,.3^% IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 itt|||||^ 1125 ';' :iiiii6 111= 1-4 IIIIII.6 <^ '/# /2 7 i?^;^ v^ y fliotogrdphic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY 14580 (716) 872-4503 A^ iV c^^^ ;\ \ % v €> ^^ signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN". Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre filmds d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clich6, il est filmd d partir de Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche A droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. i < 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 THE MODERN SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY A N I) ATLAS. AUTHORIZED BY THE BOARD OF EDUCATION . ^^ ^iJUCATION FOR TH PROVINCE OF Ni:w BRUNSWICK. niiti'ivd acc'iirdiiicr t,, \,.t . <• i> i- :; ,X ■'' '""■"■ '■■■"'■vi. .i„,w • "> 'Ik ( A^A...^ l>vm,smsu Cuswasy {Limiivd). TO A' ONTO: CANADA PUBLISHING COMPANY, (IJMITED). G-lOlR I TO THE TEACHEE THE Btudy n( Oeograpliy, often the driest ami most wearisome the |)U|(il lias to (leal with, will always he so unless the Teacher " to his knowle(i){e adds uiiderslandini;," and i)resents the suhject so that, while lie Hatisfies the ehiM'a cajjer curiosity hy offerintf to it well arranjjed fads, he also enklnlles the child's imagination, and thus makes possible the mental assimilation of these facts. In other words, it is from the Teacher's own lips, from his own vivid portraiture and ajit illustration (as well as orderly (fnmpinj;) o' the iyflnite iiumher of details which make uj) the great m.uss of geofjraphical ktiowled^rc, that the pupil nuist catch that necessary enliven- ing of the imininalion which shall give to his conceptions of these details the vividness of eomprehensioii without which they will he forgotten in a day or two, or, if remembered for a longer time, will be utterly valueless. For example, suppose a child learns from his Geogmjth}!, or otherwise, that "the commonest timber trees of New Urunswick are the jiine, the spruce, the hemlock, the oak, the elm, the ash, the maple, and the heech;" what chance has he of rcmeiiihering this fa('t(or of what value is his know- ledge to him if he docs mechanically remember it?) unless at the same time he actpiircs some deflnito and apprehensible (because interesting and useful) ideas in regard to these trees, their ajipearances, their manners of growth, their relative plentifulness or rarity, their qualities (whether hard in the grain or soft, whether easy to he worked or ditficult, whether durable or quick to decay), their res]H!ctive utilities, and so on'i Yet even in his methohant) was once an inhabitant of Canada, and that remains of m.ammoths with their ivory tusks have been foimd in several places in Ontario, but that in Siberia (where also in former ages the mam- moths were inhabitants, and where they seem to have been very numerous) their remains have been much more perfectly preserved, the extreme north of Siberia being a very cold country— if these notions and facts are all brought out and logically linked together, the pupils will undoubtedly have a vivid and never-to-be-forgotten realization of the meaning of the statement referred to. In the Modern Scuooi, Geooraphy, then, it is intended that the wliole of the matter nhall l)e presented to the pupils liy the Teaeher— not in a series of categorical statements to be accepted by the pupils without reflection and without comment, but in a series of {•onver.sations, consisting to a large extent of questions by the Teacher and replies by the pu|)ils-questions, not on what the pujnl has consciously conunitted by rote from the textbook, but on what he has obtained for himself, he knows not how, from the use of his eyes and ears and brain, ever since he began to observe and think; conversations consisting, moreover, of volunteered statements which the pupils should be encouraged to offer, based on their own reiuiing and research. Again, a very great deal of discretion is very properly allowed to the Teacher in respect to what may be called "Structural ()cogra|)hy," or the coast and surface features of countries, with their nomenclature. Very frequently this is .made the whole burden of geographical study, although it ought really to play only' a subordinate jiart in it. And since this know- ledge should be obtained entirely from the study of the maps under the guidivnce and oversight of the Teacher, it has been thought best not to over-dll the text with a mass of details which are siifficiently well indicated by the maps. The Teacher is supjiosed to be able (as it is his duty) pro^ierly to direct the pupils in their study of these matters. And it is earnestly recommended that the Teacher shall not confine himself to the facts herein detailed in reference to any part of the world. Especially should he be ready with appro|)rlate jiiLssages of travel, and with dcsi'riptions of scenery, and of the natural products of ('ountries, and of the manners and customs of their jieoples, by reading (and sub.scquently conversing about) whii'li, he may illustrate (as in no other way ho can), the concise statements of the text. The Teacher should be careful to remember that all the Gen(jraph» is not to be committed to memory, or indeed more than a small part of it ; he who should i'>ist upon his piqiils memorizing the numbers representing the poiiulatiiuis anortion of land risinx to a considerable height almve the GEOGRAPHY is a description of t)ie Earth, its surface, its divisions, and its inhabitants. The Earth is a ball or sphere, slightly flattened at the two opposite points, like an orange, and bulging out a little in the middle. To prove that tlie Earth is round, although it appears to us to be flat, we know that we can see only the surface of the ground about tliroe miles on a level plain ; and at sea the view, not being inteiTupted by mountiiins or any great ineijualities in s<>rroun(lin« ••ountry. A //.VHs a smaller elevation. i.1 _!. • V, 11 11 • 1 1 i.1 1 • A«ri I A A'inii/i' or C/(((i'(» isa line of mountains or hills extendinif for a ( onsider- the surface, is bounded on all sides by the horizon. \V hen , , ,. . • ... , , . , ' •' [ able chstunce ni one directum and havm^' a I'onunon b.ase. a vessel appears in siglit, the masts are always seen before | A raH«i/ is that portion olland which lies between mountains or hills. A Volcano is a moimtain which throws out tire, smoke, lava, and iushes. The opcn- inir from which they issue is called the Cialer. A I'lain is a tract of level land, and when consideral'ly raised above the level of the seii, it is called a I'lateaii, or table-land. Plains are variouslydesidf- nated in different countries. In North America they are called I'laiiics a. id Saviin- nabs ; in South America, Manus and I'ampas ; anil in Itussia, Slcppes and Tun- ' riK'ks. An (hmiH Is a fertile KjKjt in a desert. .\ tt'ater-slieil or Diiiidp. is a more or less clevateil re- K'.'nx or mountain ridt;e from which streams How in op|)0> PicTURB OK TUB DiviHioxH at Land and Watkr, site directioi:*. the hull. A vessel can sail round the world and come back to her starting-point without changing the direction of her course, except to avoid bodies of li>nd. The Earth is nearly 25,000 miles in cir- cumference, and aliout 8,0<)0miles indiameter. About one -quarter of the Earth's sur- face is land, and three- quarters water. DIVISIONS OF THE LAND. About one-(juarter of the Earth's surface con- sists of land, the difl'er- ont parts of which are known by the follow- ing names : 6 DIVISIONS OF THE WATER -CIRCLES ON THE GLOBE. DIVISIONS OP THE AVATER, About threo-(iuaiter8 of the Earth's surffico are covered with water, the different parts of which are known by the following names : An Ocean is an extensive body of salt water. Although the ocean may be said to be one great body of water, it is divided into smaller portions, which are also called Oceani. A Sea is a smaller portion of salt water. A Out/" or Bay is a portion of water extending into, and almost surrounded by land. A Strait is a narrow portion of water connecting two seas. When it is shallow, so that it may be sounded or fathomed, it is called a Sound. A Channel is a portion of water connecting two seas, but longer and broader than a strait. The same name is often applied to the bed of a river. A Lake is a boustellafcii)U Avifn on the 21.st of M.'ircli, and about the 21st cif evoiy succuMsivo iiiuuth he ontui's a new Constelliition, until hi.s api)arunt annual circuit tlu'ough the stars is completed, on his return to Aries, In consequence of the Earth moving in an elliptical, instealanu is a surface upon any part of which a straight line may l)e drawn. 7. A circle is a plane bounded by a curved line, all points of whicli are etiually distant irom a ])oint within, called the centre. 8. Tlie olrcuiuferouce of u circle is the curved line which bounds it. Though in geometry theru is the distinction above noted between a circle and its ciri'umference, in geography the term "circle" is generally used as syncmymous with "cir- cumference." 9. Circles of the sphere are divided into great circles and small circles. 10. A Krcat circle is one that divides a sphere into two equal j)arts. 11. A small circle is one that divides a spheie into two une(£ual parts. 12. Degrees. — Every circle (circumference), whether great or small, is divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees, and marked thus, 300^. The ^o part of a degree is called a minute, marked thus, — 1'. The fl'jy pa •♦; of a min- ute is called a second, marked thus, — l".—Su-in- ton. A Map is a represen- tation of the Earth, or a part of it, on a plane surface. The upper part of a map is generally North ; the lower. South ; the right hand, East, the left hand, West. MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. Although appearing to us to be perfectly still, the Earth is continually moving with great velocity. It has two motions: 1. Tlio Daily, or Dlnrnal. Every twenty-four hours it revolves once on its axis, causing alternate day and night, according as the portion of the globe we live on is turned t*) or from the sun. The axis of the earth is an imaginary line passing through its centre, terminating in wliat are called the North and South Poles. 2. The Yearly, or Annual. Every year the Earth moves once round the Sun, producing the Seasons, according as the North or South Pole inclines towards the Sun. Thus, when the North Pole, or the northern portion of the globe upon t.j THE HEAVENLY B(JDIES-THE TERRESTRIAL GLOBE. 9 which we live, it inclined towards the Hun, it is summer with us, and Wiiter with the B(juthern iK>rtion, or to all south of the etjuitor. When the South Pole inclines to- wards the Sun, it is Winter with us, and summer south of the equator. [In order to underst -md this, it is necessary for the teacher to explain that the axis of the earth is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, b'.t is inclined to it at an ang le of 23i degrees. And as the axis of the Earth always points to the same pa> t of the Heavens, the North or Polar Star, it is evident that, as the Earth moves round the Sun, each pole jnraduallr changes its rela- tive position to the Su i ; and so during one-half of the year inclines towards the Sun, and the othe r halt from it, as may be seen from the accompanying diagram (page 4), whe 'e W r"i)resents the axis of the Earth, and the globes the position of the Eal'., u .lidsuminer, Midwinter, and the Equinoxes.] THE HEAV»^.XL.Y BODIES. The San is tht centre of the system in which the Earth in pLiced, and roun I it the Planets and Comets move at various distances, each one having its own course, and showing forth the beautiful regularity with wlxich the Creator has planned the universe. The Sun is H63,000 miles in diameter, and 1,260,000 times larger than the Earth, from which it is distant alx)ut 9^2,750,000 miles, The names of the other planets, their relative sizes, com- pared with the Sarth, and their distances from the Sun, are: Times the size Miles distant of the p;iirth. from the Sun. MERcrRY . . l-19th . . 30 millions. Venus . . . 1 . . 67 " Mars . . . 3-16ths . . 141 Minor Planets ; situated between Mars and Jupiter. JcpiTER . . . 1,438 . . 482 millions. Saturn . . . 932 . . 884 .. Uranus . . . 87 . . 1,777 n Neptune . . 60 . . 2,784 „ - Tlie Planets ai.'e supposed to be bodies somewhat similar to the Earth, altliougli as yet little, besides their dimen- sions and orbits, is definitely known. Neither is it knov«-n whether they are inhabited, although they move in nearly the sjkme plane as thu Earth, and, like it, rotate on their axes, and have alternate djiy and niglit, and prolmbly sea- sons more or less varied. According as they are nearer or more distiint than the Earth from the Sun, they require less or more time to move round the Sun. Comets are luminous bodies which move through space with iuuuense velocity. They generally n ove on a diiferent plane from the Rirth and tlie other planets, and have an erratic course, not in a circle, like the planets, but at one time comparatively near, and at another being very far from the '' an. The Moon is the attendant or satellite of the Earth. Were the Earth to remain still, the Moon would revolve round it in 27J days ; but as the Ejirth is continually moving, the Moon recjuires 29i days to complete its revolu- tion. ITie Moon is about one forty-ninth part the size of the Earth, and is distant from it 240,000 miles. The ^-Twn derives its light from the Sun; and as the Earth soiu< times comes directly between the Sun and the Moon, ib then casts a shadow on the Moon's surface. Tliis is cHad an Eclipse of 'lie Moon, or a Ivnar eclipse. j.i»e Moon alsii m its course round the Earth, sometimes conies din 'y between the Sun and the Earth, and hides for a t' lie riie whole or part of the surface of the Sun fron> our siglit. This is called an Eclij^se of the Sun, or a sdur eclipse. As the Moon does ni.i. move round t^e Earth on the same plane as the Earth does round th*. Sun, eclipses coiiij nra- tively seldom occur. There are from two to five solar eclipses in the course of a year ; there may be thi-ee lunar eclipses, and sometimes none. As, however, lunar eclipses are visible to a whole hemisphere at once, and solar eclipses only to a part., tlie latter, though happening oftener, are less frequently seen. Besides the planets, there are multitudes of Fixed stum, far beyond the system of wliich our Sun is the ct ntre, and jwwerful telescopes reveal many more which are invisible to the naked eye. These sliine by their own light, and are supposed to be suns, perhajis the centres of other systems as extensive as that in which the Earth is pljiced. The nearest of these Fixed Stars is about 2(K),000 times iMoi-o distant tliaii the Sun. THE TEnitESTUIAIi GLOBE. The terrestrial fflobe is a represenbition of the Earth, showing its approximate form, the outlines nf the continents, oce.ins, and minor divisions of the land and water upoii its surface, the principal mountjiin ranges, rivers, and otlier 10 THE TERRESTRIAI, GLOBE— PROBLEMS. physical features, and usually the political divisions, chief towns, etc. By means of its rotiition on an axis, the circles in which it is supported, and those drawn upon its surface, it also enables us to illustrate many principles respecting day and night, the seasons, the relative position of places, etc. The brass circle to which the axis of the globe is attached, and within which the globe may bo made to rotate, is termed the UnivorHul Mnrldinn, becau,se wo may use it to repre- iienb the meridian of any place that is brouglit under it. The inner edge of one of tho flat faces of this brass circle is divided into degrees and j)arts of a degree, which are numbered by cpiadrants in a pecidiar way. I'lace the North Polo uppermost, with the graduated face of the braxen inerldinn toward you, and you will find that on the left side the degrees are numbered from 0" at the Equator, both ways toward the Poles; wliile on the right side they are num- bered from each I'olo toward tho Ecjuator. [The left side is used in findmg Latitude, and tho right side in "rectifying tho globe."] The broad wooden circle in which the brazen meridian is sup[)orteil (and in which it may bo revolved in its own plane), is couuuonly tei;;divisions. 2. The Flmt Merldinn, and the opposite meridian of 180°, forming a meridian circle, which is divided into degrees of latitude. 3. The Kcllptlo, divided into signs and degrees, numbered eastward only, from the first point of Aries. [For con- venience, the ecliptic is made to cut the equator at its intersectio' with tlie first meridian. Of course, it has not pro|)erly any fixed position on the earth.] 4. The Tropics. 5. The Polar Circles, fi. Parallels of L>atltnde, usur.Uy ten degrees apart. 7. Meridians,. usually at a distance of fifteen degrees, answering to one honr. On most globes there is also drawn a peculiar diagram called the Analoniiiui, the object of which is to indicate the Sun's declination on any given day, and the "equation of time." (St . any good almanac.) With every globe there is furnished a pliable strip of brass, pivoted to a clamp, by which it may be attached to the brazen meridian. It is graduated in degrees of the earth's (or globe's) circumference, numbered from 0° to 90° in one direction, and to 18° in the opposite direction. When properly adjusted at tho zenith or uppermost point of the imiversal meridian, it serves to measure distances above or beh)W the horizon. It is called the Quadrant of Altitude. PKOH1.KMS. I. To find the latitude and lonRltude of any place. Bring tho given place to the graduated edge of the brazen meridian ; the degree marked over it is the latitude ; and tho degree on the ei^uator cut by the same edge of the brazen meridian, is the longitude. Exercises. — Find tho lat. and long, of (1) London, Eng., (2) Ottawa, (3) St. .Tohn, (4) Quebec, (5) Halifax, (6) Rome, (7) Calcutta, (8) New York. Ans.— (1) 61° 30' N. ; 0°. (2) 45° 25' N. ; 75° 45' W. (3) 45" 14' N. ; (56° 3' W. (4) 4<)° 4!>' N. ; 71° 13' W. (5) 44 38 N. ; 03° 3(5' W. ((>) 41° 54' N. ; 12° 5J>' E. (7) 22° 30' N. ; 88° 20' E. (8) 40° 42 N. ; 74° W. Find the lat. and long, of Jerusalem, Rio Janeiro, Pekin, the N(»rth Pole, Melbourne. II. The latitude and ionffitnde nf a place beinK nrlven, to flnf the horizon, and find its latitude, which will be the immber of degrees it is north or south of the East point of the horizon. The antipodes will bo found the same number of degrees on the opposite side of the West point. Note. — Antipodes have the same latitude on opposite sides of the e(|uator, and differ in longitude by 180 ; hence when it is a winter day at a given place it is a summer night at the antipodes, and vice versa. ExerelscH. — Find tlio antipodes of tlio following places; (1) London, (2) .Singapore, (.'I) Cape Horn, (4) Lisbon. Ans. — (1) Antipodes Island (nearly), (2) Mouth of the Amazon, (3) East of Lake Baikal. V. To And the lonffth of a dcfri'ce of longitude In any Klvun latttufle. Witli the ((uadrant of altitude or otherwise, find tlie num- ber of degrees of tlie earth's circumference between any two consecutive meridians, along the given paralhd of latitude. This diHt^ineo being ecpial to ir' of longitude, divide the number found by 15, and multiply by 0U"1, to reduce tlio iHiHult to statute miles. VI. The hour at any place being given, to find what hour It la then at any other place. Bring the place at which the time is given to the universal meridian, set the hour circle or index to the given time; turn the globe until the other place comes to the meridian ; the required time will then be found on the hour circle under the meridian or under the index. Note. — It should be remembered that, as a general rule, at places east of us (or of any given place) the hour is later in the day, and at places west of us the hour is earlier. But this is modified in many cases by the position with reference to the day line. Exerclb"?B. — Verify any of the numbers in the following table. TABLK SHOWINlJ TUB LENOTIl OK A DEOREK OF LON<(ITri>E IN lUKFERENT LATITIDES. Dkokkfi ok .StATI'TK Dkiihkk ok Statitk Latiti-dI';. .Mlt.KS. l.ATITIDK. Mll.KH. (t!>l 50 44-5 5 (i8-8 55 .39-7 10 «8-l (iO .34 ir> 6(>-8 05 29-3 20 05 70 23-7 25 62-7 75 17-9 ;«i 59 80 12 ;{5 5(i7 85 00 40 5.3 90 45 48-9 The tt-awa, 8 hrs. 12 m. a.m. St. .lohn, (i a.m., Hong Kong, 5 hrs. 59 m. p.m. Sunday. Sunday. r 12 PROBLEMS. At the present time, what o'clock is it at Vienna, Chicago, Madras, Cape Town, and Yeddo ? YII. To rectify the globe for the latitude of any place. Set the nearest pole (that on the same side of the equator) as many degrees above the corresponding side oi the wooden horizon (the side marked North or Soutli, as the case may be) as are etiual to the latitude of the place. Note. — Reotlfylnsr the globe means placing it rightly for using the wooden horizon as the rational horizon oi the given place. When the pole is set at the proper elevation, and the place brought to the meridian, the place will bo at the uppermost point of the globe, and the rati(mal horizon of the place will bo represented by the upper surface of the wooden circle. ExvrolfieB. — Rectify the globe for the latitude of any of t)ie places named under Problems I. and II. YIII. To And the declination of the Sun, and the plaooB to which he ia vortical at noon, on any given day In the year. Find the given month and day on the wooden horizon, and opposite to it, in the adjoining circle, will be found the sign of the zodiac and the degree of the sign in which tlie sun is on that day. [This is called the sun's place in the ecliptic] Find the same sign and degree on the ecliptic on the globe, bring it to the universal meridian, and observe the degree marked over it: this will be tlie sun's declination, or distance from the ecjuator. Turn tlie globe, and all the places which j)ass under that degree will have the sun verti- cal at nooJi on the given day. Note. — The sun's place in the ecli|)tic i ., of course, in the heavens and not on the earth, and hence it has no relation to ))laces on the terrestrial glol)e, other than that which enables us to find tlie j)laceH at whicli the sun is vertical. KxerclNON. — Find the sun's place on the Ist of January, the 2(ttli of March, and tlie 21st .of June. Ann. — Capricornus, 10° 16'; Pisces, •'JO"; Gemini, lU)". What is the sun's declination on (1) tlie 2',M of Septem- ber, (2) the loth of February, {li) the 7tli of May, (4) the 20th of August. An..— (I) 0". (2) 14^^ S., (;i) l((f N. Find some places at which the sun will be in tlu; /.enilli iit noon on the 7th of May. IX. 'I'o find the hour at which the hum rlHON and pictN at a tflven place on a given day (the place not hcing In the frigid iconcH). Rectify the glolte for the latitude of the jdace; find the sun's plac«) in the ecliptic for the given day anil bring it to the meridian; set tlio hour circle to XII; then turn tlie globe till the sun's place comes to the eastern edge of the wooden horizon, and the hour cii'cle will show the time of sunrise ; bring the sun's place to the western horizon, and the hour circle will show the time of sunset. Note.— Double the hour of sunset gives the length of the d.iy ; double the hour of sunrise gives the length of the night. The number of degrees on the horizon from the east jioin^ to the point where the sun rises, or from the west point to the point where the sun sets, is called the amplitude of the sun. ExcrclftcH. — Find the hour of sunrise and sunset (1) at Halifa.x on the 21st of June, (2) at London on the 2l8t of December, (3) at Gi'oralbir on the 15th of .June, (4) at Mexico im the 1st of September, (6) at Paris on the 15th of August. Ans.