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Les diagrammes suivants iliustrent la m«thode. 1 2 3 4 5 6 I III Ill' Hill iii mil I ii'iw iiiiPii i|ii^wMii|i ijiiiii "I'll I p '{^w MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 I.I I 45 m 3.2 1^ ■ 4.0 2.5 1 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 ^ APPLIED INA^GE inc 1653 East Main Street Rochester, New York 14609 USA (716) 482 -0300 - Phone (716) 288- 5989 - Fox ^^/^Al THE TEMPLE PRIMER. MAY 1- 1919 TMEpRiH iiiY Of SOCIETY tHf LAW ROMAN HISTORY Translated from the German of DR. JULIUS KOCH By LIONEL D. BARNETT, M.A. i 190I U' 90-W^eiililNGT0N' dTRCCT- WCl^T All rights reserved A C O N T 1 : MS I N T R O 1) IT C T I O N i'ROM THE PrKHISTOKU VlAHHi *>! RoMK AND ItAI.Y — S I. 'I'ho Siihinc and 1-iitiu ScfkniLir. on the 'I'ilJ'^r- 55 z. Italy air" its population ut the time of Rome' tounda- tion. Section 7. The Romans down to the Conqu*;st ot Italy (i66 H.r. . CHAPTl'.R I The Aoe of the King; — ^ 3. The Seven Kin;;-. CHAPTl'R II From the Bkginnings of the Rkpublic to the Coni- FICATIO OF THE LaWS OF THE TwELVE TaBLES, 50y- 450 li.C. §4. The Be^^inninjjs of the Republic ami the Commence- ment of the Sti ug:j!;les of the Orders ji 5. External Events d this Period. CHAPTER III From the Decf.mvirate to thi (xai.lic Visitation, § 6. The Decemvirate and the Laws of the Twelve Tables. § 7. Further Gains of the Plebeians. § % Ex-^ernal Events of this Period. V A vi CONTENTS CH APT 1:11 IV From thi-; Gallu" Visitation to thi. Union ok Romi- WITH THi: CaMHANIANS, 3^7-33^ li'C« — j; 9. Tlu- Continuation and Conclusion of the Struggle of tile Oiui i>. § 10. War-, and Acqui itions from 387-338. CHAPTKR V Fkom thk Conqukst or Campama to thk RrnucTioN ok Italy, 338-26^) k.c. — «; II. 'I'he Samnite Wars, 326-290. i< 12. 'riu- War with Tarentum and Pyrrluis, 2X2-275. g I 3. Tile Struggles of this Period with Ktruria and the Gauls. Section 2. From the Subjection of Italy to :he Fall of the Republic, 26' 1^ u.i CHAPTl R VI FsTAlil-ISHMKNT OV Sui'RKMACY IN THI CoUNTRIKS or THK Mkditkrrankan, 266-133 U.f. i? 14. The First Punic War, 264-241. i; 15. The Gallic and lllyrian Wars, 238-219. !< 16. The Second Punic (Hannihalic) War, 218 201. ji 17. 'I'he Immediate Results 01 the Hannii)alic War. j< iS. 'i'iie Wars with Macedon and Syria. 200 168. ^ 19. 'I'he Completion of Roman Supremacy in the Mediter- ranean. 149-133. CHAP'l'LiR VII From thk Ac()UiRKMKNr ok ihk Suprkmaiv in thk Mkditkrrankan to thk Fall of thk RKri'iii.ic (Rkvolutionarv Pkriod), 133 29 H-'-*--- ^ 20. Internal Development from the Conclusion ot the Snuggle of the Orders to tlie .Appearance oi the (J r;;rciu. niflBR CONTENTS Vll !5 ^V S 25- ^ 26. ?! ^-^ S ',^- >? ^l• > JJ- Tlie Attempts at Rilorm by tlu- (;raochi (lk-j;iiiniii^f oi tlic Revolution), 133-122. Hxttriial evints to the Social War. 121 uji. Mariii'i ami tiiu Party of Revolutio;:. I.iviii- DruMis ami the .Social War, 91 88. 'I'he oiillan Disturbances ami the First Mithrailatic War, 89-84. Sulla's Return, Change of the Constitution, and Deatli, 83--8. 'I'iie Disturbances after Sulla's Death to the Fall of the Sullan 01iji;archy, 78-70. Events in the East ami Pompeius. 74-64. halian Events to the 'I'riumvirate (Caesar and Cicero), 70- 6r. I'lu- Fir^t Triumvirate and Caesar's Conquest ot Gaul, 60-49. I'lie Rule of t!ie Triumvirs to Cae-ar's Pa>s.i};e o{ the Rubicon, 60-49. Cae-ar■^ Victory. Monarcliy, and Death, 49 44. 'l"he Srrujjgle for the Inheritance of Cae-ar, 44 z^j. Section 3. The Age of the Emperors utitil Diocletian, 2y li.e. 285 .\.i). CHAPTIR VIII Till 1\mpi:r()ks or thi: .haJAN and Flavian Hoi'.sks, 2<) ». 1.-96 A.l).- — J; 34. Augustus and the Construction of the Monardiy. ^ 35. Reign of AuJ;u^tus, 29 k.i-. 14 A.n. 4; 36. Tiberius, 14- 37. J; 37. (;aius (37-41), Claudius (41-54). Nero (i;4-68). fi 38. The Flavians - VespaMan (69 -y). Titus (79 81), Doniitian (^81-96). CHAPTI'R IX .Tm: 'Goi.ni N Agi: 'orrm Roman Empiri , (;6 180 a.o. — 't J g 39. Ner\a (96 98) and Trajan ('98-11-';. ^ 40. Hadrian, 1 17-138. §41. rhe Antoniues — Antoninus Pius ( i ■^8-1^^1 ), Marcu^ Aureliu^ fi^i i8c). vm CONTENTS CHAPTER X '1'hK DiCAY of THK I^MPIRI UNDER THK SoLDIKR-l^MHKRORS (from CoMMODVS to DuxLKTIAn), iHO 2H5 A.I). J- 4-. Conimodus and the House of Septimiiis Sevcrus, 180-235. § 43. I'hc Chief Emperors from Alexaiuler .Severus to Diocletian, 235-285. Section 4. From the Reorganisation of the Empire by Diocletian and Constantine to the Fall of the Western Throne (Age of Absolutism), 285-476 a.u. CHAFTKR XI I- ROM DlOCLKTIAN TO THK ATH OK ThLODOSIUS THE Great, 285-395 a.d. — {< 44. Diocletian and his A^e. 285-305. j< 45. Constantine tile Great. 306 337. § 46. From the Death of Constantine the (ireat to tiie Death of Theodosius the Great, 33"'-395- CHAPTER XH From the Death of Theooosius the Great to the Fall OF THE Western Throne, 3y5'"47^' a.d. — f5 47. 'Ihe .Severance of the Realm and Fall of tlie F.mpire ot the West. § 48. 'i'lie las- F.n-.perors of the \Ve-.t. LITI'IRATURE.— I. Republic. 11. Age of the Empirors. in. Separate Accounts. *iir;piKii"v."*'.»k' : ■n^'ja^erT^ .V^-i^-^jrr:-'', ■•■i-JT' i-rfli««. ROMAN HISTORY I INTRODUCTION From the Prehistoric Period of Rome and Italy < .-.■ Tlu- tradition as to the oUlebt period is almost without Historical composition in th^ »e -^"se \' ^ ^^^ ^^ Uig Greeks I-hese ^°'^>.P'-'^^|^"f .^^^Vioni's Si of the second century). Eutropius mmmmmm 2 ROMAN HISTORY • ind tin- Itali.in i;ui-- letereiio' should he ir.idc to the fifth find sixlii l 1)1 tlic learned Augustan geographer Siraho (a Greek). Wiiat is here liiieMy said with reft rcnce to the S()\irces of tlie oldest Rom, 111 history applies equally to a large part of the narrative ot Keiiuhlicaii times. ,^ I. The Latin and Sahini-; SETTLtMENTt. on thk Tiber, and their Coalition Of the hills of" the Tiber, the Mons Pdlatinus i was inhabited by Latins and the opposite Mons Qiarinalis by Sabines long before the foundation of Rome, which credulous and often over-subtle historians ascribed to the middle of the eighth century b.c. Allured from their inhospitable hill- towns into the once so fruitful * Roman Campagna,' they pressed onwards through it until the broad stream of the Tiber summoned them to halt, and favourably situated uplands vouchsafed securer settlements. From them arose « Eternal Rome.' The attempt to derive from the name of the city of Rome certain conclusions as to its origin has been unsuccessful ; those who would connect the word Roma with the name of the primitive river-god Rumon perhaj)s approach nearest to the truth, for the navigable stream was naturally the m.ost important factor for the settlement on the Tiber, and old Roman coins actually exhibit to us as stamp the stern of a ship, which we therefore may regard as the city's first escutcheon. Like the meaning of the city's name, the time and fuller history of its origin lie in obscurity. However, the old folk- tale has certainly preserved for us the kernel of the truth when it informs us of the mighty struggle between the Latins of the Palatine and the Sabines of the Quirinal, of which we must conceive the lowland between these two hills, the later Forum Roniarium, to have been the scene. Though ill the individual features of the stories about the Rape of th? wabines ' \On the topography ol Rome see l.aiiciani's sketch, eiiap. i. of Ramsay's Manual 0/ Koman Antiquities, istli edition, London, 1894.] mmmmmmmmimm mm mk ITALY AND ITS POPULATION J .nd its results may belong to the sphere of purest fable, so Ich is certain, that the feud between the Latm and he Sine settlements ended with the extortion oUonuh.um, t.c. ihe right of legal intermarriage. Thus hrst ,s the un.on con.- pleted and Rome founded. iv 2. Italy and its Popvlvtk.n at thk T.mf ok ^ " RdMi's FoVNUAIlON Before we pursue the liistory of Rome and the Roman Empire, it is needful to cast a glance at the country m genera wh ch the city of the Tiber was destmed to lead, md at its Ipulat on. We usually understand by 'Italy the whole Ele peninsula; but for the period of Rome's founda- tton this is as incorrect as it is to assume a umform population n U We cannot follow in detail the gradual extension o 'he name Italtu, which originally was applied only to a small ;art of the south-western projection of the peninsula ; ,t muse uSce to memion that the Upper I.'v of to-day, the great fertile plain between the Apennines a \ ps, was not finally ™atcd in the Roman dominion until .the last centuy of the Republic. In the south, especially m the Calab .an n n nsula, he lapygians formed probably the last remnant of fhe or 8 nal Indo-Germanic population, which had entered from he nofth. From the fact that this race easily and rapid y rnerged in the Hellenism that later pressed m so vigorously Ton them, the inference has also been drawn that their sneech was allied to the Greek. ^heTemainder of the South and almost all Central taly were occupied by the Italicl. that primal stock to which belong Tatins and Sabines, as well as numerous other peoples, and whose individual dialects (as Oscan, Umbrian, and Sabelhan), ^ill recognisable to some extent in tolerably numerous frag- 'J,!' Xe -aduallv swallowed up by the Latin as these Tes themselvxs were'incorporated in the nnpenu. R..uu^ On th. north-west their ne.gnbours were the »'^truscans Hlso known a. Tuscl (whence the modern /......) or lynhan 4 ROMAN HISTORY (uIkikc 'Tynhcnian Sea '), a race which hitherto it has not been possible to range among the other famiHcs, although there exist numerous relics of their language and still more numerous remnants of their art, and whose relation to the Indo-Gcrmanic stock is disputed by distinguishta scholars. On the Tiber they bordered on the Latins and Sabines, which often enough led to weary wars waged with varying success. Northwards the I'truscans had already in the oldest period kr wn to us a remarkable extension ; they spread far over the Po into the valleys of the Raetian Alps. Later they were pushed backwards by the Keltic Gauls, who aftei surmounting the Alps established themselves in Upper Italy [Gallia Cisalftna, ♦ Hither Gaul ') and played a great part in the history of the peninsula. Of their different tribes may be mentioned as most important the Insuhres with Mediolanum (Mil.m), the Cetwmani with Brixia (Brescia), the Bo'ti with Bononia (Bologna), and the Semues with Sena Gallica (Sinigaglia). The east and west of Upper Italy were occupied by two pco])les of uncertain origin, the Veiicti in the modern province // Vaieto^ and the Liguns, formerly extending far beyond the Alps, in modern Liguria. Two nations however which cannot be termed in the proper sense Italic peoples, since they never formed on this soil a coherent national community, had a far greater influence an the dcveloj)ment of Italic history than many of the above- mentioned groups. These are the Greeks and the Phoenician Poeiii (Carthaginians), both allured hither by the advantages and riches of the land, and to some extent its first discoverers. The Poeni indeed exerted their influence rather as traders than as settlers ; they confined themselves, at least as regards the n)ainland, to factories, though in the island of Sicily they also possessed fixed settlements. The Greeks gained a vastly greater influence ; of their colonies the most important are Tarentum (Tarento), Rhegium (Reggio), and above all Cumae on the Campanian coast, of which now but incon- siderable ruins remain, and which became immortal alike by ITAL\ AND ITS POPULATION 5 founding Neapolis (Naples) and by transmitting the alphabet to the Italici. Through these colonies Greek culture was spread abroad to such a degri. that the whole of Lower Italy could be termed 'Great Greece' [MiV^iiu Graecia). And to this day the breath of Greek genius is felt by one who sees uprising \\\ the loneliest corner of tlie Gult of Salfino tlic nia_j,i!i:lcfntly pre>si;rwd tcmi'les ot Paestum, the Cireck Postidon.-.i. In Sicily the Greeks met with a more stubborn resistance than in Italy from the Pocni, with whom they gradually came to share the possession of the island. In this process the native population, the Sicani and Siculi, were entirely driven into the background. The Grec k cities of Svracusae, Messana (Messina), and Agrigentum (Cii'genti) were the centres of culture for tht island. The islands of Corsica and Sardinia, geograpiiically a part of Italy, did not play a ])roniint nt part in ancient history ; their primitive population was early mingled with foreign elements, such as Ligurians, Greeks, Pocni, and others. sLxrnoN I 1'nK Romans down -.o iiii; C'onuii.st OF Itai.v (266 n.v.) CHAPT1':R I The Age of the Kings Ckkdiiulity ok TkAon ion No one in these days foels a cUnibt tliat tlio wliole ol the infoi malioii supplied by the ancient-^ ;is to the founders and foundatinn of the city of Rome is iindeseivins.^ of behef, and that niore(.i\cr th ' whole Royal Ape lies in the obscmity of tlie realm of f.blc. Not only the deeds ascribed to the individual kings but their very names aie wholly uith- niK authority — a fact however which does not exclude the possibility of the stones approaching nearer to historic truth as ihey descend in time. 6 ROMAN HISTORY ICvcii if tlie year hooks (Annales) kept in the older times [by the priests wfie already usual in the Rcyal Age, and wi-re tlieuisflves less curt and scanty than all appearances compel us toassimie them to liave been, they nevertheless were lost to students of later ages through the awful visitation of the (iauls, which befell Rome at the ix'ginning of the fourth century li.c Ilenoe when afterwards pride in the great- ness of their native city aroused in the Romans, disiiulined as they were to all liter \ry activity, the craving to study its past, full scope was giv(Mi to the boUlest onnbinatit/us and the' purest imagination. (irewer of the Consuls, namely the office of the Sacrificial iS^ing [rex sacrorum), which owing to religious scruples could not be severed from ci.e royal title, but by its subordina- I WU.l- BEGINNINGS OF THE REPUBLIC tion to the High-Priest {pontifts maximus) came to *- ■ out political significanct'. Only in the event of supreme need and for . cd space of time could the plenary powers of sovercigm be handed over to an individual, namely when extreme stress of war necessitate^, the Dictatorship, which we may compare with our modern 'state of siege.' The Dictator, nominated on he direction of the Senate by a Consul, had unlimited powers, but for not more than six months. His assistant was the Master of the Knights {tmi/isttr t'/nitum), v^ho was selected by him and resigned witii liim. In the furthf development of thf icpublican constitution an ever increasmg number of official duties were severed Irom the conFulate and new offices or magistracies constituted, which brought into existence a clearly defined official class. Patnc'uins and Plchehins. — The patricians alone weie full burghers, in the enjoyment of all constitutional privileges ; thev alone had to maintain relations with the State's gods, only they sat in the Senate, and only from their midst could the highest officers come. The honour of belonging to this favoured order could only be won by birth and equal marriage, while the offspring of a mixed marriage ' c i nj'ed to the plei>2ian caste. This condition of things was all tht nioK •n:o: plebeians as they shared the burdens of n ;t ' tax-payment with the patricians, and then portionalely greater load. So directly aftei ' o the two orders' common enemy, the royal pow. ;. for rights began between plebeians and patriciana, *vhich was waged on both sides with great bitterness and varying success. The patricians in particular were often enough able to render the concessions made to their opponents valueless by availing themselves of the law, which was accessible and tamiliar to them alone. Already under the first Consuls, Junius Ijiutus and Tar- (.juinms Collatinus (509 u.c.) it is .said that ])lebeians were granted seats in the Senate, though only in limited numbers, rabl; : to the K^r; H'c . nd '? a ■!ifii-;o- re-.!' . of ■), and the lex Tarpe'ia Atern'tn^ which limited more sharply the Consul's powers of punishment (454)" § 5. The External Events of this Period Dom'wance of Rome in Lal'ium. — Two documents of unquestionable credibility reveal to us the position of Rome in Latium better than the stories of successful battles with which Roman legend decorated the history of the oldest times. The one is a commercial treaty with Carthage, ascribed to the very first pair of Consuls (509). In it the Carthaginians have to pledge themselves not to attack the Latin cities standing in frii-ndly relations to Rome, while they are permitted warfare with the cities not connected with Rome ; and thus Rome comes forward as head of a Latin B ,4 ROMAN HISTORY 1-aguf. The other document is a list or the thirty cities which in the year 493 concluded with Rome an ofTicia alliance (the Latin Confederacy), which was also joined a few vears later by the Hernici, a race bordering in the >outh-east on the Latins. But the youthful republic had to wage many and not always successful wars before it secured its ])osition of authority. //'en 3, 4 6, ami 8. i8 ROMAN HISTORY piescnt still unbroken. Nothing proves this better than the murder of the rich plebeian Spurius Maclius, which is re- corded in tliis a;4e (439). On the occasion of a famine he is said to have distributed corn <;ratis to the poor ; hence he came to be susj)ccted by the ])atricians of aspiring to tyranny, and was put out of the way by them without any legal pro- ceeding. The case recalls the equally unhappy end which fifty years earlier had befallen Spurius Cassius on account ot his po})ular agrarian law. But the struggles of the plebeians for constitutional equality with the patricians, now crowned with brilliant successes, went on in an unceasing course. In the year 421 they were able to gain access to the patrician ofl'ice of tlie quaestorship, by which they o^ cained a share in one of the most important branches of the administration. i^, 8. The 1'xtkrnal Events of this Epoch Foiitulation of Colonies. — In the second half of the fifth century the Romans begin to gain a firm footing in the domains of hostile neighbouring races. The colonies es- tablished by them were not new foundations, but consisted in the immigration of a number of Roman burghers into a conquered town, which surrendered to them perforce a corresponding part of its real estate. The oldest colonies appear to be Ardea on the south-west by the Alban Hills, which had the territory of the crushed Volscian city ot Corioli added to its domain (442), and Fidcnae, originally Latin, but constantly inclining to the Etruscans, though later, when it sought to cast off the Roman yoke, it was wholly destroyed and its land reverted to the Romans as ager puhlkus (426). The continued wars with the Volsci and Aequi also led to the foundation of colonics, as Labici (now Colonna) and Bolac, both on tlic ro;id to the country of the friendly Hernici, Velitrae (Velletri), and Satricum (near Conca?), and above all Anxur or Tarracina, founded in 406, and a power by sea. EXTERNAL EVENTS 19 I'/ar with Feu.— Vhc incorporation of the domiun ot Fidenae in the <,'rer publuus (see above), which brought the Romans up to the borders of e Veientmes, mu>t have led 'o new quarrels with the jealous mistress of Southern l:trur- 1. The contest, which is reputed to have broken out m 40^) md to have lasted ten years, has been expanded by historic. Imagination into a second Trojan War, the central point c> whidi is the personality of M. Furius Camillus. It ended with the destruction of Veii, and brought to the Romans a very considerable extension of territory, in which the con- federated Latin States also shared. From Ihii w.u- is derived a cluin-v in tl>e oi-anis.uiou • . i.e K-.nian arnw^l^ch later had important poUt.cal ^-f^\,^\^^'^,^^. long duration of the war. which nu.vovcr doa>anded fo. » - '^^^ "'^, viator canipaifins, it was decided to mtrodmc /.nv;/.7/.'. l-nc. Ih- .. •e from U?Acil-to-do circles uhke of patricans and -.l.-beians .ho icaecfsuch sttpport a new troop outsid,- the >- 'ta.,' ■ ^v ., .. a volunteer cavalry, out of which m course of tune dcNe. .' ■ ^ '■' ^^ ^'^" order, that of the Knights. The advance of Roman power, in which we may niark the annihilation of Veii as a culminating point, was rudely interrupted by the visitation ot the Gauls (sS?). KtMts^ styled by the Romans GaWt, by the Greeks Gahitai, had forced their way from modern Fiance into Upper Italy and won more and more ground, especially from the 1 .truscans. who formerly had extended even into the valleys ot the Raetian Alps. . r , n The struggles for possession of the district of the 1 o may have alread'y been going on for mai:y years betore the collision with the Romans occurred. Ihe story is told that when the Etruscan town of Clusium was be eaguered a Roman embassy haughtily summoned the Gauls to an immediate retreat and then again, in defiance ot all inter- national law, took a share in the contest. W hen the Roman people refused satisfaction, the Gauls pressed onuards along the Tiber and inflicted by the Allia such a deteat upori the Roman army that but few are said to have escaped, and the *day of the Allia,' dies Micnsis, was one of the Romans 20 ROMAN HISTORY most terrible memories. So great was the dismay at Rome that they gave up the city for lost, bestowed the women and children together with the removable objects of religion into the neighbouring towns, and decided to defend the Capitol only. Three days after the battle the Gauls appeared, and Rome fell a prey to the Hames. Only the Capitol was maintained, and for seven months the barbarians, unskilled in the arts of siege, strove in vain to force it to surrender. 1 Finally, we are told, the Romans induced them to withdraw by the payment of looo pounds of gold. It is a singular coincidence that this deep humiliation of Rome occurred in the very year in which Athens too received a deadly blow by the so-called Peace of Antal- cidas.- ^Vhile however the heyday of the Greek metro- polis was already past and her dominance for ever lost, Rome in the strength of youth recovered with surprising quickness from her discomfiture. CHAPTER IV Prom the Visitation of tlie Gauls to tlie Alliance of the Romans with the Campanians (387-338 B.C.) In this period tlie struggle of the orders is practically concluded, and Rome develops from a dominant city of Latium into a Great Power in Italy. § 9. Thi: Continuation and Conclusion of the Struggle of the Orders The so-called Leges L'ic'in'iae Sextiae. — The plebeian tribunes Lucius Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextius, we are told, 1 nf>r." belong'^ the legend nf ^^arcus Manlius Capitolinus, who when awakened by the cackle of the geese saved the fortress. - [This peace was really a rescript from King Artaxerxes Mnemon, which laid down that tiie Persians should hold the Greek cities of Asia, and that all other (ireek States should be independent, Athens retain- ing nothing but I.emnos, Imliros, and Skyros.] THE STRUGGLE OF THE ORDERS waged tor ten years a struggle of intense birtcrncss against the patricians in championship of the following three pro- posals : ( I ) that, to diminish the burden of debt on the poor, interest paid be deducted from the capital and the remainder paid within three years; (2) that no burgher possess more than 500 iti^era^ of ])ublic land; (3) that the Military Tri- bunes be done away with, and one Consul be of necessity a plebeian. Clearly the first two regulations sj)rang from solicitude tor the poorest class of the population, who must have been also especial sufferers from the devastations of the Kelts ; but it is equally certain that the first, from the unintelligibility of its matter, lacks historical authority, while the second assuredly cannot have then been passed, since the small extent of the State's possessions of itself precluded such an average size of individual estates. The third law however, which restores the consulship and divides it henceforth permanently between patricians and plebeians, may be regarded as the conclusion of the struggle between the two orders for equalisation of rights (366 B.C.). The Praetorsh'ip and the Curule Aeililes. — I'he patricians made another attempt to reserve for themselves a portion of the highest official powers by transferring the chief jurisdiction to a new patrician magistrate, the Praetor. In order not to lose the influence on the people obtained by their organisation of the national games, the Ltidi Romania it was determined that the management of these games should remain in the hands of two patricians, the Curule Acdiles. But these two positions also were won in the course of the next thirty years by the plebeians. To bring at once to an end our description of the contest of the orders — down to the last years of this century one office after the other fell into plebeian hands, dictatorship, censorship, and finally too by the lex O^uln'm (300) all priestly posts of political value, so that now nothing remained of the preserves of the patricians but the 1 [The iu' ov.-rsliadouvi! l.y ihc iui.<;hty war- which wt-re ;i result of complicatiins with the S.inmitcs and for many vt-ars raged throu!;h the whoh- pfuinsula. 'i ho linal victorv was on tiif side of "the Romans, who at tin; conclusion of this period may bo n.Lj.irded ;is ma ters of Italy. In rcijard to cult\iro al-,) this aj,'t> is ono of^great sitrnificanco. as tiio Romans como into the c!ti-est Cdunoction with the Greek civili~ati(in then at its zenith in Southern Italy, and henceforth Hellenism pervades Roman life. § II. Thl Samnite Wars, 326-290 b.c. The First (so-called * Second') Sunmite War (326-304). — The Romans' intrusion into Campania n.iturally disturbed the Samnites most sorely ; and when their important military station on the Liris, Fregellae, was occupied by the Romans, and moreover Neapolis, the most Hourishinj; commercial town in the country, followed the example ot Cumae and Capua by entering into the same confederate relations with Rome, the Samnites took up arms. As regards this contest too tradition is of little service. The fortunes of war long vacillated. After a severe defeat, the coniinemcnt in the Caudine Forks (passes leading from Capua to Beneventum) in 321, the Romans lost among other places Fregellae ; and although they succeeded later in forming a union with the Apulians and Lucanians, their position in Campania was so shaken as a result of a second defeat near Tarracina that Capua fell away from the confederacy (315). But the desperate exertions now made by the Roman- met with better success. Ill 314 Capua aid in 313 Fregt .lae were recovered, and they could even venture to found a new colony, Interamna, still further south upon the mountain-road leading through the valley of the Liris. Though forced to struggle in this period against the Gauls and Etruscans and against many 26 ROMAN HISTORY fs 'i t i revolted .iliics as well, the Romans yet succeeded in the end in maintaining their positions, and by the year ^504 we may regard the tirst Simnite War a? at an end ; the Sanmitcs were bound down within the limits occuj)ied by th.eni and almost wholly cut oti' innu the sea. T/.'e SfconJ (so-called 'Third') Sunwiw Jl\ir {z^j^-Zkjo). — Tlie Romans at once proceeded to secure their new con- quests by^the foundation of fortilied military colonies and of roads.^ The} com])leted too the F'la ylppia, the < queen of roads ',which had already been commenced durin.; the first war by the Censor Aj)])ius Claudius, and by means of two new roads leadini: eastwards from Latium throuj^h the country between Ltrui i.; aiid Samnium they made the Samnite territory accessible to their armies from the north also. Against these advances of the Romans the Samnites, prob- ably in collusion with the Gauls and Etruscans, and with the support of the races of Central Italy and the Lucanians,i took up arms anew under the able leadership of Gellius I'.gnatius. The Romans themselves regarded the contest as so critical that they enrolled in the legions married men and even freedmen. But in the decisive battle near Sentinum, in ITmbria (295), the fortune of war was on the side of their leaders, i). Fabius Rullianus and P. Decius Mus. The coalition was broken up, Umbria came into the hands of the Romans, and in spite of many successes the Samnites by themselves were unable permanently to stand against the superior power of Rome. They kept their home in the mountains ; but the subjection of Campania to the Romans and their conquests in Lucania and Apulia were now finally assured (290). ' The sncccsM-s in Lucania arc associated with tiie name of L. Scipio Barbatus, tlio u\,\<-cf.. — W.tli tl;is period the sources beq;in to be more abundant and relial.i'!'^. ]'ir.-t mention now belonG;s to the famous contemporary and friend of Sci[iio Afiicanus Minor, tiie Cireek I'olybius, who wrote about 140 r.f . h's forty bor)ks of ' Histories,' of wiiich the lirst live are preserved (264-221 r;.c.). Among other sources, hf drew upon the Annals of o. Faliius Pictor, tlic oldest Roman historian (tliough \v wrote too m (jrei'k), who coniposed his work shortly after tlie Seeond I'unic W'ai. For the period 218 167 Fivius (Books 21-45) '- l^reserved to us ; he prol\Thiy made more use of Polybiusthan can be now proved. I'hird, and equally intluenced by Polybius, is the Greek Appian, living iu the age of th':* F-mperor AntDumu-, Pius, who gives us connected narratives; of his survivmg books inay be mentioned here thi^ Iberian (vi.), Ilannibalic (vii.), Libyan (viii. j. Macedonian (ix. ), the partly preserved Illyrian (x. I, and the Syrian (xi.) Impo'taiit isol.ned pieces of information an> found in the Biog- raphies of Cornelius N'epos (a conlemiiornry of ("i'. ero), and of Plutarch. Furthermore the sur\i\iiv:; epitomes [perirchac) of almost all the 142 books of Livius are not without value, and nnich useful in;Uteris 'supplied by the excerpts and fragments from th.e grea' works of 1 'lodoru^ and Cassius Dio. Social Cii':>\Ct''- — Rome had now become a Great F'.>w>'r, an \ took, her jilace on term= of equality with tlie other civilise 1 States of the Mediterranean ; by ni'-ans of the Romanised tradc-emjjoria of the- I*"truscans and almve all of tlie South-Italian Gn^ek-, tlie State of farnier-burghern grew into the Conmiercial State. New life, generally touched wilu Greek iutluence, apjicars now in all domains. So R^mt- in this age erontes tor tlie first tune a coinage which can gain currency m the traffic cf ;!ie world, converting into coin the lumi)s of copper it had formeriv dealt out by weight and beginning to stamp silver money after the Attic standard. Fheextension ot the sphere ot power calls tor an increase of the official .statf and the establishnu-nt of new offices ; military roads, like the magnificent \ la Appi.i, cross the new acquisi- .ions. connect the fortresses and colonies founded to secure them, and THE FIRST PUNIC WAR .>i cwincv l-'i'iu.in li!-' mid Roniiui nI), ccli iti all (lirocti"ns il.ii.pn;;li Ii.i'.v. On till' (-tliif liaiui, til.' iiiliuonci'.^ of ti^fxi,'" cilnirc do culrv now wnii I fitciicy into the Iniiii ; (jirck, Cin-co-i .uiipaniaii, ami Iltniri.m art- products liiul a -ale aiiiorit;; tlic Roman-; and aro'.i-,- .m industry ot' tl'.i'ir own ; and cvi n in intclli ctiial lire tiic ,-'ii;)frioiity <>i' tlie (licok ,<;cniu.s graduaily o\(i\-onns tlii' itidenf.-:- of llu- stuhiioin Roman cliar- ;u tor. It mti-t i)!> coTifc-scd that tlv; hoi'.innint;-^ of Ronian art and j)oetry, uIiIlIi fail in this peridl, arr still (i.