CIHM Microfiche Series (Monograplis) iCMH Collection de microfiches (monographies) M CwMdiMi liMthiiW for HiMerical MlerenproAwtiona / liwtitut ewwdtan da mlciwapradHctioin hMorlquM ©1995 t BIMofrapMc NoM / New tMhniqwi M bUMofrwMqm Tht Inttinitt ha MHflipnd to oMain th* bM orifiMl copy araiMI* for filmkit. FMtum of iMt copy wMdi of llH kiMin in ttw rapradiinion, or wMah iMy •ifnifieMtIv chnfi tiM imnl niMhed of fliniiif, an D Celaw«d cetnn/ □ Conn dMiMtrt/ CaiiMrtim □ Comn rattond and/or laminalad/ Comwtiifa rastauria at'oa palllcaHa I I La titra da coinmtura 0Coiouiad mapa/ Canai ftotnptiiqim an coulaiir □ (Mound ink li.a. odm than Mua or bttek}/ Enaia da ceiilaur (i.a. autra qua biaaa oo neira) □ Colovnd plaM and/or illuitratiant/ PlanclM at/ou illintraiiant an eoulaur n Bound with othar matarial/ Ralitancd-ai QTiikt binding nuy eawa ihadoun or diatonioii aloni inlariar mariin/ U raliura Mrria paut cawar da I'ombra ou da la dinonion la lonf da la marta iatiria«ra □ Blanli laam addid during raitoration mr; appaar <»itliin tha tan. Wrhanarar ponibla. thaaa Ima baan omitiad from filminf/ H H paut qua eanainai Miai Maochat ajoutta lor» d-una raitauration apparainant dam la tama, mail, lonqua cala tait potHbla. cai pagM n'ont paiMfilm«as. D Additional eommanis:/ Commantairat lupptimantairat: L'lntlitut a mierof ihii« la maiHaur axamplaira qull Mittt ppiiib H da aa proaurar. Las dtaih da aat raproMu. ou qui paumnt axigar una modif ieation dana la mMwda normala da f iki •ga torn indiquii D DS: I IPagatraatoradandtorlaminalad/ [^ ragn diieolourad. itainad or fo«ad/ raataurtai at/ou pamcuMas diieolourad. itainad or fo«ai Pagaa dieelorta. tachatiaf ou piqute 0ShoiMfirougb/ Tramparanaa Quality of print «aria(/ Qualitt intgala da limprasiian n Continuow pagin a t i on/ Htndudai indax(aorxsK» or Histoiv and Political Ecokomv i» th> UHivEasiTV < CiNciniiATl ; AiiTMon or ■■H>ui.»al ahd Moubh Hutoiv," "A OwfBiiAL HuTORV.** Etc ^athitisct J)s tht ^tpsttnunt «t Ctnatim Ux Cnteiia. TORONTO : THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED. 1901. Mi 144919 OomianT, ISW, igia, Br P. V. N. MYERS. TABLE OF CONTENTS. . HIBTOBT OF OBBIOm I. The Land and the People I II. The Legenduy or Heroic Age .' II III. Religion of the Gieelu 2] IV. Age of Coiutitutioiud Chuiges end of Colonixation : Orowth of Sptrta and of Athens 35 V. The Giwco-Penian Wan 59 VI. Period of Athenian Supremacy 74 VII. The Peloponneiian War : the Spartan and the Theban Supremacy 91 VIII. Period of Macedonian Supremacy 1 Empire of Alexander 107 IX. Statei formed from the Empire of Alexander 132 X. Greek Architecture, Sculpture and Painting 133 XI. Greek Literature 154 XII. Greek Philoiophy and Science 176 XIII. Social Life of the Greek! 193 HI8TOBT OF BOMB. I. The Roman Kingdom (L^endary date, 753-509 B.C. ) 207 II. The Early Roman Republic : Conquest of Italy (509.264 11.C) . , 237 III. The First Punic War (364-141 B.C.) 348 IV. The Second Punic War (318-301 B.C) 358 V. The Third Punic War (149.146 B.C.) 375 VL The Last Century of the Roman Republic (133-31 B.C.) 283 VII. TheLastCenturyoftheRomanRepublic— fmr/M&f(i33-3iB.c.) 299 VIII. The Roman Empire (from 31 B.c. to a.d. 180) 335 IX. The Roman Empire— f«&if; Paganism and Christianity; the Barbarian Invasions (A.D. 180-476) %y> X. Architecture, Literature, Law, and Social Life among the Romans 380 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary — Greece 439 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary — Rome 437 iU TABU OF cotrrsirn. '-'ST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. TkanfatoelM. . Ptrich.....". AldUij„.._ ." "••<> of Aleuiui^ .1. J, '■**«S:::t "^ ^J"*! CtpJuj loBicC^^ ■■■ "" Cwtathtancpiu,'"' ......" Atbniu Vonili in P,-ll' ,' ^j«^««»(p^. • ^•-".m^^^^^j, - —"»«"' Monument of L„i^. AtWp^iJT *'°""^^'»' Honier , . . , *«'*'P'o^V XtOtfin Sopkoehi I Herodotu .... "nmcjrdidM ^^aawthenei I'utlieBon). Plato '■ Ariitotle . KMK 6j .. «, ,. ,6 . Ill • m • '34 '34 'JS •3« <39 >♦> »4I .... I4J .... 144 ... ,4j ... ^6 ... I4« ... ,50 •• is« .. 160 . 163 I65 16; . i«9 i;a 181 •«j i8j 196 Mo T4BLM Of CONTSltTS. "nWRomMFonun. »"«>« OF BOIM. AV«talVI,^ ' "^ SwiwuoriM. ,,, Ucton _ 1*1 ^»™<»«.Arch« ,,j Romm SoMlw ,„ SwiUteWMrior..." .",'■■ ■■_■■■■ ..." „, TIwCo'liuirfDaiilim >-• 14, HtaniUI. a5j M«i»Uu.(coiii) ^ P«Wiu.Con..li„,Scipio.. »7, n'MipV.„fM.«donui(coi«). %n ADM«ha.,h,G«,,„i„ ,7j P««i»ofM««loni,(cofa)... 176 CotoofawluIi,„CoBfed,« 339 ' j^ S«««fromTr.ji„,-,Col„„p ya Hadrian.. ._, . 343 Antonina. Pin, (coin) 34^ Co«"nodn« ^, rt . 340 '^raetonanj ,,_ f, ,. 350 Caracalla TriB«ph„fSaporov«Val.rian.'.'.'.';..';.'.;; • 353 Hi TABLS Cf COArrMATTS. I>'<>el«l«i... . Cl.H.,„,|.,(;^Sh^— ■•• "Z S;'e:f''-""«-'-B-...:::::;:;:;::::: « TbeColoiMttni " Z^'VUAppi.... :::•;;;;; ::;;;;;; ^ Tk«Cl.adi.nA,»«J„c, fg, ArchofConiUnllM.. rt. Cicm.... ■"' S««.. . »» OWUlon. .. ■*'" 414 Or«c. .„d h., CoJi"'' °'' ^°^"RED MAPS. "* Gre«e in Ihe Fifth C«.ia,y».r « ^Roo..nE.pi„..r.,..Lro;Atr"'"'''"'" ^ Th«Rc™„E,nplr.„„d„Tn.j.„.. ^" jtf Th. Rou..„ Empire .li,i.l«l i„,o Prefeciu™.' .■.'.'.■.■;'; 340 A.b«u.«,.H.L„„,,l;l^J O^ SKETCH-MAPS. "^ Rome under tlie Kings g. The Ager Romaniu (b.c. 450). 314 The Ager Ronunns (B.C. 338) ,35 Rome under the Empire. Kg TheSeleucKteandPtoiemie, Ill 'rapcron, from Commodu. ,0 Romnlu, Aug«.to. . . .' .' .' ' ^** firSTORY OF GREECE. CHAPTER I, THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE, Penuuula into thS^^T °'"" T ""^^ '"• "^^^ Greece. The «.uth^' ^1^ !°"^'™' '^""»'' '"'^ Southern btou, of Corinth rd^r»„?;Sfk'° '^ "^'»'' "' '"• "lied by the ^.cientothe P.m!1 '^ ^°''" " "« Morea, wm Wop., from iu t.ZX^'^'""^ ^' »' *• I"«»d of ••Ued in on -U «de^t S l' "f?" ">? beautiful valley, fi" ««1 wide for the vLTJTa TTI'- " "" '="«''«'«1 "-then, edge, betweenl^f^pt ^70;:' f '^T"' °" ''» "Ued the Vale of Tempe Z 1?^ J ^^ " '*""'"^' «'««. ItWly could be ..flZC rJLT V H t'"' P'^" °^ •tretched along the Ionian Sm nn ?k ^ ''"'"=' °'' Epi™ ce-e, of iu forests of ^ ^'3,°^,^' T*- '" »*« e'oomy re- Oracle of Zeus. ""'"*^ *« renowned Dodonean in>Sr; o^rseTere'^it ^'7 '''''^- ^' ™- Attica. In Phocis wLthe^"^ ,f /"^Z'"^"- B""'^'^ ""d »°d temple; in Baotia, Ae 1 of ^^ """T '°' "^ "-^'^ the briUiant Athens. ^ ^"*''' "«^ '» Attica was 'r^^Zn::roriz ^tr""'- - ^^ ^^^<^^ .nto embn«^U«cekt,i««oft" ""' "T"'"* ^'"' ^"^-^ -^ «=«™ pm of tte pemnsuk; Achaia, the northern tlOVNTAlNS. P""; Aigolw, the eastern • anrf m- ■ «"• -n-e last distric'^ ™ied rS^r '^ ^"'''^ ^ »»«*■ nv«l of Athens. ^ ^ *" °«y "f Sparta, the g«,t •!<^^d7r,w; rSS'^ofte^^r^ '°™ » 'o^- -11 njountain of the^SS^ ""^r °&'; \ ">- -lebn.ted highest mountain fa the world 7i.^ ^"^^ '^°"e'« "' &« beUevedthatits-cIoudrsaSfi'^'r,""; !? ''''«^'>' '^ South of Olympus, close by ftl^J Jl^°'*? •^''^'*^- bmed m &ble as the mount^d^ ^1?..^. '"'' ^'"°»' «"«- ^;nTus!^^ «-'■ ""- -^-ot^",r:;d;r^ -^^^•r^i7rr«iS^''-'^-«- »- beheved to be the favorite ^.^ts^lK '^* '"'""''^'.-we.e Hymettns, praised for its hcTv ;^n p T' ^^ Athens are marbles. "* *''"^' '^ Pentelicos, renowned for it, The Pfeloponnesns is rumfed with m„ ^• dictions fn,m the ^X^Z^ot S "^ '^^ "'^'^ ^ «" of Greece." ^°'^'*''=*H-" the Switzerland Uandi aboat Cfreeoe ~v ".intertwined with the isIands'JLnf.^ ?\'""°'y °^ G*^' *e east, fa the .Egean Sea.^ th J r "^"^ *^ °«i°l««i. On *ey form « irreX ci^teaZ-.^K ''"^''' '^ "^"J "ecaus^ was a very celebi^d sh„W A^ J*^ "^ ^« °^ °^'-. w"^ Asia Minor he the Spondes wS°'. ^ •*" "'"' ^y^'^d* «d «esow„ir«guIariyJ^X'S^;„'Sh '^ *' »«.e impBes, Just off the coast of ZJf^ f ** ^8«»»- ^cients Euboea. but knowT to „" Ltl''""' ''^'=*' "^ *« Asum shore, a« the large island, ^ .^"f^"- Close to the WxHle*. CWoswaswideVt^t I,'^'™'?'^'"-.«- those prehistoric ages. So, as a sort of prelude to the stoiy we have to teU, we shall repeat some of the legends of the Greeks respecting their national heroes and their great labors and undertakings. But it must be carefully borne m mind that these legends are not history. Where however, there seems to be sufficient ground to justify an opinion! we shaU suggest what may be the grain of truth in any particuto egend, or what part of it may be a dim though confused remem- brance of actual events. The Hwoet: Heraelet, ThaMu, and Waot.-The Greeks believed that then: ancestors were a race of heroes of divme or semi-divme lineage. Every tribe, district, city, and village even preserved traditions of its heroes, whose wonderful exploit were' commemorated in song and story. Many of these penwnages acquired national renown, and became the revered hei^ oflie whole Greek race. The heroes were doubtless, in some cases, historical per«>ns, but «, much of myth and labte has gathered about their^« iM'l m » r^^ ^s.oss.. „n..czMs. r^s^as, ^^ ^,^ A«<>ng the moM noted of the h«— exploit,, twelve .upe/huZ u^^""^' ^"f "•^"" »*" in* of the Nemean lion the ^1,7. f "'"*='' '^ *» »tay- *• c]««.ing of the ^^^^It^rjt^T^ "^i be™ flt)m the infenuU regions T? k *' '""*^ "^ Cer- Th«x«gh the Phoenician. .S^ri;:''r°V*^"'*' «orie. found their wayTotS^^G^ekHh "'^' **^'' '^-e Hen«:le. the deed, of the Chd^^ "howcribed to their own fonaed nnd idealized t ^0-1 • *?"". *^''>'' ^ut. trin,. the pe^onificat^Tand iS^ ^' ITT^'i"' ""^ became at la.t ^^...-ireHn...nd«^even.erofr;ont„rSLf Athp'^4rt;»-^--;^,.the.^^^^ Jept in a "abyrinth. ani fed\"^r :J;f J-f^^^^^ Athens as a forced tribute —tiheVf T ,^ maiden, sent from Of ^^1^^^ "rdatroTArtd" r '-'^ ■'-' Athens were certrinly hirt^S In.^ Kr^.""" '■°'""''°« «»^ M^ta^n^ybe t.«i« .0 s^hoS; SJ^^f ft^' TMB UOBUnAltY OH HKKOK AGt. » ^tf^.^ ^ "* Phoenictan. of Crete. »hoK oittom of ncriBdng childien to Moloch probably lent to Ac myth iti pecu- Mino^ who hai .lieuly been mentioned ^ the king of Crete w« one of the g««t tribal heroei of the DorUn^ Legend make. h.m a legiiUtor of divine wi«lom, the «ipp«Mor of piracy in the G«ci« «., «„l U.e founder of the fint great m^iLe .ute of i-0.l.t.d U>d«taU>v. of th. IU,o«._Beride. the labor, and exploito of .mgle heroe., .uch a. we have been naming, the legend, of the Greek. teU of three especially memorable eiter- pnse. which were conducted by band, of heroc Thew! were the Ar^nautic Expedition, the Seven against Thebe., and the Siese of Troy, * . ■!!'"-.u*'*"^*^ fcpriItioB.-The tale of thi. enterpri.e i. told with many varutions in the legends of the Greeks. Jason a hT", ° ^"^^' '^'I' ^ '=°"P"'°° ''•""' •»»»« "hom we're Heracles Thweus, and Orpheus, the latter a mu«ci«, of raperw hunum .fall «,e music of who.e lyre moved brute, and stone^^t «.l m "a fifty^^^ gauey." caUed the Arga (hence ZTame At^nanb, given to the heroes), in search of a "goWen fleece" which ^ ftbled to be nailed to a tree and watched by a dragon m the Grove of Are^ on the eastern shore, of the Euxin^a.! mh<«piuble region of unknown tenors. Tie expedition is «ic. ceosful, and, after many wonderful adventures, the heroes return m triumph with the sacred relic. DUTerent meanings have been given to this tale. In its primi- tve form it was doubUea a pure myth of the rain-clouds; but in Its Uf r fom, we may believe it to symbolize the maritime explo- rations in the eastern xas, of ajme of the tribes (conjecturaUy the Mmyans, of Orchomenus in Boeotia) of Pelasgian Greece The Sena agdatt Thebes -The story of the War of the Seven against Thebes is second in interest and importance only to «Mt of the Siege of Troy. The ule begins with Laius, king of mebes, — the third in descent from Cadmus, — who, having been u tHB SMygjt AOAMST THBMBS. I Thebe., bat on the way mef L^-I.k "^ '"™^ *"«*«'• qi-wl which «o« SLTTlL^n ^l" •*^"^'' *^ to • ^^^ °'^*l^"»««»g, not knowing him to be Wf w«S;.S'n.tte7tu3'.h?ir "^ *«-«' «^ . die • .0 them. «d. « oSe^L they iSft ^'l""'^ * '^'«- Thebe. «Hl the hand of the widow (Jocu) of iai^^ ^^ to My one who riionld wive the n Jd^e ^!ifl . " °*'^ riddle, and became king oYThlll tk ^'^^^'•*^ *« -™. Eteocles, and VoXyL. SlSTfl^m The^*?^- «» them he invoke, the cuim, of Heaven ^e ™k ^."'*° accompanied in Us exile bv hi. A^^r^' a ^^^ ^ »* The b««he« now i^^i:£r * """"'r* '""«*• to Argo,, and «ek, XTaE W *' ' ^h"'' ''°'^''' "«* '''" "(f'^^Mr oj, Mjto/c ^es. 15 ^l*™*! into the worid of iMei> wuu .1. Ad««a. .upplice. n,^?hSf aZ r '" ■"• '"•^ — for . denial of th. ri^ Jr ^ . *" ' ^ •"«'«« "w wiww Thebe.. ovewomei him. «d Ic^b^TT "•?" ""* ^ «" oftheriidnheioei. ^*"'*' '"^ »«»>o'» for the bodie. ^lynice..w.gedaMcondL.Sme2T '' '^^ •"" ^ of their ftthei* iiey ,00k thfr^ ^7^' ^ "'"«• *« d««A Thi, legend branches o„tTrat„?.^""^\(fP'8<'»0. J:^- -r Of .e greatest .^:;^^TZ't^-£ ^e, and poe», all m T^^ 2^? S'JSI' '^ °' Homer, in his great epic of th.. /* v T^ *"'' «Mcination. •rite™ caUed TcX,^; ^t^^" "J"^ ^ ■""=*"^ P«We and beauty of image^nl^r^'^ \"^ "^ ""- »tmggling heroes, Greek^^t^^!"PTl• *« f«"» of the « Greci«, in race and lanmwe whi^rK*/""'"' «P'^'«»ted Minor, along .he shor« Re HeHe^ ^ ^T^ ^P ^^ Asia how Paris, son of Prf^ ^^0^ T^ '^ : 7^' *^^'^ '«" Menelaus, and nn^^^^J^^T^.^f Spartan king bearing away to TrSy hT2 ^iri " ''^P'!"''^ '''' '^■^''y All the he««, of Gr^lc^fl^f "' '^°"' *»' ""^ ""« beauty, host of one hundred A™1 I ^ *° "^"^^ *« "^ng- A Agamem„ou.t™J^?oftrl"''^r.."" "^^ -'««<»• expedition. Under bim were the "lion-hearted ll> THE TSOJAN WAK. Ach.nes." of Thessaly, the "cttifty U],s«a" (Odyweus) kino of lAac^ Ajax, ".he swift son of Oileu,," the TdemS^J^Ve J^rjr^eSL-J^Sef-- 2' feStol" "■""'" ^^ '''"■ •>"' ^ '--faced ^det who fen to h>m as a prize, having been taken fix,m himTte Su^ them ;f :r tr t ''""^: '"^ *•= '»«"«' "- ..^.■L^iotrrrd"i\;^^^^^^ enSr.rrZe^k'tnf ^ri: rd^^rf- r subject of the //l»rf of Homer. ^""' '*'™ *' ses'^'tlnl^f '^' '^'° *'^"8'' '^ '^'=™^ of the "crafhr Ulys- :raho2 rt^e''XSLr:^Sf„'•"'^r^^^^ riors Th#.n tt,. r- i • "'™*" ^''"*' Grecian war- Twdon He^t The T™?: "'^\'->\- *-«h about to in wondering crds':':,ir?h?i:rxterei:ir' offenng sacred to Athena, and so daJnot desfrov it h ' >^ ...rer hand, misled by certain „.ens and b^t^'^^ ^ Z^. having seen his sons ^^''Z^o.Z'So^-^'^:^ Tm ZMGBNDASY On HBSOtC AGE. 17 becomes the QU ^4^ of2r "^ ">' "^ «<1 "y sea, It is a matter of difficiStvr °^ "•='=■" It'Iy- *is the most eiSf 2 ntertLrif'^: T' ''"' °^ ^»« » I Some believe it to be the dim ,,^ ^ ** ^'^'^ legends. flict between ^oJuZZtf'"' f -^ ^-""'0^ ^ con- from the attempt o^Te folt " °' '^'^ *''"°'' "'"ng I coast. As, at the time of ZT' ''"^ " '""""'old upon the was in the possessir of 0^:^:7" °' "" ''"^' "'^-' I Greeks, ■,■. orier that the descriotion, I ^^"' "" represented as existing state of things ^™P''°'" ".^y correspond to the then anddiscoveri^ofS I'i'L^r' •^°'"'' "^ '"« excavations I Betnn, of the Greolaa Chieftaini. _ After th. f n ^ .^ J Grecian chieftains and princes ~^ h *!,?" °^^y' 'he Isent the gods as withd^..wi„g ^rp^ttr' I"' ^°^ '^•'«=- Ifavored heroes, because th^had notTl k '^"' *" '^'h««° I Jans. So, many of them weJ^H ^^ *^ '^'^ "'^ ""e Tn> Jsea and land. HoS Z " '"*^'^ '^''erings ovtr J-much^nduring" l^^^*"^ .P?"^r^. ^ sufferings of th. Ineyings th,x,ugh strang^^s "^"'^ '"' ^^^ "^ ^ W jour- UTrrnr?fhrpte"'^'-r-''-'^e had been tuT,ed. Thus at Argo 112^^ 7 *"'' *"'"« ^ad been Wemnestra, wife ^dle^J?. "°° '''^ """"'^ '-« °f 18 TBE DORIAlf MVASION. feU! historical element. It «.ems to be a remembrance, though a con- fused one of a real migration and conquest, and ofTLllZ shiftmg of the populaUon of prehistoric Greece * Uie times before the Trojan War. ruled over the PeloponnesUn the land Eighty years after the war. the hundred years of exile heralt ^ ''/ f'r "'"™« "='"'""^' "«= -l-endrts If t ,n7' i . /^ '"' °°"'"'' '■™"' N°"''«™ Greece, returned and with their aid effected the conquest of the greater ^artTthe Peloponnesus, and established themselves as conquerors^d m^ te. in^the land that had formerly been ruled by their semi-di^e , fkt^^T' w°'r!!' '^r«°°" period; butTl P-obable that the movement embn^ed several centurie ,-11^ bly a longer^fme than has been occupied by the Englisk rJ^e in cotanzmg the different lands of the Western World. W.th the migrations of the Allans, lonians, and Dorians to the From thrs fme fonvard we tread .pon fairly firm historic po^l l«t'w«Tr.^""" "■•' "" "^" ""='' "»»' '""""My have „ise„ 5^ *<*J«ty In the Harolo *« iw.-, • ^ «y .tones and poems of ,h7^' ~ Sj' "*"• *«' t^* J«gend. accounts of real event,, still AevJtT '*-'«"^«« " «liaNe -"h veo^ great accmac; Z maL«^' '^«^''* " "A^^ti-W ^^ of the time in^chThey M The? °""'' *^ «'""»' ^ Homer, the IM^A the S^lTllth ""*'"■ "^^ ^°^ »' Wy as early as the eighthTXth .""* '°"'^<» P^b-- »urces whence are dmwn "he^lr 7 "•'' "" *' '*''^ venture to form a picture of GreekT"t ■ T ""'='' '^'^'^^ remains for us to add a few\mrrf. ^ '" ""= """'i^ Age. I, our sketch of legenda:;G;^e" "'*" "^ '"''J-' '<> complete In Homeric times the r'—u who were beUeved o i^ ^71 ''" "*^ ^^ "^^^'tary kings king was at once the lat^? 2 " ™P"human linea^ iS of his people. He ^.T'^J"^'' 1"^ '"« ""'■'^ leader by his courage, strength, Sm Jd e^ '" '"^'^ "«>" *" «'«. to *splay these quaUtie^, "Ae ITnle ?'"''"''j '^'° ''^ """^d The king was sumjuided ^r^ T"* '^'° ''•"'•" nobles. This co„ncil,Towevi' !'""""' /*-*) o*" chiefs or The king listened to wUrXJdT ^ "^"^ "^y- "e he might propose, and then "Ted '"'^ "P°° ""X ««! or judgment, restrained only by thT^eT "5 '° ■"' "''^ ^ community. ' "^ "^^ tune-honored customs of the Next to the council of the ch,v.fc ... caUed the 4,.,.. m.de p of S'tt" "" ^ ^^"^"^ — bly, members of this body could „^ !^ """°'» '"""^"eo- The -f they v..e uiT'a ny7uesl''''lf "» '° ^^ -^^bate.^ to hear matters discussed bHe'i^^^"'^ *"" "^'^"^ '°««ther m-ght know what was resolved uL^^nH u" '^'"^''' 'bat they ments for and against the reiti^' Thl w'"'' '^'^ *« «K"- ■ngly of all authority i„ the Homeri; , ^^' '° '^^^°''' ^■ the ^.powerful pojular :^ZX llT '"'"*'' '° "«=<"»« tone Greece. "'^ '" "^e democratic cities of his THE LEGENDARY OK HEKOtC AOB. j, nobles. We are certain, however that th. -.11 . j I owned their farm,. ,„d c;itivated Lm with thS ol . T and th« Ae poorer cUss Ubored f^ L * he es^es oTS J nobles. Slavery existed, but the slaves did not ^Ste t numerous a class as they became in historic times, n^ do the^ «eem m general to have been treated harehly ^ Je co.^. Penelope! Which rr/in ^^^^irr " ^rr ^.'^''^r.'"' ^ '^•"^^"'^ fcelingir womT In an ranks of society Ufe was marked by a sort of natriarr^h^l amphcty. Manual labor was not yet thought T l!^ Patriarchal Ulysses constructs his own house an'd rl^d L^^ o/SS i Sethe?^"' "'' ^''"^ '"^ '"°"- Spinning anS:;; ^T occupation of the women of all elates. TTere £T/ ""kI- '"°""°'"' """^ °^ *^^ ^« "^ hospitality. necessitjftfor,,^ ,0 ,he entertainment of wayfarers. The hosni ^h Tf '/ '^"^ ""^ '^'^ '"•^ ■■">P"ls'«- welcome U>SX' ea^H rL "Lrmer'rpird.reS;rr :E rstr:rr;:jb^sr~5^" ^ore the wayfa., and n^t Xt dt S:.?^ J ^ - ^ked as to h.s journey and its object. When thus by chance a^r on even though of another race, became the gu Jst c^ a Gre^u .h« crcumstance made him, as it were, a kinsma^and henceforth anew relation subsisted between those thus casually bS7o gether. One seeking a ftvor of another might claL Zf th^ ancestors had broken bread together, and the'apS^llS and seldom made in vain. sacrea, But while hospitable, the nobles of the heroic age were often '""^^y ^^ r., „,,,,, ^^^ Artandawhitecturewerein . advance had been made tT, ","'*'»«'««y state, y^t „„, nake no nienl , ^" advanced state as th, « 'w'pture <: ao mention of statue? /-» ' ^ ™ Homeric r«v..«. Although thi. r. 1 " . "• Commerce was «-. • . P°^™s Kttle ?he^r"=.''«'' ^y had evidently^e^' "^'""e P^°P'e. times knew but Me 'rT^'^ """W- The G«l " ,l^ ""''• Kxtf -^srss ^'£"?r^'2 MMUGiON Of Tm CHEEKS. CHAPTER III. RELIGION OF THE GREEKS and deep, beyond which on all sides lav relll fr "^"^ darlcnesi anri t,^^, n 7. ^ realms of Cimmerian Beneath the earth, reached by subterranean pasC ^" Hades, a vast region, the realm of departed shades 4^^' Tu oisance we are left to conjecture from the fact that when Zeus in £< TBB OLYtinAN COUlfClt. to r«t while gentle wind, i" h*?"?^ '°''=''' *" "hich he «„k round to the ea,t, where aT„ I ? '" '"''^' "^"'he ''«en •"Stand west, which we«K 1 thl ""^"T '" "" «'«'»• rise and the sunset, were S/ff dir"7':"'^°" "^'^^ »»- em was the iavored coumTonL p f ""* P'""^- "">« e«t. 2eu, himself so loved tr^t , Jj i*?'""'' ' ^ *'''<='' "ven Olympus when sought b7 uSiat Th"" '°""'' '"^"' ^"'" joining the -^ean sto;am w Jthl Tr Ji^f ''""™ "=P°n. "d- Perides. Here, too, w^'J^TiLL f ?' ''"^» "^ ""e We.- . •''^-fthe shade; ort;;:Xoe°t;'''''"'<^'^'->'»'« ^ t celSa?S:S S'^Ss-?^ *"' "-^'^ •"-•-" or the deideswereZeui.theSerldleTT!^'^''"^'- ^he male wielder of the thunderbolt, pIs^^?' 1!^ /-"J ■"«. "d the or Phoebu,, the god ofZV oT^t ' "fV °^ '^^ ^»' AP<"'o, of prophecy ; A^T the S' of r^ H Lh'"'?' °' ^'-^ god of fire, and the patT^of thTu'serdtrH ' '"T '^""""'^ the foiger of the thunderbolts of L T? dependent upon it, "d of aU sorts of meS^trk t IhT,"' '■'«'"°"" of arm,' Hermes, the wing-footed Sdo(l TT'^ "' ''^' The female divinities were H..r» .1, -en of Zeus; -^^^'^ ^r ..^ZCi-^T£:1Z fourth ediUon. ' *^ "' ^xnn./ Cm„ and Italy, pp. g^.'^g, H\ MUGtON or THB GKMMjrS. w 4e foreherf of Zeu,.-the godde« of wMom, wd ,he p.tto«„ *». I*. ».b» <, <*» sr^SieXr^ monsters neither human nor divine Penonages, and he confined in a cave secured by mighty gates ' ^ rrS^'^d rr c^ s^t^i:;rl^t^r "^ ste« with female face, and the bodies anTcirof blSs T" with serpent,. A single gaze upon them chilled the beholder to H.rm« = Mercury j H„. = Juno • AA,n ' "«• ' "'P"^'" = Vulcan, ..^u-rnrrLr-r^'^^-^f-^^^^^ --.^ (From thi.,„,po.,ib,e moiter * tr ■ '"'' ^"""^ ''""^ ««•" which g««ded the goWen t£ ^^ '^Z'' ""' "" ^'"-P". of an aroused «d acc„^ ^en^'^^'V''' ""'^^''"^ •wift .to™,, ,ha( tear to ^^^T^ ,1 *« ""T*" »«« the .»«; .he Gorgon JJL£Te™iT '%'*'*' °''''« -^^ J»t panUy.es the affrighted X \h'?i''' "' '■"'° * "^ in Lyca, whose foot and sIod« 1L /i^™*""^ « »»'«=««> (the Chin„ra flan,e is still t'^ ^^f'^ ^ If «■" «i»al. «.e 01yn,pus) ; ScyU. and ct^S we^V *°"'"^" "^^ off the coast of Sicily. ^^ "*"? «langerous whiripools hu^a^ Sn'X'tnhe^r'lT ?"''' P«'«»>'fication. of nature was. indeed, forgott™ oZ,. i^'"* P"""" °' «Pe=t» of unpeople;, hey WCL"rr'!T°°'"""' ■''*'-■»- parts ^d habits given them by /^e tl^ "*'T^ ""^ «" *« , 'imply magnified human beinl'!^'" *'^' ""^ ^<^<^^ were often their weaknesses. ■^y^T^.Z',:' I'"' "'*"-' -" ousy. "Zeus deceives, and nfraunoT °^ ""^^ """J J"^" herwles." All the celestial coTncilT^.." =°""antly practising ■"-P'ng across the palace floor, bum into • "^'" "' "'^"^ KBUGION Of Tm GJtBMjrX >l«ry, ind then , fimfly aouK c.nl7^ Sometime, thi. gUl wai hrred- ■»T men. Among the mo^t T.^^ Z ^"^'^ » «' »P« from ordi- b.ind «oth«i,„ oV^e^r.: ^:'.h?:d\Kr^ '^^'^- *■ •"ge of Troy. ^-""""^ me oavuer of the Ciecuiu at the OMAciax voic. of Zeu. in the rn,tlL" ,ve! !;^k * ^ '^"•'^ ^ ^ "•ere wu , deep fiStXZ'l^'^'^ '^ At Delphi Over tl>e .pot wai^^l . ^. ^.^ """^ '"'•'^ "' ApoUo PH«.«... ^..ed upon J^,!^^'^,'^^ %- ^^ o, '^e«n»e oveTHH.^ by thVinrZ Tu "'"''*■ ^* ^ tiom. rte utte«tf\he me««e of the !J ":! P^P^etie ertri.- the Pythi. we« t.),e„ d^/auli^r^- .^"* """"^-r. of written in l,ex.meter vV~ '^^ «*"' Pn«ts. interp«tea, «rf communicated to thrpir«r.eek^,rr "^ ^ »' ^eu.'^ -. often"cL°;,t^"J' tK^r ?^ ^"^ - *e woHd : i. Rome in „•„« of „.|;;j; Z^^d . "l"" ''' '^"P" »^ w«I«.d««:,io„of tteorIde^Wn7fi«. . '''^'' '^*'°« «*« Especially true wa, ,hi,"„ ^"S ""'.'o-ght «« beUeved "to UUce ddil t ,Ie"f " V' ''''°"'"- ^Po"" No colony could p^p,, ZZ «ot ^ ''°" °^ ""^ "''«••" .uperintendence o? the'^iphia^^"! '"*° ''""""'ed under «,. KMuaiON or Tua extsrs. « Some of tht reiponiet of the onuJe conUinH pUln ud whoi«. """L L*' ,1' ""^ "*''' "^ "'•'"' P«rticularly tho« th«t implied . knowledge of ihe fu,.„. were ob«:ure wd inge„iou.Iy ambiguous «, that they might crrrespond with the event however aflam rfiould turn, and thui the credit of the otacle be unim- paired. Thu., Crcesu. i, told that, if he undertake hia expedition a«a.n,t Persu, he will destroy a great empire. He did, indeed j - but the empire waa hi, own. Again, the Spartana. .eekh,g to know whether they will be ,ucce«ful in a contemplated war againrt the Atheman,, are told that they "will gain the victory, K thev will fight with all their might." ' While it doubtle™ i, true that the oracles owed their origin to a m.«nt«pretotion-by an age entertaining childlike concepUon, of the divme government of the world -of certain psychical phenomena, such a. those upon which modem spiritualism is based, still they in a great measure owed their pfm^tuation as has ah*ady been intimated, to cjeceit «,d fraud. The priestly colleges that controlled the sanctuaries became corrupt, and »WI their influence to designing politicians, who by bribes secured such responses as would further their ends. The Delphian oracle was^t the height of it, fame before the ^Bian War; ,n that cnsi, it did not take a bold or patrioUc •tand, and ite reputation wa, wnsibly impaired M«. of th. PuttiPfc _ To the Greeks life was so bright and joyous a thing that they looked upon death as a great .^lamity. They therefore pictured life after death, except in the case of a Z" r','"J^l"* '"''*'"' ""^ "■»'"'•' The Elysian Fields, away m the land of sunset, were, indeed, filled with every delight • but these were the abode only of the great heroes and benefactor^ Of the race. The great mass of mankind were doomed to Hades, » Homer nakei the ibade of ih« great AchiUe. in H»le. to My : _ ■' I oouM ba A Uborer on ««nh, and mrt for hin Some DIM of moui «(,», „ho ,„,|,5, i„^, ^^^^ S>Ui«r than nign o'«r all who hart goni dxro To(k.tb."-"hi», in Nemean, in honor of Zeus, at N mea 1°'^'%^' ^^'P*"' ' 'he yhonorof Poseidon on the nir. t' "'^ isthmian, held in v^^The Olympian C^ -^^^Hh 7' °' '^°"»"'- i^ %-P-n secured the greatest renSw!? "t" ""'""'' '^^"■^="' "•« vctor in the foot-race^at o/mpranH "/ ''• ^°^«'"'' '-» names of the victors were careZv'r . ''/°'" ""' ""« the he used by the Greeks a^ he In?'^"! ' "u ' ^'" "^^^ '» •n>e games were held every foLh ^■^?' '" "'"'' chro, :,logy. two successive festivals IlTk 1' 'T^t^ "' T^"^' '«'-- an occurrence was given bv « t ^'>^P'^- The date ot -ond. third, or fo^ul ^Tfu^h 'J' O^ "'"^ '" ^^ ^^ •econd, or third, etc. ^ ^ Olympiad -the fi„,. KEUCt-yj THE GKEEKS. The contests consist.. .,f foot-rat i, boxing, wrestling, ud otlier athletic games. La:e>. -b.-ot-racing was introduced, and became the most popular of all the contests. The competitor must be of the Hellenic race; must have undergone ten months' ttammg m the gymnasium ; and must, moreover, be unblemished by any crime against the state or sin against the gods. Specta- tors from all parts of the world crowded to the festival. The deputies of the different states vied with one another in the rich- ness ^d splendor of their chariots and equipments, and in the magnificence of their retinues. The victor was crowned with a garland of wild olives; heralds proclaimed his name abroad; his native city received him as a conqueror, sometimes through a breach made in the city walls • his statues, executed by eminent artists, were erected at Olympia and m his own city; sometimes even divine honor and worship were accorded to him ; and poets and orators vied with the artist m perpetuatmg the name and deeds of him who had reHected undying honor upon his native state. I Vf ln«»ence of tbe Grecian Oamn. - For more than a thousand years thwe national festivals exerted an immense influence upon the social, rehgious, and literary life of Hellas. They enkincUed among the widely scattered Hellenic states and colonies a com- mon literary taste and enthusiasm; for into all the four great fesUvaU, excepting the Olympian, were introduced, sooner or later contests in poetry, oratory, and history. During the festivals,' poets and historians read their choicest productions, and artists exhibited their masterpieces. The extraordinary honors accorded to the victors stimulated the contestants to the utmost, and strung to the highest tension every power of body and mind. To th^ lact we owe some of the grandest productions of the Greek race rhey moreover promoted intercourse and trade; for the festi- vals naturally became great centres of traffic and exchange during fte conunuance of the games. They softened, too, the manner or the people, turning their thoughts from martial exploits and pvmg the states respite from war; for during the month in wh«4 St :^l wn i i r^£ AMwcryoMc comcii. •fc "•* ^PWotyonio ComoU 7,, '.^'^ ^ligious life. •ous festivals were the so-^ie7 a '.^^ ^"""^"^d with the reKe- :fe,i--«* »*"•'""---- '^ 'he protection of the Ternnt / "^"^' "hose main obieci ^es of war. This was one of xZ^^T' '° """^ate the cruel- °f mtemational law. The >nn '"P" '^^'^ ™ «he practice ""''"ben, of the league ...w/°Sr^°'"' '''« '«'''„ 'by the .T ^^'^ "J" ». we will march JI"*V^" °' '" '^'"^'i -f any W any one shall plunder the ^ ^ ' •""" ^^ destroy hi, ~2 ."'-nt the^of, or's hall t^ '^^X"' "' '"^ «°^' " '"all bl S' •«« ud roar indiei.- REUCION OF THE GREEKS. 33 ned on by the Amphictyons against the cities of Crissa and Cirrh. for the.r robbe.7 of the treasures of the Delphian temple The T.T "f !f "*'"' '^^^"^^ '° '"= «'°""''' ^^ '"''-til o^ «ie gods mvoked upon any one who should dare to rebuild them Tins contest occurred in the first part of the sixth centun- b.c (600-590). The spoils of the war were devoted to the establish- ment of musical contests in honor of the Delphian Apollo. Thus Sv W Tr''' ^"'"" '■"''^'^''' '° "hich allusion has already been made (see p. 30). C^M:^. ^^^ '•»»»'»y— One notion which the Greeks entertained concerning their gods colored so deeply all their^onceptons of life that we must not fail ,0 make mentton of They were impressed, as all peoples and generations have been «ruh the mutations of fortune and the vicissitudes of Hfe S t^tZ^i 7^""'"': '"' '^"«'" "^^'" ^' 'ong-continued- good fortune and unusual prosperity often issue at last in sudden and overwhelming calamity. They attributed this to the jealous*.; of the gods who, they imagined, were envious of mortals thaiT tibough such prosperity seemed to have become too much Uke one of themu-ives. Thus the Greeks beUeved the downfall of Cr<«sus, after h,s extraordinary course of munterrupted prosperity, to have been brought about by the envy of the celestials a^d they colored the story to bear out this version of the matter : l^ter, this Idea of the divine fnvy was moralized into a con- ception of the righteous indignaHon of the gods, aroused by the insolence and presumptuous pride so ineviubly engendered by over-great prosperity (see p. 161). ^ The Supplant. -Whoso hardened his heart against the appeal of the supplant, him the Furies pursued with undying ven- Sr/iu ^!" °"'V'"°"«'' "'^'^ formalities could one avJl him- rfl critrf ^ ""'"r- ^"""''^ °°"' "P°» *« commission of a cnme, flee to a temple, he became a suppliant of the god »o whose altar he dung, and to harm him there was a most awful dese- ctMion of the shrine. The gods punished with dreadiiil severity Is M rjr£ svppuAifT. Time Md again the entire ~ If '''"'"'''' "^ Ae accursed. To sit or kneel at the hearth c We must here add in nirl "■ight otherwise trouble theTeL? TfT\ ^^ P«1>'«ity that t-oned above of the inexpiablea^nV ' ""^ ^'^ doctrine „«. ™. 'as finally, hke the S'^"'^'?^ ^^an-cter of ce^ GMiiWia Of SfARTA AHO OF HTaOfS. CHAPTER IV. /;! -k^' AGE or CONSrmmONAL changes and of COLONIZATION: GROWTH OF SPARTA AND OF ATHENS. (77«-SOO B.C.J '' I. General Features op the Period. iBtrodnotory. — A hasty sketch, such as we propose to give in this section, of the general features of the period upon which we now enter, — the period embraced between the close of the Legendary Age and the beginning of the Persian Wars, — wiU serve as a sort of introduction to the history during this same time of Sparta and Athens, the representative cities of Greece. On the other hand, the story of the early growth of these cities, which we shaU give in the two following sections, will in turn iUusttate what we shaU here have to say respecting Hellenic aflairs in gen- eral during this formative period of Greek history, y The Homerio Koaarehies give Place to Oliganduei. — We have seen that in the Heroic Age the preferred form of government was a patriarchal monarchy. The ///W says, " The rule of many is not a good thing: let us have one ruler only,— one king, — him to whom Zeus has given the sceptre and the tutelary sanctions." ' But by the dawn of the historic period, the patriarchal monar- chies of the Achian age had given place, in almost all the Grecian cities, to oligarchies or aristocracies. The power of the "Zeus- bom " kings had passed into the hands of the nobles of his coun- cU. In Sparta, however, the monarchy was not actually abolished, though the kings — there were two — were, as we shall learn,' robbed of so much of their power that they remained scarcely more than shadow-sovereigns. > II. 20J-106. ¥• I Ml.*: superseded by tyrannies '"«^'««, so these in tuni w« opposed by tl,e common 1eemen„^"'''r' '^ '"^"^oWy «^nce and weaitl,. naturally t^S : a 'p.! '^^^-^ '" ""'"«- The .ssue of long contentions «L the oveSh^J","'' «°^'™men.. of oligarchical govemment and the estlb«l """' "^"y^h'^ angle person. ^ estabhshment of the rule of a out'^r L'Xl:: - - ^Ije nobUity. who held himself usurped the gove^ment. One^o't^H "'° ■"* '"^'"'^'P ^ent was called a Tyn«t (tyrant) u^Z'"'""' '"' «°^'« •I'd not mean one who rule, har^hlv t. ^ ?" '""" '^^ Greeks supreme authority in the st^XaUvX' °" "'^ ''°'''' '''«' Tyrants were mild and beneficent ni . "' °^ "'^ Gn:ek were all that the name iZ^ ""In" ' *=°''«'' *°° °«'° '^ey only important state U>at dfd notTaSt to "tS T." "'^ '^'»«" 'he The so-called Age of the T T ''^ '^'^^ of a Tyrant As is usual With usu*r;ers Z gS^' '"™ '^° '° ^^-• n>ake their rule attra^ive by maltl'^r ^r''^ "'^'^'ves to «l.g.o«s festivals, undertook Zt£,K,i?^°*^ ^"^^ '"^"tuted magnificent patronage toartisri'p'i"'"'''' ""' °'*^" «-« » T~ was an important one in thrhL,":S:nr^^^^^^ -an:i^n:^::sKri*-- -— cour^ the nobles who were xcSfon,.'''"^ ""=' ^'^ of contmually plotting against the ttr ^^ *^ S-^^ment were quently the Tyramiies were ^ r"! k f """l^'- ^onse- "onger than three generation tZ' "■'"''^' '^"'y ^=^^ thrown, a«. the olH^^^hT^ ^^^^^^ -"any Wolently ov«! up in their place. As a rulc7hrD„H '^' °' '^'=">ocracies set '^' -' "»' ^°"^ Cities deiL;;^^ -^^'^"ed olig„. GROWTH OF SPARTA AND OF ATHENS. SI Sparta, which, as has been noted, never fell into the hands of a despot, was very active in aiding those cities that had been so unfortunate as to ha.e their governments usurped by tyrants, to drive out the usurpers, and to re-establish their aristocratical I constitutions. Athens, as we shall see, became the champion of democracy. Among the most noted of the Tyrants were the Pisistiatidai, at Athens, of whom we shaU speak hereafter; Periander, at Corinth (615-585 B.C.), who was a most cruel ruler, yet so generous a patron of artists and literary men that he was thought worthy of a place among the Seven Sages ; and Polycrates, Tyrant 6f Samos (535-5»2 B-c), who, with that island as a stronghold, and with a fleet of a hundred war-gaUeys, built up a sort of maritime kingdom in the .lEgean, and for the space of more than a decade enjoyed such astonishing and uninterrupted prosperity, that it was believed his sudden downfall and death — he was allured to the Asian shore by a Persian sattap, and crucified — were brought about by \ the envy of the gods.' ^^k'y,^ The lawgwn. — This period of political strife and donstitu- Hional changes gave birth in the Greek cities to numerous sutes- men of great political discernment and sagacity, like Moses among the Hebrews, who drew up codes of laws and constitutions that formed the basis of the aristocratical and democratical govern- ments to which we have alluded. Among the most noted of these lawgivers were Lycurgus, to whom tradition assigns the framing of the Spartan constitution, and Solon and Cleisthenes, who established the democratical ' Herodotus tells how Amasis of Egypt, the friend and ally of the Tyrant, becoming alanned at his extraordinary course of good fortune, wrote hiin, begging him to interrupt it and disarm the envy of the gods by sacrificing his most valued possession. Polycrates, acting upon the advice, threw into the sea a precious ring, which he highly prized; but soon afterwards the jewel was found by his servants in a fish that a fisherman had brought to the palace as a present for Polycrates. When Amasis heard of this, he at once broke off his alliance with the Tyrant, feeling s.ir-; that he was fated to suffer some teniWe rereise of fortaae. The event jastiiied his worst fears. *1 TMS FOUNDING OF COlON/SX • «»iWitntion of Athens. Of thne ~.. i ■ «»ch to ay in the foUowi^.!:::^' ""^'^ - -^ »«« «d of tyranny aho S^ 'In^'Cl Z °' "^"'^ '«'"' fa the founding of new coloni« -n^ . «"*'"* •«W'r home,. like ^P^u^iT^'Z, ^TT' '"'«' '^«' ««^ land, fled over the JaT^d l^^.K ^ ^'^ "^^^^ " =■«- Apollo, hud upon r^^e^k^I '^"°" °' *« ^'Ph^ Greek love of enternrise JIhT "* °' Population and the Gteece." He„ were fWd"dd:°:T,^,f;^'' ^'■-". "Great centum B.C. the important iSi^ d^ „r t ^ °^ *" '«'"'' and luxurious ^Uan city of SvTJf^, u '"""" ' ">« '^^althy me«ungavoluptua^)^e,^^,7' i"^"""' ""^ """ •5'-S<.n>lr, «ri».-di,ti„g;,fsK;i?Xo:;^„72-'^edes^^^^^ Ae Olympian games; ^d tSu^'^rTl '""!'' '"^"^ fastorians, poets, and artists.' *" °^ statesmen. "loni«, „„„•,,. u,^„~^">o&^k coonuation. The H.Uenlc of the mother city. E«h colony fo^rT:!.- '' '"""'=»"J' '-''•l-nd.M relation, to iu „o,he, d„ wetlrtt^tj a'*! "''■«''«">'"« ««^- If wooh^ ThU w„ .y„.boii«.d by ,he eH.™ "^ T?' "^ "' " "»»•>» rre'rr""----'t:r:^i'vrs^^^^ ^i^ty^'t^ti;tr:^at::;:rr t — «« cl«» of coloniei knom. u iknciL t^^? °'"' ""« *"• '"other rieht. of citizenship i„ the tie d Jl'hi^h •" *'" """ »°' '"« '^ -r.i«. Such «.„e„„„.^ h„,J^ ^^^-^^ ^n^ m control of ttei, ■»«;. «d were few i„ „„„ber. con,;,rd wi^hTh.'^r ' f*""' *•" ""o- • Kyme (Cum.), fi„„ed lhrougho"„h. r^ ""^T^' «>mmnniHei loyj B.C. J.amato have been founded u early « ^i? GREECE and the GREEK COLONIES. —a GROWTH OF SfAKTA AND OF ATHSt/S. M Upon the tatond of SScily wu pluted by the Dorian Corinth the cty of Sjnracuje (,34 ..c). whfch. before Rome h«i ^Z gre«t, waged war on equal termi with Carthage. Here abo were eataUuhed the Doriu, Agrigentum.-the Kene of the incredible S-gcli^' "^—^ • -K «•« Of Urge and In the Gulf of Lyon, was e.tabli.hed about 600 b.c. the impor- unt Ionian city of Ma,«.lia (Mar^ille.). the radiaUng p^Tof long routes of travel and trade. C^^^ "^"^ 'T *" ^"""•'•'* "'* 8«« Dorian city of fSin\t^V'A"lf probably about the same time was elb- Hshed in the Nile delta the recently excavated city of Naucratis. which the civiluation of Egypt flowed into Greece. h„. f\i °^""'«"ii°" "°*^d "°' only to the wer,t and south, but to the north as well. The northen, shores of the ^gean and ^«e of the Hellespont and the Propontis were fringed 4.h col^ ?■ It '^?°'""*"= •='™" °f the Black Sea were forgotten or unheeded and even those remote shores received their emigrants Many of the settlements in that quarter we« established by the lonan cty of Miletus, which, swanning like a hive, became the mother of more than eighty colonies. Through this wonderi-ul colonizing movement Greece came to Sdr^P ."!f '""' "'"" '" *" """"" Mediter^nean world that England as a colonizer occupies in the world of to- day Many of these colonies not only reflected honor upon the tnother-Und through the just renown of their citizens, but through ™ T UK^ «^ "cUve. and progressive life, exerted upon her a most healthful and stimulating influence. The earliest poets artists, and philosophers of Hellas were natives of the AsUtiTor European colonial cities. ■^ II. The Growth of Spakta. ^toaftid ai« of Sparta. -Sparta was one of the cities of th. Pelopomiesu, which owed their < -igin or importance to. ^ 40 CLylSSSS W THE SPAKTAN STATB. whereas the h^^^LlZJ^ T" '"^"' ««'"^' daanon, after an early legendary^dng. " '^ "^ ^^'d L«*. At first, Sparta was overshadowed bv th,. rfh, ^r a the return of the Heracli^lZ ^ ~ ■"" S^'^V she pcnimula. £ P In hi> hiitory of the PeloponnesUn War, Thncydido makes the follow- ing statement : " Dreading the youth and number of their slaves, the Lacedae- monians, who have ever pot -'n practice many precautions to curb and awe their Helots, made public proclamation, that so many of them as could claim the merit of having done signal services to the Lacedamonians in the present war should enter their claims, and be rewarded with freedom. The view in this was, to sound them, it being thought that such as had the greatness of spirit to claim their freedom in requital of their merit, must be also the ripest for rebellion. About two thotuand claimants were adjudged worthy of free- dom, and accordingly were led about in solemn procession to the temple, crowned with garlands, as men honored with their liberty. But, in no long time after, they made away with them all; nor has the world been nble to di*- cover in what naiuer they were thus to a man destroyed." 48 '««^*<.^A7,o^^y^^^^^^ . »f regulations already famnL^J^ *' """S'o^th of custom'' much opposition, a system of V^Z "' \''"»«r Pa«y. After him was adopted by the ^^ by one, and the partis^ of ^c^ ^^"fi ° ""= ™"«'>8. one and P^longed app^r ItT^ r'd*:; r^ "''•'' ^' decide which candidate had ^ ^ 1 ^ committee to enthusiasm and cwLh ^"^'""^^ »^th the greatest The pnxeedi ta our otn Th T'"'^ *' '^°P'''^ "choice. di.imiiartothL-;:"frsj:ras:ir'''' "^ "°' ^^-^ in«?o^rj„"^^iS^^XrAr" the office of X ie 'nu '""'"""'= '""^ "'^ "'ablished elected by thf PopuuJi Zr' - "'"" "'"" """"^^ ""^ and function, of TeletTe.'' T "'' '' ''^"'^'' '^'^ Powers ^sociate ki^ *'^"' '^ *'" -^ *e authority of the two ■^ Popular Assembly was composed of aU the citizens of ** iiSGVlATtOlfS AS TO 1^„^. Sputa over tliirty year, „<■ -d questions 1 '^Z a„dT„ Z^^l "^^ "^^ *"« ->^ brought before it save «».K "^'oded; but nothW co-mI!.' Pi.,». . "* '°'e monev nf fi,_ . niartial exercise P'u'a^h, "^as of great size a^d weiS, ^ '^'''' ^<=<'«i'"g to Ae equ,valent for ten m,„» J^^f,'' 'f "^ «maJI value, so tha" for us sto,vage, and a yoke of ""^ '""■■"•^ = great roZ *«. he tells us. was to J^tlnurL" '° ^«- •'" "nH^e^o, "foreign trumpery.-. '^"""" "» ^"g "sed for the purch^e "f ' ■""™i 'ruth about (hfs ,•„„ GKOHTTir OF SPAKTA AND OF ATHENS. « ''>»• PrtlM Tabta. -The met peculiar, perhaps, of .he Lycur- gean m,mu,.on, were the pubUc meal, (^ssiH^ In o:^^ eat at pubhc and common tables. Each person was required to contobute to these a certain amount of flour, fruit. S"" U» he was degraded and dis«ranchi«.l. ExcepuJ the epho„. r^ One 'o"f t' T "^ ''"^ '^■° '''"'"8 « the tommon mea^ One of tne kings, returning from a long expedition Die- rJlJT^"'?'? '^"'"^' °""' """"8 Sparta and seeing the r H ^J. ^ "'"'"'• '' '^P""'^ to have declared th^no^ he understood the Spartan disregard of life in battle. " Any one^ ^¥^^TJT"'^ ^'l^" '^''^ '° '""^ °» ""<* (^ a^ this." >^MM.tion of the Youth. -Children were considered as be- of°f^er.tdT:. ,^?'^''^»'-''">u«htbeforer^Jun^U useful ctizen. .t was exposed in a mountain glen. At seven the educa^on and training of the youth were committed to thTchal of pubUc officers, called boy-trainers. Tie aim of the S ™^. as to the boys, was to mate a nation of soldi „wt frJ, •??"* ■ °.^ ""* *"«" '^^ ^'''" '^''^^ to military dis- honor. The. mmd was cultivated only so far as might conSbute untfu.hr". r °' *"= ''''""■ ^'"^^ -,_^.. At Flntuch pats it "T»^-w P«hy and rton, and a g^T dl^l S^fT'' °" "" ^'"^y. 4 words." "^ °*" °^ »ense compressed in , f,^ But while the minrf i>.. , •"^ ^» "eii^ tTdinrlr/ "L' •"^^ -« careMly Sl^rtansi^q^-J^mrJurJi'^L """« '^'^ "^"^ *e But before all things else wa7S^^ IT ""* "■"" ''«'"ity. P«n unflinchingly. Se wasTu^' tJT^ r'? '""«'" '^ ^" fi«ed to pass through that ™n^^ , "! '""'" ^y ^^ """mer. His bed ^^ a bunTof^ ''°'^*' ^^' ^^ of •»» placed before the altarTf teLr' r^" ^'»''*°'" "« purpose of accustoming his bodviT • '^°"«*'^ ^'«' «» Ae ormc^'^-^-K-^^^-l^th^S^-S detected, they were severely pShedfofr^ '°l *^" '"'^^^ •» not to get safely away withTeTh^ J'''T* *""" "» -^kilfol « the fortitude of Ae S^ youth ^r^' •r^'' '=""°"' <« "ell ""•y of the boy who, ha^stokn k vot"'^ '° "^ '^'«'' *« beneath his tunic. aUowedThe auTm^ r. * '"^ ^"^ ^°»«'Jed it out betn.ying himself by the moJTrf. . " °'" ^" ^'^. "i*. . -n-e CoT,t.a, which 4 t°J,!'^°''' '»"«='e- |«tion of young Spartans wCS^ 7'''^'"«' ^ "^ organ- »8 themselves ready and e^^if '"'"''' ^^ ""^^ of renler- Heot,,3eem,in„^^\^^^""'^. «o hunt and kill the «^o,s.-thelongmilita»^^funreir .o^"""^' "^ resolute of Greece abundanfly attS X.? ^'^ """"S ^^^ states ^ect of the Sparti iot Je l!: ^°''''''^' "^^ -'» -^ and unworthy. The true order^' ZZ '^'°°°"""" ^^^ »'"' of thmgs was just reversed among CKOWTM OF SPAKTA AND Of ATffSJfS. 47 the Lacedamonians. Government exists for the individual : «t %)arta the individual Uved for the state. The body is intended to be the instrument of the mind : the Spartans reversed this, and attended to the education of the mind only so far as its devel- opment enhanced the effectiveness of the body as a weapon in warfiure. ^Jartan histoiy teaches how easy it is for a nation, like an indi- vidual, to misdirect its energies — to subordinate the higher to the lower. It illustrates, too, the fact that only those nations that labor to develop that which is best and highest in man make help- ful contributions to the progress of the world, ^larta, in signiii. 9ant contrast to Athens, bequeathed nothing t > posterity. , \^ The XeHenian Wart. — The most important event in Spartan histoiy between the age of Lycurgus and the commencement of the Persian War was the long contest with Messenia, known as the First and Second Messenian wars (about 750-650 b.c). Messenia was one of the districts of the Peloponnesus which, like Laconia, had been taken possession of by the Dorians at the time of the great invasion. It was the most fertUe of all the Dorian provinces. The Messenians were aided in the struggle by Aigos and other Peloponnesian states, which were jealous of the rising power of Sparta. It is told that the Spartans, in the second war, falling into de- spar, sent to Delphi for advice. The oracle directed them to ask Athens for a commander. The Athenians did not wish to aid the I-acedsemonians, yet dared not oppose the oracle. So they sent Tyrtseus, a poet-schoolmaster, who they hoped and thought would prove of but litfle service to Sparta. Whatever truth there may be in this part of the story, it seems indisputable that, during the Second Messenian War, Tyrtaeus, an Attic poet, reanimated the drooping spirits of the Spartans by the energy of his martial strains. Perhaps it would not be too much to say that Sparta owed her final victory to the inspiring songs of this martial poet. The conquered Messenians were reduced to serfdom, and their condition was made as degrading and bitter as that of the Helots I I '^'^^X Of SPAKTA. «■« in tfJ^"?' ****% exile, puiherf «». t. P«^ce o the^ , "•''«"' "Wing in Sil^'^ ft>««W ««ined control ofa i^T * **"**« P«« ofT^ °^ **•»• GKOWTH OP SPAKTA AXD OF AT/tSAfS. « Hellenic and of non-Hellenic ,.ock.. Thi. mixed origin of the population ■» believed to be one secret of the vemtile yet weU- talanced character which distinguished the Attic people above .11 other branches of the Hellenic family. It is not the abwlutely pure but the mixed races, like the En^ish people, that have made the largest contributions to civilization. ,, The Site of Athena. - Four or five mUes from the sea, a flat- topped rock, about one thousand feet in length and half as many m width, nses with abrupt clifTs, one hundred and fifty feet above the level of the plains of Attica. The security afforded by this emmence doubUess led to its selection as a stronghold by the early Attic settlers. Here a few buildings, perched upon the summit of the rock and surrounded by a palisade. u)nstitnted the beginnimt of the capital whose fame has spread over all the world .4 the Xingi of Athene. - When, in the seventh century bc the mists of antiquity clear away from the plain of Attica, Athem with an ohgatchical government appears as the capital of the entu* district. It is evident that back of this period stretches a long prehistoric development; but of the incidents of that early gromh we are left in almost total ignorance. It is certain, how- ever that durmg the Heroic Age Athens was ruled by kings, like an the other Grecian cities. The names of Theseus and Codrus ate the most noted of the regal line. To Theseus, as we have seen (see p. la), tradition ascribed the work of uniting the different Attic villages, or cantons, twelve in number, mto a single city, on the seat of the ancient Cecropia ,ff«.L 1 mI u^'"''""'™ ""'°"' ^"^^"^ °' by whomsoever elTected, laid the basis of the greatness of Athens.' Respecting Codrus, the following legend is told: At one time the Donans from tiie Peloponnesus invaded Attica. Codrus hav- «..! l'^u'°"""^"''r' '*''*"'" "'"'''' f *•'"•" '■'™WP'] »•» "ingle ^. »ouId .„,w« to the g«dual al»oT„ion of the «v«l En^ih kingd^ r^r Jf ™ """ """"pK^ed m . day, nor without ride-t ..ruggle^" — Cox, History tf Grait. "•««* II M *»» d*CHOMX ^tetmed that «j or.rU k tine dutie, . ^' P"*" "^ «he kin, "l j^T" '^ "Winced \ GKOWTN OF SPAKTA AND Of A7VMMS. SI meiit .t Athens in the hudi of the noblei. The common r!?" ^^ ^ ^ ** miwgement of public a««i™. Many of them lived u temwt. in « .ute little removed from serfdom upon thedonuunsof the wealthy noble.. If one became un- able to P«yh|« debts, both he and hi. wife and children might be seued by hu creditor and wid a. slave.. Thu. because of their wretched economic condition, u weU a. becauM of their exclu.ion from the government, the common, were filled with bmemeM agamst the noble, and were ready for revolution. ,imi. S«b«Uioa of Cyloa (probably 638 or 6*4 B.c.').-^takinB mlvantage of the unreat in the state, Cylon, a rich and ambi! uou. noble, attempted to overthrow the government and make h»»elf supreme^ He seized the citadel of the Acropolis, where he was ckMely besieged by the Archons. Upon the rock stood rv^'' K K T: /'°'"^' ^ ^"^' *« •^'"Panion, of Cyton - he himself had escaped through the lines of hi. enemies- j»ught refbge within the shrine.. The Arohon Megacles, fearing lest the death of the rebeb by starvation within the ^.ired en! closure should pollute the sanctna^r, oflered to spare their lives on condition of surrender. Fearing to trust thcm«lves among te'tL^r'",'! ■!"' '°°" P^'ection. they fastened a string to the statae of Athena, and holding fast to this, de«:ended from the altars of the Eumenides, the line broke ; and Megacles, pro- fc»mg to beheve that this mischance indicated that the goddess refused to shield them longer, caused them to be set uL and massacred. j~" «.m Calamities that now befell the state caused the people to be- lieve that the crime of the noble, had stirred the anger of the gods. Thu. the commons were inflamed stiU more against the government of the aristocracy. They demanded? and finally secured, the banishment of the Alcm«onid«, the family to which Megacles belonged. Even the bones of the J.1^T ''■' t"°™'>-,"' Aristotle's A,i,„.aH Co«MMion ,hb consplracT wa. by most historian, plutxl after th« Dnwonian legislation. mm II *M.«rf the tuaOt »». a. f~P««y qualified™ r°°« •" P««on, ZTsir "^"^ »' W«hw«^j^'^~=''rof «>e Officers ir'"*^''* *« -r that ti>e7te~^r''»' <=""«"• But t^L" 'r«' ""ough not ^'^L"" W™^-" The 8»v'' no relief t!V" °"« ">«' defe« ^7? " '^^ ""di^on ^ "a- of debt "^ ''' P-' -"o weSl \S-''\-,k. He ■^:^!.^»-o, solo, ...... — -"•eiuu^h «« "■ w "Mi ..S,'',:. '-r « 1"".. b „?1''™- OKOWTH or SfAKTA AND OF ATHSm. u en*|»ble th« condition of the poorer ckMt, ud m«te itiO more nigent aome meaauiei of relief ^^ ^^ Once nwre u in the time of D,«». u,e Athenian. pl«ed ^ r, ''u™""""*'°° '" "" "-"d' o* • 'ingle nun tobe deredlothe.tete,parfcuUrlyin the recent war with Me»ut wa. elected to discharge this re.pon.ibIe duty. ^^ Solon turned hu attention fint to relieving the mi«ry of the r^^ll! ^^~'"' ""' '"•" ""Kht never again be Jen in Attic, the spectacle of men dragged o« in chainVto be »W 1 itl^niln »~un„g debu on the body of the debtor No Athenian wai ever after thii raid for debt.' •fcl™"'' 1^ ** °°" important^of the economic reform, of ^ J^ii^ ^ °' ^^^ ""■"">'• '"" «' •hi, time bom- «^ J- rJ ^* '"" P"''*"^ <='"'" into "htth the people were dmded. The fourth and poore.t cla... the TT.ete.^ere «duded. Solon opened the Ecclesi. t^them. giving them S>" nght to vote, but not to hold office.^ Solon lo^mlSeother changiM in the constitution, whereby the magistrates b^me re ZIS:^^' P~P'e,whohencefU nTonlylS r^" Dut judged them m case they did wrong The council of four hundred and one, caUed into existence by the I^onian leg.slat.on. was reorganized by Solon. It wai «Sr^n:h3red?' '"" '^'"''' •~"^' --' «•- -■ I^™ tha r«e„, d«:o«.y of Ari.,oa.'. „A on U,. Ath«S Co^" .v*e ./^ - S-' ' m !^"''"''''°«»«°f«^n?to°;''l''=->- Solon had the „„ "M courted popii,^ &,„, 3°^' h>» nephew Ksistratus. tt.? people." OnVdav hT ^ "^"^^ Wmself the "/h!!^ ^^' ""■VBabon. »h».^ LI ar people. inov«w __-.i. ""u- ~™ "ccn inns s#i P»f ««h« gathered TL-^u" T'' °f^^- wed a period of 3 ^^ '"■''*' ""d «nder hi™ 4 ,. temples andl^ *^ Prosperity. He T . ^*«» en- "<■ the citadeJ 1,i„ .[^ "'"*>'-">ree yea„ aft« fc- i= OHO^TJf Of SJ-AUTA A^D OS ATHElfS. 45 reaped harm, but the eveTiuShi-r^ ^sassmated. Hippi« ««W. His rule now becL?f!l «» become suspicious and to^endinthefZi^ '•^'""'^'«''-<'''- bought ^" Jic^n^r a^^^d r:sn -^ r "- -- bonisbment an opportunity ,^^ u """« UiiKperiod of "crilege which wL^SnX,r^ '^ " '" u"*^' *« '"^ "^ cbe Old cnW of MeS "fr^2 5 o" The? °° "^n""' °' having been destiv>.cd bv fi«. fK ^' """P'^^ "' °eJpW ty«»s to rebuil^'lT?„t;*^""'^'** *« ^mphlc: «o.t honorable mannrLloT^r'""'*' *' *°* « «» •he tern,, of their <^Z^^^^l^^^T^ ^ ^^ the fiont of the temple when ™,i ^'•™° "^'"e ^ by the spedficatio^r ^'^ '°"""°" «""« *■« «qui«d di5LSt^'r;e'"e^.5°l^'=^<-«. ^ it only been wholly Of the priests of L^^jjr^"^ -" "^ <•««- the iavoi^ ence the utterances of^oi^L T^ • ^- T" ""' '° «««- the Pythia to Spartan Cui^ t J'''"'^"* «^r now of .be «.t fiee." ^^" "' *' »'>™« "«. "Athens must Sp^^rllt:^?^£e"StmlT " ""^ »-" «>« tempt was unsuccessful- hnfi f '^*""- ^•'^ ""t at- the Alcm^^'^S^ by ^:^^T' ^ ^-^'^^ -* to capture the two chUdren of £0^*^. '^ ""' ~ '""""^^ " «g«ed to leave the 0,^5/0 BOHe°»r.""'*^"'*'^'^ and spent the rest of t hC wi'shS C"h '° f " *"""' aid h4 different quartets to re ^^kTk u- ^ ''ere«fter, seeking Atheniaus pas.^Td«,^"r '"' '^™°"'' '° Athens. Ihe his amily. '^ """• °^ P'l*'^ «'« against him and 1 «PuWonof the T>r«.t Hippi.^^^.^"-^- ■Straightway upon the "ose a great strife between Bt "-""^'^^O^MSOJ^CJ^S^^^^^^ *e people, who of coane wfah^i , ^ with .he coastitutionTf fej l^^T ^ «*"««»«" in *°«8h he was. ^JT^^'S:'^'''^^. arisS hM influence «tve«lifflport,^"™^=.P°P"'" party. Through fa place of the four go-caii-H i . Citizen of Athens up tomtiJT?. '"'*"' ^'^ "«<* aH the ^'W'a.' Thus ao matter in »k« * **'>« i'thaiHanls cf ««•» home mightT tfhel """^"^ " "««'« °f "tScL, enjoy aU the otherprivSeg« Jf a.^ '^"'^ """""'r. and to Thi.. notwithsta/di^X U^^^. "'^^'WP- r^-ha«dicai cCta'^et^^.^J^ "M property chases, tte masses that Cleisth^X ^^,7°° " *' "'"^ t "«tr wis- ^'^"^S^" ""^-^ "'"^^ ^ we„ each ■^eTpTa^ST^'^"' *^'»^ of At- -"l».or*«,,,„f,hj^P^^«;^b^.,ofw,, ty^j^^^ ^ E-chtowuship contained al^tf^^P^'^^y <"»* hund,«d. ^*««. ^'^^^"SsMirtj?**'"-'"^' *ed ftom each of the «,cie« ° C rT^""^ "«""«". one han- h™*ed members, fifty fiom e^^f tleT""".!^^ "P "^"'^ »nd powers, a, well as those J Tk "'" '^'*>- Its dutie. »««-ed, white th,^*r«:'S:P"^'«-«bIy,we,egSj «>« "f «he Areopaguslrcot^.""* °^ *^ aristocS '^.hitherto t„edTt.:^bS^"t'''?™-'>«J. Ma^ OJ>0^m OF SPAJITA AND OF ATHENS. „ ■f not the mos. iZZ^ TT.^ ""J u' "^' <='««cteri,tic, who I»d excited t^SdoS^T, "^ P"'''' "^ P««»> without trial, be ba^^ fe!^ I^'T" "^"^ P^P'« ^"""Id. ax thousand vo^^f ^ ^v":: "•'^"'^ °' '^••' y^"' popular -s-bly wasTd^r fZSr "tT"'"'^ 1 *» pe«on whose banishment was sougSt^'!' J^' ~"'^°f *« Potteiy or a d«U (in Greek «Aai^'^ k ^""° "^ » P*«=« <>f The original designTrtit tTtC^^' *"~ *' *"^ «*»«i«'- flege and power it ^TAe^ ' Rastntid*. The priv- of the -uT^d CstLS'orTu,:^ "b-d.^K. 4^ «m«gh tl.e influence of some VlJ^X\-« -'<' «i>e had caught the popular ear "^"Sne who for the moment vo^°.2ru,^X^Lrrur n^ '^'-''^- ^« between rival leaders oTSutfcaJ ^- """"^ '"""'' '^''' was designed to put an ISu^^T ^^^ ""•' '''^° *•■» "^d. factions to L sutl •Sl^h^T'" •=°'"''"'°"' "^ I^'^rfW preference. ^ ^i^lfll ?? ""i^'^ ^P-'-d PoKtical didateforpopulH^oT^ bemg sunply the defeated c«h The instituticn was short-liinvl if -_ time d^ the I^iopoirii^a. .7B.n°"Se*°„^' T\^ m a freak, ostracixed a man whom alUdS t Jt T""^ '^' "nan in Athens. This was n.»;,„i-J "'""'"™ «° >» the meanest institution, as wen^lr a?^„!^ .^ r'L^'^/*™^''- Uwreafter did the Athenians ■. one, by a resort to the measure. •grade a good man, or honor a bad J ' -~~" •" "ic measure. liis aristocratic ss ^ a* AaI ^c'i!^^Torc^'"'^''°pi«^«o .n the* iu^ MM nobles, made two unsucceafcT^' "^* "^ *« Athe- P?^ of overthrowing the AA^f '°'^°'" of Attica, for the of these, «,e Spartans^hS a, ^ '^Tr ^^ *« »«»S "t-esof Thebe,ai,d Chdci,,lttl a I^ of the^,thm« the ^"•^a. "• "« '»«ter « town upon the island of -nd then crossing the chlLt^ eZ^ '"' '° '^' ^Si^! '^y fiom the ChalcidiaT^hefr W ' ^^""^ Chalc^k 'ot«.ong four .ho^^^f-J;^*. and distribu^ th^n^ «oS:rti::i1fTC"rr,^-r''^ ^He^didnot cease •ettled became rimpHn ScSZTl' ! ^ "^ *« ^d A^ the fi« of ti^t dasTof "l^*":?.'? *««= '"^tory. Tbis 1Z :^tArL^--^-t-t:;^fS^-- :n^Ctrdr^°5t.ro::^^^- -^^ Hippi. a convention of ad her pTpoZ^f^ ,.-^ ^' """"^ « ^ them to aid the Spartan, L^^^ '^ ^ to peS But the eloquent portrayal ^^Jt^r '° '^' "^ Athens. ?»;n,ngs Corinth had endu^ atT? ^"'' ^^l^' of P«^der, and-his scathing reW of^ ^"^ °' "^^ ''>«»» overthrowing tyramn>s elsewhere S i '^ ' inconsistency in AAens, caused all the alii JT'^'i*™ "f^ to set one up fa Po^d undertaking, so that ClZr^^lI? ^^^ "«« ^ the ^ H.pp«5 now withdrew 00=7™?.^ """^ 'o abandon it J«d him at the court of K^g^C^ J^Jf » ^inor, and we Ln THB GR^CO-PSKSUN WAKS. CHAPTER V. THE GRSCO-PERSIAN WARS. --' (*>0-479 B.C.) ^ In 500 B.& the Ionian cities in Asia Minor fs«. nn , « v to chaatiiie tK. B., TT . "'"esponti Danus detennined « cnastise the European Greeks, and particularlv the Afh«,;,„ ' ■as i M f: f""^ J>^TTU Of MAXAmoi,. **m help fte„«,^ ^ ,^^ •he year 490 b.^, another Pe™a„ .x^'r,^ ^ •*»"«*« "^ -»»««'«1 for the «cond atteZ Xn S^'^^n^* •*" ""^ w» mtrusted to the command ofX«^'- ^ "»»»«>t «d Artapherae.; but wT^der ,h '^"f """^ «^"* °*'^ Hippia.. A fleet of six ZuSshi^r*^ "^ *« '«'«0' coast, of Asia Minor om tTS^ f^ ^ ** ""J' ^ ^ After receiving the submL^^ Tt^' ""^ "^^ Cyclade^ and capturing a.rf^„/,K . °" ""P*««' "^ the day,' joumey f„„ AtheTke^ iT^ « M««thon, barely two ^JgxJ by a crescent-shaS pkT.lvjJ't^'^' ^y- ''^ch is of Pan,e, and ftnteHoT £ S ^ *« ""S^^d «««es generab drew up Aeir W T.K^ ^ ^^'^'^ *» P«^ "cent successes. ^' "'^'^ ""«> «»nfident with their llw Battle of Xanthon nerved by the verynZftudS >""ost superhum^, «berty. A fleet runne^SSdrL *^'" ''' ^ ^">^ of ?paru for aid. fa just' ^^Zt T"' ^ *^'«=''«' ^ M one hundred and fiihr ^T ""^ ''«'»»» S^parta. which *-t it lacked a few JyTtTtS^L "^ .^' ** «^pen3 ^ Spm^, owing to « oS * pe?tir°' ''"*« '"^'' »'«'».' out upon a mihta^ ex~d!L C 'T* «^««« ^ »etting only in time to ^h^l^ wheT^f '"""'^ "^'^ ""^ f.™ a«l g„,tefcl fiiendsT^hl rth«i^ "^^ ' '^ "**««. former service, no sooner leceivL tT. T^ °" "^™' "^ «>•« they responded to a man ^ *"""*^' «PP«» fer help d«, .U>optrm.dtth*etr^„f--'^ ten » batUe array just where t^h^f pLf.r ''"' '"" '^^ "P Plam of Marathon. Tb. vast L of 2^- *^ '°'° *' TOR GSjBCO-PESSTAfr tVAXS. 61 sudwreptlikeatempertfiom the moimtaJn over the plain, pushed Mfltiade. at once despatched a courier to Athens with inteffi- ^ce of hi, victory. The messenger reached the city in a L hom. but in so breathless a state that, as the peop le^rJ^S e^y around him to hear the news he bore, h^ Ld S gasp, " Victory is ours," and feU dead. ^ But the danger was not yet past. The Persian flee^ Instead of , «tunu.