— (1) Rises, 4h. 14m. ; sets, 7h. 48m. (2) Rises, 7h. 45m. ; sets, 4h. 15m. Qi) Rises, 4h. 45m. ; sets, 7h. loin. X. To And the beginning of morning twilight and the end of evening twilight, at a given place, on a given day. Rectify the globe for the latitude of the place ; bring the sun's place in the ecliptic on the given day to the brass meridian; set the hour circle to XII; fix the quadrant of altitude on the bra.ss meridian at its highest point, wliich will be directly over the given latitude ; turn the globe east- ward until the sun's place will ctiincide with a point on the ((uadrant of altitude 18 degrees below the horizon: the hour circle will then show the time at which morning twilight begins. Tlie end of evening twilight may be found in a similar manner by turning the glolie westward. Note. — The duration of twilight is ilio length of time from sunset to the end of twilight, or in the morning from dawn to sunrise. ExcrcUcii.— Find the duration of twilight on the 23rd of Se|itember, 21st oi December, and 21st of June, at (1) tho P](luator, (2) the parallel of 45" N., and (li) tho Arctic Circle; also (4) at Moscow on the 20th of August. AnH.-Septeiiiber2;i: (1) 111. 12m. ; (2) Ih. 30m. ; (3) 3h. 15m. August 20: (4) 3hrs. \I. To find the altitude of the huh at noon at a given place, on a given day. Rectify the globe for the latitude of the place; bring tho Kun's place in tlie eclijitic for the given day to the univwrsal iiK^ridian; tho numbei of degrees on tho meridian between the smis place and the horizon will bo the sun's meridian altitude. KxcrclMCH. Find the meridian altitude of the sun (1) at Loniloii on the lltli of .laimary, (2) at Pekin on tiio 4th of .July, (3) at Constant inople on the Hth of November, (4) at NATURAL PHENOMENA. IS Fredericton on the 25th of December and on the 2l8t of June. An».-(l)16r, (2)7.r, (3)32r. XII. Any place In the North Frlgrld Zone buinfc gftven, to flnil how loniar the sun shineH there -without HettingTt and how loni? he Is below the horizon without rising:. Subtract the latitude of the place from fK)' ; the remainder is the sun's declination north when the longest day begins and ends, or his declination south when the longest niglit begins and ends. Find these declinations (or latitudes) on the brass meridian, and by turning the ghjbe find the tour ])oint8 on the ecliptic which Rgree with them, observing in each case the sign and dogioe of the ecliptic. Then find, on the wooden horizon, the days corresponding to these four points. The days answering to the sun's place west and east of 0° Cancer are the commencement and close of the longest day ; the days answering to the sun's place west and east of 0° Capricomus are the commencement and close of the longest night. Note. — No day nor night other than the longest exceeds 24 hours in length. Exercises. — Find the length of the longest day (1) at Cape North in Norway, and (2) at the northern point of Nova Zembla; also of the longest night (3) at Melville Island, 75" N. lat., and (4) at 87" N. Ans.— (1) May 15 to July 29—70 days; (2) April 25 to August 19 — 117 days ; (3) November 3 to February 8. NATURAL PHENOMENA. The Earth is surrounded by a transparent fluid called the air or atmosjihere, which moves with it, and extends to iv lieight of about 100 miles. Close to the Earth it is com- paratively dense, becoming thinner as we ascend. Heat and cold are produced according as the Sun's rays shine vertically or obliquely on the Earth's surface, and also vary according to the height above the level of the sea. The heat or cold of the atmosphere is called the temperature. In the tropics, where the Sun's rays strike the Earth verti- cally, it is hottest ; and within the polar circles, wliere the rays strike most oblitjuely, it is coldest. (See diagram below.) But as the air becomes thinner as we ascend, the Sun's rays gradually lose their power, so that even in the tropics there is on the mountains a height alx)ve which snow will not melt. This is called the snow-line. This line gradually decreases in height as we approach the poles. At the Ecjuator the snow-line is 1(),000 feet above the level of the sea, and in New Brunswick it is about 6,000 feet; and, were there very high mounbiins in the country, their sum- mits above that height would be perpetually covered with snow. The atmosphere is never at rest, the particles of which it is composed being moved about by the influence of heat and cold, thus forming winds. Several contrary currents of wind may oc(*ur one above the other, as when we see the clouds moving in a different directicm fn)m the wind on the surface of the eartli. When the winds move rapidly they cause hurricanes and storms. at of at Tim Si'N'H HAYH HTiiiKiNii TiiK Kaiitii, llliislriitiMl liv a Nlri'iiiii (if Wilier illriM Inl !i«iiliiNt ii InriJi' luill. Tlw wiiti'i' Hlrikcn the imrt of lh« hull » hirh in riifht oinMwItu lliu pljw with thu tfrutttt'iit fori't;, iw mIiuwii by thu spriij' on tli« jiicluro. u NATURAL PHENOMENA. "Winds have a purifying effect on the atmosphere ; they dissipate unhealthy exlialationtt ; they transport vapors from the sea, to moisten and fertilize the land; they carry the seeds of plants far and wide, and thus extend the enii)ire of vegetation; finally, they waft our ships, and are in some countries made available as a niotive-iK)wer for machinery. Amtjng the most common periodical and local winds are land and sea breezes. The land receiving more heat than the sea from the Sun's rays during the day, a bree/e sets in from the sea early in the forenoon and continues till about sunset. Soon after this the land, owing to the nuliatiou of its heat, becomes cooler than the water, and a breeze sets in from the land which continues till sunrise." — Ofniell. wear away in their course the rocks, and dissolve the salt which tliey contain. The accumulation of this, and the continuous evaporation, cause the strong saltness of the ocean. The principal current in the ocean is the Gulf Stream, in the North Atlantic Ocean. This flows frftm east to west in the Tropics into the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, then skirts the shore of North America as far as Newfound- land, whence it sweeps across the Atlantic and divides into two portions, one of which laves the shores of the British Islands and Norway, while the other, passing the Azores, flows south till it once more reaches the great equatorial current which gave it origin. The water of the Gulf Stream ti [ -WINDS. J [ In tlio Torrid Zone, the Ejist or Trade Winds prevail tliroughout the year, and oj>|M>site cuiTents prevail in the Temperate Zones. In the Nortli Temperate Zone the preva- kiut winds are fro>ii the sojith-west, and in the South Tem- perate Zone from the north-west. Periodical winds blow in different jmrts of the world, 08 the Monsoon on the shores of the Indian Ocean; the Typhoon in tlie Cliina S'.-a ; tlie Sirerature is found to be about 10" colder than when well cleared and cultivated, as the trees prevent the Sun's rays from reaching the ground, which thus remains colder than it would other- wise be, and the temperature of the atmosphere is accord- ingly lowei'ed. Sprimo Tides : the attraction of the sun and moon exerted in the same line. In both fl(fures tlie water is represented by the shaded ,)ortions. HiohTide NOOH IN 9UADIIATUIII NkapTu>K8: attraction of moon and mm at rijjlit angles; the moon tide bcint; hijfhtr than the sun tide. The water that sinks beneath the surface passes through the soil until it reaches some impenetrable layer of stone or clay, along which it flows until it rises again to the surface as a Hprinisr. In its progress the water sometimes jjasses through earth or rock containing iron or other minenils, with which it becomes impregnated, and appears as a mineral spring. Some Hj)rings, coming from ccmsiderablo depths, are warm, hot, or even 1)oiliug; tlusir lieat is attril)utable in some cii.si's to volcanic, and in other ca.ses to chemical, action, and are called hot NprlitffN i when tliey gush to a oonsidi'rable liciglit at intervals, they ar6 known as iji'ijhitk. (Sue illustration, page 18.) The climate of a country is understood to mean tlie tcm- perature and dryness, or moisture, of the atmos]»luIIM':itAI.H. in the Earth's crust are fouiiil many valuable minerals, the principal of whicli are: Iron, tlie most useful metal. This is found in L'anmla, ^1 16 PLANTS— ANIMALS. the United States, Great Britain, Sweden, Russia, Belgium, France, Germany, and elsewhere. Copper Ls found in Canada, tlie I'nited Stjites, Chili, Australia, Norway, and other countries. Tin is found chiefly in Cornwall, in England, and in Malaoca and Australia. Zinc is found in Ontario, Prussia, Belgium, England, and the United States. licud is found in Great Britain, Spain, Canada, and the United Stites. Gold, the most valuable of all the metals, is useful chiefly for ci>inage, and is most abundant in Australia, California, aid British Columbia. It is iound also in Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and other jdaces. More than (me hundred millions of dol- lars in value are mined annually. Platinnin, rarest of all metjils, is found chiefly in the Ural Mountjiins, it is also found in Onbirio. Silver is mined chiefly hi Mexico, Cali- fornia, Nevada, and South America, on the north shore of Lake Su- perior in Ontario, and in Norway, Russia, and Hun gary, in Europe. Mcrt'ury, or ipiicksilver, is fo\ind in California, Spain, and South America. KU'kel is a brilliant ductile metal, largely iiscd for coinage. It is found jtrincipally in Ontario, Eng- land, Saxony, France, and New Caledonia. Antimony is a bluish-white metal, generally used for alloying. It is found principally in Borneo; Quebec also yields some. Coal is a valuable mineral, and perhaps the most import- ant for adding to the wealth of a country. It is found in greatest abundance in many parts of Great Bribiin and the I'nited States, and largely in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Vancouver Island, and elsewhere. Nnlpliiir is found chiefly in volcanic districts. Halt: is found in almost every part of the world, in the various forms of mines, mountains, plains, and springs, and is also produced by the evajwration of sea-water. Other minerals are numerous, but are of less importance. PLANTS. Plants are found adapted to every climate, soil, and locality, and flourish in proportion to the amount of heat, light, and moisture which they receive. In the Torrid Zone they are most numerous, and vegeta- tion is most luxuriant. They become le.ss numerous and more stunted as we approach the poles, till even trees refuse to grow, and only mosses or lichens are found, upon which animals subsist. The Temperate Zones are distinguished for the abun- dance of their fruits and grains most useful to man, for the variety and strength of the timber drawn from their for- ests, ,and for their fibrous plants, such as cotton, flax, and hemp. The Frigid Zones produce nothing but mosses and lichens, except in the more temperate parts, where a little barley and rye are grown, and a few pines and other hardy trees are found. AMMALS. Anininls, like plants, are to be found in every region, and adapted to every climate, soil, and locality. Amid the luxuriant vegetation of the Torrid Zone animals attain the largest size; here, also, wild animals abound. The forests swarm with insects, reptiles, and birds of bril- liant plumage. In the Temperate Zones 'he more usefid animals, such as the horse, cow, slieep, and deer, are abundant, and fewer wild animals are to be found. In the KrIffitI Zone« comparatively few land animals are found, but sea-fowl are very numerous, and the sea abounds with the whale, seal, and walrus. Some animals are connnon to ail tiie zones, as the dog» MANKIND-STATES OF SOCIETY. 17 Caicahian. Mu.NOOLIAK. ArSTRALOlO TVPK. Neoro. sheep, and bear ; and it is remarkable that their natural covering varies with tlie climate of the zone in which they are found. MANKIND. Mankind has been variously classi- fied according to distinctions of form, color, skin, hair, etc. The system of Blumenbiich, as the one most conve- nient for classification, forms the basis of noarlyall subsequent schemes; and is as follows: The Caucnsinn. including the prin- cipal nations of Europe, witli the allied Amkkican. Asiatic races, jointly classed as Indo-European; and also the I Semitic races, including the Arabs and Jews. The Monsolliiii, including the Chinese, the Tartar tribes of Central Asia, and allied races; amoiig these the Finns and Lapps of Europe are endiraced. The Miiliiy, including tlie natives of the [nniinsula of Malacca, tlie chief islands of the Indian Arcliipelago, New Zealand, etc. The Ethiopian, including the chief nations and tril)cs of Africa ; and Tlie AnuM'Iciin. including all the nations and tribes native to North and South America. The Papuans and other islanders are styled NcKrltooN, from tiieir negro-like color of skin, and woolly hair. The Australians are etpially dark, but with their hair generally Htraiglit. STATES OF SOCIETY. A state of Soolet y is tlie condition of a jjeople in respect to civilization. Tlie principal states are the savage, barbar- ous, semi-civilized, and tlie civilized. The SavuKu state is tliat of a people who live in tribes, and subsist mainly by hunting and tisiiing. Tlie liarl>ari>UN state is tliat of a people who possess flocks ! and Ileitis, and rudely till tlie soil. The Seiiil-clvllixed state is that of a people wlio liave a settled soeii'ty, live in towns, jmssess a wi'itten language, and have made considerable progress in the meclianical arts. The t'ivlllyieil, or enlightened, state is the ctmdition of the most advanci'd nations, of those that have made the greatest jirogress in the arts, sciences, morals, and culture. — Stnnton. M 18 POLITICAL DIVISIONS-POPULATION AND RELIGION. lit POLITICAL DIVISIONS. The Political Divisions of the earth nre Empires, King- doms, Principalities, and Republics. An Empire consists of several large countries united under the rule of one monarch, generally called an Em- peror. A Kingrdotn, or Monarchy, consists of one or more coun- tries governed by a King or Queen. It is called a Limited Monarcliy when the power of the sovereign is restricted by law, and no laws can be made without the consent of the representatives of the people ; and an Absolute Monarchy when the will of the monarch is supreme. Principalities, Grand Duchies, and Duchien are small States governed by Princes, Grand Dukes, and Dukes. A Republic is a country whose chief ruler, generally called a President, is chosen by the people for a limited period. When a number of separate States or Provinces, each maintaining its own government and laws, unite for their common interests, and have one central and supreme gov- ernment, it is called a Confoderutlou. A Colony is a country colonized or settled by immigrants from a parent State. A Dependency is a country subject to the government of another. States or Countries in Europe are commonly spoken of as Powers, and are graded according to their moral and politi- cal influence. The Five Oreat Powers of Europe are Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and Austria. The Lesser Powers are ranked according to their geographical position and their military and political influence. POPULATION AND RELIGION. The Population of the Earth is estimated at about 1,467 millions, divided as follows : No of persons Population. to sq. mile. N. America and West Indies 89,250,000 14 S. America . 36,420,000 5 Europe 360,200,000 101 Asia .... 850,000,000 57 Africa .... 127,000,000 11 Oceania 4,750,000 1-4 Polar Regions 300,000 Total 1,467,920,000 29 The Inhabitants are divided^ according to their religious belief, into — Christians . 395,000,000 Jews .... 8,500,000 Mohammedan.. . 165,000,000 Brahmins . 210,000,000 Buddhists . 520,000,000 Other Religions niul Pagans . 169,420,000 Total . . 1,467,920,000 OlYBGRS. AMERICA. 19 AMERICA. Area, 14,S-')o,000 square mile.t, comprishuj two-sevenths of the land surface of the ijlohe ; the yreatest Unijth from north In Honlh in a direct line heiwj 9,400 miles; the greatest breadth from east to nest, 3,500 miles. America, or tlie New World, the only great division of the earth in the Western Hemisphere, is surrounded on all sides by water : on the north by the Arctic Ocean ; on the west by the Pacific Ocean; on the south by the Antarctic Ocean ; and on the east by the Atlantic Ocean. It is composed of two enormous pear-shaped masses of land, both widest towards the north, bvpering to a point towards the scjuth, and joined by the Isthmus of Panama. These two parts are called respectively North and South America. America is remarkable for the extent and grandeur of its physical features; its mountain chains, rivers, lakes, and plains being the largest in the world. The reputed discoverer of this continent was Christopher Columbus, a Genoese, who arrived at one of the Bahamas, in 1492. It was not, however, till 1498, on his third voy- age, that he reached the mainland of South America ; North America having been visited the year before by John Cabot, a Venetian in the service of England. The new continent was named after Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine, who, in 1499, accompanied Hojeda, a Spanish commander, as astron- omer, and wrote an account of his discoveries in America. It is now known that five hundred years before Columbus reached America, the Norsemen made settlements in Green- land, and visited the shores of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and New England. In shape and general features the two great divisions resemble eJich other. The Rocky Mountains of North Americji, and the Andes of South America, stretch from north to south through the whole length of the continent, forming an almost unbroken chain, about 9,000 miles in length. In both divisions this chain is nearer the Pacific than the Atlantic, and both have smaller ranges ot moun- tjiins in the east, at the broadest part of the continents ; while the centre, between the two ranges, is one vast j)lain. B()th portions may be divided into four great slopes — a northern, eastern, southeastern, and western ; and the first three are drained in North America by tlio Muckonxle, St. liuwrouco, and MIrnIhhIppI Hlvcrft; and in South America by the Orinoco. Amazon, and La Plata Rivers. And similarly in both continents, the sources of these rivers are divided by only a gentle rise. The Rivers of America are especially remarkable for their length and volume of water, and also for the distance to which they are navigable. The lengths of the principal are: MissisMippi, with the Missouri Milts. . 4,2IKI North America, i St. Lawrence, with Lakes . -'.aio V Mackenzie •iJiOC) ' Amazon, with the I'cuyali . 4,(JJ • 1.000 tACiriC OCX AN JUgTJON fWpM V/^HOOUVEW ID. TO NtWFOUNDLAND B*;4^,WAI Caaada>Eub, Co., Toronto NORTH AMERICA. 21 NOETH AMEEICA. Area, S,200,000 sqvnre miles; greatest length from north to south, inchuling Central America, 4^700 miles; greatest breadth from east to tixst, 3,200 miles; population, inclusive of Central America and West Indies, 89,250,000. 31 2 ^lP -\ 5 < ■ S w ' I 10,000 F«et j i.oooi 4,000 H j.ooo-; North America comprises the northern part of the Con- tinent of America, and is joined to South America by tlie Isthmus of Panama. It is bounded on the nort;h by the Arctic Ocean ; on the west and south by the Pacific Ocean ; and on the east by the Atlantic Ocean. Its surface is divided into four great regions by the grand chain of the Rocky Mountains, and the lesser chain of the Alleghanies; consisting of the Northern slope tcwards the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific slope, the great centra^ plain extending from the sources of the Mississippi to the earing animals, such as the beaver, otter, mink, marten, seal, and others, abound in tlie north. The great prairies fomierlv ab(junded with buffiilo and wild fowl ; and in the south wild horses are still numerous. The sea abounds with fish. All the principal minerals are found in North America : gold, silver, copper, iron, nickel, and lead being found m large quantities. It is estimated that the coal-beds of Norti America are more than ten times as large as all the others in the world put together, except, perhaps, those of Africa. North America has been colonized by settlers from Europe, principally from the British Islands, who, chiefly within the last 200 years, have explored, settled, and culti- vated a territory larger than Europe ; have built large cities. and carry on an extensive conmierce with every quarter «f the globe ; and are distinguished for their energy and enter- prise in agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, for tl*e extensive facilities for rapid communication they possess. and for their general intelligence and cultivation. North America Is divided Into Dominion of Canada aii. W iiiTB Deak. 16. Skal. 17. Walrih. 18. Pklican. 19. Canva.s Back DrcK. 20. Bkaver. 21. Ottrr. To the Teacher.— The Thima or CouRar, sometimes calle*! the Anieriuin Lion, and popularly known an the Painter, was formerly found as far north as the Great Lakes, but is now found no farther north than Mexico. Ea({lcs, of various species, are found in every part of the continent. The Antcloiw, or Pron(f-horn, ia found on the western plains. The Rot'ky Mountain Goat, a sort of Anteloi)e, and the Rocky Mountain Sheeji, or Big-horn, inhabit the inaccessible peaks of the Rocky Moun- tains. The L.vnx, or WiUl Cat, is found in all eastern North Aini-rica. The Moose, or Elk, is found in all parts of Canada, as far north as the Arctic t)ccan. The Grizzly Bear is found in the Rocky Mountains as far south as Mexico. Deer, of various s|>ecies, are found in every part of the continent. The Wild Turkey was formerly common in Ontario and in the Eastern States, and esjiecially in the Southern States. The Bison, or Buffalo, not long ago incredibly numerous on all the northern jirairies, is now found only in the loneliest plains of the North-west. The Musk Ox, or Musk Sheep, inhabits the barren plains of the far North-west. The Eider Duck, the Auk, and the Walnis, are found in the northern and north-eastern coast regions of the continent. Tlie White Bear ia found only on the shores of the An^tic Ocean. The Brown Pelican is found in Central America and the West Indies; the White Pelican in sunnner migrates from the Gulf States to the lake regions of north-western Canada. The Canvas Back Duck is found on the coasts of the middle Atlantic States. The Beaver, formerly common throughout all the northern i)art of the continent, is now foimd chiefly in the loneliest parts of Canada. The Seal is found alomf the coasts of all the cold ocean waters of the continent. Tlie Otter is , ^ found in all parts of Canada. t'- ■■ PACIFIC MOUNTAIN CENTRAL CftnadA PuUiahing Co , Toronto TAIN CENTRAL EASTERN ;^i 26 DOMINION OF CANADA. w Br f w ■■ 1 It DUMINION I^ARLIAHKNT Bl'lLDINUH, OTTAWA. DOMINION OF CANADA Arf! '>l I, .iS,! .si/iKnr inilcii; uhoiit «n hiny ax Eurap', und amiiirixinii nearhj onc-sij-teenth jKirt of th' hind siirfuri' of tin- (jlohe. Gnutest extent froin cast to irvd, J,oUO miles, and from noth to south, about .1,400 miles; pupulution, ahuut .'