£fices»— Roads.— Inland Navigation. — Manufac tures and Commerce. Manners and customs ^A' i the Ruffian Empire comprifes fo many dilHndt races of men, the man- ners of courfe mud be very various. But in the European divifiun, to which this brief account is reftrided, the grand diftindlions are, a few Laplanders oa the eaft of the mountains of Olonctz, which divide Ruflja from Sweden ; the Fins of the White fea, and the Baltic ; the grand Slavonic mafs in the centre, including the Cozacks of the fouth, who are alfo Slavonsf and a few Tatars in Taurida, a beautiful region which forms the fouth-eaft extremity of Europe. The Laplanders are well known to be a diminutive race, who Would be amiable from the paftoral fimplicity of their manners, were not their perfons ugly and dirty. The Fins are alfo rather (hort in ftature, wiUi flat faces, deep cheeks, dark erey eyes, a thin beard, tawny hair, and a fallow com* plexion ; but Uic fouthem Fins, though they retain the national features, are of fuperior appearance. There is a fmall diftridi in the northern extremity of Scandinavia, idly called Finmark ; but the chief region of the Fins is around the gulph of Finland, and thence on the fouth of the White fea, where was, m ancient times, the celebrated region of Parmia, by the Scandinavian writers called Biarmia, which j^tne fuppofe extended from the White fea to the mountains of Ural. The Fine ufed to excel in fiflun?, and the chace ; but they are now much blended with the Slavons, and have generally adopted their manners and cuftoms. The Slavonic Ruffians, who conftitute the chief mafs and foul of this empire, are generally middle fized and vigorous : the tallnefs and grace of the ^olifli Slavons feem to arife from fuperior climate and foil. The general phyfiognomy confiils of a fmall mouth, thin lips, white teeth, unall eyes, a low forehead, the nofe commonly Tmall. and turned up- wards, beard very buHiy, hair generally reddim *. The exprefllon of the countenance is gnvity, with good nature, or fagacity ; the gait and gedures lively and (nHpaflioned. The Ruffian is extremely patient of hunger and thirll ; and his cure for all difeafes is the warm bath, or rather vapour bath, in which the heat is above 100" of Fahrenheit's thermometer. Dr. Guthrie has (hewn that the Ruffians retain many Miaoners and ouilums derived from their Pagan anceftors, and has given tome curiouH i'pccimens of their fongtt and raufic, which feem to be very pleafing. He has alfo compared their dahces with thofe of the Greeks; and finds in one of them a confiderable referablance of the wanton Ionic, while another refombles the Pyrrhic. He obferves tliat the country girls drefs in the/araphan, refombling the ancieiit^o/a, and bind up thiir air with the ientoi a ribbon like the ancient vitta. They tinge their cheeks with the juice of the echium Ittdicum. When a marriage i^ pro. pofed, the loveri accompanied by a friend, goes to the houfe of the * Tookcii. 2'<3. bride, RUSSIA IN EUROPE. ,149 briJci aner in the whnle eukf'iK. 37 : 26 s/ I 55 12 i-T 283 53 ¥J 8« 62 5> 84 6 6 12 I «5f 71 321 843 " Seventeen new manufaflories were eftabllihed in 1803 ♦.'* The commerce of Ruflia was known in the middle ages by the con- neftion between the Hanfe towns, in the north of Germany and Nov- gorod, eftablidied about 1276. So wide is now this empire that it main- taiif a commerce of the moft remote defcriptions, on the Baltic and the White fea, the Euxine and the Cafpian, with Perfia, and with China. Archangel, thonch fallen from its ancient confequence by the building of Peterfburg, ftill affords a moderate trade, and exports pot- ilh, kaviar, tallow, wax» hide*, hemp, &c. with corn, Hnfeed, coarfe linens, and other articles. The commerce of Pcterfburg is much of the famedefcription : that of Riga is very conliderable, and to other articles are added, mails from the Dnieper. Ruflia is fuppofed to export hy the Baltic grain annually to the value of i7o,o:)cL and hemp and flax, raw and manufaAured, to the amount of a million and a half fterltng. The commerce of the Euxine, or Black fea, is of inferior moment, its chief exports being furs, fait beef, butter, cordage, fail cloth, kaviar» * Rufsland, HwnAtl Lmdwirthfcbafdivke Kultur und PivduAc von W. C. Friebe. Pe- tniburg, an>li. 1796, tlu:. . L4 * tonir »5» RUSSIA IN EUROPE. corn» with iron, linei)} and fome cotton fluffs. Imports, wine, fruit coffiee, filks, rice, and feveral Turkifh commodities *. ' The Ruffian harbours in this fea are Aftracan, the chief feat of the Cafpian commerce, Gurief, and Kifliar. From Aftracan are exported many European manufactures ; and the chief imports are raw filk, rice dried fruits, fpices, faffron, fulphur, and naphtha. Tl»e Hindoo mer! chants occafionally bring gold, and precious ftones. The annual trade is computed at 1,000.000 of TUbles, or joo,oooI. That of the Euxine is not above one-third of this value. Ruflia likewife maintains fome commerce by land with Pruflia. That with Perfia is of little moment : the chief imports are lilk. There is a confiderable trade by land with the Kirgufes, who fend horfes, cattle, and flieep, in return for woollen-cloths, iron, and European articles. That with China is nearly on a par ; each countiry tranfmitting to the amount of about 2,000,000 of rubles. (400,0001.) Ruflia exchanges her pre- cious Siberian furs for tea, filk, and porcelain. The internal commerce of Ruflia is very confiderable ; and Siberia is faid to aiFord in gold, filver, copper, iron, fait, gems, &c. to the amount of 1 2,000,000 of rubles, (2,400,0001.), that between thefouthem and northern provinces is alfo of great extent and value. The coin current in the empire is fuppofed to amount to about 30,000,0001. llerling, the paper money to about 20,ooo,oool. The Siberian gold and filver Uipply an important addition tu the national currency. CHAPTER IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. CUmate and Seafom. — Face of the Country. — Soil and Agrieuhure.'—Rivm. —Laiet.'—'Mountaint.—Forefit.— -Botany.— -Zoology.'— Mineralogy.-^ Mineral Waters. — Natural Curioft'us. r>. . -1 T'HE climate of Ruflia in Europe, as Climate and seasons.] ^ ^^^ ^ ^^^^^^^ -^ ^^^^ ^ ^i^^^P^' ^^ latitudes, prefents almoft every variety from that of Lapland, to that of Italy : for the newly acquired province of Taurida may be compared witli Italy in climate and foil. But winter maintains the chief fway at Peterfburg, the capital, and the Neva is annually frozen from November .to March or April. The climate around the frozen ocean, and the laft European ifle upon the N. £. that of Novaya Zemlia, or the New Land, is of noted feverity, the northern fide being encompaffed with mountains of ice, and the fun not vifible from the middle of 0£lober till February } while it never fets during June and July. Taurida pre- fents, on the contrary, all the luxurianre of the fouthern year, while the middle regions are bled with the mild feafons of Germany and Entrland. Face op the country.] In fo wide an empire, the face of the country muft alfo be extremely various ; but the chief feature of European Ruflia confifts in plains of a prodigious extent, rivalling in that refpeft the vali deferts of Afla and Africa. In the fouth are fome extenfiy^ Jl^tf or dry and elevated plains, fuch as that above the fea of Azof, in ♦ Tooke, iii, 57 «• .»» !'•»■ I yrrr :■ > length RUSSIA IN EUROPE. »53 cu »J 2^°"^ ¥P Englifli miles. The numerous and majeftic rivers alfo '^iJ^f^itute a dininguiming feature of this empire. Soil' AND AGRICULTURE.] The foil is of courfe, alfo extremely di- ii from the chilling marfliea which border the White and Frozen feas« tottierichand fertile plains on the Volga. The moft fertile is that Mweeh the Don and the Volga, from Voronetz to Simbirflc, confiftin? of a black mould, ftrongly impregnated with falt-petre ; that is a fou formed from fuccefllve layers of vegetable remains *. In Livonia and Eilhonia the medial returns of harveft are eight or ten fold ; and the latter is generally the produce of the rich plains near the Don, where the fields are never manured, but on the contrary are apt to fwell the corn into too much luxuriance. Pafturage is fo abundant that the meadows are little regarded, and the artificial production of grafles is fcarcely knoM'n. Some of the meadows are watered, and produce large crops of hay, the dry paflures yield a (hort, but nutritious produce, and in a few of the fteppesthe grafs will attam the height of a man, and is feldom mown. . Agriculture is hardly known in the northern parts of the governments of Olonetz, and Archangel ; but in the central parts of the empire has Ijeen purfued from time immemorial. In general, however, agriculture is treated with great negligence, yet tbeharvefts are abundant. In the north rye is moil generally cultivated ; but in the middle and the fouthem regions wheat ; in the government of Ekatannoflav the Arnautan wheat is beautiful, the flour yellowifli, the return commonly fifteen fold ; nor is TuAciih wheat, or maize, unknown in Taurida. Barley is a general produce, and is converted into meal, as well as oats, of which a kind of porridge is compofed. Millet is alfo widely diffufed. Rice fucceeds well in the vicinity of Kiflear. Hemp and flax form great objects of agriculture. Tobacco has been produced iince the year 1763, chiefly from Turkifli and Perfian feed. The olive has been tried in vain at Aftracan, but profpers in the fouthem mountains of Taurida along the Euxine. The government of Mofcow produces abundance of excellent afparagus ; and fugar-melons abound near the Don and the Volga. Laree orchards are feen in the middle and fouthern parts of Ruflia, yet quantities of fruit are imported.- While apples and pears are found as far north as the 49^, plums and cherries extend to the »°. What is called the Kirefskoi apple often weighs four pounds, is of an agreeable flavour, and will keep a long time. A tranfparent fort from China is alfo cultivated, called the Nalivui, meltintr and full of juicef . Bees are not known in Siberia, but form an object of great attention in the Uralian forefts. Rivers.] In enumerating the chief rivers of European Ruflia the firft attention is due to the majeftic Volga, which forms, through a long fpace, the boundary between Afia and Eiirope, belonging properly to the latter continent in which it arifes, and from which it (drives its fup> uKes, till at Tzaritzin, about 250 miles from its mouth, it turns S. £. into Afia. This fovereign of European rivers derives its fources from feveral lakes in the mountains of Valday, and government of Tver, between Peterfburg and Mofcow ; and bends its chief courfe to the S. £. ; near its junction with the Kama, an important river fed by many llreams from the Uralian chain, it turns towards the S. W. till it arrives at Tzaritzin. Its comparative courfe may be computed at about 700 miles. This noble river having no cataracts, and few flioals, is navigable • Touke, i. 67. t Tooke, iii. 340. eveu '54 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. even to Twer. The tributary rivers of the Volga are chiefly, from th eaft, the Kama, which rivals the Volea at their junction, rifing in th^ Government of Viatka* and running N. W. afterwards due E. and then . On the well the chief ftream which runs into the Volga is the Oka which rifes in the government of Orel. ' Next to the Volga, on the weft, is the Don, or Tanais, which riff^ from a lake in the government of Tulan, and falls into the fea of Azof after a courfe of about 800 miles. * The Neiper, or ancient Boryfthenes, rifes in the government of Smo. lenflc, about 150 miles to the fouth of the fource of the Volga, and about 100 to the S. E. of that of the Duna, or Dtiina, which flows into the Baltic, by Riga ; and after a courfe of about loco miles through rich and fertile provinces, falls into the Euxine. The Bov, or Hypanis, a far inferior ftream, falls intQ the Liman, or eftuary of the JJeiper, The Nicfter, or ancient Tyras, now forms the boundary between European Turkey and Rufiia, deriving its fource from the north fide of the Carpatian mountains, and falling into the Euxine At Akerman, afur a courfe of about 600 miles. Several important rivers dire£t their courfe towards the Ar6lic ocean, fuch as the Cara, which though not a confiderable river is yet remarkabli', as forming the boundary between Afia and Europe, for the fpaceof about 140 miles, the Uralian chain terminating fo far from the fea of Cara-fkoi, or Karfkoi The river Petfhora rifes in the Ural mountains, and joins the Frozen ocean, after a courfe of about 450 miles. Next, on the weft, is the Mezen, which falls into the White fea after a courfe of about 350 miles. The Dwina falls into the gulph of Archangel, after a confiderable courfe of about 500 miles. Ihe Onega olofes-the lift of the chief riveis that flow into the Arftic ocean ; for thofe of Olonetz, and ef Rufliaii Lapland, are of little confequence. The Svir joins the lake of Onega wif.h that of Laclora, which by tlie Neva, a more important ft ream, falls into the gulph of Finland. Tliis river, pervading the city of Peterfburg, is about 40 miles in lenath, but 1 of confiderable breadth and depth, and fubjedt to violent floods, whiih i have been recently guarded againll by deepening the bed, and by ercd< j ing ftrong quays of^granite. The Narva alfo runs a (hort courfe from the Tchudflcoi, or Peypus I lake, into the Finnifh gulph. The Pcmof rifes fomc miles to the well of the Peypus lake, and falls into the gulph of Riga. But the mod confiderable ftream in this quarter is the Duna, whofe] fource has been already mentioned. It has fome confiderable and dan- gerous falls; and fometimes greatly injures the city of Riga, at tliel breaking up of the ice. Its courfe is about coo miles. The Nimen | nowr forms a part of the boundary between RufHa and PrniTia, and is joipied by a canal to the river Pripaz, which falls into the Neiper; but I the cataracts in the latter river, about 250 miles above its etluary,! greatly impede the intercourfe that might thus be eftabliftied with I the Euxine. I Lakes. 