« to the coast of Asia, bore down upon Athe^ tofo™2 by watehe^ on the hill, of the movements oVthe enemy, SaS m>meAately set out with his little army for the capitis wS reached just at evening, the battle at Marathon haLjCn won m the forenoon of that same day. The next morS.S^^e Persiar generals would have made an attack upon thf cCth^ fojmd themselves confronted by the same men ^ but S;Z h^Uaten them back from the plain, of Marathon. 4rinS fiom another encounter with these citi«n-3oldiers of Athens,^ ^«s spread their sails, and bore away towirds the 2Z. Thus the cloud that had lowered so threateningly over Hellas was for a time dissipated. The most imposing honon w«e ^;i '" *: "nr ""^ •^ '^'"^ theSL'^rry,::" their names and deeds were traasmitted to posterity, in song and rtd m1*°*" t"^ °~ "'""''^ and ninet/U AthfnS whohad fiUlen, were buried on the field, and an enormous mo3 SLt^rr^'^"^™- Tea marble columns surmounting ^^lus bore the names of the heroes through more than sif «n J^^ f^ *^ '"^'^ '° ^"^ "'''P"^ ^ •'ehalf of Greece : and suitable recogmtion of their favor was made in rift, and «S^r ^nt^'^ ^ °^ '^^ '--° -^-dleTdi A^ wh;ch was p^ upon the Acropolis, as ihe guardian of Atheas. TWimon ate says that, in after years, the gratefiil 2 ——..r.z,o. ..,.,,,, »«» "P as a monument of their I^vt ^ ''""«'" '^"' *em to "^ "ckoned « one of l^SlZl^' ^'^ «" M«atho„ »«k3 an epoch, not only in aTu^ „'?'^'' "^ *« -orM ." ," Euwpe. HeUemc civilJtio" ^ iZ^' °''*=«' ^ut in th« of for .tself alone, but f" wo^ "^ |° "«««« >ts ftui,; n« to»«er the despodsm of the 2f '^^l'""''' ^'^'^'^ «« na "dual action, but the fi«edo« of'tre w^t"'??^'"' "' »« ^* to perwnal effort, should contioTSe I^f^ ""'.^ "" "'» '""^^tive, and msdtutions of the ftture r. k u "" ""^ """Id the ideas "ame. and destroyed fdr^^L ""''' *" '»*" "^ the PeS save the Hellem' peoS Ja?^^ *" *' ^"^ «""» ft eminence that had been! 7 ^*"^ °^ """"'ri'y "nd „„ ^j-'^^^t ir^JSly'reSeSYl'.^''^^''''^^-'^" The consciousness of «so^ Z? "" "^^"^ «» themselves, of their future acts. Cv^f,""' T'' •*««« the inspi^ti™ Pe««aded the Athenians to^ L his u , * "" ""' '■''"°'' "^ Pnae respecting the nature Twhich J^'^* ' "'*' foranen^. tao^ anything whatever. Of ~ °° '"' «"'' ^mself was to that he meditated an attack uoonT » ^ ^^"'""y supposed r-th fuU faith in the juSnem « !'„'^"^'" " *'" »"-?S fi«vonte. the Athenians gavS Ty, " " ** ^'««"ty of tb^^ ^ But MUtiades aCTZZl^' "°""^ ^' ^ *e expedition against the Ma^^o/^"'^- him. He led pnvate wrong. The undertaul », ' '""P'^ '° ^^<^ some «ve«Iy wounded, ^tumedTltT^'T'^^^'^' ""^ ^^'iad^ firial for his conduct. His never t^t^'7''"^ ^^ ""^ brought to thon pleaded eloquently for^CSdleXd ^ ^^ "'^•^- c>uq>ea bemg sentenced TBB exjtco-fjus/AM mats tt todeifli,batwM8ul4ected toahe«vyflne. TTiii he wm OMMe to pay, and in • short time he died of his wound. The unforttr- Date affiUr left an inefiaceable blot upon a fame otherwise the most resplendent in Grecian story. AthM. iwpM* f« p«ri„ V6ii««ioe.-Many among the Athenians were uchned to beUeve that the battle of Mai^ THEMISTOCLES. fcid freed Athens forever from the danger of a Persian invasion. But there was at least one among them who was clear-sighted enough to see that that battle was only the beginning of a great strug^. This was TTiemistocles, a sagacious, versatile, and r«* into , naval armament T^T """Wed herbdd J«"«« them tha. thTSJll'^S'^'' ^^ »o Zp *e matte. Six U.o««„d t^^^^^ '-^ -« to dS >» ws MM into exile. ^" ""' "W^t Ad,tide^ ««! « « lelated that whil* tk ■—> -« J^» the l^opuUtem ,r:. tt^r^ «» wa. being "e Statesman asked tiie man what ^^ r^ "P"" «>« "heD Wm- "None."«,pond^'J^'j«'y.Ari,tides had ever done ^"ter the banishment of Ari-iL J^ «^ °« hi, navall^u °'J^^ Themistocle, was fi„ ^ »on Athen, had the C (2?/ "^ -enou, opporitJoT-^ i!S? at Pi,«„. "^^ "*' «" 'V Greek city. ,Sh iTiC r^ °' *«'SSS^S'L^ sooner h«I a,e •*8«> to make gigantic nmL^ ^° '***' to D,ri„, Z, T, -"dinsni, Itr;r^rS°-l'^"-^thi..ec^d^,i« to enter ato a contest with thf^h "f " ''« «J^clined preparations begun by his ftth« ta ^^' "v ''*«* "'^^ the i,ieat Kmg, foni India to the U 1 1 Tax GMAtCO^BMStAir WAItS. While all tbeie preparations were going on in Ail. it«lf ». Ames «t out from his capital to join the countless hosts th. J^.U quarters of the compass we« gathering .t Z^^^ •« none to meet the mpeodine daneer M.i„i„ fk u V^ '■: i' ! I ''"''''''''' "' W ajTj^^ .ifaiM wcK ffTj ** «<*» tried te-TT ^^ ™ *«• t>- •"VicefiU^ ""*"*« to whom coSTJ^T' "^ "^ *« nnder th« Jn.»i_^ °«>««rtened die Apollo. ^"^ "' *•■« 'Poili to the rtriL^ .^"'^' «»ot of the 'J^^ *' ■"«• ™ov«l slowlv th- ,. ' "* Son, drawn by eieht miii. , '^ ™ 8o«geoug Char- offiriM that for ,^„ a * ™>'k-white steed* ti- j '^ every variety of dress ftv, u *''*"'^* ^ey came Th. -^^ia^o theXpX'°."SftL^°S.--?^ert.^ •"oy- Some were clad m k Ethiopian wiauDeH i,;. ^Jed bodies to «,e Wo^'o^^ "«-^ others ^Xet ^ from U,e wea-tempered tudrorn '^ '^^ '»'»" ^ened sUve of the Libyan &„" ''^. °'"^>» to the fte. '^re armed simply with the to«, ' " '''^ """""^'c ho.«^ •Hou^r:;ti--«^-J^in„onsna,wa, Xe„ » W waU «ised abo« thl V'^.^ "^y -> PO«ibe Z "Closure, which was Jn IkS'" ,?^ ""^^ °"' of tS «ore could find nx>m!\ J^'f^ , "l *''*"^ »d when no ^Am. One hund«d and rventt^"^ "^^ '»» thousand we^ lorce of Xerxes amount«J f„ * enumeration the l»„j bought the numb^ ; to t^e '''°°:°~ '"''°- ^e «^v2 for» i^dss ot riiermopyia. THE GRjECO-PERSIAN WARS. The cities along the route had been ordered to prepare lepasts for the army as it advanced, and to fiimish special delicacies for the royil uble. The people, through policy or fear, made ex- traordinary efforts to entertain in a becoming manner then- self- imposed guest, and to feed his soldiers. Herodotus affirms, and there seems no reason to doubt his statement, that some of the towns were driven to distraction, and others to the very verge of ruin. The people, however, notwithstanding their perplexity and distress, found occasion to thank the gods because Xerxes, accord- ing to the Persian custom, required but one meal a ^ay. "Had the monarch required breakfast as well as dinner," says Herodo- tus, "the citizens must have been reduced to the alternative either of exile or of utter destitution." Battle of Thermopylo (480 b.c.). — Leading from Thessaly into Central Greece is a narrow pass, pressed on one side by the sea and on the other by rugged mountain ridges. At the foot of the cliffs break forth several hot springs, whence the name of the pass, Thermopyte, or "Hot Gates." At this point, in accordance with the decision of the Corinthian Congress, was offered the first resistance to the progress of the Persian army. Leonidas, king of Sparta, with three hundred Spartan soldiers and about six thousand allies from different states of Greece, held the pass. As the Greeks were about to celebrate the Olympian games, which their religious scruples would not altow them to postpone, they left this handful of men unsup* ported to hold in check the army of Xerxes until the festival days were past.*- By a special interposition of the gods, as it seemed to the pious Greeks, a furious tempest drove the Persian fleet upon the shore and dashed to pieces over four hundred ships. This prevented Xerxes from landing a force farther down the coast, in the rear ■ Gtate liken the action of the Greeks at thi> time to that of the Jewt, who, when Jeniialem wai being besieged bf the Romans under Titus, rather than violate their religions scruples, permitted the Roman works to be pushed ba^ ward against their city during the Sahhath, without molestation. '■^^ '^rrcs OP ^j^rMursfOM. of Leonidu • fin- a..^ of aeidandofEuboea. '** '"'^n* northa. point I'm %)art«M could now he h„- ^ XenM wmmonwl them to rive ™ Ik • "^ *^"»« «he», ^to"^"Coa.e»dXL^*-— • The«^^ ^we„d.v^S;?a'SS'^--"»thep.ss. UeA^ But = loss of the pass, they^CreW w"* '"diligence of the aged men, with the women and children were IZ^ T 7^ 79 THE JfAyAt BATTLE OF SALAWS. a ; ^ !?« joy in ffistan. sj^ ZZ^ '^" "^ ^''^ «f Attic, «p,^ fi»-.Tti£r^rif^'^ to the determination to bee h.^. .1,. n • ^ uraeb hasten on the ftrZ^Lk^f^n"^'^'"'™.'^''^'*^ ^° of the ships destroyed.' """"■ »° ?'«=« "«1 tw> hundred .11 « 11 . • * *"^ "»* «««c'«3y might bum or h^ aie HeUespcntme bridges. arid thus end«^ hUoL^t ^ n»tandy despatched a hundred ships to^LcTA™ ^" u^' .uest orr.^'^6:2er^r:o^--?irof hf-^ mmious retre t to Asia.' ^^ °° ™ "8™- cV \v Tha BtttlM of natM and Vhmu / destroyed, both on the same day-the -m^^^ 2 TBB GXjBCO-PBRSIAlf WAKS. aU Greece. Poets and artists and orators aU vied with one^fh anc?b J'l!^ C"' f ""'^ tliink that the marveUous deliver- o'?Sl°"'''rL' *-P'»-°fviCanda42"Sr of the divme punohment that had bcfaUen the a-.d^u, 3^ J It I 74 ^r^ry o^ ,r^^, ^, ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ I If i CHAPTER V\.'\ PERIOD OF ATHENIAN SUPREMACT. r^ for U.e common ^of lS.~ Tt" 1? ^"^ her atueas bad never wavered wL w . * P»«notiim of bribe, to detach Aem ^^e G^ *f'^°"''" ~"«h' *** ^ "-enger that "notlrf^^'^Jr"' *^'^"«' '° "teritory. should induce Trnt^C^"?''' "' "^^ common language, or reUgion !f *° '*'««*«'«» of brothertood, oftheSparta»-we«nt^id°:rA* ** "^ >««»"-«« Pl«e of honor and pre-eml™™ .*"" ** "^""""l «>« temples were «Su«7^ tr^^'^f "^ °' ""* '"«'«»8' «d Ity upon Which sTetrj°rHeTSr "^ °' ''-^'- reputatira as a center of wealth .^^ = ^°^^' '^ ^^ - and literatun, wer:',::::^ b;th?rdn ^r ""^ °' succession of statesmen, artists ,n!l v ^^ S"^"" of a other dty in ancient or S.^LT" '"^ "^ P^''»l« -° portant puhUc event* that^rZ ^ ''"^'"=^- '^^ '"- b-ttle of Plat^aandt h'X':::fo;tnll'-*-'« *' (479-43' B.C.) will be found, as we ^n^Z^^""*"^ ^" "> the veiy briefest way, to coM^cHh ^ *^ '° """''' '"em PEKIOD OF ATHENIAlf SUPSBMACY. 78 rebuttding of tfieir homes. Their next taik wu the restmtkm of the city walU. The exalted hopes for te future which had been nuied by the almost incredible achievements and endurance of the past few months, led the Athenians to draw a vast circuit of seven miles about the Acropolis as the Une of the new lamparts The rival states of the Peloponnesus watched the proceedings of the Athenians with the most jealous interest WhUe they could not but admire Athens, they feared her. Sparta sent an embusy to dissuade the citizens from rebuilding the walk. hypocriticaUy assignmg as the cause of her interest in the matter her solicitKle lest, m casf of another Persian invasion, the dty, if o^tured, might become a shelter and defence to the enemy. ThilBiitodef at an Envoy — The crafty Themistocles, the Ulys- ses of Athens, and the most popular leader of his time, had a talent for just such diplomacy as the case seemed to demand ; for the Athenians were not strong enough to insist by force of arms upon their light to manage their own affairs. Themistocles caused the Spartan envoys to be sent home with the reply that Athens would send commissioners to Sparta to coiwder flie matter with diem there. Then, as one of the envoys, he himaelf set out for Spaita, having previously arranged that the odier members of the enAaasy should not kave Athens untU the walls wese sufficiently advanced to defy assault With astonishii^ unanimity and energy the entire poprfation of A*ens, rich and poor, nKn, women, and children, set to work upon dw walk. Material was torn from tea. pies and tombs aad built into the defences. While this was going on at Athens, Themistocles was a* Spaita wiUi amaaing addreu wondering with the Lacediwnonians what s^ delayed his coOeaguei. From day to day the business upon which he had come was po^wned, to give time for the arrival of the tardy envoys. At lengfli rume way, and ordenng th«ir dete«tk» in Then •n«emi«ocl« bolX\Smiti!T '*^ '^^ taterfc««:e. to the Sn.. ^ He toM aTT T' " "^"^"^ «•»«=« •mbamdo.. again to AAe * to',^!," -^^ """ *'*' -^^ •«, *ey thmw upon the .ucceedi^ Wsto J Tjl. ""* °' *« ««« the tremendou. energy with wIL .t^ '^*'"'- "'^ '"hibit •vent, of the pS W^tSrS^r;,? °f *' '«"''^>' ob^rves, both «m «K, ^ TJllt. I?"^' ^ ^mte which Themistocles had imZTIT T *■ *» Ae service ofthe Spartan negotiation iT^^^ T"! "^ ^ *<= «>''d«ct by the exerdse ofTSel w *^. ' **^ 1^^^^ benefit naval policy or the ambSTA"L^^"""'"'^^^P'"« "^ «>« -n«^KS::r- r^=:^^-/thens. ^r.r^ ='L?X^t-hrco;r?£-r^i' "wooden w^...^,,^^-r.s:ro^-:5-e nmOD Of ATUENtAN SVPKEMACY. 77 ence; and he nxxeeded in inspiring his countrymen with his own enthusiasm and sanguine hopes. In the prosecution of his views, Themistodes persuaded the Athenians to enlarge the harbor of Pimjus, the most spacious of the three ports of Athens, and to surround the place with immense walls, iar exceeding, both in compass and strengUi, those of the capital. He alio led his countrymen to the resolution of adding each year twenty well-equipped triremes to their navy. This poUcy, initiated by Themistocles, was, as we shall see, zeal- ously punived by the statesmen that after him successively assumed the lead iu Athenian aifain. OhuMter of TbamiitoelM. —Themistocles well deserved the honor of being caUed, as he was, the founder of the New Athens. But although a great and far-seeing statesman, to whose command- ing ability both in war and in peace Athens owed almost everything, stm those imperfections of character which we cannot have failed to notice, at last brought him into disgrace. He used unscru- pulously the power and position which his abUities and services secured him. He accepted bribes and sold his influence, thereby acquiring an enormous property. Finally he was ostracised and went into exile (471 b.c.). After long wanderings, he became a resident at the court of the Persian king. Tiadition affirms that Artaxerxes, in accordance with Persian usage, provided for the courtier exile by assigning to three cities in Asia Minor the care of providing for his Ubie : one furnished bread, a secMid meat, and a third wines. It is told that one day, as he sat down to his richly loaded board, he exclaimed, " How much we should have lost, my children, if we had not been rumed ! " He died about 449 b.c. Ariitidea the JvA. —The most illustrious contemporary and rival of Themistocles was Aristides, to whom reference has already been made (see p. 64). Less great in mind than Themistocles, he was immeasurably his superior in character. Before the time of which we are treating, he had ah^ady rendered many and emi- nent services to his native sUte. He was one of the ten Athenian h 71 '''''eoj,j^JU>sMcyojriv^at ••■*•'•'• that led the Ri»>4.. c P«y for hi. «.„„,, uT^S,"^"^" *^ Aey would ,pe«ii,, «r« 'ho^ th« Z pSirSIL K."* u'^ city which JS? •b^nce. NevertheleM.Mrtni ^"'"" •» ""»™ to )*« had pawed whe?tl^ i^^ T" "'" '^'^' 0->i, Jl Xenje. led to hi. recu b^ uHS^' f ** '»«»'<« S •he defence of the .t,te W. **««»», to .id ThenAtode. in *^' the „t«« of ST'pJJL "f^ " S-"*"" and Ptai^^^ TT-emistocIe. i„ pop^^i^"" « Athens the rivri'^l confide«:e '^rfbThi. upriX^TK '' "" "" ""■•»«»2 h.n. to .ecu™ fo, hi. ^tive dS/^ "^'^ '^^ »»«bled •fw of Hell« which W ^n^i '^"^^ " *« fo"ip. alone. How thl. c«„e Z,t «?l "° •"'°«'«' '» Sp^ graph.. '=™' ••»"' »ai appew in the following J^ !*• Ostf •d«Mv of Ikk. / "ight be able to amy onwr ml'"^;^""^" "«■" that the, "an^-who for al^lHft'^"'! f'^tively again., the P^. Xerxe. never ceaaed. ^intri^^j 'JT'""" «P*diUon of c«n co«munitie..--u,e loX.tZ oTT/T' '" *~ 'he G«- the ^.n. „d ,„„^ theX^^ p^"^ *^°'' '^'''hwd. of of the I,.hmu,,.horUy 2rT]l?"T'J'^'''"'^^y'^ •elm into wha..i. b,^^Zc^l^J ^'°"^^^- on account of her military «„„ Jt. u ^"^'^ °^ '^'o*- Sparta. Ae place of p.. e«i. en^XSi^" 1."""° '*«' «==S[ Hellenic citie.. si.e had "2 S" '^ '""'' "^'e" of the -turaj guardian and leader Tg "^f ' b° "^T "'"^'^ «. the he«n.blearrogaoceoftheSpartan;„^^p^«««hi» time«,e un- n»tOt> Of ATHILMAN SVMMMACY, T» |V«» the great repuMion he had gained at the btttle of PlatWL Wthe ttatet which had entered into the alliance to lookto Athew to aHume the position of leidenhip in the new confed- The lofty chaiacter of Afirtide., who was now the moM promi. nent Athenian leader, and his great repuution for faimcM and in- corruptible integrity, also contributed to the sane result He wai chosen the lint president of the league (477 b.c.), and the sacred »hnd of Delos was made the repository of the common taids. What proporUon of the ships and money needed for car- n^ out the purposes of the union should be coiitributed by the diflerent states, was left entirely to the decision of Aristides. such waa the confidence aU had in his equity ; and so long as he had control of the matter, none of the membeti of the alliance ever had cause of complaint Thus did Sparu lose, and Athens gain, the place of precedence MiOTg the Ionian sUtes. The Dorian sutes of the Pelopomiesus. fa the mam, still looked to Sparta as their leader and adviser. ML Greece was thus divided into two great leagues, under the rival leaderriup of Sparta and Athens. Xta Mh«iM. wmwrt th. Dtliwi I«,gB, Into an Impiw. _ The Confederacy of Delos laid the basis of the imperial power of Athena. The Athenians misused their authority as leaders of the iMgne, and graduaUy, during the interval between the formation cS the umon and the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, reduced then- fiee and independent confederates to the condition of tribu- tanes. Xems, sad ««M«Jy. for ■ tuitible Kwud, to nirrendcr all Gt«« into tbe hands of the PenUni. The weU-known letter in which he ii mttle to leek •• the price of hii treachery the hind of the daughter of Xerxe. i^ it i. tree br some pronounced > forgery; but then there i. no doubt of hU treuonnble totendon^ HI. ftte befitted hi. crime. To .void wert by the ephori he Bed for refiige to the wnctuuy of Athen. .t Sperti The ephor^ not daring to idle him there, cauMd the roof of the temple to be removed, ud wiUina an the entrance, left the traitor to die of ttuvatioa. ^^ MieiOeOW >ISOUJTION tbt cmakt (ANSI ond ISO TEST CHART No. 2) ■ 1.8 A x'IPPUED IfVMGE Inc t6SJ Eait Hoin Strmt Rochmttr. Nbw York U609 USA (716) 482 - 0300 - Phon« {716) 28e-L9a9-Fo» 80 CJ^OUTT,, OF THE AmmiAX BMPHiB. ent memben. of the SetZ^ ^ ^"^ "P°° *« «««■"- smaller ones. From the fir!; ^t """"'^ P^y"""^ «>' *e matter, an7 sawtoit It Ih ll'""'^'^ '° *'' '«^»«' pmper contribution '""" "'""^'"^ *« "««>« «^« its ^^nt^lnt^oTThU^t^tcS^i^ '° "^« • --^ ften building the ship? he«ei? S Jem .^"h"""'''""' ""^ Th^us^the confederate, aisarm;d"r.rs ^ "aT^ S be^''eX*:.:^,^e^Sr^^-'»«<^ -'-''""™" pay ft= assessm;nt in a^^ fof^ V^'^ Tl '^°*"' *° was the first island to Jj^^ it^^'^! ° *' ^''=^"' retained their independence '^^ ''='*'« '«*" had'ZS'^d t t:irt"^'"~i:!^" -•) ^« Athenians diverting the tribute^rt "^ ^"^ ^"'°^ '° Athens, and spend i*not ^^^^JJT^ P"?^' -- ^t^ to in the execution of Ce entTmW '^"'' *^ Barbarians, but th-ir own revenue "'"P"^' "s though the treasure were eC'aT^L'lntrtr'' ^ """"'^ =-^«'-'i<'- "^ »- PERIOD OP ATHENIAN SUPSEMACY. l^X pelled to forge the very chains which fettered them ; for it was their money that had built and was maintaining the fleet by which they were kept in subjection and forced to do whatever might be the will of the Athenians. The Leadership of Cimon. — One of the ablest and most dis- tinguished of the generals who commanded the forces of the Athenians during this same period when they were enslaving their confederates, was Cimon, the son of Miltiades. He was one of those whose spirits had been fired by the exciting events attendant upon the Persian invasion. He had called attention to himself and acquired a certain reputation, at the time- of the abandon- ment of Athens, by being the first to hang up his bridle in the sanctuary of the Acropolis, thus expressing his resolution to place all his confidence in the fleet, as Themistocles advised. After the expulsion of the Persians from Greece, he became one of the most successful of the Grecian generals to whom was intrusted the command of the armaments designed to wrest from the hands of the enemy the islands of the iGgean and the Hellenic cities of the Asiatic coast. The rich spoils of his many victories over the Persians, the most important of which was that at the mouth of the Eurymedon, in Pamphylia (465 B.C.), enabled him to fill the treasury of Athens, and also to build up an ample fortune for himself. His private means he dispensed with a lavish hand in benefactions to the poor, in the erecdon of magnificent public buildings, and in the beautifying of the public walks and parks of Athens. The Academy, the favorite resort of the Athenians, owed much of its beauty to his munificence. One of the most interesting ceremonies in which he took a leading part was the removal of what was declared to be the bones of the national hero Theseus from the island of Scyros, where the exiled king is fabled to have died, to a place of entombment at Athens. Over the sacred relics was erected a magnificent temple, which some archteolcists believe to be identical with the remark- ably well-preserved building near the Areopagus, known as the Theseum. >h n ** CmojVS LOSS OP FAVOK. A™tide,a„dTT,eJs:ot:tShi™"'"^' °''™='*»' "^ "'^ of sU »d buried?^r„"S*' r'r^'' " "^ >-«- the ruins of their city. I^eTn^' f ^ "'"«''"»t» beneath Spartans wen. led J beltf thTl *?t ''!':^""'^ '^■'«'^' "^^ punishment for their recent" otLofSeTe ^T'^ '""" "^ " from which some Helots who M Sed to .K '^ ' °^ ^°'"'^°»' had been torn. The Helotrnn^ ^ sanctuary for refuge the event as an ime^e"Sn ^nS"^' T" "'"=" '° «'^'P'^ unmistakable signal for t Mr Iri ^°^' i" *'" '^''^. »d « an arms, and, being'JoLed S Le "fZ P "'^'"" '"^^ ""^ '° their masters, ^e Spa^^ft ^'"'^'' *^^™'^'y """cked J- several yea.. ^£^.;£::TSZ1^^. T^^" sUj^ to submi^ion, were forced to ask "V^f'^Jrotht gS not'?o^f^dTmrettlrbu^r" ^"'"-^ "''--'^en rival. But the ari J^rltic cimnn t \ °f '^' P°'-«' "f their the most friendly feeZ fo.St' J '''^ "'""'^ ^■"'"^^d to put aside all sentiTn^ of ^^' "*°"^'^ '^'^ Athenians succor to their kin^r^tht del^ " '^T'^ '^ '" «-^ "Ut not Greece," said he "belameT TT °^ '^'^ '^r^- be deprived of her yokefeUow " ^flT^ """= ^"•^'^ ^<^^f rendered the state entitled him to b^hef^ T""" ^''"°'' "^ as he advised, and so the A^,n- r ^* assembly voted side by side with the li' ditnirs " ""■«'' '°^ =°- «'- and lSg":::d::;ry::S r ?^ r ^-^ °^ '^eir ames. ■ should take ai^tage ofTirlv '''^'^''^''^Athemans over to the side of the Helo" "^T " ^' '=°"«'y ^^^ Pass which was probably enH "; g^n^i^ ' ,"f ^" ^ prehension. - forces. The ^^y':X'TZ^rr/J^^ Jt PERIOD OF ATHENIAN SUPREMACY. 8S resentment at Athens. The party of Pericles, which I:.- . always opposed the tesr/lution of aiding their rivals as impolitic and weakly sentimental, took advantage of the exasperated feelings of rt . p.ople to effect some important changes in the constitution in fa ' the people, which made it ahnost purely democratical m chiudcter,' and to secure the exercise oT the ostracism against Cimon as the leader of the aristociatical party &jd the friend of ^arto (4S9 B.C.). The Age of Ptricks (459-431 r.::.)- y Qeiwnl Teatnm of the Age. — Under the inspiration of Per- \ ides, the Athenian state now entered upon the most brilliant period c^its history. The epoch embraces less than the lifetime of a ' Nl^le generation, yet its influence upon the civilization of the ' worid can hardly be overrated. During this short period Athens gave birth to more great men — poets, arti-its, statesmen, and philosophers — than all the world besides has produced in any period of equal length. Among all the great men of this age, Pericles stood pre-eminent. Such was the impression left by his commanding statesmanship, his persuasive eloquence, and his almost universal genius, upon the period in which he lived, that it is called afler him the Periclean Age.' Yet though Pericles' power at Athens was almost absolute, 1 These lefoina were u follows: The court of the Areopagui, the strong- hold of the aristocracy, was stripped of most of its censorial powers, which, with its judicial functions, were conferred upon courts (called tUcasteries) each composed of five hundred citizens. This change transferred the most impor- tant (iinctions of the state from an aristocratical body to the people at large. The senate of five hundred was also deprived of the greater part of its judicial powers. Ephialtes, the friend and supporter of Pericles, further caused the tablrts of Salon's lavs, which had been Icept upon the Acropolis, to be brought down into the agora, as a symbol of the fact that the preservation and main- tenance of the constitution was now intrusted to the people. > This phiaie is often loosely applied to the entire period of Athenian iupcemacy. I ! I ( ^^"^ the Peridean oeriod .h. *.i. ■ tutjon^ the basis of which had been Jjd b, s„,„„ ,„j b«»dened S Cfe^henes, was completed by J «ft™s.o which we have afr^ady referred (see p. 83, note). Everv "atter that concerned the enS was d«n«ed and decided by t^ popular assembly. Never Lft had any people enjoyed such D^r feet political liberty i did the dt^" « Athens at this Je^nd never before were any ne„nU ^™ J so intimate a L^' °f Pubhc aflairs, so well able to ''^'"<='-»- direct the poUcies of state p qualified to hold dvil office "^ "'^"' '' » -^""e* was icy had been to keep the Sw" "^ f "»"• -Ctaon'. poI- might offer effectualUtS:rto;^er;'''' " ""'^ *« ^^r his nval Perides was to mainta^ a!k ^ ^'""- T^e aim of He"as. and to oppose the p™ „ ^t^/.^^ *" ^^-g state M encouraged the Athenians t^s^T °[^^''- Accordingly he to perfect themselves in naltl S^e V" "T^ -™™ and hTrr-----X"^mS;r5e2\^;j^^: -^^^l^&^^-tS-^^eAthe- ^'"'""•'«" '^" -"««-«- in. «^I..^ fSKlOD OF ATHBSIAN SUPREMACY. 88 455 B.c.)i which united Athens to the ports of Piiseus and Pha- lerum. later (445 B.C.), as a double security, a third wall was built parallel to the one running to the former harbor. By means of these great ramparts Athens and her ports, with the intervening land, were converted into a vast fortified district, capable in time ATHENS AND THE LONQ WALLS. of war of holding the entire population of Attica. With her com- munication with the sea thus secured, and with a powerful navy at her command, Athens could bid defiance to her foes on sea and land. One of the most important conquests of the Athenians during Pericles' leadership, in its bearing upon their maritime supremacy, -was the subjugation of the island of ./Ggina, which lies in front of •ixty feet high. They were defended by numerous towere, which, when Athens became crowded, were used at shops and private dwellings. The walls were employed as Ugbwayi, the top being wide enough to allow two charioti to pass conveniently. The foundation of the northern wall now forms in part the road-bed of ^ railroad niniung from Firseus to Athens. TUM TmjiTY ys^jis- TXUCE. Ill *e harbor of fmtat. Thi, .™.ii u . «» « long time been a foli^S f"^""' ""«•' "Wch l«d (45« B.C.). ■" *" «"U«3^. Md to pay trfbate "-ore «cure, he ^ endeavori^t L. . 'u""*"^ ^ «« « Central Greece. As her^^fl "^ '^' •"■• » '"d empire Sl^rta became mo. a^d ^ ^^ ■", '^ <>--«- incea^ by enhancing the power of T^eC^^ ,"""' '° =°'«"«»=« •> . ?.e Athenian, w^rr^feO^rJ ^ T ^ "««'• ^' «»« ^vor. AU the cities of Woda P^Sf Jd r "^""^ « *«> power of Atheris. and it seeZ/ I ' ^ ^'°*="' <«" "nder the -S.''rArr:;;tsred"^"*^' — - ^- The negotiadoks endS™ 1""" ,f? '° """^ ^'^ "ith cles. or the Thirty Yean' T™ce f " * .T" ■'^°'*" ^^'^« °^ Peri- the nval cities was left at the h^j M" ^ ''* '^"n» each of . . fonned, tat neither wL l Lw'' °^*"' confederation it had of the other, while thoTcitTes o Sn I '^ "•'J"''^ ^ «S be« of either league we^ t^ L Stet"' "^^ "°' ^'' ■»-- to choice. . o oe left free to jom either according *ne real meaninir of fh*» t ambiUon to establish a laid elX' Td "^V^' ■*='" ^^^-^ "P ^' tent with supremacy on the ^^ 'i? "^ ''?''^°^^ t" »'«~n- was to remain a house divider,. T"" '^"*" '"^t Greece AUjens must share with ari«Tn."« "'k'"' "■"' '^^■»°<='-ti<= e..hip, of the Hellenic cZ "^ *'' ''^8'™°°^. »' 'ead- PenolM adonu Athens with v^u- ^. i-'^r^- PERIOD OF ATHSNIAN SUPREMACY. stQI he had contributed lai:gely to give her a place of proud pre- eminence in maritime Hellas. Athens having achieved such a position IS she now held, it was the idea of Pericles that the Athe- nians should so adorn their city that it should be a fitting symbol of the power and glory cf their empire. Nor was it v^ifficult for him to persuade his art-loving country- men to embellish their city with those masterpieces of genius that in their ruins still excite the admiration of the world. Upon the commanding site of the Acropolis was erected the unrivalled Parthenon.' Here also, as a sort of gateway to the sacred enclosure of thr citadel, were erected the Propylsea, which have served as a model for all similar structures since the age of Pericles. Various other edifices, rich with sculptures, were erected in different parts of Athens, until the whole city took on a surprisingly brilliant and magnificent appearance. The whole world looked up to the Attic city with the same surprised wonder with which a century before it had regarded the city of Babylon as adorned by the power and wealth of the great Nebuchadnezzar. The Athenians secured the vast sums of money needed for the prosecution of their great architectural works, out of the treasury of the Delian confederacy. (It will be recalled that the Athenians had transferred the common treasmy from Delos to their own city.) The allies naturally declaimed bitterly against this proceeding, complaining that Athens, with their money, was " gilding itself as a proud and vain woman decks herself out with jewels." But Pericles' answer to them was, that the money was contributed to the end that the cities of the league sliould be protecti 'i from the Persians, and that so long as the Athenians kept the . .lemy at a distance they had a right to use the money as they pleased. The Citiieni dst taken into the Pay of the State. — It was a fixed idea of Pericles that in a democracy there should be not only an equal distribution of pplitical rights among all classes, but also an equalization of the means and opportunities of exercising these ,' Se« p. 138. I Tft ATHBmAN EMffM, If Pk-ure. of politic, .^"^fj ^•■«l'»«o„ of eh. prf^^^ jj d-cord. ">« PC . Md banish claw envy «„d *" had served hi. cou.my in T^h'h ^^ ""' ^*"^ "o'- duty. He ^ „cured the pTymem nrl" '"""" °^ ''<'»°' "d popular assembly. Th«lh hlf^^ "~" ^' ■"'^ting.Tf "' «Uched.o.hevLu3ffic« r*"™"' ""' "^ -"« b«en unpaid portion.. ^' ^ "«»' "^ "Wch h«l hitherJo •«mbly, and .o offer U,Sv« f^' VT"* ^ «>« Popuii *«>-<* up ,0 this an,, hadTir/ .'^' ^^""^^ nuigisZieT »««« «.d leisu... ^ **"• """=««"/ open only to m^'"; »><* of applying ^ ,^^ citSzL^r^" °' '" '«'»'' *' P«- «d other place, of amusem^tj^'^frf •''^«» '° ">e theatre fcfval day, at the public exS« Re,^r *"* ""^ J^^e on »««u^ upon the A.henian'TemocSr:^K'!;'''''^'°^'^«« d-efoIW^g parapaph. """"^""^y. we .hall say a wort in I^=ricl^her'ha^t!re1*^ ^'"^ a-,ri„. _ u«ler J-or.d. Inoneof'^r^ts^r r^^"' -'^ ^^ the Peloponnesian War, in which 7 ' ^' *' "'« ""tbreak of • Athenian empire, he sl^ J^ f lir^r *^ ^"°''"=" "^ -- »°* a king, there is not any naSnIn .r •"" ^ " ^^" « »°t --d that navy .hiehr..isrct'::;rrcit::: ^thiswasnoemptybo.. ^e e«ii. ..^,, , .^ ^^ PEKIOD Ojr ATHENiAN SVPKBMACY. g, th«t lud once held dominion over wide coimtr)- 1..^ into dec^pitude. and the later M^o-S pltZr! •n«n upon their ruin,, «d which .. the openiro !" iS ^Z-'-T.*""'*""* •" «««"'' "« •™» over the woid W been checked in it. in«,lent advance by K ..enc vl?lld J..P ne «. that at thi. time there wa, no p^wer In le S .M ^ua. term, ^th the Gre'^X'^tt LTpSiy^r HeUene, we„ at thi, .noment the predominant race in'the IS »d Athen,, notwithstanding the limiution, placed upon h« am' "eotl-ciSi^J.trbit'tuSrLT""'^-^ ;»r «._ .ould .Ueve that-Tw^^SLr.^ .Te^^ °J empire. Li.en.ture and art had been . Z^TL utmt, Tj fon po«ible to human gemus. Ar, .. ,pre«L "TheTnti' table creation, of Phidias and Polygr r^. ," ,Z ^ T tated by the incomparable tragedfl L ^ T ''"; Euripides, and by the come W A, ^'J^t:^'"^ of the world's anmU, had become an a« T'^lf"' *"""« ofHerodotu,. «™me an an , the graceful narrations But there were elements of wealcness ii « »r,l«,HU ■ structure. The Athenian empi. was dlL, StC^^ cause the principles upon which it rested wer.- ,. i^!^, „ f tt deepest mstmc. of the Greek race-.thesentin,..''":,;;^^^^^^ ism, which mvested each individual ity with uu Ajhen, had disregarded thi. feeling. ^Se", J^' edged that in the hands of the AtheLns, J^reign,. . m ATHBNtAlf MMNKM. fcloaiortoftyrMny. The io-«lled eoofedefttw were the ihTw Of Atheiw. To her they paid tribute. To her courU they weie diWd for trW.' N.tui«lly the nibject cities of her empbe ,e- gtrded Athens as the destroyer of Helleoic liberties, ud watched impatiently for the fiist favomUe moment to revolt, and throw off fte hateful yoke that she had imposed upon them. Hence the Athenian empire rested upon a foundation of sand. Had Athens, instead of ensUving her confederates of the Dehan league, only been able to find out some way of retaininc them as allies in an equal union, - a great and perhaps impossible task in that age of the world, -as head of the federated Greek race ihe might have secured for Hellas the sovereignty of the Medi- terranean, and the history of Rome might have ended with the fiist century of the Republic. Furthermore, there were elements of weakness within the Athe- nian democracy itself. GreaUy as Pericles had exalted Athens, and vastly as he had extended her reputation, still "ly some of his measures he had sown the seeds of (uture evils, tohissyimof payment for the most common public service*, .ud of w. > «le pubBc largesses and gratuities, he had introduced or encouraged practK*s that had the same demoralizing elTects upon the Athe- nians that the free distribution of com at Rome at a kter time had upon the Roman populace. These pernicious customs cast dis- credit upon labor, destroyed frugality, and fostered idleness, thus sapping the virtues and strength of the Athenian democracy. lUustratioiis of these weaknesses, as well as of the strength of the Athenum empire, will be afforded by the great struggle between Athens ani' Sparta known as the Peloponnesian War, the causes ana chief incidents of which we shall next rehearse. ' 111. tobjeet dtjtt wen •Itowed lo mainuin only their lower courts of Jm- «ce; til cues of imporUiice were csiiied lo AUieu, ud then decided br the Attn tiibuntlt. ' i.i-ir i* V. - K stis/ -* «»»»' GREECE in tha WfthCeatnpy b.C. '^mmau '■dutu •% *Aaia . **'.,'«-' J ^^ .^'-4 •^"-l-t'Vt^ , -V -2 I 9> o<-^ y^"*^^^ «/ .' ^ / ^i^Zr^T^ -^^^^^ ;***>=*<^^„.^ '***^<*«^. -^ !9^#-»t»V ->*^_ /= ^s^:::^r?--o "C^li^U.'-D ^•-.^^si^iSi^ ^1-^, <^-£Jt.<-<—z.e.-s_ ^y**-^^ vszr^ ^ f ?:' /"^ '<€?^ '<«/. ^^. -^-.ii^ ^ TUB PELOPONNESIAH WAK. CHAPTER VII. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR: THE SPARTAN AND THE THEBAN SUPREMACY. "" : t. The PELOfONHESUN War (431-404 b.c.). (kaiM of the War. — During the dosing years of the life of Pericles the growing jealousy between Athens and Sparta broke out in the long struggle known as the Peloponnesian War, to which we alluded in the preceding' chapter. Pericles had foreseen the coming storm : "I descry war," said he, "lowering from the Pel- oponnesus." He saw clearly that the jealousies and opposing principles of the two rival states would, sooner or later, in spite of truces and treaties, bring them to a final trial of strength. His whole later policy looked toward the preparation of Athens for the " irrepressible conflict." The immediate causes of the war were, first, the interference of Athens, on the side of the Corcyrseans, in a quarrel between them and their mother-city Corinth ; and secondly, the blockade by the Athenians of Potidxa, on the Macedonian coast. This was a Corin- thian colony, but it was a member of the Delian league, and was now being chastised by Athens frar attempted secession. Corinth, as the ever-jealous naval rival of Athens, had endeavored to lend aid to her daughter, but had been worsted in an engagement with the Athenians. With aflairs in this shape, Corinth, seconded by Megara and iGgin^ both of i<4iich had causes of complaint against Athens, appealed to %>arta, as the head of the Dorian alliance, for aid and justice. The Spartans, after listening to the deputies of both P i* Delphian omcle^Wch in ' ^ '"P"*""'' ^roveu by the as to what wToS ^ he' Z^!^T '" "" T'"^ °' *« ^pitan. them that " they would ^n.). ''""' ""'''""''^"""^ their might." ^ ^^ *' ""^'y- '^ ^'X fought with aH divided between the Z'^^' °^^' ^' "-• -«> evenly Isthmus the MegareiLTL w T '^' "''""' beyond the the Locrians, and^rPhtia^l^K^T ^"^'^ ^y '^'^' these states com Z^ZTVZfZ^T "^^^ ''°''''"' -of her great maritime emje H^L^.r^' ''™!"=' '°'™' Chios, Usbos, Cot^yra, and o^er ^L cS^l"" "f" "^^ ''^^Ath- lay in her splenlt" "^ '^ ^^ '^ «"fL"!frTo;,"rtrie'S:r^*^ "-«-•--« within the walls otZ^ S dtv^ T T""^ " "«'«' the protection of Ather^and^irH^ ^ '5^"°'^'^ ""^ «°der Bceotian League, of S Ue's i^reS^* *" '" '^^ '^^ Anxious, to get possession !7.).^ , "''°« "*»• b.*ak of the r ^fcrrvl'T ^^^ •"^-'^ *« '^^^ out. plannedi,ssurpri«»dcapL T^ be mevitable, the Thebaas access to the ungu^ ^Tn thrr."^'"^ ■^^'»"'8*"«d to the p„b.c squClmleV he'^Ut^t' ""l"^"^ Athenian for a Boeotian alliance exchange the -d: ^T:i:r^:r:£ £ -^ --^ to an the d. the enemy, they attaS' Z,d '^"^"^ 'be smaU number of y. mey attacked and overpowered them in the darkness. TUB PSLOPQNNEStAN WAtt. (j and took a huadred and eighty of them prisoneis. These captives they afterwards murdered, in violation, as the Thebans always maintained, of a sacred promise that their lives should be spared. This wretched aflair at Platasa precipitated the war (431 b.c ) ^^InTuion of Attica : PectUanoe at Athan*. —A Spartan umy Vas soon overrunning Attica, whUe an Athenian fleet was ravaging the coasts of the Peloponnesus.' Pericles persuaded the country people of Attica to abandon their villas and hamlets and gather withm the defences of the city. He did not deem itprudent to risk a battle in the open fields. From the walls of Athens the people could see the flames of their burning villages and farmhouses, as the enemy ravaged the plains of Attica up to the very gates ol the city. It required aU the persuasion of Pericles to restrain them firom issuing in a body from behind the ramparts and rushing to the defence of their homes. The second yeal- the Lacedaemonians again ravaged the fields about Athens, and drove the Athenians almost to frenzy with the sight of the flame and smoke of such property as had escaped the destruction of the previous year. To increase their misery, a pestilence broke out within the crowded city, and added its horrors to the already unbeatable calamities of war. No pen could picture the despair and gloom that settled over the city. Athens lost; probably, one-fourth of her fighting men. Pericles, who had been the very soul and life of Athens through these darii days, fell a victim to nlague (4*9 b.c.). In dying, he said he considered his greate ,iaise to be that "he had never caused an Athenian to put on mourning." > The war is luually divided into three periods, as ibnows! i. From the beginning to the Peace of Nicias (43i-*ai B.C.), often designated as the Ten Years' War, or the AtUc War, from the frequent invasions of Attica by the Peloponnesians; 2. From the Peace of Nicias to the defeat of the Sicilian expedition (421-413 B.C.); 3. From the Sicilian disaster to the dismantling of the defemss of Athens (413-404 Bc), called the Decelean War from Decelea, astronghold in Attica seized and held by the Spartans during this part of Uie struggle. This las* period is also sometimes called the Ionian Wat because so much of UieBghting took pUce in Ionia. CtrAKACTBK Of TJTM tTAJl. I ^^^ by virtue nor wS,m ^' °' '" '^«°'" ch«acterix^' the war was waged with the^^i^ ^"^ ~ °" •»* "d" ate of the Mytileneanswas in the hl^. 7^"'°" »W«»«>. «« Cleon proposed that all the men ^tf,f *' ^"'"^«*»bly. number, should be slain a^d th. ^^'' '" """"^nd i^ Jves. ^sinfaWusd^U^la^^^JT'L^^r'""""" M^r^ sentence Tor ^^^T^Z':^'^^^^ overtake the form^etwIZLT "^ "^ '»»°'" "^^ «» The oa^men of the Tm .^JJetet n'^^^'^t'" """^ *« '^ tension by the nature of their e™t!? T' •'"'« ♦» ^ highert '"T?' rewards dependent unonT " """ " "'J' *e p.onT^ the vessel across'^he '^^° *^'»J-- °' ^" miJon. ^ n.e trireme reached thf^d W -^T' P'^'-^'^tmal enej. tion of the cruel edict ^^' "" '™^ '° P'^vent the exeS^ TTie second resolution of the Art,.„- natmg than the fi„t decree 4 ^^"f ''°"'«'' """^ ^-"i- thousand of the nobles ocVZ^^ "T ™°"«''. Over one stayed, and the latJ^t^T ^1*? '""''^' *" ^^^ '^^ de! citizens of Athens ^ ' ""^ •"* of the island given to - ' 7rr;^ri:rhr *'=^--»- ^^ «■«- THE PELOPONNESIAN WAK. H d^ of PUtaea, put to death all the men, sold the women is sUves, and turned the site of the city into pasture-land.' iTMiti laading np to the PeMW of VieiM (421 b.c.). — Soon after the afiair at Mytilene and the destruction of Platjea, events occuired which show how completely the Athenian assembly had ftUen under the influence of unprincipled politicians. An enterprising general of the Athenians, named Demosthe- nes, seized and fortified a point f land (Pylos) on the coast of Messenia. The Spartans made . -ry effort to dislodge the enemy. In the course of the siege, four hundred Spartans under Brasidas, havmg landed upon a little island (Sphacteria), were so unfortunate «s to be cut off from the mainland by the sudden arrival of an Athenian fleet. Among the men thus imprisoned wet« some membeis of the first Spartan families. To effect the reJe»se of the men upon the island, the Spartans sent commissioners to Athens to beg for peace. The terms offered were such as should at once have been embraced by the Athe- nians. But Cleon, desiring the war to go on, persuaded the assembly to reject the offers of the embassadors, and to propose terms which he knew could not and would not be accepted by fliem. The result was the return of the deputies to Sparta, and the breaking off of the negotiations. The Athenians soon had occasion to repent of their action. It was found a difficult matter to capture the Spartans who were upon the island, and Demosthenes was forced to send to Athens for reinforcements. Cleon was sent with additional ships and men. Rather through good fortune than by good generalship, he succeeded in capturing the Spartans, to the number of about three hundred, and bringing them prisoners to Athens. But affairs now touK a different turn: The Athenians, hav- mg imprudenUy invaded Boeotia, were worsted at the batUe of Delium (424 b.c.). Along with this disaster came other troubles fiirther to the north. The able and eloquent Spartan general, » Read Thncydides' gnphic account of the liege and redaction of tlie dty. Books U, (ltd IIL " '"■""^°" ^^D THE SKIUAN BJO-BDmw. *i»KlM. WitTed up tome of the Thiacian .Hi*. ^ la jevoU. In .he fighting which foUowSTnL^^rtJ Cl^J^ .bout, .^etre^tj^^sedf^^ri^e^n;;^^^^:^^^ re^fthTr.:rrsSSp-- «ti«iedwith it, »dcon.eque%reC^^!':'™'™'^- good iiuth or temper on^ersidr&rw^rntorf"".!'' "ven yea,,. howJver. Athens and Sp^ reS fL '^" irer-rSsrfiaiid^-'^-'' ------ °? out in open and avowed war, and all Hellas was again lit up with the fires of the fratricidal strife. The most prominent person on the Athenian side during this latter period of the struggle was Alcibiades, a versatile and briUiant man, but a reckless and unsafe counsellor. He Was a pupilof Socrates, but he failed to follow the counseU of his teacher. His astonishing orgies only seemed to attach the people more closely to him, for he possessed aB those personal traits which make men popular idols. His influence over the democracy was unlimited _^mb, almos^y '^^ 1 1: S^'S'^'X^ ALCISUOES 4«.„> .*wf'^"K /^r-^ji THE PELOPONNEStAS WAK. 97 Ue more prudent of the Athenian weie filled with •ppreheniion for the fliture of the sUte under luch guidance. The noted mif anthrope Timon gave expression to thU feeUng when, after AlciW- ade. had Mciired the assent of the popular assembly to one of hit impoUdc measures, he said to him : "Go on, my brave boy, and proaper; for your prosperity wiU bring on the ruin of aU this crowd." And it did, as we shall see. The most prosperous enterprise of Alcibiades, in the Timo Ian •ense, was die inciting the Athenians to undertake an expedition ««ainst the Dorian city of Syracuse, in Sicily. The scheme that Alcibiades was revolving in his mind was a most magnificent one. He proposed that the Athenians, after eflecting the conquest of Sicily, should make that island die base of operations against botfi Afiica and Italy. With the Italians and Carthaginians subdued, the armaments of the entire HeUenic world outside of die Pelopon- nesus, were to be turned against die Spartans, who widi one blow should be forever crushed, and Adien* be left dw arbiter of die destinies of Hellas. Alcibiades succeeded in persuading die Adienians to undertake at least die first part of the colossal enterprise. An immense fleet was f arefiilly equipped and manned." Anxiously dkl diose remain- ing behind watch die squadron as it bore away fiom die port of Adiens. Could die watchers have foreseen die fate of die splen- did armament, tiieir anxiety would have passed into despair. " Adi- ens itself was saiUng out of die Pineus, never again to return." Scarcely had die expedition arrived at Sicily, before Alcibiades, who was one of die leading generals in command of die arma- ment, was summoned back to Athens to answer a charge of impi- ety,* Fearing to trust himself in die hands of his enemies at « It consiited of one hundred and thirty-four coifly trireme^ bearing thirty- •IX thonund loldien and uilon. The conunanden were Aldbiade. Niciai, and Unuchoa. Uter, Demosthene. wai lent out with a reinforcement con- iiating of seventy-three triremes and five thousand wldierf. « J«« apoB the CTe of the departure of the expedition, the numerona atat- MS of Henies scattered throughout the dty wete groady mutilated. TTie Ml, i ■jJ,ii ii :..4w^A, *" THg PAU Of AT»UtX •dviKd U« SpM«. u,^„d7, 'r1'"°»^ '««' Ptem«l. He •«»-»•• Th^MTcylippil Z*^^^ b«« ««««1 to ti« 8yr. •hip conWbuid l«gd» to rte "^f '!?f*^' "^ ««««1- w«MUy •Mihil.ted. The7tk«,b^ L . ""' "^^ ''*« »»* *«-. who wiU. .bo«.^e; trSLtlr 1 ^'"-^ «. we« condemned to death. ile«Z 1?.^!!^ "^ P***" committed luicide. The Mh., . *■*« "'^ ">«'' »«>teiice, they •tonrttion. Met of the wrelchlH^ T^ ^ "^ **P**« «<« •lave,. TTwdi-.terwM.^il "r"^'^''»^'»W« °fAthen.we«wr2^r "^"°^"""P^'*- ""««•««»«. ni^JirST™ tZl?*th!tl^- - ^ «^ A*^ commanding position L^'"^,;:::' i^"^ * "«*« -^ ">*» from Athen,. TTu, W^. ^^1"'. ^ ^^^ only twelve Secn« in thi. .tionghoW thTIL? "?.** *** °' Athen,. '""'r ..mo« .u .h^ aS; ?u^^Slr^ ««' keep in of aty of lefage for the AthTZ. .if ^^^ ?«»'«• • "ort *»-dan.,yZ. Ueic^SnlrulJt:""*"'''''"'"''- point h«l «,ch a deteraZ^ i°« '^ ^'''''^''^'"'•'"tejPc of hioMir ,nd friMIendid victories for Athens. BuhecouM * undo the evil he had done. He had ruined Athens bcyw redemption by any human power. Constandy the strugglr pe. more and more hopeless. Alcibiades was defeated, and feariM to face the Athenians, who had deposeU him from his comma. \ sought safety in Sight. Finally, at .Sgospotami, on the Hellespont, the Athenian fleet was surprised and captured by the Spartans under Lysander (405 B.C.). The priaonera, three thousard in number, were massacred, and the usual rites of burial denied their bodies. The battle of iCgospotami sealed the fate of Athens. "That night," writes the historian Xenophon, referring to the night upon which the news of the wofiil disaster reached Athens, "That night no man dept." tht towns on the Tlincian and Macedonian coasts, and the Mstan OF rm mtjt Of Ati^g^.-^:;:;^^'^' «^ ^ b.U with the Barbuiam. ™"*"*'*«« HeHMfahwitrnggle the fortification. of.pKi, th^ W ^1^" T "P^- »»« 8«««r . Ae work of denw^L beK!^ "^ '•*•"«' •" «he ""iBtafaed that her only p^\^ ij^f ** '^ ""' '««' to regain "berty for the '(STc SeT^f 7,?' ''*"" '"' what "ft of liberty i, ^ tfJ^r!!:, !\ •^"" ''"y •»»■> «« ^^ y ^"""'•y" under her XwOian- upon the hm^tllT'rZl^Tii^^'^^y^^^.'^'nrncnting con^quence. of which, ^ZZ h^^^T^ ^"' "^^ »o« had » many cite b;enTX' t^ir.^.'" '"'»«»• "^"ver «« ther= «, „«„y inatonce. oT^n^u ^ ""°"'"' ' • • »«ver •t the tirae of d>e Pe«ii„ invL" ^"°" "r*""' *«/»«« nun.. TT-mistocle. at S^^^Zl^L't f ^'"'^ '- being a nuu withoat a city he renli^ I ^'"'"^ '^* in her ship,." But now the^^ a7 *™"^'^' "^*"» «» hen, AeBrem^ '°°'"^"'^^'^'«'«one: o«lythee»pJ THK KLOPOSifBSlAN WAM. ;« And an the int or Helht ihowed the nurki of the cruel ww. Spoti where once had ttood Urge towns were now poiture-land. Bot more lamentable than all elie betides, was the effect of the w« upon the intellectual and moral life of the Greek race. The Grecian world had sunk many degrees in morality ; while the vigor and piDductivenets of the intellectual and artUtic Ufe of Hellas, the centre and home of which had been Athens, were impaired beyond recovery. The achievemenu of the Greek intellect, espe- ciaUy fat the fields of philosophic thought, in the century following fte war were, it U true, wonderftil ; but these ttiumphs merely •how, we may believe, what the Hellenic mind wouM have done tor an and general culture, had it been permitted, unchecked, and UMCT the bvoring and inspiring conditions of liberty and self- toremment, to disck>se aU that was ktent in it n. The Spaktan and thi Theban Supremacy. Iputu HprMMSV. — For just one generation foUowing the Peloponnesian War (,04-371 b.c.), %iarta hekl the leadership of the Grecian states. AristocraUcal governments, with institutions similar to the %)artan, were established in the different cities of the oM Athenian Empire. At Athens, the demociatical constitu- tion of Solon, under which the Athenians had attained their great- ness, was abolished, and an oppressive oligarchy established in its stead. The Thirty Tyrants, however, who adminUtered this government w e, after eight months' infamous rule, driven from the city, and t e old democratic constitution, somewhat modified, was re-established (403 b.c.). It was during this period that Socrates, the greatest moralist and teacher of ai.tiquity, was condemned to death, becaus? his teachings were thought contrary to the religion of the Athenians. To this tra also belongs the well-known expediUon of the Ten thousand Greeka. 102 THE PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS. i')^.|f ^1 luiii- «ip«dl«oii of the Tto Thonnnd (401-400 bc> -Th, =m altogether unselfish. Cyrus, satn.p of the PerZ^p^'^""' Asia Minor, thinking that his brother ArtaxeraThrfH^r unjustly, was sec«Uy planning to sei^ rhiml^'^T latter part of the Pe'oponnesian War. when he ^wie ^ ^f events tummg against Athens, he lent aid to the sl^ ol posmg thus .0 place them under obligation ,0 hSt^ t could ask their aid in his contemplat^ ente^rJ^^N^w th^^^' JlT °?K "*"" °' *^ '^^°'- ToTe army of one W Snl^T. '^'^'^ """" ^^ •-'^ ™--3«3 B.C.) '■ ««>«*»i«a Bmen of Hdtaaio Bm.. - Although poKtical ernes o Sparta, Athens, and Tlebes. still we must not think ^ poUtical authonty has departed from the HeUenic Z^^ fo though the mass of the popuUtion of the country of MacedoX a^e fte lead m the civil affairs of the Greeks, may not ha^ sprung fiom the same identical stock as that f^^m whi.hl^ HeUenes arose, still the ruling class of that country were the same m race, language, and religion. The kings even took part m t"e Olympan games - a privilege accorfed to none but pure Hellenes Their efforts to spread Greek art and culture among their suEte hfrhM"""' ^•" '"^'' '"'' ""^ ">-' unaccustomed to d5 hfe, had been so far successful that the country had, to a certa.^ degree, become Hellenized. So this period of Macedonian supremacy upon which we are entermg belongs to the history of t^e politicTufe ofte Gre^ SeS'^^' """ f"""" '"''""«°"^. <="»ton,s, and mm>ners, HeUemc hmguage and avUization, that the Macedonians, in the eluded conquests which we are about to nanate. spread o^e^ fte world.. It « .h s which makes the short-lived iLedoni^^ empire so important in universal history. » Of course ie wu rather the outer fomn th«n the remi ipn,r lif. j . : Of Ui. old G«k dvUi^on which were ^J^Tn^^Z!:'^^ M8 PmUP OF UACSDOlf. n HjlBp «f M«o«loii. - Macedonia fim roie to impBrtance dur- i '■ . ^H ;■ . ' ™' " ""^ °^ pre-eminent ability, of wonderfiU «.d m,l.tary ch.eftain. The art of war he had learned inTouth as a hostage-pupil of Eparainondas of Thebes. He was the onpnator of the "Macedonian phalanx," a body as" nJTedt Jon,T''^ '' of Macedonia as is the "le^on" inThlf of .J^^ W» ''»«d°» settled and consolidated at home, Philip's amb.t,on led h>m to seek the leadership of the Greci^ .2/ ^liZ'l^ r "' r'^ "*" "^y "«■"' diplomacy Td m^t ^ \°'^" ^°"^- ^ *"= "«^ °f these weapons he Sa,'::^ rnf T"^' °'*'' ^*'™"» Themistodes"^ Conqvett of Olynthiu and Thraee — Bv fo„.» ..,-1 • ^ Philip extended his po.er overrS.elcl« ^^ i^^Tl number of which under the lead of Olynthus formed a tie ^^Tthi, y^'^ ''r'^"''^- "^"^^ A'"-'- "^d X ZT^r • "^"^ "'^^ "' *^ ^^^^ '^ subject to Aem. and they, as soon as their eyes were opened tolhiKp', «aj designs by h» treacherous dealings with them, set thems^^v^ to Jwart h.s plans. But they unfortunately acted with UtTof ^dr Z^- T^' . . ""^^^ ^™''' °'^ *« Olynthians, and then in pumshment for their having given up their Sliance with hh^ f" one w.th Athens, he took and destn>yed Olynthus. and sold ie «ij.cl V. «„w«ing to Mi„, U ^,//„,v, so the .dtu-vf^" ,"^*; /«.«j, is «,/^„v„v ..._ j^B, Gr„i Lil^ature, p m8 ^ ^"' Tl« phalanx was fonned of «,ldier. drawn up sixtcn fik. d^n .n^ nlf *, f " " '°"« *"' *<« °f «» ^ five' ITprS^t^Tvo^d the front of the colmnn, thus ooDosiniF a m^,^ A!„i, .^ P"J*"™ "^°"e «.! designs o7 Ph.hp. Hu penetration, like that of Pericles, descried a^o!d energy of h« wonderful eloquence, he strove to stir up tt Athenians to resist the encroachments of the king of Macedl He horied against him his ftmoua "Philippics," sp^eches^luld . cha«ctenzed by bittfr criticism or violent invective. ^ At length the Athenians and Thebam »m.,«.^ t, .1. ;^ a pmt expedition against Persia. Z mar4 of le ^^ of the G^can cities held at Corinth, Philip was cho^ 1 2To hi^z Td p^i^s "c.r '°" '"""'" ^"^'^"^'^ '^ AlWttdw the toat, -Alexander wa. only twenty yeara of age when he came to his father's throne. T^e gemwSh EftPrXS or ALEXANDSM. ||| won for him the title of " C.reat " wa. foiwhadowed in e«ly vooth TTie familiar and well-told story of the vicious steed Bucephalus which none dared mount or approach, but which was subdued in • moment by the boy Alexander, exhibits that subtle magnetism HEAD OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. of his nature by which he acquired such wonderful influence and command over men in after-yeais. The spirit of the man is again shown in the complaint of the boy when news of his father's victories came to him: "Friends," said he to his playmates, 11< ALSXANOB* CMOaSMS THK HMUMSPOlfT. 'f^J^^ "^ ""*" "^ •~''*^ •«> We noAtag Z^L .K^r '"''' '"PP""*'* «volU <4^ua,t hit power |hej»u.e of the poe. Ptad«.-„d!^d t^rtyZZ^TS!; -I hi. pl«„ njS, he":?.^, .. L^.Stf °' "* ■•^•' '^ ^££;^rsrt^j^i.'toT """^^ -- .elected from the sp^U^T^'i.^^^r' "^'». "^ «™°'. to tt.eTempIepfA*enaatA,h«;' "•*"" vCve offe^g is told : An oraSlT ct'„^^Treliril'°"°^"« "°^ gi^t perplexity, to choose ^Sl^i!^2^Z^ \'*"~ °^ to sacriiice in the Temple of TuT^ '^' P^° *"' """= the one whom chance tZ.^ J^ITT' '^'" '" when the people proclaimed'Sfmlmgs^"^' '" » -^°n «y that it was his son Midas -w^w^^thhT?'-^'^'' was elevated to the throne r«^f iT T " ^ther— that % r*^ •^ -^ 1 Mdg ^ ^ > I* QSDROEIA „! <^ MMPtRB OF ALEXANDER. lis yoke to the pole of the chariot would be master of Asia. Alex- ander attempted the feat. Unable to loosen the artful knot, he impetuously drew his swoid and cut it. Hence the phrase " cut- ting the Gordian knot," meaning a short way out of a difficulty. The marvellous fulfilment of the prediction in the subsequent suc- cesses of Alexander gave new faith and credit to the oracle. Jhe_Ba.tttji ^of I««I8 (333 B.C.). — At the northeast comer of the Mediterranean lies the plain of Issus. Here Alexander again defeated the Persian army, numbering six hundred thousand men. The family pf Darius, including his mother, wife, and chil- dren, fell into the hands of Alexander; but the king himself escaped from the field, and hastened to his capital, Susa, to raise another army to oppose the march of the conqueror. Siege of Tyre (332 b.c). — Before penetrating to the heart of the empire, Alexander turned to the south, in order to effect the subjugation of Phoenicia, that he might command the Phcenician fleets and prevent their being used to sever his communication with Greece. The island city of Tyre, after a memorable siege, was taken by means of a mole, or causeway, built with incredible labor through the sea to the city. This mole was constructed out of the ruins of old Tyre and the forests of Lebanon. It still remains, uniting the desolate rock with the mainland. When at last, with the aid of the Sidonian fleet, the city 7 as taken, after a siege of seven months, eight thousand of the inhabitants were slain, and thirty thousand sold into slavery — a terrible warning to those cities that should dare to close their gates against the Macedonian. The reduction of Tyre has been considered the greatest military achievement of Alexander. Alexander in Egypt. — With the cities of Phoenicia and the fleets of the Mediterranean subject to his control, Alexander easily effected the conquest of Egypt. The Egyptians, indeed, made no resistance to the Macedonians, but willingly exchanged masters. While in the country, Alexander founded, at one of the mouths of the Nile, a city called after himself, Alexandria. Ranke be- lieves this to have been the " first city in the world, after the 4f '' I ..liW\ 114 THE BATTLE OP ASSBU. w\ ten.p.e. i„ accordance with th" oH "in.^L' ouT.h:; £ received offe. of peace f„,™ Darius. taTthZ ht ist'id^ K d S^:^^^ ^-g^-^ "is death, and caused his body to Thrrr f\ I . P"'"'^"' ceremonial of the Persians. The battle of Arbela was one of the decisive coml^Hf historv West, between Persia and Greece, and prepared the ^y fo, th! spread of Hellenic civilisation over aU Western Asia ^ Alexander at Babylon, Snia, and PeiwmoM. p„ .•. ^ .. of Arbela Alexander ™ar;hed^uth to ^^^Thilronfn'edt ^tes to him without opposition. To att^h t'hfS>;S I hunsdf, he restored the temples which Xerxes had desZTand offered sacrifices in the temple of Bel. ' Susa was next entered by the conqueror. Here he seized EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER. ,ig incredible quantities of gold and sUver («57.ooo,ooo, it is said) the treasure of the Great King. " 5«a;, w J^ k/"" Alexander's march was next directed to Persepolis. where he secured a treasure more than twice as great (J.jS.ooo.- ooo. accordmg to some) as that found at Susa. Upon Pers^^s Ak^der wreaked vengeance, for all Greece had s'uffered at'S hands of the Peismns. Many of the inhabitants were massacred and others sold into slavery; whUe the palaces of the PerZ S were given to the flames. ^ Alexander, having thus overthrown the power of Darius, now began to regard himself, not only as his conqueror, but as hi sue cessor, and was thus looked upon by the Persians. He assumed the pomp and state of an Oriental monarch, and required the ^ost obsequious homage from all who approached him. His Greek and Macedoman companions, moused to paying such servile aduUt.on to their king, were much displeLd at Alex^d^J conduct, and fjom this time on to his dTath, intrigues ^d co„! T^^JZ "^ ™"'""^ '°™^'* """""S '"- ^--' his desl:^"''' 1« tl» Allan Hoin..-Urged on by an uncontrollable des.re to possess himself of the most remote countries of which any accounts had ever reached him. Alexander now led his army to the north, and, after subduing many tribes that dwelt about the t^pian Sea and among the mountainous regions of what is now known as Afghanistan, boldly conducted his soldiers over the sno^ and dangerous pas.ses of Hindu Kush. and descended into Bacfria. Had Alexander possessed our modern knowledge of the relationships of the different Arian peoples, he might ^e claim- ed, as he would have been very likely to do. the entire counter as having once belonged to his ancestors." During the years 3^9-328 b.c. Alexander conquered not only Bactna. but Sogdiana, a country lying north of the Oxus. The capture of the Sogdian Rock is considered one of his great ' S« High Sclml EnglUk Grammar, pp. 10. 11. ''i' m ' !• f I ?rM 'i!ik 116 CO/fQr£STS IN INDIA. wploits Among the captives was a beautifat Bactriah princess Roxana by name, who became the bride of Alexander Throughout those distant regions Alexander founded numerous at.es. several of which bore his own name. One of 1™"!'