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THE MEDITKRRANEAN-THE PART IT PLAYED IN ANCIENT COMMERCE -IN ANCIENT HISTORY-GREECE AND ITALY-EARLY INHABI- TANTS—OF SAME RACE— CONFIGURATION OF THE TWO PENIN- SULAS-EFFECT ON CHARACTER OF INHABITANTS-NATIONS OF (JREECE SUBDUED BY EXTERNAL POWER-OF ITALY, BY IN- TERNAL-POINT OF CIVILIZATION REACHED BY BOTH BEFORE SEPARATION— POINTS OF DIFFERENCE IN CIVILIZATION AFTER SEPARATION— DIFFERENCES IN FAMILY— IN STATE-IN RELIGION IN ART -IN LITERATURE-IN LANGUAGE-IN PERSONAL QUAL- ITIES. Between Europe and Africa, in the Old World, there stretches an almost tideless sea. In the infancy of geo- f^rajihical science, when it was the largest body of water known, it was called the (rreat ^oa—Maf/nfim Sfare, But the sea has ever been the parent (»f seamen. , And when the Pha'nician sailors — children of this sea — had gi'atified their love of adventure and of commercial pursuits so far as to penetrate its western limits, they discovered beyond the Pillars of Hercules — its western portals — a greater sea outside. The name was then changed to the Inland — the land-locked, the mid-earth sea — the Mediterranean. What an important i)art has this sea played in the history of the human race ! Of what mighty nations has it witnessed the rise, the decay, and the fall' ! Its south- ern waters washed the shores of J:gypt— "the (lift of the Nile;" which, although it has been sneeringly called "a land of temples, of deified aj^es, and consecrated onions," was, nevertheless, the picmeer nation of the world. There the temple-like palaces of Karnac and Luxor, the ])yramids, 2 !l'!.r"l*K"^'* *"? reprenentations of her catacombs, attest at once the greatness of her Pharaohs, and the fait that «he possessed political institutions, and a high degree of cvilizatiou fifteen centuries or more before the Christen era 1 his sea was a silent witness to the conquest of Canaan fciolomonsTempJe, when it conveyed the cedar of Lebanon ous Pbrfni ^'^'^t^A ^i ?^^® ^^^ ^'''^^y »»d adventur- l^r» ^1 ^^*'^"" ^'^^""^ ^^'^ Mediterranean, there could have been no voyage of the Argo, and consequently no Medea to occupy the pen of Euripides. If the mJ- unian banl had sung at all, he must have sung of other ^,Th *^^**^^?^*^^/"^ ^^y«««^^' ^'^^ »«t tilis water n^nnf I^ ^''*^"'"^"'^i^*'"^*^""^"» ^^t^» the means of trans- porting his trooj)8 to Troy. The Mediterranean enabled the colonizing CJreek to mZr^"!fn^' "^ '^' ^^^«»' ^"^ the coasts of Asia Minor, with Grecian settlements ; and at Mount Athos. at b^Hhir f ^/?*^' '^ ^''''^^"^ ^^^^^^° valor in roHing Pp^Ln l- ""'"^f of Asiatics, which the injured pride of th! reisian kings led them to send against the mother country. It conveyed Dido and her fellow-fugitives to Carthage, and o^ewl R **"r Tk^'"^^' ^"^ P"^«^"l that it could cope with Rome for the mistressship of the world. And under Providence, this sea. by the part it played in the I unic wars, had no small share in deciding that the love ItT^n' '^'' f^''-''^ independence, the stern mainte- nance of law and justice, which underlay and exalted the Koman character, and not the low, sordid, unprincipled policy that actuated and degraded Carthage, should then prevail, and ultimately pervade Western Eiiope. Thus the Mediterranean is interesting for the influence it exert- ^IT ^*'?,.*^^«f«7' the condition, and the commerce of the wl^T'^'^'''' «^,^ncient nations, which, as we have seen, hrs w'in lf^'" '•''""'• ^"^ '^' ^" ^^^d^'"" times, this sei has dwindled in importance, if commerce has, in a gieat measure forsaken this-the cradle of its young energils, it 8 because mankind have spread to newer and more Ex- tensive regions, and their intercourse can no longer be cou- tmed to limits so narrow. nbs, attest ! fact that degree of ristianera. of Canaan uilding of )f Lebanon adventur- the cities Jan. there isequently f the Ma;- ? of other his water is of trans- Greek to i of Asia Athos. at ' in rolling [•ideofthe r country, hage, and it could 1. And, ed in the the love 1 mainte- alted the )rincipled )uld then Thus it exert- Je of the ive seen, I, this sea a great ergies, it more ex- !r be cou- 8 Into this sea from the North, there stretch two peninsu- las—the easternmost, Greece; the more western one, Italy. Into the question as to what people constituted the first inhabitants of these peninsulas, I will not enter ; for it is one which exemplifies the adage, quot homines, tot seutentiae. But it is generally agreed that at a very early period, the two peninsulas were overrun by peoples that were kindred in race, and one in language. Each was an offshoot of the Pelasgian or Low Iranian branch of the great Indo-Ger- manic family ; which, 'at a period entirely prehistoric, migi'ated from the East and embraced the ancestors of both Greeks and Italians. And yet, though originally one m race and language, they developed into two very different peoples, each being destined, while obeying its own natural and national tendencies, to leave its mark indelibly im- printed upon European Life and History. It is my pur- pose in this Essay, to trace, as well as I am able, the in- fluence of these remarkable peoples on each other, and on what— speaking generally— we may call the civilization of modern Europe, and through Europe, of this Western World at the present day. It will be interesting briefly to trace the effect which the different geographical conformation of the two countries had upon the two peoples. In Greece, the sea has cut deeply into the land on all sides ; in proportion to her size she has an enormous coast-line j her shores abound in in- numerabie bays and inlets ; she has at abundance of nat- ural harbors. No wonder, then, that iiie Greeks were a sea-loving, sea-faring, conmiercial people, possessed of all the shrewdness and intelligence which foreign intercourse confers. As the experience of Darius and Xerzes proved, the insular character of their country was a bulwark against foreign invasion. No spot in the* country was far from the sea, and this proximity to the sea tempered tlie heat of the land and rendered the labor which the soil re- quired very endurable ; while the fact that the soil did require labor preserved the Greeks from the Asiatic torpor, apathy, and indolence which proves so destructive to progress in civilization. The bright, clear air, the healthy oHmate, and the physical features of the country, were such ah to gratify every appetite for jileasurable CO nS ''""/ enervating or rolaxinR t\w frame. Thev h^M. ^'^.I'''^^'''^'^ «»•» "'aintain the happy mental and bothly organization which distinKiiished " The lively Orcoian in hin land of hillii, UiverH. fertile pluinH, and HounditiK ahorei Under u cope of sky more variable.' Hi8 "lami of hillH" and his " soundinj: shores " wpr« m he hardihood of the niountaiireer with his d mracter wihT>H '""'"• .