-tinct y cl'ani>y and nierrly ' imitative. I ^ 14. Thi: First Punic War, 264 241 n.c. Rome and dirtba^e iiiitil their Coliliion. — Itself originallv tributary to Libyan races, the Afi ican commercial republic oi- Carthage had in the fifth century made itself independent and rapidly subjugated the region behind it ; but it was especially through its possessions outside Africa, in Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and Spain, that it had obtained its great wealth and become a sea-power of the first rank. As by factories it ruled also the commerce of the western coast of Iialv, it was certain to come into connexion with the Romans at latest when the latter by founding Ostia, the port of the Tiber, reached the coast. In view of the vast superiority of the Carthaginians, this first meeting can only h.ave been a friendly one ; and the compacts concluded between the two powers, ot which civ-^ition assigns the older to the first year of the Republic, must imply the predominance of the Phtcnician Commercial State so long as the Romans did not and could not raise any claim to rank as a sea-power. This relation changed when Rome by subduing Italy brought under its sovereignty nportant sea-towns in all cjuarters, and was thereby sunmioned to play a part in the maritime trade of the Mediterranean and thus in the commerce of the world. The lluir. — After the death of Agathocles of Syracuse a band of mercenaries summoned by him into the land, the so- C.illed ALnneri'tn'i-, liad occupied Messana (Messina), but were vigorously assailed by the new ruler of Syracuse, Hiero. They turned for help towards Rome, which deemed itself bound to grant protection to the ' Italici ' (265). Hiero I 32 ROMAN HISTORY sought tlTc mediation of the Carthaginians, who actually succeeded in bringing about a union of the conHicting parties. When the Romans heard this, they occupied by an au- dacious stroke Rhegium and Messana, upon which the Carthaginians declared war on them (264 B.C.). The Romans in the first two years of the war maintained tliemselves in Messana and gained a brilliant victory under M. V\'ilerius Messaila (an honorific name derived from Messiiua). Hiero now went over to them, and thus they became masters of the east coast. Soon the chief basis ot Carthaginian ])Ower on the south coast, Agrigentum (the Greek ylkra^^as, now Giigenti) fell into their hands, and the Carthaginians found themselves limited to their naval fortresses in the western part of the island, Panormus (Palermo) and Lilybaeum (Marsala), which were believed to defy capture (262). On the other hand the Carthaginians with their excellent fleet inllicted the severest damage upon the Romans by con- tinuous privateering and attacks upon the Italian coasts. At last the Romans determined to equip a fleet, making indeed heavy calls upon the sea-towns subject to them. This first Roman fleet owed a victory^ gained near the L-ipari Islands on the north-west coast of Sicily to a brilliant invention of their leader M. Duilius, who by movable hoarding-bridges converted the sea-fight into .1 land-battle (260). The consequences of this were however insignii.cant. In the following yt'ars the struggle went or with varying success in Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia. An expedition to Africa, rendered possible by the issue of the great sea-fight at the promontory of Ecnomus on the south coast (256), seemed to lead up to the crisis. But owing to the want of foresight of M. Atilius Regulus this undertaking failed,'- and the war was 1 The new Capitoline Museum preserves an ancient copy of the column raised in honour of this victory. 2 The well-known story of tlse martyrdom of Re,i;uUis is ill attested ; it is probably au invention of the sort usually promulgated by family chronicles. THE FIRST PUNIC WAR .U shifted back to Sicily, where the Romans etiectcd the valu- able conquest of Panormus (254), but were hindered from further advances by the brilliant ability of the new Cartha- ginian general Hamilcar Barcas, the father of the i;reat Hannibal. By his occupation of Mount Heircte (Monte Pellegrino near Palermo) he kept liis foes for years in check ''-+'^"3)' ^'- ^^'"^^ ^^^^ "^"''^ inj^lorious period of the war tor Rome, and brought her near to exhaustion. Tht-n wealthy private persons offered the State a new ticet ot 200 bhips, with which the consul I. Lutatius (Jatuius g-ined a victory near the Aegatian islam. s on the west coast of Sicily, which compelled the Carthaginians to abandon to the Romans their last bases, Lilybaeum and Drepanum (241 ). With this the war was at an end ; the Carthaginians pait was granted. When Hasdrubal in the year 221 had fallen by an assassin's hand, Hannibal, the son of Haniilcar Barcas, took the lead in the Spanish operations. The brilliantly gifted young man had been trained for command under the eye of his great father and had already approved 1 [Antigonus Doson of Macedon had been summoned by the Achaean League to aid them against Sjjarta, which under Cleomenes was pressing them hard. He did so, and thus was gained the victory of Sellasia, by which Spaita was crushed, 22:.i K.c. ' f 1 THE SECOND PUNIC WAR .^7 hin.M-lt und.T his brothor-iii-l,r.v Ila^.hut.al ; iUI.-a uitli tin- ,I.-.-p.-t u,ca of Roino. iH- v.i^h.'il tu lK-,i;.n ilu- w.ir al o.u-. l.ut nvoiu-.l contra: V oicUts from \n> native . ity, where tb.e p.-ace luity lax..urai..e »() Rnn\e s;i!l had the upi'<-r hand. y/r Outtvm-il Cinsc of /Frtr.— Hannibal could not rest under the decision of the Senate at home. He had recog- nised that now the hour had come for strikmg out, and no resiard for his position as an official of the State restrained him tVom following the call ot destiny. Urder the i-retext that the Saguntines had interfered with Carthaginian subjects he attacked their city, standing as it did under the protection of Rome, and after a siege of eight months captured it (219). Upon this success the Carthaginians, certainly not un- moved by the rich booty sent to them by Hannibal, decided to give a refusal to the Romans' demand that the general should be surrendered to them and the friendly State compensated. On this war was declared (218 h.c). T/je Course of the IVar — For the war excellent provision had been made by the activity of the Barcidae in Spain. Hannibal had further drafted a plan of camj.aign which promised almost inevitable success if all the tactors con- cerned came into effective operation at the right time From Carthage a squadron was to threaten Sicily and disturb by assaults the Italian coasts ; he himself intended to unite in Upper Italy with the Gauls, who were already won over to revolt, and then in Central Italy to hold out a hand to Philip V. of Macedon, who since the second lllyrian war (§17) had been a decided opponent of Rome. ^ The Romans ordered one Consul, Publius Cornelius Scipio, to Spain and the other, Tiberius Sempronius Longus, to Sicilian waters. But they did not succeed in reaching Han- nibal in Spain and pinning him there ; for Scipio allowed himself to be kept too long in the region of the Po by the already revolted Gauls, and when at last he arrived at Massilia (Marseilles) Hannibal had left the Pyrenees be- hind him and could not even be checked from crossing the Rhone. Scipio now sent the greater part of his army under 38 ROMAN HISTORY his brother Gnaeus to Sj)ain, while he himselfreturned to Upper Italy to contront Hannibal there. The latter had cxecutf^i his world-famous march across the Alps ^ with fearful loss — of about f')C,cco men something like 35,000 had fallen — and atter subduini^ the Taurini - had advanced up the Po valley, when Scij)io met him near the Ticinus (Tessir. j but was defeated. On this Hannibal crossed the Po, and by a tributary of its right bank came again into collision with the Roman army, which in the meantime had been reinforced by the troops ot the second Consul Sempronius, now recalled from Sicily. By a stratagem Hannibal allured the Romans out of their unassailable position and inflicted on them so heavy a defeat that the campaign was ended for this year. For it was no part of Hannibal's scheme to storm the fortresses of Placentia : .,d Cremona, whither the remnants of the defeated army had retreated ; he longed above every- thing to reach Central Italy with speed, so as to bring about a revolt of the allies. Th-' Consuls of the next year (217) therefore garrisoned the two military roads leading south- wards, Gaius Flaminius the Tuscan at Arretium and Gnaeus Servilius the Adriatic at Ariminum ; but Hannibal crossed the Apennines, in the region of the modern Florence, while Flaminius on account of the heavy spring rains was not yet expecting him, and marched past the unwitting Roman army, which now pursued him along the road between Arretium and Perusia, thus falling into the snare laid by their wily enemy. In the defile between Cortona and the Trasumene Lake (Lago di Perugia), which Hannibal had completely surrounded, the army of Flaminius was almost wiuilly annihilated. A few days later the reinforcement of 4C00 l^.orsemen sent in advance by the other Consul also fell be^re the Carthaginians. Rome was seemingly in the utmost leopard y. But Hannibal, probably knowing that he could not cruva Rome at a blow, refused the cheap glory of terrifying tiie 1 In all proba'Diiitv over the Little St. Bernard. ■•^ From these Turin gets its name. 'I THE SECOND PUNIC WAR ?n city by a sie<;c of" prospective futility, and m.nched thri)u;;h the district of Piccnum, which he devastated, to Sanuiium and Car-"'nii, where he had especial hopes of immedi- ately wi mi -i , the wealthy Capua for his cause. For tlie moment indt^ 1 he found himself disajipointed in this hojie, and the year passed in insigniticant operations a'^ainst the prudent Roman Dictator (J>uintus Fabius Cunciaior ('the man of delay'), by whose side the dissatisfied Roman people set for a short time his |unior in command, M. Minucius, as second Dictator — a case that stands unique in Roman history. For the winter Hannibal established himself in prosperous and fruitful Apulia, and in the leisure it brought him he carried through a military reform of the utmost^ importance, organising his army on the Roman model. The countless weapons taken as spoil were here of service to him. Thus he was excellently prepared to meet the decisive blow planned by the Romans for the next year (216). Th-.-y had carried on conscriptions on the largest scale and were able to bring eight legions into the ileld, so that some 50,000 Carthaginians were now confronted by about 86,coo Romans, One of the Consuls, L. Aemilius Paullus, had approved him- self in the lUyrian war; the second however, C. Terentius Varro, was certainly from a military point of view insig- nificant, and on this'account he alone was subsequently made responsible for the ensuing disaster. For near the little Apulian town of Cannae, on the lower course of the Autidus (Ofanto), was fought the most terrible battle of the whole war ; 70,000 Romans, among them the Consul Aemilius, arc- said to have strewn the field, which Hannibal maintained, thanks to his admirable African cavalry. Hannibal apparently had approached near to his goal ; the South Italian con- federates, notably the wealthy Capua, now came over to him, Philip of Mactdon concluded an otiensive alliance with him, and Syra'use, where in the meantime Hiero, the friend of Rome, had '^ed, joined the Carthaginians. He passed t\ winter in C ui. Bat in the next year (215) the war came to a standstill. I 40 ROMAN HISTORY His untrustworthy new allies brought to Hannibal little or no increase of his lighting power, while the Romans, who under the leadership of M. Claudius Marcellus and the young Publius Scipio had quickly rallied themselves for the utmost exertions, laboured with success, particularly in Apulia, to reconquer their confederates' territory. Abroad too the Carthaginian cause did not attain the results hoped for ; indeed the Romans gradually gained the upper hand every- where. The Sfnr^^^us in Sicily. — Ever since the year 2 I (S, when Tib. Sempronius had perforce been summoned from Lily- baeum to support Scipio, Sicily had practically been denuded of Roman troops ; and wlien likewise Syracuse, the most powerful city of the island, revolted from Rome the Cartha- ginians might with very little effort have recovered Sicily. But in Carthage a peddling spirit prevailed over national duties; they deemed it sufficient to allow Hannibal to go his own way, and supported their own cause so feebly that they did not even check the landing of the Romans in Sicily. The same Marcellus who had imposed the first check on the advance of Hannibal after the battle of Cannae landed in 214 before Syracui-e and began to beleaguer the city. Supreniely tlivoured by art and nature in its fortification, it made a heroic resistance! before it was captured (212). The consequence of this was the reconquest of the whole island, which may be regarded as completely pacified by 210. The S/ruo^^/es in Greece. — Philip of Macedon could not collect himself for any vigorous action ; he operated on the Adriatic coast, but did not venture to cross over to Italy, as the two ports to be considered, Brundisium (Brindisi) and Tarentum, were in Roman hands. When however Taren- tum in 212 was captured by Hannibal, the Roman general M. Valerius Laevinus at once crossed over from Brundisium to Greece in order to transfer the war into the enemv's own 1 At tliis timo lived in Syracuse the famous mathematician Archi- niedes, who jnit his science at the service of his native city by inventing defensive macliines. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR 41 land. He joined here the Aetolian League, and for six years shared in the shametul war by which the Greeks since many years had been tearing out one another's vitals. In the year 206 a peace was brought about between Pliilip on one side and Rome and the Aetolian League on the other, in which the Romans procured the confu niation of the con- quests made by them in the lUyrian wars (^ 17). This is the first Macedonian war. The Struggles in Spain. — As the sources of strengtli which permitted the Carthaginians to rise so rapidly and unex- pectedly after the first war lay in Spain, it was a thoroughly sound principle of Roman policy to choke them up for their opponent, and to combat him in that peninsula. Hence when his term of consular ofiice had ela])sed P. Scipio was sent in the year 2 1 7 after his younger brother Gnaeus to Spain, and the two brothers in the next six years displayed brilliant generalship. After turning the city of Tarraco (now Tarragona) into a Roman naval fortress and making it the chief basis of Roman power in Spain, they advanced over the Fbro southwards and extended their conquests as far as Andalusia, in which they were aided by the liisfavour which most of the native races felt towards the Carthaginians. At last the Carthaginians recognised the great importance of Spain, decided to give stronger support to their general there, Hasdrubal, a brother of Hannibal, and induced the Numidian king Massinissa to repay them in Spain for the assistance they recently had lent him against his neighbour and rival Syphax. The Scipios succumbed to this united force, and both met their death in desperate battles (211). A peculiar chance brought it about that a third Scipio, the young P. Cornelius Scipio, who had saved his father's life at the Ticinus and had begun under Marcellus to attest his genius for command, was summoned to avenge the cause of his family and restore to credit Rome's positialerno) \-c.. extended R.,man power. In this period was laid the a^eful f. 'dr" '"","^1 ^"f"'"^'" <^''^"'""'^ ^^'^^'^') -'-i^h became so fatef foi the -cial development of Italy, as it led especially to a well-n.Kh complete destruction of Iiushandry and country life, which il -.?•?■ """"7* ''':''^'>' "■""' ^''"' '""■^' ''^'- ■■" " '"^h about 4^ Milage., are said to have been ruined. ^ I rV .,f'°'^'" V ,r"'^'''''""T'V""''' to forestall Rou.an vengeance fnr„ .. f?-'* '^^■^'^"'^'"' V."''^'' '^'- '" '^•''"" tl'« destruction of the [ ^ ^ I ^V.r" u"^ ""^ ''"■ ' "• ^^''' ''''^''" '"ternal dissensions came to tht aid of the Romans, permitting them not „nlv to maimain their supremacy bur also ,0 strengthen it by n w fonress-'s, sucl^S Ik.nonia WARS WITH MACEDON AND SYRIA ->> , Bologna), and by th.- extfnsi,,n of tlie n-tv\ork of roa.U (t'..- /V- A.-wnia, hence the nun,- .,f tl:.- modern Enulm). Hv the juiu'iion ,,f Bonon.a with Am-t.iun in l-nir.a through a militarv ro.id ,ij Appmnes ceased to 1,.; ..v.-n ou.uanlly the houn.larv l>etueen Italv and t.aul. Aqui eia. in rhe (iulf of IVieste. uas intende.l to .mv,- security agamst the .nroads of northern barbarians and al-o against a possible atlemptat landing by I'hnip of Maeedon. while th- colon vi Luna on the Ltrunan border, c .nn.-cted with Rome bv th>' /■' Ji^ll'.^l^'ofT '? ■■'-'"''"' '■'"'''"''^ the restless and still far from pae,:e,! hill-tolk of the Ligunans (200-106 i{.( ) 4/>7V«.-Canhage was sorely imp' rilled bv the XiimidLin prince Massimssa and in consequence presented remonstrance, at Rom ■ though mva^n A change in its constitution was carnal thr,,m-l, hv Hannibal which once im.re brought the patriotic pa:tv mto ^M,^^.., (195). Ihis caused the Ro.nan. to claim the surrender of Hanni nl cemand which he only avoided bv huiried llight 6>z/« was divided into two provinces. 'llu- warlike spirit of u, (reedom-loving population rendered it a trouble.om.- child un . ' Romes foreign possessions; yet she uas forced to k, ep ,t at di euvt"^. est Its abundant resources nught again 1h3 exploited bv enterpriMUL' heroes like the Barc.dae. In thi. period one of the commande- I er^- was M. Porcius Cato, who from his old-fashioned sever,, v, es v aVv prominent in his administration of the censor- hip, got tli,' ni kn- -,■ • Ce-.sor, and as a writer has the credit of havng c^mpn-ed i , Roman history m prose. ' § 18. The Wars with Macidos and Syria 'J'/je Second Maredonian n\,r,~Oi the Great Powci. that arose on the dissolution of Alexander tiie Great's world- I .nonarchy, the most important were l^gypt, Syri;i, and ^ Macedon. In the year 205 a child mounted the throne I of hoypt; and Antiochus of Syria and Philip of Macedon i profited by this circumstance to divide between themselves the \ possessions of Kgypt outside Africa. In consequence the j iigyptian government entrusted the Roman Senate with the I guardianship of the royal child. The Romans, still incensed I against 1 hilip for his interference in the Hannib.iiic war, and summoned moreover by the friendly free State of Rhodes to |its aid, took at first the course of commanding Philip bv ItMTibassies to desist ; but when he actually threatened AtVens *they officially declared war, 200 n.c. The first years of the war passed without either of the I) 46 ROMAN HISTORY opponents beinj; ;;blc to register any success worth mention. But witii Titus Ouinctius Flamininus, who assumed supreme command in i'>>^, began a more vigorous management of the war on the side ot the Romans, which culminated in the following year in the brilliant victorv ol Cynoscephalae, a chain of hills in Thcssaly. The Roman legion here dis- sipated the world-wide glory of the Macedonian phalanx. Philip was contined to Macedon, and forced to surrender his licet of war and })ay a heavy indemnity. Tc the Greek cities however, which had long been vegetating in hopeless disunion, Flamininus at the Isthmian Games of 196 pro- claimed liberty. It required indeed enforcement at the point of the sword (ag.iinst for instance the tyrant Xabis of Sparta), and the politically rotten Greek race co.dd 1 longer make anything out of it. When in 194 the Roman con- queror lett Cireece, glances were already cast about in the Aetoiian League for a new master; and Antiochus of Syria seemed to present himself in this light. Thi War ivitb yhui'uhiis f,f Syr'id. — During the Macedonian war, in which Antiochus of Syria shamefullv left his ally in the lurch, the faithless Seleucid had extended his conquests over the whole coast of Asia Minor and even gained a firm footing on l!u:o};ean soil at I-ysimachia on the Thracian Chersonne>c ( 19^1). Disregarding Rome's remonstrance, he continued unchecked his work of conquest, in which he was well served by Hannibal, who had lied to him. True, the latter's brilliant plan, which aimed at crushing Roman power at a blow by risings in Macedon and Greece, an attack on Italy it*elt, a new Punic war, and at the same time an insurrection in Spain, was not carried out, mainly in con- sequence of the feebleness of Antioctuis and the irresolution of the rest ; but when in 192 the King of Syria occupied the island of Kuboea and entered into relations with the Aetoiian League, the Romans found themselves compelled to order a stoj) to his farthc;- advance. The Romangeneral AciliusGlabrio, whoin 191 appeared in Greece, had only to deal with one opjjonent, for the Greeks did : I WARS WITH MACEDON AND SYRIA 47 not dare to strike. In the battle at the famous detile ot'Ther- nioj)ylae he gained such a decisive victory over Antiochus that the latter at once abandoned the war in liurope (n;o). In Asia too the feeble Syrian suffered defeat after defeat ; a lieet of Roman and Rhodian ships prevented Hannibal as he advanced with a fleet from the south from uniting with Antiochus, and the king himself, despite his far greater strength, was com- pletely defeated at Magnesia (north-east of Smyrna) by the Roman land-army commanded by Lucius Sci])io and his brother Publius, the victor of Zama. He called for peace at any price, lost all his conquests in Asia Minor, paid a heavy war indemnity, and had to limit his fleet to ten ships. Syria, the kingdom of the Seleucidae, was thereby struck off the roll of Great Powers (1S9 u.e.). The arrangement of 1 Eastern affairs took up several years more. In Asia Minor an increased number of independent States were established and the loyal confederates, Lumenes of Pergamon and the Rhodian State, rewarded by an incre- ment of power. In Greece, where the feuds between the Achaean and Aetolian Leagues continued, the Romans were forced once again to take up arms. I'he Consul of the year 189, Fulvius Nobilior, forced the Aetolians bv the conquest of Ambracia into quiet, though onlv for a time. Soon after (183) the Romans lost their iiio.^t (Irculi-d foe, Hannilial. Alter the failure of the plan which he clesis,'ne(I to execute with the help of Antiochus, he had withdrawn to the court of a prince of Asia Minor l'ru>ias of Bithynia, whom he tried fruitlessly to stir up a.^ain^t the R(.man>. and in the first instance a,i;ainst iamienes of r',Mi,Mnion W hen he felt hinis.>If no longer secure with him lie dt^^troved hiinselt. In the same year aKodied his qreat opponent Scipio— like Hannibal, in lianishment; he had V)een compelled to bow before the republican bii^orry of his fellow-citizens, who could indeed tolerate irrcat dced< but not great men. " ' ihc 'ihh-tl Maccdon'um IVav In consequence of the continued injuries Inilicted upon them with the undoubted connivance of the Romans by their protege- I'^umcnes of Pergamon, Philip and his son Perseus, wlio succeeded to his throne in 179, found themselves compelled to use their 48 ROMAN HISTORY r f country's still rich resources for quiet preparations. In these they were strengthened by a reviving Panhellenic current in Greece. On the continued pressure of Eumenes the Romans in 172 declared war under a flimsy pretext, and in the following year advanced into Greece. Perseus now showed such incapacity and want of spirit that the Greeks did not dare to take uj) arms. The war however was conducted by the Romans also without particular vigour until L. Aemilius Paulus, son of the Consul who fell at Cannae, took command ( 16S). At Pydna in Macedonia was fought the decisive battle, by which the Romans gained a complete victory, shortly afterwards capturing the king himself with all his treasure. I he results of the war were ruinous to Macedonia. It was split up into four leagues, whicli were forbidden all mutual combination and had to i)ay a part of their revenues as tribute to Rome. The treatment of the (hi-eks was also severe. The States with Macedonian sympathies had already been conciuercd in the course cf the war ; fugitives were pursued with the utmost cruelty, and 1000 Achaeans were forced to submit to beini^ removed as hostat;es to Italy.^ A regular war of annihilation was condncteel ai;ainst tlie Epirote race of the Molossians, who had siil'd with I'erseui ; 150,000 are said to have been sold into slavery. With the battle of Pydiia liie last great stand of the inhabitants of the Eastern Mediterranean against Rome's domination was broken ; henceforth all these States arc to be regarded merely as client-States of Rome, whose liehaviour was ruled and directed by the word of the Senate. Rome had succeeded to the heritage of Alexander the Great. t ^ 19. CoMPl.lTION OF THE RoMAN SuPRl-.MACY IN THl Mr.niTHRRANKAN (149-I33 B.C.) 'I'/je 'ihird Punic fl^ar. — Owing .o the activity and com- mercial ability of its inhabitants, Carthage had from a mercantile point of view risen anew to its former level, and thereby excited in a high degree the jealousy of Rome, where tiie demaml loi the destruction of the competitor was raised more and more loudly. The representative of this 1 Among them was the historian Polybius, to whom we mainly owe our knowledge of this period. 1 COMPLETION OF ROMAN SUPREMACY 49 war party in the Senate was old M. Porcius Cato.i In the want of scruple with which Rome was now wont to carry- on its foreign policy, a pretext for war was easily found. The Carthaginians, irritated to the utmost by Massinissa's appropriation of Emporiae, their most fertile district (151), and again dismissed with their plaint by the Romans, took up arms against the Numidian king. The Romans regarded this as a direct declaration of war against them- selves ; for by the peace of 201 it had been forbidden to the Carthaginians to wage war against allies of Rome. The Carthaginians nevertheless wished to avoid war, and sent 300 hostages to Rome; when in spite of this a Roman army appeared in Africa (149), they even obeyed the harsh command to surrender the whole of their materials of war down to their last sword. But when the further demand was made that they should demolish Carthage and found a new city away from the sea, the struggle of despair for their beloved native soil broke out, and with the stubbornness peculiar to the Semitic race they prolonged it over two vears. At last the son of the victor of Pydna, voung Scipio Aemiiianus, adopted by the family of the Scipios and appointed to the chief command in 147, succeeded in cutting otf all access to the beleaguered by blocking up their last port—Carthage had several of them— and thus finally forcing them into surrender. Carthage was levelled to the ground, the surviving inhabitants transported to a sj)ot far from the coast, and the district of Carthage made into the Province of Africa, with Utica as its capital (146). The chief profit from this perfidious war fell to the great merchants of Rome, whose party had brought it on ; the trade of her powerful rival mainly passed over to Rome. The Province of Macedotua. — A pretender to the throne, the 'false Philip' {Pseudophilippus), who claimed to be the son of Perseus, caused Macedon once again to embroil itself in a struggle with Rome, which was quickly settled in favour 1 ]'"rom him ccmes the wt-ll-known phrase, cett-nnn ceusto Cartha- f^hicm esse dclcndam, tlie buKlon of his speeches in tiie Senate. 50 ROMAN HISTORY of Rome by the Praetor C. Caecilius Metellus ( 1 4^ ) • Ro'"*^ now deprived Macedon of the last remnant of independence, and turned it into a Roman ])rovince in connexion with J'lpirus and Thcssaly (146). By the road from Dyr- rhachium (Durazzo) to Thessalonica (Saloniki) a junction was effected between the western and eastern coasts of the Balkan ])eninsula. The Provlrhf of Acl.uua. — The restless Greek nation could not keep the peace. The Achac m League, guided by Crito- !aus and Diaeus, sought again 10 subjugate the cities set free by the Romans and thus caused the latter to interfere anew in the welter of Gr'jek politics. After the failure of Metellus's efforts to re)>rcss the rising peaceably from Mace- donia, the Consul L. Mummiu? appeared in 146 in Greece, captured Corinth,^ the leading state of the Achaean League, after a victtry at the isthmus, and quickly restored quiet. Greece was subordinated, under the title of 'Province of Achaea,' to the adniiiiistrator of Macedon. Spain and the Numantine Jl^ar. — In S])ain Roman dominies had the greatest difliculty in gaining a footing («5 19). Thf valiant race of the l^usitani in particular compelled the Romans to repeated contests,^ and during the third Punic war it had found a most skilful leader in Viriathus. But even after his murder (139) the struggle continu.-d, and in particular the perfidious aii'l shameful way in which the Romans conducted the war inspired the valiant Spaniards with ever fresh powers of resistance. It was not until the conqueror of Africa, Scipio, was despatched in 134 as Consul to Spain that fortune turned towards the Romans. After a siege of fifteen months Nuniantia on the upper course of the Duro, the chief *.)wn of the rebels, was reduced and thereby pcac restored for a considerable time (i33)" 1 1 lirouqh tho sack of Corinth conntloss treasures of art came to Koine and Italy. - On the occasion ol these wars, in tlie year 153, the Romans altcrc;l tho date of the accession to tlie consulship from March 13 to January i, in order to he al.ile to despatch tlieir Consul more -poctlily. i COMPLETION OF ROMAN SUPREMACY 51 Ihe Provinre of yls'ia. — In the year 133 the lai.t Attalid, Attalus III., difd at Pcr^anion. Havin;^ lived continually I at strife with his subjects, he bequeitlv-d his k.inj;dom to the Romans. As however an illegitimate son of l^unienes II. .■ontestod its possession with them for years, they were unable to enter upon their Pergamcnc legacy until the year I2y, in which it was incorporated in the Roman empire as the ' Province of Asia.' CHAPTFR VII From the Completion of the Supremacy in the Countries of the Mediterranean until the Fall of the Republic i Revolutionary Period) 133-29 B.C. .s'l'.vnv.--.— Cif tlio ,i:;ie.vi lu-iorical works ol" l.ivi-.i- a;.Li I >:(vi.,iii3 unlv f.MLi'.nL'iUs and oxcorpts reiuain for tlii.> a,i;<\ c'ur.ncct'-d iiarraiivc- .!r.-''furnibht.'h wars. From thi voar 68 onwards I'lo* isiius isconii-lt'icly 1 .'-civcd (IJook 3611.). II:-, is nio^t valuably Minpienu-ntod. by iVx writing.-, ct description of this ay;' ;s nio^t vaiualHy .suppienu-ntoc. !.y «:ceru, whose political .-pc-che.-. and curre.-pundoncc li;rni.-.h .i:i nuvt:- niable and not vet conipl-'ti'lv f.\i)l')iu' i ni itt-ri.d for tlie p-'riod. 'Ihci. reference shoakl be made i- the bioi,'raiihie> of I'iutarcli (llie tw. ■ (Iracchi. Marius, Sulla, rompeiti-, t ';i'-ar, t\c. 1, wb.o dr.e,\ ui)on lo t but good sources. Some .slij^ht gain is to be derived from the little work of Vcll'-ins I'atorculus,' v.:.) in Ih.o reign of Tiberia • related ili,- whole histors (jf Home up to the yoai 30 H.c . i:i a brief outline nilirg only two b. with not unint>-re-->tin'.,' detriils on culture and. liter.ii \ iiist'orv. The c.mipilatioiiuf 'Iroga^ 1'- .mpeiu3(ageof Aui,'a-tus) emit!' d • Philippic IIi.-torie3, which comijrises forty-four book?, but excliid''- -peciticallv Roman history, contains \ .duable inf 'rmati' m a- tothe events in the Mast; it is pre ervcd in Iu-tin"s sununary. I'mally, a soun e which furnishes us with the br.i";ui.l most impt^rtant te-t;mony from ,inc:ent lu-tory Itegins from this tmie (,;iward-, to tiow more ainindantly : this is the insc riptions. tj(jth of private and of otTicial origin, the manb.'v of which, owing to tortie .ue linds, i> still increa.^ing d.iily, and the study of which has ca':' \ forth the indepenaent and fruitful science of epigraphy. They are collected in the (orf-n^ hisrir-ti^Kum l.aii- varuii:. = 2 ROMAN HISTORY Hovic /■i'//// retire decidedly into the backijronnd, que'ati' r.s are Ijeiiit,' fought out, questions which .. more [ ressini.: tiirough the pjrevioiis developni oi , advance t n violent solution. A new strug^ ■ f hi: bur^^licrs uri.-es, like that once w.is^ed by the I Iwi patricians, but more diin^erori , as it no linger foui^i.i 1 gality, and inore deadly, a^ t is no i mge. ;he burg.' those of a\ !)• ]; State who are concerned. The re hi no lonper st.iiiility enouc;h to resist pcrmane nev. political demands and conceptions. It j^av.- w of o:ie nia'.i, the Monarthy, tirst ret - • -- h Cartli:i.;;e unbrok -n conquesi. g, never. pol. lore and I: a;:a -; a c tui Uoii n I of ublic I lie pre: ■J'he d< order. .e le . cii. hov- le .->f bu ••ver .f on I vj 2C. InNIR Dt\i.L(ii %itNT I CdNTliST or TH, ■' 1>LR THK Gracchi )M TIM: CoNCLUSl THt N • TH: ApPtAR. \ i-: OF Officiah, XobiHty.--\\\ tii- plebeians had disapj)eari'' the .