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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. : i : t t 4 8 • n :;'^y ! i s TS.,.1 '.'till oimor ■'. !.'a , T ■( ; \ N I G THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER, ()>f A NEW PRTNCrPLE (iKKATLY KACILITATIXCJ SKU'-INSTIUCTIOX IN l.ANDSCAI'H AND FICitlUK DKAWrNC; WITH SEVtniL IILNnnKD ILLl STRATIONS AM) COPY STUDII^S i.r.ADiNG iijOM Tiin i:i.i:mk.vtai:v to tiii: iii(iiii:i: iii:ANfiii:s or ai:t in it.ncii. ami coloi: NATURAL PERSPECTIVE, AN KN'TIRELY NEW SYSTEM OK I'ltACTICAI, I'ERSI'KCTIVK, EASY, SIMPLE, AND AVOIDING THE OliDINAUY KlIKOIiS Ol" OTIIEI! SVSH.MS. BT W. A. NICHOLLS. " Wr can safely recommend it."— Art Journal. LONDON: ACKERMANN AND CO., 9G, STRAND; REEVES AND SOI^JS, 113, CHEAPSIDE. [tuE author BE4ERVS8 Till Bloni OF TBAMIUTION,] ( ;• 11 Out 'I'lio -Met l>. ii! Fur On] On I JCtJuc (,'orii iSkic- OnC liiiis Co On 1' Auriy Pui Ellec'i aiu Tlu. 1 r () X T K N T S. (I-jjjoml Hfiiuuk.s Jlxijluiiat.ioii of tlio Sy.>l('iii .... Oiitliiiu Diuwing 'I'lio IViK'il to be nsL'd .Meth(Ml ol'lioMillg llir l',luil,il;il|.|, Kl liow and ^Vl•if^^ SKCTION I. I'A'.l. I Pi.iK 1 ' I'lX'iiaratioii iicci's.>sary liifor.' inorffdiiij; :> \ to ,ln '•', J)ii-eotioii.s wliilht oiciiiiiud in Diuwing '.) r.t's.sun.s on Co|iii'.-j IVoni 1 to !> . . .SECTJOM li. I'Ai.t; Study ol'Xatuiv- ami FinisiluMl-Diiiwii;:,' !) For Animals Li;^ht and Sliailo lo F-.r Tm-.v, llorl.agf, Wator, Mountain- ."■•liading and ^It'thod ol'iii^oducin^^ it re- ScuneiT, Clouds and Foregrounds. . »iuircd for J5uildings 15 j Lcs.sou on Coi.ies from 10 to Is . . . Fill' the iiuiuun Figure and round forms lb i SKCTTON 111. nut: On Figure Drawin;:; Fi'oportion.-j of tlio Human Figuiv ^5 I Foreshortening .'iJ :i<> I Lesson on Copies IVom JO to ;i^ . . . ;5j SFCTIOX IV. I'AOE I On Land.>ioai)C Drawing Tiuste ;•!( i''trect 4] ( 'ompositicii i;; iSkies .",1 5*! Tlic picturo.s(iuc charaetcri.sticsof vuriou.s Kinds of Trees ii-2 Distance ;; 1 Foregroumls d't Lesson on ('pies from :',(> lo :;i, and 37 to :}!) oti l'A<.) SKCTION Vi. On Perspective r,h Widths of }{angc 77 Aerial and Lineal Perspective and the The lliinge of N'ision fully e.\plaine.i . . »l Pei'spectivo Law of Nature .... (IS Vani.shiug Points h:j Elfeets of Lineal Perspective in Xature The Determinative Point ,s,j and how arising 71 The true Uasis of Perspective Science . »« The range of Vision 71 VI CONTKNTS. SECTION VII. LlSSOSS (IN l*KU-»I'i:CTIVK. Lesson 1 : On general Mutters to lie iil- teiideil tn in pnietieiil Persiioctivi^ . sf) liessHDii 2: On tlie particular Ktleets nf Perspective in Xaluro to be iniitiiteil 1)0 Lesson ;!: On tlie l{c(|nireiaents oC a Persj)cetive I'lan or Drawing . . . !»_ Lesson -1: On the delinitc I'rinciplcs wliieh .shonlil yovern tiic ]*'orniati(jn til" a IVrspcctivc Drawing !».') LesMin o: On tlic Fdrniatiun oi' a I'ci'- spcctive Drawing !).") SEPTIO 11. •$ On Sketching fmni Xatnre .... Wl.al to sketch 11. • How to ]>roeoe(l and Imw in imld tlie Sketch-Hook Ill i C)ii the iJeterniinative Point 11.- liesson (i: On the proper Mo leof repre- P.W.I. senting \\'idths of IJange . . !»; liCS.SOll 7: On how to i»rocoed without Van!. hing Points, etc. . . . . . . !)^ Lesson S: On [irei)aring a g ■ound Plan 4 to he [tut into Perspective . ltd Ia'SSI (1 1 it: On Making a 1 'ei'specttive Drawing from a prepared g round I'lan 11. ;j » Le.sson l(t: Oil how to proceed in cci- i tain ( Lesson as^'s ihi; f 11: On general .MatI •rs, P.ird'> (^ ]-:ye 1 Vvs[ieclive, «S:e. . . .... Ki'J N VIII • fvx 1 How to olilain llie corr(;ct Lenglli of Lines etc ik; How nnich of ;i Snhject should 1)0 ' 1 sketc led lU! IIS On Sketchin-'- the lluinan l''i 'lire, i.*^e. . 1 i X [yA'i.'ii'.ii.;.;- lo tli;- I'liljlic n work proi'cssiiiu: It) :i(l- \[\]\rv :i 11, )v,-! oiluMtioiKil principle, ii t'fw words may !h)l he uncalled for, explanatory of the latter and of the •s [xu'pnses of the work. 'Hiat "use is second nature" is a truism admitted hy all ; and it is ou this basis that the folloMinj^ system of self-instruction in drawing: is formed. {'or on examininjj this work it will ho found to con- tain Copies and ajjpropriati^ l)rawin;;-|)aper, each printed over with red lines and dots, imiKntinntion, there are, intermingled with the squared copies, others not squared — to be practised alternately with the former. The pm'j)ort of the work is to popularize the study of art; to endeavour to ren- der the cultivation and lov(^ of ait a national taste — frauglit as such a taste is with national advantages; and thereby to aid in promoting the welfare of society, especially of such of its numerous and estimable members as are cliiefly de- pendent upon their own exertions for instruction. Since the minds and. pursuits of this class become refined, and their attainments proye serviceable to them, in proportion as their self-educational opportunities arc augmented by the production of efficient inexpensive works, affording to their leisure hours an elevating uscfid study, in a form at once agreeable and devoid of difficulties — Vltl INTIU)l)i:CT'ON. \v(»ik-«, ill ract,nrii ciiarnttrr sudi i;s it lias Iwcii lli(M'ani("st ('ii(ltrivniir n( tli ' iuitlior to ri'iidci' "llic National l)ra\vin{^ Master." Tlio copies arc all after Nature, and the iitjiiost pains liave been taken to niakr' them projrressivc, attractive, and so varied as never to he wearisome, wliih" thi" aceonipanyinfj: text exphiins every step the self-instrnetin.i;; stndont shonid take, or points ont tlie l)est method of i)raetisin<; every branch of (h-awin;;, from the ])roper hohlin^ of th«' pencil and brnsh to the hi-rhcr and more complicated pro" cesses rc(piire(l in finished drawin;^. The portion of the work on IVrspeetive also dcvclopes a new and orijiin;! system, the residt of close study and practical experiment, e([nally simplify- ing and rechicinj; to certainty what has hitherto been a most bewildcrinj; an;! imperfect branch of stndy. IJnt as Section VJ. on this subject is merely intcndc;! to jjrovc that there is a distinct perspective law of Nature, and to show that we ouf^ht to base the science of perspective on whiit wc know of the phenomena of this law, and not, as eiistonnuT, upon principles deduced from the science of op- tics, it may be as well io observe here, tiiat the youthful student who is not prepared to fidlow its arginnents nniy pass o\er that Section, and proceed to Section VII. containing lessons on perspective. It will, likewise, be advisable before attempting to study the science fidly — yet not until after having read over the first lesson thereon — to peruse the lirst twelve paragraplis of the tenth lesson, as thcv containabriefsuuHuarv showing the simplicitv of the svst(Mn and the ease with which its principles nuiy be mastered. In conclusion, the author begs to olfcr his best thanks for the kind encourage- ment received by him from correspondents during the progress of his Avork; and trusts, now it is completed, that the more it is known and tlic more widely it is diH'used, the more it may be found in every way worthy of the flattering enconiinms that have bjcn bestowed uiion il, both by bclf-instructors and teachers amongst cverv clas^^ of soeictv. ivour 111 til- ken to make ('. wliilc llic lienonioua of :icnce of o[)- ; who is not I proci^ed to be .advisable having rca^-^,-^ V %::^ :!^' vV-^= ^% IV 1 r*"-^" ;r: — 13> r" 4J-Jl-l.„_ j! J' -?> ,r in up wi sh an (In pU etc vie po: flai am pre be bei she dai Iin( bei as : r len; 1 stes A penc the cont repn firm) Ii THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. in one line, either the B or BB should be employed entirelv, to be pressed very slightly upon the paper when light portions of the line, more heavily when darker portions, and with considerable force when very dark ])ortions are to be delineated. When it is necessary to draw a light thin line, a tine pf its most ?ight hand ne should be com- thejudg. he largest Id not be enced at and the narkings e larger 'anches ; •^' •;-n I Fig. 20. 20, should Fitr.il. THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTKU. 7 The places that the ends of a line should occupy on the drawing paper should be found and denoted by slight marks, and the line to be represented, be lightly, yet correctly, sketched in between the marks, before the perfect delineation be effected, in accordance with the process described in Lessons 1 ai\d 2. When precii^ion of judgment and execu- tion have been attained, the preliminary sketching may be dispensed with in the case of straight lines, but in no other instance. A horizontal line, and diagoniil lines taking the direction indicated in Fig be drawn from left to right. A perpendicular line, and dingonal linos whicli are to run as indicated in Fig. 21, should be drawn from their upper ends, or with the ])encil moving from towards the top to the liottom of tlie paper. A curved line should bi; produceli(tsi:eil fitrokcs, and thus of cifective delineations of tree foliage and herbage, should be closely imitated ; as, for the same reason, should the ac- companying examples of zig-zag, and other combinations of small lines, some of which, also, should be drawn thick on the right hand side, and thin on the left, and the reverse ; whilst 5.ome of them should be commenced from the left-hand end, and some from the right, for the sake of accustoming the hand to emphasize strokes in every possible variety of manner. But they need not be sketched-in, prior to their perfect representation, although the proper position, the two extreme points of each combination, should occupy on the drawing paper, should first be denoted thus , , by dots. The simple shading lines contained in copi(;s 3 and 4 may be left until the outlines of the subjects to which they belong have been completed, when they may be drawn at once, without any preliminary sketching. Copy .'), not having any guides, should be practised on plain pa]>er, such as the back of one of the ruled sheets, should no other be at hand. On imitating any line contained therein, what is the relative length and position of that line, with respect either to the line, or to the outside edge of the copy, that is the nearest to it, should first be carefully considered ; and the attempt then be made on the paper used (which should be of the size of the copy) to delineate that line of a similar length and in a corresponding position. Three or four successive delineations, on larger sized jxiper, will likewise be advisable after the faults of each preceding one have been studied. The foliage studies in copy 6 represent the touch, as it is called (that is, the description of line), that will denote in the most natural manner, the peculiar appearance that the respective foliages of the ash (1), oak (2), beech (3), and elm (4), present to the eye. If examples of touch consist of more than six combinations of minute lines (as Fig. 24. represented in Fig. 24) a slight sketchy line should be drawn (as repre- sented in Fig. 25) to indicate jiosition, general direction, and extent, which can than be tilled uj) with the requisite perfect indentations of line (as shewn in Fig. 26), strict attention being given to the copy to guard against their lJ"iK.26. being drawn either larger or smaller than they should appear, or so as -^^ to look stiff and unnatural, instead of easy and graceful Uk^ The rules of Finished Drawing, in Section II. should be studied ^— '■ ^ before the shaded parts of the subjects contained in copies 7, 8, and 9, are imitated. Yet as jjortions of shade in those and the succeeding copies are produced by means of distinct lines, to shew how characteristic shading lines may be depicted, and for the highly serviceable purpose of enabling pupils to acquire, through imitation, a power of using the pencil, so as to impart to sketches and drawings, when desirable, charactaistic or natural appearances of surfaces — on this account, a mass of shade may either be copied as driven, but without absolute imitation of all the lines composing it, provided a sufficiently close imitation of them be made to give the proper effect of a shade, or by placing lines close to each other, without white spaces between them, as directed in the rules on shading. Rubbing out never need be necessary, if proper care be taken with the preliminary sketching-in of lines before drawing them of their right strength ; and, in preference to rubbing out lines that are incorrect, when a learner hag executed the subjects of a copy badly, he should take another sheet of paper, and re-draw them, after he has well com- pared his first imitation with the copy, and detected his mistakes. Each copy, in fact, should be imitated once or tuicc, unless it has been creditably executed previously. Fife'.SS. ll lected lines; each be drawn by one > afford a practice lineations of tree 1, should the ac- . some of which, and the reverse ; id t^oriie from the ' possible variety representation, 'i should occupy 1 the outlines of drawn at once, I as the back of r hne contained t either to the rst be carefully lould be of the nding position, advisable after ;he description ance that the to the eye. lute lines (as 'n (as repre- sxtent. which ne (as shewn against their )ear, or so as ' be studied 3 7, 8, and 9, are produced depicted, and imitation, a 3n desirable, shade may omposing it, t of a shade, 3 directed in preliminary 'eference to 8 of a copy s well com- PI/. in fact. ■I [in I 1i I I,* Mmih m ,s i^^. hi ^ ■ V. ^^ ^ ^r Jv/J i <^ i-^ vv ^i V ^t^^^ .r - ^^-'i' 0> A Fi,. o- FiiT "8 through the fact that in the former it is conjoined with, or relieved by, a darker toned mass of shade than it is in the latter. The intensity of the light on an object, however, is always modified by the colour of the object, and is the greater the more that colour approaches to white. Hence, as every one must have observed, the light to be seen on snow appears infinitely more intense than it does on a blue coat, when the sun is shining on both ; and more powerful, under similar circumstances, on a coloured garment than on a black hat. But a peculiarity, likewise, that light on an object displays, which should be particularly attended to in drawing, is that of invariable breadth, or predominance of appearance over all features or markings caused by the natural colour of an object. Consequently, colour even though strongly observeable, never destroys the semblance of light; and when the e of the general on the object, without shading nents hke that or satin dress, il drawing, and s to the nature t and ingenuity pencil, which, ig pecuharities y of light and and white, or i such as have ction. to make a few vhich, and the ng principally I illumination it emanates ire, etc, it is y transmitted *ve, or roofed 301 a source inger than it 3 greater the 5n it receives lally appears roportion to being from appearance, ted by grey I to furnish their proper denoted by sufficiently ig with the tes light in jf more or dark, or a i the light the latter; I with, or is in the is always reater the every one V appears )oth; and ftck hat. irticularly mce over y, colour ivhen the THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 11 two arc to be represented in a drawing, as being on the same surface, the tone cr shade - of the colour should not be denoted in such a manner — that is by a shading tone so dark — as to diminish the semblance of the naturally predominating effect of the degree of light which it is requisite to depict as illuminating the colour. Another characteristic of liglit to be borne in mind is, that as it may be both reflected and refracted, that is, be compelled by forces dependent on the constitution of bodies to take a course diverse from the straight lines in which it otherwise moves, the light on an object may be affected, either by reflection or refraction, and when so should be repre- sented accordingly. It may be said, in fact, to be always more or less increased by the former, as almost every description of surface receives light reflected from other surfaces, and reflects its own to surrounding surfaces. "There are many phenomena in external nature," says an excellent writer on the remarkable phenomena of the earth, "which result from the reflection of light, for nearly all substances possess the power of reflecting, in some degree, the light which falls upon them." The strength or brightness of the reflection of light from one surface on to another diminishes with distance, for which reason, on representing a reflected light in a drawing, the greater the distance at which the effect of reflection is to be indicated as existing from the cause, the less strongly it should be defined. Refraction being a phenomenon resulting from the influence of fluids, such as air, water, etc., on light, and which produces but distortions of form corresponding with that well- known one called mirage, it is rarely necessary to take it into consideration in Art. In delineating water, attention to facts sometimes necessitates the imitation of its effects in bending the rays of light from their usual direction and thus producing the appearance of the bent or broken reflection of a vessel, stick, or plant, in a stream or pool ; and as "one touch of Nature is worth a world of Art," when a similar appearance is visible, whilst pourtraying actual scenes, it should always be depicted by the artist. Shadow oa^bjccts is produced by their deprivation of an equal amount of light to that which illumines the surrounding objects. Thus, anything is said to be in shadow, when it is in any way precluded from receiving on its surface the fullest effects of the prevail- ing illuminating power, or that looks darker than it would do, if nothing interposed to prevent its being fully illuminated from the source of light, which is the general cause of its being visible. There are two kinds of shadows, or, what may be termed secondary, and primary shadows. Secondary shadows are the shadows of objects, that is are such as are cast by one object on to another, as the shadow of a house, tree, etc., cast on the ground or on anything else. Their edges are always bordered by light, excepting where they adjoin the objects which cast them ; for this reason, such shadows, when represented, should be rather definitely depicted, especially as they invariably receive a distinct form, correspond- ing with thp*: of the objects throwing them, sometimes so much so as to clearly display the complete outlines of those objects ; as, for example, of horses, coaches, trees, and so forth. All other shadows are primary shadows; and the nearer any portion of either descrip- tion of shadows is to the eye, the darker generally it appears ; for the greater the distance at which we stand from objects, proportionally the less intense, as a rule, is the appear- ance of all shadows connected with them. Nevertheless, when a shadow is cast towards us, those parts of it which are close to the object throwing it, appear darker than those which are more distant from it. Such being the case, in fact, with regard to every cast shadow, unless it be one of considerable length. Accidental circumstances often affect, however, both light and shadow, and inverse their general effect, by causing them to appear the more striking and powerful at a distance from us, than in our immediate neighbourhood. A cloud, casting a shadow over, and considerably beyond, the spot on which we stand viewing a scene whilst the sun's rays are illumining the distant portions of the landscape, will cause Ught to appear less brilliant on objects which are near to us, than on those standing much farther away; and the same cloud passing onwards, may cause a shadow to move across the scene, so as to impart to its remote portions more depth of shade than is observable on its fore- ground. Still the light and shade of the very distant parts of a scene can be so little observably affected by accident, that they almost always blend, either into an extremely 12 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. tender grey, or a neutral colour, manifesting only the slightest perceptible variations of light and shade; a fact, proving that distance destroys the intensity of both illumination and shadow, and shewing us, that without a proper management of light and shade in a drawing, it cannot be made to convey a perfect idea of nearness or remoteness. Reflection, likewise, materially influences the depth of shade displayed on some shadowed surfaces. A cast shadow is rendered by reflection darker than the primary shadow which always exists on the shadowed side of the object casting it; through the circumstance that the surface, on which it is cast, reflects some of its light on to the shadowed side of the object throwing it, without receiving reflected light from that sha- dowed side in return. Three things, therefore, become obvious; first, that a cast, shadow should be denoted by a darker shading tone, than that used for the representation of the primary shadow existing on the side of the object casting it: secondly, that as more light is visible on a primary shadow, than on the cast shadow which must invariably accompany it, we can perceive any markings existing on the surface covered by the primary shadow more plainly than we can see any of those contained on the surface obscured by the cast shadow; and thirdly, that both kinds of shadows should be drawn in accordance with these facts, when we wish to pourtray the effects of Nature with fidelity, which should be the endeavour of every one who practises Art. LESSON VIII. ON THK METHOD OP PRODUCING FINISHED PENCIL DRAWING. Finished Pencil Drawing is produced by means of shading lines employed for four purposes. 1st — ^To denote the parts of scenes and objects which are in shadow. 2nd — To render the various parts of an object distinct from each other, when an equal degree, either of light or of shadow, exists upon the whole object. 3rd — ^To display the characteristic features of the surface of an object. 4th — To represent the tone of the colour existing on each part of the surface of an object; the tone of a colour meaning not the actual colour, but its apparent depth of shade, as to whether it be of a light, dark, or of an intermediate degree. 1. Shading lines will produce the effect of shadow, by being drawn light or dark rela- tively to the depth or darkness of shadow to be represented, provided they are placed in a proper coi\junction, and take, in combination, specific forms. Fig 29. , according to the requirements of the shadowings to be shewn, (as represented in Fig. 29). 2. When an equal degree, either of light or of shadow, exists on an object, to render the representation of the ob- ject finished in appearance, its various parts must be depicted in relief, or so as to shew dis- tinct from each other. Shading lines will afford this relief (without interfering with the impression to be conveyed to the mind, that an object is either in shadow, or not in shadow) by being drawn so as to form light or dark masses, as required, and in such a varied way as to follow the shape of an object, as well as express the peculiarities of colour manifesting themselves under the light, or shadow, existing on its surface. 3. The characteristic features of the surface of an object, may be displayed through the medium of shading lines by depicting them r.o that they will imitate the course of line taken by, or forming the different markings constituting those features. Thus, the tiles of a roof, pattern of a dress, the roundness of a ball, the roughness of a tree-stem, etc., may ible variations of 1 illumination and and shade in a ;eness. played on some ban the primary it; through the light on to the it from that sha- it a cast, shadow 3sentation of the lat as more light [•iably accompany primary shadow ired by the cast accordance with which should be G. ployed for four when an equal surface of an )arent depth of bt or dark rela- are placed in a How the shape mselves under iayed through course of line is, the tiles of iem, etc., may J XO Bii COPIED ON i'LAIN PAl'iiK. Ill 'f I gl -5" THE NATIONAI> DRAWING MASTER. 15 Fi.'. ••13. he (losipiiatpd by the nid of shiulini; Uncs, if tlioy he drawn sons to represent what appears to he the cumx; of Hiu; fortniiif^ tht; characteiMsticH to l)o shown. 4. Shading lineti will expresis the tone of the coKjur existing on each part of an ohject, ^ by being drawn, rehitively to iti* degree of shade, of a suitable intensity of darkness, inter- mediate between white and black. Thus shading lin^s, like those in Figs. 30, 31, and 32, ])roduce three se])arate tones or degrees of shade ; lines graduated, as in Fig. 33, also produce a tone or idea of a particular degree of shade; as would any other iinbroken series of lines graduated from light to dark. ir the reverse. But neither white nor black legitimately c.in represent tones, although they may assist in pro- „ , general tone of a drawing, by being brought into harmonious conjunction with its light mid dark shadings, or by being introduced so as not individually to attract the eye and look like isolated spots. Kij;. .1(1 l"i. Tl. Fip,.12. |jl|i|Pik«ii!ijii(ni ducimr t Fiur. .34. LESSON IX. ON THE METHOD OF DRAWING SHADING LINKS FOR BUILDINGS, AND OBJECTS RBQUIRINQ A SIMILAR KIND OF SHADING. Shading Lines when required to be either perpendicular, or diagonal, should be drawn downwards, that is, from towards the u])pir to the lower part of the paper. Horizontal shading lines may be drawn from left to right. To produce an even tone, shading lines must be drawn of one thickness and shade, and either clo.se to each other so that no white places appear between any two of them ; or they must be drawn equally distant apart, (as represented in Fig. 31) ; and in both cases by an equal pressure of the pencil on the paper throughoui the whole series which are to be executed to produce the required tone. Series of shading lines, which are to be employed to j "oduce an even tone, should not be drawn more than half-an-inch in length. And if the space to be shaded with such a tone, should require, from its size, several series of lines, to cover it, their extremities must not be rendered observable, or they will make markings unpleasant to the eye, and destroy evenness of tone, as represented at a h, c d Fig, 35. They must be drawn, therefore, so as to blend imperceptibly one into another, and look almost ns if the mass of shading was formed of but one series of Fig.35. Fig. 30. lines, as represented in Fig. 36. As the parts of buildings, as well as of all objects, when either in shadow, or having a uniform colour upon them, usually appear the darker the nearer they are to the eye, the representation of each portion which is more distant than another from the eye, should be produced generally by a less thick and dark shading line than that used for the port immediately preceding it. Thus, on depicting the side of a house, which recedes from th( shadow, the shading lines should be graduated usually in thickness and tone, so as to appear as represented in Fig. 37 ; in which, the tone of the shaded part, and the lines producing it, become gradually lighter and thinner as they pro- ceed from a, representing the point of the building nearest to the eye, towards b, representing the point the farthest from the eye. Shading lines requisite for the representation of a cast or secon- dary shadow should be delineated darker, more regularly, and ge- nerally thinner, than those that are used to indicate tlie primary shadow existing on the side of the object from whence the cast shadow proceeds; as partly instanced through the cast shadow thrown by the buttress, shewn on the left-hand side of the building in Fig. 38, and the shading lines on which are both darker and more regular than those forming the primary shadow existing on the side of the buttress from which the cast shadow is thrown. The nearer, also, such shading lines are placed to the object repre- sented as throwing the shadow, the thinner, darker, and smoother, as a rule, tht^ should be drawn ; because the parts of a cast shadow always appear the dai-ker to us, the nearer as in Fi! b '1 I ■■: ' ii 16 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. they exist to the object which casts the shadow unless the shadow extends to a long dis- tance from the object and towards the foreground of a scene, in which case the parts of a shadow look the darker the farther they exist from the object, and should be repre- sented accordingly. Fig, 38. On drawing the characteristic features of objects, such as house-tiling, etc., and the local colourings, which render the appearance of an object darker in one place than another, such as weather-stains, etc., the shading lines, used to convey an idea of those and cor- responding peculiarities of character and colour, should be of a varied nature, adapted to produce the effect desired. This is shewn, by the roof of the building, the markings of brick-work, and the general different-toned series of lines existing on the face of the house represented in Fig. 38. As the variations of tone caused by characteristic markings and local colourings, are often observable on the parts of objects having a certain degree of shadow upon them, the mass of shading lines required to represent the depth of that degree of shadow should be produced first, and then the lines requisite to employ to denote the above named variations should be drawn very positively oyer the depicted shadow and so as to appear quite distinct from it. nds to a long dis- ch case the parts i should be repre- ■^ ~~T^i - I II J and the local han another, lose and cor- •e, adapted to 3 markings of I face of the lourings, are upon them, e of shadow e the above and so as to 1 11 1 j i ! If' H ••»•—•-»■(■->. I -'■■'•"-'-«-■• •• t — » — I - 1 ■ < k ' r- \ 1 ■ j 1-0 -v ; « «- I I t ff^i ♦■M-r^n-'M^— r'v»T*i"*t»f r 1 Mll.r -t»|7f-t^»,|..p ,.,^.. 1 ( T-w^*" r-t'r r-i*f ■ --wttff.f •! — -» |-»» . r| ••.! r^ti-t -r Ti-^^rf •n"''-r*r»**-i"i f 'ff T 'l^—'t ir» I,. %\ il I THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 17 Hence, on dopictini^ unything- similar to the side of a iiouse which is in shadow, and the surface of wliich is rou^h, broken, stained or colored, tln-ough ai^e or other causes, it should lie represented hy drawing the shadow first, and then running lines across the shadow lines in suitable directions ; as shown in Fig. 'SD, where the mass of lighter shading lines denotes the degree of shadow existing on the shallowed side of a house, and the darker shading lines min- gled therewitli indicate a rough, broken, stained surface. In delineating boats and sl.ips, the shading lines required should generally take the direction of their hulls, iuid be curved, so as to correspond with the curve of the hulls, as shown in Fig. 40. The sails of a vessel should be usually shaded with lines running down- wards, and finer than those used for the shading of the hull. Sometimes it is requisite to make a series of shading lines crossing each other, either to produce smoothness, or uniforndy intense depth of tone; as neither Fiu'. to. A vuiw ON Tuii iniixi;. the one nor the other can always be perfectly obtained through the medium of merely simple .shading lines running in but one direction. When shading lines, crossing each other, are employed to produce smoothness or uniformly intense depth of tone, they may be drawn in any dir(!ction ; though the variety of directions in which they are drawn should be rendered as little observable as possible, or, they will not. impart tlie desired smoothness and intensity. For, a tone, to appear smooth, should be free from markings that attract the eye ; and to be uniforndy intense, should be perfectly even, which it cannot be when indications of the crossed shading lines used to produce it, manifest themselves strongly. u \ 18 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. i- ' Ifl ■' ,'t i? ;\ n ; I To produce series of shading lines to represent light even tones belonging to not very distant objects, a flat pointed F pencil should be used ; or a B may be employed, if pressed lightly and evenly upon the paper according to requirement. Every description of dark, even, and varied tones, may be produced by means of the last-named pencil, pressed upon the paper with a force proportionate to the depth of tone or degree of darkness to be produced. For black thin shading lines, a fine pointed B B should be employed, and a broad pointed one for black thick lines and solid masses of black ; though for the produc- tion of the latter, it is preferable to rub, as it were, the point of the pencil over the surfHce of the paper, now in one direction and then in another, until the proper degree of solid blackness has been obtained, rather than to attempt to produce it by regular lines. When the idea of great distance is to be conveyed through the shaded parts of a drawing, a fine pointed H, or H H pencil, is most serviceable for the purpose, but should be used with a suitably delicate degree of pressure. LESSON X. ON THB METHOD OF PBODOCINO SHADING LINKS, WITH REGARD TO DELINEATIONS OF THE HUMAN FIGURE AND ROUND FORMS IN GENERAL. i The shading required for the representation of all undraped parts of the human figure, should be drawn in a way especially adapted to express both the tone of the color of the parts to be represented as shaded, and the varying mouldings of each distinct part, or the projections and depressions caused by the muscles and bones of the body. Also, the shading lines used for either the one or the other purpose, should, as much as possible, follow the outline of the part of the figure which is being delineated ; and be rendered more or less curved, as there are no parts of the human frame which can be properly represented through the medium of straight lines. Shading lines, to assist in imparting an idea of rotundity of form, as well as of the flesh of the body, should be drawn, firstly, so as to become gradually thinner and lighter the nearer they approach towards the outline of the form ; and, secondly, in different series that cross each other at acute angles, that is, somewhat as denoted by Fig. 41, and not as Pi". 41. Fit 42 ^" ^'S ^2, or at almost right angles, A soft pencil should be used to produce them, and they should run at a perfectly regular distance one from another, and where there is any degree of thickness in any one line there should be a regular and due degree of substance in the corresponding parts of every other line ; likewise great care should be taken to preserve each line from anything like harshness of appearance, which would necessarily seriously militate against the production of any resemblance to the peculiarly soft aspect of flesh. Series of shading lines gracefully crossing each other in various directions are particu- larly requisite for the representation of forms, belonging to the figure, that blend into each other as do the muscles one into another. The series of lines which are to be the longest should be drawn first and the others over them. On shading the representation of all other forms possessing any degree of rotundity, as in the case of the human figure, produce the semblance of rotundity by means of lines which are rendered gradually lighter and thinner at the sides of the form than they are towards the centre parts ; because the tone on every round form generally appears the darker at a point about a third of the distance from its sides than it does on any other pavt, and becomes again lighter towards the centre, that is, if the sides are not illu- minated, or have not decided light appearing upon them. As the shading lines used in the representations of all round forms, to impart a pleasing and natural effect to the drawing, should run with the outline of the form, when they can be made to do so, an advantageous practice for the acquirement of a power of pro- ducing such lines with certainty, is to draw a number of circular lines in succession, (such ig to not very )yed, if pressed ' means of the depth of tone I, and a broad ir the produc- encil over the proper degree it by regular led parts of a )se, but should VEATIONS OF human figure, the color of stinct part, or r. d, as much as ited ; and be which can be is of the flesh id lighter the ffereiit series 1, and not as lould be used ular distance ;kness in any substance in 3 great care ke harshness :ction of any are particu- t blend into re to be the if rotundity, sans of lines lan they are appears the ti any other re not illu- t a pleasing when they ver of pro- ision, (such THE NATIONAJ. DRAWINC; MASTER. 19 as shown in Fig. Fig. 43. 43,) m Fig. 44. '<*■ ,'A. series taking different directions, (as in Fig. 44,) and of varied lenn^ths, strengths, and widths apart. but each hne of a sei-ics should be emphasized at onceahkc, so tliat no after patching becomes necessary; and sliould be drawn by a sireep as it were — rather than a dragrjinfj — of the j)encil along tlic surface of the paper. Learners should strive to attain the manner of draw- ing tliese lines with perfect freedom, and to attain it should always endeavour to move the hand and pencil without effort or constraint, as well as with due mechanical precision, when practising them. Whilst attempting at first to draw such lines, the wrist should be kept lightly resting in a fixed position on the drawing paper, at a point about opposite to that intended to be the centre of the series of lines to l)e drawn ; then the pencil should be made to skim along the surface of the paper in a way that will perfectly eni])hasizo the lines drawn, and also in a succession of movements, producing lines, some above and some below others, of the greatest easily practicable degree of length which can be obtained without creating a sense of fatigue in the fingers or wrist. After the power has been acquired of drawing such lines with the wrist resting lightly on the paper, the attempt should be made to draw them without resting the wrist; and yet by merely moving the hand and not the wrist. To render the shading perfect that is required for drawings of the human figure and round forms in general, it may be necessary, however, to use a smooth tone as well as positive lines. This tone may be produced by rubbing the broad flat point of a soft and light pencil, like the F, very tenderly over the part to be toned, and in such a way as to produce a scries of imperceptible evenly laid lines, until the proper depth of tone has been produced. In drawing the hair of the human head, the requisite shading lines should be made more or less wavy, and be delineated with a rather ilne pointed H B pencil, if they are to be only moderately dark, or with a similarly pointed B B, if to be otherwise. Each line also should be drawn at once, if not more than three inches in length, and be com- menced from its upper end with a rather stronger pressure of the pencil on the paper, generally, than should be used for its termination. To impart a graceful and natural appearance to the drapery of a human figure, the shading should be delineated so as to express the flow, as it were, of the garment, that is, the way it falls into folds, and sits upon the figure. A judicious mixture of straight with curved lines, may often be used advantageously to represent the drapery of small figures ; but only lines, more or less curved, in accordance with the form to be developed, should be employed in delineating the drapery of large figures. LESSON XL ON THE MBTHOD OF PRODITCING SHADED ANIMAL DRAWING. As one of the principal objects to be attained in making a perfect finished drawing of an animal, is to produce a correct imitation of the character of its skin, the shading lines, used to represent it, should always be drawn so as to follow, as closely as possible, the direction and form which the hairy or other natural coating of the skin assumes. These shading lines should, therefore, be drawn sometimes nearly straight, as repre- sented in Fig. 45, though never perfectly so ; and sometimes curved in various degrees, as represented in Fig. 46. Thus, much of the woolly covering of a sheep's skin, and of the hair of a horse, donkey, lion, of many kinds of dogs, &c., should be depicted with a lino approaching the straight, to appear natural j whilst the remainder should be represented by a line more or less curved according to circumstances, as should be the entire coating of the skin of many animals. For the shading of the feet imd limbs of an animal, straight lines may sometimes be used when it is not necessary to indicate the appearance of tnuBcular form, or of long hair, or wool. ri.''. 46. / 20 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. [ Fig. 47. As the skin coating of an animal invariably displays a series of lines formed by masses of hair, or other material, lying over each other (as shown in Fig. 47) the shading lines employed to imitate the overlying i.iaterial should oe drawn over those used to represent the under- lying, and take a direction corresponding with that of the natural lines to be imitated. The requisite shading lines for animals should be drawn with a rather sharp pointed F or II B pencil, if the lines are required to be sbnr]> and decided, and with a bhinter pointed li or JJ H, if to be soft in appearance ; the proper regulation of pressure upon the paper, combined with the use of the right kind of pencil, being sufficient to en- sure the production of the degree of thickness and darkness, softness or sharpness, that each line, when drawn, should manifest. In conjunction with positive shading lines, a tone may often be necessary in animal drawing, produced after the manner described in the last paragraph but two of the preceding lesson. LESSON XII. ON THE SPECIES OF SHADING REQUIRED FOR THE REPRESENTATION OF TREES, HERBAGE, WATER, MOUNTAIN SCENERY, CLOUDS, AND FOREGROUNDS. Oni kind of shading required in tree drawing, is such as will particularly indicate leafiness of a character corresponding with the peculiar appearance of the foliage of the tree being represented. It should be produced, generally, by means of series of con- nected short, thick and thin, angular or round pointed lines, according to the effect to be depicted ; as shown by Fig. 48, of a piece of shaded oak ; Fig. 49, of shaded elm, and Fig. 48. Tig. 49. Fig. 50. I • ( Fig. 50, of shaded pine. The lines may be, and usually should be drawn in all directions but the perpendicular; yet so that their changes of direction do not appear abrupt as in Fig. 51, and that they, therefore, flow grace- fully, one series out of another, as represented in Fig. 52. Another description of shading necessary, is that which will denote the characteristic appearance of the bark coverings of the stems of trees, and as that is very varied, the lines used to represent it should be corre- spondingly varied. Therefore hhey should be drawn so as to appear sometimes rough, and sometimes smooth, &c., and also, as a rule, become gradually thinner and hghter from near the centre of a stem or bough, towards the outline, that the effect of rotundity may be portrayed. See Fig. 53. ff ll llll Itl^l Lines crossing each other, also, may be used in the shading of IL,i. lif uj||l tree stems, and lines that run downwards or in any other direction ; F'^mJj liiif attention being paid to depicting the characteristics of Nature, as regards excrescences, indentations, hollow places, and the irarks of detached limbs, and branches, which most tree stems exhibit. In shading tiic representation of herbage, care must be taken that the lines used expi-ess the difference that exists between mere grass, and that which has a foliage, oi* leaves. In representing grass, lines indicating the way it naturally lies about, or shoots up from the ground, should be used for the shading. When ■M brmed by masses llie shading lines BS, HERBAGE, I I !ularly indicate foliage of the series of con- the effect to be laded elm, and rig. 51. Vis. 52. uld be corre- etimes rough, i lighter from tline, that the e shading of ler direction ; if Nature, as the IT arks of shibit. list be taken etween mere it naturally ng. When 'f \/ (A % ■w r* •^ THE NATIONAL DFA.WING MASTER. 2» shading is employed in the representation of herbage foliage, it should be managed so as to express the character of the leaves of the specific kind of herbage to be depicted ; and yet, at the same time, in such a manner as to convey an idea of that graceful confusion of intertwined vegetation, relieved by the outspringing distinct form of some of the various kinds of elegant wild plants, so frequently observable about hedge-rows, fields, and woodlands. Water is one of those things which cannot be depicted without the use of shading lines ; and to produce the semblance of transparency, is one of the main purposes to which the shading process has to be applied. This may be effected by placing straight lines, of different degrees of thickness and darkness, one under, or above another, some close to each other, and others more or less apart, so as to create not only the effect of transparency, but of the reflection of clouds or other objects which is always observable in water. (See Fig. 40 again.) They should also invariably be drawn in a horizontal direction, when used to represent water as being in an almost, or perfectly smooth state. For want of attention to this rule, water is often depicted as most unnaturally running down hill, which it never does perceptibly, excepting in the case of a decided fall, or cascade. As, however running water generally shews an appearance of movement, that appearance should be indicated, when required, by means of a few lines drawn in irregular curvatures over horizontal lines. When water is to be represented as agitated or being in waves, it should be depicted through curved shading lines that take '^' ■ a direction assimilating with that of the waves to be imitated (see Fig. 54) ; the semblance of transparency being attain- able by vai-ying the thickness and dark- ness of the lines placed in conjunction. With regard to mountain scenes, hills and rocks, as a general principle, a por- tion of mountain to be depicted as coming into the foreground of a picture should be drawn with bold shading lines, and the more rocky the character of that portion, the bolder should be the lines employed. Mountains or hills to be represented in the middle distance of of a picture, should be shaded with masses of even-toned lines, placed close to each other, and so as to manifest va-y littln appearance of lininess ; though the masses may, and should often be rendered of different ■^ degrees of darkness, relatively to the extent of distance and the effect of light and shade to be denoted : whilst mountains or hills to be represented in the back part, or back- ground of a picture, should be shaded in such a manner that no shading lines become apparent, and after the method described for shading clouds. The effect produced by the shading lines used to represent wooded mountains and hills should be somewhat similar to that shown in Fig. 55. When mountains, precipi- tous in appearance, round backed hills, and other elevations, are to be portrayed, neither perfectly horizontal nor perpendi- cular lines should be employed, but lines that take a direction corresponding with the most striking direction of the various features of the surface to be depicted. Clouds should be represented by shading produced through rubbing (until the proper tone has been depicted) a rather soft pencil lightly over the paper, in series of hnes adjoining each other, and running first in one direction, and then in another, without the least trace of the commencement, termination, or of any part of the lines being rendered observable. The foreground of a drawing is always a most important feature, improving or injuring its effect, according to the way in which it is shaded. That which is most neceBsarjr to attend to in shading it, is to render it sufBciently bold, that is, prominent in Fig. 55. 34' THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. Pig. 56. appearance ; for the idea of distance cannot be fully conveyed to the mind by a drawing, unless the general mass of shading lines used therein, appear the stronger, the nearer they approach the fore-ground. The result of due boldness is shown by Fig. 56, in which the shading on the fore-ground is produced by means of stronger lines than those employed for the shading of the other parts of the subject; and which lines cause the re- mainder of the subject to appear to recede, or to represent objects that are further away from the eye, than are the masses of stone indicated in the fore-ground, or front of the picture. In concluding these lessons on shading, it is as well to observe, that the degree of thickness or boldness of line used in shading up objects in a drawing, should be proportioned to the size of the drawing and of the representation of the objects. Thus, on depicting any set of objects, firstly, within a space, for instance, 12 inches long, and 8 deep, and afterwards within a much smaller space, the lines used in shading them on the larger drawing should be rendered considerably bolder than those employed in shading them on the smaller, and each object should be shaded with a strength of line (that is, thickness) proportionate to its size as well as distance. I LESSON ON COPIES X. TO XVIII. The matters most particularly requiring attention in imitating these copies, is to endeavour to obtain a pure and perfect outline, in those cases where the subjects are shaded, before the shading is commenced. Likewise as in some of the copies (for instance, in copies 10 and 11, etc.) the outlines of the objects are given much stronger than in others, that difference of strength should be carefully imitated, the intention of it being to afford learners a practice that will enable them to draw outlines with boldness and precision; for the acquirement of the power of delineating delicately marked outlines will result from the attainment of that of vigorous outhne drawing ; whilst if the habit of producing only feeble outlines be once contracted, it will be very difficult to overcome it, and the consequences will be exceed- ingly detrimental to the artistic proficiency acquired. Where the shading lines are given in the copies in a distinct form they are to be imi- tated as given, distinctness of pencilling being highly advantageous in the early stages of the study of drawing. Each copy should also be practised, like the copy without guides, on plain paper, after it has been drawn on its proper sheet of ruled paper. By so practising it, progress may be made more rapidly than otherwise. The foliage studies contained in copy 16, embrace examples of the distinctive touch which represents birch foliage (5), larch (6), weeping willow (7), and Scotch fir (8). Finally, it is advisable that learners should practice as much drawing as they possibly can with due care at one sitting, and devote all the time they can spare to the study of the art ; for nothing is so retarding as the custom of learning by fits and starts, or with- out proper assiduity and perseverance ; as the hand and eye soon lose the discipline they may have gained through a period of practice, if the exercise of their powers be not continuous and maintained at regular intervals not longer apart than a few hours. ind by a drawing, B, 12 inches long, in shading them lose employed in I strength of line Bse copies, is to the subjects are etc.) the outlines )f strength should practice that will cquirement of the linment of that of outlines be once 28 will be exceed- ey are to be imi- ;he early stages of plain paper, after ; it, progress may distinctive touch ;otch fir (8). g as they possibly re to the study of iid starts, or with- 3se the discipline leir powers be not lew hours. )i If ! n ■? ,y t » ..•»-. t J I OM FlOUnC DRAWINQ. To be able to represent the human figure perfectly, that is, as it may bo seen under the influence of any emotion^ or circnmstanco, affecting- the appearance of its varioua parts, is justly esteemed the highest achievement of delineative art. One reason of this is, that the acquirement of such a power of representation demands the exercise of superior observation, discernment, memory, judgment, quickness of per- ception and execution, practical skill, and industry— a combination of qualities that only those who are animated by dauntless perseverance endeavour to cultivate, or can ever possess, and therefore deservedly ensuring to the productions of its possessors, the highest appreciaticn. Superior observation is required to lead to an intimate knowledge of the different forms that each part of the human frame can assume : discernment, to detect the characteristics of the lines which produce those forms ; memory, to preserve the results of observation and discernment; judgment, to discriminate which lines of a form should be selected for delineation, to render its portraiture correct ; quickness of perception and execution, to catch and depict those fleeting changes of appearance to which the form of every part of our frame is constantly liable ; practical skill, to devise the most appropriate means of depicting what is to be pourtrayed ; ond industry, because without it nothing perfect can be produced. Another and more forcible reason why the perfect representation of the human fig-uro is so greatly appreciated, is, because it requires the pourtrayal of that which is spiritual, as well as of that which is material, or of the effects produced by the moral and intel- lectual qualities, and casual emotions of individuals, as expressed at times in the coun- tenance, and even in the posture of a limb. For the countenance, limbs, and whole frame of man, often plainly denote many of the characteristics of his mind, fceling-s, and habits, in such a manner that they can be unfolded to our gaze by a mere stroke of the pencil or brush, provided that it be made with a masterly skill and strict adherence to nature. The matters, to which alone it is especially necessary to direct the attention of Art students, in a work like this, with reference to the figure, are those generally connected with its properties of form, proportion, expression, colour, and substance. Form, with respect to the human figure, as to other objects, is the result of a particular combination of certain simple lines. But there is this difference between the representa- tion of form as connected with the one and the others, namely, that an artist whilst imi- tating the lines composing the form of any portion of our frame, cannot deviate from Nature, without seriously injuring the value of his work, whereas he may do so, to some extent, when representing other objects. Too much attention, therefore, cannot be given to the study of the lines constituting the particular form of any portion of tlie figure to be drawn, upon commencing to imitate them, and no attempt at their imitation slioidd be made by a learner, until he feels that he has a correct conception of their relutivo lengths and directions, as the form to be depicted must entirely depend thereon. B j^ ti i \ il i! 20 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. Those lines will always ho found, on examination, to be more or less curved, and to beluii{>' to that class of which the lino of beauty represented in P'ig. 67 is the type, as a J.J , .J moment's glance at any part of our frame ^' * will prove, and conseciuently, that no portion of it can be truly represented by means of straight lines. Btill, some of the lines of the human figure often appear to approach the straight, as for example, that ruiiiiiiig from the knee to tlie instep, bhewn in Fig. 68 ; the line of the nose and fore- head, uad that of the neck when the head is slightly turned, as shewn in Fig. 5'J ; this Fig. C8. fact, therefore, shoidd bo duly regarded by the figure draughtsman, that exaggeration of the curving ten- dency of the lines of the figure may be avoided. It is also neoespary that he should bo very careful to avoid continuing a curvature of line beyond a certain limit, i)reviously to changing its direction, such a con- tinuation being a mistake very frequently and readily committed, because the eye, without a sharp scrutiny, may easily overlook the minute changes of direction which the lines of the form of every part of the body BO peculiarly manifest. Proportion is intimately connected with every description of form, it being the harmonious comparative measurement of the lines composing the form of an object, relatively to each other; and such is its importance, to repeat the purport of an old author's intelligent remarks upon the subject, that if it be not apparent in the form of an object, the eye can never be perfectly pleased therewith, so that the delight as a matter of aitistic taste, independently of colour and association, which we experience on bejjolding any object, arises in a great measure from the influence of that perfection of proportion with which its form is endowed. According, in fact, to the proportion of parts observed by an artist in his imitations, and the creations of his fancy, they will possess so much the less or more beauty, there- fore, " whosoever will proceed in his works with judgment must needs be acquainted with the nature and force of proportion," ' a knowledge of which will not only assist in enabling any one to produce that which is attrnctive, but also to estimate aright, in a most important particular, the merits of the artistic works of others. The peculiar effects imparted to an object, by perfection of proportion in its form, are those of harmony of parts, dignity, and grace, which combined, invest it with a most es- sential attribute of the beautiful, namely symmetry. It is obvious, then, that the propor- tions of the forms of all objects that we imitate from nature, should be strictly adhered to in a drawing, especially as it stands to reason that there must be a justness in them which man cannot improve upon, emanating, as they do, from the hands of Him who fashioneth all things fittingly, whether it be as regards their purposes or mould. Conse- (|uently, above all things, is it necessary to be .particular with respect to proportion when imitating the human figure, or not only the appearance of symmetry, but likewise of ex- pression, may be destroyed; for through the impulses of the will, internal sensations, and external circu/nstances, all parts of our frame, in a greater or less degree, are liable either to a relaxation, or contraction, which imparts a particular appearance, or expression, to them, that cannot be correctly depicted, unless the respective and relative proportions belonging to each of them be closely followed, as otherwise an expression must inevitably be pourtrayed that is not true to nature. Proportion, therefore, whilst producing symmetry, sometimes is connected with that which partially destroys it, but only in so far as to change the perfect symmetry of a form into an expression which is still natural, and in its own way beautiful, and more admirable than symmetry, because it conveys an impression to the mind through the eye of that which belongs to human feelings as well as form, and thus possibly assists in com- municating to us a sense of the calmness of repose, the excitement of passion, or the agonies of suffering. The standard of proportion with reference to the various parts of the human frame, is admitted by the best authorities to be about as stated further on. Not that there is any universally acknowledged standard in every respect, yot the extent to which that laid ss curved, ami to r is the type, as a y part of our frame ecjueutly, that no aly repreBcnted hy !8. Still, some of for example, that he nose and fore- a in Fig. 5"J ; this Fig. 69. •iption of form, it 3 lines composing is its importance, bject, that if it be •leased therewith, ir and association, from the influence in his imitations, re beauty, there - ds be acquainted lot only assist in i aright, in a most n in its form, are t with a most es- , that the propor- 1 strictly adhered justness in them ids of Him who • mould. Conse- proportion when it likewise of ex- d sensations, and I, are liable either or expression, to itive proportions I must inevitably lected with that it symmetry of a utiful, and more through the eye ly assists in com- ' passion, or the human frame, ia hat there is any which that laid 1) 1 1 II tl Li I i:s> :C^;-'^ ''^MaaaA^' • »^\^W^VAA4^AAAA/^''^' "//VW_ ^ ^. '^^-^i^ ■ ^lii . , Xf; .\\)i)\\, n.s to ho altof,'otlier tiiiimportant, niid not to imjumcli tlio Kcricnd c-orroctiios.s of the jirliK iplivs upon wliirli tliny liiivi' liooii rcapoctivoly lin.sfd, nswill be pcrccivod tliroiiii;li the aid nf tin' fol- lo\vin sternum, and one from knee to knee, the space between the crown of the head and tlu) first line, that betu cu the first line and the line of the lower limbs, that between the laitor lino and the knee lino, and that between the knee line and the .sole of the foot, would in each case i-epre- scnt one fourth of his height, or a space equal to twice the measurement of his lujad. (See Fig. GO again.) The proportional width of each of the principal parts of the front of the figure, should be as follows, — of the head, just above the ears, equal to rather more than two-thirds of its height; of the neck, from the centre of one side to the centre of the other, ocpial to half the height of the head ; of the part extending from the outside of one to the outside of the other shoulder, equal to just double the height of the head; of the part exteiuling" between the junctions of the arms with the body, to one head and a half; of the waist, from the centre of one side of the body to the centre of the other, to one head and a quarter ; of the part extending across the summit of the lower limbs, to one head and a half; of the knee, from the centre of one side to the centre of the other, to rather less than a half head ; of the commencement of the small of the leg, from the centre of one side to that of the other, to two fifths of a head ; directly above the ankle bone, from the centre of one side to that of the other, to a quarter of a head ; and of the foot, across the instej), to about two fifths of the height of the head. These measurements .show that the widest part of the frame of a correctly proportioned man is at the .shoulders, that the width of the form then becomes (intlependently of sligiit intervening variations caused by the muscles,) gradually narrower from the shoulders to the waist, when it again swells otit to a breadth, at the summit of the lower limbs, 0(iual to that of the space extending below the shoulders between the junctions of the arms with the body, to decrease once more by graceful degrees, until it diminishes to its greatest extent at just above the ankles, and becomes at each ankle ecpial to but one- eighth of what it is at the shoulders. The scale also demonstrates that the width of the head at its widest part, or somewhat above the ears, is equal to rather more than one- third, and that of the neck to about one-fourth, of the width of the figure at the top of the siioulders, I •-• I -... > UK . V.^ 28 THE NATIONAL DIIAWINO MASTER. i» I M Tlie proportionate Icnpth of the ftrm, from the top of the flTiouldcr to the tip of the lonf^cet finger, is oqiml to the height of three lieads and a half; and from the tqp of the shotdder to the elbow joint, to that of one head and a half; from the elbow joint to the wrist, to that of one head and a quarter ; whilst the true length of the hand, from the wrist to the tip of the lonprest finder, is equal to three quarters of the height of a head, the junction of that finger with the knuckles being the halfway point between the wrist and the tip of tiio longcBt finger. The arms of a proportional figure, likewise, when they hang down by the side, with the fingers of the hand extended, reach to half way between the bottom of the knees, and „. the summit of the lower limbs, (See Fig. '^' ' ' 60) and when stretched out at a right angle with the body, so as to form a cross therewith, make a line equal in length to the length of the whole figure. The greatest breadths of the hands and feet of such a figure are equal; whilst about twice the breadth of the hand is equal to its length; and one fifth more than twice the greatest breadth of the foot indicate? its length ; the length of the foot from the heel to the ball of the great toe, being about two-thirds of the whole length of the foot. The illustration (Fig. 60) represents the division of the front and back of the figure into spaces, each equal to the height of the head, and therefore shews where linos drawn through the figure, for the purpose of marking the boundaries of those divisions, would cross it on either side. The figure of a woman is, an a rule, shorter than that of a man, and it being differently proportioned, in some respects, it is necessary to state the principal fea- tures of the standard of proportion belong- ing thereto, separately. A well proportioned figure, as regards woman, should, as in the case of man, have a height equal to eight times that of the head, and when divided out into eight spaces, each space should have demarca- tions, corresponding with those which denote the bounds of the eight divisions that have been given of man's proportional figure. The space, however, extending from shoulder to shoulder, or the breadth of the figure at the shoulders, siionld be equal only to one head and a liialf, instead ot to two heads, as in man ; the breadth across the waist, also, should be rather less than in man, or equal to one head and. an eighth, instead of to one head and a quarter; the breadth across the summit of the lower limbs rather more than in man, or equal to two heads, instead of to one head and a half, whilst the remainder of the figure, from the knees downwards, should gradually become more slender than man's figure becomes from the corresponding point, as well as more round, because the muBoles of the frame would assume a leas proiui* I w V '^5 I 10 tip of the longest pp of the ahonlder int to the wrist, to must now be noticed. The meaning of the word is, the contracted appearance of a space which we know to be" larger than it appears. Thus the space occupied by a circle sometimes appears mucli smaller than it is, through the influence of fore -shortening, as is proved by the fact that in certain aspects the circle looks like an oval or narrower than it is, which it would not do but for the circumstance that through being seen from a particular point of view, the true dimensions of the space it occupies look contracted. Fore-shortening not only always changes round forms into ovals, but causes oval forms to look more oval than they are, as well as renders every form different in appearance, from what it is in reality. As therefore we can never see anything, if we closely scrutinise it, without nearly every portion of it appearing more or less fore-shortened, it must be evident that fore- shorten- ing modifies proportion, form, and expression. This being the case learners must perceive how very necessary is the unremitting exercise of their acutest powers of observation, discernment, and judgment, when occupied in figure drawing, and that without they are exercised, the most ridiculous mistakes must be made in indicating forms. It becomes obvious, likewise, on reflection, that a drawing would seem either to repre- sent a ludicrous deformity, or to be the production of one who was totally ignorant of Art, if in the imitation of any portion of our frame which appears fore-shortened, the lines of the form were represented of their actual length, instead of in accordance with the fact that if the form were seen through a pane of glass the lines composing it would seemingly touch the glass, and thereby prove that they look, without creating an im- pression of that which is unnatural, shorter and different from what they are actually. It would be as absurd, indeed, to depict a man as having' three eyes, as to represent his face with t\, a eyes upon it when the position of it to be designated was that in whicli the artist could only see one eye and a slight indication of the other, but which indica- tion he magnified on his drawing into a whole eye, either through carelessness, want of observation, or want of discernment. And it must be borne in mind that there is often a remarkable singularity about the appearance of a fore-shortened feature, or limb, viz., that the loss of apparent breadth or length of space which causes the fore-shortening eflect frequently does not strike us, and we look upon it therefore as being the consequence merely of position, and hence that it does not involve that loss of length or breadth of space. How erroneous *''S- ^1- ^'S- ^^- this notion is, becomes clear by placing a plaster cast of an arm, for ex- ample, behind a pane of glass, firstly, so as to lay against the pane as shewn in Fig. 61, and then so that the knuckles only touch the glass, whilst the arm recedes almost at a light angle from it, or, so as to appear fore- shortened, as shewn in Fig. 62. We perceive then that although the absolute length of arm represented, is the same in each instance, that, nevertheless, if we wore to use lines of tiio length employed in Fig. 61, to depict the two different positions of the arms, wc should produce a false impression as regards the '•| »■ -t for which it has always find that D rule of propor- Bcts correctly, as •opresentation in t now be noticed. Ii wo know to be' 8 appears much by the fact that lich it would not >int of view, the tening not only e oval than they 3 in reality. As at nearly every liat fore-shorten- the unremitting t, when occupied IS mistakes must either to ropre- tally ignorant of i-shortened, the accordance with posing it would creating an im- ■ are actually. , as to represent as that in which it which indica- jssness, want of it there is often 3, or limb, viz., hortening effect lie consequence I or breadth of How erroneous on is, becomes placing a plaster n arm, for ex- ehind a pane of Jtly, 80 as to lay tie pane as shewn !)1, and then so knuckles only e glass, whilst recedes almost t angle from it, to appear fore- l, as shewn in W e perceive I; although the length of arm ed, is the same instance, that, to depict the as regards the ■'J 1 -.v.-l, .m f- ill il '^f - ■ ,>i '«) h^ "^ '■■<'■.: ./■■,:' ■ " •• ; ,^A. ._ l''''^/;;J^l:^|;'^^ ^ i^ if? I- &.'-<■ lO "if' THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 8t position of the arm indicated in Fig. 62, or that the portraiture of it would appear 80iae< what as shewn in Fig. 63 ; and consequently either convey the idea of a very much longer arm than the plaster cast, or of one in a different position to that shewn in Fig. 62. To render the effects of foreshortening relatively to Nature and Art the clearer, some of them are dis- played through the medium of Figs. 64, 65, 66, 67. Thus, in comparing the leg (Fig. 64), with the leg (Fig. 65), it becomes manifest, that, whilst similar sized legs are represented in the two examples, never- theless, the actual amount of space a leg, from the knee to the heel, occupies in Nature, when seen in the position represented in Fig. (54, appears (in consequence of that position being one shewing a foreshortening of the limb), definable in a drawing within a smaller or more contracted space than would be the same actual amount of space occupied by a leg when seen in the position represented in Fig. 65, because it is one not exhibiting a foreshortening from the knee to the heel; and yet, that the portraiture of each limb looks natural and perfectly correct. If a comparison, likewise, is made between the width of space allowed for the under part of the Fig. 64. Fi<'.65. Fig. 66. Fig. 67. foot, in Fig. 64, and that allowed for the upper part of the foot in Fig. 65, it becomes apparent, as the actual space represented would be in Nature about equal, that the foot, in Fig. 65, represents a foreshortened foot as respects its width across at the toes. Again, if the arm, in Fig. 66, is compared with the arm in Fig. 67, from the wrist to the elbow, that in the former obviously correctly represents a foreshortening, or a certain actual amount of space considerably diminished in appearance through peculiarity of position, and hence definable in a drawing within a smaller space than it would be if foreshortening had not to be denoted. The arm, in Fig. 66, from the elbow to the shoulder, the backs of the hands, in Figs. 66, 67, and the fingers in the latter display, also, the effects of M THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. foreshortening, aa the student may, and should endeavour, to discover for himself, by com- paring tb actual amount of space, such parts of the human frame occupy, with that which they seem to occupy when seen in different positions. Foreshortening, in fact, has been aptly described as much seen in little, and is a per- spective appearance, the simple rule by which we may ascertain the extent exhibited at any time of apparent contraction of the space actually occupied by any part of an object — or seeming loss either of length or breadth, through being seen in perspective — enal)ling us to ascertain the amount of apparent contraction displayed by a foreshortened limb, etc. That is, if we take a pencil or other straight implement, of convenient dimen.sions*, and hold it at the distance of its length from the eye. parallel with the length or breadth of the form seen under a condition of perspective foreshortening, and mark where the extremities of that length or breadth appear to touch the implement used, we shall then immediately discover what is the degree of apparent contraction of space displayed relatively to the form under observation, as compared with the actual space we know it to occupy, and that it would appeal* to do, if not seen under the conditions named. This rule should be remembered, because, in sketching, it will be found of the greatest use ; whilst all that has been stated with reference to foreshortening, if practically applied, will prove especially serviceable to learners, whilst attempting to design or sketch the human figure — ■ attitude and expression chiefly depending on foreshortening, and the important ofiRce they fill in art being that of interpreters of the meaning of a designed figure. Thus, the pale marble, skilfully wrought, and the surface representations of the artist, often speak to us through attitude and expression, no less powerfully and eloquently — indeed sometimes more so — than the pen or tongue ; and many a truth, many a history, would have re- mained for ever only half told were it not for the almost divine skill sculptors and painters have evinced in creating those interpreters of the story of their works. Expression is intimately connected with form, and therefore indirectly with proportion, it being ei'her the general appearance of the whole form of an object, or the particular appearance of the form of any of its parts. Hence the general appearance called noble- ness of mien in a naked savage, is the expression of the whole form, as would be the general appearance of the complete form of anything ; whilst the particular appearance of a mouth, eye. or limb, is likewise the expression of form ; the word " form" having a double signification in art, and meaning either the perfect contour or shape of anything, or the configuration of a specific portion thereof. " It is the very soul of composition," says Flaxman ; " and whether the story be heroic, grave, or tender, it animates its characters as the human soul doth the body and limbs. It engages the attention and excites an interest which compensates for a multitude of defects, whilst the most admirable execution without a just and lively expression, will be disregarded." In representing expression, therefore, it must be perceived how necessary it is ; Istly. To use the degree of care that has been enlarged upon as requisite to be employed pre- viously to depicting form, namely, in observing and discriminating what specific length, direction, and relative position of lines of any form belonging to our frame it is which produces the expression to be pourtrayed ; and, having satisfied the mind on that point, 2ndly. To be equally careful in delineating that length, direction, and relative position of lines, or expression cannot possibly be imitated. Colour is an adjunct of form, and in so being is one also of expression. Pencil- drawing can merely generally indicate colour, by representing what is its tone or degree of shade, as to whether it is dark or otherwise. Nevertheless, it may be executed so as to inform the mind if the skin of a man is of a white or a darker complexion, or if the colour of the skin on any part of his body is by accident varied or not ; also, whether the expression, for instance, of his brow is scowling, or that of any particular muscle or limb under peculiar circumstances is that of contortion, etc. ; because, when it is so, light and shadow affect the colour of the skin-coating of the nuscle, or limb, in a way that may be denoted by means of a pencil. Therefore the pencil drawing operation of shading the human figure is one of great importance, severely tasking the powers of judgment, discernment, and practical skill. The substance covering our bodies being soft and flexible, it is liable to be constantly thrown into a state of contraction or relaxation, through the action of the underlying muscles. Our skin, consequently, looks different, for example, from the non-elastic bark of ■», r himself, by com- >y, with that which ittle, and is a per- xtent exhibited at )art of an object — ipective — enal)ling liortened limb, etc. it dimensions, and igth or breadth of . mark where the ised, we shall then f space displayed )ace we know it to named. This rule eatest use ; whilst applied, will prove le human figure — iportant office they B. Thus, the pale , often speak to us ■indeed sometimes J, would have re- [ptors and painters y with proportion, , or the particular *ance called noble- Q, as would be the 'ticular appearance a" having a double f anything, or the [le story be heroic, le body and limbs, for a multitude of expression, will be essary it is ; Istly. be employed pre- lat specific length, frame it is which aind on that point, relative position of prossion. Pencil- its tone or degree be executed so as complexion, or if ned or not ; also, t of any particular c. ; because, when )f the nuscle, or irefore the pencil iportance, severely le to be constantly of the underlying non-elastic bark of • i ,r ^ i •I 91 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 8ft a tree; and, as it can only be represented through the medium of shading, the shading employed, in finished drawing, to represent that substance slu. ii . be of a description that will denote its peculiar appearance and qualities, as varying from those of other substances. Other matters connected with figure-drawing, such as Action, Dignity, Grace, Drapery, and Anatomy, need not be entered upon here, as they will be sufficiently noticed in another Bection, enough, for the purposes of rudimental instruction, having been said in this, on the art of drawing the human figure. LESSON ON COPIES XX to XXIX. All the copies being fac similes of actual pencilling, the lines upon them should be imitated closely as regards their spirit or meaning ; but, for the sake of clearness, some of the light lines have been depicted thinner than it is requisite the imitations of them should be made to appear, provided that in making those imitations thicker they are not at the same time rendered darker than the lines they represent. After having delineated the true studies contained amongst these copies, the pupil should examine into the difference which exists between the touch representing one kind of foliage and that representing another, and then try and produce that difference on plain paper without the aid of the copy. It would, likewise, considerably advance the progress of learners if they were to endeavour to draw most of the important subjects of the copies from memory, immediately after having depicted them from the copies. The lines used to represent the forms of horses, cows, sheep, etc., given in copies 23 and 28, should be made distinctive of the characteristic of the appearance of their respec- tive forms. The outline of a horse should be flowing, graceful, and comparatively unbroken ; that of a cow, sheep, and donkey, somewhat broken, yet graceful and free. Lines employed in the imitation of the foreground studies cannot be depicted too vigorously, if drawn with due delicacy of colour when they should be light, and proper freedom when they should be curved for the purpose of expressing herbage, etc. Practice, in enlarging and reducing subjects taken from copies, being an efficient means of disciplining the eye, it might be beneficially commenced by the learner, on completing the ordinary imitation of these copies. To enlarge, he should select a subject belonging to one of the small-squared copies, and delineate it on one of the large-squared sheets of drawing paper, so that what comes within a small square of a copy shall appear within a large square of the drawing paper, as shewn by fig. 68, representing a copy, and Fig. 69 Fig. 68. Fig. 69. representing drawing paper. He must take care, however, to observe a proportional increase of size when drawing each line ; and to see — that what passes on the copy through a particular red dot, passes on the drawing-paper through the corres- ponding red dot ; what passes on the copy half way, and so forth, between two red dots, passes on the draVving-paper half way between corresponding red dots ; and what passes on his copy through a red line at a third or fourth of its length from one of its ends, passes on the drawing-paper similarly through the proper red line. To reduce, the pupil should select a subject belonging to one of the large-squared copies, and imitate it on one of the small-squared sheets of drawing-paper, proceeding as described for enlarging. To commence this practice, let him, then, enlarge the pony represented in copy 28, and reduce the ash and elm subjects, copy 21. 36 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 'fl u m m '] I '^B I! ON LANDSCAPE DRAWING. .; ' The charms of a lovely landscape are more or less appreciated by every one, whether Art-educated or not, and there is no doubt that the wondrous variety of attractive scenery embelUsning the earth, furnishes man with a most fertile source of pleasure. Art-educa- tion amongst the masses, however, would materially assist thorn to derive increased gratification from this source , by directing their attention to numerous scenic eflfects, ensuring admiration, which generally escape the observation of those not conversant with Art ; and, at the same time, by informing their taste as to what constitutes the beautiful in Nature, and thus virtually extending the range of objects gratifying to the mimd. It being the purpose of this work to aid in widely diffusing such education, and in so doing, promo^^e the general welfare, by affording to all who desire it an opportunity for the acquirement of an attainment that causes great additional enjoyment of existence through awakening an appreciation of the manifold beauties of Nature, as well as furnishes most delightful occupation for the leisure hour, if not for life — it comes within its scope to make an appeal to its readers with reference to the practice so prevalent and ruthless in its operations in these days, of unnecessarily defacing Nature — the fountain of inspiration to the artist. This practice holds its course from the tendency of almost every one on the slightest coTisiderations being presented to their view of profit or presumed convenience, to coun- tenance the destruction of the park, the field, the woodland, and waste, without attempting to check or regulate the hand of the destroyer for the purpose of preserving what might often, by a little less eager pursuit of gain, or attention to imnginary priiiciples of con- venience, be spared without ultimate disadvantage as regards either the one or the other end, and with certain great good to the community at larp-e Let, therefore, those who have a taste for Nature and the pursuit of Art, raise their voices on every op'^ortunity against the destruction of trees, when not absolutely requisite, the obhteration of fine points of view and open spaces, and the enclosure of grounds, so that nothing but unsightly, naked-looking houses, walls, or fences, and tree-less hedges. « y one, whether Tactive scenery e. Art-educa- 3rive increased scenic effects, not conversant constitutes the ratifying to the tion, and in so opportunity for it of existence re, as well as it comes within ) prevalent and the fountain of )n the slightest ience, to coun- out attempting ng what might iciples of con- le or the other Art, raise their utely requisite, of grounds, so se-lesB hedges, nf r.CZ.—- :5A yf^^^-^. TO BK COl*;r.D ON I'l.AIN PATER. !* !•« THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 39 remain observable on or from our roadways, where over-arching foliage, elegant residences, and enlivening glimpses of the many-object chequered distance might and should abound. If they would do this, a universal Art-education, creating a universal taste, would then prove a national advantage, by becoming the salvation of much of the picturesque attrac- tiveness of our charming country. And fields would still remain remuneratively productive, though a few trees were left about them, affording a grateful shade to man and beast, and variety to the scene ; houses be built as conveniently as ever, the taste indicated lead, likewise, to their being erected in an improved style, to the adornment, instead of the disfigurement of the wayside ; landowners and building speculators be suffioiently profited ; health as well as enjoyment be advanced, by the prevention of a too dense clustering together of houses, v/ithout an open space about them sufficient for wholesome ventilation ; and the creation of gardens be rendered possible, stimulating the deligiitful amusement of flower culture, with probably the useful custom of planting trees and shribs when feasible, to compensate for that destruction of those noblest ornament;- of a landscape, which the march of improvement and the necessities of the age renders, unfortunately, to some extent indispensable. Landscape-drawing embraces the representation of the forms and general appearance of trees, herbage, water, mountains, rocks, the level country and buildings of every description, and of that which has been so poetically termed '• cloud-land." Its utility, therefore, probably surpasses that of every other branch of Art. It may be said, also, to enable the imagination to wing, as it were, its flight in an instant fro"! any one part of the globe to another, evai to remote and almost inaccessible regions, that iiave been traversed only by the adventurous few^-to the summits of mountains, or the depths of primeval wilds, presenting magnificent scenes to the enraptured fancy, of the charms of which man}'^, but for its Influence, could have no conception. The important province of the depaBrtment of Art to which it belongs is, in fact, to portray the surface of tbe earth with its numberless interesting and beautiful features, and thereby to brin^ honie to tlia minds of the untravelled, a faithful presentment of the aspect of different couHtries as influenced by peculiarities of climate, vegetation, physical conformation, and cu ture, so as to reader it familiar as that of a well-known neighbour- hood, and, in some resp'icis, attractive as one frequently sought on account of its local graces. The power of practising it with a truthful spirit is considered less difficult k) acquire than a corresponding degree of skill in drawing the human figure. Whether it is so or not, it is certain that no one can excel in landscape drawing without a previous study of Nature as close as that required for the attainment of proficiency in figure -drawing, as well as the exercise of a considerable degree of taste, judgment, and ingenuity — of the two former, for the purpose of selecting what it is de.^irubla to represent, and of the latter to ensure the omployment of fitting means of conveying a clear notion of that which is to be represented ; and farther, tiiat it neoescitates the imitation of an almost infinite' variety of forms, taxing the discerning faculties very gruatly to itetect an.