••**'". '""^•' '^'' *'^arlesHno.s8 of the ailo7- Hh le both combined to create and gratify a hive of im l' and an acnte <,h.servatiw pe i 1 its r: cn'"l ;r ^^-l ^'^/--T' -a. ^reat cJmpa;;;:^' i,^ -n^ui.iiiN unlH.jUu. II hemmed in tiie land, bnt it was ne. They antttl and 5S were iier gave liaracter- sailor ; r nature, ( forms. ? Greece L'ff'ect (jf luestion lie prill- in other i'lie sea f it, ra- f'(Jreek with its 'Hsities ; eal, its •sphical >trv, its 'eedoin. Mother In spite insuhir 1 Asia, s ; Just is the rica. e iMni- -U'r (,f Ilia, its il with le Was it was not laved by an island-studded sea, which might invite the inhabitants to become a sea-fanng, com?nercial people. It was the spirit of hostile war, and not that of friendly com- merce—it was Mars and not Mercurius— that taught their rates tr« two peoples. ' For na ance »uUu,n, Ok. «./,«e -millet ; L. rapu,n, or rapa Ok. ra,.o.-a turnip ; L. W^I^^/Gk. llenic one, and place, hat power 'f Latium, iscan and J Romans, •le of the Iture and impressed ent, while in other e country the other after the ption by, termiiied ic family ins were to their Prom the Jtual de- already namely, Jompara- Italians ) one to a know- uriug, of hich the the two ti »Mt Idest Latin that before Itivate gar- e fact that >r instance, '«, Gk. aro- janien ; L. vinum, Gk. It was not till the Hellenes and Italians had separated, that that deep-seated diversity of mental character became apparent, the effects of which continue to the present day The family the state, religion, art, and literature received each tn Italy and in Greece a distinctively national develop- ment. A few words as to each of these to bear out the assertion And first, as to the family. With the Greeks as with the Roipans, the husband was the head of the wife children and household ; but the Romans transformed this moml subjection into legal slavery, and made the wife children, and slaves, the actual and absolute property of the husband and father. The Greeks were never wanton- ly severe toward their slaves,* and they mitigated the harshness of their lot by allowing them legal rights as of iiiarriage, possession of property, &c. The . .mans, on the other hand, maintained with merciless rigor, the principle that the slave was destitute of legal rights. t As to the state. Out of the ^anxWy ~-{oikia~familia)~~ arose the clan {ifene-gem) • and out of the clan among Ureeks and Italians arose the state {polis~ci vitas). In lireece, the clan retained its authority as a corporate body in contradistinction to the state, even into historic times. In Italy, on the other hand, the state superseded the re- lationship, and neutralized the authority, of the clan. An Italian state exhibited an association, not of clans, but of citizens. Says Mommsen, " It was characteristic of the one nation (the Roman) to reduce all features of distinctive personality to a uniform level ; of the other (the Grecian) to promote their development." The same author, by a reference to Aristotle's description of the constitution of ointw-wine ; L. domm. a hou»e, Gk. d„m-l hnild ; the Latin /««/ca corresponded to the Gk. chiton, and the Latin toga was a large himation. •"No less amiable (than their hospitality) is the indulgence with which slaves, though wholly in the power of their masters, appear to have been treated in weU- regulated families. The visible approbation with w hich Homer mentions the kindness shewn by Laertes and his wife to their domestics, marks the tone of feeling that pre- vailed on this subject among his countrymen." r/arhmirn Greece. t Even philosophical Anstotle defen.ls doukia as an institution necessary to his polu, or city state ; and tiiere is a striking resemblance between his arguments and those of the pro-siavery orators of a few yeara ago. It is necessaiy. says he, it is ex- pedient ; some are, by their bodily ami menUl natures, born to serve ; and to enslave such is a kindness no less beneficial to the doulos than to the drgpotea. I ' H';^' If- i s Crete, endeavors to show tliif f l.« f i Roman constitution. v,7 a k „^ ^""damental ideas of the bly which simply raiiM^r,^^^^^^^^^^ and an assem ted to ,t by the kin^ or senat? wl ^ P'-oposals submit- of both peoples ; and ho l« « t^'''' *^'^ ^'''^"n^"" I>roper tv «ays he, thejMvJrrnot fom; f ^^^'"'^ ^" f^»'« ^^ct because stocks. But Aristo ?e "i^" A ^'»r«' ^'^'»^''' Indo-bermS crintion r»ffiw. ' !^VF,^^' ."^ ^^e chapter folln.,,,.,.. i f" ,"^^ stocks. Bui A,i;to^ T'^j's/'t'- indo4i;;;;s ^ the constitution of (>^f 7;/f ^ ^■"^' J»« ^les- ^t these ideas were no o'/ ,1*^1' /^^^ ^^ respects iniproved upont; ti e ( W li '^""•'^'' ^^"^ "^ "^^ny offshoots of the Phai^icians h!l "^''"'''"«' ^ho, bein- ^he foHowin- extranf T ' ?i""^'^'^ *^^ the Senn'tic fani K^ (par. 94) whiil. i exp^ ^ew S ' were not found anioS^otLfjL'^.f "fundamental ideat- P^^Hiaps. tlie common .on pn fT^'^'T."^"^^ stocks, sliows ^U^^^^r^^^-^^^^t^ w jd. both the Gr7ek' Hellas (,wed their early civiliLaf n„ .^^^^ ^n^'abitants of enures of their hteraiy cdt^'e "' ?' '""^' ^'^^''^ P^'^'"^'^"* tiieleut(micraces had no coniP.fi '"'"''^^ ^ith which "-nun. While the IndX;ma^^^^ throu^haGreek e Ganges on the one side a ,d to f ll 4 h "^^^^ «Preading to t le Syro-Ambian or yen^ftic fn. n ^^^'^"^ticon the other the pnmitive eivili.aS of ot "rtrfi ^""^^?""^^ ^^^^^'^^' ot Mesopotamia aiw? P.