^ to have been built, wall and houses, in twenty days, ^ese S ernes were peopled with captives, and by tho^ whom fatS «d rmS^°"" "° '°°'^" ^"'^ *° ^°"°" '-^^ -"J-- in K \.wr^^f^ '!'^," ^"^^ "" ^''^''^^d by his murder of fcs dea^st fr.end Clitus, who had saved his life It the Granicus Both were flushed w.th wine when the quarrel arose: after the deed, Alexander was overwhelmed with remorse > Ku^'°^ ^ ^- ~ ^"^ *''' '^'^^ "°«h of the Hindu ■ l^H ,J. ^^:^'^'^' Alexander recrossed the mountls and led h.s army down upon the rich and crowded plaint oJ lnd.a (327 B.C.). Here again he showed himself invincible and ^J^ved the submission of many of the native ^^toi "e The most formidable resistance encountered bv the Macedo- mans wa, offered by a strong and wealthy king namedToS Captoed at last and brought into the presence of Alex^d«-Ts ^^ .^ \ Tt^ r- " ^""^ " ''■"«■" The impulsive Ale=^nder K^TcroS.'--^''"-' " "^ ''^"'' ''°— ' -"i- - 2>" but'tr m''" ''r^ '''' '° '"'"^ '''^ ^""l"'^*^ '° the Ganges but his sold,ers began to murmur because of the length and h^ ^s of the.r campa^, and he reluctanUy gave up the „S ^ing. To secure the conquests already made, he founded at .iifferent points in the valley of the Indus, Greek towns and col^ B«,n.„ cc„„W„ were nJcd by Hellenic prince, for .ha. k"^' oH L^ ^ EMPISE OF ALEXANDEK. 117 nies. One of these he named Alexandria, after himself; another Bucephala. m memory of his &vorite steed; and still another Nicasa, for his victories. The modem museum at Lahore con- tains many reUcs of Greek art, dug up on the site of these Mace- donian cities and camps. Bediioovery of the Sea-route from the Ihdtu to the Enphra. tet. — It was Alexander's next care to bind these distant con- quests in the East to those in the West. To do this, it was of the first importance to establish water-communication between India and Babylonia. Now, strange as it may seem, the Greeks had no positive knowledge of what sea the ii,1us emptied into, and only a vague idea that there was a water-way from the Indus to the Euphrates. This important mariUme route, once known to the civilized world, had been lost, and needed to be rediscovered. So the conqueror Alexander now turned explorer. He sailed down the Indus to the head of the delta, where he founded a city, which he called Alexandria. This was to be to the trade of India what Alexandria upon the Nile was to that of Egypt. With this new commercial city established, Alexander sailed on down to the mouth of the river, and was rejoiced to find himself looking out upon the southern ocean. He now despatched his trusty admiral Nearchus, with a consid- erable fleet, to explore this sea, and to determine whether it com- municated with the Euphrates. He himself, with the lai^r part of the army, marched westward along the coast. His march thus lay through the ancient Gedrosia, now Beluchistan, a region fright- ful with burning deserts, amidst which his soldiers endured almost incredible privations and suflerings. After a trying and calamitous march of over two months, Alex- ander, with the survivors of his army, reached Carmania. Here, 10 his unbounded joy, he was joined by Nearchus, who had made the voyage from the Indus successfiiUy, and thus "rediscovered one of the most important maritime routes of the worid," the knowledge of which, among the Western nations, was never' aeain to be lost. * III n a 118 PLANS AND DEATH OF ALEXANDER. i^ To celebrate appropriately his conquests and discoveriet Al« ander „>stituted a series of religious festivals. amS^^S'ch ^ «.ld.ers forgot the danger of their numberless battles aid Z hardship, of the,r unparalleled marches, which had put toThe tes' every power of human endurance. And weU might these veterans glory in their achievements. In a few years they had conquered half the world, and changed the whole course of history. " '■nangea tne H«a «d Dwth of Al.»nd.r.-As the capital of his vast «.p»e which now stretched from the Ionian Se'a tol Mu Alexander chose the ancient Babylon, upon the Euphrates. S designs we have reason to believe, were to push his conquest, « for to the west a? he had extended them to the east. Ara^ Ca^ Aage Italy, and Spain were to be added to his alrea^ vLt domains. Indeed the plan, of Alexander embraced notoglfj than the umon and HeUenizing of the world. Not only werf Z peoples of A^ and Europe to be blended by means of loloni^ but even the floras of the two continents were to be inteSed o&er. Common Uws and customs, a common language and a common religion, were to unite the world into one J^t f^Uy Intermamages were to blend the races. Alexander Lsel Z?.' ned a daughter of Darius III., and also one of Artaxerx"s Octe- tte ten thousand of his soldiers, whom he encouS TZ^ Asiatic wives, he gave magnificent gifts. In Ae midst of his vast projects, Alexander was seized by a at Babylon, 3»3 b.c, m the thirty-second year of his age. His soldiers could not let him die without seeing him. The watcher^ of the palace were obliged to open the doors to them, and the veteran, of a hund^d l»tUe-fields filed son^wfuUy pas, the cout ^hi r, r^ «^°°>»ander. His body was cairied. first, to Mem- ph«^ but aftenvards to Alexandria, in Egypt, and there e;closedTn a golden coffin, over which was raised a splendid mausoleum »s ambition for celestial honors was gratified in his death for ta Jl« BltPlKB OF ALEXANDER. ng Egypt and elsewhere temples were dedicated to him, and divine woi'ship was paid to his statues. OharMter of Alwwnder. — We must not pass this point with out a word, at least, respecting the character of this remarkable man, who, in a brief career of twelve years, changed entirely the currents of history, and pressed them into channels which they would not have followed .but for the influence of his life and achievements. We cannot deny to Alexander, in addition to a remarkable genius for military aflairs, a profound and comprehensive intellect. The wisdom shown in the selection of Alexandria in Egypt as the great depot of the exchanges of the East and West has been amply proved by the rare fortunes of that city. His plans for the union of Europe and Asia, and the fusion of their different races, might indeed seem visionary, were it not that the degree in which this ' was actually realized during subsequent centuries attests the sanity of the attempt. He had iine tastes, and Uberally encouraged art, science, and literature. ApeUes, Praxiteles, and Lysippus had in him -i munificent patron; and to his preceptor AristoUe he sent large collections of natural-history objects, gathered in his extended expeditions. He had an impulsive, kind, and generous nature : he avenged the murder of his enemy Darius ; and he repented in bitter tears over the body of his faithful CUtus. He exposed him- self Uke the commonest soldier, sharing with his men the hard- ships of the march and the dangers of the battle-field. But he was self-seeking and self-indulgent, foolishly vain, and madly ambitious of military glory. He plunged into shameful excesses, and gave way to bursts of passion that transformed a usually mild and generous disposition into the fiiry of a madman. The vindictive cruelty he manifested in his treatmont of the Tynans can be only partiaUy palliated by reference to the spirit and usages of his age. The contradictions of his life cannot, perhaps, be better expressed than in the words once applied to the gifted Themistocles : « He was greater in genius than in character." Bemilti of Alexander's Conqnecti. —The repiarkable conquests III 'I.ift 1« • MMSULTS or AlSXA/fDE/es CONQUESTS. ^t^f"!^ ftr-re.chfag conse^juence.. They ended the long .truggle between Perri. wd ( ^e, «nd .p^^Be^ >W^'„^ ~ narrow anc local, we« widened, and thus «, important preparation wa. made tor the reception of the cosmo^ pobtanc^ed of Christianity. The world was L given a're^ S^Stl' f T; ""''r * f-^her preparation; for the"S of Chnsttan teachings. Nor should we fail to recaU the redis- covery of the maritime route from India to EuroJ«^ wWc"ihe hutorum Ranke. regarding its influence upon tradl 2 com! exSr " ":' "' *" ■""' '"P"""' ^'^'^ °' ^"* But the evil effects of the conquest were also positive and far- wealth of the Peisum Empire, and contact with the vices and eS't: "n, °^.*!.?^«"^ -ti-. had a most demorl^ effect upon Hellenic hfe. Greece became corrupt, and she in ZLS^^"^ ^"^ "^ ^""^ of "aauit^wL" r I'll' i SMPtXi OF ALEXANDKK. HI CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF GRECIAN HI^Ry ^ THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Legendtcy Age . Early Hutoiy a( SpMU . . . Etrly Hiitory of Athens . . . Period of Graco- Peniu W*r . Period of Athenian Supremacy . . Events of the Pelo- ponnesian War . Penod of Spartan Supremacy • I tJ° 7^'°^''" ^"- ''Ben'l'ry date . . I The Dorians enter the Peloponnesus, about fLycurgus gives laws to Sparta. . • I rhe Messenian Wars .... « C Rule of the Archons . « Rebellion of Cylon ."''■'„ _ \ Le^slntion of Solon . . " ' " ., Pisistratus rules . . • ■ ■ y Expulsion of the PisUtra'tidie .' ' ' ' ' ' "don^f ''!"°" "' '*'""• ('""'5' Mari Battle of Marathon '. Battle of Thermopyke Battle of Salamis. . .' Battles of Plataea and Mycaie . . '. \ \ Athens rebuilt .... Aristides chMen first preiident'ofthi Con^ federacy of Delos . . Themistoclea sent into ejtile Ostracism of Qmon PemlM at the head of iffairs-'Periclewi 'Beginning of the PeloponnesianWu . Pestilence at Athens .... " ■ ■ Expedition against Syracuse . . ' ' ' Battle of .f^gospotami Close of the War . 1 194-1 1 84 1104 850 750-650 1050-612 613 560-527 510 49J 490 480 480 479 478 Rule of the -Hiirty Tyrants at Athens ' Expedition of the Ten Thousand ' Peace of Antalcidaa . ' ' ' Oligarchy established at Thebes ' " ' " spartan power broken on the field of Le'uc- Period of Theban Supremacy . Period of Macedo- nian Supremacy , ■ 1 ""JlJf "'*'"'"'■'" "^ death of Epaiinon^ ' Battle of Chxronea Death of Philip of Macedoii .' ' ' ' " Battle of Arbela . .' I Death of Alexander at ibylon .' ." '. 477 47' 459 459-431 43» 430 41s 405 404 404-403 401-400 ^' 38* 37< 37" 36* 338 336 334 333 33' 3*3 )» oryjum OF mn tuu-nui of aiexandu. \\\ CHAPTER IX. STATK FORMED FROM THE EMKRE OF ALEXANDER. Wfiiiaii of the Impin of Akanto _Th« - «gnet rtag to his.genen,l Perdicc„. But ScTl 2 !l enough u, ™«,er .he difficultie, of ti.e .i^S x2TZ o strong enough to rule the worid? indeed, who Consequently the vast empi,« created by Alexander's unpar- fc^^b t. H """"^ ■•'.' ^ **=""»'= •'"'ken into manj fragments. Beside, mmor state,.' four weB-defined and important of «t .nd rhetoric. tuli„ i^^f * "tt Tt "'"^'' "" •""«'• tcchm of oratory. ^* * ••'^"" ""^ ""l" Rkodim Macedonian. kTo a pu" "' ^ "T^f *«o<>«% conquered by ,he .o the «,».!. of gZ^ "• **""■« "*" '» "» l^ory of U»t cfty tl-n - / 1 1' 4 f I I •I M by theaccompaayimf fflao Tl^, T^ '^ ** °'"^« shown Ptolemy ruled E^Zc T^"" '^'^*^ '° '^^ I»' "^^ °*«""" by Pompey the Great, and became a part of the Roman Republic, 63 b.c • The most important of these were the foUowing ■ — capital aIsoca^ledpi™T """'"'''"= P""^"' Asia Minor. lu an'dci;i.ti:randXri^'::«:Lr:„r ""'•' '"^"" '"™'"'^ ofbeing, next to Alexanta. i„ P^ .7 "''''™''' 8^""^ '''"»'>>™ world, 'in ,3JBC^T.r,I,r.S^kni '^Tl. "'^ "' *= """-"'- wa. a perfecftissue of Mi«;v ^ "'l^'"',^.'' !"'"• "<^«' " "f' "Wch p.op.e.'Tho i-.diate;tr.^'7„":f::^^';jir°'!, '° f • ^^-^ province under the name of Asia '^ ' ""* °"^« " '"» » .he'E„?hr««:.^t^tiTa:fZ:^i'"rrr •'•'''^* •"> «« °f Empire (from about .^5 Ba"^tn\ It. w '"'" "'"""''^ '"'"«" .nemie. of the rule™ of Syria and kt„ of 1 r"^ "" "!.""' '■°™'"'""^ aUowed .0 m..e any considU con':r4;^/rE".pi::ir: ""^ """ I8S KUfGDOM OF THE PTOLEMIES Iff EGYPT. Kagdom of the Ptolemiet in Xmt („,_,„ bc ^ -n, .mportant m its influence upon the civUization of the JrW Alexander The founder of the house and dynasty was Ptolen-v I sumamed Soter- (jaj-^Sa B.c.). His desceVdanu ruledTn S tud hfe of the world. Ptolemy was a general under Ale3^ and seeded to possess much of his aWlity and testis™' with a happy fteedom from his great commander's faults ^' _Upon the part, t.on of -h.e empire of Alexander, Ptolemy received Egypt, with parts of Arabia and Libya. To these he add^^ conquest C.le-Syria. Phoenicia. Palestine, Cy^re, td Sri Fonowng the usage pf the time, he transported orhuS thousand Jews from Jerusalem to Alexandria, attached Lm to ^ person and poUcies by wise and concilia^ LT^^ "A of the East and the West which was the dream of Alfxander J^ ^''"°" °^ "" '"""''^ °^ **°""' Lebanon, and the com- mand of the art.^ns of Ph«nicia, enabled Ptotem^ to re-lets plansofmakmg Egypt a naval power, and the emporiuro't' car^m. trade between Asia and Furope. Alexandn^bec^me L great de^t of exchange for the productions of the world At Ae entrance of the harbor stood the Pharos, or Ught-house -the fitt structure of its Idnd,- which Ptolemy'builtfo glid^'hTfltL: J:i:r Lt:i:mVrsct^r ^ «r "-^-^^ •^^ -- ^piUl the inteUectua, cen^rotrwoIl^.The^ac': wt,: ^l arts, scences, literatures, and even the religions, of the worTd shoo^^ lege, which became the "Univenity of the East," and esllblhed J^^^^^;^" "'"■ "' ''' '^-o'"- '-. «»«.udc for STATSS FORMED PROM ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. 187 the renowned Alexandrian Libraiy. Poets, artists, philosopheis. and teachen. m all departments of learning were encouniged to settle in Alexandna by the conferring of immunities and privileges, and by gifts and munificent patronage. His court embraced the leammg and genius of the age. Ptolemy Philadelphus (,83-247 b.c.) foUowed closely in the footsteps of his father, canying out, as far as possible, the plans and policies of the preceding reign. To secure Egypt's com- mercial supremacy, the old Pharaonic canal uniting the Nile and the Red Sea was restored, and roads were constructed to facilitate the transportation of merchandise f^om the ports on that sea to the nver. Philadelphus added largely to the royal library, and ex- tended to scholars the same liberal patronage that his father had r^fore him. l-he surname Philadelphus (brother-lover) was given this Ptol- emy on account of his tender devotion to his wife Areinoe, who was abo his sister. Tliis usage of intermarriage among the mem- bers of the royal family - a usage in which the Ptolemies foUowed what was a custom of the ancient Pharaohs -was one of the (auses of the contentions and calamities which at last overwhelmed the house with woes and infamy. Ptdemy III. {2^^-^^^ e.c.) was called by the Egyptians Ener- ptes (benefactor), because in one of his wars-a war against the kmgof Syna. which led him beyond the Euphrates -he recap- tured and placed again in their temples some statues of the Egyp- han gods which the Persian conqueror Cambyses and the Ass«ian Sargon had borne away as trophies. He was possessed of great mihtary genius, and under him the dominions of the Ptolemies touched their widest limits; while the capital Alexandria reached the culmmating point in her fame as the centre of Greek civiliza- tion. Altogether the Ptolemies reigned in Egypt almost exactly three centuries (323-30 b.c.). Those rulers who held the throne for the last two hundred years were, with few exceptions, a succession of monsters, such as even Rome in her worn days could scarcely lis MACEDOmA AND GRBECB. fflfl frf «qn«L TTiese moiwrchs plunged tato the mort despicable ex- cesses, and we« g«lty of every foUy and cruelty. Tlfe ^"^f mtermarnage .beady mentioned. led to endless iamlly qXls, .i luH J :k "^ ^'T""'' ■""^"'''' ««» "" '"e dark deed^ mcluded m the calendar of royal crime. Tl.e stoor of the re- nowned Cleopatra, the last of the house of the Ptolemies. wiU be tLZ. '°"°"'"'° *** """"^ ""^^ "" '"=" ■' p"»^y r,!^*t!^u?°* Ow«oe.-F,om the time of the subjection of Greece by PhJ.p and Alexander to the absorption of Macedonia mto the pomng dominions of Rome, the Greek cities of the penmsuU were very much under the control or influence of the Macedoman kmgs. But the Greeks were never made for royal subjects, and consequently they were in a state of chronic revolt against this foreign authority. Thus, no «)oner had they heard of the death of Alexander than several of the Grecian states aros, against the Macedonian general Antipater. and earned on with him what is known as the £amian war (3»3-32' b.c.). The struggle ended disastrously for the Greeks, and Demosthenes, who had been the soul of the move- ment was forced to flee from Athens. He took refuge upon an JsUnd just off aie coast of the Pelopomiesus ; but being stiU Lted by Antipater. he put an end to his own life by means of poison. The next matter of moment in the history of Macedonia was an nivasion of the Gauls (Celtic tribes from Scythia). under the lead of Brennus (279 b.c). Both Macedonia and Greece suflered terribly from these savage marauders. Being driven from Europe, *e barbarians finally settled in Asia Minor, and there gave name to the province of Galatia. Macedonia now comes in contact with a new enemy- the great mihtary republic of the West. For lending aid to Carthage ifThe second Punic War, she incurred the anger of Rome, which resulted, after much intngneand hard fighting, in the comitry's being brought ^m the dty of Umi, in Themljr, where Antip«er w« b.,ieged by the STATES FOKMED FROM ALEXANDElfS EUPtXR. 12» In the year 146 b.c. it was into subjection to tlie Italian power, erected into a Roman province. Tlie political afiairs of Greece proper during the period ,/e are considering were chiefly comprehended in the fortunes of two confederacies, or leagues, one of which, called the Achaean League embraced finally all the states of the Peloponnesus,' as well as' some cities outside its Umits ; while the other, known as the ^to- han League, comprised many of the sutes north of the Corinthian uuif. United, these two confederacies might have maintained the political independence of Greece; but that spirit of dissension which we have seen to be the bane of the HeUenic peoples led Uiem to become, in the hands of intriguing Rome, weapons fiist for crushing Macedonia, and then for grinding each other to pieces. Soon after the conquest of Macedonia, the ^tolians were made tributary to Rome. At the same time, a tiiousand of the leadine citizens of the cities of the Achaean League were, on the pretext of their conspiring against Rome, transported to Italy, and for ^enteen years kept as political prisoners in the different cities of Etruna. At the end of that time the surviving exiles were allowed to return home, the perfioious Romans foreseeing and hoping that then- desire for revenge would betray them into some violent act which would afford Rome a pretext for invading and confiscating their temtoor. AU fell out as anticipated. The exiles we™ no sooner returned to their native land than they stirred up their countrymen to revolt against Rome. Corinth, which, since the Peloponnesian War had ruined Athens, was the most splendid city ^ ' Spart«w« not a member of the Uague at fint, bot its jealou. and bitter enemy. The Spartan king Qeomene, » iged with the confederated Mate. ^ I T-^^^. '^'"^'"" ^'"' <^''*-"' »•=■)• The League «,aght and obtained aid of Macedonia, and Sparta waa defeated. sZl^TZ°^f^ conf«le™,ion, «»«,!t Freeman's «l,«tble work entitled History afFaUral Cmutilutions. ISO aaviEw. of ^ Greece^ taken by the Ronum Mmywrf UUd m Mhes (.46 Bc ) TO,wa, the I«t act ta the long Ll v« <» >«» varied potocal fortunes, seized upon one after another by the mpacity of moril^r*^!"* "J""*"" '* "^ •« -"^ P'e-^^ter task to trace the more bnUjant and worthy fortunes of the artistic and intellectTsd hfe of Hell« : to portray, though necessarily in scanty outto" Ae tared, to lead captive her captor." ^^ STATMS FORIISD FKOM ALKXANDBltS RMPIKB. 131 RULERS or THE KINGDOM OF THE SELEUaD/E. Sebocnl., Nlcuor, fonnderofthakiii(ilom 3i>-j8i ABtiochu I.. Sotet ,g,_,4, AntkielKu n„ Theoi a6i-j46 "~=»*" «4* ""« "«ep « Jhe.n.n.aucr^nVr.fltL;'*;:^"'^- ^^'^ to expend more labor and ca«Z™,T' ^ ^ encouraged bqpm to make r.^Z^S^^ '^"'- '^'" "^^itect^. of Solon at Atheni thlT^- ^ ? '='"'"'>' '*'"°'"n« "^ W Ortei of Anhite^nn _ n./ DORIC OtPITAL WNIC CAPITAL. ?o?nS.""^yrd.SSh':^tm^-*'^c.an,the difference, in the proportions^^!! '^"' °~ '"°'^" '^WeAy by, . r^ Doric coluLnZ„T?^^Sr» °f "•- column, rive capital. The prototvoe of 11^%? """P"' ^'^ •»"■ Hassan, in Egypt. At fim thf it "^ """' ** ''*" « B«°i- more refined. ^ '"^yP*"" t""P'«. but later they became aJIBSX AKCHITBCTURE, BTC. ||B The Ionic column It chancterixed by the ipinl vcdnte* of the capitiL Thh fonn wm borrowed from the Auyriani, and wa* prindpaUy employed by the Greeki of Ionia, whence its name. The Corinthian order ia diitinguiihed by iu rich capital, formed of acanthus leaves. This type it made up of Egyptian, A^yrian, and Grecian elements. The bell shape of the capital is in imiu- tion of the Egyptian ityle. The addition of the acanthui leavet it laid to have been suggested to the artist CalUmachus by the pretty etTect of a basket surrounded by the leaves of an acanthus plant, upon which it had ac- cidentally fallen. This Older was not much employed in Greece before the time of Alexander the Great The entire structure was ^made to harmonize with its supporting columns. The general characteristics of the several orders ate well por- trayed by the terms we use when we speak of the " stem " Doric, the "graceful" Ionic, and the " ornate " Corinthian. XmpU of Sbuia at SphMns. — The temple of Diana at Ephe- Stts was one of the oldest, as well as one of the most famous, of the sacred edifices of the Greeks. The original structure was com- menced about the beginning of the sixth century B.c, and, accord- ing to Pliny, was one hundred and twenty years in process of building. Croesus gave liberaUy of his wealth to ornament the shrine. It was known far and wide as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. In the year 356 B.c., on the same night, it is said, that Alexan- der was bom, an ambitious youth, named Herostratus, fired the building, simply to immorlalizc his name. The roof of the stme- COaiNTHIAN CitnTAL. 1^ j . ill " ';' 1' Hi ' '.' 'i: ■.( rSJIfPLS OF DTANA AT EPmsVS. splendid donatio.. BU„.ei: Id t Tp^ w^^^er "^t '" Ae.r masterpieces assigned a place Jthin i^ wanf/o tha^t So nviolable was t^e sanctity of ^he temple that at^im- a especially in times of tumult and d»na^ !! ""^t""". and we„= carried to it as a S retsiS^f' CT ^Tc J'^T "uctuao.pn.ved too great a te'mptaL .o'llm'^em";*: which Alexander', name L e^Iyed "ll" .' "'''" ■»• >«■• '»"»<» •!»« theBritiri.Mu«u«. '=""«»«'' "-*«l'"to'. The d,b m,y be Ke. in heap. of';;„,d .„d .u," le^^^ij:^^^^'^, "' ^""■«'"«- -n.. W«.d of Cyp™.. were found in tt.eX?.'b.Lnr V ^f""' " "" pie. Tie pri.=:, often loaned out J^!^'^ T^" "'' ««" ^<^ the revenue fron, thi, „urce bei'g^ddriTftJf "?. T^"' ""' ""■»• temple and from the hthe, of war^tf ,1 *! 'r "" '*«'• '-■" "f «>« of the .hrine. Wen-y liken the wSn^^^ "•""" °' "" «^'» Medieval churches. "The^. ™, 1 '?"""' '™P'« "> "»' "f «« ae tempie property in Greecr^'^n^td^^;"' "h'"^"" ^'""^ Heuure of th, Parthenon at AthensT™!7 '^ ^ P™"" ■"" *« •reaaure here ^elong«i ,o .he SUte ^nH ","P"™ '^ "■" ""'■ fhe vote of the people. Even ae™, '=°'"'°""' "O <'»I»«<1 "f by .he pe7 of .he^fu. (J^ " *;f^^,^ P"!"^ °f ''"Kodd.", .he gold'd... interat "'°" ** «pl«ed m due time, wi.h . fafr CKEEK ARCHITECTURE, ETC. m Nero. He risked incurring the anger of the great Diaoa, and robbed the temple of many statues and a vast amount of gold. Later (in 262 a.d.), the barbarian Goths enriched themselves with the spoUs of the shrine. The temple itself fared but little better than the treasures it guarded. The Goths left it a ruin ; and long after, some of the celebrated jasper columns were, by order of the emperor Justinian, carried to Byzantium, and there at this day uphold the dome of St. SophU, once the most noted church, now the most famous mosque, in all the East. Other columns from this ruin were taken to Italy and built into Christian churches there ' Th« Delphian Temple — The first temple erected at Delphi over the spot whence issued the mysterious vapora was a rude wooden structure. In the year 548 b.c., the temple then standing was destroyed by fire. AU the cities and states of Hellas con- tributed to its rebuilding. Even the king of Egypt, Amasis, sent a munificent gift. More than half a million of dollars' was col- lected; for the temple was to exceed in magnificence anything the world had yet seen. It will be recalled that the Athenian AlcnueonidsE were the contractors who undertook the rebuUding of the shrine (see p. 55). The stnicture was impressive both in its colossal size and the massive simpUcity that characterizes the Doric style of architect ture. It was crowded with the spoils of many battle-fields, with the nch gifts of kings, and with rare works of art. Like the temple at Ephesus, the Delphian shrine, after remaining for many yean secure, through the awe and reverence which its oracle inspired suffered frequent spoliation. The greed of conquerors overcame aU religious scruples. The Phocians robbed the temple of a treas- ure equivalent, it is estimated, to more than % 10,000,000 with us (see p. 109); ana Nero plundered it of five hundred bronze images. But Constantine (emperor of Rome 306-337 a.d., and founder of Constantinople) was the Nebuchadnezzar who bore off ' The tite of the temple was for many centuriM lost; bat in 1871 Mr Wood, M eacavator, uncovered portiont of its ancient pavement, and brought to lighl fttgmenti of icalptute, which may BOW be seen io the British Museum. 138 THE ATHENlAtf ACROPOLIS. the sacred vesseh and many statues as trophies to his new capital then nsing on the HeUespont. ^ The AtheniM Aewpolit ud the PMthenan. _ i„ the history of art there is no other spot in the world possessed of suchiml^^ Atht T^t "^' '^"^ '*"«="'"'*' '"^'=>' constitt-teHe Athenuu. Acn,pohs. We have seen that in early times the emt crh J .• h!! " '*^'^^°"^- ^"' ^y *« fifth century b.c. Z c.ty had slipped down upon the plain, and the summitTthe rock was consecrated to the temples and the worship of the deiti^ Zd came ,0 be called " the city of the gods." ,^,i„g .he ;^K Athenum supremacy. especiaUy in the Periclean Age, Helknk ATHENIAN VOUTH ,N «0CESS.0N. (P.„ «.. ,^ ^ ^ ^^^^^ ffjruus and piety adorned this spot with temples and statues that alUh^world has pronounced to be faultless specimens o1^ V^eT"'.^^^"^. °^ *" ^"^^^ -P'"' *e Acropolis was the IV^^r^'^^r"^"""' °' ""^ "'Ki"-8°'Jdess Athena.'^Thi! IS considered the finest specimen of Greek architecture It wL designed by the architect Ictinus, but the sculptures Tha ador^ ■t were the work of the celeb,at«l Phidias ■ ft wrb^UMn t^ «!»' iw^f:^!!'.^?.:''"'-! "^ "■-'-* —<• "■« •«"?>« - .b. pro. \-m .ti] 1« TSE MAUSOLEUM AT JtAUCAMASSUS. half of this masteroiece ofVnT . "nagazme, and more than TT.C front is^ S^p^S'^dt r *'""' "'" ''^"'""'• of the Acropoh, ^t the ^^^ Se ""^ •"""''"^■" '~'«« : .dJi', , THE PARTHBNON (?««, eendftionj. lii.*"A^Lir SfTTT"''!"' '■'""-■"ijn.rrf -o HS "lom was me renowned sculptor Scopas exe- honot of the patron-goddeu of Athene Tk i in the BritiA MuKarae^hZrt .™° '"«" 1«« "' "« ««. i. now tk.p«.. lidX„^^°- J^"!.^"* ^J™"'' ^'*' C«r„ ,/ Minerva. To ^^ ' *" ^reared wone tbu Tudalivn. la THEATRES AM OTHER STSVCTVSES. i cuted the wish of the oueen Vm™ u feet «,„a„ the monum^^"^ """ " "^ f^' ^^^ "undted to a height of one hundred and forty feet. Its sides were deco- rated with a multitude of statues and figures in reUef j while sur- mou .ting the monument was the statue of Mausolus, standing in a marble chariot drawn by four horses. The chief remains of the Mausoleum are numerous sculpt- ures dug up on the site, and now preserved in the British Museum. These assure us that the admiration of the ancients was not accorded to this work without suflScient reason. It is the traditions of this beautiful structure that have given the world a name for aU magnificent monuments raised to perpetuate the memory of the dead. Theatrw and Oth«r Stmo. *MM. -The Greek theatre was semi-circular in form, and open to the sky, as shown in the accompanying cut. The struc- ture comprised three divisions: first, the semi-circle of seats for the spectators; second, the or- chestra, or dancing-place for the chorus, which embraced the , space between the lower range '^"°**°"= "oxumentoTL^I^m^ of seats and the staee • anri tki-j .% for the actors. ^' ""^' "^ «*»««, a narrow platform CREEK AKCHtTECTVRE, ETC. 1« The most noted of Greek theatres was the Theatre of Dionysus at Athens, which was the model of all the others. It was partly cut in the rock on the southeastern slope of the Acropolis, the Greeks in the construction of their theatres generally taking advan- tage of a hillside. There were about one hundred rows of seats, the lowest one, bordering the orchestra, consisting of sixty-seven marble arm-chairs. These were brought to light by excavations made in the year 1862. The structure would hold thirty thousand spectators. Ai'icng commemorative edifices raised in honor of the living, the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, at Athens, known also as the Lantern of Diogenes, is regarded as the most beautiful The structure is only thirty-four feet high. It is of tlie Corinthian order of architecture, and was intended to commemorate the victory won in 334 B.C. by Lysicrates, the leader (Choiagus) of a chorus (see p. 2ci). There are no specimens preserved to us of the domestic or palatial architecture of the Greeks. ' 'J. ni. SCUUTUBE AND PADmNO. PrognninSoiilptnre: Infliteiioe of th« Oymnaitio Art. The subjects of the Grecian artists were usually taken from the sacred myths and legends. Wood was the material first employed. About the eighth century b.c. bronze and marble were generally substituted for the less durable material. With this change sculpture began to make rapid progress. Another circmnstance aided the development of the art. It became usual to commemorate victories at the national games by statues of the victor. The grounds about the temple at Olym- pia became crowded with " a band of chosen youth in imperishable forms." Now, in representing the figures of the gods, it was thought, if not impious, at least presumptuous, to change a single line or lineament of the conventional f .rm ; and thus a certain 144 PXOCXXSS IN SCULPTURB. Earptuin ngidity wa5 imparted to aU the pioductions of the .««,. A.y material change subjected him to L cha^fe of Lri^ ™S ^ ^^ '^'' "° conventioMliam, bei.« perfectly fi^ to exercue hu skill and genius in ■■ / «» handling his subject Progress and improvement now became/ possible. But what exerted the most positive influence upon Greek sculpture was the gymnastic art. The exercises of the gymnasium «nd the contests of the sacred games afforded the artist unri- vaUed opportunities for the study ofthe human form. "The whole race," as Symonds says, "lived out its sculpture and its painting, rehearsed, as it were, the great wo As of Phidias and Polygnotus, in physical exercises, before it learned to express itself in marble or in color." As the sacred buildings in- creased in number and costliness, the services of the artist were called into requisition for their adornment. At fint the temple held only the statue of the god • but ^er a ,me .t became, as we have already seen, a sort IF^ museum-a repository of the artistic treasures of the state T^ enUbUture, the pediments, the intercolumniations of thTljnZ and every mche of the interior of the shrine, as weU as X s^' rouning grounds and groves, were peopled w,th sutut Id ^Z J ^'""- ""''"'"* ^ ^'^ "««« '^■«"«ed artists, "d representmg the national deities, the legendaty heroesT^rTa PITCHING THE DISCUS, OR QUOIT. (Oitcobolut.)^ eSSBX AKCaiTBCTVKR, BTC. 145 the public games, or incidents in the life of the state in which piety saw the special interposition of the god in whose honor the shrine had been reared. FhidiM. — Among all the great scnlptors of antiquity, Phidias stands pre-eminent. He was an Athenian, and was bom about 488 b.c. He delighted in the beautiful mythi and legends of the Heroic Age, and from these he drew subjects for his art Phidias being an architect as well as sculptor, his patron Pericles gave into his hands the superintendence of those magnificent buildings with which he persuaded the Athenians to adom their city. It was his gen- ius that created the wonderful fig- ures of the pediments and the firieze of the Parthenon. The most celebrated of his co- lossal sculptures were the statue of Athena within the Parthenon, and that of Olympian Zeus in the temple at Olympia. The statue of Athena was of gigantic size, being about forty feet in height, and was con- structed of ivory and gold, the hair, weapons, and drapery being of the latter material. One hand of the goddess rested upon a richly- carved shield, while the other held aloft an ivory statue of Victory, it- fcund A AthaiK In 1880, which ii up- Self a masterpiece. On her feet , . Mw of th. <»io»«i •»<"• were golden sandals. The statue of Olympian Zeus ATHENA PARTHENOS. (After • Itilin poMdtob* of AthoM twt} ua PWDtAS. «1«r ««i »«. of fc "idyls' 2°"*" " *= Phiduu also executed other ""^*J>- »«>rb in both broiue and marble. He met an unwonh)* fate. First he was accused of having stolen a part of the gold put in his hands for the statue of Athena in the "rthenon. This charge was dis- prcwred by the golden drapery bemg taken from the statue and weighed. Then he was p,o.e. cuted on another charge. Upon the famous shield at the feet of u. the statue of Athena in the Par- ""^ ^"'mm!^ ""* " bjr Pope:- °' "" ""^ i» «» S-ngc thus tnuuUted ■ H. q>a.. ui .,ftl hodi hi. „bl. !«, iS^dmll""' '•^°" 'fc' bl]r abont 35 bx., hat perMicd ; tbt well-known group at florenee if a Roman copy. Vjliffu, — Thi» artiit, a native of Sicyon, it tenowncd (at hit workt in bnoie. He flourithed about the middle of the fourth century ac. Hit lUtuet were in great demand. More than lix hundred piecct of his work were to be counted in the different citiet of HeUu. Many of tbete were of colotial lize. Alexander gave the artist many orders for statues of himtelf, and also of the heroes that fell in his cimpaigns. Oham ui th« Bhodiu (Momu. — Lysippus, Uke aU men of great genius in any ait or science, had many disciples and left many imitators. The ina t noted of his pupils was Chares, )rho gave the worU the celebmted Colottui at Rhodes (about »8o b*.). This was another of the Seven Wonders of the World. Its height was one hundred and seven feet, and a man could barely encircle with his arms the thumb of the statue. The expense of itt erec- tion (about > 500,000) was met by the sale of spoils obtained t^ the Rhodiana in war. After ttan^ng little more ttm^ half a cen- tury, it was overthrown by an earAqnake. For nine hundred yean the CokMtus then lay, like a Homeric god, prone upon the ground. Finally, the Arabs, having overrun this part of the Orient (aj>. 672), appropriated the statue, and thriftily sold it to a Jew- ish merchant It is said that it required a train of nine hundred camels to bear away the bronze. This gigantic piece of statuary was not a solitary one at Rhodes ; for that city, next after Athens, was the great art centre of the Grecian world. Its streets and gardens and public edifices were literally crowded with statues. Hundreds met the eye on every hand. The island became the favorite resort of artists, and the various schools there founded acquired a wide renown. Very many of the most prized works of Grecian ait in our modem museums were executed by members of these Rhodian schools. The "Laocoon Group," found at Rome ia 1 jo6, and now in the Museum of the Vatican, is generally thought to be the work of three Rhodian sculptors — Agesander, Athenodorus, and Fblydo- ISO GKBEJC PAMTWC. "»■ The order for the work wa« n»,K.M ■ . * emperor Titus (a.b .l^Z^J^'^T"' ^ "'•^omai. one of the hill, If LL^^' " *"' '"^^ '^""^ his pluce on ill THE UOCOiiN GROUP. that perfection which thT^^^VT ^ ?^" ^"'"«'« *« «« '° CREEK ARCHITECTURE, ETC. ]S1 never, like sUtues, objects of adoration ; hence less attention was directed to tliem.' With the exception of antique vases and a few patches of mural decoration, all specimens of Greek painting have perished. Not a single work of any great painter of antiquity has survived the accidents of time. Consequently our knowledge of Greek paint- ing is derived chiefly from tiie descriptions of renowned works, by the ancient writeis, and their anecdotes of great painters. These classical stories are always epigrams of criticism, and^us possess a technical as well as literary and historical value, For this tea- son, we shall repeat some of them. PMygnotM. — Polygnotus (flourished 475^55 b.c.) has been called the Prometheus of painting, because he was the first to give fire and animation to the expression of the countenance. " In his hand," it is affirmed, " the human features became for the first time the mirror of the soul." Of a Polyxena,' painted by this great master, it was said that "she carried in her eydids the whole history of the Trojan War." The Athenians conferred upon Polygnotus the i^hts of citiie^ ship, and he out of gratitude painted upon tiie walls of some of their public buildings the grandest fi-escoes the world had ever looked upon. The fall of Ilium and the battle of Matatkon wck among the subjects he represented. ZenxiB and ParrhaHtii. —These great artists li»ed ad p«oied about 400 B.C. A favorite and femihar stoiy pieserres their nanes as companions, and commemorates their rival graiius. Zeoos, such is the story, painted a cluster of grapes which so ck)sely imi- tated the real fruit that the birds pecked at them. His rivri, for his piece, painted a curtain Zeuxis asked Parrhasius to draw aside the veU and exhibit his picture. " I confess I am surpassed," 'The influence of religion upon art is illustrated bjr the ItalUn Renaissance, when painting entered the service of the Church. See Mybrs' Uedimal and Modem History, pp. 345, 346. • Pol/«na was a daughter of the Trojan Priam, bmous for her beauty and sofiernigs. She wa» sacrificed »• an atonement to tha shadea of AchUlefc J, '. 'i-t i\ Itff it m APELLES. gematmriy admitted Zeuxis to his rival. "I deceived binfa. but you have deceived the eyes of an experienced artist." Zeuxis executed orders for paintings for sacred buildings in Greece and Italy, for his fame was not confined to a single land In h« latter years he refused all remuneraUon for his pieces, esteeming them beyond price in money. A very improbable stoiy « told of his having " died with laughter at a picture of an old woman which he himself had painted." .^iita Apelles, who has been called the " Raphael of an- uquity," was the court-painter of Alexander the Great He was such a «)nw,mate master of the art of painting, and carried it to such a stale of perfection, that the ancient writers spoke of k as ^t T t^I^^l- ' "" """' -celebrated painting wa. a lepre- SMtatum of Aphrodite just at the moment the goddess is .Mine ftom the sea-fo«. Centuries after the death of Apelles this paint ^was carried off to Italy by the Roman conquerors, and for a tn«ad»ned a temple at Rome, erected in honor of Julius C«sar !«»eral well-wom stories illustrative of the estimation in which ne w» held by his contemporaries are told of Apelles. Emerine o-e day the studio of the artist Protogenes, and finding him ^nt, mste«l of leaving his name, he drew, with his own inim- ^ ?!>?' " "°*'"' '™ "P°" " '^^' '^'^ *« «thd,ew. When Protogenes returned, and his eye caught the line he ex churned that no hand but that of ApeUes ever'drew JT, slke Butin attemptmg to imitate it, he perceived that he had himself ■nwssed It ; and, with a natural pride in his success, he instructed hB servant, npon the return of the stranger, to direct his attention nval had done. Thereupon he drew a faird line that far sur- passed either of the other two. Upon beholding it, Protogenes ™shed forth into the city in search of ApeUes, for whom he^v^ ^million ""'"^" friendship, combined with the greatest A second tale is told respecting a contest between Apelles and some aval artists, in which horses were the objects rep^sented. GREEK ARCHITECTURE, ETC. IBS Perceiving that the judges were the Battle of the Giants against the Gods. The Altar is supposed to have been built by King Eumenes II. ('97-'59 ^•^O- The sculptures are now to be seen in the Berlin Museum, though they have not yet been placed in permanent posidon. Taken as a whole they may, perhaps, in the series of Greek sculptural monuments remain- ing to us, be given a place second to the Phidian sculptures of the Athenian Parthenon. Consult Besckreibung der ptrgameniuhen Bitihoerket official pub- UcatioB of the Berlin Museuok w IM £XC£LLBACE Of GItEEX UTEXATUKE. CHAPTER XI. GREEK LITERATURE. I. luTRoDucroRy. lence attained bv them in^Jl. ^ ^' ^* ^^^^ of excel- tion,. as inccUle in^Ltd'^.^^^s' ttrtr^^ ""h statues. The excellences of Greek lite J,m. Z, '^ ' ""^ a system of thou2 T. ^T T "^ P^'losophy, viewed as "»»,,„« o™.,- b™«, .™„,oL„4'„rr.S; GREEK LITERATURE. IgJ close connection in ancient Greece between Philosophy and Uter- ature. Periods of Gnok Utontim. — Greek literature, for the time covered by our history, is usually divided into three periods, as ■ follows : ( I ) The Period before 475 bx. ; (j) The Attic or Golden Age (475-300 B-C-); (3) The Alexandrian Age (300-146 b^.)- The first period gave birth to epic and lyric poetryj the second, to history, oratory, and above all to dramatic literature ; while the third period was one of decline, during which the productions of the preceding epochs were worked over and commented upon, or feebly imitated. Occasionally, however, a gleam of real genius brings back for a moment the splendor^ of the departing day. II. The Period before 475 b.c. The Homeric Poena. —The earliest specimens of Greek poetiy are the so-called " Homeric poems," consisting of the Iliad and the Odyssey. The subject of the Iliad is the " Wrath of AchiUes," and the woes it brought upon the Greeks who pressed the siege of Ilios or Troy. The Odyssey tells of the long wanderings of the hero Odysseus (Ulysses) up and down over many seas while seeking his native Ithaca, after the downfall of Ilios. The first poem, which is by far the superior of the two, must be pronounced "the masterpiece of Greek Uterature; perhaps of all hteratures." Before being committed to writing, it had prob- ably been preserved and transmitted orally lor several generations. It ;ias been translated into all languages, an4 has been read with an ever fresh interest by generation after generation for nearly three thousand years, Alexander, it is told, slept with a copy beneath his pillow, — a copy prepared especially for him by his preceptor Aristotle, and called the " casket edition," from the jewelled box in which Alexander is said to have kept it. We preserve it quite as sacredly in all our courses of classical study. The age ia which the poem was written has 1???!? caU-c-d the ChUdhood of the World. The work is characterized by the fresh- IM TBS HOMRKK POEMS. "*" «nd vitality of youth. It exerted an incdcnUble influence upon U» litemor-nd religious life of the Hellenic ™ce ft^ m^e wamors «wen u poets, for many of its passages are inrtfac! wA the martial spirit. I, incited the milita-TSoTof^ «der of Han^bal and of C«ar; it inspi^Virgil, Cef^ Milton. AH epic writers have taken it as their model J^ •^^AntlWMhlp of tlw BoMrig Po«m,. _ Until the rise Of modern Geinian criticism, the /-iarfand the C^,^ Jell;::: MOBEH. universally lucribed.to a single bard ma^d Homer, who was beheved to have lived about the middle of the ni«h or' JT Z W, nl °°'a^u' "? ^'""""^ '^ *^ ^^«* commemorated in fo rhono r^' -'"f °" "P"^"'^ "^"^-^^ as contending forAe honor of having been his birthplace, sta he was generally regarfed as a native of Smyrna, in AsU Minor. Be Lve^ widely (so It was beUeved), lost his sight, «A th«, m a wS^ »« minstrel ,.„g his immortal ve,«s1radmirini.LT^ oisferent cities of Hellas. ' ' CKEEX UTERATURE. 167 But at the cloie of the last century (in 1795) the Gernian ichcdar Wolf, after a critical study of the two Homeric poems, declared that they were not, either of them, the work of a single poet, but that each was made up of a large number of earlier short lays, or ballads. The work of uniting these separate pieces into the ISad and the Odyssey, he believed to have been performed under the direction of the Tyrant Pisistratus (see p. 54). Wolfs theory opened a great " Battle of the Books." Since his day there has been no lull in the so-called " Homeric controversy." The following are the pretty generally acknowledged results thus iar of the great debate : The Iliad soA the Odyssey, as they stand to-day, are not, either of them, the creation of a single poet. They are mosaics; that is, they are built up out of fragments of an extensive ballad literature that grew up in an age preceding the Homeric. The extent, variety, and beauty of this pre-Homeric literature implies a very tong period of Hellenic development lying back of the age that produced the Homeric poems. The Iliad is the older of the two poems. It is made up of two epics, the "Wiath of Achilles" and the "Doom of Ilios," the fonoer of which is by far the more archaic. Each of these earlier epics wac itself made up of still earlier lays. The "Wrath of Acfailks," which tmmi the nucleus of the Iliad as we have it, may, with very 9«at ywltn^jil ity, be ascribed to Homer, whom wc may believe to have been one, aid that the most prominent, of a brotherlnedof bafdi, or rhafndists, who flourished about 850 or 750 »^ The Otfy$tey is probably a ceatary later than the lUad. The unity of the poem is greater than that of the Iliad, and it bears so plainly the imfuesuoo of a single great mind, that we may well believe it to 'oe essentially the work of a single bard, instead of a band, or fratnaity, of poets. But the theory of the single author- ship of the Odyssey does not imply that the entire contents of the poem were the cseation of a single mind. Like the Iliad, as aiready omnoed, it «u>s mailm op of pre-existing lays, or epics, welded together. im r«« HBSlODtC POEMS. '^^^^t^^'^^Z^ ^"^ " C">tu7or more of natuieindof re^ W "^' """"""^ P°en«. was the poet He«od riCof com™™™ 'T''? *^ ""«'«^ *'"> men. Thi.rm ih, "' '" "P"' "■ ™'*"«d »''"-'*^ «»'' -0»y/ morality and beautifull«:rirve^!^^/' "'"""'y. ""«'™ »' virg^^^^w .a. b..«, u'';;:rrr-t2;r'''~'"- I^no Poetnr; Piiii|«r. — a. »n,v , . neroes. Homeric and Hesiod^m. ^^ ^^' "P'^"*'"! by the «.. earner part"oTtt«rS^'^2ri^'.:r.'''^-'r Po^^ the mo.t -worth? produc?':?''.?.tr'^- >- singer, were Alc«us and SZ N^h^K '" "' °^ "'"'^ need«i than mention of the fecuhat the P '"^'^ °^ ^^"^ '^ so pleased with his venj tLTh v!. ^°'"*" P°" ^°'^'' "^ of the Lesbian bal^ ^"""'^ ^"^'*"''» ^"'i™ "des The poetess Sappho was exalted bv the r~.i. . to Homer. P^to ^Us her the Tenth' Muse «'of^ t" ""' of the world," writes Symonds, "of all the ill,,?^ '^^ literature, Sappho is the on, tl Jlustnous artists of unmistaklble'^ie r- j'TtCr "°1 "" ^ ^""'^ --^ Although her tr^^^l^^^^l^l}^^^^^^ «-=." ments, has perished. ^^' ^ ^ *""^ ""= fr3«- 'mi Cg£EK UTEKATVIti. M Anaaeon was a courtier at the time of the Greek tytanniei. He was a nativt of Ionia, but passed mucli of his time at the court of FOlycrates of Samos, and at that of the Tyrant Hippaichus at Athens. He seems to have enjoyed to the fUU the gay and easy life of a courtier, and sung so voluptuously of love and wine and festivity that the term "Anacreontic" has come to be used to characterize all poetry over-redolent of these themes. Simonides of Ceos (556-468 b.c.) lived during the Alrsian Wars. He composed immortal couplets for the monuments of the fallen heroes of Thermopylx and Salamis. These epigrams were burned into the veiy soul of every person in Hellas. But the greatest of the Greek lyric poets, and perhaps the greatest of all lyric poets of every age and race, was Pindar (about 533-443 B.C.). He was bom at Thebes, but spent most of his time in the cities of Magna Gnecia. Such was the reverence in which his memory was held that when Alexander, one hundred years after Pindar's time, levelled the city of Thebes to the ground on account of a revolt, the house of the poet was spared, and left standing amid the general ruin. The greater number of Pindar's poems were inspired by the scenes of the national festivals. They describe in lofty strains the splendors of the Olympian chariot- races, or the glory of the victon at the Isthmian, the Nemean, or the Pythian games. Pindar insists strenuously upon virtue and self-culture. With deep meaning, he says, " Become that which thou art " ; that is, be that which you are made to be. 't / ■ III. The Attic or Golden Age (475-300 B.C.). InflneiicM FaTonUe to a Oreat titoratore.— The Golden Age of Greek Literature followed the Persian Wars, and was, in a large measure, produced by them. Every great literary outburst is the result of a profound stirring of the depths of national life. All Hellas hsii heen profoundly moved by the tremendous struggle for politio-J existence. Athens especially had hoped all, risked 110 OMGM Ojr THE GKBSK DMAttA. rflif^ .JI Her citeM now fel. „ „„,onted exlution of the bteruy activity of tlie period. The AtUc Literature embraces almoit everv loecimM nf competition, yet .l,e Dr«na. Hi.u„y, «,d CW a^^o^. tee time for the production of great dramatic work^ TTie two ^whiriH tr:f"'^ ""• " "PP""*"- .udience^wt out which, t i. awerted, a great drama cannot exiat, met in the «i~»«. the noblest pro». "^ -x^rt^j^Ss^tTpi^rTrt-r «-- -- their,*M.thT-^^".:;tr4r'^''"'^»" '^^ ^^•^. ceptible of a S ^caS "' Cemt *' J'^^ '"'" ^•"- conc^. shifted. eludSwasTn.boii.Xruds'^ deceived, *hrrai:^at^ra::^„r.r "-- -^^^ -^ ceo. of the demagogues o^IrtenT "' ""' '=°'"='''^ ^ »«"«» critic 3yu,onds: « is ^v casUe^ t ""'r*" '^ """'^ *« which m.,ht tie the LTof The Ath^." ^t ^ ^'""* having a general appUcation it wis aimfdl- T^J ^^ *■"'« .ious Sicilian schemes of ^^'i^rtrTtSf^ "'"! ""'''- appeared, the Athenian army waTl^' c ^ ""'^ *" Pl^^ .the goo. news ^aiiy arriving.TASSL'^i/r' '^ ^u. ar^tlo, and indulging in the I^t «^1*! T' oreams oi univenal dominion. «Bavagant day- GKEEK UTEKATOKB. yg, J^^r^Tl ** ^ """'*' *' P'O'^ding. in .he Atheni« But Aristophanes was something more than a master of meie mmh-provokmg satm: and ridicule : along with his exquisite sense of tl,e humoroj, he possessed a nature most delicately «msi.ive to fte finer emotions Many of the choruses of his pieces an inex- pressibly tender and beautifiU.' « ukx MstDfy and Historians, Poetiy is the first form of Utenuy expression among aU peoples. So we must. not be surprised to find that it wa. noTmitU^S centur.es after Ae composition of the Homeric poems-thl^t alK,ut thes«th century B.c.-that prose-writing {pealed amo» the&wks. Histoncal composition was then first cultivated V^ can speak briefly of only three historians — Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon — whose names were cherished among the an- cients, and whose writings are highly valued and carefiUIy studied by ourselves. HModotM. — Herodotus (about 484-403 B.C.), bom at Halicamassus, m Asia Minor, is called the « Father of History." He traveUed over much of the then known world; visited Italy, Egypt, and BabylonU; and describes as an eye-witness, with a never-faiUng vivacity and freshness, the wonders of the diifeient lands he had seen. Herodotus lived in a story-telling age, and he is himself an inimitable story-teller, ^ .1. . , , To him we are indebted for a large part of the tales of antiquity- stories of men and events which tc never tire of repeating. He was over-credulous, and was often Lomedy. Hu plajr. were »oy pojwUt with the Romans. HERODOTUS. IM HISTORY; HEKODO 'VS. ;i « imposed upon by his guides in Egypt and at Babylon; but he describes with great care and accuracy what he himself saw. It is sometimes very difficult, however, to determine just what he actu- aUy did see with his own eyes and experience in his own person ; for it seems certain that, following the custom of the stoiy-teUera of his time, he often related as his own personal adventures the experiences of others, yet with no thought of deceiving. In this he might be likened to our modem writers of historical romances. The central theme of his great History is the Persian wars, the struggle between Asia and Greece. Around this he groups the se\eral stories oi Jie nations of antiquity. In the pictmw which the artist-historian draws, we see vividly contrasted, as in no other writings, the East and the tVest, Persia and Hellas. The fundamental idea of the whole history, the conception which shapes and colors the main narrative, is the same as that which inspires the tragedies of ^Eschylus — the doctrine of Nemesis. This is expressed in the admoniUon which Artebanus is repre- sented as giving to his nephew Xerxes, when the king was medi- tating his expedition against Greece : "Tlie god loves to cut down aU towering things ... the god suffers none but himself to be haughty. Rash haste ever goes before a fall; but self-restraint brings blessings, not seen at the moment perhaps, yet found out in due time.'" Possessed by this idea, the historian becomes a dramatist, and his history a world-tragedy. In the ethical lesson it teaches, it is practically an expansion of the .lEschylean drama of the Pence. Besides this leading Herodotean idea of Nemesis, there are two other important conceptions entering into the historian's phUoso- phy of the universe. These are the notion of the Divine Envy (see p. 33), and the general doctrine of the interference of the gods in human affairs. Herodotus had a naive belief in omens, oracles, and miracles generally, and this leads him constantly to attribute to preternatural causes the most ordinary events of his- » HtrodMui, Book VII. chap. 10. Quoted by Profeaor Jebb, Cruk LUcra- t»re, p. 105. GKBEK UTEKATURE. ]«) toiy. Hii belief in the old immoral doctrine of the Enry of the Gods, —which he retains along with his maturer views of Neme- sis,— causes him to delight in telling stories illustrative of the viassitudes of life and the insubility of fortune, as witness his t«Ie of Polycretes (see p. 37, note). Thueydidat.- Thucydides (about 47>-4<»o b.c.), though not so popular an historian as Herodotus, was a much more philosoph- ical one. He was bom near Athens. A pretty story is told of hb youth, which must be repeated, though critics have pronounced it fabulous. The tale is that Thucydides, when only fifteen, was taken by his father to hear Herodotus recite his history at the Olympian games, and that the reading and the accompanying applause caused the boy to shed tears, and to resolve to become an historian. Thucydides was engaged in military service during the first years of the Peloponnesian War; but, on account of his being unfortunate, possibly through his own neglect, the Athenians deprived him of his command, and he went into an exile of twenty years. It is to this circumstance that we are indebted for his invaluable History of tkt War tetween the Pehponnesians and Athenians. Throagh the closest observation and study, he qualified himself to become the historian of what he firom the first foresaw would prove a memorable war. " I lived,^' he says, "through its whole extent, in the very flower of my understanding and strength, and with a close application of my thoughts, to gain an exact insight into aU its occurrences." He died before his task was completed. The work is considered a model of historical writing. In fairness, truthfutoess, clearness, and philosophical insight, Thucydides has never been surpassed as a nanator and interpreter of events. Demosthenes read and re-read his writings to improve his own style ; and the greatest orators and historians of modem times have been equally diligent siudents of the work of the gieat Athe- nian. THUCYDIDES. \%\ ' ^. m XENOPHOlf. and., known both » a general and a writer. TTie work, tha «nder h.. name «, familiar are hi, AnaK.U, a ,i™p,e ye, SiSl n«n«,ve of the retreat of the Ten Thou«ml Greek, 3tf MemoraMa or Recollection, of Socrate.. Thi^woi^ £ tiaiture that we poue» of that philowpher ^ ^BMr and More". Utopia. ^^ t the^r ^a.^r-an^^^p^^tr ^'''"'^•""r «.erof their-nstitutions. ,n rXr^l. Hl^r.^- that concerned the state were discussed and decided -^ au. The gift of eloquence secured for ite powessor a sure ore emmence. and conferred a ceruin leadership ^^e affa^ of smte The law-courts, too, especially the great jury courts of A hens we^ ^hool, of onttory; for every citizen ^obliged to Si oJ^ .towed upon public speaking, and the high degiee of perfection a^tamed by the Greeks in the difficult art of perasion. " It^ r ™r„i:Cor ' " " ^'°"'""' -eni^elt fe^tof rj; hl^,! ^,^:;-'' V""-""^ - »' -«»^ " ™. He con. .n^^e,u.c.rUin,H.ve.op.d.popr;:^^Jn^- J-- OMiiC UTMKATVnM. 171 rM>»im ud P«rt.l«.._we >.•>, already become ae- quainted »uh Themistocles and Pericle. a. lUtesmen and leaden of Athenian aflain during the most rtirring period of Athens' hit. toiy. They both were also great orators, though they are not generally classed with the orators of Greece," and to that fact were hrgely, if not chiefly, indebted for their power and influence Thucydides has preserved the oration delivered by Pericles in commemoration of those who fell in the first year of the Pelopon- nesian War. It is nn incomparable picture of the beauty and SJoiy of Athens at the zenith of her power, and has beon pro- nounced one of the finest productions of antiquity. The language of the address, as we have it, is tht historian's, but the sentiments are doubUess those of the great statesman. It was the habit of Thucydides to put speeches into the mouths of his characters. BwMrtlwiiea ud AoliiiMi._It has been the fortune of De- mosthenes (38S-3M b.c.) to have his name become throughout the world the synonym of eloquence. The labora and struggles by which, according to tradition, he achieved exceUence in his art are held up anew to each generation of youth as guides of the path to success. His first address before the public assembly was a complete failure, owing to defects of voice and manner. With mdomiuble will he set himself to the task of correcting the»e. He shut himself up in a cave, and gave himself to the diligent study of Thucydides. That he might not be tempted to i^nd his time m society, he rendered hi; appearance ridiculous by shav- ing one side of his head. To correct a stammering utterance, he » Anliphon (480-411 B.C.) wu regarded by the Greeks as the Snt of the ten Athenian oraton. Ly.ia. (458-? -8 B.C.), iKxrate. (43(^338 «x.) «id iKu, (b. about 420 B.C.) were aU noted repreaentalive. of thfait poutical or forensic oratory, and foreninnen of Demorthenea. We ahoold caU Isocrates a rhetorician instead of an orator, a> hi> discourKS (which for the moat part were wntten for others to deliver) were intended to be read rather than qMken. The Roman Cicero was his debtor and imitator. • " This custom stm prevails throughout Hellas. Wo man of note dies with- out the offering of this last tribute by his friends or reUtives, Many mea make the delivery of these funeral orauons their profession."— Tui*v«his. m DMMOST/tMJfSS AND AtSCHINES. m OEMOSTHENES. rfn T " ''°"''""' *" ""=•• '""h in them at least- that Demosthenes attained success, in spite of great discouiage- CJIBBK UTBKATVJta. 171 menu, by penevering and laborioui effort. It U ceruin that he wai a met diligent .tudent of Thucydide., whoK great hi.tory he U laid to have known by heart. More than >ixty of hii ontion. luve been pre^rved. "Of all human production, they present to ui the modeli which approach the nearest to perfection." The latter part of the life of DenHJsthenes is intertwined with that of another and rival Athenian orator, yEschines. For his •ervicei to the sute, the Athenians proposed to award to Demos- thenes a crown of gold. .Eschines opposed this. All Athens and strangers from far and near gathered in the Agora, to hear the nval orators; for every matter at Athens was decided by a peat debate. Demosthenes made the grandest effort of hu life. His address, known as the "Oration on the Ciown," has been declared to be "the most polished and powerful effort of human oratory." .tschines was completely crushed, and was sent into exile, and became a teacher of oratory at Rhodes. He is said to have once gathered his disciples about hi- 1, and to have read to them the oration of Demosthenes that ha. roved so fatal to himself. Carried away by the torrent of its e.