1^ The chief Jakes of European Ruflia are fituated in the! ,N. W. divifioD of tlie empire. There is a confiderable lake in RiiflianJ Lapland, that of Imandra; to the fouth of which the government off Olonetz prefents many extenftve pieces of water, particularly the largel lake of Onega, which is about 150 miles in length, by a medial breadthj 9 vll RUSSIA IN EUROPE. » ' IjJ ^ f about 3'^. The iflands and (hores of the Onejra are chiefly ca|- ^ reous, and contain feme valuable marbles. To the weft is the La- doiia» a^°"' *5° "''^*^' '" length, by 70 in breadth, being one of the lareell \^'^ *" Europe. As it ha« many ftioals, and is liable to fudden n| violent tempefts, Peter the Great opened a canal along its ftiore, from the Volk to the Neva. The fiftiery of this lake feems of little con- fequence ; but the northern (bores produce the beautiful Finnifli marble, which is much ufcd at Peterfhurg. On the S.W. we find the lake of Peypiis, about 60 miles in length by 50 in breadth : the northern part of this lake is ftyled that of Ifliud, the loiith that of Pzcove. From the Peypus, iffues the river Narova, or Narva. To the eaft is the lake Ilmen, on which Hands the ancient city of Novgorod. The Peilo, or White lake, is fo called from its bottom of white clay. But the lakes that give rife to the famous Volga muft not be oniitted. The chief of thefe is the lake Seliger, in the government of Tver, which, though narrow, extends about thirty miles in length ( and a finaller lake, not far to the weft, emits another fource of that auguli river. MousTAiN.s.] It has already been mentioned that European Ruflia is rather a plain country,* though fome parts of it be greatly elevated, fuch as that which fenas forth the three rivers of Duna, Volgat and Nieper. This region, which is pafled in trnveUing from Petcrftjurg to Moicow, is by fome called the mountains of Valday, from the town and lake of Vahlay, lituated on the ridge ; but by the natives it is ftyled yhifoiay Plojlchade, or elevated gi-ound ; and no mountains are here de- lineated in the common maps. In this quarter the ground is ftrewn with maffes of granite, but tlie hills are chiefly marl, land, and clay ; and what are called the mountains of Valday feem to be a high table land, furmounted with large .fand hills, and interfperfed with maifcs of red and grey granite : near Valday is the higheft part of the ridge„ which fcems to be in a N.E. and S.W. direction. The hills, lakes, and jj^roves, are beautiful ; and there is an ifland with a noble monaftery. To the fouth of Valday the mafles of granite become fmaller, and more rare : and calcareous petrifaiiions appear, which are followed by the clay near Mofcow. Mr. Tooke • computes the higheft point of the Valday at only 200 fathoms above the level of Peterfturg, about 1 200 feet above the fea : the height is in'conftderable, and gives a ftriking impreiHon of the gentle and plain level, through which fuch extenlive rivers muft purfue their courfe. The woods on the Valday are chiefly pine, fir, birch, Hnden, afpen, and alder ; the foil in the vale is fertile, moftly clay and tnarl. From the Valday towards the S. fcaree a mountain occur!*, but after paffing the fteppc of the Nieper, an arid plain with fait lakes, which perhaps indicate the extent of the Euxine at remote periods, we arrive at the mountains of Taurida, which are rather romantic than of re- markable height, being calcareous and alluvial. I'o the 8. of tiiis chain, along the ftioresof the Euxine, are the beautiful vales, io well defcribed by Pallas, prodvlftive of the laurel, the olive, the fig, and the pomc- granater while the arbutus adorns the fteepeft cliffs with its red bark, and foUage of perpetual green. The caper and the vine alfo sd>oui}4 in this natural orchard, and the flocks of flieep and goats ieedin|r on the hills| or bounding from the rocks, unite writh the iunple aa« • VoU i. ISO. good 156 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. good humoured manners of the Tatar inhabitants, to render the fcenp truly paftoral. , , But the moil important chains of mountains in European RulT remain to be defcribed» thofe of Olonetz in the furtheit N/and thol^ of Ural which feparate Europe from Afia. The chain of Olonet'' runs in a direction almoft due N., for the fpace of 15° or about qoq G miles. The moft Ar£lic part is faid to confift chiefly of granite petrofilex, and lime-ftone ; and is not of great height, but retains per! petual fnow from the altitude of the clunate. More to the S. branches firetch on the E. towards the gulph of Kandalak : the granite is inter. mixed with large (heets of talc, and patches of trap are found, parti! cularly near the gold mines of Vojrtz, on the weftem tide of the river Vyg. Various other ores occur in this region, and veins of copper pyntes appear in the trap. In the centre, between the mountains of Olonetz and thofe of Ural there feems to be a conflderable chain extending from the E. of Mezer! to the Canin Nos, a bold promontory which rufhes into the Frozen ocean • but this chain appears to have efcaped the fearches of curiofity or avarice' by the perpetual fnovvs. with which it is enveloped. H he immenfe Uralian chain extends from about the 50th to near the 67th degree of N. latitude, or about 1000 C miles in length, and has by tlie Ruffians been called ^ememi Foiatt or the girdle of the world*, an extra. vagant appellation, when we confider that the chain of the Andes extends near 5000 miles. Pauda, one of the higheft mountains of the Uralian chain, is reported by Gmelin to be about 4512 feet above the level of the fea, an inconfiderable height when compared with Mont Blanc or Mont Rofa. The central part of this chain abounds in metals, from Orenburg on the fouth.to the neighbourhood of Perm, where, on the Afiatic fide are, Venchoutury on the N., Ekatarinenburg on the S., places remarkable for opulent mines. The higheft ridges are chiefly granite, gneifs, and micaceous fchiftus, while the exterior hills of the chain on the W. are, as ufual, calcareous. Serpentine, jafper, and trap, are alfo found, with argillaceous fchiftus, and other varieties, to be expe^ied in fo long a chain. Forests. J European Ruffia is fo abundant in forefts that it would be vain to attempt to enumerate them. There are prodigious forefts between Peterfburg and Mofcow, and others between Vladimir and Arzo. mas. Further to the S. there feems to have been a foreft of ftill greater extent, probably the Riphxan foreft of antiquity in the direction of the rich blacK foil fo remarkable for its fertility f . Botany.] When we confider the vaft extent of territory compre- hended under the European fovereignty of Ruifia, from the frozen Ihore of Archangel to the delicious cumate of the Crimea, and that the whole of this great empire has fcarcely produced a fingle naturalift of anv eminence, all that is known of its vejgetables, animals, and minerals, bemg colleded for the moft part \yithin the laft forty years by a few foreigners, under the munificent patronage of Catherine 11., it will be evident that the rudiments alone of the Ruffian flora can as yet be extant. The provinces Wdering upon the Baltic, and the newly acquired go. . * Pennant, A. ZouL 158. t Mr. Owe, Trtvelt in Poland, Ike. vol. i. 333, 341, defcrihcs the raft foreft of Vol- koiifki, as begtnnli'g tiear Viafinar, and continuing to the gates of Moftow, ashetraHW through it without interruption for 1 SO milea. He fays that the Vulga, Duna, and Dnie- per. arife in tliis immenfe foreli, which oonfiftsof otks, heech, mountun-afh, poplar, pine*, and fin, mingled togetlier in endleiii variety. vemtnent RUSSIA IN EUROPE. m vernment of Taurida, have been examined with Tome attention { and a f.# ftriking features of the botany of the interior of the cduntry have L(tn defcribed by travellers j but many years of patient refearch muft ebpie before the natural hiftory of Ruffia is advanced to an equal degree jf accuracy with that of the weftem parts of Europe. fbe Ruflian provinces N. of the Bbltic, contain the fame plants as Agfe of Swedim and Nprwegian Lapland, which will be hereafter jefcribed. Such as extend between the 50th and 60th deg. lat. aboimd nriocipaUy in the conunon vegetables of the N. of France and Germany, [ome of which, however, are wanting, on account of the great feverity , of the Ruffian winters, from their proximity to the vail plains of Tatary, iiiid the forefts of Siberia. The trees of moft ufe, and m greal;eft abun- dance are, the fir ; the Scotch pine j the yew-leaved fir ; and the larch : ^of w^Ln mingled together, form the vaft impenetrable forefts, whence the relt of Europe is principally fupplied with mails, deals, pitch, and tjr. The other foreft trees are, the elm, the lime, of the inner bark of ffhichthe Ruflian mats are made, a^ from whofe bloifoms the immenfe (ffarms of wild bees collect the chief part of their honey ; the birch, the alder, the afpen, the greater maple, and the fycamore ; of the flirubs and humbler plants, thofe of moft importance are the cloud«berry, the cranberry, the bear-berry, the ftone bramble; the fruit of all which, for want of better, is highly efteemed, and is either eaten freih, or is preferved in fnow during the winte'r. Quitting the pine forefts of the I^, and middle of Rulfia, if we turn our attention to the few vegetable produftions that have as yet been noticed amidft the myriads that adorn and enrich the broad vales of the Don and the Dneiper, that glow upon the warm ihoresof the Black fea, or luxuriate in the delicious recelTes of Taurida, we (hall fee what a rich harveft is referved for future naturalifts, and vrith what eafe the inhabitants, when once become civilized, may avail themfelves of the uncommon bounties of their foih Here rifes in itately majefty for future navies the oak, both the common kind and the ipecies with prickly cups, the black and the white poplars of unufual iizeikirt along the margins of the ftreams, the afli, the horn-beam, the nettle tree, occupy the upland paftures, and the elegant beech crowns the fummits of the lime none ridges. Of the fruit«hearing ihrubs and trees, befides the goofeberry, the red, the white, and the buck currant, which are difperled in abundance through the woods, there are the almond and peach; the apricot and crab mountains of Olonetz ; and there was formerly a gold mine in th- region, near the river Vy ;. In the reign of Ivan Baluowitz, the Enirli|i in 1569 obtained the privilege of working mines of iron, on condition tliat they (huuld teach the Ruffians their metallurgy. During the reicn of Alexis* the firft regular mines were eltabliihed in Ruffia, about 60 miles from Mufcow, and they are ilill continued ; but Peter the Great wab the founder of the Ruffian mineralogy, by the inftitution of the colWe of mines in 1719 ; and copper and iron were fuccefsfully wrought in theter. ritory of Perm. About 1 730 the rich mines began to be difcovered in the Afutic part of the empire, the defcription of which will come hereafter In 1739 gold waslirll obferved in thechain of Olonetz, as already mm'. tioned ; and the mines of Voytzer near tlie Vyg were opened, but with little fuccefs. *• The newly difcoTered gold mine in the Ekathcrinburg circle of the Uralian mountains affords the beft hopes. Of 60,000 poods of ore whidi had been dug up to the month of Oftober 1804, 12,000 had been frhelted, and produced about 13 pounds of pure gold. Apeafantnhu difcorered the mine obtained a penfion of 200 rubles *. ** In European Ruffia the irou mines are of the moft importance, and the metal is well known in our xnanufaClories. The chief iron mines are at Dougna near Smolenfk." Mineral waters] European Ruffia being a plain country, can boaft of few mineral waters ; the moft celebrated is near Sarepta on the Volga, difcovered in 1775. The fprings are here numeroi>« and copious, andltrongly impregnated with iron. Ih thediftriAof Perekop, and on the ifle of Taman, belonging to the government of Taunda, there are fprings of naphtha f . Natural cuuiosities.] THe natural curionties of Ruffia in Europe have fcarcely been enumerated, except thofe which inilicate the feverity of winter in fo northern a clime. Not to mention the rocks of ice, of j many miles in extent and furpriUng height, which navigate the frozen ocean, adorned like cathedrals with pinnacles, which rrfledl a thoufaDd I colours in the fun, or aurora borealis 1 it is well known that tlie Emprefi Anne built a palace of ice, on the bank of the Neva, in 1740, which wai| 52 feet in length, and when illuminated bad a furpritinr effed. The grotto of Kurgur, on the weftern fide of the Uralian monntaini has been defcribed with a plan by Gmelin ;):. It is of i^reat extcuti aod contains even fubterrinean lakes and meadows. •. ^t •- . • RUSSIAN ISLES. The fmall ifle of Cronftadt, in the gulph of Finland, vru formerlyl called Retufavt, and is only remarkable for an excellent hatcn, ftroD|l]r| • U«ft.G«B.otter fkins became gradually the] bafis of the Ruffio>chinefe trade; and of courfe this trade tended in a I very great degree to promote the difcoveries of the Ruffians on the north. wen coaft of America, The adventurers in the Ruffian expeditions were at firft for the moll I part Siberian merchants and Coffiics ; as their expeditions were carried] further and became more expenfive, this branch of trade came by de.l grees into the hands of a few rich merchants at Irkutfk, Tobolik, and! other trading towns in tlic interior of ,Ruffia, among whom were