^i. a new trr.ouping of partic:- ■'■ . .amt had at; i;ate 1 to themselv. ; almost al distii oil and thereby kej) btate , no.v the important ai. ' to appro ;iat'' them, claimiii ; otficial posts, e-.i)eei.i .p, the nobi. /.',•>, ;na\ It •. -■niticfi ice of the '.A'A\ were the thu ■ "• 'iip, ;.;;d the -d It. poAtr. Tl niout a What \\ in for 1 - tiou twe. : tvn. -en th< i>ou i . imerl I th. citizens' ? of tiiiim grovvin old pat The import the pi . e.xp,. It broui,i ' oflficia! an r whic 1 svritii^ sion ; ICven ; by fia e.vteti Senate, .h, from the hit tension of tli^ ainid-t the C era tic change- 1 tiieir h,i!!o chc adm n wealthy faih lies ot both > •r their men.ber^ the excl tiie S'- ■e rega jjatncian-- and order*; ended, he p rician>) ts t< public f the ' ,;;tem{)t rivilege te. The otticiai nol .iity thus ! as tlie continuation of the aa >mpi huh .0 Cft was I go ^cipio Tl, •vmg I. th. I State, of which the most ..e. that of the curule aedile, vv proportionately as the Stale on of the provinces in particular in the position of the higher ir and a distinction now bee i me eed. The old Roman morality, oici wished to revive by word and unsi niptations entailed by the posses- o gi number of prosperous countries. le th' picion of having soiled his hands which jvercame the caste-bound nob.ity jurisdiction lying in their hands and to the ited almost exclusively, in spite of the law, .^. Thus the advantages of the gigantic e.x- iipirewere really felt by only one class of men ; dissatisfaction and an earnest wish for demo- constitution grew strong. INNER DEVELOPMENT 53 I.and-Svstem — Tlic ' 11 ;ral populat rn commun those whu '■ in the down' i)e (liscu-ssi'd :tant [HI. ii now sealed. From the provinces, aii<': Rome,' huge (|u;intities of tribute, partly at the insta over the people. This wi tributed to the people gradually to Ije a par? who wished to jilay • unable to face any lonu the ^ame extent as tl sequence was a stead'. .; ■ position of the agiicutur il of ill"' State depended on the piospci .ty a still nv le einir.i'nt degree \n .nu \ Ii;noran(f or heedlessness of .iiis ; d I'oni .1 [lolicy was n<'t the lei-t dl ot the empire ; .md it w>! iust in : e :at the f^'" m of Roman agr lit'^rc was circumstance. The uoss' uticularl i..;m .'^icily, the n can '» t,i the Roman marki ; of w -aliSiy piT-ons who son . at nominal prices ; often .,.->- v gratis. Such largesses ct t une •■-ular means of agnation used i>\ those polities ; and thus native agriculture, i depression of prices, was injured to s were thereby corrupti'd. The con- ihe cultivation of grain and in tbe ition. To liiis was added a further i landed projierty, uhieh wa> no longer protitable for the pe>; ,int working with sm.ill means, fell into the hands of large owners, all the more as trade was forbidden to senators and men of senatorial rank, who in consequence found them- selves compelled to inve>. heir c.ipita! in reale^ta'e. Hut these owners of the latifuitdia, who could scarcelv measure tln-.r estates, abandoned the .M :\ ,• toilsome and expensive i-.iiii\aii<-'n of grain for the more convenient cattle-bn eding, which inevitably debased the culture of the land and substituted for a numerous and vigorous pieasantry a feebler and incapable class of herdsmen. The foundation of the troubles which still afflict Itnly was laid then. Trade. — With tli. actiuisition of the Mediterrasiean provinces Rome liad entered into the nunerce of the wtirld ; and 'die result of this w a complete revolution of social conditions. 'J'l e Aorld-doniinion Rome as it expanded and diverted to itself all tlie pri>ducts and art the East called into existence in this period a new order, that of the gn traders [tiegotiatores), who had indeed their centre i:i Rome, but spri over all the provinces, partly to pursue trade on a great scale, pa: too to seek large revenues as government tax-farmers ipubliiani). '1 more unscrupulously this order, following the tendency of the ag<. carri'^d on its business, the greater became the opposition between capital and the proletariat ; and in the splendour md wealili which now inundated Italy lay already the germ of the terrible convulsions which awaited the repufilic. Thr Slave System. — The welfare of the commons 1 ■'! suftered heavily through the ceaseless wars, especially through thai vith Hannibal, >riiicii dcsoiatcd haly .isclf; and later it liad ha;; no i.iippon cither from a rise of agriculture or front the methods of commerce. Now it received a still deeper injury from the enormously increasing slave- system. The successful wars had thrown on the slave-market countless thousands of human beings, so that both the i)ossessors of hUifutidia and the great traders could supply themselves with labour at ridiculously 51 ROMAN HISTORY low prices. Thu- on the one hand native laboiii- lost its value as tin- free pen-ant in t ;e country and the small artisan in tiie town were ousted ; and on t!ie otlier hand these gis^antic crowtls of slaves con- cealer! ill theniM-lves a ,<,Mave danger. ''Ihe first warning in regard to this came to tiie Romans through the .Slave War in Sicily, where the system of //;/e as Rome took rank as a World-Power; and the allies felt then exclusion from this privilege as a more and more rankling mjustice. I'hey were all the more sensitjle of it from having had to bear on their own shor.lders the main burden of the wars "that had raised Rome to h< r pre>eiit height, whicli onlv their lovalty had made attamable at all. Tin:-; ili-feeling grew among the It ilici too to <:uch a degree that it actually led to an open revolt, for whicii of course the Romans mtlicted swift and severe puni.-hment. ii 2 1. The Attempts at Reform of thi- Gracchi (Beginning of the Revolution), 133-122 b.c. The level reached by the corruption of the aristocratic official world is indicated by the fact that the permanent Criminal Courts introduced in the year i 49 (the so-called qmiesikmes perpehuxe) h.id assigned to them as their first province by the lex Ctilpunm ripetmuhirum the trial of offences of embezzle- ment. I'Aen in the circles of the Opthnates, as the party of the nobility were called in opposition to the democratic Populares, the recognition gained ground that the just wishes of the commons must be met. Thus the Consul for the year 140, C. Laelius, the well-known friend of Scipio, brought forward a bill for the distribution of the occupied but not legally alienated domain-land ; but it was in vain. In the same circle of the Scipios, aristocratic but not averse to liberal views, there had grown up under the guidance of two eminent Greeks a youth who entered the lists for the cause of the oppressed with all th- fire of youthful enthusiasm. ATTEMPTS AT REFORM 55 Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (133), whose father had com- manded not without distinction in Spain and whose mother was the famous Cornelia, the daughter o\ the t Ider Scipio Africanus, turned back to the much contested and scarcely ever executed Agrarian Law of Licinius, and as Tribune of the Commons brought forward the following proposal. No one should possess more than 500 iu^rera of the State's lands {ti^^cr publicus) 't for grown-up sons an extra 250 iw^erd apiece might be claimed, though more tlian icoo iu;^era were not allowed to come into the hands of one taniily ; of tiie land recovered by this measure, lots of 30 iu^^era each should be given to burghers and allies on an inalienable tenure. The opposition arising against the bill, which certainly fell with great severity upon the nobility, was led by the Tribune C. Octavius, on whose veto the plan of Gracchus necessarily collapsed. Then Gracchus took the first step on the road of revolution. He carried through the unconstitutional proposal that a Tribune who acted contrary to the interests of the people should be deposed. Thus Octavius was removed from office. The bill of Gracchus was then accepted and expanded by the added clause that the legacy of Attalus should be applied to cover the expenses, viz., compensation of dispossessed parties and equipment of new colonists. A commission ot three men, the tresviri agris iuJicandis (idsigihindis^ who at the same time represented the highest jurisdiction for all legal questions arising, were entrusted with the immediate execu- tion of the law. The first members were Tiberius Gracchus himself, his father-in-law Appius Claudius, and his younger brother Gaius. For the continuance of his work it was now all-important for Tiberius to hold the tribunate for the next year as well. But when he endeavoured to encomj)ass this illeg'l re-election the excited interposition of the Optimates led to a riot in which Gracchus with 300 of his adherents lost their lives. The revolution, with its lawlessness and Bloody Assizes, had begun. Nevertheless no one as yet dared after the removal of the 56 ROMAN HISTORY bold democrat to suspend his work of reform. At last however the complaints of the allies themselves at too forcible dispossession led to a measure, pro])Osed by Scipio Acniilianus, a man not opi)osed to reform in itself, by which jurisdiction was removed from the commission and transferred :o the Consuls (129). The board thus lost with its most weighty function so much of its importance that the dis- content of the Populares sought another solution. The proposal was made to bestow on the allies the long-claimed right of Roman citizenship. Hut this proposition did not meet even with the approval of the plebs, which, in jealous pride of its privileged position, was not minded to share it with any one. Thi ('issatisfaction among the allies grew strong, and found indeed a tangible expression in the revolt of Pregellae,tht chief of the Latin colonies ( 1 25), which however soon yielded to Roman superiority and atoned for its conduct by i.he loss of its walls and its right of civic existence. At this time (124) the younger Gracchus, whose earliest political activity had been closely bound up with that of his brother, returned to Rome from his quaestorship in Sardinia and was elected Tribune for the next year b *';^ commons, who built great hojjcs upon him (123). Gains Sempronhis Gracchus, a true revolutio. y gifted with inspiring fervour and passionate eloquence, advanced with clearer purpose than his brother towards a complete change of the constitution. In the incomplete state of tradition we are in doubt as to many weighty details of his legislation, but its main features may be recognised in the following regulations. In the first place he raised the importance of the Tribunate of the Commons by legalising the possibility of re-election tor another year, which had been a stumbling-block to his brother. Then lie took uj) again his brother's agrarian law, which he extended by founding new colonies of burghers in the districts of Caj)ua, Tarentum, and even of Carthage, 'rhe population of the caj)ital was by his Corn Law to have its grain permanently provided at a minimum price, and by a new arrangement of votes the lower classes were to be ATTEMPTS AT REFORM 57 removed farther from the influence of the nobility in the Centuriate Comitia. A nreat and permanent importance accrued to his .rx iiu/inarid, which took, away the right of composing juries from the Senators and transferred it to the order of knights. The on/o erjuester, consisting of eighteen ,enturiae of knights, had come to be the repress ntative of the class of great traders, as a result of the regulation that every one must leave it who entered the Senatorial order ; and it stood in a certain opposition to the nobility of office. This opposition was now intensified as the provincial ad- ministration of the nobility too ^^ ime before tiie juries of knights ; and thus the law of Gracchus created as it were a new order midway between the mass of the people and the nobility. This legislation, to which were added a number of other innovations — bestowal of citizenship upon the allies, allevia- tion of military duties, disciplinary regulations for deposed officials — evoked the most violent opj)osition from the hitherto ruling party. During the absence of Gracchus in i 2 2 while he conductsd in person the establishment of the new burgess- colony of Junonia (Carthage), their intriguing policy suc- ceeded in undermining his position with the commons, who were already dissatisfied with the transmarine colony. A colleague of Gracchus in the tribunate, Livius Drusus, profited by this feeling of the j)eople to detach them from him by a proposal outbidding the Gracchan plans — in Italy itself twelve colonies of burghers were to be founded, with 30,000 lots apiece. The proposal was an empty one, oimply for the reason that in Italy there was no longer any disposable soil for such a colonial scheme. But the jjeople fell into the trap laid for them, and when Gracchus after his return sought the tribunate for the third time he no' only failed to poll the needful number of votes but was even forced to see a bill proposed for the suspension of the African colony. This led to an open conflict, and the younger Gracchus like his brother came to a violent end. Thousands of his adherents fell, partly in civil war, partly 58 ROMAN HISTORY as victims of the impeachments directed against the partv. Despite this victory of the party of the Optimates, which they owed to the wretched vacillation of the commons, the most essential points in Gracchus' work of reform — the new arrangement of the Law Courts and the distributions of land — remained in operation ; as to the latter indeed the followino years brought some further extensions of it in the removal firstly of the inalienability of the apportioned land, then of the rent, and finally of the State's whole right of possession. .^ 22. 1 XTLKNAL I'VINTS UNTIL THE SoCIAL WaK, l2I~IOl M.l. The Proi'i/ui ufGiillia Xiirbr.iwtisis. — After Sjnmish affairs, thanks to Scipio's vigorous interference, had assumed a peaceful aspect, it was necessarily of importance to the Romans to bring about a communication by land between this province and Upper Italy. For this the way had been paved by long petty wars against the Keltic races dwelling west of the Alps, first the Allobroges in the valley of the Isara (Iscrc), and then their neighbours, the powerful Arverni. After a brilliant victory over the latter in the year 121 the Romans could venture to establish themselves in the territory between the Pyrenees and Alps, which was com- mercially under the rule of the friendly city of Massilia (Marseilles), bv founding Aquae Sextiae (Aix in Provence) and colonising the old Keltic city of Narbo (Narbonne). The two j)laces east and west of the Rhone were to protect the great military road from Spain .o Italy. From the colouy of Narbo the transalj)ine province received the name Gdlliii Niirlotunsis. 'l'hcJirrurtl for the great one. Meantime the Cimbri had returned from Spain, in whose warrior po])ulation they had found too stubborn an opponent, and marched northwards through the whole of Gaul, on their journey lighting in the district of the Sequana (Seine) upon another Ger- manic race, the Teutoncs. The latter were in the same position as the Cimbri and joined them n their further progress, of which Roman territory was now to be the object. For unknown reasons the gigantic horde of Germans divided itself into two masses. One of tliem, mostly consisting of Teutones, took the road along the Rhone into Transalpine Gaul, while the other marched towards the Northern Alps. At the mouth of the Isere Marius, who despite the law was elected Consul year after year from 104 till 100, was met by the Teutones in the year 102. After an indecisive battle he marched after them and did not bring matters to a 62 ROMAN HISTORY crisis until he was on favourable ground in the neighbourhood of Aquae Sextiae. Here the lubberly sons of the North succumbed as much to the heat of the southern sun as to Roman legionary tactics. The king Teutobod was captured, his army almost wholly wiped out. Meanwhile the Cimbri had pressed on over the Brenner into the valley of the Adige, driven before them the Roman nrmy which confronted them, and taken up their quarters for the winter of 1 02-101 in the Po valley. In the following vear ( loi ) they marched up the river, and at Vercelli in the Raudian Plains met Marius as he was returning from Gaul. The superiority still possessed by the Roman arms under a capable general again won the Jviy, and the race of the Cimbri was annihilated like their kindred in the preceding year at Aquae Sextiae. All that did not hill a prey to the sword came upon the slave-market in Rome. .X ^3. Marius and the Party ov Revolution C'ciiuf jllarius, th. on of a peasant from the hamlet of Arpinum, was natural; driven to the party of the democracy bv the disfavour of his aristocratic comrades, who regarded all offices, both political and military, as the preserves of the nobility and sought to thrust aside the brilliantly successful upstart {homo novus). It was to this partv alone that he owed his first consulate with the chief command in the .lugurthinc war and the series of his unconstitutional con- sulates from 104 to 100. His significance lies wholly in the military department, into which he introduced changes that wore of the greatest importance for a LiLcr age. Marius' nform of the army was based on the recognition that the citizen body was no longer suificient to recruit the legions from ; he therefore took up into the army all elements, freedmen and proletariat, bo that it changed from a citizen- militia into an army of mercenaries which became a pliant instrument in the hand of the general of the day, looking to him alone for gain and distinction. On democratic principles M THE PARTY OF REVOLUTION (>3 champion I i;c also abolished all liirfcrenccs based on j)ropcrtv, altered the liivision and arrangement of the army, and by a new system of exercise based on the arts ot the fencing-school increased the army's efficiency to such a decree tiiat we arc able to understand his extraordinary successes after the miserable iefeats of other generals. Marius too, like every other really important mm of this age, was now dragged into the mounting waves of internal ])olitics ; but here the man of the sword was tried and found wanting. ri>r Dcmorrdtv ; S.iturniiiiis ti/itl Glauihu — Since the fall of the younger Gracchus the popular party had been driven into the background, but was stirred into fresh activity particularly through the impeachments connected with the .lugurthine war, in which the ilepravity of the nobility was unmasked. In Marius it deemed it had found its proi)er He was joined by its ])rcvious representatives, Appuleius Saturninus and C. Servilius Gliucia, both j oliticians of no importance, but desj)erate and r-'-kless dema- gogues. These three men divided between .mselves the supreme power for the year ico, Marius receiving the con- sulate, Saturninus for the second time the tribunate, and Glaucia the praetorship. The ultra- democratic tendency of these popular leaders apjiears in their proj)Osals ; by a Corn Law that almost lowered to zero the price of the corn to be ofticially sold to the people, and by a Colonial Law which aimed in the especial interest of the Marian veterans at foreign colonisation on the grandest scale, they showed their intention of regarding exclusively the claims of the lowest masses. Thus the I'lquestrian Order, in which C. Gracchus thought he had created a buttress of democracy, fell into the arms of the Optimates, and to their alliance the rule of the masses succumbed. Marius as Consul was even compelled to personally defend public order against his two associates when they proceeded at the elections for the next year to murder and violence. Both met their death in a regular strtet- 1 battle. Their laws were at once cancelled, and impeachments ^1 64 ROMAN HISTORY iti ill removed a number of their adherents. Marius however, who had ain".icss!y wavered between the two parties, sank into universal contempt, and was forced on the expiration of his consulshij) to withdraw sullenly into the obscurity of private life. sf 24. fjvii'.s Drusus and the Social War, yr-S.s !,.(.. The Ldzi's of Afiirrus Liv'tus JJrusus. — The Tribune M. Livius Drujus (91), himself a member of the nobility, but like the Gracchi insj)ireil with a lofty enthusiasm, came to the con- viction th;it the l^questrian Order had by no means proved itself worthy of the trust wiiich the Gracchan legislation had placed in it by transferrin^^ to it the juries, and that its verdicts were in>jiired by a policy of self-interest which en- dangered the State. By ousting this order he hoped to gain for his popular measures the support of the Optimates, who hitherto had opposed every reform ; and he actually succeeded in carrying through the following plans — (i) restoration of the juries to the Senate, which was to be increased by 300 members; (2) additional largesses of corn ; (3) conversion of the still existing domain-land into citizen-colonies. But this law was never carried ol;. The knights at first raised a protest on account of a mistake of form in the voting ; but chance presented them with a much more effectual means of agitation for their ends. It had become known that Drusus was in close connexion with the Italian allies and wished to secure for .hem the Roman citizenship. This claim was still equally odious to the nobility and to the commons. It aroused sich universal anger against the honourable Tribune that not only was a j)roposal to cancel his law accepted but Drusu'.- hini'ielf, despite his quiet bcha\ iour, was removed by assassination. But the blindness which Roman policy dis- played in this point was soon to be terribly chastised. 7'/'/" Alars'uin or Sonil ICir (9 1-88). — The ferment which ! al long been noticeable among the allies (Ifa/ici) came to a I DRUSUS AND THE SOCIAL WAR ^>=; head when the man by whose championship tht-y hoped to attain their goal had fallen a victim to their oppoix-nts. How tar the reproach made a;;ainst Dnisus of having toinud a secret league with the Italici was justified need not be considered ; certainly the organisation with which we see the allies enter- in(T upon the war su^igests methodic.il preparation. The revolt broke out in the little Picentiiie town of Asciiluni (now Ascoli on the Tronto) ; the occasion was a threaten- ing speech of the Roman Praetor, to whicli the jjcople icsponded by murdering him and many Roman citizens. Among the first to revolt at this sign were the sturdy mountain-folk of the Marsi, whence this war is also called the 'Marsian.' After tlic rebels, joined by the greater part of Central and Lower Italy, had vainly demanded to be granted the citizenship of Rome, they i)roceeded to found an independent State ; the town u( Corfinium, on the river Pescara, was made its capital, under the name Ital'ua. This new 'Anti-Rome' gave its citizenship to all revolted Italici, and received a constitution modelled on that ot its tormer mistress (a Senate of 5C0, Consuls, Praetors, and coinage). The war that now Hamed up (tyo) was waged by both sides with the exertion of their uttermost powers and with passionate bitterness. Despite some successes of Marius the Romans at the end of the first year of the war found themselves forced to make tlie concession of granting citizenship to the allies who had not yet revolted [lex Iwui). A second law, lex PlautiaPiipiria, soon followed (89), which extended this right to all allies south of the Po, though with the restriction that the votes of the new burghers should not be distributed over all the thirty-five tribes bur should rem;'in limited to eight (or ten). As the war was thereby dei'ri\ed of its proper ground, mrsro and more allies withdrew t om it ; and when too the new Anti-Rome, Couinium, had fallen in the year 88, Sulla ended the war by repeated vi^cories over the stubborn Sam- nites and Campanians. But while he was busied in be- leaguering Nola, around whi^h the last resistance gathered, 66 ROMAN HISTORY a cat istrophc burst u])on Rome which shook the State to its foun(iations and ibrced Sulla into interference all the more as he hinibelf" was a ttllow-suffcrtr. 11 i ' ,^ 25. The Sl'llan Disorders and the (First) MiTHRADATIC WaR, 89-84 B.C. In judqiriL; thi;; peii^d ot re. uliuit)n it inu-;t not hi: fortiottcn that tljc point at 1 ,-:u- w.is nut merely a ijue^tion of powt hetwoen aristocr.it;y and (iiniociicy ; it w.i-. thi- eajiioinic di.-^tressof the umble classes that had aroused tlial cry fur help fr'.:n the JState which had now been rinj^- int: for hah a ceiUurv ;ii the ;i.->i'nihhes and streets of Rf^nie. 'i'iie niidtU'? .md lower (uders "f l)urL;l;''rs had be :> brouj^lit ilfjsc to luin firstly by the co-ily wars of the third .uid sci ind century, and then still more by their nii)-,t disa-,tn>us re-^nlt the nion.-itrously jncreaNini; slave-'-ystfiii ; and thus had bi eiu'reat'd a proletariat which neces-,.irilv formed the titte-t soil for revoliUion. This distress was intensified bv the bloody war which now for the hr>t lime since the stru^'gle witli Ilainiibal d<'- 'ated the falurl.ind itself, and drove even the Italici, whosfpo-itifiM hitherto had \><-'-n eeonomicnlly more favourable, into the camp r)f t le desjjerate. At this moii cut occiared an event which had ijcen thre.iieriini; for a con-iderabl ' time, and which inaile the ja'csent dani^cnm.-, po>it <>n of Rome one of tiie most awful f;ravity. The uro- vince of Asia, tli- richest o; the kt>m,in hanpire, had bi'. i seized by the I^ontic prince Milhiadates and the Romans there resident destroyed. By this so larj^e a number of the richest families were hurled into buikruptcy that a genfral insolvency arose in Rome. This moni.'nt of (Ic'-pest distress seennil very suitable for the lesumption of t <> work of reform interrupted by the ileath of Livjus Drusus. J\ Siilpichis Rufus, a Tribune of the year 88, and like Drusus a number of the nobility, was devoted to the cause of the Commons, whom he had captivated by his brilliant eloquence. His first demands — distribution of the new citizens over all the thirty-five tribes and bestowal of citizen- ship upon tlie frecdmen — were intended to completely end the still fermenting rebellion of the Italici and give their rights to the freedmen who since Marius' reform of the armv had been called u])on for service in war. He succeeded indeed, though not without violent and bloody collisions with the Optimates, in carrying through for the moment these and some other pojjular proposals ; but his power lasted only a short time. Among his oj)ponents one of the most vehement THE SULLAN DISORDERS <'7 .vas L. Sulla, one of the Consuls for tlu- \ci:, who at the- time of voting had come to Rome and there only with dith- culty escaped death. In order now to render this dan-crous antagonist harmless Sulpicius brought foivard the proposal thatihe chief command in the iniminent Asiatic war, which had already been committed to vSulla, should be resi-ned to Marius. Sulla marched with his army from Nola to Rome. In a lierce street-battle he won the mastery, and drove out t. revolutionaries, on whose heads a ^ ,:i was set. Sulpicius :,. isi-riost his life, while old Marius succeeded in e->capin- ' fr;,'iing after weary wandvripgs ooncealnvjnt in Atnca.' L. Corrie/ius Sulhi, whv i' alreaviy in the .lugurthine wa. proved himself ec)ua:.!, tr ..Ac as an oilicer and skiltul as a diplomatist, and ha.i i. .r .accecded in stitiing the hocia War, now held in Rome unlimited power with the help ot the army, which he had been the first to lead against his own fellow- citizens. Military rule, that most fatal re.ult of the Marian reform of the army, succeeded to the ru..- ol the masses With the weapon created by demociacy ^ulla, the rigid aristoctat, showed to the decaying republic the road to monarchy. After some temporary regulations aiming at a change of constitution in the aristocratic interest, Sulla found himself compelled to depart with his army to Asia, where Mithradates had made vigorous advances. He had however to leave Rome in a very uncertain state, e.])ccially as on^ rf the two Consuls for the year 87, L. Cornelius Cmna, optnly iielonsed to the democratic party. Jsia and the {Jirst) Mithradatic /r«r (89-^4;.-! '"time in which internal convulsions torced the Roman g.v -- nu r.t to turn its attention away from the observation of tat ; lovnces had been used by an Asiatic prince, King Mun. dates ot Paphlagonia (the south coast of the Black Seaj in order to make conquests in alliance with his son-in-law 1 igranes ot Armenia. Mith.adates' 'Kingdom of the Bosporus' soon extended beyond the northern shore of the Black Sea, where 1 Hence the proverbial ' Marius in Ih':; ruinri of ijar.l.age. r.s ROMAN HISTORY f I t I li ? ' it succeeded to the inheritance of the once prosperous Greek colonics, now destroyed by the nomads. A war with Rome, wtiich Mithradates does not seem to have designed, first came about throu<^h tlic Roman <;overnor of the ])rovince of Asia, Manius Aquillius, instigating in 90 the Bithynian King Nico- medes, Mithradates' western neii^iibour, to assail the Bosporan kingdom, and tlius compelling Mithradates to take up arms against the Roman allies (H9). But the Roman administrator had conjured up war too lightly. After splendid prej)arations of a thoroughly Asiatic sort, Mithradates stood in the heart of the Roman pio- vince {^i^). Its inhabitants, exhausted by a conscienceless system of taxation and by niost brutal slave-hunts, not onlv revolted from Rome, but also carried out with the utmost diligence the terrible hcntence of death wiiich Mithradates had issued from lij)hcsus on all bearing the Roman name. I'jghty thousand, according indeed to some accounts i 50,000, Romans of every age and sex arc said then to have perished. This massacre, to wliich Mithradatts was led at once bv the Oriental thir;,t of blood and by greed (for he confiscated half ot the whole proj)erty of the victims), was the signal for a great rising of the l^^ast .gainst tlie West, which was ai once joined by the easily inflamed nation of the Greeks. Mith- radates was accounted the saviour from the Roman yoke. At last Sulia ap|)cared with his army in Greece ((^7). Without meeting wiih serious resistance he advanced as far as Attica. Here Athens, in the iememl)rance of former great- ness and under an unfortunate insjm-.'tion of patriotism, had undertaken the d.ity ot acting as the centre of the revolt. The Athenians indeed succeeded in holding out against Sulla for some months ; but in the spiing of the next year (h^) they yielded to hunger, and only the harbour of Piraeus was able to continue the resistance. Sulla's j)osition however was now for .1 moment serious. The siege ot the well-fortified and provisioned port made no progiess ; he lacked a fleet in order to assail his chief opponent in Asia; and moreover an order to resign office came to him from Rome, v/here now the THE MITHRADATIC WAR do democratic party under Cinna was once a;^ain in powt-r. It was now Mithradates himself wiio saved his antagonist by- calling oft' the garrison of Piraeus to Boeotia, where he wished to stand for a fight. Sulla mo.-,t thoroa<;hly destroyed Piraeus.i and then def ated the enemy in Boeotia near Chaeronca. Never again after this did fortune fail Sulla's banners.- When in Th'.-ssaly he came upon L. Flaccus, who had been aj)poiiited his successor, the troops oi the latter passed over in such numbers to Sulla that Flaccus found it more advisable to betake himself at once to Asia, in order to ;;ather there laurels of his own. In the following vc-ar (^i;) Mithradates landed once more an army in Greece ; but a^am i: succumbed to Roman tactics near the Boeotian Orchomenus. Sulla then cleared the rest of Greece of the rebellious party, and in Thessaly, where he held his winter-quarters, built sl'.ips for the Asiatic campaign. Meanwhile the Roman army in /\sia liad killed Flaccus and chosen as its general a certain Fimbria, who though a demagogue of the worst sort was yet more capable as a soldier, and by the conquest of Per;V'mon inliicted great injury on Mithradates. The ])osition of Mithradateb moreovii had materially altered; through the misgovernment of Oiiental despotism he had wholly lost the sympathies of the Asiatic provincials, and when now after several successes Fucullus, the general under Sulla, united the jleet he had brought up in Cilician and Rhodian v. iters with that of Sulla, the Asiatic, little ca])a'!)le of icsistance, LVive r.p the war and sued for peace (S4). This was concluded by Salla himselt after his cro!;sing into Asia. A])art from the u^ual indenmity, Mithradates wat> restricted to the kingd.om which he ''ad ])ossessed hetcie the war. The full vengeance of tin- Romans however fell upon the revolted province. Sulla took over the troops of Fiiti- bria, which deserted their Kader and thus drove him to 1 I'roiu tlii-- evi-iU we may .;at' tiio fall m Atlit;. a-^ tin- tiuiiui' h mI TiuU<'i'olis of tlio I'.aht. -' He calN liiiiiself !))