>, 000,000. Thu Doiiiliilon of Cuiiiitlu iH buundud on tliu north by tho Arctic Ocoun and Baffin Bay; on the west by the Terri- tory of AlaHka, l)olonging to tlio United Status, and tho Pacific Ocean ; on tlie south by tho I'nitod States, tho Great IjakoH, and tlio Athmtic Ocean ; and on the east l)y the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Atlantic Ocean, and Davis Straits. Tliu Doiiiinioii of Canada <'om|iriHi'H tlic wliolo of llritinb North America, L'M'i-pt Nvwfouiullum) and Liilirador, aixl cdimisU of tlir I'rovincvH of Ontario, ynolM'<', New Hnniswicli, Nova Scolia, till' I)istri('t8 of Ivt'i'wullii, AKHinilioia, SaHltatclu'Wan, Alliprtn, and Atlinliawa, and tlif Norlli-wi'xt and Nortliiast TiTrilorlcH. TIickc di«tri(lM and turri- torii!H I'oniiirise tin- lands foMncrl.v caliiMl tlir lludNon llay TiTritory. The chief physical features of the Dominion are as follows: In tho west, the Ilovky MoiiiitiiliiH, oxtendini; from the Arctic Ocean to the I'nited States, from norUi to sciuth, and the parallel range of the CiinciiiIu MoiintaliiH, near I'rincc Kdwnrd Inland, Munltolia, DritiHli Coluniliia, tho Pacific Coast, both of which here attain their highest elevations. In the centre, tho great northern slope towards tho Arctic Ocean, with its numenms hikes, rivers, and marshy tracts, chiefly drained l)y the Mucki>ii/lo and Groiit FUh Itlvurs; and tho hirgo inland sea, Hudson Bay, from which that part of tho country formerly derived its name. In the east, tho groat chain of Lakes marking tho boun- dary between Canada and the United Str St. Lawrcin'o, an unbroken chain of water connnunication for over 'i.lMK) miles. In the eastern and western jiortious of the Dominion, the country is well wooded, and timber is lai-gely exported; but the centre consists of an immense tract of level or gent'y undulating prairie land, with only a few trees along tho coui-ses of tho rivei-s, but producing abundance of nutritious grasses. DOMINION OF CANADA. 27 ^Uthough comprising such an extensive area, the settled portion of the Dominion is very small, consisting chiefly of a long narrow strip of land, seldom exceeding 100 miles in breadth, along the Lakes and the River St. Lawrence in Ontario and Quebec ; the maritime provinces of Ne<|iiiit Monntaliia, in the north of Nt)va Scotia. Canada is well watered, and is remarkable for the number and extent of its inland lakes. The rivers are numerous and imporbmt. The principal are: In British Columbia : the Franor Hirer, with its trlVmtarli'H, flowing Into tluiduKot Georgia; tiio Skeeim or Siiniinon Itiirr, tiowiiiif Into I ho I'acillc Oconn ; and the Cnlviiihia lUver, )>aiiiiiii(r into the United Mtatps, wlicrv it uIho flows Into the I'aeific Ocean. In the North-went Territory : tliu Mafkfiuie Itiivr, (orniud, under the name ot Slnne JUivr,\n, Vockhiirn, Melrille, and numerous other islands; Baffin Bay and Darin Strnit; Barrow and Baid.n Straitn, Melville and Latuut.sfer jSfoinu/.s; the Gulf of Boatliia; Ihtdson Strait and lliid.son Bay, with its siiutliyrn extremity, Jame.i Bay. On the west coast are Vaiieoiwer, Queen ('harlotte, and nuiiiurous other islands ; J\ian de Faca Strait, the Gulf of Geuryiii, and Queen ('harlottc Sound, The climate of Canada is temperate, dry, and healthy, but more inclined to extremes than in the same latitude in Europe. In the oast it is colder than in the west, the temi»oraturo of Quebec, Northern Ontario, and Manitoba being colder than tliat of Hritish Columbia. The soil is very fruitful in almost every section. In the older provinces all kinds of grain are grown in aliundance, and largely exiiorted ; while graj)us, melons, peaulies, besides more hardy fruits, are extensively cultivated in the more soutliern parts. Ontario is essentially an agricidtural country. In the other provinces it is colder, but vegetation is very rapid. In (^)uol)ec tlie thermometer sometimes falls in winter as low as .'{()' to 40' liejiiw zero, and tlio St. Lawrence is closed by ice during live months of the year. Although tlie snow and ice of winter form tlie great highways of ti'attic, esjiecially in the interior of the country, still the people always look forward anxiously to tlie opening of navigation. Canada is rich in nilnvralN. (iold is extensively found in Itritish Columbia and Nova Scotia and OnUirio; iron and 28 DOMINION OF CANADA. 26 t1 1 copper in Nova Scotia, Quebec, Ontario, and British Colum- bia ; silver in the last three provinces ; nickel in Ontario ; coal in Nova Swjtia, British Columbia, the North-west Ter- ritories, and New Brunswick ; jjetroleum in Ontario and the North-west ; salt in Ontario and New Brunswick ; gypsum in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Ontario; phosphute of lime in Ontario and Quebec; asbestos in Quebec and elsewhero. The principal Indaatrleii are, agriculture in all the prov- inces except British Columbia; the fisheries in all those bordering on the sea; lumbering in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario ; min- ing in Nova Scotia and British Colum- bia, Manufactures of woollens, iron, leather, cotton, tovu 8ootla, New ItiMinswIfk, .md Prliico lOtlwaril IhIhihI, by the descendants of the Tnited Empire Loyalists (who left the United States when those States became independent), and by settlers cliietly from the Ih'itish Islands; Maiiltolta and llrltlHli Columbia, and the districts commonly known as the iN'oc^/i-iccs^ Trrrl- Uirit'H, have been ])eoplod l)nt recently by settlers from the other provinces and elsewhere. The original inhabitants, the Indians, now remaining, belong jirincipally to the Huron, Chippewa, Mohawk, and Micinac tribes in the east; and to the Cree, Saulteaux, and Blackfeet tribes in the west. Lands have been reserved for them in the various provinces, and in the more settled parts they have their own villages and houses, and cultivate their own farms. The Doiiilnfon of Canada Is a Confederation, each of the provinces of which it is composed having its own separ- ate Legislature and Executive Council, with a Lieutenant- Governor appointed by the Dominion Government. The Government of the Dominion is similar to that of Great Britain, on which it is modelled, and consists of the Sovereign (represented by the Governor-General), and a Par- liament, consisting of the House of Conuuons and the Senate. The Oovornor-Gonoral. who is appointed by the British Gov- ernment, assisted by a Ministry of 14 mem- l)ers, who must each have a seat in Parlia- ment, and who are responsible for the good government of the country. Tlie IIouNo of Coinnions consists of members who are elected by the people for one Parliament only, which cannot exceed five years. The number of members from each prov- ince is proportioned to the population, and provision is made for increase or decrease after each decennial census, the number apjiortioned to Quebec being fixed permanently at (55, and made the basis of calculation. The Senate consists of 80 members, appointed for life by the Crown. The niiinlier of Menihers to eaeh Province In i CniiiiiiDiiii, Si'iiute, Ontakki ,,.■■,•. U'2 24 (Jt'KHKU OS 24 Nkw Hri'nswick ,..-,.. 10 10 NovaHi'otia 81 10 Manitoiia 5 !l liKITIHIl COMMIIIA •'! IMllSCK KlIWAIUI iHI.ANI) 4 NoltTII-WKhTTKHHITUHIKH 4 2 TlIM UUHINION US HO sen reserved for )re settled parts . cultivate their ration, each of its own separ- i a Lieutenant- iment. milar to that of consists of tho ral), and a Par- DOMINION OF CANADA. 29 l)or8 who are Iwliich cannot fill Diich prov- fision is made consiiH, tho Innantintly at |d for life by In I Semite. 24 24 10 10 :i .'1 4 2 80 It requires the assent of all three branches of the Govem- luent (the Governor-General, the Senate, and the House of Commons) for any bill to bocome law ; but tho House of Commons alone has the privilege of introducing money bills. The Dominion Government regulates all matters connected with trade and navigation, fisheries, currency, banking, the customs and excise, criminal law, militia and defence, the l)ostal service, etc. ; but the Provincial Governments have foutrol of all local matters. Tho coiiiinerce of Canada has largely increased, chiefly within the last ten years; the iiiiiiurts now amounting to about 120,000,000 doUars yearly ; and the exports, consist- ing principally of grain and luml)er, to about 98,50!>,(X)0. Under tho treaty, the French Canadians retain their own religi(m and laws (except the criminal law, which is that of England), and are guaranteed eq <1 rights with other British subjects. The French language, as well as the English, is still used in Parliament, and in all public documents of the Dominion Government, as well as in the Legislature and the law courts of Quebec. The provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were united under tho name of tho Dominion of Canada, on .July 1, 18(i7. f^ --■ ^tlK^-fiL t'tffU. - I'M.I.H UK NiAllABA. OHHP i! CANADA PUtkltHIM »., TMiritf .L JvIAP OK THE . 1 PROVINCE OF i\ ONTARIO *•/ I A/>Ai E nr Ultra EXPLANATION! Cities ITiinwiai>« Cbun/j/ roivrw ami) ^. ., Disliicl Uafiitali ; Ch«thi»m Imporlunl TIiwtm Colllngwood Jtailwiti/s Cunu{9 ■...■■.—.. Steamboat Routes Propoiied Sallwat/i Qraenwiob jqO g,0 g^O g,0 lUnHiWt, NMTNRUP fc Cfl., MH -MlNTIN* »UllM, lUMAia, N. V. ^1' I i ;fi| 32 ONTARIO. 8CENB8 IN Ontario. ONTAEIO. Area, ovcr, I'ort Uowan. HAi.niM.vxi) . . C:i.viij{a, Caledonia, Dunnville, Ilajft'fsvilK'. WKl.l.ANn . . Weiland, Tliorold, Port Colliorno, Nla^raia lulls. Lincoln . , St. CatharineH, Niapira, Port Dalhousk'. WKXTWoiiTFt . . Haniilton, IMnidas. Hai.tox . . . Milton, t!oor(;elo\vn, Oakville, Burlington. I'KKi. . . , llraniiiton, Stroutsville, Port Credit. York . . . Toronto, Newmarket, Aurora. MidhIjKkk.v . . ■London, Stralliroy, Parkliill, Cilencoe. OxKOHi) . . . Woodstock, Ingersoll, Norwich, Tilsonbiirtr. IlKAXT . . . Hrantford, Pari-s. Pkutii . . . Stratford, St. Mary's, .Mitoliell, Listowel. WAiEiti.oo . . Ik'iliii, Oalt, Preston, Waterloo. Wki.linotox . . (iii('l|)li, Elora, FerguH, Mount roresc. DiKKKiiiN . Oranneville. I.AMiiTON . , Sarnia, Petrolia, Point Kdward. UriioN . . , (loili'iich, Clinton, Seaforth. niiit'K . . . Walkerton, Southampton, Port Elifin, Kini'ar- dine. ONTARIO. 33 Countiet. Chief Tmcni. , Grey . . . Owen Sound, Durham, Meaford. SiMCOB . . Barrie, ISriuItord, Collingwood, Orillia, Penetan- guishene, Midland. Central Ooantleii, North of Lake Ontario. Chief Totcns. Whitby, 08hawa, Uxbridije, Port Perry. Port Hope, Newcastle, Bowmanville, Xlillhrook. Lindsay, Omemec, Bobcay;;eon. Cobourg, Brighton, Colbonie, Peterborough, Ashbumham, Hastings. Minden. Picton. Belleville, Trenton, Madoc, Stirling, Deseronto. Xapanee, Bath, Newburgh. Kingston, Portsmouth, Sydenham. Mattawa, North Bay. Parry Sound. Bracebridgc, Oravenhurst. Counties. Ontario Durham Victoria NORTIlUMBBRLAtn) . PETERBOROl'on HALIBURTOS(PrOP.) Princr Edward Hastinqb Lennox and AddinO' TON . Frontesao . nlpissino ijistrict. Parry Soi;nd h Ml'SKOKA II still vast tracts of unsurveyed lands, covered with the prime- val forests, where even the lunihernian does not poiiotrate. Railways are being extended, now rofvds opened iiji, and settlements made every year, so that before long the favored portions of these districts will probably be as thickly peopled as are some of the counties. The Hnrfttoe of Ontario is in general level, or gently undu- lating, with only sufficient rise to form watershed for the rivers flowing north or south. From the Niagara River a ridge extends westward, at a short dist^ince from Inike Ontario, as far as Hamilton, then turns northward, ter- minating in the Blue Mountuitis, near CoUingwood, on the Georgian Bay, where it attains the highest elevation in Ontario. A similar ridge separates the streams flowing into Lake Ontario from those flowing into Liikes Simcoe and Huron. The north shores of Ltvkes Huron and Su- • 11 Profile of tub Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence to tiif. Falls of Montmorbncv, Elevation above Sea-level, Depth ok Lakes, etc. The vertical scale is very many times greater than the horizontal, consciiueiitly tlie angle of descent from lake to lake, and of the bottom of tlie lakes, is greatly exaggerated. Eastern CountioH, between the Ottawa and St. Lawreiioe Rivera. Counties, Leeds . Lanark . Renfrew Qrenville DlNDAS . Carleton Stokmont Ilt:8SELL Oi.knoarrv Prescott Chi^ Toums, Brockville, Gananoque. Perth, Smith'f- Falls, Carleton Place, Almonte. Pembroke, Renfrew, Arnprior. Prescott, Merrickville, Kemptville. Xlorrisburg, Iroijuois. < )ttawa, New Kdinburgh. Cornwall. Kusscll. Alexandria, Lancaster. L'Original, Hawkesbury. In the north and north-westeni parts of the province arc perior are rugged Hn! chief part of its course it forms tlie boundary between Ontario and Queliec until near its mouth, and enters the St. Lfiwrenco by tlin.'e branches, enclosing the Islands of Montreal, Bizarre, and Jemts. Ontario wiis but thinly settled up to 17^4, when York, now called Toronto, was founded. The whole population of the province was then only about 65,(K)0. Since that period, and es[)ecially within the last twenty years, it has li 3G ONTARIO. improved very rapidly, and i» now the most important province of the Dominion. AKrlcnlture and Inmberlng form the chief employments of the inhabitants. Large quantities of grain, principally wheat and barley, also of lumber, square timber, cattle, and dairy produce, are annually exported. The wheat, flour, and barley of Ontario are considered among the best on the continent. Liirge quantities of fruit are produced, especially in the counties bordering on Lake Erie and the western half of Lake Ontario. The mines of Ontario are very valuable, particularly the copper, nickel, gold, and silver mines north of Ljvkes Huron and Superior. Gold is also found in the vicinity of Lake of the Woods, Sudbury, Lake Wahnapitae, and in the Legislative Assembly of 92 members. The Lieutenant- Governor is appointed by (and holds ofBce during the plea- sure of) the Governor-General of Canada; but cannot be removed within five years of his appointment without cause shown. The LegUlative Assembly is elected by the people, and continues, unless dissolved by the Lieutenant-Governor, fc»r four years. There must be at least one session of the Assembly every year. The annual revenue is about 4,000,000 dollars. There are twelve cities in Ontario — Toronto, Hamilton Ott;iwji, Kingston, London, St. Catharines, Guelph, Brant- ford. Belleville, St. Thomas, Stratford, and Windsor. : -11 1 ft Ciir OP Toronto. counties of Peterborough and Hastings. Valuable petro- leum springs are numerous in tlie western peninsula, at ( )il Springs, Petrolia, Enniskillen, and other places, and are giving employment to a large number of men. Tlu; fisheries on Lake Huron are extensive and valuable. Salt-wolls are worked at various places in ihe counties of Huron, Bruce, Perth, and Lambton, and yield large (}uantitie8 of the purest salt. The lieslsluturo of Onturlo consists of a Lieutenant- Governor with an Executive Council of 8 members, and a Toronto (15)0,000), situated ou L^ke Ontario, was founded in 17'.>4 by General Simcoe, and then called York. It is the largest city and the capital of Ontiirio ; and was one of the capitals, alternately with Quebec, of the Province of Canada before Ottawa was chosen. It is distinguished for the num- ber and elegance of its i)ublic buildings, among which are the Parliament Buildings, Osgoode Hall (occupied by the law courts, law library, etc.), the Custom House, the Post Office, and the following educational institutions : the University of j Toronto, Knox College, McMaster Hall, Victoria College, I WyclifTe College, St. Michael's College, the School of Practi- •Ill tri tlJ r\ rhl of I bel ONTARIO. 37 ided the If the Lnada Inuiu- are law )ffice, lity of lUege, practi- cal Science, and the Normal School. The new City Hall and Court House will bo a large and beautiful structure. It will c«>8t about ^,000,000. Toronto is entered by many railway lines connecting with the rest of the ctmtinent ; it j>«).s.sesse« a fine harbor, and carries on a large trade. Tlie gi'owth of the city has been very rapid during the last ten years. Ottawa (44,154), the capital of the Dominion of Canada, is beautifully situated on the Otbiwa River, just below the Chaudiere Falls. It cttntuins the Parliament Buildings, erected at a cost of upwards of 04.O(X),OOO. It is distant from Montreal about 120 miles. Tlu flideau Canal, iormed largely of the river of the same name, connects it with Kingston. Ottawa, with Hull opposite, is the principal centre of the lumber trade, vast (luantities of timber being floated down the Ottawa and its affluents. Hamilton (49,000), situated at the head of Burlington Bay, is the second city in Ontario in population and com- mercial importfince. It is well built, tlie i>rincij«il liuildings being of stone, and it has extensive waterwcnks. Being at the liead of navigation on Lake Ontario, it has a lai^e trade with the western peninsula. Kingston (19,234), situated at the eastern extremity of Lake Ontario, just above the Lake of "Tlie Thousjind Islands," is one of the oldest cities in Ontario. It possesses several forts, being the only f(jrtitied town in the upper province. Its buihlings are mostly of stone, which Ls found in the neighborhood in great abundance. It is the seat oi Queen's College and University, the Royal Military College, and the Provincial Penitentiary, and carries on a large ship- ping trade. London (32,000), on the Thames, is thfe princijjal city west of Hamilton. It is situated in the midst of a populous and rich agricultural country. It has numerous fine build- ings, and is the seat of the Western University and a medical college. St. Catharines (9,170) is beautifully situated on the Wel- land Canal, in the best fruit-growing region of Canada, p)ssesses mineral springs, and is a favorite resort for invalids and an attractive summer residence. Guelph (10,539) is the centre of a rich agricultural coun- try, and carries on important manufactures. Near it are the Ontario Agricultural College and P^xperimental Farm. Bruntford (12,79.)) is lieautifully situated on the Gnmd River. It has large trade and manufactures connected with the agricultural industry. Belleville (10,000), on the Bay of Quinte', at the mouth of the Moira, ships a large quantity of grain, cheese, lum- ber, and iron ore. St. Thomas (10,370) is an importiint railway centre. Stratford (10,0i)orUince. Peterboroash (10,000) is 'ortli liatik of tliu 8t. I^awroucv. Tkbrkhonxk. Tho Province of Quolwc, fonnurly Lowor Ciiuivda, or Caiiiula Kii.st, ciniipri.sos that portion of tlio Dominion wliicli oxtonds alon}^ I ho St, Lawroneo from tlio Ottawa Rivur to thu (Julf of St. Lawronco, and is Itoundud on tho oiisb and Noiith l)y Now BruiiHwick and tlio Uuitod States. It is dividod into 'JO judicial districts, and thcso aro again Hiihdividod into o classed thus: (.'oinitios on tho Ottawa; thoso on tho north Itank of tho St. Tiawronco; thoso on tho south l)ank : and thoso lying inland hi^twoen tho latter and tho I'nited States, usually called tho J'lastorn Townshijis. 4'oiiiitl«>H oil <«t\viM>ii It mill I lie Nt. lilt \VI'OII0U» Ciunitiis, I'ONIIAC orr.wvv AlKlKMKI II. lIll'WH. TWIP Mill SIVINM . sic S('ll0l(Wli(|Ul', SI. Kii>;|iuliii. V.M'iiKKnii . . \ iiiulri'ull. rairir,< 'aiiiiliiia- VMiu'n. .\a|iicr\lll(', SI. Itciiil. Nt. .Idhn'ii, St<>. AtlmiioMf, Hte. Mario. CkiiiiHix. ClI.V.MIIl.Y . \KII(III,I1KN . iSt, 11vaii.nt:ib llAdor . IlK'IIKI.IKI . \'AM\HKA Niriil.Kr I.HTHIMKItK ■ Cllil'fl'/<(r,ll. Cliaiiilily, 1,1)11- )(IK>llil. Vi'rclU'i'cH, SI. Ilymiiillii'. SI. lill^flK'.!. SdicI, SI. Hi UN, St. I'liiiiviii", Ya- iiiiihKii, i.ii Hail', lll'i'lllli nlll', N'll'oll't, I.Dlliliiicri', St, Croix. QUEBEC. 41 Counties. Chief Places. Counties. Chief Places. Levis . . Point Levis. Kamoi'raska . Kaniourosko, DORCIIESTBR . Ste. Ilenedine, St. Tkmibcoiwta . He Verte, Kivieredu AnMelme. Loup, Cocouna. Bell ECU ASHK ."St. Michel. RiMorsKi . . Riniouski. MONTMAONY . St. Thomas. Gasi'E . . I'ercd, Qas)MS, L'laiiET . St. Jean, L'Islet. BcSAVENTing . New Carlisle. Eastern TownsliIpN. MtSHisqi'oi . . Frelit'hsburg, Bed- Wolfe . . Dudswell. ford, Farnhain. RiCllMOSD . . Kichniond. Bromk . Knowlton. COMITO.V . Cookshire, Conip- SlIEFrORD . , Waterloo, Oranhy. ton. Drimmond . . Druniniomiville. SlIERRROOKK . Sherbrooke, Len- Artiiabahka . St. Christophe. noxville. Meoastic . . Leeds, Inverness. STASSTEAI) . . Stanstead, Coati- Beaice . St. Francois, La Beauce. cook. The iHland of Ilonttvcnturo, to the east of Gaspe, is an important fishing station. The Mmjdalen Idanih, situated in tlie Gulf of St. Lawrence, 50 miles north of Prince Edward Island, are high and rugged, but important for the fisheries which are carried on by the inhabitants, who are of French descent, and number about 3,500. Antkodi is a barren and ahmjsfc luiinhabited island. The Idund of Muntveid, on which the city is built, and the islands Bizarre and Jesn.% adjoining it, the Island of Orleana, just beh)w Quebec, an feet, but some of their suuuuits north of tliu city of Quebec rise to more tlian 4,(M(0 feet. They are remarkable for the numerous snuill lakes which they enclose, many of which are yet unexplored, although upwards of 1,C00 are already laid down on maps. The hills are generally covered to their sununits with dense forests of pine. The principal rivers on the norUi side of the St. Law- rence are ; The St. Maurice, rising in a number of small lakes near the boundai-y of the North-J]ast Territory, falls into the St. Lawrence at Three Rivers. It is over 400 miles in length. Twenty-four miles above Three Rivers is the Fall of Shawe- negan, 150 feet high. The Sagnenay, rising hi Ljiko St. John, issues in two streams, which unite after a few miles. It flows into the St. Lfiwronco at Tadousac, after a course of 100 miles, or includuig under the same name the chief feeder of Lake St. John, of over 'A&) miles. It is of great dejjth, and is famous for the grandeur of its scenery, stupendous clitts forming the banks in some places. It is 2i miles wide at its mouth. About (50 miles from its mouth is Ha- Ha Bay, celebrated for its scenery. Besides these, also on the north bank, are the Bntiscan, entering the St. Lawrence at Batiscan, the Str. Anne, the Jwqiifti Ciirliir, and the Montmonnrtj, the latter, which enters the St. Lawrence a little below Quebec, being cele- brated for the beautiful fails, '2'ti) feet high, at its mouth, and for tiie natural steps on its rocky banks. On the south side are tlie llirhdivii, draining the beautiful Lake (Jhamplain, aiic deriviss its chief importance from its commercial position, its lumber tradt', ami its fisheries. As the rapids on the St. Lawrence olistruct navigation for large sea-goiu" vi'ssels beyond Monti'eal, this city has bei'oiiio the eom- iiieieial emporium for tiio west. The fisheries of the St. Lawrence are very valuable, consisting chiefly of cod, mack- erel, lierring, salmon, and seids. Lumliering is carried on extensively along the shores of all tlie rivers; tlie timber bi'ing tliiated down tlie Ottawa and St. Ijawrenco in rafts to Quebec, whence it is shipped. 42 QUEBEC. Tho Luf^lHlature of Quebec con.si.sts of a Licutonunt- (jroveriior and two h0), Ciifi'dii (hi Luc, and Shiiistcud are impoi'tant iowiis with local tradis »*>''. John k, or St. Jciui. (4.772) and Viillii(lirlil (5, old) are rising towns; Jiinidiiski (l.TilMJ) carries on a sliipjiing and lumber trade; OvKjhhttH'tKia and St. ii'<';//.s are Indian villages. Joliittr (.'i,.'{47), Ldcliiiic (.■{,7'>' ^T^ll'^-: LACIIINK ItAnilN, ON TIIK St, Lawhrnck, NEW BRrNSlWirK. 4.'? and SCKNK» IN NKW BlllNHWKK. NEW BEUNSWICK. Arei(, JS,:2()i) Kiiiiare milis; popidation, S;il,J7(); pirsoiis to xi/Kare mllf, l.J; (irmted extinf from )iortli to south, .'In mili dirertUj from ntxt to ice.it, I HO mihti. Tho Provlnt'c of Now ItruiiHwlck is bounded on the north by Quo})oc and tlie Bay of Chalcur; on tlio west by Queboo and tlio State of Maine; on the south l)y tho Hay of Fundy, Cliignecto Bay, and Nova Scotia; on tho oast by *N()rthui(d)erland Strait and tho Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is connoctod with Nova Scotia by tlie Isthmus of Chignectu, 14 miles wide. It is iu latitude 45' to 48' N., and longitude tili ad' to «i9^ W. There are tiftoon counties in the province, which, with their chief towns and villages, are as fcillows ; CouilttoN III till* Noiitli ami WfHt, Ciiiiiilli's. Chief I'liiceH. St. .Ions , . . St, .Idiin, Kiiirvilli', SI. .MiirtiiiH. CllAKl.DTTK . . .SY. .I/kJcch'x, SI. Slcpliin, Milllowii, SI. (ii'oi'ifi". Kino's . . . Ilainiitnn, Sii».sl'.