„^ ; , "^^^ "^^'« the river-|«n,jt -a^t of ?he Me,liTe S '""^S /''« -'"''e of t'lVe Wl «aus, they were the eX • ■ "'' " '"""® "*' Pl'«in argest part of the pip a •.■fit "'"^ ^''"'^tit.ited the mumcatecl the eoXfe " tT.'.f ^" ^/^y^here thev com ''"d "..parted ,„,t'^, few of til "r'"*'''-"""'' »"<' wntiW Jl<'g...as Hhieh for,,, the bl-Jf/^ '«'""« ""d pWlosoph "ff back to a time when »he Xhu i, !,.?„ r ' ''P*?'''""' I^^ "•«<-'ed o descend „pon The,s«aly ^K «f^^^ ^-.d not beg„„ ;" tact, It was in th^ ToI i « ** '^^ the peninsula ^mu«. and „„ the West coast f a^?*^'^' "'""'"es aTd PLu-'mc an» fi,^t taught t,.eTW. pT **'■""' *"« 'he 'f Crreeks and Italians) those .T P^ a^gians (ancestoi-s l'...ldei-s of Amos and r?f.? « ts wh.ch made the tower mysterions >eveSc; ig ?°V''"? ',"' Mia ^fth "equeutly ,)e,,vod from iife S™,,,'''"''""'"^'''™'' **"!>- u.e Southern islands of their ?»tal ideas of the and an assem- foposals.submit- >mnion jiroperty « fact, because, Indo-Gerinanic lowing his des- '«ollo; and to b(»tli he was 'ever bright and * Thill wall's (Jruuce. dOlys^'vlX., •271. t lloniee Odes 1., 2. Horuce Odes 1., 12, 49. r Ibid I., 54. ' Horace vSat. II., 1. 43. 10 fail' " Ti P'un household '''"^^ .^^ "f » v u doniestic broil i i Hu ri ' ,^*'^^'od the idea in oo t,«n ' ^'^'^"'^^' ^^'^^'^^^ legend l^" mouth. ^^ ■^"^''" """'«. the iJco,, a„d ,,.o.r-// uiiiei It is niad( aces what woul unit am liie gro visions, iiulte'i I i"i on the dark the benighted kV, was, to the asurer,"- to the he influence ^vhich watches ^' cu'cle, was by '"Hiis as [ W/«. wer of the soil f^^nians alike, s''>ernetej-, tJjat fij'e possesses makes them » "1 war, was ^'** and to the f^ctnilmf loaf. ' Hs beiiio^s^ •Hssiojis and few fifthottit » the Olyij,' ^»e (Greeks >ther words t''e Roman ^^'t truths. i'e« of prini- '^ends ejii- '6 Konian, 's ^liiiiniej '^'f^gy, tlie '" tlie for- i> and one ^ iiistitu- ^'■eM- out ■evolution^ a 11 of the belief that man was enabled by the divine favor to obtain a know^edo:e of futurity which his natural faculties could not reach. The gods did not in person impart this knowledge, but they were believed to communicate it by some favorec person, or by some medium at favored places, ihe knowledge itself was not sought from mere motives of curiosity, but partly from the great reverence for the gods so pecu bar to the ancients; by which they were led not to undortake anything ()fiinportancc without their sanction. I he places at which, as well as the medium by which prophetic knowledge was uttered, were called oracles ; and the mcKst ancient ami celebrated of the Greek oracles were attached to the sanctuaries of Jupiter and of Apollo, at Dodoiia and Delphi respectively. Oracles in which a god revealed his will through the mouth of an inspired individ- ual- as at Delphi— did not exist in Italy.* As a usual thing, the Romans did not feel the want of them ; for thev ascertained the will of the gods by means of their Sibylline bo()ks, or by auguries, omens, &c. The latter kinds of ilivmation wei-e also practised In the (Ireeks. As to ait. We must conclude that Grecian art had reached a very high degree of perfection, even in heroic timers, It we take our ideas from the descriptions of Homer. He describes the house and the furniture of the Grecian chieftains, the armor of themselves, and the trappings of their horses, together with the dresses of their wives, as being inagTiificent, costly and elegant in both material and workmanship. According to him there was no lack of the precious metals or of iron, sleel or bronze, or of skill and ingenuity to work them into convenient and graceful forms It IS true that the poet, for his description Of the shield made by Hephaistos for Achiiles, and of the princely pal- aces of Alcmons and of Menelans, may have drawn some- what upon his imagination; but these very descriptions woiikl have belied themselves to the minds of his hearers, * Faunus a.ul Fortuna l.a,l oracles in Italy. Of the for.ner then^ was one at Albunea un.l another „« the Aventine. lint hore thee seker. after slavin./ a vi.tim slej.* „., the ground with the Bkin Mrapt aroun.l hin.. an.l awaite.l the presence of the L\ in "'rT; V^ *'? '"'*''°'^ '^^ ascertaining the future, compare the Taghairn, oon- bulted l.y Bnan. chaplain to Roderic Dhu, in Scott's Lady of the Lake Canto IV ■r:J 12 bv Humev nmy imv..-\,.e "of i',"' '*."'«''■■ '>''.i''et.s described «.« y,vV«,; of UeeubH c- „ eLe. r'r," ""■'"""'■^•'■l'. »« ment» lui,, within tlm la"rftw tii ' """"""'^ -"•"«■ roborated b.v the re^oa vl e' ,Tf C S, 7" *»"''«'-f""y cor- of ancient troy and Mv„rmc ^''. ,*','-;'''"'"""'. "" f'" «iteH enthusiastic explore.- S In •• hV ','f """' !'''«••«. ""» uated between ?he Tow" .f 'JV, """"f "'' '''ia.n,' sit- «>fe"«at '|uantitvofbea,Mf, „, V" •""' "'" '*™««^ Kate, «'ork»,a.!shi,,, id am. ^''trtwT" 7""" •*'"'« «^'««' verj- ,/<./„^, ,,„/,;. ^^/■^.'™wl^^ he clanns to be the mgs anil „bjoc-t„ of a,-, wh ch l.eT *''"';'"'«'- "'<■' •>"ild- K" to prove that Ho nerrus foAll'"""";"'"'' "' •^'>'<""«. W'Imt he described ' "'" "'"*' P"'''. ''ave seen an L:r„sLt: "ii^omte";;^''^*^"' ""^"- «■•■" ••'-» "f to believe that it wL < I h '„ T'f ""'*• ^"' '""e reason pevented fron. restiug l^fied w th ^ ""^-^ »'""''' ">« "'"tators by the livel/i,m" h,^t„!,'"' ^l"? »"""""» «»' '"ere beanty so peculiar to\S mce ' ^"Vf » P"<^«Ptio„ of •-•iiaracter of the Greek min.i ; i *'"^' t''" originatin.^ matiifested than h 1 'a ' j- ''oT^'''^''' "° "^^ ^ette? • has been stated in the extraf. 1 1 "'''^'"'''^ture. If, ^ (page «) the (ireekrobtahied ^M T""- f™™ Donaldson, ture fron, the Ph,enl.iaj.s " 1^" t ^'l ''""'^ "'' '"^''^"^^' the towers of Argo ^ tl J rt m.'^','''^' ''" ""y ^^' 'i" even the buildina " brrimht ! ,.''"*""' ''oi'ses of Italy, or l>opylea, the treci&'" ^'£\f *4?«»* bear tcf'th; crowned the Acropolis at 'i,h«^ t-> P"'"'^'""" which »i' geinus cannot rival, much less otller 'rtircitie^' n^ttrsr^lvTl '"""" »""' "' "-' tliat specimens of the -ZL ^"^^^^.