• p: eft-; en. c JtL'.v, tin; 'loU; .i-nnu-,' tlic-on .jf lortuiU'. 70 ROMAN HISTORY ! I' suicide, and transferred them to Licinius Murcna, the new adminisr-ator of Asia ; and then he imposed on the utterly exhausted jirovince the enormous indemnity of 20, coo talents, commissioning his subordinite Lucullus to enforce the col- lection without mercy. Thus the once flourishing province was again gi\en over to the whole host oi Roman \ampire.'-, a blow from which it was ne\er able to recover. Ci/irid (itul Rome iliiriiv^ the IM'ithriidatic IVtu: — We have seen that 8ulla after repressing the Sulpician revolution had been unable to prevent a man of democratic tendencies from obtaining the consulate tor 87. This was Cornelius Cinna, of whose personality little more is known than that he was an able ollicer in the Social War. The craving to play a political I ait in these agitated times seems to have driven him into the cini]) of the Marians, who induced him to take up again the .Sulj)ician laws— bestowal of complete citizenship on the allies and freedmen. This led to a new collision of the j)artics, which endetl in the victory of the Optimates and the bannmg of Cinna and his adherents. But the democrats found supj)Ort from the allies, and at the same moment old Marius too landed in I'truria. From all sides Italici, discon- tcnteti fieedmen, even slaves crowded round him. Rome found itself assailed from two cjuarters, and had to capitulate to the deposed Consul. Marins, returning with Cinna to Rome, now gratified in a teirible form his fanatical liatied i.i the Optimates who hatl so otten thrust him back. P'or five days and nights i.,ged the butchery to which he condemned his old opponcnis, ;; slaughter in comp.irison with whicii the awful deid of Mithr.idates may seem excusable. The old man, drunk with veng( The Great.' Si/IIii's DLidlorshlp (Hid Cluirr^c of the Constitution. — The unlimited power which Sulla actually possessed after the capture of Rome found outward expression in the appoint- ment wiiich raised him to tlie lonj^ forgotten supreme republican office of Dictator with the utmost conceivable powers; his othcial title was diclator le^^ihus scrihiindis et rei puhlictif ron- stituendiir. The restoration of internal order was not attended with the moderation which wSiil! i had promised when in Greece; on the contrary iu* made a terrible clearance of his opponents by the notorious ' j)ro-criptions.' About 4CC0 men fell victims to them in Rome and Italy together, and their execution, in the absence of .iny control, led to a revolt- ing confusion of all legal and moral ideas. Sup})orted by .1 bodvgmid ot 10,000 frecdnien, tlie •Cornelians,' the Dictato began his legislation (/fi^^j Cor- nc/itir), wiiich on ail points revealed the rigid aristocrat. In the first instance he sought to reduce to dee])est insignifi- cance the li-piestrian Ortlrr, tb.e creation of the Gracchan revolution ; lie transterrtti die jaries back to the Senate and stoppeil ..J) the chief source ot income tor the rich trading classes by converting taxes into fixed payments. He had already after the fall of Sulpicius matcriallv lowered the powers of the Tribunate of the C'ommons, which in the revolutionary period had grown to be tl\c most influential of State offices, by ordaining that Tribunes should introduce i I CHANGE OF THE CONSTITUTION 73 only proj)Osals previously approved by the Senate ; he now caused past Tribunes to be excluded from the rest ot the otHcial career, a measure which aimed at stifling the ambition tor this otlice in all able men. At the same time it was turther deprived of its cssrntial si<;nlficance by the tact iliai the right of intercession no longer remained unrestricted, but ev< ry act of intercession might become the object ot a judicial scrutiny to examine into its jastiiication. The right ot form- ing the juries, which Sulla transferrci again to the Senators, was removed farther and farther trom the commons by the establishment of a number of new standing courts. The Senate also, the number of whose members Sulla raised to 600, underwent a complete reorganis ition ; it was no longer to receive its necessary augmentation, as it had done hitherto, from the Censors, but was to be made up of past holders ot ' curule offices.' To the latter was now joined as fourth the quaestorship, the number of whose members was raised to twenty. Tims the hitherto immensrly intluential oflice of the censorship was also dom away with ; for its second duty too, the formation of the tax-lists, had become meaningless owing to the abolition of the tax for Italy and the change from a system of citizen-militia to a mercenary organisation. Despite the thoroughly aristocratic tendency of his legisla- tion, Sulla was compelled nevertheless to keep two very important institutions of the revolution, the new system of citizenship and the colonial policv. As regards the former he was wise enough to leave alone the citizenshij) of the Italici and so not to interfere with the result gained by the great Italian war; only the concessions to freedmen were Tevoked. In the foundation of new colonies however he far surpassed his j)redecessors, in order to satisfy his veterans ; he is said to have disposed of 120,000 allotments in Italy. By further laws relating to the official career (order of succession, re-election), administration of provinces by past Consuls and Traetors, and municipal constitution, Sulla ex- tended his reforming activity over almost all departments of the State's life, and much was created by him tliat was ■J- m M 74 ROMAN HISTORY i 1 1 " 'I permanent. In the main however his constitution, like himself a child of a wild age, was soon swept away, by the .swellm',; storms of the revolution. Si//'/(i''s Rcl'irinu'iit (111,1 Death. — Thou':;h Sulla clan:; to the supreme power entrusted to him until the comjiietion of his legislation, he had nr'verthcless allowed the regular oiHcial administration to enter into operation by its side, and in the year No had liimself fdled the consulship. On the new elections for the year 79 he surrendered it. And now the unexpected haj'pencd. He voluntarily resigned his dicta- torial ])Ower, and witlidrew as a simple private man from busine>>s ot State. He lived to enjoy for a year the most agreeable repose on the lovely Gulf of Puteoli (now Puzzuoli), until a sudden sickness swiftly carried him (7«). >; 27. Tin. Di.-rt.'RHAWEs 1 rom thi 1)i:.\th of Si'lla until TK! Fall of the Sullan Oligakcuy (7S-70 B.C.) Sulla's re •.oiaiioii of or.'.er, ciiMiretioary as it was caiiiod out, yet bore in itself the !;cini (.f dath. On iIk; oi'v; han'.vor tlie parly a'^.iinst whicli tlio revolution had already for tifty years been direitiHl ; on the < th< r hand it was based on pure military force, which niJi^ht b- made by its possessor into an instrument for any nc'.v (I'piieaval. Tiie knihii) wa.s d cLu -d forfeit -the inas-es of the capital, from wliom Sulla had witiidiawn the larpes-cs r)f corn— at>ove all, the numberless bei;j;ared pn)-cripts and the Italici dis|)ossessed by the land-allotments — all f anied a K^'up of malcontents from who-c iui(i>t an assault U|)on the pre,eiu co!i-'itulion might everv moment be expected. Aiyain-t the <• the ru'in- party, the ()//;vn7n', licked after Siill:is death a man capable of entenn-.; into liis inheritance, I'ompeiu^, the Dictati r's son-ai-1 \v and most lionoured <,;cneral, wa- not at heart devoted to the ar;-!ociacv, to which indr'vl as a torm -r finnan he was an obieet of suspicioti ; and Mircus iacinins ("lavuis, ilie wealthiest man ui the age, did not deem the !i,,iir to have come in wliich he designed to make use of his intlu net;. 'ihr RiV'jiiiiioiioJ /.(=/)///mj(7«). — M. iAcmilius Lepidus,one of the Consuls of the year 7S, made himself the representative of those who were raising in ever louder tones the democratic ■ i •^ i 1 SERTORIUS IN SPAIN 75 demands — re-cstablishnuni ot the ttibunician iiuwii, restora- tion oFthe banished and dispossessed to their old riohts and renewal of the corn larj;esses. While this coiirest w;s still <;oin<' on in Rome open rebellion biokc out in I tiuiia, the ejected landholders of I'acsulae (Fiesoic near llorence) recovering their ])roperty by armed force and with the slaughter '()f Roman colonists. The Senate had now to act, ancMt sent both Consuls to l.truria to enrol an army there and punish the rising. Lepidus however waited in inaction until his year of otlice (77) had run out. Then he niar.iied against Rome, to force the Senate into acce))tance of tlu- democratic demands. He was however defeated on the Campus Martius by his colleague of the past year, Catulas, while his second in command, whom Pompeius captured at Mutina (M.)dena), suffered the penalty of death. Soon afterwards Lepidus too died in vSardinii, to which he sought to transplant the revolt, and the remnant of his army under Perpcrna cros^ed over to Spain. Sertonus in Spuin. — The Mario-Cinnan governor of Spain, Sertorius, one of the most eminent leaders of his party and perhaps the ablest man of this whole ])eiiod, was still engaged in a struggle with the Sullan administrator Caecilius Metellus. Supported by the sympathies of native tribes, espeeiallv ot the valiant Lusitani, Sertorius came forward as a regular Roman official ; and for a time lis power was so strong that his diplomatic connexions extended over Italy as tar as Asin, wliere he ventured to neg>.tiate with Mithradates in the nanu of Rome. The settlement of the wearisome and costly Spanish war, which despite his ab.'i-y Metellus was unable to decide, became an ever more pr; ssing question ; and so it was not (iitVicult for Pompeius, who had risen still higher in popularity through the overthrt..\v of I.epidus, to cause the chief com- mand in Spain to be assigned to himself, in defiance ot the legal regulations (77). For a long time the generalship of Sertorius succeeded in preventing the junction of Pomp, us and Metellus; and even after this had been effected (75) ;<^" :>.■ 76 ROMAN HISTORY 1= the bold nartisan kcp: liis opponents for two years more in check, until he fell a victim to a mutiny stirred up by Per- perna (72). The native tribis now withdrew or surrendered ; the rest of the insur^^ents were dete.ited with little trouble. Pcrperna and many other subordinate generals came to their death by the executioner':-, axe. In 7 1 Pompeius returned to Italy. Ihf SldVf-lFiir (73-71). — A tioop of slaves, led by the bold Thracian Sj)artacus, had burst out ot a gladiators' school in Capua. After setting free considerable masses of slaves they had taken uj) so strong a position on Vesuvius that two Roman brigades had been forced to retreat with heavy loss. The rising quickly sj)read over the whole of Italy, nd the bitterness on both sides expressed itself in a merciless warfare which most horribly de:(»!.itcd the lard. Hven the able M. Licinius Crassus, wh'. was entrusted in the hour of supreme need with the chief command, would not have succeeded so sw'tly in re))ressing the rising, which Spartacus conducted with extreme skill, if a division of the slave- hordes had not been brought about by an inner rift, arising from the opposition of the Ktho-Germanic and the Helleno- Syrian elements. Once sundercil, the slaves yielded to the better disciplined soldiers. Sp.irtacus died a hero's death in Apulia. Other troops were gradually wiped out; a last band, that sought to fiL'ht its way to "he Alps, fell into the hands of Pompeius a^ he returned from Sjian. (71). He cut it to pieces, and fo: this credited himself with the sup- jiression of the slave-rising. Fall of the Sulhin Olirrarchy. — It is one of fate's peculiar ironies that S.'i..' on-in-Iaw and most eminent favourite and the man .vho owei,' .',• laicasurabie wealth to the Sullan d'^iwrlvinccs ien*^ then hands to cancelling Sulla's consti, it'on. Pom|>'-iUs :. d Crassu , both of them returning from Vijvoriou camp.ii^rq icagi "d themselves with the democracy, which pr(>cu!-"'i for th m the consulate for the year 70; "1 ihs-y resto.ed tf Gracchan constitution. The Tribunal . recu'.^:e(! its former extent of power ; the EVENTS IN THE EAST 77 Censorship revived : the janes of kni.;hts were re-est.ihlisheil ; ami in ihe interest of the equestrian order the atlmi.iistration of provincial taxation was recast into the old system o^ contract. The Ci: icchan corn-law had already come a^ain into force soni'* years previously. i 28. I'^vi-.NTs !s in: l".\sr AN!) Pom'tMU's, 7.1 64 H. To tlif> cast of tlv i;i<:it .M''iJitcrr,!Mi';in roL;;'>'i, whrict':..- poucr ot tlic isomaiis was not yet linnly ostabl;-!!!'!!. a li;id iiv t,,rof> rnt-mii-s in n'articnlnr. 'V\v • 'U- rj).-i>i'iL; ^pirii . >t Mithrulatcs . I' Pontile !iatl h(vn i>v U" iiu-ati^ £jnii anew -.viiisj to fro!ili>";' ili^piri , an 1 took so unfavourah •• ,; course for the !vo;iians that the Sniate t M)u.<;hl it well to -■ ;?!.> n.em by a not very reditahl • peace. This \va. liie M-cond Mithrailitic War (S.^-Si). \hont the same tinir a new enpmy icm- up;it;an.t Konie in Tii^rines f Armenia, the son-in-law of Alith ad it'--, with wh had alr-ady \!end.-d liis coPfpit-^ts ov.-r a irreat part of tl;e Part'-iin '!".T-.:ani Mes<.potaaua and Syria tip to the iVonii r of I'.!.;vpi. 'Ine f..un(luion i.f t!ii-i ( Irand S;;l!anat'' 'a is all tlie more nnuei^-<.iiie to tlf Rtanans ,,s it dii-ectly coladed willt th.- •-pliere of tie ir pow i ; fa" si-ace th-- death of the last Ivrritiinat' I'lol nia-e.s in 8t Iv.'vpt had lK''on!;.'fl t.o t!;i' i\on>an p'-ople on tl.- ground < f a suppo.Mi; vill, a!;!ioui;ii it iiad hen l.'ft for tlie tinv in the raaids ■ f two iilei^itirnat-- ]>rin -'S. r>ut a >till ,t,Tiater dant^er to t'v Konia.n i).iw r in tlie Ivi I lay iii the rirato-. Startinj^ from their r.'^>t'-, < ijiria and Cr -fe, tivv no' o'llv harried the coasts of A^ia and (heec', hit e\tend''d their aifl i;oas imccan^erinq; a^ far as Sicilv and even the Italian eo;i>ts, an ■ nun' )f the whole Medit" ran. an. 7/r [third] J/i/l'nu/.i/lr ,irhl /trmt'u'uui ll'.ir; iniiil the- ,ippear, litre of Pompehis (74-67). — Wie n the acqiii.-itK n ot Bithynia, which came to them bv legacy, had male the Romans neighbours of the Pontic k'n'.u!om, Mithradates dcemtd the moment for the renew.!' of hostilities h.td arrived. His connexion with Sertorius, wlu) had even sent him officers to imjxove the organisation of his arnn, an alliance with the ])irates, and the favourable Anri-R>Mnin fechne in the ])rov:nce of Asia as well as in Bithvni 1, seemingly <; ive him an advantai.". A* first too fortii.ie was on his side ; bur .'-.ring the si-rge o^ Cyzicus the Roman general \.. \ a- 4fi§ »jM?>t»mi , . 7S ROMAN HISTORY ciniu, LucuUu.^ ccmiplctely surrounded him, and inriictcd on him heavy losses throughout n whole winter (74-73) ; and it w,'.-^ hut ;! smaH part of liis army that he brou;;ht hack out of tlir Roman ^riv) to his Pontic kingdom. Jn tlu- next year (72) he was iicteatcd at Cal)ir;i. Deprived of all his power, he tied to his son-in-law Ti/ranes. After the often stubborn resistance of ti;*- i;rcat comiiiercial cities oi CJrcek ori^jn had licen crushe. ', Pontus was constituK d by r>uc'.illus a Roman piovince (-: -~c). Lucullus tried too tu arrange the affairs take lli;;!it into tr;e heart of iiis kingdom. Soon however lie appeared wi'h an army ot tenfold superi- 01 itv before Ti:;!.inoccrta, whi^ li he luid founded as capital of *hc nev,- Grar.d Sultanate, and wliich was row beleaguered by "ihe Roman army; but in one of the most important liattles ot Ronrm military histoiv he w.iS completely defeated hv the brilliant t;:ctics of l-ucullus. Instl ated however by the des])!.'r,,tc Mithradates, whose i;fe was now at stake, 'Pigranes would no' consent to peace, but forced Lucullus to !oliuw him ii!'n lU- mountains of \rmenia up to his old capital, Artaxataon Ararat (6S). 1 n the toilsome mountain- can.paign the soUHcrs, wiio for sc^' e time had been stirred up by Lucullus' eiie.iiies, t!'c capitalist party, refused obedi- ence ; and when -n tlie next year (f^j) the news of the de- j)Osition o( their g< neral arrived at the same time as his .'-ucce.s-.o;, who t^ut ot jealousy reversed his operations, the brilliant succesi^es of I ucullus came to nothing. Mithradates meanwhile iiad once more gained possession of his kingdom, where he was again able to enkindle the hatred of the Orientals towards Roman dominion, and Tigranes re- entered untiisturbcd into the complete possession of his empire. EVENTS IN THE EAST 79 special The P'tniL^ and the Crdan ir.ir (AS 67]. — A expedition had been dcspatcluHl in the \tai 6S a;;ainst the piiates, and undtT the leaders!. i]' of Caeciiius Metellus, called l!ir/iri/s, the isL.i 1 ot Crete, otic oi tiie lohbers' chief nrsts, I'.ad been c'!ack Sia ; Tigranes surrendered at the first assault, and had his possession con- iirmed by the Roman victor. Although the war was not ended so long as Mitluadates lived, the great difliculties with which a passage of the Caucasus threatened the Roman army led I'ompeius to decline to follow his obstinate antagonist into his Bosporar, klngiUJin. lie devoted the next years (65-6:5) MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 I.I 1.25 1^ 2.8 1125 1^ Illlli== 1^ l£ p.2 Li Ui us 2.0 ti. »- .. l^biU 1.8 1.4 1.6 A APPLIED IM/IGE Inc 1653 East Main Street Rochester, New York 14609 (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone (716) 288 - 5989 - Fax USA So ROMAN HISTORY to the settlement of Asiatic .uKiir.-.. Meanwhile the destiny of the aged Mitliradates was fulfiHed without the interference of Ponipeius. After strivin;^ in vain to collect once more all the resources of his northern kiniuloni for a campaign of ven.^eancc against the Romans, he teii a victim to the family feuds so common in these Oriental dcs})Otisms, and killed himself at Panticapaeiim in tin Crinie.i when successfully attacked bv his soiiPhamaces (^'3). Such was the end of the man who for thirty years hati kept the Roman empire in suspense, not so much throii.:;h his remarkable abilities as through the ainiosr incxivausti'hi.- resources of his dominions, and who appeared to his C('atemporaries as cjuite a second Hannibal, altho'.!;'.!. in reaiity he was as far below the latter as the republic a,i;ainst nliich ho stru^'gled was below that which the orca' C ircha-inian Ivid to confront. After the last rcMstance in the west of Asia Minor had been broken (^m)- Pomr'Uas turned to Syria, where under the weak rule ot several Seaucivi princes Beduin sheikhs and bold adventure) s !uid founded kin-jsivips of their own. Pom- peius set to work vii^orojily. He lieposed the incapable Se'eucids, and incorj'orated Syria in the Roman empire as a pro\ince. He tound liinv eif aiso compelled to interfere in Jewish alVairs, and settled ihe teud between tbic Maccabaean brothers i\ristjnu!us and Hvrcanus by restoring the old pric.itlv rule of the Pliiiisei and joining Judaea to the province of Asi.i. A frontier dispute that had iMoken out between Tigranes of Armenia and ti.e Parthian king was decide 1 by Ponipeius in favour of the tn;nier, accordin;; to tlic princip'les fiimiliar to Roman policv, c; l.i:nib!ing the obedient ally the moment he was no longer needed. The way was thus paved for the long wars with the Parthians wliich tlir Romans had later to bear. In other respects howe\er Ponipeius' method of arranging Oriental affairs wds shrewd and ]>rudcnt. He was concerned ii)r llie levival ui the countries widcri li.ui long groaned under the burden of the war. Countless i ities were cither settled anew or founded K>r the iir t time by him, and out oi these EVENTS UNTIL THE TRIUMVIRATE Si * Pompeius-towns ' [roinpii'jpoias) nunicrous Roman veterans colonised and romaniscd t!ic Orient. From the reorganisation ot the linst arose the five pro- vinces of Asi;i, Bithvnia and Pontus, L'i'ioia, Syria, anil Creta. i; 29. Italian 1 .\ fnt IS rii, •6c 1;.^ TUl T irM\ IKAIK, in Parties in Rome; Gains Jiilnis Caest:f. In an a which is prepared and matured a change trom one form o\ government to its opj)osite — in this c.isc from th.e re].uWican to the monarchical — political parties usually lose their tormer aspect and make way tor new divisions. The aristo- cracy exalted once more by Sulla (* nobility' or Optimate party) still indeed lived on ; but its decrepit condition is proved by the verv fact tiiat its mo.^t enrnent representative was a man like M. Porcius Cato, an honest liut narrow republican aristocrat who copied the rigid morality and punc- tiliousness of his forefather in the time of the third Punic war, and like him became a political caricature. A party that clung to past ideals was no longer capable of life in the rough present of revolutionary times ; and so we have already seen that Pompeius, accounted the neir of the SuUan Reaction, had only attained his extraordinary position ot power by ap- proaching the democracy (the PopiiLires). He and his asso- ciate Crassus, who likewise ov,ed his existence to Sulla, were looked on as the heads of the popul ir ])arty. l)ut it was no longer these two parties th. ;t were the chief factors of political life; it was the several ai ' vir- -s of individuals or of smaller circles, pressing as they will in such times of ferment into the foreground. These found their expression in more or less secret societies, comj^arable to the (ircek helaire'tai^ which began to rule public life. These clubs voiceil their interests either by gaining over able orators of the ll.ir and by every kind of corruption, or still more often by their well-organised armed gangs. It was the class of demagogues. ^! 82 ROMAN HISTORY Aiuoui:; llioie who were seeldng to win a political .station the man now came to the front who v.as fatod to turn into a r.cw course the destiny nut only of hi^ people but of liie whole ICuropeau woi'ld. Gaius Julius Cae-.ar, i^man of Marias and son-in-law of Cinna, had used tiie time of the illan reaction, in whicli it was advisable for him to Ik; (juiet, for develoi)inj; by study his brilliant sift"^- Soon afterwards he had aroused the notice of the publi. both by his activity as an orator and by his bold op|)osition in the Marian interest as well as by his extravagant lixini;, which moreover was supported wholly by debts. His fixed puriK).>e of playing a polilxal p.irt .suggested to him the advi-alility of seeking to attach liim-'elf to M. Crassus, who was not only the leader of the democracy in I'ompeius' absence, but through his enormous wealth might always be ir^eful to the insolvent beginner. liy games of prodigal magnificence which he brought out as aedile of the )ear 65 Caesar nlso gained ground among the mass of the people. The Cdlilituirum Coiispiriuy tuul Miirsus TuH'ius Cicero. — One necessary result ot the cienioralisation caused by the Sullan j)ro,scrij>tiorKs, witii their outrageous enrichment ot broken-down characters, wa.s the j)resence in Rome of a number of men who after squandering their shamefully acquired property longed to obtain new wealth in the same way. The higher the rank of these men was, tiie more lofty was the goal to which they at-pired ; and of the clubs which aimed at securing the highest offices in the State one of the most active was apparently that which had at its head two creatures of iSulia and members of the nobilitv, L. Sergius Catilina and Cn. Calpurnius Piso. They had once failed to secure tlie Consulate for two men of their party ; now in the year 64, when the return of the victorious Pompeius was close at hard, they set to work with greater energy in older to effect the election of Catiiina together with that of the insignificant and easily manageable C. Antonius. It is quite credible that Crassus and Caesar were not sorry to see the intrigues of a party which was working against the Optiniates and could certainly never win for itself any permanent success. But the reproach raised against these men of having connived ;r or actually belonged to the Catilinarian cons})iracy will appear all the more frivolous if we consider that this conspiiacy was nothing but the effort of a political grouj) to obtain power and influence; and if at the EVENTS UNTIL THE TRIUMVIRATE S3 same time arrangements were made to remove by lorcc the leading opponents and to set up a military power, no con- stitutional change since Gracchus had been eilcctcd on other lines. However, the Catilinarians failed this year also to carry their two candidates: only C. Antonius was success- ful, and his colleague was the famous barrister Cicero, to whom the Optimate party had turned tor help, .tl'.hough he did not belong to them by birth and liis poliuca! -entiments were not clearly discernible. Marcus 'I'uUius C.k-.'io -pra-i;; tVoin an c(iU0^ti;a\ .M:;...y .a ;!;«■ , >U-ict of Aipinum. lU; had iraincd liis iaVn.ni L;it'i f.>r oialoiy hv viLjorous study at the b<'>t Grrek schools of rlutoiic witii ^.acl: r-uccc-- that he is to be rc.izarded ris tlic most hrilhant orator of ail tim-:-> aul, t( m the Romans, n~ ftjundcr of the loftv pro-e ^tylo. In th.is !.r., las ind\ ai'.; merit. In politics however h.is abilities did m^t keep step wUh his ambition and vanitv, and the dependence ot his i)jiit;cal position h indicated clearlv enough bv the fact that ailer h.-vavj; championed li,.- Gabinian and Manilian laws, by which the dcni " a< v -ave 1 'on,' eai. supieme power in the State, he now \sa. • eniiii-!. '. •.'-''•. t'e < -1; ;;iate a-; the expected savior.; '. 'i tin- ( ); liniati-.-. Cicero now ^^63) saw that his chief task lay in keeping watch on the Catilinarian club, which was ceaselessly pur- suing its designs and striving to gain a military power outside Rome. By means of a traitor the Consul was kept con- tinually informed of all their plans ; and so success attended neither the designed outbreak of the revolution on the day of the Consular elections for 62 nor an attempt on the life of Cicero, whom Catilina would gladly have ]uit out of the way before his departure to the army in l-.truria.^ Nevertheless Cicero allowed the head of the party to withdraw unhindered and waited another month before proce-ding to arrest the noblest members of the conspiracy remaining in Rome. Ui)on these he caused the death-penalty to be paonnunced and immediately executed, contrary to the /V.v ilc provccatifjne. The degree of the Catilinarians'' guilt we only know from Cicero's" overdrawn speeches for the iirosecu/.on, in which 1 On the occasion of lliis alteiiipt Cicero deli\e;e i on th.e ?ah N..vem uer the lir>t of his famous Catilinarian Orations, yio :i^'/'ff ' :'i.i- -n 84 ROMAN HISTORY he loved to paint himself as the saviour of tb** commonwealth iind as a second Romulus. In any case the energetir Consul by his prompt action had suppressed a party which limed at appropriating power ; Catilina himself was surrounded at Pistoria (Pistoja) as he sought to force his way over the Apennines into Upper Italy, and after most valiant resist- ance sJain with the greater part of his army. Return of rch:p:his. — Already in the autumn of 63 Pom- peius had sent to Rome one of his subordinate generals, Metellus Nepos, who was to get himself elected Tribune for the next year and as such to pave the way for his master's plans. Metellus at once after taking office (62) proposed that Pompeius should receive the Consulate for 61 and be allowed to keep his army in order to end the Catilinarian war. Both propositions were rejected after stormy opposition from the Optimates, especially from their champion Cato ; oiK-n envy and short-sighted republicanism would not put still greater powers into the hands of the glorified conqueror of Asia. Pompeius, who in the autumn had landed at Brundisium and there loyally disbanded his army, entered Rome in the beginning of 61. He was greeted on all sides with coolness ; even the leaders of the Populares, Caesar and Crassus, had no interest in coming forward for him and giving serious support to his wishes. It seemed as though the part of Pompeius were j'ayed out. v^ 30. Thi First Triumvirate and CitsAR's Conqj-'est OF Gaul, 60-49 ^•^' The First Tritimvlrale and its Results. — In the course ol the year 61 Pompeius made vain efforts to become himselt popular by popular bills, for instance, abolition of taxes in Italy. Meanwhile (60) Caesar, after having held the Praetorsl p in 62, had been acting with great success as pro-praetc in Spain, and brought thence not only honour- able laurels from a war with the Lusitani but also abundant wealth, which was absolutely necessary to him for his THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE s; designs. The hour however had not yet conu- tor him to advance alone. He therefore concluded witli Ponipeius and Crassus an alliance calculated to distribute the whole power of the State between the three, the First Triumvirate. Caesar, the most important of them, received the Consulate for 59 ; an extraordinary rank was assured to the two other Triumvirs. As Consul Caesar caused Ponipeius' arrangements in Asia to be ratified en bloc, and brought forw^.rd in the interest ot the veterans an agrarian law by which the State was to divide the territory of Capua into lots for them and renounce all claim to rent; this however was only for the poor fathers ot families, and thus a claim of the veterans for colonial settle- ment was not in principle recognised. After a violent resist- ance by the Optimates, which Caesar at list repressed by removing his incap. jle colleague Bibulus and the blustering Cato, the popular assembly agreed to the bill and appointed Pompeius and Crassus to preside over a commission of twenty who were to carrv out the law. Thus his two fellows in the Triumvirate were busied for years to come and for the moment contented with a function provided with ample powers ; Pom- peius too connected himself particularly closely with Caesar by marriage with the hitter's daughter Julia. In order however to secure his own position for a longer time, Caesar caused a Tribune devoted to him to bring forward the proposal to assign to him the province of Gallia Cisalpina (Upper Italy) for five years, with the right of raising levies and nominating his own generils. By this he could not fail to become from a military point o\' view master of Italy. The popular assembly a])proved the bill ; the Senate, in order to show its complaisance towards the man in power, added further the province of Gallia Narbonensis. The Triumvirate had cowed the 0])timates who had so resolutely confronted Ponipeius; even the last moral resist- ance offered by men like Cato and by Cicero, whom his Consulate had cast wholly into the arms of the nobility, was crushed by Cato being entrusted with the annexation of the kingdom of Cyprus, while Cicero was banished for 86 ROMAN HISTORY illegal execution of Roman citizens (the Catilinarians) in April 58. Caesar now lelt for Gaul. Caesar in Gaul (5^»-49)- — Caesar had a twofold object in view when ho took over the governorship of Gaul — llrstly the raising of a competent and reliable arnu, which he needed for the inevitable struggle for monarchy, and secondly the romanisation of the Keltic country between the Rhine and the Ocean, from which so long as it was unoccupied a j)eril always lowered upon the flourishing ])rovince of Narbo (La Provence) and the acquisition of winch would necessarily solve witli more success than any tninsmarine })osscssions that vital question of present Roman i)oli!:ics, colonial expansion. Among tlu' Krliic r.icv s (if iiiudcrn Fraiio-, wiiich were uniictl only by the boiul of tli^' baiue religion and for the rest were mostly tearing oiie anutlier to pieees in mutual feuds, there were three in panicular with whom the Romans had come into closer relations, the Arverni north-west of the C'evcnnes, the Aedui between the Upp-T Loire {Lifici) and the Saone (.4;-^;-), and the Secjuani in the district of the Uoubs ■^Duhis\. The last-named in their struggle with tiic Aedui, who through the support of the Romans had gained the upp-r hand, had -umnujncd from over the Rhine G-rman allies who had settled under the v^•ar-killg Ariovistus in Ahace and might any moment attract further Ciennan invasion?. From Switzerland too came swarms of Keltic Heivetii, who owing to the overpopulation of their country sought to acquire a new hoiuf in (laul. When Caesar arrived it, Gaul, his first resolution was to jar any fuither advance of foreign hoi des into the territory wnich he sought \.o win for the Roman empire. He there- tore set out at once witlt the united legions of Cisalpine and Narbonensian Gaul against the Htlvetii, of whom from three to four hundred thousand s(.)uls had meanwhile broken into the land of the Scquani from the Lake of Geneva and were now moving eastwards. He hiund them in the territory of the Aedui, near whose capital Bibracte (Autun) he overpowered the desperate struggles of the Keltic hosts. Part of them were settled in the land of the Aedui ; the bulk were forced back to Helvetia. Caesar now turned against the German intruders in Alsace. He bade them withdraw from the left bank of the V CAESAR'S CONQUEST OF GAUL n; Rhine. Ariovistus proudly rejected the demand and prc- teried a s ttlemcnt by arms, which took place on the 'Oxen- [-"ield ' north-west of Miiihausen. It was with fe.ir and tremblinj; that the Romans m;irched a'j,iiri;;'. the Germans, whom they had dreaded ever since the invasion oi the Cmib: i andTeutones; nevertheless Caesar at List g lined the victory, which was completed by the lliL;!it ot Ario.istus over the Rhine. The Ciermans were allowed to remam in the land under Roman suzerainty, but had to p'.cdiie themselves to forcibly repel any further immi",rations to the !ett bank ot the Rhine. In the next ■ • ) he was called upon to confront the coalition of t" .ally warlike northern uibes ot the Belgae,who hi.d i ,:ic.ted a dangerous force in the neighbour- hood of Soissons. Caesar avoided unequal battle, and waited until the confederates disagreed and separated, a result on which, with an accurate knowledge ot Keltic nature, he counted in -'dvance. He then with little trouble suhJued the tribes severally and at last conquered even tUv stub.