^ discriminate their re- spective characteristics. The directing influence of a v;ell-cultivatcd taste aid judgmenti above all things, is essential, to enable the landscape artist to produce anything approaching perfection. Ihis only will secure him ♦' , chance of succes^i in his vocstion, as every step he takes in tho practice of it, is liai If io be a false one unless directed by those qualities, their use being to discover the moi-l pecidiar and attiacUvv. features of his subjects (presuming he take the latter from Nature) and those, consequently, that if depicted, ensure correct and pleasing re- semblance. For every scene and object display? a few leading features, amongst its variety, comparatively with the others, so pre-eminently peculiar and attractive, as to suffice to impart to it an identity, and which, therefore, are the only ones generally necessary 'a imitate for the purposes of truthful and agreeable portraiture, yet that cannot be discriminated without the exerciee of judgment and taste. In the student's early endeavours, however, to exercise these qualities, the error may easily be fiiUen into of beinr^ uo particular in determining what to depict and what to leave unrepresented, leading ''iin to attempt too much or too little, a"0 either to a con- fusion of appearance, or a d-jficisacy of point or picturesque interest in his drawings. To avoid the one and .le other, a safe plan for him to follow is, firstly, to maturely consider f; i If 'l I 40 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. which are the main distinctively striking and pleasing features of that which he intends representing, as compared with the features belonging to anything similar, and having selected them to the best of his ability and experience, to confine himself to depicting them only. This done, he should next compnre his work with the original he is imitating; and if he find that it is not a sufficiently perfect imitation for his purposes, he should continue depicting, in the order of their prominence, the leading features of the subject he is portraying that remain unrepresented, until the result of his operations appears generally satisfactory, and that of a portraiture which is neither confused through con- taining too much detail, nor meagre from the reverse. By adopting, from the commence- ment of his studies, and invariably pursuing such a course (unless he should be altogether devoid of taste and judgment), he will be sure to obtain at once some considerable degree of success in producing artistic resemblance, and eventually of achieving perfect success. How completely objects may be represented, even through the imitation simply of their leading characteristics of form, may be seen through the illustrations (Fig. 70) of an Ash tree — Fig. 70. Pig.?l. Fig. 72. (Fig. 71) of an Elm, and (Fig. 72) of a Birch, each of which appears to represent a different tree from the others, notwithstanding the kinds of touch employed to express the forms and foliages of these trees, are necessarily exceedingly minute, and, therefore, the more difficult to render distinctive, but which it is possible to do, by reason of the fact, that every scene and object has imitahle characteristics of form, as well as other features which are pecvliar to it, and thus such as it is principally essential an artist should delineate. Supposing, the J, a learner wished to depict a particular kind of tree, the striking . features peculiar to it would be — the general chaiacter or appearance and colour of its foliage, stem, .ind branches ; the way in which the foliage clothes the stem and branches, and the effc';t that light and shade produce upon the various parts of the tree : and if it were exanined very closely, features of minor importance might become apparent, such as broke/i boughs, a decayed trunk, singular accidental disposition of foliage, and playful scatterings thereon of hght, which, tiiough not so prominent or peculiar as the first-named features, still might assist in iioparting identity and a picturesque interest to the object to which they belong. On depicting it, under these circumstances, the general outline of the forms composing its external shape should be slightly sketched in first, and then, if correct, be gone over, in a detailed manner, with a ssuilable touch or kind of line, until the specific character or appearance of the external form of the tree is represented to the extent required ; after which, the form of the main branches and masses of foliage, breaking, as it were, the general outline, should be imitated ; next the principal variations of light and shade dis- played on the tree ; and finding further workings to be necessary to complete the por- traiture either with respect to the outline or shading, such should be added, care being taken daring the process, to stop at the right moment, so as not to do more than produce a clear, graceful, and eflfective semblance of the tree. which he intends nilar, and having iself to depicting 1 he is imitating; poses, he should es of the subject )erations appears ied through con- 1 the commence- ild be altogether isiderable degree )erfect success. ti simply of their (Fig. 70) of an Fig. 72. m m ill to represent a )yed to express , therefore, the on of the fact, other features artist should e, the striking . I colour of its and branches, Iree : and if it apparent, such je, and playful be first- named ) the object to ms composing je gone over, c character or squired; after s it were, the md shade dis- plete the por- ;d, care being than produce fr- I m 4 if f ''•■' I ij'I m H 1 1 ! > J » i 1 ^^ i f ' 1 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 41 By adopting a method of proceeding similar to tlint which has just hccn descrihed, ohjects and scenes in the niiijoiity of cases may be etlectively represented tlirough the mere portrayal of their most striking and attractive characteristics (.f form, etc., so that to represent other features would generally he to waste time, disfigure the picture, and mar the pleasure it should produce. Nevertheless, occasions aristj when every feature of an object or scene siiould be defined with the utmost possible fidelity, or with tiie exactness of a photograph, as, for instance, for the jmrposes of scientific illustration. liut even then, the employment of taste and judgment may be made compatible with tho re(|uirement8 of literal imitation, and assist in producing that which, like every good photographic representation, imparts much gratification to the sight, notwithstanding many things therein may present themselves to the eye, which, considered individually, do not create an agreeable impression. It may be inferred, from the preceding remarks, that an important result arising from the judicious and tasteful selection and management of the most striking features of a Fi-.ra. scene, with regard to a picture, is effectiveness, or a power of raising in the minds of beholders a vivid impression both of Nature and perfect Art. At the same time, it must be perceived that-but few specific rules can he afforded, serviceable as guides for the pro- duction of effect, depending so intimately as it must on that which is constantly varying with subjects, as well as on those ever- changeful circumstances which may be termed the happy accidents of Nature, or, in other words, on those casual beautiful dispositions of form, colour, tone, light, shadow, and reflection, which are always observable within- doors and without. Beyond a certain limit, consequently, experience alone, in conjunc- tion with unremitting, close, properly-directed observation, can assist the Art student, wl father of landscape or figure drawing, in imparting a good effect to his works. " He who recurs to Nature," says Sir Joshua Reynolds, in his Instructions to Students, " at every recurrence renews hif strength — the rules of Art he is never likely to forget, they are few and 'simple; but Nature is refined, subtle, and infinitely various, beyond the o ^. lAAAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) /. ^ S% 1.0 I.! k£|2j8 |2.5 ■50 "^™ H^B 2.2 IJ& L25||U ,6 ^ 6" ► 0% ^ 7^ ^> Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14S80 (716)S72-4SC'« '^V^ V W 4 49 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. K • * I ■', '■I ' 1 , power and retention of memory ; it is necessaiy, therefore, to have continual recourse to her." The leading elementary rules and principles of effect which can be given, are as shortly ensue. Their application, however, must be governed by attention to appropriateness or that which is consistent with subject ; for although a picture may be executed in exact accordance with each of them, yet — as a good effect means also a truthful effect — any- thing introduced into a picture for the purposes of effect, that is not consistent with its subject or the scene it represents, must be inappropriate, and hence prove worse than ineffective, namely, unnatural. But these rules and principles may generally be more or less fully applied, without risk, by the thoughtful, whilst engaged in sketching and working after Nature — the occasions when they are of especial use — and are as follows : — 1 . No line in a picture should display a too prominent degree of continuity, or it will attract the eye unduly, to the detriment of agreeable effect. The eye, on this account, should be diverted from catching the absolute length of long lines, by various means, such as that of placing shading against some of their parts, and leaving light against others ; or by introducing a portion of the outline of a suitable object in connection with u long line, so as to break its length ; as indicated in Fig. 73, where the length of the uppt'rmost long line of the wall is prevented from appearing unpicturesque, or catching the eye unplea- santly, through the medium both of the shading running against it on the right-hand side of the illustration, and of the outline of the overhanging mass of bushy foliage to be seen on the left-hand side. Continuity of line may also be rendered less obvious through repetition of line, like that occurrirg in Fig. 73 at the bottom of the wall ; and above it, in that which denotes water — repetition of line serving to keep continuity in subjection to general effect, by preventing the eye from being exclusively attracted by any one line. 2. As effect is enhanced by judicious contrast and variety of lines, forms, colour, and tone, the lines of a picture should be varied in length and direction, and the forms, colour, and tone be diversified as much as practicable. Violent contrasts, however, in immediate juxtaposition, should usually be avoided, as they look singular ; and whatever looks singular in a picture, absorbs attention, and (unless it has been made to do so intentionally, because it is that which the picture is principally meant to represent) thereby creates a false impression of importance, destructive of the comparative degree of interest the other parts of a picture should excite. Still, sometimes, an ungainly- looking object may be advantageously placed near one required to appear the reverse, provided it is rendered properly subsidiary ; or a burst of light may be made to break into a shadow, and a shadow be run across a mass of light, so as to prevent the one or the other from looking monotonous and uninteresting, as well as for the sake of regulat- ing intensity of light and shade. Either a human figure, an animal, cloud, tree, a small form near a large one, or an abrupt and rough form in contiguity with one that is even, are, for example, such acces- sories as may at any time be employed in a picture, for the purpose of creating due con- trast and variety, if in keeping with the subject, or what one might expect to see in a scene similar to that the picture represents ; but only under such cu'cumstances. There- fore, in a picture of English scenery, to place a half-clothed Indian — to portray dark clouds on a description of sky not consistent therewith — an elm in an Eastern landscape, or tropical foliage in a Northern one — would not be in keeping, and would evince a want of taste and judgment, as every object in a subject should be natural to the locality repre- sented. Also in the arrangement of accessories to complete the effect of a picture, care should be taken to avoid disturbing the general composition — that is, interfering with its main intents — or the loss of unity may ensue, without which a work of art cannot be ])erfect. Nothing, likewise, should be employed as an accessory, so as tr seem discon- nected with the subject of a picture. An object may look disconnected, through being inappropriately introduced, or being isolated from other objects. When it appears so trom the former cause, it should be removed irom the picture, or altered in position ; and when from the latter, some other form — which may either be similar or diverse, according to circumstances — should be placed near to it. Thus, if a large object be placed in the foreground of a picture, one or more smaller objects should usually be depicted so as to combine with it in attracting the eye, and thereby destroy at once its isolation and too great singularity of appearance. ;ontinual recourse ren, are as shortly appropriateness executed in exact thful effect — any- consistent with its prove worse than [lerally be more or in sketching and use — and are as >ntinuity, or it will s, on this account, irious means, such igainst others ; or 1 with u long line, le uppermost long J the eye unplea- in the right-hand ushy foliage to be 8 obvious through all ; and above it, luity in subjection . by any one line, forms, colour, and 1, and the forms, rasts, however, in ar ; and whatever n made to do so mt to represent) jmparative degree nes, an ungainly- pear the reverse, )e made to break •event the one or 3 sake of regulat- \, large one, or an mple, such acces- creating due con- !xpect to see in a istances. There- — to portray dark Eastern landscape, aid evince a want ;he locality repre- jf a picture, care iterfering with its of art cannot be to seem discon- id, through being BD it appears so in position ; and liverse, according be placed in the depicted so as to isolation and too f' 'J ii. , I \i THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 43 3. One of the secrets of effect, resulting from composition, being the agreeable combi- nation of objects, all parts of a picture should display a mutual connection through management of accessories, if they cannot be made to do so otherwise. To ensure con- nection, all forms, and colours even, should be repeated in diminishing qimntities, or be what is called carried through a subject, their special predominance of appearance being preserved the while in those places where they should assume a predominance. But it must be borne in mind, that the word fonn, as last used, implies general form — as round form, square form, angular form — and therefore that the repetition of form enjoined, means that a form composed of curved lines should be repeated by some form more or lesd curved in its outline ; an angular form by one more or less angular, etc. Nevertheless, as the excessive recurrence of similar forms, lines, or colours, diminishes the beauty of a picture, it should be obviated ; or when they naturally recur considerably in a scene, and should therefore be portrayed, they should be disguised by the employ- ment of suitable devices, in the shape of management of light, shade, reflection, intersec- tion of line, and diverse accessories. For instance, recurrences of perpendicular, hori- zontal, and diagonal lines in views of buildings, and of diagonal and curved lines in representations of many kinds of scenery, frequently require disguising, for the attain- ment of good effect, by the intersection of portions of the outlines of accessories. When many figures must be introduced into a subject, they should be separated into groups (one of which should be larger than the rest), contrasted here and there by detached figures. 4. Effective combination or connection of the various parts of a picture, precludes such an arrangement of its objects as will enable the eye to calculate their number at a glance. 5. As a rule of composition influencing effect, portions of the outlines of objects should not combine together in producing accidental lines that attract the eye. The unpleasant effect resulting from such accidental lines is shown by Fig. 74, in which two are observable — ono from a to b, and one from b to c; or, where the top of the old woman's head, the right-hand diagonal line of the roof of the house, and the right-hand side outline of the mass of trees behind it, combine in pro- ducing an accidental line obviously un- graceful ; and where the left-hand side outlines of the masses of foliage, from b down to c, also combine in making a similar one. If a scene presents fea- tures creating artificial lines, a move- ment a little to the right or the left of the aspect in which it does so, will generally cause an alteration of those appearances, and should be made when possible, the extent to which the absence of such lines improves effect, being shghtly shown in Fig. 75, a partial representation of the ... \i mm Fig. 7ru scene given in Fig. 74, but presump- tively in a rather different and im- proved aspect, on account of its being free from the blemish of accidental lines. It may be as well to observe, how- ever, that the accidental lines in Fig. 74, and which cause the part of the composition to which they belong to assume a triangular form, are ren- ('"^'-^'^"\i%l' dered less detrimental to the effect of ^ ^ ' ^ ' the picture, than they would be if that triangular form were not, as it is, slightly repeated in the form of the mass of fore- ground placed on the left-hand side under the palings. This may be proved by looking cr^v x^ i:^^ !> .V ■I.! 'Pi 44 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. at the diag^m with a piece of paper covering the foreground, and then without the pap^r, a process that will likewise serve as an illustration of the importance of repeating forui, previously enlarged upon in rule 3, 6. Parts of pictures having much detail in them, should be contrasted by other par's manifesting repose, or the absence of marked detail ; for a picture without repose can • be an agreeable one, and fatigues the eye. Therefore, as the imagination will fill ,> pictorial indications of detail, if they be cleverly managed, it is better that there should be too much, than too little repose in a picture — neither the imagination nor the eye being able, when fatigued, to do justice to that which is presented before them. When many small forms must be introduced into a picture, a large form will ser\'e to 'impart repose to them ; or a large mass of light and shadow will convey it to a subject displaying many small masses. 7. All large objects belonging to a subject, that are unpicturesque in form, shoultl have their attractiveness heightened by the introduction of something in connection with them that will give an additional interest to them. Playful management of light and shade, reflection and colour, or appropriate small accessory forms placed about them, will communicate interest to large forms. 8. Due subordination of every feature of a picture to that which should disploy a greater degree of prominence than itself, being one of the most essential requisites of effect, should consequently be preserved. To thoroughly maintain it, a knowledge of the laws of perspective, and light and shadow, combined with great practical experience, is necessary. Its results are those of causing everything to occupy its true place in a picture, by the proper regulation of the size of its objects, and of the intensity of colour, light, and shadow depicted upon them — so that nothing looks too large nor too small, too strongly nor too weakly defined. 9. There should be a balance preserved throughout a picture. To preserve it, however, it is not necessary to ploce an equal amount of obfects, or of anything else, on each side of a subject, but merely to manage so that one side of it shall display some- thing creating nearly as much interest as that which the otiier displa\ s. A small figure, therefore, may balance a large building, if it causes as much interest as the building; or p light may be rendered so striking and attractive on one side of a picture which is devoid of marked detail, as to balance the other side, although full of detail or objects. 10. A large-looking principal object, as compared with the other objects of a picture, should not be placed in the centre of a subject when it can be avoided. If the old man in Fig. 76 were placed in the centre of the subject, the componition would look formal, and appear to be divided into separate equal spaces, one on each side of the Bgure, an appearance con- trary to the laws of good effect. II. Parts of scenes and objects that are not attractive, should gene- rally be kept in subjection to the other parts of a picture by means of shades ; and that which should stand out conspicuously should be illumi- nated to a degree proportionate to the prominence it should assume. To enhance effect, shadows may be introduced into any part of a picture without any indication of their cause — for accidental shadows are common in Nature, and can arise from such a variety of causes, that one can hardly be introduced into a subject taken from Nature, without the possibility that it was to be witnessed in the scene represented. 12. Light and ehadow should be so diffused throughout a picture, that no harshness becomes observable in any of its parts, from want of the softening and subduing influ- \^ without the pappr, f repeating fori.j, ed by other par'^s out repose can .. ation will fill ,> that there should tion nor the eye e them. form will serve to ey it to a subject rorm, should have lection with them light and shade. ibout them, will should display a itial requisites of knowledge of the cal experience, is true place in a ensity of colour, e nop too small. To preserve it, nything else, on ill display some- A small figure, the building; or )icture which is ail or objects. f objects of a ivoided. If the ;ion would look be divided into s, one on each appearance con- ;ood effect, es and objects e, should gene- bjection to the jre by means of ch should stand ould be illumi- roportionate to ihould assume, adows may be irt of a picture of their cause ws are common se from such a one can hardly subject taken the possibility tnessed in the ' no harshness ubduing iuflu- Jon I l>^i> .u .^f 'A \ l\ A^ / il . !■•.' "•1 i ^^^^^M ill (.£,-,<'« "^v.ai ; I.J ill itM'mm'i'iW'r \ A a S o u M n o H m I » I 1 If ■ 1: >% K \ ^ 1 , 1 [ ¥ ■ I f 1 i i J ^ fin ■■ ■ , 1 jjii THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 47 encc of one or the other, f. intlueiice on which mainly depends the important elements of cll'cct called airiness, harmony of tone, and breadth, 13. There should be an imperceptible blending together of light and shadow. They should both, also, be made to retire out of the picture at different parts of its sides, or masses of light will look somewhat like spots or holes, as shewn in Fig. 77. The more natural and pleasing appearance ])roduccd by making light retire, as stated it shoulti, being shewn by Fig. 78. It may be made to do so at any convenient part of the sub- ject, and through the medium of any convenient object, as, in (jne place by the aid of a tree, in another by that of a figure, cloud, mountain, stone in the foreground, etc. 14. Strong shade should be placed in juxtaposition with strong light, when it is desirable to produce intensity of light or shade. A frequent repetition, however, of strikingly opposed light and shade, will destroy repose, and therefore should be avoided. When likewise the peculiar effect of a burst of strong light should be re])iesented in a particular part of a subject, light should only be repeated or diffused in small quantities over the other parts. 15. Whenever large masses of light and shadow must occur in a picture, they should be relieved or contrasted by smaller masses placed elsewhere about the subject. Positive lights, half lights, or reflections, also, should be introduced into large masses of shadow, or there will be a har-^hness and sameness of appearance about them ; and shadows, for the same reason, should be introduced into lai'ge masses of light. But as large masses of light and shadow serve, as has been before stated, to impart repose to small masses of lights and shadows, the large masses should not be cut up by such a use of accessory shadows and lights as will destroy their influence in producing repose. 16. Solidity and relief, when required, may often be conveyed to a mass of shadow by introducing therein a speck of absolute light. It cannot be used, however, advanta- geously to the general effect of a picture, unless the speck be so placed as not to catch the eye obtrusively. 17. What are termed /jomte of light should always be preserved about a picture; that is, a few more or less brilliant spots of positive light, for the sake of giving clearness and force to the illumination of a subject. The objects on which they are to be placed should be suitably chosen, and such points should be made of different sizes and degrees of intensity, so that one may not interfere with the purposes of the other, and that the one which should be the most intense keeps the others from becoming too striking, and destroying its influence. The top of a man's hat — any part of his garments — a stone — an animal — a tree — a building, etc., will serve as the medium for the introduction of a point of light, its formation, also, requiring a well-defined bordering, or species of out- line, produced by an encirclement of shade of that degree of darkness which will create, by contrast, the degree of brilliancy the point should manifest. Yet it should never be totally disconnected from the other lights of a picture ; as all lights should run, as it were, in a chain of connection, which is preserved through the aid of half lights and reflection of light, or verti light tones of shade. 18. No management of light and shade in a picture can look pleasing that does not produce the impression of breadth, or cause the two to blend together so as to create a sense of unity and fitting repose. A picture, consequently, without breadth, can no more be perfect, than one that is deficient either in appropriateness of accessories, or attention to the laws of composition, and will appear as an aggregate of disconnected subjects, each having its distinct lights and shadows, irrespective of the others, rather than, as it ' li * 1 1' (■■■ , !J 48 THE NATIONAL DRAWING .JASTER. 4 4! should do, a rpprescntation of one subject, all the ffaturcs of which combine in producing a perfect general effect. To ensure breadth, the principle of effect, stated in rule 12 of this section should be attended to, as well ns that of kee])iiig the various lights and shades of a picture in subjection to one principal n1a^'8 of each, judiciously placed towards the foreground of a subject. Points of light, and points of intense shade amounting at times to blackness, also, should be used where they will assist in giving such force of contrast as to bring those parts of a subject forward into their proper degree of prominence of tone, which destroy the breadth of a picture by attracting the eye away from general effect, through their feebleness of tone. There are two points of light on the dog, in Kig. 76, which convey force to the animal, and bring both the latter, and the bank behind it (to which they equally impart intensity of tone) more forward than they would otherwise appear, keeping them thus in plucc ; whilst the dark tree, above the palings, acts somewhat as a point of intense shade, amounting in parts, to blackness, and preserves the landscape from looking tame, besides imparting breadth to the whole picture, the superior force of tone or colour on the dog serving to keep the tree, and other dork, shaded portions of the subject to which they belong, as much in the backgroui i as they should appear. 19. To express space, or convey an idea of different degrees of distance, and of tl. relative heights of objects in a picture, the human figure should be employed ; for a figure is always supposed, by the laws of perspective governing art, to be 5 feet high, and, therefore, can be made a standard of measurement for the distance that is repre- sented between the foreground and any back part of a picture, bi/ a diminution of its size (when placed in the back part of a subject) proportionate to the increased degree of dis- tance it is intended to assist in conveying the idea of. Thus should it be desirable to correctly represent the distance of 100 yards, for instance, from the foreground of a pictured scene, if a figure be ])laced of a proper comparative height at a point of the fore- ground selected to represent a depth of 50 yards into the scene (which point must be chosen according to principles of perspective, which will be explained in the sequel), the place where the feet come of another figure, which is only made half the size of the first figure, but the head of which is depicted even, or on a line, with the head of that figure, will correctly denote a distance of 100 yards from the foreground ; or, what is the same thing, represent a depth of 100 yards into the scene from its base line — the base line of a scene being always represented by the bottom boundary edge of a picture. Also, if a third figure, half the size of the second, be placed with its head even with thot of the second, and, therefore, with that of the first, a line drawn across the picture, under its feet, would correctly indicate a depth of 200 yards from the foreground, and so forth; see Fig. 7i), in which a, b, c, represent three figures standing 200, 100, and 50 yards Fig. 79. ^Mii. ss:;^ r^<^* >»v. 200 yavdR. too yards. fiO yai di. from the foreground, or those depths into a scene firom its base line. Not only distance in yards, but in miles, likewise, may be thus indicated ; a figure, as well as everything else, by the laws of perspective, losing half its size in appearance each time its distance from us is doubled. At the same time, if it were requisite to shew the relative heights of certain ob- jects in a picture, at different distances from each other : as a figure represents 5 feet of height, one placed against an object would furnish the means of measuring it. For, supposing a figure were placed against a tree, which was depicted five times as high as the figure, the tree would necessarily be represented of the height of 25 feet. Finally, as a general rule for producing effect, some parts of a picture should be depicted with great force and precision — but not hardness — of outline, and some with skilful slightness, or only just enough force to suffice to denote what they represent. The kind of effect to produce should be determined by circumstances. When sketching firom Nature, for the sake of study, the best effect to endeavour to work out is that before BASE LIME. mbine in producing I section should be des of a picture in he foreground of a imes to Idackncss, ontrast as to bring nee of tone, whicii jral effect, through , in Fig. 76, whicii ehind it (to which otherwise appear, ts somewhat as a ves the landscape I superior force of led portions of the I appear, stance, and of tl, e employed ; for a ) be 5 feet high, ice that is repre- ninution of its size ed degree of dis- be desirable to I foreground of a point of the fore- li point must be 1 the sequel), the le size of the first ad of that figure, what is the same — the base line of :ture. Also, if a with that of the (icture, under its d, and so forth; t), and 50 yards ^■. H. wt-C 200 yards. 100 yards. CO yai d«. ■esents 5 feet of isuring it. For, imes as high as feet. cture should be , and some with rejjresent. When sketching ut is that before H?:' Nil n ;f I H en I i , x^ -JS / — y^ #^?^ ----^' :< (^ •^;/ \>i.^\ ?. i >■' f V- •=s;. ^ ♦?>v # I i;;' 'S THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 49 the eye, for Nature is always effective ; and the power of truthfully treating a subject, when not sketching her features, is only to be acquired though an intimate acquaintance with her various phases. Some scenes, however, can be most perfectly represented as witnessed in the broad glare of an all-pervading sunshine — some as seen under the influence of a frequently clouded sky, producing various masses ot" wide — obscuring shade — and others under that of the peculiarly object-softening light of early morning, or by the sharp defining aid of a clear, fully illuminated atmosphere. This, with the setting sun throwing his rich, mellow beams across the landscape, absolutely gilding objects with his rays, which grow the more resplendent the nearer he sinks below the horizon ; that, with threatening storm-clouds covering the heavens, but leaving an opening through which the sun gleams with startling brilliancy, on one solitary spot, whilst all the scene else is enveloped in striking gloom. Nevertheless no rule can be furnished to assist the taste and judgment in selecting a description of effect to depict, beyond this, that the effect selected should admit of concen- tration or unity of aim, and simplicity, and accord with the character of the scene to be pour- trayed, as well as represent its features in the way most gratifying to look upon. When, Fig. 80. likewise, a subject should display a finished effect — that is, be rendered more effective than a mere sketch, if not as effective as it can be made — there should not be too much light left in it, or it will appear meagre, like that shewn in Fig. 80, in which there is too great a degree of a certain kind of smooth, weak finish, to enable it to pass for an example of a sketch, and yet too much light to produce finished effect. 50 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. The subject of Fig. 80 furnishes a marked contrast to that of Fig. 81, in which an excess of shade exists, yet producing a more perfect specimen of finished eifect than is displayed in the subject of the previous Fig. ; because the greater amount of shading tone in Fig. 81 prevents the appearance of rawness and incompleteness that characterizes Fig. 80. But illuminated as it is. which is partly the cause of its heavy monotonous appearance, it may be as well to point out, that a figure placed standing in the fore- ground, and running up into the mass of shade on the building, could be made to receive light, and therefore increase the quantity of light in the picture, as well as otherwise improve its interest and effect. These might also be materially improved without auch aid, through the n.edium of more varied tones than are depicted on the building and Fig. 81. It ;( ■ I ground, variety of tone serving to produce results analogous to those of light by destroying heaviness and monotony. The quantity of ligRt and shade that should be introduced into a picture for the purposes of effect, determines itself by the character of the subject. Simple subjects should be treated so as to display more light than those intended to convey an impression of the gloomy, the solemn, the sublime, the grand, or even of the splendid : those of the last description requiring for effective representation, the introduction of a greater quantity of light than those of the four preceding classes. Of light represented by positive white, the introduction, it may be inferred from what has been stated, should be sparing, and merely for the purpose of brilliancy and strong , 81, in which an led effect than is lount of shading that characterizes eavy monotonous ing in the fore- B made to receive veW as otherwise ived without such the building and THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 51 wiijSB?^^ „,.rlt --SM pi 'J se of light by licture for the fimple subjects an impression : those of the of a greater red from what icy and strong contrast, as objects in Nature never appear perfectly white or colorless, owing to the influence atmosphere and reflection invariably have upon them. Yet, as many things may seem to be nearly, if not quite white, such objects must occasionally be represented with a light upon them purely white, otherwise neitlier truthful force, brightness, nor due contrast, as far as attainable in art, can bt imparted to their portraiture. But, on the other hand, if positive white, though not left in large proportions, be scattered profusely about a picture, weakness, and deficiency of effective contrast and concentration, must ensue. The way light should course through a picture has be^in laid down by some writers on art ; it is, however, manifestly absurd to advance rules upon the matter, and the attempt to follow any (excepting founded on practice, and which experience and taste teach better than any authorities), only fetters the artist, and causes him to produce repeated similarity of effects totally opposed to that infinite diversity which is the great pecu- liarity and charm of Nature. That artist best shows an intimate knowledge of Nature, and skill in his profession, who dares to be truthful and varied in his works, notwith* standing he may fly in the face of authority ; nor will he fail to earn appreciation from the world in the long run, although he may be criticised at first by the ignorant and self-sufficient connoisseur. The management of the sky in landscape-drawing is one of its most important opera- tions, as it affords the opportunity of treating representations of scenery with striking effect. Nature must be constantly resorted to, for the acquirement of a skilful power of management, and, unlike most adjuncts of a landscape, the sky may be studied anywhere : from amidst a dense mass of houses, as in the open country ; and some of its aspects which may be seen from the former, are even more favourable to pictorial effect than any it exhibits elsewhere. How often, for instance, does the sky hanging over a large city like London, present masses of clouds that astound by their magnificence, or enchant by their diversity and elegance of form, as well as by their exquisiteness of hue and tone, softened, harmonized, varied as are both hue and tone, by the smoke and misty exhalations generated by the crowded precinct. Though as pure a sky as can be witnessed from the mountain-top, or the houseless plain, may not be visible from cities, yet in many respects far finer clouding frequently may be seen ; and artists should not consider they have worked sufficiently after Nature, until they have studied from the roof of a house, or a neighbouring eminence, the aspect of the heavens at all times and seasons, as observable over a large town. \ Clouds being formed of vapour, single masses firequently display every possible tone of shade, from the lightest to the very dark. Owing partly to this circumstance, they may be turned to great account in a picture, for through it, without creating an appearance of the use of forced and artificial means, light and shade in any quantity, and almost of any power, can be carried through a subject. The hues, also, that clouds derive through their properties of reflection, are very extensive in range. These may be found, at times, to partake of the blood red, the most vivid crimson, powerful yellow, gorgeous orange, intense purple, of green and violet of inimitable delicacy, and of every species of neutral tone, whilst the color of the sky may gradate from the deepest transparent blue to the lightest azure. In shape, clouds differ as much as in color and intensity of light and shade : — " Sometimes we see a cloud that's dragonish, A vapour sometimes like a bear or lion, A towered citadel, a pendent rock, A forked mountain, a blue promontory, With trees upon 't, that nod unto the world And mock our eyes with air." — Shakspeakb. From the diversities of shape, colour, etc., clouds may assume, arises the reason why the management of the sky in art is of so much importance, requiring considerable care and preliminary study. For as Phillips, alluding to the sky, clouded and otherwise, in one of his works oa Water-color Drawing, well remarks, '* the variety of color, the gradation of tint varying from the greatest depth to almost perfect whiteness, of which it is susceptible, affords every facility to the artist to assist his composition, whether he require opposition of light or dark, diversity or harmony of color, contrast of form, or a continuation and further extension of a mass of dark or light." 1.1 J:! % 02 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. In treating skies, the immeasurable distance the pure sky is from the clouds, the fact that it is not a substance, but perfectly transparent ether ; the greater remoteness of some clouds than others from the earth, the vapoury character of clouds, their mutual com- parative densities, the total absence of all flatness in their forms, their distinct yet almost indefinitely soft edges, the circumstance that light penetrates into and through their edges more than through their central parts, rendering the former the lighter, excepting when the latter reflect the sun's light; that according to their increased degree of density, opacity, and nearness to the sun, they exhibit the brighter illumination or the darker shadowed parts, and glisten so much the more, with a hue somewhat metallic in appearance ; that clouds above the sun receive illumination on their lower, and those beneath it, on their upper portions ; that only certain kinds of clouds are observable in conjunction during different states of weather ; and that there is a wintry and a summer, a morning, a mid-day and an evening sky, each having its distinctive peculiarities; these are all matters which the artist should bear constantly in mind, and to which the art- student should devote an investigating attention. Fig. 82. is •i < » -I ft''. As Trees form one of the most usual and attractive features of a landscape, too much time and pains cannot be bestowed on the study of them, especially as their character- istics cannot be caught and depicted without a well practised eye and hand. We look on wooded scenery ordinarily, without becoming aware how much its attractions are heightened by readily overlooked peculiarities, displayed by the diversely-foliaged trees adorning it. The shape of some, bending or erect, the sweep of their branches, the bright or sober hues of the leafy coverings of others ; the lights or shadows that play -about them all, and throw groups and solitary trees into prominence, or mellow them into the effect of the whole scene — at times producing a thousand glittering specks of the clouds, the fact remoteness of some . their mutual com- distinct yet almost and through their e lighter, excepting creased degree of illumination or the mewhat metallic in ? lower, and those s are observable in itry and a summer, peculiarities; these to which the art- t.Mf ill scape, too much their character- '• We look on attractions are '^-foliaged trees ' branches, the idows that play p mellow them Bring specks of i it! J 1 1' (It ii< f!( y^. '(/r 1^ l^ I ^ THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 53 brilliant dye, ranging through the whole scale of color, and causing a scene to appear one of splendid enchantment, or subduing groves into masses of deep shade that coat an air of additional sombreness over a landscape, and complete its effects of unbroken solemnity. Trees of every variety and form should be studied from Nature, as an artist may be called upon to depict those of any species, and in any state of condition. Nevertheless, perfectly-formed trees are not usually so picturesque as those which, through age or accident, are imperfect in shape ; and a picture containing none but irregular-shaped trees, looks better, as a rule, than one containing those only that are the reverse. The beautiful picturesquencss of tree groups of irregular growth, and, comparatively with their perfect condition, of ragged form, neighboured as they often are by gaunt leafless stems, is shewn in Fig 82. The attempt to depict any tree represented therein, perfect in shape according to its species, would have spoiled the character of the scene, and have diminished its attractions; so true it is that the perfect in Nature is frequently imperfect for the ends of art. Still the perfect may be represented highly effectively ; necessarily, however, it is more difficult to portray than its opposite, and tends to lead to the production of pictorial formality which cannot be avoided nor conquered, though it may be somewhat disguised, and made to appear by skill pleasing to the eye. The copies given in this work, shew that the touch required to represent foliage is extremely diverse ; but, that foliage characteristics are so distinctive that they may be clearly displayed on a very small scale, may be seen by comparing the following eigVit diagrams of trees respectively with the trees they represent. To describe the different kinds of touch that should be employed, would not be of service to pupils; there are, how- ever, certain general features belonging to the trees most usually depicted, which may be serviceably pointed out to their notice, for the sake of giving a definite direction to their studies from Nature. The Elm (Fig. 71) has a foliage which hangs loosely in full round rolling masses, capable of receiving great breadth of light. It is a lofty and stately looking tree when full grown ; and its stem generally consists of two or more large limbs, which strike out from the lower part of the trunk at seldom less than ten feet from the ground, running upwards without separating very widely from each other until they reach the head of the tree, and with smaller arms branching out from the lower parts in all directions, but from their upper parts in an upward direction, making a full round top, distinguishing the elm in winter as much from other trees, as its round rolling masses of foliage distinguish it therefrom in other seasons. Fig. 83. Fig. 84. ^i^i^i- The foliage of the Oak (Fig. 83) causes the exterior outline of the tree to appear a mass of angular irregular indentations. It hangs full and compact in the central parts of the tree, yet not in a rolling form like that of the elm. Standing alone, the tendency of the Oak is to spread rather than run to a great height ; but in groups it will attain the height of 90 feet, and more sometimes, without a lateral branch extending from its stem at any point less than 30 feet from the ground. For stoutness of limbs, it surpasses all trees excepting the cedar, and it is not easy to discriminate its main stem from its largest limbs for they seem less to branch than divide from the former. On account of its strength J. Ill u THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. l; : i ^ I 1 ' - . ' I tr ! I 1. i I and toughness, its stem never becomes, like other trees, twisted in form through the action of tlie winds. Its arms are mostly very crooked, and as they spread out in uneven lengths horizontally over a large space, and its trunk always inclines to be extremely rough and huge-knotted; a more perfectly picturesque tree, altogether, is hardly conceivable. Fig. 85. Fig. 86. Fig. 87. r\\ ^^'^^. v ■a.- «•; -"J^'V -~.5w.,_ - ■ " ■»"..".rn.' ' T" ^^^^¥Mr^^ fZ^t . mmmm j=:^iiM=^t^s!iSi::. The Beech (Fig. 86) is one of our noblest forest trees. It grows to a great height in sheltered spots, producing a foliage so thick as to form a complete roof, the " shade of the beech " being often alluded to in consequence. Its leaves hang on thin twigs which shoot out from its branches, spreading undulatingly in every direction, so as to render the tree very difficult to depict. Its stem runs rather straightly and perpendicularly, pro- jecting curved limbs all around, not so wide-spreading as those of the oak, nor so compactly together as those of the elm, and occasionally making elbows or sharp turns. The trunk also is frequently studded with large excrescences, and is picturesque through being covered with a bark, which at a distance looks smooth and polished, and of a light olive hue, elegantly varied by thin darker rings of color. The Ash (Fig. 70), from its extreme gracefulness, has been called the Venus of the forest. Its stem more or less follows the line of beauty to the summit, dividing sometimes into two or more arms without abruptness, and its branches principally take a curved form. Owing to the character of its foliage, which is formed of long narrow leaves, hanging somewhat loosely like the outspread fingers of a hand, to the lightness of the color of its leaves, and the alternations of light and dark color that ornament the bark of its stem, it preserves a perfect elegance of appearance throughout. Fig. 88. Fig. 89. The Birch (Fig. 72) is a pretty object in a landscape, as its outer branches " weep irm through the ■ad out in uneven to be extremely Jther, is hardly Fig. 87. yjIfiJT?--,,,'.-, o a great height r, the " shade of thin twigs which as to render the }ndicu1arly, pro- he oak, nor so bows or sharp i is picturesque id polished, and ; Venus of the ding sometimes y take a curved narrow leaves, ightness of the ent the bark of THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 8S or hang downwards in thin strings of great length, clothed with a light colored foliage. Neither its stem, limbs, nor general form, are so graceful as those of the ash, yet by careful drawing, the tree may be rendered highly ph'asiiig in a picture. The foliage of the Firs, or tif tiie Pine class of trccr, '\>> composed of long thin spinrs, which, though leaves, are never flat. The Spruce Fir (Fig. 'JO), and the Lnrcb, grow much alike as regards stem and branrbrs. Tim stem of each is a s< ^ WW id - ^i. if' i -l! " n i. r- ?.- > > fr 7 • •^-' ^.