„4uehce, his pupiU, unable to restrain their enthusiasm, burst into applause. "Ah I " said /Bschines, who seemed to find solace in the fact that his defeat had been at the hands of so worthy an antagonist " you should have heard the wild beast himself I " Respecting the orations (PhiUppics) of Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon, and the death of the eloquent patriot, we have •Iready spoken (see pp. no, ia8) IV. ThE Alexandrian Ace (300-146 ba) Character of the LitaratnM.— The Alexandrian period of Greek literature embraces the time between the break-up of Alexander's empire and the conquest of Greece by Rome (300-146 b.c.). During this period Alexandria in Egypt was the center of lit- erary activity, hence the term Alexandrian, applied to the liter- ature of the age. The great museum and libraty of the Ptolemies N 174 jroXATS A AD WRITERS. ZT u ^°"'^-«'X' ^ Alexandrian liteZetc'eT^h translato^-in a ^o'^Sor^^r^"""™'' ~"""""»'o-. and *«.-/ (Latin for s^iT Ut : Has^ ^.^k!!'' *^ kept m the an:h.ves of the ijgyptian temples. Just Zm the worK hut the^J^a hlh SL^le'^'^'"' °^ ^^^ nLSutp-'^-rpTLTr^^^^^^^ OonolMioii: OraBeo-Bomau Writeri. — After th» p / vo""u> 2"3 121 B.C.), who wrote a history of rh» Roman conquests from 264 to .46 bc h;, rUTT^ ^ . i»«er patt of it ha. .eache^. us t: tt^'^^Z^ f-f^'tf GgBBlC UTBHATVKa. ns great wmth ; for Polybius wrote of matten that had become his- toiy m his own day. He had lived to see the larger part of the wOTld he knew absorbed by the evergrowing power of the Impe- rial City. "^ Diodorus Siculus (lived under Augustus Caesar at Rome) was the author of a General History of the World. Herodotus had grouped aU his material about the struggle between Greece and Rraa, but Diodorus Siculus makes Rome the centre of the whole story. Already men were coming to regard Rome as the pre- ordained head and ruler of the world. Plutarch (b. about 40 a.d.), "the prince of biographers," will always live m literature as the author of the Para&l Lives in >vhich, with great wealth of illustrative anecdotes, he compared or contrasts Greek and Roman statesmen and soldiers. The motive that led Hutarch to write the book, as we may infer from the par- tahty which he displays for his Grecian heroes, was a desire "to show the world that there was a time when the Greeks were suoe riot to the Komani." t I 176 RELATION OF MYTBOLOGY TO PHILOSOPaY. CHAPTER Xir. GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND SaENCE. BelatioB Of Kytholonr to Philo«)phy. - Philosophy has l-«, mythology d.d not become sufficiently wise to be called ohS^ ophy ™.il U,e si^th centuty b.c. kL, ,hat tte tie t^ began to thmk and to inquire in a philosophical manner r«S^ mg the phenomena and laws of the universe of mind and ^r pv,ng the most attention at first, however, to the phj^aU^w Havwg once entered upon this path, the Greek racT reXin" ^^ at a bound, the loftiest heights of m<^.^^. mstruction in verse, "dragging the hexame eC Jone £r^ t "»Jong the pathway of their argument upon the e^tiiri^e a pompous sacnfical vestment" He,acUtuV(about joo tc) ^ cussS'Tr"""'" ""^'"P'"^ P"- i" Pha= "-^ fr°™ "Wch jr •t h!^ 7*«=/<="''«d; for the Greek mind could not resruna It had found unity. Thales believed water to be the fim p^ S; wX.'"" '"'"' ""' ''^''^■' ""^ «^-«»- tS. ■ d J^? !!" °"^"^ '"■"'°' "" *" "'^^^ ''•^ supposed to be denved by a process of rarefaction and condensl^ Jh^ lmri\T?'"''""= ''^ modem theory of astrono,^;al^II^ hmon, which, from an original infinitely expanded gaseousTetaU produces by successive condensations the air, the w^eTa^d t^' sohd rock of the various planet,.) Rain wa^ ^mpTcin^d its own, natmally mounted to its native snSere ^r^ "^ This Phi^sophical notion helps us to uLtrdlh? J/^^' Idea of the ancient sacrifices. The gods were pleaseTX t^ offenngs. because these being converted into feme o" couW be actually partaken of as food by the celestials. ' P^agoras. -Pythagoras (about 580-500 b c Was bom „n .h- •sland of Samos. whence his tide of "^i^ll^'^^2^^ ttadition says that he spent many years oiTi e^f L in^^^ where being admitted, through the 6vor and fafluence of S Amasts, to the sacred colleges of the priests, he^^Tvl^f aU the mystenes of the Egyptians. He returned to Greece^J. " great reputation, and finally settled at Croton, in I^T Her^ he ^thered about him a renowned school, or so ie^ cSposSTf S.X hundred companions, aU selected with specie «!^'^ capacity to assimilate his peculiar doctrine, ^ ° *'" Like many another ancient philosopher, Pythagoras sought to :'tob„rn"). Tl,. «h„„,fi„ formed a. rh*fKr.\r^,*"'"' .■«•■"■■« just as It u turn eupberes the earth. •phwe above iht ak, easphetijig it ejtE£/C PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE. in incieue the reverence of his disciples for himself by peculiarities of dress and manner. His uncut hair and beard flowed down upon his shoulders and over his breast. He never smiled. His dress was » white robe, with a golden crown. For the first years of their novitiate, his pupils were not allowed to look upon their master. They listened to his lectures from behind a curtain. Ipse dixit, " he himself said so," was the only argument they must employ in debate. It is to Pythagoras that we are indebted for the word phihsopher. Being asked of what he was master he replied that he was simply a " philosopher," that is, a " lover of wisdom." Pythagoras held views of the solar system that anticipated by two thousand years those of Copernicus and his school. He taught, only to his most select pupils nowever, that the earth is a sphere ; and that, like the other planets, it revolves about a cen- tral globe of fire. From him comes the pretty conceit of the " music of the spheres." He imagined that the heavenly spheres, by their swift, rolling motions, produced musical notes, which united in a celestial melody, too refined for human ears. Music held an important place in his system of philosophy. He taught the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, an idea he had doubtless brought firom Egypt. Because of this belief the Pythagoreans were strict vegetarians, abstaining religiously beta the use of ^1 animal food. Anaxagorj. — Anaxagoras (499-427 b.c.) was the first Greek philosopher who made mind, instead of necessity or chance, the arranging and harmonizing force of the universe. " Reason rules the world" was his first maxim. This proposition, which makes mind and matter two distinct things, and mind the fashioner of matter, marks a turning-point in Greek philosophy. It based it upon the same fundamental conceptions as that upon which the Hebrew philosophy of the world rested, and prepared the way for the union, four centuries later, of these two systems of thought, at Alexandria (see p. 189). • Anaxagoras was the teacher in philosophy of Peiides, and it it lae EMPBDOCLBS AJfD DEMOCKITOS. I ! habited; and taught Cri""""' ^ *' ««", «,d i„. -^ « la^e. p A : t v:^-::, "^ "" - «'°'^'^ " It is not I who have lost the l^^,' l *T"'""'"' ^e said, have let me." Athemans, but the Athenians who (aSr^arlcTa^fS-'" *" ^-h^^^of Empedocles meet witr«;;f;s;ee ,atns "Trti:: r"' ^.'*'-"° »-) - and the origin o/^ing^Xh^^Lr'^^'f "^ "^ '»-«'«' the doctrines held byZie^ tieu T^^"' """^ '° """^ "' Empedocles was an evolutionist • He said "Sinn, .k u- ,. fotms of life can only arise out nf rt,. i 'u ' ** ''«''" regarded as the lower s^ thl k k T'' ^''^ "»"" ■»"« be In this cond«sionl^:S^aftict:^''''L°"""'-"»'P»'-" twenty centuries; butTeXliMt'^^ ""^'"" evolutionist, selection) through the oLl^ ? '^"" °"' '^^ ■*' C"'*""! takes piienr»£h^j~ i::''S«?- n'^" ™'*^°'' remained only a guess '^'^ ^^ ^ '° *" °"8m of specie. " constitutionV^matterL^ Aefol!^ " ?''f ""^ «=«'"*^ the ceived an things, i^^L^t ZTbe * m "Jf V "' """■ uncreated atoms, all alike in o^^LT! ^T*^ °^ '"^'"'le, combination. K^Jec^ ZT^l-^' f'^'^^H » f""™ »» n pre.ex.stence; teaching that the ideas of reason, or our ntl De«Ur'"T"!.°';'^'"'""™-' "a'o'-loctn!,^, n^noTnl, ^ T\ """""^ "P"" »" '*=''°°" °f 'hought and phJo«>ph,e, «„ce h,, day. In «,me of hi, precept, he made a clo« approach to the teachings of Christianity. "We ougrto become hke God," he ^.id.-as far a, thi, i,'po«,ibIe; Td o 4M«0tto. — A, Socrate, was surparaed by his pupil Plato >o in ZJI T '"f 1"^ "" ''-'^'' AriLtlef -i'm:'. "^f those who know." In him the philosophical genius of the Hel- •• Our birth ,1 Uil • .Icep md a (bigelting; Tb« mil llut riiea with iii, our lUe'i uu, Halh had elsewhere its setting, And oooMth fma aJar; Not in eotire forgetruhiess. Nor ret ia utter nakcdneu, Buttrailin,cioudsof,l,i,,dowecoa.e From God, who U our hoiiK."- Od. „ ImmMalU,. AncJ again: "And but for our inrface and distracted Ii.~ i- i i. , the mo« par, in .h« ..„«,_„ .hould Uv. „e "r t^ ' Z ~ L"' '""' '" «iv„. into .he fl„b .d d««« .ni :n..r t;::^; ^XX"' " CKSEA- PHILOSOPHY AND SCtESCS. |u Sli"'2^i """^ '«. =uImm..ion. I. ™y b. d„„bted r^r '^ , ■*" "»" hU time have produced k> profound City of Sugua (384 b*.). Md hence i. frequently called the " Su- ARISTOTLE. girite." As in the case of Socrates, his personal appearance gave ^vTdelt' ^' kT'"- "' "^ ' ^"'^ and'contempSu: body, the defects of which were made more noticeable by his over- '■■•H IM ZKHO AND TUB SrO/CS, •crap a» ere af hii dre» Md bjr tho finery he wore. Hi. tether PUto, however, recognized the genjut of hit pupiL ud callea him the " Mind of the Khool." When he miMed him fiom the clan he would jay, " Intellect i> not here to-day." He abo caUed him "The Reader," becauie he devoured lo eanrlv the works of the maiten. After itudying for twenty years in the school of Plato, Aristotlo- became the preceptor of Alexander tii-j Great. When Philip in- vited him to become the tutor of his son, he gracefully compli- mented the philosopher by saying in his letter that he was grateful to the gods that the prince was bom in the same age with him The royal pupil loved his great teacher with an affectionate devo- tion. He said, " I owe great love to my father and to my teacher Aristotle ; to one for living, ^d to the othet for living well " Alexander became the liberal patron of hu tutor, and. besides givmg him large sums of monty, aided him in his scientific studies by sending him large collections of plants and animals, gathered on his distant expeditions. At Athens the great philosopher delivered his lectures while walking about beneath the trees and porticos of th' Lyceum- hence the tem ferifiatelic (from the Greek peripatt h, "to walk about") applied to his philosophy. He died 3« B.r, the same year that marks the death of Demosthenes. Among the productions of his fertile inteUect are works on rhetoric, logic, jroetiy, moials and politics, physics and meta- physics. For centuries his works were studied and copied and commented upon by both European and Asiatic scholars in the schools of Athens and Rome, of Alexandria and Constantinople Until the time of Bacon in England, for nearly twp thousand years, Aristotle ruled over the realm of mind with a despotic sway All teachers and philosophers acknowledged him as their fuide and master. Zeno and the Stoic* -We are now approaching the period when the political life of Hellas was failing, and was being fast overshadowed by the greatness of Rome. But the inteUectual Ufe CMMSX M/lOSOntY AND SCtBftCB. |(7 «*d It. pobtkal exwicnce. For centuiie. ufter that event the port^ KhoUn, ud philowphert of this intellechul people led a WffiMt c«eer in the KhooU uid univenltie. of the Ronun wcmd. • J!T, '^ '" '.*" P''"°~P'«" "f ^ long period, we c«, •elect for brief mention only a few. And fin.t we .hall .peak of Zroo and Epicuru.. who are noted a. founder, of Khool, of phi- towphy that exerted a va.t influence upon both the thought and the conduct of many centuriei. Zeno, founder of the celebrated Khool of the Stoic, lived in fte third century before our era (about 362-264). He Uught at Athen. in a public porch (in Greek, slo„), from which circuro.tance come, the name applied to hi. diKiples. .K^'r '".v"^ PWIowphy wa. the outgrowth, in part at lea,t, ol that of the Cynic, a Kct of mou rigid and austere moral. The typical representative of thi. k t i. found in Diogene., who lived •o the .tory goes, in * tub, and went about Athen. by daylight with a tantem, in warch, as he said, of a man. The Cynic were nmply a race of pagan hermits : Diogenes wa. the Simon Stylite. (a tioted Christian ascetic) of the mcL Zeno adopted all that was good in the code of the Cynic, and. addmg to thB everything that he found of value in the systems of oAer philosophers, he formed therefrom his new philosophy It became a favorite system of thought with certain classes of the Romans, and under its teachincs and doctrines were nourished some of the purest and loftiest characters produced by the pagan worlu. It numbered among its representatives, in later time, the Illustrious Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, and the scarcely less renowned and equally virtuous sUve Epictetus. In many of ite teachings it anticipated Christian doctrines, and was, in the philo- so^cal world, a very important preparation for Christianity. The Stoics inculcated virtue for the sake of itself Tliey be heved-and it would be very difficult to frame a better creed - that " man's chief business here is to do his duty." BoUilv pain 188 EPICORUS AND THE EPICURSAlfS. *S^ X; '"«' "^ *^y^^ooU6 themselves ,o bear sTJ^or l™""^'"" '">"°' '^^ ''«'""y ™8ht appoint. Any 3unnr K°", """""'"^ calamity was consider^ ^J^l and unphilosophical. Thus, when told of the sudden death oTh^ . ^^tittmrno-? """' ' — -- --ss:;: Epioum and the Bpiourean.. - Epicurus (34,-„o bc) ■ ^e indeed tf^t " '"^ ''«'"=^' «°°'^- «* '^--mended vir- Whereas the Stoics made vmue an end in itself. I„ other words Epicurus said, "Be virtuous, because virtue will bring yr^ c^^tZuife^r '°"°"'"'"" ^""''' ^-^ "''' ''°<='^« were eagerly embraced by many among the Romans during the corrupt and hcenfous period of the Roman empire. mL of S Jsoples earned the doctrines of their master to'an exc^ hat he himself would have been the first to condemn mere l:rlLTor T«' " ^,r ' ""'"•-•""^ '*•-'- ^^^' ever areams of.) AUowing fiUl indulgence to everv annetit^ ,r,A passion, their whole philosophy was express^dTrpS "Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die" Mn exalted life could be nourished in trunlLj^e a mlr: The Skeptic; Pyrrho.- About the beginning of the thirH centun. B.C skepticism became widespread"' cUce It seemed as though men were losing fait^ i„ evlrytwr Mo rrr^j:; "°:^i 'r- '- ^^-^i^ShLta*?::^ mZ^ , u ■ *"^" knowledge of the world had caused Sir re'risice of^ T' "'* '^^--^^ °^ '"^^ caused m^n to doubTrt^Si' oTa^oI ttri'"""^'"'' Of Alexander, by bringing the O..^ ^,^7 ..^^rZ^Z GRESK PHILOSOPMY AND SCIENCE. igg sttange Asiatic systems of belief, tended powerfuUy to deepen and confirm thU feeling of bewilderment and uncertainty Many thoughtful minds were hopelessly asking, "What is truth?" I^rrho (about 360-270 b.c.) was the Greek Thomas. He doubted eveothing, and declared that the great problems of the un.vei^ could not be solved. It was the duty of man, and the part of wisdom, to entertain no positive judgment on any matter, and thus to ensure serenity and peace of mind. The disciples of Pyrrho went to absurd lengths in their skepti- cism, some of them even saying that they asserted nothing, not even that they asserted nothing. They doubted whether they doubted. ' The Heo-PUtoniitt. -Neo-Platonism was a blending of Greek philosophy and Oriental mysticism. It has been well called the despair of reason," because it abandoned all hope qf man's ever bemgable to attain the highest knowledge through the intellect, and held that the human soul, when in an ecstatic state or prophet- like trance, received, through a higher faculty 'ban reason, in a sort of vision, reveUtions of divine and eternal truth It was chiefly a theological philosophy; that is, it dealt with the nature of God and his relations to man. The centre of this last move- rnent m Greek philosophical thought was Alexandria in Egypt the meeting-place, in the closing centuries of the ancient world of the East and the West. Philo the Jew (b. about 30 B.C.), who labored to harmonize Hebrew doctrines with the teachings of Plato, was the forerunner of the Neo-Platonists. But the greatest of the school was Ploti- nus (A.D. 204-269), who spent the last years of his life at Rome where he was a great favorite. Four times in six years, according to one of his disciples, was he freed from the body, and being absorbed in the Infinite, saw God, in ecstatic vision. Conflict between Heo-Platonism and Christianity. .- While the Neo-Platonists were Uboring to restore, in modified form the ancient Greek philosophy and worship, the teachera of Christi- amty were fast winning the world over to a new feith. The two '5S IM SCIENCE AMONG THE CHEEKS. ii ■qjBteiM came into deadly antagonism. For a time the issue of U.e contention between the Hellenic philosopher and the Chris- tian Fathe™ may have seemed doubtful. But by the dS o Je ±.rd centun. A.a it was pUin that the r^J^XtZt of the Roman empire, which now virtually embraced the woT Z.^V:^\ 't; T. '^°"" •"' *"=""•=' °f '"' ChrisS RomTF™ ^"^ ''" P*'"'^'"" °f ""^ <"»<=« that led the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great (a.d. 306-33,) to throw S • hT °u "' "''"^ *•= ^""''■'^ F-'hersSproS Chnstiamty as the favored religion of the empire- Under JuUan the Apostate (Roman Empen>r a.d. 361-363, who was an ardent Neo-Platonist, the Hellenic philoLhy wi' restored and every eifort made ,0 discredit and deTroy Z good hope of the restoration .of the reno^ philosophy o anc>ent Greece. The gifted and beautiful Hypatia Lmost the ^ represenutive of the old system of specuLn ^dtuef was torn to pieces in the streets of Alexandria by a mob of f^t^c Chnstiaa monks (a.o. 4.5). Finally the Rom^ Empero ^Z m forbade the pag^ philosophers to teach their dJ^trines (ad 5^9).' ThBimpenal edict closed forever the Greek sch Js ,n wh^h for more than a thousand years the world had l^etd mstmctionupon the loftiest themes that can engage theTumS finished their work ; but their systems of thought will never ces^e to attract and influence the best minds of the race. Science among the Greeks. In ancient times no single people or race excelled in all deoart ments of knowledge or human endeavor. Havine then LT tT' wonderful genius of the Greek race for art, Sera u^ t ^ pb^o! tude for the more practical sciences. I„ art and literature ?he • S« Myers- M,/u^anJ Ucdem Hut^, pp. 68, 69, CX££X PHlLOSOPtty AND SCIESCB. »1 Greeks are Itfll our teachers; in science we are immeasurably theu- superiors. Still, while this is true, the contributions of the Greek observers to the physical sciences have laid us under no small obUgation to them. Especially did the later Greeks do much good and lasting work in the mathematical sciences. Some of those whom we have classed as philosopher, Thales and Anaxagoras for instance, were careful students of nature, and might be called scientists. The great ph='osopher Aristotle wrote some valuable works on anatomy and natural history, his observa- tions being held in th. highest esteem by naturalists of the present day for their accuracy. From his time onward the scienceTWere pursued with much zeal and success. Xathematio*: EnoUd and AnUmedM — Alexandria, in Egypt, became the seat of the most celebrated school of mathematics of antiquity. Here, under Ptolemy Lagus, flourished Euclid, the great geometer, whose work forms the basis of the science of geometry as taught in our schools at the present time. Ptolemy himself was his pupil. The royal student, however, seems to have disliked the severe application required to master the problems of Euclid, and asked his teacher if there was not some easier way. EucUd repUed, "There is no royal road to geometry." In the third century b.c, Syracuse, in Sicily, was the home of Archimedes, the greatest mathematician that the Grecian world produced. He had a marvellous genius for figures, and investi- gated the abstrusest problems in geometry, mechanics, and the aUied sciences. The range and productiveness of his genius are shown by the following titles to some of his works : On Bodies Floating in Fluids: On Centres of Gravity: On the Sphere and the Cylinder. His acquaintance with the first subject is illustrated by the fa- miliar story that is told of the manner in which he detected the impurity of the gold in the crown of Hi?ro, king of Syracuse. The king, suspecting that the gold had been alloyed, submitted the article to Archimedes, who detected the fraud bv means of the pnnciple of specific gravities, which was suggested to him whUe -m u Its M ASTKONOMY 4ffD GBOGKAPItY. bathing Leaping from the bath, he ran through the corridors foulduT^'"^""*"' ^""'-■'"-"^ "- found it.Tt:^ His knowledge of the second subject and of the Uws of the lever „ ^d.ca.ed by the oft-quoted boast that he made ZS^^t Give me a pUce to stand, and I will move the world." His eluc.dat.on of the properties of the sphere and cylinder we,., even m h.s own est,mat,on, so important that he requested that a fiZ hL tl M t^"^' " '"^ ''"''' ™^'"°"^ °f his life, TZ h.s toinb. More than one hundred years afterwards Cice;,-dis- covered and .dentified the monument by means of these e.^em Dur.ng the s.ege of Syracuse by the Romans. Archimedes rl' dered h.s nafve c.ty valuable service by driving off or destroy ng fte enemy's vessels by means of ingenious and powerful en/ne" The story of h.s setting fire ,o the Roman sh^s by mea^ o mnrors reflecting the sun's rays, is, after much discussion ^w^' the sack of the cty (2.2 b.c), but in what way he met his dea^ IS not known with certainty. "* Aatronomy and Geography. -Among ancient Greek astrono- mers and geographers, the names of Aristarchus, Eratosthenes Hwa^hus, Strabo, Pausanias, and Claudius Ptolemy are S Aristarchus of Samos, who lived in the third century bc held «.at the earth revolves about the sun as a fixed center.rd^;^^ pn .ts own ax,s. He was the Greek Copernicus. But his theS was rejected by his contemporaries and successors ^ Eratosthenes (b^about 276 b.c.) might be called an astronomi- ca geographer. H.s greatest achievement was the fairly accui^te determ,nat.on of the circumference of the e^th by means of The d^erent lengths of the shadow cast by the midday sun in Upper and Ix,wer Egypt at the time of the summer solstice H.pparchus, who flourished about the middle of the second century ac, was, through his careful observations, the real fodder of sc.ent.fic astronomy. He calcuUted eclipses, observeTt GKEEje PHILOSOPHY AHD SCIBlfCB. im precession of the equinoxes, catalogued tlie stani, and wrote sev- era] astronomical works of a reaUy scientific character Strabo was born about half a century before our era. He trav- elled over a large part of the world, and describes, as an eye- witness, the scenery, the productions, and the peoples of all the countries known to the ancients. ..T^*""'/!^" ""'""" ^'" ^"^^'^ «"«' Panamas wrote his • , ',1 ?"^''*'" * """^ °^ guide-book, which is crowded with invaluable htUe items of interest respecting aU the places best worth visiting in Greece. Claudius PtPlemy, the most noted of ancient astronomeis,'lived m EKyj.t about the middle of the second century after Christ His great reputation is due not so much to his superior genius as to the fortunate circumstance that a vast work' compiled by him preserved and transmitted to later times almost all the knowledg^ of the ancient world on astronomical and geographical subjects. In this way it has happened that his name has become attached to various doctrines and views respecting the universe, though these probably were not originated by him. The phrase Plokmaic ^j^jA* however, links his name inseparably, whether the honor be fairiy h« or not, with that conception of the solar system set forth m his worfo, which continued to be the received theory from his time until Copernicus— fourteen centuries later Ptolemy combated the theory of Aristarchus in regard to the rotation ^d revolution of the earth ; yet he believed the earth to be a globe, and supported this view by exactly the same arm- ments that we to-day use to prove the doctrine Medicine and Anatomy. - Hippocrates (b. about 460 b.c), the founder of a school of medicine at Cos, did so much to eman- cpate the art of healing from supeistition and ignorance, and to makeit a scientific study, that he is called the " Father of Medi- erne. His central doctrine was that there are laws of disease gr^t^.^" '° *'"^"'" ^""^ ^ '" ^^^^ ""' '""'•«'"• ■»"»'»« "'he » The pauon god of medicine wu MKahfixa. IM MEDtClNB AND ANATOMY. of E^DtLrn . '^"'^' ""''" 'h'^ '"""^Me doubtless to death.' vivisection of cnminals condemned ' The thinking faculty, the mind. *U practice: "^^^Z^IXJLTZ^^T:"'-''''^ """ "-™ thing in Greece anH ., i "'""S' « ™ 'he fashion to discuss everv- SOCIAL UFB OF THS GREEKS. CHAPTER XIII. SOCIAL LIFE OF THE GREEKS. Edneation. — Education at Sparta, where it was chiefly gymnas- tic, as we have seen, was a sUte aflair; but at Athens and thtjugh- out Greece generally, the youth were trained in private schools. These schools were of all grades, ranging from those kept by the most obscure teachers, who gathered their pupils in some recess of the street, to those established in the Athenian Academy and Lyceum by such philosophers as Plato and Aristotle. It was only the boys who received education. These Grecian boys, Professor Mahaffy imagines, were "the most attractive the world has ever seen." At all events, we may b<^lieve that they were trained more carefully and delicately than the youth among any other people before or since the days of Hellenic culture. In the nursery, the boy was taught the beautiful myths and stones of the national mythology and religion." At about seven ' At the birth of a child, many customs of a significant character were carefully obMrved. Thus at Sparta the new-born infant was first cradled on a shield, which symbolized the martial life of the Spartan citizen; while at Athens the child was laid upon a mantle in which was wrought the iegis „f Athena, by which act was emblemized and invoked the protection of that patron goddess. Infanticide was almost universally practised throughout Greece. (At Thebes, however, the exposure of children was prohibited by severe laws.) Such philosophers as Plato and Aristotle saw nothing in the custom to condemn. Among the Spartans, as we have already learned the state determined what infants might be preserved, condemning the weakly ot ill-formed to be cast out to die. At Athens and in other states the right to expose his child was given to the father. The infant was abandoned in some desert place, or left in some frequented spot in the hope that it might be picked up and cared for. Greek literali.rc, like t!ut i,f ever-/ other people uf antiquity, u fiUed with stories and dramas all turning upon poinU afforded mt' IM BDaCAT/OH. tewteedichool, being led to and fiom the place of t«ining by an old dave^who bore the n«ne of pe^ag^e, which in Greek mean, a gu.de or leader of boy. -not a teacher. HU .tu^e. were grammar, mu»c, and gymnastic, the «m of the cou^e bein« to i|ecure a symmetrical development of mind and body alike whfcrT-^ •^."•^' '^^'^' "«• arithmetic ; music, which embraced a wide «nge of mental accomplishments t J^d Ae boy ,0 appreciate the ma,ten>iec« of the gLt poets, tocS tribute h» part to the musical diversion. of^ivT enter^. A SREEK KHOOL. (Afl., . „«.p.|„,i,,., mente, and to jom in the sacred choruses and in the p«m of bained lum for the Olympic contests, or for those sterner hand- to-hand battle-struggles, in which so much depended upon per- sonal strength and dexterity. r j~u per Upon reaching maturity, the youth was enrolled in the list of citizens. But his graduation from school was his "commence- ment m a much more real sense than with the average modem rf ilH^nfT H"f '"• J^ '"r "' '"'^''" "' ^'««' "' Cy"» *« Great rf ^n>«, of the Hebrew MoKs, of CEdipus of Thebes, of Ro,n«I„ and Ren, J of Roman legend, and a hundred others „e all p,ef.ced by the Mme «w ^ expcmm and fortunate re«:ae. •• / >"= lame «ory of SOCIAL Un Of THE CXEEKS, xfl gMAute. Never was there a people beridei the Greeks whose daily life was so emphatically a discipUne in liberal culture The schools of the philosophers, the debates of the popular assembly the practice of the law-courts, the masterpieces of a divine art the religious processions, the representations of an unrivalled stage, the Panhellenic games-all these were splendid and eifi- cient educational agencies, which produced and maintained a Standard of average intelligence and culture among the citizens of the Greek cities that probably has never been attained among any other people on the earth. Freeman, quoted approvingly by Mahafly, says that "the average intelligence of the assembled Athenian citizens was higher than that of our [the English! House of Commons." ■• Social Poutioii of Woman. -Although there are in Greek literature some exquisitely beautiful portraitures of ideal woman- hood, still the general tone of the literature betrays a deep con- tempt for woman, which Symonds regards as ■■ the greatest social blot upon the briUiant but imperfect civilization of the Greeks " The poets are particularly sarcastic. Simonides winds up a bUter mvective against women in general, in which he compares differ- ent clisses of them to various despicable animals, by saying "^us raade this supreme evil — women: even though they seem to be of good, when one has got one, she becomes a plague.' And another poet (Hipponax) says, "A woman gives two days of happiness to man — her bridal and her burial" Plato does not entertain a high opinion of the sex, while Thu- cydides quotes with seeming approval the Greek proverb,— "That woman is best who is least spoken of among men, whether for good or for evil." The myth of Pandora seems to have sprung up out of just such sentiments as the above. This fable evidently reacted upon the feehngs and practices of the Greeks, just as the Oriental story of the Fall of Man through the temptation of Eve contributed to the giving of woman a position of inferiority and subjection in the early Christian church. {U Iff' miENDSHIP AMONG THi CKBEKS. TWt nnworthjr conception of woman of coune contigned her to • nairow and inferior place in tl>e Greelt liome. Her positimi inay be defined a* being about lialfway between Oriental leclu- tion and nuxlem or Wettem freedom. Her main duties wsre to coolt and ipin, and to oversee tlie domestic slaves, of whom she herself was practically one. In the £uhionable society of Ionian cities, she was seldom allowed to appear in public, or to meet, even in her own house, the male friends of her hasbaud. In Sparta, however, and in Dorian sUtes generally, she was accorded unusual freedom, and was a really important factor in society. The seclusion and neglect to which women were condemned ■ in Ionian communities, in contrast with the great liberty enjoyed by women in the Dorian cities, is doubtless to be attributed, in part at least, to the influence upon the former of Asiatic custom, entering Greece through Ionia) The low position generally assigned the wife in the home had a most disastrous effect upon Greek morals. She could exert no such elevating or refining influence as she casts over the modem home. The men were led to seek social and intellectual sym- pathy and companionship outside the family circle, among a class of talented and often highly cultured women, known as Hetaine. As the most noted and brilliant representative of this class stands Aspasia, the friend of Pericles. Her conversation possessed at- traction for the most prominent and accomplished men of Athens, such persons as Socrates and Anaxagoras often assembling at her house. Yet the influence of this class was most harmful to social morality, so that to the degradation of woman in the home may be traced the source of the most serious stain that rests upon Greek civilization. Friendship among the Oreeki. — From speaking of the infe- rior rank assigned woman in the Greek home, we are led by a natural transition to speak of Greek friendship between men. While it seems quite certain that that romantic sentiment to which we give distinctively,|he name of love, was not the universal and absorbing passion among the Greeks that it is among modem SOCIAL IM OP THE OKEBKS. IM dviliied peoplei, it ii equatljr certain tlut tlw andeiit Gi«eb poHened a capacity for frienctebip between man and nuui nicb u it rarely or never leen among tlie men of modem timei. It would scarcely be incorrect to lay that the Greek men "fell in love" with each other. An ardent and romantic attachment sprang up between companions, which possessed all the higher elements of that chivalrous senument which the modem man seems capable of entertaining only for one of the opposite sex. "The chivalry of Hellas found its mot've force," writes Symonds, " in friendship rather than in the love of woman. . . . Fraternity in arms played for the Greek race the same part as the idealiza- tion of woman for the knighthood of Feudal Europe." Greek literature and history afford innumerable instances of this wonderful and happy capacity of the Greeks for friendship. The memory easily recalls the Homeric picture of the friendship between Achilles and Patroclus; the attachment, stronger than death, between Damon and Pythias ; the friendship of the patriot heroes Pelopidas and Epaminondas, of Alexander and Hepbes- tion ; and the attachments that united, in bonds dissolvable only by death, the members of the Sacred Band of Thebes. IhMtriMa SntaitainiBMitt. — Among the ancient Greeks the theatre was a state establishment, "a part of the constitution." This arose from the religious origin and character of the drama (see p. 1 60), all matters peruining to the popular worship being the care and concern of the state. - Theatrical performances, be- ing religious acts, were presented only during religious festivals, — certain festivals observed in honor of Dionysus, — and were aitended by all classes, rich and poor, men, women, and children. The women, however, except the Hetairae, were, it would seem, permitted to witness tragedies only ; the comic stage was too gross to allow of their presence. The upper ranges of seats in the theatre were reserved for the women ; the chairs bordering the orchestra were for the officers of the state and other persons of distinction ; while the interven- ing tiers of seats were occupied by the general audience. The «» nrSATK/CM KVTaMrAi/fMMMn, Vecwon Mtnnderthe open skv; and the eiecn M--.^ There were companiet of pkyen who ttroUed about the com. ^'^y^C^J^TT^ the «my to the field in .i„^ w war. While the better daii of acton were highly honored. <«iin«7 Pl«yen weie held In very low ev ^ teem, in which matter the Greek itage Ptwenti another parallel to that of England »,.*! v*"*""" '^^'y- And a. in the EUiabethan age the writeti of play, were frequently aim perfonnen, to in Greece, particnlarly dnhng the early period of the <1»M18, the author often became an actor. «nd assiated in the pre^ntation of his omi pieces. Still another parallel is found in the act that the female parts in the Greek "Inunas as in the early Englirf, theatre, were taken by men. The stage machineiy of the Greek theatre •nd the costumes of the acton were ingen- ious ant' elaborate. There were movable •ones ; trap-doon and various machines for fatroducmg the infernal and celestial di- vmities and swinging them through the air • contnvances for imiuting all the familial nn ^ sounds of the country, the roar and crash of ■™' ^^ storm and thunder, and all the noises that °*^ "*'"'= "°'"'*- «re counterfeited on the modem staee The t«»!^ . • SOOAl Un Of THS GMBMjrs m M the tymboh leipeetheljr of comedy and tiuedy, m in the AmUiarliiietofDiydeiii— "On»t Fhtchcr iwnr treiuh In bnklni Imn, Nor gmtcr Joiuon duci in mcIm ■ppew." The chonu were often goigeoiiily and fi-ntaitically eaetamed. Thut in the pbjr of the " Birdi " by Aristophane*. they were arrayed Mch to represent nme gay-plumaged bird ; while in the "Cloudt," by the lame poet, to counterfeit clouds they appeared in the midst of fleecy drapery, and enveloped in the smoke of incense. By similar devices of drapery and masks, all the divinitiei and monsters known to Greek mythok)gy were brought before the spectators. The expenses of ti.e choruses were defrayed by rich dtisens, who at Athens were chosen by the diflerent tribes in turn. The person elected to provide the chorus was known as the chtragui. He often spent large sums in competition with other leaders. The choragus who presented the best chorus was awarded a priie. and was aUowed the privilege of erecting, at his own expt.ise, a monument in commemoration of his victory (see page 142, choragic monument of Lyiicratet). 1 o t s The theatre exerted a great influence upon Greek life. It per- formed for ancient Greek society somewhat the same service as that rendered to modem society by the pulpit and the press. ^' -ring the best days of Hellas the frequent rehearsal upon the stage of the chief incidents in the lives of the gods and the heroes served to deepen and strengthen the religious faith of the people ; and later, when with the Macedonian the days of decline came, it was one of the chief agents in the diflusion of Greek literary cul- ture over the world. Theatres arose everywhere, and it was chiefly through the popular representations of the stage that a knowledge of the best productions of Greek literature was imparted to the mixed population of the HeUenistic cities of Egypt and Western Asia, and to the inhabitants of the cities of Italy as well Bu^MU and Sjrmpod*. — Banquets and drinking-parties t: ■% if m 'U I ao2 BANQUETS AND SYMPOSIA. tion was poured out andTZ,n . u '^ '°"'^' * '"»■ aered to the accompaniment of the lyre oassed frnm T i The banqoetMs usually consoraed th* niah> ;_ sometimes being broken'in «pon t.m the't« bToT^f "«' of revefe. who made themselves self-invUeV^'^ """ "^"^ ine symposmm must at times when »!,. - those formLfTl^7lrj'j'^„^17'!^7 f™">. ™ost of p^SrSii:t;r sSr^ 2r'^ — «i^.o «'-«i«a^a,istoc«c/o7v:;j:.''ErTrs SOaAt UFB OF THE CHEEKS. m occupation was martUl and gymnastic «?r; is.:., vid the adminis- TTaa rf'' ""■"'"• "^^ ^P"*^" • " "'" '•= - called, were forbidden by law to engage in trade, n , ,ther arist , ratic states, as at Thebes, a man by engaging in tiidi disqnalifi.d himself for nil! citizenship. In the democratic states, however, speaking geneiaUy, labor and trade were regarded with less contempt. A considerable por- tion of the citizens were traders, artisans, and farmers. Ufe at Athens presented some peculiar features. AU Attica being included in what we would term the corporate limits of the city Uie roll of Athenian citizens included a large body of well-to- do farmers, whose residence was outside the city walls. The Attic plains and the slopes of the half-encircling hills, were dotted with beautiful viUas and inviting farmhouses. " It is probable," says a well-known student of Greek life, in speaking of the appeai^ce of the country about Athens just before the Pelopomiesian War that as a scene of unambitious affluence, taste, high cultivation' and rustic contentment, nothing was ever beheld to compare with Attica. ■ And then Athens being the head of a great empire of subject cities a large number of Athenian citizens were necessarily em- ployed as salaried officials in the minor positions of the public service, and thus politics became a profession. In any event the meetings of die popular assembly and the discussion of mat- ters of sute engrossed more or less of tiie time and attention of every citizen. Again, the great Athenian jury-courts, which were busied with cases from all parts of tiie empire, gave constant employment to nearty one-fourth of the citizens, the fee that the juryman received enabhng him to live without other business. It is said that, in the early morning, when the jurymen were passing through the streets to the different courts, Atiiens appeared like a city wholly given up to the single business of law. Furthermore, the great pubBc works, such as temples and commemorative monuments, which » St. John, HUOry ,/rt. Manner, and CmOmi tfAn».nl C«„,. S04 SL^yBSY. if were m constant process of erection, afforded employment for a vast number of artists and skilled workmen of every cC In the Agora, again, at any time of the day, a numerous class might have been found whose sole occupation, as in hT^Tf Socrates, was to talk. The writer of the "Acts of the Ap^s'' «^ so .mpressed with this feature of life a. Athens thatT „! manzed the habits of the people bv savins " All A- aI and strange, which were U spS^Stim^i ' o2~ but either to tell or to hear some new thing." ^ Slayery.— There is a dark side to Greek life H,.li.„; - cul^re. refinement-., these good thin^ tJ plan« t qu.s.te exotic flowers, upon the black, rank soil of sUverC " The proportion of slaves to the free population in many of the tates was astonishingly large. In Corinth and ^gina Zre Ure n^ rtl:t"'^^''"T- '''^''*'=^*''^ P"Poni:Lwt7ouTL one , that .s to say, out of a population of about 500,000, 400 00^ were sUves.- Almost every freeman was a sUve owT ft '^ This large class of slaves was formed in various ways In th,, prehistoric period, the fortunes of war had brouj^f^he entire population of whole provinces into a servile conditio^ ^ in "e ^ parts of the Peloponnesus. During later times, tiie ordi,^ timates. Their number was also largely added to by the slave te^c ,^ed on witi. the barbarian peoples of Asia Minor. Cri^'! na^s and debtors, too, were often condemned to servitude; wh"le foundhngs were usually brought up as slaves The relation of master and slave was regarded by the Greek ^ bemg, not only a legal, but . natural one. A free'commuX m h^ view could not exist witi>out slavery, it formed the ^t llstl' t^"^ *<=fami.yand the sute.-the relation oflsTer and sUve being regarded as '.strictiy analogous to tire relat^ 'The popuUUon of Attica in 3,7 B.C. U reckoned .t .bout .„ooa Th., of Athen, ,n .u be« day. w.. probably not fa, from .50,000. ' ^ SOCIAL LIFE OF THE GREEKS. V» soul and body." Even Aristotle and other Greek philosophers approved the maxim that "slaves were simply domestic animals possessed of intelligence." • They were regarded just as necessary in the economy of the family as cooking utensils. In general, Greek slaves were not treated harshly— judging their treatment by the standard of humanity that prevailed in antiquity. Some held places of honor in the family, and enjoyed the confidence and even the friendship of their master. Yet at Sparta, where sUvery assumed the form of serfdom, the lot of the slave was peculiarly hard and unendurable. Even at Athens we hear much, in connection with the state silver mines at Laiirium (in southern Attica), of a labor contract-system which certainly was characterized by much callousness of feeling towards the slave, if we may judge from the conditions of the usual agree- ment, which bound the contractor to pay an annual rental equal to one-half the value of the slave (which implies that the poor creatures were worn out rapidly), and at the expiration of the contract to return to the owner simply the same number of slaves as had been hired. If ever slavery was justified by its fruits, it was in Greece. The brilliant civilimion of the Greeks was its product, and could never have existed without it. As one truthfully says, "Without the sUves the Attic democracy would have been an impossibility, for they alone enabled the poor, as well as the rich, to take a part in public affairs." Relieving the citizen of all drudgery, the system created a class characterized by elegant leisure, refinement, and cultui-^. » This harsh, selfijh theory, it should be noted, was somewhat modified and relaxed, when the slave class, through the numerous captive, of the unfortu- nate civil wars, came to be made up in considerable part of cultured Greeks, instead of being, as was the case in earlier times, composed almost exclusively of barbarians, or of inferior branches of the Hellenic race, between whom and their cultured masters there was the same difference in mental qualities as ex- isted between the negro slaves and their masters in our own country. The sentiment that a slave was an unfortunate person, rather than an inferior being, came to prevail — a sentiment which aided powerfully in preparing the way for the Christian doctrine of the universal brotherhood of man. '^ 208 si^pExr. ancient Hellas was ml^nWM j ™''*^ Th« dvfliaitkm oi ■■'( '! HISTORY OF ROME. CHAPTER I. THE ROMAN KINGDOM. (Legendaiy due, 753-509 ■.£.) DiTidoni of ItalyV^The peninsula of Italy divides itself into three paits, — Northern, Central, and Southern Italy. The first comprises the great basin of the Po, lying between the Alps and the Apennines.' In ancient times this part of Italy included three dUtricts, — Liguria, Gallia Cisalpina, and Venetia. The first em- braced the southwestern and the last the northeastern part of Northern Italy. GallU Cisalpina Uy between' these two districts, occupying the finest portion of the valley of the Po. It received its name, which means "Gaul on this (the Italian) ^de of the Alps," from the Gallic tribes that about the fifth century before our era found their way over the mountains and settled upon these rich lands. The countries of Central Italy were Etruria, Latium, and Cam- pania, facing the Western, or Tuscan Sea; Umbria and Picenum, looking out over the Eastern, or Adriatic Sea; and Samnium and the country of the Sabines, occupying the rough mountain districts of the Apennines. Southern Italy comprised the districts of Aputta, Lucania. Calabria, and Bruttium. Calabria formed the " heel," a-d Brut- tium the "toe," of the peninsula. Th^ coast region of Southern Italy, as we have already learned, was called Magn^ Grsecia, or > It should be noted fhit the Italy of e»rly tima did not en-btace the north- em part of the penininla. \ [207] 208 TUB ROMAN KINGDOM. m rS^^.v"*^!' " °? "''""°' °'*' """'^ ««' Importance of the Greek erne, tha, during the period of HeUenic .ipremacy w«e estabhshed on these shores. ■«»>./ were ^^^y^^^?^^''' '^« ^"*' ""^ *« '»«'°l«nd on the south may be regarfed simply „ a detached fragment of Italy »«t,r^tely has it. destiny been connected with^l^flhepeS: rf^. C T'^' '"""l'' '^ *' meeting-place and battle-^d of the Carthagimans, the Greeks, and the Romans, oft?^ ,."* aiT«l.-Italy, like the other two penin«,las S.7'^. ^; """S 't "°'*'™ ^"^"^ Cicero once «dd that flr^ M"'""^ *'* '^ '^ ?'<"«=' *« Penin^la from the It™ ^^""- '^ ^'^ 'T *e P°nx»e of the celestiL Aey should have left a great gap in the Eastern, or Juli^ Alps • Z T " " 'Z iT' *'^"«'* "^'='' '^o »»^baAans.-'as weTlI see, often poured hke a devastating flood into Italy Corresponding to the Pindus range in Greece, the Apennines ^n^agreatcentnU ridge through the entire ler^thof ^~ rfi^^K*"", """^ °°t """'' «^' "^"' *e P" (^'*«). Which drams the large northern vaUey lying between the Alps and the Apenmnes. The streams running down the eastern slope of the i^TIr'? °" *"f °'"'*'" ^°''""*- A"""^ *em Ae Rubi- con^ the Metaurus, and the Aufidus are connected with great n^tte,^ of history. Into the Rubicon it was that Caisar plunwd when he cast the die for the empire of the worl^, u^Ae t^rr^ r"™*""' '^' '''°*" of Hannibal, was def^ m f K^K ""^ ^"' "^ °° *•= ^^ °f the Aufidus was fought the great battle of Cannie. Among the rivers draining the western slopes of the Apemunes, T. rr^""^? *' ^"^'^ ''''"°™ '■"=«« is the Trajer. on tte banks of which Rome arose. North of this stream is the Arno (^«,w), which watered a part of the oH Etruria: and south of 1^ the Liris, one of the chief rivers of Campania. k "/■ BAMLY lltHABITANTS Of ITALY. «, J^ ^*f«ta •* IWy.-Th*re were, in e«ly ti«e.. U»e. Tte IuIl.n^.bt«chof *eA.y» f'"""^' '"""raced twopri^Ji, Smnito. UiCMiaw. etc). - the miou. tribe, or nation, of wh^ n«I J^l^T*; "r^*''' "'""'^' """» ""i"™' people of .T!^„^w*' .*" ^'™'*^»°'' T-"""/- TT'ey here formed t^T?i^ ""*?• '^'' '^'■°" *' '^ °f "^ R°"«» people !!^.f«?^^ ":!' *° *• P*"*"*"'"- Numerous worl» V^« -wch u tomb., fiagment. of walh, mawive dilce. to keep b«:k tte •««. and long tnnneb piercing the ride, of hill, to drain the ^n^Il" *^' T'" of extinct volcanoe.-,how the Z^^ in civihzation they h«l made at a very remote date Jrr.r'Jr?'^ ^"^ '■'=• *• ^'"■'' "■»« over the Alp., Kd EtmriM. out of Northern Italy, into which quar^ Aqr had extended their power, and Mttling in thoK region. he«me the most formidable enemies of thf infent^pubK Rome. Of the e.Ubliri.ment of the Greek cities in&l.m thel!„^:^ f*. ?•*"*"' °^ "" ""= I'^'™ peoples were Ae Utin., who dwelt m Latium, between the Tiber and L Lirii ■^ peop e, like aU the Italian,, were near kindred of thrCre^S and bought wth them into Italy aU those customs, manS beheft, and msutution. that we have seen to have been 2 common posse^-on of the various branches of the Arian hous* ?^eL -Z "■''•!°' "'' """' P"'- "^^ °f shepherds and fanners. There are sa.d to have been in Latium in early time, ««rty townss which formed an alliance known as the Latin League The cty wh,ch first assumed importance and leadership among the towns of th,s confederation was Alba Longa, the "Long White w«e of nun-An^n rac«, but the other, were «.„i„g,y „f Ari.„ relationship. •See ffifi Stk»aEngU,k Grammar, pp. lo, it. ■^■1 910 THE ROMAN KMGDOM. !! Iff City," 90 called because its bflildings stretched for a gteat distance along the summit of a whitish ridge. The Begiiuungi of Soma. - The place of pre-eminence among the Latin towns was soon lost by Alba Longa, and gdned Z another city. This was Rome, the stronghold of the Ramnes, or Romans, located upon a low hill on the south bank of the Tiber about fifteen miles from the sea. ' -nie traditions of the Romans place the founding of their city m the year 753 b.c. The town was established, it would seem M an outpost to guard the northern frontier of Latium against the Etruscans. Recent excavations have revealed the foundations of the old wafls and two of the ancient gates. We thus Jsam that the city at first covered only the top of tlie Palatine Hill, one of a cluster of low eminences close to the Tiber, which, finally embraced wttm the Umits of the growing city, became the famed "Seven HUls of Rome." From the shape of its enclosmg waUs. the origi- nal city was called Roma Quadrata, or •• Square Rome " The EsLTly Eoman State: King, Senate, and Popnlar AiMm- B^. — The early Roman state seems to have been formed by the union of three communities.' These constituted three tribes knomi as Ramnes (the Romans proper, who gave name to the mixed people). Titles, and Luce.es. Each of d:ese tribes was divided mto ten wards, or districts (curiai) ; each warf was made up of genles, or dans, and each clan was composed of a number of femHies. The heads of these families were caUed ™ " >*"*'" ""^ "1" Ae members patricians; that is, "chUdrenof thefathere." , "bi 15, At the head of the nation stood the King, who was the father of the state. He was at once ruler of the people, commander of c«.] d,d not „«^n|y mvolv. an ac,«.l set.I.n,«. tog«her .t one s J . b„ »h,le »ch ,«,drf as fonncrly „„ hi. „wn land, there was thenceforth ^W ^ councl-hall and court-house for the whole. "-Mommsen ^ fiM CZASSSS OF SOCIETY. jj, 2 to'^ridLt '*' ''"' °'*^ '"^°"' ^'^ "•-•"'« P-' r„^^2^ "1° l!^* '"^ '^^ ^'^'^' °' " ^owcil of the old men " cU had no power to enact laws : the duty of its m,mK. ™^p.y .0 advise with the ^, who wasStofoLT „ diT gard their suggestions. The Popular Assembly (comitia curiata) comprised all the citi Ten ^"'\^ "' "" "^^ •"""^" °f «h?patric rfa Jies od enough to bear arms. It was this body that enacted the laws 2^.he state, determined upon peace or war, and also ekcted t^e laST/ ^- ~J^' ''° '"P""""' ^"^ °f 'he Popu- ahon of Rome under the kingdom and the early republic were Ae patr^cums and the plebeians. The formerwere the m mte^ at fit L ""^"^ ?*"' *^' ""^^ "P *e Roman peo"?^" at first a^one possessed poUtical rights. They were proud excTu ave, and tenacious of their inherited privileees ThfTH:, -^« up chiefly of the inhabitant, of fu^d ciS 3^^ ^ gees fremvanous quarters that had sought an asylum at Rome SltltS '° "T" r'-^^'-d -joyed peLnal freeS but at first had no political rights whatever. The greater n„«W were petty land-owners. who held and cultivate?:Le'^a™£ oty^ A large part of the early history of Rome is simpjr 2 srite'sr ^'^ ^"^^ '° -- -^ - « Besides these two principal orders, there were two other classes -chents and sla,^s. The former w.re anached to the &S dition of the chent was somewhat hke that of the serf in the feudal cCa^d 1 '''T "^ ^ ■"«•= '^"^"'^S^ *- considered the crown and glory of a patrician house. The slaves were, in the main, captives in war. Their number ^ul'S,T'^''°'=r=' "" '"'= ^""-^ extendZJS conquests, tUl they outnumbered aU the other classes teken to- M Sll THE SOMAN KINGDOU. gether, and more than once turned upon their masters in formi- dable revolts that threatened the very existence of the Roman state. The Legtndarr Xingi. — For nearly two and a hatf c^pturiei after the founding of Rome (from 753 to 509 b.c., according' tff^ tradition), the government was a monarchy. To span this period, the legends of the Romans tell of the reigns of seven kings, Romulus, the founder of Rome; Numa, the lawgiver; TuUus Hostilius and Ancus Marcius, conquerors both ; Tarquinius Priscus, the great builder; Servius Tullius, the reoiganizer of the govern- ment and second founder of the state ; and Tarquinius ^perbus, the haughty tyrant, whose oppressions led to the abolition by the people of the office of king. 1 The traditions of the doings of these momrchs and of what happened to them blend hopelessly fact and fable. We cannot be quite sure even as to their names. Respecting Roman affairs, however, under the last three rulers (the Tarquins), who were of Etruscan origin, some important things are related, the su^8tantial truth of which we may rely upon with a fair degree of certainty; and these matters we shall notice in the following paragraphs. (hrowth of Borne under the Tarqniat.— The Tanjuins extended their authority^er the whole of Latium. The position of suprem- acy dius given Rome was naturally attended by the rapid growth in population and importance of the little Palatine city.' The t SeTenl caoMt have been uiigned to account for the etAf and rapid growth of the power of Rome. Iti lituation upon the T"— wai, without donbt, favorable to its earljr development ai a centre of trr :« and commerce; while its distance irom the sea protected it irom the depredations of the pirates, which in early times swarmed in the Mediterranean and dewlated the coast cities. But moat potent of all influences in ihaping the fortunes and character of the inhabitants of the little Fakitine town was the necessity which they found themselves under to form some sort of social and poHtical connection with the neighboring communities that held posKirion of the hiUs immediately about them. The early circnmstanon of the national life would thus seem to have given a certain legal and political bks to that Roman genius «4w«b w«s deitjiied to give laws to the wodd. GROWTH OF ROME. fM ongmal waUs soon became too strait for the increasing mnWtude. • new ramparts were built -tradition says under the direction of the long Servms TuUius-which, with a great circuit of seven miles, swept around the entire cluster of the Seven Hills A laree tract of marshy ground between the Palatine and Capitoline hiUs was drained by means of the Cloaca Maxima, the " Great Sewer " which was so admirably constructed that it has been preserved to the present day. It still discharges its waters through a great arch into the Tiber. The land thus reclaimed became the F,^'m VIEW OF THE CAPITOLINE, WITH THE CLOACA MAXIMA. (A R«„*,««.„., the aK«:mbling-place of the people. At one angle of this pubBc square, as we should term it, was the Comitium, an enclosure where the assemblies of the patricians were held. Standing upon this shghtly elevated ground, and so placed that the speaker could address both the plebeians in the Forum and the patricians in the Comitium, was the rostnim,' or stand, from which the Roman with tli.b«aki(r«iy«) of war.galley.takm from < "~<»«i«i 214 THE ROMAN KINCDOM. otaton delivered their addrenes. This assembling-place in later times was enlarged and decorated with various monuments and sunounded with splendid buildings and porticoes. Here more was said, resolved upon, and done, than upon any other spot in the ancient worid. The Senate-house occupied one side of the Forum j and facing this on the opposite side were the Temple of Vesta and the palace ■.flOMAOIMMKn TWOHVoMltaM >.Tiiccoiiirii»i THCmuuo HmMIUUW rmHINSS. of the king. Overlooking all from the summit of the Capitoline was the famous sanctuary called the Capitol, or the Capitoline Temple, where beneath the same roof were the shrines of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, the three great national deities. Upon the level ground between the Aventine and the I^tine wag located the Circus Maximus, the "Great CLxIe," where were celebrated the Roman games. The mott noted of tiie itnet* of CONSTITUTION OF SERVWS TVLUVS. j,g Rome was the Via Sacra, or "Sacred Way," whicli traver«Hl the Forum and led up the Capitoline HUl to the temple of Jupiter TTus WM the street along which passed the triumphal procesioM of the Roman conquerors. lew Oniftitatioii of Berviu TuUiiu. - The second king of the Etruscan house, Servius Tulllus by name, effected a most impor- tant change m the constitution of the Roman state. He did here at Rome just what Solon at about this time did at Athens » He made property instead of birth the basis of the constitutTon. Tie end^ popuafon was divided into five classes, the first of which mcluded aU citizens, whether patricians or plebeians who owned twenty^V^ra (about twelve acres) of land; the fifth and lowest embraced aU that could show title to even two jugera 11,^ «my was made up of the member, of the five classes; as it was thought right and proper that the pubHc defence should be the care of those who, on account of their possessions, were most in- terested m the maintenance of order and in the protection of the nontiers of the state. The assembling-place of the military classes thus organized wa; on a b^e plain just outside the city walls, called the Campus Mmius, or "Field of Mars." He meeting of these miliZ ord«s was caUed the comiHa .enturiata. or the "assembly of hundreds." « Thu, body, which of course was made up of wtri- cians and plebeians, gradually absorbed the powers of the wrlier patncian assembly {comilia !uriata). The reforms of Servius "nillius were an important step towards the estabUshment of sodjl and political equaUty between the two great orders of the state. Tbe new constitution indeed, as Momm- sen wys, assigned to the plebeians duties only, and not rights- but being called to discharge the duties of ciUzens, it was not long before they demanded the rights of citizens; and as the bearers of arms, they were able to enfiwce their demands. 