^ ^ is known. It is true -pinions as to the ethnobg^^ o'f hTs'?'" Tf"} '"^^ l>- ^^^e ^^ ''' ^^"« ^^ondel•ful people (and * Iliad VI., -JSO. y 13 their origin puz^i^l ,i,e ancients 114 much as it has ncr- plexc.1 the „,oa8e.s and other vessels which now delif,'ht the eve by the beauty and prop,,rtion of their forins^aud which Zm- theretined taste by the chastcness and elegance of tS designs, were Grecian in shai.e as much as "their choices (leseivecieditfor niprovmg on the original models in a 7,Z^f"'^y ,"'""• <"^"- "^--'i--' i» tl'e ^vet; of Its artistic -levelopment stands almost on a level with un civilised peoples; Hellas developed with incredible mpidhy out of Its religious c.mceptions the mytli and the wol>,hip ped Idol ; and out of these that inarvellous world of poetry and sculpture, the like of which history has not again ,0 shew. In Latium m. other inHuences weV^we"* ren t It T l'"^■'*'^ "^'^ '"!' P^'de-ee. riches and otreiig li. It was reserved for the Hellenes to feel the bhssiul ascendancy of beauty, and to minister to the fair i'^fflSll^P"""^) «■"'' «» e>.thusia.sm, half sensuous! tuit' bnt'^lT^!"""- 1 ^''"'"'y '^'«"''«'="'J '^'itl' art is litera- ture . but as there is leisure to pursue the graces of life onlv look"f^r'a"rrr'-''"' "f-^ '"•.'' ^-^eored, it is usdesTS look for a literature among e ther Greeks or Italians while they were contending "vith primitive i, habitants for a coun ry or with natuml obstacles for daily bread But «'lien m Italy ami in Greece the country had been woi^ y the superior prowess, energy, and courage of the invad mg races ; and the bread had been secured by the Su- gatmn or enslavement of a class of toilers /how w^it thcj^iristian Ija, and that Kome hail no literature before Moinnison'a History of Rome. L'. ^ 14 eircuinstancorClnei i, H,'n ""f"' ""'^ "' "'" ''"^t """ an.l h. tl "'«" "t"'t •' , ^^•"''"■''«. eininentiv pl.il,..soi,I,?"; ■ «1«'™- ever we wi^l. fn o.^... ' ^^.'V^ <'nven to rasort to t wlieii- " lia.l n<,t the at, n ! '/. ! ' "'i""' '"""'• «"' "'"lii-stic- evciv vai-iPtv „f !i ""''•*■ "* fawsfoi'iiii,,.' itself i„t„ eiu-juy It wfl«xvJ^ii 11!' ""*ee^^ J,'nivitv, solidity H p.:, lo ^W o we.r .fiv o'"'" '^^ '" "^^^^'^'^^^^ ^^^^ thoughts .f ^i^^Jt ehaVactorized tho'sist^ ton.^^;' ''" ^"'^^^^^"^ ^^^^^^ and ^::i ::i ^idi^s^^if ^^^-v ^"^^ ^^^"^-^^ -^ would not invite It IhoV^^T^' ^'"* ""^"'"^^ ehameter as a matter of Lt ts we 4X^ composition in it. And ■ ' '^^ "^^ ^^^^'^" ««e presently, the earliest .t« l>ml.op.,. ••-Article o., "Th -O ^1? ''^ " I*'''^"'' °^«'- »« t^*' Ronun Clu,r4 an.l '^-■'•-v. .ran.. ,8.S0. '' "" ''"""' ^l""* "' ^-^in Christianity,- i„ Pri..eeton -;^a.>tio ,a..,„a,e, in .iJLh tile t;::;^:^!.:^'?*:^: ?'^""^'^":' "'*" ^'^^ «-""e Ibi.l. »t>apel iiad Ijetori! been iiicor}M)rateiI. 15 more than seven ion I have asked, ■i in the Uct that iiiii.siihi a highly til minds deeply tly philosopliic"; oif'-fact people — il, given to con- estions etfectiiiir 'ting and re-act- i greater extent, issed a language so well adapted 01' lofty specii- ort to it when- ion the instni- iical science of Latin, the ulti- vas itielastic — ing itself into iy, or pictured ivity, soliditv, he thoughts of nnimaginativfi •aceful beauty hmguage act iant character '11 in it. And r, the earliest le— tlie capacity and Aen. VI. 847-&-,.1) th of Roman power Roman CImrch and "ity,"in Princeton was to serve as a ! with th.it flevil,!e leen incorjHir.ite.l." Itonian historians wrote in (jreek, because they had as yet no native language fitted to express their thoughts. And when Komau writers first used their native tongue in com- position, their style was formed after Greek taste, and they Confessedly followed Greek models. Again, as com- l)ared with the Roman, what a vitality and stability does the (rreek language manifest ! The former, as if confess- ing its own innate weakness and helple.s.sness, had to be nursed into life l)y the latter ; and when form and sub- stance were given to it, it was so nnstable that it yielded to every pressure, and was moulded by every influence, from without. It seemed to invite rather than to resist change ; and so different from classical Latin were the few records that remained of olil Jioman, that even the cleverest scholars of the Augustan iVge could scarcely in- terpret them. And as to vitality, it has been remarked that "its existence is confined within the limits of less than eight centuries. It assumed a form adapted for literary composition less than two centuries and a half before the Christian era, and it ceased to be a spoken language in the sixth century."'' The Greek language on the other hand, amid all the changes that befell the nation, steadily resisted change in itself The author above (juoted further says: — " The Greek of the Homeric poems is not so different from that of Herodotus and Thucydides, or the tragedians, or the orators, or even the authors of the later debased ages^ but that the same scholar who understands the (me can an- alyze the rest. Though separated by so many ages, the contemporaries of Demosthenes could appreciate the beau- ties of Homer; and the Byzantines and early Christian fathers wrote and spoke the language of the ancient Greek philosophers." And as to duration, it can boast of an ex- istence measured nearly by one-half the duration of the human race, and it is not yet, strictly speaking, a dead lan- gua'ge. The modern Athenian still speaks Greek, though a Greek less robust and more cfleminate than that which roused his ancestors to repel the machinations of Philip. A well educated modern Greek would find less difficulty in understanding the writings of Xenophon than an Eng- * Browne's Komau Classical Literature. 1 I I- : t 16 Ii«liman would experience in reading Chaucer or even er, «, far ,„ ,„,„ -^''' •''^. ' ?«'' «"" Italian clmrac- liave cl.me this somew .f fi,. ' ''T '" "''"^""'ed. I ffli^i..,., art, literal ri; ^,"' """ ""«'"• "^ l"w, •l'"t tl„, traits whif ,t?, ,1 ''"'«"«K<' >■ '"i.l we Imve seen '"...1 .KUnro : a res' I • .sness Ve^^ T^'' "'" l'""'"'«'' "' »■' "".'"I. a"'J a fon,Iness fr;,,ecZ! ^ ^' ."'"', ''>W»alit.v of «eiente ; or, as St. PmlLT^T"^ '■" P'"'"«<'Pl.y and 'I'iaus, l,e e,«.trast.rjeXl e e^^^^^^^^ ''' !'"«'" "''" < ""'- was aetiiateil bv a l.isl, a,,, ."i/ 7"' '"'''''' ""'^P' "•a»an.bitious,-„ot , fa ti!.. f"''™y"'S sense „f ,!