^.oin resistance of the Germanic Nervii, who dwelt in tlvj r.-gion ot the Scheldt. As in the same year C^aesar's subiirdmate Pubhus Crassus, son of the Triumvir, subjugated alio the country between the Loire and Seine ( Aremorica), it seemed as though already at the end of the second vear ot the war the whole of Gaul between the Rhine, Jura, and Ocean had been incorporated in the Roman I empire. Now came the time tor securing his conquests by the repression of risings and repulse of inroads. Already in the winter o' 57-5^^ Roman dominion was imperdled by the revolt of the maritime Kelts subdued by Crassus, under the guidance cf the Veneti. It was only after building a^ tlect and making a twofold attack by sea and by land that Caesar mastered the rising (56). He took stern and excmphiry vengeance for it, selling the whole tribe ot the Veneti into slavery. With equal success the Romans m the next year (55) repelled an invasion set on toot by Germanic hordes, Usipetes and Tencteri by name, on the Lower Rhine. 88 ROMAN HISTORY This led to Caes- 's lirst passage ot" the Rhine, between Andernach and Coolenz, which however was only of the nature of a demonstration and was not made with any offensive purpose. This was followed by the firbt Roman expedition against Britain, whose Keltic inhabitants were in fairly close connexion with their kin on the mainland. It was intended to intimidate them ; but Caesar crossed the Channel with such feeble forces that he barely forced a landing and had to deem himself fortunate in regaining the Gallic coast before the entrance of the autumnal storms. Better fortune attended a second expedition to Britain which he undertoi)k in the following year (54) after mag- nificent naval prep;i! ations, and which carried him far beyond the Thames. The submission which the British king Cassi- velaunus had perforce promised remained indeed for the present a purely nominal one; but at any rate it was the prelude to the later successful occupation ot Britain. While Caesar was thus busied in the west, the part of his army left behind amid the restless and warlike northern tribes was being hard pressed, and in t' _• winter of 54-53 a large division was completely destroyed by the Eburones on the MeuEe. The rising that followed this movement (53) was repressed, C.iesar taking in part a t-rrible vengeance and acting with such decision that he deemed his presence in Gaul for the coming winter needless and designed to keep watch from Upper Italy on affairs in Rome, which were assuming a more and more grave form. Once again (52) revolt broke out, stirred up and led by the chivalrous and heroic Arvernian Vercingetorix, who had as his war-cry the removal of the foreign yoke and the establishment at the same time of a national kingdom. But before the insurgents suspected it Caesar was already in his headquarters at Agedincum (Sens). After crossing the j,oire without hindrance he advanced against xAvaricum (Bourges), where lay the chief forces of Vercingetorix. After a toilsome siege the town fell into the Romans' hands; but the army of the insurgents escaped into the Arvernian CAESAR'S CONQUEST OF GAUL So fortress of Gergovia (Clermont :), which Caesnr did not succeed in capturing. When the A«;dui too joined in the revolt he was compelled to withdraw to A<;cdincum, where he united with I.abienus, who meanwhile had been lighting on the Seine. The rebels now concentrated all their forces in Alesia (Alisc near Flavlgny), which was then completely enclosed by Caesar. After many conllicts, of which the issue v.. s generally favourable to the Romans, it surrendered on the advice of Vercin^etorix himself, who presented himself to the Romans. With the capture of their leader the con- federates f;.*ll asunder, and the main resistance was broken ; Caesar and his subordinates crushed in detail the still rebellious tribes one after another, and in the following years (51-50) he devoted liimself to the ])caccfal task of organising his conquests. By the comparatively sw.ft -ubjupation of to lar.'^'.- a country ;ur1 so valiant a population Ca'jsar had proved himself a soldier of tlio first rank; and now in the arrangoni.-nt of the internal affairs of the new province iie showed himself a'ni.ister of stateenift. By not oniv iising the utmost pos-ilil- consideration towards iu^til;al)ll^ pcciiliariiii'S (as local chieftair ;hi!) and druidism), hnt li! 'wi-^' by judiciously employint; and ( mpiiasising present distinctions, !.. w is able -o win over at once a <;r( at and influential part of the population . and by a lumiane rirr mj^e- ni'^'nt of taxation to soften the harslmess of the foreit^n yoke. Never was a country so quickh- roniavis. d and so easily k,-pt in its allegi.inc-. The Gallic conciuest added to the aj^dne: body of ti.<- Roman >tate a limb which contributed largely to the renewrd of its youth ; for Caesar himself it laid the foundation of his monarchical jiower, and in the world's history it played a part of incomparable importance simjjly by the fact that tiic current of the (ierrna-iic inr.ndation into the Roman Empire was thereby dammed at a time wh-n the Germanic world could indeed haveshattered Rornnn and with it classicnl civilisation, bm could not have absorbed it. i^ 31. Thk Domination of the Triummrs th Caisar's Passage of the Rukicos, 60--49 b.c. Pomjych/s to the C-fifrrare of J.u.-a. — Caesar's position of superiority in the Triumvirate had revealed itself in his Con- sulate ; and Pompeius hoped to shake it dur?i\g the absence of his dreaded rival. For this however he lacked an attached ■'S _ no ROMAN HISTORV [^ I p;irtv. The nobility had sullenly withdrawn from politics, and the hone';!: republicans hated Ponipeius as the tyrant ot the hour ; the bt:i-ct-dtnia;.'/)giies again, who in these times had almost the sole control or" jwlitics, were devoted to Caesar. Chief anioDL' them was Clodius, the Tribune of 58, who with his armed gang of retainers ])Ut every possible difficulty in the way of Pompeius, lis persona! !()',\ The latter in order to gain foi- himself an influential part of the citizen body now dtterniincd to recall Cicero from banishment (57). But although Cicero, whose return took the form of a triumphal jii ogress of ail anti-monarchic elements, complaisantly put his brilliant abilities at the service of the man in power, an obstinate resistance met the proposal of Fompeius that he should be made sujjcrintendent of the whole corn-supply in the Roman l"ni]>irr, with ]>ermission to dispose of the army, the fleet, and all proxincial treasuries. There was no inclina- tion to again entrust Pompcius with a military iniper'tum so extraordinarv as tliiit which had arisen by the Manilian and Gabinian Laws, and the olHce he desired, though created at last, had decided restrictions. Pompeius however, who in view of Caesar's r'sing im])ortance was most concerned with the military side of the power in question, then caused the proposal to be brought forward that he should be entrusted with the restor ition of the exiled Egyptian king ; and here he met with, a tiank refusal. It is obvious that both Crassus, who owing to his pro- verbial wealth had a great following, and above all Caesar, who never took his eyes off events in Rome, were not uncon- cerned in thes!? failures of Pompeius. Nevertheless it was just at this time (56) that their compact of the year 60 was renew 'd. C.iesar, foreseeing the necessity of prolonging his Gallic command bevond the year 55, needed once more the support of his colleagues ir 'he Triumvirate, and therefore summoned them to a con ..nee at l.uca (Lucca, north ot Pisa) which was to strengthen the now slackening bond. It was decided that Pompeius and Crassus should hold the Consulate in the year 55 and then receive for five years the DOMINATION OF THE TRIUMVIRS 9» j)rovincos of Spain or Syria; jn tin* tlur nanJ Cacsir was allowed to koej) his provinces tor anoJic- ,ivc years, and his Kgions, to the riimlnT of ten, ue.e entered on the State treasury. Ci-ijssus in Syr'ui [^j^-^t^). — Cris^us in his arrival in vSyria found the war already in ])ro;;res> which Ponipeius had aroused by his decision in the frontier ilisjnites between the Parthians and Armenians. But nevertheless he allowed the fust year of his administra'ion to pass without action, aud gave his sole attention to the enrichment of his treasv.rv by a rej;ular plundering of the province. In the yea 53 he advanced with his army over the luij>hrates into the M' ,0- ])Otaniian desert, where the nature oi the soil and the crniai?- caused the Romans terrible sufreiin;^s. Wh^i at las' 'he Parthians drew up for battle near the city > Carrha., it became patent that on this g;» ^nd the light Parthian cavalry and the mounted archers were far su])erior to the Roman legionary tactics, and a crushing defeat brought the expedi- tion of Crassus to a speedy end. The disgrace of Carrhae equalled the days of^ the Allia and of Cannae; 10,000 Romans were led away into Parthian captivity and ^^^ettled as serfs in the east of t! e kingdom ; Roman standards as the spoils of victory adorned tlu.* Parthian king's naiace.^ On the retuin, which L'rassus began at once, he himse' was assassinated in a conference with the Parthians, and it was only with great difiiculty that his subordinate C. Cassius brought the remnant of the army back to Syria. The terrible ending of this campaign would almost have entailed the loss of the province of Syria, had not internal dissensions led the Parthian king Pacorus to conclude a peace, and indeed an alliance, with the Romans. The Bread} bctivetn Pompe'ms and dir.iir. — The gulf between Caesar and Pompeius had been bridged ovei rr mi 1 It was Augustus who at last coniiiolled tlicie standards to l)e restored, to the enormous delight of th^-; vain Roman people. Thore is a representation of this sccik' on the cuirass of the famous statue of Augustus from Primo Porta (now in the \'atican, Bii. cio A'lioio). 92 ROMAN HISTORY mere motive;; of interest by the renewal of the Triumvirate at Luca ; anil after the denth in 54 of the iatter's wife, Caesar's daughter, and still more after ihe fall of Crassus it became more and more manifest. Through the intrigues of dema- gogic agitators in tiie pav of both rivals Rome became the scene of anarchical disturbances, such as the murder of Clodius by Mile, which at 1 ist led to a league between the Optimate party and Pompeius. The hitter's influence reached its zenith when in the yeir ^2 he received for some time dictatorial power as consul shic ro/i'ry.i ; and he employed it, among other objects, for several legislative proposals aimed against Caesar. The point at issue which led to the outbreak of the civil war was this. Caesar, whose governorship expired on the Tst Marcli 49, needed the Consulate for the following year in order to olitiin the ratillcation ot ;he arrangements made by him in C't.iuI and to secure lor his veterans their well-earned and promised land-allotments. it was precisely this that Pompeius and the senatorial party sought to prevent ; .:nd in order to br able to accuse C lesar as a private person and thereby to exclude him from election they demanded that he should disband his armv.ind person;illy present himself in Rome tor the election, a contiition the fullilment or which would have signified Caesar's politic tl death I'or a long time Caesar delayed the decision by means of the Tribunes who were devoted to him, and by conciliatory offers did everything to prevent the conflict from coming to a head. He even went so fir in his loyalty as to surrender at the order of the Senate two of his legions for the imminent Parthian war ; Pompeius retained them for himself in Italy. Towards the end of the vear 50, when Ciaul was picilied, Caesar betook himself into his Cisaljiine ])rovince (Up])er Italy) where from Ravenna he watched affairs in Rome. In January 49 a blunt refusal met his thoroughly justifiable demand that Pompeius too should surrender his governorshi)) of Spain, which he had not entered at all in the five years of their compact, and should dismiss his army ; and on the other hand a fixed date vas appointed for the disbandmcnt of his army. Hcsi- CAESAR'S MONARCHY AND DEATH 0^ tation was now at an end, incta ulea est. Caesar with his army crossed the rivulet Rubicon which divided the GaUic ))rovincc from Italy proper, and thereby opened the Civil \\ ar. ^5 32. Caesar's Vhtokv, MnNiRcfrr, and Di \th, 49-4+ . J. The liars agaitist Pompehis and the Pompflins. —Vhc boldness ot Caesar, who dared to advance against Rome witli a single legion, so disarmed the hesitating Pompeius that he with most of the Senators abandoned the State Treasurv, left the capital, and on the further news of Caesar's victorious progress even sailed across from Brundisiuni to Greece. From tiiis base he hoped, after drawing to himself the legions of the East, to llgli' his opponent with better success. Caesar recognised that it was impossible ir. tlie total absence of a fleet for him too to cross over to Greece, md decided to attack first the chief base of the Pompeian power, Sjiain, with his armv that still lav in Further Gaul. After a short stay in Rome, where he gained over manv o])ponents by his extraordinary clemency and restored ordei, he took comni and himself of the Spanish war. It ended in forty days with the reduction of the six Pompeian legions. Soon followed the surrender of the important trading town of Ma.-,silia, which ior several months had withstood Caesar's power. Mean- while Pompeius had collected nine legions in Greece and greatly strengthened his Adriatic fleet. Caesar was threatened with a perilous contest. Once again he settled in Romeonlv the most pressing business ; he resigned his nllotted dictator- ship after a])pointing himself Consul for 41S, and then hastily made for lirundisium to join the army. From here he crossed into Greece with six legions under great dilliculties (June 48). At Dyrrhachium (Duraz/o), which Pompeius had occupied, the armies throughout the winter lay over against one another, and the 8U])erior position of his antagonist brought Caesar into great straits. At last by a bold move 94 ROMAN HISTORY eastwards lie made it necessary for the other to follow him, and in the Thessalian plain near Phaisalus forced him to a pitched battle, which secured final victory for Caesar's cause. Tonipeius fied to l^gyp-r, whose king owed him a debt of gratitude ; but at the command of the faithless Ptolemaeus, who hoi)cd thus to win Cacsar'-s favour, he was murdered at the moment of landing at Pelusium. When Caesar arrived some time after in liyypt, he became mixed up in the feuds between the king Ptolemaeus and hi^ sister Cleo])atra ; and as he liad brought with him but few troops, he fell for a time into great peril until reinforcements enabled him to defeat in the Nile delta the Anti-Roman ))artv, at wiiosc head the young king had placed himselt. With tiiis the resistance of Alexandria, the royal capital, was broker. Cleopatra received the crown from the hands of the Romar in.^^erator ; living in close association with him, she arrangeii L^jyi 'dan affairs to suit the Roman pleasure. After a stay of nine months in Egypt Caesar tound himself compelled to undertake in person the war which had been unsuccessfully conducted by one of his generals against Phar- raccs, the son of Mithradates, in order to put an end to the bold conquests of the Bosporan prince on the soil of Asia Minor. A brilliant victory at Zela in the kingdom of Pontus n-^j r;/;/, r/V/, viri — placed the destinies of Asia in Caesa:'s hands. Now at last he could tliink of return to Rome, where his ])rcscnce was urgently needed. For in the West affairs were not too prosperous. Tiie partisans of Pompcius stdl possessed resources enough to keep uv: the contest, which ])articu!arly in Dalmatia and Spain imi>eril!ed for some time Caesar's su])eriority. Then the main forces of the Pompeians, led by the sons of the mur- dered impcrator and the sturdy iei)ublican M. Porcius Cato, concentrated in Africa, wiiere the Numidian king Juba vv-armiy su])ported them. In Rome itself, moreover, the serious financini crisis resulting from the Civil War had produced an intolerable state of affairs, to which the arbitrary ;ind capricious M. Antonius, Caesar's ma^ister cqiiittim, did mmmm CAESAR'S MONARCHY AND DEATH 95 not prove equal. To this was added tlic circumstance that the legions lying ready in Campania tor the Atrican war lean to be troublesome, as they were still vainly w.iiting tor tiie high rewards promised to them. On Caesar's arrival the condition of things speedily changed in hi^ favour. By judicious measures he lightened ind'-btedncss, restored tlir rule of law by holding the regular elections, and by his mere personality force*.! the mutinous legions back into the most joyful obedience. Thus at the end of this year he could venture to cross over to Africa, where Cato as chief in command had gathered round himself all Caes.ir's enemies. As Caesar appeared with but a small toice in Africa, he at first fell into straits; ixit later he gained the \ictory in a bloody battle before Tlia])sus (April 46), while at the same time one of his generals crushed the power oi the Xuniitlian juince Juba. Several of the most distinguished leaders ot the Pom])eian party had fallen in the bittle; Cato, unwilling to survi the end of the republic, destroyed himself in Utica, the gates of which he opened to Caesar ; and only a small part of the hostile forces, among tiicni the two sons ot Pompcius, Gnaeus and Sextus, esca])ed into Spain. After making Numidia into a province and pacifying Atrica, Caesar returned to Rome, where he celebrated with colossal splen- dour a fourfold triumph over Gaul, 1 .gv])t, Pontus, and Numii-iia. Once again however he had to take the iield against tl>e Pompeians. Gnaeus and Sextus Pompcius in S])ain had not only tbund a large following among the native peoj)les, inclined as they always were for revolt, but had actually gained over several Caesarian legions. Towards the end ol the same year Caesar arrived in Southern Spain ; but it was not un'il March 4^ that the decisive conJlict was fought at Mur.d.i (tH'wten Cordova and Malaga). Here the Cacsarians after a desjjcrate and all but lost battle gained at last the victory by turning to account an accident. Thirty-three thousand Pompeians are said to have fallen ; Gnaeus Pompeius lost his lite in the ilight, while his brother Sextus succeeded in finding con- f/. ROMAN HISTORY cealnicnt nmong tiicndlv mountaineers. Caesar was now for the first time actual monarch in the Roman empire. Ciicsiirs M'iuarchy (46-44). — If the Roman monarchy is not usually dated from the year 46, this is, generally speak- ing, simply becaur^e Octavianus only won by arms the heritage ot Caesar after the hitter's death, and moreover gained it only with the aid of a Triumvirate, fxm which he again emerged as monarch. In reality Caesar is the ll 3t monarch of Rome ; and with the clear-eyed resohitenes;- ot his character he never sought to deny the fact. The title Jur the new kingship was in the first instance supplied by the dictatorship, which Caesar, after receiving it tor several i^horter periods, caused to be trans- ferred to him ^ lite; later however he seemingly preferred the name ot linpLvaicr^ likewise bestowed on him as a standing title, as it p:irticularly in)plicd the notion of the highest otlicial authoiitv, that is, imperttim. That he seriously thought of renewirtp, the old title of Kiivr must be doubted, although his flatterers often suggested it to him. Caesar be.; n his infinitely difficult task of healing the terribly disorganised conditions of society by a reconciliation of parties, wliich he introduced by a sweeping amnesty. As a genuine democrat he wished to make all usetul members ot the Stute, without distinction of party colouring, serviceable in the construction of the new administrative organism, at the head of v.liicii the Imperator was to stand as voluntarily recognised representative of the nation. Thus he not only allowed all existing offices to stand, but even made consider- able additions to some, in order to associate with the admin- istration the greatest possible number of able men. The mode of election also remained as before, except that the right ot proposing candidates was allowed to him, which certainly amounted in reality to nomination. In every way he strove to show respect to republican institutions, without however obscuring thereby his ]H)sition of supremacy, which was directly patent in his outward presence, as well as in the stamping of his portrait upon coins. Tiie demands of democracy, never silenced since the CAESAR'S MONARCHY AND DEATH 97 Gracchi, were taken up by Caesar in a princely fashion : colonisation extending; over Italy and "'le provinces (r.j^^ of Carthage and Corinth), which especially benefited the veterans, a new arrangement of corn-distributions to tiie needy, regulations for the administration ot the provinces, laws dealing with the dcspLratei^- involved Londitions of debt and tenancy, all aimed at tiie improvement ot society in general both in Italy and the provinces. The regulation ot indebtedness was to be subserved in particular by t!ie im- provement of the terribly disorganised calendar, an innova'on which under the name ot tiie 'Julian Calendar' has become important in the world's history. Besides this legislative activity the all-embracing creative genius or the Imperator extended also to the promotion ot outward j)rosperity, which he sought to aid by foundations and c -nstructions of many kinds. Finally Caesar deemed it liis duty to pay his tribute tc the military ani'ntion of the Roman people , he decided on an expedition against the Parthians, as one of the most popular cries was to take vengeance on them tor the defeat of Crassus and the loss of the Roman standards. But a few days before starting tor Asia the I:iiperatoi was over- taken by his doom. Cai'sars Death. — Despite the wholesome government which Caesar throughout dispensed, he could not be without enemies. To these belonged in the tirst place all repu;)licans by convic- tion, who quite openly kept up a kind of oaint-worship around the figure of Cato ; and in the main these were the best elements of the citizen-body. Less honourable on the other hand were those Pompeians wh > basked in the sunshine of the Imperator's grace and nevertheless did not ce.ise to intrigue for the now Ihopian ideal of the republic. But even among the real Caesarians there was no lack ot men who from discontent or other personal reasons had a spite against the ruler and were inclined tor conspiracies. Caesar was not without knowled ; of this cross-current, which often manifested itself clearly in a vehement pamphlet-literature, and even in conspiracies against hi" life ; but such wa his 98 ROMAN HISTORY contidencc and so uns\vci\ing liis course ot action that he disregarded them both. As indeed we can understand, it was particularlv in the Senate that the opposition took firmer and iirmer root ; for the vSenate had been hurt by its hiieral admixture with democratic elements, partly of a lower class, and by the dei)ression of its ])olitical influence, and from its bosom arose the conspiracy to which the Imperator fell a victim. Its heads were C. Cassius Longinus, who after the battle of Pharsaliis had joined Caesar and now thought himself neglected, and Decimus l'ru*;us xMbinus, Caesar's able assis- tant in the conquest of Gaul ; among some sixty senators whom they gained over for their purpose was also the nephew and son-in-law of Cato, M. Junius Brutus, who was living in close association of triendshij) and study with Cicero, and who, in spite of a morbid republicanism nurtured by family tradition and Stuic philosophy, had not spurned Caesar's for- uiving love after tiie battle oi' Pfarsalus. On the i 5th of March 44 (tlie Ides) the designed murder was accomplished tiefore the commencement of a meeting of the Senate in the theatre of Ponipeius, by whose statue — a strange ordainment of chance ! — Caesar gave up the ghost. ,:< ^ ^. Thk Stru(^clks kor Cak-^ak's Inheritanck (Victory of (").TA\ I \NUS AM) V.\l.h OF Trii lllPUni.u) 44-29 li.C. Pntciulcrs until the Foniuili'jn of the {^Second) 'rriiinivirale -43). — Nothing illustrates better the complete mis- app.-liension of actual conditions which was prevalent in the circles of these ' restorers of liberty * than the resolutions framed two davs after the murder at the first meeting of the Senate, mainly at the instigation of Cicero, who now came forward again. By the resolution sanctioning the will of the deceased with all his other arrangements and translating him to heaven, while at the same time giving a complete amnesty to the murderers, the fiital opposition between Caesarians and Anti-Caesarians was oflicially ratified. At first a universal I CAESAR'S INHERITANCE 9'» helplessness and uncertainty })revailcd, which ums further increased by the wily intrigues of the Consul M. Antonius, the favourite and for'many years the assistant of Caesar. But the commons after the ])ublication of ihc will, by which they were generously endowed, I -gan to siiie o| enly .igainst the murderers, and their attitude soon caudal the heads of the conspiracy to leave Rome, ]>artly in order to :o to the provinces alreaily alioited by Caosar to thrm, I'anty in tin- exercise of specially devised commissions. Antonius, who had obtained for his ])rotccrion a bodyguard ot 6cco men, felt himself so thoroughly master of the situation t! ..t lie determined to forcibly dcp ive Decim.s Brutus ot Hi'her Gaul, which the latter' had alr.-ady taken over. The mipor- tance of this particular province lay in the Lz: that from it Italy and Rome could be most easily held in c'.icck. At this moment Caesar's official heir, G.aus Ocr.iviv.i, appeared on Italian soil. (ialus Octnvius, ih- K'-atidM)!! of r,;,.. r'. ^■ -; 1:.:,;i 'bor;; -iid Sept.'mbor 63) had be.-n some veras .1-0 atloi i- w ^}'^^ '^'- '' ^^^'^'■'^' and hrouirht up ir.aiufcstlv to be liis tucc. ^-^or. W ii!;. a not very powerful bodv. Oct >vius po^..'ssed remarkable ])o\veri ot nUeili.i:cno- which had been cinickcned bv a careful education, ar.l now qi:ahii.a the vouth of nin.'tecn for a position which c.illcd for tne shivwde-t nolitieian and diplomatist. None but such a creatur ■ ot inte.lis.;nce. endowed with an iron ;ind dauntless pertinacity, wa, .apableo! i.asm" up on th'i cxistin.t,' wall, of the republican State a n-.v htructuiv whieh could ^tay the sinkini,^ Roman world for ?omc ceniiuj'S to cnvu\ U\ Greece, where he was living for purposes of study, young Mctayuis was met bv the news of the death of hii uncle and i.d.M'tive father. He betook himself vitliout delay to Italv, wh-:e he d-i-iied to enter upon his lierita-e unt Antonius defeated Cas^ius, who took his own life, while Octavianus was conquered by lirutus ; in the second liowever Brutuy buccuinbcd to his united oppo- nents and followed the example ut his comrade. The army and tleet for the most part joined th.e Triumvirs. Antjnius and Octavianus now parted, the former to rearrange Asiatic affairs in the interest of the victors, the latter to attend to the payment of the veterans, which necessitated land-allotments on a grand scale. The forcible ejections which Octavianus hail perforce decreed aroused a furious bitterness, which was still further increased by the dan.;er of imports being cut off from the country by the tleet of S. Pompeius, who after Caesar's death had ventured out of his Spanish hiding-place and had raised during the general disturbances a not inconsiderable sea- power. In collusion with M. Antonius, his ambitious wife Fulvia and his brother Lucius, the Consul of the year 4I, sought to exploit this peculiarly dilKcult position of Octavi- anus against him. A regular war broke out between him and the Antonians (41-40), which ended with the capture of Perusia, into which l^ucius Antonius had thrown himself (hence the name * Perusine War'). No intelligent man in- deed could expect candid dealings between the two rulers — Lepidus played always a subordinate part — and Antonius now would have been all the less inclined to give way to his youthful colleague as he deemed himself justified in the utmost claims by his extraordinary ])Osition of power in the East. For the moment however a breach was avoided ; indeed an apparently complete reconciliation was effected at a conference at Brundisium, and sealed by the marriage of Antonius with Octavianus' btcp-sistcr Octavia (40). In this peace S. Pompeius was also included, from reasons of pru- dence. But already in the next year (39) hostilities began anew between the aspiring and restless son of Pompeius and I02 ROMAN HISTORY j i ! the Tiiunivirs ; it was cmly after a two vears' war (3!^- 3^')» which was fought out in and arourd Sicilv and in whicli Octavianus' ;;encral M. Vipsanius Agrippa ^ won well-caincd laurels, that the last Ponipeian was rendered harmless. In con- nexion with this war Octavianiis threw overboard Lepidus, lon^ •r c ~X. ?5 -s M ^ X ,^ , .— *- w/ " r^ s • H :; ^* X 3 -3 o :^ u^ rl ^ < X ^ LJ ^ 3 o , li-3 "o" V cr en 1 2 .5 i) "C en ~ t" 2 u -1 -- /* Si i"^ 3 ••^ o r^ h s r -3 3 11 U O <^ y < -: y. - <: * in 3 s m U (~1 ' y. Vj — ;i U •^ N!« <5 :i •^ « ■ J 3 D — Q . -^ U'l'A CO 3 H II 2C ■r-^ O £. 04 -^ OS O <: 1 ''^ ri : -3 J <; 2l£ 1 »; •^ r- o s :3 A WN Vj ui *•*— ■ ^ u 2 3 7! ~ 2 ^ % 7. \ :2^ .2'= -'rt !« 3 C THE IMPERIAL AGE lo; SECTION III Tin: Impi-.ut \i, Agi: itniil Dkxm in \\ ^20 h.c- 28;, A.D.) Sources. — It is only for ihc lirsl century ottlie Inii.crial A.uo that thi- sources are abundant enouLjIi for us to gain a relatively clear picture of it. The biographies of the Emperors by (I. Suetonius Tranquillus, which contain their careers from Caesar until Uoiniiian, supply an abundance of most intorestini: matter m hpite of deficient arranL^'enu nt, manifet errors, and grave di.-tortions. Of the two '-:reat works of Cornelius Tacitus, stateliest of all Roman hi.