\, llotlisuy, Noiloii, Uiivtluck. (Ji.kkn'h , . . Uaijiliiiiii, HiNHiRY . . . Oninnifto. YoHK , . . KitKiiKliicTiiN, St. .Mui'j'h, ii, Kiiit,"*!"'!, Hiii'toiK'lii'. Wkktmiihk.i.anI). . Ddrehi'ttir. Miisitiis, Siilldlpiiry, Shwliiic, Siuk\ illc. Ai.iiKiir . . . llniieinll, llillslxiro, KIkIii. The Hui-ruc<« (if New Brunswick is generally undulating, aiul a great [lart is covered with forests. Then; are suuu! high hills in the northern counties, also north of St. .lohn, and along the Hay nf Kiiiidy ; but they nowhere risi! higher than "J.fMKI feet abuve tlii^ si^a-levi'l. The ]U'ilici|ial watii- shed I'.xtends from north-west to south-east, not far from llie buimdary between the two groups of counties. The rlx'i-H are numerous, and several are navigable fnr vessels of cousideralile size, while some form lake exjiau- sions. The St. .loliii HIvor has its sources in the .Appalachian range, in tlu- State of Maine (see map of QuebtM;), and iifti'i' a circuitous course of about 400 miles enters the Bay I'f Fundy at St. John, it recoivon on its left bank the St. imli M 5- fl Ho V '<^" s PI 3 NEW BIirNSWICK. 45 Francis, Madaimska (draining Z,rtAy Temigantata), TtAnque, Other considerable rivers are tlie Rkhihncto, the ilf^j/rt- Keswick, Nashimak, Salmon (expanding into Grand Lake, (jnadavic, and the Neinm(juit: connected with the St. John by tlie Jnnse.j), Canaan (with ; t,^^ coast-line of New Brunswick is in.lented with a great n ashedenwak Lake), and Ac«m/,.«,«^s; and on its right bank, : „„„^,,^^ „f jj^^ ,,,^y, ,,„,i i^^^^.,,,,^, the Aroostook, Meduxnakeaij, and Oromorto. Botii the main river and several of its tributaries are noted for their beauti- ful scenery. The St. John is navigal)le as far as Fredcricton, upwards of 80 miles, and for light craft 140 miles farther, except when the water is low in summer. Just above the city of St. Jolin at the mouth, however, the bed of the river contracts and forms the Narrows, through which the stream rushes with great violence at low tide, while at high water the tide produces rapids in the reverse direction. The (Irand Falls, about 225 miles from the mouth, is a cataract of great beauty and grandeur, about 74 feet in height. For al)out .'W nules up, the river flows between upland farms, wooded hills and bold blufis, making most delightful scenery. Then for about 50 miles farther, the banks are raised but little above the ordinary water level, forming ex- tensive intervales or alluvial meadows, wliich are over- flowed during the spi'ing freshets. Be- yond that again the scenery is more di- versified. The Mlrainivhi, 220 miles long, with its North-west and Soutli-WLst Branches uniting near the moiitli, is A Limukkisu Sik.nk, navigable for large vessels for aoout 50 miles. The estuary uf thi^ rivi'r bmadi'iis grandly into ftiiramichi l>ay. The HoHticroiiclic forms part of tlie nortlu'rn licpimdary between New J5run,swick and Quebec, and ufler a cnurse uf 200 miles flows into the Bay of Clialeur. 'I'nis rivir, witli its ti'il)utaries, is noted for its picturesipu! scenery and its excellent salmon fishing. 'I'he St. Croix, wliich forms part of the Imundary of Canada, is J25 miles long, rising ii\ the t'hiputneticook iiiikes and flowing into the Bay of l"'iindy. The IVtitcddiac, KM) miles in length, is notable for the U'reat tides wliich change it twice a diiy from an insignilicant stream to ii broad, navigable river, ami sometimes rush up with such an impetus as to form a moving ridge of water, called "the bore." The prinripul Coast Waters arc t Bay of Chaleur, Miramichi Baij, liichiburto Ifarbor, Jha:- toHchc Harbor, Shediac Bay, and Bate Verte, on the north and east; Hhepodij Bay, Vhiynirto Basin, St. John Harbor^ txnd Fassamaqnoddy Bay, on the south; alao Northnmberland Strait, and the Bay of Fundy. The Hay of Fundy is an arm of the sea extending so far into the land as nearly to make an island of Nova Scotia. It. terminates in Minas Basin toward the east, and Chignecto- Bay, with its two branches, Cumberland Basin and Shepody Bay, toward the north-east. Its length, to the head of Cumberland Basin, is about 140 miles, and its greatest breadth 45 miles. It is remarkable for the rapid rise and great height of its. tides, varying from .'50 feet at St. .John to (JO feet at the in- ner extremity. In ISaie Verte, only 14 miles distant across the istlnnus, the tide rises not more than four or five feet. The Chignecto slii() railway, across the isthmus, is a nutabhi engineering work, intemU'il to shorten the .sea voyage between the St. hawreiice and (i-df jinrts, and the Atlantic ports. Tlio principal CapcN are i J'linil Misriiii^ I'iiliil /v'.S('i(//n/i((c, IHflt llnirhi lliuut, ;iud Ciipi Taniii lit I itf n]i the east; I'lipr MiiroiKiiiiii, I'd/n Kiiriii)i', (^hiiKi) llaiil, Ci/if )S'/i< /111 /■. and I'dinl Lijinaii on the .south. 'I'lic- principal iMlantiN arc i ,kWuiUH>M>1Q\t lliimi Island, neai' Uailiousie, in Ui'stigouche <"onnty; MIsriiit and Sliijijiniiiii, in (Jloucester Cipiinty; I'lirlaifi, in ]\Iii'ainiclii I'ay ; hnr Islmid imd ('niiiiiohdln, south of j'.issa- maipioddy r>ay (tlie latter a resort for tourists :iiid pleasure- seekers); anil li'nnid Mniinii, farther to tiu' soiith-i'ast, at the mouth of the Hay of l''iindy. i'l' 46 NEW BRUNSWICK. Thecllninteof NewBrun.s- wick is liuiilthfiil. The win- ter is long, with Htcady cold ; and, in the interior, snow covers the ground oontinu- ou.sly from Decenil)er to March. Tiiis is considered a great advantage as com- pared with an "open" or changeable winter. The sum- mer is hot, and vegetation rapid. On the .southern coast, the temperatures are less ex- treme and more sul)ject to variation ; and during the "s^ summer, fogs prevail, whicli do not, however, extend in- land. The soil, especially along the courses of the rivers, is productive and well cultivated. Farming is car- ried on with mucii success in the south-eastern part of the province, and along tlie valley of Die St. John. In Carle- ton, King's, and Westmoreland Counties, perhaps, are to 1)0 found tile tinest agricultural districts. The j)i'oducts are the same as in otlier parts of Canada, but very little wheat is cultivated. Tiie ciiief sour of tlie wealtii of New linniswick hereto- fore lias liei'U its extensive forests, and luiiiberlii)? i^* *^till the leading indiistiy. In many parts of tlie province, the majority of the iiu^n, who work the farms in summer, spend the winter in the "lumber woods." The logs, mostly spruce, cut and haiiled out to the banks of the .stris'inis wliih- the deep snow renders sledding easy, are lloated down the rivers with the s|)ring freshets. At the numerous saw-mills the logs are cut into deals and timber, which being conveyed by suitable river-boats to the shi])ping ])orts, are there transferred to sea-gtting vessels. Besidi's tlie spruce, the forests furnish a considerable (piantity of white pine, hem- lock, and ci'dar ; and among hardwoods, birch, lieecli ami ma)ile. The value of the forest [iroducts exported aninially amounts to about 84,. The ilNlierloN of New Brunswick are highly valuable, producing more than three millions of doilars annually, and omploying about lO.oOO men. The iiilii<>i-al rt'soureoM of New Brunswick liavi- not yet })een as fully developed as those of some other jirovinces. Cottlj of the bituminous or "soft" kind, is found in various parts, but is worked only at the head of (Jrand Lake in Queen's County. Aiithnirllr, (>r "hard" ('(k*/, occurs in St. A 1.1 .MllKIt I'llKT. John County. (rii]>sii)it, (often called "plaster") is abund- ant, especially in Albert, ^'ictoI•ia, King's uinnitirf>e imiploy a considerable jiropor- tion of the people. In amount of tonnage registered, and in number of new vessels built in a year. New Brunswick stands second among the provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia being the first. 'I'hi' revviiiiv of the province is about (571,''i ; and the northern i)art was formed into tlie province of New Brunswick in 1784. The original inhabi- tants were Indians of the Micmac and Milicete tribes, wliicli now number about 1,<)(X), and are increasing somewhat. Tiio descendants of the early French settlers number abcut 57,000, residing mostly in Madawaska, (jloueester, Kent and Westmoreland Counties. Tlie earliest British settlers came from the New PIngland States, about 17<)'{, and settled on the St. John River at ]\raugerville and elsewhere. Many of the people resident in tlio province are descended from the Loyalists, who came from the United States in 178.'^, founded Parr Town (now St. .John), and soon brouglit about the erection of a separate ])rovince, as above imuitioned. In 18()7 New Brunswick became part of the Dominion of Canada. The form of eovcriiniont continued after confederation the same as before, the Legislature consisting of the Lieu- tenant-Governor and two houses, tiie Legislative Council and the House of A.ssembly. The Lieutenant-Governor is ap])ointed by the Governor-General of Canada, and adminis- ters the government through an Executive Council of nine meml)ers, responsible to tlie people's representatives who compose the lower house of 41 members, elected for 4 years. The 15 members of the upper house were appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor in Council; l)ut under an Act passed in 18!tl, the Legislative Council was abolished in 1S!>J, leaving only one lumse, as in Ontario, Manitoba, and Britisli C(jlumbia. Intrrior ok a Cotton- FAtTORT. In me.iiis of liiteriitil (•oiiiniunication. New Brunswick is not behind iier sister provinces, except Ontario. She has good roads, steamlioats on ail the i)rincipal rivers, ;in(l rail- w.iys connecting all tlie iiiipnitant ]iiiiiits. The following are the railways: tin; Inteicoloiiial (owned by the Dominion Government), with lines luiiiiiiig froiiiMoncton to St. .lolin, Halifax, and Quebec, having brandies to Dalhoiisie, Chatham, and up the Miramichi ; the Canadian Pacific, connecting St. .lohn with the upjier pi'ovinces and the United States, and liaving lines extending to Fredericton, St. Stephen, St. .\n(liews, Woodstock, Houltoii (Me.), Edmiindstoii and Pres(iu'ile (Me.); the Shore Line, from St. John to St. Stephen ; the Cana(hi Eastern, from Fred(!ricton to ('hathaiii ; the (Central, from Norton to Cliipuian, and from Hampton to St. Martins; the Tobi((uo Valley ; the Elgin, Petitcodiac and Ilavelock; the .Vlbi-rt Railway, from Salis1)ury, on the I. C. R., to Harvey; the Albert Southern, from Albert to Alma; the Moncton and Buctouche; the N. B. and P. E. 1., 48 NKW BRUNSWICK. from Siickville to Cnpo Tormontinc; the Kent Northern; the Cdmijuot; and the Teniiscoimtji, from PIdiinuidHton tcj River du Loup (Que.), and along the St. John to Upper St. Francis. Citii'N and TowiiH. St. John (40,000), tlie largest city and chief commercial centre, is situated at the mouth of the St. .John River, mostly on the left bank. It has a fine harbor, accessible to ves.sels of the largest size at all seasons of the year. The city is naturally divided into throe jiarts, known as the East, North and West. The first is the largest, and was the original city, three-fourths of which was destroyed by fire in 1H77, but has been rebuilt, and contains many fine public buildings, business houses and private residences. The northern part was formerly the town (afterwards the city) of I'crtland, which was united with St. John in 188!). The west side bears the name of Carleton. This city is well situated for conuuerce and manufactures. In the number and tonnage of vessels owned, it is said to rank fourth among the sea-ports of the British Empire, the first tiiree in order being Liverpool, Lt>ndon and (ilasgow. The manu- facturing industries carried on in imd near the city are of considerable extent, producing, among otlier things, .sawed lumber, shipping, steam-engines, railway-cars, castings of all sorts, edge tools, .saws, nails, bolts, agricultural imple- ments, cotton and woollen fabrics, lime, leather, boots and shoes, [)aper, etc. The city presents a fine appearance as .-ipproacheil from the water; and the view from the hills of Carleton, opposite the f;ills, is not surp.'issed i^vi'U by the view from Montre;d mountain or the citadel of (,)iiubi'c. Krculcrlctoii (tiioOiJ), the ca[)ital, is situated on the right bank of the St. .lolm Rivtu', distant from St. .John about 8.~> miles by water and ti? niiles by rail. It is built upon a bi'oad, fiat terr.ace of almost semicircular form, the river here curving around l^t. Ainu's Fulnt, and a range of hills fin'ming tlui chord of the arc. The streets are very regularly laid out, and most of them are lined with elms, maples anil other shade trees, giving the little city a beautiful appearance in sunnmn'. Among the ]ioints of interest here are the Li'gis- lative and Di^parti leiitid liuildings, Christ Church Cathedi'al, the University of New I'.ruiiswick, the I'rovincial Normal School, and tin; Canadian School of Infantry for the Mari- tiine Provinces. Monrton (8,7Ieiiiraiiu-ook is the seat of a Roman Catludic college. At l>f is located the penitentiary f(jr the Mari- time Provinces. DallKiiiHic, in the extreme north, is an attractive re-sort in tlie sunnnei' time, on account of it:; chai'uiing scenery and its facilities for fishing and salt-water bathing. MaryHvllUs on the Xashwaak, a few miles from Frederic- ton, contains large lumber, sliingle and lath mills, brick woi'ks, ;ind tlie largest cotton factory in Cana(hi. It is an iucorpoi'ati'd town, largely owned liy one energetic capitalist. .>lillt(>wn (2,140), on the St. Ch-oix, a short distance above St. Sttqilu'ii, lias .inother large cotton mill. KdiiiuiiilNton, 205 miles above St. .lolin, is a thriving town. NOVA SCOTIA. 49 resort jry and I'uderic- brick It is korgutic listanco SlE.NKS in NdVA SroTlA. NOVA SCOTIA. Artn, 2(}^(H)0 jfr/iwre inilen; popnlation, Jfni)Jf'.t2; pffnons to Hrjuiur niil<\ -'I; (iii'ati'nt I'.rtfnt, fnnn nurth-iiixt In mnitlt- iirst, I niiudituj Ctipe Breton, 300 inilen; tjtvofist linuillh^ 1 1<> loiUx. The Prot'lnce of Novw Scotia coiiipriseH the peninsula of Nova Scotia proper and the adjoining island of Capo Breton. It is bounded on the nortli l)y tiie (Julf of St. Lawrence; on the west by New Brunswick and the Bay of Fundy ; and on the soutli and east by the Atlantic Ocean. It is divided into eighteen counties, which, with their chief towns, are: C'oUlltU'H oil tllU T'^ilHt t'oilHt. Cuiiiitii'H. SlIKLIUIINK . QCKKN'S LlNRSllIRd . Hai.ikax (!lYNII()Kiilc;ll Chii'f TmniH, . Siikliiiu.sk. . l.iffiiHiiil, .Milton. . hiniiiiliiini, liii(lu'e\v,iti'r. . Halifax, PurliiiDiitli. . (fitjiflmrough, Canso, C'oHiitU's on tlio AVcBt. Yahmoith ynniwiithy Argyle. Hiiiiiv DiijI'V, Wi'viiioiith. AvNAPoMs Aiiimiiiiliii, Mriduptnwn. Kisd'H Kentville, WoUviWe. Masts Winilsnr. (■rMiiKiii.AN:>. , (m/iovtf, Sprintfliill, I'liifwusli. (1iii.( iiKSTi.:; Truro. I'iniir I'irtiiii, New (ilasuow. Antioomki! Antirfonuh. 7 <'ountIc>H In <'r.p« Kroton. Cnuntii'n. Clili'/ Tii\n\K. HlciiMDXl) .... Arirliiil, llawki'slpurv. f'Ai'K HltKTO.N ... . .S"i/(//ir;/, .Niirlli .Syilney VKTdlllA Illlllilifk. Invkrnksh I'liri llantl. Tue Nnrracc .u" Nova Scotia is iiil!}', varied with rich and fertile valleys. Several ranges of high liills cross the coun- try, generally parallel witli the coast-line. The Cohiipiiil }rrincii)ul smiunits are I, KM) feet higii. The Ninili and »S'(>((//i Mi)ii)ititi)i;< (about CAM) fi i uigh) extend, in parallel lines, along tlie shore of tlie l>a_, n, Fuinly; and an irri'gulai' rangt- of small hills extends from tlie Strait of Canso towards tin; south-west. The valley between the Xortli and South Moun- tains is, perhaps, the most beautiful ami fertile district in tin- province. The general slope of the country is in a south- easterly direction, the Cobecpiid Mountains forming the iiighest lantl. Tiiere are ntnuerous lakes, mostly on tlie southern slope. The rivc;rs are of no great length, tlie long- est not excoeditig 50 iiiilus. NOVA SCOTIA. 51 Cape Ilrotoii is, in general, nndulatiny, with lofty, nigged pronioncorieM towards the sea, especially <>n the north. The coal districts are generally level. The coast-line is nuich broken, and the island is nearly cut in t\vi> hy the Jinis d'Or LtiI.e, which e.xtends from north to south, and is separated from St. Peter's Bay, on the south, only by a narrow neck of land le.ss than half a mile wide. A canal is constructed across the isthmus. This lake is connected with the Atlantic on the north by two channels, called the Great and Little Bms d'Or, between which is the island of Bcndanlerie. The principal RivcrH In Nova Bcotla are t St. Marii'g, Mii/^'inodiihiiit, La Hare, anrl Lirerponl, flowing into the Atlantic; tlie Aiiinijinlls, fiowiiif; l)t't\vrfn the North and Smith Mountains, into Annapolis Hasin ; the Cornnnllis and the Armi, into the I!a.sin of Min.'U ; the Mhubcnarnilii', into Cobequid IJay ; and the f'aul, Mi'l'l'r, and Wml Hiei-rK, into I'ictou Harhor. Besides these, tlure are numerous !-n. 11 strcann in Nova Scotia proper ami in Cai>e Ilnli ■ii. The rivers flowing into the branches of the Bay of Fundy are affected by the tide in the same way as in New Bruns- wick. For instance, the Annajiolis at high tide can be ascended by schooners for 20 miles, but at low tide it is an insigniticant stream. The prlnc-lpnl lakcH in Nova Scotia are Lnhe Rnsxiijunl, 12 miles in length, in Queen's County, and (rfmui and Ship Jlar- bor Lnhs in Halifax County. Smaller lakes are numerous, and generally occur in chains, connected by small rivers. The Bias iV Or Lake so called is more properly a land- locked arm of the sea. Tlie roaHt-llnu of Nova Scotia, as well as that of Cape Breton, is nuich broken, antl deeply indented with numerous Iwiys and harbors, except on the siile of the Bay of F'undy. where it is more compact, and possesses few harbors. The principal Itays, Harborn, and Straits are t Baie V^ertp, Tatamagourhi' and St. Oeonif'x liniix, in Northiini)>erland Strait ; Clii-ihthufto liny, at the etilrance of the (!ii> nf ('fiiinn. a narrow strait separatin^f Nova Scotia fmni Ciiiie lireton ; IltiVfax IInrliDi; ManjareVii, ami Mahow liai/n, on iho south-east coast ; St. Marii'i H-tu on the southwest; Aiiiinjmlin /lashi, Miiiiin Chmnul ami Btinhi. . .lUi/viii Unu, on the west ; and Il(i. Breton arc Aipy Bay, St. Aniif't liny, Sydney Uarbor, Mira tiay, and SI. I'e:er'» Bay. The UlantlN of Nova Scotia, l)esidfs Cape IJretnn, are i'arilioii and I'irton L^lands, in Northuiiilniland Strait; St. Paid, tScatari, and Lde Madamr, olf tliu coast of Cape Breton; Salilc I.tland, a dangerous, .sandy shoal, loO miles east of Halifax, on which is an etl'ective humane estab- lishment, maintained liy the Dominion Government, for the relief of shipwrecked sailors; Vajie Stdile, &al, and Mud Ltlaiiih, in the .south ; Lidkj Island nnd Brier Island, at the mouth of St. Mary's Bay. The principal Capes nre t italagash, John, St. George, on the north coast ; Purnipiiif, Cnntn, Sam- hro lleail. Crown Point, and J.a Unie, on the southeast; Snble, on the south; .S'(. Mary, Split, Chignecto, and L'-omidon, on the west. In Cai>c Breton are St. Lawrence, Sort), Kgmnt, Smoky I'end, and Breton. Many of these capes' form rugged promontories, rising to the height of 500 feet. The whole of the coast, osj)ecially on the Atlantic side, is bold and rocky, and lined with dangerous reefs. The climate of Nova Scotia is mild and healthfid, less subject to extremes of heat and cold than is that of New Bill swick, owing to its bi ng nearly surroiuidcd by water, anil to the intluence of the Gulf Stream. The harlior.s on the Atlantic are seldom closed by ice in winter. Tlie Moil in the valleys jind on tlie mountain slojies is rich and productive, but towards the Atlantic coast it is rocky and less fertile. Oats, potatoes, and hay are the jirincipal agricultui'al products; ajiplcs of the tinest VJirieties grow abundantly in the west; and there also cattle are extensively reared. Nova Scotia is the most important of the eastern prov- inces of the Dominion for the extent and variety of its mineral productions. Gold, iron, coal, and gy]isiiiii are found to a greater extent than in any of the other jiroviiices. It also contains co])per and buildiiig-stoiiu in abundance. The total (juaiitity of coal annually raised is about 2,(M)(),00() tons. The principal coal mines are in (,'ape Breton Island and Pictou County. Iron and coal are found in the Cobe- ijiiid Mountains, and in Aiiiia])olis and Pictou Comities the former is largely mined. Gold is found along most of the Atlantic coast, but is worked chiefly in Guysb(jr(jugh, Hali- f.-ix, Hants, and Linieiibuig Counties. Nova Scotia has also the most extensive flsheries of all the provinces of the Dominion. The jirincipal are the cod, mackerel, and salmon flsheries. The exports of ttsh are iliieH}' to the West Indies and the Southern States of America, and amount to over 7,t>0(J,000 dollars, ufl'ording employment to about 25,000 men. ' !i 52 NOVA SCOTIA. There are several lines of railway in Nova Scotia: the Intercolonial, from HiUifax to New Brunswick, with a branch from Truro to Pictou and Port Mulgrave ; the Wind- sor and Annapolis, from Windsor Junction to Annajiolis ; the Western Counties, from Annapolis to Yarmouth ; the Nova Scotia Central, from Annapolis to Liverpool; the Oxford and Pictou ; the Capo Breton Railway, connecting Sydney with the Strait of Canso, and others. The annual liiiport8 of Nova Scotia, in 1891, were valued i.^■ ${), 407,401, and the exports at |iJ>,t>25,(>4i' (2,837) exports much gypsum, and is the seat of King's College, the oldest in British North America. Annnpulia, formerly Port Hoyal, was, under the French, the jtrincipal settlement in Acadif, and the sceiie of several conflicts. -iJ(»rh»ioi(Wi(4,570), Am- ln'rd (3,781), Sitn'tiiihill (4,813), and PiKjWiish ar'3 im|iortant town?'.. St. Franc/ois Xavior College is situated at Aniiiioitinh, At TiHfo (r», 102) the Provincial Normal Scliool has its site. The village of Walfrilli' is the seat of Acadia University. N Yi PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. 53 ti the west side illed Chebucto in 1749, when Britain. It is :he citadel, and ied city in the the Parliament t has also Her for the Nortli miral generally isie University lux. It has an Glasgow (3,776) >al mines in the ition their har- steam cummu- s the centre of sported. id LiUnonburfC are extcnHivoly exports much I, the oldest in i-ly Port Royal, inent in Acadif, (t/.(4,67'((;/ on the south, and llielimond ling on the north, nearly divide it into three |)arts. It has also numerous harbors, the principal of which are tliose of (Jliarlottetoiv-n, George- town, Bedeqiie, Egnumt, Cascumpec, and !>tiuris. The rllnuitu is temperate ami healthful, and the soil remark'Uily fertile and favorable for agriculture. Prince Edward Island lias more land under cultivation, in propor- tion to its size, than any of the otlier provinces. I'otatoi's. oats, and barley are the stajile productions, and are largely exjjorted. The lots or townships were originally granted by the Britisli (Jovernment U* i)roprietiirs, ni-arly KX) in number, on certain conilitioiis wliich had never been fidlilled, thus originating a "land (juestion," tliat long caused great ditticulty, but was at lengtli settled by (lovernment coni- mission. The fertility of the snil has induced a large population to uiake the island their permanent home, and it is already the nu)st densely jjeopjctl of the Britisli North American jtrovinces. Shi|i-I)uildiiig is carried on extensively ; and the tisheries in the gulf give employment to a hirge number of men ; but farming is the leading industry. .