„,,.: I'M! of ,l,e glory o[oZue^;^'^^^^^^^^ agffraudisen>e„t,\utfrtre:xieSst. '.?V'''* *■'"• '"« "^ He was tansht that he owed ,ml "5i '^ T'^^' ""*""»'• euerpes to the service of t),; . li" "^i"''"'?'^ f-'*^"' ''" '"» mind and body were sueitin„ ■"^"? ''«»' Powers of ''"» a IK'opIe oV peat^X nf w?' "'' ^'^"''"'- " 'J^hev were '-W. of deeds; ,„^t rkV n a" ts X.V'"' ".""""'.' "*' "'■■"^<"^ political sa«acitv ■ eai i «,„1i „ -.1 *'"'^' '» bravery and t V". « ■narvelloL' K C oi^ai"/:'"''' ^^r' "^ ''^^'^^ « .net for legislation an I goyeZS^ a strong i„. philosopliical systems hi.t fi!: ■ , ™ey produced no perfecti^on ; the ■ In,™ 'no Part Lm^f 17 '"' ''^ '"«''-' roads and bridges t(, bind c?, Z • ' "*"' '¥>' instructed aml^oastles to proteci them.'^ '""' '"'*5"'""'' »'«' **"« wi J;r,i°"; 1™,^::;;:',: tnir".!: p-'^- "» N-»-Haii™,o „, u,. Athenian ),eH-spaper.='-r/,„ t TAWoj •niih t'onflict of Christianity with HuatI, ■standing T.icoupi s lliBtoiy or au lienism. ^'liaucer or even red to ^ive scjnie tion of antuiuitv > mces,{i.s well as ting point the de- imve traced the } Italian charac- is concerned. I matter of law, I we have seen ininejitly in -the beautifnl in art J oritrinality ^^^^ philoHophy and A^ to the (.'orin- Oreek penetra- reah' seiik after and practical ; ense of duty; eliectual fanie,' t for his own iway of Kome. 'y gave, all his 3«t powers of " They were n of thinkers bravery and 'r of assimila- a strong in- produced no ^ its highest constructed c, and walls !0-HeIlenic of bar- :hat good soholais Is History or au PART II. .?f; "^^ QUALITIES OF OREECK AND ROME HAVE INFLUENCED EUROPE AND THE WORLD-DIFFERENCE OF THIS INFLUENCE- GREECE HAS AFFECTED THE .ESTHETIC SIDE OF MAN'S NA- TURE—ROME THE PRACTICAL-GRECIAN HISTORY—SUBJUGA- riON OF (iREECE BY ROME-ROMAN SYMPAfHY WITH GREEK CULTURE— ROMAN ENDEAVORS TO POSSESS IT— INFLUX OF GREEKS TO ROME— LATIN WRITERS— LATIN UTERATURE— GREEK INFLUENCE ON LITERATURF^ MORALITY AND RELIGION OF PRESENT DAY-fJREEK CULTURE TRANSFERRED TO WEST- ERN EUROPE BY MEANS OF LATIN LANGUAGE-HOW STUDY OF LATIN WAS KEPT UP THROUGH DARK AGES-HOW AND TO WHAT EXTENT GREECE INFLUENCED ROME IN SCULPTURE-IN ARCHI- TECTURE-ENCOURAGEMENT GIVEN TO ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE BY RELIGION. I have now to trace the means whereby, and the extent to which, the mental qualities which distinguished these two peoples influenced the rest of Europe and have affected the civilization of the present dav far beyond the bounds of that continent. No one who reflects on this subject will doubt that they have exerted a mighty influence on the institutions, the manner of life, the modes of thought, the physical well-being, and the mental culture of the na- tions of modern Europe, and through them of the world at arge. Could all that we owe to (Jreece and Kome be suddenly blotted out from the life experience of mankind m both the Old and the New WorM, what a void it would leave ! The progress of humanitv would be put back tens of centuries in its onward march. That which we owe to Oreece difl'ers from that which we owe to Kome, and it differs in the verv particulars in I i !M iii! p !, 1 . ' I I f " <■ which wo havo seen that theinonta! ' and social needs of life. In a word, (Ireece tnrned out refined artists and scholars, Rome made successful rulers and law-«;ivers. In tracing,' the means whereby Greek civilization was spread o\ er Europe, it will be necessary to advert briefly to hen* histury. The politics of mankind are ever oscillatint^ like a pendulum, between democracy on the one side, ; ud monarchy (in some sliajie) on the ot!ier. . (ireece, hk a nation, was ruined by the force with which this pemn lu^n swun}.;:. Political feeliu«j; — democracy versus aristocracy — ran ho hij^h between state and state,* and particularly be- tween the representative states, Athens and Sparta,* that nothino short f the complete subjugation of the one c(mld appease the :»n> . -! y (.f the other. And when Greece came out of ti V i u -a •>< -death struggle, it was to find her- self powerless tv v. m,i an out>; le foe in the pers(m of the wily Philip, of Mac< don. Philip was succeeded by Alex- ander ; and an army of Greeks carried the conquests of this their new master, to the fur East, and peaceful Greek wei" cult - »vei Asij con! ami acqi as §« of tlio Hijcioiit It Koimui. Tho by piotluciiif^ ; — to please his ess rhytlnn and which Mattered subjects famous 3ries his restk^ss y speculatiu*,' on Hence we may nore ])ai'ticulai'ly refinements and for none of these -the subjugation he iinp')sed tliat tural to hims(df, iiment wliich his rhich experience peet to find that practical side of il social needs of ne advert briefly B ever oscillating? le one side, -ml . (ireece, nt \ 1 this penf»i\!u)i!i ;us aristocracy — particularly be- nd Sparta, that of the one couhJ id when Greece s'as to find her- le person of the ceded by Alex- le conquests of peaceful Greek 1ft sclnilars rollowinj? distantly in their wake, nlanted (!'f^cian art, ehxpienet? an" """""g the Lman noSy oftSei V^i ?!""■'' '"u'*'"''^''' the great seats oi science in Greece ; and these when thev returned invited Greek professional an.l literarv men to theii iSan romes , obtained citizenship for them and became the p~i friends and patrons. A knowledge of the Greek lan»ua.fe friend ami *, 'f "' '\''">'t8 m pleailing the cause of his old mend and tutor the poet Archias'f— " Oiwm leountu,- T hiifW mern'ote"*^" ^'•^■^1' "^^-'''l •'«' "^an^ «*■ that felt tL need T^'A '"''' "'^ ''*^'' '*'''' *''« ""'"""^ cm s" n,r'f|v rI '^T"^" '"'' "*"""« "' « "t«™ture ; course to til ^?r" '"^"^tors were driven to have re^ V trsam/l^ '' «a« "'"t Roman tlmt .>^i w7 '""1 r "''■*'' ^''"'^' '■'"•the same reason tiidt l.nglish youths and literary men, after the revival of ofTuion:; '"' ^:t r' Gft-b"-"- ""^i— g' tluSt! .h^ rsa^ ''' '" *« •'"^t t"« -■•'" ^-i ever 'Ihe first name in Latin literature is that of L Livius Uiie bv'birtV" Het„ f^I """?!"• '^"■•™'»''- "»'' »' T^™" line DA 1)11 til. He had been taken as a cautive sIavp tn leZatir^irv ':r '"A^ii^ '''^. '-^hingVerf ;:ii:dito leqiisitum by the Hellenistic spirit which had .