-tOiians— the ' Annals," describing the period from Augustus to Nero (oH), and the ' Histories,' wliich reach from the year 69 until Domitian's deatii — iir.portant pieces are lost; he is however theniot trustworthy witness of that gmat age. although he has by no means attauied his ideal of writing without prejudice. In regard to eontents these two histories stand lar above the so-called ' Hi-lorians of the Imperial Ag-' {S,ti ."lores JJistoriar .ii/gusiad), a collection 01 liiograpliies extending fi .1 Hadrian to Numcrianus and compo.-cd by various authors, which nv,i' tlioir positio:i in the foreground ot our study of ,he second and third eeiitur.es solely to the wretched condition of our sources for tl; it age. Delib rale false- hood for political reasons and misreiMo^entation from love of sensation appear beside the authors' obvious lack of historical or critical intelli- gence ; and the opinion that we must form of their hjst main source, the biographies of Marius Maximus (from ISero tf) I'Uag.abalus), is neces- sarily unfavourable. Of the wori; of Livins, which e.xtendt^ 'ogn.c. , only scanty summaries for the age ot Augustus survive. The last part of the short sketch of Velleius Patcrculus become? somewh;U fuller for this period. Ot the Roman History of Cassius Dio few remnants for the Imperial Age have been handed down to us. Of Plutarch's Lives those of Otho and Galba are preserved. Of the Roman historians writing in Greek mention has yet to be made of Ilerodianus, whose history from the end of Marcus Aureiius until < iorchanus III. is in spite Df great fail'ngs valuable enough. In the employment of all these historians it is more or less needful to observe that the discrepancy oetween the Senatorial and Imperial colouring of the narratives has led to great distortions of the truth, which has moreover suffered severely from the overgiowth of the rhetorical style, a cancer of the historio- graphy of tliese ages. But outside history proper we have also to reckon amon.g oiu" sources a large number of literary productions which reflect or directly treat events of the day, such as the works of many poets (Horace, Martial, Persius, &c. ), collections of letters such as that of the younger Plinius, occasional writings like the Panegyricus by the same author upon Trajan, or the so-called ' Germania' of Tacitus. Most important too io6 ROMAN HISTORY is the t'')i;inf...; wliich Ci.)in- and iiisc,i]ii;on-, hnvi' luniu.Mthrd to us; anii'iii,' ihe-c ti:- irio.-t iiroiiiiiieiit place i'^ (iccajiiod b\- tlii- so-called Moiii.iKrn'.nr .1 ■:.]>■ !i;r}': . Aw^w \'\<' ir!M\ e-ir.^iiipl. >n, which was flfstined for h.i ii,ri:i>olcni!; .1,(1 coiitniii-- ;i h;ini!ii:\iv of lii.s dc. ds. l'Hapt1';r viii The Emperors of the Julian and Flavian Houses, 29 ]',.(.- ^jC) A.I). "t-f Arrr'ar- an;) 'rt;i-; Constrittion' oi- the y/v Kreme command over the whole army^ot the St'Jite, which incuided the righr ot fdiin;' up all ollicers' Jinsts and militarv jurisdiction, the I'mperor hnd arrived at that goal towards which the whole develoj^ment of army oiganisa- tion since Marius and Sulla had tended ; possession ot the army gave ])0>ssession ot tlie monarchy. It was far more diflicult to find suitabk- forms for the relation ot the Principate towards the civil law. The starting-point ! -j'l,., ^;,i . :..., ... /,..lii' \v.\'\ llu'Ll'ly 1)01'11C IviJllliUiv t'.i'M: til'- \ tMl .jM. vviihout'itsbcinii ,Ti;ardcd tlien as an oflicial lille i.t the l-a..p.Mor. '1 ibiMiii^i did not Way v.. - '1 lie cohorts won- of 1000 mer. tach. n loS ROMAN HISTORY here was the ' Tribanc's power' [tniumcla potestas), which Augustus c.aised to be assigned to him annually from the year 23 onward.. The rights connt.tcd with 'this office such as the privilege of introducing laws and brinojng forward or checking resolutions of the Senate, the religious sanctifica- tion which was ..ssociated with its inviolability {sacvosanc Utasy were raised by Augustus to such an imj-ortance that in the subsequent bestowal of the tnhuukm pole.Uas on one of his ablest assistants, M. Vipsanius Agrippa, men could see an appointment to a share in the monarchv. Tacitus regards this ofiice as the ciu'ef source of the ' l^iiperor's plenarv powers and indeed the Kmj>;.rors themselves dated bv it the years of their reign (r.-. on coins). The tribunician power secured for the Emperor a strong influence over the Sen,te, which Augustus further extended by procuring for iiimself as pnnccps scnatus the ri-du of nominating a portion of the Senators {mmhuuk) and of pro- posing the oihciais to be elected bv the Senate {}.nunendL>\. In legislation the old state of affairs apparently remained ; but the Emperor s dispensations (..//•/,;) were silently accepted as laws, and the Senate every year was sworn to them. In jurisdiction an important change came in ; the Imperial Court took a place by the side of the previously existing courts of Senators and jurymen, all cases coming before its bar which re- atedto olhcers, imperial procurators, members of tiie imperial family, or .flairs of imperial j.rovinces. As the Emperor was not able to pass judgment in person on all these matters, they called for the assistance of officials educated in the law |.o that from this time the order of scientifically trained jurists began to develop, and from its most distinuuishcd represen- tatives the Emperor did not scorn to take professional advice. 11 ^"f '^"'^. added to the supreme military command and the highest judgeship (of which the latter 'indeed was only in a limited sense his) the supreme priesthood, causing hm,self to be appointed /.«///;. .;„,;,,,, Un life afler the death of I epidus (12 b.c). Thus he now united in his person the functions on which the old kingship had rested THE RULE OF AUGUSTUS 100 The creation of Au,:;ustus, thou;-;h in many respects it was so brilliant, and though in tact the Roman world owed to it a partial recovery lasting some time, contained in itself a twotold contradiction, the consequences of which asserted themselves disasuously enough. The division of power between Emperor and Senate created in reality a kmd ot double rule or dyarchy, which worked contrary to tlie monarchic princii)le ; and in the discrepancy between the rank of the K mperor in Rome, where he sought to be the first republican otHcial, and in the provinces, where he was Imperator wi/nout restriction, a certain incompleteness was expressed which was the greatest weakness in Augustus' work. ^35. The Rulk of Augustus, 29 h.i. tu 14 a.d. Internal Admmstratloti.—Thc skill witli wlhch Augustus, although the division of administrative power was unfavour- able to centralisation, yet contrived to interfere with a regulating and improving hand in nearly all branches of government and public life calls for our admiration. To his unwearied labours in this sphere the I'mpire, and above all the hitherto so enslaved provinces, owed that revival which was celebrated in something more than courtly flattery by many contemporaries as the dawn of a golden age. Closely connected with the military organisation of Augustus was the financial administration. Payment of the veterans from the civil wars had swallowed up enormous sums, which for the most part had been defrayed from the spoils of llgypt ; but the expenditure on the army kept on foot simply to guard the frontiers, which on the death of Augustus numbered twenty-five legions, and on the national fleet stationed at Misenum and Ravenna demanded every year an outlay beyond the means of the old treasury, the Jerarium Salurni adminis- tered by the Senate. Augustus therefore est.iblishcd a new military treasury, the Aerar'mm w'tlitnre ; but as the l'.mperor as supreme general had the g: latest interest in the regular I no ROMAN HISTORY ii 11 collection ot taxes, Au<;ustus claimed a control over the whole system of taxation, so that even the Senatorial pro- vinces and the dependent States had to receive imperial procuratois. By a new scheme, in part based upon careful assessments, Augustus endeavoured to give a firm basis to the system of taxation, which hitherto had been open to the utmost caprice, and guarded it by severe laws against possible reprisals. The revenues moreover which accrued to the Emperor personally from his provinces and the Imperial territories like Egypt led to the foundation of an exclusively Imperial treasury, the Fiscus. The inability of the State asury to meet the ever increasing demands of such an Empire led Augustus to transfer to the Imperial treasury a large number of costly branches of administration, by which he naturally gained also a constant addition of power. Thus the Emj)cror defrayed and administered for Rome the corn-supply (^cura annonae), tiie system of fue-])olice {j>r(ieftrtura v'tgilum) managed bv the seven cohorts of vigiles, and the re,c;ulation of the Tiber with its tendency to disastrous inundations {cura Tibens)^ for Italy the cura viiin/m, i.e. the construction of the great net- work o; roads which spread over the land. In claiming the right of coinage Augustus proceeded with the same respect for tradition which marks his other measures ; in the pro- vinces the governors preserved the right of coining, and in Italy the Emjicror shared with the Senatr t'.e coinage of gold and silver, while the small change, the cop})er, was wholly left to the Senate. Later indeed the name of the official on the senatorial coins gave way entirely to the simple stamp of the Senate (S.C) To his capital Augustus devoted the utmost interest, which was manifested especially in a vigorous course of building. Ijy restoring fallen temples and raising new ones, by magni- ficent Courts of Law, theatres, libraries, and by laying down a new F"orum (the old Forum Romanum had long been insufficient for the needs of the capital of the world), Augustus made his Rome that splendid city of brilliant marble whose warn THE RULE OF AUGUSTUS 1 1 1 wonders still reveal themselves even in its wietchcd ruins to the eye of the skilled antiquarian. Judicious measures ot police, to whicli we must add also tlie division ot the citv Into U ^teen quarters {n^ion.s), held in order the internal life of this gigantic centre of tratlic, which in Augustus times is said to have reciconed two millions ot inhabitants. I, ess successful were the efforts of the I'.mperor in another department of the public weal, to which neverth.cless he directed his keenest care ; thev related to public morality, which ever since the deve!oi)ment ot the Roman htate into a World-Power had been continually sinking, and in the times of Augustus had reached that level of depravity which, apart from aluindant literarv testimony, the legislation referring to it reveals to us. Slaverv, whose most loathsome outgrowth was represented bv the gladiatorial games, x\v: 1 i.llenistic frivolity dominating the stage, the collection ot enormous wealth in the hands of single fimilies, the luxury and the often highly otfensivc worships ot the I ast— all these cir- cumstances had led to a i)erilous corruj^tion ot the whole national life. Supported by the pr>.paganda ot literature, which was devoted to him (Horace, for in:^tancc), Augustus sought vigorously to combat these evils. Signihcant witnesses for this arc the /ex luLi de aJulurW, against adultery and excesses, the lex dc nuntandi^ ,,d,mhus, which aimed at makincT divorce more ditlicult and at placing the unwedded and cirildless un'.er p. ' 1 and legal disadvantages, and the lex Paphi Poppaea, w. .vas to en.-;. rage by rewards the establishment ot households. Laws .00 against luxury ot every kind, against the immorality of the public sliows, occ, were designed to raise public morality, while a revival ot religion by the resuscitation of purely Roman worships or by the introduction of seasonable new ones, such as that ot the Divus lullus and of the Gtiuus ylwrusd, was to supplant .»cr-t foreign rites. It must be confessed that in this depart- ment but liule success crowned the ctForts oi Augustus, how- ever much honour they did to the ♦ Father ot the V atherland, as he was entitled from the year 2 h.c. II ROMAN HISTORY t,l i External Polilks ami Jl'ars.—lt was no j)ait of Augustus" plan to seek by conquests a further extension of the great empire which iic had come to rule ; his policy aimed rather at spreadin^T the hlessin;;s of j)cace over the whole Roman world. Thi- is brilliantly attested by the administration of the provinces and subdued kingdoms, which Augustus with untiring energy strove to incorporate in the Roman State. He himselt in the course of his reign visited in person nearly all the provinces, in order to settle difficulties that had arisen and to make^ctrt;iin of the way in which his ideas were being realised. We Jearn the provincial administration best from the history of Gaul, to which, rwing to its great importance, Augustus directed his especial interest and which nobly paid Its debt of gratitude to Rome by thoroughly absorbing and successfully developing Roman culture. Under Augustus Lugudunum (Lyons) became the centre of the three Gallic provinces (Aquitania, Lugudunensis, Belgica) and the second capital of the woHd-cni{ iie. Not only Gaul but tlie whole northern frontier of the emi)ire were constantly disturbed by the movements of the Germanic tribes, against whom, desjjitc the peaceful ten- dency of his reign, Augustus was forced to decree vigorous military opcM-ations. The Germanic wars had two bases in particular, the lines of the Danube and the Rhine. In the sons of his third wife I.ivia, Tiberius Claudius Nero and Nero Claudius Drusus, Augustus found two capable generals. After the lands south of the Upper Danube, Raetia, Noricum, and Pannonia, h-.d been brought under the imperial administration, Tiberius in the years 12-9 i.(. secured the lower bed of the Dinube against the people pressing in from the north, Getae and Bastarnac, and created the new province of Moesia out of the territory lying between the Danube on one side and the northern frontier of Illy.ia, Macedonia, and the dependent state of Thrace on the other. At the same time his brother Drusus, by the famous campaigns between the Rhine and Elbe to which among other places the fort of Ahso on the Lippe and the Saalburg in the Taunus owe THE RULE OF AUGUSTUS 1 1 their origin, extended Roman supremacy as f.ir as tlic \:\hv ; and after his sudden death (9) Tiberius secured these con- quests with the utmost skill, so that in this ])eriod the Provitic'ia Gtnmwia implied a real ])()ssession ot tiie tMV.j)i!i-. It was not until the novernor P. ()uinctilius \'arus, who by his blundering administration had provokeil tiie rising ot tht- Germans under Arminius, had met witli the crushing defeat of the Teutoburger Wr.ld ^ (9 A.n.) that the frontier had to be drawn back to the line of the Riiii.e. The Rltine and Danube now marked the northern border of tiie empire, whicli a series of stately fortresses was to secure — Castra Vetera (Xanten), Cclonia Agrippina (Cologne), Moguntiacum (Maini), Augusta Rauracorum (Augst near Bale), Augusta Vindeli- corum (Augsburg), Castra Batavorum (Passau), Vindobon.i (Vienna), &c. In the Orient, which Augustus repeatedly visited, .iffairs permitted of a more peaceful arrangement. From the Parthians, who had been chastised for the defeat neither ot Crassus nor of Antonius, Augustus obtained in 20 n.c. through diplomatic negotiations the restoration of tlie captured Roman standards, an event that was celebrated by the vain Roman people like a victory. He did not arrive at a real settlement of the difficult Eastern frontier questions, in which a great part was played by Armenia, the object of Parthian ambition ; but the credit of the Roman name was preserved amidst all the everlasting changes of tenancy in the Eastern territories, and commercial relations were able to extend as tar as India. From Syria frequent interferences were made in the adminis- tration of Judaea, which at List was wlio'.ly incorporated in the Roman province; and from Egypt the legions carried the fame of the Roman name as far as Arabia and Ethiopia. Harder strife was needed to bring back to obedience the restless Spanish tribes of the Cantabri and Astures, which even threatened to interfere in Gaul. The skilful generalship 1 With rei^iird to the locality of the battle no certain conclusions can W drawn. 114 ROMAN HISTORY of Agrippa (20-iy u.c.) at kngih succeeded in establishina here complete pe.icc and creating a lield favourable to the spread of Roman cultur.e. 'jy.Y Amstnnts and F.iniHy i,J\lu^rustus — 'ihe Succession Among the men who stood near to Augustus and supported his government with a complete sacriike of their own per- sonality, two particularly deserve mention. In domestic politics C. Cilnius Maecenas, a man of ancient Etruscan nobility, stood oy the i-mpcror's .side as a kind of diplomatic mediator in a position based solely on the bond of confidence. Aristocratic courtier and wisest protector of all the arts of peace, the great patron of Horace and Vergil, he may pass as the representative of the monarchical culture of the Augustan age. The military founder of the monarchy on the other hand was M. Vipsanius Agiippa, the victor of Actium, who has often been mentioned above. His thoroughly practical character apjnovod itself not only in generalship but also in organising the national administration. His services were so brilliant and so in(iisp(.nsable th it Augustus by the assign- ment oi the trihiin'ina pot,'slas made him his associate in the government and even married him to his only daughter Julia, intending that the issue of this union should be appointed to succci^d him. But it was not vouchsafed to Augustus to bequeath the rule of the world to a descendant of his blood. The hopes placed on the wedlock of Julia and Agrippa were indeed so far realised that two sons were born of it, Gaius and Lucius Caesar, whom their grandtathe: ,ido))ted at once; but both princes died before him. The limperor then resolved to appoint as his associate in the government and successor his little-loved stepson Tiberius, whom after the death of Agrippa in the year 12 B.C. he had forced to break off his present happy married life and wed Julia, with the condition that he should pass over his own son Drusus and adopt Germanicus, the son of his deceased brother Drusus. When Augustus died on the 14th August 14 a.d. at Nola in Campania, the position of things was so secure that Tiberius TIBERIUS "5 could assume the supremacy without opposition. Aui;Listus left behind no hostile political croups ; the feeble attempts ■it revolt against his monarchy which had n< w and again been made he had always promi)tly and ctfectualiy suppressed. The durability of his Rieat life's work was now ;;ttcsted by the unopposed bequcathmcnt of the throne. § 36. TiuiRius, 14-37 A.n. Domestic Politics and AchnlriistnUlon.—TxWn^^ Claudius Nero, the elder son of I .ivia by her first marriaoc, entitled himself as Emperor Tiberius Caesar Jwruslus. 1 tidowed by nature with an unplianl character tending to eccentncity in all forms, and embittered by a long life ot ne;^lect— tor on his accession to the throne he already counted 55 vears— the second Emperor did not succeed in associating with his own personality that enthusiasm for the new form ot the State which Augustus had contrived to aw. .en m the genera masses of the people, and especially in the provinces. W.thal his rule was no less meritorious than that of his great pre- decessor. , _,., . In the development of the monarchy Tiberius werii a step further than Augustus by not causing his position, like the former, to be guaranteed anew from time to time by the Senate, but regarding It as an incontestable property, as indeed it had proved itself by its bequeathment. Otherwise Tiberius too showed himself most cautious and considerate in his dealings with the Senate, and even raised its importance by transferring to it all elections, which were taKen away from the meetings of the people, and by depriving the latter in practice, though not in theory, of even vhe power of intro- ducing laws. l^:mperor and Senate, the latter restricted by the Emperor's right of nomination and commendation, are now the only legislative factors. The sovereign wili ot the ruler showed itself equally in an innovation strongly opposed to republican feeling; the whole bodyguard, which hitherto had only been quartered to a very small extent in Rome, was «■■ Ii6 ROMAN HISTORY now concentrated in the capital,^ and thus the position of the 1 refect of the Guard {praefectus prattorlo) became more and more influential at the ex])ense of the Senate. This decision was due to the man then holding this office, Aelius Seianus, who was Tiberius' right hand. At the same time the Senate had to surrender to tlie Emperor the command over the • city cohorts ' intended for duties of police ; the City-Prefect {pra^ectus ur/;l),ns their commander was entitled, became after the Prefect oi tlie Guard the most important Imperial officer. Ihe administration enjoyed continuous surveillance by 1 ibenus, which found expression among other ways in the numerous indictments of oppressive provincial officials (renw, repetundarum). Like Augustus, he sought to bring an miproving and helpful influence to bear on all departments, and his rule in every respect increased that happy condition o\ the empire which his predecessor had founded. If never- theless a strong opposition ;igainst him grew up in aristocratic circles, it was his reserved and imperious character that was to blame no less than the unhappy influence of the ambitious 1 refect Seianus, the sole possessor of the Emperor's con- fidence. The latter half of his reign swarm-d with pro- secutions and executions for misprision of treason {maiestas\ a juristic idea that arose under Tiberius ; and the outspoken feeling of the capital induced him in the year ^(^ to entirely leave Rome and to make his home partly in Campania and partly on the island of CajJii. Fovagn Politics ami l^ars.— The legions on the Rhine and i:)anube had profited by the change of rulers to extort by revolts an improvement in their condition, viz. a shortening ot the period of service from twenty-five to sixteen years and an increase of pay. It was only with difficulty that this dangerous rising was su],pressed on the Danube by Seianus, on the Rhine by the Emperor's nephew and adopted son Ixeimamcus. T he latter, with his ambitious wife Agrippina, 1 The enclosing walls of the Ca>/ra Praetoriana arc still preserved in so far as they were mcluded in the Aurelian citv-wall ; t evSrde Ue Can.po M.htaro between I'orta Pia and Porta San hJre /o [^!^.- TIBERIUS 117 the daughter of Julia and Agrippa, was in the h;iblt ot crosring the I'.mpcror's plans; and now in entire opposition to Tiberius' purposes he deemed it advisable to assail the Germans anew. In the years 14 to 16 he undertook several campaigns against the Marsi, Chatti, and Cherusci, and gained some victories which stamped him in the eyes ot the public as a great general, but which brought no ;^ain to tlie Roman supremacy. Tiberius therefore, averse to any policy ot conquest, recalled him from his post, and ..iter allowing him to ce'.ebrite a brilliant triumph allotted him another mission, in Asia (i?)- The position of commander-in-chief in Germany was not filled up again; two legates shared the military and juridical administration of the province. I'he waiting policy of Tiberius with regard to the Germans was soon to prove its value. Their never ceasing internal qu;iirels led to a great war between the Suabian kingdom founded by Marbod, which Tiberius himself had combated from Pannonia with general success, and the Saxon tribes led by Arminius. The creation of Marbod was destroyed ; he him- self sought the protection of Rome and died in Ravenna. Arminius however, the 'liberator of Germany,' fell a victim to family discords (21 )• In the East the affairs of Parthia and Armenia were again such as to make a display of Roman power seem desirable. The task that was i.ere imposed on Germanicus was however not clear ; and it was rendered much more difficult — as was assuredly intended- -by th'^ fact that the proud prince was to share the command with ...e governor of Syria, Cn. Calpur- nius Piso, an ambitious man of the noblest origin. This led to endless disputes as to official rights, which were further envenomed by the wives of both men; and when Germanicus died in the year 19 Piso was accused of murder, and although his innocence was proved in the trial he took his own Hie in prison. The people however, who worshii ped Germanicus and his family, actually cast the blame for the death of their darling on the Emperor, and from this time the hatred of Tiberius grew. iiS ROMAN HISTORY Jumn/y Relations and excessive weakness for the female sex ; but in view of his administration of the empire he did not deserve to figure in tradition as little better than the ridiculous clown as which Seneca, Nero's witty tutor, souoht to brand him by the malicious satire parodying his « dedication.' ^ In the case of Claudius, as of Tiberius, later aees have admitted a jaster estimate. Nero C/um/lus Cuiesar (54-'''^) ^^^ <'i"st shared the govern- ment with his mother Agn])pina, who indeed appears by his side on coins. The Senate, su))poited h the Prefect of the Guard Burrus and the Emperor's inlluential tutor Seneca, formed a counter-party ; thev succeeded in gradually ousting the ambitious Augusta and guiding the young prince for some years in the wa\ s of wise moderation. As in the early years of Gaius, whom Nero greatly resembles, the empire in the first third of his rei;m enjoyed a haj)py condition which was only for a time imperilled in Britain (60-61). Here the governor Suetonius Paullinus sought to extend the hold of the empire and thereby brought on a revolt which was stirred up by the national druidism, and in the course of which the chief centres of Roman culture, Camalodunum (Colchester) and Londinium (London), fell before the fury of the Kelts. Suetonius however was at last victorious; after his recall, which was due to his bad administration, peace was again established (66-68). A determined rising of the Jews, which T. Flavius Vespasianus -as charged to suppress, Nero did not live to see ended. _ The dark sides of Nero's character, which the dissimula- tion of years had cloaked, revealed themselves just when he felt himself threatened in his ])Obiiion of supremacy. Seek- ing to avenge herself for being supplanted, Agrippina approached the ousted Britannicus, Claudius' own son, perhaps to pl-v him as a trump card against Nero. Nero 'oisoncd hi-^ p.dontivc brother and pursued his mother with a 1 This so-call.'d Af^ocolocv!itosi< (' pumpkinification.' p.-rliaps more crMV. rtly .-fA'//',v-/ 1 Caes.irls of S.-;i<.,i i^ one of tl'.e most amusing if III. -t hiiint; panii'1'li.ts of antiquity. GAIUS, CLAUDIUS, AND NERO i^;^ hate that was only appeased when at hi. orders she was murdered (C9). Henceforth no restraints existed tor the l-mperor. Spurnini; the formerly privileged Senate and hi. previous guides, he yielded himself entire y to h.s own caprices and desires. The woman's rule that had already so often brought disaster on the Julian house began anew, md one of the most notorious ladies ot the knig.iUy aiis- 'tocracy, Poppaea Sabina, became the Imperial consort and Augusta, after Nero's first wife Octa.ia, the sister of l.r.tan- nicus, had been repudiated and then murdered on one o the most abominable impeachments of the whole Imperial age (G2\ Owing to Nero's measureless extravagance v. tinancial Crisis' soon arose, and was further intensified by a crushing calamity that befell the capital, the notorious fire ot he year 6. this very reason excludes the possibility that the ifmperor himself caused the fire, >vhich 7"«""-^\ "^■'"^y half the city; but he felt himself called upon to take account of the gossip of the people which accused h.m ot it, and he therefore directed suspicion upon one ot the most despised religious sects thac Rome ot that day had to shew, the Christians, whose name on this occasion appears for the first time, and in bloody letters, in Roman tradition Nero interested himself with gratity.ng zeal ,n the rebuild ng of the city ; but here too he could not restrain his morbid extravagance, as is proved by the construction oH)- ";.;^fi":'!- cent palace, the Domus Jurca or ' Golden House (66-6, ;. The same want of moderation shewed itself in the journey to Greece, whither the vain Emperor was called by his dilettante interest in musical competitions, owing to whicl^ he declared the province free, recompensing he htn tc for this loss by resigning the island of Sardinia. I o remedy his financial straits Nero had recourse to one of the most disastrous measures of statesmanship, ordaining the first depreciation of the currency, which necessarily under- ""Und^r rudr-circumstances discontent with the Neronian rule increased in all circles, and conspiracies followed by 3^^1!5-:.^Jf?to:._ \a:^ 124 ROMAN HISTORY I i i -><4Jilii l cruel impeachments (Seneca was a victim) were the ordrr of the day; oven the Guard was no longer to be trusted, ;i> the striking im])cachment of Piso shewed. The decision however came this time from the legions on the frontier ot the empire. The attempt of the Keltic governor of Gaul, C. Julius Vindex, to make himself I'mperor had been frus- trated from jealousy by the governor of Upper Germany ; the Spanish legions now proclaimed as emperor their general, P. Suljjicius Galba, in answer to the ban set upon him by Nero. The Guard approved this step ol the legions, and the Senate a»- once declared Nero under ban. The IZmperor came to his end by his own hand in the villa ot a freedman, to whom he had fled (June 68). With him the Julian Hous'.- was extinguished. .^ ^S, The Flavians, 69-96 a.d. For a year it H'i-:n'xl as though the onipin: v.vn; r.uw to fall uiuUt th' doom of OAiiitf its ruler to thenill oftl.- legions and praetorians, (iaiba, appointed JMiiporor by the Sj)anish troops, could win no con- tidence in Ronii\ and was r.'nioved by ^^. S.dvius Oii;o (Jan. 691, who however enjc.vcd the purple only for a (piarter of a year; whrn the nominee of the ( jernian legions, A. Vitellius, ga'iv-d a victory over him at Cremona he slew himself (Apr. 6)). 'I'o N'itcHius however the troops of the 1-last (apposed a claimant in their tried general Vespa-^i- aiuis, and after jirolonged struggles, which reached their conclu.>io!i in Rome itselt", N'iteilius was slain and Ve^pasianus recogniicd by the capital (Dee. 09). Fluvius rfsjhuiitntis (69-79), ''^Irt^'itiy sixty years of age on his ascension to the throne, addressed himself with the utmost earnestness and skill to the difficult task of bringing order into the disorganised affairs of the empire. He was particularly mindful to restore the discipline of the legions and praetorians, now sapped by the events of the ' Year of the Three Emperors,' and to strengthen the empire's sorely enfeebled taxable powers. His thoroughly creditable frugality however did not prevent him from spending great sums on great ends ; he built a famous temple to the Goddess of Peace {Tfrnplum Pacts) and the gigantic ylmphitheatt-um Flavi- THE FLAVIANS 12 = atiiim, the modern Colosseum. To the Senate he lett a wide sphere of independence, though vi<;oiously checking; en- croachments upon his riohts by the aristocrats who would not pay due regard to a Princc]>s sprvin;.; of a mere knightly family, as e.^r. in the imp.