^jj m^ r jp^ > X a < o o -J > X z > X a. < a: O O -I > X o z N f« 1 1 1 fi i, Is 'H fll ff THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 68 frequently occurs, of reducing its intensity by washing the tint over with water, — it may be, likewise, rendered even tlirough the aid of ftipplini? ; und us very siniill white pliices must often be introduced into a drawing by scraping them out from places covered with color, and yet may be made too large, stippling is at times requisite to reduce them in size. White places, however, may be produced through the medium of a material called Chinese white, laid on to the paper where they should appear ; and should it l)ecome advisable to make any changes in the effect of a drawing by washing out a tint of color, but the paper should continue stained or show any remains of the tint, aft(;r a washing has been continued as long as it can be without injury to the surface of the paper, the defect may be remedic by, firstly, washing its place over witii a thin solution of Chinese white and water, ami then re-washing it with a suitable tint. This material (Chinese White) may be obtained from those who deal in water colors, and is about the best of all whites for retaining its purity, most whites turning dark very rapidly. For washing out large masses of colour a sponge is more serviceable than eitiier a silk handkerchief or wash leather ; and it should be borne in mind that the process should always be managed so as to do as little injury as possible to the paper of a drawing, or to the parts of a drawing that surround any portion being sponged. A protection against injury to the surrounding surface may be ensured, by cutting into a piece of cardboard or stout paper a hole of the size of the mass of color to be washed out, and fixing it over that mass before sponging it, or rubbing it with a handkerchief. Superfluous moisture remaining on a washed place after the protecting material has been removed, can be absorbed into a dry sponge, or by means of white blotting paper. But no place on a drawing should be washed out or scraped until perfectly dnj. On washing or scraping out defects, the drawing board should be laid flat on the table ; whilst when it is being worked upon with color, it should be placed so much aslant that washes of tint, as they are laid on, can flow readily downwards ; and every wash of tint worked over another wash to increase the darkness of the mass of tmt it forms, generally should be laid on so that its edges blend into the edges of the • v.derlying wash, but without exactly covering them ; hence when a mass of tint is composed t several washes of tint, each successive wash should cover rather less space than the pn oeding wash, yet still cause no abrupt edges to appear, but merely a perfect slight gradation from the edges to the centre of a mass, and which serves to impart luminousness to the mass. A learner being possessed of a drawing board, cartridge paper — which should not be very smooth — of three or four brushes, a piece of sponge, of white blotting paper, and of wash leather or silk, together with a box of colors, a small color slab, and half a dozen halfpenny saucers, he is prepared, having the aid, Hkewise, of tlie foregoing instructions, to commence the practice of color drawing. And, as very little can be done with color until the power of using the brush with facility and precision has been acquired ; as, also, the surest way of acquiring the former is to commence practising color drawing through the medium that works most easily, or with Sepia ; the requisite Sepia color copies to enable him to master the first difficulties he will have to contend with in his study of this branch of Art, now here ensue, with such directions as will assist him to imitate them with effect and advantage ; and he should practise them assiduously if he desire to qualify himself quickly for beginning to work profitably with that beautiful variety of color that vies with Nature's exquisite tints. Copy 35 shows on its right hand side half, four different shades of tint which should be imitated two or three times for the sake of practising laying in even tints of various degrees of intensity. To produce an iinitation of the lightest of these tints it will be necessary to put two or three drops of water into a saucer, rub up somr color into it thickly from a cake of Sepia, dilute the color detached from the cake with about a tea- spoonful of water, take up some of the mixture into a large brush, try the strength of its tinting power by washing a little on to a piece of waste paper ; and should it prove to be of the right shade, proceed then to lay a wash of the mixed tint over a space, on strained drawing paper, of the size of the space covered with the lightest tint in the copy. Should the mixed tint, however, on the waste paper trial, appear to be too light, or too dark, more Sepia, or more water as required, should be combined with it in the saucer, until it has acquired a proper degree of intensity, when it may be used, after that circumstance has been finally proved by washing some of the tint on waste paper. The next darkest mass of tint on the copy should be produced by laying a wash of the last mixed tint on to f I 11 i:!i li 64 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. a proper space of tie drawing paper, mixing up about the same quantity of color as before but of a rather darker tint, and laying a wash of this darker tint over the wash previously made, yet not until that wash has become perfectly dry, and it has also been ascertained by experiments, on waste paper, that a wash of the last mixed tint laid over a wash of the first will not make the tint produced by the two darker or lighter than the copy. The two darker masses of these tints to be copied, should be imitated through processes similar to those just described ; a third quantity of color, darker than the two previously made, should be mixed for the third shade of tint, and be laid over a space which has been tinted with Nos. 1 and 2 mixtures ; and a fourth quantity, of a very dark color, to be laid over a space which has been successively tinted with Nos. 1, 2 and 3 mixtures ; every succeeding tint having been allowed to dry before another has been laid over it, lest the preceding one should wash up, and unevenness of tone in consequence ensue. Each tint should be mixed in a separate small saucer, or in separate compartments of a color slab. The left-hand side half of Copy 35 furnishes one subject in two forms. In the upper form (which is not to be imitated), the trees over the building are shown produced by laying different shades of tint one over another, without an attempt to blend the edge of each layer into the general mass or to make a gradation, the unsightly unnaturalness of ap- pearance ensuing in consequence being apparent. On the contrary, the under form (which should be copied) shows on the trees gradation of tint by the means of laying several tints one over another, so that the edge of each successive layer of tint combines with that of the underlying tint, without perfectly covering it. To obtain this eflFect of grada- tion, and of the whole subject; when a very light tint, such as given on the copy, has been washed over the outline of the whole subject, a darker tint like that covering the roof of the building on the copy should be worked over the outlines of the trees, the roof and side of the building, of the shadowed sides of the chimneys, and of the darkly-shaded parts of the face of the house : then a still darker tint than the one last used, or corresponding with that given on the left hand side tree of the copy, after the vdgings of the two copied trees have been ivashed very slightly over with clear water, should be worked from a little within their outlines, and so, that the tint laid on the trees, will flow into and mix with the moisture of the water previously washed over their edgings, towards the outlines, and cause a commencing gradation, whilst the brush is pursuing its way downwards to produce the third shade of tint, that should be laid over the masses of trees being copied. Finally, after the edgings of the right hand side copied tree have been moistened again with water, a dark tint, like that covering the corresponding tree of the copy, should be laid over the copied tree, in the manner last described for tinting the trees, but com- mencing more within its outline than before, — the dark and light touches requisite to bring the outlines of the drawing up to the efi'ect of the copy should be drawn in with the point of a small brush, and this done, the drawing will be completed, and, if properly managed, a fair imitation of the c -w. But the copy does not furnish an example of the proper way of depicting a tree v.. '•, color, and is merely intended as a convenient medium for affording practice in producing gradation of color. Gradation of color, however, may be produced by two other modes of proceeding, as well as by the one above given, provided only one color need be employed in working it, viz.: Ist. By using a tint (of the color to be employed) dark enough to produce the darkest part of the gradation to be depicted, laying it on to that part first, and then gradually softening off the moist color laid on, or lightening it by means of taking up water or light color into the brush, so as to carry on the tint to its outline with duly diminishing intensity of shade — the drawing board being placed the while so that the successive contents of the brush will flow downwards, for it is better to work all tints downwards by altering the position of the board as requisite for the process of so working them, than to wash them in by dragging the finish upwards; and 2ndly, By first using a tint light enough to produce the lightest part of the gradation to be depicted, and next continuing to take up darker and darker tints of color into the brush, as the gradation should be rendered more and more intense or deep of colour — both processes, neverthe- less, though useful to practise, being more difficult to master than the one previously explained, and requiring to be performed with great skill and experience to prove effective in their results. Copy 36 furnishes examples (which should be repeatedly imitated with sepia tints of Il of color as before le wash previously 3 been ascertained »ver a wash of the I the copy. The ;hrough processes he two previously 1 space which has !ry dark color, to ! and 3 mixtures ; 1 laid over it, lest nsequence ensue, impartments of a n the upper form duced by laying the edge of each aturalness of ap- tider form (which 3f laying several it combines with i eflFect of grada- le copy, has been Bring the roof of the roof and side kly-shaded parts ar corresponding of the two copied Iced from a little nto and mix with he outlines, and f downwards to 1 of trees being been moistened the copy, should trees, but com- equisite to bring n with the point operly managed, le of the proper ieut medium for ' proceeding, as 1 in working it, to produce the t first, and then ns of taking up line with duly lie so that the work all tints 3 of so working By first using a icted, and next the gradation sses, neverthe- one previously prove effective i l I IS ii;! sepia tints of • — — 1 ■ n. I; ! ii'ii fnr Tftb^ ;i2 m: % ea to it n:-iT:^J.ir. ,y/.i//:\','A\ .[J^/MIT/.Y din „,(, ., t . •-'-"'"- ^ ''" '<^' '• T /. 0.'^ Till t..ii .■,-Mi;r..l t.. '..:r„;il.Hin •)M^n,I;.i.h.,(' l..nl,(hMO-> -(.viit ■,.. II,;, I? •r.ih;-; -t,,;,! I, ■'-.',., < . -, . ., ' •, , ,,,.,., ,i-n..,l -,' 1 r f •■- ':-..i-.-i t- H-.r^ '•JUe •;■. ,...i(-^ '-f'.! 'i, -,.1 -iJ-l'j mi L'i!...|lr. -,;,(;:, j .,11!, .V ;.,, .li-.v ;_;,ii " ;::n--.u J.u; 'i-. i'm v .nv, vlr-.-hv.; ,: , Jr. 'I !'Iiii..f- I. 'if* .1 ..■ fi 111 i. ■!,,:r, '■'<") ■■" 1. ■.. .;■■.,(; :. if, ,11 1! l.rrf ,,','m' 1 ■ ■■j'l' • l''1l'v - , ■ I- :ll. I til,- i^ ■ >): ' m,-i>i '■'*',.' V I ; \ •' '■ .1-1 I •,!/:: 1 - 'i) .■I-;-, ' I'- .01.(1 ' '.a '•%' r. • ll •Iftdl (1.1 ;ii u. /i- • ;• 'jiu'lf i i; !♦ /•I M i.ltl. .11 '. i 1 .•.•iU:| - tl ?•■> , ; I J (U ^i r\' iV. .1 n > i- ) !. r llj 1 1 r 1, - t' T 'it.,-.!! •i . ..iV/ THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 65 various shades) of several descriptions of brush touches that are adapted to produce characteristic imitations of foliage and herbage. A few of these touches, distinguishable by their brokenness of appearance, and contained on the upper left-hand corner of the copy, should be imitated with a so-called dry brush, or brush having so little color in it that its hairs naturally separate when used on a drawing surface, and in consequence make broken markings, or markings of individual hairs rather than of their combined mass. The touches occurring immediately underneath the examples of dry-brush touch and those on a line therewith (excepting the right-hand corner ones) as may be readily discerned, represent beech, elm, oak, and ash tree-foliage ; and fine, light pencil out- lines, indicating their size and general direction, should be made of them before they are depicted with the brush. The right-hand corner mass of touches is a representation of ground-herbage, and should be imitated by proceeding as enjoined for copying the neighbouring foliage. After slight outlines have been made of the three lower subjects of copy 36, to / '-V "H, depict them properly, a perfectly even wash of tint, agreeing in depth of shade with the lightest tint belonging to them, should be worked over the whole of the spaces sur- rounded by the drawing of their outlines, excepting where white places should be pre- served on the spaces, such as appear on parts of the weed-leaves and ground of the left hand side small subject, and on portions of the posts, etc. of the right-hand side subject. When this wash of tint has been laid in on the drawing and become dry, the foliage- touches and ground-markings to be imitated should be executed, some massively or with very broad touches worked into masses such as will hardly display any breaks of lighter i^ i^il ' 66 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. tint, and some distinctly or shewing breaks ; and the side of the point of a large brush, the hairs of which have been wrought to a point on waste paper, should be employed to make the touches according as required. One only, however, of these subjects shoiUd be under- taken at a time ; and the characteristics of each should be depicted in the order of their depth of shade, commencing with the lighest shade of tint wash of which they are to be composed — so that thuse which are to appear the darkest should be executed the last ; whilst, at the same time, the copyist should aim at depicting the spirit or meaning of the copy rather than endeavour to imitate each marking employed in producing the eflFect of the subject he may be copying. Sepia color, copy 40, is divided into three parts. The two small parts occupying the left-hand half of the copy are partial representations of the sky of the complete subject contained on the other half of the copy, and they should be depicted separately before the imitation of the complete subject is attempted, as the imitation of the latter will be rendered the easier by adopting the preliminary process recommended. On imitating the upper small part — after a very slight outline (such as will totally disappear under a light wash of sepia tint) has been made of the white places to be left on the drawing to indicate cloudings, a light tint, like that existing on the copy of the sky-representation, should be laid perfectly even over the whole of the drawing excepting where the white cloudings should appear. To imitate the lower small part of the copy, an outline should be made in this, as in the former case, of the white cloudings to be left on the drawing — a light tint, like that on the upper small part previously imitated, should be laid evenly over all the drawing but where the white cloudings should be, and, when the first wash is dry, a second darker tint should be laid over the same portions of the drawing as the first tint was worked over — the proper shade of the second tint having been previously ascertained and made to match with the copy, by experiment on waste paper. The complete subject of this copy on depicting it should be outlined, with a thin line such as that represented on the outline subject. Fig. 91. Then a light tint, such as is observable on the lighter portion of the sky, should be worked over all but those portions of the drawing which should remain white according to the copy ; a darker tint, after the first has become dry, should follow it over all the drawing but where lighter tinted and white places should remain ; a third shade be produced over all the drawing but where the first and second tints and white places alone should appear ; a fourth shade succeed and cover those portions of the drawing which should look darker than the lighter shades of tints previously washed in ; and, to finish the drawing, requisite specific ground mark- ings, house-roof and wall, paling and boat markings, with the dark outlining^ and very dark shadows to be represented, should be depicted with color of the right degree of intensity of shade, amounting in places to almost blackness. The Sepia color copy 41, should be imitated by depicting primarily a pure clear fine outline of its largest sized subject, so as to appear similar to that shown by Figure 91 ; and such an outline, therefore, as will just suffice to serve as a guide with regard to the places on the copied subject where washings and dark markings of color should be laid on with the brush. After the outline has been depicted, a sepia color wash of the lightest shade to be used for the drawing should be laid evenly over all the subject excepting where white places should be left thereon ; or of a shade, and over the parts of the subject corresponding with the light tinting almost entirely covering the topmost small similar subject of the copy. A second wash, when the first laid on is dry, and darker than it, next should be laid over the copied subject and be made to cover such parts thereof as correspond with the tinted parts of the left hand side small subject of the copy, and with a tint of the shade of those tinted parts. A third wash should be laid over the second tint wheji dry, so as to cover such parts of the copied subject as correspond with the tinted parts of the right-hand small subject of the copy, and of the same depth of shade as the tinting on this small subject. Lastly the light and strong markings of the large subject of the copy, indicating stone divisions, ornaments, broken outlines, foliage, herbage, etc., should be imitated on the copied subject, for the completion of the drawing, after the third wash has been laid on, and with shades of color that vary from the lightest to the darkest tints of sepia. To produce the Sepia-color Mill-subject copy, on depicting it, it should be treated like the subject of the last copy ; that is, all its forms which should be defined for the guidance of the brush should be outlined very decidedly but finely, or so that their outlines .H.iTHAf/. ovr///.)!'! .i/-,/nrr// .ini- ■»;> large brush, the ployed to make liould be under- order of thehr they are to be :uted the last; meaning of the ig the eflPect of occupying the tmplete subject parately before 5 latter will be On imitating appear under a the drawing to •representation, here the white I outline should the drawing — be laid evenly the first wash drawing as the been previously svith a thin line :int, such as is those portions p tint, after the iter tinted and ing but where shade succeed lighter shades ground mark- ings and very ght degree of jure clear fine )y Figure 91 ; regard to the lould be laid wash of the the subject r the parts of ;opmost small y, and darker r such parts of the copy, laid over the respond with ame depth of kings of the lines, foliage, the drawing, iiy from the be treated ifined for the ;heir outlines i.-iJ .dsoifl 3;£^'fi;f aloiiiioff orlj 1o 'ifji" uiit btiu , «;(«oid 75iiiw&H« ro ^Fto/fitiffi ■:ii(iO'. i'ltn Tint jAaiu ot fil^iioT// iioorf aviuf (i'liifv,' ')•' rnrnri -Tjbnu ndhUi\)ih. dt-.''t|(fin •.)-.:)/<) "to .•!>/.•>//()/! .^lao '.ml.) ti'iuipot ''■r, giiihio.jMii -.•ul:.i))uT niJ sisdi lo T>b-Jo ■iiU iii U')V)upU ni bUiuih fbj;'»'to i-iilp.iTi\j<-unh od) btia .nKuf n ir. noilii* k1 oi om V'jfif f'jtifv/ 1o il\>iul'.%i (itq>b , Hal oiii ly^1u•r^r.•.) xi bluud.-' t^i iJicb "n'.i ijtiq(jK ot ;nij (JoiH'/ j^cufMon) or!-— b'l'^'iijnui) jdj lo \A4V»\v>9i\', 10 is-vK^a Oilt j^iul'jiij['i)> tii iriiii bluoifs i^^ivqtn 'Jift ,:">""' '^niBS ;)Hi lit f'liiJw )o .t'JoTly Jfll yunntiirii-f iii liv7'/!qijio «>iu;!'H]iii i{'jj;-? .()j;timi oj ■luavRoUtvi nddi 'jodhn vq" ■ ^(ii'iTifcn oi! 7i!frt oil iDjjilu-' jilt Jtft T^nivqi.'O').) fjTjuj Ifjifii* riv<-t '»r(T -^t'lJiq noiill o)ui ii'ifji/ih ei ,1)1- vqo'.) /tfifo-j r,[ip< ••vjidu" •iiMlqrno!) aiU 'to Vif-; Jiit Ho o 'nittn Ifnfl bffajf-fl,-! .)fol':>tf yj*t(nj;(CJa fj>i;>i.i'i[) Li(f tiluDiii; ^yi/ll bnp. '(iioo ;)ilt to IFml 'oiliti fiHt no b'tiidjt.io'. Hi Iliw lOJiii o/lt 'to (toijr.tiiiii :.ii} -ji Jj-jtqiii-j:?!!-. rii tooi;!!)^ ofolciiiiou .Jflt 1o (loit/jiiim hI? jmtfitidri ;i() I)'>f)ii'jifriiio-)ri H^'yuiV] fjmnuiul.nq fiiJt 74nitq(jiu? vcf lORivt ')ilt ijf>i:.)i>ii -i ■i itjbiiu uiiqqiijib yfli'.lo) Ibv -i: /iJOf.) .nulbto .t-A-gU?. ri-yj n i')tln — Jim[ Kfirdf. igqqi- miJ j)' i^nfwinl) ;iilJ no i\-j[ ul ni ?i;rj.i;[i( otiifw 'i/lt l.o ftbuni rri'icf >.iitl (tnti )siq^i=to li-iuv/ f.ii'.'' noiltUiu)-' •iq')7-'{;}l? -^itfl 'bi v/j" ■ yilt no '4iiit>i/.ri t;u(1 ;jdil .tnif Irfyfl J5 ,iy(i!l)iio[.i iti'jii'ii. jttil'" lift tvnifi 5nit(i-.»')7.) ^(liwi-.tb )jlt 'to iloil'w oilt 'vrto ii') vj /Uoii'tfiif birl 'ki f.IiiMii- ;i[uoffri oiiiltuo fii» .vijo ' wll l.i tac.q Ifitiri-' '!'i>/ip| dift f)tntii((j oT ui-jqqii hbiol?. -'jiiibiniii — Tioiz/inli -alt iio J't-.ii ill lit '^iiJuinf-i j),([// 'Kit Ici ,i-.i;;> 'I'lffriot o/It a) ^i; .''.nft m Mbiun j(' Knl/O bull '>d bIyOff- .fi'itjSfidli {[■•ilJoiv^-Kj txiU] HlUU^ l'J([qir ':>lli /lO tlUij ijlf .jint tf!L;ii :, ifXiv/ J'.'ifl ail.t -uail'/:? ,!)ri)-i\'V,l biin'iilr e^jfi/Iiwob iiJ/ri/,' •••ili i^i'jif// tin! yinv/i'.-ii; :)(lt I'l; i:)/: ,'ilt vu i;iH7/»i-|b vHl 1o -iioitim] )UU-> nit lovi' 'hi, J 'xf bbrorlf. Init I3«''ii;!) bin;')'.!-: i! ."ib -■ .' i'ur/f>'i>l iioxf TjiTiVis;! tiiit buoj'.,- jiit t'.i ibs:\\' I'q'rn; ai!t--i'j/o lvi,J-(|i// v.a 'i\\\ '-u! : ■^rCl' •■ •;•, ■! )n-: , lint fir;:if J o Jii'l I'l ^i'l )'.-,\y.,\'. -..ifd.!;) i'(t if.. b';fit-)> rf>r): t<;/il ^i, ^^li■■ .,lw| (l.).; \--'u\] liili i!l! !_' ' • ,b IVt'l' • tt -M !i!ul>i(' . ! A- III I '■*.• ;]. .:!-l' hj -ilflf^;!! >)!t Oil 'ill!;; '■('•Til- • ill I .fh'i Jii'i ■vi.lii;b I ('■l'"' ■'•Li "' :inbfo')>i; 'iiiJ'/ iiuvii'M liiwil- ibiul" !i.'H//r.'i!i ilf '*■ h:i)i iivOtiif iifi'^Iil ■■>'f)itv/ 'ni' vi;!//,.-;!' ,'ll !b. ii'u li ■•'■illi/'t bii.'i'if- /'li' muioj-ii' -i,i! '-t:'! iriiiv^ 'ijd .M'Vr.'llS nrlf (ii. \-<:i b-Dulio'i:! .(( ibml- b!:i!l v. ,i(i-iil''t li'iioil- -o'liiir; ■.Iiii/' !.'•)■>■:) II-- ilh.il- .it'liio'l I- . (l.Kjijr, bbli ll' •••I-'m'ii -'i'lrlq ;t.il/' I'Oi, ■ I i;i !' b,!i) . i - \ti\' t- til 'l(> t'l.ntr I'vljiui! jifl iM'.iW 'i'j..!'i.;b /liii;i Mnoil- il-^'itw :jiii /.■ut. -imI'I'i -ii..'tfo.i •/-■d; -i r/.r- !(.!,■ • ■(■(r.iil !iiiii...i-?;i :))')i"l'")ijr: 'ili-liifV''! ■iiilL'/irsb :j(l ; I-,!;M .t '<■;,. .;i 1. til-j-y/ i<.i.)!/vir, -tilif !■ rri r iini; -••jiiiiiifliiu >i)rb :»iif i(tr// k^iii/I'/mhi ii.in' bin. vnib.i] .fb;// bui- ten i- .-in.ft .'■^iir 'i. .i')'r'.i'.»b blycj 111/ 'ti- "i/bii iitrv b.;j-,)tq-ii; ..'• i,Ii i/il- b'lfrr'' i iq •■! )i' •! -//oli/d- .ij;,:i .'.c'lU ll'ifiltl Jroiiib; '.il ^ ) iitlq .11 'jfii.tiiiiUiiL. .••br.iU. 'til Mi-,ri!!; -•.lit -fr.-)!') ■.vtijij li •;!:'tn.(!i'iq ^nit'iiq-ib /.ii;;l > fj to iilltii) • ;.i ' lit !ni;i;\i'f j)5l // .'lOn.-;., j; -i,; ;)."/. ; •' iflil- ?-il( b'r.v mi . /fo't'i'iOiil •tiiiitiio .ri'. ll'm-' 'I'O' llil [ 'Ki llbjOrf-; Il'fo-l tit" ••'.l.ili'liU:! /I'll. OiJfi -!'>i(ll:i-li'.V/ I'I'lli/.' Ij'ljl'.i,-' b lllj(P-> lilt /I" -'ll'lil •';!,• Ill 'i-iiM! ■Kjfii'i IK'.; I. 'iMr.iq-iii u'vi.j. "..Hit iniltiiM -.Kif t-)t'fA .fl^irn' ult '\y {< m ' t|,'irj^ nit i!,i; 'nvi /ill-).',- h;j.l ."i t.liii'i(> ;i|('r;. (;•;!> .uj! lo'i ii'i-ii n! "t ''bml^ l-'itilii!' !•• -l'0>.'j '.il't •))■'.•, bli; . .iu,i(- '! ' !• . ui-rl.'Jiff iVA 'jl)if-" rT'dl .-/ -v^iirtq'ii' ' !'n;i,.-' J^o,.i.io.» -lilt Li.i;n,-' '■.,,•.)•,,; (;■•' t- mhIi. Miiibiit lilj! nit dt, ' ,u!;i|)ii"q-'i'rio'.) t'lOJiiii'i 'nit I'lrtiuii j)ifj: .viii -.1 ii(i i;(i>i l-iil )il' iT'ni " il'i!'/ tuio-i i- f' ./jo'i nK )■• toircfn rniifii:' ,-"ij'(| (I'.PU' (JV>V) ,it jtljliil n! ililj; j'l-ljd;.- b;.»ii|ii'> -nl.t ri/./. ivi'.l uf bltinii^ 1.-"iri .II JlJilt •/■yn:. ■.uf,! 't... j-.nH.dll- Horn- ■)\)\' iior.ii ilil .nf' 'In -l-'nq boin r nit dfiv.' b(iiui-..riuj .^j. to ii'.iji Kir T.I7'.' (.'!iii -td jdnod' A't'.ii b'lidJ /- .--I'laq b:)t(iit •y-.i\1 ''o -jbj.di .nif 'tc» tnil r. dti// Ixir ilfi'/ biii'ij-vfiuj ^i: i'i'qdu> o-iiiroi 'Jilt \o :-tiiiq it-ii.i=< 'it>7M'.i fit ^1! ^1- 7,ib .lOil// tnit I)ii0''o- •■■'• dtqib ji Tfir '.iii? to baa .vijo-j I'lilt ')o I'VJfdu- Knm*' fini;ii-tiit:rt idt to >tijiif li'iinil '.>»i' .'-St 'to ryni/i'iiwii ■yito-it.^ biu. .td^jU xn\i /Ij-ijul ! -iidn- I'V'ri- -oil u" ■"lintii.' -Ai -:; .'ibi-.d- • U.j;do't .'.-isiiltuf' nvrtu-ii' •tn'jfruiii'io ,'no'-'i yd, <,i.>*' •. iii'ir.dii;! -'m.-.-, i,i' "i .. I - ijdi!- ou-o- ■iiliv^j',-t.'..> iiij 'to iioit.doiK "1 .'.lit -i.i.d .t'v»ir! (- b-iiq-.') Muf -i - o.!i.''iiii i' bllio I--, . it". i:_r.il'i--i.t' jdt iMO'll 'ru;7 J|>.d/ luiu'V ■}o ;- .ilij.ii*? \\\"i !'!:!. IM ' .:! nvni n! ,Hi;;/ ;/!ii!1 >dt rOb' .iiq-.- :m -■.;:r I lvv,lii>|> idt ••' f-'4il .:■' b-jtevn ad bi'ijc>il=^ Jt .b yii.itouf'ib no .v;.|o:, t-.Mfd'r-. i'd^. -oli' ..iiri-< "d' i')..di"f:i 'I' .uft lol b'liiit^b t>d Idnoit"^ ;t:>ui.'.' j.ai'io' 'ti )';■ --i liiit ojo-, t-'iii ;dl ')• Ti'ifdi.- i'.iir ob; -o.uliiin'jriiittiuir ■->-.• '10 vioail Jrai •i\\y}{):ji\: vt-)/ t"i)id!;)o .ni /Jonp- d.-imi ^U t'^ -.lonjitiirr^ JM f 1 ♦••-4 i h I S > X a < a: O o -J > X o I- z ({''■'♦•(■^•v I ; i,i; - ~---^r: ..--U^. y* ?^/ THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 67 will not show through the tint to be laid over them ; and successive washings of tint, deepening in shade one after another, should be passed over the drawing when the preceding one has become dry, whilst each should be laid on those parts of the drawing which should not appear of a lighter shade than itself. But the parts of the drawing which should present specific characteristic touch markings (requisite to show stone, or brick work, roof tiling, foliage imitations, or peculiarities of surface of any kind) that should be darker than the lightest shade of tint to be used for the drawing, should be washed over with the tint only that is hghter than they should be ; otherwise when those touches are made they will appear too dark, for the shade of tint lying under specific markings deepens their colour; and, consequently, where such markings are to occur in a colour drawing, no tint washes should be worked over those localities that will affect the shade of the tint by which they are to be produced, so as in any way to cause the markings made by that tint to appear darker than they should be. Each specific marking, also, that is to be made of a certain depth of colour, should be put in when the wash of tint is being used, which in depth assimilates with the strength of the markings, and immediately after all the places on the drawing which are to be covered with an even mass of the same tint have been worked over. The two remaining sepia copies should be imitated through a mode of proceeding similar to that which has been given for the imitation of the foregoing sepia copies. The outUne of the building forming the subject of one of these copies, and executed in sepia color, on a preceding plate, is intended to shew that, although the outline of a color- drawing, if drawn in at first with a strong line, would not disappear as it should under the washes of color laid over it ; yet that, on finishing a drawing, vigorous dark touches frequently should be added either to portions, or, as in this case, to the whole of the outline of a subject, so as to impart force and character to them — buildings more espe- cially often requiring, in color as well as in pencil-drawing, the aid of a great deal of dark touchy outline to render them effective. There are effects, however, in some of these copies accidentally incidental to the means by which they have been executed, that should not be imitated : namely, 1 . That of occasional imperfection of outlines and greater weakness in some of their parts than there should be ; and 2. That of insufficiently gradual transition from one shade of tint to another. Nevertheless, these defects need not militate against the production of attrac- tive and good drawings, from the copies if on imitating them, repetition of their faults be avoided by the use of due strength of outline and tintings, in parts which would be defective if depicted without such strength; and, likewise, by imitating each of these sepia color copies carefully two or three times, according to all the directions that have been given respecting them, the use of the brush may be sufficiently mastered by learners to enable them to proceed to the practice of the superior branch of color-drawing, requir- ing the employment of the whole range of colors. But as the object of this work is limited to that of elementary instruction, or is to set learners on a pleasant and easily-pursued pathway towards the domains of Art in the highest acceptation of the term, it does not come within its aim to treat of the means of producing perfect specimens of diversely colored drawings, or to endeavour to render learners perfect artists. To become such they must seek Nature as their teacher, the instant they can make good outlines, and use their pencil and brush with freedom and precision, for all the different purposes of shading and characteristic touch imitations. Yet, although they should begin thus early to work after Nature's schoolings — and their taste and discernment, it may be presumed on doing so, have become so matured through previous exercise and cultivation, as to enable them to proceed in their studies with a certainty of ultimately acquiring a great degree of proficiency in the practice of Art by their own unaided efforts — still it is advisa1)le they should seek the assistance of proper works treating of Art in its more advanced stages than this does, should they wish to arrive quickly at the absolute proficiency they are capable of attaining. «: M r^ar. ?*'■■>?■'■.' Tf On Perspkctive. In consequence of the existence of various systems of perspective science, which in several important respects mutually differ in their teachings, and do not lead to the production of faithful imitations of Nature, the science, hitherto, has been justly con- 8idere(\ by the many, an exceedingly obscure, bewildering, and unattractive study. Through these pages, however, the author trusts it will be found the reverse, as he believes he presents therein a new system comparatively simple, easy to be understood and applied, and, above all, adequate to ensure the production of results uniformly analogous to those of Nature, since it is founded on those principles alone which the study of Nature has proved to be correct in every way. The general word " Perspective " has an extended signification. It applies to certain natural effects specifically termed Aerial Perspective, and Lineal Perspective ; the former arising irom the influence of what may be considered the perspective law of Nature acting upon the atmosphere through distance ; the latter from the same cause acting on the surfaces of objects, and also through distance : and it signifies, likewise, the science of perspective based on the above-named effects and on this account divided into two branches — aerial perspective and lineal perspective. Of aerial perspective it is requisite to say but little. In Nature it is an effect causing color, light, shadow and form, to appear less intense and distinct than they are, in pro- portion as they recede the further from the eye. Aerial perspective, then, relatively to Nature, is the gradual diminution of the intensity and distinctness of color, light and shadow, from the eye towards liie horizon or towards that circular line which is discern- ible where the sky seems to meet the earth ; and it renders the aspect, for instance, of the extremely distant portions of a landscape sometimes perfectly grey ; that of very distant color, light, shadow and form, invariably indistinct ; and that of everything softer and more agreeable to the eye than it would appear but for its influence. The system and rule of aerial perspective considered as a branch of the science of perspective, therefore, requires, if we desire to produce the semblance of natural aerial perspective in a picture, that the color, light, shadows and forms, to be depicted therein, diminish gradually in intensity and distinctness as the parts of the objects on which they are to be represented recede frai.% the base or bottom line of the picture (which is supposed to represent a point in Nature nearer to the eye than any other part of the picture does) towards that portion of the picture which represents the horizon. With reference to lineal perspective, previously to entering upon an exposition of the principles and rules of this system of its science, it is advisable to devote some space to an explanation of what lineal perspective is in Nature, what it results from and what are its exact effects ; because when once these matters are clearly under- stood, the purpose of the science and the necessity of delineating everything intended to i i in e science, which in do not lead to the las been justly con- unattractive study, the reverse, as he ' to be understood ' results uniformly es alone which the t applies to certain )ective ; the former ;tive law of Nature ne cause acting on Icewise, the science nt divided into two s an effect causing in they are, in pro- then, relatively to of color, hght and e which is discem- !ct, for instance, of rey ; that of very hat of everything iluence. of the science of e of natural aerial 3 depicted therein, jcts on which they 'which is supposed the picture does) )n an exposition visable to devote re, what it results are clearly under- thing intended to ill ii' .i <'I lluii* . ii i ■:!■ i. i ^: il:. ■^i Rl!i- !'f m i k- fv v^ ^ «' < m f, X i ( '.a « 'ri\ I n J1MT8AM D/iVfff.aa JAVionvj/i aHT ai/oiydo oraooatf ili'w .aalqiimnq ^JJ ri.tiv^ v.Jinnolaoa JonJa ai .aisiiaVj. lo noitotimt u^ orJ oil 3vJJaa(j'i'i3i{ JooaTOo m ^Jauf^do lo eguiy/tnb siuivJoni "io ll>'^■oq x; 'io Jn'jni;nii(po/i odi hur, .anoianaiiiiJj Io aoiioiJifnoD 10 .-jxis 'io a-^.ol ino'tfiqqjs odi ai oxuinVl iii oviJooqs'ioq IxoiiiJ afU gi Ji biUi ; ■iii moil l«ix;) vadj 'v5A)-us\oM ,yw«* .=>AJ iirfulzo biiiJ Tiovo Io aofWi^Tus d-j(rfv7 8U o^ isiiwn biiB r9lh;ni« ^^({([/j ot Jooj^tJo ^no/o ^OiiUiO vlJiioupasnoo h'.di '/tai & Io tliis-n arii li aimsH .at; iirfnl aoajitaib aJi iioqa giiihnoqob tiwtxo im at sr Ji amlf ii 10 ,9SiB ni ILbiI 9ao riainiiiiifa T^I)u'j'i«qqB Jli// Jaajifo odi .b'ilduob ad t;>o[do njR 'to noaalsih fi aa 8U mio-ft «b'n!'{ bonbriiid ano 'to srjHKtflib o/It tu rcgxcf ^i/) Had airo yfno "usaqqu fftw .lO -^i! 11)''] , -:i> )ua]!;ib II15 ot fa'tij^i^'^JT liJj//^ .riho'i 03 baa .abiir^ -^t'ljl to .-jonjsteib otlt t/s eaob '10 aioat bavQia m ioajdo oiiiaa yxit nad//" ,83tBJa ",9on9iD8 ^onioaauM" aid ni ,ioobiJk] inoiBq<}ii ati ,31 Jjidt ; iOfuvtriib riti 3i5 vj(v-'i;»viii n'mwr ohuihi-y^nm tno-tnqqB sti ay;) odi eb-rnwol ''■.jw\i<$ sow bfl« hydssKiiniib si aoimt^ib -ri fjji jioij'xoqo'iq oaum ailt ni iia^uoioiii y.i obiiJinyiso! arii bnA .uoiaiv to a^aB'i adi o) sovlaeinodt oiiiluoa 3vti'Joqe'iO(| to atootta adi.Jufl a 00 byxfl »r 3'^9 odt ji;jdw hw ot ofdiai/ fl'ir,:ih oocq-i to gfrjujiuoo odi ^i iioiHry to 3^3^iIJrf guiwaiv xio .yiiimiii^tJiq luo iio({i/ abnoqjb oii'jua « to ^^'f,tot)q8l3q Mxlt an lot . td^i»! to tniO(j lobni) aaa ot 3V9 3ri.t lot ■^Idigaoq ad bluow ii sa eo mo'fi jni>t«ib an ei nosiio/i sti JadJ .ono 9110 at aliaoqqo xil3^-*f'J'b'jxft tqojl ai :vr) odt to ojncig orit Jcdt bnc ,s9-jmvt2mu;mo \(U-, 3-jaie baa "; Jdyia to liiioq ydf " ,no'i}Mn ^tdt 'lot bonnat Jnioq .b .uosiiod a'^noo-i -idi "io hi'ur.: aaxiqa adi to iioicfioq niatioo £ ni .gfid Ji .tiiioq bj.tojjJif; nndt a xio b3/.fl «i mi^o ydt uariv. aidi cii sad ti lOOiio Jj; .'jlcfisir ^(I-iaab ad uijo t«dj aoisqc to *?jiqnioo lis/jjois sdj ,Jt yniont J .noJstY to oyiiji't inU to rbauod Ifx;'t jdt g'Siuoibai lioidw ixsdt «»Xiqniu'j to sojtt'xfiE JxiaxBcr«dx5it & .aoiaiy to oyiun aii to Usiitinnivjixinioo aiit in Jxjxft ^ur-.otjqu^ ol 9'i'jv/ ti dguo'itft sidisiv too(,du '■fm Lujj Jinnif, ot ;*x.-5i/ .■.t(i«[q 3vj.t3aq?ioq n Jj-iilxjo ,rcaqnq ooxji adJ 'xabnai bJuow t&di jJuiji xj ai iisdt 9 /tto;)qf.i;)q fxifmif .3v;9 odt rao'x't i^liid'/9 ob'joyi 9oni5J^ib aji e« noit*io(ioiq yrru!?! adi ni .•iiunnnwiqii ni -vji\n«tH \5\\j!w'biyt'^ t-joyfo odt t'. xio ad bnji danot oJ (ir.J0« ot bb •tt>t)« oe •^Itix:>'iR((qx; bxixt ,gjj nioit •'..>iV)S)'<\> ^\'\viui)5y\i^ oinxjooi! -iitifjsyiqs'i s at^vr ii ti an irni'i .ouulq a f i.boqa'f-.iq 10 ^loqcq insixiqsnfi'it sxit to yaxitiixa aift ^(lu; no 9tf ^(IJbuJoo iik'ov/ Joajjfo adi to jiotJ^xstuaHoiqoi a 3X5 .-lo . uooioxit bototqob iioit tvNSitb UTJV/ >)i doixlw no([W -iuqfi([ t'l jotitiif llr. to !i:>nilJxfo odi % arroittoq okfiaiv adt Itu aaaxxBO ,v[jiior/p9eirot) ,wnl aviio'jqrtiyq jdT 90(r«i(iH({([ij lit r.^jaiTO'irf liiut')/! 'iiadt ■j'iiffxido ot .am^iv to -.rjiinT oift /irrftiw -jjnrt^ixM ,c;.t';)9i_do -syyitiiii ,f)'.»J*!t^ noid «xid sxj ,'^b'iyra Jon ti o^imaod c«i' >-'J t^'"' xoiUo d-.yu'} oi \hvhid'y^ ladi ni'ibiif. ■^[iarj3fe999ii axiiiJ oai«a adt in iud ,&ib '-^ydt iixjdt aff ot jaiaau ijjoqqxi etooj/fo )/r9nT9oxdq«ib ovitoaq-iioq =ii(ft :'m\ T9fl.tfri5dt ftaiixs'utaqqxi iri so oJ Jbxrxi 'i9x[to do/Jo o1'1'j%c9xi^Vmm\ ot noijoxj'ilflo'j yviJaaqe-xaq ojJt to iiixiJiiuoaao*) sldijtiYOdi u;! ■'j^ui-'if a^Htdt to f-iiuq adi tc^ • bblo'J(/lfja ^inl)(ixit»: ,t]noA a '\ii ^ri^i'd (txidt .fiaaa 9d IVm -li xiadJ lot ■ buaox -^Itua^ qood adt yniinxxt v,'f bfitfialatio sai _tri 3£ o'loin bdfl D'loiu qood oxlt to xiiiot aib'iio taat'xaq alt s'^ottHai) y;ifaiadt Jnm .obh teffiSiT •^rnvad .aaiiaxrHui nidi Uiau , a-ja adt mo'it ■t-'.iti^pni abiia Oilt to ■■&mi to asofiaieib 'A^t ^b'lia odi 'to ooAii'iaaqqu axit bf>j^ii«da vfrxuibtn^ .'^ , .Iflvo gniwoTiBxi •'^kxfouniJnoa 'i\ to Txidt otar , ot qood 3 \}>\.l a, jiiini.'? ■yiutu 'a ,ia/av«>d it ixjdt alddaaxJoti ai ii daixlw xti ,001*098 AiAi ot ■gniliKsd Uiiotaiq adt ;ti ba'n[9*do ad 1* nofJiitfoit is& otf •sa.TjjI'iua i[jid/> al 8 lo tbso'i xt si ti n«ili aa 'io !)OJU!i«ifi ro XB9<|qe fliw ijih ofit t« «3ob '.\ii sii .lyflfjiA.] li f?i oboJiiri^i'dT mvr "in 'j-^mn Irf^qte lo Jnioq i sii jBiiJ ,ono jifamuoiio ■^nB >o« "iih ^0 hum •^\o iidi naiiw oriJ .Jt ^ariioBl hioi/lo aril 'to Ho yoahua oili hohifph noh jijrtTuj jiri." irJiiix.-j .fcioofifo oi y;l9/ilii[Tr Ija-.W}i}I! *;■>■.).>(([() hnq iidt '\o [(i/TJVt) ihidTT D'uli auriT ; )ltf)jo htm yifol /fiois'i -JiiT ,?i t ,((jil abo'iOT ii KHlto d-H:°> 3flt UIOl'I 'it) ijiri;gn;-.if r..}i l«p^ iCtJjia:) ft lo) ,f[ood ?fi'MUiieib '^t. .z' THE NATIONAL DP AWING MASTER. 71 be an imitation of Nature, in strict conformity with its principles, will become obvious, and the acquirement of a power of making drawings of objects in correct perspective be greatly facilitated. Lineal perspective in Nature is the apparent loss of size, or contraction of dimensions, which surfaces of every kind exhibit the more, the further they exist from us ; and it is the result of a law that consequently causes every object to appear smaller and nearer to us than it is to an extent depending upon its distance from us. Hence if the distance of an object be doubled, the object will apparently diminish one half in size, or it will appear only one half as large at the distance of one hundred yards from us as it does at the distance of fifty yards, and so forth, with regard to all distances. For as Dr. Lardner, in his "Museum of Science," states, "when the same object is moved from or towards the eye its apparent magnitude varies inversely as its distance ; that is, its apparent magnitude is increased in the same proportion as its distance is diminished and vice versa." But the effects of perspective confine themselves to the range of vision. And the range of vision is the compass of space clearly visible to us when the eye is fixed on a point of sight : for as the perspective of a scene depends upon our presuming, on viewing one, that its horizon is as distant from us as it would be possible for the eye to see under any circumstances, and that the glance of the eye is kept fixed exactly opposite to one point of the scene's horizon, a point termed for this reason, " the point of sight ; " and since when the eye is fixed on a thus situated point, it has, in a certain portion of the space facing it, the actual compass of space that can be clearly visible at once, it has in this compass that which indicates the full bounds of the range of vision. Supposing that at the commencement of the range of vision, a transparent surface of paper, called a perspective plane, were to stand, and any object visible through it were to recede evenly from the eye, lineal perspective then is a result that would render the face of tiie object gradualhj smaller in appearance, in the same proportion as its distance became gradually greater from us, and apparently so near as to seem to touch and lie on the surface of the transparent paper, or perspective plane, just as if it were a representa- tion depicted thereon ; or, as a representation of the object would actually lie on any surface of paper upon which it were drawn. The perspective law, consequently, causes all the visible portions of the outlines of all objects, existing within the range of vision, to change their actual bearings in appearance relatively to each other and to us ; because it not merely, as has been stated, makes objects appear nearer to us than they are, but at the same time necessarily renders their ^arisnearerto each other and to us in appearance than they are; this perspective displacement of the parts of things being an inevitable concomitant of the perspective contraction to which everything visible is subjected. Thus through the action of this law on the relative bearings of things, the sides of a long and uniformly wide street, will seem to approach each other the more and more (that is, the relative bearings of all their parts will appear to alter more and more) as the sides j-ecede from the eye towards the further end of the street, and will seem almost to touch each other at their termination, if the street be very long. From the same cause, a circle appears to change into an oval, as may be proved by hanging up a hoop, standing at arms length therefrom, with the eyes opposite to the centre of its circle, and by turning the hoop gently round : for then it will be seen, that, as the hoop turns, the influence of the law of perspective causes the receding side of the hoop, (or the one moving the further from the eye) to appear gradually to approach its nearer side, and thereby destroys the perfect circle form of the hoop more and more as the distances of parts of the circle increase from the eye ; until this influence, having ^^ gradually changed the appearance of the circle into that of a continuously narrowing oval, at length causes the two sides of the hoop to appear merged into one line, as represented by h. Fig. 92, producing this perspective effect exactly as the hoop has turned half way round. This apparent change of relative bearings, however, is more evident in the case of a tunnel than of any other object, as may be observed in the pictorial heading to this Section, in which it is noticeable that a I J THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. tunnel seemingly tapera ofP, or narrows, so as to appear as if it would come to a fine point if it were much longer than there represented, or eiiitended to a certain greater distance ; and that its further aperture appears like a small hole as compared with its nearer one, notwithstanding, ordinarily, no one part of a tunnel is wider than another, and that the apertures at each end are equally large. Photography, also, supplies abundant proofs of the invariable tendency of all objects to appear gradually to taper off towards their further ends, according as their parts lie more and more back from the eye. See Fig. 93, and observe in the same figure, that the reason of this eflFect of narrowing, is because, (through the apparent change of relative bearings above alluded to) lines which are below the eye seem to run upwards towards the horizon, {h. h.) and lines above the eye to run down- wards towards the horizon ; that is, as regardc every line one end of which lies further back from the eye than the other, and both ends of which lie at an equal height from the ground. Any such line, how- ever, that has both its ends at the sa me height firom the ground as the eye is situated, appears to cover the horizon line as though forming part of it ; so that if such a line were to run across a scene from one side to the other of it, that line would apparently form the horizon line of the scene. See line, a ; additional explanation of these matters, likewise, are afforded further on in the remarks on vanish- ing points. The general efiects, then, of lineal perspective, or that the perspective law of Nature produces, it has been shown are such as to cause everything within the range of vision to seem to be in a state of contraction. A state making everything, whatever may be its distance from us, appear smaller than it is ; nearer to us and to other things than it is ; as well as usually of a different shape in some of its parts than it is ; and as if its visible surfaces were lying on an imaginary transparent surface, called a perspective plane. We may consider this law to be in fact a benign provision to increase the utility and our enjoyment of the faculty of sight, the powers of which, as respects the advantages we derive from them and constituted as the visual organ is, would be comparatively limited but for such a provision. For owing to its influence on the dimensions of things, in rendering them apparently excessively smaller than they are, near portions of space and near objects do not prevent more distant ones from coming within vision range so much as they would do but for it ; whilst the eye is enabled thereby, without change of position, to see an enormously larger amount of actual space, or to a far greater distance, as well as a far greater quantity and variety of objects that it could otherwise. And as, besides producing these effects, it also causes the visible surfaces of all objects within the range of vision to appear as if lying upon the surface of a perspective plane intervening between them and the eye — as a sheet of glass might vitervene — it mainly enables us, for the purpose of representation, to select from a fixed point of view a portion of a far extending scene, consisting of a large mass of the earth's surface and of objects which together present a nearly incalculable amount of surface to our gaze, and to delineate the whole distinctly on a fiat drawing plane of almost the smallest comparative dimensions. The exact character and consequences of perspective contraction, however, can be most easily comprehended by imagining; 1. A scene composed of the greatest extent of level Fig. 93, traced from a photograph. n.TI^/.I/ D/.V/fLUa i/./OlT/./ :iHT ST ;ome to a fine certain greater pared with its than another, 7 of all objects I their parts lie igure, that the nge of relative iwards towards i. h.) and lines to run down- the horizon ; ardc every line ich lies further eye than the ends of which leight from the luch line, how- both its ends iight from the eye is situated, T the horizon brming part of ich a line were a scene from 3 other of it, Id apparently an line of the , a; additional ihese matters, brded further ks on vanish- aw of Nature e of vision to ^er may be its than it is ; if its visible )lane. le utility and dvantages we tively limited of things, in of space and nge so much e of position, ce, as well as i as, besides within the intervening inly enables portion of a d of objects ^aze, and to comparative can be most ent of level t')Uj'5A\\ Air.hj'i ;? .J L')jii!