^ainpfl "'"■•'""' '^^^-lukncy there. But, litLdly, hefoumfLXoks * Ulilhoni. ^ cen6•> to forni."^ And yet we should be wrong if, from what has been said, we ac>t system- it est importance to e great Greek think- •rld ever since thev « ^7 materially influ- losophy, in religion, e. ocrates, at Athens, leless opened a new st movement of in- their own natures iple of Socrates, and 23 Aristotle, the pupil of Plato, expounded and expanded the ethical doctrines which Socrates had taught. The exposition and expansion were further carried on by Zeno and his followers of the Stoic school. Now in Greece, Stoicism was a speculative doctrine ; but transferred to Rome, it chimed with those noble moral qualities, which, as we have shown, distinguished the Roman character. It there became an active faith, and was worked out into practical rules of life. With them the (/nm/ii seauton of Solon and Socrates became the injunction, conrenimtev cowjnmiterQue naturw rivere. Cicero was a pupil of this school, and his writmgs show how thoroughly he had imbibed its teaching, and that he knew the strong and the weak points of the system The system had many imperfections, yet it never- theless * moulded human institutions, and affected human ilestmy to a greater extent than all the otlier philosophical systems, either of the ancient orwiodern world." For, as horimer, (Institutes of Law) just quoted, points out, this Socratic teaching or doctrine of the Stoics was bequeathed to the modern world by Boethius, (470-524 A.D.,) when, m his prison at Pavia, he wrote his ''Consolations of Phil- osophy ;" which book— the connecting link between the classical and the Christian world— was most widely read throughout Europe during the middle ages, and was trans- ited for Englishmen by Alfred and Queen Elizabeth. No less than the writings of Aristotle directlv it, exerted an im- mense influence on the minds and actions of men, and ulti- mately gave rise to the works of the great jurists of the 16th L'entury. lis— ballad tales aa they have oniposition ..; prose tiie Latin id as we have said, (page IT),) We have already spoken of the Ijeautv and flexibility of lie (Jreek tongue. So flexible was it, and so well adapted to express the minutest. shades of thought that it was selected as the vehicle of New Testament truths. More- >ver, 111 the ttrst Christian age, (ireek was the common angiiage of literature, and was the one used by the early bathers of the Christian Church. Our knowledge of the |)ivine will, therefore, as taught bv Christ and his Apostles, ■ind recorded in the New TeMtamont Hcriptures, and •1 how the truths so taught and recorded were niderstood by the Bishops and Fathers of the early 24 ( liurcli who inimedately followed Christ und His Apostles — depends for its reliability and accuracy upon the thorouKhness of oiii- acquaintance with the (li-eek-tonL^ue Uius did (Ireece nitiuence our morality and religion • we have shown how it inHuenced our mental philosophy and ethics ; and as to other branches of science, tlie work done by the (Jreeks in Logic and in (Jeometry remains a basis ot study to the i)resent time ; while the most successful statesman of to-da\ will find much to instruct him in the pages of Plato's Republic and of Aristotle's Politics In poetic literature we now talk glibly, and as a matter of course of our epic, lyric and dramatic poets ; in prose litera- ture ot our historians, our philosophers and our orators ; but we should do well to remember that it was the Greeks and not we, who hewed out these very names and tviies of literary work from the quarries of human thouglit knd ex- perience. We appropriated the substructure, and we bmlt no small part of the edifice of modern European literature from Grecian plans and speciticaticms ; or to vary the figure tlie literature of Greece is the fountain head from which flowed all Western literature. '•From Helicon's harmonious sprliifrs A thousand rills their niiizy progress take." —Oruy's Froyress of Put-mj "liut " .ways a modem Es.sayist, "if Greek was tliel elioseii laiigiiage which carried literature, science and wis- p„l ted with the captams of the vessels that if they fail- theii place. \et sculptures and other works of art were not unknown n, Italy. For, previous to this time Etniria had become famous for the excellence of her vases and Serrthli^H^r'"™^ '"r^"- ^hat the EtrS s l' tamed their hrst lessons m these branches from the Greeks however, ,s attested by the fact that the designs on nmnv of I mvthn; ''"'"f ;■' ^'T'"" ^•"*^ of art aretakeu fShl ' come th-,? it^ ^' ?r' •""'' T"^^""^ workmen did they be- comma^edV'".:''-^"'"''' * ':«*' of Tuscan workshops dn Z? f I,' '"^''' r*-* .'=™" '» Athens. Etruscan pro- states ,!f I '," '"'■'f'""'' *'""7''.v into X,atium and other Greek ttiJf V J"""} ,"\ "T^'K"^ the cities and towns, G eeceT. R ■"' "v -n '."'""'' '«''"''<' "'" »"l>.i»K«tion o trueTh-i,-' 1, p'' ^"" '^"'y,r'<' ""' <^^o.mno„, and it is r 4 h . . n"' ^"""'■'' '-^^ '""' "" 'M'P'vciative taste 101 '•t.itiary. mouUlmg, metal working, &e., till there ocl ranUidf "■'' •f?'"^-'^ r'-^'-^' »'■-- '-I Ae.. of u^.no, m"' " "'^ ^^ '""■" '*"''•' 'ollowed the sub nm o V „- ■■ "* "" ^";"o™ ^o'-k« of the famous i cumorsTnl'l'"'''™;' '", '*''•>■ '^ «P0"'' '""' <'i'«ek siulp^ois m Italy produced numerous copies of these and '27 of others But notwithstanding this prevalence of objects ot art, and the fact that to ape the connoisseur became the ashion about Sylhi's time, and the mania about Hadrian's he art never became naturalized at Rome ; and under the late Emperors it so degenerated that the works produced were only ^ '* The splendid wrecks of former pride," and before the reign of Constantino the art of the ancients was entn*ely lost. Need I pause to point out what an important factor in the civilization of a people is the love and encouragement ol the fine arts ? It need only be mentioned that the point of civilization reached by any people, at any one time, is not unjus^tly measured by the excellence of their works of art, and by the estimation in which these and their pro- ducers are held by the public of the period. Athens reach- e(l Its zenith under Pericles, and his was the age in which Phidias executed his inimitable statues of Athene and Zeus, which were the admiration of antiquity ; and the age 00, m which were produced, under Phidias' direction, those priceless treasures known as " The Elgin Marbles "* which are as much the admiration of modern times as thev are unapproachable by modern art. It is interesting to speculate on what would have been the position of this branch of the hne arts to-day, if Greece had not led the way and furnished models for Home and the rest of the world to imitate. As to architecture. Sculpture and architecture are iiearly related. .So close was their consanguinity at the Imth of each, that the latter has been called " the elder s.