-aciiment ot Helvidius Priscus. Connected \vitb. this is the ejection of the philosophers, of whom the representatives of the Stoic doctrine especially cultivated in their adherents a sentimental oppoMtii)n to monarchy, based upon n-publican enthusiasm but withal senseless. To the practice of the law Vespas^ian devoted especial interest. Bv the so-called /ex rr,'/<7 J'espasiiwt an advance was made in the development of monarchy, as hence- forth the imperium for life was bestowed on the emperors on their ascension. The troubles of the year 69 liad led on various points of the wide frontier to military movements. Two wars are particularly associated with the name of Vespasian, although he personally ended neither. In 69 .he l^ativi, dwelling north of the Lower Rhine, had risen under the leadership of their countryman Julius Civilis against Vitellius and after his death had kept up the struggle against the new govern- ment also. The rising threatened to grow all the more perilous as the (rauls too became entangled in it and the Roman troops, consisting mainly of natives, joined in the movement. Numerous forts of the Romans on the line of the Rhine were destroyed befoi e Petilius Cerialis after -ral victories overpowered the ri.ing (70). A peace which left to the Batavi their position as .o./i of the Romans concluded this war of independence. b'-.r more toilsome was the continuance of the Jewish wai- commenced by Vespasian, with which the I'mperor's elder son, the Caesar Titu was charged. After four months of siege (April- August ,0), Jerusalem was completely destroyed and .ludata sundered as a distinct province from Syria. The Cwnliicts with the Jewish people, who defended themselves with the valour ot desperation, had been throughout bloody, and had claimed great sacrifices on either side; equally terrible was thv. ^ 126 ROMAN HISTORY I! ■? vcn<;cMnce uliich the victor inflictod upon the conquered. The last strupr[lor- were jirolonged into the year 72 ; but aheady in 7 1 Titus with his father celebrated a brilHan' triumph over the Jews (represented on the famous Arch ot Titus on the top of the Via Sacra). In June 79 Vespasiar died .' frer a beneficent reign. He was followed by his elder son Titus (71; '^O' ^'^^^ alread\- in the year 70 had received, together wiih his brother Doniitianus, the rank of a Caesar. His brief reign figures in the senatorially coloured tradition as one of peculiar happiness, a proof that he must have displayed great forbearance towards the Senate. To this circumstance he also owes the honourable title amor et (lelic'nie generis humani, 'darling and delight of the human race.' Under Titus began the campaigns of Agricola in Britain (see below). Two heavy calamities fell upon Italy during his reign. On the 24th August 79 the famous eruption ot Vesuvius ^ buried the flourishing towns of Pompeii, Hercula- neum, and Stabiac, and a few months later a fire caused great damage in Rome. In September 81 Titus suddenly died ; he was followed by his brother Domit'ianus (81-96), whom the Opposition of senate and aristocracy that had arisen already under his father drove at length into paths which gained for him the reputation of a second Nero. At first Domitian took up his task of empire with enthusiasm and personally interested himself in all branches of the administration and practice of the law, strictly regulating also the provincial oflici;ds. Arts and sciences enjoyed his favour. But the reproach of soldier- kingship clung to the house of tiic Flavii, and the proud Domiti;in scorned to meet it by flattery of the Senate and aristocracy, as Titus certainly did. For this he was pur- sued by them with a deadly hate, which found expression even in literature ; and thus were aroused in the limperor distrust and suspicion, particularly towards real merit. On 1 Here perished the elder riinins, the well-known author of the Historia Xaturalis, aii#«j THE FLAVIANS 127 tliis account joalousv led iiim to recall in the yc.r ^4 t''^' nble coniniandei- Cn. Julius A-vicola,' who since 77 had been cxtendin- the dominion ot" Rome witli the utmost success, subduintT the island ot" Mona (An^lesoa) and Scot- land up to the Firth of Tay. The i'.nipe.or himseit fou;.;ht Nvith less good fortune in the territory ot the Rhine and Lower Danube; he notably f::i!ed to linally conquer Ue- ccbalus, who threatened the province o[ Moesia, and actually bouoht peace by a venrlv gift of money. He nevertheless celebrated triumphs in Rome and secured tor himselt tlie titles Germankus and DjcIus—:^ indication ot the degree to which his ambition was inliamed. In tlie last years ot his reign a kind of mania for prosecution seems to have de- veloped in Domitian, from which at last Itis nearest ariociates no longer telt safe. In Se])tember 96 he was murdered ; the Senate pursued his memorv with tury, striking it ot from all public monuments, while historians like 1 acitus and Suetonius and poets like .Uivenal wrote in gall the descni-tion of the last Flavian which thev have transmuted to posterity. the CHAPTllR IX The ' Golden Age ' of the Roman Empire (From Nerva untii. the Death ok Marcus Aureijus, ,^r)_iSc A.I). ) The Senate who ha with a cand,dale accep - :it iss i^ni^rr"';- 4:n:i;d;i;n;';he -s^^nii^e/^i^i;;.!;.;.! to lo uV S th;7actuallv iJpoioni but sti:l conoMted oorp.ra..on je makes this period evrn now -rn, th- r>appie=t of the kvn.-... I„..,..rp. 1 The~father.in-law of Tacitus, to whon, i\v^ famous historian has raised a permanent monum mU m a biography. 1^ n'lVvCi.'-. . I2S ROMAN HISTORY 1 ^ If It did icallv prndr.*'.^ aM' emptTori ; and yvt ii; ii t::o-.- woakiv^ss. - already di^iinrt'.y ap; i';ir wtAch worr to undermine tlic proiul structu'- of inipcri.disiii. 1 !:i> illl;1cvel"i^Ilmt■nt of a p.^pulation uardeiivd \vitl> a monstrous Io;id of ia\a;ioii, tlic d slike to .spend money in taking pa'-; in public adininistration, the inability to UT'Ct the expentlitun:; on ti;i_; ;u-uiy neocU"! for t!:o liefenra of the borders, and consotinently the iuii(0.s.>il)iliiy "f -r.fucirMiily prot.'ctiny the enf.rmou.sly long frontier linos— tlu'-c synnit'inis of doc;,y disp'ay tiieni-elves m^'re anil more oft'MU ^ 39. Nekva and Trajan. AI. Coo eh/ i A'uvii ( 96-98 y, the man atter the Senate's own heart, was a senator sixty years of a<;e oi whom not much more could be said than tiiat he had a reputation for remarkable juristic ability and viiy siciltul political tactics in relation to the different reigns of the last ten y^'irs. His jierformances shew in many respects ;i reaction, due to his connexion with the Senate, against the previous development of monarchy. Inhere was importance in the 'alimentations' originated bv him, a charitv-fiind endowed by the imperial bounty which was to assist poor Roman citizens in acquiring land or bringing u'l their children. The consciousness of his own weakness, which was most distinctly revealed in his behaviour towards the praetorians when they demanded punishment for the mu''derers of Domi- tian, led the I'mperor to atiopt the talented governor ot Upper Germany, M. Ulpius Traianus. A few months later Nerva died. Iwpcrdtor C(usar Nerva Trnititms, as the new I^mperor othciallv styled himself (98-1 1 7), was sprung of an old Roman family, and born at Italica in Spain. By his fatht ' <^ had been trained to be a good officer. To this he owed also 1. ippoint- ment to the command on the Rhine, which on account ot the continual danger from the Germans was reckoned one of great responsibility. Trajan is said to be the founder of the famous limes, or frontier fortification, which has of late been accurately traced, and which, running from the Taunus to Altmiihl, was designed to defend against the irruptions of the Germans the district taken already in Domi'-.ian's NERVA AND TRAJAN 129 time from them to satcguard tlie Rhine tionticr. It \va. only after the settlement of German affairs that tlu- new Emperor returned to Rome ((;.;). His virtues as a general, which recalled Caesar, gained him the enthusiastic admiration of the soldiers; and he succeeded also in winning over the Senate by respectful behaviour and the people by liberal largesses and games. He did not liowcver stay long in the capital. , Next to the ])acification ot the Rhine frontier, it was necessarily one of the most important military tasks ot a vigorous Kmperor to chastise the Dacian king Deccbalus, who ever since Domitian's far from creditable peace had assumed a more and more threatening attitude, and to j ut an end to the annoyances from him. After two wars, waged after most careful i)rep.-utly historic- s'^qu.nce of time r.nd place. -v^iidtT*" f I I 130 ROMAN HISTORY two libraries, and 'Trajan's Column.' Arts and sciences flourished to a high degree ; literature can show men like Tacitus, Juvenal, and the younger Plinius, with whom the Emperor himself kept up an active correspondence. During his Parthian campaign, which had brought him down the Tigris as far as the Persian Gulf, Trajan died in Cilicia (August 117); he >5 followed — though probably not on the ground of a s osititious will — by his long proved and constantly favoured kinsman P. Aelius Hadri- anus, the husband of a grand-daughter of Trajan's sister, and at the time commander of the Syrian legions. Iiiiperiilor Ctu'siir iraiauus HaJvuimis learned in Antioch of the death of Trajan and was at once greeted by his army as Emperor, a proof that his right to the succession was open to no doubt. In him one of the greatest of rulers mounted the throne of the Caesars ; he is one of the few representatives in antiquity of the modern principle tiiat the prince is the first servant of the State. It is lamentable that we are not better informed as to this man's life ; his contemporaries certainly did not know how to appreciate him. External Politics. — Through his own eminent ability as a soldier Hadrian clearly recognised the impossibility of con- tinuing or even maintaining Trajan's conquests. He therefore gave up all the provinces bevond the Euphrates as well as Armenia, and on this basis concluded peace with the Parthians. His entire efforts aimed at a strong defence of the frontiers ; he is said to iiave completed the German limes begun by Trajan. He constructed a quite similar frontier fortification in Britain, where the conflicts with the valiant inhabitants of the Scottish Higlilands continually entailed heavy losses ; by the so-called * Pictish Wall ' running from the mouth of the Tyne to Solway Firth the sphere of Roman authority was delimited and secured against the inroads of the northern tribes. Under Hadrian too there arose on a third HADRIAN i;i endangered point of the imperial frontier, the T-ower Danube, ■I line of fortifications which stretched to the Black Sea ami were designed to keep back the restless hordes ot the Souili Russian steppes. While thus Hadrian decidedly approved himself a prince of peace, he still recognised that a com- petent army is the only practical security aivunst war, and therefore devoted to it particular interest ; his military refor- mation, which aimed at improvement of the .ubaltern staff and more serviceable baitle-tactics, long remained of great value. , . - ■ Of the wars into which Hadrian found !uni>elr forced only one need be mentioned, the Jewish War (132-134). which certainly was due to the Emperor himself. In order- to put an end to the restless nation's political hopes ot a Messiah, still sturdily nourished by the rabbis, he founded m , 12 a Roman soldier-colony, Aelia Capitolina, on the ruins of Jerusalem, in which a sanctuary of the Capitohne Jupiter arose on the site of the ancient temple of God. 1 ms foun- dation and the prohibition of circumcision .uoused one of those outbreaks of passionate fury which we have often com;.- upon in the history of this race. Under the guidance of a certain Bar-Kochba, who claimed to be the Messiah, the Jews revolted against the Roman supremacy ; but after two bloody years of war, in which the Emperor himself appeared in Palestine, they were crushed almost out of existence. Judaea was practically stripped of population ; from this time dates the complete dispersion of the Jevs over the civilised world. The colony Aelia Capitolina was closed to them ; a heavy tax pressed upon those who remained in the Roman empire. In view of Hadrian's great aversion to military operations, the war against the Jews can only be explained in the same way as the punishments inflicted upon Christians by the same Emperor and to a greater extent by others after him ; the monarchical principle, as well as the Imperial sentiment, could hardly deal otherwise than violently with subjects who on the ground of peculiar religious views dis- regarded the laws of the State. 132 ROMAN HISTORY :! 1 i! I I i 11 I Ititerihil .hlnihuslnition. — -By his first measure of domestic politics, consistino in a tax-abatement of about //y 5,000,000 and in the estabhshment of a new ])ciiod of asstssnient (every fifteen years), Hadrian siiowed that he hiie too recognised the point from which an improvement of atfjirs must begin. The finances of the municipalities were especially disordered ; Hadrian therefore, continuing an idea of Trajan, sent to them imperial auditors to insj)ect their financial management. Although the self-administration of the municipalities was thereby gradually undermined, this measure on the other hand implies an advance towards that removal of the distinction between fatherland and provinces which was first completed by Caiacalla. In his famous journeys through the empire, which lasted several years (121-126'and 121;- 134), Hadrian learned the needs of all the nations subject to him and sought throughout to do them justice on the broadest scale. This Emperor also brought about an important change in the sphere ot the higher administration by creating a special Civil Service staff to be chosen from the knightly order, with definite divisions of salary and rank ; hitherto all the administrative otficcrs had come out from the military seivice. In the department of law too Hadrian was zealously active; his edictmi perpetuum^ a collection of important decisions by praetors, became the groundwork of the later Corpus Juris. Magnificent constructions throughout the empire (basilicas, theatres, baths, bridges, roads, aqueducts) testify to the public-spirited energy of the Emperor as a builder; in Rome the ruins of the mighty temple of Venus and Rome, the Pons Melius, and the Castello di San:' ..^n-jelo [ninlts Hadnam) recall his name to this day. He personally jiractised many arts and sciences, and led t'^!^ 'iferatuic of his age into peculiar new paths (an archaising 'endency). Despite his brilliant gif"ts as a ruler he did not succeed in winning the (.onfidence of the noble circles surrounding him; his capriciousness, which tolerated no contradiction, repelled H. THE ANTONINES ' v; many from Inm. The Senate too d-.a not think Itselt sutVicientiy icgarded, and when the Vmycvov had d-.c-d in luly m8 of dropsy this meanly vindictive .orpoiation would have jjladly executed the J i'>i), had been led bv his own childles>ne,ss to adopt already in Hadrian's lif.'nme L. Verus and hi^ nephew M Anmus Verus (the later I'.mpcror Mucus Auieuus). 1 I'.uS the succession appeared secure tor some time. The government of Antonmus Pras moved ;4eneral y on the hnes laid dow:. by his adoptive father. He on y decided on military operations when tb.ev were urgently demanded by the defence ot the f.or-ier (>r disturbances among the subject peoples. Thus m h,s re.gn the wall la,d down by Hadrian in Britain was pushed up further to the North, and now ran from the Clyde to the Hrth ot I'orth. On the eastern frontier of the l-mpire the Parthians once more threatened to disturb the peace ; but '.y a |.ersonal discussion with their kmn Volagase. HI. Antonmus was able to prevent an outbreak of hostilities In Ins^mternal aovernment also the l-:mperor continued the efforts of Hadrian, endowing public charities, p. omouno sciences and arts, and caring for a good administration of tlie law. He died in 161. The Senate honoured his memory by consecrating the temple by the Forum, which had uoen dedicated by him to his departed w,te I vusima, to the Dlvus ylntomnus as well ; it is still partly preserved. 71/ ./ l-.ji.. l„ir,.,;,!uc (^f^\-l'>^o) and J.. I mis, the adopVed'sons of Antoninus I'ius carried on the government in common until the death of V.ru. ,1.^1 i^.;), although the foremost place was alway taken by the stron^iei chai- acter of Marcus Aurelius, who had also om- the son-.n- 134 ROMAN HISTORY t. il :l law of the deceased lAmperor. Contrary to his peaceful sentiments, Marcus found himself driven into an almost uninterrupted scries of campaigns which on the whole pre- served indeed the credit of the Roman name, but withal revealed clearly the weakness of the defence of the frontiers. The Parthian war (162-166), in which L. Verus proved his own incapacity, was concluded in 166 with a triumph; but it brought terrible injury upon the Roman people, for a desolating pestilence followed in its train. Far more weari- some was the Marcomannian war (167--1S0), to which both Emperors set out after ending tiie Parthian campaign. Years ago the German tribes of Marcomanni and Quadi had begun to cross the Danube in forays which reached as far as Upper /taly and formed a serious danger for the empire. The struggles on the Danube, with an interruption of a tew years (i75-i77)» in vvhich Marcus was called by the revolt of the Syrian .^^ovcrnor to Asia, lasted on until the death of the Emperor, which occurred in March 180 at Vindobona (Vienna). Marcus AureliuK, who from his practice of the Stoic philosophy received the title of ' Tiie Philosopher,' was a man ot the noblest spirit and simple kindly character.^ As far as the wars waged against his own inclination permitted It, he devoted himself in the spirit of Hadrian and his predecessor to the duties of civic government, in which, It must be confessed, he often proved himself unpractical. His financial administration was bad : like Nero, he brought about a commercially most disastrous depreciation of the currency. In legislation on the other hand he applied the prmciple of humanity with success. To the Senate he was very acceptable. His Marcomannian war is glorified by the still preserved monument on the Piazza Colonna in Rome, an imperfect imitation of Trajan's column. This iiiid- fX|>rc.s.>io,i iti hi.i .-uW jiv .sei v a book ofhiyh otfiical value. "u!iir'.isi.'s to Ifiiusi'll,' COMMODUS I-. j3 CHAPrb:R X The Decline of the Empire under the Soldier- Emperors (From Commodus to Diocletian, 180-2S5 A.n.) If Conimodus is not to be reckoned amontj the Soliliei-Kini^cn i~, ina-nnich as he succeeded to the tlirone as li'^iiiniat-- heir and sl m of Marcus Aurelius, he nevertheless was the fir.st after the .luhi to coniC(>- af^ain a disastrous influence to the Guard and its Prefects. Hctice- forth the dcchne of army disciphne takes a rapid omr^e ; the con-taut struggles alont? almost the whole frontier of the gigaiuic empire ;^iv.- opportunity to bold usurpers \\ith the aid of their troops to Miatcti at the diadem ; every victorious, indeed every discontented les;ion ciccni-j itself justitied in acclaiming its .<; ^neral as Imperaior. Otten several l<:mpcrors are ruling at the sam< time in ditfeient exuemities ot the empire. Wars of uMirpation henceforti belong to the regular oru'r ■ .f thing.-. , . , Meanwhile the assault tiom without grows move and more mei,;!tni,:^. In the East the old Parthian state under the able dynasty of tlie ^as- i- nids develops into a vigorous New Persian Kmpiie, whicli moves victori- ously against the Roman sphere. The northern liontier on the Rhine and' Danute is even more sorely pressed by the Germans, whri a^ Goths, FranKs, Saxons, ai d Alamanni become the tenor of the neigh- bouring Roman provinces. Within there appears under the-,- circumstance.-^ an increase ot tlie financial distress in parlicular, and of a general decay connected with it. The constant wars lead to sad depopulation, and attempts are often made to lemedv tlii> bv s.tllim; German colonists on Roman s(/,]. Thus a new factor comes into the fere.rround in th.e lite of the RoMi.m State — the Cicrnmn element. § 42. Commodus and the House of Sei-timius Si veru>, lSo-235 A.D. AI. Jurelhis C<,:U)Wjdus Jrii'-fiinus {l^C-l'.jZ)^ the lic- oenerate stm of the impcfial philosojihcr, carried on with support of the praetorians, wliose ocneral was his coniidant, a misrule whicli recalls the worst times ot Caligula and Nero. After bringing the MarcoiDannian war bfnucathed to him by his father to an end by a far from honourable peace, he abandoned himself in the capital to a discreditable lite ot mmmrmmmmi WSSk 136 ROMAN HISTORY monstrous extravagance The interests of the empire were in every respect neglcctetl, and distress increased in all departments. He was murdered (31st December 192) in the night before 1st January 193, the day on which he was to enter on his consulate as a gladiator ; for he was a passionate admirer of the.'-e men of muscle. On the resolution of the Senate his memory was dishonoured. After the three months' reign of 'he honourable and well- meaning Senator P. Helvidius Pertinax, whose vigorou;. measures moved the praetorians to put him out of the way, ])rctenders were set up not only by the latter but also and at the same time by three ditierent bodies or troops. /.. Si'pt'nniiis Si'viTus (193-211), who commanded in Pannonia, first maiched into Rome and by his energetic personality won over the Senate. In the first four years of his reign he had to struggle with his rivals for supremacy, which after 197 was his without competition. He waged a succes -ul war ot some length against the Parthians, who had supported one of his opponents ; he restored the prestige of the empire for a time in the Mast, and even won for it a new province there, Mesopotamia. It was the last extension of the Impcriiim. In the last years of his reign he was forced to take the licld against British tribes, but was prevented from concluding the war by death (at Eboracum, now York, February 211). With the name of Septimius Severus, who was sprung of a knightly family resident in Africa, several remarkable innovati.)ns are associated. In ortier to establish a con- nexion between his and the preceding dynasty, he invented the ficti(.n of declaring himself the legitimate heir of the Antonines by subsequent atioption, a measure which later found imitation. He did away with the peculiar position of the praetorians and founded a new Guard, which was not like the former made up of Italians but of the most trustworthy elements of the frontier legions. Supported by this body- guard of 50, ceo men, the l.mperor thrust the Senate decidedly into the background and bore the proconsular 4PV mm mm CARACALLA '37 tmpenum for the first time in Italy iiselt. Under him the famous jurist Paj)inianus held the oflicc ot Prefect of the Guard. There was great activity in building, especially on the Palatine. M. AureJius Am 'minus CnracalLt (2 i 1-2 i 7), who is said to have earlier aimed at his father's liil-, soon removed his brother and fellow-emperor Geii together with a gieat number of his adherents, among them Papinianus, and carried on a rule of cruelty and extravagance for which he procured means by plundering his own subjects. Hi-^ monstrous magnificence as a builder is still eloquently attested bv the colossal ruins of his famous Thermae /intotiu'ii'iiic or ' 1' iths of Caracalla' in Rome. His politically most import. m' measure of administration, the bestowal ot the Roman citizenship on all municipalities of the empare, arose menly from the need f-^r filling the treasuries by the avplication ot new taxes. ^ "vars on the frontiers of the Rhine and Danube, as hose against the Parthians, are marked by feeble an ' jrcditablc management. In the Parthian campaign he was murdered by his Prefect of the Guard Mdcrinus (April 217), who wore the diadem himself for some months until the Syrian troops raised to the throne a distant relative of Scverus' house, the fourteen- year old Varius Avitus Bassianus, as M. Attrcl'ius ^'hilotiinus {ElagiilnJus). His bye-name I'Magabalus he got from the Syrian sun-god of that name, whose high priest he was in F.mcsa, and whose worship he brought to Rome. A^ Caracalla had abandoned the cares of government to his mother Julia Domna, so he made lur sister, his grandmother Julia Maesa, his associate in empire and Av:gusta. Fjrought up in oriental excess, the lad disgraced the imperial throne for wcllnigh a year until the disgusted soldiers slew him with his mother Soacmias, because he had tried to put out of the way his cousin Alexander Severu«, who at their wish had been nominated as Caesar. M. Auniius Severm Ah'satuUr [ill" 11^) was still too young to carry on alone the government, wliich at fi-st «p mm mmm^ 13^ ROMAN HISTORY I' i remained in the hands of his j^rand mother Julia Maesa, and later was strongly influenced by his mother Mamaea. Tlie young KmjKror was inspired by the best will, but was too teeble of nature to help himself in sucii troublous times. Thi' committee of the Senate which he drew to his side as ln)pcrial Council did indeed number famous jurists, such as Ulpian and Paulas, but no gnat statesmen; and the undis- ciplined soldiers iiateJ the civil officials who issued decrees from the chancellery, and indeed slew the particularly unpopular Ulpian before the Emperor's eyes. The wars of Alexander Severus brought no honour to the Roman l^mpire. Id Parthii tliere had grown up under the Sassanitl ArdasliM- Ijabekan the New Persian Kmpire, the assaults of which upon Rome's Asiatic posses- sions were fruitles;,ly combated by Alexander. Not more successful was the course of his campaign against the (rormans, which he undertook from Mainz ; when in the meanwhile a distinguished general, Maximin ^, Thrax, pre- sented himself as rival Emperor (235), the soldiers deserted Alexander and slew him together with hi'^ mother. ^^7,. Thi: GRKA-trsT Emi'erors trom Alexandkr Severus TO Diocletian, 235-285 a.d. After the death of the last of the Severi, the decline of the empire goes on apace. The imperial diadem becomes an apple of discord between more or less able commanders, among whom barbarians, like Max'mihius Thnix (235-238), appear more and more frequently. Of measures of imperial adminis- tration we now hear but seldom ; struggles of ])retendcr8 and wars against the ever more vigorous advances of neighbours on the frontier form the history of the empiie in this period. Of the wellnigh countless number of Imperatorcs, many rif whom bore this name for scarce a month, it may suffice to mention the most important or at least those who bore rule for a somewhat longer span of time. Gonlimius III. (238-244) was the victor among the TTT ^■^ \.} ' imi VALERIANUS 139 many rivals of M.iximinus. He undertook a succesbful cam- paign against the i'ersians and forced them to give hack Mesopotamia, but was slain before the conclusion of the war by his Prefect of th ■ Guard Philipj)us, who had forced himself on him as associate in the novernmcnt. 'I'hc best known fact in the reign of M. lul'ius Phililf-is (244-249), entitled from his origin Arabs ^ is tha*: in the year 24S the thousandth anniversary ot the existence of the Roman empire was celebrated with great pomp. Otherwise his rule marks a continuous decline of Roman credit. Opposition was vainly offered to the German tribe-leagues, e-^j^ecially the Goths, who burst into the empire from the Black Sea. The Senator Declus^ sent by him against the Goths, was proclaimed Enijieror by his troops ; he wage^i continual warfare against the dan- gerous invaders, who were already desolating Thrace and Moesii (i; 35), and fell in battle against them (249-251). P. Liciii'ius J'lilcniiiius (253 260) wa> unal)le to stay tlie ruin assailing the empire on all sides; in hi;> reign the terri- tory between the Limes and Rhine was lost. The Franks and Alamanni roved tlirough Gaul ; the Saxons ))lundercd the coasts ; the Goths pressed into Greece. Wilerianus fell into the hands of the Persians, who liad J.eteated him, and died in captivitv. His son Galiicniis (260 26s), a j'rince with good intentions but too little energy, maintained his heritage only in a very limited part of t.'^ empire, while countless rival l-mpcrors (the 'Thirty Tyrants') rose up, .'Specially in the imperilled border provinces. The general distress grew; the irruptions of the Germans brought the empire to the verge of ruin. 71/. Aiiniuis CLuulhis II. (2^>N 270) suci-essfuUy encoun- tered the Alamanni and Goth^, hence his title Go/irus ,- but he died too earlv to be able to do real service to the State. /,. Dowithn Aanuimus (27c 2 7 5 ) , a distinguished general, was not only like liis iiredccessor successful in repellmg the Alamanni and Goths, but even restored for a short time the unity of the cm])ire (hence the title reUitiitrir orlis), after destroying the Queen Zenobia's kingdom of Palmyra and ™"flP»-^ff^^W W^P^ ■WS ■w^ 140 ROMAN HISTORY subduing a Gallic usurper. At home too he governed vigorously ; his circumvallation of Rome, ytill for the most part preserved, is famous. While engaged in a campaign against the Persians he was murdered near Byzantium (275). M. Aurel'ius Prohits (276-282), commander ot" the Syrian troops and like Aurelianus of Illyrian descent, followed with brilliant success in the footsteps of his predecessor in driving back the Germans. He even restored the old frontier of the Limes, and forced many thousands of Germans to a tlxed ettlement on Roman soil, encouraging them in tillage and vine-growing (see below, vj 44). He also took as many Germans as possible into the army, thinking thus to refresh and better it. The Senate he treated with consideration. But at last Probus too shared the fate of his predecessor, and was slain at Sirmium on the Save, the chief town of Pannonia, by his soldiers, who were disgusted by his strict- ness. From the struggles of the pretenders in the next fol- lowing years the Illyrian C. Valerius Aurelius Diocletianus, an able soldier, emerged as victor (Nov. 284). With him begins a new period in the history of monarchy. SECTION IV Fkom the Rk-organisation of tiik Empire HV DlOcr.KIIAN AND CoXSTANTINi: TO THE Fa'.l of THi:: Western 'I'hrone (Agk of Absolutism), 285-476 a.d. Sources.- For this \x-.x period of the history of the Western Empire the sources are more abundant than fo; tlie preceding, thom;h we are not on tliat account able to pass a more favourable verdict on their merits. Hi -tory too shared in the gi'neral decay of science and litera- ture. Of connected norrativci only two, one written in T.atin and one 111 Oieek, are "t eminent importance — that of Anmv.anus .Marcellinus, who continued Tacitus (unhappily only Books xiv. to x.\.Ki. survive, comprising tb.e hi^-tory of 353-378), and that of the Greek Zosinius, wiio drew upon the now lost writmgs of the rheinrieian Euna|MUs and of Olympiodorus, ,uid treated the period of 270 410. Wry scanty arc SOURCES 141 Aurriius Victor's Iiiii)erial Bicit^'raphies from .\ii,t;u-tu.s to Coii-^iaiit iiif, I. l>esi(lo whicli still exist an epitome earned cjm until 1 iH'odosiiis and the outline of I'litropius, uliich extends from tlie foundation ol Rome until 364. All these authors are pagans. I'tit on the victory ol Christianity Christian writers aL-'O occupied themselves with writing history; and ii must Ik* confesseci that historical truth has not In-en a gainer thereby. On the contrary, th^^ hatred ai;aiiist the former oppressors found exjiression often iii mon.-trons ex ><,";( rations and dis- tortions. .\ speakiiiGf example of thi> is j)resented hy the well-knijwn little work of Lnctantius on ihf ]H'r-<'cmions of tlie Christian-, /V Mortihii!: PcrsCi utonint. This ■-aine 'cndeiicy led a.!;ain to ecpially false panegyrics, such as tlios(> by uhicii Hish.oji l*"usc;bius of Caes.irea has utterly garbled the narrative of Cor.stnntine tlieC^ne.it > life. Hence the now commencing church hi-tories (of tic .d)nve-iui ntioiied l^u-cbius to 324, of Socr.'\tes 306 349, of his plij^aiy So/omcnu- 324 415, \r. ) nu:s' be used with the utmost caution. In this period appear- a peculiar kind of historical tradition, the ' Chronicles,' which of:en Ix^gin witli the creation of the world and .'"or the most part offer only sc.mty .uater ,il. Tiie oldest is that of l'"usebiu^, wliich the great church-f.it'iHr jeronu^ tr.mslated into Latin, and carried on from 324 to 378. Further continuatinn- are thos ■ by I'rosncr Aquitanus to 455 antl Marius of Avi-nticum t>' :8r. the I'.ist Roman annals of Marcellinus Comes to 566, iVc. . ac. Beside strictly historical works, we tind valuable material for con- temporary history in nearly all products of literature— for iu'-tance, the extensive writings and above all th<' letters of the great church- writers Ambrosius, Jerome, and Augu-tine, the colleciions of .-pt-eches and letters of the Lhrrk rhetoricians 'rhemi-ti;.s an i lilunius, who played a great role in the K istcrn Empire, and liie paii'";.,'\rists and poets who celebrate contemj.orary princes, and among whom Claudius Claudianus, the court poet of Ilonorius, is tlic most impoitant and copious. ICxtremely valuable material not only for !i'i;al and coii-ititutionnl but even for contemporary history is [iresented by thi^ great collec'ions of laws which arose under the Emperors ')'lieod(jsius II. and Justinian {Codex T/icodosianns and Jiistinianiis). For t!ti> i>iiowIedge of the tliorough reorganisation of the otTicial order- u'lder l)iocle;ian and < onstantine, we posse^s in the Notitin Dii;nii(t!:i»i a conteniiioraneons ( fhcial document of the liighc-t historical intn-f>.