\ submarine telegraph connects the island with New Ibunswick, crossing the narrowest part of Xorthumlierland Strait, between ('apes Tornientine ami " ('averse, a distance of 9 miles. In winter the mails are ciirriuil over between ilio same jtoints in boats fitted for the ice or for wati-r. Navigation is wholly obstructed from the end of Dt.'cember lo the begiuiiing of .April. A Qovuniiiiunt railway connects Churluttetuwn, the capi- tal, with Summerside, Cascuni])ec, and Tignisli on the west, and with Georgetown and Souris on the ea.st. The IniportH of Prince Edward Island in 1891 amounted to 023,000 dollars, and the expiuts to about 1,.350,(MX) dol- lars. The revenue is about 22i">,000 dollars. The form of government is simihir to that of Quebec and Nova Scotia ; but the Upjier H»)use of the Legislature is an elective body. The Executive Council has 9 members, the Legislativt! Council l.'J members, and the Legislative Assembly 30 members. Education is very liberally supported, aiul is directly under control of the Government. The system is very similar to that of New Brunswick. Prince Edward Inland formerly belonged to France, but was ceded to Britain in 1703, after the cajtture of Louislturg und Cape Breton. It was called St. .John's Island till the beginning of the present century, and received its jireseiit name in honor of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, the father of Queen Victoria. It was foinned into a separate province in 1770, and was admitted into the Dominion of Canada in 1873. Clinrlottctown (11,373), the capital, is situated on the north side of a large, safe, and commodious harbor, formi'd by the junction near the city of the North, East, and West llivers. Tlie city is .'{ miles from the entrance of the harbor, and is built on gently rising ground, with very wide streets. The Provincial buildings, churches, and colleges (Prince of Wales and St. Duustan) are the chief edifices. It carries on the principal trade of the island, and is largely engaged in ship-building. It is also the county town of (^Mieeii's County. (■I'orffetown (1,510), tlm county town of King's County, al)o\it .'{0 mihss east of ChaHottetown, is m im|iortant place, with a fine harbor. Niiniuiei-Hldc il.',882), in Prince's County, about 40 miles west of Chiirlotti'town, on the noi'th side of liedeijue llur- iior, is a rapidly rising town, with much shiii-building and important trailo with New Brunswick. IM'Inct'town. on Richmond Bay, is the county town of Prince's County. Many thriving villages are to be found all ovi-r tlie island, and the situations of these are, in most cases, unrivalled fur beauty and salulirity. sSS^ s BRITISH COLUMBIA. 55 J ite«j!»WN5;S«tMOI ScBNKs I^^ British Commiha. BRITISH COLUMBIA. Area, 3S3,300 .vjunrc milcn; pnimlation, abotit 100,000; (jraitcst fj-trnt J'rovi, mrrth to s0 mllis; itnd J'nnu insl to \ird, iticludinvineo of tlio Doiiiininn, and consists of Viinconvor Isliuid and tlio nmin- laud, or liiitish Columbia proiior, wliicli )vi!io fonnorly two suparato pixjviiicos. It is boundod on tho north by tlui paiuUol of iMT N. ; on tlio cast, by tlio meridian of 120' W. to latitudu 54° and tho Rocky Mninitains; on tlio south by the parallel of 4'.t (the bountlary of the United States), the (Jidf of Ge()r;j;ia, and .luan do Fiica Strait; and on the west by tho Pacilic (Jccan. Tlio Nurraoo of British Columbia is in j,'eiu'ral iiiount^iin- ous and intersected Ity niniierous rivers ami lakes. The Itoi'ky MoiiiitaliiH, which form the eastern itnMndary, i>xteiid from north to south in two parallel chains, tlui eastern beinj? the main and most im[)ortant, containinj^ the hi};hest pi^aks in tho whole ran).;o, — Mount Hooker (It>,7o0 feet). Mount Hrown (l(;,(MM) feet), and Mount Murchison (iri,7(M) feet), besides others but littlo short of them in oloviition. I'arallel til the main chains aro otliiu' suialler rangl^s, as tho Holil and Si'lkirk ranges, enclosing tho upper coui'ses of tho Columltia and B'raser Rivers, and tlio Peak MonntniiiM, onclosing the upper course of tho Finlay River. Tho principal passoH across tho Rocky Mountains ari! tlie Kuntioiii', I'irinlllon, Kifkimi Ifiir.w, Ydloiii Jlfad or Linthrr, and tho l'r miles in broadth. A few of the summits of this range attain an altitudt' of lt»,()(M» feet. The most valuable part of the country lies between the Rocky Momitains and the C'scade Range, forming an elevab^d t^iitle-land varying from 1,(M» feet in height, through which tlu' FnvHor Jtivor (lows. The rlvtTH and liikoH of Ibitish ("obnubia aro numoroiiH, but of littlo impi)rtanct< to navigation, 'i'lie Fritnir liifer rises in tho tnain uliainof tho l^)eky Mount-aiiis, nnd, tlowing north, passes through a gap in the lessor chain, wlH»ro it ih joined by its noiihom branch, then, following a southern course, it receives tlie .Vii'/kiih, (,)i/('.sh(7, <'hllrnl,n, and 56 BRITISH COLUMBIA. Thompnoii Rivera, find flown into the Gulf of Georgia by tliroo inouthH, after a course of 740 miles. It is navigable for HHiall Hteaniurs to Fort Hope, a distance of 158 miles from its mouth, l>ut the numerous rapids above that point render navigation almost impossible. The Fence Hirer, and its nortliern branch, tlie Finlntj Hirrr, rise in tlie northern j)art, also l)etween tlie Rocky Mounbiin chains, and flow eastward to form the Md-kenzie River. Farther north are tlie Shecna or Siinpnnn, and Slirkeen, flowing into the Pacific, and the An Linnls, flowing into the Mackenzie River, The Columbia River, the most important on the Pacific coast, rises in the southern part of the Rocky Mountain ranges in British Columbia, then, like the Frasur, first flowing north- ward, bends to the sy Jiidii de Fiirn i'itrdit, the (lulf uj (!i<>ruill, I'irlnria, and Nmuilnui, in the south and east of Vancouver Island. The rllniati* of liritisli Columbia is temperate, and much warmer than in the same latitude on the east coast of the continent. Between the Cascjule Range and the Rocky Mountains it is vjry dry, but on the coast and in the islands the climate is humid. On the islands tliu fig will ripen in theopiMiair, and oven in winter the climate is very mild. As a fruit-growing country it is suipasseil by no other in the world. The noil is in general fertile, and well ailapted foi- agricul- ture and pasturage, although as yrt little progress has lieeii luaile ill faiining. Along the western slopi's of the (,'ascade Mountains are magnificent forests of Douglas pine, and the islaiiils also are densely winmIc*!. British Colambia first derived its importance from the I'ich and extensive gold di.scoveries which were made in 1858, principally along the course of the Fraser River and its trilmtaries. The gcdd-fields, however, have not l)een found so productive as was at first anticipated. Silver, lead, and copper are abundaTit. Excellent coal is found lioth on the mainland and on the islands, and is worked in Vancouver Island. Marble and building-stone are also found, and are exported to the United State.s. The chief exports are gold, silver, coal, lumber, furs, and fish, amounting to about 0,200,000 dollars annually. The fish ah mo are estimated to be worth over 2,(KK),000 dollars. Sal- mon, cod, haddock, halibut, and sardines are abundant. The (icii.iiwAHinsci. imports are about 5,5(M),0(M) dollars. The revenue is about k:{5, 500 dollars. I'reviouH to 1858, the wliido country was in the jiossession of the Hudson Bay Company. In that year iiritish Colum- bia and Vancoiivi^r Islaml were formed into Crown colonies, each having a Governru" and Legishituro of its own. In ]H(i(i a legislative union was effected, under the name of Itritish Columbia, in compliance with the wishes of the ])eophi; and in 1871 British Columbia became (me of the provinces of the Diuuinion of Canada. The Iji>tflMlii(ui'<> consists of a Tjieutenant-Govornor, appointed by the (ioveriior-dieneral, an Kxecutivo Council of 5 members, and a Legislative Assembly of 25 memburs, elected by the jieople for a term of four years. The province MANITOBA. 57 in represented in the Dominion Parliament by 3 senators and 6 members of the House of Commons. The province is divided into five districts — Neiv West- minster, Cariboo, Yale, Victoria, and Vnncuuver. Edacatlon is liberally provided for, free schools being established wherever there are twelve children to attend them. Victoria (16,841), the capital, is situated in the south of Vancouver Island, and possesses an excellent harbor. It is well laid out, and carries on the principal trade of the province. At Nanaimo (4,505), Vancouver Island, are valu- able coal mines. New Westminster (6,700), the former capittil, is beauti- fully situated on the north l)ank of the Frnsor River, alniut 15 miles from the gulf, and carries on tlie principal local trade of the mainland. Vancouver (on the mainland) is a prosperous city of recent growth. Its population is now about 15,000. Esriulmalt possesses a magnificent harbor, and is Her Majesty's naval station in the North I'acitic. Hope, Yale, Lytton, Kamloops, Port Esslngton, and Port •Simpson are growing towns. The other settlements are small, and are chiefly situated on the Fraser Ilivur. about ksession IColum- lolonies, a\. In ^ame of of the of the l)vurnor, [Council lumberH, hrovinuo Vl)ffilNPS»IRIE.,i Pliffl'Rlt'.^H'rNS ^^ MANITOBA. Area, nlxnit 7JiJ)()<> sijuan' iiiili\-<; iittjuilntion, l't't,()00; pcrsonn to a ,i>iiuiir inili\ Si. The Province of Manitoba (funnorly (lie Ili'il lliver Settlement) forms an oblong, lying between tlio United States on the south and latitude 513^ on tlie north, and extending oast and west between 01' 10' and 101° !J0' of longitude. It is intersected from south to north by tiio lied Ilit'rr, which, rio.ng in Minnesota, near the sources of tiiu Missls- fiippi, and flowing nearly due north, crosses the bouniliiry between the two countries, and falls into Jjuke H'lniiiptij, 8 after a cour.so of about 700 miles. It is also ])artially inter- sected from west to east by the An.^iiiilxiiiic liinr, wliich flows into the Red River at Wituiip !g. Lakes Winnipeg and Winnipegimis, whicli li(> partly in Manitu))a, and Lake Manitoba, which lies wholly witliin it, and from which it derives its name, are of considerable si/.e, the first-nameil being 2K0 miles long, and the other two lieing each about 110 miles long. The country is chiefly one vast prairie u ASSIMHOIAj These extensive western areas have been formed from a portion of what was known as the Hudson Bay Territory before it came into the possession of Canada. In the mean- tiuie they are recognized only as districts, because their population is too scanty and too widely spread to make it necessary that they sliould bo organized as provinces. For the same reason, one Lieut.-CJovernor presides over their united Legislature of 2(1 members. Each district sends one reitresentative to the Dominion House of Commons, and two senators represent all the districts in the Upper Chamber. Atlmbast-a.— This is bounded on the north by a lino near the 60th parallel of north latitude, on tlio soutli by a lino near the 55th parallel of north latitiide, on the west by British Columbia, and on the oast by the Slave and Atha- basca Rivers, and by a, lino tioar meridian IIF 30' west longitude. Area, about 103,000 square miles. It include! "^ NORTH-WEST AND NORTH-EAST TERRITORIES. 59 near lino Ist by alm- wost bludei the Pence River valley, admirably adapted for grazing' jdirposea. AlbertH is bounded on the north by Athabasca, on the south by the United States, on the west by British Columbia, and on the east by a line near meridian 111° 30' west longi- i^tt ^m ■•"-^^.y; 'i'-V)^ ■ A I'ltAIIIIK IIKIIU. tude. It includes the rich valleys of the Battle, Bow, and Deer rivers. Area, about 105,000 square miles ; population, 25,300. Edmonton and Fort McLeod are the chief towns. SuHkatcliowaii. — This is bounded on the north by a line near the 55th parallel, on the south by a line near the 52nd parallel, on the west by Alberta, and on the east by Mani- toba and Lake Winnipeg. This district is well watered by the river from which it derives its name. The Saskatchewan is navigable for small vessels for upwards of 700 miles. Coal exists in great abundance. Area, about 107,000 square miles; population, 1I,2(X). The chief towns are Battleford and Prince Albert. Assinlbola. — This district is bounded f)n the north by Saskatclio .van, on the south by the I'liitud States, on the west by Alberta, and on tlie east by Miiiiit(>l)a. Area, about 80,500 sipiare miles; pnjnilation, upwards of 30,000. Regina, the chief town, is also the capibil of the " North- west Territories," tlie name by wliicli tliese districts are con:monly known. ..%-- ;•'■,<■ ■z^ 1^1^ M^t^ , . -..jj. . j»--. ^^, ., .--.-^ An Indian KNiAurMiNT. TlIB TraI'I'KKS' HkTI'KN. NORTH-WEST AM> NOItTII-KAST TEURITOItlRS. These territories occupy all that lies north of the provinces and districts of the Dominion, and are respectively west and oast of Hudson Bay. The North-wc8t Territory is well wa- tered, containing a large number of rivers, the principal of which is the Afuchitaie Hirer, formed by t!io junction of the Athahusca and Peace Rivers, wliich rise near tlie Iiigliest sununits of tlio Rocky IMouiit.'iinH, and unite a little north of .Vthaliiisea liake, throimh tlie west end of which the Alhaliasca iJiver Hows. After ♦ lie jinietion, tho river flows tlirougli (ireat Slave Laki', n, whii'h contains nearly two-thirds of the whole population. CoD-FisniNo. The principal Cape* are i Bauld, on the north ; Rav, May, St. Mary, and I{ace, on the south ; and St. Fran- cig, Gratcn, lireakheart, Ii,000), the capital, possesses a fine har- bor, almost surrounded l>y hills. It is the chief com- mercial station "11 the island, and is the nearest port to Europe, being only 1,020 miles distant from Ireland. The city was formerly built of wood, but having been several times nearly destroyed by fire, the lower part is now liuiit of brick. The great fire of 1H44 destroyed 4,000,000 dollars worth of projjerty. A similar disastrous fire oc- On tlii.s occasion the fine old cathedral curred in 1892. was destroyed. Harbor Graec (7.'.)00), ('nrltntrdr ('{,700), Tirlllhitjate (3,70(J), and liDnarlsl t (.'{,500), are the next most importatit towns. Port de (fntit; liriijits, Trinitit, and Greenspond i\Te also rising towns. The islands of iSY. I'lern; LuikjIi-ii, and Miii'idon, lying to the south of Newfoundland, belong to France, and are iin[)ortant fisliiiig stations. Tliey are the only portions now I'emaining to the French of their once large possessions in North America. * The pupil may note Ihiit ulthDiijfli, iiccoriliiijf to pnimlur iihriseoloury, \vc speak of the " whale flsluTV " uml the " Hi-al flulifry," Ihc whulc and hcuI are iiDt ll^li. .Meiiiliuru of tlio cl.iss, with tlie iiDHislunce of the tcm'her, iiiiiy ilisrld. All these rivers are navigable througliout the greater part of their cowrMc;-., either by steandioats (for the great size and light draught of which the Mississippi is famou;i) or by tlat- l)oats, which bring the produce of tiie Northern and Western States down to New ( )rleans. The Brazos, Colorado (in Texas), and Hio Grande dd Xurte, the latter forming the bonndai/ Iti.tweon the United StatcH anil Mexico, How into the (luif of Mtixico west of the Mississippi; and the Alahainn and several other rivers reach the (lulf east of it. The I'enohiiciit, Co unci' tic at, llitdsun, [telawarc, Sitmi^ie- hnnna, Polomai', Jaimn, Itoanokr, aiit' Suraiiiiah, together with iiiiruei.:rlv. Miiniesota, and other Sla»is, and the (/r»'(i< Salt Lakr in I tali. The eouHt-lliie of the United States is very little broken, but along tlu^ Atlantic coast are numerous small islands nnd sttiid banks l.miii l^lalld, lihoih' /.s/kik/, and Sanfitrhit being the principal. The bays an< chiellv the uioufhs of the rivers. The prlncl|ial Hays, StraltH, etc.. arct On the east coaHt, Venotmeitt aiul Ma»mchu»ctU liaijf, Lumj lulaml Smintl, helaivnre and Chenajifake. Haiin, J'Imliru aiiil Albemarle Si)Uiiih, Slriiit »/ l-'tiiriila, Appalacliee Bay, and HalreMita ami Matnijorita Eaiin. On the wt'8t coant an- San Franninci) un<^ Columbia Bai/n, Juan ' I'lua Strait, ttn(i Atimiralti/ liilrt. Tho principal Capen arc t On tlip fast coast, Ann, CmI, Montauk I'nint, Mail, Cliarlin, //I'lici/, Ihaii'ras, Salilr, mid St. Illan. Oil tile west. coxHt are I'liint Ciniecptiin, Mfniim'inn, Illn icii, nnd J'^itlirii. \ti the territory occupied by the I'nited States extends over 24 of latitude, or a distance of about l,(i()() miles finm north to south, the elliiiato vai'ies very much with the locality, [t is temperate in the North and hot in the SoMth. .VIong the sout!i-e;istern coast are nunu^roiis l:irge sw.iiiips, .and the rivers are sluggish in their courses, rendering the climati! \i'ry unhealthy for the white population. In the interior it is hot, but more healthy. On the Pacific coast, owing to their |>roxinnty to the sea, the mountains intercept the rain-clouds, anpi Valley. In the north-eastern St.ites it is more rocky and barren, but everywhere well cidti»'a*ed. On both sides of the Rocky Moinitains, but luore especially on tho high plateau between that range !ind California, are arid tracts of country, reipiiring irriga- tion to be luade productive. In tho (Jreat Central Plain aliuosc all the countrv west of the Ohio River consists of VI' '.t prairies, originally covered with tall grass, and easily c\iltivated, but witl. little timber. In tho Northern and Western States, grain is the chief production— principally wheat and Indiai* corn. Cattle are also extensively reared. In the Middle States, tobacco and Indian corn are the sta- ples; and in the Southern States, cotton, H\igar, and rice. (lold, silver, iron, copper, lead, Mast. The United Siaies have been peop'ed principally by settlers from (ireat Rritiiin and Ireland, and from Octiiiany, h UNITED STATES. 67 although the native-born population, descended from the earlier settlers, now largely prechiminates. The form of ffoverniiiciit is a Federal Republic. Each State is a separate commonwealth, and makes its own laws; each ])ossesses e.xclusive control of all local inter- ests, and is governed by a (jovernor, Senate, and a Ilca.se of Uepresentfitives, all elected by the people. The Cioiiural Govertiiiu'iit regulates all afl'airs relating to cumnierce, the defence and general interests nf the Lountry. It consists of a President, Vice-President, and a Congress ciinsisting of a Senate of HH members anns l)etween them and the free States of the North and We.it. These dis.sensions culminated in a prolonged and bloody war, which lasted from tho election of Presiilent Lincidn, early in 1801, mitil near the end of his four years' term of office, in 180r>. The result was the entire overthrow of the slive- holding ])ower of the South, and the securing to tlie l)lack popvdation of their personal freedom, and all tiio other rights and privileges accorded to their white fellow-oitizens. The United States ; esent the most re- markal)le example of national progress and of successful enterjirise of any coinitry in the world. Although little more than a century old, their foreign ex- ports now amount to 875, 000, (too dollars, their imi)orts to Hl.'i, 0(M),(HK) dollars, and their siiipjiing to clost^ upon r>,(MM),0(Ml), tlu! lai-gest Hud mi>st iinportant town, has a line harbor, and is mueti i 'surtfd to fur sca- Imdiing. The (Irand Tnuik Railway ot Canada has its eastern terminus at I'orthiv.d. y>'iMi(/(i)-(l!), KNl) is the sin-ond important town in .Maine, and carries on a large lumber trade. Now llaiii|»«lilr«> is very mountainouii, and is fai>uaHt. '''he principal occupali'ins of the inhabitants an^ ngricullure and tho rcaiing of cattle, C,.)i((in/ tl7.'XK») is the capital. PiirlstHoiill, (1(»,(MM>) jx.s. sesses a line harbor and navy yanl, and carries on extensive lisheries. Manchr.ihr yU,(M)), />..nT (ll',Ht)()), and .\,iHh>i,i (m,4tK))are manufactu'-ing towns. Vermont is an inland State, intersected by the Green MounUiins, which aflbrd excellent and abundant pasture to large herds of cattle. Between Vermont and New York St'ites lies Lake Cli'00), tho cajtital, is situated at the head of Narraganselt Bay. and is the chief centre of (he manufac- tures. .V('iry)i))/, un Uhode Islanil, is a favorite sunnner roHi rt for sea-bathing. ('okiiiiM'ilciit lies to the north of l,ong Island Sound. The inuntry is hilly, l>ut. the soil fertihi, i-speeially in (ho valley of tho Connecticut River. It carries on various and oxten^l"•' manufactunm, especially of clocks, cottons, wool- wl UNITED STATES. 6» ■at III It, ■r lens, etc. ; but agriculture ie the chief occupation of tlui inhabitants. Education receives more attention than in any of the other States. < flarf/ord (53,230), the capital, is situated on the Connec- ticut River. It is a flourishing town, and is surrounded by a fertile country. New Haven (81,300) is the seat of Yalo College. New Lmxdon (13,750) and Bridgepwt (48,870) possess good harbors, and a largo amount of shipping. Norwich (10,156) is an important manufacturing town. d. 10 lid MI1)I)M<: STATE-S. Tliu 3lltlcllu StatcH coiiipriHc i States. Chief Towiit. New York - . . N;.-.v York, Albany, Buffalo, and Rochester. Nkw Jehsky . . Trenton, Newark, Tatersdn. I*KNNHYLVANIA . . I'liiladelpliia, IlarrUbur);, I'ittxhur);. Dklawakk . . . Wilininjfton. Dover. Makyi.aM) , . . Italtiinorc, Annapolis, HaKerstown, DiHTKiLT OK Columbia . Washixoton. The section of the Allcffhnny MountaliiN locally known as the C'((/.sA///.s extends through the oastoru part of Now York, and through Pennsylvania and Maryland into Virginia. Tho country in in goiioral hilly both east antiil>'ii IslitmLs are the principal islanils of tl'e State on tho .\tlantie eoast. The orliiiiial aottlwrn were the Uutcli, who coloni/.(d New York, then called New Amsterdam, and founded settle- ments on the Hut' son River as far nortli as Albany. New York (1,615,000), the largest and most importanfe city in the Union, is situated on ManhatUm Island, at the j unction of Hudson River and East River, a continuation of Long Island Sound. It contains, with Brooklyn and other suburbs situated on tho opposite banks of the rivers, about 2,400,000 inhabitants, and is the great centre of trade for tlie whole of tho United Stjites, about two-thirds of tho entire foreign commerce passing tlirough the city. Now York is rich in public buildings, and it ranks next to Ln extensive trade with Canada and the Western Stati-s. Wi'nt I'oiiit, on the Htidson Ilivcr, in tho seat of the Military Academy of the I'liited StatoH. I'oiKjhkei'psIc (20,(KM)), and 7V(«i/((il,(KK)), also on the Hudson River, are towns of some imitortaneo. I'tim (44, (KK)), Siiraj-iinr (88,160), and Aidiuni (25,000) are centres of fertile districts. New Jersey is situated on tlie Atlantic coast, exttmding; from Delaware Bay to the Hudsun Iliver, anil is separa'.od from Pennsylvania by tlie Delaware Iliver. Its BUi'faco Ui generally hiw and somewhat marslij-, but its soil is good — fruit and vegetables being raisiMl in immense (|iiantitieH for the New York ami Philadelphia markets. Numerous iiniin- |iiirtaiit islands skirt the coast, but there are no liarbors. This State was tho scene of many battles during the Uevolu- tionary war. Tritdi'ii (67,600), near tlii^ lower falls of the I)elawan', i» the capital. XnnnL (bSJ.