-ster of the former. If this is true, it is also true that religion IS the parent of both. It has been well said that one ot the first objects of man in a rude state of being is to secure himself and his family from the heat of the trop- ical sun fnmi the inclemency of the pcjlar regions, or from tiie sujiden changes of more temperate climates. And that when he has arrived at such a degree of improvement as * T'.ese were tlie sculpture,! decorations of the Parthenon or temple <.f Athene, th. election of which, by order of Pericles, Phidias superintended. it P lilll w^ ■'] m m 28 to live under tlip sway of a superior, and under the influ- ence of a reli<,nous belief, iJie palace of his kin<^, and the temple of his gods will be reared in the most magnificent style which his skill can devise, and his industry and his re sources accomplish. His imagination was wont to invest his god with powers superior to those of his king; so the temple of his god, whom he was anxious to propitiate, would take precedence, in magnificence and in time, of the palace of his king. Accordingly, the architectural remains, which oven now in their ruins challenge our admiraticm, are not the abodes of the princes of the people, but the temples of their gods. The more stately the temple the more gratified, thought they, was the God who tenanted it, and the more likely was he to lend a gracious ear to the prayers offered therein. Hence the psjus bestowed on the structure itself, and also the demand for works of sculpture and art with which to adorn it. The first use to which sculpture was applied was the ornamentation of the temples; and the arts flourished owing, not only to the demand for statues, but also for anathemata — i.e., rich presents con seci-ated to the god— thrones decorated Mith figures, cotters, shields, tripods, vases, cups, &c. In speaking of how much ancient religion had to do with architecture and art, we should remember that the relig- ion of the Greeks themselves, and consequently the re ligion which they taught to their Koman conquerors was one in whicli art predominated. And do we not owe our Westminister Abbey, our York Minstei-, our Salisbury Cathedral, Old St'. I'aul's in London, and modern St. Peter's at Kome, the Church of San Marco in Venice, and of Santa Maria in Florence,— in short, man's noblest efforts in architecture, and the highest flights of his genius in sculpture and painting — do we not owe these to the fact that the religion which mediieval Rome in turn im- posed on Christendom was also one in which art piedom- inated I Indeed, if the digression may be ])ardoned, it will be interesting to notice the iniportant part that leligion has always and everywhere played in calling forth the best man could do in architecture and art. Whether we take the temple of Isis in Egypt, of Athene at Athens, of Diana at 29 Ephesiis, of Jupiter C'apitolinus at Home, of the true God at Jerusalem, of the false gods in India and China, the Mosques of Mohammed in Turkey, or the temple t)f the Sun in Mexico,— whether we take the religious edifices of ancient, of meditieval, or of modern times, of prse- Reformation, or of ^^-Reformation eras, in the Old World and in the New, we shall find that man has ever devoted his best and noblest in art and architecture to the service of his (Jod. The characteristics of a race, and even of an individual nation, are reflected in its public buildings ; and thus the speculative, poetical, and beauty-loving character of the Greeks was exhibited in the structure of their temples. But besides being speculative, poetical, and beauty-loving, {or rather as a conse(iuence of this), the Greek mind had another feature, viz: it was thorouj/hly imbued with a sense of fitness and mea8ure,~was keenly alive to all that constituted good and bad taste. '' mhil mmis— ' nothing too much '—was the maxim which governed the creations of classical literature and art." Greek architects kept steadily in view, and obeyed implicitlv, the meden aqav of Solon, and hence Greek edifi(;es had always that con- gruity, that symmetry, that perfect adaptation of structure to purpose and to site, which, though not beaut v, are yet essential to beauty. From such a simple beginning as the wooden hut formed of posts set in the ground and covered with transverse poles and rafters, Gieek genius developed three of the live established orders of architecture, namely : the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Roman architecture had its origin in copies of the Greek models. All the Grecian orders were introduced into Rome, but the order more largely adopted by the Romans was the Corinthian. To the three orders already named, Rome added two others of her own, viz : the Tuscan and the Composite. Every one knows how largely these five ancient orders of architecture have entered into the structure of public buifdings in Western Europe and America. And if in our churches, abbeys and cathedrals, the s(.lid Saxon, the picturesque Norman, or the pointed (Gothic have super- ill 30 seiled these hralhen orders, it is ..wiiiff nanlv t„ .l„. f„„. that the horizontal, earthl.vcharae ^of ' helireek lemo^e was not ,„ keepinj. with the heavenwar.1 infl nenees oT tt' rhnsfan reh«ion ; partly, to the fact tharthe chamcte ttiKl slmde created by miinerous pcrticos "* ^^^"^^ "'' ^^«^» iii nil i %l NJ ! .1 iiie uMii/diion t)t Cxieeee over the rest of Eiir«mo . i»,* T from tlje statute books of Euroue all tUtL if ^ "' '' erased the remainder wouldT U tie w ,hI """ ":""" -with laws passed to remove some immeZte nf«ll ?' civil L of aiicTent I{"n'e ''""'"' '"'-' ""'«'^'«' '" ''"^ i".nd..est peaLt . and whatli^Jtir? Z T;s1our 81 Jioman IW. 1 ^ ^''''">' '" ^^'^ character of an old eJamorprI f... t^xocntion ; and tliat when the Jews iwnr/l /""""•"'•' ''"''-'"^'"t aj^uinst the apost e P-u I inchided l)esidp« iJ!!