the mer.l chant Schelikof, at Rylfk, and his partners, the two brothers Golikofl at Kurfk. None of the trading houfes was more a£Uve than this.! Sclielikof himfelf undertook feveral voyages to the iflands and the northJ well coaft of America ; he alfo publiflied an account of his voyage, byl which he rectified the knowledge of thefe parts> in which he even madel new difcoveries ; and at length formed a confiderable eftablifhment on the! ifland of Kadyak ; which fince that period has been the ftaple or centrel of the whole trade *. He and his partners tirft afTumed the name of thel American Company. In the year 1798 this company united itfilf withi the' Irkulki trading company, at the head of which was a merchantl named Mylnikof ; and it then took the title of the United Americanl Company. Twenty mercantile families had fharcs in it. In the yeirl t799 this company obtained a patent from the emperor, by which it wiil eftabliflied as a privileged trading company under the title cl the Ruflicf American Company. The capital of thia company was of two kinds : the real capital fubfcribed by the twenty original partners, and a credit capital. The former, in the year 1798, confifted of 734100 rubles, divi'dl into 734 fhares of 1000 rubles each. The amount of the latter, which the company iffued billsi can be known only from their books. * Thii rcfpcAable member of fociety died in 1797< The rnipitror I'sul cini.frrcd th niik of noble U|Hm hit widow, who had accompuiied her lui(b«iici in til hii vu)iigt'v u\«ti«, Cra' klu'i ; Bohemia, Boehmtn ; Moravi«, Mahren. Otliu,gr UalUzta, is wj^onj^iy (lylcJ Galicia. fD'Auville, £tau tunu<4 «n furjpc, p. »). X Qi^l^on, x. iU4. M 2 Tranfylvania, .n: 164 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. Tranfylvania, the length of the Auftrian dominions may be about •jSa Britifh miles ; the breadth about 520, from the river Bug, which forms a boundary between Auftria and Pruffian Poland, to the Save, which di. vides the Auftrian from the Turkifli fovereignty. The acquifition of Venetian Dalmatia may probably foon be followed by the junftion of thofe Turkifli provinces, which divide that province from the Auftrian domain. The fquare contents may be about 1 84,000 miles. Boetticher eftimates the inhabitants at 108 to a fquare mile ; but fmce he wrote, the Netherlands^ a populous region, feem to be withdrawn from thehoufeof Auftria. Towards the eaft, the Auftrian dominions border on thofe of Ruffia arid Turkey, and to the north on thofe of Pruflia, Upper Saxony, Ba- varia, and Swabia. On the utmoft weft, are SwiiFerland and the Italian ftates. The ftate of the Auftrian dominions has been confiderably changed by recent events. Venice has become a part of the kingdom of Italy ; and the blindnefs of Auftria towards this venerable republic may be regarded as abfolute infatuation. Tyrol has become afligned to the cleftor, now king, of Bavaria, who alfo (hares with the new king of Wirtemberg the the Auftrian pofleflions in Swabia. Such are the moft effential terms of the treaty of Prelburg, 26 December 1805. The counties of Salz- burg and Berchtolfgaden are incorporated with the empire of Auftria. By this remarkable treaty the Auftrian emperor, *' Cedes and abandons to his Majetty the king of Bavaria the Margra- viate of Burgau and its dependencies ; the principaHty of Eichftadt ; the part of the territory of Paflau, belonging to the eleftor of Salzburg, and fituated between Bohemia, Auftria, the Danube, and the Inn; the country of Tyrol, comprehending therein the principalities of Brixen and Botzen, tiac feven lord/hips of the Voralberg, with their detached dependencies ; the county of Hohenems, the county of Konigfegg, Rottenfels, the lord- (hips of Tetnany and Argen, and the town and territory of Lindau. «* To his Majefty the king o^ Wirtemberg, the five cities of the Da- nube, to wit, Chingen, Munderkengen, Rufflingen, Menzen, and Sal- gaw, with their dependencies, the city of Conftance excepted ; that part of the Brifgaw which extends in the poflefllon of Wirtemberg, and fitu- ated to the eaft of a line drawn from Schlegelburg to Molbach, and tiie towns and territories of Willengen and Brentengen. To his moft ferene highnefsthe eleftor of Baden, the Brifgaw (with the exception of the branch and feparate portions above defcribed), the Ortenfaw and their dependencies, the city of Conftance, and the commandery of Meinau*." It has been aflerted that Auftria was to be partly indemnified for thefe important ceffions by the acquifition of Bofnia and Servia from the Turks; but as the French have fci/ed on Cattaro, and the Dalmatian territories ' of the former republic of Venice, it may be doubted whether her policy would permit th^ increafe of the power of Auftria in that quarter. Original population.] The original population of thefe extenfive regions is various, but chiefly Gothic and Slavonic. The native ancient Germans, a Gothic race, form the ruling, moft induftrious, and moft important part of the inhabitants. Bohemia and Moravia were originally Slavonic kingdoms ; and the people of Poland »nd l^l- ngary may be gene- rally referred to the fame origin. The Venetians, and adjacent Italians, * Urceiii difiifters have nrcafioncd yet furthrr ceiTiuns ; but the power of Auflria feems fyniPHkat coiifolidatcd liy tlic niarriujjr of J\;ijio'»<)n with the AuHrian |>riiiicfi. ig may AUSTRIAN DOlvJINIONS. 165 «jy be confidered as genuine defcendants of the Cifalpine Gauls, and of .]^ Roman colonies enabliihed among them. In ancient defcent, no ge- nealogy can vie with that of feveral Venetian families, which can be traced by hiftory and record to the eighth century. Progressive geography. ] The progreffive geography pf the foutherp part of the Auftrian dominions commences at an early period. Yet the Adriatic was not a favourite fea of the Greeks ; and the Roman writers ^w the firft fteady light upon thefe regions. Faffing from Cifalpine Gaul» in defiance of the barriers of the Rhaetian, and Carnic, or Julian Alps, now the mountains of Tyrol, Carinthia, and Carniola, the Roman jenerals fubdued many barbarous tribes ; and founded the provinces of loricum and Pannonia, their moft northern acquifitions in this quarter, till Trajan added Dacia. The Rhaetians were fubdued by Drufus, in the feign or Auguftus, under whofe fway, or rather in the time of his fuc- celor Tiberius, Pannonia and Noricum alfo became provinces of the Roman empire. : Concerning thofe regions, much information may be derived from the luminous page of Tacitus ; and, foon after, the geogra- phy of Ptolemy opens additional illuilrations. The common refources of ancient geography are continued by the Byzantine writers ; and, after the age of Charlemagne^ by many hiftorians of the weft. Since the in- vention of printing to the prefent period, the geography of thefe extenfive provinces has been gradually improved, though not with the rapidity which might have been expefted, as they unfortunately have not produced many men of acute, genius, extenfive learning, or exaft fcience ; and the belt accounts are derived from writers in the N. of Germany, and froih foreign travellers. Historical EPOCHS.] The hillorical epochs of various kingdoms and dates, recently united under one fovcreignty, mult of courfe be fubdivided into their original diftin6l portion8,beginning in the order above-mentioned, with the lirft important ftate, around which, as a nucleus, the others are conglomerated ; but proceeding thcilce 10 the other provinces, according to their modern extent and importance. 1. The houfe of Auilria, which, by fucceffive fortunate marritges fince the fifteenth century, has arifen to fuch a fummit of power, is well known to have fprung from the humble counts of Haplburg. Thofe lords pofTefled a fmall territory in Swiflcrland, in the northern corner of the canton of Berne. On a lofty enynence, crowned with beech, ftands anancient tower, the firll feat of the houfe of Auilria. In 1 273 Rodolph of Haplburg was called to the Imperial throne, being at t)iis time lord ofthegieatc?r part of Swifferland, by the extinction of tho powerful houfc ofZaeringcn, and that of the counts of Kyburg, whofe joint inheritancr devolving to Rodolph, became the bafis of hi ; power, and that of his fuccelTors *. • 2. Another emperoi of the houfe of Auftria appeared in Albert, A. D.- 1298 ; from whom the Swifs made their lignal revolt in 1307. His fon Frederic was obliged to yield the empire to I,i)iii-;of Bavaria. 3. Albert [1. duke of Auilria, A D. 1438, luccocded to three crowns, on the death of his father-in-law the emperor Sigiimond ; tiiofe of Hun- gary and Bohemia by inheritance, and that of tlii> empire bv unanimoui- eleftion. 4. Maximilian having married the heircfs uf Burgundy, the Netherlands became fubjeA to the houfe of Auilria in 1477 ; and his Ion Philip, in 1496, inarrving the heircfs of Arragon and raHillo.. tlu io\[)),- d.muuioqs IMinua'-; Swiff, i. i;o. M ^ I of i66 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. of Spain fell afterwards under the Auftrian fceptre. Charles V. inherit a Jill thefe do'*'"''"* ' KnI-. nn Vila r»«fiirnatir«n. Rnain nnA *t,_ XT .• . ** devolved to to Ferdinai Germany. 5. The noted bigotry of the houfe of Auilria was not coniined to th Spanilh branch ; for though Maximilian II., about 1570, had grant 'd liberty of confcience even to the proteftants of AuRria, yet thofe f Bohemia, and other parts, were afterwards fo much oppreffod, that th proteftant princes of Germany called in Guftaf Adolf, the celebrated Swedifli monarch, to their alTiilance, who (hook the empire to its vcr foundations. Even France fupported the proteftants, in the view of weakening the Auftrian power ; and the war continued till 1648 v^lir the famous treaty of Weftphalia was figned, whicli has ferved as a bali for other diplomatic tran factions. 6. The war with France was often rekindled during the long rcicrn of Leopold 1. 1658, to 1705 ; and in 1683 the Turks were fo fuccelsiul as to lay fiege to Vieftna. 7. His fon, Jofeph, I. joined the allies againfl France, and fl.ared in their fuccefs. He married the daughter of Jolin Frederic, duke of planover. 8. Bythe death of tlic emperor Charles Vl.onthcaoth October, 1-40 without male ifTuc, the houfij of AuHria became extind. The elector «f Bavaria feized the kingdom of Bohemia, and was cledled emperor in J 742, but died in 1745. 9. Francis of Lo>rain, fon of Leopold, duke»f Lorrain, having mar- ried Maria Therefa, daughter of the emperor Charles VI. fucceetitdto the Autlriaa dominions, which continue to be held by his defcendaiits In 1745 he waseledled emperor, and his fucccffors have enjoyed the ir.i. perial crown as if hereditary. 10. The reign of the emperor Jofeph II. a beneficent, but impetuous prince, whofe grand defigns of reformation were fruftratcd by his ignorance of the inveteracy of habits and prejudices, which niuft ever be confidered in a due eftimate of human adairs. IT. The obdurate and fanguinary contcfl with France, the events of which are known to all. Having thus briefly marked the chief epochs of the Auftrian power, the events of the fubieft kingdoms and ftates muft be as much com. prcffed as poffiblc. 1 he next in importance are thofe of the kingdom of Hungary. 1. The Roman province of Dacia. The conqueft by the Huns ; and afterwards by the Avars, and other Slavonic tribes.' 2. The conqueft by the Ogurs, or the Magiars, uho continued under dukes from their Brll f^ttlement in 884. 3. St. Stephen, king of Hungary, A.D. 1000. The crown is partly dedive and partly hereditary ; and among the chief hiftorical events are the wars in Dalmatia againft the Venetians. 4. Louis 1. furnamcd the Great, A.D. 1342, fubducs a great part ofj DaJmatia, "and carries his arms into Italy. He was fucceeded by hi) daughter Mary, who was ftylcd Kittgof Hungary; but dying 1302, the /ucceflion became controverted, and at laft terminated in the eledtion of| Sigifmondf marquis of Brandenburg, who had wedded Mary the heirefs. In 141 1 he was chofen emperor of Germany. 5. Albert of Auilria having wedded Ekzabeth the heirefs of Sigii< mondi wa9} with her, crownc4 king and queen of Hungary, 1438 : ai cveai event v garian 1 is alfo ' a^aiii'l the kbi 6.0, Auilria, is procla Rakos, iiates, ai prince w, rous, tiu /oiiiided i Greek ar 7. Aft of Hung Ills reijf n liis being Hungary iinceconti Tlie gr gary till and Ferdii Hate. St( I'fih tlial after whici m{\ dill in garian ;ind and died in the lecond 1694, fincf do.'niiiions. The hill tcntion. I. Inth by chief,;, I'mbraced iiibdiied till 2. Vratil emperor Hj do.-nains of I jiiid the cor and his imil caiife of tiJ 3. One o| who afccnc provinces 'n'fufedthel of Hap/bul 4. The I «'ho had ml 'ilain at th/ I ion and fuel 5- In tl[ I Mil Hufd AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 167 -,ppt which forms the earliell bafis of the Auftrlan claim to the Hun- rtjrian monarchy. Upon the death of Albert, Ladiflas, king of Poland, fc alfo chofen king of Hungary, but pcriflies in the battle of Werua,, ajainft the Turks. The famous John Hunni&des is appointed regent -of the kingdom. 6. On the death of another'Ladiflas, the poUhumous foo of Albert of Aullria* i" ''457* *^^ celebrated Mathias Corvinus, fon of Hunniades, jj proclaimed king of Hungary by the dates, affembled in the plain of Kakos» near Peft. In 1485 Ke feized Vienna, and the other / man jjjtes, and retained them till his death in 1490. Mathias was the g. .ateli prince who had ever held the Hungarian fceptre ; brave, prudent, gene- rous, the friend of arts and letters, and a man of letters himfelf. He fiiuiided a magnificent library at Buda, and furnifhed it with the bell (}rcek and Latin books, and many valuable maniifcripts. 