-j,!/'j 'ju ,bolnM'f'.''iii:/r or)ri* naiii ■{•■■^.lol ihuni tiov/ J: 'h U^tf'.^ >.n lisi'f) ho'Ukjfnoi nj; sled ILriir. c uJil ?"Uii({q« yt/jji "{i> ■f:)flj-iiri .-.1i isich luw ,'>m<^ tsj •.•:iuiv>i]E •nb U'.tU in;ti ,ilt tii/iJ ,;nt.-;.ii umajri -"ili fit 'rni-.ifu l;nfl «",i; ,^i'i i.',8 ^v/j '>ilj niml )n'A 'ri".fi biH' '■'•'■' ,-{i'fi:f/()i >l!'i>.v/.[i.i fiua .1.1 Ml')"..- -jY/j afi^ 'Woi'.K! ^-'fi jloirl// i^Oi:ii ^yt !'"'.:ui'j" : /'idji -:^,u-r-. 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' •wur.id . -i )i nhiit 'iilliiiii'^ 'jjiri((rjL' ,>.u i!i.':'\ I'ln.-.r^il) .ridli?!-.' ajl 'li r.u bur , 'I "i '.I.Jll' -.t'liUi -ii 1.' :NnO^ f.'i 'A\\:\\- JiDrjlllf. J< ')i) vllii;i-.: '.Xi il'.'; :j; in.-iiq ^wit-v.),j-'i'.,.| ,' u.iUr.'.i .y.y.^iiiu. Iii'vu.q-'iiint rii.isr^ni.ii m: (lo ^.iiivf ■>im.'.' -o-ufi'jjj^ t)ir<^ Yliliiu ..ill MWj^ii.j.ii '< -.(^Cjiii; 'lus './ill r..!'WI|- ">) -11 ..i-)i(l// 'U) J'J'1V/')I{ 'Jjit JiI^J .- lo V ii'.'ti'l 'Hl f 'lo lir.JilI /"ju'i ftiO I -i^Kllit /I'o/i lirO.(|»/H'-.> Od I'b' '.V ,-:! til'.yt'l iiSli-^iv JilJ -n ll'.i'lilij^n.jM iuil, imill ).!i:'ll '» 'Cf*..!) I.! ,?;:!>i(iiU lu -if!,'i--.ii'>(.iib L'lU 11" ic/nufhii f.Ji nl jjuiwo 'ui'\ .ii.ji-i'/ii-K^ . (i- uri '•.c'i i.itj !. ^i.jyr-.-r'V)/ . ;'ni;)'(i;(j(j); ui.i.i; ^iiiTjl tin ;i)|llll Or' .,''^llil." ilii'.-.l/ iiul)i.' ;j.ilini'a fllO'A r«U ) .ttUit^tll) J-H-itl Jll'i'i'llf Um ^j!; -t'.),;:.; Uijfl .ayiliiioij 'Ki ;j;jjiiiil'),iiio.l'i// , /(! Miiiii iviliijiirj ^; 'rjo y»|.,t J-.iul,'^- ; li 'lo'l Jmi ui> i.iu.,'/ y_;)il.f ftf? aii U'l/' tiji ..M- ii.r.'-(!! Tjlii ny !>;'! 'J .jI Jh ,U'.M!q;: Iiiuhiilt Jiiiuaii;; •! ru:n! ■/I^ii..iiiii>iii;i i;j. ur i»j ^rj!,>i-".i^i ,^ii Lit/,. ■)''iV' I'jiil': bhju.) (i hiiii .iMyido 'lo ^(•iiiii/ ii/i(: 7^b)(uii/(f 'i.i'wv.-*,), u t Jt jitt (lijiJfw ■'Vnijitfo '.'Ii) 1l> •^■nBhii>. !il*li' i'/- uiiJ -^ijctuii) k\Av, Ji ,i!j'.);jfl'j 'H-iifi jjiii'ji'boaq litiiit'jv'iWni jiudq ■.•vif'.iucjrr.tn n lo ^:jiilMtt»! o/iJ uoiju Siit"^l ^' -"; 'ii;o(ji[.c oS jn>i>-t/ io yvi,iii-i r.'jfijClIO vjllitilil ;i --*i ^•■.",^i'^\i >Av'si\V 'J.-'vAy '\ ' *-'.>i\i 1) ,i.- -i;'. .;J1 bltU iil-.illf ,!:"i7^r0(t J- 'to lloi.tlOtl .1! ■.'/')i-|' 'iu tilioi^ .b i;»,i( i! !iUVl'i JODl.if ..') ..iiiiillbl -.M'. (;>r 'in :,i-'ij i;i| :.j!jl -luJ ,j;(l '■.■■x>yltj ti:- biif. M M.')-.ii)3 -i'llTii?.! nit \/> •■.,!»i .'i-i^-tv.l J! ')■! ;.iiil,-i-?iii.>"i .-jii'.)-!-. ^mbicjlifi nj^l ! 'i.r ■i-j(ij't(j' '^o i!JK'ff!i- '■jMuhibbv.ni.' -;'jji;i( ,11 ?;,);)- nq T.t.il ■■^.tot uf.i.i'P Ovi.ti7iiK|i/i(i'i .Ujl|j;;i'' JilJ r.fv.nii>, lu .ulcIii ;^/ii ».'Jb"i'.i 'id- -: n. /Il iii;t!;i.[/ 'iji^.'v. .,!i ilii.in.t i TV i \ I ! i J il \ I I' m i • / 'I -i i • r ^' ^o•■ -f«, » -^ creases, the magnitude of every visible portion of the eartKs surface occupied by the scene between us and the horizon, as well as of every visible portion of all the objects connected therewith, would appear less than it actually is, in proportion to the distance of each from us ; and consequently all the visible features of the objects enclosed within the horizon of the imagined scene, represented by a a a fig. 94, would appear contracted as well as the horizon and remain visible to us within its perspective position suppositively repre- sented by c c c, fig. 94, but appearing so much smaller than they are, and perspectively displaced or nearer to each other and to us than they are, as to seem to lie pictured as it were on the surface of a perspective plane, previously described as standing at the com- mencement of the range of vision. More correctly to speak, however, a perspective plane must be considered to be a tran- parent surface, as of glass, which, wherever we may be in an erect posture, with the eye five feet or more above the ordinary level of the earth, stands at one invariable distance from us with its centre opposite the eye ; and to extend to what must be deemed to be the apparent greatest limits of the range of vision perpendicularly below and above, and horizontally to the right and left of the point of sight. That the distance is always 10 feet, at which we should suppose the plane to stand from us, will now be demonstrated, with other matters of equal importance to the establishment of the true principles on which a system of perspective science should be based, calculated to lead to the fiuthfhl imitation of the effects of the perspective law of Nature. For, bearing in mind that the point of sight, besides being a point on the horizon opposite the eye, must necessarily be the centre of the range of vision ; likewise, that the extent of the apparent greatest limit of the range of vision below the point of sight can merely be 5 feet, because the apparent level of the point of sight is but five feet above the level of the apparent lower extreme of the range of vision ; and, that the extent of the apparent greatest limit of the range above, and to the right and lefi of the point of sight, also, can merely be 5 feet, or the same as the extent below the point, because. THE NATIONAIi DRAWING MASTER. 75 h regard to b \ c c c towards 5tb of circum- upon the real itral a Fig. 94, ne within the it; being such i measured by ive science, to le effect upon being the well pear on a level ove the ordi- rent level, the t lower extreme 7 representing of the appa- ll point a Fig. on the ground ?.97. i by the scene hjects connected i of each from in the horizon bed as well as sitively repre- perspectively lie pictured as g at the com- to be a tran- , with the eye riable distance deemed to be id above, and 3 is always 10 demonstrated, principles on ;o the fiuthAil the horizon wise, that the ; of sight can Ive feet above the extent of the point of )int, because; a. I H — »- as the point of sight is the centre of the range, there must be the same extent[of range all around it ; hence, that the range has an apparent extent perpendicularly from below toabove the point of sight s (Fig. 98), that is, from its lower extreme, represented by h below, to its higher extreme, represented by a above, of but 10 feet — and an extent horizontally Fig. 98. from its left hand extreme /, to its right hand ex- treme r, likewise of 10 feet — the number of feet in each direction that denotes what must be deemed to be the apparent greatest limits of the range per- pendicularly and horizontally, and to which limits, as before stated, a perspective plane must be considered to extend : for, these things being borne in mind, as consequently a perspective plane suppositively must \ — I — 1 — 1 — \r extend perpendicularlj to «, 5 feet below, and to a, 5 feet above the point of sight s; and horizontally to I, 5 feet to the left, and to r, 5 feet to the right of the point, that is altogether 10 feet each way , or have a height forming a perpendicular line, and a width forming a horizontal line, each 10 feet in length, which lines must be as fully visible to us as the circumstances affecting our powers of vision admit of, because they form the apparent height and width of the range of vision, and have their centres opposite the eye; hence, also, they must be held to be at the distance of 10 feet from vs. because it has been determined as a general law of optics that a perpendicular or a horizontal line to be as fully visible as possible or as above described, must exist at a distance from us equal to its length, and with its centre opposite the eye. And not only do the lines forming the height and width of a perspective plane, and therefore does the plane itself presumptively exist at a distance from us of 10 feet, but, as every part of these lines, were they real ones, would be 10 feet from us, if from their extremities other lines were brought to the eye those lines would make an angle of 60 degrees with the eye, or one corresponding, as it should, with the assumed angle of vision. Nor can effects intimately agreeing with those of the perspective law be produced by art, — that is, shewing the apparent size of an object diminishing in the same proportion as its distance from the eye is increased, or, as being one half less when represented as standing at any particular distance from the eye, than it would be when represented at only half that distance, unless we assume that it exists pictured, as it were, on a perspec- tive plane distant 10 feet from us, and frame our perspective plans for drawings in accordance with that assumption, commencing them either actually or virtually, at a horizontal line, denoting the 1 feet distant base line of a perspective plane. Although there can be no objection to certain deviations in a drawing from the perspective effects of Nature, when it is desirable, as it is sometimes, to depict an object as standing nearer to us than 10 feet ; and objects thus represented may be brought into a perspective very analogous to that of Nature by the employment of special means, as shown elsewhere. A perspective plane, then, being an imaginary transparent surface, as of glass, 10 feet high and 10 feet wide, or that consistently with perspective effects, may be considered 10 feet square, suppositively standing 10 feet from us with its centre directly opposite the eye, when the level of the latter is 5 feet or more above the ordinary level of the earth. — if a sheet of glass, 10 feet square, as denoted by Fig. 99, were placed 10 feet from us, with its centre directly opposite the eye, to represent a perspective plane, and we were to witness through it a scene, comprising the earth's horizon line and. a series of horizontal lines apparently underlying it therefrom along the earth's surface to the base line of the glass, or, as it were, from h h to bb, and each of which lines, whatever is its actual length, appears to extend exactly from one side of the glass to the other, or from I to r, we should perceive as follows : — Fig. 99. ^- :\M cl i S s 1 l! H m lUyti ■ mm 1 11 f; 'HI ( |m ^ m ll t - - * w a ja 2 * rt w « 2 a *^ ^„ -Sag fe 2j3 a-B 2 |s-1|ll 1 •a .■§81 a^*" s s 9 a « IS M-t* --^1 s s-B-a " 0) 9 ^ ^ W 23 « 'O „ a) -s 3 o -g ! > I Q. < O o -I > X ''J fe THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 77 1 . That, as the glass represents a perspective plane, and the latter, if real, would display, as seemingly pictured on its surface, the actual amount of space that can come within the range of vision from above to below, and from the left to the right of the point of sight ; that hence the representative glass would positively do so, or display a natural picture, having natural limits, that is, apparently not extending beyond the edges of the glass; and, there- fore, that the amount of space beyond 10 feet from us, that can come within the range of vision forms a natural picture no larger than the apparent dimensions of a sheet of glass 10 feet square, which is placed 1 feet from us, with its centre opposite the eye. 2. That, as the level of the centre of the glass would be the same as that of the eye, and since the horizon would completely surround us, also on a level with the eye ; that hence the horizon would run across through the centre of the perspective plane repre- sented by the glass and of the natural picture displayed by it, and half way between their top and base lines, or parallel with and 5 feet from both. 3. That, as the point of sight would be a point directly opposite the eye on the horizon of the scene ; and as the centre of the glass, of the perspective plane it represents, of the natural picture and of the horizon it displays, would be opposite the eye , hence the point of sight would appear identical in position with that centre, and must therefore always be the centre of a perspective plane, of a natural picture, and of the horizon. 4. That, as the horizon of a natural picture (although it, as well as every line that extends like it, and parallel with it, from one side to the other of the range of vision, is actually a circular line, equi-distant in all its parts from the eye, yet) necessarily forms through perspective a straight horizontal line extending, with its centre opposite the eye to the greatest width of the range of vision — therefore to the width of a perspective plane — and thus must be as fully visible to us as possible or as far from us as its length ; whilst as, also, its apparent length must correspond with that of the 10 feet width of the glass representing the perspective plane ; hence, whatever may be the actual length of this hori- zon line, its apparent length can be but, what may be said to be in general terms, 10 feet. 5. That, as all horizontal lines of a natural picture, which exist with their centres opposite the eye, and each of which extends to the width of some part or other of the range of vision, and thus to that of a perspective plane, must be as fully visible as possible, or each as far from us as its length ; and since the apparent length of each cannot be greater than that of the base and horizon lines of a natural picture ; hence all these lines — which may be fittingly termed Widths of Range — consequently, always appear to be of an equal length! Thus the various widths of range shown on the partial delineation of a perspective plane fig. 100, as representing the horizon or greatest actual width and other actual widths, and which are perspectively represented in the diagram each as being as fai' from the eye as its length, are all of an equal length. And it may be proved they are represented as stated ; firstly, by comparing the proportion of line denoting 5 feet perpendicular, given on the diagram between the centre of the represented 10 feet width of range properly forming the base line of the delineation of a plane, and the point of sight s, with the pro- portion of line denoting 5 feet perpendicular from a to b, existing on the diagram between the represented 20 feet width of range and the horizon — the latter perpendicular being as it should be, but one half the size of the former: and secondly, by measuring there- presented 20 feet width of range with the length of line a b, standing thereupon denoting 5 feet perpendicular. For, as the level of the horizon would appear, to a man, standing at a distance from us on any width of range, to be even with his eye or 5 feet above the level of the width of raiige upon which he stands, there is always 5 feet perpen- dicular between a width of range and the apparent level of the horizon : and, as the proportion of line denoting 5 feet of a perpendicular line, necessarily denotes rlso 5 feet of the horizontal line on which the perpendicular stands, a properly represented 20 feet width of range necessarily would measure four times the length or' line indicating 5 feet of any perpendicular standing on it — as it will be found on trial with compasses the 20 feet width of range represented in this diagram exactly measures. Whilst, likewise, every other width of range represented, if similarly tested, will prove to measure as many times the length of the 5 feet perpendicular standing thereupon between it and the horizon, as it should do — or, as many times one fifth, or foot, of that perpendicular as are equal in number to the number of feet comprising the width of range on which it stands. — Each 5 feet perpendicular, also, showing a length, as compared with that displayed by any other 5 feet perpendicular represented as standing nearer than it to the eye, diminished in proportion I 78 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. to its represented greater distance of the two from the eye: the length of the 5 feet per- pendicular standing on the 40 feet width of range, being one half less than that on the 20 feet width ; that of the 5 feet perpendicular on the 1 20 feet width of range, one half less than that on the 60 feet width ; and the latter again being one half less than the 5 feet perpendicular which stands on the 30 feet width of range. To recapitulate — we should perceive through placing a glass so as to represent a per- spective plane, these consequences. 1. That the actual amount of space which can come clearly within the range of vision, or that comes within what is considered to be the range, presents itself to the eye in the form of what may be termed a natural picture no larger than the apparent dimensions of a sheet of glass 10 feet square existing at 10 feet from us. 2. That the earth's horizon appears to run directly through the centre of the natural picture parallel with its top and base lines, or half way between each ; and that the point of sight is the central point of the picture and of its horizon. 3. Also, as regards the horizon and base lines of the natural picture, as well as all other horizontal lines, extending right across it ; it would be seen, that although jthey would Ite of an equal length, yet that each, according to its position, must represent the width of some one part or other of the range of vision, or represent an imaginary horizontal line existing as far from us as its length — whether it were, as it might be, many miles in length or only a few feet ; and, therefore, that the apparent lengths are equal (or not greater than that of the 10 feet width of the natural picture), of all hori- zontal lines which exist as far from us as their length, and with their centres opposite the eye, or, in other words, of all widths of range. 4. That, as regards any one, observable through the glass, and standing at any distance from us, it would be perceived that there appears to be between the level of the ima^nary horizontal line forming the width of range on which he stands and the level of the horizon, a height of 5 feet ; and that as the top of the head of a man so standing is considered in perspective, to be 5 feet from the ground, or presumptively on a level with the horizon, that, therefore, there is 5 feet from the top of his head downwards to any width of range on which we may see him standing, whether he be on a 100 feet, a 1000 feet, or any other width of range. The reason why the height of a man in perspective is considered to be 6 feet, being because if it be always esteemed so, we have only to place a man of a right perspective height in any part of a drawing, and we can then conveniently shew how much length of line indicates 5 feet perpendicularly or horizontally in that portion of the drawing. Thus, for instance, if we want to indicate the real height of a building in a certain part — by placing a man against it, perspectively 5 feet high, according to the width of range he stands upon — that is, to his distance from us — if the building be drawn of its right height, we enable any one, by a comparison of the depicted height of the building with that of the man, to judge of how much difference of height there is between them, and hence of the true height of the building, provided the man and the building be placed on the same width of range. But, whether we place one on the same width of range or not, that we place another object, as a man in perspective has a fixed height, through that circumstance one placed in a drawing always assists the judgment in estimating the re- lative heights of the other objects contained on the drawing. 5. That the length of line which appears to be equal to the 5 feet height of a man, is equal to 5 feet of the width of range on which he stands ; and, that as many feet as there are in that width of range, so many times it will measure in length one fifth of his ap- parent height. 6. That the length of line that appears equal to one foot, or to any fixed number of feet, of a perpendicular or horizontal line standing at any certain distance from us beyond 20 feet, appears to diminish one half when its distance from us is doubled. 7. And, lastly, that as perspective has reference to a natural picture of a certain form and dimension previously indicated, and gives to the picture that form and dimension by the way it a ts upon the earth's horizon and all objects visible to us within the range of vision — consequently whatever may be the subject of a drawing, it should be depicted ac- tually or virtually as if belonging to a natural picture, and in an imitative perspective corresponding with that of the natural picture to which it actually or assumedly belongs. That is, as a natural picture is square, etc., the perspective plan of the drawing shoidd be ; 1st, square ; 2nd, the horizon should run right across through the centre of the plan parallel with ) ' the 5 feet per- iian that on the range, one half s thfui the 5 feet epresent a per- ?ange of vision, the eye in the it dimensions of ! of the natural 1 that the point ire, as well as that although must represent t an imaginary s it might be, ent lengths are re), of all hori- >es opposite the at any distance ' the imaginary of the horizon, 3 considered in ;h the horizon, width of range feet, or any ! is considered ice a man of a Qtly shew how portion of the building in a g to the width e drawn of its the building etween them, ling be placed 1 of range or through that lating the re- of a man, is feet as there I of his ap- number of n us beyond certain form imension by the range of depicted ac- perspective dly belongs, juldbe; 1st. arallel with ) r I '11 I 'M • a • — 4 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 81 its top and base lines, and the point of sight should be the central point of the plan, drawing, and horizon; 3rd, the base line of the plan should represent a line 10 feet long and 10 feet distant from us ; and 4thly, all widths of range represented on the plan should be of the same length as the horizon and base lines of the plan, and each be so placed as cor- rectly to denote a distance from us equal to its length. Whilst objects, put into perspec- tive on the plan, should bear such a relative proportion to each other as that the length of line indicating a foot's space on a perpendicular, or horizontal line, belonging to one object to be shewn as standing at any certain distance from us, should be double the length of line indicating a foot's space of the similar lines of another object to be repre- sented as standing from us at double the distance of the first named object. Not that it follows, however, that, because a perspective plan should, as a matter of principle and methodical proceeding, be made square, the drawing made upon it ought necessarily to be so as well; for, if we prefer to make the drawing less wide than high, or the reverse, we can do so consistently with correct perspective by commencing it at a base line denoting a width of range longer and more remote than 10 feet, or than the proper base line of a perspective plan indicates, all of which will be more fully explained in another part of this treatise. But for the purpose of enabling students of perspective to obtain a clearer conception of what is meant by the range of vision than they may be able to gather from the foregoing references that have been made to it, its characteristics may be further described as follows. Supposing, then, when the eye is kept immoveably fixed on an horizon-point of sight, that it were to throw forward a Une extending to the point of sight, or as from e to s. Fig. Fig. 101. 101, and therewith a series of other lines, each as long as the first named, but inclining away from it at an angle of SOdegrees — that is, a series of lines surrounding the first and forming around it a conical shaped funnel, a central section of which is indicated in Fig. 101 — these things being imagined, the range of vision is the power of the eye, when it is fixed in one position, as for instance on a point of sight, to see clearly an extent of space presumptively having a boundary running from a point in the eye as from e, to above and below the eye and to the right and left of it, as such a funnel would run. Whilst, though the actual length of the width of space extending between each two opposite points of this funnel-shaped boundary, that exist the one at the same dis- tance from the eye as the other, must necessarily form a line the length of which is equal to the length of that distance — or where the distance, for example, is 20 feet, the width of space must form a line 20 feet in length — nevertheless no such two points can have a greater apparent width of space or length of line between them than any other two have, — because when, as in this case, length of line actually increases to the same extent as length of distance from the eye increases, the line's length always perspectively contracts just as much as it actually increases, or if it actually increases one foot it per- spectively diminishes one foot, and so on. Therefore, if a line, the length of which is equal to the length of a width of the boundary close to the eye, were to travel away from the eye towards the point of sight and continuously between two directly opposite points of the boundary ; and, at the same time, were to increase its length as much as either its distance from the eye, or the width of the boundary, would continue increasing in length during its progress, it nevertheless could not obtain by so doing a greater apparent dimension than it had at first. Hence the apparent length of the width of actual space represented by the line gf. Fig. 102. a- J Fig. 101. is not greater than the apparent length of the lesser width of actual space represented by the line ac. For if we presume, that the width -^of space ac (see Fig. 102) loses perspectively through its distance from the eye, as much of its ' »l M 83 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. actual length as may be denoted by the length of line from b to c, or that it has only an apparent length that may be denoted by the length of line from a to 6; then the width of space gf, must not merely lose piTapectively a portion of its actual length equal to the length of line b c, or as from h to t, but also all of its additional length, or as from i to / — and thus, this width of space can have but an apparent length that may be denoted by the length of line from g to h — or a lengtli not greater than that indicated by the line running from a to b, and denoting the apparent length of the width of actual space reprc- sented by a c. Consequently one uniform length of line, as previously intimated, will represent correctly the apparent width of every part of the funnel-shaped boundary of the range of vision, or in other words, of the range of vision ; and as, whatsoever may be the actual width of any particular part of the range, the actual heiglit of that part must have the same dimensions as its width, the length of line that represents the apparent width of every part of the range, must equally correctly represent the apparent height of every part of it ; so that, supposing p.^ ,Q„ the length of hne from a to b, Fig. 103, to denote this one °' r uniform length of line representing the apparent width and ^ height of every part of the range, it must, then likewise, re- c I \d present the apparent length of the greatest and least, nnd of all intermediate widths of the range above the eye (as in- dicated by the line c d. Fig. 103), and of the same below the eye (as indicated by e f) ; — as well as the apparent length of the greatest and least and of all intermediate heights of the range to the left of the eye (as indicated by c e), and of the same to the right of the eye (as indicated by d f) ; — or the apparent length of each of a set of lines, every one of which is as distant from us as it is long as well as the remotest line, relatively to what must be its position under such circumstances, that can be visible to us, without removing the eye from the point of sight of the range of vision to which the line belongs. These matters, it will be seen on reflection, proving that the apparent boundary of the range of vision must be considered to have the form of a square, as c rf, e /, and, combined with the others stated as above with respect to the range, being important facts, a knowledge of which enables us to ascertain the true prin- ciples on which to base the science of perspective, and to impart correctness, precision and facility of proceeding, devoid of all that is obscure and arbitrary, to every operation of practical perspective, especially as regards : — the length of line that should be adopted to represent the horizon in a picture, — the height at which we should place the horizon line above the base line of a picture, — and above aU as regards the position on the horizon line in which we should place the representation of an imaginary point of primary use in prac- tical perspective, and yet to be further noticed, that may be fittingly termed the determi- native j>oint, since it denotes a point in Nature which may be looked upon as being one that presumptively determines or controls all natural lineal perspective effects. To return to the general consideration of the effects of the perspective law of Nature, although through its influence, the horizon always appears to have a level of 5 feet above the apparent lower limit of the range of vision, there are circumstances, which now require notice, under which the horizon must be considered to have a different apparent level without having it actually. These circumstances occur when we take what is called, a "Bird's-eye-View" of a scene, or when we view one with the eye elevated more than 5 feet above the ordinary level of the earth's surface. For, when we begin to ascend above this ordinary level, the horizon appears to ascend to the same extent as we ascend; consequently (as thus the eye and horizon always appear to be on a level with each other) when we are on an eminence with the eye elevated 100 feet above the ordinary level of the earth's surface, the apparent level of the horizon must be presumed to be 100 feet above the ordinary level of the earth's surface — or above the Itvel of the sea, the level of the former being estimated to be the same as that of the latter — whilst it must then also be considered to be 100 feet above the apparent lower limit of the range of vision. As the mode of proceeding, therefore, which has been described for making a drawing in perspective, refers only to drawings which are to represent scenes viewed from an ordinary level, a different mode must be adopted for making drawings of Bird's -eye- Views, OS given in the ensuing instructions for making perspective drawings. THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 83 it has only an en the width of ;h equal to the is from J to / — be denoted by ed l)y the Une lal space repre- rcsent correctly ge of vision, or lal width of any le dimensions us rt of the range, that, supposing denote this one irent width and \en likewise, re- nd least, nnd of the eye (as in- he same below as the apparent ill intermediate (as indicated by ye (as indicated )f a set of lines, IS it is long as lat must be its be visible to us, of sight of the 3n on reflection, ired to have the ! with respect to in the true prin- ss, precision and ery operation of d be adopted to the horizon line the horizon line iry use in prac- led the detervii- on as being one cts. law of Nature, evel of 5 feet ices, which now [ferent apparent e take what is e elevated more begin to ascend t as we ascend ; ^ith each other) nry level of the 100 feet above le level of the ist then also be ision. cing a drawing iewed from an rd's-eye- Views, Two other effects of the law inevitably resulting from the perspective contraction and displacement of lines it causes, and the description of which will conclude this summary of the consequences of the law, have reference to what are termed perspective vanishing points, and to the determinative point. Vanishing points are imaginary points to which lines perspectively converge that do not lie parallel either in a horizontal, perpendicular, or oblique direction with a ])orspective plane. For this law causes every line that lies at an angle with the perspective plane to diverge perspectively out of its true course, and apparently converge towards a vanishing point, or point situated where the line, if it were to extend to beyond the utmost distance the eyo can see, would perspectively terminate, or become invisible and vanish from observation. Therefore, if anything, from any position above or below the level of the eye were to move in a straight line towards the horizon without ascending or descending from the level of its point of depai-ture, it would appear, as it receded from us, to approach the horizon in an evenly slanting direction and in such a manner, that if it were to j)roceed to a distance beyond that of the horizon it would on attaining the distance of the horizon apparently touch it, and there, where it touched it, vanish from our sight. Hence the horizon contains a series of vanishing points for all lines that are r»either perpendicular nor horizontal, and that lie in a direction toivards the horizon, parallel with the ordinary level of the earth's surface; so that if a visible line divided into spaces, each, for instance, one inch long, were to extend to the distance, from us, of the horizon and lie in a position either above or below the eye, parallel with the ordinary level of the earth, the nearest inch of the line would appear to slant out of its true direction or to converge towards a jiarticulor per- spective point of the horizon, and each succeeding inch would do so likewise in a direct line with the first inch, therefore towards the same part of the horizon as the first inch would converge l owards ; whilst the further extremity of the last inch would appear i o touch that part — or the whole line would tend apparently towards a certain vanishing point situated on a certain part of the horizon. The reason of this arises from the circumstance, that the perspective law causes the apparent level of a point to approximate to the apparent level of the horizon, in pro- portion to the nearness of the point to the horizon ; consequently, the nearer one point of any line (or as in the case of the line just alluded to, the nearer one point of each inch of it) exists to the horizon than any other point exists to it, the more the apparent level of the former approximates to that of the horizon, than does the apparent level of the latter. The character of the approximation ensuing with reference to all the points of a hne, being such as, by necessity, invariably brings each point of it on to an imaginary line, diflfering in direction from the line to which the point actually belongs, and presumptively extending to a particular part of the horizon. Hence, when a line lies above the eye in a direction towards the horizon, and parallel with the ordinary level of the earth's surface, it appears to converge downwards out of its true course or direc- tion, and towards a particular part of the horizon, as indicated in fig. 104 ; and when a line lies below the eye, but otherwise as just stated, it appears to slant upwards out of its true course, and directly towards a particular part of the horizon, as incUcated in fig. 105 ; the part of the horizon (or vanishing point there) towards which a line will apparently converge depending upon the actual direction of the hne. All lines, within the range of vision, lying parallel with any line existing at a right angle with the horizon, appear to converge towards the point of sight, represented by s fig. 100. Therefore, all lines, within the range of vision, converge towards the point of sight that lie parallel with what may be termed the eyes line of direction, or with the imaginary direct line extending between the eye and the point of sight (indicated by the line e.s. fig. 101), and that may be presumed to be partially represented by the line run- Fig. 104. Fig, 105. I'l. 64 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. • { ! ning downwards from », in fig. 100, to the centre of the base line of the figure, and dividing into two equal parts the lower half of the perspective plan shewn by that fig^ure. Thus, if the central line a dg. 100, be suppm^edto represent " the eyes line of direction," and each line parallel with it of the same figure, as a b, be supposed 'ci denote one of a set of parallel lines actually lying on the earth's surface (and each u ■!> ^leo indicate one existing at a right-angle with the horizon) each of them, in such . « : ." out into pe.rspective on the perspective plan, this diagram represents, would aUke r <"• j towaxiia « or the point of sight of the plan. The line forming the right-hand t)i'i> of the plan (and one that in the present case indicates » line parallel with the eyes line of direc*' >n) having its true perspective convergence towards the point of sight, denoted by the diagonal line running from its lower extreme to a, or converging from that extreme towards the point of sight that a represents. Every set of lines lying parallel with a line existing at any other angle than a right angle with the horizon, perspectively converges towards such a vanishing point as would be the perspective position on the horizon of the further extremity of any one line of the set, were that line to extend to the distance, from us, of the horizon. Every set of parallel lines, lying otherwise than as indicated in the last two paragraphs, has a vanishing point above or below the horizon, according to the actual position of the lines forming the set, or such a vanishing point as would be the perspective position of the further extremity of any one line of the set, were that line to extend to the utmobt distance the eye can see. In consequence of the perspective effect which causes apparent convergence of lines out of their true direction towards vanishing points, the apparent angle formed by the junction of two lines, is necessarily different from the real angle they form, in those cases when one or each of them runs in the direction of the horizon. Under certain circumstances the apparent angle is less than the real angle. But under other circum- stances the apparent angle is always greater than the real angle, notwithstanding the space it encloses invariably exhibits perspective contraction — a fact which should be borne in mind because it shews that the connection between vanishing points and apparent angles is so intimate that the true apparent angle formed by two lines cannot be represented otherwise than in accordance with the true vanishing points of both lines. Therefore, on a perspective plan, to place a right angle with one or both of its lines running in a direction inclining towards the horizon line of the plan, and then in extend one or both lines of the angle to that horizon line, according as one or both have been placed on the plan inclining towards the horizon, — to do this — as students are instructed to do in some systems of perspective for the purpose of obtaining the perspective repre- sentation of a right angle and the vanishing point of one or of each of its lines — is a most erroneous method of procedure, producing doubly false perspective, a false apparent angle and false vanishing points for lines lying parallel with the hnes of the right angle and that are to be put into perspective diong with that angle. For each line of an angle must have for its vanishing point that point on the horizon that all lines parallel with it must have for their vanishing point; or, assuming each to belong to a separate set of pa- rallel Unes, each must perspectively converge out of its true direction towards such a vanishing point " as would be the perspective position on the horizon of the further extremity of any one line of the set to which it belongs, were that line to extend to the distance, from us, of the horizon." With respect to lines within the range of vision that lie parallel either in a per- pendicular, horizontal, or oblique direction with the imaginary perspective plane, or surface of glass, that has been described as always standing, presumptively, in a position between us and our horizon point of sight and parallel with the horizon line, they do not perspectively converge, out of their actual direction towards vanishing points, because no part of any one of such lines lies further back from the eye than any other part of it ; and, hence, the perspective law of Nature exercises merely the simple effect upon the line of causing it, relatively to its actual distance from us, to appear shorter and nearer to us than it is but not in an altered direction. Nevertheless the continuations of such lines existing so as not to come within the range of vision when the eye is fixed on a point of sight, always converge to vanishing points : as may be proved by standing opposite to the centre of a long horizontal line at a distance from the line equal to its length, or so that it comes exactly within the range of vision ; and by then advancing towards it so as to continue throwing e, and dividing gure. i of direction," note one of a leo indicate one nto pe?8prictive waiiia a or the plan (and one ec*' m) having ! diagonal line trda the point than a right point aa would ine line of the 'o paragraphs, osition of the ve position of the utmobt ;ence of lines )rmed by the srm, in those L'nder certain )ther circura- hstanding the ould be borne and apparent )e represented t of its lines ben -to extend h have been Eire instructed lective repre- ss — is a most pparent angle it angle and of an angle irallel with it te set of pa- wards such a ' the further stend to the er in a per- ive plane, or in a position , they do not a, because no [>t of it ; and, on the line of er to us than ■es existing so sight, always itre of a long ;omes exactly lue throwing '' 1 1 i 1 i ■1 1 I KH-i,t .V ' f «: ii^ ■• iihJf ;j ifi' ^6l '■:l^ > I a. < c O O -J >• X o LU I- z W KIlTlll I.MI.ll AMI "11 1 Vl'l' J TINTED XYLOGRAPHY. [riNsm la i iin is. f iii i I THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 85 more and more of it, equally to the right and left of us, out, as it were, of the range of vision : for if, whilst advancing, we turn our eye sufBciently to allow of our glancing {dong the whole of the line, a continuously increasing apparent convergence of the line out of its true direction will become manifest as we advance and approach the nearer to the line; because, as we turn our eye away from the centre of the line to take in its whole length clearly, the course or direction of the line relatively to our eye changes from a horizontal one to a diagonal one — or the eye assumes a position in which its range of vision, its point of sight, and its horizon line, become different from what they were at first, in which therefore lines will become diagonal, or run in the direction of the horizon, that before were horizontal, and hence perspectively converge to vanishing points. Also, if we were to stand opposite to the centre of a high tower, at a distance from it equal to the length of its height, or so that it comes exactly within the range of vision, its perpendicular lines would not appear to converge towards vanishing points; but could we approach nearer to it, as we approached, a continuously increasing perspective convergence of its per- pendicular would .become visible if we were to glance upwards or downwards — or a com- plete change of perspective conditions and effects would ensue, corresponding with those just alluded to in connection with horizontal lines. These facts proving ; that all perspective that we represent in a picture ought to belong to but one range of vision (that is, come completely within .i/S boundary) to be represented correctly, or to render the picture one that will present to our view what it is possible to see ; and that a picture is a production totally inconsistent with Nature, and therefore so far faulty in the highest degree, if it present a perspective that could not possibly be visible to us. The determinative point is an imaginary point, which may be considered to be one existing on a part of the horizon extending beyond the range of vision, and to be situate thereon at a distance, from the point of sight, equal in length to the whole extent of horizon that comes within the range of vision, — and that may be regarded, likewise, as one that determines, either directly, or indirectly the degree of perspective contraction all lines in Nature exhibit. For supposing that, visibly to us, a horizontal lina (as ab Fig. 106), which, for instance, is 5 feet long, and lies on the earth's surface at a distance of 10 feet from us, with one of its ends — aa a — exactly beneath " the eyes line of direction," could from its other end — as Fig. 106. ^ A £.