/ a * \^^^ ^''"^'"^ ^^^rld then arul wore the li,m»nt,Z lit U.muii. language, lasted four hnn.h^ v^r ,', .1 """'' '"'"'■ ^^"'"i" .l.at, when i„ t,.„ ,.e,i'„"^ l^^^X, ^^m rt 32 fell a vK'tini to lior own weakness, slie left the genius of ^ her institutions, cuatonm and laws, indeHhly impressed upon those countries tliat had acknowledged her I'ule. They ceased not to be lionian though they ceased to be subject to Itonie, 1 may illustiate the innate tenacity with wliicli customs and institutions cling to countries and peoples, and how they r<\sist change even when the country itself has changed concpierors or possessors, by a reference to the Saxons in England. Perhaps no people enjoying the same degree of civilizaticm as did the Sax(ms eyer offered so little armetl resistance to an invader, as the Saxons offered to Wdliam the Conqueror. From a military point of view, the Norman conquest of Saxon England was com plete ; and yet, to what slight extent the wave of Norman language, laws and institutions disturbed the deep-sea waters of Saxtm customs, language and laws is shewn by the fact that the latter, after a struggle for supremacy which lasted one hundred and fifty years, came out victorious • and that too, m face of the fact that Norman influences were backed by all the advantage which superior learnino wealth, polish and power afford to their possessors. A case nearer Iwrnie is even more to the point. Nearly one hun- dred and twenty years have passed since French domina- tion ceased in Canada, and yet how French is the Pro- vince ()f Quebec to-day ! Again, British civilization in Untario is a thing of only one century's growth, and yet supposing it possible that we now could be overcome by a strange nati(m how impossible would it be to obliterate the traces of British rule ! It would be beyond my purpose, as it is beyond mv power, to trace minutely the dependence of fundamental moilern laws upon their Roman prototypes ; suffice it to repeat that those parts of the world which were destined by 1 rovidenee to take the lead in the world's advance- ment, derived from ancient Rome the groundwork and niuch of the superstructure of their civilization But besides our political and civil institutions— judiciary mat- matters, I have said that we owe to ancient Rom.e manv of our social customs. Not only are such Roman in origin, lie fifenius f»f V inijH'osHOjl (I hor i*h1o. 3easod to be icli customs s, and how itsolf has ence to the ijoying tlio Bver offertHl he Saxon.s litary l)oint (1 was eoni- of Norman e ileep-sea lown by the lacy which victorious ; lences were p learninji;, rs. A case y one liun- ch domina- s the Pro- ih'zation in li, and yet 'come by a obliterat(> jeyond niy ndamental itfice it to e destined i advante- 'work and ion. But 3iarv mat- r»me nianv : in origin, 33 When a victorious treneral rrfnrnorl f.. i> mony of conforriiK.- i-..; . , ,'^'"""h'^'^ 'i'^- lu the cere- ^ave a ..epetition of the eeren-nnVcJaii: V : It ;; 0^^ "pon nft^e on the K^1,!m "I^/^""""' ,<-'""«"1'' ™te,e,I cession to the (' nifof . "' ■''."",";•'*'• ""'J' ^""'t "' l"'"- wards coriesnoruliii!, tn tiJ. p * "" """' *"*"-' '"«' seek to rei^esen u*; n ifi,^"?,"" ™"*.' ""'' ""«^ 'tat legislatHreVe "all 0-, Hi!.! *''" '""""•il'"' «'■• "atioi.al from the Xc , ,r t1 f' ' ""'' «'*'"' "'« «<""«"« puritv of tL t„ .*^ '^ ^y"''*' »' emblematical of the noJrej::::nuZZ'tS^:a^ZJ'l -^--t- at the bar, <.f the neiS ,m'"' ' JTT '"'"'. '" •''" "^''^ 34 coin the liead of our Sovereign, with a chaplet of oak or bay leaves, as the Romans did that of their Emperor • and the figure Britannia, sitting on a shield and holding & tri- dent, dates at least from the Emperor Hadrian. In com- mittmg the remains of our departed ones to the tomb we three throw earth upon the coffin, in imitation of the ''7^/- injecMsjmhisr the thrice thrown dust which, in a religious pomt of view, constituted a Roman burial. Over the S-ave of a soldier we fire a triple volley in imitation of the Roman vale, rale. r«/^— farewell, farewell, farewell Our practice of burying the dead towards the east was copied by the early Christians from the Romans, who in their turn borrowed it from the Greeks We wear mourning for our friends the space of a year, and, in the case of youth that mourning is white, and so did they in ancient Rome! Ihe Roman dead were often burnt instead of interred and the remains preserved in vessels ; and our poets still 'talk ot the ashes of our friends, and not unfrequentlv do cinerary urns adorn their graves. We raise statues in our public places, as did the Romans, to our illustrious dead and our sculptors dress them in Roman attire. We use bride-cake in keepiii- with an old Roman mo/L. • '*?8'T*' her man- in a few years herllTolnt^ Sr^r^on 1' "'« = ""-i Victory, completed a onnn^.Zf f^l^S again on a career of nent tLn thaTof^laV^sr IXIr^'C'' ""'^ .P™"" deed, between Rome onH „ii ,,: . * «"''nect,on, in- in military posstruTeemstadisSr t t"Vt' arm es, and her nnVxfs „^!!.„ . "'ff" nwe. 8hake off her Ciesar and the '^Pooe ITl " .'^"' P''"^''- K«J«ct the when a !„., *^ extends the same chain. Nav throws off tCp^J^^ n.eltT:' '*'• '"'^'^^ »"d' It is now the stronShnU „f , ^*P"°' "^^"'"^ 'ts Power. go fo,th" n a^lr tulttumoh~ttf "f. """ P''*"^ "<■ priest had done, for?hev p3L^!?i ''^- *'"J^™'' eessible to force or suDer\tiH,m ! t ., ''^ ^^8"^°* '"ac- its sup,.e„,acy, and iSn oSv fe I ''''?° P»™ti„g cease, befori the inteCtuardLrXl^ sl%f m""?"'^ victory is achieved, aStr,,arcl, of .°''''' f""*,'""' place ; and Europe as it 1,7, tak»„ i '="»