7, After repeated contefts, the houfe of Auftria again fills the throne of Hungary, ia the perfon of Ferdinand, 1527, but towards the end of his reign the Turks feized on the greater part of this kingdom. On his being chofen emperor of Germarty, Ferdinand retained the crown of Hungary till 1567, when he refigned it to his fon Maximilian ; and it has fince continued a conftant appanage of the houfe of Auftria. Tlie grand-duchy of Tranfykania was confidered as a part of Hun- ffary till *540» when, in coiifequence of a treaty between the Vaivod jjid' Ferdinand of Auilria, Tranfylvania began to be regarded as a dillinCl itate. Stephen Battori having been eleAed prince of Tranfylvania in ,.-jl, that family continued to hold this petty fovereignty till i6c2, jjter which it continued fubjeft to feveral eleftive princes, of whom the moil diiUnguifhed was Bethlera Gabor, or Gabriel Betlem, a noble Huu- rtrian and a Calvinill, who conquered a great part of Hungary in 161 9, aiiJdied in 1 629. The lull prince of Tranfylvania was Michael Abalii, the Iccond of that name, who yielded the fovereignty to the emperor ii^ 1694, iinco which period this country has formed a part of the Auitrian Jomiiiions. Tlie hiltorical epocli* of the kingdom of Bohemia deferve more at- tention. 1. In the feventh century, the Slavons, feizing on Bohemia, were ruled bvcliicfi, or dukes, feemingly hereditary, at leail after Borzivoi, who embraced Chriitianity in the year 8<;4. In the eleventh century Bretillus lubd'.ied the little adjacent kingdom of Moravia. 2. Vratillas, duke of Bohemia, is honoured with the regal title by the emperor Henry IV. in 10S6 ; who at the fame time invelled him with the aoimm of Lufutia, Moravia, apd Sile;lia. But this dignity was perfonal, and tlieconflant title of king only dates from Premiflaa II. in 1 199. He and his immediate fucceffors are ftyled Ottocari, from their zeal in the caiife of tlie emperor Otto. 3. One of the moll renowned monarchs was another Premiflas Ottocar, who afcended the throne in 1252, feized Auttria and Stiria, and other provinces to tho fouth, and carried his armrf into Pruffia. In 1271 he ri'fufed the imperial crown, which was afterwards given to Rodolph count of Hapfburg. 4. The ancient lineage having failed, John, count of Luxembourg, who had married a daughter of Bohemia, became king in I jio, and was ilaiu at the battle of Creci, fighting againtl the Englifti in 1346. His [oil and fucceifor, Charles, was alfo emperor of Germany. 5. In tlie reign of Wencellaa VI. king of Bohemia, and emperor, I John Hufs^ having read the books of WiwklifTe; the Kuglilh reformer. M 4 introduced 1 68 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. introduced his doArines into Bohemia. He was condemned to I, flames in 1415. The Bohemians and Moravians have fmce bee "^ remarkable for various fefts of religion, and confequent inteftine c^^ motions. The Huflites under Ziifka, repeatedly defeated the tro°*"" of their king Sigifmondj brother of Wenceflas, and alfo empero '^f Germany. 6. Albert of Auftria, having wedded the daughter of Sigifmond ceivcd the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary. Put the fucceflion'w^ afterwards controverted and infringed by George Podiehrad, (a HiilTt^ chief, 'who obtained from the wealcnefs of the emperor Frederic ITT f thehoufe of Auftria, the crown of Bohemia in 1459,) by Vladiflas f of the Pohfli monarch, and by Mathias king of Hungary. ' " 7. Louis, fon of Vladiflas, fucceeded his father in the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary; but being flain at the battle of Mohatz, iP2fi the crown finally pafled to the houTe of Auftria. ' Antiquities.] The ancient monuments of the more northern king- doms and provinces belonging to Auftria cannot be expefted to be venr numerous or important- Vindobona, and the adjacent parts of Noricum and Pannonia, occafionally difplay Roman remains ; but the ruins of the celebrated bridge of Trajan, over the Danube, belong to Turkcv in Europe, being fituated not tar from Widin, in Bulgaria, it is fnppofcd to have confiftedof twenty arches, or rather vaft piers of ftone, originallv fupporting a wooden fabrick of the length of more than 3,300 Endilh feet. In Hungary, and other parts of the ancient province of Dacia appear many refics of Roman power, as military ro.u's, ruins, &c. and an elegant hiftorian remarks, " that if we except Bo'iemia, Moravia, the northern fkirts of Auftria, and a part of Hungas-y between the Tevfs and the Danube, all the other dominions of the houfe of Auftria were fituate within the limits of the Roman empire *. Hungary, and tht other provinces of the Auftrian dominions, having been frequently ex. pofed to the ravages of war, many ancient monuments have perifhed ; yet feveral caftles, churches, and monafteries ftill atteft the magnificence of i the founders f . The cathedral church of St. Stephen, in Vienna, is « Gothic fabric of fmgular pomp and irinute decoration. CHAPTER II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. ReRgton. — EccleftqP'tcal Geography. — Government. — Laws. — Popu/alion.— Colonies. '-jlrmy. — Navy, — Revenues. — PoMcal Importance and Rtk. t'tons, R .T ,r.inv T T'HE preponderant religion of the Auftrian dominions i K.ELIG10N. J j^ jg ^jjg Roman Catholic, but attended with" a confi. derable degree of toleration. Proteftants of various fefts are found in I Bohemia and Moravia ; nor are Lutherans unknown at Vienna, though they cliiefly abound in Tranfylvania \ ; nay in Hungary it is believed that I the proteftants are equal in number to the cathohcs^. Vienna did not! become a metropolitan fee till the year 1722 : the archbiftiop is a prince of! the holy Roman empire. * Gihhon, vol. i. p. 23. J "Bufching, vi. hAO. t Dr. Brown's Trav. part. ii. p. so. § Townfon, 181, Govern-] I AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 1^ Government.] The form of government is an heredk: vonarchy, ^j approaching to abfolute power. For though Hungi- retain its ancient ftates, or rather an ariftoGfatical fenate, yet the domi tons h .mg fo various and extenlive, and the military force wholly in the \ ds ( r the fovereign. no diftin£i kingdom or ftate can withftand his \ *1. Even A yitiia has its ttates, confining of four orders, clergy, peer knights, L„rj/elTes ; the affembly for Lower Auftria being held at Vienna, and that of the upper at Linz *. But thofe local conftitutions can little avail againft the will of a powerful monarch, fupported by a numerous ariny« Laws.] The laws vary according to the different provinces, almoit every ftate having its peculiar code. The Hungarians in particular have virroroudy defended their ancient laws, though in many inftances illaud- able, the peafantry being in a ilate of villanage till 1785 f. In 1786 loieph II> after fupprefling villanage in Bohemia and Moravia, extended jjie like freedom to Hungary : and this decree re;nains uncancelled, though many of the laws of that well-meaning but injudicious monarch expired with their author. Yet the boafted freedom of Hungary is ra- ther that of a powerful ariftocracy, than of the people at large. In ge- neral the laws may be regarded as mild and falutary ; and the Aultrians in particular are a well regulated and contented people, while the Hunga- rians are often diiTatisBed, and retain much of their ancient animolity againft the Germans. PoPULATiox.] The general population of the Auftrian dominions is computed at about 22,000,000 ; that of Hungary, Tranfylvania, and the Buckovina, being eilimated at 7,880,000. Of the other chief provinces, Bohemia is fuppofed to hold 2,806,000 ; and Moravia, 1,256,000. The whole acquifitions in Poland contain 2,yQ7,ooo ; while the archduchy of Auftria is computed at 1,820,000!. AnMY.] The army is computed by Boetticher at 365,454 men, m 136 regiments, of which 46 are Germans, and only 11 Hungarian. This numerous army has been greatly diminiflied in the fanguinary conteft with France ; and perhaps could not at prefent equal that of Pruflia, com- puted at 200,000 ; and far lefs that of the great military power of Ruflia, doubling that number. Navy.] An Auftrian ftiip of the line would be regarded as a novelty on the ocean. Revenue.] The revenue is computed at more than io,ooo,oool. fter- ting, to which Auftria contributes about ^,ooo,oool.i and Hungary a little more than a million and a half. This revenue ufed to exceed the expences ; but the public debt now, probably, furpaffes 40,000,000!. Iterling, and the recent wars have occafioned great defalcations. Political importance and relations.] Vaft are the political im- portance and extent of the relations of the Auftrian fovereignty. Set- ting aiide the confideration of this influence, as emperor, over the German Hates, the monarch may be regarded as an equal rival of France, and only inferior to the preponderance of Ruflia. Since the Auftrian dominions and power have been fwelled to their modern confequence, a determined rivalry has exiftcd between them and France, which has, with reafon, been jealous of the Auftrian ambition. England being alfo the rival of France, it has frequently become an unavoidable policy to maintain this diffcnlion. There are alfo caufes of con Armed jealoufy between Auftria ' * Bufching, vi. 536. laft French edition . I Hoeck, Aper9u Staiiflique. PnrLi, 1801. t Townfon, 103. 107 • and 1 70 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. and ftruflia ; and it is doubtful if even an inTafion from Ruflia woulS cuinpelthein to unite in a defc.jlive alliance. The inveterate wars with Turkeyi and the radical difference of religion and manners, more im preflive from vicinity, have alio fown irreconcilable hatred between the Auftrianii and Turks ; and the ambition of Aullria eagerly confpire. with RufTia againft European Turkey. Amidll fo many enmities, and the iieceflary jealoufy of Rufiian power, it would be difficult to point out any date on the continent with which Auftria could enter into aftridt and lalling alliartce. The mofl natural and conftant may be that with England whofe maritime power might inflid deep wounds upon any enemy ; but agaiuil Ruilia an alliance with Pruilia woidd be indirpetiilble. CHAPTER III. CIVIL GEOCKAPHY. Manners lers and Cujloms. — Language' — Literature, — Educatlcn . — UniverJltKs^ —Cities and Towns. —Edifices, — ManufaQurcs and Commerce. »*. . ^ T ^ TARIOUS are the manners and cuf Manners ANb CUSTOMS.] V . r »u i- j"""^"'- -" V toms o: the numerous kin;Tdoir.s and provinces fubjeft to the houfc of Auftria. Vienna, the capital, prefcnts as it were an affemblage of nations, in their various dreni's.- In Aultria Proper the people are much at their eafe : and the farmers, and even peafantry, little inferior to thofe of England. Travellers have remarked the abundance of provifions at Vienna, -and the confcquen^ daily luxury of food, accompanied with great variety of wines. The Auftrianinan. ners are cold, but civil ; the women elegant, but devoid of mental ac complifhments. The youth of rank are commonly ignorant, and of courfe haughty, being entire flrangers to the cultivation of mind, and condefcenfion of manners, to be found among the fuperior ranks of feme other countries, a circumilance more linking to the Englijh traveller in particular from the violence of the contrail. An Auftrian nobl«man, or gentleman is never feen to read, and hence polite literature is almoll un- Known and uncultivated. In confequence of this ignorance the language remains unpolifhed ; and the Aullrian fpeech is one of the meanell dia- leAs of the German, fo that polite people areconllraiiied to ufe French. The lower orders are, however, little addided to crimes or vices, and puuinimcnts rare: robberies are-feldom committed, and murder little known. When capital punifliment becomes unavoidable, it is adminif. tered with great folemnity, and accompanied with public prayers, au example worthy of univcrlal imitation. The next people in eltimation, and the firfl in numbers, arc the Hun. garians. Their manners arc now conliderably tinctured by thofe of the ruling Germans, but they remain a fpirited people, and ailed to defpiic their mailers. Their drefs is well known to be peculiar, and is copied by our liuflars *. This drefs, confilling of a tight veil, mantle, and fnrred cap, is graceful; and the wliilkcrs add a military ferocity to the appearance. jLanguaoe.] Th3 languages fpoken in thefe aggregated dominions are numerous and difcrepant. They belong chiefly to three grand divi- » In the ITiinrimtJin, IIul':ar implies the twentieth, becaufe twenty peafants are obliged to furoilli uut. Lorr.niu: lo Uk cavulr^-. Bukh, iil. 16, owers, anc AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. ITl ', is thi.' Gothic or German of the rulinj; nation, the Slavonic of iha )! 