'S« History €f Grtr.t, p. 32. •Thi, «».mbly w« „„. „rgadi«d by Serviu. Tullius, but it grew «,. of the inilituy orguuation he crealed. s cw out 01 me It; SIG THB KOMAN KINGDOM. i|tT ' Hw I^aliion of the Kingi. — The legends make Tarquiniuf Superbus, or Tarquin the Proud, the last Icing of Rome. He is represented as a monstrous tyrant, whose arbitrary acts caused both patricians and plebeians to unite and drive him and all his house into exile. This event, according to tradition, occurred in the year 509 b.c., only one year later than the expulsion of the tyrants from Athens.' So bitterly did the people hat: the tyranny tliey had abolished that it is said they all, the nobles as well as the commons, bound themselves by most solenm oaths never again to tolerate a king, enacting that should any one so much as express a wish for the restoration of the monarchy) he should be considered a public enemy, and be put to death. We shall hereafter see how well this vow was kept for nearly five hundred years. The Rohan Reuoion. < laflnmoa upon FoUtioal Afftin. — To the early Romans the gods were very real. Hence religion had a great influence upon the course of public events at Rome during the first centuries of her existence. Later, when the learned had lost faith in and fear of the gods, religion was used corruptly for political purposes. Thus it happens that the political history of the Roman people ^St» Hillary d/ Gracr, p 54. Hw sixth uid fifth centuries B.C. m tncient history cofre^wnd politicmlly to the eighteenth tnd nineteenth in modern hiitory. As the later period ii characterized, in the political sphere, by the substitution of democracy for monarchy, so was the earlier era marlced by the decay of monarchical and the growth of popular forms of government. Speaking of the abolition of mon- archy at Rome, Mommsen says : '* How necessarily this was the result of the natural development of things is strikingly demonstrated by the fact that the same change of constitution took place in an analogous manner through the whole circuit of the Italo-Grecian world. Not only in Rome, but like- wise among the other Latins as well as among the Sabelliana, Etruscans, and Apnlians, — in fact, in all the Italian commnnities, just as in those of Greece, — we find the, rulers for life of an earlier epoch superseded in after times by umud magiatntcs." THE CaiBF SOMAN DBITTES. VLI becomei clwely interwoven with their reKgion. Therefore, in order to understand the tran««:tions of the period npon which we are about to enter, we must fim acquaint ourselves with at taut the prominent features of the religious instituUons and oeueB of the Romans. Th. Chief Bonuui Ddti«. -The basis of the Roman religious system was the same as that of the Grecian : the germs of ite in- stttut.ons were brought from the same ea.Iy Aryan home. At the head of the Pantheon stood Jupiter, identical in all essential HEAD OF JANUS. (Fmm . Romu, Coin.) attributes with the HeUenic Zeus. He was the special protector of the Roman people. To him, together with Juno and Minerva, was consecrated, as we have already noticed, a magnificent temple upon the summit of the CapitoUne HiU, overlooking the Forum and the city. Mars, the god of war, standing next in rank, was the favorite deity and the fabled father of the Roman race, who were fond of calling themselves the "Children of Mars." Thev proved themselves worthy offspring of the war-god. Martial gam« ,1 I if t .^i tit THE KOMAN KINGDOM. •nd feitivab were celebrated in hU honor during the lint month of the Ron^in year, which bore, and still bears, in his honor, the name of March. Janus was a double-faced deity, " the god of the begin- ning and the end of everything." The month of January was sacied to him, as were also all gates and doors. The gates of his temple were always kept open in time of war and shut in time of peace. The fire upon the household hearth was regarded as the symbol of the goddess Vesta. Her worship was a fa- vorite one with the Ro- mans. The nation, too, as a single great fiunily, had a common national hearth, in the Temple of VesU, where the sa- cred fires- were kept burning from genera- tion to generation by six viigins, dau^ters of the Roman state.' The Lares and Penates were household gods. Their images were set in the entrance of the dwell- ing. The Lares were the spirits of ancestors, I which were thought to linger about the home as its guardians. QfMlM and Sivinatian. — The Romans, like the Greeks, thought that the will of the gods was communicated to men by means of oiacles, and by strange sights, unusual events, or singu- ' For an interoting account of the remaini of the Hook of the Veitalii brought to light by recent excavationi, see LwcUni'i Antitnt tttmi in tUt L^t &f Recent DisemtHes. VESTAL VIRGIN. TBR SACXBD COLLSCBS. n* Ut coincidencei. There were no true oracles at Rome. The Romani, therefore, often had recourse to those in Magna Gnecia, even sending for advice, in great emergencies, to the Delphian shrine. From Etruria was introduced the art of the haruspices, or soothsayers, which consisted in discovering the wiU of the gods by the appearance of victims slain for the sacrifices. The BMnd OoIlagM —The four chief sacred coUeges, or socl- eties, were the Keepers of the SibyUine Books, the CoUege of Augurs, the CoUege of Pontififs, and the College of the Heralds. A curious legend fa told of the SibyUine Books. An old wgman came to Tarquiniua Superbus and offered to sell him, for an ex- travagant price, nine volumes. As the king declined to pay the sum demanded, the woman departed, destroyed three of the books, and then, returning, offered the remainder at the vrry same sum that she had wanted for the complete number. The king stiU refiised to purchase, so the sibyl went away and destroyed three more of the volumes, and bringing back the remaining three, asked the same price as before. Tarquin was by thfa time so curious respecting the contents of the mysterious books that he purchased the remaining volumes. It was found upon examination that they were fiUed with prophecies respecting the future of the Roman people. The books, which were written in Greek, were placed in a stone ches^ and kept in a vault beneath the CapitoUne temple ; and special custodians were appointed to Uke charge of them and' interpret them. The number of keepers, throughout the most important period of Roman hfatory, was fifteen. The books were consulted only in tilnes of extreme danger. * The duty of the members of the College of Augurs was to interpret the omens, or auspices, which were casual sights or ap- pearances, by which means it was believed that Jupiter made known hfa wiU. Great skill was required in the " taking of the auspices," as it was caUed. No business of importance, pubUc or private, was entered upon without first consulting the auspices, to ascertain iHiether they were favorable. The public assembly, for iUustra- tion, must not convene, to elect officers or to enact laws, unless rjKS KOtlAN KI/fCDOM. ':h !i the nnpicet had been taken and found propitkwi. Should « peal of thunder occur while the people were holding a meeting, that was contideted an unfavorable omen, and the auemblx ■»"•< initantly diipene. It ii easy to see how the power of the augurs might be used coiTuptly for political ends. At fint aU the members of the col- lege were patricians, and very frequently they would prevent the plebeians from holding an assembly by giving out that the aua|rices were not favorable ; and sometimes, when matters were not tak- faig such a course in the popuUr assembly as suited the nobles, and some measura obnoxious to their order was on the point of being carried, they would secure an announcement from the au- gurs that Jupiter was thundering, or manifesting his displeasure in some other way; and the people were obliged to break up their meeting on the instant. One of the privileges contended for by the plebeians was admission to this college, that they might assist in watching the omens, and thus this important matter not be left entirely in the hands of their enemies. The College of Pontiffs was so called probably because one of the duties of its members Vas to keep in repair the Bridge (/mx) of POes over the Tiber.* This was the most important of aU the religious institutions of the Romans; for to the pontiffs betonged the superintendence of all religious matters. In their keeping, too, was the calendar, and they could lengthen or shorten the ' year, which power they sometimes used to extend the office of a fevorite or to cut short that of one who had incurred their dis- pleasure. The head of the coUege was called Pontifex Maximus, or the Chief Bridge-builder, which ti'"- was assumed by the Ro- man emperors, and after them by the v^aristian bishops of Rome ; and thus the name has come down to our times. The College of Heralds had the care of all public matters per- taining to foreign nations. If the Roman people had suffered any ^ 'Seep. »a6. It » ponible that/oiu oriinnally signified not " bridge," but "way" geneially, vA fmtiftx tlierafore meant "constructor of wayi." MOHHSEN. SACJtBD OjIMMS. m *««g ftwn Mother itate, it wu the duty of the henldi to coonhy «.d hurled over the boundary . .pe„ dipped in blo^. hT^K J^ <'«'='""«<"' o' ""• The Roman, were very careful in the observance of this ceremony. tJ^ ^*~^* ^°"""' ^"^ """y ""P°"* K^ne' and leattvali. Promment among these were the so-called Circensian SUOVETAURILIA. Games, or Games of the Circus, ,-hich were very similar to the sacred games of the Greeks.' Tney consisted, in the main, of chanot-racmg. wresding, foot-racii:g, and various other athletic contests. These festivals, as in the case of those of the Greeks, had their 'See Nisloty 0) Grttce, p. 3a lill THB KOMAN KtMQDOM. M !! Ml :i otigiii in the beUef that the gods deHghted in the exhiUtioii ol fMl* of skill, strength, or enidoruce ; that their anger might be appeased by such q)ectaclei ; or that they might be persuaded by the pramise of garnet to lend aid to mortals in great emerges- des. At the opening of the year it was customary for the Roman magistrate, fai behalf of the people, to promise to the gods games and festivals, provided good crops, protection fiom pestilence, and victory were granted the Romans daring the year. So, too, a genera] in great straits in the field might, fa> the name of the state, vow playi to the gods, and the people were sacredly bound to fiilfil the promise. Flays given in fiilfilment of vows thus made were called votive games.' Towards the close of the republic these games lost much of their religious character, and at but became degraded into mere brutal shows given by amUtioaa leaders for the purpose of winnii^ popularity. I Th* fntinl of th* Sahinalia wu ctlebrated In honor of Stfun, the god of sowing. It WH «n occMiaa on which tU cUmo, incImUng the tUvn, who wen aUowed their freedom dutaig th* celebntion, gtve themielTce np to riotOM smiaementt; hence the ilgnlBcsnce we attach to the word talnrmalian. Th* wcB-knowa Ranan Csntval of to.day It a Muvival of th* aadent Satav- liK. IBGM/mAKy TALES. LEGENDARY TALES PERTAINING TO THE EARLY HIS- TORY OF ROHE.I JSM»B AMD «• T«0;AW COMPAMlOm AMIVS m ITAW. Mtt tnjhia ben taken by the Greek., /.neat, led by the Fates, eMi»tai«rdiof«DewhoiBetotheLaurentlan«ihorei. KWUUnu.. T^L^ ?^ th.t the le«Jer of the band «a. ^ne-Tthe eon of Anchhet by Vemii. i»d. , league of friendship with the atnnceti, and «»yehia daughter Lavinia In nuUTiage to the Trolaa hero. ^Gnea. bum a town whkh he called Lavinhim. alW the name of hi. wile. iniijTroJan. and the people of Latlum were «K>n engaged In war iri*Tarnu.. king of the Rutullan., to whom Uvinia had been affianced before the coming of .Eneas. In the battle that followed, the Rntullana were defeated, bat King Utinu. was killed ; and thenceforth ^ea. wa. king not only of the Trojan^ but ako of the people over whom Udnu. had ruled. To both nations be gave the common mune of < f^ V. "^""^ •" ^ government by hb son Ascantus, who. finding Lavlnium too strait for It. inhabitants, left that town, and biTt a new dty on the Alban Mount, to which was given the name of Alba Longa. In thta dty ruled Ascanlus and a long Une of hU descendants. At kngth, by foite and violence, ruled AmuUus. He had gained pas. •estion of the kingdom ' ■ dethroning his brother Numltor, pattinTto death his male oftprinfc, and maUng his daughter. Rhea SyWa. a mtaUn order that ahe should remahi unmarried. But Rhea bro<«ht forth twins, of whom the god Mars was dedared to be the father. TTie cruel king ordered the children to be thrown into the Tiber. Now it • "! ,•"??*"««• «""« *e riwr l>ad overflowed Its banks, and the cradle in whidi the chiUren were borne was fimtliy lefi on dry ground by the rettri^ flood. Attracted by the cries of d>e children, a shJ-woU directed her course to them, and with the greatest tenderness fondled and nursed them. There, in the care of the woK a shepheid named Faustidus found them, and carried them home to his wile, to be leaitd wito hu own oiildrea. 1^0/AmtimiJlom,. A. 10 the oedibmtr ol th«e Iq^d.. «, farther on. lit ch^.psiapBph haded "Uj.»iKjB.Il«; or fl»L^eBd^;^g,.. ^ 3' t m ill »,.:„ II, '! hi i! r 2» r«ff KOItAfr KINGDOM. Wbtn the boys had grown to be men, they put to' death the nsuiper AmuBus, and restored the throne to then- grandfiither Numitor. Numl- tor now reigned at Alba ; but Romuhu and Remus — for so the brathen were named — had a strong desire to buUd a city on the spot when they had been exposed and rescued. A shameful contest, however, arose benveen the brothers, as to which of the two should give name to the new city. It was determined that the matter should be decided by augu^ (.« p. a,5). Romulus chose the Palatine and Remus the Aventine HiU, fixim which to watch for the omens. To Remus first appeared six vultures ; afterwards twelve appeared to Romulus. Here- upon each was proclaimed king by hU followera, - Remus, on the ground that the birds had shown themselves to him first ; Romulus, on the ground that the greater number had appeared to him. A quarrel ensuing, Remus was IciUed. Another account, however, says that Remus, when the walU of the newfcity had been raised to only a litUe height leaped over them in derision; whereupon Romulus in anger slew hun, at the same time uttering these words : " So perish every one that shaU hereafter leap over my wall." The city was at length built, and was called Rome, ftom the name of its founder. The Romans capture the Sabinb Women for Wives. The new city, having been made by Romulus a sort of asylum or refiige fijr the discontented and the outbwed of all the surrounding itatet, soon became very populous, and more powerfid than either Lavinium or Alba Longa. But there were few women among its in- habitants. Romulus therefore sent embassies to the neighboring ciUes to ask that his people might take wives bom among them. But the adjdmng nations were averse to entering into marriage alliances with the men of the new dty. Thereupon the Roman youth determined to secure by violence what they could not obtain by other means. Rom- ulus appointed a great festival, and kvited to the celebration all the «m)anding peoples. The Sabines espedaUy came in great numbers with their wives and daughters. In the midst of the games, the Roman youth, at a preconcerted signal, rushed among the spectators and seised and carried off to their homes the daughters of their guests! TUs violation of the laws of hospitality led to a war on the part of fte injured Sabines against the Romans. Peace, however, was made Between the combatants by the young women themselves, who, as the «!*«■ of their captors, had become reeoadled to their lot. The two LEGElfDARY TALES. , jgg Mtion. were now combined into one, the Sabines removing to one of tlie Seven Hills. Each peo,.le, however, reUined its own king- but upon the death of the Sabine king, Titus Tatius, Romulus ruled over both the Romans am: the Sabines. During a thunder-storm Romuhis was caught up to the skies, and Numa Pompilius ruled in his stead. The Combat between the Horatii and the Cukiatii. In process of time a war broke out between Rome and Alba Longa. It might be called a civU war, for the Romans and Albans were alike descendants of the Trojans. The two armies were ready to engage in batUe when it was proposed that the controversy should be decided by a combat between three Alban brothers named the CuriaUi, and three Roman brothers known as the Hor*' i. The nation whose champions gained the victory was to rule over the other. On the signal being given, the combat began. Two of the Romans soon fell lifeless, and the three Curiatii were wounded. The remaining Roman, who was unhurt, was now surrounded by the three Albans. To avoid their united attack, he turnea and fled, thinking that they, being wounded, would almost certainly become separated in following him. This did actually happen; and when Horatius, looking back as he fled, saw the CunatU to be following him at different intervals, he turned himself about and feU upon his pursuers, one after the other, and despatched them. So in accordance with the terms of the treaty which the two cities had made, conditioned on the issue of the fight between the champions, Rome held dominion over Alba Longa. But the league between the Romans and the Albans was soon broken, and then the Romans, de- molishing the houses of Alba Longa, carried off all the inhabitants to Rome, and incorporated them with the Roman state.' The Exploit of Horatius Cocles. After the expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome, they besought Por- senna, king of CMium, a powerful dty of Etruria, to espouse their cause, and help them to regain the kingly power at Rome. Poisenna lent a favorable ear to their solicitations, and made war upon the Roman state. As his army drew near to Rome, all the pe<^ from > For the sequel of aiii Koir, m Vnj. I. at. ^' 2M THE ROMAN KINGDOM. fte .unrounding country hastened within the city gates. The bravery of . smgle n,an. Horatius Codes, alone prevent^ the enemyS f7l,^T,iT "T.""" "" *="'• ■^''" ™» was posted as aguarf on the Sublician Bridge (that is, " bridge of piles ")iwhich led i^ been taken by the enemy, it, defenders were retreating in great disordw ^ th. bridge, and the victors following close aften H^L Sd^ oBed afver hui fleeing companions to b«alc down the bridge, whUe h" S^T^rth l\ ""f "« "'"'*■"'*' 'he&rtherenSnceof the bra^e, he, with the help of two comrades, held the enemy in check. whUe the structure was being destroyed. As the bridge feU^r^ crash inu, the stream. Code, leaped into the water, fnd amSs. ' eT^he had saved Rome. His gr^iteful countrymen erected a sutur^ h» honor m the Comitium, and voted him a plot of land a. lan« „ te could plow in a single day. !-""«.« liiige u ne The FoRTITtlDK op MuCIUS SCjBVOLA. Faffing to take Rome by assault, Porsenna endeavored to ndnce it by a regutar riege. After the investment had been maintain^Tfor a considerable time, a Roman youth, Gaius Mudos by name, iiXd to deliver thedty from the p™,nc» of the besiegers' by goi,^tw,I^ eT^h ^ r"'' ""^ '^'"« ''°™"»'- Thfough a milkThow! ever, hejrfew the «a,tanr of the king instead of the king himsetf. He -as se «. and bro^t into the p,«ence of Porsenna, whoTaten^ him with pum.hn«, by i„ unless he m«Je a fall disdosuT of tSe by thre^ thras li» r«ht hand into a fl«ne that w^ near, and held it by the fortitude of the y«th, that he dismissed him without S ment From Uie loss of h» right hand, Mudus «ceived the surname of Soevola ; that is. The Left-handed. "Bmame thaMh^r' 'i^T' ^ ""' ''""""^ ■"^"S leaned ftom Mudu. that three hundred Roman youth had entered into a vow to «crMa thems^ a- need be, in orier to compass hi. death. J^ ^ ^^ p«a wrth the Ro««» „* withdrew hi, ^ 6^ ;,^ ^J^"*- THE FIRST CONSULS, nr y CHAPTER II. THE EARLY ROMAN REPUBLIC: CONQUEST OF rTALY. (S09-i«« 1.0.) J^i^i°r^~T*^ *' monarchy overth^wn and .he rfXi Ti^ ^^V*"*" «»*"«*'. in which assembly the who were chosen for one year, and were invested with almost aU he powers, save some pr.esUy functions, that h«l been heW S the monarch during the regal period. ^ In public each consul was attended by twehre servant, r,1l^ Jctors, each of whom bore an axe bounVl^. ^^i^^ (/««x), the symbols of the authority of the consul to fl™r Zt to put to death. Within the limits of the X hZvTr t^ must be removed from the/„.„, by w Wch2' Jn^^^tat": consent of the public assembly.' Lucius Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus were the fi™t consuls under the new constitution. But it fa t^ Z the ^ name of Tar<,uinius w.„ so intolerable to the p^ple^at he ,S forced to resign the consulship, and that he J7LZ2\Z Mine in A* BUB of a fiaucial oatiiK. ".u»«ihi«7 > fi. 2S8 T»B EARLY KOKA/f RBPVBUC. diivea out of Rome.' Another consul, Publius Valerius, was chosen in his stead. . Hut B eflwito n of the PbbeiMS (494 b.c).— Taking advan- "f tige of the «*i»onlerj that followed the political revohition, the Latin towns wbich had been forced to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome rose hi revolt, and the result was that almost all the con- ' The tmth li, he wu related to the exiled royal fiimiljrf and the people were JIalimtt i i l of Ilia lojralty to the repuWc. TSM COVEtfANT AND THE TKIBVNES. sn quests that had been made under the kings wen lost For . 1«„» TKMibles without brought troubles within. The poor plebeLms. Sitr SI"' '""'t' "^ '^' ^'" " •'""tTth^S; cto!B,-.for the Roman soldier went to war at his own chan» equipping and feeding himself,-and payment was eJ^t^ X he^Uess seventy. A debtor became the absolute pioperTof ht creditor, who might seU him as a slave to pay the S^ «me cases even put him to death.. All this ^fatoletl^.^ gebeians determined to secede fiom Rome and buUdanewcJ ^.S^ Hm X'°"*w'^ eminence, called afterward. ^^ 5)acred Hill. They marched away in a body from Rome to the sr (^.s "^ "^ ''-'^'^ '- -"'^ -- thaT^STT* "* ^ '^'*^- -'^"' P=''^='»» »» clearly Aat ^ch a division must prove ruinous to the state, and that the backtoRome. The consul Valerius was sent to treat with the > Tie R»»n. h«l to Bght both the Utta. «d the Etaacwii A ««, 'fcto,j,g.u.edbytheRon»n..tLri„Regin,H4»6"a.«^!: "^ ■ecured the future of Rome. ~IP"">^ 49«> n-C, ended the wu, and del^''«^"II "" '"l""^' P'"*" '» .^'" «« "ndMon of the poor ^ fte Sd,i„e wr. the eropeon hi. IHtic f.™ hi^ bt^^lTth^TJ h- hou« burnt, ud hi. cttle driven off. To p.y hb2«. h. fcT^' forced to run in debt; .h„ deb, g,o«ng contL:.iT^".^J^' co^,^ fint hu farm, . patemj inheritance, then the rert of hUMmI-.n T length had laid hold of hU own per»n He h!rf^,„ !., •'^«' ""* " beaten wiUi^ripe. He .hen .h':~d .he b^™ .^Cf "T" "' kdWn™ ; ^'^ ' «"»' •"""J* «<«. "d the people, ajled «ith ind^ation. ran together fiom an ude. into the Forum. II Vr """"^ at Athens before the reforms of Solon. See HUtc^^Grm, "52 ISO TUn BAXLY ROM AN SEPVBUC nv mtnigeoti. The plebeians were at first obstinate, but at last were peisuaded to yield to the entreaties of the embassy to letum, being won to his mind, so it is said, by one of the wise senators, Menenius, who made nse of the well-known iable of the Body and the Members. The following covenant was entered into, and bound by the most solemn oaths and vows before the gods : The debts of the poor plebeians were to be cancelled, and those held in shivery set firee; and two magistrates (the number was soon increased to ten), called tribunes, whose duty it should be to watch over the plebeians, and protect them against the injustice, harshness, and partiality of the patrician magistrates, were to be chosen from the commons. The persons of these officers were made sacred. Any one interrupting a tribune in the discharge of his duties, or doing him any violence, was declared an outlaw, whom any one might kill. That the tribunes might be always easily found, they were not allowed to go more than one mile beyond the city walls. Their houses were to be open night as well as day, that any plebeian unjustly dealt with might flee thither for protection and refuge. We cannot overestimate the importance of the change effected in the Roman constitution by the creation of this office of the trib- unate. Under the protection and leadership of the tribunes, 1^0 were themselves protected by oaths of inviolable sanctity, the ple- beians carried on a struggle for a share in the offices and dignities of the state which never ceased until the Roman government, as yet only republican in name, became in fact a real democracy, in which patrician and plebeian shared equally in all emoluments and privileges. OoriolMUu. — The tradition of CorioUmus illustrates in what manner the tribunes cared for the rights of the common people and protected them from the oppression of the nobles. During a severe famine at Rome, Gelon, the king of Syracuse, sent large quantities of grain to the capital for distribution among the suffer- ing poor. A certain patrician, Coriolanus by name, made a proposal COKIOLANUS. jj, dition tlu^ they gave up their tribune.. These official, .traightwa, «.mmoned him before the plebeian awembly,' on the cZHf ^vwg broken the wlemn covenant of the Sacred MounC3 no Wtter wa. the feehng against him that he wa. obliged to flee fiom and even led their armies agamst his native city. An embaM^ from the Senate wa, «,nt to him, to .ue for peace. But the Spirit of Coriolann, was bitter and revengeful, «k1 he would li.ten to none of the^ proposals. Nothing availed to move him untU hi. mmher. at the head of a train of Roman matron^ came to w! tent, and with teats pleaded with him to spare the city. Her ^^"Z "^ *\"!°'' P"''"" °^ ^ '^ ^' and^dren prev«led and with the ^.0Ids. « Mother, thou hast «,ved Rome, but lost thy son," he led away the Volsdan army ra-rf-Mta »ujd. Mctater.-The enemies of Rome, taking" ^toge of the dissensions of the nobles and commons, preyed upon the frontiers of the republic on aU sides. In 458 bcT ^E^, whde one of the consuls was away fighting Ae Satoe.. defatted the forces of the other, and rfmt them up in a narrow SoiJIw^'^'^r?'^'""^'"'- '">««'««■ g~at tenor fa Rjme when news of the stuation of the army was brought to TTie Senate immediately appoiirted Ci^-miatus, a grand old P«naan,dKtator. TT« «nba-ado.s that carried to him^em^ «^^i^ ^ •*°'"''' " ™ "" *« "« ""dyj •»« oth«.. m THE EAKLY KOMAN REPVBUC. •me from the Senate found him upon his little farm near the Tiber, at worit behind the plough. Accepting the office at once, he hastUy gathered an army, marched to the relief of the consul, captured the entue army of the /Equians, and sent them beneath the yoke " Cincinnatus then led his army back to Rome in triumph, laid down his office, and sought again the retirement of his farm. The DMOBTin and the Tabbt of Uwi Written Uws ai« always a great safeguard against oppression. Until what shall constitute a crime and what thaU be its penalty are cleariy written down, and weU known and understood by all, judges may render unfair decisions, or inflict unjust punishment, and yet run Ut- ile risk— unless they go altogether too «ar— of being called to an account; for no one but themselves knows what the law or the penalty really is. Hence in all struggles of the people against the tyranny of the ruling class, the demand for written laws i» one .of the first measures taken by the people for the protection of then- persons and property. Thus we have seen the peojde of Athens, early in their struggle with the nobles, demanding an* ' obtainmga code of written laws.' The same thing now tooVplice at Rome. The plebeians demanded that a code of laws be drawn up, m accordance with which the consuls, who exercised judicial powers, should render their decisions. The patricians offered a stubborn redstance to their wishes, but finaUy were forced to yield to the popular clamor. A commission was sent to the Greek cities of Southern Italy and to Athens to study the Grecian laws and customs. Upon the return of this embassy, a commission of ten magistrates, who were known as decemvirs, was appointed to frame a code of laws (4SI B.C.). These officers, while engaged in this work, were also to admmister the entire government, and so were invested with the supreme power of the sute. The patricians gave up their •Thkwsifomiedoftwoipeiiithmt Bimly into the gronndiurf crowd a few Cwt from the eirth by a third. Prisoaeis of war ■mn forced to pait beaeid> this yoke u a lymbol of lubmi^on. •See BUttrj tf Gnta, pp. 50^ 5a, r/» DBCBMVIRS. eomolf and the plebeians their tribunes. At the end of the Ant year, the task of the board wag quite fer from being finuhed, so a new decemvirate was elected to complete the work. Appius Claudius was the only member of the old board that was returned to the new. The code was soon finished, and the laws were written on twehre Ublets of bronze, which were fastened to the Rostra, or orator's platform in the Forum, where they might be seen and read by aU. These '• Laws of the Twelve Tables " were to Roman Jurisprudence what the good laws of Solon' were to the AthS^nian constitution. They formed the basis of all new legislation for many centuries, and constituted a part of the education of the Roman youth —every school-boy being required to learn them by heart ' EspedaUy inffuential were the Laws of the Twelve Tables in helping to establish social and civil equaUty between the patricians and plebeians. They tended to efface the social distinctions that had hitherto existed between the two orders, and helped to draw them together into a single people ; for up to this time the reU- tions of the plebeians to the patricians, notwithstanding the reforms of Servius TuUius, had been rather those of foreigners than of feUow-citizens.* •See ffitttry tfCrua, p. 51. •For iUiutnttoo, up to this time the plebeians had not been aUowed to iiitetmanjr with the pmlriciani. This was in atrict accord with the general rule among the ancient^ that the citizena of one city ihould have no iodal dealinga with those of another. Only a few years, however, after the drawing up of the code, and owing in part at least to its Influence, a law known, from the tribune (Caius Canoldus) who secured fcs passage, as the Canuleian Law, gave the plebeians flie ri^t to intermarry whh the patricians. There was now civU and social equaUtjr established between the two orders. The plebeians next engaged in a struggle for polilical rights and |x>litical equality (see p. 240) These lone contests carried on by the plebeians for civil, social, and political rights, and their gradual admission to the privileges liom which they had been otduded, may be weU iUustrated by the case of the freedmen among us, who, by the Fottitveath and Fifteenth .^mcBdmenti lu uur Constitution, were admitted first to dw cMl and then to the political righu and privileges of American dtizena. , fir ■ , IM m TBS BAMLY KOMAN HBfVaUC Mte^Md Owrftww rftta DMWfiirt. -The lint decern, vin lued the great power lodged in their handi with juitice and prudence ; but the second board, under the leadenhip of Appiui Claudius, instituted a mo«t iniiunous and tyrannical role. No man's life was safe, be be patrician or plebeian. An ex-tribone, daring to denounce the course of the decemvirs, was caused by them to be assassinated. Another act, even more outrageous than this, flUed to the brim the cup of their iniquities. Vitginia was the beautiful daughter of a (debeian, and Appius Oandius, desiring to gain possession of her, made use of his authority as a Judge to pr««ionnce her a sUve. The fitther of the maiden, preferring the de^h of his daughter to her dishonor, IdUed her with hU own hairf. Then, drawing the weappn tarn her breast, he hastened to the army, which was resisting a united hivasion of the Sabines and iEquians, and, exhibiting the bloody knife, told the story of ttie outrage." The soldiers rose as a single man and hurried to the ci^. The excitement resulted in a great body of the Romans, soldiers and citisens, probably chiefly plebeians, seceding from the ^, and marching away to the Sacred Hill. This procedure, "Wch once before bad proved so eflectual in securing justice to the oppressed, had a similar issue now. The situation was so wmcal that the decemvirs were forced to resign. The consuUte •nd Ae tribunate were restored. Eight of the decemvin were faced to go mto exile; Appius Claudius and one other, having j been imprisoned, committed suicide (450 b c ) i Oomiitor, or ■iUtujr TrilmiM. -The overthrow of the decem- firate was foDowed by a bitter straggle between the nobles and the commons, which was an effort on the part of the Utter to gain admission to the consulship ; for up to tiiis time only a patrician could hold tiiat office. The contention resulted m a compromise. It was agreed that, in place of tiie two consuls, the people mi^ dect from either order magistrates that should be blown as « liry, m. 44r^. Tlib trie h pos^My mytUa* bat it «t !«•» aiwt » vMd, and donbUea trntUol, picton of the timet. \ il I THB AGXB EOHAmrS AM) THE LATIN CONI^ h tti fim iTIta Mdy lipMc ■tout ac 4t& i I 1. I OfJrrt I ntoMg H t nlt m m lli^^MftfKimt. t, flhiAUi "• m MAKLY MOHAN KMfVMltC. "mffitWT tribune, with coMpUttpowew." The* o«cen. who- \ out not the nune' (444 b.c.). ^^ Of .dintalon to the tnbunate with con.ular powen, th« the M- 2^tSh"^f " TT^ "^ -hemmVto^bthemof t fc^ofthevictoor they had gained. They effected thi. by taking ttd confcmng Aem upon two new patrician officer, called i^,l^. SL^^w r '^"« ,"«*«»'« *«« ""my «nd important rZ^,r .T"^ ""/ *" '"'""•^ to even- n«w hi. ^ition i^Tjf^'^ "^ °' '^' ciU.en., and they couJd, for tamo- nB^ « «y lmp«p., conduct,'not only degnde a n«n fiom hi. nuik^butdepnvehimofhi.vote. It wa, their duty to watch the ^c »o«l. «K, in caK of nece«ty to adminil whoS«e Jdv«:e. Thu. we are told of their reproving the Roman ^ fcrweanng tunic with long rieeve.-«. Mer^ ^ .ffeS !!r°iZ!°^ neglecting to many upon arriving at a proper ■ge. f»m the name of the« Roman officer, come, oirwwl ttnsmeus, meaning fault-finding. The flrM cenwn were elected proUbly in the year aaa «.c. • Vi^cured the right of holding this office abo. ^^«ig» ud Oaptui. of Vdi. -We mu.t now turn our attention .J'tv fiT'°'vr"''""- Al^o^'fromthefoundiTome powerful EtruKan neighbor on the nortb. VeU was one of the ' The p^ricUa. were eqMxiiOly unwiUing th.l the pkbdu. d,„dd receive the Mme, fo, a,e reuon th.t « e,H:o™„l enjoyed ceSTil'ur.nrh™ «.. .uch „ fte right to wear . particul., ^^Mo( ^^tT^ ^-^Z ho»e im^ of hi. ^certo... The« honor^y di«tocd„„ tte^U^ Le" we,.j«Io„ of retaining «,el«ively fora-enZeT^g to 4. -« ^ ««of the p.trici«a in the election., it wu not untU .W «^ tlt^ ^ tfebeiaowMchoeen to the new office. ui «Dout 400 B.C thiU , Xrpl^i;^. ^t -- -- - .. ^ ii«e length of the ijege, and the necetiityof mjinuwfag , fo^ permanently in the field, «lv ^'.ff "'»•"»«« °f « P«id .tanding •rmjr|fo,hthe«o the wUier had not only •quippjd hin,Klt but had .erved without W- Thui WM laid the batii of that mili- tMT power which wa« dertined to effect the conquest of the worU. .„d then, in the hand, of ambition, and favorite genewl,, to over- Uwow the republic itwlf. The capture of Veil by the dictator Ca- >""<» (396 ».c.) wa« foUowed by that of "^^ZlT^"^ Rome wa. VauscH MCHir even beyond the utmost limiu of the kmgdom before iu overthrow.' All that wa. loM by the revotation had • been now regained, and much betide. h«d been won. At thi. moment there broke upon the city a «orm from the north, which an but cut diort the story we are narrating. »Mk of Borne by the ChuU (390 B.C.).— We have ah«ady mentioned ")i^^'^ tOUME*. "Tace the gndiul gnmth of die Rom« doMln (.ught to trial before the popular assembly, on the chaige of -nspmng to restore the office of king. From the Forum, wheie fte people were gathered, the Capitol, which Manlius had so bra»ely defended against dK barbarians, was in fiiU sight. Pomt- ing to the temples he had saved, he appealed to the gods and t« the gratitude of the Roman people. The people responkort Histay of tht Roman futplt, p. 83, ■ S« History tf Cnea, p. 79. m ambition to build up ™ch an emp^ta thewi^V^ w^ the Romans evnced in forming their lines of battleT sr/eer-Lr^Sj ^i-; iri^hlf «.d not without appreciating its'sig^i^l^e. £C:ltoi Jie Roman soldien kiUed in the action ^re 111 in ZT^^ I^^chsold^ers." said he, -i should «»„ be ^ .^"I^; the^l™ ""''"" °^*" ""°"°^ ^'»'» I'd Wm to send to the Romans proposals of peace. The emb«y was he^ w The eloquence of Cineaswins me more rxtorie. than my sLS TMS SAMtr KOMAN ttSPVMUC. • re When die Senate hesitated, iti reMhtion was fixed bjr the elo- qnence of the aged Appfau Clandin*: "Rome," eichltned he, "ihaO never treat wiA a victorioot foe." The amtwai obliged to return to Fynhut unsuccenful in their miirion. It \ at thla time that Cineu, in amwer to i me inquiries of hia i ieq>ecting the Romans, drew the celebr-.'^d parallels that likened their Senate to an assembly of kin;^ i^^':. war against such a people to an attack upon another Hv>ital to attend a festival, with no other security for their return than their iinq>le promise, and that not a angle man broke his word. After a second victory, as disastrous as his first, Pyrrfaus i aiciiil over mto Sicily, to aid the Grecians there m their stmgi^ with the CaiAagiidans. At first he was everywhere succeafhl; bat finally fortune turned against him, and he was glad to escape fiom the island. Recrossing the strsdts into Italy, he once more en- gaged the Romans, but at the battle of Beneventum suffered a disastrous and final defeat at the hands of the consul Curius Den- tatus (s74 B.C.). Leaving a sufficient force to garrison Tarentum, the baffled and disappointed king set sail for Epirus. He had scarcely embarked before Tarentum surrendered to the Romans (a7i B.c>. This ended the stragg^ for the mastery of Italy. Rom« 'MS nfliw iriNtess of aB the peiuMida south of the Armus »M* wiTB rvuiavs. ^ •^d^RnbtaHi. It w« now her c«e to con«.IidaM th«. E^iiirLris::!!!.'^ •><•" upon 4e„Tm^i tr: IwfcctnetwoikofcokMiiei'andnUmMyiowU, ""<>'■ •PI>»ritotI««l«„coIonlJrfpLSXir-!L^,'- ^'«™I-«»wM "»«Ne of ft, ^^^^J^ 1°"'' P°-~«' «n.e of ft. »o« SM nw fixsT fumc wak. CHAPTER III, THE nitsT nnnc war. (rt|.«4>>«) (hrOag* ud th* fhTthHtl***" lapii*.— Foremoit among the cities founded by the Phoeniciani upon the different ihoret of the Mediterranean waa Carthage, upon the. northern coait of Africa. The city ia thought to have had its beginnings in a small trading-post, established late in the ninth century B.C., about one hundred years before the legendary date of the founding of Rome. The favorable location of the colony, upon one of the best harbors of the Airican coast, gave the city a vast and lucrative commerce. At the period which we have now reached it had grown into an imperial city, covering, with its gardens and suburbs, a disttif^t twenty^three miles in circuit It could not have contained less than 1,000,000 inhabitants. A commercial enterprise like that of the mother city. Tyre, and exactions from subject cities and %tes — for three hundred Libyan cities acknowledged the suze- rainty of Carthage and paid tribute into its treasury — had ren- dered it enormously wealthy. In the third century before our era it was probably the richest city in the wnrld. By the time Rome had extcji^ded bnr authority ov» Italy, Car- thage held sway, through peacefu! coionization or by force of arms, over all the northern coast of Africa from the Greater Syrtis to the Pillars of Hercules, and possessed the larger part of Sicily, as well as Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearic Isles, Southern Spain, and scores of little islands scattered here and there in the neigh- boring seas. With all its shores dotted with her colonies and fortresses, and swept in every direction by the Carthaginian war- galleys, the Wenem Mediterranean had become a "Phcenidan ooyxg/fMSJfr Am jul/g/ok m of Cutfaase like th.t TiT *">!>« — The govcmmeu ««-*ra«ge, like that of Rome, wai repubUcan in fonn Cc,^ ^^!^ t* ?"r '=*""'"•• "~ »^t»t^iS^' Je^ stood at the head of the lUtc ti..o_ . *-""=" luneiei, i-d. of the .eadijf!!::.^^ -i^?;,^; ^^^^ °'.!^ of^.Sljr„rK ? "" l" «dn>inist«tion, that w hund«dve« ^«^'-"*»>0"JoicedinI:rrt[;:^*%r:.t.?: they ofleied human sacrificet. "»» «na w parenta tean," noi^TtiS'rr '"h** '*"'"' '^^ Athens'^ Sparta. «, ^irrh^rr^ttdi^or-'^rP'^ S^^at^ort^et^i^i-j™ A»M the CarAaguuan armies were formed chiefly of merce^« me Koman people. And then the subject state, nfr.-k ^ ' »»«iy of anothe. .ce, h«guage. and ^l^rftrl'SS MKtocorr MMuinoN twt omit (ANSI ond ISO If Sr CHAIIT No. 2) M^l^u^ ^ APPLIED IN/UGE Ine 3^ 1»3 East Moin Stra«t r^ RochfeiUr, Nm York 14B09 USA S ("«) ■«2-0300-Ph(.fl« S (^IB) 2SB - SMO - Fox rag f/xsT puNtc war. dan conquerors, and were ready, upon the first disaster to the ruling city, to drop away from their allegiance ; while the Latin allies and Italian dependencies of Rome were close kindred to her in race and religion, and so, through natural impulse, for the most part remained loyal to her during even the darkest periods of her struggle with her rival. ^ Beginning of the War. — Lying between Italy and the coast of Africa is the large island of Sicily. It is in easy sight of the former, and its southernmost point is only ninety miles &om the latter. At the commencement of the First Punic' War, the Carthaginians held possession of all the island save a strip of the eastern coast, which was under the sway of the Greek city of Syra- cuse. The Greeks and Carthaginians had carried on an almost uninterrupted struggle through two centuries for the control of the island. The Romans had not yet set foot upon it. But it was destined to become the scene of the most terrible encounters be- tween the armaments of the two rivals. Pyrrhus had foreseen it all. As he withdrew from the island, he remarked, " What a fine battle-field we are leaving for the Romans and the Carthaginians." In the year 264 b.c., on a flimsy pretext of giving protection to some friends,* the Romans crossed over to the island. Ttiat act ^ From Potnit Latin for Hioenicians, and hence applied by the Romans to the Carthaginians, u they were Phoenician colonists. ' Daring the war with Fyrrhoa, some Campaniana, who had been serving aa mercenaries in the army of the king of Syracnse, while returning to Italy, conceived the project of seizing the town of Mesaana, on the Sicihan Straits. They killed the citizens, intrenched themselves in the place, and commenced to annoy the snrroonding country with their marauding bands. Hiero, king of Syracuse, besieged the ruflians in their stronghold. The Mamertines, or " Sons of Mars," — for thus they termed themselves, — appealed to the Romans for aid, liasing their claims to assistance upon the alleged fact of common descent from the war-god. Now the Romans had just punished a similar band of Campanian robbers who had seized Rhpgism, on the Italian side of the chan- nel. To turn about now and lend aid to'the Sicilian band would be the great, cat Inconsistency. But in case they did not give the assistance asked, it was certain that the Mamertines would look to the Carthaginians for succor; and so Messana would come into the hands of their rivals. THE ROMANS BVILD A FLEET. 281 c»mnutted Aem to . a«er of foreign conquer destined to con- tinue tUl their arms had made the circuit of the Mediterranean The Syracu^uu, and Carthaginians, old enemies and ri«U, though they had been, joined their forces against the insolent new-comen The aUies were completely defeated in the first ta«le, and the Roman army obtained a sure foothold upon the In the following year both consuls were placed at the head of formidable armies for the conquest of Sicily. A large portion of the jsUnd was quickly overrun, and many of the cities threw off their allegumce to Syracuse and Carthage, and became allies of Rome. Hiero, king of Syracuse, seeing that he was upon the losing side, deserted the cause of the Carthaginians, and formed an alliance with the Romans, and ever after remained their firm tnend. TheBoman. bnild tkdr Krrt Hart.- Their experience dur- ng the past campaigns had shown the Romans that if they were to cope successfiiUy with the Carthaginians they must be able to meet them upon the sea as weU as-upon the land. Not only did the Carthagman ships annoy tiie Sicilian coast towns which were already m the hands of the Romans, but they even made descents upon the shores of Italy, ravaged the fields and villages, and sailed away with their booty before pursuit was possible. To guard tiieir shores and ward off these attacks, the Romans had no fleet. Their Greek and Etruscan allies were, indeed, maritime peoples, and pos- sessed considerable fleets, which were at die disposal of the RomTs But these vessels were merely triremes. gaUeys with tiiree banks of oan; while the Carthaginian ships were quinqueiemes, or vessels with five rows of oars. The former were worthless to cope with the latter such an advantage did these have in their greater weight and height. So the Romans determined to build a fleet of quin- queremes. ^ Now it so happened that, a little while before, a Carthaginian galley had been wrecked upon the shore of Southern Italy This served as a pattern. It is said that within the almost incredibly 4>».j ^^^ an THE F/SST FUNIC WAR. short ipace of sixty days a growing forest was converted into a fleet of one hundred and twenty war-galleys. While the ships were building, the Roman soldiers were being trained in the duties of sailors by practising in rowmg, while sitting in lines on tiers of benches built on the land. With the shore ringing with the sounds of the hurried work upon the galleys, and crowdec th the groups of" make-believe rowers," the scene must have I jen a somewhat animated as well as ludicr6us one. Yet it all meant very serious business. Th« Bomuu gain their First Haral Viotory (260 b.c.).— The consul C. DuiUius was intrusted with the command of the fleet. He met the Carthaginian squadron near the city and prom- ontory of Mylse, on the northern coast of Sicily. A single pre- caution gave the victory to the Romans. Distrusting their ability to match the skill of their enemies in manoeuvring their ships, they had provided each with a drawbridge, over thirty feet in length, and wide enough for two persons to pass over it abreast. It was raised and lowered by means of pulleys attached to the mast The Carthaginian galleys bore down swiftly upon the Roman ships, thinking to pierce and sink with their brazen beaks the clumsy- looking structures. The bridges alone saved the Roman fleet from destruction. As soon as a Carthaginian ship came near enough to a Roman vessel, the gangway was allowed to fall upon the approaching galley; and the long spike with which the end was armed, piercing the deck, instantly pinned the vessels together. The Roman soldiers, rushing along the bridge, were soon engaged in a hand-to-hand confiii:t with their enemies, in which species of encounter the former were sure of an easy victory. Fifty of the Cart h agi n ian galleys were captured; the remainder — there were one hundred and thirty ships in the fleet — wisely refiising to rush into the terrible and fatal embrace in which they had seen their companions locked, turned their prows in flight. The Romaic had gained their first naval victory. The joy at Rome ■wf. unbounded. It inspired, in the more sanguine, splendid visions of maritime command and glory. The Medi- THE WAR CARRIED WTO AFRICA. agg Ignorance and his clumsy skUl had en- abled him to capture." The Bomani oany the War into Afnoa. — The results ef the naval en- gagement at Myte encouraged the Romans to push the war with re- doubled energy. They resolved to cany ■t mto Africa. An immense Cartha- ginian fleet that disputed the passage of the Roman squadron was almost •nmhiiated,' and the Romans disem- barked near Carthage. Atilius Regu- lus. one of the consuls who led the "my of invasion, sent word to Rome Aat he had "sealed up the gates of Carthage with terror." Finally, how- ever, Regulus suflered a crushing defeat and was made prisoner.' A fleet which TOS sent to bear away the reii.nants '- ".™,.,,on., of the shattered army was wrecked in a terrific storm „ff . SsTf rlSTen"" "' ""^' '''^''' '""^ ^^ ^^' «>« Undismayed at the terrible disaster that had overtaken the i ?r'r"'l^''!^ promontory of Ecnomu^ 256 B.C. THE COLUMN OF CUlLLruS. (A Rtitontton,} > Fll 254 TSB FISST PVmC WAK. 11 transport fleet, the Romani let to work to build another, and made a second descent upon the African coast. The expedition, however, accomplished nothing of importance ; and the fleet on its return voyage was almost destroyed, just off the coast of Italy, by a tremendous storm. The visions of naval supremacy awakened among the Romans by the splendid victories of Mylx and Ecnomua were thus suddenly dispelled by these two successive and appalling disasters that had overtaken their armaments. TIu Battle of Fanormiu (251 b.c.). — For a few years the Romans refrained from tempting again ihe hostile powers of the sea. Sicily became thn battle-ground where the war was con- tinued, although with but little Spirit on either side, until the arrival in the island of'the Carthaginian general Hasdrubal (251 B.C.). He brought with him one hundred and forty elephants, trained in war. Of all the instruments of death which the Roman soldiers were accustomed to face, none in the history of the legionaries inspired them with such uncontrollable terror rs these "wild beasts," as they termed them. The furious rage with which these monsters, themselves almost invulnerable to the darts of the rnemy, swept down the opposing ranks with their trunks, and tost>ed and trampled to pieces the bodies of their victims, was indeed well calculated to inspire a most exaggerated dread. Beneath the walls of Panormus, the consul Metellus drew Hasdrubal into an engagement He checked the. terrifie-charge of the war elephants by discharges of arrows dipped in flaming pitch, which caused the frightened animals to rush back np« reveaUm to the Senate the enfeebled condition of Carthage M to thZ ^.k The Raman Senate, following his counsel, rejected all th, „-^ ^^r ri^ »""' ^"'^' ^-^ ""''y fro- Rome, ^Z C ;» hi •'"^PP"-*-"' »d a»ge, would be ^u, The tnditian goes on to tell how, upon his arrival at r.rth.^ he was confined in a cask driven fcll^f ^t ^ 1 Carthage, die of starvation and ^ -Z J^tt t^ ^ *'v! '"" *° to have been added by the stoiy-tellets. ™«« supposed low of Two Hon Soman P]«at> aa— »i. , •. C^inian embassy. rTw^nT^nTorl^eiVlVl^d Mid sea with many vicfasitudes At I«f ™ .k T , „ ^f * rpk ?r " """":; '"'^''''°" increased £ Kan Of the people. It was reported that just befae the battle. '•f 'III 1^ ■■ 'hI > In asem-^t at Drcpajw, M»B«, 9M T»B FIRST PUNIC WAP. when the auapicea were being taken, and the lacied chickeM would not eat, Claudius had g^n orden to have them thrown into the sea, brreverently remarking, " At any rate, they (hall drink." Imagination was free to depict what further evils the offended gods might inflict upon the Roman state. The gloomiest forebodings might have found justification in subsequent events. The other consul just now met with a great disaster. He was proceeding along the southern coast of Sicily with a squadron of eight hundred merchantmen and over me hundred war-galleys, the former loaded with grain for the Roman army on the island A severe storm arising, the squadron was beaten to pieces upon the rocks. Not a single ship escaped. The coast for miles was strewn with broken planks, and with bodies, and heaped with vast windrows of grain cast up by the waves. , X dow of the llrst Fnnio War. —The war had now lasted for fifteen years. Four Roman fleets had been destroyed, three of which had been sunk or broken to pieces by storms. Of the fourteen hundred vessels which had been lost, seven hundred were war-galleys, — all large and costly quinqueremes, that is, vessels with five banks of oars. Only one hundred of these had fallen into the hands of the enemy; the remainder were a sacrifice to the malign and hostile power of the waves. Such successive blows bam. an invisible hand were enough to blanch the fitces even of the sturdy Romans. Neptune manifestly denied to the " Children of Mars " the realm of the sea. It was impossible for the six years following the last disaster to infuse any spirit into the struggle. In 247 B.C., Hamilcai Barta, the father of the great Hannibal, assumed the command of the Carthaginian forces, and for several yean conducted the war with great ability on the island of Sicily, even making Rome tremble for the safety of her Italian possessicms. Once more the Romans determined to commit their cause to the element that had been so unfriendly to them. A fleet of two hundred vessels was built and equipped, but entirely by private CLOSB OF THE IVAJl. jgT wbKiiption; for the Senate feawd that public «nUment would not .usuun them in levying a tax for fitUng up «S ^dv armament ., an offering to the in^itiable Neptune m L^S «,uadron. a. we may caU it, wa. intrusted to the comm^dT he mand of the adminU Ham,o, near the ^atian Islands. Z mflicted upon It a crushing defeat (341 b.c.) The Carthaginians now sued for peace. A treaty was at len«h ;||^. Ae term, of which required that Cart^a^S^^^^^ It h" • "^:!'' °' ^'"^''y- '^^" "» her prisoner, and pay M mdemmty of 3,00 talents (about «4,ooo,o^), one-thirf of wtach was to be paid down, and the bdance in ten yearly «^^ four yean, the first great struggle betweeujarthage and Rome. ^t«sd rilver mine. o( tl»«»thern pan of the peninsula. He feU in battle «8 B.C. HamUcar Barca wm the gre«e,t general that up to thU time the C«^njan nu:e had produced. A. a nile. genius U not trans- ^^i,,- ,"" **.,««^' fi"»ay A« "I" was broken, and the rait gemus of Hamilcar reappeared in hU sons, whom he himselC It tt said, was fond of «UUng the « Bon's brood." Hannibal, the oMest, was only nineteen at the time of his fiither's death, and being thus too young to assume command. Hasdrubal,' theson- rn-lnw of Hanulcar, was chosen to succeed him. He carried out Ae unfimshed plans of Hamilcar. extended and consoKdated the Carthapman power in Spain, and upon the eastern coast founded New Carthage as the centre and capital of the newly acquired ter- ntory The native ttibes were concUUted rather than conquered. The Bareme family knew how to rule as well as how to fight, Bumibal'. y«w.-Upon the death of Hasdrubal, 4ich oc- curred asi b.c., Hamiibal, now p??l!l3t?>jt,«OT qf age, was by the unanimous voice of the army ajKTSl^. M^« . chUd of mne years he had been led by his father li the altar : and there, with his hands upon the sacrifice, the Htde boy had sworn eternal hateed to the Roman nice. He was driven on to his gigantic undertakings and to hisTumI &te, not onlv by the resdest fires of his warHke genius, but, as he hii>.«.'f dKlared, by the •acred obhgations of a vow that couM not be broken. A T^J^*^**** "'*^*™—^ *^ y««» H-^W extended the Cwthagmian power to the Eteo. Sagmitmn, a Greek city upon the east coast of Spain, alone remained misubdued. The Romans, who were jealously watching afiairs in the peninsula, had entered mto an alliance with this city, and taken it, with other Gre*k cities m that quarter of the Mediterranean, under their pro- tection. Hanmbal. although he weU knew that an attack upon this place would precipitate hostilities with Rome, laid siege toit p. I7'!?' *" ** ^""^"^ with H«niW>, ow, taother. HwdnM. Sal was the life and soul of every movement. He planned and executed. The Carthaginian Senate acquiesced in and tardily can6rmed his acts. His bold plan was to cross the Pyrenees and fte Alps and descend upon Rome from the north. He secured the provinces in %>ain and Africa by placmg gaitisons of Iberians in Africa and of Libyans in the peninsula. Ambassadors were sent among the Gaffic tribes on both sides of the Alps, to invite them to be ready to join the army that would soon set out from Spain, With these preparations completed, Hanolbal left New Carthage eariy in the spring of ai8 B.C., with an anny numbering about 100,000 men, and including thirty-seven war-elephants. A hostUe countiy lay between Um and the Pyrenees. Through the wariike tribes that resisted his march he forced his way to the foot of the ^Soitk^ C!>ntb^ m/JEtaw, p. 114. 204 TSE sBcotro pumc wak. mountaini that guaid the northern frontier of Spdn. Mora than »o,ooo of hit loldiera were lott in thit part of his march. PMMf» «f U» PTiaiMM and ti» BhoM.- Leaving a rtroofr force to ganison the newly conquered lands, and discharging ro,ooo more of his men who had begun to murmur because of their hardships, he pushed on with the remainder across the Pyrenees, and led them down into the valley of die Rhone. TTje Gauls attempted to dispute the passage of the river, but they were routed, and the army was ferried across the stream in native boats and on rudely constructed rafts. Paisage of the A^.— Hannibal now followed up the course of the iUione, and then one of its eastern tril nuies, the Isire, until he reached the foot-hills of the Alps, probably under the pass of the LlMe St Ber- nard. Nature and man joined tt>-«>- pose the passage. The season was already for advanced, —it was Octo. ber, — and snow was fidling upon the higher portions of the trail. Day after day the army toiled painftilly up the dangerous path. In places the narrow way had to be cut wider fiw the monstoous bodies of the elephants. Often avalanches of stone were buried upon the trains by the hostile bands that held posses- sion of the heights above. At last the summit was gained, and the shivering army looked down into the warm haze of the Italian ^. TTie sight alone was enough to rouse the droopmg spirits of flie soldiers; but Hannibal stiixed them to enthusiasm by remindmg them that they were standing upon the citadel of Italy and that Rome lay In the plain beyond. The army began ite descent and at length, after toUs and losses equalled only by those of the ascent, its thin battaUons issued from the defiles of the mountains upon the jrfains opt agaimt the walla of Rone. Crowing the Apenninet, he touched the Adriatic at Ficewim, •hMce be lent nwMagei to Carthage of hia wonderfiil achieve- menti. Here he retted bit army after a march that hu few paralleb in the aunala of war. In one respect only had eventi dinppointed Hannibal'i es- pectodona. He had thought that aU the ttatei of Italy were, like the Gaub, ready to revolt from Rome at the first opprntunity that might offer itself. But not a single city had thus far proved nnfeithful to Rome. The aid which Hannibal expected from the Italians, and which he invited by the kindest treatment of those who feU into his hands as prisoners, he wu destined never to receive. Irttaa «flM lW»y«."-The dictator FaWus,"at the head of Swr new legions, started in pursuit of Hannibal, who was again on Aemove. The fate of Rome was in the hands of Fibius. Should he risk a batde and lose it, the destiny of the capital wookl be sealed. He determined to adopt a more prudent poHcy— to foUow and annoy the Carthaginian army, but to refuse aU proffers of Utde. Thus time might be gained for rabing a new army and perfecting measures for the public defence. In every possible way Hannibal endeavored to draw his enemy into an engagement He ravaged the fields fitt and wide and fired the homesteads of the Italians, in order to force Fabius to figjit m their defence. He soldiers of the dicutor began to murmur. They called him Cunctalor, or " the Delayer." They even accused him of treach- ery to the cause of Rome. But nothing moved him ftom the steady pursuit of the poUcy which he cleariy saw was the only prudent om to foDow. Kanm-bal marched through Samnium, desolating the country as he went, and then descended upon the nch plains of Campania. Fabius followed him closely, and from the mounbdns, irfiich he would not flUow his srfdiera to leave, they T»X POUCY or PAJltUS VMDtCATUK ttl »m obHged to mrtch, with ioeh admnoi u thm mMt ~— . *«^ta C«p«i. th«»gh the .pp^htog ^^f»^ Adr movement.. H«,nil»l. we « told, re«,rted to .trXm of two thou«nd o«n he am«d burning torche. to be fi^te^^ •nd then tbete uhnali were driven nn» -i-kT »»t«>e The dlcUtonhlp of Fabius Muimiu hmd expired. The patrlc n contul was named Lndns /Dmiliai Pauliu; the plebeian, Gtlni Tetent.ui Vsno. Thejr were divided In comnel, and It waa the raihn'^ta of Varro that precipi- tated the battle. The yearly change of their chief nugiittatea was a aonrce of weakneM and Icua to the Ronuuia in time of war. The popular Yote frequently fciled to secoK experienced generals. Demagogues often controlled the elec- tion, ai at Athens in the times of Cleon and Alcibiader, See HiUory of Grmi, pp. 94-97- BnffTS 4n-U THM BATTLE OP CANNAt. «. hjrfdW together In . hdpleM ma* apon .he field, «k1 then for right hou« we„ cut down by the NuSiidian Jl^ YMy to^ty thou«„d we« d,i„; . few tho.,«uKl Z. ^^Z ««, onty the n^re.. h«d«ul e«.p«,. |„duding one o/Z C01W.U. The daughter wm «, g,e.t that, according to Livy wh« Mjjjo^bj«her or Hannibal, carried the new. of .nc vil;'^ tM p«ch of the Senate-houK nearly a peck of gold ring, uken nwn the flngen of Ronuw knighta. wooM immediately march upon Rome. Swift honemen «« ^^t -ong the Appian Way to gather infon^tT^":^ "^ qaeror'. movement,, and to learn, a. Livy exp««e, i "If T hJ^^"°^^' •^"""'"^ "^' **'*"'»'. '"8«1 Hanni- bal to foflow up h., victory dosely. " Let me advaacTwith the ^v^iy/^a^dhe "andinfive days thou dialt din. in the ca^- general. Maharbal turned away, and with mingled reproach and nnpauence excUimed. "Ala. I thou k™,west how to ^a vie tory. but not how to use one." The great commanded. whUeTe to fi^t the Romans behind their walls H^nibal now sent an embassy to Rome to offer terms of peace. TTie Senate, true to the Appian policy never to treat withrvic- dors to .nter the gates. Not less disappointed was Hannil«.l in f!i' S70 THE SSCOND PVmC WAR. the temper of the Roman alUes. For the most part they adhered to the cause of Rome with unshaken loyalty through all these trying umes. Some tribes in the south of Italy, however, among which were the Lucanians, the Apulians. and the Bruttians. went over to the Carthaginians. Hannibal marched into Campania and quartered his army for the winter in the luxurious city of Capua • which had opened its gates to him. Here he rested and sent urgent messages to Carthage for reinforcements, whUe Rome ex- hausted eveiy resource in raising and equipping new levies, to take the place of the legions lost at Cann«. For several years there was an ominous lull in the war, while both parties were gathermg strength for a renewal of the struggle The Fall of Syraotue and of Cap»a.