^ L from b — suddenly change its horizontal direction in such a way that, that end b, should recede to the distance of 15 feet from us — as toe — that is recede back 5 feet from its original position, or as far as the length of the line to which it belongs admits of its receding, and thus that the whole line a b were to assume the direction and position represented by a c, these consequences then would ensue. Istly. During the time that the line was changing its direction, and that its parts, by the continuous movement of the line, were becoming, as they would become, namely, more and more distant from us, the apparent length ox the «vhole line would continue (through the perspectively contracting influence, of increasing distance, on apparent magnitude) to become shorter, until it became as short as it could become by arriving at the position of a line — as a c — existing at a right angle with the horizon represented by .'* h. 2ndly. The receding end b, of the line ab, would describe a curve as be, or " virtually" would be situated on a curved line during its progress to the remotest position (as to c) I I i i t II \ ; i i 86 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER, 'A m h I- J! iii that it could proceed to ; also, if the whole line a b were one divided into separate por- tions, the receding ends of its portions, likewise, would describe each its curve, as indicated by the curved lines running between ab and ac, c each '• virtually" would be situated on a curved line, which may be termed its line of recession. Srdly. These curved lines (since each of them, as in the case of the actually curved form of the horizontal line, may be presumed to be a straight line, similar to either of the dotted straight lines running between a b and aec) would, virtually, form a set of lines existing on the ordinary level of the earth's surface parallel one with another, and conse- quently having presumptively a common vanishing point connected with a certain part of the horizon, or as at d — whilst the continually increasing degree of perspective contrac- tion, the line ab would exhibit during the time it was changing its direction, would entirely depend upon this fact. 4thly. Hence, as results shew that this vanishing point has a position identical with that of the point described above as the determinative point, the last named point, as d, must be considered to be one determining, or controlling, the degree of perspective con- traction that all lines exhibit which lie on the ordinary level of the earth's surface, within the range of vision, and incline from us to the left of our position. For all such lines are circumstanced as it has been stated the line a h would be when inclining from us ; that is, their remoter or receding points virtually lie on lines of recession, actually parallel one with another, but perspectively converging together towards a determinative point existing to the left of the point of sight. There being also a determinative point existing to the right of the point of sight, and that determines the degree of perspective contraction that all lines exhibit which he on the ordinary level of the earth's surface, within the range of vision, and incline from us on the right of our position ; though, in practical perspective, the use of the representative point of either one of these points, enables us to ascertain what is the apparent length of a line when lying in one position, relatively to its apparent length when lying in another — or, what is the proportional degree of perspective contrac- tion resulting from increase of distance — whether it be with regard to a line inclining from us on the right hand, or of one inclining from us on the left hand of our position. 5thly. So that if we wish to ascertain with respect, for instance, to such a line as that represented by the line ab Fig. 106 (see, however. Fig. 107), what would be its apparent length when inclining from us as much as possible, as compared with its apparent length when seen in the horizontal position indicated in the diagram, we can do so to a nicety by means of the determinative point, as thus. After the horizontal position has been properly represented on a perspective plan and in due connection with the horizon, etc. of the plan ; by then running a line from the receding point of the horizontal line, as from b. Fig. 107, towards the determinative point of the plan, or as from b towards d — a deter- minative line in fact — where this line, as at i', crosses the eyes' line of direction (indicated by the dotted line proceeding up to P S the point of sight) will, in this example, denote the further end of a J's perspective line of recession, and consequently the perspective position of the receding end b, of the line a J on its inclining from us as much as possible — whilst the line a b* will denote the apparent length required. The line a b^ shewing, as ascertained through the determinative point, the degree of apparent length, that the line a b would have on inclining slightly from us, as compared with the degree it would Fig. 107. ^ .,,. „.„ g y' Hor. V_S_L ggr. /L-H— ^ l: ■ I "::::2M V. THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 87 ato separate por- ch its curve, as rtually" would be ually curved form to either of the in a set of lines ather, and conse- a certain part of spective contrac- direction, would )n identical with imed point, as d, perspective con- 's surface, within 9.11 such lines are from us ; that is, parallel one with point existing to sting to the right itraction that all ain the range of tical perspective, us to ascertain Y to its apparent spective contrac- le inclining from position. ih a line as that be its apparent apparent length o to a nicety by as been properly zon, etc. of the line, as from h, rds d — a deter- ction (indicated xample, denote the perspective luch as possible a h^ shewing, ength, that the degree it would Har. -X' ■--.-. h: h have on remaining in a horizontal position at a fixed distance from us of 10 feet; and the former apparent length being less than the latter; because the whole of the line a J, excepting its stationary point a, on so inclining must become mot c distant from us than it would be if it were to remain in its original position, and must therefore aj)pear then relatively to the extent of its increased distance, more contracted or shorter than it would on not so inclining. The line ab"^ shewing the degree of apparent length the line aft would have on inclining more than before indicated ; and being shorter than a b^, because the whole of the line a b, excepting its stationary point a, on inclining more than before, must become more distant, and hence appear more contracted, or to have a lesser apparent length than before. The line a b^ shewing the degree of apparent length the line a b would have on inclining from us almost as much as its length of 5 feet admits of, and therefore necessarily being, not only shorter than ab°, but almost as short a line as, con- sidering the original position, etc., of a b, can represent its apparent length. The line a b* shewing the degree of apparent length the line a 6 would have on inclinini^ from us as much as its length admits of, as compared with the apparent length it would hitve on remaining in a horizontal position at the fixed distance of 10 feet from us ; the former apparent length being not merely very much less than the latter but also as short as it is possible for it to be under the circumstances of the case ; because the whole of the line a b, except- ing its stationary point a, on inclining from us as much as its iciigth of 5 feet admits of its doing, mnst, at the same time, lie as distant from us as it could lie and, consequently, display the greatest degree of perspective contraction (that is, the least apparent length) that it could exhibit, unless it were to become altogether more distant from us than 10 feet. The point b*, be it also remarked, correctly denoting a point 15 feet from us, because it represents the perspective position of a point, existing on the ordinary level of the earth's surface, 5 feet more distant from us than another point, as a, existing on the same level, and whose distance from us is 10 feet : a line drawn through that point, i*, therefore denoting " a width of range" 13 feet long and 15 feet distant from us, provided it be drawn like the line//, that is, evenly parallel with the line t b, on which a 6 is situated, and which line tb correctly represent;? a width of range 10 feet long and 10 feet distant from us. The line/f/, denoting a perpendicular liiie 15 feet distant from us and 5 feet high, because it stands on a line representing a width of range 15 feet distant from ua, and runs up therefrom to a line representing a level 5 feet above that of this width of range (that is, representing the apparent level of the horizon, ond which must always be considered to be 5 feet above the apparent level of a width of range), or that runs up from /to g on the line h h ; as well as because it is only one-third as long a? the width of range it stands upon, and that the portion (one-fifth part) of it thut represents one foot, is equal in length to the portion (one-fifteenth part) of that width of range that represems one foot — the portion it should be exactly equal to, since the length of line that represents one foot of a perpendicular should represent one foot of the horizontal line on which it stands : whilst, lastly, it may be further noticed with advantage, that t))e line f g, denoting 5 feet perpendicular, standing at the distance of 15 feec froni us, is hut two-thirds as long as ij, denoting 5 feet pri'[)<-ndicular, standing at the distenct; of 10 feet from us, as we may assume the lattei to denote, since it runs up to a line indicating a height of 5 ie( L or the apparent level cf the horizon, from a line representing a width of range 10 feet distant from us ; nor should/(7 be longer as compared with ij, because the d stance from us, at which it, i j, is represented as standing, is one-third greater tlsan that at which the other is rej/Pesent I as standing, — and apparf^^t magnitude (i.e. length of line), always diminishes in the same proportion as distanc< fum us increases, or for instance, when, as in this case, distance increases in the propfulion cf one-third, .■^^y^-crsnt length diminishes in the propoivion of one-third. Gthly. nie bearing of the various facts that have been stated with regard to the de- terminative point, therefore Wtirrants the assertion accompanying the statement of them, namely, that the determinative point of a range of vision determines the nerspective contraction exhibited by all fines lying on the ordinary level of the earth's surface within that range of vision. As, then, that which controls their perspective appearance nmst also control that of all otber lines existing within the same range of vision, the deter- minative point must likewise, us ^ '. substance at first remarked with reference to it, be regarded as one that presumpiivf.'h controls the degree of perspective ooi'traction that every line in Nature exhibits — Uiat is, either directly or indirectly and relatively to one range of vision . m THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. %' And, now, as the characteristics of the determinative point have been fully discussed, and it has been demonstrated that the aid of that which represents it in practical per> spective is of primary utility, it only remains, in conclusion of the foregoing summary of the whole of the effects of the Perspective law of Nature, to state, that they have been am- plified to this extent for the purpose of shewing that, as regards all the principles on which a correct system of perspective science shouiti be founded, sufficient reasons for their adoption can be afforded in every way consistent with the phenomena of the law ; and, also, to shew that, therefore, it is on considerations derived from a knowledge of the operations of this law, that we should base the Science of Perspective, and not as is usually asserted, on such as can be derived from a knowledge of the operations of that specific law of Optics which governs our powers of vision. For the influence of the latter law can only enable us to see things as they present themselves to the eye ; whereas, as regards their perspective appearances, it is the in- fluence of the perspective law of Nature, alone, that causes them to present themselves to the eye in the forms they display. Consequently, to deduce the principles of perspective science from any other source than one exclusively connected with the perspective !arr of Nature, must manifestly lead, as it may be readily proved it does, to the certain propagation of obscure, conflicting, and erroneous principles of perspective science, as well as to arbitrary practice often resulting in perspective representation totally devoid of all ayrametry, proportion, and naturalness of appearance, doing ii^ustice to the work of the architect, and otherwise producing mischievous consequences to Art, which can only improve pubUc taste and benefit mankind to the extent that it is truthful. i ully discussed, practical per- g summaiy of have been ain- iples on which sons for their the law ; and, vledge of the t as is usually f that specific 8 they present it is the in< themselves to of perspective srspective !?.vr o the certain ience, as well devoid of all } work of the lich can only H V'lX' '■^^^ -?;% ■^y^i/n/'^^:^^ ±ij ^ ^^ '4. Vi /^^ ./^.^. --^^^C^"' VV It's iS'J ■■m P|5 ,■: m'i H )> LESSONS ,:rspectiye. \ LESSON I. ON GENERAL MATTERS TO BE ATTENDED TO IN PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. As regards perspective in Nature, it has been shown in Section 6 that its effects are all relative to the following facts : — 1. When we look upon a scene, whilst the eye is raised five feet above the ordinary level of the earth's surface; there is, then, either visible or invisible, a line always oppo- site to us on a level with the eye (therefore apparently five feet above the ground) denoting where the sky seems to join the earth, and called the horizon (represented by h h. Fig. 108). 2. When the eye remains fixed on any particular part of the horizon, an imaginary line runs directly to it from the eye, and which may be called the eye's line of direction (indi- cated by e s). 3. At the horizon extremity of this imaginary line, or the part of the horizon on which the eye is fixed, a point is situated called the point of sight (represented by s). 4. Wherever on the horizon this point of sight may be, there, also, is situated the ap- parent central point of as great an extent of space as it is possible for us to see distinctly at one fixed gaze, without moving the eye — or, what is the same thing, the apparent central point of the range of vision. 5. The point of sight (i. e., the apparent central point) of a range of vision, primarily governs the perspective appearance of all lines visible to us within the range, but not that of any lines or portions of lines existing outside its bounds — such lines, etc., having their perspective invariably regulated by a different point of sight, or by one belonging to another range of vision. Consequently as a perspective drawing can represent but one point of sight, it can only represent correctly what comes within one range of vision. 6. What we see presents itself to the eye as if it were all lying upon an upright sheet of glass (as on a window pane) that has its centre on a level with the eye and point of sight, or directly between them, and which maybe called a perspective plane. 7. Outside the edges of this plane, or imaginary surface of glass, nothing can be dis- tinctly visible to us ; and its edges, therefore, may be said to form the apparent boundary of as great an extent of space as it is possible to see distinctly at one fixed gaze, or to form the apparent boundary of the range of vision. 8. To bring either a horizontal, or a perpendicular line, exactly within the range of vision, so that we may be neither more nor less than just able to see both its ends dis- tinctly at once, it is requisite to stand at a distance from it equal to its length, and so that N IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) :i i^:^^ 4^' % 10 1.0 1.1 bi|2^ |Z5 |50 "^ II^H ■^ 1^ 12.2 SKA "^ IIIM llllm 1.25 ||.4 |i.6 M 6" ► / V r. v; ■«s /A // W '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WiST MAIN STRUT WEBSTER, N.Y. MStO (716) •73-4503 t/.A ^ 90 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. I its centre comes directly opposite the point of sight, in the case of a horizontal line ; or BO that its centre comes on a level with the horizon, in the case of a perpendicular line. 9. The apex, or point, of each angle of the base lines, or ground plan of every object existing withing the range of vision on the ordinary level of the earth's surface, always lies on some one iiraginary horizontal line or other that porspcctively extends to the ividth of the apparent bniuulanj of the range of vision — aline as distant from us as it is long, that ha-! its centre opposite the range of vision's point of sight, and that may be called a icidlh of 7-ange. 10. As a man, standing on any such imaginary horizontal line, or width of range, with his eye raised five feet above the ground, icould have the horizon on an apparent level with his eye, therefore there would appear to us, were we to see him thus standing, to be five feet of height from the ground line, or width of range, occupied by him, upwards to the aj)parent level of the horizon. Consequently a height of five feet can always be cor- rectly represented in a perspective drawing by running a perpendicular line, from any line representing a width of range, upwards to the horizon line of the drawing. 11. On each side of the point of sight, on a level with it, and at a distance from it, equal in length to the length of horizon that comes within the range of vision, there is a point which directly or indirectly determines the degree of perspective contraction that all lines within the range of vision exhibit, and which may be called the determinative point (re])resented by d). 12. When a line is neither horizontal nor perpendicular, perspective causes it to appa- rently converge out of its true direction towards a perspective point, called a vanishing j)oint. Or, supposing the ordinary level of the earth s surface, within the range of vision, to bo covered with a series of parallel lines, adjoining each other, and each extending to the horizon, so as to form a right-angle therewith, then all of them would be parallel with Fie. 109. '^^ *y*'^ ^'"^ of direction (e Fig, 109); whilst any line, lying at any height above any portion cf either of them, would be parallel with each of them, as well as, therefore, parallel with the eye's line of direction — and would perspectively converge with the whole of them towards a vanishing point on the horizon, or to the point of sight. Consequently, when lines parallel with the eye's line of direction e are put into perspective on a drawing, they must be made to converge towards the point of sight represented in the drawing. Supposing, next, the ordinary level of the earth's surface to be covered with any series of adjoining parallel lines extending to the horizon, so as to form other than a right angle therewith, then such series would perspectively converge towards a vanishing point, existing, according to circumstances, either to the right or the left of the point of sight ; whilst any line, lying at any height above any portion of either of the lines of the series and parallel with that portion, would be parallel with the whole scries, and perspectively converge to its vanishing point — a point on the horizon having a position dependent upon the actual direction of the series relatively to the horizon, and which point both can be correctly ascertained and represented. There are, likewise, vanishing points situated above and below the horizon as well as upon it ; but in this system of perspective it is not requisite to allude further to the fact, LESSON II. ON THE PARTICULAR EFFECTS OF PERSPECTIVB IN NATURE TO BE IMITATED. , Relatively to the particular effects of perspective in Nature are these facts : — 1, It causes apparent lineal magnitude to diminish in the same proportion as distance from us increases — or the apparent length of any horizontal or perpendicular line — within the range of vision — to become shorter, in exactly the same proportion as the line actually becomes more distant from us. Consequently, in a perspective drawing — in order that it may be correct — it is requisite that the space, representing one foot of a horizontal or perpendicular line shewn on the drawing, should be only half aa long as any corresponding space of the base line of THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 91 »ntal line ; or licular line, f every object irface, always s to the tciilth t is long, that called a width of range, with apparent level anding, to be m, upwards to ilways be cor- froiii any line •tance from it, if vision, there re contraction 3 determinative ses it to appa- led a vanishing )f vision, to bo :ending to the ; parallel with , lying at any 3 parallel with eye's line of the whole of lO the point of le of direction ie to converge red with any other than a is a vanishing )f the point of e lines of the scries, and ng a position on, and which zon as well as r to the fact. 'ATED. on as distance line — within \e line actually -it is requisite ine shewn on ic base line of a. Fig. 111. the drawing, when the position on the drawing of the horizontal, or perpendicular, is in- tended to denote a distance from us twice as great as the distance from us that the base line is intended to denote — only one-third as long when the position is intended to denote a distance from us three times as great — one-fourth, one-fifth, and so on, as long accord- ing as the position is to denote a distance from us four, five, or six, etc., times as great. . i. A line can neither apjiear to be horizontal, nor perpendicular, throughout its whole length, unless the whole of it comes within the range of vision ; or, what is the same thing, unless, in the case of a horizontal line, we stand — cither at a distance from it at least equal to its lengt.i, and so that its centre comes directly opposite the point of sight — or at a distance from it which is at least wjual to double the direct distance of its further extremity from the eye's line of direction ; and in the case of a perpendicular line, unless we stand at a distance from it at least equal to double the distance of its further extremity from the elevation of the horizon. Thus supposing a b (Fig. 110) to represent a horizontal line, and e s the eye's line of direction — then b would be the further extremity of the former from the latter, and it Pi„, 1 10. would be requisite to stand at a distance from a b equal to i- double the distance of b from e s — or if the distance, in a direct line, were twenty feet, we should have to stand at a distance of at least forty feet from a b, in order that it _3 might appear to us to be horizontal throughout its whole length. Or supposing h h (Fig. Ill) to represent the horizon's elevation of five feet above the ground, and c i a perpendicular line — then t would be the further extremity of the perpendi- cular from the elevation of the horizon, and if it were thirty- five feet therefrom it would be requisite to stand at a distance of seventy feet from the perpendicular for it to appear vertical throughout its whole length. For if we were to stand one foot nearer to either of such lines than as just specified with reference to each of them ; I then it would extend, at its further end, one foot beyond the range of vision ; and every foot we were to stand nearer still ^ thereto, would cause the line to extend an additional foot beyond the range — but after a certain time half of the foot at one end of the line and half at the other — that is, provided we kept the eye during the whole time fixed contin- uously on one point of sight ; whilst, likewise, the portions extending beyond the range would converge, but only those portions, out of their true direction towards some particular vanishing point. Consequently, to correctly represent a line as being horizontal, or perjiendicular, we must represent it, m the case of a horizontal line — either as standing at a distance from us at least equal to its length, and so that its centre comes directly opposite the point of sight. — or at a distance from us at least equal to double the distance of its further ex- tremity from the eye's line of direction ; and in the case of a perpendicular line, we must represent it as standing at a distance from us at least equal to double the distance of its further extremity from the elevation of the horizon. Hence, also, the base line of a per- spective drawing should always be made conformably 1o these circumstances ; since, independently of other reasons, necessarily it represents a horizontal line, and cannot represent one partly horizontal and partly diagonal or convergent — and at the same time, hence likewise, the soundness of the principle of optics noticed in Lesson I. 8. Lastly, all actually equal spaces on any horizontal and perpendicular line existing within the range of vision at the same distance from us, necessarily have an equal apparent length — so that whatever may be the distance o^ such an horizontal and perpendicular, and the appiu'cnt size according to that distance of one of their feet, the apparent size of any other of them will be the same. 92 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. LESSON III. ON THB REQUIRRHKNTS OF A FERSPECTIVE PLAN OR DRAWING, KTC. A perspective plan or drawing, to be correct, should be mode, so as to conform to the following circumstances as well as to what has been stated in the preceding two lessons. Namely to the circumstance : I. That if on the ordinary level of the earth's surface at a distance of 10 feet from us, we could place a horizontal line 10 feet long, composed of the smallest possible equal sized atoms of glass; if we could place a similar li»e 10 feet long directly above that one ; join the two by two similar lines, so as to form a square ; place another so as to run 5 feet from the grounds or from the centre of one side of the square to the centre of the other; with, also, a series of such lines, adjoining each other, so as to fill up the square, as indicated in Fig. 1 1 2, and make a sheet of glass, and we were to keep the eye immoveably fixed on the cen- Fig. 1 12. tral atom of the central line of the whole set; on having done all this — we should have before us that which would represent a perspective plane ; whilst its central atom would represent the point of sight of a range of vision ; the central line running 5 feet above the ground would represent the horizon of the range ; and the whole would indi- cate the perfect form of a perspective plan or drawing : 2. That then, also, provided we kept our eye fixed upon the central atom of glass, we should not be able to see anything distinctly, existing outside any part of either of the edges < f the square ; but that as great an amount of space as it would be possible for us to see distinctly at one fixed gaze, or that can come exactly within the range of vision beyond the distance of 10 feet from us, would be apparently surrounded by the edges of the outside lines of the square, so that those lines would form, as it were, the apparent boundary of the range of vision : 3. That we should not be able to see distinctly this amount of i-space but for the fact that every atom of every line of the square (represented by the dots Fig. 112) as well as every atom of the scene existing beyond its surface so as to appear to be lying upon or touching it, would have the same apparent distance from us as the central atom of the square would have. For although the central atom of glass would actually be the nearest to the eye of the atoms both of the glass and of the scene; nevertheless as the effect of perspective in Nature, within the range of vision, causes one thing existing in the range to apparently approach more towards the eye than another, to the same extent as that one is the more distant of the two from the eye, it would necessarily cause each of those atoms, that would be more distant from the eye than the central atom would be, to approach the eye so much the more than it would cause the central one to do, — or cause each to assume an apparent distance from the eye exactly corresponding with that of the central atom. 4. That, therefore, it would cause all the atoms to apparently approach the eye so that they would together perspectively form a concave surface, as indicated by the circle in Fig. 112, and radii from all parts of which, such as visual rays, would converge to the eye and be of equal length (see Fig. 1 1 3). 5. That the atoms of glass would form a series of lines, which in a horizontal direction would be horizontal, and in a vertical direction would be perpendicular (see Fig. 112 again) and which would neces- sarily appear to be not only curved or concave lines (only possible however to be represented by means of straight lines) but also to have a common apparent length, and distance from us. 6. That, likewise, every equal portion of each of these lines, as for instance every foot's space, would have one, the same apparent length, as the other. For the greater degree of real length, as compared with one another, each foot's space would perspectively lose from the circumstance of its being, as it would be, actually somewhat more distant from the eye than the central horizontal or perpendicular foot's space of the square of glass would be, each would regain by its parts being, as they would be, perspectively brought forward to the eye, in the way that has been just described in paragraph 3. Fig. 113. )rm to the fio lessons. et from us, sible equal 5 that one ; I run 5 feet the other; IS indicated ' on the ceti- e all this — . perspective sight of a lie ground vould indi- upon the distinctly, e square ; ctly at one mce of 10 les of the the range p the fact as well as ; upon or m of the eye of the n Nature, approach distant of d be more much the apparent ^e so that circle in ;o the eye 113. ler, each ifould be, ;ndicular , as they een just ■J; 4 liSl I f . fe i^^ < i*i! y 1 ^H i; i 1 ti I THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 5)3 7. That each horizontal and perpendicular line of the scene visible through the square of gla-'s would appear to be parallel with and to be, as it wtjre, conjoined with some one or other of the horizontal or perpendicuUir glass lines of the square; therefore, the latter would become, as it were, represcntivc lines, and necessarily whatever portion of any one of these glass lines were to represent the ap])aront magnitude of a foot of any seemingly conjoining line, any other equal portion of the same glass line would do the same, that is to the limits of the seeming conjunction. Hence it is a proof of correct perspective, as regards a horizontal and jjcrpendicular line placed in a j)articular part of a drawing for the purpose of denoting two such lines standing one at the same distance from us as the other, when any one foot of either of them is represented by a portion of line as long as that which represents any other foot's space of either of them. 8. That as the apparent length of a horizontal line, diminishes in the same proportion as the distance from us of the line increases, and therefore any such line which is as distant from us as it is long (or width of range) must have the same apparent length as any other such line that is as distant from us as it is long, (that is as any other width of range) ; also as the portion of horizon that comes exactly within the range of vision and apparently extends across from one side to the other of the glass square or perspective plane, and the length of ground line (10 feet distant from us and 10 feet long) gccupied by the base line of the plane, are lines, each of which is as distant from us as it is long (or each of which is a width of range), one must consequently have the same apparent length as the other. Hence as the base, as well as the horizon line, of a perspective drawing should repre- sent a width of range, its base and horizon lines should be of an equal length. Lastly, as the base line of a perspective drawing should represent a width of range, it may represent either of the glass lines lying beneath the horizon one, that is either the glass line lying on the ground, or the one above, or the next to that, etc. — For every one, if the line underneath it were removed, would still appear to be in contact with a line of the ground as distant as it is long, or to be in contact with some one width of range or another, and denote its apparent length. LESSON IV. ON THE UEFINITK PRINCIPLES WHICH SHOULD UOVERN THE FORMATION OP A PERSPEC- TIVE DRAWING, ETC. The following definite consequences necessarily ensue from the consideration of the facts enumerated in the foregoing three lessons. 1. Anything, which does not come within the range of vision, '" subject to perspective conditions differing from those to which such things are subject vva"*3 come within the range. See Lesson I. — 5. 2. A perspective drawing can only represent one set of perspective conditions. 3. Any scene the drawing can correctly represent must, therefore, be entirely composed of that which does not extend beyond the limits of the range of vision. 4. The limits of the range of vision, at any particular distance from the eye are formed by two directly opposite points existing there, as far apart as is equal to the length of that particular distance, and equi- distant from the eye. 5. The point directly opposite the eye wherever its gaze is immoveably fixed on the horizon is the point of sight. See Lesson I. — 2, 3, 4. 6. As much space can be distinctly visible to us, without moving the eye, on the right as on the left of the point of sight, whether it be space on the horizon of the range of vision, or space on any other horizontal line coming like the horizon entirely within the range. 7. Every horizontal line, lying on the ordinary level of the earth's surface, and that comes exactly within the range of vision, has its centre opposite to us and is as distant fi'om us as it is long — or is a width of range. 8. The base line of a perspective drawing should represent a width of range. 9. The horizon line of a range of vision has its centre opposite to us, and is a line as distant from us as it is long — or is a width of range. 10. The apparent length of any one width of range is the same as that of any other; 94 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. h if therefore, whatever length of line in a drawing represents its base line should represent its horizon line. 1 1 . Every horizontal line that is as distant as it is long, or width of mnge, when repre- sented in a drawing, should be so by a line that is as lon^ as the base line of the dniwinu-. 12. 'J'lu; horizon is always considered in perspective to have an apparent level or eleva- tion of five feet al)ove every width of range. Sec Lesson I. — 10. 1.3. Directly ujiwards, from any width of range, to the horizon depicted on a drawing, therefore, should represent five feet of perpendicular heiglit. 14. The apparent length of any one foot of a perpendicular standing upon a width of range, or on any other horizontal line, is the same as the apparent length of any foot of that width of range, or horizontal line. See Lesson II.— lastly. L^). Therefore the jjortion of a width of range, or of i> horizontal line, on which a per- pendicular is depicted as standing, that rej)re''ent8 one foot, should represent one foot of the perjiendicular — or, for instance, the jiortion of an actual foot, say a tenth or a hun- dredth, or any portion of it, that represents a foot of the one line should represent a foot of the other. 1(1. As tlie apparent length of a horizontal or perpendicular line within the range of vision diminishes in the same proportion as its distance from us increases ; 17. Therefore, accordinr/ as a horizontal or perpendicular line should be depicted in a drawing as being two, three, or more times more distant from us than is the line repre- sented by the base line of the drawing, so the portion of the line that represents one foot should, in the first case, be only half as long — in the second, only a third as long, etc, — as the portion of the base line that represents one foot. See Lesson II. — 1. 18. Whilst as the effect of perspective in Nature, the above rule is based upon, causes the apparent length of a horizontal or perpendicular line to diminish one-half when its distance from us is doubled, or to be only half at the distance of twenty feet from us that it is at the distance of ten feet, and so on ; by putting lines into perspective, con- formably with the rule, we shall find that any portion of line that represents in our drawing one foot of a horizontal or perpendicular line, depicted 'as standing at a particular distance from us, will be only half as long as the portion that represents a foot of a horizontal or perpendicular line depicted as standing at but half the distance from us of the former lines. 19. There is a perspective determinative point situated on the horizon, which should be represented in a drawing in a position analagous to its position in Nature (see Lesson 20. Lines that are parallel with the eye's line of direction, perspectively converge out of their true direction towards the further extremity of the eye's line of direction, or to the point of sight (sec Lesson I. — 12). 21. Any line lying on the ordinary level of the earth's surface, inclining away from us towards the horizon, and every line parallel with that line, converges out of its true direc- tion towards a particular common vanishing point (see Lesson I. — 12). 22. A horizontal line will not come within the range of vision unless we stand at a distance from it at least equal to double the direct distance of its further extremity from the eye's line of direction ; that is, supposing, for instance, its nearer extremity to be ten feet from the eye's line of direction, and its further one to be thirty feet from it, unless we stand at a distance from the line at least equal to sixty feet. 23. Therefore no horizontal line should be represented in a drawing as standing at a distance from us less than equal to double the direct distance of its further extremity from the eye's line of direction (see Lesson II. — 2). 24. The whole of a perpendicular line, standing on the ordinary level of the earth's surface, and extending more than five feet above the horizon, will not come within the range of vision unless we stand at a distance from it at least equal to double the portion of it that extends above the horizon. 25. Therefore no such perpendicular line should be represented in a drawing as stand- ing nearer to us than double its length, minus ten feet; though, as we should require room for sky in a drawing, it should be a rule never to represent a perpendicular as standing at any distance nearer to us than one equal to double the length of the perpen- dicular (refer to Lesson II. — 2). 26. When the base line of a perspective drawing fully represents a width of range ten THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 05 should represent foet distant from us and long, or o en feet width of range, then the height of the draw- ing should he equal to the hrngth of its base line. 27. When the ba.'c line fully represents n width of range remoter than a ten feet one, — as a twenty feet, or thirty fi'et width of rang(!, etc., — the lunglit of the drawing aljove its horizon line should be eciunl to half the length of the base line. 28. As there is a notion prevalent among artists, that a drawing appears more agreeable to the eye when its horizon line lies above its base line, at about one tliird of tiie lieigiit of the drawing; the horizon line can be correctly represented in such a position by making the base line of the drawing so as to represent a twenty feet witltli of range. 29. Should it, however, be desiralde to make the base line represent a widtii of range remoter tiian a twenty feet one, as, for instance, a wiilth of range thirty feet distant from us and long, or a thirty feet width of range; as that would cause the horizon of the draw- ing to come nearer to its base line tlian would admit of the former lying above the latter at a third of the height of the drawing : arti^'ts may still cause the horizon line to cor- rectly occupy the j)osition they fancy is most desirable, by adopting proceedings according to a rule, which a little reflection and experiment will impart. 30. The point of each angle of the base lines, alluded to in Lesson I. — 9, lies, also, at a certain distance from the eye's line of direction, either to the right or the left of it. 31. To put the base lines of nn nhject or of its grounil plan into correct perspective, it is necessary, therefore, to dsccrtain wliot width of raii;/e each point of each of its angles lies vpon relatively to our station, on our actually or presumptively viewing the object; and, also, at what distance that puint lies, on that tvidth of range, from the ei/e's line of direction, as well as on tvhich side thereof it lies; thus, for instance, one point may lie upon a sixty feet width of range, that is, on a horizontal ground line sixty feet distant from our station, and sixty feet long, whilst it may also lie twenty feet fiora the eye's line of direction, either to the right of it, or the same to the left of it; and we can only place it in a correct position on a drawing by making thereon a sixty feet width of range so as to intersect a hne representing the eye's line of direction, and by then marking off twenty feet on the •width of range, to the right or left of the eye's line of direction, according as required, — a process that in practice will be found to be simple and certain in its results. 3'2. Correct perspective, consequently, cannot be produced in a drawing t(nless we know and work according to the length of every line, and the distance from us of every line, to be put into perspective therein ; but as on sketching from Nature we cannot readily ascertain the length and distance of every hne to be represented in our sketch, we should deter- mine in our minds, as nearly as we possibly can by careful comparison and consideration, the relative lengths of the lines requisite to be represented, as compared one with another, and work according to our conclusions on the matter; for if we depend upon the eye alone, let it be ever so correct in its general powers of judging lengths and distances, it is, nevertheless, sure to deceive us when we are sketching, as then it must be kept moving about and away from the point of sight of the scene we wish to represent. 33. The two general principles being correct, namely, that the apparent length, either of a horizontal or a perpendicular line diminishes in the same proportion as the distance from us of the line increases; and that with regard to such lines we must stand at a dis- tance from each line at least equal to its length, etc. (see Lesson I., 8), to be able to see both its ends distinctly at once without moving the eye ; it then follows, that any per- spective drawing that does not conform to rules and principles corresponding with those laid down in this lesson, cannot be correct and true to Nature; that is, if it be a drawing representing a scene the elevation of the horizon of which is but five feet above the ordi- nary level of the eoi-th's surface. r idth of range ten LESSON V. ON THE FORMATION OF A PEUSPECTIVE DRAWING, ETC. As a perspective drawing should have a base line representing a width of range, or horizontal ground line, as many feet distant from us as it is long : 1 . The base hne when drawn should be divided into as many equal parts as it is to represent feet, whilst it is advisable it should always be made to represent a width of range the number of feet in which can be divided by five, as thu-ty, thirty-five, &c. 06 THE NATIONAI. DRAWING M * STER. 2. From the centre of the base line, and at a right angle therewith, a line should be drawn, of a length equal to that of the portion of the base line representing five feet, that it may denote the eye's line of direction as well as a perpendicular line five feet high. As « 8, Fig. 1 14. 3. As the horizon has an elevation five feet above a width of range, and an ajjparent length corresponding with that of the width of the range, a line drawn evenly parallel with the base line of the drawing, and so as to exactly touch the extremity of the eye's line of direction, will correctly represent the horizon of the drawing. 4. The upper extremity of the eye's line of direction, or the centre of the horizon of the drawing, will correctly represent the point of sight of the drawing. 5. On each side of the point of sight, on a level with the point, and at a distance from it equal to the length of the drawing's horizon, a dot should be placed to represent the determinative point of the drawing; whilst it should be remembered that whenever the determinative point is used, all determinative lines carried to it for the purpose of producing widths of range should invariably intersect the eye's line of direction. -^See Lesson I. — 11. 