'e' % p^'"'^ "f ^'^^' Hungarians, the Dalmatians, Sec. and alio the.in- Cit fijcfch ufed in Bohemia and Moravia ; and lallly tin,' Hiingaviiui liuer, which has hocu conlidered as a branch of the i'lunii:. The Ita- f ,1 of courfe prevails in the Hates of Italy that are fuUjocl to Aiillria ; ndthe Tyrolefe, &c. ufe a mixture of Italian and Gcrnian. Amotij; pie of rank at Vienna the French was formerly prcvaliMit, as already ^i,i,tjuiied ; but this fafliion is .perhaps impaired by recent events, and u ufe of the polilhed German of Saxony would not only be more ap- ' priate, but might tend to diffufe a national talle and native literature. Rielbeck obfcrves that in Suabia, Bavaria, and Aiillria, the German i» very impure. LiTKiiATURK."] Exclufive of the Italian provinces, the literary hil- .jryof the Auftrian dominions cannot afcend to a remote period. That yf Aullria Proper, in particular, is little interelling, and even tlie chrt»- nicles and hves of faints are comparatively recent. If tlie emperor Maxi- milian, grandfather of Charles V., be the author of an eccentric poeni alluding to the events of his own life, and jifually afcribed to him, though pny aflign it to his chaplain, he may be confidered as the father of •\ultrian literature, as well as of Aultrian greatnefs. But tha fuccct- ]i,),i of authors is interrupted ; and many of thofe who flourifhed at Vienna were aliens. In the medical branch. Van Swieteu, Storck, and fltlit'raJjave acquired deferved celebrity. jjoliemia and Hitngary have no ancient claims to literature. Cofmas of Prague, a venerable hiilorian, flourifhed about the year 1130; and Hungary has a contemporary father of hillory in the anonymous no- tary of king Bela f . The encouragement giren to writers by the cele- brated Mathias Corvinus little ftimulated native literature. Nor is there any Hungarian writer particularly celebrated among the modern Latin dallies ; nor is the native language yet known by any work commanding celebrity. Baron du Born, a native of Tranfylvania, has written many iblc works in natural hillory ; but he ufed the Latin and French lan- guages. An enquiry into the caufes which have retarded the progrefs of letters and philolophy in the Auftriait dominions, would be more ufeful tlian the bare enumeration of a few names j they would be found to arife partly from the coarfenefs of the German dialed, and the ab fence of the Slavonic and Hungarian from the learned languages of Europe ; partly from numerous wars of ambition, which fometimes endanger the very txillence of the (late ; in yet greater meafure from the military education of the nobility, or rather indeed from their ignorance, for many confum- Diate officers have been men of letters ; but above all, this defeft niuft be ifcribed to that metaphyfical bigotry which perverts their rational powers, and blights every bud of genius and folid knowledge. The books prohibited at Vienna probably exceed in number thofe of the Index Expurgatorius ; and thoi gh the government have no doubt a right to watch over thofe of a political tendency, yet this jealoufy needs not be extended to works of mer* fcience, written by heretics. Education.] The emprefs Therefa inftituted fchools for the educa- tion of children, but none for die cducatk}n of teachers. Hence the children are taught metaphyfics before they know I^atin ; and a blind veneration for the monks forms one cf the firft exertions of nafcent rcafon. * Nor Is it difufed in Bohemia, which maybe regarded as the extreme weftcrn limit of t)ie Slavonic tott^ue ; for ihe people vMemi to tuc mouth of the Elbe. t Katojia, Hlft. Crit. Ilun^r. i'rolejj. . 'It 173 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. • Yet the example is highly laudable, and with all its difadvantaffes m lead to important confequences. ' ^^ Universities.] The univerfities, like thofe in other Catholic cou tries, little promote the progrefs of folid knowledge. The fcien "' taught with the greateft care are precifely thofe which are of the fmall ft utility. The univerfity of Vienna has, fince the year 1752, been fome what improved. It was founded in 1237, and that of Prague in 114^.7 '. that of Infpruck only daces from 1677, ^"^ Gratz trom 1585 ♦. jjL' gary chiefly boafts of Buda, though the Jefvits inftituted academies at Raab and Cafchau. A late traveller f informs us that the univerfity of Buda, by the Germans called Offen, poflefles an income of about 20,oool. fterling, only 4000 of which are applied to pay the falaries of the profeflbrs. " Befides the ufual chairs, which exift in every univerfity there are thofe of natural hiftory, botany, and economy. The coUeftion of inftruraents for natural philofophy, and the models of machines are good ; and the mufeum of natural hiltory, which contains the colleftion of the late profefTor Filler, befides that of the univerfity, may be ranked among the fine coUeftions of Europe." There is a Calvinill college or univerfity at Debretzin : and the bifhop of Erlau has recently eftablifhed a fpfendid univerfity at that city J. Cities A\D towns. ] Vienna, the chiefcity of the Auftrian dominions lies on the S. or rather W. fide of the Danube, in a fertile plain yvatered by a branch of that river, (beyond which (lands the fuburb of Leopold. ftadt,) and by the little river Wien. The Danube is here very wide and contains feveral woody ifies : the country towards the N. and £. ji level, but on the S. and W. hilly, and variegated with trees. It is founded on the fcite of the ancient Vindobona ; but was of Uttle note till the twelfth century, when it became the refidence of the dukes of Auftria, and was fortified in the manner of that age. The manufac- tures are little remarkable, though fome inland commerce be tranfaded on the noble ftream of the Danube. The number of inhabitants is computed at 254,000. The fuburbs are far more extenfive than the city, {landing at a confiderable diftance from the walls. The houfes are generally of orick covered with llucco, in a more durable manner than commonly pradlifed in England ; the fined fand being chofen, and the lime, after having been flacked, remaining for a twelvemonth, covered with fand and boards, before it be applied to the intended ufe. The chief edifices are the metropolitan church of St. Stephen, the imperial palace, library, and arfenal, the houfe of aflembly for the ilates of Lower Auftria, the council-houfe, the univerfity, and fome tnonafteries. The prater, or imperial park, is an ifland in the Danube well planted with wood ; and to the fuuth is the chapel of Herenhartz, which during Lent is much frequented for the fake of amufement, as well as of devotion. Pro- vifions of all kinds abound in Vienna, particularly wild boars, vcnifon, and game ; many fmall birds rejeded by us being included among the latter. Livers of gcefe are efteemed a peculiar delicacy ; nor are tor. toifes, frogs, and fnuils rejected ||. The people delight m the combats of wild beails, and of bulls. In one ot ihe fuburbs is the palace of Belvidere, which formerly belonged to Prince Eugene : and at the dif* • Duffffnoy, MrthcMie (ivog. iii. 27). f 'rownfon, p. 79. II Ritdx'ik, liinift-lf • rprnian, binmri (lie Auflrian^, i. 7'>i7 , (o. gluttony, ind 1 rerlim inrtefrril)«lp|p roarfi- pride. Yet he lii^ltiy praifr* the fcliooU, ]>. J ho. TIic rirheA riil>j'- bitants are Lutherans, who are fo opulent as to pay about one half the taxes. A good theatre, and convenient coifee-houfes contribute to the pleafure of the inhabitants. Jews alfo abound in this city. Buda, by the Germans called Offen, the ancient metropolis of Hun> ^v, is now reduced to little more than 20,000 inhabitants ; but if the city of Pefth be included, which ftands on the oppofite fide of the Danube, over which there is a bridge of boats, the population may becomputedat 34,000. The chief publicrand private buildings are in Peilh, and within the fortrefs : the royal palace in particular is a large and ibtely'lpdifice. At Buda there are hot fprin^s ; and the people, like thofe of Vienna, delight in bull fights and exhibitions of wild beafts. [d 1784 the feat of the provincial government, and the public offices bting rellored from Preft)urgh to Buda, the latter joined with Pefth may llill be regarded as the capital of Hungary *. The mining cities of ISchemnitz and Cremnitz do not exceed 8000 inhabitants eachf ; but Hermanlladt, the capital of Tranfylvania, is fuppofed to contain 17,000. It is the chief feat of the Saxon colony, but the air is unhealthy. The Duckovina, annexed to the Auftrian territory in 1777, contains no [town of confequeiice. That part of Poland which was acquired in 1772, and divided into ■ two provinces, called Galitzia and Lodomiria, prefents Lemberg, or I Leopold of 20,000 inhabitants, and fome other confiderable towns. JAmong the Polifh acquifitions muft alfo be named Cracow, anciently iihe capital of that kingdom, and eftimated to contain 24,000 peopla. iThis city ftands on the Viftula and has a caftlc, but is poorly' IfortiHed. Brunn, in Moravia, is computed at 18,000, and Olmutz, in the fame jcountry, at 12,000 ; and the latter number is alfo afligncd to Troppau, • Towiifon, p. w. t Hutck ]}Mt» Crrmiiitz at 4000. in jfiMWliitfiitiMtfiB" '74 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. in thp Anftrian part of Silefia. In tlie fonthcrn provinrcs Infn , i and Trent arc fiippofed each to contain 10,000 fouls. Trieftp wvfi i". reckoned at iS,00Q, deferves more particular attention, liavi'irr v* ." for a lonff time the only fea-port belonging to Autlria. It is ia\vM'\ im a jTiilph of the Adriatic, and rifes on an afcent which is crowned I ■.i ciifHc. The r.iipj)ing is fecurcd by a wall, extending from the La ^ ivtto to the i(le of Zuka ; and the harbour was declared free by thee ^ profs Thcrefa. The neighbourhood produces excellent wines. '' EumcKs.] Some towns in the Aufhian part of Italy, find in D-l matia, rnight here deforve notice, were there not uncertainties conecr " ing the iluration of their fubjeftion to Aiiitria; The chief public edifice" arc at Vionn^i, Lnda, and Pellh, to which may now be added Venice- \>ut there arc many fplendid churches and monaiteries in the feveral regions of the Aullrian domination. Many of the Hungarian nobility who have vafl cllates, pofTefs caftles of correfponding magnificence' I Among thefe the chief are the Palefy, Schaki, Erdoby, Sichy, Forgatlli* Kohari, Karoly ; but above all Eltcrhazy, whofe caiUe, about a day's jotinicy from Prelburgh, is faid to rival Verfailles in pomp ; and feetns alfo to rival that palace in the furrounding defolation, being in a morafTv country near the Neufidler lake ♦. Mantkactuiiks and coMMERrK.] Manufafturcs do not feem to be cultivated to a great extent in any part of the Auftrian dominionj 1 Vienna perhaps equals any of the other cities in manufadures which! are chiefly of filk, gold and filvcr lace, cloths, ftuflFs, (lockings, linen I mirrors, porcelain; with fdver plate, and feveral articles in brafs+.I Fohemia is celebrated for beautiful glafs and paper. But the comJ mcrce of the Aullrian dominions chiefly depend.-* upon their native opuJ Uiice ; Aullria Proper and the fouthern provinces producing abundancd . of horfcs and cattle, corn, flax, faffron, and various wines, with feve!] ral metalfi, particularly quicklilver from the mines of Idria. Bohemia and Moravia are alfo rich in oxen and flic^p, corn, flax, ai^d hemp; in whiih they arc rivalled by the difmon^bered provinces of Poland. The v.iij and m;irfliy plains of Hungary often prcfent excellent pafturage fWnu^ mcrour. herds of cattle ; and the more favoured parts of that country pr j. diicc corn, rice, the rich wines of Tokay, and tobacco of an exqiiiii.r flavour, with great and celebrated mines of various mctnls and minerals] The Auftrian territories in general are fo abundant in the vat-ioui^ mwlj farivS and luxuries of life, to be found either in the north or foiu'n)! £urope, that the imports feem to be few and inconildenible. TIkhL exports are from the port of Triefle, confilUng of quiekfilvrr and otha . i)<>. ClIA . AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 175 CHAPTER IV. NATUnAL GEOGllAPliy. rhalf ^"^^ Seqpinf . — Face of the Country. — Sotl and j^gricuUure, — Rlvert* ^Lakes. Mountains Forefts. — Botany »— 'Zoology,'— Mineralogy. ^- JiJineral JVaiers.— Natural Curiofties. T T^HE climate ot Auftria Proper is cora- Climate axd SEASON'S.] ^ ^^^^ ^^jjj ^^ fakibriotts* though fotnetimcs expofed to violent winds, and the fouthern provinces in gene- ral enjoy delightful temperature, if the mountainous parts be excepted. The more nothern regions of Bohemia and Moravia, with the late ac- qiiilitions in Poland, can likewife boaft the maturity of the grape, and of gentle and favourable weather. The numerous lakcB,, and moraffes of Hungary, and the prodigious plains,, are fuppofed to render the air damp and unwolefome, the cold of the night rivaUing the heat of the day ; but the blalls from the Carpathian mountains icem in fome meafure to remedy thefe evils, the inhabitants being rather remarkable for health and vigour. Face OF the country.] The appearance of the various regions fub- icftto Auftria is rather mountainous than level, prcfenting a ftnking con- trail in this refpeft to thofc of Rufiia and Pruflia. Commencing at Bre- I'ttnt? on the lake of Conftance, we fmd chains o^ mountains, and the llixtian Alps, and glaciers of Tyrol, branching out on the fouth and north of Carinthia and Carniola. Another chain pervades Dalmatia, and on afcending towards the north, Stiria difplays chains of confiderable elevation. The fouthern limit of Aullria Proper is marked by other heights ; and Bohemia and Moravia are alnioft encircled by various moun- tains, which on the eaft join the vail Carpathian chain, that winds along the north and eaft of Hungary and Tranfylvania, divided from each other by another elevated ridge ; the difmcmbercd provinces of Poland, though. in the fouth they partake of the Carpathian heights, yet afford the widcll plains to be found within ihe limits of Aullrian power. This ample extent of country is alfo diveriificdby many noble rivers, particularly the majeftic Danube, and its tributary llream the Tiefs, which flows througli the centre of Hungary ; and fcarcely is there a flitlrift which is not duly irrigated. The general face of the Aullrian dominions may therefore be pronounced to be highly variegated and interelling ; and the vegetable produfts of both the north and fouth of Europe unite to pleale the eye of the traveller. Soil and AonicuLTunE.] The foil is upon the whole extremely fertile and produftivc in fpite of the neglccl of induftry, whicli has pcr« nittcd many parts of Hungary, and of the Polifh provmces, to pafs into wide fbrells and marlhcs. Were (kill and labour to aflume the axe and fpjdc, thofe very parts might difplay-lhe greateft