-In the year 216 b.c., Hiero kmg of Syracuse, who loved to call himself the friend and any of the Roman people, died, and the government fell into the hands of a party unfriendly to the repubUc. An alliance was formed with Carthage, and a laige part of SicUy was carried over to the side of the enemies of Rome. The distinguished Roman gener-1, Marcus Claudius MarceUus, caUed " the Sword of Rome » WM intrusted with the task of reconquering the island. After reducmg many towns, he at last laid siege to Syracuse. ^is noted capital was then one of the largest and richest cities of the Grecian world. Its walls were strong, and enclosed an area eighteen mJes in circuit. For three years it held out against the Roman forces. It is said that Archimedes, the great mathema- tican rendered valuable aid to the besieged with curious and powerful engines contrived by his genius. But the city fell at last, lJii!ri^'' ""-"-"^""^'-B «° Li»y. were f^dly ««rv.led both ta their bod,e. .„d ,h=„ m.. « by the influence, of thi. Syb«it. cpitd. Tie winter of _dl kiad^ » that Jmost every trace of former vigor «.d dlKipline wu Io«. H.1^M Tt "^T"" ""^ i» «>« «t of w«, «id. the hirtori^.. th.t ft«^wh™ he neglected to march upon Rome after the buttle of Qua* THB FALL OF SYRACUSE. S71 ■nd was given over to pillage ( wiUi tlie rare works of Grecian MARCELLUS, "Th. Swonl a Rom.; >n ac). Rome was adorned ^ . , . ^"—paintings and sculptures — centuries had been accumulating in this the oldest and most renowned of the col- onies of ancient Hellas. Syra- <:use never recovered from the blow inflicted upon her at this time by the relentless Romans. Capua must next be punished for opening her gates and ex tendmg her hospitalities to the enemies VfZ,e. Hne^J c"' cumvallation ^^ drawn about the devoted city J^^ltZ. -.^held it in dose siege. Hannibal, ever l^L tthif aZ and faends, hastened to the relief of the Capuans. Unlbk to break the enemy's lines, h. marched directly upon Rom^ ^ Tf le^ ,r T"^ "P°" *^' °*y' ''°P'°e 'hus to d^w off the legions about apua to the defence of the^apital. C.-drea^ anmbal " himself rode alongside the waUs of the hat^ citytj t^di^on says, even hurled a defiant spear over th7 d LCf ' The Romans certainly were trembling with fear; yet Livy te^" how they manifested their confidence in their afla/rs'by seffin^t Sth ^ "^ " '"" *^"=" '^" ^~ P-^h-" if Failing to draw the legions from Capua as he had hoped Han mbiU now retired from before Rome. and. retreatinrin'to thi southern part of Italy, abandoned Capuk to tsT^^ Tn eU unfiuthful ally The chief men in the city were put to dearan^ a large part of the inhabitants sold as slaves (L b.c ) Ca^ had aspued to the first pUce among the cities^ of Italy • sJS moreftan the name of the ambitious capital now remained "^ H-dPub.1 in Sp^-During all the years Hamiibal was wagmg war m Italy, his brother Hasdrubal was canyii^oH S72 THE SECOND PUNIC WAR. desperate struggle with the Romans in Spain. His plan was to gather and lead an anny into Italy to the aid of his brother. This the Romans made every effort to prevent Hence, even while Hannibal was threatening Rome itself, we find the Senate sending its best legions and generals across the sea into Spain. But Has- drubal possessed much of the martial genius of his brother, and proved more than a match for the Scipios who commanded the Roman levies. Yet the fortunes of war vii-e more fickle here than in Italy. At one time the CarthaginUns were almost driven out of the peninsula; and then the whole was regained by the genius of Hasdrubal, and the two Scipios' were slain. Another army, under the command of PubUus ComeUus Scipio, was sent to regain it and keep Hasdrubal engaged. The war was renewed, but without decided results on either side, and Hasdrubal deter- mined to leave its conduct to others, and go to the relief of his brother, who was sadly in need of aid ; for the calamities of war were constantly thinning his ranks. like Pyrrhus, he had been brought to realize that even constant victories won by the loss of soldiers that could not be replaced meant final defeat. aatUe of the Xeteunu (jo? b.c.).— Hasdrubal foUowed the same route that had been taken by his brother Hannibal, and in the year 207 b.c. descended fix)m the Alps upon the plains of Northern Italy. Thence he advanced southward, while Hannibal moved northward fitjm Bruttium to meet him. Rome made a last eifort to ward off the double danger. One hundred and forty thousand men were put into the field. One of the consuls, Gains CUudius Nero, was to obstruct Hannibal's march ; while the other, Marcus Livius, was to oppose Hasdrubal in the north. The great effort of the Roman generals was to prevent the junction of the armies of the two brothers. Hasdrubal pressed on southward and crossed the Metaurus. From here he sent a message to Han- nibal, appointing a meeting-place only two days' march from ' PubMui and Gnseus Scipio, brothers. Publim Comdios Scipio SOD of the aforementioned Publios Scipio. WH the fM IN AFRICA. 2j, rs^-'^r rr Li."- 7 *»" ' *"^ camp of hi as. ^l'- ^ *.\'°''J'*" <>f Nero entered the tru".pet sounded tS^e",^^!™ V/L^r^^Lt ""t a battle, he attempt- P" """* •" "* ed to &11 back across the Metaurus. Mis- led by his guides, he was forced to turn and give battle to the pursuing Romans. His army was entire- ly destroyed, and he himself was slain (to J B.C). Nero now hurried „.. ../-.,, „ back to &ce Hanni- corneuus sc.p,o (.«„„„,, bal, bearing with him the head of Hasdrubal Thi, m^ ^ War m Africa: Battle ofZunafjoa Br ^ -n a c death of Hasdrubal gave a di^t^pe^ f ihT^ 'Sl^l ra cau their great commander out of Italv to th. j r , Canhage. ^ubHus ComeUus Scipio, l''t;°t,;?',,S: "J iff' Pii! 374 TBS SECOND PVNtC WAR. Hasdiubal fiom ^>ain had quickly brought the peninsala under the power of Rome, led the army of invasion. He bad not been long in Africa before the Carthaginian Senate sent for Hannibal to conduct the war. At Zama, not Oar from Carthage, the hostile armies came &ce to face. Fortune had deserted Hannibal; he was fighting against iate. He here met hi^ first and final defeat. His army, in which were many of the veterans that had served through all the Italian campaigns, was almost annihilated (30a B.C.). The Close of tbe War. — Carthage was now completely ex- hausted, and sued for peace. Even Hannibal himself could no longer counsel war. The terms of the treaty were much severer than those imposed upon the city at the end of the First Punic War.DSbe was required to gi^e up all claims to Spain and the islands 6f the Mediterranean jyifo surrender her war elephants, and all her ships of war save ten galleys jjto pay an indemnity of five thousand talents' at once, and two huni^ed and fifty talents annually for fifty years j'f'and not, under any circumstances, to make war upon an ally of Rome. Five hundred of the costly Phoenician war-galleys were towed out of the harbor of Carthage and burned in the sight of the citizens (aoi B.C.). Such was the end of the Second Punic, ot Hannibalic War, as called by the Romans, the most desperate struggle ever main- tained by rival powers for empire. Scipio was accorded a splendid triumph at Rome, and given the surname Afticanus in honor of his achievements. > About $6,2y)fiOO. TUB BATTLB OF CYNOSCMPHALjS. 278 CHAPTER V, ' THE THIRD PUNIC WAR. EVKNTS BtrWEEN THE SECOND AND THE ThiRD PunIC WaR. Pa^^W "".'rr^ "P°° ^'^•^8" "' *«= «>x.vinces - eve^fng ^rtaining to the government had its price, and was bougM a J idd Uke merchondue. Affairs in Africa at this time UluZte h^ 88S LAST CElfTOKY OF THE ROMAN REPUBUC Roman virtue and integrity had declined since Fabricius indig- nantly refused the gold of Fyirhus. Jugurtha, king of Numidia, bad seixed all that country, having put to death the rightful rulers of different provinces of the same, who had been confirmed in their possessions by the Romans at the close of the Punic wars. Commissioners sent from Rome to look into the matter were bribed by Jugurtha. Finally, the Numidian robber, in carrying out some of his high-handed meas- ures, put to death some Italian merchants. War was immediately declared by the Roman Senate, and the consul Bestia was sent into Africa with an anay, to punish the insolent usurper. Bestia sold himself to Jugurtha, and, instead of chastising him, confirmed him in his stolen possessions^ We should naturally suppose that the Senate would have administered some wholesome correction to the mercenary consul upon his return. But the wily general, anticipating this, had taken with him the president of thi body, and had divided with him the spoils. The indignation of the people, who had good reason to suspect the real state of af&irs, was great. They demanded that Jugurtha, with the promise of immunity to hifnself, should be invited to Rome, and encouraged to disclose the whole transaction, in order that those who had betrayed the state for money might be pun- ished. Jugurtha came ; but the gold of the consul and president bribed one of the tribunes to prohibit the king from giving his testimony. Now it so happened that there was in Rome at this time a rival claimant of the Numidian throne, who at this very moment was urging his claims before the Senate. Jugurtha caused this rival to be assassinated. As he himself was under a safe-conduct, the Senate could do nothing to punish the audacious deed arid to resent the insult to the state, save by ordering the king to depart from the city at once. As he passed the gates, it is said that he looked scornfully back nt)on the capital, and exclaimed, "O venal city I thou wouldst sell thyself if thou couldst find a purchaser 1 " Upon the renewal of the war another Roman army was sent into /NVASIOlf OF THE ClMBSl AUD TEVTONES. 286 Afric but was defeated and forced beneath the yoke. In the year io6 bc. the war was brought to a close by ^Mal, a ^^^ ^"n';"" ^'^^ * '°"°« "°"«=™''» '"■"ed Suit of ^om we shdl hear much hereafter. Marius celebrated T^and tnumph at Rome. Jugurtha. after having paced the trfu^Td ^ession. in which he walked with his hfndf bound tihcha'S niU, where he died of starvation. Invariwi of the ambri and Tentones. _ The war was' not th n^r '°/«-,''^^-»^"^'"e tidings came toTomTfrom' *e north. Two m.ghty nations of •' horrible barbarians," 300.000 ftrong m fightmg-men, coming whence no one could telL C mvaded and were now desolating the Roman provincls oJ Gaul, and might any moment cross the Alps and pour down into The mysterious invaders proved to be two Germanic tribes Er„r t: "" ^f^"^ '° •='^"«'= *= '^^ ^'l h«t<»y of Europe. These mtruders were seeking new homes, and were driven on, it would almost seem, by a blind and insHnctive im pulse. They carried with them, in rude wagons, all their property, their wive, and their children. The Celtic tribes of Gaul w2^ ™n!".T^' the newcomers, and fled before them as they ad- vanced. Sevenfl Roman armies beyond the Alps were cut to peces. In one battie more than 100,000 Romans are said to have been sUughtered. The tenor at Rome was only equaUed by that occasioned by the invasion of the Gauls two cVnturies l^fore The Gauls were terrible enough; but now the conquerors of the Gauls were coming. Marius. the conqueror of Jugurtha, was. looked to by all as the only man who could save the state in this crisis. He was reelected to the consulship, and intrusted with the command of the armies. Accompanied by Sulla as one of his most skil- fiH heutenants. Marius hastened into Northern Italy. The bar- ■'..''i 200 LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC banans had divided into two bands. The ambri were to cross the Eastern Alps, and join in the valley of the Po the Teutones, who were to force the defiles of the Western, or Maritime Alps! Marius determined to prevent the union of the barbarians, and to crush each band separately. Anticipating the march of the Teutones, he hurried over the Alps into Gaul, and sat down in a fortified camp to watch their movements. Unable to storm the Roman position, the bar- barian? resolved to leave their enemy in the rear and push on into Italy. For six days and nights the endless train of men and wagons rolled past the camp of Marius. The barbarians jeereH it the Roman soldiers, and asked them if they had any messages they wished to sen4 to their wives ; if so, they would bear them, as they would be in Rome shortly. Marius allowed them to pass by, and then, breaking camp, followed closely after. Falling upon them at a favorable moment, he almost annihi- lated the entire host.' Two hundred thousand barbarians are said to have been slain. Marius heaped together and burned the spoils of the battle-field. While engaged in this work, the news was brought to him of his re-eiection as consul for the fifth time. This was Ulegal; but the people felt that Marius must be kept in tlie field. Marius now recrossed the Alps, and, after visiting Rome, hastened to meet the Cimbri, who were entering the north- eastern comer of Italy. He was not a day too soon. Akeady the barbarians had defeated the Roman army under the pa- trician Catulus, and were ravaging the rich plains of the Po. The Cimbri, unconscious of the fate of the Teutones, now sent an embassy to Marius, to demand that they and their kinsmen should be given lands in Italy. Marius sent back in reply, "The Teutones have got all the land they need on the other side of the Alps." The devoted Cimbri were soon to have aU they needed on this side. ' In the battle of Aqua Sextw, fought loj BXi THE SOCtAl, OK MARSIC WAX. n\ iL'^^l.lr^ immediately foHowed at Vercell, (101 B.C.). The barbarians were drawn up in an enormoui Mtow «,™«. u,e men forming the enter n^k, be^fiS togeAer with ropes, to prevent ihe lines being broken, m proved their ruin. More than ,00,000 were killed, and 60000 token prisoners to be «,ld as slaves in the Roman markets. Manus was haded as the « Savior of his Country " The fate of these two nations that were wandering over the 6~ of the e^h-n search of homes is one of the m«t pTthet tales m aU histoor. The almost innumerable host of wanderers men^ women and children, now "rested beneath the sod. or' tolled under the yoke of slavery: the forlorn hope of the Cerium musration luui performed its duty; the homeless people of the Cimbn and their comrades were no more " (Mommsen). Their kmsmen yet behind the Danube and the Rhine were destined to exact a terrible revenge for their slaughter The Sodal, or Xarric Wm (91-89 b.c.).- Scarcely was the danger of the barbanan invasion past, before Rome was threatened by another and peatcr evfl arising within her own borders. At tte time all the ft^ inhabitants of Italy were embraced in three '^^^,~ Roman tiiiuns,LaHns, and Italian aUies. The Roman citizens included the inhabitants of the capiu.1 and of the various Roman colonies planted in different parts of the peninsuU,' besides the people of a number of towns called »,»«,«><,; the Latins were the mhabitants of the Latin colonies;' the ItaUan aUies (seat) included the various subjugated races of Italy • The Social, or Marsic War (as it is often called on account of the prominent part taken in the insurrection by the warlike Mar- sians) was a struggje that arose from the demands of the Italian allies for the pri^leges of Roman citizenship, from which they were whoUy excluded. As the authority of Rome had been grad- ually extended over the various cities and states of . Italy, only ' See p. 247, note. •Theyeiyoyed local ielf.g„,ernme„t, but were hound by treaty to furnish contingents t, the Ronwn .rmy in times of war. It. 1], y' ill ' COIN or THE ITALIAN CONPCOERACY, (Th«ltinan Bull gMiy 1^.4 " » Wolf.) tn lAST CSNTVKY OP TUB KOMAlf KEPUBUC. « «Mr favored fadividuab and communities had been admitted to a sliare in the rights and immunities of the~ citizens of the capital. Indeed, the world had not yet come to regard the conquered as having any righu whatever. But these Italians were the same in race, language, and reUgion as their conquerors ; and it was their valor and blood that had helped Rome to secure the dominion oC the Meditenm- . ne«n world. Yet invidious and hateful dis- tinctions separated them from the citizens of the capital A Roman soldier could not be scourged; but an alien might be whipped to death, and often was, without comment being excited or redress being possible. 'Naturally the Italian, complained htterly of having to fight for the maintenance of an empire in the management of which they had no voice, and under the laws of which they found no protection. The socii now demanded the Roman franchise and the immu- mties and privileges of citizens. The demand was stubbornly resisted by both the aristocratical and the popular party at Rome. Some, however, recognized the justice of these claims of the Itahans. Dtusus championed their cause, but was murdered by an mfunated mob. The Italians now flew to arms. They deter- mined upon the establishment of a rival state. A town caUed Corfimum, among the Apennines, was chosen as the capital of the new republic, and its name changed to Italica. The govern- ment of the new state was modelled after that at Rome Two ' comuls were placed at the head of the republic, and a' senate of five hundred members was formed. Thus, in a single day ^most all Italy south of the Rubicon was lost to Rome. The Etrun^, the Umbrians, the Campanians, the Latins, and some or the Greek cities were the only states that remained faithful. The greatness of the danger aroused all the old Roman courage and patnotism. Aristocrats and democrats hushed their quaireU : Sulla and Marius forgot rising animosities, and fought bravely side THB aVlL WAK OF MAJUUS AMD SUllA. « IL^ ^ *• enda,«g««i Ufc of the repuWic. An ««, o< pb^that had been gathered by the prwconfedenuy. TT^ war fte(«nchi« to the Latins, Etru«^, and UmbriSTwteS « ar «™^ed,„e to her. but now began to .how .^ oL^^ fa their loyalty. Shortly afterwani, .he offered ^,1^T^ l^ who Aould lay down their ar™. within .Uty 1^. *%^, rf-H ;.J .^° extremely disastrous to the republic. Hun- dred, of thousand, of Uves had been lost, many town, L b^ depopuUted, and vast tract, of the coun.r^,„«le'd3telJ,S^ »va«" that never fidl to characterize civil contenti-T fte fotinh «r^T ^/1."°" "" '^''^ '~°' '"'« ««"<1«J to SefoftiriSHsS '^°"' '"^'=" •^^•""^ *' ~- The Civil W« of Xwiu KnAtnOM—The Social W» «. n„» J« ended when a formidable enemy appea^Sin^e^r'l^ir "date, the Great, king of Pontu,, taking advantage of thedfatrac,«l ^tr^a' m"''""'::; T!,'""^'^'^ upo^the RomtTr^ mce, u» Asia M.nor, and had cau«d a general maaacre of the Itaiaa tiadenand rerident, in that.x,u^t,y. -^"2, *, vicum, of this whole,ale alaughter has beeT variously «Timated 1 B«r*2,"'°'°~- ^««"- Senate inJ^eS I™ J ! , """= ■""««'' "^ ''"'""I *e treasury. The ■ money needed for equipping an army could be niised onl7by Ae -ale of the vacant pubUc ground about the Capitol buUdTng cl^^VT^"^^ "^ '*''"" **"*™ "•" Sulla for the command of the forces. The former was now an old man of ^nty year, while the latter was but forty-nine. xSusTould lieute^tr Th' r*"" °' '""« P"'"'''' '^^ ^y his former ieutenant. The veteran general joined with the young men in wa. ttUl ammated by the strength and agiUty of youth. The Hf ■"SI m l^ST CSUTUXY or the SOUA/f KKrVBUC Senate, however, conferred the command npon Sulla. Mariw wai furiont at the tuccen of hU rival, and by fraud and tatimida-"^ ^tion ncceeded in getting the command taken away from Sulla and given to himself. Two tribunes were Knt to demand of Sulla, who was still in Italy, the transfer of the command of the legions to Marius; but the messenger were kiUed u/ the soldien, who were devotedly attached to their commander. Sulla now saw that the swoid must settle the dispute. He marched at the head of his legions upon Rome, entered the gates, and " for the first time in the annak of the city a Roman army encamped within the walla." The party of Marius was defeated, and he and ten of his companions were proscribed. Marius escaped and fled to Africa j SuUa embarked with the legions to meet Mithradates in the East (88 B.C.). The Wandariagt of Kuiiu — Leaving SulU to carry on the Mithradatic^War, we must first follow the fortunes of the exiled Marius. The ship in which he fled from Italy was driven ashore at Circeii. Here Marius and the companions of his flight wandered about, sustained by the hop; inspired by the good omen of the seven eaglets. .\s the story runs, Marius, when a boy, had captured an eagle's nest with seven young, and the augurs had said that this signified that he should be seven times consul. He had already held the office six times, and he firmly believed that the prophecy would be fulfilled as to tlie seventh. The pursuers of Marius at last found him hiding in a matsh, buried to his neck in mud and water. He was dragged before the authorities of the town of Mintumse. The magistrates, in obedience to the commands that had been sent everywhere, determined to put him to death. A Cimbrian slave was sent to despatch him. The cell where Marius lay was dark, and the eyes MARIUS. MTVJtJf Of MAKWS TO ITALY. m SlVl^S^'i:!'" "1: "";" ^' "« "^^ ""-need, half dead with fe.T'^'^ '"°'^' '"^ "''* '""" 'he chamber. not be upon their hand.. They pu, hL T. L '' '''°"''* that you have seen Mari,,. . r "™*'™' Go, tell your master Carthai." ^*"" "'""« "'"''''" "« ™™ °f TheBatnn of Hwiiu to Italf _ti,- - i »PpUes and sCK 1^^^ "" '"' ""^ '°'" "" ^'^- co^^rusr:s2::/3.T:,''^ ""'""- ^« the Rostrum. Never^S ,"1 a'.h l^bet ^fen^'atT °' -a consul's head exposed to the pub^^ ?h° ^' "T' jes^. and leaden, of the Opt Jte p47ed I^ he ^^ oms lay nnburied in the streets "^illV.? *' '^'=' ; », I) *M LAST ek/rruMY op ths komah MMPuauc. before them, were rioting in murder and pillage. Marlui, ftndlni It impoMibie to reitrain their maddened fiiry, turned hit loldien looie upon them, and they were naaucred to a man. A« a fitting lequel to all this violence, Maiiu* and Cinna were. In an entirely Illegal way, declared comub. The prophecy of the eaglet! was fiilfilled i Mariui was conwl for the aeventh time. But rumon were now apread that SuUa, having overthrown Mithra- datet, was about to set out on his return with his victorious legions. He would surely exact speedy and terrible vengeance. Mariua, now old and enfeebled by the hardships of many campaigns, seemed to shrink from facing again his hated rival. He plunged Into dissipation to drown his remorse and gloomy forebodings, and died in his seventy-firat year (86 B.C.), after having held his seventh consulship only thirteen days. ^ SolU ud th* Tint Xithrtdatio Ww (88-84 b.c.).— When Sulla left Italy with hU legions for the East he knew veiy weU that his enemies would have their own way in Italy during his absence ; but he also knew that, if successilil in his campaign against Mith- radates, he couM easily regain Italy, and wrest the government from the hands of the Marian party. We can here take space to give simply the results of Sulla's campaigns m the East After driving the army of Mithradates out of Greece, Sulla crossed the Hellespont, and forced the king to sue for peace. He gave up his conquered territoiy, surren- dered his war-ships, and paid a laige indemnity to cover the expenses of the war (84 B.C.). With the Mithradatic War ended, Sulla wrote to the Senate, saying that he was now coming to take vengeance upon the Marian party, — his own and the republic's foes. The terror and consternation produced at Rome by this letter were increased by the accidental burning of the CapitoL The Sibyllme books, which held the secrets of the fate of Rome, wei« consumed. This accident awakened the most gloomy appre- hensions. Such an event, it was believed, could only foreshadow the most direful calamities to the state. TUB nOSCMlPTlOltS Of SVUA. him^^i^ J • *'■ B lew oayj « was extended to over thrM Mamn p«r,y were «mply daughtered by tens of thoosan^ No^ It « estimated that the civS war of Mario, and Sulla c^tTe republic over 150.000 Uves. ^' *' triu^nh ^ ^^ T'^ ^ "'"'«'' ^ •^'J^brated a splendid toumph at Rome; Ae Senate enacted a law declaring JZ he had done legal and right, caused to be erected in th^Forum^ gUded equestaan sutue of the dictator, which bore the legend «J^^ V r"^ ^"^ '^' Commander Beloved by FoSe " «d «»de him d«*.tor for Ufe. SolU used hi. podtion .^^. 29S LAST CENTURY OF THE SOMAff KEPUBLIC. ence in recasting the constitution in the interest of the aristociatic party. After enjoying the unlimited power of an Asiatic despot^ for three years, he suddenly resigned the dictatorship, and retired to his villa at Puteoli, where he gave himself up to the grossest dissipations. He died the year following his abdication (78 B.C.). The soldiers who had fought tmder the old general crowded to his funeral from all parts of Italy. The body was burned upon a huge funeral pyre raised in the Campus Martius. The monu- ment erected to his memory bore this inscription, which he him- self had composed : " None of my friends ever did me a kindness, and none of my enemies ever did me a wrong, without being? fiilly requited." POM^EY THE GKBAT M SPAIN. 2S9 CHAPTER VII. THE UST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REH7BUC (««/^,, («3J-3i ".c.) Pompey th. Gmt fa Bprin. -lie fires of the Civil War though quenched in Italy, were stiU smouldering in £ua. W nu, » adhe^nt of Mariu,. had there stirred up l^e ^ «^ of Lusitanu. and incited a general revolt ag=Lt theX^of the aristocratic government at Rome. Gnausp! "tJT^ ' For several years the war was carried on with varying fortunes o/rr ^ P°''"°^^°'"« »t^«P««i™"laseemX*th^* of utter extmcfon. FinaUy the biave Sertorius was ass^inated (7» B.C.), and then the whole of Spain was quicklTS^S^ fS ^ °/ "^ *"""* *^« «»'- of more',3lt hundred cities m Spain and Southern Gaul. -nnoughouTanX Sdv^ rr^' " -"^ '" P"'^ *"« "ho would bH^ ^y friends «k1 alhes of Ae Roman sute. but also his owTt^r wna adherents. How he used these men a, instrument of^L ambmon. we shaU learn a KtUe later """"ments ol his SpwtMiif : Wm of the Oladiaton (73-7, b.c) _ While Pn™ pey was subduing the Marian fiction iil gi^tw dl^r i rl'°thT'^*°"'^- «'«'^'°'i>>-ShadbS«t^ time the 6vonte sport of the amphitheatre. At CapuawM a «rt of ^ing-school, from which skilled fighters we^CeTout^ pubhc or pnvate entertainments. In this seminary was ri^l^ dave, known by the name of Spartacus. who inSTL I^S^ 300 LAST CEMTUKY OF THE KOMAN XSPUBUC II,; m I ions to revcdt, 'H.e insui^gents fled to the crater of Vesuvius, and made that their stronghold. There they were joined by gladiators from other schools^ and by slaves and discontented men £rom every quarter. Some slight successes enabled them to arm them- selves with the weapom of their enemies. Their number at length increased to ijO,ooo men. For three years they defied the power of Rome, and even gained control of the larger part of Southern Italy. Four Roman armies sent against them were cut to pieces. But l^nrtacus, who was a man of teal ability and discernment, foresaw that a protiiicted contest with Rome must inevitably issue in the triumph of the government He therefore counselled his followers to fi(^t their way ovA- the Alps, and then to disperse to their various homes in Gaul, Spain, and Thrace. But elated with the successes already achieved, they imagined that they could capture Rome, and have all Italy for a spoil. Their camp was already filled with plunder, which the insurgents sold to specula- tors. They took in exchange for these spoils only bn>?s and iron, which their forges quickly converted mto weapons. At length M. Crassus succeeded in crowding the insuigents down into Rhegium, where Haimibal had stood so long at bay. Spartacus now resohred to pass over into Sicily, and stir up the embers of the old Servile War upon that island. He barj^ed with the pirates that infested the neighboring seas to convey his fences across the straits ; but as soon as they had received the stipulated price they treacherously sailed away, and left Spartacus and his followers to their fate. Crassus thre^ up a wall acrais the isthmus, to prevent the escape of the insurgents; but Spar^ tacus^ broke through the Roman line by night, and hastened ncMthward with his army. Following in hot pursuit, Crassus over- tock the fiigitives at the Silarus. and there subjected them to a dedsive defeat Spartacus himself was slain ; but 5000 of the insuigents escaped, and fled towards the Alps. This flying band was met and annihilated by Pompey, who was letoniing from TRB ABUSES OP VEKSES 301 The daves that had taken part in the revolt were hunted through ttie raountams and forests, and exterminated liiie dangerous beasts. The Appian Way was lined with six thousand crosses, bearing aloft as many bodies,- a terrible warning of the &te awaiting shves that should dare to strike for freedom. Tlw AbniM of VeriM. _ Terrible as was the state of society in Italy, stUl worse was the condition of affairs outside the peninsula At first the rule of the Roman governors in the provinces, though severe, was honest and prudent But during the period of profli- gacy and corruption upon which we have now entered, the admin- istration of these foreign possessions was shamefiilly dishonest and mcredibly cruel and rapacious. The prosecution of Verres, the propnetor of SicUy, exposed the scandalous rule of the oli^hy, mto whose hands the government had faUen. For three yein Verres plundered and ravaged that island with impunity. He sdd im the offices and all his decisions as judge. He demanded of fte farmers the greater part of their crops, which he sold, to swett tas already enormous fortune. Agriculture was thus ruined, and the &ims were abandoned. Verres had a taste for art, and when on his tours through the island confiscated gems, vases, statues, pamtings, and other things that struck his fancy, whether in tem- ples or private dweninfu. Verres could not be caDed to account while in office; and it WB doubtful whether, after the end of hU term, he could be cm- victed, so corrupt and venal had become the members of the Senate, before whom aU such offenders must be tried. Indeed Verres himself openly boa^t-i that he intended two thirds of his guns for his judges and lawyers, while the remaining one third would satisfy himsett At length, after SicUy had come to look as thon^ it had been ravaged by barbarian conquerors, the in&mous robber was im- peached. The prosecutor was Marcus TulUusacero, the briffiant orator, who was at this time just rising into prominence at Rome. The Storm jrf indignation raised by the developments of the trial p^Krl h t \h\ mi ««; i^jr atrrimr of the romah xmpubuc. c«aed Verres to Oee into exUe to MawiUa, whither he took with him much of his ill'gottea wealth. W«r wttk the MeUtimaiM Hrrtw (66 fcc). —The Roman republic was now threatened by a new danger from the sea. The Maiitenanean was nwhning with pirates. Roman conquests la Ainca, %«m, and especially in Greece and Asia Minor, had caused . thousands of adventurous spirits from those maritime countries to flee to their ships, and seek a Bvelihood by preying upcm the com- mepce of the seas. The cruelty and extortions of the Roman govetnom had also driven large numbers to Ae same couise of Me. These corsairs had banded themselves into a sort of govem- mrot, and held possession of lyimerous stronghokfa— four hun- d«d, it fa said— in CiKcia. Crete, and other countries. With a thousand swift ships they scorned the waters of the Mediterra- nean, so that no merchantman could spread her sails in safety They formed a floating empire, which Michelet calls a " a wander- tog Carthage, which no one knew where to seiie. and which ^P*ted from Spain to Asia." •ni«se Jraceaneets, the Vikings of the South, made descents vpim die coast everywhere, idundered villas and temples, at- tacked and captured cities, and soki the inhabitants as slaves in the various ^ve markets of the Roman mAA. Th«?y carried off i^chants and magistrates from the Appian Way itself, and held them for ransom. At last the grain ships of Sicily and Africa were mtetcepted, and Rome was threatened with the alternative of starvation or the paying of an enormous ransom. The Romans now bestirred tbemsdves. Pompey was hivested with dictatorial power for three years over the Mediterranean and an Its coasts for fifty miles inland. Anarmament of 500 ships and 100,000 men was intrusted to his command. The great goieral ■rted wiA his characteristic energy. Wthin forty d^ he had ■veptOe plates from the Western Mediterranean, and in forty, nine tson laaMd them from an the waters east of Ita^. eantuied ^ttsaiffljjuujui ffl^^saa, aodBetBea (be ao,ooo priwnen that M Into Uf hands in wttioos oohioiet to Awa Minor and Gietce. \ H fT f^wK 1 1' > 'ii If TBM TBIKD MtTHXADATIC WAR. the army; «, the command «as taken from him ^h r . his pursuers. Desisting from the purauit, Poropey turned south and conquered Sy- ria, Phosnicia, and Coele-Syria, which coun- tries he erected into a Roman province ' StUl pushing southward, the conqueror entered Palestine, and after a short siege captured Jerusalem (63 b.c.). It was at this time that Pompey insisted, in spite of the protestations of the high priest, upon i- »«..; entenng the Holy of Holies of the Hebrew temni, u. u- the curtain to the jealously guaided IX^TS w^^'S tofindnothmgbut a darkand vacant chamber, ^ithouT^^t^e C.f^ rj''""" *" ^""""^ ^^ dedicatedlnothinX al^Se chest (the Ark of the Covenant) containing some sS „H^ ""* ~™«i» Mia Mitlirid.te. that WOK imt tf et the doM of thi! Fint MITHRAD*TES VI. (Tin Gmt) Jft. »• 301 Ljisr CMNTVKY Of TBB KOMAtt K&POMIK. -WhUe FMnpejr wm thai cngiced, MithndttM «• tttainii^ •v«7 energy to nlie aa trmy among the Scythian tribes with which to cany out a meat daring project He proposed to ciom Eorope and fidl upon Italy from the north. A revolt on the part of his son Phamaces ruined all his plans and hqies; and the disapppinted monarch, to avoid fiUling into the hands of the Romans, took his own life (63 b.c.). His death removed one of the most formidable enemies that Rome had ever encoimtered. Hamilcar, Hannibal, and Mithradates were the three great names that the Romans ah*ays pronounced with respect and diead. ; Faapay's Mnrnph. — After regulating the afiairs of the different states and provinces in the East, Fompey set out on his return to Rome, where he enjoyed such a triumph as never before had been seen since Rome had becomoa city. The spoils of all the East were bMne in the procession; jaa princes walked as captives before the triumphal chariot of the conqueror; legends upon the banners prochumed that he had conquered 11 kings, captured 1000 stronghoMs, 900 towns, and 800 ships, and subjugated more than 11,000,000 people; and that he had put into the treasury more than |a5,ooo,ooo, besides douUii^ the regnhur reveimea of the state. He boasted that three times he had triumi^ed, and each time for the conquest of a cmtinent — first for Africa, then for Eun^, and now for Asia, which completed the conqiwst tA the -vorU. Xko OoaqbMj «f (MUiM (64-«a b.c.).— While the legions were absent bam. Italy with Pompey in tire East, a most daring conq>iiacy against the government was formed at Rome. Catiline, a rmned spendthriii, had gathered a laiige company of profligate young nobles, weighed down with bts and desperate like himself, and had deliberately planned to murder the consuls and the chief men of the state, and to plunder and bum the capital. The offices of the new. government were to be divided among the conspira- tors. They depended upc year loo b.c Although descended from an cU ir m l^tT CKirrmKY OP THB IIOItAH KEfVtUC. JMridMi bmflr, tUn hit qrmiwthicf, and aa wrlr iMRii«e to Um daughter of Cinna. one of the adhefenti of Muim, ledUmeiik to identifr UnMlf with the Marian, or demoentic party, fas ererjr way Cctar courted public flivor. He Uviriied eaonnooa nim upon public gamei and ^blet. Hu debts are laid to hare •moantedtot5,ooo,oooieitercet(|i,t5o,ooo). Hit popularity waa unbounded. A tuccettfiil campaign in Spain had already made known to himtel( at weU at to othert, hit geniut u a commander. Marcut Lidniut Ctattui belonged to the lenatorial. or aritto- cratic party. He owed hit influence to hit cnormout wealth, being one of the richest men in the Roman world. Hit property waa estimated at 7100 talents (about 18,875,000).' With Gnaeus Fompey and his achievements we are abcady bmiliar. Hit hifluence throughout the Roman world was gidrt ; for, in lettHng and reoiganiziag the many countries he aubdued, he •had always Uken care to reconttruct them in hit own inteieat, as weU at in that of the republic The oflket, u we have teen, were fiUed with hit friends and adherents (see p. 299). This patronage had secured for him incalculable authority to the provinces. His veteran legionaries, too, were naturally devoted to the general who had led them so often to victory. JjlTUfT^ put of thbfcrt™,, If „ n„y d«l«e the tnrtfc, to hi. "trane dk«ncc, «» ,!«„«! Uam wu ud fran fi™, for he Bade « I affic 11' "^w"^""- Wb" S^ "-d t.ke. R„™, „d M ft. ^Z the* whom he b<^ put to de«h, which he both repiited «h1 died the .polb .of hi. eaemie^ he wu derirau. of mTohing .U pe™o» of co««,««», ta u, cmne. "^ ^e fo«od m Cnum . mu. who refiued no kind of gift o, p.rch.«. CrtMu. obrtnred d.o how Ii.ble the dty w« to fires, ,„d how b«i^J^^ fjTL "^ nAfottiuie. wen owing to the weight of the buiUing^ «d thA landing «ch»e together. In co»eq«nce of thb. he pmvided to»elf with d.». who were cupentei. ud mMon., tnd w«,t on coUecHng them tiU he h«l npwnri, of fire h«.d«d. Then he m«ie h hi. b«tae« to L, ho.« a.t were on fire^ „d other, thia jrfned upon than, „d he com^nlv h«J a™ .t . lowprKe^re^n of the fire. «d the di«re« ,h. ow»e»^ in •bo* the event [Then th^Uve. would Kt to w«i, «d extinguid, the fire, "d Cr«.n. ,t . «»n co.t worfd repd, the d«ni«..] HenTta time^ oecame muter of a great part pf Rome." — Plutarch. m PH««e ««««»«« Altered into by aL \^ * "^T" *» a«* pledged MmLtf to S^ »t '"w'^ °' """"= •**"• C««w« the »«i'°„rr"X?' H.1S1? r "•"•^ PtemVejr from the Mittocniticl rJZ a ^ ^™'' •''^ ■**r •FWd that C«L «TS. ? •** '^» « «»"»«y- It WM IV»»pey . confirmation of .^ .T^' ^."t,'",,"*''^ '■°' l«iid for hit wtmn. ,^ • . ^* *"'' "xJ «1 otments of r«pdMe integrity threatened the ptol ofT Z^' "^ '°^- oat of the way. Cato ».. «i«^ „ . '""»"'». *«» got into honorabte erfTtHji?" J'?""'^' '"''^ """^ Jech^geofhavi^gdeS^tl'^.^Ttie'St^"^"- the matter of the Q . '-. rrm JZLT^^^ ^'" of trial in cpiul. hi. mansion Of th" ST^^ ^'^ *»- ">. the «m^er of hi. p,op«,y^Xi;:^^ *" *^ '~*^' «^ He «. revo'S^ ^^^^^T^ ^' Beyond the Alps die Gallic ^^ZJ^^L^^""" P*^" movement YU urn tfC r«^T^ ^"^ ""* *" '«'•« »Uch riiould gain L wT ITf '" '^ "^'^^ '^P'o"*- Wd.. had beeHL JS"J^ «'°'y."«' I«««« «. ■» oth„ thi. -chieved^^^rtf ,ZL ''^^°''^' ^ ^°"P*y- With IB" ■5 I ^Ti^ II 308 LAST CENTURY OF TUB ROMAlf XEPVBUC. t I In the (pring of 58 b.c. alarming intelligence from beyond the Alps caused Cesar to hasten from Rome into Transalpine Gaul Now began a series of eight brilliant campaigns directed against the various tribes of Gaul, Germany, and Britain. In his admi- rable " Commentaries " Cesar himself has left us a faithfiil and graphic account of all the ni<:morabte marches, battles, and sieges that filled the yean between 58 and 5 1 b.c Cesar's first campaign after arriving in Gaul was directed against the Helvetians. These pet^le, finding themsehres too much crowded in their narrow territory, hemmed in as- they were be- tween the Alps and the Jura nui,;es, had resolved to seek broader fields in the Gallic territories across the Rhone. Disregarding the commands of Cesar, the entire nation, numbering with their allies 368,000 souls, left their old homes, and began their west- ward march. In a great tattle Cesar completely defeated the barbarians, and forced them back into their old home between the mountains, now quite latge enough isx the survivors, as barely a third of those that set out returned. Cesar next defeated the Suevi, a German tribe that, under the fSKA chieftain Ariovistus, had crossed the Rhine, and were seek- ing settlements in GauL These people he forced back over the ' Rhine into theirnative forests. The two years following this cam- paign were consumed in subjugating the difierent tribes in North- ern and Western Gaul, and in composing the affairs of the country. In the war with the Veneti was fought the first historic naval battle npon the waters of the Atlantic. The year 55 B.& marked two great achievements. Eariy in the spring of this year Cesar constructed a bridge across the Rhine, and led his legions against the Germans in their native woods and swamps. In the autumn of the same year he crossed, by means of hastily constructed ships, the channel that separates the main- land boxa Britain, and after maintaining a foothold upon that island for two weeks withdrew his legions into Gaul for the winter. The following season he made another invasion of Britam ; but, after some encounten with the fierce barbarians, recrossed to the f-- ''^''''■" ""^ ^^ OAtUC t^^^S. 309 mainland, without luivine estahli.»,^ the island. Almost "f t^t^'tZ' ^TT'"' '^"^"' « lutivcof Britain were agJn j^^tl^ T^ """J' '^'■°« Ae In the year 5, ..c. XeC^'was'',^„^™ /""''■ "«>' «volt occurred among the G^JZ u " ^'^'''' " 8""^^ struggle for the recove% of theL ,«?"d.^ T " '^' "^P*'^'' rix. chief of the Arver^. J'Z Z^T^'!"^- ''"="««'°- a time it ««med as though the R™ the >nsurrectioa. For country. But Ca^ir-s^flth »^ •"""''^ "* '*^'^" fr"™ the the republic. VercingSSit r^".' ^^^ *" P"^" »» up in Ales-a, and were fii^Iy s^^eH^' ""f '""■°"' ^^ *« •-nowquicldyreconquere?^7i"eS^'"''""'"°"- ^ ^au, <^P^"rc^?^a2r:oroo;rS-- 300 t^he,. ries. " Let the C™^"^^.'" *°"«= ''3' *«« victo- them to shelter ItalVfrom theZ^*^ ^'^T' "** «°^» "^ needed." ^ ^ "" '^'»™«« i they are now no longer C-sar was the Romani4^"^u^ Ci °' t' "^^ "^ °' Roman trade™ and settled wh„ • ?^ ''"""'^ "™ °I'««d to customs, and aTof 1 J' t„„^*'^ "^^ *-» the language, of the Game chieifains, 'L«« wl'^. '"L*"^ "P"" ™S the fianchisc even gr^tTt^nJ ^'°"'"' "P°° "ties, and A. another result JZTS„^roTT "^ "^'""^ °"'^-»- prominence to the checCo? mi^. ~°"'^' ^°""^ 8*^« ■"an tribes, which gavr«Z neT^r ^^ '^ov.n^.nts of the Ger- . tion to become estSLhe^t <^ ^^ rr* ^°' ^'^^ °^- in Spain." ^''"' "■ °''°'' °» the Danube, in A«ca, and Onutni in the taat t_ o. the midst of his G^w^l^lITj^ '■'^•''*«« C«sar was in ^ and two hundred ^t^ '™f *""f '^ "*" Po^Pe/. Cras- •ith the triumvin.Tl.a~Ei T!t "'"' "^^^ i 810 LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPVBUC. nomination by this league or " ring " of politicians and generals was equivalent to an election.) It was agreed that Csesar's command in Gaul should be extended five years, and that Crassus and Pompey should be made consuls. All these measures were carried into effect, the elections at Rome being secured by intimidation, and by the votes of soldiers of the Gallic legions, to whom Csesar had granted furloughs for this purpose. The government of the two Srains was given to Pompey, while that of Syria was assigned to Crassus. The latter hurried to the East, hoping to rival there the bnlliant conquests of Ctesar in the West. At this time the great Parthian empire occupied the immense reach of territory stretching from the valley of the Euphrates to that of the Indus. Notwithstanding thai: the Parthians were at p^ace with the Roman people, Crassus led his army across the Euphrates, and invaded their territory, intent upon a wai- of conquest>and booty. In the midst of the Mesopotamian desert he was treacherously deserted by his guides ; and his army, suddenly attacked by the Parthian cavalry, was almost annihilated. Crassus himself was slain, and his head, so it is said, was filled by his captors with molten gold, that he might be sated with the metal which he had so coveted during life. la the death of Crassus, Cxsar lost his stanchest friend, one who had never &i]ed him, and whose wealth had been freely used for his adirancenieDt. When Cxsar, before his consulship, had received a command in Spain, and the immense sums he owed at Rome were embarrassing him and preventing his departure, Cras- sus had come forward and generously paid more than a million dollars of his fiiend's debts. Binby batwMn Ommt ud Po^«jr.— After the death of Crassus the world belonged to Csesar and Pompey. That the in- satiable ambition of these two rivals dtould sooner or later bring them into coBisiim was inevitable. Their alliance in the triumvi- rate was sim{dy one of selfish convenience, not of friendship. While Cssar was canying on his brilliant campiigBs in Gaul, Pom- tamense theatre vnthZat, for .^^ ^*" "" '^^td^ nificentga^esanrset^blictawr^rr" «"=««- '^■ people in the sports of th7r^ '- *"'" '^' "«^'«' "^ «>e with gladUtoria^tb^^^'^r"' ^'^'''' '* ^'"'"^^•^ 'h'^"' cned himself with the^opIeL,rf TT ^'^ "'»«5*- saw. He sonal,; • '^^ ** ^'""S*'" "^ich he plainly {ore- Roman citizenship^Do' "f ^'f 5?' ~"''='«'d the privileges of .ent to Rome enlorsums ^f'S"'! °' "*"'"' """^^ '«'• tion of temples, theat^s anH lif u.^ "P"'*'^ '" *« «>«^- ^.eb^tiono^f^a^ttditt sC^ ZT^"" ''' those given by Pompey * magniiicence h^uH'c. mat even such patriots as Cutn .-j /-• no hope for the maintenance of tke reptw^c^e r T '*"' the appointment of Pompey as sole r^!^ . r ' °™" '^''°f«^ about the same thine Houses rrontinj^ p^^i^- ^SiS' "t^J battle was at length joined. It proved PompeyTwateri^ «M of hB former lieutenants, now an officer at the Egyptian c«tt. Th«™g=mg Ptolemy h-ui ordered PompeysassS^ »H UST CENTURY Or THS KOMAN KEfVBUC. in hopes of pleasing C«esar. " If we receive him," said he, "we shall make Ctesai: our enemy and Pompejr our master." ^ The head of the great general was severed from his body; and when Caesar, who was pressing after Pompey in hot pursuit, landed in Egypt, the bloody trophy was brought to him. He turned from the sight with generous tears. It was no longer the head of his rival, but of his old associate and son-in-law. He ordered his assassins to be executed, and directed that fitting obsequies should be performed over his body. OoM of tlw CItU War.— Csesar was detained at Alexandria nine months in settling a dispute respecting the throne of Egypt After a severe contest he overthrew the reigning Ptolemy, and secured the kingdom to the celebrated Cleopatra and a younger brother. InteUigence was iiow brought from Asia Minor that Phamaces, son of Mithradates the Great, was inciting a revolt among the peoples of that regioa Csesar met the Pontic king at J^ defeated him, and in five days put an end to-the war. His laconic message to the Senate, announcing his victory, is famous. It ran thus : "Vttti.vidi, vici,"—" I came, I saw, I conquered." Ciesar now hurried back to Italy, and thence proceeded to Africa, which the friends of the old republic had made their last chief rallying-place. At the great batde of ThaB5u»_(46B.c.) they were crushed. Fifty thousand Uy dead~uponAefi5ar- Cato, who had been the very life and soul of the army, refusing to outlive the republic, took his own life. Obmt'i Trinntph.— Cxsar was now virtually lord of the Roman world.' Although he refrained from assuming the title of king, no Eastern monarch was ever possessed of more absolute power, or surrounded by more abject flatterers and sycophants. He was invested with all tiie offices and dignities of the state. The Senate made him perpetual dictetor, and conferred upon him the powers of censor, consul, and tribune, with Hat titles of Praj. •TbesoaofPompey—GBiEaiandScrtBs — itm held Spun. CouoTa. BiKW their power In the decUre battle of Monda, 45 sx. Ce&tJt AS A STATESMAN. j,j tifex Maximus and ImmraMr u u procession wer- iliT . • ^'°" witnessed. In tlie Leati, LTu^i'^drmalT' M '"''" "^ P^ "^ «he world. of ^easure^ere Cy^d Sid^""''"''! """'°" ''°"-' the liberality of the conau;™, ^ . T"^ '^^ '*"'» ""«"=<> for the n.uldes!"' SZonh'/tl.tr«dr" T "^ the arena foUowed on, .„„.k • "" ^^ combats ol combats ofteli; Ct^'J » :^ r^^T T"^' " ^^^ ">« of silk, the imm^rve^l T !°' ""^ ""' ""^ ">« '"^'^ from the sun " (Gibbon) ' P"'~* '^^ P'oP'e grater, if possible.T^tates^ -^ *"'" "^ " «^'"="'' ^^ atituted evince p„found SSL.!^ "^T""^ '*'''='' '"' '- Of view. He wught to Se^^-rrT™"*^ •'""'* of Rome in the pj,. ^ZT a ^ t^°" '^'^ °^» P°"cy Corinth and founTe^ n^rj^iestl ^ d'^ ^' ""^ Koman'ci«.ens^ranr^° o^^ of inte««ts J s'^^'°'°^;^'^''°f'''y.-i'h community bring the festivab^ri^ in^eif ™''' *' "'"''^ '° « »° against further con°uLTmaSrr'^''^"''*°'^P~" »»««-» .u . .^^ . "^^ "" *»» then re- S:p^S^"::h;:e:!:!r ieTt •^Lre't ^^ "'--^ ^' head of the list of the p,o«:rilT^ '^ ** •"" "* ^* The Wends of the orator urged him to flee the country « Let «»•»««. the co«t, rtiea h« punuer, came up and devatched Wi !i "0 LAST CSMTVKY OP THB KOMAN KKfUMlK. fa tb. litter to which he WM beta, curled. HI. he«l wm ute, to Rome, and let up Iq ftont of the roMnun, "ftorn which he •-djo often .ddmMd the people with hie eloquent q>p«d. fej Uber^." It U toW ,h« Puw,. the wife of AnS.,. JhTiS bodkin through the tongue, to revenge for the bitter phUlpptoft Clwo WM but one victim unong toMj hnndwU. AU the dr«dfol.ce.«of.hed.y.ofSulUwe,ere.en«:ted. •n.ri h^ e«.te. of the wealthy were confi«».ed. and conferred by the tri- umvu. upon their frlendt and favMitea. 7 «« m :::;tn^^r::irpjr:^^2rrt?'.2 "on a. they had dapoaed of their enemie. m Italy, crowed the ^^^^^^"-^"^ - -et then,, pa^d over the aee^'^T-*^. i"" T "*'" ' 'P*"'" 'PP~^ to Brutu. and r^ i! ^^;/ ^ "" *'' "*' S*"'"' ; *« '^U »«« again at Phi- bpi»/' At Philippi. faThnKe. the hostUe armie, did mefLVc ) In two successive engagements the new levies of the liberatori were out to pieces, and both Brutus and Cassius, believine the mdeed,Aelaste,ror.of.he,epubUc. The history of the evl^ S^Vl^ "" ')' '^'^°° " """""PP' ""^ "" "tablishment ^ for the possession of the prize of supreme power. After various red..nbuUons of p.ovtoces, Upidus was at length expeUed^' the tr.umvm.te. and then agato the Roman world, a, iTthe tim^ MTTOify AMD CUOfATMA. fg^ fa the Eatt, .»d Ocuvitti fa the WelT "«"»- Antony i„_ J . P"n'o»e 01 MttliQg the aflun of th» nfn> queen of Egypt, to meet him at Tawu. in CUfci..^' . \i account to him (o, the aid .he had ^nd'el^d'S^^! r; , " ^ obeyed the lummoni. relymg upon the power of V , . i.a, ,- = giW«? b«ge. with om of «lm and uib of purnl. „ik 'v' ■ •«ung. WKH.ght of the richeat manufccture^^ ' t , . f •ttendanu dmied to repreient cupida and nenidL Ti, completely iiucfa«ed. „ h«l bej^ Ae ^^cL b7"' '"" ^*.d«ilingbeau.yofthe«Sen.enineSr" r "". Jr her enchantment., and c|„3by her Ji^t JflSe P^o^her company he ibn^ .„ eL-ambTcLit^J: The day. and night, were .pent fa one round of l«nan«. Pej^of .bulou. worth, and the;,''rS;'"J^3^her;l; mployed diven to fasten enormou. fi,hes to the hook of her Once, mdeed. Antony did rouse himself and break away from Wth an army of .00,000 men he crossed the Euphmes wj^ *e Tigns. and with reckle- daring plunged «nidst th" defi^ •nd snowy passes of the mountains bemnd But ,K. 7 Of approaching winter. a,Kl the ince^nT atSk, 5 .hfp ^J™ cavalry, at length forced hfa. to make a S°LS ^l^^' e 'ti: . 1 Id ■B lASr CBNTUKV OF TURKOMAN XEPVBUC. retreat. The loss, the lulTeriiig, and the disgiace attending thii ill- by a messenger from the false queen that she was dead, committed nicide. This was exacUy what Cleopatn anticipated he wouU DMATUS Of ANTONY AND UlEWATKA. » When, however, the dying Antony, it. Eccordance with his w^ w« borne U, her. .he old love rctmoelZTeSJed in^ Cleop.t« thm w^t to ensUve OcUvim with her chum.: but, fiuhng m thM, «d becoming convinced the might there gr«:e his S^^ too^ her own hfe. being in the thirty-eighth ye« of h^^T T^idon „o^ that yhe effected her purpose by applying a^L^ 1^1 It .s only cert^n that, when the chamber -27a . aiS-aoi •4»-r<6 ■33 Ccm^Mli of OcHc in Gaol (Bd IMtia Battle of Phamta; Poapar •» «» Eopt and ia mnrdatad Battle of ThapaM, Ow > ., u «ai dktatar of Roman world MonkrofCaar Battle of nOpiri; deatha of Brntoa and Caaaiiii . . . ! R«p«Wic e«li wiA iHittle of Actfam between OctaWu. and Antony : S»-S' 31 MSIGM OP AUGUSTUS C/BSAX. CHAPTER VIII. THE ROHAN EUPIRE. ('ram 31 1.C. lo A.D. sl(L) S«««-p«M^exhaus,ed helpless, in the hand. ^^^ r y**^ '°°^'' to "mould its crumbKiig ^'■"T" .*^* *^ *«««. 'Aich seemed ««Jy to MtortLT Sj^'-J^llfl'"' f:' «-«-' PoKtioal work uj^y oZTj^Ln^*^- The achievements of Ale««ier of The government which Octavius esublished was a monarchv in S fr« "/!P""«=,» fi*™- Mindful of the fete of M^C^ who frH because he gave the lovers of the »™w ' thi«k that he coveted fte title of iL n^ ^""^ ""°» »» were it. Mwbers to the influence of the conoi^Tth.^^ ?^ fc m™, a. p„,„„_„^ *..«iTSj" w^c:i THK ROMAN EMPIKE. Si ri die efligies »rA figoie-heids to delude the people into belieriiv tiiat the reput>lic still existed. Never did a people seem man content with the shadow after the Ini of the subataaoe. The Sen- ate, acting under the inspiration of OctavioSy withheld from him the title of king, which ever since the ex- pulsion of the Tarquins, five centuries before this time, ha4 been intolerable to the peo- ple ; but they conferred upon him the titles of Imperator and Augustus, the latter hav- ing been hitherto sacred to the gods. The sixth month of the Roman year was called Au- gustus (whence our August) in his honor, an act in imi- tation of that by which the preceding mondi had been given the name of Julius in honor of Julias Cterar. The domains over iriiich Augustus held sway were im- perial in magnitude. They stretched from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, and upon the north were hemmed by the forests of Germany and Ac bleak steppes of Scythia, and were bordered oa the soath If MIQUSnjS. leriag meie «' 1 i~'~~-~-^f^^J^:Th jok^^ 7 / / Zl ^^^^^^^^^^■'M^\ <1 -^ / /ifc y^T^N^AT^STT"^ to • « ----_y^^^**^/ / 1 ^^]f / / r **^ * /THE ROMAN EMPIRE" — ~A ^N / AT THE / « -L DEATH OF AUGUSTUS / / A.D. 14 / 1 / / '~~\~ IIlXPmN*, Ev-- M.T. ^ >*y MtOt/ OF AVCVSTVS C^SAIf. » tfc? MMb Of the Afiicui desert and the dreuy wa«c of Arabia. d«ctionj. W. hmthe^hmtewereoowded more than .00.000.- 000 people embracng every conceivable condition «k1 variety L Z.X.TT^. S. ""' ""*" -'•-^' «' «- - «- ^^ Omviu, was the fi„t to moderate the ambition of the Romans, and to counsel them not to attempt to conquer any more of the S Z' T"'" ^r" "" "•'8ie. to the w<^ of c^. datmg the domain, already acquired. He sa, the danger, that would attend any fiarther extension of the boundaries of trsta^ .. ir*">l^*"u""' '"•"' '''»'y-f°«y«". from 3, B.C. to A.n. 14. It embraced the most splendid period of the annals of Rome. Under the patronage of the emperor, and that of hi. favorite golden age of Utm literature. During this reign Vireil com- posed h« ^.mortal epic of the ^„ruf. and HoiTe his^flTous mZil'^ M*^ ""T ,■"' '"™"'"' ■^'"'y- »<> Ovid hi, ^,H,- M^^W Many who lamented the fall of the republic wught «lace m the pursuit of letters; and in this they we,^ encoS by Augushis a, « gave occupation to many restless spirir^ Augustus was also a munificent patton of architecture and art ri!?.°7? , ^^r!'"' ^"^ ■^■y 'P''"'"'' ot^ctoT^. Said he P^udlyjl found Rome a city of brick; I left itacityof 2! b^ The population of the city at this time was probably about .,J«o.ooa Two other cities of the empire, Antioch and I W clS^r t? ' V *"" "^ "='■ ^'"'" '"» -»= "-"^^f c.ti«ns TTiese cities, too, were made magnificent with architec- tural and art embeUishments. an-miec AW|ough the government of Augustus was disturbed by some ^Wes upon he fiontiers. still never before, perhaps, did the aadtnrmoilofwar. Three times during this auspicious re^ th. I. 4 i i 1 " TM KOMAN SMf/MM. of wtr and doted in time of peace, weie shut. Only iwke hJfcr. S; r^tVi:::: °' ";• :!:^ *"" ""-^ •'^^.ot: .K .J the Roman people been engaged in war It wu <» he mfaUt of thi. happy «ig„. .hen pXid ^e l^JS ol^ r nV':!!';:r'^ ""'i: "■" ^'^" - bo^ bSS oi juaea. fhe event was unheraMed at Rome • vet it n. muA frthfwr •^"^- ■- '^^ ^ ^^^ --x""^ do^.:t,?^^r/t *'d;:Sir=: Tisr-sn"^ M-^ellu, and hi, two gnmd^t. C. «d Ludt^tl^^t tem^ . . P'™"''''"'^ ■"' Reneial Varus, who had at' ttr^ *!^^."" '^""■'oving Teuton, a. he had goT™^ Je^t Ariattc. of the Easten, p««i„ce.. was sui^T^ StTo^ "' I^Tv'^^' ="'•' Hermann,-cSed Aiu. "fiance with the Gau„, and then .rZ^''L^\:2:.' iSJy'^h'^'v!^*""'"*"^'- A«gu«u.. wearied «,d;^ •^y with advanang age, the care, of empire, «k1 domestic aflhcnon was mcon«,Uble. He paced hU pJace in ag^n^S keptexchumn^, "O Varus ! Va«. ! give me Clc my leS' "J de:^o' GiiiS'r:^ o„^^ ''^r "'°'" ^""^'t- •ft^'^je oeatn of Oaius and of Lucrjs, lad appointed his heir and sue t^t'th^ -««^y guarded the Rhine tJ^the GermaTdiTnorat TeWct^T'*" '^''*""^'"'*°'"**'''«'''-''l-vasot The victory of Armimu, over the Roman legion, was an eveM greatest significance in the histoiy of E^pean ciX^^:^ ^wero^T '^° )\^' ^""^ ''™^- The Teuto^c tabes were on the pomt of being completely subjugated and MUGH or T.'gMMta, ,„ J«»«i««d. uh«! been the Celt, of G«Ubd6«Ae«. H«J tW. occurted. the entire htatory of Europe wouM lu^i hem ^h«Wed; for the Genn«rfc element i. the oTSt t. S ^ «d color to the taport^t evenfof thei:: ZJ^^Z ye«. Among the* barbwUM, u». were our «ce«on. kid ^wcceeded in e«ermfa.,i., or enaUving S^H^uin^ Crewy mj^ night never have receired the name of EmUdS"^ (toe of the most important of the «:tt of Auguitu. in it. in toence upon following event,, wu the fonnatir^ ^^ ^^ run Guard, which wa. deigned for a ^T^,.gl\ ^^ •Wnperor. In the ncceeding leign this bodv rfL!^ u? 2«-» -mber. was givTn .t^eiT'^^J'S^.'te' dty walli It «x.n became a formidable power to S^ ^ made and unmade emperors at will. ' "^ !e^t""*t'"'u"°"° '^^ •»='"' "publican i^L? He took away ftom the popular assembly the privilege TelS Ae co„^, and p«tors. and bestowed the «.me u^ Z, S which, however, must elect bom candidates orMen^ ^^' emperor. A. the Senate was the creation of VeTpS. wit l»d for . few y^ r«ched u &r « the Elbe^« a74« ^T^ "'' xtMocan MsoumoN tbi chait (ANSI ond ISO TIST CHAKT No. 2) imiu Ui^l 1.6 ^^ less Ea«l Main StrMt ^^ ?-?fi'?"*'' **** ■^o"' '■♦«» USA ^ (718) *e2 - 0300 - Phoo. B (716) 2BB- 5989 -Fax SM THE ROMAN EMPIRE. censor made up the lUt of its members, he was now of coune thi source and founuin of aU paticnage. During the first years of his reign, Tiberius used his practicaUy unrestrained authority with moderation aud justice, being seemingly desirous of promoting the best interests of all classes in his vast empire. TIBERIUS. (Fram ■ Butt in tht Capftolmi Muhuid.) The beginning of his reign was marked by revolts among the legions, the most serious discontent manifesting itself among those guarding the Rhine, who wished to raise to the throne their favor- ite general Germanicus, nephew of Tiberius. But Germanicus sternly refused to take part in such an act of treachery, reproved bis soldiers, and then drew their attention fiom such thoughts of \^X KSIGN Of TIBBKWS. jg, a>ouuhi<, i„ij srarr r: '^r 't ^-^ -^ -p- i-e-wirof'ii^^^ But at ft« moment, when Germanicus seemed on the Doint of Uymg the Roman yoke upon the tribes of Germ^ Sus .Tfronl ' '"T*"'"'' "^ J'^'°"'^' ''^'^ "im from thethen teiSurr '^T i' " '^«"°'" P°''^'°°. '"'«'y to prove ternbly harmful to him who wields it, as well as to thoseTer Ta^^of rK-rizr --« - " ^- - - - Whatever may have been the intentions with which Tiberius thTmr sTLidCr h; :^? ^r ' -'"" ^ '=°'"- °' i,„ 1. "^"ca tyranny. He enforced oppressively an oM ^, h,own as the La^ ./ Maj.sta., which ^Tde it a iS offence for any one to speak a careless .ord, or even to enS %v 833 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. an unfriendly thought, respecting the emperor. "It was danger- ous to speak, and equally dangerous to keep silent," says Leighton, " for silence even might be construed into discontent." Rewards were offered to informers, and hence sprang up a class of persons called "deUto who acted as spies upon society. Often false charges were i..ade, to gratify personal enmity; and many, espe- cially of the wealthy class, w •■; accused and put to death that their property might be confiscated. Tiberius appointed, as his chief minister and as commander of the praetorians, one Sejanus, a man of the lowest and most corrupt life. This officer actually persuaded Tiberius to retire to the little island of Capreae, in the Bay of Naples, and leave to him the management of affairs at Rome. The emperor built several viUas m different parts of the beautiful islet, and, having gathered a band of congenial companions, passed in this pleasant retreat the later years of his reign. Both Tacitus the historian and Suetonius the biographer tell many stories of the scandalo-is profligacy of the emperor's life on the island; but these tales, it should be added, are discredited by some. Meanwhile, Sejanus was ruling at Rome very much according to his own will. No man's life was safe. He even grew so bold as to plan the assassination of the emperor himself. His designs, however, became known to Tiberius; and the infamous and dis-* loyal minister was arrested and put to death. After the execution of his minister, Tiberius ruled more des- potically than before. Multitudes sought refuge from his tyranny in suicide. Death at last relieved the world of the monster. His end was probably hastened by his attendants, who are beUeved to have smothered him in his bed, as he lay dying. It was in the midst of the reign of Tiberius that, in a remote province of the Roman empire, the Saviour was crucified. Ani- mated by an unparalleled missionary spirit, his followers traversed the length and breadth of the empire, preaching everywhere the " glad tidings." Men's loss of faith in the gods of the old mythol- ogies, the softening and liberalizing influence of Greek culture. SEtGN OF CALIGULA. jsj the unification of the whole civilized worirt „n^-, , • , ment. the widespread suffering and T '?