6. As lines running parallel with the eye's line of direction — one foot, two feet, three feet, etc. from it — perspectively converge in Nature out of their true course and towards the point of sight (see Lesson L — 12) we can always correctly represent, in a drawing, the progressive gradual perspective diminution of any space of uniform width, existing parallel with the eye's line of direction and having its further side one foot, two feet, or any other number of feet distant therefrom, by running a line to the point of sight from a point on the drawing's base line that denotes the required distance from the eye's line of direction of one foot, two feet, etc. Thus, as e, s. Fig. 114, represents the eye's line of direction, and the point 1 shewn on the base line width of range 20, indicates one foot from the said line of direction — then if a diagonal line, as 1 «, be carried up to the point of sight, the space between 1 s and the eye's line of direction, all the way up to the point of sight, will correctly repre- sent the space of one foot perspectively diminishing in size fn the same proportion as distance from us increases until it at length becomes obliterated through excessive dis- tance and arrives at its vanishing point on the horizon — if a diagonal line, as 2 s, be drawn, the space between it and the eye's line of direction, all the way up to the point of sight, will represent the space of two feet perspectively diminishing in size, etc. ; if a diagonal, as 5 *, be drawn, the sptice between it and the eye's line of direction will represent the space of 5 feet perspectively diminishing in size in the same proportion as distance from us increases, and so on. These lines may be called point of sight diagonals (P. S. diagonals), and they perspec* lively represent distances from the eye's line of direction of one foot, two feet, etc., not only on the width of range represented by the base line of the drawing, but also on any other width of range made to intersect them, as they do, for instance, on the widths of range represented in Fig. 114, and marked 20, 23, 30, 34, 40, and 80. ^f:-. ■ :. ..U ■ ■ LESSON VL ,,-■ :■■,-:._ , ON THE PKOPBR MODE OF REFRESENTINO WIDTHS OF RANGE EXTENDING ONE BETOND ANOTHER. 1 . As regards those existing at a greater distance from us than the one exists that is represented by the base line of a drawing, it is requisite to proceed as follows : — Istly. To represent a width of range, that exists at a distance from us, half, or less than half as far again as the base line width of range — a determinative line must be drawn from the point on the base line indicating as many feet from the eye's line of direction as are equal to the number of feet in the additional distance, then a line drawn evenly parallel with the base line, through where the determinative line intersects the eye's line of direction, will correctly represent the required width of range. (N.B. A determinative line is a line that always runs to the determinative point — see Lesson IV. — 6thly again. A line evenly parallel means thus zzzz^z and not thus .) Thus, supposing the base line of the drawing represents a 20 feet width of range (as 20, Fig. 114), then it represents one that exists at the 'distance of 20 feet from us, line should he nting five feet, r line five feet d an apparent evenly parallel ty of the eye's the horizon of at a distance 1 to represent einbered that 1 to it for the le of direction. two feet, three e and towards n a drawing, vidth, existing t, two feet, or of sight from the eye's line )oint I shewn jf direction — e between 1 s trrectly repre- proportion as excessive dis- ine, as 2 s, be 1 to the point ize, etc. ; if a direction will proportion as they perspec- Peet, etc., not t also on any he widths of 3NE BETOND !xists that is half, or less ist be drawn of direction ■awn evenly le eye's line ! point — see ;h of range set from us, f ■■tf THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTKR 97 ■> "CI ■\ / > Buppo.siujT, also, \vc wish to represent, for instance, a 23-fect W. R. (as line 2J, Fig. 114), or one that exists hut, for instance, three feet further away from us than the l)ase line width of range (20) exists — then a deterniinative line (as 3, d) running from the hase line point, that denotes three feet from the eye's line of direction, and intersecting said E.L.D., will ensure our purpose ; a line (as 23) drawn through the intersection, and evenly parallel with the hase line, heing the rccpiired widtli of range, or a line indicating a horizontal one lying on the earth's surface at the distance of twenty-three feet from us, and that is twenty-three feet long. 2. As regards «»// W. R., that exists at a greater distance from us than another does, whether the other be a base line W. R. or not ; we may proceed as follows : — 2ndly. To represent a W. R. that exists at a dis- • lance from us, une half ffreatcr than that of nny par- ticular W. R. we may have already represented; — draw a line, exactly parallel with the represented W. R., through a point exactly one third up the por- tion of the eye's line of direction that there is be- tween the represented W. 11. and the horizon line ; the hovizontdl line drawn, will he the re(iuired W. R. ; as the line 30, Fig. 114, relatively to the line 20, be- cause a distance, of 30 feet, is one half greater than a distance of 20 feet. Srdly. To rei)resent a W. R. that exists at a dis- tance from us double that of any represented W. R. — di-aw a line, evenly parallel with the represented W.R., through a point exactly halfwai/ up the por- tion of the JO.Ij.D that tlierc is between the repre- .'■ented W, R. iuid the horizon line ; the horizontal line drawn, will be the required W. R. ; as the line 80, Fig. 114, relatively to the line 40, liecausc a distance of 80 feet is double the distance of 40 feet. 4thly. To represent a W. R. that exists at a dis- tance from us three timea greater than that of any represented W, R. — draw a line as before, and through a point exactly two thirds up the portion of the E.fi.D. that there is between the rejiresented W. R. and the horizon line ; the horizontal, line so drawn will be the required W.R. otlily. To rejiresent a W. R. that exists at a dis- tance from us Jhiir timts greater than that of any represented W. R. — draw a line as before, and through a ])oint exactly three fmirtlifi up the jiortion of the E.K.D. that tlicre is between the rcprescnteil W. R. and the horizon line ; and so on. Gtbly, Also, when the distance of a rc'iitircd. AV. R. is one fourth, one fifth, and so on, of said distance, greater than the distance of any represented^. R., the recjuired one may be produced by ineasiirini/ off the pro- portion, upon the E.L.D, extending between the repre- sented one and the point of sight, and by then running a line through the pro])ortion mark. For instance, if the represented W. R. be a 45 feet W. R,, and the required one be a 54 feet W. R. — as a distance of 54 o I 98 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. feet is D foot, or ,'ith of said dislaiicc {^roatcr than the distance of 45 feet, then proceed tlmt:; naiuHy, starting from the W. II. 4.5, take off one-sixth of the E. !>. D. extending between the W. R. and the point of sight, and through the one-sixth mark draw a hori- zontal Une, and said horizontal hnc will denote a .54 feet W. R. .'5. Having represented .any particular width of range, and requiring to represent one as existing a certain number of feet beyond it — but which number is less than half the number of feet contained m the represented one's length, — run a determinative line from a point (m the represented width of range, denoting as many feet from the eye's line of direction as arc equal to ttie certain number of feet, etc. Tiius, if tlie represented one be a iJO feet W.R., as line 30, Fig. 114, and the new one rcnpiircd be a 40 feet ^y.^•, or one existing 10 feet beyond the former, then a determina- tive line should be run from a))oint, on the represented one (as from point 10', line 30) denoting 10 feet from the £.1^.1),, and a horizontal line, as line 40, drawn through the E.L.D. where it is intersected by tin; determinative line, will be the required width of range. 4. When it is inconvenient to place the determinative point at a distance from the point of sight, equal to the length of the /«// horizon of a perspective drawing ; then at exactly half its projxr (Usfaticc from the jjoint of sight, a substitute point can be used ; as point '/.(/. But, instead of drawing a determinative line to this substitute from the same spot of a W.U. tliat we should work from on using the true determinative point, the determinative line must run from a spot that is one half uenier to the eye's line of direc- tion than the Orst named. ^Tjiis, if the substitute point J.rf. were used to produce a 2.'5 feet W R.,the determinative line should run from the spot marked \\, line 20, instead (if from that marked 3, ; if employed to produce a 30 feet W.R., the determinative line should run from the spot markeilj .'), line 20, instead of from that marked 10; for deter- minative lines running so, (seeyig.) intersect the E.L.D. e.s., where it is intersected by the determmative Uhes ruhningfrom 3 and 10 to d. The W.R. 80 is produced by means of the substitute iLd, ; for although there are but 20 feet reprtjsented from c to 20, line 40 ; yet, as the point it.d. has a double power, the determinative line running to it from 20, gives the same result, or intersects the E.L.D., where a determinative line would intersect it, if it were to run to rf from a point twice as far from c'as 20 — that is from a ])ointjreprcsenlmg forty feet worn the J .L.D. See twelfth paragraph (*) Lesson X. Ry adopting the foregoing method of proceeding, the true representation of any width of range, may be obtained,; or, even a perfectly correct Pkkspective Map of the earth's surface be produced, shewing a gradual persi)cctive contraction of the space existing on tlie latter between tl^e' eye Und the horizon ; that is, provided during the process the greatest possible accuracy is observed, in dividing lines into requisite portions, and in (h'awing lines throng^ ttie intersections made on the eye's line of direction, by means of the determinative lines t^at iniist be used in the process. But, without such accuracy of proceeding in i\xc above naiiied respects, the perspective of Nature cannot possibly be representetl correct,!}' ; since a portion of a line made too large or too small, or a line riinniiig aboce or hetoto any Vo\m^ it should pa^fi lltroinjh with cxactitmle, may cause lines, and consequently objects, to iappear, to be many feet greater, or smaller, more distant, or nearer ihan t|bley;- sl^otlld, a^^eau-. ^ ' LKSSON VII. HOW TO PROCBKO WITHOUT VANISHING POINTS; AND HOW TO PHODL'CK TIIEM, II I [| 'T ■ -I !• I ! ■ ■■■ I ! (1 ' I IF DKSIKABI.K. Hv putting objects into perspective, in accordance witii the rules of this system of perspective, the use of vauisl^ing points may he entirely dispensed with, when desirable ; ns it often must be dpsiraljle, Since, to make a large drawing by means of vanishing- points requires materials i%ai are frccpiently either not attainable, or not at hand — namely, a very large sheet of paper, aiilprding space for placing such points a long way out of the plane or beyond t:hfe boutidar}' (if the picture, and a very long ruler. 1. To dispense with tlfeir use; firstly, in the case of any perspectively crnverging line lying on thfe ordinary level of the earth's surface: it is only necef^sary to repr(!sent perspective!^ thje wldiftl of range belonging to each end of the line, or that each end lies then proceed D. extending k draw a hori- present one as than half the ative line from le eye's line of d the new one 1 a determina- it 10', line 30) 1 through the aired width of ince from the irawing ; then b can he used ; itute from the itive point, the line of direc- to produce a ine 20, instead erminative line 10 ; for deter- intersected by iced by means from e to 20, ling to it from ive line would that is from a iCsson X. I of any width of the earthV ipace existing process the )rtions, and in by means of uch accuracy annot possibly nail, or a line y cause line, ore distant, or K TIIKM, is system cif en desirable ; of vanishing md — namely, way out of nverging line to rejjrescnt each end lies THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 99 upon, and also the distance that each end, on its own W.R., lies from our eye's line of direction to the right or left thereof; and then to connect the perspective positions of these ends by a line — as positions 18 and 15, I'^Il^. 114, by the line running between them from 18 to 15 ; the connecting line being a perfectly correct representation, obtained without the aid of a V.P., of a pcrspectivcly converging line lying on the ordinary level of the earth's surface, — a perspective! n convenjiiKj line being a line whose apparent course is neither horizontal nor perpendicular. Secondly, in the case of any perspcctively con- verging line lying above the ordinary level of the earth's surface and parallel therewith : it is but necessary to represent jjcrspectively the W.R. belonging to each end of the line (that is, the W. R. which each end lies perpendicnUn-l)/ above) and the distance which each end, on its own W.R., lies from our E.L.J), to the right or left ; then, from a represented W.R. point denoting an end's said distance, to raise a perpendicular to a height indicating the height such end lies above the earth's surface ; and, having done so with regard to both ends, so that two perpendiculars have been produced, (as perpendiculars 18 — 6" and 15 — 6', fig. 1 14), to connect the summits of the two by a line, as summits 6" and (!' by the line running between them from (!' to 6" ; the connecting line being a correct perspective representation, obtained without the aid of a V.P., of a perspectively converging line lying as above described. See the end of Lesson XI. 2. Thus, if we require the perspective representation of a perspectively converging line that lies on the earth's surface, with its nearer end 40 feet from us, or on a 4<' feet W.R., and 18 feet from our E.L.D, to the left; and with its further end 80 feet fr jm us, or on an 80 feet W.R., and 15 fed from our E.L.D. also to the left of it. We can produce the line, without the aid of a V.P., by representing a 40 feet width of range, as line 40, Fig. 114; and then marking oft' thereon from the represented E.Ji.D., or as from e. — s., a distance denoting 18 feet, and as point 18 on the line 40: by next representing an 80 feet width of range, as line 80, then marking off thereon from the E.Ij.D. a distance denoting 15 feet as point 15 on line SO ; and by connecting the points 18 and 15 ; the connecting Hne, as line 18 — 15, being the required representation. 3. Or should we require the representation of a line lying parallel with the real line just represented perspectively, yet existing for instance, 6 feet above it : that is of a line having its nearer end 6 feet perpendicularly above a 40 feet feet W.R., and 18 feet from our E.L.D., to the left of it; and its further end 6 feet perpendicularly above an 80 feet W.R., and 15 feet from our E.L.D., likewise to the left thereof. We can produce it without the aid of a V. P., by, as before, representing a 40 feet W.R., and denoting a distance thereon of 18 feet from the E.L.D. e.s. to the left, as the point 18 on line 40; by then making (as line 18 — G') a perpendicular, from the point 18, sufficiently long for its summit to correctly denote a height of 6 feet, the height that the line, to be put into perspective, rises above the earth's surface ; by next representing an SO feet W.R., and denoting a distance thereon of 15 feet from the E.L.D. e.s. to the left, as point 15, on line 80; by then making (as line 15 — 6") a perpendicular from the point 15, and sufficiently long for its summit to denote a height of 6 feet ; and by connecting the summits of the two perpendiculars by a line, as by line 6'' — 6', the connecting line, being the required representation. (N.B. The perpendiculars to be used in the foregoing case can be produced, as before shown, bj'' making each one required, as many times as long as the space representing 1 foot of the W.R., or horizontal line, on which the perpendicular is to be represented as standing : and which s]iace is to be found by means of a P.S. diagonal. See Lesson V. — (i, and Lesson IV. — 15.) 4. The correct perspective position on a drawing, of the ends of any line to be depicted, mny be produced, therefore, by merely representing the distance its ends exist from us, (or the widths of range on which they lie,) and the distance of each from our E.L.D. I so that it is obvious, without further demonstration, that the use of vanishing points may be entirely dispensed with, by putting objects into perspective in accordance with this system. And not only can it be so, but when perfect accuracy is necessary, more correct perspective frequently can be produced by means of the process here detailed, for doing without vanishing points, than by the aid of them ; since it is oftentimes impossible to render the position of a V.P. so defined that we can run lines to or fron\ it with exactness. (N.B. For the samo reason that it may often be desirable not to use vanishing U « 100 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. points, it will likewise be so, to employ the substitute determinative point instead of the real one. See Lesson VI — 4, again. And a substitute point may be employed, not only A nearer to the point of sight than its projjer distance therefrom, but likewise, for instance, fths. nearer, by running a determinative line, to the ^ths. substitute, from a spot on a W.R., Jths. nearer to the E.L.D. than the spot said line should be drawn from if the true determinative point were employed, — and so on. 5. Should it be advisable, however, as unquestionably it often is, that the vanishing point should be used of a perspectively converging line lying on the (earth's surface, in such case the proper position in whicli to place the V.F. on a drawing may be ascertained by the following simple process. Firstly, represent as by line (10, Fig. IIG, the W.R. on which the nearer end (as c 15) of the lino lies, and the distance that 'that end lies from our E.L.D. , and denote the said distance on the drawing as by point c 15 ; secondly, represent, as by line 120, the W.R. on which the further end (as : 4) of the line lies, and the distance that thitt end lies from our E.Ij.D., and again denote the said distance as by point z 4 ; and thirdly, run a line from the perspective position of the nearer end as from point e 15, tlivoiti/h the perspective ])osition of the further end, as through point z 4, until the line touch the horizon, for the point of contact with the horizon, as v, will be the true V.P. of the line. G. To represent, by means of vanishing points, the perspective convergence of lines existing on the side of any structure and parallel with a converging ground line lying on the earth's surface. Firstly, represent the converging ground line as inclining towards its proper vanishing point on the horizon, and according to the process described in the preceding pai'agraph ; then from the nearer end of the represented line, as fi'om 18, Fig. 114, draw a perpendicular so many times as long as the space denoting 1 foot of the W.R. on which the said nearer end lies, as will bo (iqual to the number of feet in the height, of the highest converging line, above the ground converging line ; secondly, from the summit of perpendicular run a line to the V.P. v., of the converging ground line, and from the further end, (as 15) of the convolving ground line, draw a perpendicular until it meets the converging summit line, as (V — 6" ■ thirdly, take between the points of a pair of compasses a space representing one foot of the perpendicular y/rs< drawn, — from its lower end, as from 18, measure oil' so many such spaces as are equal to the number of feet contained in the height above the ground of any other converging line of the structure ; and from the point denoting the height, draw another line towards the V.P. t'., but stopping at the last drawn or remotest perpendicular — or as at that rising from 15. Thus the converging of each line may be produced, as well as the proper perspective lengths of the two perpendiculars it extends between, by the aid of the vanishing point v. of the converging ground line. As the sides of a machine or other structure, as well as of a building, may have lines running from the side perpendicular lines of the structure, the rules for producing the converging lines of the one serve for producing those of the other. (N.B. From c' to 1' on the line 40, Fig. 114, represents one foot; because the P.S. diagonal 1 — s, running from the line '20, denotes the space of 1 foot perspec- tively contracting, between the said P.S. diagonal 1 — s., and the eye's line of direction c. — s., all the way up to the point of sight, and therefore one foot of each width of range it intersects. See I>esson V. — 6, again. The space from c' to 1', line -10, is only half as large a?^ the space from c. to 1, line 20, because the latter represents a foot's space, which is but 20 feet from us, whereas the former represents one which is 40 feet from us, or twice as far from us; that is, the former represents 1 foot of a 40 feet W.R., and the hitter one foot of a 20 feet W.R. See Lesson IV.— 16, 17. The space from V to 18, line 40, is 18 times as long as the space on the same line from e' to 1', because it represents 18 feet from the E.L.D. The space from 18 to 5' is 5 times as long as the space from c' V, because it represents a height of 5 feet, or the apparent height of the horizon line above a width of range. See Lesson I. — 10, and Lesson IV. — 14 and 15. The space or perpendicular from 18 to (3', is 6 times as long as the space from e' to 1 ', because it represents (1 feet of a perpendicular line, standing on a horizontal line. See Lesson IV. — 14 and 15. The space from e" to 1", line 80, represents one foot. Refer to Lesson V. — 6. lint instead of employed, not ut likewise, for ?titute, from a 3uld be drawn the vanishing •arth's surface, awinf^ may be (;0, Fig. 116, tancc that 'that by point c 15 ; nd (as z 4) of [ again denote cctive position of the further int of contact gencc of lines lund line lying e as inclining icpss described ■cntcd line, as =paco denoting to tlic number nverging line ; he converging md line, draw thirdly, take 3 foot of the so manj' such c the ground ig the height, n or remotest h line may be ars it extends nay have lines producing the because the foot porspec- ic of direction 3ach width of from c. to 1, feet from us, far from us; one foot of a the same line ', because it ibove a width e space from a horizontal .—6. THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 101 From til to 13, line 80, is 15 times as long as the space from c" to 1", because it represents 15 feet. The perpendicular from l.j to 5", is 7) limes as long as the spaci' from e" to 1", because it represents a height of 5 feet, or the apparent height of the horizon line, &c. See Lesson I. — 1(1. From 15 to G" is G times as long as the S). ';e from e" to I", because it represents 6 feet of a perpendicular line, standing on a horizontal line. 8. Tlie vanishing point for a line that exists ])arallcl with our eye's line of direction, is the point of sight, as stated in the first Lesson. To dej)ict the perspective con- vergence of such a line towards its V.P., represent ths width of range on which its nearer end lies, (as W.R. 80,) and from tlie point on the W.K. (as from \'A"') denoting the distance of the said nearer end from our eye's line of direction, run a line (as line 13'" s.) to the point of sight ; the line thus produced will represent the convergence of the line — or, of a line each end, and every part of which, lies 1;J feet from our E.L.D., and the nearer end of which is 80 feet distant from us. 9. As the positions of the vanishing points of lines depends on the ajjparent angles their real angles would form with the horizon were the lines to extend to it, and could be readily described ; consequently the positions on the horizon line of a drawing in in which to represent the vanishing points of lines "forming in Nature a variety of angles witii the horizon, could be given here, but are not, as it is an easy and instructive exercise for students to ascertain for themselves where a V.P. should be placed. The methods, however, taught in other works on perspective, for producing the va- nishing point of aline inclining towai'ds the horizon, and, therefore, perspectively converg- ing towards a V.P. situated thereon, differ altogether from the method here detailed ; but at the same time they are unquestionably erroneous methods. Amongst the valid objections against them all, there being one in especial against the method most usually taught; namely, this, that it makes the real angle of direction formed with the horizon by a line lying pai'allel with the actual inclination of the pers])ectively converging line, and starting from our feet or station point, produce the vanishing point ; instead of making, as it should, either this parallel line's, or the perspectively converging line's apparent a.n^\c of direction produce it. LESSON VIIL ON PREl'ARING A GROUNB PLAN TO BK PUT INTO PKUSPKCTIVE. To depict anything in perfectly correct perspective as actually, or presumptively, standing on the ordinary level of the earth's surface, and seen by us with the eye raised 5 feet above the same level, it is requisite to have a ground plan, as lines a. b. e. z. Fig. IIG, or geometric drawing of the base lines of that which is to be perspectively depicted, and showing their forms, relative positions, and lengths. This ground plan, also, should have a scale annexed to it, giving the length of line that represents on the plan, 1 foot, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 10 feet; and it is advisable to assume the following circumstances with reference to the plan, whilst we are making a perspective drawing of it, and that they should be, so far as possible, indicated on the plan. 1. It is advisable to assume, that the lines of the said ground i)lan actually lie on the earth's surface ; that each is so many real feet long, according to its scale feet length ; and that we are viewing them, so that the whole of each of them comes entirely within the range of vision. See Lesson IV. — 1, 2, 3. 2. That whilst we are viewing this ground jilan, it lies in a particular way relatively to the course of the horizon line of this range of vision. See Lesson I. — 1. 3. That our eye, at the same time, is not only 5 feet above the earth's surface but remains so, and lixed on one particular part of the horizon, or on a point of sight; consequently that the eye has a specific line of direction with regard to this horizon line, (see Lesson I. — 'J, 3, 4, 5,) and therefore with regard to the ground plan. 4. That one part of this ground plan lies more remote from us than any other part; as point z.. Fig. 11 G. But to assume these things readily, the plan, as in Fig. IIG, should indicate said eye's line of direction, as by line E.L.Dt ; whilst the EJj.D. should be placed on the plan Vi ^'' 102 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTEK. according to liuw wo wish to perspcctively represent it. That is, wliether we wish to represent it so tii.'it any particular line of it shall appear horizontal, or otherwise, on the perspective drawing of the plan ; experience, taste, judgment, or specific instructions from the designer of the plan, heing, however the only regulators of what should be the course of the horizon and eye's line of direction, and the position of the point of sight, relatively to a plan to he perspectively represented. Though should it be required that any particular line of it should appear horizontal when perspectively represented, then that line of the plan will truly indicate the course the E.L.D. of the plan should take, inasmuch as in such case it must always be at a inght aitifle with that line ; or should it be required to represent any particular line of the plan as being parallel with the plan's E.L.D. , then the plan's E.L.D. must of course run parallel with the said particular line. 5. Having assumed, and a plan prepared, as above described, supposing also the plan to be as lines a. b. e. z., Fig. 116; then, two W. R. lines, at a right angle with the E.L.D., should be drawn exactly through the remotest point of the plan, as through point z,, and tlirough the nearest point, as through point a. ; whilst, when drawn, the ends of one of them (or of the lower one, W.R. 45) should lie as far from each side of the plan E.L.D. as the plan's right and left extreme points lie — that is, as far as point L I'cs from one side of the plan's E.Ij.D., and as point f lies from the other — and so that said lower line may serve as a ividth-lino of the plan, and the line of the E.L.D. extending between the lower and the upper W.R. lines (45 and 120), or as from E.LiD. u])wards, may serve as a depth- line of the plan. 6. Next, to ascertain at what distance from us to depict the remotest point (z.) of the ]>lan, as existing — that is, in strict accordance with the; rule respecting the distance ot which we should stand from lines to bring them within the range of vision (see Lesson IL — 2), — it is absolutely necessary to proceed as thus : namely, when a perpemlictdar line is to be depicted on the perspective drawing to be made of a plan, the scale length of which line is greater than the scale length of the plan's width4ine, but less than the scale length of half the plan's depth-line : in this case, multiply the scale length of the plan's depth-line by 2, and from the result deduct double the difference existing between the scale length of the perpendicular and the scale length of half the plan's depth-line ; and whatever may be the product, represent the remotest point of the plan as existing on a W.R., at a distance from us at least equal to the number of feet in said product. When said perpendicular is longev than the plan's width-line, and also than half the plan's depth-line, in such case, multiply the scale length of the perpendicular by 4, and from the result deduct double the difference existing between the scale length of the perpendicular and the scale length of half the plan's depth-line ; and whatever maybe the product, represent the remotest point of the plan as existing on a W.R. at a distance from us at least equal to the number of feet in said product. When there is no perpendicular line to be considered; or, when the scale length of the plan's ividth-line is greater than the scale length of a perpendicular to be considered (and the longest one to be depicted on the perspective drawing of the plan, is the one which should be considered) ; then proceed in both cases as above described, but relatively only to the scale length of the plan's width-line, instead of to that of any perpendicular. See the end of JiCsson XL 7. Next a W.R. line parallel with the upper and lower W.R. lines first drawn, should be run (as W.R. line GO) through the angle points b. and e. of the plan, as they are, according to the position of the plan's E.L.D., at an equal distance from us. And through each angle or extremity point of every main line of a plan, a W.R. line should be drawn. 8. The scale distance of the lower or nearest-point W.R. line (as of line 45) from the plan's remotest-point W.R. lino (as from Hnc 120) should be accurately ascertained, by measuring from the one to the other along the eye's line of direction running between them ; this distance should be deducted from the denomination of the remotest point line ; then as said scale distance 75 feet, from 120, leaves 45, the nearest point line should be marked 45, to indicate that that nearest point lies at the distance of 45 feet from us ; and so on with regard to any line directed to be drawn in the preceding paragraph. 9. The scale distance of each angle point of the plan from its E.L.D., and in a Inricontal direction (i. c. along the point's W.R. line), should also be found and denoted on the plan by numerals : as that of point a., and which is 5 feet from the plan's E.L.D. ; ither we wish or otherwise, it, or specific lators of what de position of Phougli should 1 pcrspectively the E.L.D. of a right a))i]k r hne of the mst of course >• also tlie plan th the E.L.D.. 1 point z., and ;nds of one of e plan E.L.D. from one side ower line maj' een the lower 'veas a dept/i- iit (z.) of the 10 distance at a (see Lesson perpendicular 2 scale length less than the length of the ting between s depth-line ; i existing on duct. han half the lar by 4, and ength of the r may be the istunce from )erpendicular greater than ) be depicted ered) ; then 3ngth of the sson XI. •awn, should as they are, fVnd through 3 should be m the plan's y measuring veen them ; t line ; then be marked and so on and in a nd denoted I's E.L.D. ; THE NATIONAI< DRAWING MASTER. 103 Fiff. 115. thatof point J., which is also . '5 feet therefrom; that of c, wliidi is I.", feet fhorcrrom, and that of .r., which is 4 feet thercfruiu. See Lesson IV.— 30. '.W. Thus we iiave a plan, as Fig. ll(j, displaying t,he.*e dim-rent features relatively to what it has been stated, in paragraphs 1 to 4 of this lesson, slioukl be ussunied. First, its remotest point, as z, exists at a distance of 120 feet from us, or on an 120 feet width of range, and 4 feet from our E.L.D.; secondly, its next less distant ])oint, as /*, exists at the distance from us of 60 feet, or on a G(» feet widtii of range, and 5 feet thereon from our E.L.D. ; thirdly, its point, e. likewise exists at Iho (Hstance from us of GO I'eet, or on a^60 feet width of range, and 15 feet thereon from our E.L.D. ; and fourthly, its nearest pomt, as a, exists at the distance of 45 feet from us, or on a 45 feet width of range, and 5 feet thereon from our E.L.D. But as any such nearest ])oint of a plan, as the one just aliove alluded to, never ought to be represented close to the base line of the i)ersppctivc drawing of the plan, it is therefore necessary to determine upon a position to be represented as in advance of the said points, or as 5, 10, 15, 20, etc., feet nearer to us. How mucli nearer, however, than the said point, depends upon the taste and special requirements ; so that sometimes it is advisable to represent a position considerably nearer to us, and sometimes but slightly so. Nevertheless the position the base line of the perspective drawing of the plan slioukl represent, as a rule, should not he less than 10 feet from ns,— tor. whilst the eye is raised 5 feet from the ground, and kept fixed on a horizon point of sight, no line lying on the ground, and that is nearer to us than 10 feet, i)y any possi- bility can be distinctly visible to us, or come within the range of vision — and the base line of a perspective drawing, as a rule, should represent a line lying on the ground. See Fig. 1 1 5, where the man is represented as feet high — the line from his eye to ,s', and as far tlierefrom as is equal to 30 spaces of the drawing's base line W.R. oO denoting 1 foot, as well as in this case, to the left of the point of sight, s, — it being, it should be borne in mind, a matter of indifference on which side of the jjoint of siglit the determinative point is placed. See Lesson V., 5; Le.-son VI., 4; and Lesson X., the twelfth (*) paragraph. li 104 3rdly. Repre- sent on the base line (according' to its scale) 1 foot, from the E.L.D., and run u line, or P,S. diagonal, to s, the point of sight. See Les- son v., 6, again, especially the last paragrajjh of that lesson. It will be useful also to divide the first foot's space, extending from the di-uwing's E.L.D. on the one or other side of it, into four equal parts, to denote quarters of a foot, and then to run P,S. diagonals from each division to the ])oint of sight, to indicate quarters of a foot diminishing per- spectively all the way to the distance of the horizon. 4thly. As the point of the plan (o 5. Fig. 117), the nearest to us that is to be per- spectively repre- sented, exists on a 45 feet W.R., and as the base line of the drawing repre- sents a SOfeetW.R. then as 45 feet are one half more than 30, measure off Ird of the E.L.D. ex- tending upward? from the drawing's base line W.R. 30, or as to ■/•, iind through the Jrd point, r, draw a W.R. line, as W.R. 45 for all parts of this line will per- spectively repre- sent a distance of 45 feet from us. See Lesson VJ. — 2. THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. W.R. 120 W.R. 115 W.K. 110 W.K. 106 W.K. 100 U V PC r > u. W.R. 60 -W.R. 54 EI.D W.R. 48' -^V— W.R.43 VV.R. 120 W.R. 115 W.K. 110 W.li. 105 W.K. 100 THE NATIONAL DRAWING O ■—1 o > Oh I I! il I ion THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. As the same point exists 5 feet from our E.L.D., wlirrn fiio P.S. dinp^onal runs from n ') to .s will be the true perspective ])ositioii of tlie point n 5 of the plan. And this point, (/ 5 is to he obtained by measuring off very accurately "j spaces from the E.L.D. of the drawing;, each equal to the space ?• 1, liecausc this space denotes one foot of the 43 feet W.R. it belongs to; whilst it shouhl be remembered that points which lie to the right of the E.L.D. of the plan should l)e represented to the right of the E.L.D. of the pcrs])ec- tive drawing of the plan ; and points, which lie to the left of the E.L.D. of the one, should be represented to the left of the E.L.D. of the other. 5thly. As the point of the ])lan {h 5, Fig. 1 IG), which is the next more distant from us, exists on a GO feet W.IL, or on a W.R. one-fourth 'more distant from us than the 45 feet W.R. just obtained, — then measure oif one-fourth of the E.L.D., Fig. 117, extending upwards from the 4.5 feet W.R., and through the one-fourth point, draw a W.R. line, as W.R. 60. See Lesson VI.— Gthly. As the same point exists 5 feet from our E.L.D., where the P.S. diagonal from a 5 to .'•■ crosses the GO feet W.R., or the point b 5, Fig. 117, will be the true perspective repre- sentation of the point b b' of the plan. Gthly. As the point of the plan (c 15) also exists on a GO feet W.R., its W.R. line on the drawing will be the one last obtained. As the same point exists 15 feet from our E.L.D., measure off, on said W.R. line, I') spaces equal to c 1', or to e 15. 7thly. As the remotest point of the plan, (z 4) Fig. 116, exists on a 120 feet W.R.. or on a W.R. twice as far from us as the last obtained GO feet W.R., then measure oil' half of the E.L.D. (Fig. 117) extending upwards from the GO feet W.R., and through the halfway point draw a W.R. line, as W.R. 120. — See Lesson VI. 3rdly. As the same point exists 4 feet from our E.L.D., measure off, with the greatest exactness, from the drawing's E.L.D., Fig. 117, and along W.R. 120, 4 times the ajp&cv denoting 1 foot of the 120 feet W.R. ; or, to z. 4, Fig. 117. Lastly. Connect point 7 al runs from n o And this point, c E.L.D. of the it of the 45 feet e to the right of of the pcrs])ec- ' the one, should re distant from t from us than ;.L.D., Fig. 117, h point, draw a lal from a 5 to .« }rspective repre- {., its W.R. line 15 feet from our 120 feet W.R. . then measure oil' ind through the; th the greates-1 \ times the sjace atter with point connecting lines Fig. 115; or, it h are situated as as suppositively I side of the per- iitly the drawing- lany artists that of it than the of sight appear he plan, so that ler. Or, if not st point of tho •pace remaining'; (! heen put into the other is left nt to enable any ngs of the most )erspective being if the dimension- )portional degree said increasing lect be indicated ding its acquirc- ng the distance, lines composing Torrns — a di^lancc it i.» coinparatively easy to reprtrsent witli regard to any point, the l)r()C(s;s only being morir lioubiesoine, or re(|iiiring more eare and patient pains-tnking in .some eascjH tliiiii in dIIkts. To perceive the trutli of this, it imist l)e buriie in mind, that if, as in substance before stated, a point exists at a certain distance from us, it must also lie either on, or perpen- dicularly above, some one imaginary horizontal ground-line or other that exists at the same distance from us, and forms u viillli of the range of vision. Consetpiently, if a point, for instance, exists at the base of the face of a building at the distance of sixty Icet from us, then the jjoint must lie on a tvklth of ramje that is sixty feet distance from us, or on a (!0-fect W.R. ; or if another point exists on the same face, immediately over the first-named point, it must lie perpendicularly above a (JO-feet W.R. When, likewise, we look at anything for the purposes of perspective representation, the eye has a perspective position, or presumptively fixes its gaze on a ))articular spot of the liorizon, termed the point of sight; and therefore, from the eye to this point, a line may he considered to extend, styled in this system the eye^s line of direction, or E.L.D. Whilst, on the earth's surface, and parallel with this E.L.D. both to the right and left of it, there may be considered to be an infinite series of imaginary lines lying adjoining each other, and existing respectively at a progressive distance from the E.L.D., — or successively in general numbers one foot, two feet, three feet, and so on, distant therefrom (see Fig. 109); yet which lines, as they arc parallel with the E.ii.D., must all pcrspectively converge to the point of sight, — becoming in consequence what in this system are called P. S. diagonals, and either on, or perpendicularly above, some one or other of which every puint of an object nmst lie. Hence a point, on our seeing it, must not only lie upon, or perpendicularly above a W.R. — or, so to speak, has its W.R. ; but also must do the same with regard to a P. S. diagonal, or has itn P. S. diagonal ; but always relatively, of course, to our distance from the point, and to the perspective jjosit'jn of our eye as respects the point of sight above alluded to. Perspectively represent a drawing's horizon, point of sight, determinative jioint, E.L.D., and base line properly (see licsson V. — 1 to 5), and any W.R. may be correctly repre- sented with the greatest readiness, as sliown in Lesson VI. Any P. S. diagonal may be represented with as much facility as any W.R. — sec Lesson V. — from G to conclusion. A point's W.R. and P.S. diagonal having been correctly represented in a perspective drawing, then, where the one intersects the other, will be the true perspective position of the point, if it is to be represented as lying on a W.R. and P.S. diagonal. See point 13", Fig. 114, which is represented as lying where W.R. 130 intersects P.S. diagonal 13'" — s ; and therefore is perspectively represented as existing 130 feet distant from us, and '13 feet from the E.L.D. Or, should the point lie, for instance, 5 feet perpendicularly above a W.R. and P.S. diagonal, then, the summit of a perpendicular line Tepresented as extending upwards from their perspective intersection (or as from 13"), and to a height denoting the 5 feet elevation of the point above said W.R. and P.S. diagonal (or as to 5'"/.), will give the position of the point on a drawing. See the end of Lesson XL To find how high the perpendicular should extend in a drawing, take the space denoting one foot of the W.R. from which the perpendicular is to extend, and make the latter five times as long as said space (see Lesson IV. — 1 4). To find said space, either see Lesson V. from 6 to conclusion ; or divide, into exactly five equal parts, the portion of the drawing's E.L.D. extending between said W.R. and the drawing's horizon line, and one of the parts will give the required space. (See Lesson IV.— 12 and 13.) (*) And should there remain any doubt in the mind of any one who has studied the ])receding Lessons, as to how to represent correctly the determinative point — by means of which required widths of range are to be perspectively produced — it may be repre- sented, whether for the purposes of ordinary perspective, or of bird's eye perspective, by adopting this simple method of proceding ; namely, between the points of a pair of com- [jasses, and with the utmost accuracy, take the space denoting one foot of the perspective drawing's base, or bottom boundary line ; then, as many feet of distance froin vs as fhis base Ime denotes, measure off accordingly so many times the said foot's space along 108 THE NATIONAr, DRAWING MASTKU. tlic horizon line, from the point of sij^lit and on either side of it — tlic end of the lost Pljace will he the true por^^pectivo position of the dcterniiiiative point. (Uefer to the second X.it, j)arugraph, l^u:*!^on VII). To find said foot's space, if douhtlul how to ascertain it; then, when the level of the horizon of the drawing is to he .") feet, divide into exactly live e([ual parts, the K.L.U., which extends upwards from said hase line to the drawing's horizon line, (when the level is to he greater or less than 5 feet, divide the E.L.I), accordingly) and one of the parts will give the required space. Also, upon representing any W.U., it is advisahie first to run P. 8. diagonals from feet spaces of the drawing's hase line, as each after represented W.R. will be rendered a scale line by the process, or become marked out into spaces, that will denote on it \, },, 1 foot, 2, u, etc., feet. (Hec Fig. 114). Conse(]uently, the art of jierspcctive cannot l)e said to lie in the slightest degree difficult either to comprehend or practise — although unquestionably one demanding the most minute particularity of proceeding; a circumstance it is as well again to remark, which must nev(!r be overlooked. Nevertheless, in addition to the directions above alluded to, the following rules for ])roceeding in certain cases arc given, as they will assist the student to master the art, i)ractically, sooner than he would be able to do if left to his own resources. 