exuberance of fertility. The Hate of agriculture in Moravia is fuperior to the reft, being improved I by Flcmifh farmers. Rivers.] In enumerating the chief riven which pervade the Auftrian I dominions, the Danube commands the firft attention. This magniiicent Dream rifes in Swabia ; and^Count Marfigli has dehneated and explained it humble fountains, in his large and curious work on this river. Though |thecuurfe be occafionally impeded b/ fmall falls and whirlpools, yet it i% navigable it >1 IjjjjfLg^jHljy^uii^ 176 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. navigable through a prodigious extent, and after watering SwaVi' Bavaria, Auftria Proper, Hungary, and Turkey in Europe, it joins x\* Euxine, or'^lack Sea, after a comparative circuit of about n '^ Britifh miles, about one half of its progrefs being through the territo ° of Auftjria. "^^ Next in confequence is the Tiefs, which arifing from the Carpathia mountains, towards Buckovina, and bending towards the weft, receiv " many tributary ftreams from that Alpine chain ; and afterwards tunijn to the S. falls into the Danube not far to the W. of Belgrade, after^ courfe of about 420 miles. At Belgrade the Danube receives the Sau or Save, which forms a boundary between Auftria and Turkey, rilln? not far from Idria in the mountains of Carniola, and purfuing a courfe nearly equal in length to that of the Tiefs. That of the Drau or Drave extends to about 350 miles, from its fource in the eaftern mountains of Tyrol, till it joins the Danube below Efleg. The Inn rifes in the E. of Swiflerland, from the mountain of Me- loggia in the Grifons, being a point of partition dividing the water* which run towards the Black Sea, from thofe which flow into the Adriatic *. This powerful river is more gentle near its fource than the other Alpine ftreams, but foon becomes more precipitous ; and joins the Danube at Paffau with a weight of water nearly equal to that Itrean^ after a courfe of about 250 miles. The Raab, and the Leytha, intermediate ftreams between the Drave and the Inn, only deferve a brief mention. The Mulda is a confiderable river which rifes irf tlie fouthern mountains of Bohemia, and after running about 50 miles S. E. bends due N. and joins the Elbe near Melnick, after pafling through Prague. The Elbe itfelf arifes in the Sudetic mountains between Bohemia and Silefia, and waters a great part of the former kingdom before it enters Saxony, bending its courfe N. W. towards the German ocean. The Morau, wlience Moravia derives its name, alfo arifes in the Sudetic mountains ; and pafllnjr by Olmutz joins the Danube not far to the \V. of Prefburg. Lakes.] The lakes in the Auftrian dominions are numerous, and fome of them of confiderable fize. Bohemia prefents a few fmall pieces of water towards its fouthern boundary : but on entering Auftria Proper, the lake of Traun, the Ebernfee, and others, are of greater extent. Carinthia contains a large central lake not far from Clagenfurt ; and Carniola another, the Cirknitz See. Hungary contains many morafics, and lakes j the moft important of the latter being that of Platte, or tlie Platten See, extending about ftrty-five Britifh miles in length, by eiglit breadth, and abounding with fiih. The Neufidlcr lake, about thirty miles S. £. of Vienna, is about thirteen miles in length by four in breadth, It is almoft furroundcd by fens ; and is chiefly remarkable for being in the vicinity of Eifenftadt, the princely rcfidence of the family of Ei- terhazy. • On the E. of the Tiefs is the lake of Palitzer, about eight miles in length. In Tranfylvania is the Tfege To ; and many fmall Takes arc fituated amidft the Carpathian mountains. Mountains.] In confidering the various elevated chains whitlij diverfify the Auftrian territories, the defcription fliall begin witli the weftcrn extremities, and terminate with the eaftern. In this point of view the Rhztian or Tyrolefe Alps will claim the firft attention. Theft chiefly proceed in a diredtion from the S. W. to the N. E,, or from the Valtcline to the ar«hbifliopric of Saltzburg. Tkis Sauifure )m ob- •Coxc'u Swiff, iij, as. fervt'J AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 177 frfted i» the general courfe of the Alpine chain^ *. The Brenper moan- • t?.ins» for fach is the modern name of the Rhactian Alps, rival the grand 41ps of Swifferland in numerous glaciers 5 and like other grand chains nrefent exterior barriers, that on the N.' being diftinguifhed by the Lmeof Spitz, while that on .the S. is termed Vedretta f. On leaving Italy there is almoil a gradual afcent, from Trent to the higheft furtimit. flieffreateft elevations arife to the N. of Sterzijig, whence ftreams pro- ceed toward* the river Inn on the N. and the Adige on the S., and the Eifac defccnds, a precipitous torrent, amidll mfttHes of granite, petro* Ijlex, and marble. •« The naked and rugged penks of the mounts Lorenzen, Fartfchel, and Tfchafatfeh raile their towering heads to- ,.jrd the N. W., and on the 8. E. are thofe of Glander, Schlofs, Pragis, jriPalanfer. Their fummits are entirely bare ; and Hem to be compofed ^1t (jranite." The glacier moft eafy of acccfs is that of Stuben, it ia .(fqiieet above the level of the fea, and prcfents the ufual phenomena offuch fcencs, with beautiful pyramids of azure, which in funlhine reflet ablaze of light. Towards the W. and N. of Infprudk are feveral detached mountainSt covered with conllant fnow ; among which thofe of Verner are the moll remarliable. Near the glaciers are found rock cryftals of various colours* and the inferior ranges of the Tyrolefe mountains contain mines of filver, copper, lead, mercury, iron, alum, and fulphur. In the vale of Zill is a mine of gold, which bafely defrays the ex pence and labour. The inferior nauntains are, as ufual, calcareous, or argillaceous ; but thofe of VernCy are granite. The provinces of Carinthia and Camiola prefcnt many confiderable chains of mountains ; as that of Lobel whicli feparates thefe countries ; and the Julian, or Carnic Alps, (now called Birnbaumer Wald,) which divide Carinthia from Italy. Upper Aullria, or the wcftern part of this province, contains many confiderable mountains, thehigheft of which is in the maps called Priel, bat the proper name is Grcflenberg. Towards the N., Auftria is divided from Bohemia by a ridge of confiderable elevation, which paflca to the N. E. of Bavana. On the N. W., Bohemia is parted from Sajony by a chain of metallu: mountains, called t'.ie Ertzgebcrg, a word that implies hills containing mines. On the W. tf the river Eger, near itsjunftion with the Elbe, ftands the mountainous group of Mileflbu, fuppofed to be the highell in the province. On the N. E. the Sudetic chain, which branches from the Carpathian, divides Bohemia and Moravia from Silcfta and the Prufllan dominions. The Carpathian mountains, that grand and cxtcnfivc cliain which bounds Hungary on the N. and- E., hava been celebrated from all antiquity. By the Germans they are (lyled the mountains of Krapak, probably the original name, which was foftened by tlie Roman enun- ciation; the Hungarians, a modern people, call them 'I'atra. This fflomious ridge extends in a femicircular form from the mountain of Javornik S. of Silefia towards the N. W. But at the mountain of Trojaflca, the moft northern fummit, it bends to .the S. E. to the con- fines of the Buckovina, where it fends forth two branches, one to the E. mother to the W. of Traufylvania ; which is alfo divided from Walachia by a branch running S. W. and N. E. The v.holc circuit may be about hoc milei. The highcil fummits of thefa mountains, according t« Dr. •Vgl. vitt. 941. f Betummt't Rlioet. Alpi, Lond«o, 1799, fol. p. !)7* Jbc. li ToMi:nroDf 178 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. Townfon, do not exceed 8 or ^000 feet, and they are for the n^oft part compofed of granite and primitive limeftone. Forests.] To enumerate the forefts in the Auftrian dominions would be a talk at once laborious and (jruitlefs. Suffice it to obferve, that numerous and extenfive forefts arife in every direAion, particularly along the Carpathian mountains, and in the provinces acquired from Poland, Even Bohemia was formerly remarkable for a foretl of great extent, a remain of the Hercynia Sylva of antiquity, which extended from the Rhine to Sarmatia, from Cologne to Poland. The Gabreta Sylva was on the S. W. of the fame country, where a chain of hills now divides it from Bavaria. Botany.] The ftates which compofe the powerful and extenfive empire of Auftria have been furveyed with very different degrees of accuracy as to their natural produAiona. While the botany of Auftria Proper has been carefully ilh ftrated by Jacquin ; and that of Carniola by Scopoli and Hacquet, the flora of Hungary is ftill very impcrfeft • and the acquifitions in Poland by the laft and former partitions are as yet in a manner unknown to natural hiftory. The general mild temperature of the Auftrian ftates, their variety of foil and fituation, from the lakes and rich levels of Hungary, to the fnowy fummits of Iftria and Carmthia, are a fufficient evidence of the richnefs of their flora ; each year it is augmented by the diCcovery of new fpecies, and will doubtlels long contmue to be increafed by the inveiUgations of future botanifts. We (hall follow the plan to which we have hitherto adhered of enumerating, as far as our narrow limits will allow, the principal vegetables, natives of Auftria, which for their beauty or ufe merit particular notice ; of thefe it will be found that a large propor. tlon has been admitted into our gardens, and many more, from the (elegance of their form, or glow of colour, have an equ^ claim to domeilication. The bulbous-rooted plants, remarkable, for the moft part, for the beauty of their flowers, and abounding chiefly in the warmer climates, occupy a confpicuous rank in the flora of Auftria, a long lift of thefe might be produced, but we ftiall fele6l only the principal : thefe are the tutted and cluftered hyacinth ; ahum viAoriale, one of the moft ftately and ornamental fpecies of the large genus garlic ; the orange lily; marta- 1 goi^ and turncap lily ; dog's tooth violet, one of tiie earlieft beauties of | the fpring ; yellow and tawny day lily ; and lallly, though perhaps fu- perior in beauty to any of the preceding, veratrum a\,bum and nigrum, ii'hite and llach hellebore. To the clafs decandria belong feveral isterefting plants, of which the following are the moft worthy of mention : alpme and maiden pink ; I fraxinella ; and two fpecies of rhododendron, the hairy and ferruginous, both of which merit diftindtion in a genus, every fpecies of which is more than commonly beautiful. The X be mines of gold near the abbey Goettwig, and of alum near Krems • faltpctreis I Ovvever prepared in abundance ; and, at a little diftance from St. Annaberg, near the frontiers of Stiria, a rich mine of filver was opened in 1754. The fouthern provinces of Stiria, Carinthia, and Camiola, afford many important minerals. The iron of Stiria fupplies the fineft fteel, and CT-eat quantities are imported into England', there are confiderable lead mines near Pegan, on the river Mohr, yicldinir about 5000 tons yearly. Stiria alfo affords coal at different places- not to mention minerals of mere beauty or ciiriofity, amon? which may be named the fmgular blue granite, which is found near Kricglach hi Stiria. ' On the E. of Stiria extends the duchy of Carinthia, alfo yieldinff •xcelleat iron, the mines of Friefach on the N. being particularly famous. In the neighbourhood of Villach, at Bitfybprg, are found rich lead mines ; and the fame place fupplies wiiat is called (ire.marble or lumachelli. Carniola, or Krain, abounds with immcnfo caves, and other natural curiofities ; but, except a few iron works, tlje mineralogy is little re. markable. On the vvcil, towards the county of Gorz, which produces excellent wints, hcs the ban of Idria, a dillricl immediately fubjeft to the chamber of Inner A utlria at Grat;'.. The quicklilver mines of Idria ;;re celebrated in natural liillory. poetry, and romance. They .were difcovered in the year 1499 ; and the h;ll of Vogelberg has annually yieldf.'d more than 300,000 pound Wi-ight of mercury. The common ore is cinabar; but fuuk.'tin.ts pure quickfilver runs through the crevices. On palTmg Into Tyrol, fovoral mines occur of ancient reputation, fuch as tliat of filwer and h'ud near Lernios ; and in the fame quarter tlidlV of KiiiVrcit in the VVrner mountains, about 30 miles N.W. of Irifpruek, which are opulent in fiKvr, copper, lead, gnd ironf, I3nt tlif; principal mines in tlie AuUrian dominions are fitutited in the rullci 11 proviiicei of Hun;Tary and Tranfyh-ania. About 40 miles to tlie S. of thv Carjvithian hills are the gold mines of Cremnitz ; and 20 HiijTliili tnilos further to the S. the jiJwr mines of Schcmnit/: cities ■whirli havt> arif(»n fol'-ly from tlicle labours, a';d thence called miniiKr; towns. Sch(»niiiifz is cllccn'.ed th;: principal. The academy here infii- tutedfor the fludyof mineralogy is highly refpectable, and onlyrivalkti * Jouin. (Ic» .Mill. .No. iv, ;Ki. t Utauinont, 77. Fnber, 329. m * Joun I Tvnti AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. i8i fr Ly tliat of Freyberg in Saxony. Hungary contains mines of copper at Ccfimclnitz and Herrengi-:ind, of very rich antimony at Roienau ; and in different parts of coal, fait, and alum. Saltpetre is alfo produced jnconfidcrable quantities-: and natron or foda is found in a lake near Kifinaria, towards the frontier of Tranfylvania *. But a mineral pe. ^•uliar to Hungary, and as yet difcovered in no other region of the lobe, is the opal, a gem preferred to all others by the oriental nations. T'he opal mines "are fituatcd at' Czenveniza, a fliort day's journey to the JJ. of