° ^ ^°''"- « one of the most important events in all histo^ A new e" rfi^^intiSr::st:--~ffi the eighteen centuries that we have yet to Idy """^ °' Beiga of Caligula (a.d. 37-4O— Gaius C^iar better known months spent in arduous application to the affi,;™ r ^ during wMch time his man'y^ctsTfrin"rd;it';wTf:; him the affect ons of all classes tht. m,.,^ r .l '^ ' became un.ttled. His ri^^t:^: 1' L^^dT S^so'^^^^retSLroterosrsLt-^^^^ The cruel sports of the amphLatre Z^'d for ^ ""■ ascination. When animals failed L^^^ " "'^"8'= seized indiscriminately^idtl^olrLr^H"" "^ :^ns:::;.t2:i-:-=iSEr^^ ^£::^h-h-st^-^:HS ^/^l^er^^-i-ois-^tS^i people of Rome had butone neck." He built a bridge fl hil f^ p 334 THE SOMA/f EMPItlE. palace on the Palatine to the temple on the Capitoline hill, that he ^ might be "next neighbor" to Jupiter. In order to rival the Hellespontine bridges of Xerxes, he constructed a bridge over the bay at Baiae. The structure broke beneath the triumphal proces- sion on the day of dedication; and Caligula, delighted with the spectacle of the struggling victims, forbade any one to attempt to save the drowning. It is said that he emulated the example of Cleopatra by disaolv- rng costly gems and drinking them at a draught. A single dinner cost »400,ooo. As an insult to his nobles he gave out that he pro- posed to make his favorite horse, Incitatus, consul, and frequently mvited the steed from his ivory stable to eat gilded grain at the im- perial board. He personated in turn all the gods and goddesses, arraying himself at one time as Hercules or Bacchus, and again as Juno or Venus. He declared himself divine, set up his statues for worship, and even removed the heads of Jupiter's statues and put his own in their place. During h-3 reign he set out on an expedition against Britain; tait on r.a<-.hm'; the sea he set his soldiers to work collecting sheUs along the beach, which " spoils of the ocean ' he then sent back to Rome as the trophies of his enterprise. A campaign against the Germans ended at the Rhenish frontier with not cap- tives enough in his hands for a triumph ; accordingly, he hired so the story runs, a great number of Gauls to pereonate German' prisoners, and thus suppHed the embarrassing deficiency. After four years tlie insane career of Caligula was brought to a close by some of the officers of the praetorian guard whom he had wantonly insulted. Eeign of Clandini (a.d. 4'-54).-The reign of Claudius, Caligula's successor, was signalized by the conquest of Britain. Nearly a century had now passed since the invasion of the island by Julius Caesar, who, as has been seen (see p. 102), simply made a reconnoissance of the island and then withdrew. Claudius conquered all the southern portion of the island, and founded many colonies, which in time became important centres of Roman KEIGN OP CLAVDWS. ^ meat upon the magnificen^rof the t i "* *" '^'°""''- "How can^pcoprK^::^ of ^^^07;^:;? "-^^ C«ctac« hi, humble cottage in Britain?" °"" '"'^ CUudius distinguished his reign by the executinn r .mportant worJts. At the mouth of tl xLr he f . T' «^Mcent harbor, called the Pori L^^C^d ' Aqueduct, which he completed was a ^,r^ f Claudian multitude of spectators, he e^ibitS a tSt^r^hf": T opposing fleets hrarir.,. . ■ j. tatue, ra which two .^Xtti^Tthi^r^Tu^ShT '"f '^ ''°"«'' ■" covered with fiagmenrofX?!!:!*""'"'" "' •^'"'' ""^ and''uZX'^^"%^?"hf;7H "l^."' "^«"»« ^-'^t- AgHppina." ^TI^ur^l'de^'Ii^JL^T^IS.''; "^^''''' m^ms. in order to make placerrsul^^io^.rS Nero, under the influence of Sene^^nH r ^L ^' ^^ '"»" a yomiger son; and Nero after fiiw- '" '^""^ °' herwlbne she Jas cS'the tlvt R •'" "" """""P' '° '>«»™ the hand of an i,^^„t „ ^' f^' ^"«*' •"=' death by of his tutor L^»d e^LT " '""^ *"'" ""^ «"''''»<=« of almost inc^d^e'oS tT"/ "'"".'""' '"* '="'"" co^untden^^. VSthJl'tt^r^^^rr"^';^ '^ TWa KOMAN EMPIXB. fa the hands of a regular profe«ion. Both weie employed almost^ unceasingly to remove persons that had incurred his hatred, or who possessed wealth that he coveted. Like Caligula, he degraded the imperial purple by contending in the gladUtorial combato of the arena and in the james of the circus. It was in the tenth year of his reign that the so-called Great Fire laid more than half of Rome in ashes. Temples, monu- ments, and buildings of every description were swept away by the flames, that surged like a sea through the valleys and about the base of the hills occupied by the city. The people, in the dismay of the moment, were ready to catch up any rumor respect- rng the ongin of the fire. It was reported that Nero had ordered the conflagration to be lighted; and that from the loof of his palace he had enjoypd the spectacle, and amused himself by singing a poem which he himself had written, entitled the "Sack of Tioy." Nero did everything in his power to discredit the rumor. He went w person amidst the suflerers, and distributed money with his own hand. To further turn attention from himseir he accused the Christians of having conspu-ed to destroy the city in order to help out their prophecies. The doctrine which wa^ taught by some of the new sect respecting the second coming of Chnst, and the destruction of the world by fire, lejt color to the charge. The persecution that foUowed was one of the most cruel recorded in the history of the Church. Many victims were covered with pitch and burned at night, to serve as torches in the imperial gardens. Tradition preserves the names of the apostles Peter and Paul as victims of this Neronian persecu- tion. '^ As to Rome, the conflagration was a blessing in disguise. Requisitions of money and material were made upon aU the Roman world for the rebuilding of the burnt distiicts. The city rose from its ashes as quickly as Atiiens from her ruins at tiie close of the Persian wars. The new buildings were made fire- proof; and the narrow, crooked streets reappeared as broad and beautifiil avenues. Water was disuibuted from tiie aqueducts MBtGlf OF tfSKO. 337 covered «, much ^paceX thT^onU . r" "°"'''" ^' new extorter r.Jra^^f:'^»r™°« "P""!''— by knew but that hi,Tra'„tt cof, ■"• ''^ °"' °' "«'"*' formed among th! noWertl „.• T' * ^o-'P'^'cy was The plot wa/d^overed a„^ ' """"'" °f 'he monster. NcK.. both reu^^^L^,^,-:'.;^,?-- '^' °'«^ "-P- or tyramiy and the dW^ewL no l' "'"'5'' '^ ""'"'■ "^ the «.me moment thf ^^11 L, X .tT"" ^""°'' " The Senate decreed tha^ the e^ w« a 2"'" """'''^ thc'rrirntiitn/tis:"- "^"^--' w^adopt^,,^ Hesuccred'S^iSl"^™ -ained.and uneventful ^hr^Stj' rponleXu^TN^" ''"V' extinction in him of the l„ii.!/ i- ^'" """^ the legions in differed SuarteV:^";',^ ," '""'"^' '»<» '"« ite leaders. One Z^^Z^^Ti "'"'"' °^ ""''' '■^'"- killed in bloody ,3,^ for he IT T"""' "'"""^ "«" Vitellius, was hufied i^frnVThrlt ^rldSf V«*^ ""'' the old and beIov«1 .v,™ j ^ soiaiers of Vespasian, "hichwereatSSeTZ:^ '""J'^*""^ '" ^^''^'^' B» «# w . engaged m war with the Jews. V«^j'm!St°£„°- ^.''-^«>-^'= --ion of Plavius paaan mari^ j,^ teginmng of a period, embracing three ;»i : ■^L THE KottAN lumxa. te; l1 reigBi, known h the Flavian Ap (A.a 69-9 'V Vctpuian^ reign wu signalized both by important miUtary achievementt •broad and by ttupendoui public worka underuken at Rome. After one of the most haraning lieget recorded in hittory, Jeniialem was taken by "ntus, son of Vespasian. The Temple was destroyed, . , ^.jajjj^ J -j« 1^ w mtr\ •rj. ""^ '"'"• than /* Bjem-A A » HM. «A , million of Jews that were crowded in the city are believed to have perished. ^. Great multitudes co,Norv«P«uH. suflereddeathby cmcifixion. The miserable remnants of the nation were scattered everywhere over the world. Josephus, the great historian, accom- panied the conqueror to Rome. In imitation of Nebuchadneziar, Titus robbed the T mple of iu sacred utensils, and bore them away as trophies. Upon the triumphal arch at Rome that bean hU name may be seen at t ,e present day the sculptured represen- tatton of the golden ca- ilestick, which was one of the memorials of the war. In the opposite comer of the empire a dangerous revolt of the Gauls was suppressed, and in the island of Briuin the Roman commander AgricoU subdued or crowded back the nathre tribes until he had extended the frontiers of the empire into what is now Scotland. Then, as a protection against the incursions of the Caledonians, the ancestors of the ScottUh Highlanders, he con- structed a line of fortresses from the Frith of Forth to the Frith of Clyde. Vespasian rebuilt the Capitoline temple, which had been burned during the struggle between his soldiers and the adherents of Vitellius ; he constructed a new forum which bore his own name ; and also began the erection of the celebrated Flavian amphi- theatre, which was completed bjr his succ^sor. After a coost XJUG/f OF r/TVS. At the la.t mome« he CLed W. ..f!!.' '^'^ * "^^ «•-*. hi. ree. Uut he 4.^'^ ^^.T^''^" ^T "'"» ""^ emperor. """uli, u befitted a Roman Tirr'th'^':^.,f;rrJi^^^ or two yea„ wearied in acts of benevolen- itn °^^*'^^""^-" He wa un- ing let a day sUp by^ ^ ' "^ '" '^'°"''' "^ &-<>"• Hav- he ^ said to LS «l:xrc!.s '■ SeT rt™'"^' Titus completed and dedicated th.^. L '"" * '''''•" begun by hisfether.VespSl ™, ^! "^^ amphitheatre ■nodateJ more tliai gl^ ^"^ '"'« «™cture, wliici, accom- Colosseum-: ^e ;^;r it'X'"!-" """" '"'"'^ " •"« portions, or on accounfra J^ ""^ °^ "^ «''8^'*'= P^ THE KOMAN BMNJIB. ir^^v The reign of Titai, though to ihort, wu lignalixed bjr two great diwiten. The fint wu a conflagration at Rome, which was almoM u ddamitout ai the Great Fire in the reign of Nero. The tecood was the destruction, by an eruption of Vesuviu*, of the Campanian citiei of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The cities were buried beneath ihowen of cinders, ashes, and streams of volcanic mud. PUoy the Elder, the great naturalist, venturing too near the moun- lalo to investigate the phenomenon, lost his lifej !□! I il '■' I. -I ■%3 i! % smcrr in kmkii. (« iiMo«inic««i.) Somitias— iMt of the TwalT* Omus (a.d. 81-96). — Domi- tian, the brother of Titus, was the last of the line of emperors ■ In the yew 1713, lixteen centuriei after the dettniction of the cities, the raina were discovered by wme penoni engaged in digging s well, and lince then extensiTe excavations have been made, which have uncovered a large part of Pompeii, and revealed to ui the itreets, homei, theatres, baths, ahops, temples, and various monumentl of the ancient city — all of which presents to cs a very vivid picture of Roman life doling the imperial period, eighteen hundred yesis ago. ro grett ■ ■InuMt ! iecond npanian buried ic mud. ! moun- Domi- iperors Itietithe nd tince • t«rge I, shops, »eiits to eigjitecn {•Ill rirs-Vj ft X llnlMh. >v! "^Sftsa ^y^^""^ \ V H „..c.,„„„,, Pliny speaks of the new creed as a "r«n..™ had seized not cities onlv ^Z ^ ~'"^°"' * ""iti™. that country." Yet he coS'i no f^^^n T" '^' "' """^ "^^ doctrines. NotwithstandZ ,v u * "'^'^'^ '° the new M "1;% !i I:' »! I IF •" TffJS SOMAN EMPIRS. adrntaistation of the government He gave up the territory con-' quered by Trajan m the East, and made the Euphrates once more the boundanr of the empire in that quarter. He al^ broke down the bndge that Trajan had buUt over the D.uube, and made that stream Ae real frontier line, notwithstanding the Roman garrisons were still maintained in Dacia. Hadrian saw plainly that Rome could not safely extend any more widely the frontiers of the empire. Indeed, so active and threatening were the enemies of the empire in the East, and so dar- ing and numerous had now become its barbarian assailants of the North, that there was reason for the greatest anxiety lest they should break through even the old and strong lines of the Danube and the Euphrates, and pour their devastating hordes over the provinces. More than fifteen years of his reign were spent by Hadrian in making I tours of inspection through all the difletent provinces of the empire. He visited Britain, and secured the Roman possessions there against the Picts and Scots by erecting a contin- uous wall across the island. Next he journeyed through Gaul and Spain, and then visited in different tours all the remaining countries bordering upon the Mediterranean. He as- cended the Nile, and, traveller-Bke, carved his name upon the vocal Memnon. The cities which he visited he decorated with temples, theatres, and other monu- ments. Some places, however, including Antioch, which received their emjleror ungraciously, he neglected to make the recipients of his royal hberaUt}-. The atmosphere of Athens, with its HADRIAN. KBIGN OF HADKlAlf. ^ returned to the Attic capital ^'^''° ^ ""^ in despe^te .evoU.tlu^Vtt Z4"^rtltJ^°"' r.t:L?ori^rir.hrHrrf^ '"^^^^-^ million of Jew, SIL in L^^ ^""'"*- '^°" '""» '-'^f « were driven i^oS!^ the 17 ''™'^'' "^ •*" »"'''^<'" Th#. !»»., ™'/ — *ne last dispersion of the race. The latter years of hi, reign Hadrian passed at Rom, i. here that this princely builder i.r«-f,rf k" . ' ^' "" Among theseLtheMoltorSeuroTH^J^^^^^^ WTucture surmounted by I Jded d^™! ' f"^' "" """'"" .he^ber^and desig„e^a''s^?o'^bt?;'^^?f,e:V';94r'" "' enable and '^S °S rSt7i.ar h "'•" "'°'' •"^- architect Apollodorus for v,„J^- "" ?"* '" '^~«' «>« in.some J^^Z L« ""lolrtliTrL"^ *"'' evidently more judicious; for wh~;d "XT^ff!:: the emperor to silence him in ,» .™ ^ "* suiTered -. h^ replied. -ril^dU^STh Z'r^Z' "i'^- legions." " "i^uiig witn the master of thirty piu?tht!S::,^rnTHS^.-r"'r^"'~.»-"^ coUeague and successor AureUus the^n t ' Tt' '^^"^ '^ who devoted himself to thei^f it' ""^ °^ *^ ""P'~" view to the happiness o/his peotle " 41 r°'.*'"' " ""8'' ,;i;, li Wir XOM^/^ SMNKB. m the-Forum and burned. The tastes and sympathies of Aure- ■us would have led him to choose a 'J'e passed in retirement and study at the wpital; but hostile movement, of the Parthans, and especially invasions of the barbarians along the RhenUh Md Danubian frontiers, called him ftom ha books, and forced him to reign in the ounn Th, I^^v """i °[ *^ """^ y«« °^ hi. B " ^^ '^"P- The Plarthians, who had violated their tr,.h. «nA Rome, were chastised by the Heutenants Tf .he em^'7 «.d Mesopotamia again fell under Roman authority ^' «::^;lS^;^^t:^t^'^^--».- ^pemitiouspeoKir.-ed'^tlKa'rwn'''^"''^'^ of Christians tiut had callerf H«^ f " ^' """^ *«« ANTONINUS nus. iFwB , Com » «» Brfln Muwim.) THB AJfTOMJfBS. « »eU as ,ho« of uTe L„tt^ .f »ame, of the be« .™pero„, fal perfonnance of the ri.e, ZT\T ^'^ "^ "^"^ ** ^'-- wh«e .he i^onuu. nUe«'"e« S^","; ;°:t';^ ^ "•"'' form, of woBhip among Aeir .ubiecta .HH^k ' """"""^ »" of eveor faith should -Tleit „cS !k » '^ "''""*'' *»' ■»«» incense before their statS Se C w""" «°'.'' "«• '^"" to do. Their neglect of the service of the^T ^"^^ ''^^ angered the godsf and en^^H V c '""P'*' " "" ''^""ed. n^n it drought; pestiJe^ntfr t^'dtL^" "^i^ ^"«*."« 4:rrf:;im^^S;-hrtf^°~ - ";"^enK?4^H°^--ranr.X added thisnew tet^r. A^u, IL^L^V *' ""^'^ legions, and hurried '^yZZu^ t"^" *' '"«' "' »>» the snows of winter and Ae ?eat,^»:!°' "T' ''^- «■"'*' back the as^UIant, of the empil^ """"^'' ^' '*^' '° beat reheved^:;;!;. JeX/b a,:.r:^l\„t;^^^^^^^^ ""' ""^^ •Brians as to scatt«^em in IhrxS" V'"°' T '^' '"'" Jupiter Tonans had interfered inlheir S, .f T"' *°"«'" ""« that made up the twdto lelnn ^^.'^^' """ ** Christian, -in in answer to t^I. ^S. rSr"-^"" "^ "■" *« received the tiUe of th'e •' ^und^r ng tS^:."' ^^^ ''^ «-. Column of Autelius at Rome - wh-,? ;. .',. *^' "P°n the carved the scene in which Olym^nJoverSl^ "'^"-'^" sented "raining and lighteni^^rof h^v^^..^'''"' " '^'^ m The efcrti of the devoted AukUo, checked the iimMdt of thi b«b«i«. ; but he could not .ubdue them. «, weakened Z S «np.« by the «v.ge. of the pctUence. .nd no exh«»t«l w« Z treasury from the heavy ^ con.tmt dnU» upon It At lut hit weak body gave way beneath the hawUhlp. of Ui numerout cam- paigM, and he died in hU camp it Vindobona (now Vienna), in the nineteenth year of his reign (a.d. i8o). TTie united voice of the Senate and people pronounced him • god. and divme worship wa* accorded to hii lUtue. Never wit Monarchy »> juatified of her children as in the lives and works of «ie Antonmes. As Merivale, in dweHing upon their virtues, very Justly remarks, "the blameless career of these illustrious princ« has furnished the best excise for Cmarism in all after-ages." ROMAN EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO MARCUS AUREUUS. (Aom 31 BX. to A.D. ila) Augoliis rdgu TUwrlw. . . -CsUgah . . . dudius. . . Nero .... Glib*. . . . Otho . ^s . , VitdHn. . . 31 a^c. to A.D. 14 . . A.D. 14-37 .... 37^1 .... 41-54 .... S4-« ■ ■ . . 68-69 .... 69 V«P«dM .' .' 69-79 ■""» A.O. 79^1 Oonitim 3,_jg "«»• 96-98 '''"'J" 98-117 H«'°'«'» of the Urboriani without, it begins to decline «pidly to its fall __j_^^^_ Commodus, son of Mar- Hwj^HB en* AureUus, and the last ^Sji^lB of the Antonines, wu a «no»t unworthy successor ^^^^^^ of his illustrions father. r^^^li For three years, ho*ever, mtlt^mm^. sunounded by the able generals and wise counsel- li rs that the prudent ad- ministration of the preced- ing emperon had drawn ^ to the head of affairs, coMMOL'Js (., H.«„,.,). ^ Commodus ruled with •f unsuccessful conspiracy against his^tf^L""!,'"!'''' "'""' "Wa MAMXACX EUmtOXS.' „, in . Bon', ddn, MHi wmed with the club of HercZ^ JTLTnH n::?u.'r,r::Jn:i'Thit''^"^ '°-^'- •^««'-. liodr become, conferred upon him the title of the Roman Her- culet, and alio voted him the additional tumames of Piu» and Felix, and even propoieJ to change the name of Rome and can it Colonia Commodiana. The empire wai flnally re. Keved of the iniane tyrant by •one memben of the nyal houiehold, who antidpafeu hit designs against themsehres by patting him to deatn. "Th* BuTMk bpiran.''-. For neaiiy a century after the death of Commodus (from a.d. i9» to 184), the emperors were EV:E?--"S£^^irj;t;rf W to fiS^;^* T *! ""P'''- "^^ »■'"«" had fojtte^^ h»» to fight, the rulers how to govern." On every side th. ^banans were breaking into the fmpire to .b. ZZ^ Z m>cToriuNS. ir ^f.- ,.jj. I il , - .1,1 382 TITB KOMAtr EMfUtB. ilfc M; ^ the new, of the disgraceful transaJon reach7d7ele£ns^° Ac f«,m.e„. they rose as a single man in indignant lev^r Each of the three armies that held the Euphrates the Vi\AZ\rjT Danube p^Ui^ed its favorite commrndr:'^^^^^^^^^ of the Danub.an t«x)p, was Septimius Severus a man oV^!I energy and force of character. He knew thTt th„T ^u competitor, for the throne, and tha^ t^riL^^T U Uwho' K~n at Rome The prsetorians were no match for the trained feponanes of the frontiers, and did not even attempt to S X 7^:'.:X7 "'^° '-^^ -' ^' ^ ^-^ -" ' acfS'^***^""*'^ (^"^ '93-..i).-One of the first «:» of Severus was to organize a new body-guard of ,00^ legionanes totake the place of the unworthy pSan nhZ as a punishment for the insult they had offerT^o T r^Z' «ate, he disbanded, and banished fi:om the cSt^^Jd forbad" to approach within a hundred miles of its walls. He next cM I"s two rrval competitors, and was then undisputed m^er of tS late nvaU. and completely destroyed the power of that body! MIG/f OF CAKACALLA. 35, of hi, long and prosperous^^i.^^'."^ E„ T"^ ?"* waU in the opposite comer of hi. -1 • • 1° ** Hadnan uj^l>u:>iic corner ot his dominions. Finallv in Rri».:- m his camp at York, death overtook him. ^' '"'"' than to justify it," he put him to death. Thou- sands fell vie- timo to his senseless rage. Driven by re- morse and fear, he fled from the capital, and wandered about ( the most distant provinces. At Alexandria, on account of some uncomplimentary remarks by the citizens upon his appearance he ordered a geneml massacre. Finally, after a rei^ Tsix y e^' the monster was slain in a remote comer of Syria '^ stowT'f .' '°'t.P°''"'=«' ■•« of real importance was the be- atnTh iTr*"" "P°" *" ""= fr^<= '"habitants of the empire • coUect ftom them certain special taxes which only Roman citiren, CAR*CALUA ■ir ■X 1n ■A su Tae ROMAN EMPIRE. fffr ^1^ had to pay. Before the reign of Caracalla it was only particular cla«e, .f subject,, or the inhabitanu of ,on>e paSlH^^ province that, as a mark of special favor, had. fr^m ,im" ol/ y^^ adr„.tted to the righ.s of ci izenship (see pp ,9 .93? B; th« wholesale act of Caracalla. the entire popuJL of the empSe wnr,H t^H^"""' "L' "°"'^' "' "'■"*'^ ^^^ «•>« other side, the world had become the city " (Merivale) arign of Elagabaltu (a.d. 218-222). -Upon the eath of C^al a. the purple was assumed by Macrinu's. th officer who fI'T 1 '"' """^'^ °' "^^ *'"'«""• H^ remained n"he IT^ t^'t ' '"''"'^ °^ "' '^'''^'P""* ^^"^-'i 'he soldiers who had raised h.m to power to revolt. The garrison at Emesa Lt up as emperor Elagabalus. a beautiful boy who in that place o^cllted as high pnest in the temple of the Syrian sun-god, and whom he ^diers were led to believe was the sonof the murdered Caraca la! h^hiSirw^s^n!'''^'^ '° ""^""' -- ""'^^'^ ^-'>'<^. ^ So un-Roman had the Romans become that this Oriental pnest thus tl^st forward by the Syrian legions, was at onS H earned to Italy aU his Easteni notions and manners, and there «.t=red upon a short reign of four years. characteri;ed by a" ^^extravagances and cmel follies that are so apt to mark the profligate dissipation. He even created a senate of womTn whose duty it was to attend to matters of dress, calls. aZe ments, and etiquette. ■"■mw The praetorians, at length tiring of their priest-emperor put pL« A, " ; "r "'' ""'^ '°'° ^"^ '^'"-•-'^ -'"P ^^^ '^ ^i^Ta," ^"r'i ' ""'"'^" °f "'^ ">-dered prince. tlie^Z^nf^T!'*" ^?™ ^*-°- "'-35).-Sevenis restored tlie virtues of the Age of the Antonines. His administration was and downward tendencies of the times. He was assassinTed TBB THIKTY TYXAJfTS. 3H Tte»cian peasant. who«B«,U^ ^^ "»™^ Maximin, • now sunk to the lowest tkL^I T^ "' ^""^ ^'^ W TRIUMPH or SAPOR ova. VALERUN, cabled the "Age of the Thirty Tyrants" -n, • bemgheld by weak empero JtheLTmn. •""'''"'' "^^"^ the empire, competitors for thetSone i ""','" ''''' P"* °' appearing in the field at the sami time 'T't T'' '"'^"^""^ upon an the frontier, and thrust tavel^^^^-' P--ed The emp.r. seemed on the point of falUnHo "»"?: taken pri«,„er by Sapor, ,h. Pe^^'k „/ TT """'' "" ''"■"'«' ">■' above), still to be Ken war th/p™"^^- V"«= "^^ '"''kt (««, cut -«.^.U.ct.nn.pbofS.p^;o::-: r-^-^-;^^^^^^^^ to „„. sue TUS ROMAN EMPIRE. fortunate succession of five good emperors— Claudius, Aureliai^ Tacitus, Probus, and Carus (aj). a68-a84) restored for a time the ancient boundaries and again forced together into some .sort of union the fragments of the shattered state. The EaU of Palsyn (aj). 273).— The mort noted of the usurpers of authority in the provinces during the period of anarchy of which we have spoken was Odenatus, Prince of Palmyra, a city occupying an oasis in the midst of the Syrian Desert, midway between the Mediterranean and the Euphrates. In gratitude for the aid he had rendered the Romans a|v 'nst the Parthians, the Senate had bestowed upon him titles and honors. When the empire began to show signs of weakness and approaching disso- lution, Odenatus conceived &e ambitious project of erecting upon ib ruins in the East a great Palmyrian kingdom. Upon his death, his wife, Zenobia, succeeded to his authority and to his ambitions. This &mous princess claimed descent from Cleopatra, and it is certain that fa the charms of personal beauty she was the rival of the Egyptian queen. Boldly assuming the title of "Queen of the East," she bade defiance to the emperors of Rome. Aurelian marched against her, and, defeating her armies in the open field, drove them withm the walls of Palmyra. After a long siege the city was taken, and, fa punishment for a second uprisfag, given to the flames. Thfc adviser of the queen, the celebrated rhetorician Longfaus, was put to death ; but Zenobia was spared, and carried a captive to Rome. After having been led in golden chains in the triumphal procession of Aurelian, the queen was given a beautiful villa fa the vicfaity of Tibur, where, surrounded by her children, she passed the remainder of her checkered life.' The ruins of Pahnyia are among the most interesting remafas of Roman or Grecian civilization fa the East. For a long time the site even of the city was lost to the civilized world. The Bedouins, however, knew the spot, and told strange stories of a rufaed city with splendid temples and long colonnades far away > Read Warc'i ZnuHa and AureHan. XEIGN OF DIOCLETIAN, 357 at Nineveh. HSria^thrrton ""^'T'' °'^°"* "''• bayard aided the ^^.a^^^^vT^y^^ZZ 'alf " 'T"' '"""="'" their capital Th,. ^Z^T arehitectural adornment of almosta mile inln^th ^Tt 'w "'?"'^'' "'^='' "- this magnificent avfnue ^'^t^^^.S^'^^l'^^^ over the desert. ' ""^^'^n^K >n a long Une imperial gov^^^^ had be» Tore ''• ""' '° '"^ '™' "'« or less carefully concealed under the forms and names of the old republic. The government no«r became an unveiled and absolute monarchy. Diocletian's reforms though radical, were salutary, and mfused such fresh vitality into the frame of the dying sute as to give It a new lease of life for another term of nearly two hundred yean. He determined to divide the nu- merous and increasing cares of the distracted empire, so that it might be ruled from two centres — one in the East and the other in the West diocletian. In pursuance of this plan, he chose as a .„it soldier, Maximian, upon whom hel^f T u'^^ '' companion After a few years, findTnJ The "ales oT7e '■"<'. "^^"g^'tu^- heavy, each sov^eignlslltedjl h V"''^"'^ ^*''"°° -the title of c.s.andriittrso:rhr;ft :?\ u¥ ''h ;i m THE ROMAN BMPIKE. emperor. There were thus two Augniti and two Cbiub. Milan, in Italy, became the capital and residence of Maximian ; while Nic- omedia, in Asia Minor, became the seat of the court of Diocletian. The Augusti took charge of the countries near their respective capi- uls, while the younger and more active Cssars were assigned the government of the more distant and turbulent provinces. The vigorous administration of the government in every quarter of the empire was thus secured. The authority of each of the rulers was supreme within the territory allotted him ; but all acknowledged Diocletian as " the father and head of the state." The most serious drawback to the system of government thus instituted was the heavy ekpense incident to the maintenance of four courts with their trains of officers and dependents. The taxes became unendurable, husbandry ceased, and large masses of the population were reduced almost to starvation. While the changes made in the government have rendered the name of Diocletian noted in the political history of the Roman state, the cruel persecutions which he ordered against the Chris- tians have made his name in an equal degree prominent in ecclesi- astical annals ; for it was during this reign that the tenth — the last and severest — of the persecutions of the Church took place. By an imperial decree the churches of- the Christians were ordered to be torn down, and they themselves were outlawed. For ten years the fugitives were hunted in forest and cave. The victims were burned, were cast to the wild beasts in the amphitheatre, were put to death by every torture and in every mode that inge- nious cruelty couM devise. But nothing could shake the constancy of their &ith. They courted the death that secured them, as they firmly believed, immediate entrance upon an existence of unending happiness. The exhibition of devotion and constancy shown by the martyrs won multitudes to the persecuted faith. It was during this and the various other persecutions that vexed the Church in the second and third centuries that the Christians sought refuge in the Catacomlis, thos; vast subterranean galleries and chambers under the city of Rome. Here the Christians hope- KBIGN OF DlOCLETtAM, CHRIST AS THE GOOD SHEPHERD. (Front til* Cataeomte.) SS9 these subterranean abodes that '^^"^ "' Christian art had its beginnings. After a prosperous reign of twenty years, becoming weary of the cares of state, Diocletian abdicated the throne, and forced or induced his coUeague Max- "fuan also to Uy down his au- thority on the same day. Gale- nu» and Constantius were, by this act, advanced to the purple and made Augusti ; and two new associate, were appointed as pesars. Diocletian, having en- — »«im.) joyed the extreme satisfaction of »«.-.,» .1, • deavor. ^h h^^;^ ^^^7^''' 't'^ "^« «■" '° »' lepUed: "We™ buft^. Power they had laid aside, he b.« which I r^^^ X ^::^^ro^^ ""^ ^''^"• no longer talk to me of enjre •" ^ ^'^'' ^°" '~"" gether only^^ear .h.nl ^ *^°"''^«'« had reigned ,0- a-d his so/di™ d^L^X ti: ^"1" '"'' ."^ "'''"^^ by the system of lU J!v . succession as determined MO Constandne TBB gOMAM EMflKJt. the fint Christian Re WM con* emperor. verted to the new religion — luch ii die story — by seeing in the heavens, during one of his campaigns against his rivals, a luminous cross with this inscription : " In diis sign you will conquer." ' He made the cross die royal standard ; and the Roman legions now for the first time marched beneadi the emUem of Christi- anity.' By a decree issued from Milan, a.d. 313, Christianity was made in effect the sute religion ; but all other forms of worship were toIerate !t'i m 7l >( if'^ att THE ROMAN EMPIRE. ba«.e with the barLil"" AdttSe Jfr ^''^ " was almost annihilated. Valens h^^Jf v!'- ^« R°">a° ""my reftge in the cabin of a pS^t but L k^u'"""'''''' '°"«'" -rr%i^j:~?£^'S.T^r^i to the help of his coUeajrue Valens whl i? ^'^ '""^°« death at the hands of t^ Wh ' ""^ °^ ''" ''«''«'»' »<1 at once appoinTed a/ s^.tcL^;hTc:,'""*t' '" """' '^^ ''^ - the Great, and -^n^^'Z^^r"^-"^ '"""^^^^ Eastern provinces. Theodosius by le ^H *'°'""""'"' °^ '^^ quiclcly reduced the Gntt,. ^ u ■ "^ "«°""« ffleasuies, Ostrogoths were scattered !n "'^ ^''"'=«' "'"■'e the of Asfa Minor The Sh W '°" ^r'°°'" ^ '^^«'" ««*-'' Kast. and .ore ^^^l^Tlf::'^£t^' °^ f ^ tHetS.Tegl'^' — of-tJ-^^reT^st thlgL^-:frriX?:;dS"« ''^^'^•• '"= ^-• ^. of thegovern.ent.had'^^nlnX Sr^ThS^^""- ^yice interposed to right affairs, and Then toTS'. Theodosms into his own hands. For four m^n.i, i, VT government of the empire. "°""" ^^ "'^'^ ^ '°'e monarch KmI Diviiion of the Empire f a.d «r ^ ti, ,> was now united for the last tLl f ^ ^ ' ~ ^'^ ^""^ "'"" before his death. The^Lt .^""L " ' ""«" ™'"'"- J'"' -s, Arcadiiis akd ^nr, t Jl^theXei'T" ""^ '^ eighteen years cf age, the goCemCof the Z 'aTd /" °f b«e, a mere child of eieven, the so.ereig„t;^ ^^^"'7^! was the final partition n( »»■» » . est. ITus THE EASTERN EMPrKE. ^7 ^nVr ""I*:*- -The story of .he fortunes of the Em- Co^ ^ ""^r* '^""'" "^ '°"8 " 'his point of our lustoor. Thui monarchy lasted over a thousand years -from cllT"? '^ T" °^ '^^'•"' *•"'• 395. to the capture "f Consuntmople by the Turks, A.a .453. It will thus be seen So t^^^hf r n."'"' "^'"^ '^'°"8' '° *«= »*'li«val period. Up to the time of the overthrow of the Empire in the WeVt the """r °' ■'"' "^f .""'= '^°«^^'^ '"""^' incessantly L'sj! pres mg upnsmgs of their Gothic allies or mercenaries, or in repellmg mv^ons of the Huns and the Vandals. Frequently dur- mg thu, penod m order to save their own territories, the ELtem TnT""? by dishonorable inducements, persuaded the barbarians West "'™'^* expediUons against the provinces of the L*ST Days of the Empire in the West. Krrt LiTMion «f Italy by Alaric.-Only a few years had ekpsed after the death of the great Theodosius. before the W banans were trooping in vast hordes through all the regions of the thfl ^T .^""\?"^ '»'• Moesia came the Visigoths, led by ^T f^^"- , ^'^ P°"*^ "'™"8'' *^ P^' °f Thermopyte, and devastated almost the entire peninsuU of Greece; but. LinJ dnven from that country byStilicho. the renowned Vandal gen 111 °l ^TT; *^'^ "°^ ""= J""^" A'P^' '^d 'P'^'^ terror hroughout all Italy. Stilicho followed the barbarians cautiously, and attacking them at a favorable moment, inflicted a terrible and double defeat upon them at PollentU and Verona (a.d. 402-40,) The captured camp was found filled with the spoils of Thetes Connth. and Sparta. Gathering the remnants of his shattered SBU»n, and led lie expedition, «{ Ue Khedive." a» LAST DAYS OF THE EMPIRE W THE WEST. r^'.^/::^^'" ^^' ^^ '^^y t-rough the defile, of bee^ve^'ill^ U-". 404).-A terrible danger had name of Sri^'^ ''" ""* ^""°"«» "«" "^-Hwl. and the • name of Stihojo was pronounced with fh=t «f m • . quartets of the world. "lebrating conquests in aU I«t Gladiatorial Combat of the Amphitheatre -Th, WMOns than tiMt thev recarded , J^ , ?\" "^ «""" 6^ Wh« But the Christian fathers denounced the con bats as nWi . i .mmoral, and Ubored in every possible wa°"o ' el'^'^'f^ =:dir;eries "i-^:-- °^ ^ ^^^ ™ spectacles were excommunicated. At length, in TNM MVASION OF ITALY. 3^9 warded; neve^JX E^;^,;- SU'k^."''^ - under somethinir of a han .3i .u • I . ' exhibmow were •bout by M fadde',*^' ^r" ^^^ ^ «'^««°» "'^ bought named Te.enitr^Xttote T ' """j?'.'" '"°"'' the combatants, but warS*vkmiH\\""''"' '*'^^" thrown bv the rw-nni. 1, ^ ^ ^y * *°'«'' of missile* Honoris Wmselj wto w^'^JZ """"''' °' "'''' -«' -^ Christianity had awTene^li^' '^ "'°"''' ^^ '^« «="«=• ;which,abo,.hed rorever the hur^r^rorr^S formidable invasion was nrei«^w .™.^°"«' ^"'ber and more yond the Rhine-thTvSr i o*'.""'*- "^^ '""^ be- in impetuous streams from the forLu^d m^^sT/^JT"" and bursting the barriers of th,. ai,„ morasses of Germany, plains of ItSy. -^Zn^J'^'^y"^" \' ^^^-^ were now l.s.eging that place. Stilicho here surround^ Ae ^ host— variously estimated from 200000 to ^00^ me vast starved them into a surrender. I^dl^ef HT ""'""""'' ""<=«. tncir cmel, Kadagaisus, was pnt ■■Ii>f:l 'imi\. i : Hi 'i IB " 370 LAST I,AyS O, Tm EMPIKB m THM WEST. uw ipuea were told u slave* (a.d. 406). rrJjir^-*^ ^^ SL" r^ with their kh»men to aL J L^iJ?'''°'^ ^ ^'P* J"'™"* d.*ad HannilTMs!^^, 1,^?"" ^°' ""« ">« "■»« of the Famine «K,n forced the Romans to sue for terms of LnenS S JJ wh rr "'^f * ^ ■"■"* °' dishonorable term.1 their fiay when dnven to despair, they represented, was terrTe "m?wX"""'l,l"rr.-. "^'=^''=''" '"eg^thSl'; 10 mow It, was Alanc's derisive reply. The barbarian M^t. • ^engthn^ed the ransom that ^11^1"^^:^, city. 'Amiie gold and silver in the city, whether it werT th! movable, ; and aU the slaves that could prove their bUe^T ^ ^osom was afterward: ':Za^':l^^'Z^^ THE SACKING OF MOMS. 37, It WM tbced at "sooo poond* of goM, 30,000 of iflver, 4000 ^^^~° P'**=" "^ •*="'«« "='°"'. "d 3000 pound, ol pepper." The lart-amed «tick wm much u«d to RomTcook- ery, ud was ve^r expenrive, being imported from India. Men- v»le, in contrarting the condition of Rome at thu time with her ancient wealth and grandeur, estimates that the gUding of the roof of the Capitoliae temple bx exceeded the entire linsom. and that It was four hundred time, less than that (five milliards of francs) demanded of France by the Prussian, in .87,. SmaU as it com- paratively was, the Roman, were able to laiK it only by the moit stripped of their omamento of gold and precious stones, and finally the statue, themselves were melted down Swk of B«m« by Alario (a.d. 4.o).-Upon retiring from Romr Alanc estabhshed his camp in Etruria. Here he was joined by great numbers of fiigitive daves, and by fresh accesaon. of barbarians from beyond the Alps. The Gallic king now de manded for his foUowers lands of Honorius, who, with hi, court, was safe behmd the marshes of Ravemia ; but the emperor treated all the proposaU of the barbarian with fooUsh insolence. Rome , paid the penalty. Alanc turned upon the devoted city, deter- mined upon its sack and plunder. The barbarians broke into the capital by night, "and the inhabitants were awakened by the teemendous sound of the Gothic trumpet." I>recisely eight hmi- dred years had passed since its sack by the Gauls. During that time the Imperial City had carried its victorious standard, over three continents, and had gathered within the temples of its gods and the palaces of its nobles the plunder of the world Now It was given over for a spoil to the fierce tribes from beyond the Danube. Alaric commanded his soldiers to respect the lives of the peo- ple, and to leave untouched the treasures of the Christian temple, • but the wealth of the citizens he encouraged them to make theii own. For six days and nights the rough barbariaa, trooped through the streets of the city on their miaion of pUlage. Their JITS ^ST DAYS OF rm EMPtXS W TM WBST. mmmk 1^ < "Iter that bad befallen »h. i™~ • Tt!^ overwhelming man worid ^. folr*^ j* Christian, throughout the Ro- the Eternal City tiTfalfi?*! r u ''• "' *" ""« *>" "^ Babylon^ thfA^jSr^kt J' "'t^'" '«'^" '^^ forth," say, Merivl « h^^r ?^ **""" »P°"««°°- "Hence- intSnJf ""'t" '° *" "''*"»« «•"*«"> point ofXy fatroding to cros, the Strait, of Messina into Sicih- .n^ » ^.txluing that isUnd. to carry bis conquests Z. ^f ji« ^' Buientinu,, in Northern Bruttium. wm ta™iS t. ? "^ "''^ g»«t labor, and in the bed of Z .!!? ^^ "» *^°'^ »*"> in which w^ placed tSe^vo^thrt!"' "" .T'""'^ « '"-"b. Phies. Tie nVer wa, then l?^!i "?' ""'' •"» ^"'*'» "«» ^ forced todotheL. .ere^^^Tl^'j^.r"'" '-'"'' ''"^ ^« turn our eye. from Rome and Itl^oX^thT """ "''"' events in the provinces In !.!.:«■-. ''* ">°»en>ent of had withdrawnTC lelnS^ »'° '^"""^ It^'r. Stilicho the camp. Z orr^ !.? r 'TV"""' ""«» '•''<> d'^-ned unmann,^;7e S^o? tShine ' ""fr "'"' "'^ '"^ the ag,tated muJtK^'f ^^Lt "^!!" 'f "TT"' ' "^ city the seat of th^T^^ ^' <*°- 439), and made that -^iLnc ^T 2pr:r.tb,T ^r^ camps in the south of Gaul and the n^rS^ „f c '"* """ the c;ti« of il&S iJetTp''"''''^'' "P"" "■>'' P"^«d ravages of the^S,;/, tT:" T^ 1X^1^' '' ""' vited to their aid the Angle, and ^'^' ;::omi:t:r:;' t^- m *74 h i « '" mf ""■ '"" <" '*« ««"« /* TM »•„„ were they in the iwht of th« rTli """""" '» ">«■' eye» than already caught .^^ « ^'h"*" u""*' "' """"^ '^ »«»• «ro« the olb! Tth" t?me .ri '^; P^'«=-«rioken Goth. .ffrighted inhabi^u of C;^ caS't' ^^''""^r'" '" J-f^."rh:^\---«^^^^^^^^ •word, in orferto destroy the last vesti^ rf thV^^ ^ "" """ The Roman, and their Gotht c'^e^L laiJZ": T,''' ■ ■ mos ties, and made rnmmo- ""suerors laid aside their ani- TheVisiUw^^^'rauTrbJU^L^t:^ TT """"^• theFranlcs,theBum,ndians firjH *; °'''^' ""* "^''»»' general Ai;tius. A^a r; n^ h^ ^ IT*^"^ °'*' ^°"" of ChSlons. ta the north of r?i j^?""^ ''°"' "P"" ">« P'"" the Roman^ an?theraui ^r «•'" """''«' '"« <">»' »' Theodoric wTslITbnt « la^forneT"^.'"' *'"""'• •Brians. The loss of thl m • '"™"' "8"°" *< •'"r- ■00.000 .0 3Lo^l*!„"TJ ""'"'""^ •'"■'"'"'•' »' '^■» DEATH Of ATT/IA. «. Attiia again crowed the AI^ a^rK. '.''" ''«*"« Chilon., Imporuat ci.ie, of No«herl'^'tal ^T" °'.Pl""<««'' »" «he the mora«. ., ,he head o" he Adl. /""' ""• '" -'"^ "» Wett where they built their mde H ^ ^*:''' *^'^- "P"" "" the city of VeniceX !^ 1™^. t ""^ ""'• ««" "P '" "">« the "Carthage of Ihe Midi aJ:.?' " '"^ """"^ ^"'P"''" or": :5rr r r e'jh^; r.^-" - r-- "-" srrsitidti^'oS^s:^^^- fen the Imperial Cityt* ,^ t TZ "''= ^"""^ "' ''"' down upon himself the like juSen'to^h'^ "l" ""' '° "^"^ monitions of the Chri»ti,n \ k ''"''"'• ^o these ad- a golden bribe^ JX^^E^'t^ 7,'>^<^«d «he pe«uasio„ of induced to spare CthemhiT ?'«""»''«'■ "-d Attiia was beyond the A^Tps. Shlnly aft f ^"1,^'° '""J"' '"'""°" •»=" died suddenly in hi, Z!d Ihi^ ^f. '"""^ "«' ^''"'"be, he . and « no man Cet^fV, .' .^''""^ ""^ ■"-"«» «"«ly - lower, gradualySlfrom'p """'°'''"*'^" «" fo'" native &ythia. or^e«"l!rH k"T """ '^' ""' °^ 'he*' quered.' '^''*'' ''J' '^e people, they had con- • Th« .ppe„ to h„. ow.d if oririn ,0 .n„ K """^*" «•" » Europe, people, .h.. .„,e„<, Europe «ve^TcelZu/ '""'' "* '*"'' "' "« "»« "y Cre«y. .. th., the M^yw ^Arwd wh„ i. . " " ''"' «"«'■■•" the bulk of U,e modern Hung^.„r.„d„h '°'""^""' "'«"»• »' "-"..h. n.™. of Hungary in ITKr" of *"'"""' "" """"^ '"'-'• ^e Hun. of AtHU. if they did not beW tofk! "■^' '*"'' "^ "'"'''"■' » Nor i. there „y fa.prob.bIIltyr.ht Son .ri" r"''""™ °'*" ««''. of hI.w.,Ho.. remained in HnL^^'j IJ ' "'r*""*'' ""* »»»y .omed .he Hun. of Arp,d In tt^.'" , *f ""? '',"'"''«"'• "n'™-.!. 11 m LAST OAYS OF THE MMPIRE IN THE WEST. »v^a IS^ 1 ^y»^ (A.D. 4SS).-Ro«e had ^en ever enjoyed^ i„ J^ rroLtt'Sr Van^S^' These barbarians had been exhorted by the Roman emoress toan and her forced alhance with a senator named Maxim^ ?^fh?w T.ber,were pUed, as had been the wagons of the latest;: S;ed''onh '^' ""' '"'■^'-'^ 'PoUs^th^iS u«.c3 were stripped of their ornaments and fiuniture anH th- ^.^ bT™ o/rr ,f °"'»., ^^^ "«^ CapitoUne s^S" tht^T^ t ^ , *°''^'° ^candlestick and other sacred articles that Titus had stolen fiom the Temple at Jerusalem.^ iHe greed of the barbarians was sated at hst .nj »k were read, to withd^w. 11.e Vandal tersS:^ t S '■>u or ma sii„,, ,„ ^„ ^^^ ^ yt SL^it.'"tr "" T'' r- "- »»» iili Ill Ms 378 lASr DAYS OF THE MMflXS tjf THE WEST. put Orestes to death, and dethroned the chUd-emperor. His, life was spared, and his friends were permitted to talce himinto retirement m the villa of LucuUus, in Campania. The Roman Senate now sent an embassy to Constantinople with the royal vestments and the insignia of the imperial office, to* represent to the Emperor Zeno that the West was wiUing to give up its claims to an emperor of its own, and to request that the German chief, with the title of " Patrician," might rule Italy as his viceroy. ThU was granted ; and Italy now became in effect • provmce of the Empire in the East (a.d. 476). The Roman Empire m the West had come to an end, after an existence from the founding of Rome of 1239 yean. SAXCOPHAQUS OF CORNELIUS SCIPIO BARBATUS. (CmmuI bib«j aOMAtf EMPERORS. ROMAN EMPERORS FROM COMMODUS TO ROMULUS AUGUSTUS. (A.D. i&>^7e.) 379 Canunodiii . . .o i I'ertinu . " " ' " '^^''M Didiia Fttlianus .' .' J'^ SeptimiuB Severui , , '^ ' J&nciUl. ■ • '"- '" jGeta. . *""*'7 Constantine the Great Mtcrinm . ! 2'i-au Reigiu a, wie ruler . . «j 37, -■7-218 Constantine 11. . ,, ^^' f Diocletian . . . ,»** ke those of the Greeks that we need not here take time and space to enter into a particular description of them.' Mention centnd porfon of the building w„ covered »i,h gflded «L at ^^ J^ T^ THEATRES AND AMPHrTHBATRES. 381 however should be made of their circular vaulted temples as thi. was a style of building almost exclusively Itdiaa Sm »n« pr^ervation lh« structure is about .40 feet in diameter. The g«at concrete dome which vaults the building is one of the S^Sd '^r.: T"°7 ^''!J'"''' ''^ '"^ master-builders of the ZlJ^ /T " '^""'^ ""^ * 'P'*"'^^'» portico, fo^tog a thick grove of columns, through which entrance is giVen to the iTh •..;:,''"" """ "' '"""'=' '^ """ ""^» in i^ It Augustus, and was consecrated to Jupiter the Avenger. The :? la t^e"^„r"""" ^^""'^' '^'^ ^°'- - ^' ^•'-H Ro^T^' "^IT" "* ^PMd-atm- The circuses of the Romans were what we should caU race-courses. There were S '' fiT.' •!?° ""' *="'""'«' '"'^ *« Circus Maximu" which was first laid out in the time of the Tarquins, and after^ ^ ds enlarged as the population of the capital increased, untU finally, at the time of Constantine, which emperer made the laM T^T' " r ^"''^^ °^ ''°''"''8 P™'*"^ ""^ <" three hun- • ?^ t°.T 'P!r°? I' '^'^ °Won« in shape, being about .800 feet long and 600 feet wide. From the course, or tmck, the seats rose m tiers the same as in a theatre. From the uppermost row of seats rose high buildings with several stories of balconies like the boxes overhanging the modem stage. The .loping sides of the ,^ley were taken advantage of in the formation of the seats. The only remaining trace of this stupendous structure is tne terraced appearance of the low encircling bills. door, of the temple were .]» adorned with „lid pUte, of gold. The interio, deco™.,o» were of m«ble «d .ilver. The wSu were c«,wded w ftl" U„ph.e. of w„. W. have ,lre«Iy le„ned of .he f... of the tre«tJ^^of ^e »nch„T. « the hand, of ,he barb.ri.n G„,h, .„d Vm«I,l, (^ p"^, -^1 • AuAomie, d,«ir, ™„ji„g fro™ ,50,^ ,„ ^ «y.^coa m f, ^ii'. Pf AKCHtTECTVkB. The Roman, bmitnred the pUm of their theatres from the, Greeks. The fimn was that of a «:miciicle, with rising tiers o< seats. The Gteelcs, in the construction of their thea- tres, usually took advan- tage of some hillside ; but the Romans, who seemed to scorn the idea of saving labor, or of asking nature to lend aid in any work, - when they set themsehres to theatre-building, erected ROINS OF THCATRt AT ASPENDOS. the entoe structure upon level ground, raising a great support inff wall rtf A»i«.»„.t.*> :_ _i « .r |'|»v4i. mg waU or framework' in place of the hiU with its favodna stopes. All of the theatres built at Rome previous to the year %% B.C. were of wood. In that year Pompey the Great returned &om his campaigns in the East, where he had seen the Greek theatre at Mitylene, and immediately set to work to erect in imitation of it, a stone theatre at Rome that should seat 40 ^ spectator^ This structure and two others, one of which was built by Augustus, were the only theatres at the capital. The first Roman amphitheatre seems to have been the out- growth of the rivalry between Pompey and C«sar. TheliberaHty of the former m the erection of his stone theatre had so won for him the aSrections of the people that the latter saw he must do Mmetlnng to surpass his riyal, or see himself entirely distanced in the race for popular favor. C«sar was at this time away in GauL whence he sent immense sums of money, gained by hU successful wars, to his fnend Curio, then tribune at Rome, who was enjoined to erect, with the means thus put into his hands, a structure that should cast Pompey's into the shade. Pliny tells u, that Curio buUt two wooden theatres side by side, in which two separate audiences might be entertained at die same time. With thmes dius arranged, and with the people in good-humor fromtiK arcical representations that had been given, all was ready for the TBK COLOSSEVII. jg. •o « to admit of «ch . «^«e« !^ '*"" ^'"tructed »«»«l>t &ce to ace with tlTX fa ZT* """"'' "^ va« amphitheatre, where fa™ ""».>»»"<* a way as to fonn , THE COLOSSEUM. (F™„, . p^«,p.^., FUmnAihiSj^PT"' "^"^ "''«" t""^. a^er him, the -pable of seating 87, "o*sSJ"'" XT"" '"'""'■■^' ""'^ ^ -stoHestotheV^ht^-rs it-w^-t: i'l ft' .:!?? "* AKCHITRCTURE, the Men. in retwating steps to the magnificent portico thtt crowned the upper circle. Beneath the arena uid seat., were large chaml^r. derigned a. den, for the wUd animal, needed in were fiutened the rope, by mean, of which an immeme awning wa. .tretched over the head, of the ^ectatoni to iceep out the •un and nun. Fountain jet. fiUed the air with perfumed sp™y; piece, of statuao-, placed at advantageous points. reUeved the n.onot«.y o the endle» cin:le of seats ; and bright-colored silked decoration. lent a festnre appearance to the vast auditorium The enonnou. proportions of the Colonenm have enabled it to res»t an the^cie, of destruction which have been at work h'^^?T'*^.""^'''="-™«- T1«= crowning colonnade wa. desttoyed by fire; tl,f immen« walls were quarried by^ buWen of Rome for a thou«md years, and from them was taken mateml for the building of a mulUtude of ca.tles. towers, and palaces, erected in the. capital during the Middle Age.; a,^ for •eventeen hundred year, the tooth of time has beeVb^™ every part of the gigantic structure. Yet. notwithstan.^^ Aese concumng agencies of ruin, the Colosseum stifl ILds pandNmd impressive a. at fim. even more impresave becau« of the« marb that ,t bear, of violence and of time. It rises before usa. "the embodiment of the power and splendor ofT y,^Z^T^ T *°^T* °'^'' °' ^'^y ""«> °f *« P^vinces l^JTf amphitheatres, similar in aU essential respects to the Colosseum at the capital, only much inferior in size, «ve .^c^."' "^ "'^"^ ^ °'"'^ "^ ""«' "^ *' ^^^ !^)'^u"^~^°''*'°°'' """"K *« "orks of utiUty exe- cuted by the Romans, and the most expressive of the spbit of the people, were their military roads. Radiating from the capital, they grew with the growing empire, untU all the countries about he Mediterranean and beyond the Alps were united to Rome and to one another by a perfect network of highways of such admirable THB APPlA/f WAY. MS »n from Rome .o CapuT h wt ^^^ °f ^^" ""^ (3.» B.C.). for whom it ^ named a^^^'' """" ^'""*'" THE APPUN WAV. (F„„ . p,otep.p,,, ward inl the X^oJ^/Tt' "",'" '"°'^" »-». "°«h- ft li^' If m ^ AKCHtTECTUKM. In Spiin, ovw the Alpi, ilong the Rhine and the Dmube, threocb- out G«j1, Britain, Greece, and all the East Theie miBtaiy roads, with characteristic Roman energy and ^ disregard of obstacles, were carried forward, as nearly as pos- sible, in straight lines and on a level, mountains being pierced with tunnels," and valleys crossed by massive viaducts. Near Naples may be seen one of these old tunneb sHll in use, called the Giotto of the Posilippo, which is over half a mile in length. It led the old Appian Way through a hill that at this point crossed Its coune. The usual width of the roadway was about thirteen feet; the bed was formed of broken stone and cement, upon which was sometimes laid, as in the case of the ViaAppia, a reguUr pavement formed of large blocks of the hardest stone Foot-paths often ran along the sides of the main roadway; mUe- posts told the distance from the capital; and upon the best- ' In boring tniMls, the Ronu engto»e« worked •imnUweooriT boa both gdw of tht memtrin. in the ngn. w.y thst modm. e,.gl,««. do. IniMoM, ^Fti^ WM diKovered which contain « curioo. report of .n engineer who ^♦jnchaige the comtruction of *n aqueduct tunnel for the town of Salds »««aia. Puring hU abMnce the boring went awry, and the enda of the •eWM. ooidd not be brought together. The engineer wm .ent for. Hia J^'?^L. ' '"^ "erybody wd and deapondenM they had given up aU aop^^ ftrtwo 9ppoaite aectiona of the tunnel would meet, becauK each •ectioB ted ^ready bean acavaled beyond the middle of the mountain, and tte j«nctioii.h»d not yet been effected. Ai alwayi happens in theae caiea. the fciUt waa sttributed to the engineer, ai though he hirf not taken aU precaudona toin.urethe.ucceaiof thework. Whit could I have done better? Ibesan 1^ .unreying «,d taking the level, of the mountain; I marked moM car^ the «ii of the tunnel acrou the ridge; I drew plan. u.d action, of the whole work, which plana I handed over to Pelroniu. Celer, then governor of Mauri- tania; and to take extra precaution, I tummoned the contractor and hia work- men, and began the eicavation in their pre«nce ... Wen, during the four years I ».. .boent at Lambaae. expecting every day to hear the good tidings of the arrival of the water, at Saldte, the contractor and the a»i.tant had com- mitted blunder upon blunder; in each Mction of the tunnel they had diveree.l ftom the rtraight line, each toward, hi. right, and, had I waited a little long-r before coming, Saldc would have poaeued two tunnel, initead of one."- I^cuw s AncUm fnu in tit UgU tfXtctnt Dittmrui, p. 6t m TUB ClAVDIAff AQVKDVCT. Utt Mw*wta. -To lupply . great city with .bund«nt and whd* "^ P"^ '^"*' '~'''^' •»"«« ai»i modem, have lecuied THt CUOOUM AQUMOCT. (F«, . H».„^j tins teon only by U,e most lavish expenditure of labor «,d money Of water through the gaidens and residences of their caoital water, and the construction of conduits to lead the sameTl . »P>«»wtt Of amem Rome were the most itapeadow eoutruc- MOnrMCTVltM. if- V\. SI-^J:*,'*?'*^ '**^ "WBed with iwe, 5«^ «*«gt« chy of «^or.po«lbly,of modem tf»,..XS S3.r£!;i,r *• •''^ "^ *•*'**'"«• «««• J^'«««'^y^ofilom«wMcoiaiii«cedbrApiilwClMdfai (■bout 313 *Af.), win Mcarcd the iwildiiw of u aqwdw^ iriifeii W w«»r into tl« cUy (h>« Ae sZTmI., aJ^rttw ^T r^J?^" *- boat the Ante Aqueduct. JZZ b^ it l»ooihtw«erfioo the Ante Hirer A iwond^ I^.r'^Kf'IIL*!.'^ "'^•"^ «*«• «be A«io Nov, ^«o«thtt,h«ndml feet .bore the pWn. Doifagthe««rth oer WM faiettued to fooiteen.' »«>•«»- Je!^ SITUS! "Tl"**!-^ «»«*«=«••««- d.p.««io» «d ^!L^!L^w'^'"'*^''*' •*«»* they we» igno. 2^1. J?"^'*^ *".'«« .eeta . k«l. but fcr the «ion ^C ST"^ ^.'1**. **y '""W »* «b|ccted.' In «me ««« fte principle of the inverted riphon «» employed, ud ^pa. (u™.lly le«l or earthen) were laid down onHwe^ ". vjftqr «d up the oppo«te dope. But their lUbility to «xident. wh«. the pre«ore wm heavy. « we have intimat^ led to the «doption m general of the other method. The lofty «che. of « Scvml ofliMM are In OM >t the proent day. rf L^^ rl:?!!*^'"**' "Waed Rome .W, . My ™l,», «^ pj« f«d»»«l. of «Mo»y. bec.«e the RomW^did «,1^ «»*«.«d no pip. ««p, rfcMt-hon codd h.»e „pportrf ««h enonnn. TMSMt^ OK MATBS. ^ ^ Thena., or b«h..« ^Jlj 'J^ •^T''^'' w- wide by Pr*-*" by. «u« entr^t^ir °f '^hW. could be of our money. TowwrrtTen^ „7!^* •"•■««*« c«nt «« them rt the baUw. But it ^.TT' ^ !"*'''"' ^« «»V «»«i», which, u thev^'nZii^ ""' ■" "^^ »l*»dW their bundenT*^^^ ^^ ? •*"'"' *« Bbei^ -nwe edifice ^vfrT^^ ^ *' P"''"' *^ of ^SlT of the ^S^ZZV^'Zl^J^ ''• b«hi„gSS; t«« most eUbo«te ^nd^^^J'^.'^^"-^*'^ cootamed chambei.^ ^^ *^ [ ** ""P*^ »ori». TW «««»««. fined with ,.;L :X^ f-r"*-; ««.i« ««y other «lJMct that could ^T!!^.^ '^'^' ''^' ""^ «• "P "OS. ud Us «~- ,rlr feM.V • ?■*«»• » <«. "I i2 If * aw ARCmTECTOKS. n I t The Themue of Diocletian contained ovei three thou- •and of these stone pictures. Caracalla's Baths had over sixteea hundred marble seats ; granite pillan from Egypt decorated the colonnades ; green marble paneUings, cut in Numidia, lin d many of the chambers ; the fixtures of the baths were plated, and in some of the rooms were of solid silver. Some conception of the stupendous size of this structure may be gained from Uie iact that the entrance hall, or rotunda, of the building was almost u large as the celebrated Pantheon, which it resembled in form. It was not the inhabitants of the capital alone that had con- verted bathing into a luxury t\nd an art. There was no town of any considerable size anywhere within the limits of the empire' that was not provided with its thermzj and wherever springs possessing medicinal Qualities broke from the ground, there atcse magnificent baths, Eiad such spots became the favorite wateriiig- places of the Romans. Thus Baden-Baden was a noted and luxurious resort of. the wealthy Romans centuries before it be- came the great summer haunt of the Germans. Baite, near Naples, on account of its warm sulphur springs and the beauty of its surroundings, became crowded with the pleasure-seekers of the capital These bathing-towns, as was almost Inevitable, acquired an unenviable reputation as hotbeds of vice and shame- less indulgence. All the Roman themue, after suffering repeated spoliation at the hands of successive robbers, have sunk into great heaps of rubbish. Many of their beautiful nurbles were carried off by different Greek emperors to Constantinople. Charlemagne decorated his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle with columns torn from these imperial structures, which were then £iUing into dilapida- tion at Rome. The popes built others into St. Peter's Cathe- dral ; and the masons of Rome, like the brick-hunteis of Baby- lon and Nineveh, for centuries mined amidst the vast heaps of the ruined structures for marble blocks and statues, to be burned into lime for making cement Modem excavations have PALACES AtfD VILLAS. 3,, aces. Kilt »K-„ 1 . ^- . ""*^ maiuions or pal- M villas. Tie PaUtme was the aristocratic quarter of Rome bemg occupied by the homes of the wealthy^dass AftfrTl Grea F.re, Nero erected here his Golden Hoo^^^ko^^ot building^ courts, gardens, vineyards. fish-ponT ^d^C^ It was the most stupendous dweUiDg-pIace," declares Inse "ever buUt for a mortal man." The cent.^ builing u^the^Iure Aom of .ts extensive g^unds and useless a5ju^rbL»m^le Among the villas frequently mentioned by the old writew are Ho°L vS'h^'*^"'"' "•"' ^-"'' Horte„:;^7 Horace. Virgil. Hadnan, and Diocletian. But to attemot eni, meration would be imsleading. Every wealthy R^m^^^ »d aU ti^e conveniences of the city palace, -baths, mu^, place by the restricted room of the capital. - eJnd^SJ^ r.bt"^ol T* T' r'^ °' '^""^ """ '^ ««" of Hadrian at TOur. now Tivoh. It was intended to be a miniature represenu- .h.M^ '[orld-both the upper and the lower. TTiWwere Aeatres. bath,, and temples of rare workmanship. In ^e r^ of the grounds were reproduced the Thessalian Vale of Tempe e^h. H !k "''"''''' ""' °^ '""^'y- Subterranean laby^",^ e^Ied the vuitor to make an ^nean descent into Hades.^ . journey amidst the scenes of the dolorous region.' ''™* • GUHL »d KoN«', Life rftke GrtO, ami K,maHs, p. 37a. iii^i m ■A 4' (' ■ m MS ARCBITBCTOKB. Withm the ruined enclonue of the villa of Diocletian -the em- ^r who gave up imperial cate. to »i« vegetable, at Sall,^ THiiinph.1 Oohiiiiiit ud Awh*. -Among aU peonle.. wh.. «er be their place in the «:ale of civilizationl^wefinTSTLtc; ARCH OF CONSTANTTNE. or Kntiment which prompts them to endeavor to perpetuate the memonrof unportant event, in their histo^ by S^ ^ memonnve monuments. When Jacob, upo^ the s^Twhei^Te to the TOrld the grand lettered obelisks of the Pharaohs d«l»^ ««-»gIy. to stand as long as the world s^^^^' td^,' «npo«« «»lptured columns of the Romans, to J^'oTti^ . SEPVLCHSAL MOlfVMBlfTS. m »^™ tb have been g™„.ed the immortality of the Egypti«, «on- the^eaf^efBcl '"'"""' ^^ "^ *= ^°"«™ ^ ^^^ » ..fr o-tre=-r«trx:r.t-;^^^ 0^ Lor£ oSr "■ ^'"" '° ^'"■"•""orate the Da „»„H , ' *'"P"'°""' " » remarkable work. It is still slanding ui an almost perfect state of preservation If J. „ The triumphal arches of the Romans were modeUed after tl,» ?SThe molrr'^ "■* ''"^'^ -"^ -•'htp"i?a::t;;s' leTh *'/°™*\"« represented the articles brought fro.n Jem^ The Arch of Con«antme was intended to commemome L^c When Christianity took Possess-W the^^r^r^l"'"'""!; the resnr^^tion of the dead which i. Uu^TTu'sS i"!^ h or burymg, agam to become the prevalent m^""' '"""°'*'°"' l»^^^^°T ^'^"'^'^^^ '""°"« *« R""^ -»s along the mghways ; the Appian Wav was lin.H >»i.i. i t . * for a distuice nf JL , ., ^ ~ *"* sepulchral monuments structures were as varied in design a, =.™ TT ™emonal and chapels were oft-recurring forms. pyranuas, 3M UTSKATVKB, PHtLOSOFBY. AtfD LAW. notice. One of these was raised by Auwutus as a tomh3 awta of the Tiber, and consisted of an enormous circular tower ^chTha'"^' "'""' ""^^'""- A centuiy Ute^Z Z^mr„. n •^""^ """*• *^" ~™tructed a rimil^ monument, which was richer, however, in marbles and sculoture.. upon Ae opposite bank of the Tiber. 11,1. .tn,ctu«w^S after the empemr, the Mole, or Mau«,Ieum, of Hadri^ it fa LiT^d 3^vTr '^T'"' •""'"** by m«,y siege, and tl^rrSo!^ ^^ *""«'" ""P" °f '*'»«' P««»«». n«t after uments of the ancient Romans. I-rrwATOBE, Frilosoprv, and Uw « the Greeks. The ojd conquerors of the worid w:« too prac- toal a race - were too much absorbed in the business ofW^H ^rmnent to find much time to pay devotion to Lm^"' to pursue with much eamestnes. those phUosophical ^^Z which were so congenial to the Attic intellect' All thV^Z^i jumsa^ipursuij. of thU martial race traiiS^ thelf ^ t^S l^J^.