(Mlll) and Palersini (7H,4IM)) aro important, maiiiifaetiiring tnwns. I'rtiircinn contains two colleges. Jirniy ('(11/ (I'lIl.tMKI) is a suburb of the city of New \'ork. I'eiiiiMylvanlii is the seeond Stale in the T'nioii in resptxit of population. It, is ehielly an inland State, eonneeted with the ocean liy Delaware Bay. The Alleghany Mountainw intersect it, remlering the surface hilly. 'I'he soil is goml, especially in the south, wliieli is the most populous |Nirt. Wheat is the staple, PenuHylvaniii derives its chief import4ince from its valu- able coal ami iron mines and ]ietroleum wells. It whh originally settled by Quakers, under the direction of William 70 UNITED STATES. Pent! ; a conHidemble propf>rticjn «f tlie inhal>it.int.s, however, are of Gurniiui origin, and still rutain tlieir mother tongue. PhUoflelphia (1,047,000), the hirgest city in the Stite, and third Lirgcst in the Union, in huilt on n tlat peuinsulii between the Dehiwaro and Schuylkill Rivers, and is about 120 miles from the sea. It is the most regularly built city on the continent, all the streets being laid untry occupied liy these States is intersected in the north by the Alit>j;hiiiiy MoiiiitaiiiN, forming two parallel chains, called the C»'Hi/)<)7((/i(/Af(f»ini/i( I ii.s in Kentucky and Tennes.see, and the JMiie liiihje in Virginia. They extend to the northern y)art of Alabama. In the interior the sm'face is hilly, hut along the coast it is low and Hat, forming vast and unhealthy] swamps, as the Dismal Hmttiip in Virginia, the (Ifi'dt I'edec Stramp in Soutii Carolina, and the IJirr^jliulfK in Florida. The rivers to the east of the Alleghanies are of little commercial impoiiiiiice, In the West the important rivers are the O/n'o, witli its tributaries the Cinnliidiiiid and Tiitnenufi', Mow- ing into the Miiuiixsippi; and the AhilMitnit l!iiri\ Howing intxj the (lulf of Mexico. ThefoiiMt-llneisnotsobroken ,'is in tile north, but numerous sand-banks and small islands line the coast. The |ii'ninsula of Klnrldut tenninated by Cape Sahla, juts nut in a niiiarkable manner, as if originally joined to South .Viiu'iMca liy means of the West India Islands. The climate is hot, ami in the most southerly States very unhealthy, so that few white jK'oplu can live on the plantations in smumer. Almost all tiie labor is carried on by negroes. The soil is rich ami productive; cotton, rice, sugar, tobacco, and Inilian corn being thu staples, (lold is found in small ipiantities in North Carolina and (luorgia. Vlrffliiln is one of the oldest States in the Union, and the birthpliicu of many of thu most celebrated num of the United Statun. It pos.sesseM an extremely ricli soil, wliich, liowever, hnM boon much uxhuusteU by uaroluHM cultivatiuii. Tubaccu SuoAR Cask. is the great stajjle, and wheat and cattle are also extensively raised. It is celebrated for its picturescpio scenery and natural wonders, such as the Natural Bridge. It was the scene of severe engagements in the lato civil war, ami was devast-Jited by the troops of the North and South, until the eastern .section of the Stiite became almost a desert. The western part of VIrKlnia, having owne,fK)()), on the Ohio, is a l.irge manufacttning town, and the capital of West Virginia. Charleston w.is formerly the capital. liifhnumd (81,400), the capital of Virginia, is situatetl on the .lames River, and carries on the princiiial trade. It was the capital and army headquarters of the Confederate States, and many blomly and obstinate battles were fought near it. Niirfiilk ('t."),ous points on the Atlantic coast. liidi'iijU (12,70<)), a small town near the centre of the State, is the capital. Nvtrlwrti and Wdmnnjion (2(),0, (HM)) is tlu' largest city, and before the war was almost the only one on the eastern coast of the Southern .Stjites possessing dilect tradiMvitli iMii'opc. It is all elegant ly built city, and carries on a largo trade in cotton and rice. ('dIiiihIiIii, near the centre of the State, is the capital. Iiiitr0) are important towns with a large local trade. Coliiml»ia (IT.-'iOO) is the seat of cotton maimfacture. Floridu was formerly in the possession of Spain, but was ceded to the United States in 1820, and became a separate St;ite in 1845. ITie country is low and Hat, })ut vegetation is most luxuriant. The coast-line, althougli extending 1,200 miles, possesses few harbors, and is the scene of many wrecks. The coral reefs on the south, called the Florida Keys, are especially dangerous, owing to the rapid current of tlie (lulf Stream. Pemiacoln (11,750), on the (lulf of Mexico, has a fine harbor, and a United States Navy Yard. Tidlah bile River, and carries on a lar;,'!' tradu in cottnii. whii'li is cnnvryi'd down the rivers from the in- terior, and from tlie adjciining f'tates. 3f(>ll^;(>nl»•r;/ (22,1)(K)), near the iH^ntre, is tlie capital, and was for a short time tlit^ capitid of the Confederate States. TiiKcoltHi.iti and JI1111I.1- I'Ulv are also important towns. MIhhUhI|>|>I is tlie principal cottmi State, r.tuX extends along the east hank of the Mississippi Kiver. Jitrhiuin (ti,(MH)) is the capital; A'.i/c/i.- (10,000) ami l'l;{, Loiilnlaiiu is the principal State for the production of I'lCKIMI CllTTDN sugar. Cotton is also extensively grown in the northern part of the Stfite. The country is very Hat on both sides (jf the Mississipj)i. To protect the land from being inun- dated, the river is kept between vast dykes or levees, as they arc ^alled, which extend for about 300 miles above Now Orleans. Louisiana formerly belonged to France, but was jjurchased by the Inited Stiites in 18().'{, along with the vast territory extending from the Missi.ssippi, north-west to the Pacitic, for 15,000,000 dollars. "^.ji. The French language is .«-^>* '*% still used to some extent, and the laws are ])ub- lished both in French and English. .2Vfir(),/m»i.s(242,000),. the ca[)ital, and the lar- gest city in the South, is situated on the Missis- sippi I{iver, about 100 miles from its mouth. All the commerce of that great river and its tribu- t«iries centres at New Orleans, and the nuiulier of sti'amboats and tiat- boats crowding its Ivnk is enoiiiious. It carries on a large foreign ship- ping trad*', and has a consideraiile population, composed of Fn-neli and Spanish Creoles. li(iU>u. Bowje (10,.'>00), formerly the capital, and Alij-tm- (//•/(( are important cen- tres of trade. Tt'xaH is the largest State in tlu' rnioii. Pre- vious to 1H;57 it lielonged to Mexico, but was con- H and ('iihntiilii are the principal rivers. The proilucts of tin- Slate are sugar, cotton, and Indian corn. Vast herds of wild cattle and horses roam over the prairies. .Ix.sf id (14,54)0), the eapiljd, is situated nii the (^i>li>rii(f(>. (iiilir.itun (20,000) is the chief seaport, and //nii.i/ixi (27,500) the former capital. Miiliuiiiiilti and iS'iui .liiloiiin (('<■ /<i rapidly growing State, lies to the north of Louisiana, and west of the Mississippi River. Cotton is the chief product. It is intersected by the Ai'kan- sas and other rivers. Little /I'ocft (26,000) is the capital of the State. Laredo and Hot Spriiujs are prosperous towns. The latter is a health resort. TenneMee and Kentnokjr are the great centres for the production of Indian com and tolwcco; Tennessee has also valuable iron mines. Cattle are reared in vast numbers. The surface is iiiouiiUiinous or undulating, well watered by laiye and navi- gable rivers. The soil is very jinMltutive. N(i.ihviUe (7«i,200), the capital of Ten- nessee, is situiitud on the Cuiiiberliiiul River. Mnni'liis (iiisville (l(il,200), on tiie Ohio, is the largest city, with important iiiamifactiires and extensive trade. Cov- itujtiin (.'57,Ii20) is tlie si-coinl lar<,jest city in Kentiuky. ljt:iiiiit is the centre of a large and fertile district. Stateii. Ohio . tlll'MKIAN . Indiana ll.LINlllH WlHlciNHm . N. Dakota . S. Dakota . Montana Wyominu Ikaiio MiNNMOTA . Iowa . MlHNOI-RI Kanmah Cai.ikohnia . Wahiiiniiton OHKOiiN Nkiiiiamka Nrvm>\ <'ol,OllA|KI WKSTEIIN HTATKS. The WcHtern StutoM i'oiiiprlHP t C/iiV/ V'oiciM. . (Mncinnuti, <'oluiiiliiis, CIcvclaiiil, Tok'rlo. . Drlniit, l,iiii>, uiid Kort Ki'iiloii. . ( 'hi'.vi'niu-, Lnraiiiio. . Iloisi', Kloreiii-i'. . St. I'luil, MiMiii'u|H>lls. . Di's Moini'i, Duv('ii|iorl, lliirlini;t<>ii, Dubui|ue. . .'it. I.oiiis, .IcffiTson. . Topcku, lii'iivi'iiworlli, , S.1I1 Kraiiciwo, .SacraiiiPiito, I.os .\n;,'clcK. <»l\m|ilii. Tiu'Oiiiu, SiMitllc, Whatroin. . ,Sah'in, I'orllniid, OrcKon Citj-. , Lincoln, Oiimlin. . Ciifson Cily, \'ir;{liiln City. . Dl'IlViT, i'liolilo. The term WttNtorii Htittvn it', gimernlly applied to tliose lying west of the Ohio and Mississippi ilivm-s. In many of those tliat lie between the Hoeky Mountains and the Missi.ssippi, the surface of tiie country is in general coiii- 10 Hur. I'lKI.I) A.M) S 74 UNITED STATES. Indian Corn, n copper, and Halt being found in groat ahundanco. They liave been chiefly poopU'il Ijy settlers from the Eastern StfitcH, Groat Britain, and Germany. Ohio is the most important of the Western States in regard to po[)ulation and commerce. In tlu! western section the prai- ries conmionco, but in tho east it is well wooded. Tho s()il is fertile, producing wheat and Indian corn in great abundance, and wool are largely exported, coal, and salt are found in the s(juth-east. Cincinnati (297,000), one of the largest and most important cities in the West, is situated on the Ohio. It carries on an extensive trade in pork and brewing. Colnmhus (88,200), near the centre of tlio State, is the capital. Cleveland (1(12,000), Siimlmhj (18,500), and Toledo (81,500), on Lake Erie, have a largo shipping and inland trade Daiiton («51,200), Marietta (8,300), and PortsmoiUk (12,400) are important towns, MlchlKTau possesses the largest extent of laKe-coast of any State in the Union, being washed by Lakes Superior, Michiijau, Huron, and Erie. Lake Michigan is entirely within tho United States. Jt is connected with Lake Huron by the Straits of Mackinaw, both shores of which are in Michigan, The soil is fertile, wiieat being tho sbiple. Lumbering is extensively carried on, and on the shores of Lake Superior copper is found in great (piantities, Detroit (20<),000), on the Detroit lliver, opposite Windsor, in Ontario, is tlie jirincipal city, possessing an extensive lake counneree. Lonsimj is tho capital. Grand llapids (VtO,',iOO), Moil me, Siiijiniiir, and Kalainaxoo (18,000) are important towns, with a largo local trade. Ann Arlior (!>,500) is the seat of a university. Iiidlaiia. IIIIiioIm, Iowa, WlNrnnnlll. and MlniiPHotit all pi'i'si'ut (lie sauu) genei'al jihysical features, and resemble each other in their soil and j)roductions. They are composed chii'liy of vast |)rairies (Mirniesota and Wisconsin being the only States which are at all wooded), and are watered by the Mississijtpi and its tributaries. Tue climate is dry, and warmer than in ('aniula, even in those States wliich are in the same latitude. The principal products are wlieat and Indian corn, tliough vast (piantities of cattle aro reared for tho eastern uiarkets. Iowa and Wisconsin have valuable lead luines. These are couiparatively new States, and are remarkal)lo for tho rapidity with which they have been Buttled and brought under cultivation. Tho chief towns in Indiana — Indianapolis (105,500), tho capital; Terre Haute (30,200), Eiansrillc, Madison, and^eio Alhan\i—a,VQ important centres of trade. In Illinois, CVttcaf/o (1,100,000), on Lake Michigan, is the largest city. It has been built chiefly since IHIJO, and lias risen with unparalleled rapidity into a large and elegant city. It carries on an extensive conmierco on tho lakes, and is tho groat centre of the grain-growing St-ites. In October, 1871, it was devastated by a tire which destroyed one-half of the city, with enormous loss of property, but it has since been rebuilt and remarkably improved. The World's Fair, cele- brating the 4()0tii anniversary of tho discovery of America, was held hero in 180.'{. S]irin. Previous to that time it was almost uninhabited, except by Indians. It now contjiins 1,210,0(H) iidiabitants. The country is iiuxni- tainous, lying mainly between the parallel chains of thu I lii ; UNITED STATES. 75 i .f •11 ". ti. •ii Pacific ranges. The mountains are generally covered with tiinl)er, and contain groves fif enormous trees, some of which measure from twenty to thirty feet in diameter. Gold is chiefly found on the west side of the Sierra Nevada niountvins. Quicksilver i.s also found. The soil is very productive. Mining, agriculture, fruit-farming, stock-raising and wool-growing are the principal occupations of the people. Good wine is also made in- considerable (juantities. San Francisco (200,000), the largest city, and capital of California, is situated on a bay of the same name. Its commerce is enormous, it being tlie principal commercial emporium of the Pacific coast. Oakland (40,000), Sarra- mento (20,400), in tlie gold regions, San Jo.ie (18,(X)0), Lou Angeles (50,400), and Stuckton (14,400) are importiint towns. OroKon, on the Pacific coast, is mountiinous, and covered with magnificent forests. Tlie coast is rocky, and has few good harbors. The soil is very fertile between the moun- tains and the coast. Its population, wliich is rapidly increas- ing, is principally settled in the valley of the Willamette, between the Cascade range and the Pacific Ocean. Salem, on the Willamette, is the capital ; Portland (46,400), and Oregon City are the chief towns. WanhlnKton has the best harbors in the United States on the Pacific coast. Much of tlie Stote is covered with magnificent forests of gigantic pine. Olympia (2,500), at the lioad of Pugut Sound, is the capit^d. New and important towns are rapidly being established. Taroma (.'{(>,()(¥)) is the chief commercial centre. Other towns are Seattle (42,500), and Whatcom (0,000). NebraHkii, Novada, and Colorntlo. — Nebraska is a jtrairie country; but Nevada and Colorado are mountaiiious, and are importiint for their valuable gold and silver miin s. In Nebraska are: Lincoln, the capital, and Omaha (140,5(KJ). In Nevada are: Carson Cifij, the capital, and I'lr^jinia City (12,000), with its celebrated silver mines. In Cohn'ado are : Denrcr {Wi ,0M), the capital and priiici- jial city, and rueblo (25,000), a growing t.iwii. North and Hnuth Dakota have recently been formed into States from what was formerly l>aki>ta torritoiy. I'.nth are good agricultural States, but tlu-y are sulyi'ct to tenibli' cyclones, which sometimes make fearful havoc and destroy life. In North Dakota the chief towns are lii.tm,0(K(), the capital, Yankton, and Sioux F,(KM»), tlie chief town and settlement of tlie Mormons. It has lieeii made by inigiitioii the centre of .1 fertile district, ami round it are a number of small vilhiges, also peopled by the Mormons. Women vote in tiiis territory. AluHka. foniiiily llussiaii .\iiierica, comjirises the north- west corner of North .Vmerica, and is separated from tlie Dominion of Canada by the I4lst degree of west longitude A eiiaiu of volcanic iiioiiiit.tins extends from Mount St. I']lias tiiroiigh the peninsula of .Ma.-^ka and the .Meiitian Isles. The Yukon liiver, rising in the Itocky Mountains, flows iiortli-west and west through the centre of the country, ami falls into ISeliriiig Strait. The Colville River flows north into the Arctic Ocean. It is an inhospit^ible region, valuable only for its furs, which the natives barter at the several factories along the coast, the chief of which is Sitka, formerly New Archangel, ill i'. ! ! 76 MEXICO. ii on Sitka Island. The inhabitants are chiefly Eskimos «nd Indians, wlio lead a w.uuleriiig and Imrhnrous life, and subsist by hunting and fishing. White settlors are increasing in number. This Territory was jjurchased by the United Stntes from Russia, in 18 to 8, (KM) feet above tljc sea. It is suliject to volcanic crup- tions and earthquakes. Tlie Jiorkij Mountrniu ; the latter extending VOO miles between the peninsula of Lower California and tlio mainland, and meeting the Cidorado River from the United States. The jirincipal capes are Calixhv, Corricnles, and San J^uras. Mexico possesses the temperatures and climates of the thruu zones. On the coast it is hot and unhealthy, gradually iKicoming milder towards lhi> high pliite.iu in the interior; <>n the hi'.{liest mountains it is cold, and the snow nevt^r melts. Its productions aro varied. Indian corn forms the Iirincijial stajile; and, besides that, colh-u, cocoa, sugar, indigo, and the maguey, from which puli|iie, the favorite drink of the lower t-lasses, is made, are exli^iisivi-ly culti- vated. On the coast all the tropical fruits, and on the high lands all the Muropean grains, flourish. Yucatan exports ni:ihog,'iny and logwood. Tlio cochineal insect, yielding a valuable dye, is largely «x|>orted. Ininit^nse herds of catthi, horses, and mules are reareil on the northern prairies. It is also rich in minerals; and, previous to the revo- lution of 1821, its mines produced nearly 25,000,000 dollars of silver annually. They aro not now so produc- tive. Inm, copper, lead, and ipiicksilver are also found. The inhabitants are composed of native whites, or Creoles, Indians, and mixed races of whites, Indians, and negroes. The Indians of the south are comparatively civilized, and live in villages; in the north they are savage, and aro fre((uently at war with each other and with the white in- habitjints. Mexico was first coiujuered by the Spaniards, under Cor- tez, ill 1521. At that time it consisted of an extensive empire uiiiler a regular government. The people were the most civilized on the continent; and many interesting monu- ments still remain to show their ancient grandeur. The chief of these is the pyramid of Cholula, 70 miles east of Mexico, which is a lofty mound, covering a larger area than any of the great jiyramids of Kgypt. The colonists threw otr the Spani.sh yoke in 1H2I, and in 182.'{ established a re[)ulilic. In 1845-48, during the war with the I nited States, Mexico lost Texas and the northern part of the teiiitory which now forms the State of California, and the Territories of I'tah, New Mixico, and Arizona. In 18(11, Ihilain, France, and Spain sent an expedition against Mexico, ill order to indemnify themselves for losses sus- tained by their subjects in tli.it country. I>iit.iin and Spain withdrew their forces, but the French, not sjitislied, coii- ipiered the greater part of the country, and intliicetl the Archduke Maximilian of Austria to accept the title of Km- peior. So long as the French army occiijiied the country, Maximilian ret^tinod his position and title, but in I8(»7, when the French troops were withdrawn, the F.mpeior, after a brave but futile struggle, was taken prisoner and shot by the Kepubliciui forces. The government is now in form republican. Owing to the hitherto unsettled state of the country, (Mlucatioiial progress and niati>rial advancement have been slow ; but there are now about 1 1,(KK) juimary schools in the eoiinlry, with an attendance numbering over half a million. Ill most of the States education is free and compulsory. Till! annual cost of education is over .*1..'>00,0()0 dollars. The Koman Catholic is the prevailing religion, but all other religions are tolerated. M(>xl«>M (.■I2'.>,.50()), the principal city, is iieautifully situ- CENTRAL AMERICA-WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 77 sted in a fertile plain, about 7,600 feet above the Hea. It is an elegant city, adorned with fountains and iiiagniticent churches. About 50 miles south-eaHt, amid numerous peaks, rises the volcano of PoiKicatepotl, or Smoking Mountain. Vera Ortiz (24,000), to the east of the capital, is the princi- pal {)ort. Its harbor is poor, and the situation low and utdiealthy. In going from Vera Cruz t(j Mexico, the travel- ler passes through several distinct zones of veget^ttion, from the tropical on the coast to the tem|ii'nvte on the plains. rnebla (78,500) and (inmUdiijuia ('.(5,000) are important towns. Mntanunaii (20,000), near the mouth of tiie Kio (.Irando, Tampico, and Caiapfiu'lin nvi^ tlu^ principal j)orts on the east, nud Arapulco and Mnxullun on the west; (tiumtt- juiita (52,0indiiliinu .'?, /~.'',"f'0 ; itn'sinis to siiuiirf miU, 17. Central Aincrioa is the name generally given to tiiat ]M>rt.ion of Nortli America lying between Mexico and Soutli America, and wiiich forms an isthmus l)L'tween the two continents. It is com|M>se;i, Trmilln. . I.coii, Miiiiai;iia. . Sun tloHi^. . Itilizi-. (Central Anu^'ici rt'seiiililes Mexico in climate, iiroiliie- tions, religion, ami instil ut ions, ll consists nf .k lii;;li plaleaii, from wliii'ii rise nnmerniis volcanoes. Marl liipiakes and \ol canie eruptions .'H'c frei|ucnt and desi iiicli\i'. Most of ilie pi'iiKMpal towns are sitiialed on ihe inland plateau; on the rts are mahogany, logwood, indigo, cochineal, cocoa, sarsji|Mirilla, etc. The Isthnnis of Panama, at the southern extremity of these St)) *be capital, is an impoitant de'pnt tor Urilish gomls. ,\rea of Ibitish Honduras, 7,5tiO ,s«|iiare miles; population, ;U,471. New (iuatvniulii (00,000), is the largest <;ity in Central .\merica. li.\ isi.AMts. The WchI liiilla iHlnnilH form an extensive archipel.'tgo, extending from the peninsula of |<'|orida, in North .\merica, to the deltji of the Orinoco, in South .Vmerica, and enclosing the Caribbean Sea. They comprise nearly I, (MX) islands, most of them small iiiiinhabited rocks. They are usually BRITISH WEST INDIES, 70 I \i\ i divided into tlireo groups — thu Bahaiii.i.s, iind the flreater and Lesser Antilles; the lattrr inilmle the X'irj^iii Islands in the north, the Windward Islands in the south, and tlu' Leeward Islands between. They all belong to Eurojiean Powers, except Hayti, wliieh is independent, and Margarita and a few small inlands along the coast, which belong to Venezuela, in South America. m£BAt{A/^A. Tliey are in general mountainous, the largest being traversed by ranges of a consi»lerable height. In the Lesser Antilles there are many volcanoes, and earthquakes are freout oiie-sixth of the whole. The Imperial (Jovernuient in ls;!4 paid 100,000,000 dollars to free the slaves on the Uritish 1- lands. Tub I'ixkai'I': k. ItlllTIHII WKST IMMK.S. -Iced, 1-1,1 IS iK[iiiiitli.i the .fivr «/ Xovn Scotin; populatiiin, l,MO,WU. The ItritlHli iHlaniiH comprise all the Hahanuis, .Tauuticti, in the (Jreater Antilles, and the principal islands of the Lesser Antilles. They are formed into live separate govern- ments, as follows : 1. ItOIAMAS 2. .1 VM VICV ;f. I.KKWMin Im.AXiis. i-i>ni|>risiii;r : Tiiuri.i.A . . . . . AnK lAllA unci \ lUc.lN (illllln . A\lil ll.l.A liVlllll li\. St. I'liKisTiHiini sr. liir.'O Ni;viM Chief Tomm. NikMSUll. KiiitT'^toii, HiKUii-h Town. Tiirtolii. KiKiiltuun. Aii;;iiiM.t. Ilurlxidii. Itiissftcrre. I'liiirlo'ttowii. Anthh \ St. John. M()\T^K.lllAr I'lviiiDUth. I'ipMiNKA RoHeaii. WiNiiWAiU) Ihi.amw, <(iiiipri»iinf St. 1.1 lU (';isti-ic!t. .St. Vimk.nt i;in;:-toii. ItAllllAIHl.H Illiiliri'tDWM. tJiiKN'AUiNKH (iliisirr iif Hiimll JHlamls). (iHKN'ADA St. OfortfC. TitiNUiAi I'tirt "f Sjiuin. TiiHAim SiiirlMiroiiifh. KRRMI DAH Hamilton. 1. The lialiaiiiiiM (4H.UIH)) are the most northerly of the West India Islands, ami comprise al)out .">,(MM>)isthecai.- ital and seat of P veriunent. iSV. ('liiiKf(>i>hir has a fertile soil. linimiinn (T.^^'O'. ii« inimipal town, and lloifdH (ri,(KNt), thu chief town of Dominica, export sugar, rum, and molasses. 4. The Wiiulwiiril Inlaviilii (392,000) are tlii< most easterly and southerly group of llio West India iMlaiids, linrhntltin, the oldest Pritish settlement, is deUHcly p«'iiph>d: it has 1,01)8 persons I: < Miu stpi.ire mile. Jiriiliiitnirn ('2\,i\if()), tlie largest town, is the capital and seat of government. In >S7. Vinirnt is the volcano of MTirne (laroe. Kiiiiin((in (4,500), its chief town, carries on an extensive traile. «S/. Ontrijr, in riren;.da, and fitnliiin (0,700), it; St. Lucia, nrv im|M>rtant towns. 