Kafchaw, and nearly under the fame latitude with Cremnitz. I'lie IilU in which they are found confifts of decompofed porphyry ; and ^liey only occur at the dillance of a few fathoms from the furface, of various qualities, from the opake white, or femi-opal, which is alfo dif- covered in Comwallj to that utmolt eifulgeiice of iridefcent colours ^vhicli diftinguifties this noble gem. The mines of Tranfylvania and tlie Bannat are alfo nymerous and valusble. Thofe of Najiag, twelve Britiih miles to the N.E. of Deva, produce the grey gold ore. They are the richcll in all Tranfylvatiia, and conduced with the greatell care and exadnefs. At Ofenbanya, about 25 Britifh miles to the N. of Karlfljurg, is found the white gold ore, which alfo occurs in the hills of Fatzebay, in tlie fiime quarter. The country towards the W, of Karlfburg prefents numerous gold mines near Zalathna : and in the N. of this provi-ice are thofe of Kapnick, Felfobanya, and others. Th-? chief mining towji 0/ the Bannat is Ora- tfiza, towards the S. of which are found mines of copper ; and gold ;ii:d Hlver at Dognalka to tlie N. The fait mines acquired from Poland alone rems»in to be defcribcd Tlieyare fituated, as already n.entioncd, at Wielitll%'a, eight miles Jo th*^ S. of Craco •', being excavated at the northern extremity of a branch ot"* the Carpathian mountains. The defccnt is by pits of great depth ; and the galleries and chambers are of iinmcnfe fue, commonly ("upported by timber, or by vaft pillais of fi;lt, out of which material even fubterraneous chapels are formed ; but travellers have highly exaggerated the fplendour and extent of the falinc apartments f. The fait is oi an iron grey colour. Imnetimes intermingled with white cubes ; and fometimes large blocks of fait appear imb*cdded in marl J. The purcll fort is Cpund at the boitotn gf the mine, and is fparry. The mines extend about 3600 feet from li. toW., and about 200 from S. to N. MiNEUAi. WATEUsj.] The mineral waters in the Auftrian domiuiont are very numerous, as k to be expeded in a country fu mountainous, with the exception of the great plain in the W. of Hungary, extending up- wards of 250 miles in every direction. Aullria Proper prefei^ts thofe of Baden; and Bohemia thofc at Carllbad. Mineral fpringa alfo aboutid in Hungaryl Natliial curiosities.]] Among the natural cnriofities may be named the grand Alpine fcenes of Tyrol, the glaciers and pealis of the Bronnor. InCarniola, near Adlelberg, is faid to be a grotto of prodigious extent, difplaying fpaccs fufficient for the creftion of villages, and containing patural amphitheatres, bridges, &c.^. But the chief natural curiolity of Carniola is the lake of Cirknitz, called by Dr. Brown the Zirchnitzer See. That traveller informs us, that it is about two German, or inprc than eight ^nglifh miles in length, by four of the latter in breadth. * Joum. des Min. No. ii» N3 f Cow's Pol. i. 000. i liulching, vol, vii. CO. Ill ■nmmiisumiti l%t AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. In the month of June the water dcfcends under ground, through ma apertures in the bottom ; and in September it reaicends with confiderahl^ force ; thus yielding rich pafturage in fummer, while in winter it aboanJs with fiih. PRUSSIA. CHAPTER I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. Namei.'— Extent — Subdivtfwm Mtid Population, — Original Populatlon.-~.pra, grejive Geography. — Hl/iorical Epochs and Antiquities. THIS kingdom which .only commenced with the eighteenth century has by gradual acceflions become fo extenfive, as defervcdly to rank among the firft powers of Europe. The tlominicns of Pruffia were fmall and fcattered, till the acquiiition of Silefla, and afterwardj of a third part of Poland, gave a wide and ftable bafis to the new monarchy. Names. '\ This regiv->n was faintly known to the ancients, who mention various tribes that poireffed it : and the amber, which here only was found in fuch quantities as to form a regular article of commerce, greatly con. tributed to its celebrity. The name of the country originates, according to fome, from the Pruzzi, a Slavonic tribe ; but more probably, according to others, from the name of Rujfia, and the Slavonic word Poy which figiiifies near, or adjacent. Extent.] Exclufive of fmall detached territories, the kingdom of Pruffia extended (1806) from Horiiburg and the river Oker, in the conn, try of Halberftadt, the furtheft weltern connefted dillrid, to the river ISIemcl, or about 600 miles. The breadth, from the fonthern limit of Silefia to Dantzick, exceeds 300 miles. On the eaft and fouth, Pruffia now borders on the dominions of Ruflla and Auttria, and the wefteni limits adjoin to the biihopric of Hilde(heim. Before, the recent acquj. fitions in Poland, the number of Pruflian fubjedls was only computed at 5,621,500, in a total extent of 56,414 fquare mites, that is about 09 to t'*e fquare mile. In iSof they amounted to above eight millions, dillri. buted according to the following lift of provinces and inhabitants. 940,000 Inhabitants, j 521,625 1,100,000 700,000 472,957 755.577 . 279.584 2751263 111,875 1,821,065 i^ontiguousStates < 1. Eaftern Pruffia -.- 2. Weftern Pruffia — . 3. Southern PrulTia — 4. New Eaftern Pruffia 5. Pomerania — 6. Brandenburg or Mid* dlemarch "■' 7. Newmarch — 8. Magdeburgh — . 9. Halberftadt, or Ucker- march — ^,10. $ilefia IT* Iq InWeftphalia < PRUSSIA. 'ii. Minden •— 67,g^t 12. Ravenfturgh _ 81,812 13. Eaft Friefland -• 102,594 14. Cleves _ lOOjOOO 15. Mocrs — 17,000 16. Mark — — 121,984 17. Gelder « 48,000 18. Tecklenburg — 17.234 19. Lingen — 23.432 'zo. Anfpach — 215,256 21. Bayreuth —* 205,440 22. Neufchatel 42,500 8,d2i,i49^ 183 jiiFranconia Swiflerland The prefent boundaries of Pruflia may be eftimated by the following articles in the treaty of peace with France in 1807. "II. The part of the duchy of Magdeburg, which lies on the right bank of the Elbe, the Mark of Prcrignitz, the Ukermark of Brande- ... l)urg, with exception of the circle of Kotbers in Lower Lufatia, the ducliyof Ponierania, Upper, Lower, and New Sileiia, with the county of Glatz, the part of the diftrift of Nel's which lies to the north of the road from Driefen, Schreidemath, and to the north of a line pafling from Scrudemapt, by Walden, to the Vittula and to the circle of Bromberget Ponierania, th? ifland of Nogat, to the weft of Old Pruflia» and the north of the circle of Culmor ; finally the kingdom of Pruflia, as it was on the firft of January 1772, fliall be reftored to his majefty the liing of Pruflia, with the fortreflVs of Spandau, Stettin, Cuftrin» Glogan, Breflau, Schwiednitz, NeifR^ Brieg, Cofel, and Glat?, and in general all the places, citadels, caftles and forts, of the above-men- tioned, .''"lall be rellored in the ftate in which they at prefent are. The town and citadel of Grandcnz, with the villages of Neudorf, Parfchken, and Schweirkorzy, fliall likewife be rellored to his majefty the king of Pruflia. « Xin. The king of Pruflia renounces for ever pofli-flion of all the provinces wliich formerly conftituted parts of the kingdom of Poland, and have at diffarent periods come under the dominion of Prulfia, eX'* cepting Eroncland, and the country to the weft of ancient Pruflia, to the'ealt of P markable as the father of that jgreat prince Frederic II. *, who afcended the throne in 1740, and died m 1786, after a long aqd glorious reign; the moft memprable and lafting event of which wa9 the agquifi^ion of ■Siiefia from the houfe of Auftria in 1742. ^, The fliort reigri of his nephew is known to every reader. The ^dlure of the Pruflian ta£lic3 in France and Poland convinced Europe that the great Frederic had hcen the foul of the nuKhine^ But thsi^ t In the renl S^attiogj the nnte of Frederic idoqe ii cqnii^red w ^ifiinA ftom t|^t «C Ft«dcrioWiUiai». ((lefki PRUSSIA. 185 and to pay lioinuge for the checks were rccompenced by the completion of the Prufllan acqulfitions Poland. 'A'lie reign of liis fon, the prefeiit monarch, has proved, of all others, tlie moll unfot'tunate, the Prufliau monarchy bi'ino- now re- iuced to a cypher. 1'lic hiftorical epochs of Pruflia Proper are riot deferving of mtiph flucidation. The knowledge of the ancients concerning this country has already been explained. A faint dawn oi' hillory, in the middlo ares, difclofes at the mouth of the Viilula the Priizzi, a Slavonic nation, who were afterwards "fubducd by the knijhts of the Teutonig order. 1. This order originated A. P. 119"), in the camp of the crufadert i)tfore Acca, or Acre, from Come citizens of I^iibec and Brcmc?\i. Nex( year a bull of inftitution was obtained from the pope, with all the pri- vileges granted to the knights templars. The crufi^ides to Palellin? laving failed, the knights diret'ied their ent ^rprize againll the pagans of (lie N. of Germany, A. D. 1 227 ; and iu a few years conquered PruiUai jnd founded feveral cities. 2. The knights thus eftabliihed in Priiflla direfted their efforts 8 dukes of Lithuania, afcended the Polifli throne in 1384, and ruled till 15^3} ia hereditary fucceifion» though withpretsnde^ele&iop. ' . 4- The x85 PRUSSIA 4. The throne of Poland becomes merely ele£Hve in the perfon of Henry de Valois, 1 574 ; but it was afterwards chiefly contefted by nativ princes, and by the eledlors of Saxony. 5. John Sobieflci, king of Poland, in 1683 forced the Turks to raife the fiege of Vienna, which was the laft valiant adion atchieved by the Poles. 6. The recent annihilation of the monarchy. ANtiQUiTXES.] From this general view oi the component parts of the Prulllan hiftory it will appear that few ancient monuments can be expefted in regions, where even a rude knowledge of the arts is comparativel* fo recent. Some Slavonic idols, caft in bronze, conltitute almoft the only pagan antiquities ; and the caftles, and churches, erected after the introduaion of the Chriftian religion, have few iingularities to attraft particular attention. The Polifti coinage begins about the twelfth cen« tury, and is upon the German model. CHAPTER n. I POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. ileligion. — EceJefiaft'ical Geography. — Government. — La'Wt. — Colontn.-m. Army. — Navy. — Revenuet.— Political Importance and Relatlom. RirrTrrnwl T^HE ruling reliftion of Priifll.i is the proteftant, ILELIGION. J j^ ^^^^^ .jg j^^ ^j^j^f jjiy,f,on3 of Lutheran and Cal. viniftic. But after the recent acquifitions in Poland it would feem that the greater number of the inhabitants mull be Roman Catholic. The univerfal toleration which has been wifely embraced by the Pruflian monarchs, has had its ufual effedl of abating theological enmity, and the different fedts feem to live in perfect concord. Ecclesiastic geography. J The ecclefiaftical geography of Pruflia would be at once little intereiling, and of difficult detail. The biihoprics in Poland and Silefia feem to retain their ancient limits, while the power of the prelates is confidcrably abridged. Government, &c.] Ae no veftigc of any fenate or delegates from the p^ple is known in this kingdom, it mud be pronounced an abfolute government ; but the fpirit and good fenfe of the nation unite with tlie wifdom and mildnefs of fucceffive monarchs, (who have uniformly wifhed to invite foreign fcttlcrs by views of eafe and freedom, inllead of ex. pelling their own people by rigour,) to render the fovcrcignty as con- ciliatory, and perhaps more beneficent, than if joined with a venal fenate. The late great monarch reformed many abufes in the laws ; but it cannot be difguifed that the tenor of his government was too mill. tary, a fault inherent in the Pruflian fyilem. Colonies.] No foreign colonies have emigrated from Pruflia; and I it hao been indeed a ciucf object with the monarchs to colonize the country itfelf. Army.] The army is fuppofed to amount to about 237,000, in* eluding about 40,000 cavalry. The tactics of the late able fovcreign I conferred dillinguiflied reputation on the Pruflian battalions, but they arc pow fuppofed not to exceed the Auftrian ; and military men coniider both as inferior tothofe of Ruflia, who feem tobe juftly regarded is the .bcft troop$ in Europe. JJavv.J PRUSSIA. 187 Navy.] The acquifition of Dantzick, and fome other ports in the Baltic* may in time place Pruflia among the maritime powers ; but hitherto the fole attention has been paid to the land fervice. Revenues.] Before the additions of Polifli terrtory the revenue was fftimated at 3,880,000!. ftcrhng ; and the expence of" the army at -27f,oool.* Frederic II. laudably expended about half a million ft'erling yearly, in the improvement of his dominions. The entire revenue of Poland was not computed to exceed 439,546!. fterling. If we even fuppofe half of this added to the Pruflian revenue, the refult would not be important ; Pruflia, however, has the fiipreme advantage of free- dom from national debt, whence the fmallnefs of the revenue has never been regarded a$ detrading from its pofition among the chief European powers. PoLlTICAt IMPORTANCE AND Rl I.ATIONS.] ( i8g6.) The political importance and relations of this kingdom have imprefled the European hiilorv of this century with new and diftinft features. What Poland iTOuld have been, if blefled with a happier government, and executive energy, may be conceived from the prcfont appeiirauce of Pruflia, cx- clufivc only of one circumftjince that of contiguity with the Ottoman dominions. An alliance with Pruflia would be indeed of fupreme im. portan.;e to the Turkifti empire ; nor can it be the intcrell of Pruflia to permit Ruflia to extend her aggrandizements. In regard to the other chief powers of Europe, England, France, Rullia, and Aullria, an alliance of the firll with Pruflia has repeatedly been enforced by circumllanccs j but it cannot be difguifed that there is a more noccfTary and important connection between Pruflia and France, 35 both have caufe to be jealous of the Auftrian power, which France can rflcntially injure, while England is by nature debarred from any pre- ponderating interference. But a chief province of Pruflian politics muft bethe (lifcncoof the country againft the arms and influence of Ruflia, for which purpofe a n\oll important ftep would be a fiym alliance, ce- mented by every political tic and intereft, between Pruflia, Denmark, jnd Sweden, which, if the Ruflian empire remain undivided, wiU be tbe fulc barrier of continental independence. CHAPTER III. CIVIL CEOGKArilY. Manners and Cujloms.