^"^- ^'" '"'^ '"'•^ments tended to the «m" li of fh T"! ""°"' '^P'^'^^- The "tern real ^! edies of the amphitheatre rendered tame the mock trag-dirff ctti^'--, ^^"'P'"'^°° '^ encouragement of pop^ a^r^ uw Maun of growth come uto contact with the Eut»— Momom. THE PERIOD OP UTEKAPY ACTtVlTY. m Therefore, m the brief examimition which we now parpo« to mJte of Ut,n Utenture. we must not expect to di«»vrrS^Jh «d genh.. „ distinguiri. the inteUectuar^n^uc^'oflt H^ Roman h«to,y are almost barren of lite^ry monument,. Bu t he, hterature began to spring up and to flourish, and by the time It r':'*™" °' *' '"P'"' "^ --hed its foiest aTd »oubh^ '"""' 1:"' "P°" '"« ^^ °^»^« institution of ^e of freedom barely a single century. The Ust four hundred years of the impenal era exhibit the name of scarcely a single^terTf vigor and originaUty. * * °' We here learn how depressing and withering are the influences fr^om and mitWutoess, upon tiie inteUectu and Bterary life of ^nbhc It „ true, indeed, that some of the choicest fruitTf the ftB had been long maturing under the influences of the lepubhcan penod, and should properiy be credited to that era. bSS Z evil tendencies of the unlimited monarchy had not yet mS^ttd Aemselves under Augustus; still, even during the'^ignTrtS «fled, without any reason being assigned for the act, toX ^ b«on, diores of the Euxine. Bat the conduct of Ae d^ Ifey «n better iDusttate what we have affirmed. ThL ^ i I "• UTBSATUKE, PmLOSOPUY, AND LAW. r«2 w*"'"' "^ ^'^« ^"^ '=°Py °f *« ^*W and of the tensive with the conquests of Rom/ tT u°^ "^ '=°"'- civiIi».tion to the Ro»A,. the la^^ Se coTueif"" "° SLS. K^^al-lrher'th^-t^tlVr/^-r U>e Utin tongue, „uch com-pted^f t^rl^ 1'' TT '! form, of the capital, came int^ univer^^ f^L ^, ^"'"' It was «>mewhat different in the East, w^re^.^^?* ^** bvTh.'t' *'"'°' ''°'' ^"^ "''"•^'^ "" *« ""dience addre-ed by the Roman writers. The works of the Latin poet.^^ tonans were read everywhere within the K^te .Hl^ empire, and that is equivalent to savLTh« Z. ■ ^^ throughout the civiC' world Id "^n^ T^ T^'"^ found it, way there were «.ttered ^^^^^l^^l^Z culture, science, and phi,o«.phy. n,e r^T^ R^ ^" ""^ ^"^^^ Ojr LBGElfDAKY AGS. W ciWlization; Rome w.. it. «u^^"" '^^ '»°*" "^ ■»«^«n. Uyt and ftuuds of the r-gendwr A«i tk Romulus, the raoe of th, s "P^duc. The fabulous birth of bat of the HoX»d Cun^^nhr'n' '';>?°" P°"'=»' ~«'- tunes and death ^rTl^^S^":' '^^"''' *' """"'"- elder BnUus, the w3 ^^^ wl°' """"^l** and the ^a. l^h o" hTs XS^t'K^i" if"^ rie^^rmtj-xtt?-^"-^"^"^^^^^ CaS.^ ^^'V^^'^^''^ ^ «-'«" «-" Of Troian WaT Tl, v!? Aigonautic Expedition and the torical puHH^es, but only in t^Ime'wtTr r "" '°''"*- UTERATVKB, PBtLOSOPBY, A/fD lAW. Tk» Soau SnuMtMfc— From the eaiUctt timet Rome wm ander the influence of Gredu chrilization, u it thown iiKtiie Jawt of the Twehre Tablet; but the conqaett of the HeUenic citiet of Southern Italy as the outcome of the war with Pyrrhut, and the acquisition of Sicily as the result of the First Punic War, brought the Romans into much ckner relations than had hitherto existed with the arts and culture of the Greeks. The Romans now began to study with much appreciation, and not without profit, the rich stores of Greek literature opened to them. Among the leading families of Rome, it became the fashion to commit the education of chiUren to Greek slaves. The conqueror bows at the feet of the conquered. The intellectual sway of Athens over Rome becomes not lest complete and despotic than the political sway of Rome<«ver Athens. The debt incurred by the Romans m all intellectual and literary matters to the Greeks has been dedared to be but faintly paralleled by that incurred 1^ the English in theology, philosophy, and music to Germany.' "Their [the Romans'] genius, I beUeve," says Dunbp, "would have remained unproductive and cold half a century longer, had it not been kindled by contact with a warm, polished, and ani- mated nation, whose compositions could not be read without enthusiasm or imitated without advantage." ' It was the dramatic productions of the Greeks which were first copied and studied by the Romans. Translations for the stage, particularly those of a comic character, were received with great favor, an J the theatre became the popular resort of all classes. For nearly two centuries, from 240 b.c. to 78 b.c, dramatic litera- ture was almost the only form of composition cultivated at Rome. During this epoch appeared all the great dramaHtts ever produced by the Latin-speaking race. Of these we may name, for brief mention, livius Andronicus, Ntevius, Ennius, Plautus, and Ter- rence. All of these writers were close imitators of Greek authon, ■Crdtwill'i Histsiy »fRman LiUraltm, p. 36. •DusLor's Histsrj, if RomoH IMtratuit, vol. i, p. 55, Tm KOMAir DKAMATUTX m «d moM of their woriu were limply aiUpution. or translatiooi o{ the nusterpteces of the Greek dramatists. livius Andronicus, who lived about the middle of the third cen- tury ac, was probably a Greek prisoner carried to Rome from •ome aty of Magna Gwsda. He wa. tl.e father of the Roman drama. He transformed the mimic dances, which had been to- tioduced at Rome by Etruscan actora about a century before hi, tone <»t his voice. After this misfor- tune befeU h.m, he employed a boy to dechum those parts of the dialogue which required to be rendered m a high tone, while he himself pUyed the flute, recited the less decUunatory passage, and «xompanied the whole with the proper gesticuUtior™, moce of.rei»esentation, which Uvius had been constrabed to adopt through accident, afterwards became the 6shion in the Roman theatres; and the pUys were usuaUy presented by two persons one reciting the words and the other accompanying them with the appropriate gestures. N«vhis, who wrote about the dose of the third century b.c was the first native-bom Roman poet of eminence. His works were translations fiom various Greek dramatists. He imitoted Anstophanes ; «.d as the latter lashed the corrupt pohticians o< Athens, so did the former expose to ridicule and contempt differ- ent memben of the leading patrician &milies at Rome. He did' not escape with impunity; for he was once in prison, and finally died an exile at Utica or Cathage (about ,04 b.c.). Nsvius bore part as a Kjldier m the First Punic War, and he found solace durmg the years of his exile in writing in epic verse the events o< that stirring time. Ennius, a contemporary of Nwrius, was an epic as weU as a dlwnatK wnter. The greatest work fiom his prolific pen was the Annab, an epic poem recounting in graceful and vigorous verse the story of Rome from the times of the kings to his own day "^1 *» UTBMATVXB. fHILOSOPHY, Alfr lAW. Hid ViigO never XmA, Ennint must >lte mote for the cultured dane, ™^ hm . f ^"™'=* projected , work .r^Jt "^^ •" ''"'"'"' ^ •« "M «»« icbttU, 1 KMMaHc fictioa; hs wonU luve perceived the iVJtrS or THE lATEK MPVBUCAIf MKA. Ml Porti of th« IMtr ImnbUau ■ra. — Tn a. .. and the roOs of iu libnriet were cmied to I Jv .JT^ had been given to the rtudy of G«ek modeU by the coWl, o te«mng and refinement of the conquered «.te. came alw the jeem by the d«n»leM extr.vag«ice, and corruption, that invited «buke. appe«ed I^cilia. (b« became deeply imb^ ttmejnu m the a^endant at the Attic capital. He left belZ h« but a ringle work, entitled D, Rerun NaJ^lt^ Nat|„e of Thing. "). i^^,^ ^ . thorough evohtiLv M ^w^r tl"h^\,"' "^^T^ ^"^ '^* "<•»*» Matonic power, tells how the worlds were formed by a " fortuitous con co,«e of atoms"; reUtes how the gene^tions 7 life ^ evolved by the teeming earth; ridicn.es the supersTtion. of h" comitrymen, declaring that the god. do not tr^bleTm^lve" w^th earthly affairs, but that storms, lightning, volcan^. J^d pesulences are produced by natunl caus^, and not ^'^t the common ch««:.er. «.d indd.nU of hfc, whid.. on , .Sw J~3 ML r I' «1 UTBKATVKE, MtLOSOPKY, AMD LAW. of the celeMiali; aad flatOjr racbet the coochuioa th«t d«tth' end« aU for the faumu toul. Lucictiut ii studied mon by mod- em Kholan, whote diicoveriei and theoriei he m nurvellouily •ntidintcd, than be wai bjr the Romans of his own time. Catulhs was a poet the beauty and sweetness of whose venes are winning to their study at the present day many ardent admiien. He was bom 87 &&, and died at the age of about forty. He complains of poverty; yet he kept two villas, and found means to indulge hi aU the expensive and licentioos pleasures of the c^rital. He has been caUed the Roman Bums, as weU on account of the waywardness of his life u from the sweetness of his song. The name of Catullus closes the short Kst of the prominent pwti of the republican period of the Golden Age. »M(i •( tha Algnrtu Aft. —Three poett hare cast an unfading hstre over the period covered by the reign of Augustus, —Virgil, Horace, and Ovid. So distinguished have these writers rendered the age in which they lived, that any period in a people's literature signalized by eiceptional literary taste and refinement is called, in allusion to the Roman eta, an Augustan Ap, After the terrific commotion that marked the decline and overthrow of the republic, the long and fim and peaceful reign of Augustus brought welcome reUef and rest to the Roman worid, wearied with conquesU and with contentions over the spoils of war. In narrating the poBtical history of this period, we spoke of the effect of the &U of the repubUc upon the devebpment o< Latin literature. Many who, if the republican institutions had continued, would have been absorbed in the affiun of the state, were led, by the change of government, to seek solace for their disappointed hopes, and employment for their enforced leisure, in the gtacefiil labors of elegant composition. Augustus encouraged this disposition, thinking thus to turn the thou^ts of ambitions minds from broodings over the lost cause. By his princely patronage of letters he opened a new and worthy field for tlte elforts and competitiaas of the active aad the a^iii^ MSrS OF THB AUCV5TAN AGH. — 4Hb Wood. vi«l with hU ^te°in STh^"" ,"T'* '^'^ =«"-«=«, the •-:.. ... thu .; ''„,;ii!ii' :r'f'^ -^ «•=««' -pon «• e- . ed .,. .uxl.cu.v-! ;.„ I,^',''!:«»^ ">«> •P'keir.o Northem .W ,v , i, ^,; . '^^'.'" °""''. " Spain, in the cities of of the conquered Jb^ • wwfeT "k"^ ''' '^'»~« "Wect. cities of the East it^^Ttke t^ct^fK °"' *" '"" P"^« «««« oneaming. The works oSit**^'"""' '^"«^. read and admired in the cam^^f r "r"!' '^ "' 0^<» *«» G^ece and Syria. P^iJiSr' ?""","■* "P"^ "^ patronage, the inapinUon. oS jll"''*?"'*™"' '"P*'-' of apprecUtion and wide «tc„S^ 'T"' *' '»=°"'W'-ment ««e « epoch in the world Ifuw^e'^'"'"'* ~"""^'' «» Ano yet we must not look fo • ' ^^ ene,gy, ,„ ,h. productions ofX';m'!l"^„r\K°"*'''^''^' These qualities belong to times of 1.7 ^ °^ ""' P*"od. periods of activity ch,na. T ^ ? ^"' P"'"''^ excitement: to cn^ative. ShakesKn ™£ t r.'^'"''' "'''• "^'y »"k refinement, poli^ t^e.Ta^ ar r"". ^"'^"'^'' '^''• Augustan writers. ^' ""^ characteristics of the <» UTBRATURE, PHILOSOPHY, AND LAW. Grecian Utenture, and felt the inspirations of the past life of Hellas. Upon his £mn at Mantua he learned to love nature aud the freedom of a country life. During the disorders of the Second Triumvirate his villa was confiscated, along with the whole Mantuan district, and given to friends of Octaviua and Antony. It was afterwards restored to the poet by Augustus. Virgil was laboring upon his greatest work, the ^ntid, when death came to him, in the fifty-second year of his age. The three great works of Virgil are his Eclogues, the Georgics, and the jEneid. The Eclogues are a series of pastorals, which are very close imiutions of the poems of the Sicilian Theocritus.' Virgil, however, never borrowed without adorning that which he appropriated by the inimitable touches of his own graceful genius. It is the rare sweetness and melody of the versification of these pieces and the deep k)ve of nature shown in them that have won for them so many admirers. In the poem of the Georgics Virgil extols and dignifies the husbandmar. "ziA his labor. This work has been pronounced the most finished poem in the entire range of Latin literature. It was written at the suggestion of Mxcenas, who hoped by means of the poet's verse to allure his countrymen back to that love for the art of husbandry which animated the fiithers of the early Roman state. Throu^out the work Virgil follows very closely the Works and Days of Hesiod.' The poet treats of all the labors and cares of the farm — gives valuable precepts respecting the keeping of bees and cattle, the sowing and tillage of crops, the dressing of vineyards and orchards, and embellishes the whole with innumerable passages containing beautifiil descriptions of natural scenery, or inculcating some philosophical truth, or teach- ing some moral lesson. Without the Georgics we should never have had the Seasons of Thomson ; for this work of the English poet is in a large measure a direct transUtion of the verses of Virgil ' S« Hislcry of Graa, p. 174. 'y»/tf., p, «5»._ POETS OF THE AUGUSTAN AGE. ^ cWM of Troy, his se^nlel'tT iS; ^^t TZ.^:, ? i^o^jjry, and to them he is indebted for very manv nf hi. finest metaphors, similes, and descriptive pa^^as^J °' ?' Ae genenU plan and structure of t^e entVH^A To f1 IS he also indebted for many a verse Hnml7 .r .T° ^""™' « Ab, dear Umented hoy, canst thou but break The Item decreet of fate, then wilt thou be Our own MarceDus I - Give me lilie^ brought In heaping handfult. Let me Kaitter here Dead purple flowenj theM offering! at leaat To my deKendant'. shade I fain would pay Though now. alas ! an unavailing rite." i ' •<*Wirf, booi. vi. (Cranch's translation;. y • «w LITEKATURE, PHILOSOPHY. AND LAV. M'ft' i. "" P It Is «ud that as ViTKil read these verses Octavia was sc carried •way by her feeling, that she tinted, and that the poet was After- wards presented with ,0,000 sesterces (abort ^400) for each o' Ihe twenty-five lines of the passage. ; 'or each o Horace, the second great poet of the Aug-ostan Age, was bom iSrt^ ^•.' °^' "^^ '^"^ '^'" '^ Virgil, whom he ou" hyed by about a ringle decade. He studied at Art^, fought with ^If how h. ran .way from the field - but lost his paternal estate atVenusm. which was confiscated, and under the imperial govern- "^commenced hfe anew as a clerk « Rome. %m,«gh his friend Virgil he secured the fcvor cf M«enas, and gained an mtroducuon to Augustus, and thenceforth W the life of fcourtier d.vKing h.s time between the pleasure ^ the capital and t^^' ^es of h. pfe^t farm near the village of Tibur The latter Virpl and TbuUus, and that o. his generous patren M»cenas, ff f ^ w Ku''f '^ '^ fo' hi- tis wide-spread ikme but the first best exhibii bis rare grace and genius. J!rfh^r ?^T\'*^ " *' ^'^ ■""' ^ tb« triumvirate of P^ ts that ruled the Augustan Age. He was the most learned of toe three, seemmg mdeed to be acquainted with the whole round of Greek and Utm literature and speculation. For some feult or «cret to this day. Augustus, hi. former friend and patron, ban- t' rV° u "°^ '°'^ *"'>' °° «" *°°''*" of the empire -on the bleak shores of the Euxme. There he spent the last ^« of his life, bewailing his hard lot in the moumfo, ve^ oj to rnsaa. His most celebrated work is his Meli,moriJU>ses ths preservation of which we owe to the merest good-fortune. When the emperor's decree was brought to him, he was at work revising FinT"'' *^*f 'j° "^"P"'' °'"'"8=^' •'« «"»« i"t° the fi^ ,n^K uT^ ^"^ ^'"^ previously made a copy of the work, and thus this Utenuy treasure was saved to the world. The poem Jtti: SATIRE AND SATIKISTS. -M;t:;r- J-^-^CHao, ana .he c.a.o„ o. .h. «'-.c earth, and of i^^^^l^, T "'"- 'f ^y the pro- which the poet proceed.Tr^ f 1 '"' ^ 8^««*'- ^" -such as the c^« oT^. «etamorphoses, or transformation, Cadmu, into a S 25 o^r,^"" °' ^'^"^^-^^ "'^ ""-^ by various penonjgo^s herl " h'^hT" " '■°""'''" ~^'=«''«'' innun^b.eiabIesoft;G «kaTd f "''•? '^'^''''' '" '^ We h=„„ .1 1 ,. ""° Roman mytholoeies n2:!^£tcm:tL° ^''""^' '^ '"^ '^^ °^ vlrgil a™, PJace among L*^t of Sirf f """^ '" '^ P™™-"' a-other honLd ^te ltd SLTo^L ITT"' '°°' "^^ poets that have rendered the ZZ^f I "' ^°"="'' °' mtheliteraiyhistoorof tJle J ^^ " """ °'"°°"'"'' anJ'tSeTft^^Tft'^I^f^' ^^' '" '^'^ -'''"^ -" vice. Such a. i«e was th«^ 1 "f selfishness, immorality, and Rome, •n.e 4^^*11^ ^ ""'"•''^ ^""^"^ ^ ^ n«s.CaHgula.S"^'DomiSn tLT «■ ''°'^" ''''''^' life at the capital aid l.^T ^""^'^'""^ °^ fashionable ««» open at^^,^^ "onous watenng-places of the empire corruprandXSSfTof t? ""f °" °' ""= *=""«' '^^ of the massed SSieLsof'"'' 'T' ""= ™'^'='^ "^^ Moody sho.' (abow aj). 4<>-i2o). The works of these writers possess a special historical value and interest, since it is through them that we gain an insight, aoch u.', we could obtain in no other way, into the venal and corrupt hfe of the capital duHng the early portion of the imperial period. The mdignant protest of the » iters Persius and Juvenal against the vice and degradation of their time is ahnost the last utterance of the Latin Muse. From this time forward the decay of the inteUectual life of Rome was swift and certain. While the Greek mteUect, as we have learned, survived by many centuries the destruction of the poUtical life of Greece, the Utin intellect sank mto decrepitude centuries before the final fall of the empire. The political fabric — so adtnirably consolidated had it become through tte growth and labors of many centuries — remained standing, like an aged oak, long after its heart had been eaten away. But It could put forth no new shoots. After the death of Juvenal (about A.D. lao) the Roman world produced not a single poet of sufScient genius to merit our attention. Oratory amonff the Somani. — « pubHc oiabwy," as has been truly said, "is the child of political freedom, and cannot exist without it." We have seen this illustrated in the history of repub- lican Athens. EquaUy well is the same truth exemplified by the records of the Roman state. All the great orators of Rome arose under the repnbHc. As during this period almost the entire inteUectual force of the nation was directed towaitJs legal and political studies, it was natural, and 'ndeed inevitable, that the most famous orators of the era should appear as statesmen or > Martl.1, an epignanntic po«t (bom about a.d. 40), also w». a satirist ot this penod, but h« rebuked only some of the minor vices of Kxaety Many of hia writiii(a, judged by the moral sense of to-day. are nosalv immoral. ' t •>" ; » There are two other poets belonging to this age whose names must not be pasKd unmentioned,-Lucan (a.d. 38-65) and Statiu, (a.d. 61 -oO Lucan s only exunt woAi.hu Piarsidia. an epic poem on the civil war between Caisar and Foapey. Statius wrote two epics, the ThtbaU and the AtkiUiid, the latter being left incomplete. ORATORY AMONG THE KOitA/fS. m» lar themes for the best efforte of the public speaker fenat stj^e, of eloquence we« represented by the gra^^ d^ed debates of the Senate, the impassioned'and oftTno^J "d me!,gant harangues of the Forum, and the learned pleadZ STs^foTo r *r°r J"""' Bru.„,,Appius ClaumS G^'rtr *« ' ^'"° ^' ^"^'' ^""» ^ Tiberi-" Gracchus Sin ?', ""' '^'°''*"»' L"""' L. Crassus, Sulpfciu ' Hortensms, Juhus Csesar, Mark Antony,' and Cicero i^e some „; ae ^ prominent names that have'made t "eToslm of . Roman Forum and the assembly-chamber of the Roman w! otr nt ^*=!=°«" "'-'-"y -^ eloquencel^Among aU r« orators, Hortensius and Cicero are easily fast. Hortensius (114-50 B.C.) was a famous lawyer whose n.™. ado™, tije legal profession at the capital boT;i^e^":d junst and the eloquent advocate. His forensic talent Jrf^r h.m a lucrative law.pnu:tice, through which he ga.her«jTn im mense fortune. Besides a mansion on the Palatini he l^s^ «venU v,IUs, which were kept up with a most profa^ exS^ «ie flavor of the frmt. His fish-ponds were stocked ;ith an M^ mte vanety of fresh and marine fish, the food and health of w£ Tk^^,."' ^'"'"^ ^°"'^'™ '° 'heir master tC^e fcS and health of his slaves. It is told that he actually Zt over^ untimely death of a favorite lamprey. ^ *' lu^nf''.?"*'"°'^,°/ *' '^' °^ Hortensius is dimmed by .he lustre of the name of Marcus TuUiusCicero'(io6-43B.c.) the un trmg student, the constant patriot, the policed orator He ^ been cabled "the Edward Everett of anUquity." He e^oy^ every advantage that wealth and parental 'ambition could co^ ' Grudi'in of Mtrmi Antoniia. 'Some crilic however, «e unwilling ,0 accord much pr.i« ,„ Cicero »loom«n dectare, ,h.t he w« nothing but . "dexterou. «ySI!" «in UTEgATUJlE, PHILOSOPHY. AND LAW. •tR CICERO. (Fiom • bu« .t Mulrtd.) U^^^ ^'' '"t'" "•« "■' PO" ArchU. and the on.to, «a«us. Like many others of the Roman patrician youth, oTS time, he nrai aent to Greece to finish his education In the schoob of Athens. Jietuming to Italy, he soon assumed a position of commanding influence at the Ro^ man capital. His prosecution of Verres shows his hatred of the official corruption and venality that disgraced his times ; his ora- tions against Catiline illustrate his patriotism ; his essays exhibit the wide range of his thoughts and the nature of his philosophical reflec- tions. The most of bis works evince the most scrupulous care rather th,n r V T.' "' '""^ '° "•''=•' Cicero lived rather than the orator himself are responsible for thfa The an c.nt Romans possessed scarcely a trace of that sense of pr^pri^^ b«riL V ^ y '^°'^ *"' ""^ ^^''^^ '•°'''id> a person's eel «« r.c«, Ita, of Uto the Censor, of whoK Antifuitia we lATlN mSTORtAlfS. 4,, I«™ Jf"' "*!. '■'' <^'"""""*"'" o« the Gam, War, we have A^T T '^ P"^"^"'"" on which hi, fame a, a writel twn. a treatise on astronomy, and, besides, composed some poT. A., are not without merit. But Csar was a n^„ of a^d^X than a man of Jetten. Yet his Commn,tarie, will always^ men rafiv;y;jw:;ti„:"""" °^-°p^— --^r:^ He^frn^l"^* T'^ """ ""= ^""''"■PO'^'y and friend of Ciesar He was praetor of one of the African provinces. FoI-owiniTr examp e onhe Roman officials of his .Tme, he amassedl'L^h ■f no unjust exactions an immense fortune, and erected at Rom, a palatial residence with extensive a„d /.eautiW garfe^' ^ Sm Z:\^: '"7" '""? ''''^' '""-^ chLcteTs'oT tS capital, rhe two works upon which his &me rests are the Con- ^P'racy 0/ C.„ine and the/«^.M,», mr. Both of thesi Z ductions are reckoned among the best examples of historic^ naT"f '" *' r?" 1°' ^"" «'^»*"-' -d are found!, .h/''7 ^l' "-c-A-D..?) was one of the brightest ornaments of the Augustan Age. In popular esteem he holds the first place among Utm historical authors. Herodotus among the ancient and Macaulay among the modem, writers of historical narrative are the names with which his is oftenest compared. His greatest work IS his Annals, a history of Rome from the earliest Ines to the year 9 B.C. Unfortunately, aU save thirty-five of the books ?nrt 1 r"' P"^"«'<">-lace Zdt^H >!. ' ■"' .^"»«« P"= he i, said to have written five hundred books H« most valuable production, however, was a work on agncnlture, a sort of hand-book for the Italian farmer Seneca (about a.d. 1-65), moralist and philosopher, has already Tt u° T '^' "" "" '"'°"' '^ Nero. The act of his life which has been most severely condemed was the defence which he made of his master before the Senate for the tyrant's mur- der of his mother, Agrippina. Nero requited but poorly the mfamous semce. Seneca possessed an enormous fortune, esti- mated at 300,000,000 sesterces, which the ever-needy emperor coveted; he accordingly accused him of taking part in a Von- ^■racy against hi, life ordered his death, and confiscated hi, estates The philosopher met his fate calmly. Upon receiv Ing the decree of his master, he opened the veins of hTbody «kI .I^ «« UTEKATVKM, PHILOSOMtY, Am lAW. A. . philo|oph« Scnec. Wonged to tf.e «J»o. of the Stole.. -^■^^ He wrote many tutyt and fci. ten, the latter Intended for pab- Bcation, conuining lo«ky maximi of wiidom and virtue, which he certainly did not alwaxi follow in toe conduct of hli own life. He »»«» » disbeliever in the popular religion of hii conntiymen, and 1 entertained exceptions of God and his moral government not very diiferent from the doctrines of Socrates. So admirable ai» J Ws ethical teachings that it has been maintained the phUosopher Chrirtianity; ,«d several lette«*^ "°i*' *' '°""*"^ »' whichare«iIeZ,r^^fc ^ ""^"^ •» *« ^Po^ Riul. but these haveTnA^T£'*'T''°''P"~'''''"»^^ and philosophicT^f^&^Ji "^""L. ^'* "' «*'"• .igned rathe? for «ir!^fo7S,ri'^»!'" •"«^*'' "«" ever be noted as thaV^ a^f *t T • ^°~*'' '^' '^H a comipt age wh«l M„^ ^i?' ^""' ""^ "■°™««y to could n^t w^;^, "'^° ''''^'' •" "^ P'-a^hy ^"^'rsxjy^'jsrmSix-iJ^r WM a marvenously busv one ~.™ . ^' "" '■'« PJmy lost his Hfe in an over-xealous pursuit of science. Hewa, SSNECL SCfXJVCM, MTmcS. AND mUOSOMY. 4,8 in command of the Roman fleet at Mi««..... -u- . . SJSI «rtr^T *""""« "^ '"" °f hi. officer., who neet io reicuing the mhabitanti of the coait. Hi. ve Jk .hiu S^kTand" °"' ""' '"^°"'^'«'y he ventu«d too near tf-vok^. and w„ overcome and .ulTocated by the .ulphu^u. The only work of Pliny that ha, been .pared to u. i. hi, Natn- ral History, embracing thirty-seven volume.. I. i. . „ ^untiring industry an^ e,te'n.lv.°,^'rr It co„ui„T~ M wa. the Roman Encyclopedia, containing aU that the world then k^ew respecting astronomy, geography. boL,ySS."2cine Sl^' ,T °^Pr'"""« ""> '*"»«y- I» 'hUwork h^efc^s the £n7„A •P''«""'y '^'h" ««h. and decUres that it isagoJe hanging, by what mean, .npported he know, not. in vacant \Zt tt iJe »d^ ~'*':' "7 *' ^°^'- «« '"cceededTo He ™ ' rT'*'''" °' ** '>"»«• °f his celebrated uncle Marcus AureUus the emperor and Epictetus the slave hold the first place, among the ethical teacheis of Rome The foL,r wrote his Meditations; but the latter like sZ.. I rts 'T'"^' " *« - ^-' "'he cht^'frs wg^ only through one of hi, pupils, Arrian by name. Epictetus was for many yean, a slave at the capital, bu^ seeming T^me •"<»oeofy MsouiTioN nsr chut (ANSI and ISO TtST Own No. 2) 1.0 gisfi ^^= IS, ta u IM I.I 1.8 1.6 A 1653 tint yoin Strtct Roeh«.t»r. N«. York 14009 USA (718) 402 - 0300 - Phofti^ "^ (716) 288- 5989 -FOK 410 UTERATURE, PHILOSOPHY, AND LAW. li way his freedom, he became a teacher of phUosophy. Domitian havmg ordered aU philosophers to leave Rome, Epictetus fled to Epirus. where he established a school in which he taught the doc- trines of .Stoicism. His name is inseparably linked with that of Marcus Aurelms as a teacher of the purest system of ethics that IS found outside of Christianity. Epictetus and Aurelius were the last emment representatives and expositors of the philosophy of Zeno. They were the last of the Stoics. In them Stoicism bore Its consummate flower and fruit. The doctrines of the Galilean were even then fast taking possession of the Roman world • for pvmg more place to the aflections and all the natural instincts! they readily won the hearts of men from the cold, unsympathetic abstracbons of the Grecian sage. QuintiUan (a.d. 40-118) was the one great grammarian and rhetoncian that the Roman race produced. For about a quarter of a century he was the most noted lecturer at Rome on educa- tional and literary subjects. One of the booksellers of the capital after much persuasion, finaUy prevailed upon the teacher to pub- hsh his lectures. They were received with great favor, and Quin- tdian s JnstituUs have never ceased to be studied and copied by aU succeeding writers on education and rhetoric." • Tlie .nurion. which w. have made to the publishing tndc .nggot . word r«p.chng «>c,ent p«blid.cr. «,d book.. There we« in Rom. „verd Z- ^i°er'A • • " ""t ^' '"^"^'^ • "•" ''P"''"™ "<• "■«'-'«» .v«T extended b««ne». " Indeed, the antique boolc-tr^ie," „„ Guhl, ■■ w. «rried on on a .cJe hardly .urpaMed by modem time^ . . . Tie plice of fte pre« m our hterah^ wa. uken by the .lave,." Through practice they S^X '^T^ ^^'^u" "P^"'""! >»<"» were multiplied wiU, great rapKhty. And, a. to the book. themKlve,, we must bear in mind that a Lk in the ancient MnK wa. rimply . roll of manuKript or parchment, and con- Umed nothmg lie the amount of matter held by an ordinary modem voir.. ^ ?*^\f f " "^"^ *"'■• "^" " "^'^ ™''™' of ""d""" «« with «„r^^? Roman book.. Mo.t of the house, of the wealthy Roman. cont«^ed hbrane. The collection of Sammanicu. Serenu., tutor of Gordi«,, ^h^h Vk^'T •• '"*" *™ 'wen.y.nia. pubUc Ubrarie, in Rom^ estabhdied by the emperon. tVJUTERS OF THE EASLY LATW CHURCH. 417 During the reign of Tiberius, Pliaedrus, the Roman ^.sop, wrote his fables, which were, for the most part, translations or imitations of the productions of his Grecian master. A little later, in the reign of Titus, Frontinus wrote a valuable work on the subject of military strategy, and a still more interesting book on the Roman aqueducts. This latter work gives us much interesting information respecting those stupendous structures. Writer* of the Early Latin Church. —The Christian authors of the first three centuries, hke the writers of the New Testament, employed the Greek, that being the language of learning and culture. Clement of Rome, Clement of Alexandria, Justin, Origen, Eusebius, Chrysostom, and Basil are a few of the cele- brated fathers of the early Church who used in their works the Unguage of Athens. Of these Chrysostom (" golden- mouthed "), so called on account of his persuasive oratory, was perhaps the most renowned. But, though the Greek language was first chosen as the medium for the dissemination of Christian doctrines, as the Latin tongue gradually came into more general use throughout the extended provinces of the Roman empire, the Christian authors natiiraUy begun to use the same in the composition of their works. Hence almost aU the writings of the fathers of the Church produced during the last centuries of the empire were composed in Latin. From among the many names that adorn the Church literature of this period, we shall select only two for special mention, — St. Jerome and St. Augustine. Jerome (a.d. 342-420) was a native of Pannonia. He studied at Rome and at Constantinople, and travelled through all the provinces of tiie empire, from Britain to Palestine. For many years he led a monastic life at Bethlehem. He is especially held in memory by his translation of the Scriptures into Latin. This version is known as tiie Vulgate, and is the one still used in tiie Roman Catholic Church. Aurelius Augustine (a.d. 354-430) was bom near Cartilage, in Africa. He was the most eminent writer of the Christian Church 418 hTEXATUME. miLOSOPHV. AND LAW. during the later Roman period w,. commentaries, and Zu«!!t "" T"""* »°''^-««mon^ but hi. fame Ast, Si kJ^T"'" """"y "^ '^emselv^^ two of the most reZZhI? ^Zf'^"""'" "d hi, C.Vy cf gJ, struggles of «,uJ tl HSlHl, » '^^°« "^"^^ ^ classic in Christian -te^^ ^Vi^^Tit]!?^ "^ ^ ' «ve,y language in which the Bible - ^ ^'^'!f T """^ truly wonderful work. The autL I!^' ^''^ ^'«"/ C^-- is a . j^. with the prophe Jf viT "f rE^'' 1%'^"' °' « book «« Written Just when tl.e G^thf J^l^ .'""^ ^« possession of the empire, when r3^ "'''Vandals were taking the barbarians. It C d^lL^H. """ '^^"^ «'"' »!«« of Pagans that Chrisin'|, SL th^'T' *"•= ^"^ "^ '"e from ^e worship of the'i"J,d;J^'2°'""= T""' ''""^ ■ties that were befelline the R,,™ '^^"'^ °^ ""^ <^n,. as the city of the woridf with onH^ " '' '^'^'^^^ Rome the "Eternal City " • whUe ^nr V T^P'"""''^ ^^ "« itself Portn^yed the enluri^ 'nf^^eo^ir ?r.°'''.^ ""''' °' ^ » ers in aU th^deS.^^^*^!^;";!'*?"!*'' "«= ^atin writ- ~viewed did much vallk w^ryef" f "^ "^^^ » '^ to repeat frequently, the RoZ)jtll^ "^,7. "^ '"•=""°'' was under Greek guidance • iTwoT ^ ^' ""^^ directions out ai,.fts course u^^l' ^y ^y "yi: S'l^ ^ '''™"«''- creatfve energy. But in anofh.,T *^ °"P°ahty, boldness, or mean, of couS^, the fi dd" L^ ITT"' '"''" '"«""'"'- ^e Romans ceased to t^ pu^Kd^l^ '""''^^^^^^^ «<=^« «>e <« no longer the servile Sto^Jr"" 'T"""^- "«« they although they donot re^h^w?. ^''«"'=n=^s of others,-! creators «>d' mas"! '^ati«r''°"r ''''' ""'^''-°'-- Rom. mi . ^^^--.^^b^^e^m^^^ their mission. -'-^-^Hhr^^-^-ns^^ HOMAN ZAK' Am lAW UTBSATuL. m 8K«ed upon tl^ tobleti most be regarfed as beine in th,, „.)« up dunng many preceding centuries. ThLj .• ■ Tthr«rr can period the law, of the sute were growingl. , h «d S ofZ, / K '=°""""°«y' »°d "«« graduaUy effacing the marks pLt^^ ?' °'^'^" "^ becoming more hbend afd scieS Roman Junsts and law-writeis, who created the most lemarkaWe law htcrature ever produced by any neonle Th. „ '=™»™™e pn^dples that undLe and ^S'^S^'LaJ^a^Cu^cZ^ T„ tK writings and decisions this branch of Latin literature. m the year A.D. 5,7 Justinian became emperor of the Eastern otcTecZ::. '"'''""^ >-'««»teIy entered upon thetr" ^ "r^l arraapng in a systematic manner the immense SI^ ™ i'°=' *•!* *«« «t "P in the Forum a thousand yean had p^ed. During these centuries the limits of I^tium^ expanded untU they embraced three continents; allTer^ ftese regions, wiU, their motley populations. Rome had e^nd^ menS M • 1""^"'*' '^'^ ^"^' '''"' ^y ^^e Roman g^ve,^ men|| Men's relations to the family, to the city, to the sL7 to the gods, were clearly defined and legislated u^ and derreS Sles^' T'' '""^r'""* municipal mag^tes. D^ busy annotating and commenting upon aU this growing mass of ^slat^n. and producing whole libraries of leame^ wor£ "^t of the enormous amount of material of a legal cha«cter th«^had fiO LITERATURE, PHILOSOPHY, AND LAW. m \ empire of the been created by the time of the subversion of U West Justinian committed the task of collating, revising, condensing, and harmonizing all this matter to the celebrated Uwyer Tribo- nian, with whom were associated during the course of the worii fourteen assistants. This commission began iu labors in the year A.D. 528, and in five years the task was completed, and given to the world in the form of the Corfus Juris CnnSs, ot "Body of the Civil Law." This consisted of three parts, — the Codt the fUHdtcIs, and the Institulet} The Codt was a revised and . compressed coUection of all the laws, instructions to judicial officers, and opinions on legal subjects, promulgated by the differ- ent emperors since the time of Hadrian; the ftrndeels (altcon- taining) were a digest' or abridgment of the writings, opinions, and decisions of the most eminent of the old Roman jurists and lawyeni. Two thousand books of thirty-nhie different authors, all of whom lived between roo b.c. and a.d. 250, were coUected, and from this enormous mass of manuscript were cuUed 9000 extracts, which contained the sum and substance of aU that three centuries acd m. re of Uw-scholars had thought and written. These excerpts were arranged under their proper titles, and fiUed fifty books. ThU part of the Ctrpus Juris is by far the most important and interesting, as it deals with the principles of legal science, and has to do with private law, which touches the trans- actions of every-day life, while the Code is mamly concerned with public law. The Institutes were a condensed edition of the A«- dects, and were intended to form an elementary text-book for the use of students. When the great work was completed, copies were fiimished to all the law-schools of Constantinople, Rome, Alexandria, Beiytus, Ctesarea, and other cities of the empire. It was the sole text- book of the youth engaged in the study of the law. > A later work, caUed the Iftveb, compriied the Wm of luitiiiian nibM- qnent to the completion of the Cidi. EDUCATION. ffil TV Body of the Roman Uw thus pw,«ved «,d tnuamitted It bM exerted a profound influence upon aU the lenl ««te™, „ eariy in the twelith century there was a gieat reWval of int^«J r«ul. of tha fieri, e^mination of the «lmirable .ysterof juri,! prudence of ancient Rome, the Justinian Code became Th, ^dwork of the present WsitetTf J^J. o^uth ™ Sr^l of Gemany. It also became auriliai^ Uw ^ZZ Zl^r^ '" ^' "^^ ^ ^^ ^' ^^ of our Teu- tonic ancestor, were by it greatly influenced and modified.' Thus i5^e""crr.^'".^J" natioM-thus does the onceSe RJatme city of the Tiber still rule the world. The religion of real and potent elements in modern civilization. """""y Social Lm. 'm^r^K~^°r°,'^'^"" '^'' '"^^ ■■» «» extraordina™ mamier to their fether {paterfamilias). They were regarded^ his property and their life «.d Kberty tere in geneS 7S^ ta^- J^^ aSf ™r^°°J^ '^^ '^°'""' ^ *^«"^ fr°» that of the Greek youth m bemg more practical. The laws of the Twe ve T^es were committed to memory; and rhetoHc and oS^ were given specml attention, as a mastery of the art of S 4t? SOCIAL UFS. •peaking was an almost indispensable acquirement for the Roman citizen who aspired to take a prominent part in the affiun of state. After the conquest of Magna Gnecia and of Greece, the Romans were brought into clos-r relations than had hitherto existed with Greek culture. The Roman youths were taught the language of Athens, often to the neglect, it appean, of their native tongue ; for we hear the censor Cato complaining that the boys of his time spoke Greek before they could use their own language. Young men belonging to families! of means not unusually went to Greece, just as the graduates of our schools go to Europe, to finish their education. Many of the most prominent statesmen of Rome, as, for instance, Ciceip and Julius Cscsar, received the advantages of this higher training in the schools of Greece. Somewhere between the age of fourteen uid eighteen the boy exchanged his purple-hemmed toga, or gown, for one of white wool, which was in all places and at all times the significant badge of Roman citizenship and Roman equality.' Sooial Fodtion of Woman. — Until after her marriage, die daughter of the fiunily was kept in almost Oriental seclusion. Marriage gave her a certain fi«edom. She might now be present at the races of the circus and the various shows of the theatre and the arena — a privilege rarely accorded to her before marriage. In the early virtuous period of the Roman state, divorce was unusual, but in later and more degenerate times it became very common. The husband had the right to divorce his wife for the slightest cause, or for no cause at all In this disregard of the sanctity of the femily relation may doubtless be found one cause of the degeneracy and failure of the Roman stock. Public Amusements. — The entertainments of the theatre, the games of the circus, and the combats of the amphitheatre were ' With the exception of the chief magistrates and the lenators, every citi- ten, whether rich or poor, patrician or plebeian, was compelled, whencTer he appeared at the pubUc games or at court, to wear the same white, unadorned mantle. Thus was sym1»Uzed the equality of the citizens. PVBUC AMVSEMBlfTS. ^ the three principal public amusements of the Roin«. -n, iiagedy was never held in hi»h «t..™ .. d saw too much real tragedy iTthe «?!? , ?*' = ** P*°P''= to care much for ^Z^tr "''"'""°"? "^ «he amphitheatre entertainm^Vrr Se%S.^;ruX'^r^^^^^^ ferces, and pantomimes Th, w • "" °' eom^Uw. becauU the\^r"i^r »; th^.h l!'" Particularly popular, both the actor to L^hLtt heaTu,,^: ''T^ '"^"« ^<" for the reason th,t ,k i ""ougliout the structure, and pubUc amusements we^L , v " ' '^'"ation aU other combat, of "nT '"""^"''"■'"ff' and the gladiatorial Northern E^pe^fu^i^^^T ;!; I'^Z.J^l^'-^T. " lions crocodiles, and leopards ; Asia, ekph^^ X ^S way. Often a promiscuous multitude would be t,L^ tJ. 4M SOCIAL UFM, h^the.rongm ta Em^ri.. wheiKe they were b«,ut..t .o RoT Ae «^^ "^'* *' '"''' ^'™'*»°» '° ^y ?"«">«» upon nriJnl™ ' .^°~L°' ""=■" ^=''«»- I» 'i™' 'he condemned pri„nm we« allowed to fight «d kill one mother, thi. bei^ d. -med more humane than their cold.bloo,1ed riaught«^r. TTiu. it that ever existed among a civilized people. The fim gladiatorial spectacle at Rome was presented br two ^n. at the fanenU of their father, in the year .64^ m exJ^ bmon was ananged in one of the forui » Lr. \,^Vtx ^^ time no amphitheatres in Wv ^ existence. From this time ^J0t,^^^^ tiie public taste for this •pecies of entertainment grew rapidly, and by the beginning of the imperial period had mounted into a perfect pawion. It wat now no longer the manes of the dead, but the spirit* of the living, that they were intended to appease. At nrst the combatants were slaves, captives, or condemned criminals : but at last knights, senators, and even women descended into the arena. Training-schools were established at Rome, Capua, Ra- venna, and other cities. Free citizens often sold themselves to the keepers of these seminaries; and to them flocked despetate men of an daaes, and ruined spendthrifts of the noblest patridan houses. Slaves and criminals were encouraged to become pro- ficient m this art by the promise of freedom if they «uvived the combats beyond a certain number of years. SoDMtimes the gjadiators fought in pairi; again, great compa- i?^^ i tf't. aUDIATOIIS. (MtetuiuelOTlllloMlc.} THE CLADtATOHlAl COMBATS. 4SS Some were Pro'viS'^4 ^ritsT'^rw^i ^H ''""°"- g.ed their adve^rie,. ,„d then .tr^.""' ""''' ''•'' ""«• J!^^^'^ "'""^^ '° '"'='' ■"> ««e« 'hat they entirely over- .hadowed the entertainment, of the cireus and the^h^^e Z ti jpes among us, and gave exhibitions in private houses or in the provmcial amphitheatres. '"* ^e rivalries betwreen ambitious leaders during the later year, of the repubhc tended greatly to increase the number of glldU^ nal shows, as hberality in arranging these spectacle, was a ,^ passport to popular 6yor. It was ^served for thTemnZs %! ever, to exhibit them on a truly imperial scJlf TroJ^^iT; SOCIAL LltK. more than ,0,000 ^.^^^S^^^Ct """^ '"' It will be recalled that .hiTl * *" °' '*'"»« We" establishment of the ^mn^T^ ^ '^ **'^- J"" •*«<« the -ipie„t.ofth.^'.i;SJ'";^^-^ *°r ''^^ *•« nun,berU...ertedto.;?rL tt'Kr ile'^J"^" ?' be oventated. Mlene« «!l "',^''*'='*'' »'»'e charity can haidly tered to «ch a Sl^^r J "pX^^rau'lT '"'• 'T enumerating the practice a. on» nf Vi,V ** '^"« '" ..e^emoral^,oS^.o:-r^„«J«- •"avery. Tie num^ ofl^ •„ th?p'" *' '^'"*"' °^ later republic and the Lh« ? ° ^""^ *'»*' ""«'" *e even g„Lr th!:^ thfnu'S/orrmeT ^'tf' %««« "r tion led to the multiplication oV„^- °" 1. ! '°^* °' "♦«"*- wealthy, and the em JE^t o" a fp^ '" ^^ "T"^^ "^ "^^ kind of work. Thus them «1^K t*^ '^^ ^°' "'"^ Cerent -le duty it wT^t^r ht maltert^Jr'^'''"'- calledjhe ,.^».^^,. ^^ose exclZrbLSI;' "t"°*"' pany h s master when h» — «. 7 ""*'"*'* " was to accom- •ast ngures bemg of course exceptional Greek sUve^ SlAHKy. na !I^S,l!!f ^'T"'' ':.."'•'; ""'■' tatenigence «ndered them •enriceable in positions calling for special talent Tbe lUve cl... was recruited chiefly, as in Greece, by war, and i^\; ^"V'Z"' r^'^PPi^. Some of the outlyi^'prov'nS DeUnquent Ux-paye,. were often sold as sUves, and frequently poor persons sold themselves into servitude ren^r """ T""^ '*^'" "'"'*' "" ""?'" ""« "»<»" *« 1««" republic -a change to be attributed doubUes. to the humanizing influence of the Stoical philosophy and of Christianity. tS! feelmg entertomed towards this unfortunate class in the later repubhcw, penod is illustrated by Vano's classification of slave. « vocal ^agricultural implements," and again by Cato the Elder's lecommendation that old and worn out slaves be sold, as a matter of economy Sick and hopelessly infirm sUve, were taken to an UUnd m the Tiber and left there to die of rtarvation and exposu^ In many case^ as a • -asure of oiecaution, the sUves were forced h-«'°'Kl, ""' "0 •>«« wbtenanean prisons. Their bmer hatred toward, their mr rs, engendered by hard, treat- m«t. » ^tnessed by the weU-known proverb, "A, many enemies a. rfaves," and by the servile revolt, and war, of the republican period. But from the first century of the empire there U observ- able a growmg sentiment of humanity towanis the bondsman. Imperial edict, take away fn)m the master the right to kill his jJave, or to «ll him to the trader in gladiators, or even to treat !lfcl" K^^K ""^u' '"'*"'''• "^^ ""'■'" ^^ '^8i''"i"8 °f « "low reform which m the course often or twelve centuries resulted in the complete aboUuon of slavery in Christian Europe. INDEX PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. ILTIJ;^^ .**••■»•'*••'»/*■; •.Ilk. «!./»; ,,ltt. .,„ *«,; c Udcll,nat; «, llka>; (, llkei; I, llkez. HISTORY OF GREECE. Academy, the, 8i. A.chse'aiu, the, 5, 6, 18, 19. Achsean, League, 129. Achaia (a-ki'jra), i, ig. A-«hiries, 16, tg, note. A.crop'a-lis, Athenian, 138. Adrwttu, 14, 15, M-p'nt, 85. iG'gos-pot'a-mi, capture of Athenian fleet at, 99, ^-ne'as, 17. iG'o'li-ans, the, 6, 19, iE'o-Ius, as. I iGs'chi-nea, 173. I J.«^^8'chjr-lus, i6a. • .(Es'cu-Ia'pi-us, 193, note. ^'to1i*an League, 129. Ag'a-mem'non, 15. Ag'es-san'der, 149. A.ges'i-la'us, 103, 104. Ag*©-™, the^ 2a Ag'ri.gen'tnm, 39. AlKxe'us, 158. ^^Al'd-W'a^lM, 96, 97, 98, 99. Ale'mason1.die^ fint baniahinent ftom Athens, 51, 52, second banishment, 55 ; contnu* to re- build the Delphian temple, 54, 55. ^Alexander the Great, I ic^ 119. Alexandria, founding ot 113; under the Ptolemies, 126, 127. Alexandrian Literature, 173, 175. Museum and Library, lafi, 127. Am'mon, Zeus, 114. Am'phi-a-ra'us, 14. Am-phic'ty-on'ic Council, the. 12. 33. ^ A-n«'cre-o», 159, An'axag'o-rus, 179. A-nax'i-man'der, 177. An'ax'im'e-nes, 177. An-tal'9i-das, Peace of, 102. Antioch, 124. An-ti'»ehuslV., E-piph'a-nes, 125; IIL, the Great, 125. An-lip'a-ter, 128. An'ti-phon, 171, note. A-pelles, isa. Aph'ro.di'le, 45. 4M INDEX ANi PRONOUNCmO yoCAHULAKY. A-poI'lo, i4 ; oracles of, 27, j8. Ar-be'la, battle of, 114. Arcadia, I, a. . Ar'chi-nie'des, 191. Architecture, Grecian, 132, i^j. Pelatgian, 133. Architectiue, orders of, 134. Archons, the, 50. A're-op'a-gus, court of the, 52, 53, 83, note. A'res, 24. Ar'go-lis, southern part of, conqner- «1 by Sparta, 48. Argonauts, 13. Aigos, 40, 47. Ar-is-tar'chus, 192. /-^Ar'is-ti'dfe, the Just, 64, 7)*, 79. /^7// Arls-toph'a-nes, 166. ^C^r-U-totle, 184, 186, 194, view, f ][ respecting slavery, 205 Ar-me'ni>a, 102. Ar'ta-ba'nus, 168. Ar'ta-phei'nes, elos, bland o( a, Uelos, Confederacy of, 78, 79; conTerted into an empire by the Athenians, 79-81. Delphi, oracle of, i, a8, 55, 71. Delphian temple, 54, 137. De-ma'ter, 85. De-moc'ri-tus, i8a i/^De-mos'the-nes, the general, 95, 97, note, 98. Demosthenes, the omtor, no, 128 171. Di-a'na, temple of, at Ephesus, 135. Dicasteries, 83, note. Di'o-do'rus Sic'u-lus, 175. Di-ogV-nes, 187. Di'o-nys'i-ns, tyrantofSyracuse, 183. Di'o-ny-sus, as, 160; theatre of, at Athens, 143. Divination among the Ureelu, a?. • Do-do'na, oracle at, 28. Dorians, the, 19, 36. Dorian invasion of the Peloponnesus '7- po-ris'cns, plain of, 68. laws of, 52, 53. Dragon, the, 26. Drama, the Greek, 160, 167. Education among the Greeks, 195- •97. Elgin («l-iin). Lord, 140, note. Elysium (e-liih'i-um), 34, 29, WEm-ped'o-cles, i8a E-paml-non'das, 104, 105. Eph'i-al'tM, 83, note. Eph'ois, 43. Ep'ic-te'tus, 187. Ep'i-cu'rus, 188. I E-pig'o-ni, War of the, ij. «» ^^J>JIX AlfDJ-XOmUlfCWG VOCABVLASY. E-pl'nu, I. E-re-tri-,, S9, 60. Ei'a-tot'ihe-iiei, ija, E'roi, 25. "a'cUd, 191. Ett-boe-a, Uhnd of, %. Eu'me-nei II., 125. Eu-ineD'i.det, 25. ^u-rip^Klei, 164. Eu-tymWon, Uttle of (he, 81. F. Fates, the, 25. Furies the, 25, 26. G. Qt-tt'ti-i, 128. Ga-le'niis, 194. '^ Gamei, ucnd, of the Greek,, 30; influence of^ 31, G>nl<, the, 128. Gelon, tyrant of SyracuK, 63. Goi'dt-uin, 112. Gordiu, 112. Goi'gi-ai, i8a Gor'gon^ 25. Gneco-Persian War, 59.73. Gra-ni'ou, battle of the, 112. Gtedan migrations to A8iaMinor,i9. Greece, dinsions of, i ; mountains of, 2 ; UUndi abont, 2 j Inflaence of country upon inhabitants, 3. Greeks, genius of the, 8; local pa- triotism of, 8; their legends and myths, 11-19; society ia the Heroic Age, 20-22; religion of *«• »3-34i their colonies, 38, 39; Mcial life of the, 195-206; friendship among, 198; occupa- tions among, 202. Gy-lip'pus, 98. H. H«'dci, realm of, 23; the god, 25.' Hal i-car-nas'sus,mausoIeumof, 14a Harpies, the^ 25, 26. He-be, 2S. Hector, 16. Hell-con, Mount, 2. Hellas, the name, 3. HeHen-ism, meaning of term, 107, note. Hel-le-nes, the, 5.7. (See Cr,a,.\ Helletpontine bridges, 65, 67. Helles-pont, passage of, by Xerxes, 07. HClots, the, 40, 41, note, 46, 82 He-tai'ijB, the, 198, 199. He-phies'tns, 23, 24, 26. He'ia, 24. Her'a-cles, ii, 12. Her-a-cU'dsB, returning of the. it 18. ' " . Her'a-di'tus, 177. Hei'mes, 24; statues of, at Athens, mutilated, 97, note. He-rod'o-tus, 59, 167. He-ros'tra-tns, 135. He'si-od, 158. Hes-per-i-des, garden of the, 24. Hestia, 25. Him'e-ra, battle of, 72, note. Hip-par'chus, 54, 19-.. Hip'pi-as, 54, 55, j^, fc ^Hip-poc'ni-tes, 193. Homer, 156. . -met'tus. Mount, 2. Hy-pi'ti-a, 19a I. Ic-ti'nus, 138. Il'i-ad, the, 155, 157. Il'i-os, 15. >rHoi INDEX AKD PKONOUNCim VOCABUIAKY. m In-ftnt'iKrlde among the Gmlu, '95i note. Ionian Confederacy, 19. Ionian ialandi, 3. Ionian!, tlie, 5, 6, 19. Ionian cities in Alia Minor, 59. Ip'sui, tattle of, laj rri«, 35. I-«'m, 171, note. I-iag'o-ras, 58, I-soc'ta-t«, 171, note, h'sra, tattle of, 113. Itli'a-ca, 3. I-Uio'me, Mount, 105. J. Jealousy, divine, Greelt doctrine of, 33- Julian, the AposUI«, 190. K. Kleruchies, 38, 58. Kre'on, king of Thebes, 15. L. Laj^iae'mon, 4a La-co'ni-a, 2. Laius (la-yus), 13. Lam'a-chus, 97, note. La'mi-an War, 128. La-oc'o-on group, 150. Lau'ri-um, S05. Le-on'i'das, 69, 70. Lesbos, island of, 2, 19. Leuc'tra, tattle of, 104. Literature, Greek, 154-175. Long Walls, the, of Athens, 84, nole, 85 ; deslniclion of, 100. Ly-ce'um, the, 54. Ly-cur'gus, 41, 42. ^Ly-san'der, 99. A Lys'i-as, 171, note. A Ly-sic'n-tes, choragic monument of, «43- Ly-sim'a-chus, 123. Ly-sip'pus, 149. H. Mac'ca-bees, the, 125. Mac'e-do'ni-an lopremacy, 107-120. Mac'e-do'ni-a, population of, 107 j under Philip II., 108-110 ; after the death of Alexander, 128. Mag-ne'si-a, tattle of, 125. Magna Graecia, 38. Mardonios, 59. Mas-sali-a, 39. Man'e-tho, 174. Man'li-ne'a, battle of, 105. Mar'a-thon, battle of, 60, 62. Man-solus, 14a Meg'a-cles, 51. Meg'a-lop'o-lis, 105. Me-nan'der, 167, note. Men'e-la'us, 15. Mes-se'na, 48. Mes-se'ne, 105. Mes-se'ni-a, 47. Mes-se'ni-an Wars, 47. Mi'das, 112. Mi-Ie'tos, 39, 59. Mil-ti'a-d«s, 60, 61, (,-. Mi'nos, II, 13. Min'o-taur, the, 12. [ith-ri-da'tes the Great, 122, note. Muses, the, 25. Myc'a-le, tattle of, 72. Myt'i-le'ne, revolt of, 94. N. Nau'cra-tis, 39. Nax'os, 8a Ne-ar'chus, 117, Nem'e-sis, 25, doctrine of, 161. Umi -Im, W1.4 . P»^I.^ Nwtor, idt Nifl-M, Peace of, 95. "•^Ifta^ 97. note, 98, note. ■o-b«.fhe,po:,p, ,^,. Nrmpb., the, 25. O. P. ™r-«r,.h..,55.,j,. f« '-PM, King, i^ Olympiiin Council, 24. G«me^ 30^ 3,. Olympus, Mount, a. O- Wthi-an Confederacy, 108. O-Iyn'thu., 108. Oracle., Greek, 37.39. OS'S!, Mount, 3. " Oi'tm^cina, 56, 57. P. P«inttog, Greek, 150.153. P»n-do'ra, myth of, 197. P«ra, »on of Priam, ic P«'nMi 63. P«rTh.,in,(p„.rt'rtI.n.),,5,. Pai'the-non, treasures of the, 136 note; description ot 138,, Parthia, 135, note. Par-nas'sus, Mount, s. P«-tro'clus, 16. Tau-sa'ni-as, 78, note, 193. Pelagians, the 4, 5. Pelasgian architecture, 133. Pe'li-on, Mount, 3. Pelop^ 7. Pe-Iop'i-das, 104. Pero-pon-ne'sus, the divisions of i ■ mvaded by the Dorians, 17. Pelopomiesian (-ihan) War, the, gi- loi. '" Pe-nel'o-pe, 17, 3,. > • ™-ioi i-cns. Mount, 3 Pernlic'caa, 133, note. Pe'ri-an'der, 37. Pert^ia, foster. th.«.«Upc«,of I ^ Athene 84 i hi. social policy, 87, hi. death, 9 : as an on,,,,, ,7,. Pencle., theAgeof, 83, 90, B_y , PoweotSS. I'er'i.ce'ti, the, 40. Per'ga.mns, 135, note. Per-sep'o-lis, 115. Phi'Ianx, the, 108, note. Pha-le'nim, 85. Paa'ros, the, at Alexandria, ,j& Phidi-as, 13ft, ,45, t^y PW-dip'pi.dJs, 60. I Phi-lip-pi, 109. note. Phi'lo, 189. Phocians, 109, 137. Pho'cis, I. Pindar, 159. Piracy in Greece, 33. PUIs-trafi-d., 37, 54, jj. Pi-w.'tFa.tus, 54, 55. PU-tB-a, 93, 94, 95. Pla-lse'a, battle of, 72 Plato, 183. Plo-ti'nus, 189. Piu'larch, 175. Po-Iyb'i-us, 174. Po-lyc'ra-tes, 37, note Pol'y-cle-tns, 147. Pol-y--t«K'o-raj, iSo. Pro-toe'e-nft, 15J. Ptol'e-mies, kingdom of the, i j6. i j8 Ptolemy, CInudiuj, 193. Euergetea, 127. Philadelphus, 127. Soter, 126. Pylo., 95. Py-thag'o-nu, 178. Pjnr'rho, 188, 189. Pythl-M, 199. Pjth'i-an gamei, 33. Rhe'gi-dm, 48. Rhodes, 2, 3, ,22, note j CoImsds «, 149- & Sacred W.ir, Firat, 32. Second, 109. S«ge«, the Seven, 176. Sal'a-mfe, battle of, 72. Sa'mos, 2, 3. Sappho (saCfo),'!^! Sar'dis, 59, Sco'pas, 140, 147. ScyHa, 26. Sereu-ci'a, 124. Se-Ieu'cns Ni-ca'tor, 123, 124, Se.leu'ci.da!, kingdom of the, 121. "5- ^ Sep'tB-a-gint, the, 174. Si-{il'i-an Expedition, the, 96-98. Si-mon'i-desor<|:eos, 159. Siwah (see'wS), 114. Skeptics, the, iRg SUveiy in Greece, 204. l>«oc'i«.t&, ,01, ,8,, ,83. y^ I Sog'di-a'na, itt, 116. is &l'tn.. I ... S<^Ion law. Of, 52,53, ubta,,, *'• '»"», 83, note. Sophiits, the, 18a Soph'o-cles, 164, Soi'l-clei, 58. Sparta, the early growth of, 39.4S ■ earthquake at, 82. ' Spartan consiituiion, 43, 44 ; ,^„a, •nd monejr, 44, p„biic tables 45 ! education. 45, 46. Si»rtan,, the, 4a {So: Starta.) Sphac-te'ri-a, 95. Spor'aKles, the, 2. Sta-gi'ia, 185. Stoics, the, 186-188. StraTx), 193. Stia-te'gi, 57. Su'ni-um, 136, note. Snsa, 115. Syfa-ris, 38. Sym-po'si-a, 201. Syracuse, 39, 97. Syria, kingilom of, 123, 125. T. Ta-ren'tnm, 38. Tar'ta-rus, 23. Te'ge-a, 48. Tempe, Vale of, i. Thales, 177. Theatres, Greek, 142, 199. Thebes, in Greece, 13; suprem.icy of, 104-106; destroyed by Alex- ander the Great, tI2. .'/"'^'•■"'''•"■"^Im, in Persian War, 63, ^ I 64. 65, 66; as an envoy, 75^ n,ival policy of, 76 ; character of,' ] 77; Man orator, 171. j nier-mop'y-la;, battle of, 69. The-oc'ri-tus, 174. m INDSX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULAKY. TheMom, tempi* of, (i. The-iwi, II, 15, ^ 81. Tl».'i«-Iy, I. ThirtrVcan'Tniot.M. Thac*^ Uagdom of, laj. Tht«e», putljr conqnerad by Philip II., I09.^ .,> 'dro-ni'cM, L., 399. A'ni-o, river, 388. Antioch, city of, 327. An-ti'o-chns the Great, 276. An'lo-ni'nM Pi'u., R„,Mn emperor 345* ' Antony, Mark, hi. oration at Casar', fc""*!, 3-7; usurpation, of, 318 • •twl* WW. Cleopatra, 3,,, J^ Actiam, 322 1 bii dtnlh. from 3a3- Appian Way, 386. Ap'pi-o. Clau'di-u. Ccu^ 246. " Ap'pi-« Oau'di-u., the decemnr. A-palJHi, 207. A'quie Sex'ti.,, battle of, 290, note. Aqueduct^ Roman, 388. Ar-ca'di-iu, Ea.,em Roman em- peror, 366, 367. Ar'chi-me'db, 27a Architecture, Roman, 380-394. A-rim'i-num, 385. Ar-min'i-u., 328. Ar'no, rirer, 20& Ar-Ter'ni, 309. A.-c«'ni-B., 223. At'ti-la, 374, 37J. Au'fi-da., river, 2r?. Ai^r^ college of, at Rome, 219. Augui-tine, Au-re1i-u«, 417. Au-gu.'tu-lu,, laat Roman empeior, m the We«t, 377. Au-reli-an, Roman emperor, 356 Au-re'li-n^ Marcu,, R„„an em- P-fr. 346. 348, 416. Av'enUne, the, 214. a Ba'den-Ba'den, 390, Bai'ae (ba'ye), 335. Ba-ul, 417. Ben'e-ven'tnm, battle of, 246 Bcr'nard, St., PassoftitUe, ,64. B«8'ti-a, conjul, 288. Bib'u-Iua, 313, INDEX AND PKONOVNCrSQ VOCABVLAKY. m B«1-l. 159. Bren'nat, JJ9, Britain invxtnl bjr C»wr, 307, 309; cwiquered bjr CkudiM, 3 54 , i„. »». Bnit'ti-um, 307. Bniim, L. Jonliw, M7. Brntin, the liberator, 317, 3ja Bur-gun'di-aiM, 373. Biii'rliu., 335. Ra'sen-ti'nui, river, 373. Bjr-ian'tl-um 360, 361. C. C««ar, Aagusiiis (kc Ottniui). dewr, GaiiM («ee Calixula). Casar. Jnliu., proKrihed by Sulln, 197 ; e -riy life, 305 ; deb(«, 306 ; form, the Fint Triumvirate, 307 i hiscampaigniinCauland Britain, 307 ! cro«e« the Rubicon, 311 j becomes matter of Italy, 31a; defeats Pompeyat Pharsalus, 313;' '» Egypt, 314; defeats Phar. naces, 314; crashes PompeUns at Thapsus, 314; his triumph, 314 ; his genius as a statesman, 3'S; his death, 316) literary works, 411. C«-sa'ri-oii, 322. Ca-la'hri-a, 207. C.i-Iig'u.la, 333. Ca-mirius, 239. Oam-pa'ni-a, 207. Can'ns, battle of, 268. Can'u.lel.us, Oa'i.o,, 233, note. Cannleian Law, 233, „„,j Capl-tol-Ine hill, 215. Capitoline temple, 214, 380, note. Ca pre-ie, island of, 332. Cap'u-a, J71. Car-aeana, Ronuui .mperet, jj] Ca-rac'ta<«., 335. Carthage, 148) empire of, 14I compared with Rome, 149 ; d •troyed by Romans, 181 j rebui by Julius CusMr, 315 J madecap tal of Vandal empire, 373. Carthage, New, in Spain, 261. Cas'ii-us, the liberator, 32a Catacombs, Roman, 358. Catl-line. 304, 305. Cato, M. P. Uticensis, 314. Cato, the Censor, 279^ Ci-iul'lus, 402. Cai'u.hu, 29a Cel'ti-be'ri-ani, 281 Censors, Roman, 336. Cer-ci'na, island of, 295. Chllons (shii'lSn), battle of, 374. Charlemagne (sharle-ndn), 39a Chinese Wall, 364, note. ChrUt, birth of, 328) crucifixion of, 33»- Christian Fathers, the, 417. Christians, persecutions of, 336^ 343. 346, 347- 358. ChristianUy, under Conttanline^ 359. 36' ; under Julian the Apos- tate, 362 ; under Jovian, 363 j conversion to, of the Goths, 364 ; elTects upon, of the fall of Rome, 37a ; Christianity and the gladia- torial combats, 368: in the pro- vinces, 343. •Ghrys'os-tom, 417. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, joi, 305, 3*9; his works, 41a CimTiri, 289. Cin'cin-na'tus, 231. Cin'e-as, 245. lNDt:X AND PKOmVNCim rOCABVLAHV. Clr^W (K-j,), ,94. Cir-ccn'iiin gimci, an, Cir'cu Mul-mui, 114, 381. CIvU WW, bttwecn CnwuKl Pom- pert 311 1 b*tm> Mwiiu and Salla, 193, Cbtadhn tqnednct, jttk CUndiiu, Roman empeior, 334. denent, of Rome, 417. of Alexandria, 417, CWo-pa'trm, 314, 331, 331, 333. '€lo«'c> Maxima, 113. 'Co'dea, Ho-n'tl-ai, 12%. Col'eror, 357, Do-mi'li-»n, Roman emperor, 340. Urama, ilie, among tlie Romans, 39»-40l. Drep'a-nt, tnis'can8, 309. Eu-dox'i-a, 376. Ett'me-nes, 377. P. Fa'bi-us Quintus, 363, Fa'bi-us, tlic delayer, 366. Fa-bric'i-us, 346. Fas'ces, 337. Flam'i-ni'nus, consul, 375, 374 Forum, Roman, 213, Kron-ti'nus, 417. *• tMDMx Am nomvirciifG vocabvlaky. G*-l«'ri-a^ Romu tmpwur. jjo, Oilltawm.joy.jos. 0^ -t-tin'i-an, emperor, <.i9, 430. Justin Martyr, 347. JuVe-nal, 408. L. Lab'a-rura, the, 36<\ note. Latin cities, revolt of, 343. colonies, note 247. IMDRX Alfr no/fOVIfCMG VOCABVLAKY. MX kr Mrlr ChriMiu wrilm, 41I U-tfaiM, Xiiv, MJ. U'liHua, 107, K}. U-vin'iii, tty. L*>Tin1-wB, 11], W-<>»». Ji«. 319. 3*0- Ub'y-ut, *«t. Udnlu lam, a4i. U-dn'i-u, C, 141. U-gn'ri-i, 107. Uprkm, 309, aott. U'lio, rtw, ao8. Lilenturvp Romitn, 394, 4J1, Url-ua, M., cowul, 371 Lhr, tlw hittorian, 41a. Lon-gi'niu, 354 Itn^a, U Scmpnalu, 365. Lo'can, 408, note. Lu-ca'ni-a, aj7. I*Coa,3o> Lu-cin-ui, pact, 401. La-cn'ii-ai, 40a. La-«ano<, the conml, 303. La'ii-ta'iii-a, 399. Ma-cri'nat, Roman ampaiw, 354. Mag.ne'ii-a, battle of, 376. Maoran (aiM'yort), 375, note. Ma-harlMl, 169. Mam'es-tinei, 350, note, Manlini, 339, 34a Mar-celliu, Marcui C, 170. Mar^el'Ins, nephenr of Augutiu, 3*8. Ha'ri-iu, Ga't-ns, 389, 391, 393. 396. Mara, 317. Manic War, 391, >(Mlal,4al. Maal-nla-ia, kin( oT NamUta, 379, Max-en'tl-m 393. Maa-ta-l-m, ampanr, 357, 338, 3S9. Ma»1.»l«, 355. MaMn'na, 350^ note. Ma-taa'nu, battle of the, 373. MUiluy raw),, Ronun, 3S4, 388. MiliUnr tribanea, 334. Hinenn, 317. Mln-tnr'na, 394, Mi-m'c|.iu, eo-dtctatorwiihFabioi. »«7. Mlth'ra-da'Ua the Great, 393, 396, 303- Mb'c1-b» ScetVo-la, aad Mnm'mi-u, conwl, 377. Mnn'da, battle of, 314, note. MjrTei, aaral battle near, 353. N. Na'Ti-u, 399. Ne-poe, Comeliiu, 411, note. Nero, G, Clandiiu, coneni, 37^ Nero, Roman emperor, 335, 337, Nerra, Roman empeior, 341, Nl-v*-., 36a NS'men-cII'tor, 436. Nn-nun'ti-a, 381. Nn'ma, 313. Nu'mi-tor, 333; 334. Oc-ta'W-ui, 319; enten Secood Triiunvirate, 3191 dividet the world with Antony, 330 j defeaU Antony at battle of Actiam, 333 ; '"^ of. 3aS. 3»9. Od'e-na'tni, 356, Od'o-wlttr, 377, 37U Op'ti-matea, 386. Ui INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. II Villi PI I" I Oracles, 3i8, O-Fcs'tes, 377. Os'trogoths, 365. O'tho, Roman emperor, 337. Ov'id, 406. P. Pal'a-tine (tin), 214. Palmyra, 356. Pandects, 42a Pa-nor'mus, battle of, 354. Pan'the-on, the, 381. Pa-pin'i-an, 353, 419. Parthians, 310. Patricians, 3io, 211. * Faulus, Roman jurist, 419. Paulas Lucius ^-mil'i-us, 268, note. Per'ga-mus, 377. Per'seus, king of Macedonia, 277. Per'si-us, 408. Per'ti-nax, Roman emperor, 352. Phedrus, 417. Phar'na-ces, 304, 314. Phar'sa-lus, battle of, 313. Philip, Roman emperor, 355. Phi-lip'pi, battle of, 320. Pi-ce'num, 207. Pictor, Fabius, 410, note. Picts, 373. Pirates, defeated by Pompey, 302. Pis-to'ri-a, 305. Pla-cen'ti-a, 260. Plau'tus, 400. Plebeians (ple-be'yans), 211 ; first secession of, 238 ; admitted to the consulship, 24a Pliny the Elder, 414 ; the Younger, 343- Poe'ni, 250, note. Pol'y-carp, 347. Pompeii (pora-fwi'yee), 340^ note, Pompey the Great, in Spain, 39 defeats gladiators, 300 ; defe pirates, 302; conducts the Mi radatic war, 303 ; conquers Syr 303 J his triumph, 304; ent the triumvirate, 307 : receiv »» t government of Spain, 310 ; sec popularity, 310; flees beft Cfesar into Greece, 313 j defeat at Pharsalus, 313 • his death, 31 Pompey, Gnee'us, 314, note. Sextus, 314, ftote. Pom-po'ni-us, Roman jurist, 419. Pontiff, college of, at I^ome, 219 Pon'tine marshes, 316. Por-sen'na, king of Clusium, 2a 226. Por'tus Ro-ma'nus, 335. Posilippo (po-se-lep'p6), grotto the, 386. Prae-to'ri-an guard, formation « 329 ; disbanded by Severus, 35 Pro-per'ti-us, 407. Province, first Roman, 258. Public lands in Italy, 384. Punic War, firet, 248, 257. second, 262, 274. third, 279, 280. Pu-te'o-li, 398. Pyd'na, battle of, 277. Pyr'rhus, 244, 246. Q Qusestor (kwes'tor), office of, 2: note. Quin-til'i-an, the rhetorician, 416 R. Rad-a-gai'sus, 369. Ram'nes, 2