1. When, on a ground |)lan, a recess-form, or other break (as p — 0> ^^^^^ line a — h, Fig. IIG), occurs between the two ends of a baseline actually lying parallel with the E.L.D., and therefore pers|)ectively converging towards the point of sight : — To represent the perspective position of ])lan point P of the break, proceed thus ; namely, on the plan, and jjarallel with its E.L.D., place a ruler so as to extend from p to said base line's (« — 6's) /jm/w e//(Z W.R. 45, or to 3; and measure j)hin scale fi'et distance between p and said W.R. 4.'), to ascertain how much further from us p lies than the W.R. does — or, to ascertain p's W.R. Next, in the drawing, on the represented base line's nearer-en^ W.R. (as on W.R. 45, Fig. 117) from where it is crossed by the E.L.D. as at r, and according to tlu; space (/• — 1) on said W.R. denoting one foot, measure off distance corresponding with the above- named plan scale feet distance, or as to 3'. Tlien, from distance-mark 3', and to the 'lelcnninative jiuint, run a line so as to intersect the E.L.D. as at?: next, draw a W.R. (48) or horizontal line through inter- section i, so as to cut the represented base line a — b as at P, and point P will perspec- tively represent plan point p. For when a point lies on an already represented base line, which converges towards the point of sight, and it is required to find the position of the point, it is only necessary to represent its W.R. intersecting said base line as W.R. 48 intersects base line a — h, the point of intersection being the required position. N.B. Refer to the twelfth (*) paragraph of this lesson ; and to the second N.B. paragraph, Lesson VII. 2. To represent plan point O's W.R. and position on the drawing, either proceed as directed in the case of plan point p ; or, as Q I'^^s on a r)4-feet W.R., that is, on one 9 feet further from us than W.R. 45 ; produce Q's, W.R. by marking off ,!th of the E.L.D., extending between W.R. 45 and the point of sight; and through the ,!th mark draw a W.R as W.R. 54 — for where it intersects base line a — b, as at 0, will be the perspective position of plan point Q. See Lesson V'l. — 6thly. 3. Plan point p, being a point forming one end of a line receding from a base line denoted by a — h; and the other end L ly'^^S ""^ ^^^^ same W. R. as p does, as it must do, since this receding line is a horizontal one, under these circumstances, and in the case of every horizontal line, the jjcrspective position in a drawing of both ends of the line will be on the same W.R., or as on W.R. 48. 4. Required to represent the length of said receding line p — L : — measure the plan scale feet distance existing between the two ends of the line ; — then, from the point in the drawing representing one end of the line (as from P, Fig. 117), measure off the cor- responding distance along said point's W.R. 48, and according to the scale of the W.R. or space thereon denoting one foot — the termination of said corresponding distance (as L.) will give the true perspective position of the other end of the line ; whilst the required length will be represented by the space extending from P. to L. 5. Should a plan line as L — ^T» Fig. IIG, lie parallel with a b»se line, as with a — h, then THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 109 cntl of tlic Inst (Kefer to the lio level of the ts, the E.L.U., line, (when the ;ly) and one of ., it iij udvii>al)le c, as each iifter inie marked out ecFig. 114). slightest dei^rce demanding the igain to remark, lirections ahove i they will assist I to do if left to hase line a — h, irallel with the k, ])roceed thus ; ) extend from p ! ]il(tti sale feet n us p lies than (as on VV.R. 45. th»! space (/• — 1) vith the above- i line so as to through inter- ^ will perspcc- iiverges towards only necessary jase line a — b, le second N.B. her proceed as that is, on one off .Uh of the 1 the |!th mark 0, will be the rem a base line as it must do, and in the case of the line will easure the plan n the point in jre off the cor- of the W.R. ng distance (as st the required ivith « — b, then a line convcrginc^ in the drawing, as from L., Fig. 117, tow.ards thv. point of sight, will represent said plan line's perspective direction. Represent its other end's (T *♦)' W.R. 54, in the drawing, as intersecting ^^lid converging line A — s, then the point of intersection as T' will give the true perspective jjo-^ition of this other end. The perspective representation of plan line y — O ^^''1 '''^ the portion of said W.R. .J4, extending between jT and 0, Fig. I 17. fi. Supposing four pcr]>rndiculnrs afe to he depicted on the drawing as standing on the four plan points, p, Q, [_, f, i •' this jcccf-, f(» represent four rods of ecpial height : then on the drawing, and according tu .i* many feet as there arc in this hciglit, either make each perpendicular so many times »» loti'r as tlu^ space dt iiofinjr one foot of the W.R. on which it is to be represented as .standing ; or, in the same maiu. extending from a base line e — z, and it is required to produce the vanishing point of said recess line, and, therefore, of all lines lying parallel with it, as well as the perspective converg- ence of this recess line ; also that said point N '^ represented, as by jV, Fig. 117. On the plan place a ruler along the recess line N — F> ^"d so that the ruler contacts, as at 10, with said base line's (e — z) nearer-end's W.R. 60, and aloii{) said [V.H, measure plan scale feet distance between said contact point 10 and the E.L.D. Then mark off corresponding distance on the represented base line's nearer-end W.R. 60, according to its scale, or mark off the space from the E.L.D. to 10' W.R. 60, Fig. 117. Next, from distance-mark 10' run a VM'. line through point X, until the hue touches the horizon ; the point of contact, »;', with the horizon line being the V.P. of plan recess line N — F> 3^8 well as of all lines lying parallel with it, whether below or above the horizon ; and a portion of the said V.P. line, extending from iV towards the horizon, being the required perspective convergence of said plan recess line. N.B. The required V.P. and convergence, also, can be obtained by means of finding on the plan, and representing in the drawing, the W.R. and P.S. diagonal respectively be- longing to its points N J^nd p. 3. Required to represent the length of plan line N — F> or that it extends from base line e—z ; place a ruler on F> ii^fl parallel with said base line, likewise so as to contact, as at 20, with said base line's nearer-end W.R. 60 ; and measure, along said W.R., plan scale feet distance between said point of contact, 20, and the E.L.D. Then, from the drawings E.L.D., mark off corresponding distance on the represented base line's nearer-end W.R. 60, according to the said W.R.'s scale, or mark off to 20' ; next, from the distance-mark 20' draw a V.P. line (20 — v) to the V.P. (v) of said base line e. r.(see Jjcsson VII. — 5), and where said V.P. line intersects the previously produced V.P. line 10 — v', as at F, will be the perspective position of plan point p ; whilst the length of line between N and F will be the required representation of plan line N — F- At the same time should the recess on the plan shew a back line, as F — F'- Ij'inp: parallel with the base line e — z, a portion of the last produced V.P. line 20 — v., extending from F on the drawing towards the V.P. v, will correctly represent it. 4. Required to represent plan points SVI ^"d F'. ither find on the plan each point's P.S. diagonal, or distance horizontally from the E.L.D.; then, where IVI's represented P.S. diagonal, in the drawing, is made to intersect the V.P. line, ex- tending from A'^ to v, as at M, will be plan point |V|'s perspective position; and, where F"s represented P.S. diagonal is made to intersect the V.P. line, extending from F to v, as at F, will be plan point F 's perspective position ; whdst a line drawn from ^[ to F will be the required line. Or proceed thus : place a ruler along plan line M — F'l f^nf^ so that it contacts witli the nearer-end W.R. 60 of the base line from which it runs, as at 7; and, along said W.R. 60, measure plan scale feet distance between said point of contact and the E.L.I). Then, mark off corresponding distance on the represented base line's nearer-end W.IL 60, according to its scale, or mark off the space from the drawing's E.L.D. to 7', W.R. 60, Fig. 117. Next, (as plan lino |V| — F lies parallel with plan line N — F> fi"'^') therefore, must converge in Nature, as towards v', the same V.P. that N — F does), from distance- mark 7' run a V.P. line to v. For, where said V.P. line 7' — »' intersects the V.P. line, running from N to v, as at 3T, will be the perspective position of plan point |V| ; and where it intersects the V.P. line, running from F to v, as at F', will be the perspective position of plan point F ; whilst the portion, of the hisf-prodiired V.P. line, 7' — v' run- ning from M to F', will be the required length of plan line M — F • 5. Recess as well as any other lines, converging towards aiiyV.V. and said V.P., may lie produced in a perspective drawing l)y ndojiting nuidcy of proccclin:.'; corresponding witli one or other of the foregoing. I point N '^s the he E.L.D. 3r-end W.R. 60. ling with above- denoting one . diagonal to tho s intersects base f plan point N- I — p, extending t of said recess lective converg- Mg. 117. J ruler contacts, 1 W.li. measure learer-eiid W.R. .R. 60, Fig. 117. line touches the ' plan recess Hne 3ve the horizon ; rizon, being the ms of finding on respectively be- ttends from base so as to contact, said W.R., plan the represented mark off to 20' ; (v) of said base viously produced nt F ; whilst the m line N — F- as F — F'. ly'":- )—v. cxtendint;; ither find on the ; then, where le V.P. line, ex- Ion ; and, where »g from F to i', from .¥to F It contacts with and, along said Id the K.L.I). earcr-end W.ll. ,.D. to 7', W.R. |,and, tlioreforc, 1 from distance- tlie V.P. line, I point IVI ; and Ithe perspective Ine, 7' — v' run- jd V.P tuliiig may be witli THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. Ill 6. The perspective convergence of a line, however, may be produced without rcprc- .^■cnting its V.P. For, supposing, for instance, it were requisite, without enlarging the paper of Fig. 117, to draw, thereupon, aline, the V.P. of which, if used, would have to be placed two actual feet from the point of sight s. ; then, the convergence of the line could be produced by merely representing one end of the line's W.R. and P.S. diagonal, inter- secting each other ; and the other end's W.R. and P.S. diagonal, also intersecting one another ; and by drawing the converging line between the two intersections — that is, ."^hould the line be a ground line. Should it lie above the ground : — raise perpendiculars from each W.R. that each end of the line is to be represented as lying above, and of a proper height according to the scale of said W.R. ; then run a converging line from the summit of one to the summit of the other perpendicular. See Lesson VII. again. 7. The side and pcrspectively converging lines of doorways, windows, or of any other form, may be easily represented, as must now be obvious to the student, either by means of first producing whatever W.R., — P.S. diagonal, — or V.P., may belong to each end of every line ; or, by means of producing only the W.R. and P.S. diagonal of each. Refer again to the first seven paragraphs of the previous lesson. 8. To produce the W.R. of any previously represented point, as of point M. or N. Fig. 117: — run a horizontal line through the point and across the drawing. N.B. See the last paragraph of previous lesson again. 9. To find the perspective centre of any represented space, when required quickly and its top and bottom lines converge to a common V.P.. and also are connected by two perpendiculars representing, one the same height as the other. Run diagonal lines from the diagonally opposite ends of the perpendiculars, — a perpendicular line drawn through the intersection of the diagonals will be the perspective central line of the space. See Fig. 114, diagonals 18 — 6', and 15 — 6', and centre line c. 10. To represent a circle in perspective : — enclose it in a square, and run lines through its centre, as shown in Fig. 118; then, make a plan of it with an E.L.D., and find the W.R. and P.S. diagonal of each point of contact that the circle makes with the accessory lines shown in the diagram. Next represent the perspective position of each point of contact, and connect the represented points with a circular line running from one to the other, taking care that it flows with freedom and does not bulge out with an unnaturalness of appearance in any one part. To make one lino at a right angle with another : — draw one line ; then open a pair Fig. 118. K ^ y: \ 11. v/ a Fig. 119. of compasses and place one of its legs where the right-angle line is to run from, or, as at a, Fig. 110 : — mark off on each side of a an equal space, as h, c; then open compasses a little wider and from b and c make intersections above and below a ; next place a ru'er, along a and the two intersections, and draw a line upwards Oi downwards as /^ required ; the line so drawn will be a perfect right-angle line if the operation has been carefully performed. On using the compasses see that they are sharp pointed, and do not allow their points to indent the paper. 12. A plan of an object is generally accompanied with an elevation of the object. To make a perspective drawing of the elevation, make an E.L.D. upon it, corresponding in position with that of the plan's E.Ii.D., for the pur])ose of ascertaining the distance of points of the elevation, from the E.L.D. Also, whatever level has been employed, for the apparent level of the horizon above the earth's surface, in the perspective drawing of the plan, it will be found convenient to draw an horizon line across the elevation to represent a level corresponding with the level denoted by said perspective drawing's horizon line. The limits of this work do not admit of further directions being afforded with reference to ordinary perspective. Nor are they requisite in fact, this system of perspective being a ])roof that the science may be practically acquired through merely knowing a few leading principles. For it is simply the result of a knowledge of the three main principles of perspective — namely, that apparent contraction increases exactly as distance from us increases ; that, consequently, parallel lines, under certain circumstances converge out of iheir true directions towards a common V.P. ; and that we ought not to represent a line as existing nearer to us than a certain distance regulated j^by the length of the line — though the system has been carefully tested before being advanced in this work. 112 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 1 3. To represent a bird's eye view, or anything seen by us with ovv eye raised more than five feet above the ordinary level of the earth's surface, proceed thus : — Ascertain, or determine, the number of feet that the eye is raised above said level then represent the base line of the perspective drawing to be made ; from the point of said base line, from whence the E.L.D. is to run, draw a perpendicular to represent the height of the eye above the earth ; represent the horizon as passing through the upper end of the line, and said upper end will denote the point of sight ; whilst the perpen- dicular will not only denote a line the summit of which exists on a level with the apparent level of the horizon, but also the E.L.D. of the perspective drawing. And according to the height of the eye above the earth's ordinary level will be the height of the apparent lnvel of the horizon above any W.R. that may be represented on the drawing, whether a has? line W.R. or not, and one scale foot of the line indicating said height (or of the E.L.D.) will be equal to one foot of the W.R.; therefore divide the E.L.D. extending between the base hne W.R. and the horizon point of sight into as many equal spaces as there are feet in said lieight of the eye — consequently if there should be 100 feet in said height, divide the perpendicular into 100 equal parts — to find the space denoting one foot of the base line W.R. ; remembering that by dividing the base line into feet spaces of the size of said portion, and by running, from the limit of each foot space, a P.S. diagonal to the point of sight, then, wherever the so-obtained P.S. diagonals may intersect any after produced W.R., from one P.S. diagonal to the next will indicate one foot of said W.R., as well as of any perpendicular to be drawn upon it. See the twelfth (*) paragraph. Lesson X. Bearing in mind, and attending to these facts, the perspective position of all the points of any object to be drawn may be i)i'oduced on a drawing, by, otherwise, proceeding according to the directions given for ])roducing ordinary perspective ; taking especial care, the while, that all points, which do not lie so high above the earth's surface as the apparent level of the horizon, are represented of their proper height, but beneath the drawing's horizon, etc. Nothing has hitherto been said in this treatise respecting perspective views relatively to which the level of the eye is less than five feet. The reason of this is, that if it be considered how contracted the apparent depth of space between the eye and our position would be on looking at a scene with the eye raised less than five feet above the earth's ordinary level, a perspective drawing correctly representing a space so contracted would seem to be unnatural. It is not advisable, therefore, to adopt a minimum height less than five feet for the level of the eye relatively to perspective. Neither is it judicious, unless requisite under very special circumstances, to work according to any other than this minimum height of five feet, as drawings made in accordance with it are always more pleasing than when not so made. N.B. The term " perpendicular" is never used in this work in any other sense than as meaning a vertical or perfectly upright line. Also, remember that after putting anything into perspective, all accessory lines which have been used in the drawing — such as the dotted and W.R. lines in Fig. 117 — should be carefully effaced, and therefore should be drawn at first as lightly and thinly as possible. eye raised more ibove said level om the point of ;o represent the rough the upper liilst the perpen- ith the apparent level will be the c represented on 3 line indicating refore divide the of sight into as ly if there should -to find the space ;he base line into ' each foot space, d P.S. diagonals lext will indicate ion it. See the 1 of all the points wise, proceeding ing especial care, 's surface as the but beneath the a views relatively is is, that if it be and our position ,bove the earth's Icontracted would limum height less er is it judicious, any other than are always more ler sense than as [putting anything ig — such as the refore should be ^-hf. Thic study of landscape-drawing from Nature, amid country scenes, is one of the most delightful occupations wo can pursue, creating refined enjoyment and contributing to excite a cheerful, happy, grateful frame of mind, akin to the purest and best sensations we can experience. Judgment, taste, imagination, memory, each is stimulated and disciplined by the pursuit, so that we can hardly engage therein without improving ourselves, not merely as artists, but in other important respects. To understand how tins can be, it is only necessary to bear in mind that sketching from Nature usually tends to bring a great variety of scenery and objects under our notice. This leads us to compare their different picturesque characteristics one with another, and to discriminate their beauties, or to the exercise of judgment and formation of taste. At the same time, surrounded by an exquisite diversity of natural objects and charming pictorial effects, fancy and imagination, even though not originally active, throw out new tendrils into the world of wonders that lies beyond the domains of materiality. For Nature is a twofold world — a material \vorld, to which the sluggish fancy alone clings, and a spiritual world, into which the quickened imagination branches forth, receiving from its magical influences nourishment and support, engendering those immortal fruits that assume a form in the works of the artist and poet. Lastly, memory is exerted and strengthened by the constant direction of the attention to the objects being sketched, and which cannot be imitated, unless remembered whilst the eye is withdrawn from them to guide the operations of the hand. When, therefore, it is also borne in mind that a mere copyist of the drawings of others can never become a thorough artist, it will be perceived how great are the inducements to sketch as much as poHiible from Nature, and the important results arising from doing so — results no one can fail to derive, who is earnest, industrious, and jjcrsevering — who is not easily discouraged by failure, and frequently uses his pencil and brush at various times and seasons, al)road as well as at home. ]Jut a knowledge of the following principles of proceeding will greatly facilitate the first attempts of art students to sketch with purpose and utility. What shall I sketch ? may be a question arising in the minds of some, when they determine upon extending the sphere of their efforts. The answer to this question is, — That which you prefer, i)rovided you have the opportunity so to do ; or, if you have not, then, from the scenes which are accessible to you, select a subject the most in accordance with your inclinations. Yet the end a student has in view in studying art should always govern his choice of subject. Should he wish, consequently, to excel in, or the bent of his genius tend towards, the representation of mere landscape, or of landscape and figure objects combined, ho should concentrate his efforts accordingly. He nmst not forget, \i\ I ■ 114 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. however, that a picture, to be estimable, must have all its parts true to Nature — that a well-imitated man, animal, or tree, etc., does not save a picture from being a bad one, if the other portions of it arc not truthful imitations ; and thus, that whatever may be tlie main object of his work, lie ought not to be content with the execution of its accessories, unless he has made them as perfect imitations as he can produce — a degree of perfection, also, that may be of a high character, since it is not possible to be able to represent one kind of object very faithfully, without having the power — latent, or developed — of representing other things with considerable accuracy, — the ability rec^uisite for the former sufficing for the latter. Supposing — to proceed methodically — you have selected a subject (a subject cither being a single object, or a scene composed of several objects), so as to be able to stand before it on the ordinary level of the earth's surface, — that is, not on a marked elevation, — and that the eye is raised five feet above the ground ; also, that you have at hand a lilJ. B, HB and F pencil, with a square sketch book, and fully comprehend " the general matters to be attended to in practical perspective," referred to in Lesson 1, Section vii. 1. You should, then, adopt a Jixed station relative to the subject, so that the eye's line of direction will, as it were, divide the subject in such a manner that a certain portion of it shall appear on one side of the E.L.D. and the remainder on the other. And this station should be taken according to the position that seems to afibrd the command of the greatest amount of picturesque material for a drawing, — consistently with the laws that govern perspective and vision ; the one, a law modifying form in a way that must be strictly regarded, and the other only enabling us to see certain portions of these modified forms at once, or whilst the eye remains perfectly stationary, gazing on the point of sight— as the eye must always be presumed to remain when we are drawing or sketching. For though, of course, it is a fiction that it does remain so, yet as it is the fact that the point opposite the eye, or " point of sight," apparently attracts the ends of certain lines out of their true course towards it, and indirectly influences the apparent course (or divergence from their true course) that any other lines may assume, that fact, consequently is one that must be consi- dered and acted upon in ai't. Since, if we were not to act upon it, and were to depict a line, solely in accordance with its appearance when we turn our eye, for the purpose of imitation, specifically towards it, we should necessarily represent it so as not to assist duly in conveying a true idea of the form to which it belongs, — a circumstance that it may be difficult for the inexperienced readily to understand, but which any one will soon compre- hend who studies perspective and reflects upon its principles and the conditions that must unavoidably control our powers of representation. 2. Having taken a station, as indicated above, note very carefully the farthest visible point on a level wita and directly opposite the eye, or forming the further end of your eye's line of direction, as that point will be the point of sight of your subject. And it may be a point on a tree, on a building, or on an elevation — or even on the actual horizon ; that is, in the latter case, a point existing somewhere on the line that the apparent junction of the sky with the earth seems to produce, it being certain to be in such a position if the sub- ject be a sea-scene, or if water of any kind meets the sky in your eye's line of direction. Whilst, wherever it may be, remember (according to the circumstances now being treated of, namely, that you are standing on the ordinary level of the earth's surface, with your eye raised five feet above the ground), that the point of sight, and your horizon line running visibly, or invisibly, through the point — can only have a level five feet above the ground upon which you stand ; and that all lines of your subject, which are actually parallel with your eye's line of direction terminating in the point of sight, will converge, or appear attracted out of their true course, towards the point of sight, and must he represented as so doing. See Lesson I, — 12, Section vii. 3. Exactly half way between the top and bottom lines of a square sheet of your sketch-book, sketch in or draw a line to represent your horizon line, and place a dot on the centre of the line to represent your point of sight, — having provided beforehand that your paper is as large as you can conveniently obtain and use, and, if possible, that it comes jUnsh with the edges of your sketch-book. 4. Ascertain relatively to your subject what comes within your range of vision. (See Lesson I, — 4, 5, Section vii). To do this — place your square sketch-book exactly as far from your eye as is equal to the lengtii of your sketched horizon lino, and so that its ])oint of sight shall, as nearly ns you can manage it, cover the actual point of sight of your i Tlir: NATION Ali DRAWING MASTER. 115 Mature — that a ^ a bad one, if .'cr may be tlie its accessories, icrfection, also, •esent one kind of representing er sufficing for I subject either •e able to stand irked elevation, ; at hand a JilJ, general matters I vii. lat the eije's line lin portion of it A.nd this station of the greatest ws that govern lust be strictly odified forms at »f sight— as the ^, For though, lint opposite the at of their true 3 from their true t must be consi- to depict a line, Ithe purpose of ot to assist duly ! that it may be II soon compre- itions that must ; farthest visible iid of your eye's And it may be horizon ; that Ircnt junction of lition if the sub- e of direction. w being treated ■face, with your V horizon line feet above the :h are actually will converge, |t, and must be liect of your |cc a dot on the hand that your that it comes |of vision. (See exactly as far |o that its ])oint sight of your subject. Having so placed the book, and holding it steadily, carefully observe, by turning the eye without moving the head, what parts of the ground and other objects appear to come in contact with the edges of your book — for those parts will form the apparent boundary of your range of vision, and nothing existing oeyond them should be depicted in your sketch. All, however, that is covered by your book, and that you could see through it if it were transparent, will come within your range of vision, and may be repre- sented. (See Fig. 115). Though, should you not desire to represent all that your book covers, it is not necessary to do so. Also, should you wish to represent a Hne further away from you than the line of ground which appears to come in contact with the bottom edge of your book when held as described above (and which ground-line will be a line exactly 10 feet long and 10 feet distant from you, or a 10 feet width of range) you can effect your purpose by marking off a portion of the lower part of the sketching-paper, where the ground line you wish to represent projects beyond the sides of your book as indicated by Fig. 120. Fig. 120. Or should you wish to bring within your sketch more than you find your book covers, when held as directed between your eye and sub- ject's point of sight ; then, if possible, retire backwards, holding the l)ook as before, until you find precisely as much becomes covered by it as you wish to depict. If not possible to retire, it is requisite — but difficult to manage without considerable practice — to make the bottom edge of your book represent a width of range longer and more remote than a 10 feet W.R., and to imagine the ground line the bottom edge of your sketch-book appears to come in contact with, to be the longer and more remote width of range. To do this, take an extension of your ground line contacting with the bottom edge of the book, and equally on each side of you, and according to the extension consider this ground line to be so much ithe more distant from you than 10 feet; or should the extension render the line 20 or 50, or any other number of feet long, considei- the line to be that number of feet distant from yoit, and divide the base line of your sketch {i.e. the bottom edge of your book) into as many equal spaces as there are feet in this extended ground line which it is to represent, that each space may denote one foot. Then draw a pei-pendicular line from the centre of the base line, and equal in length to 5 of its feet spaces, and e.vacth/ through the summit of the perpendicular run a line to represent your horizon line, making it at the same time evenly parallel with the base line. For by proceeding thus, you can readily ascertain at what distance from the point of sight to represent the determinative point of your sketch should you be inclined to amend its perspective defects at home, and put it into as perfectly correct perspective as it is possible to do, under the circumstances that whilst sketching according to such H principle of proceeding, there arc no means of ascertaiidn'j^, but bi/ inference, the distance from you and from your eye's line of direction of the various lines represented in your sketch. Though the power of making this inference, so as to approximate remarkably closely with the truth may be acquired by frequently sketching subjects from Nature, and carefully ascertaining (through means that suggest themselves to the reflective and ingenious) the relative proportions tliat one line of a subject bears to another, as regards apparent distance from us, and from our eye's line of direction, and idso as respects apparent length. N.B. With regard to the determinative point, refer again to Lesson 1, — 11, and to the twelfth paragraph. Lesson X. ; and recollect, therefore, that, as there shown, the mere length of the base line does not, as some works on perspective virtually teach, regulate the distance from the point of sight that the determinative point (called in those works tlic point of distance) should be placed, unless that length rc]n"esents the whole ground line of a full range of vision ; but as before stated, as many scale-feet of the base line as correspond with the number of feet that there are in tlie distance froui us repre- .sentcd by that base line — for the base line of a drawing or sketch must always repre- sent an imaginary line lying at some certain distance from us. (See also the second N.I5. paragraph. Lesson VII.) 5. Assuming now, however, that you wish to proceed methodically, and, therefore, that you have a square sheet of sketching-paper, the edges of which are flush with the edges of that on which it is fastened ; that you have represented a horizon line on your 116 THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. sketch, so as to run completely across its central part; an eye's line of direction, so as to run from the centre or point of sight of the horizon line, to the centre of the bottom edge of your book — the base line of your intended sketch ; and that the said base line represents a ground hne 10 feet distant from you and long, or a 10 feet width of range. Divide the base line into exactly 1 perfectly equal spaces ; or, so that 5 of them may be precisely as long as the eye's line of direction ; and to indicate 10 feet, the length of the ground line the base line represents. Refer to Lesson V. — G ; and to Lesson X., fifteenth paragraph, Section VII. 6. Objects always have apparent points of contact, one object with some other ; for if you look at anything, a part of something else will appear to touch it, or come in contact with it. For example, it will come in contact, apparently, with a particular line of it, or at a certain distance from each end of a particular line thereof, or with some part of one of its side, or top or bottom lines ; and the art of sketching, partly, is the imitation of these points of contact, and likewise the representation, on a reduced scale, of the relative apparent distances of the points of objects from each other, which if skilfully effected, will amount to very closely indicating the proportional distance from you, and from your eye's line of direction of every point of the subject of a sketch. Consequently, on depicting a subject from Nature, the points of contact and relative distances above alluded to, must be most carefully studied and ascertained, as far as any means admit of, before the sketch is commenced. As one of the best means select the most prominent vertically perpendicular line of your subject; — then hold the sketch-book at a distance from the eye exactly equal to the length of the previously sketched horizon line; — move the book until one side of it appears to touch the selected perpendicular — taking care during the whole process that the sketched horizon line, all the while, as nearly as possible, covers the actual horizon line of your subject ; — and where each end of the selected line appears to touch the side edge of the book, make a mark. Next — holding the book as before, but with the sketch point' of sight covering your actual point of sight (see 2 and 3 of this Lesson) — bring the top edge of the book, without moving it to the right or left, into contact with the summit of the selected perpendicular ; — then, draw a perpendicular 'ine from the point of contact downwards, and two horizontal lines from the two points of contact marked previously on the side edge of the book, and the portion of the depicted perpendicular extending between the two horizontal lines will represent the selected perpendicular. By means of a similar process represent the most prominent vertically perpendicular line connected with the one last represented ; and if the two are joined together by lines running from their summits and lower ends, then join the two depicted perpendiculars with corresponding hues. To obtain the proper position on the sketch, as regards height, of any other particidar point to be represented, hold the book as before; then, with the horizon of the sketch covering your actual horizon line, move the book until one side of it appears to contact with the j)oint, and make a contact mark. To obtain the proper position on the sketch in which to place a particular point of your subject existing on either side of your actual point of sight, hold the book as before, but with the sketch point of sight covering your actual point of sight ; then carefully lower or raise the book, without moving it to the right or left, until its upper or lower edge contacts with said particular point, and draw a perpendicular from the point of contact ; and, having previously ascertained said particular point's height on the side edge of the book, according to the directions given in the preceding paragraph, draw a horizoatal line from the side edge height-mark until it touches the perpendicular, as whei'e ^he iw.) lines touch will be the proper position of the point. These rules show the importance of determining in your mind, before you begin to sketch a subject, where you will consider its horizon hne to run and your actual point of sight to exist, and of having a corresponding horizon line and point of sight marked on your sketching paper — also of onln moving the eyes and not the head whilst sketching. 7. When you require to sketch a bird's-eye view, proceed according to the rules given in Lesson X. — 12. 8. How much of a subject should be sketched, as respects its outlines, now becomes a point for consideration. The general rule in this matter is, to depict as much of the lirection, so as to c of the bottom he said base line vidth of range, t 5 of them may ;et, the length of id to Lesson X., some other ; for h it, or come in . a particular line :of, or with some ng, partly, is the . a reduced scale, other, which if lal distance from Ect of a sketch, act and relative led, as far as any :ular line of your ;ly equal to the I one side of it lole process that le actual horizon ;o touch the side ht covering your ge of the book, of the selected ;act downwards, ausly on the side ing between the lly perpendicular together by lines perpendiculars other particular of the sketch jears to contact lar point of your )k as before, but carefully lower or lower edge )int of contact ; |ide edge of the horizontal line fe 'he i\vj lines le you begin to actual point of Wit marked on [sketching. n rules given in low becomes a lis much of the THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 117 outline as in your judgment is particularly striking and characteristic, and so that it will cause your sketch to impart a clear idea of the form of the object. To do more prevents the possibility of a broad effective treatment of the subject when it is being finished uj), as it crowds a drawing with little details that escape the eye in Nature, excepting on closer inspection of its features than requisite for the ends of representation, and which, therefore, are not usually such as it is desirable to depict. Nevertheless, on making regular studies from Nature, copy very faithfully whatever is at all peculiar about the outline appearance of an object, since those who do so obtain a knowledge of character- istics of appearance that prove highly useful, when designing anything similar to objects they have once imitated minutely. Observation, likewise, should be directed towards the picturesque features of all that you may see when out on a sketching, or even ordinary ramble. For Nature is a store- house, always open to tlie artist, of the richest and most varied materials suitable for his work ; and to refuse to enter and avail yourself of her treasures, when the portal is in- vitingly left open with hospitable intent, is to manifest an indifference to art that pro- mises badl^' for the chance of achieving success in its pursuit. In fact, the true artist never misses an opportunity of advancing himself in any available way ; and richly is he repaid for his energy and determination, not merely by their consequences as regards his productions, but in his enjoyment of existence, which becomes marvellously increased by continuous converse with Nature throughout a life devoted to communion with her, for the purposes of portraying her truly matchless charms. 9. Modifications of proceeding, deviating from the foregoing routine, are admissible ; but the adoption of them is not to be recommended to the student until he understands perspective, has had considerable pi'actice in sketching, and can work perfectly according to rule. They are likewise such as will suggest themselves to the mind, after a while ; and although there can be no objection to the judicious employment of them, yet that may lead, if not guarded against, to the gradual formation of a habit of drawing in a careless, tricki/ manner — a habit that is certain to place a student, at the best, but on a level with the mass of slovenly artists whose ambition is limited merely to obtaining a livelihood by the practice of art, and never rises to the desire of achieving success for the pleasure of so doing. The principal modification practised is that of endeavouring to represent more, than according to rule, can be properly represented in one drawing or sketch. On attempting it, thvi effect may be rendered not glaringly opposed to Nature, by causing the lines denoting a series of actually parallel lines to converge towards a common V.P., or by proceeding as consistently as possible with the principles of perspective ; while the practice of it has its fitness when strict imitation of a scene is not requisite, and a certain license in making one object a^jpcar to be either more or less prominent than it actually appears is desirable. 10. The amount of finish that should be put [into a sketch next claims attention, and depends ujjon the circumstance whether the sketch is to imitate form alone, or form and effect combined. If the sketch is to re])rcsent form only, then but so much finish should be cmjiloyed as will suffice to bring out the form into its true proportions, relative bearing, and character; or to make the small appear small, the large to appear large, the round to seem round, etc. If the sketch is to represent forms and effect, then (after the forms have been carefully depicted) on the parts of your sketch, corresponding with those parts of your subject where you seo an absence of strong distinct light, work in a very slight sliading tone of color, or pencil, and as rapidly as possible, that the effect before your eye may not change sufficiently to create confusion of purpose in your proceedings. In succession, according as you see darker and darker masses of shading, or local color, about your subject, imitate them quickly to the best of your ability, so as gradually to work up darker and darker masses of shading on your sketch, judiciously reserving, however, some portions of the middle distance, and especially of the foreground of your drawing, for working upon, in specific imitation of the surface of objects. But more cannot be said here on this subject, than that to produce Nature semblances the I'ules and principles of effect, given in Section IV. of this work, should be observed ; whilst the pencil or brush should be frequently and carefully employed in depicting the surfaces of objects, until the imitation of them, in every respect, becomes as perfect as the skill of the artist student can render it lis THE NATIONAL DRAWING MASTER. 11. Before sketching the human figure, or an animal, it is advisable to consider well the relative proportions of the various lines composing its form ; and to notice what parts of it will have to be represented as appearing fore-shortened (see page 3"2), and what different degrees of curvature of line will bo required to produce a striking imitation of the object to be sketched. Then commence with the head, and the main line running therefrom on the portion of the object which is nearest to you ; and unless jou can draw exjjertly and correctly at ( ncc, only make your first sketching-line, of all the ])arts of the object, very slight — a rule that should be adhered to, also, in the case of landscape drawing. All the principal parts of your subject having been sketched in with a slight line, on finding that line to be correct to the best of your judgment, proceed to re-draw the said line with a firm yet delicate touch where; delicacy is requisite, and a vigorous one where vigour will impart due force and truthfulness. But sketching should not be confined to open air scenes, such as landscapes, or to figures. The objects, for instance, belonging to a room, especially those having round forms, should likewise be sometimes sketched ; as the hand will gain the firmness and the eye the precision, indispensable to render landscape and figure-sketciiing fully ser- viceable, by being employed in delineating such objects, — provided, after you have sketched them, you measure their ])roportions to ascertain whether tliey have been cor- rectly imitated or not. Yet, sliould they not have been so, you should not correct your sketch by actual measurement but by means of the eye alone, or re-draw the object until de])icted properly. By proceeding with assiduity, thus occasionally, and otherwise, as recommended in this Section, students will make a rapid progress both as regards masterly vigour of touch, and correctni'ss of eye. And as a parting word of advice to the student, in conclusion of this work, he is ear- nestly counselled to pursue art strenuously — not to take to it by fits and starts, nor ever abandon the study of it in despair, in consequence of the non-fulfilment of liis first sanguine expectations of success. For in order to succeed in anything requiring cxpei-iencc and skill, we must persevere undaunted by difficulties, and make up our minds resolutely to undergo considerable pains-taking labour, liy Divine blessing, however, we are generally certain to reap a reward at last, fully commensurate with our deserts, and which, in the case of art, is more than an equivalent for our exertions, inasmuch as its successful pursuit is usually a constant source of advantages, ensuring us a passport wherever we may chance to go — great consideration in the estimation of others — u lucrative and highly -pleasant profession, if required — and days abounding with gratifications, refined and elevating in their character and influences. THK KNU. ^ ;o consider well »ticc wliiit parts d what different )n of the object ning therefrom I draw exjjertly of the object, c drawing. I slight line, on !-draw the said rous one where ndscapcs, or to having round a firmness and cliing fully ser- ifter you have have been cor- lot correct your the object until nncnded in tliis ir of toucli, and ,vork, ho is car- starts, nor ever is first sanguine Tienccand skill, [tely to undergo enerally certain in the case of ssful pursuit is we may chance ghly -pleasant elevating in