— 'Language.'— I Atfratures-^Education. — Unherfitiet — Cities and Towns. — Edif^a. — Roads. —Inland Navtj^ation.''~ManU' failures and Commerce. M.WNKRS AND CU8TOM.S.] THE manners and cuftoms of a country compofcd of fuch various inhabi- tants, recently united under one fovereignty, mult of courfu be dif- curdant. Travellers have remarked that, in comparifon with the Saxoni, uho are a lively and contented people, the Pruflians appear dull and gloomy ; a charafter which they impute partly to the military govem^ rnent, and partly to the general anxiety which muft have been exrited [<) the repeated dangers to which their country yft» exp ofcd, wbei) * Dwttjcher, p, >0. contending %Miimomm-~ )83 PRUSSIA. contending with the powers of Ruffia and Auflrla. As to the P J jthey feem full of life and aftion, but their features and general aoiM., 'if; women, is appear. ance are rather Aiiatic than European. ** Men of all ranks ijener II wear whiHcers, and (have their heads, leaving only a circle of hair u' the crown. The drefs of the higlicr orders, both men and wom^n^" uncommonly elegant. That of the gentlemen is a waiftcoat with flee* pver which they wear an upper robe of a different colour wh K readies down below the knee, and is faftened round the waillwith falh or ffif die ; the fleeves of this upper garment are, in warm weathe '^ tied behind the flioulders ; a fabre is a necellary part of their drefs a* a mark of nobility. In fummer the robe, &c. is of filk, in winter o'" cloth, velvet, or ihiff, edged with fur. Tliey wear fur caps or bon' nets, and bulkins ot yellow leather, t!ie heels of which are plated with iron or fteel. The drefs of the ladies is a fnnple polonaife or lonir mU edged with fur*." ^ ' Lan'OUAGe] The ruhn^ lan'j:uagc of Pruflla is the German, nfiich jt is probable may in time I'upplant the Polifh, in thofe parts which arc fubjeft to Pruffia and Auitria. LiTEUATUUE.'] The literature of Pruflla may well be conceived to be of recent origin : nor even after the refloration of letters did any re. markable author ari£e in tho elednrnte of Brandenburg. But Dantzick was the native country of Clnvcriur., an eminent geographer ; and Co. pernicus, a great name in aftroiioni)-, was born at Thorn, as Iiia prei'. cefTor Regiomontanus was'at Konigfherg, his name being a Latin tranf. lation of that of hi« birth-pkcc. Silcfia has likowife few prcte.:lioi;s to literary fame, nor are thofe of P bi.d lii-hly illnlb ions. KadUibko, tii- ipoft ancient Polifli hillorian, wrcite in izz^ i "»d *i"^c '-i-i tunc, tlitre lias been n fucceflion of Latin chronieL-rs. Trcderic the Gr. :it hz^\ a mean opinion of German literatu:-e ; and though he wnUe iu Frcisdi mull be claffed among thp molt dilliiigr.ifiicd auihors of his kiiigdo:;!, Nor is Count Hertlbcrg, his ininillcr, without merit. Amo^ig the^otiier names, either natives or who flatiriflK-d in Pruiria, may be mcniionul Ramler the poet, Nicolai an original writer of romances, &c. Buf. ching the geographer, Spalding, and Mendelfohn f . Education.] The tlate of education in this country feems to hi equally ncgleded as in the far gr.ater part of Europe. The n«imbcr iii recruits wanted for the army, and the conl'e([uent uncertainty of delkina. tion for life, muft fingularly in.^ivjde the national initrliftion. Universitirs.] 'Ihere are however ft-veral uriivorfitics, fuch as that of Frankfort on the Oder, founded by Jojichim elector of Brandenburg in the year 1516. Konig(berg in Prufli^ was founded in 1544. Of the Polidi univeHities Cracow has fallen to Auftria, and was founded in 13645 and Wilna, founded in 1570, to Ruflia. Pofna or Pofcn lias become fubjea to Pruffia. Cities and lowss.] Among the chief cities of Prullla muft firfl lie mentioned Berlin, fituatcd on the banks of the river Sprcy, and regu. larly fortified. It was founded in the twelfth centuryj^ by a col ny from the Netherlands, and contains 142,000 inhabitantx, being about four miles and a half long and three wide ; but within this incloTnrc arc many gardens, and fometimcs even fields} the number of hoiifcs is 6950. The city is more remarkable for the elegance of the building; than for its wealth or indullry, many beautiful houfeb bein^ let m ftories to mechanics. Next to Berlin may b« mentioned Konigfborj, ^ • Cojk'»Tnr. iato Tol. &c. i. 19I« ' t Rd'bcck's Tnv. Ui. 44, i)i PRUSSIA. 18^ f wliicli tlie population is computed at about 52.606^, This city \va§ founded in tlie thirteetitli ctiitury, and is well fortified. It maintains- jQpfjderiible trade by the rivtr ^Pregcl, which flows into the gulf of Uant/.ick. Drena\\'» the capital of Silefia, has been long celebrated as one of the moll beautiful cities in Germany. It is of uncertain antiquity, but vasdeltroycd by tho Tatars in the thirteenth century. The populat!o» i?atlealk equal to that of Konlrr(berfr ; and it has feveral manufadurcs, the linens of Silefia being particularly celebrated. The ruling religion ia tliat of Luther. Among the chief cities of rru.Tia muft not now be forgotten War- fj^v tlie former capital of Poland ; and Dantzick, an independent city of ancient f^me. Warfaw (lands partly in a plain, partly on a gentle afceiit rifmg from the Viftula, but the appearance is melancholy, from the general poverty of Poland under its former unhappy government ** 'flie population was computed at 70,000. including the unfortunate fuburb of Praga ; but it muft have been much thinned by the deftru£Uve fword of Suwarrow. Yet Hoeclc ftates it at 66,572. Dantzick, now loit to Fruflia, contains about 36,000 inhabitants, and wab known as a commercial town even from the tenth century. It was canfidered as the chief city of the Hanfealic league, and was enlarged and adorned by the knights of the Teutonic order. It muft ftill be confidered as the chief itaple for the exportation of the corn and the clicr produ£ls of Poland : but its commerce has been for fome time oa tlic decline. ^ , _ _ A few other cities of the Pruflian don-.lnions dcferve geographical enu- ^oration, in a progrcfs from the more ancient territories in the weft, to 'e recent acquiikionsin the eaft. "le electorate of Brandenburg, and in the adjoining duchy of Magf*^ v on the well, may be named Brandenburg, a fmall city of 60CO iuiiaoitants ; and Frankfurt on the Oder which contains about i6,OQO< Potfdam, a recent city, is fituated on an ifland, amidit lakes and canalit and no cxpcnce has been fpared in its decoration. The royal caftle wasbwilt in 1 663, and it has Hncc been a favourite refidcnce of fevend Prtifilan monarciis. The inhabitants arc computed at 26,000* The otliLT cities, or rather towns in Brandenburg, feldom contain 500O in- habitants i but the duchy of Magdeburg prcfents the capital fo called, which is fuftpofed to hold about 26,000 fouls, and is Urongly fortified nith a citadel on an ifle in the Elbe. This city dates its origin from the time of Charlemagne ; and can boail of elegant ftreets and flourifhidr inanufa(5tures. llie Imperialills taking it by ftorm in i63it a dreadful (laughter cnfued, the inhabitants who pcrifhed being computed at about iciooo. In the lame duchy, but disjoined by part of Upper Saxoflft llandi alfo Halle on tlie Saale, more than Hfty miles to the S. of Mag- deburg: the inhabitants of Halle are computed at 2l»ooo. Nor mud Halbcrll?dt, the capital of an adjoining principality, be omitted, u it contains about 12,500 ibuls ; in which number it is rivalled by Quedlin* burg in the fame province. The Weftphalian dominions of Pruffift preient no city of much account, and the remote town of Neufefaatal contains only aoout 6000 fouls. On proceeding to Pomerania on the N. firft occurs Stettin» a city on the Oder of fome trade, and ab^t 18,000 inhabitants. Thofv of StaK^ gard, iu Farther Pomerania, are not eftimated at) above (eoo. • Con's Pbl. 1. 80«. u mtimita^J^^"- t^t !»RUSSIA. In Pruflia, properly fo called, may be named Elbing, v/hkh. is fun- pofed to hold 14,000 fouls. The other fecondary towns rarely exceeded 3000 inhabitants, till acquifitions of adjacent territory gave to Pruflia Thorn, with a population of 1 0,000. Excepting Breflaw, the capital already mentioned, there are only three towns in flilefia, which contain more than 6000 inhabitants; namely Glogau, Hirfchberg, and Schweidnitz. Nor, if we exclude Warfaw and its fuburbs, do any of the towns recently acquired in Poland even equal this population. Edifices.] Some of the moft fplcndid edifices of this country adorn Berlin the capital, fuch as the palace and the theatre. But the other grand buildings feem not to have imprcffed travellers with veneration being barracks for foldiers and the like *. And the city itfelf is almoft entirely built with brick, though the fronts of the houfcs are difguifed with llucco. The palace at Potfdam defcrvcs fuperior applaufe ; and on an eminence near the pity (lands the royal villa of Sans Souci, whidj however can claim no grandeur of external architeRUSSIA; pefts ancl waves about t!ie year 1190* This lake, or bay, is of fmail depth, and vrill not admit veflels of much burthen *. . The Curifch Haif, fo called from its iltuation in the ancient duchy of Courland, is about 60 Britiih miles in length, and about 30 in its greateft breadth. A fimilar ridge of land divides it from the Baltic ; and it is fuU of dangerous (helves, and infefted by frequent ftorms. Mountains. J Magdeburg, Brandenburg, Pomerania, Pruffia, and Po. land, are in general level countries ; and the only mountains in the Pruffiarf dominions ar? thofe df Silefia. The mountains in the S. and W. of thii province may be regarded as a northern branch of the Carpathian chain which itfelf forms the mod fouthern boundary. This branch extends from Jablunlca S»E. to Friedberg in Upper Lufatia, N.W. near 203 Britifli miles in length, and is calfed Sudetifche Gebirge, or the Sudetic mountains. In the north-weftern parts of Silefia are al^ detached moun. tains of confiderable height f, as the Spitzberg and Gratzberg. Their precife heiffht fecms not to be afcertained, yet they may fafdy he con. jeluded to yield greatly to the Carpathian chain, an account of which will be found in the defcription of the Auftrian dominions. Forests] Few parts of the Pruffian kingdom are deftitutc of woods and forefts, which particularly abound in Pruflla Proper, and in the recent Polifli acouifitions. Towarus Hungary, Silefia prefents a continuation of thick forefts, which confpire with the elevated mountains to form an impenetrate barrier. Botany.] The indigenous vegetables of the Pruflian dominions l\9ve hitherto been viewed in only a very curfory manner. Among thefe there do not feem to he any which have not already bceft fufficientiy noticed in I the preceding accounts of Britain and Audria. The mountainous ridges of Prudicubeing few, and of little importance, there is in confequence a great deficiency of alpine plants, the prevailing vegetables being thofe that iniiabit level and fandy diftrifts. Tobacco, originally a native of America, and probably alfo of the eaft, having been long cultivated in Pruffia, has at length eftablifhed itfelf in the foil, and is found in the ploughed fields and Jicdges as a common weed. ■ Zoology.] The breeds «f horfes and cattle feem not to have impreffed travellers with any diftindion from thole of the adjacent countries; and few parts are calculated fur excellent breeds of iliecp. The urus, or large and ferociouewild cattleof Lithuania, have alfo a{)peared in Pruflla Proper, but the race feems nearly extinft. One of ics chief hamits was the forell oJ Mafavia, not far from Wa»fa\v. Mineralogy.] The mineralogy of the PnifHan dominions will i:otj kfTord an extenfive theme. Sand and .plains rarely contain minerals, aiiJl even the mountains of Silefia boaft of few hidden treafrres. Yet in tlicl fouthern dillrifts of that province there were formerly mines of jrold and] iUver« but the produce did not defray the expence. Mines of copper antl lead, however, flill exift, and there arvc confulerable founderlcs of iro:: Agates, jafpers, and rock cr) (lal, are alfo found in the SilcAan mountams.l Coal» a more ufeful mineral, occurs in various parts of Silefia, :itid tin- levrll diftrifts fo«ietimcfl offer good peat moors. But the mofl diflinguifhed and peculiar mineral produi^ion of Pruffia hI amber, which is chiefly found on the Samland (horc of the Baltic, near] Fillau, on a neck of land formed by the Frifch HafF, which feems to havel bean the chief feat of this mineral from the earlicft ages. It is found at tlisl depth of about 100 feet, repofing on wood coal, in lumps of various lizc^il * BuTcliiitg, Ui, 19. I lb. vi, 314, fomel foiuel S\ 49 >5 Cabo Oitcg C./^Wft>M Y or C.S .76*> .Vfru EN.T k4; rj.y yCilnc)uio_ Jrto TiJatj', loa/y^A ' . « Aldtrazr" •TV/- iMOWti. ><*• SJaun, urgos — '1 ^ ^ -■■■.■■•••„ n ■° /■- /Onna - • ^— 1^ 'JSi/iAJ rz/b Hti Citdii wtra J'.deJ 'I ■RoJrjff6 (; •.. ^ oAiila' ='pt , f /J. ^ :¥! ^-'^ ^r ^.iA. ^ '\v-x.-->t^\„X„ AlbUiMirUfi ^ ^f-*^ I ' 7^$/^ fj* > ^y'""T'^5' „ Ao , Mas *«"?^'<'«' fj fJ-<,7*»; «^:, .,, ^ .f' .J .1 f-'iSJ!J«^ \ ^1 j; ■Satfrcj- ' ^^''i^^S I 1 ? nr:rs8 -. -. £a :*rrniv — in; r Thi" Coal\ iroiuT>)lbio, tl>i- jut.'. J\U/i'-Me»i {fril I. i