5. TrInldiMl and TolHiflrn('J2*Vi)00) are the most soutiierly of the West India Islands, and, next to Jamaica, Trinidad t'llKKKt. I'l.AMT, is the largest of the British Islands. It is separated from Veii'izuela by the Gulf of Paria. It is distinguished for its fertility .•'tiil. bc.iutiful scenery, and is covered with valuable forests. On the south-west promontory is a hike of asphalt, rts are cocoa, sugar, and molasses. I'ort of Spuin (.'i.'i,000), on thu west coast, is the capitiil. Tolmgo was annexed toTri^Jdiwl in 1889. The chief town ii; Scarlnmnujli. The Ilorniudus (10,000) are a group of small coral island^., nearly 400 in number, of which only five are inhabited. They lie in the Atlantic, aluiut 050 miles eiist of South Oai - Una. They .-ire celebrated for their delightful oUmate, and are the favorite resort of invalids. The chief pnslucts aru IMitatoes and aiTowroot. Lotuj Idaml is the largest of the group, and contains Hnmiltun, thecapit^d, with 8,0(N) inhabi- tants, lirortjitttint O.I »S7. Grorijv'ii Idmul, has a good harbor, is well fortified, and is an imistrtant British naval station. HIMMHII 1HLAM>N. Alfa, 4^,G(X) 8(iHare vtilfn; nhont thf »he tif yiw lirnHniriik and Nom Sfnliii ; fmpulalum, ii,()r><'>,mii>. The HimiiUli Islunda are Culm, Isle de Piuos, and Porto Uico. Culm (1,524,(MN)) is the largest and most important of dl the West India Inlands. It is 7 ) broad, and is traversed by an extensive chain of mountains from east to west, coveri'd with valuable cabinet wimkU. The soil is fertile, especially in the valleys in the north, priMlueing suga/, cer mines in the eiist. Its climate is deliglitful, and hurri.anes rarely oeeur. A large pr.iporlion of the iiihabifants were formerly negro slaves, slavery having been ab.ilislie' (47,0«M>) is situated in the interior. INirtn Itlt'u lies to the oast or Haiti. It has a lieautifidly diversitietl surface, well watereil and fertile. It ex|hirtH chielly sugai', eoH'ee, and toba«'eo. Situ Jinin (-4,000 , im the ncuth coast, is the cajiital. t'omr (IW.OJIO) and Situ (liiuum (.'M'.(RIO) arc import4mt places. HAITI-SANTO DOMING'J-FRENCH ISLANDS-DITTCH ISLANDS-DANISH ISLANDS. 81 HAITI. Haiti, or 8t. Domingo (about 1,310,000), lying to the east of Cuba and Jamaica, is tho Hecond in hizu of thu West India IslandH. For many years it was owned jointly by Franco and Spttiii ; but in 17'U, diiritig the French Revolution, tliu nogrocH expelled the FVunch, fonned a republic of tlieir own, and were declared independent in 1800. Tho Hpanianls held [MtHHOHHion till 18*21. Both portions now form the separate indei)en sipiu" miles; of the republic, 10,204 stpiaro miles. Port rtit Priacc (r»(),(HK>) is the capitnl of llultl. and fVi/x' Hayt'en is a large and important town. NANTO IM>>IIN(iO. St, Doni) »!«/(> (25,000) is tho ca|iital of Hiinto liomlnnro or n»nilnlpa. and is n iiinrkable as having li<>fn the tirst city founded l>y tlie Spanianls in .Vmerira. 7'u» Wo I'ltilu (lo.fKlO) is tho chief port. S is a large md important town. Samana, on tho north-east coast, Iwts one of the finest natural harbors in tho world. Area of Santo Domingo, 18,045 sipiaro miles, PRENCH ISLANDS. The French lalands comprise : Martinupie, GuadtUoupe, Marie Oalanir, Ije» Sdintea, Deti- rade, tho northern fmrt of St. Mnrtin, and St. Burtlutlftmew. St. Pierre (20,000) is the capitid, antl Port Hoyal tho sea- ]M)rt of Martinicpio. Guadaloupc; conUiins the volcano La Siiiijf'iiirr, or Sulphur Moinit^iin. Iia»»*terre is tho capital, and Poinf-iil'iitv the largest t«»wn. .S7. Jiiirtholoviiir lies between Ittirbuda and St. Martin. It formerly beloeigeil to Sweden, but was coded to Franco in 1878. It is a dependency of (iuadaloupe. nrTCII INLANDH. Tiie Dutch InIuiiiIn comprise: St. Eudoche, Se principal towns, DAMNII INI.A>'I>N. The IhiiilNli iHlaiiiiH fompriso: •S7. r/i«.iiii.r. SI. Tlimniia, on the islitud of the same name, is tin? prin- cipal slati'in for the West India mail-steainers. ififully L* u ih«y am veuuactail wlUn inch uiUut. Hteaiuablim uiUurluu »U'i liMlug Ibu | fl^T ^! • N«LWM Hint CHO»0« »(K>»lff * riiokTinwToriinte-Ao "'^ 1 (jH.tliitrfl |3 kO.OOC •u. MILIt 3®^ HdltOVl" tfi.^ II.UN l(l,UW ll«MMI, I'KlMCIfAX PHOUUCTS tilVATlON MTWItN OALLAO AND RIO tiANIIRO n«n*d»Put. Oo. TuiTin'. Ctrip, Phnl-uni ituuth, 4,000 miles; and from east to west, 3,200 miles; Popxdation, 36,4^0,000; persuiis to aipiare mile, 5. South Amerlou comprises the r< ithem purtion of the AiuuricHn continent from the iHthnnis of Pananm. It Ih bounded on tlie north by the Caribbean Sek smuller lake, whiili lias no apparent outlet. On the table- lumls ln'twet'ii Bolivia and Peru they form another group of inuut'use peaks of nearly equal height, comprising lllimani, Sorata, Hahama, Arequipi, and others. From here they extend southwiirds in one chain, till, from covering an area 400 miles in breadth, they gradually narrow down to '.iO in Patagonia. The highest summits in the whole range are Snrata in liolivia, 21,470 feet; Saliama, also in Itolivia, 2'J,.'ir)0; and Aconcagua, near Vidparaiso, in Chili, 22,422 feet high, the highest p>.ak in. America. In the north-east are tti') iMirallel chains of the Parimi^and .\carai Mount^iins, rising to an elevation of from 7,(X)0 to 10,000 feet. To the east, in Mrazil, there are several chains of mountains, generally stretching from north to south, but nut of any great height. In the Andes are the sources of some of the greatest rivers in the world. The Amazon rises in Peru, receives on the north Imnk the Napa, Pntumano, Yapura, and Netjro — the latter forming a remarkable connection with the Orinoco, by means of the Casauiiiiare River; and on the south bank, the Ucayali, Pnrns, Madeira, Tapajos, and Xingn; and flows into the Atlantic by an estuary 180 miles wide at it« mouth, after a course of over 4,000 miles. It is navigable to the mouth of the Ucayali, over 2,000 miles, and up mcjst of its affluents for the greater part of their courses. On the Madeira are renuirkable falls. The tide flow.4 into the Amazon as far as 5.50 miles from its nu)uth, and at spring tides is headed by a bore, or tidal wave, which frefjuently swamps boats on the river. The La Plata is formed by the junction of the Uniijuay and Parana iiirers, rising in the high t, and Paraijua]/, which also has several large tribut^iries. La Plata is 2,400 miles long, and is navigable for large vessels for l.ttOO miles. At Iiuen<)s Ayres, 200 miles from its mouth, it is 30 miles witle. The (hinoco rises in the Pariint^ Mount-iins, and flows, by a nmulxa' of mouths, into the Athmtic, a little south of the Island of Trinidad. It^ length is about 1,((00 miles, and it is naviguble for more than half this di>tance. The Orinoco connects with the Ilio Negro and Anuiam by the Cassinniarr liiwr, formini; a eompi jte chain of inhmd navigation. The other important rivers are the Maijdalenn. flowing into the Caribbean Hea; the Kuwipiilia, Para (with its aHluent, the Tixutntins), Paranahiiha, and San Franrisro in the north, aiul the C thnuuhmml ^Hfijro in the south, tluwiug into the Atlantic. The I'ara may be considered as an anu of the Amazon, separating Marajo Island froui the mainland. West of the Ai\des there are no rivers of any consecpience, the mountains being near to tiie coast, and the intervening country geiu)rally hot and dry. South America is very compact, the coast-line being almost unbrok«Mi. The prinei|Md capes are on the east coast — didlinai', St. Uixpie,, Prio, SI. Antunln; and Hum, at the southern extremity. The bays, straits, etc., are few in lunuber. The chief are: Tho (hi(,l'» iif Dnrien, Mamniylm, anil I'nrin, on tli > imrlli; Ml Snintu Will/ (»iH' III, Nonii'liincH Iwi'iii.v (t><'t in lcn(;lli, inlmlillii thu try anil sunily Iropiiul iliitlrii-U. Il Ih nol vcnoinoiiH, und in iifruld of iniui. It fcvcU on niiiuII iiiiliimU, hiiiIi iim unllifiini unci till' li'siHT iiionkfyH, tlioii|{h :tl tinicN it ^''ckH luritcr prey. IIh JitwH aru ciipulilc uf inonnoiu r\(<'nKioM. The Aniu'onilu, or ^"'lUTlloit, is ik liiiitli iiiorc fiiriiiiilulilc crvuliiri' ; il is Home- tiiiK's forty fuft in li'iitttli, luid \» <.\w lui'ticsi ni'I'im'iiI now known. Il inlialiilH luki'H, Hv.tm, und inurHlic , i<4 1'M'ccilinitiy voriu'ioiH, und (itiIk on llhhcH, and upon any niiiinalii Mliich it cull Hv'uv wlicn tlii'y tire unwarily ilrinkintr. It ■H'ciu'ioiiully vi»ilH furni-yunU, und rurrii'H oil IKiultry and yoiinif culllu. Tlif JuKiiar in tliu luritcMl uniiiial of tliu cnl kind in tlio wcHtu"!! I'onliiiuiit. It wuH onru uxcufdinnly iiuinuroiw in Sonlli Aiiii'ricu. Il press liy prt>iuP'iic« U|ion lar;;i' anIinulH, niicIi iim IIiu liorKu, tapir, ilccr, doKn, and .'ulllu. It Ih of innnoiiM- itri'iiKlli, und liuH lii'i'ii known to Hwini uitohh a river with a liomc It liuil killuil, ami rmry il ofT into the foruHt. — The Toiii'un in a Kaudy-eolored liini with an omnivoroiiit ap|H'lil(>, greedy of fruit, hut eipially kill IIk'Iii with u Kindle Mpuv/.e. Thu Tapir it: u thickhkinne'l uniinul which feeilH ii|Hiii tlii> yoiiiiK kIiooIh of (recN anil on friiiiK, liiil il rellxhes alnionl unylhiiiK Unit conies in It < wu^'. It is inoiren»i\() to man, hnl in ;t fuvorito pre> of Ihe Ja);nar, from which, however, Il iMiiiietimeii frees Itselt hy rn»hinK into water. I'eccuries somewhat resemlile onr iloincslic ,_ Il0|f ; lliey live in hiids. When lu sailed they vi((oroiisl» del end theinselves wilh their sliurp Their llfHli is eaten. The ArmiMllllo is co\ered with a liony ccul of armor. Ills a , a\ lUH'tiirnul uiiiinul, and iuirrows in the earth for Its lo. The .VntlCater, or .\iit lluur, Im u loolhlesi* aniinal, with a loliK, round, sli'iidei' toni;iic whii'h casll; seizes the ants and other lni.ecls that form itH IihmI. 1 1 is unsocial and stupiil, and spends iiiiich of its time in sleep. The l.lunia liiis loii^ been domesticated U'J a leosl of liiirden. Its nsiiul loiul is ulsiiit \•^^ lbs., which it will cuny Iwelvc or lltli'cn miles :iriiiui|ial of whieli arc WeUimjton Island hiicI Ckiloe. Island. To tlio wont of Cliili is Juan Fi-rnaiulez Island, uml off tho ciMwt of Bkuador aro tho Galaihujus or Turtle Islamls, Tho clinmto of Soutli Aiuuriuii varies greatly oven within tho distance of a fow miles. At the equator tho snow-line is about U»,0()() foot ahove tlio sea. .iiid finiii this hoi|^ht to thu base of tho mountains are to liu found in succession the climate and vogotJition of all the %imus. It is generally hot and uniiealthy on th.- coast; un tho eiwt within the tropics it is very moist, hui on sud. The animals |>eouliar to South America aro the llama and the al|>ac-t ; tho first a species of K.mall camel, i)ut witijout a hump; the other resembling a sheep or goat, and yielding fine wtM)l. The condor of the Andes, the sloth, tipir, arma- dillo, are also to bo found; while numkoys, sorpi-nts, binls of brilliant plumage, and a great viiriety of insects alMjuud. proimlily nuniUt Itma than one-thinl of th« whole. South America is diviilfd tnt^t ten ri'oiiblies and thru* Kii'o)Hian possessions (British, F'roneh, timi iMitch (iiiiaiui). 'I'lio Coiiurrit'M «r<> i (loloii' ia, I'erii, \'l'lil'X(Wl«, IMivIk, I'UuwdBr, niiii, ilulaaa. AreeiitiiM, Cnllart MUU>4 if Hraiil, l*«r«KU«>. I'niiruay Itl'.IM'III.M i%V < OI.OHMIA. /IrML, JilH),<)iH) niiuirf tnUi's, m<>ir tiinr. Iirin- a» largt tu ; iMtfndatum, ,1,iKH),t)ini ; ftrriions to sifuare miU, M. The n«|tiil>ll«< of <'oloiiil>lu on-upit's the north-west jmrt Uatiirkinu l.tDU-Rl'BaUI. Andes. Nearly all the principal cities in the western p->rt of the continent have been more or less destrryi-d i>y thnin. An earthi|uake at one tiufo permantnliy nosfd a grtiat pirt. of the eoitst uf Chili from two to seven I'eet alxivu it« foniiur lovi. 1. Tim soil of South .Vnmritia is remarkabli> foi' its fertility. Ilumbohlt estimates the vegetabU^ pio.luctinns of South of tho .ontinrnt. ami is Cniral America by (he Isthmus America at about om-lhini of nil tlm varieties in the world. | "^ I'h"«'»« «r Danwi. which is from IM) t.* W) milm wide. Along tho Imnks of tho Amaxon the c.untry is densely i '•'"'K'-'"'"'" «'*'' "' -i|<'iniiig States ..f Veiieziieln and Fk-iia- w.ssled: buttheeoui-sesof the ..ther large HveiH are chieHy ! '•'"•• *^ ''"" ' ' '"' '»• I"' •'!''= "' <'ol"i.ibia, aft-t-r the Nwnish through vast grassy plains. The I n.lia rubber tree, easwiva, •'"'""''•'* '"""• •''*'''" •"d.-pei.dence ; but \ . iiezueU oooott, indig... sugar, cott.»n, corn, cotlee, ,irrow-ro.it, p»,ru 1 """wl'"' '• "*-'<•. '»»«l ^H;ua.lor in IKU. \ian bark and other medicinal plants, and all the troiiiiul Tl»« / l ii w traverse the western part of thr country in fruits and spices, are produced abundantly and with but three ehniint, but in the south and eitst it is « btvel triM^t, littlo labor; but owing to the unsettled political state of the forming |iart of the llaniw, or vast griissy I'Uins annimlly tiuntinent, nnd the want of enterprise in the inhabit^intM, iniindMied b\ the OriiKSM. The Matftliilma linn ttowii 86 VENKZrKLA. northwanl, ])etwoon the [mnillol ch/iiiis of (ho AiuIch, into tlio Caribbean Swi, uftor ii coiirso of about 800 niilos. The cliiiDitu in tho lower partH of the country is hot, ilanip, and unhwiltliy ; most of tlio citius, liowuvur, are built on tl.o high tjiblo-lanilH of the AndoH. Tlio foruNts on tlio mountain wlopoH oonfain miilio^iiny, caoutiliouc, ami otlior valuablu trues. Tiu! soil is fertile; an(),(M)4)), tho capital, is a well-built fity, situ- ated una level plain, nearly •.»,(KM) foot aliove tho sea. Coal is found inthe vicin- ity. Near tho city tl>.. Ilogntn Itiver falls over a perpei\- dicular precipitni li(M) f.el high. Miilillin (Id. (MX)), is in a mining region, Hiiiurinninniit ('JO.IKH)) unil Ckch^i (|(l,(NH>j are eotl'eo centres. CiulKiiinn ('JO.tHMI) is the principal hea[)ort. VKMO/.I'IOI.-V. Arfit, ,'>Jj9,fH>0 mpitiir miVci, lirur Ihf jtui' «/ tin- I'mriwr >>/ i^iu'lwi' ; fmpiiliiliiin, J,,li>0,(H)i) ; iM-riMtnn ill iDfUiirr on/t, .>Ji, V<>iir>iiiielH lies to the east of Colombia, on the Caribbean Kea, and south of the liosser Antilhis, It formed one of tho StJktesof tho Republic of Colond>ia, wiiich wiut disMolvud iti lH.'tO, antl is now mi indepemh'iit ru-iubliu. The I'arime' Mountains sep.'.rate it from T^razil; and ojieof tho chains of the Aiiiies is continued from (.'ohunbia in a north-eaHt'wiiy direction along the cou.st. It is watered by tho Orinoco, which tlows through cxti^nsive llanos, or level grassy plains, supporting vast herds of cattle. The climate, soil, products, and religion are the sjimo as those of Colombia. IjfJ()) is the capital. It was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 1812, when rj,(MK) persons lost flit ir lives. Viilfiiilii (.'{!>,00()) is the next largest town. Muni- (•(iy/>o (.'14, (KX)) and Cniiunui, tho chief sea|Mirts, are very unhitalthy. Hnriiui- «im«/(>(;{l,r.(M>), 7'.- i-uijo (i:>,{HM)), M„. til nil (I4,r.0O), and Lii!i,iuiue miliH, fintr ami a hiilt tinns till size of -Yi IP JinniH- ivii-h; iHifniliitiiia, J,.,'7i),i n perfect cono. Tile tlamtm from itM crater wmietimes rim- ;|,0(M) fout above its suiiiiiiii. with a lerritie r<>aring noise, t'himborn/n is alst) a conical peak, upwards of r'«.tMH) feet high. IMchu- cltA, on the shipe of which the ciry of (jiiito ih iniilt, and Antisana. are also formuhible oleanoes. In tht! uHst, Keiiikdir includes part of the l->el wood'iil v»lley f>f the Amikiuiu. The climate, s lii, and iH'oductioiiH reMvmbtc tUniHO (if Cohmibia. The (Ai/>i/Hi«fiM, or Turtle Inlands, mthu l*ai.itiu OcoMn. (.")0,000), tlio CH|iital, is 0.500 feut lilxivu tlio luvt'l v)f tho Hcii, (iiul JH built in n Viillcy on tho east Hide of tlio vnlcanu Picliin- chu. It posst^.ssn.samost ili'li^jhtfiil iliiiiato, but, liko most of till! towns in the republic, haH suf- fered unuli from carth- .piakes. ,0<)()) 18 the seat ja and L A . Ar<'i(- Itttlini, 307,0001 jHfHonit ti sy Kuropoan natiouH. It MoNKKVH ,N TMK WOO„H -^ .livi.lod iuto- «'""'»'«*• rhi,f Tmin». IlKITItlll (il UNA (!l'ii|');i'ti nil DriANA, or Mi.'HiNAM I'ariiiiiiirlbn. KiiKMii UiiANA Ca.vuniic. Tile Ai'arai Moinitains se|Mirate it from Mra/il. From liein^ low and marsliy on the eoast, the land ^^ntduuliy i-iseH Inwards tho interior, and beeomes rnoru mountjiinous. The elimato is tho mildest of any eoimtij situated in tiie tropics, owiuf^ to tho tradi! winds, and prevailing land and st-a liree/.es, Tho Hoit is reiiinrkiiliiy fruitful, producing su^ar, eotl'ee, rice, and xarioiis medicinal plants. Cayeniut pepper and other tropical spiees ale to bu found in tho greatest abtindiiiicu. Vei^etation is most luxuriant, and tho foivsts HWitrm with monkeys, biiils of brilliant plninai^e, insects, etc. llrltUli (iiiiiftMh tho largest of the three divi- HionH, was conipiered from tlie Dutch in IMOIl. It illeludeH the three set t leiuellts- Merbico, Dellleraia, Mid Ksseipiibo. wliicii comprise five elei-torid dis- tricts, (itiiviirliiirn (iV),r»(K)), the capital, issituateil lit till* mouth of tlio Domerara Kiver. Miwt of thu inhtthitunts of tho colony aru ne^frooN. Dutch Oiilann is tho central portion of thu omntry, and is sometimt!s called Surinam. I'amiiuiribu (28,500), tho capital, is situate.0(K)), Pnrnhyha (40,(H)0), Ftrrio Leijre (45,000), V,m (."{.-,,000), Onro Freto (22,000), and Fara, situated on the coast, are also important commercial towns. The inland towns are small and unimportant. PEBU. Area, J^63,000 manure vulen; twice the size of Ontario; jwjni- lation, 2,622,000; persons to s(puire mile, 6. Porn is situated on the Pacific, to the south of Ecuador, and west of Brazil and Bolivia. It was concpiered by the Spaniards under Pizarro in 1532, and remained in their ii 1 1 J; ^ ii I M ItlO Dll JAN8IK0, ItllTAKOUO BAY. year ; but on the table-lands it is cooler and more healthy. Sugar, rice, coHee, and tobacco grow extensively in the north, and grain and fruits in the southern and more elevated parts. Vast herds of cattle are raised, and hides and tallow are largely exported; but agriculture and commerce are greatly neglected. Most of the animals of South America are found in Brazil, togetlior Mith a varied and prolific vegetation. About tiiree-fourths of the population ecmsist of Indians ami negroes. The Roman Catiiolic is the jn-evailing religiim, but since tlie establisiunent of tlio ropul)lic. Church and Stjite have been separatevl, and all religions declared equal. /»'('(/ ./(Uic/rr) (5(K),0(M>), the capital, is Hituateay, and is tlie second largest city in South America. It contains many fine buildings, and is the chief centre of coinnunre in the country. Jiithin (HO.OtMt), the former possession till 1824, when it became an independent re- public. It is traversed by the double chain of the Andes, between which are high table-lands about 8,(XK) feet above the sea, where are situated most of the large towns. The climate is there co,20O) and J'usro are the next important towns. ItOLIVI.V. Areo, f>i>i',(Kt:) .syiiirc i/nVcs, nviri- tlriii tiri-f /Ac .o'v (>f(Jiii'l>i<' ; pitpiUiUion, l,l'.>J,0!)(); pirsiiHs In s'fiinri' tnilr, J. Ilollvia, up to tho year 1825, formed part of I'eru, and now takes its name from Holivar, tho leader who w.'.s ehietly instrumentjil in gaining its independence. It is situated almost entirely in tho interior, between Porn and Ih'a/.il, to tho north of Tiii Plata, pos,sessing oidy a sntall portion of coast-lino witli one small seaport, Cobija. On tho borders of Bolivia and Peru the double chain of tho Andes encloses Ldke Titkaca, tho sacred lake of tiie ancient Peruvians. Between tho .Vndes and tho Pacific is a sandy desert, but to tho east of tlie Andes tho country consists of a vast forest ])lain, watered by tho tributaries of tho Amazon and Paraguay. There aro 5,000,000 cinchona (ijuinino) trees in tho country, Tho producta aro tho same an those of Brazil and Peru. Tlio wool of tho alpaca is also largely exported. Silver was onco found in great ipiantities, but latterly the mines have not been so productive. Roman Catholicism is tho prevailing religion. (Sucre (20,000) is tho capital; /.^i Paz (45,000); /V.w (12,000) is 13,000 foot above tho sea, and contains the famous silver mines. A century ago it eont^iined l."»0,(KK) inhabitants. C'r«7iii/)(iMi/«» (20,000) is a town of soiue ii :- pnrtance. <'IIIIJ. Arm, J!Uf,i>iM) Hqnarp, mites, C(»wl'<^•n«W;/ /fiiv/cr limn i^hirlier ; pitpuUttioti, !!i,7 mjiuire milv, !>. riilll consists of a long, narrow strip of liuid between tho Andes and the Pacific Ocean, and exttuiding from Bolivia southwanls for 2,2 miles. It is about 150 miles in width at the broadest jiart. It includes Patagiuiia west of the .\ndes, and tiie westerly part of Tierra del Knego. (.ViUiie f^ltiml, a Large, well-wiMxled island, and ,/t«in Frnumdi-z, or Robinson ('ru.Hoe's Islanil, belong to Chili. The surface is iiiount^-iinous or hilly from the Andes to the coast. Tlie Andes here form oidy one cliain, and rise in the l>eak of Aconcagua to tho height of 22,422 feet. Between tlie mountains art; beautiful and fertile valleys. In the north is tho doHort of Atacama. Tho climate in tlie northern and middle regions is hot and dry, but becomes cooler towards the .south. Kartliquakes ai-e ficquent. and often very destructive. The soil is most prinluctive. Pnt.atoes. wheat, and maize are extensively cultivated, besides olives. li;^s. and vines. Chili is supjM»seil to bo the native country if llie potato. (Jold, silver, anil copper aro found to a great extent iie.-ir Cii|iiapo, in tins north. Chili is the most progressive of tln' .St.ites of South America, and exports lai-gely guano, cupper, and s.iltpetro. Its trade is chiefly with Great Britain. In 1881 Chili declared war .against Peru and Bolivia, and after some saiiguiiiar}' contests was completely victorious. All religions are tolerated. tSt/i/idf/i* (2(M),(KM)), the capibd, is situated in h |iietty aii (105,(M)0), tho port of Santiago, is flu- principal comiiu^rcial city, and carries on a large trade. Tulrtt C.M.IHMl), Cuni-ip- I'inii (24. (HH)), Chilliin, Serena, liptiipie, Tiiiini, Sun Felipe, and i'opiiipit are the next towns of imjiortance. AIICJKNTIXK ItKIM'lll.ir. Aren, 1,1 jr), 000 mpiare viilen, more tlmn tii'ice the nize oj (ill the eitMern prorinre.s of the linmininn ; population, .i, 100,000 ; jH-rsons to itipiare mile, ■>.\. Tho ArR(Mitln« ituitultllc occupies the central country between the Andes and the rivtas Paraguay and Iruguay, and exti'nds from Bolivia to Capt< Horn. It comprises 14 Provinces, which obtained their independence between 18|1 and 1810, and 4 Territories, including the eastern portion of Patagonia. The surface consists chiefly of plains, called pam|HtH, covered with coarse grass. Tho largest is in the north- east, called tho desert of Fl Hrun ('liti^-o, itnil from it others extend west to tho .Xndes, and south as far as I'atagoiiia. In tho Hontli-west aro numerous swamps and salt lakes. On these pampiiH vast herds of cattle and wild horses roam, ami form tho chief wealth of the country. Hidus, tallow and bones are largi'ly exported. The rivora of 90 i»AiiAiinii AyroH, the most impfirtant State of the Confed- eration, extends froui liu) estuary of ]^i IMatji to the Negro River, which separati-s it from I'.itagnMia. It severed it« connection witli the Argentine Confederation in IH.'k'J, hut PARAOUAY. Aral, 9ff,0()0 sijuiin- milts, tliri'e tihu* the she of Nf^i' lirtitm- iHrk ; fiojnditliiin, .l-l<),00<), exrhtnivf of Indinnn ; /«'r.i<'»i« III siiniiri' Hii'/c, •/. raruKuay lies wholly in the interior, hetween the Para- guay and Parana Rivers. It resemliles .Vrgeiitine in its physical features, climate, and products; hut in the nortii it is more mnuntainous, where a s|(eeii's of holly is grown, alM>ut one and a half feet high, called Mate' or Paraguay tea, which is largely used as n lieverage in South .Vmerien. Paraguay gained its independence from S|Miin in ISII, and up to the year JH40 wiw ruKil hy a native creolu, l)r. Francia, who strictly excluded all foreigners. After his death this restriction was removed. The livte DicUitor, .!''4 (iAi •mm I.AHHuiNii ('ArrLB. joined it again in IHIil. (irain is now cultivated to a liuiitk^l extent. JiiumoH A\in'i (r)(ll,(KK)), the capital, and largest city not only in the Confederation, hut in South America, is situated near the head of the t^stuary of the Li Plata, the navigation of whii'h is rendt^red dangta'ous hy n\niierous slioals, itiid hy the pampents, or hurricanes from the pampas. It is an im|>ortant eounuercial seaport, and its trutle is rapidly incn^ising. Its chief exports are hides, tallow, and wool, Pnninn (1H,(MM)), the former capit«d, is situated on the river Parana, 240 miles north-west of Huenos Ayres. Cor- nVa/.',s(14.t)(K)), C..r,(MM»), !ioH,iri« (r»r»,0imnit (l,'r>,(KK»), N,(//a (20,00(1), -W.»i. /..;.