-t. CHAPTL'R XI From Diocletian to the Deatli of Theodosius the Great, 285-395 a.d. In this period, which compiises the fourth. centur\, two f)oweiful rulers strive to rally again the last vital powers of the dying Empire; but in the very reorganisation winch they give to it are contained the 14:; ROMAN HISTORY ]■ germs of death tliat helped to speed the diisohition of the worl.l-tnon- aichv. The division of the administration paved the way for the dMii- pl<'te division of the t irpiie. The recon=tn:etio;i of the empire vas further influenced by two factors with wr.ich a compromise was mad" in th.s period— Christianity and Germanism. Tol)Oth tlie princir^l' of toleranc;' was ap[)]ied after opposition iiad provd more and more ineffectual ; Cliri-ti.inity and (ierman- v, ere admit: •>! in the bjdyof the l-loman State. '1 hat change in the world's history which was accomplish d ia the fourth century finds characteristic exjiression in a phenomenon wiiich we observe at its conclusion — a Roman Emperor subniits to ecclesiastical rninislimen) l)y a Christian bi^h./p, and rules with a Prime Minister of German ori,;;in. i J4.. i)i'i. ..I:T1AN and his AgF, 2N5-3O5 A.l). 'll.H' Ri'yr^.'/u.uUio/i of Administration. — Although Diocle- tian had attained to sole monarchy after the defeat and murder of Carinus (2S5), it was not his design to abide in it. He took as his ;;ssociate in government h's friend and country- man M. A:ircl\iis Valerius Maxim'tanus^ creating him Caesar and soon afterwards Augustus also. But after some years, either because he deemed the burden of ruling over so gigantic a 1 empire too great for even two supreme heads, or because he thought to secure internal quiet more effectually against usurpers' ambitions by a number of regents, Diocletian de- cided (303) that each of the two Imperatores should select a Caesar, to each of whom was promised, after a certain lapse of time, promotion to the rank of Imperator, and the right of selecting a new Caesar. He himself nominated as Caesar C. Galerius Valerius Maximianuf. ; his fellow-emperor ap- pointed M. Flavius Valerius Constantius (Chlorus). The whole empire (including Italy, whose privileged position of freedom from the ground-tax henceforth was at an end) lierebv underwent a new division, which split it up into 10 1 provinces; several of these together formed again a ilioecesis, of which there were altogether twelve. Each of the four rulers, whom we may term the two ' Senior Em- j)erors ' and the two *.Iunior Emperors,' received a part of the empire, with a certain imperial capital, to be independ- ently administered. These were the following four sections I »«' DIOCLETIAN AND HIS AGE 143 — I, the East with the capital Nicomcdia (Diocletian); 2, Italy and Africa with the capital Milan (M-ixiniianus) ; 3, Illyriaand Greece with the cajural Sirmiuni, now Mitrovitz";i. on the Save (Galerius) ; 4, Gaul, Spain, and Britain witli the capitals Kboracum, now York, and Treves (Constantius Chlorus). The civil service was organised afresh and en- tirely sundered from the military; at the head of the ad- ministration in each section of the emi.iie anjicarcd a pnirfWlus practono. The Senate had now no place in t.iis otlicial order ; It indeed remained in existence, but lost its importance, as did Rome itself, which had to yield its rank as caj-ital to the more favourably situated Milan. Thus the powers of government, which officially had always hitherto been shared between Ijiiperor and Senate, had passed wholly into the hands of the ruler, and Diocletian became by this reorganisation the founder of absolutism. This found external exj ression in the introduction of a court cere- mony borrowed from oriental despotism, out of which have developed the monarchical forms of intercourse still in use. The Emperor is henceforth spoken of as (l.mhms 'lord,' the subject is servus 'slave.' Diocletian eiml Chnstnaihy. — 'I'hc reviv.il of the old State religion was all the more a necessary part of the restoration of Roman State life as the Emperor already in his lifetime claimed divinity. It was thus a quite natural result that the new State set its face against a religious communirv which trained its members to take no share in public life and to disregard the gods, and with them the Imperial divinity. Christianity had indeed been already exposed on these political grounds to occassional persecutions ; 1 but in the joyless times of the third century, when all bonds of order seemed to break, it had found with its doctrine of tlight from the world an ever 1 The persecutions of Christians have naturallv been painted by Chris- tian tradition in extremely exaggerated colours.' It is now beyond a doubt that the iiuiiiber of victims butchered by Christian fanaticism in the dark ages of religious discord is far greater than tlie death-roll in th(> persecutions of Christians by heathens. 144 ROMAN HISTORY wider extension and had spread over the whole Roman Em- pire a net of communities with their bishops and fixed or- ganisation. Diocletian hoped to completely crush by severe edicts this religious society confronting the State, and moved his three fellow-Hmperors to like measures, which only Con- stantius sought to avoid (303). Their houses of assembly were closed to the Christians, their communal property taken from them, civil rights and honours denied them ; many died a martyr's death. But the number of the adherents of Chris- tianity was already far too great for these measures to have the desired effect, even when they were rigorously carried out. I'roni persecution itself new power and support accrued to it, and ten years after Diocletian's edict it extorted for itself toleration. The Rule of ihf Four Emperors to Diocletian s Resignation (303-305). — The hostile movements on the border of the huge empire never ceased. Already during their joint reign Diocletian and Maximianus had been embroiled almost without respite in frontier wars, which they shared later with the junior Emperors. Thus Constantius recovered Britain, which for several years had been in the hands of usurpers, and continued the struggles of Maximianus against the Germans while the latter was suppressing a rising in Africa. Diocletian and Galerius protected the Danube frontier, and in a successful war with the Persians won some new territories on the Tigris. Against the Germans, of whom especially the Alamanni, Burgundians, and Franks ^ became an ever increasing peril to Roman Gaul, Dio- clef'an's government continued the policy practised by earlier I'lmperors of making them harmless by settlement on Roman soil. The same thing was done with different tribes threat- ening the line of the Lower Danube. These settlers, who were under the obligation of a poll-tax and military service, formed a peculiar and important element in the Roman population of the time, the so-called colonatus. 1 It was in this a?;!- that the Franks jjnined n firm footinsj in Ganl. CONSTANTINE AND HIS AGE 145 In the beginning of the year 305 DiocL-tiin, j^'ihaps as a result of severe sickness, deemed the time to iiave come tor enforcing the rule laid down by liim tor the change of government. On May i of this year h.c resigned the diadem in the capital of the ITast, Niconicdia, and made his til low- emperor Maximianus do the same. Gahrius and Cvnstjiunis were promoted to the rank of Imperatorcs; Sc-vcrus was appointed Caesar for the West, M.Kinnuus Daia tor the East. The two old Emperors [sfnions ^lu^udi) withdrew into private life ; Diocletian took a viila near vSalona in Dalmatia. The calm with which this change ot government was effected testifies to the powerful intlucnce which Dio- cletian exercised upon his associates, and indeed up./n all his contemporaries. But the weakness of this aiuiicial system of succession soon displayed itself; i: was never again employed. 3^^-33: A.l). 1^ 45. CoNSTANTINE THE GrHAT ANO Hi, Au, The JVars of the Emperors to the Monarchy of Coiutuniiue (306-323). — -Diocletian's arrangement of the succession had in principle excluded inheritance by heirs of the body, because its creator saw in the la'tcr no security for com- petent rulers, and according to his desig-i only the best and strongest men were to be summoned to the throne. Thus in filling up anew the posts of su;>reinacy in the year 305 the sons of Maximianus and Const antius Chlorus had been passed over. But when in the next year Constantius died in Britain, the army proclaimed his eldest >on Constantinus .is Caesar. Soon afterwards the Roman praetorians did the same with the son of Maximianus, Maxentius ; and the restle.o Maximianus himself, who had been forced solely by Diocletian's superiority to withdraw, assumed again the purple. Thus there were six Emperors claiming to rule. The empire had thus become again an ap))le of discord tor pretenders; internal wars began afresh. Eirst fell Severus, who was abandoned by his troops and then put out ot the 146 ROMAN HI'. 'ORY way by M.isentius; in his place i io :>f.n\iv: !.:npeit ; Galerius noniinatcii Licinianus Licinius as h' associa«-f. MiKiniianus in a contennce wiih Diocl.tian w;.s in(^":c a an i > ittire ; but when lie nevertiieicx, continued to j-lav:c diificultics in the way of liis son-in-law Constaatine, he was "^Liin by the l.itter in ^ ! o. In the following year Caleriu;. .cd. Now Constantine and Licinius leaiued themselves a-^ainst the two (jther Kniperors. The tornier defeated the armies ot Maxen- tius in vaiious battles, and won supremacy i)V(r the old capital anti Italy by tiie contlict at the Mulvi. n Bridge- before Rome, now the Pontc Molk (313), in whicii Maxentius I'tiishcd. In the next year I.icinius conquered Maximinus D.iia at Adrianople, upon which the latter's share of the empire fell to hii:i. In the same year Dio- cletian lOO died. l'"or tiM \e'rs then Con ,jtit;nr and Liiiiihis, who niairi ; the former's sister Constantr., shared the supremacy with their sons, who were appointed Caesars. The peace howev^T was often interrupted and always un- certain, probablv because the ambitious Coii >tantine saw in f licinius onlv a rival of whom he wished to rid h.iniseif. As a result of otlensivo interferences by Constantinc n his feilow-em]ieror's sovereign rigiits a decisive battle was to ght in 323, in which I.icini is was defeated. He surrcnv! red, and was seemingly pardoned ; but in the following yt he was strangled in Thesialonica. Constantine had now re ned his goal ; he had become sole monarch (323-337). Constantine and Chnsthuiily. — W . ■ in \\\? intern.-'' poitt Constantine followed in the paths entered upon by Dio^' ti.m, his behaviour towards the Christian Church was the opr-osite of that of his predecessor. Already -Valerius, who a hi? liae had been a stubborn persecutor of ti.e Christian had given up Diocletian's jiolicy .sht):tly before his death and uch- >v^'{tA ro Ciu'istianity rrce exercise of its dociiincs. C- "an- tine and Licinius now expanded this measure by the amou^ edicts of Milan and Nicomedia, which dec'ared the principl of the cquaiitv of Christianity with the old State religio. (313), When later I.icinius inclined agaii to the pagan CONSTAMTINI parry, Constaniin< tor poiuic.i all the more wainilv. TtK- compact organisatK/i: ot :tie ji ! luty n the ea' V.'t .ans V iigiiteniii, ojib a ccitaui th< in .1 thf p;c^ •'l.Ul L .ana- Aiian ut Ci-.rist's person luuch buon .:tter its ■, i:> order tu restore liow indattcrent the ir from tae tact that -.cy and intiuence at the Council of a few vears later, '.useblus to hisl'ic^' /aa Ml )VL laniiv ^m^ in the Arian form. Chii-.tuniiy ntine v.—, m '10 s' ise laiocd to be th . State re^ ved m<-' K ! equality with '.ni^anism. question o^ this verv the Vji li Nic a (t,7 and at j accept ("i. u ier Con reli':;ior; ; it .-^- — , . , . -, , Constantinehiii Jfwas.,.- rdly touched dv the eleva- tior f pure Ch istian doctr. it is only Chi istian gratitude that IS tried ^o turn his figure nto that .f a coani-rteit samt. C^.islantin. Re'v^n as Sole Mrmai\:. {ll\ 337)-— ^'^- reoriianisatioT of the empire commenced by Oiock't'.an was -0 "^ ue Jonstantine in the same spirit. He estabh->hed ou ;e of the former two prefectslaps, the holdeis ot vhi \ to administer justice, police, and finance under the raejectus praetono, and formed a bond of union be- ie great and minutely organised host oi o!h:ial> and ►he eror. The court posts in close touch with the iimpt . person were arranged in strict gradaiio: ; lixed ities ar:d terms of honour were introduced, as iUustt\., ' Most Noble" ' spectabihs, ' Honourable.' In the military sphe e too Constantine brought in important changes, entirily abolishing the institution of the Guard and di\iding the army into two parts, troops in the field and garrisons. 148 ROMAN HISTORY The capital uf the Em])ire was removed to the East. Byzantium on the Bosporus, on the border of Europe and Asia, was selected for this purpose ; and the new foundation, in establishing which magnificent splendour and oriental luxury were dis])layed, received the name C oust ant tnopolh. This ' New Rome ' the Emperor sought in every way, even by creating a sccoml Senate, to raise to the level of the old, and it quickly devt^Iopcd into the centre of the Greek culture of the East. Like Diocletian, Constantine in dealing with the Germans followed the principle of welding them into the Roman world by settlement on Roman soil and above all by employ- ment in the army. Under h.im the Germans were speciallv favoured, and appear even in the higher military posts. If we regard his reign from the standpoint of that age we shall be unable to deny it admiration ; the creation of Diocletian was maintaineJ by his organising genius and further de- veloped. But the path by which Constantine arose to his height ran red with blood. To reach his end he shrank from no iXt^i\ of horror, even against his nearest kin ; his father-in-law Maximianus, his brother-iii-law Licinius, and the latter's young son, fell before him in the struggle for the monarchy, and then his own ?on by his first marriage, the excellent Caesar Crispus, became through his great poj)ularity a victim lo his fithei 's jealousy. Measureless ambition and oriental despotism stimulated these bloody deeds, from which the praise of his Christian biographer Eusebius cannot wash Constantine's memory clean. He died (22nd May 337) during preparations for a Persian war in Nicomedia. v? 46. From THi: Diath or Constantine thk Grkat to THE Death of Thiodomu; the Great, 337-395 a.d. 'ihe Sons of Constantine (337 36 1 ). — Already in his lifetime Constantine iiad put aside Diocletian's system of succession and apj)ointed as Caesars his three sons by his second marriage ; on his death the supremacy passed to them THE SONS OF CONSTANTINE 149 in the following manner — Coiistantiiuii //. received the West, Constantius Asia with l^gypt, Considtis Italy and Atno.i. A ghastly slaughter of kinsmen ushered in the reign ot these iirst Christian Emperors. The harmony of the brothers did not last long. Territorial disputes between Constantinus and Constans led to a war in which the tormor was defeated at Aquileia and perished (340). Constans thereby attained possession of the share of Constantinus and won predominance in the empire, which was further strength .led by not dis- creditable contiicts with the Germans. Me made himselt however so disliked by his arbitrary rule that one ot his generals, Magnus Mn^^nentlus, a Frank by birth, was pro- claimed limperor by the Gallic troops (350). But Mag- nentius also did not wear the purple long ; he was defeated in the next year (351) on the Drav- by Constantius, who had stopped his Persian war, and being abandoned by all he slew himself shortly after. Constantius was now sole monarch (353-360). He had already before leaving the East appointed his cousin Gallus as Caesar and charged him to represent him; but fearing a usurpation by him he forestalled it by murdering him (354). As however the presence of the I'lmjieror in the East was urgently needed, and on the other hand the inroads of the Germans into Gaul called for .'. strong command in the West, Constantius sent as Caesar into Gaul the last surviving member of his house, his cousin .Tulianus, the brother of tiie murdered Gallus. Ju/iatius Apos/afa {Cacsiir 35 5-3"' Augustus 361-363) could boast of briUiant successes against the Alamanni (a battle near Strassburg, 357) and Frank.. Ij|or several years he kept the tide of German invasion from Gaul. As Con- stantius' struggles in the territory of the Danube against Germans and Sarmatians as well as a^iainst the Persians were less favoured by fortune, he grew jealous oi Julian ar.!te centres of adniinisrration in Constanti- nople and Milan. To this was added the religious opposition between the mainly Arian Orient and the Athanasian (ortho- dox) Occident. Valentinianus (3^)4-375) took these cir- THE VALENTINIAN DYNASTY i;i cumstanccs into account in transtcrrin^ the I'astcMn jjietcctshij) to his Arian brotiier Valcns (364-37^). Valentinianus fought not witliout success against \\\c Aianianni v.nd Sar- matae, while liis general Thcodosius, tatlv.-r ot the later Emperor, held Britain and Aftica tor the empire. When Valentinianus died in 375 he was tollowe.l by his sons, Gratuiiius (375-3^3) 'in<-' J^ he bequeathed the realm to his sons, who had already in his lifetime been nominated as Caesars, under the condition that the elder Arcadius should administer the I'ast, the younger Honorius the ^^'^est, both under ministers who possessed the departed Kmperor's fullest confidence. We even find the unity of ihe imperial administration attested by the fact that the numerous laws and dispensations preserved to us from the age of the sons of Theodosius bear the subscriptions of both Emperors, and thus had validity for the whole empire. In reality nevertheless that severance into two inde- pendent empires towards which the development of internal affairs had tended, especially after the reorganisation of Diocletian and Constantine, was accomplished under the sons of Theodosius. In the face of the profound difference between Orient and Occident in language, customs, and religion, the principle of unity could no longer be maintained, least of all by such weak emperors as tl.ose produced by the fifth century. Moreover the antagonism between the two real leaders of the halves of the cm])ire after the death of Theodosius, the Vandal Stilico in Milan and the Gaul Rufinus in Constantinople, helped materially to accentuate the opposition between Kast and West. That too the con- sciousness of the completed division made itself felt very soon after the death of Theodosius in the several sections of the realm is proved by the fact that a usurper appearing in Africa believed himself able to mask his defection by passing over from the Western to the Eastern 1 empire. Thus at the turn of the fourth and fifth centuries was consummated the severance of the Romans' world -dominion into an l'"ast Roman or Grc '-; and a Wtst Roman lilmpire. Decay of the Western Empire ; the Germans. -~Vhe West- ern Elmpire now moved rapidly to its fall, while the Greek Empire endured for another thousand years ; and this is to be explained by the great movement of Germanic tribes, the • wanderings of the nations,' which in this period inun- dated the Roman realm with irresistible force. The Eastern i IS4 ROMAN HISTORY realm also fdr thv blows in which tliis advance of Asi'itic hordes a,L;ainst L-urope nianitestcd itself; th.e Goths burst over the Lower Danube, the Huns biou;^ht desol.ition over the Caucasus into l-ast Ron)an territory. But the con- sequences of the movement startin,^ from the l-ast necessarily made tiicmselvcs felt most keenly in the West, where the Rhine-frontier iiadjono ceased to place a serious hindrance in the way ot t.'ie Germans. 'I'he danger ^i^iew when the Visi-othic king Alarich (395- 410;, who had ori<;inally {oiccd liis way from the Danu!:c mto the iiastern Mmpirc and for a time occupied Ijiyria as a Roman vassal, led his countrymen against Italy, and Stilico, the minister of the incapable llonorius, found himself com- pelled to summon the ieoions from Jiritain and Gaul to the defence of the tathei land. The greatest provinces of the Western l^nij uc were now left helpless before the flood of German tribes ; Gaul, liritain, Spain, and even Africa in the course of the fifth century " were inundatid by the Germans, and newly created German states snatched from the Roman realm these most important provinces of the ^V est. At last even Italy could no longer keep off from itself this invasion. A German king took from the head of a Roman weaklmg the imperial crown he could no longer defend and so could no longer wear. The doom of the Western F.mpire is thereby sealctl (47^>). 1 m f.AST Wk>tir\ Imi'i-.koks, 3(;5-47^> a.d. Nonorii/s, the younger son of Theodosius (395-423), entered after his father's death upon the government in Milan, while his elder brother .hradius /395-408) ruled the Eastern hdf from Constantinople. The guardianship over the boy was held bv the Vandal Stilico. the most vigorous man of this age, in whom Theodosius had shown his unreserved confidence by marrying to him his niece and adopted daughter Serena, and to whom when dying he had entrusted his son Honorius. The enmitv between Stilico THE LAST WESTERN EMPERORS 155 and the Eastern PraejWtus Praetonn Kuflnus proved par- ticularly disastrous to the realm by piolitincr the Visi.'oth King Alarich, who began to move in 3^5 against (JrcTce. Although in this very year Rufinus was murdered (certainly not without the connivance of Sriiico), the pLy oV intrigue between M.Ian and Const^mtinople still went on and displayed itself notably in the manner in which Alarich was combated, so that the latter could setde as an acknowledged vassal in lilyria (397). ^\ hen a few years later Alarich made ready to conquer Italy, Stilico vigorouslv confronted him and by the battles at Pollentia (402) and Verona (40V) averted once more the Gothic peril. Similarly bv the victory at Facsulae (iMesole near I- lorence) in 405 Stilico freed Italy from a second German invasion which was carried on by'undis- ciplmed masses of various German tribes under the leadership ot Kadagais But for the ])rotection of the fitherland he tound himself comi-eJied to withdraw the leqions from Gaul ;md Britain. And now the Germans streamed into these lands ; Vandals, Alans, and Suebi swept through Gaul into Spain, and rival L:m])erors arose in the deserted j.rovincts. At this moment the only man who could still have saved the ■.n|),re of the Wesr fell a victim to his enemies' intriu.cs ."^^r 'l. Tj "" "'*"""*'' l'-"'^y succeeded in convincing the feeble Honorius that Stilico aimed at acquirinn for his own son the Eastern half of the empire, in which Arcadius had just died, and induced the Emperor to cause sentence of death to be executed upon him. After Stilico's death (40<;) Alarich, whose demands for the assignment of a lixed home had be^n rebuffed bv Hono- rius, begm hostilities anew, set up a rival Emperor in Rome and twice conquered and sacked the old capital (400-4 10)' Alter h,3 early death (410) in Southern Italy at Coscn/ a on the Busento, his successor Athaulf made anotiur plunderinp march through Italy and turned to Soutiiern (;aul, where he occuj.ied Narbo and married the sister of Honorius, Placidia who had been carried away as hostage. His successo.' Wallia (415) continued his conq..sts in Spain and then if' m 156 ROMAN HISTORY intered the service of Honorius (419), who in return allowed him to found a Visigothic realm on Gallic soil, the kingdom of Tolosa (Toulouse). Honorius died childless in 423. With the aid of the I'astern Em|.>eror Theudosius II. (40S-450) an infant son of Placid ia, who a few years before had married the usurper Constantius, was raised to the throne. This was the Emperor Valenl'mianus III. (423-455)* His mother, who was appointed Augusta, was to hold rule in his stead as guardian. At once a quarrel for dominant influence at the court broke out between two vigorous generals, Bonifacius the governor of Africa and Aetius. During its course (428) the Vandals under Geiserich, sum- moned to his aid by Bonifacius, crossed from Spain, where they were hard pressed, into Africa, captured this province for themselves, and set up in place of Old Carthage a Vandal kingdom which after prolonged struggles was perforce acknowledged by Valentinianus. Another imjortant pro- vince was lost to the Western realm during the reign of Valentinianus. In Britain Saxon tribes under Hengist and Horsa, who through their piracies had long been the terror of those regions, established an A -^lo-Saxon kingdom, the power of which gradually extended over the whole island (449). It was only in Gaul that the energetic Aetius, who guided the government, could maintain in some degree the cfedit of the empire amid constant combats with Franks, Burgundians, and Goths. To his generalship also it was due that a great danger to the empire from the side of the Hunnish king Attila was warded oft". This mighty ruler, to whom all Slav and German races from South Russia to the Alps were subject, burst in the year 451 into Gaul; but by the battle on the Catal.iunian Plains between Chalons and Troyes, where AetiuT in league with German allied tribes valiantly opposed him, he was checked from further advance. Aetius could not indeed prevent Attila from making an irruption in the next year into Upper Italy, in which Aquileia and great stretches of the country were devastated. But the Hun wm mmm» THE LAST WESTERN EMPERORS '57 king quickly withdrew aj;ain into his own rcilni, and liis death in 453, which had as its result the dissolution of the Hunnish kingdom, treed llie Western I'nipire from :i danger- ous enemy. The weakling Valentinianus gave ill thanks to Ills saviour; Aetius, the last suj.jioit of the Western realm, tell a victim to the envy of the I'^mjieror and a clique of courtiers (454). In the verv rest )ear ,: like fate hcteli Valentinianus (455), 'I/.u Last Days of ihi Knipirt of tl.\ ll'tst (455 47<'»). — After the death of \'a!cntinianus III., who left no son, the imperial throne was seized by a succession ot usurpers who for the most part had short reigns and were spiritless tools in the hands of German captains or of the more vigorous court of the Fiastern 1 'Empire. A decisive part like that of Stilico and Aetius was jilavcd for some time by a German general Ricimer (died 472), who bestowed the Imperial dignity he himself despised upon several noble Romans. Under these phantom L!mperors the new German settle- ments on Roman soil gained an ever firmer footing and "ecame more and more dangerous to the emjiire. Italy in ; articular had to suffer heavily from the attacks of t!ic \ andal Geiserich, who with others subjected Rome in 455 to a terrible sack (hence the proverbial 'Vandalism '). The last of the Western L'mperors, Romulus Augustulus, a lad of seventeen, who by the irony of fate united in his name that of the first king and that ot the first emperor, was dethroned by Odoacar, a German captain of mercenaries, and a German kingdom on Italian soil took the place of the Imperial government. Conclnsioi:.— '.;> citI ' Koinaii liistoiy' with U.v. fail of llic Impi'iial throne of \.\vi \Vest, as has become customary in modern histuiical tteatnient, ha^ no intrinsic justilication. Roman history lont,' hvc-. on in the I'.inpire of the F.nst; cvi-n in tin" fith cpntmv onp of its c'''.itiv-.t rulers, the Emperor Justinian (^27-^''^^), cnml'ined in a nniti-d em- pire lii'^e portions of the western half. Hut etl'.'ts of this knul In i nu la.-.!in!,' effect, and tlie German states in the peninsnla of the Ajcn- nines madi influence fr.>'n the Last mure and more impt iCticaliie. li'. this sense we may say that the dethronement of Ri nmlus Aiu^u-tuh;- put an enil tr 'he hi-ioiy ot ihe ' Komati I'.mpire.' The hi-uny of t!ie L 158 ROMAN HISTORY J'lasteni Empire wt; may tlieu lo.ij.inl as a continuation of Greek history, or we may characterise it separately as ' Byzantine history." The boundary between antiquity and the middle ages is not to be fixed by ;;ny particular event. J'he establishment of German state' on Roman soil brin,t;> in a new era, i,nii(led into new piths by Christianity, whieii the Germans also quickly took up. The ancient culture gives I'lace to a new one based on Christian conceptions. Thus we may rpijard Justinian's suppression in 520 of the pagan school of philosophy in .-\tliens as a lanrlmark on the border of the old and the new age. LITKRATURK I. R 1- 1' U li L I C Theodor Mommsen, Rouusrhe Gesch'ichtc^ 8th German ed. [English translation by W. P. Dickson, new cd., London 18943. — B. G. Niebuhr, Rumhche Geschichtey vols. 1-3, reaching to the end of the Punic War, a work that marks the beginning of modern scientific study in this domain, but not suitable for unprofessional readers [English translation by .1. C. Hare and C. Thirl wall, 2nd ed., Cambridge 1831- 1842]. — A. Schwegler, Rom'tsche Gesch'ichte^ 3 vols., extends only to 366 B.C. (mucii under the influence of Niebuhr). — W. 13rumann, Gcsch'ichte Roms in seinem Uebergange von tier ripuhl'ihan'ischen -zur m,tiarchischen Verfassung.^ 6 vols., 1834- 1844, a series ot bio^^raphies of great men. — Carl Peter, Rom'ische Gesch'ichte^ 4 vols., 2nd ed., [865-1869. — W. Ihne, Rom'ische C schkhte^ 8 vols., 1 868-1 890 [English translation London 1871]. Both the last-named works aie based on opposition to IVlonmisen and approach the stand- point of .N'iebuhr. — B. Niese, Grundr'tss der romlschtn Geschichte mhst OueUenkuude^ in I wan Miiller's Handhiuh der klasslscben Alteitiims'w'issenschaft, Bd. 3, Abteil. 5, a model of compressed severely scientific exposition. — [H. F. Pelh;i ;?, Outlines lij Roman Hisiory, Lunduii 1095. — C. Seignobos, Hhtolre du Paiple Ronuun^ Paris [894]. LITERATURE '59 II. Agk ok THK FmI'I rors Ltnain de Tillcmont, Histo'm Jes impcrciirsy vols., J^^lis \(njC (2nd ed., Brussels » 707 1739, 1^1 vols.). — Gibbon, History of the Di.line ,iiul Fall of the Roman Emp re, first apj^earcd 1 776 [latest and bc-st edition by Prof. Bury, i f>9^>/|» written in opposition to Tillemont's one-sidedly Christian and Catholic standpoint ; a work oi vast importance, which to this day is far from being antiquated. — H. Schiller, Geschichte dtr romisrht-n Kiiiserzeit, 2 vols., 18S3-1887, reacliing to the death of Thcodobius the Great. — Hertzberg, Gesch'uhte des rom'ischen Kalsernichs (in Oncken's ^Ulrcmnne Geschichte in E'm%ehlarsttllwvren, 2 Hauptaot, 1 Teil. iSSo). V. Duruy, Histoire Jes romains, Paris 1 8 70-188 5 [Fnglish translation edited by J. P. Mahatfv, l^iMidon 1S83, .\c. ], to be recommended to un])rofessiona! students from its thorc-ugh treatment of matters of culture and numei lus illustrati(.)ns. — jj. B. Bury, His tor V of the letter Roman Enifyire, London 1889.] — H. Richter, J).is lucstromische Reich iintcr den Kaiscrn Gr.i/ian, I'^iilrminian II. und Maximns (375~^'^'^)» 1865. ~ A. GLildenpennin^^, Geschichte des ostromischen Rtichs unter din Kaiser n ylrhndins- uud'ilnodusius 11.^ 1885. III. Separate Accownts jVV. Warue l'"o\vler, Julius desar. New York 18.^2. — .1. L. Strachan-Davidson, Cicero and the Fall of the Roman Ripuhlic, New York 1894. — J. A. Froude, Casar, London 1886.]- V. Gardthauscn, Au^rustus und seine Zeit. — H. iSchiller, Geschichte des romischen Kaiserreichs iinter Nero^ 1872. — V. V. Gregorovius, der Kaiser Hadrian, 3rd ed., 1884 [Lnglish translation by M. L. Robinson, London 1S98J. — J. Burckhardt, die 'Zeit Constantins des Gro^sen^ 2nd ed., 1880. — G'uldenpciming and Iffland, der Kaiser Ihcodosius der Grossc, 1 878. — [T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invadtrs, 2nd ed., Oxford 1892.] History of Culture : L. F;iedlander, Darstellungen aus der l6o ROMAN HISTORY m every resaect (S n;ii /> o ^ ' '^ ^or*^ o'lliiant Un the Sources of Historv • f ' Wo^u l ,.. , das S,uf.n, J,, ..I^Tlii^;^^^ ^^f '"«;" no. only finely chan,cterise/"hc « r °c ;' of l'; ? *""•'', ""' >ut often shows the histoty of th . " illf !„'''"'' "■^'^ THE END i^rintel l,y i;,vi.r„.NTVN-r. Hav^on- E.Hiibiirgli ^■.. Lo!ui -.M Co. I" ziim "iiliant critury v///f in r, (lie ■/ f>is : that 1 a;4f ' new !