(, and Hitn JuiiH are the principal towns. The Paws of Mendoxik is upon the great commercial roa«l across the Andes, hetween Valparaiso and lUienos Ayres. Lope/., indulged in many cruelties hotli to natives and for- eigners, llra/.il and the Argentiiu) Repuhlic at last joined in declaring war against him, which continued till his death, in 1H70, after n heroic struggle worthy of a l>etter cause. AiHuclon (25, (KM)), the capital, is situated near the junc- tion of tlui Piicomayo and Paraguay Rivers. Other towna are I'illn Jiiiit (11,0(K)), ('inutjxioti, and San I'rdro, I'lllMjrAV. Arm, 7~.',000 lufutirr i/ii'/r.t, idmid oiti-tlilrd, ihe Mze if the. t'riii'iiKi; of Qtielnr ; populntion, 711,000 ; prrixma to miHitrv mile, 9. I'riiirunyt or Randa Oriental as it was called, lies hetween the Iruguay River aiul the Atlantic Ocean, and hetween Ura/.il and the estuary of Ija Plata. 1*ATA<;(»M A THK KAI.Kf.ANl) AND SOl TH (JK<)Rii(,'imI to ItiU'iius Ayn-s, witli wliii'li it wuh liiii^' ('ii)ra<{ci| ill liiistilitics, iiniil it vcd its furtiint's. All r»'li;,'i.\IAfn naked, and aio desi'rilii'd as the most wreteluMl raee of iiulv. de- foriii(-d, and stunted Miva^es in thu woild. 'I'hey siilMist ehietly on li>.li. The islamls are j^cih rally fhiikly wooded. ''ii/M' Jlinii. or Ilei'iiiit Island, is a hiiu'e dark i'(K'k, eo\ered with trees, I'isini; ahoiit. (KK) feob hi^h It is the most Honth- eily |iiiint of South America, and is iA'ii mile.- farther south than any |>ai't of Africa. It is in about tlie same latitude .sout li of t he ei|ilator lis the soutliei'ii part of iliidsoii ltd)' is north of it. Chili now lays chiini only to thu wuHtorn end of Tiefia del Fiieifo, all the fest lieloii^ing to .Vrgentine. TIIK KAi.kl.AM> AM> SOIi'll OT.OIKil.V |MI..\M)N. The l-'iilkliiiiil ImIiiiiiIn, alioiit .'UNMiiilcs east of I'.itaj^oiiia, lielon;{ to liniain, and I'oiisist of 'J lar^e and alioul -IN) sin. ill islantls, with an area of al>out tt.rKN) Mpiare miles. They are destitute of trees, Imt neails coveiid with peat Iioljs. l,ari;o herds of cattle ami horses roam wild 'i'hey contain many tino harliors, and are valnahle itH places of refuse for slii|iH freipieiilin^ tlio Hoiithi'rn seiw. They wi-re erectt-d into ii Id it isli colony in ]XV.\, and contain alxuit I.KtM) jnhaliitants. Sliiiil'ii WM) is the I'apital. >S'>r>iiii is .'III uiiiiihaliiled island, lyin^ alxuit H(M> miles south-easterly from the Falklands, of which colony it forms a part. Area, I,."'i70 s(|iiare miles. i i- 1 > ;/■ the HIS ti> I'tweell jtwcon Rou«Ut.<«u Cai-k Uua.N, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 If?i- ilM I.I 1.25 ^ m 2.0 1= U IIIIII.6 V] <^ /2 '%^Jl' A /^ ^i Photographic Sciences CorDoration 33 WEST MAIN STRUT WEBSTIR.N.Y. MS80 (716) a/i^sos iV iV •1? :\ \ LV ■ €■ 4r O^ ' mn ^i \ >» ■^ t^ o i ^J d t-t M & t -I (\i t i at "9 J o m EUROPE. 98 EUROPE. ^rea, 3,555,000 sqiture miles; population, 360,200,000 ; peramis to sq^iare mile, 101. Kurope is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean ; on the west by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the south by the Medi- terranean Sea, the Sea of Marmora, the Black Sea, and Mount Caucasus ; and on the east by the Ca8i)ian Sea, the Ural River, and Ural Mountains, which seimrate it from Asia. Although the smallest of the great divisions of the earth in extent, it is second in population, and by far the most imjjortant in power and influence, as well as the most advanced in learning, arts, and manufactures. The surface of Europe is divided by mountain ranges into a north-west and south-east slope, as all the great rivers on the continent flow in these directions. The north and east, with the exception of Norway and Sweden, consist of a vast plain, with occasional small elevations, and comprise about two-thirds of the whole surface, extending from Holland to the Ural Mountains, and including all Rus3ia ; in the south and^ west it is mountainous or hilly. Unlike the mountain ranges of the New World, those of Europe occur in smaller and more detached chains. The principal are : The Dovrefitld mountains, in the ScandiTiavian peninsula; the Grampiant, In Scotland; the Pennine, liani/e, in Kn^lam-, nnd Cambrian Jlange, in Wales ; the Alpii, in Switzerland and the adjacent countries ; the minor rangcii of the •/« rn, and tho Ceivniici) mountains, ir. France; the J'yrenee$, between France and Spain ; and the parallel ranges of the Caitile, Morena, ond Sierra Nevada mountains, in Spain ; the Ajiennineii, in Italy, with the volcanoes, VcsuviuB near Naples, anil Etna in Sicily ; the Balkan, in Turkey ; the Carpathian, in Austria, with the smaller ranges of the Blaek Foreft, Ilarz, Krz, and Sudetie Chains, in Ocrmany ; the Caucaiui, between the Block and Caspian Seas ; and the Ural Mountain!, between Kurope and Asia. The principal Rivers of Kuropo nro i Those flowing north-west or west— the I'elchora, Dvina, Viitula, Oder, Elbe, Ithine, Seine, Loire, Oarunne, Dinini, Ta;iu», and (luadiana\W\oiK flowlnK south and east— the Ebrn, Ithone, Po, Oanuhe, Dnieper, Pruth, Von, ond Volga, and the Thame$ in Gntflanil. The VolKn is the largest river of Europe, rising in the Valdai hills, in the north-west of Russia, and flowing into the Caspian Sea, after a course of about 2,200 miles. The Lakes in Europe are generally small, but celebrated for their beautiful scenery. The principal are : Wetier and Wetter, In Sweden ; Ladoga, Onega and .S:ai»M, In Uuiwla ; Oenera nnd Cmuitance, In Swltr.erlanil ; Magginm and Coino, In Italy ; I)er- weiilwateriuvl Windermere, in KuRland : Lomoml and Katritie, in Stiotlund ; ond \eagh and Killanu'y, In Ireland. Europe is remarkable for the irregularity of it« outline or coast, having nuinorouH islands, peninsulas, seas, lays, and gulfs, giving it about 18,000 miles of coast-lino— a very much greater length, in proportion to its size, than is possessed by any of the f)ther great divisions of the globe. Almost every country in Europe has some sea-coast, and nowhere, except in the east of Russia, is there any place more than 400 miles distant from the sea. The principal Islandii are i In the Arctic Ocean, Xova Zembla and Spitsbergen. In the Baltic, Zealand, Funen, Qothland, In the Atlantic, Iceland, Great Britain, Ireland, the Orkney, Shetland, Uebridet and Azurei, In the Me^ii?» The Anltnala of Knrope arc i 1. Ermim. 2. Sarlk. 3. Snowy Owl. 4. Kkindrkr. 5. Barn Owl. 6. Ei.k. 7. Woi,F. 8. I'dx. 9. Browx Hear. 10. Ibkx. 11. Chamois. 12. Wild Hoar. 13. Lamukr-qeikr. To the Teacher. — The sable, a sj>ecics of mar- ten, is found in Europe only in north-eastern Russia, though the common marten is of very general distribution throujirhout all northern Euro])e. Of the larger and more formidable European animals, the principal are: the white bear, found on the Arctic coasts ; the brown bear, found in the Pyrenees, the Can'atliians, the Dovrefleld Mountains, and occasionally in the Alps ; the grey wolf and the black wolf, once ntnnerous all ^ over Euroi)e, noV confined to the wilder iiarts of 5> the east ond south, but still numerous; the jackal, found in Russia, Turltey, and (ircccc; the conunon fox, of almost universal distribution ; the blue fox, found only in the Arctic regions; the lynx, foutul only in niountainiius districts and in the nortli ; and the wild boar, found in all sciitherii uninliubited districts. Smaller and less formidable animals, many of them exceedingly numerous and of general distribution, are the hedgehog, the boxlger, the glutton, the mole, the weasel, the civet, the lenuning (remarkable for its strange periodical migrations), the jerboB, the rat, the mouse, the marmot (or European woo pean M>as, inchuling the lialtio and the Cas|iian. Whales and rorquals (though not so frei|Uent as formerly) are fouiiil in northern and western waters ; and dolphins and |M)r|H>isesare to be seen in all the seag. Two animals may be especially the Grieco-Latin in the south; and the Sclavonic in the ! '"""i'""""-"'" 't»''»" ""'«''''' «''"'^*'' '»''"'" ''"'7*'"^^ _, /,,... . ,, ... ... 1 ii lure, the smallest quadruped In the world; and the Ulbraltar monkey, the «a8t. The Christum is the provaihng religion, under the „„„. „,H^^,ies of the monkey tribe found in Euro,M,. three forms of the Protestant, Roman Catholic, and (3 reek in the munber and variety of Its bir;al. Oemmny. Austria-HuMKary, Italy. Switzerland. Turkey in Knroiie. Itniiinanlo. .Ser\ia. Monteneifro. Oreeee. (Iroiit Hiit.iiii. FniiKu. Riis.sii», (liniiiimy, .mil .Xiishn.'i uii! cuii.sidoreil tlic five great I'owei-s uf Eiiropo ; mid tho kinj.{- (l(im of lUly, altlumj^h fDiiiitMl nuly in JHoK, is gruduiilly yiiining it poHition scarcely Kecoiidiiry to them. IIRITINH KMIMKR. Tho llrltlHli Riiiplro is coiiip(»Hod of tlw United Kingdimi of (hoiit Ihituiii and Indaiul, and of niiiiiurcxiH colonieH and posHOMsions in ovury quarter of the j^h)lio. Tho Itiitiwh Inlands i-oiisist of (iivnt Britain, including Kngland, Wales, and Scotland; Ireland lying t<> tho west of (Jroat Britain; and a lunnlier <>f small islands adjoining thuni. liKITIMII Hut HKH (IK I'AIILIAMENT Thu British Colonies and Posse.ssions aro: III Kiiro|to, Oibniltar, an inijiortant fortress at the K(>rt«nt town at the eiilranoe of the Ited Hek, II • S S Ouudc VnAliihinc Oa, Toronto. ENGLAND AND W* LES. 9T I » u Tauww") Efej f ShUd' u o 4W Perim, an island at the entrance of the Red Sea. Bahrein Inlands, a (tro'ip in Ihe Persian Gulf. Cyprus, an island belonfcinK to Turkey, but occupied anil governed by Britain. In Africa. Cape Colony and Natal, at the southern extremity. Basuto I^nd, north-cast of Cape Colony. Bechuana I^anil, north of Cape Colony. British East Africa, on the Zanzibar coast. Mauritius island and its de|)endencies, Seychelles Islands. Ascension and St. Helena Islands, in the Atlantic. Niger Territories. Sierra Leone, and various settlements on the Gold Coaat and the Gambia, Zanibesia, Nya-ssaland, Zanzibar, and Zululanil. In AuNtrnluHln. Australia, comprising West Australia, (Queensland, South Australia, New South Wales, and Victoria ; Tasniiinia, New Zealand ; New Guinea, south-east part ; Norfolk Island and the I'ijl Islands. The nrltlsh Isles, witli these numerous and extensive colonies and posse.ssions, cover iin ivrea of nearly j ,500,000 square miles, with a {xjpulation of over 379,000,000 ; ho that, although small in the extent of home territory and population, Great Britain is the most import^mt country in the world, ruling over about one-sixth of the whole land surface of the globe, and one-fifth of its population. It is also the first country in the world for commerce and manufactures, exporting annually goods to the value of 2,500,000,000 dollara, consi.sting chiefly of cotton, woollen, and iron manufacti res, and importing annually to the amount of 2,274,000,000 dollars. The great wealth of Britain is derived from its mines and manufactures. Its coal and iron mines .re almost inexhaustible ; and its lead, copper, and tin mi:^es are very extensive. Tlie cotton manufacture alone iini loys 500,000 persons, and it is esti- mated that four millions of people derive their support from the trade connected with it. As a consequence of the extensive commerce, the facilities for internal communica'iion are great. Over 20,erfect in existence, combining, in a great measure, the advantages of other forms, without their defects. It is a limited monarchy. The Sovereign is the head of the State, and carries on the governmi'nt through her ministers, who must also po.ssess the confidence of the people, as represented by the Hoii.se of Commons, and of the aristocracy and clergy, as represented by the Ht)U.so of Lords. No law can take eflect withimt receiving the wmc- tion of the Sovereign and of both Houses of Parliament. ENGLAND AND WALKS. Ann {inrlitdinfi the Ixle of Man and the Cluinnel Idituds), ,W,.^cS7 .s(/i((f;r mik.s, r, 1 50,000 ; jivr.-uni.t to mjuare mile, 500. Kngrlund and Wales occupy the southern portion of the island of Great BritJiin. England is bounded on the north by the River Tweed, Cheviot Hills, and Solway Firth, which separate it from Scotland ; on the west by the Irish Sea and St. George's Channel ; on the south by the English Channel ; and on the east by the North Sea. EnHTland is divided into 40 countie i or shires, and Wulon into 12. Tlio <'ounti<'H of Eniflunil nro i Count leu. NOKTIIUMBKIU.AND CrMBRKLANI) WKSTMOIIRLASI) . DC 1(11 AM . . YORKHIIIHr, . Lancahiiiri:. Kknt . , SlHSK.X . IIami'siuiik . 1)(iiihktsiim(k DKVDNMrii";: Cornwall . ClIKSIIIKK . SlIltlll'HIJIKK. lll-IUK.KdllliHIMKK yi'V(in|H)rt. . I'alniouth, Truro, llixlmin. Four M'mti'rii. . Chester, llirkenhead, Htm'kport, Mocoleiiflelcl. . Shrcwsliury, Ludlow, Itridgenorth. . ili'ri'fiird, I.i'oininster. , .Motnnoiitli, Newport, Chopstow, Aberga- venny. Four Eimtern. . (irimsb.v , Huston, Lincoln, Stamfiml. . .N'orwii'b, Varmoutb, Lynn. . Ipswich, lliiry HI. Kdiuund's, Hndbiiry. . Cbclmsforil, Colchester, Harwich, Wes' Ham, Leyton. 98 ENGLAND AND WALES. Counltfu. NoTTINdllAMHIIIRK Dkhiiyhiiikk STArFUKUHIIIKK . WoRCKHTBRSIIIllK Warwickmiiikk . Lkicebtrrhiiirk . Hi'TLANUMIIIRK . North AMiToNHii IKK HL'NTINOnONSIlIHK CAMimiDORHIIIKK . Glouckstkksmirb oxkorumiiirk BrcniiNllllAMMlllHR HKIIKnitlWIIIRK HRKTKORn.SHIHR . MlDDI.KHRX . SlRHKY Dkrkhhirk . Wtltmiiirk . Somkrhkthiiirk . Ten North Midland. Principal Toirnn. , Nottingham, Newark. . Derby, Chestcrneld. . Staffonl, Walsall, Hanley, \Volverha!ii))toii, Stoke, West Broniwich. . WorccHtcr, Duillev, Kiiiclerminstcr. . Warwiok, Biniiin({haiii, Aston, Coventry, l.icliileld, Stratfonl iin-Avon. . Leicester, Lougliborouifh. . Oakliam. Northampton, Pcterboronj,'h. . Iliintinicdon, St. Ives, St. Neot's. . Cambridge, Kly, Newmarket. Ten South Midland. . (Jloiicestcr, Bristol, Cheltenham, Stroml. . Oxford, Woof tlie rivers, there are on the east, the Wash ; the Yarmovth Moods, off the coast of Norfolk ; and the Dotvns, ofl" Kent, protected by sand-banks, and aflxirding secure anchorage to shipping. On the south, the Strait of Dover, 21 miles across, separates England from Franco ; and on the coast are Southampton, Weymouth, Plymouth, and Falmouth harbors. (Jn the west are the Bristol Channel — with a num- ber of excellent harbors — Cardigan Bay, Milford Macen, Morecambe Bay, and Soltvay Firth. Tlie i)rincipal capes are : on the east, Flamhmmigh Head, Spurn Head, the Naze, North and South Foreland; on the s(jutli, Bearhy Head, the Needles, off the Isle of Wight, Portland Point, Lizard Point, and Land's End; on the west, St. Darid's Head and HolyJiead. Tlie Islands are: Man, Anglesey, and Holyhead, on the west; the Scilly Islands, Cluinnel Islands (including Jerseij, (hiernsey, Alderney, and Sark), and the Isle of Wight, on the Houtli ; Thanct and Sheppey, off' the coast of Kent; and Holy Island, on tho north-east. The Isle of Wight, the Channel Islands, and Isle of Man are important islands. Near Coyues, in the Isle of Wight, is Os))orne House, a favorite residence of the Queen. St. Helier, in Jersey, contains 35,000 inhabitants. St. Pierre, in Guernsey, Byde and Neirport, in the Isle of Wiglit, and Douglas and Bamsay, in the Isle of Man, are large towns. Aiigbsoy is joined to the mainland by tho Menai Suspension Bridge, stretching across the Monai Strait. The cllniiite of England is damp and changeable, but healtiiy, and the soil fertile and well cultivated. The pre- vailing westerly winds bring a great deal of moisture from tho Atlantic Ocean, causing an almost perennial verdure; and, owing to its insular position, the extremes of heat and cold are not nearly so great as in the same latitude on the continent. Tho English are chiefly of the Anglo-Saxon race, with some proportion of Danish and Norman-French; the Welsh are Celts, descunded from tho ancient inhabitants of Britfiin. No country in tho world contains so many large cities within the same comjtass. The ])rincipal in Englanil aro: London (4,220,(X)0), the capital of (»reat Britain and Ireland, on the Thames, about 50 miles from its mouth. It is the largest, most wealthy, and most populous city in the world. mm ENGLAND AND WALES. 99 It includes the City proper and Westminster in Middlesex, with Southwark and Lambeth in Surrey, on the opposite side of the Thames, which is spanned by a number of beautiful and massive bridges. It is nearly 10 miles long by 7 broad, and is gradually extending, and including large villages whicli a few yeai'.s ago were surrounded by fields. London is nearly in the centre of the land portion of the globe, and is the great emporium of the world for wealtii and conunerce. Some of the principal buildings are Buckingham Palace, the Tower, St. Paul's Cathedral, liank of England, Westminster Abbey, and Houses of Parliament. Near London are Grecnu-ich, with its celebrated Observatory and Hospital for sailors; Keiv and Richmond, with magnilicent gardens; ITfonptou CoHft and If'indtiDr, with royal palaces; and many other places of present or historic interest. I Manchester (505,.'}50), with Salford (198,136), is the centre 1 of the cotton-manufacturing trade, and the second city in I poi)ulati(m : Oldhmn (l.'W.OOO), Prenton (107,5(K)), Bolton (115,000), Sti'il.jxirt, liuchdnle, and other cities, have largo cotton manufactures. Bivm'iHijhum (4li0,-00) is celebrated for the extent, variety, and excellence of its metallic manufactures; Astan ((i'.t,0iidle\j, Walmdl, and Wolverlmmptou, are the chief seats of the iron trade ; and ^^f')rc((,s//t'(18(i,.'54r>), Siindirldtid, and Sliitidi^oi the coal trade. Zfr(/.< (;}()S,()00) is the chief centre for the woollen manu- factures, wliich are also largely carried on in linul/drd (21G,0,(M)0); Bristol (221,()(i5), on the Avon, near Bristol Channel; Neuraxlle (18(J,500), on the Tyne; Snndvtiitnd (i;?l,000), on tiio Wear; Stockton, on the Tees; Yarmouth, I'ltjmonth, Fidmonth, ami iJorer. I'ortsmonth (150,200), is strongly fortified, and is the principal dockyard and station for the British navy. I'UimoHth and DeronjMnt, on the south coast, and Chiitham, ShwrnvM, Jl'ooUrirh, and Ikptford, .)n the Thames, have also extensive dockyards. Woolwioli lias the largest arsenal and manufactories of war materials in (ireat Britain. and Corc/i/ci/ for silks; A'/(W('n/ll»l,s^'»• for carpets; Wwcestcr for porcelain ; titokc, llatdiij, and Xcii'iaallc-iiiuler-Lijme for pottery; Ciiiiltrlnirii and York are distinguislied for their magiiiticent cathedrals, and as the seats of tiie archbishoprics ; (Kcford and Candiridi/e for their celebrated universities and magiiiticent buildings. Laucashirc is the chief county for cotton manufactures; Yorkxhire for woollens; Slaffordnhire for pottery; Durham and NorthumtierJand for coal mines; Cormndl and Deron for tin anSlx Countleit. Watrrkord . Waterford, I>un)(arvan, LiHniore. TirrKRARY . . Clonniel, Cashel, Kena(fh, Thurles, Tip|)erary, Carrick-on-Suir. Claib . Ennis. LiMKRICK . . Limerick. Cork . . Cork, Queenstown, Bandon, Youghal, Kinsale, Fennoy, Kbkrv . Tralee, KiUarney, Dlnsfle. Tile anrface of Ireland is generally low : about one-sixth of it is covered with peat bogs. Mountjiins occur in detached ma.sses, generally near the toast, and most frecjuently in the north and west. There are numerous beautiful lakes, and the scenery in the mountainous disti-icts is exceedingly varied and picturescjue. The principal mountulns are: Mayilliiuddij's Reeks, with Cam Tiial, the highest summit, in Kerry County, ^{,400 feet; Mmnt Xejyhin in Mayo, and Luijnatiuilln Mount in Wicklow. Besides these are the Donetjal, Antrim, and Connemara Mointtaius. Owhig to the level country through which they How, the rivers of Ireland are slew, and navigable for the greater {wrt of their courses. The principal rlvern are : the Shannon, with its lake expansions ; LoiKjhs Allen, Hee, and Iknj, flowing west, 224 miles long, and navigable for 213; the Blackirater, Snir, and Barron; flowing .south ; the Liffeij and the Boyne, flowing east ; the Bann, draining Lontjh Nen f the po})ula- tion, especially in the north, came originally from England and Scotland. No religion is now established by law, but rm Canadk-Publiahinti COs, Toronto. iii ii cS Q < J H 55 O O ■LA IRELAND. 105 neiirly four-fifths of tlie ]iopulation firo llonuui Cfitliolic. Since tho year 18(M) tlio Piiilianifut of Irulaiul hiis been united with tliat of (iroat Uritain. The Queen is repre- sented in Ireland hy the Lord-Lieutenant, who resides at Dublin. Owing to the failure of the potato crop, and to otlier causes, which led to extensive emigration to America, the population t)f Ireland has decreased about ;{,r»0;),(MK) in fifty years, or considerably more than one-third of the entire population. For many years an agitation has lieen going on in Ireland to obtain what is known as Home Rule, or the right t*> have a legislature in Dublin, empowered to enact laws relating to Irish local interests. '>i(W//i(2r)4,7<»!t),the capital, is a large and beautiful city, and is celebrated forthenuui- l)er of its fine build- ings, its beautiful l)ay and s:n rounding sce- nery. It is the see of an archbishop, the resi- dence of the Lord- Lieutenant, and tho seat of three luiiver- sities. Its trade is carried on chielly with Liverpool, Near it is MiiiiiKKilli, witii ji, Ro- man Catholic college. li,lf<(4 (lVm.S'.XI) is one of the most f hri\- ing cities in the Rritisli Islands. It has risen into importance ciiietly within tile present cen - tury, and is now the first city in Ireland. It is till! centre of tlie linenand sewi-d muslin trade. Cml; (7ri,(>70), tho third city in Ire- SWEUEX AM* N on WAY. SwiMlcii and Norwny form tho peninsida of Scandinaviii, situati'd between the Atlantic Ocean, Baltic Sea, ami (iulf of Rothnia, and form one power uniler the .same crown, but with separate governments. They are separted fi'om Den- mark by the >Skager Riick, Cattegat, and the Sound. Tub Giants' Caoskw.^t, On tlio north coast of Antrim in tlie f.iinous niiinls' {"uiiscwii.v, nii irrcjfulur iilr.ttmin ('i)inpu(ti'(l of iiliout 4n,(MHl (lurk-colored, iiorfoctly fonncd, |ioly;;oii;il liasaltic coliiniMM. ThU )iliitlorni, startinj; from the liaso of a lii;;h hasaltic clilT, proJiclH liko a piiT or ( imsc- wuj- ttlioiil "llll fiTt into tin.' walfr, und is alioiit .'l.'iO fL'tt in lircadlli, and of varv in;; licinlil, ran^intf noar to ;10 fci't. M.vth uscrilics its constniclion to thr lalior of ^.nants in anciint ilays, who (Icsired to iiiiislrnit a lail ai'ross the sea to Scotland. The island of SlalTa, in Scotland, in which is the celehraled I'iii;{ur3 C'uve, is u formation somewhat similar to the ('aiisewa\. NORWAY. Arm, lJ/f,4!t5 xqninr tiiilis ; ixtpulntion, ^J>:);>,(>()0 ; [wrtions to .villi ire mile, Ui. Norway occupies tho wo.stern purt of tho penin.sula, and extends from the .\ re- tic Ocean to the Skager Rjick. It is divided into twenty provinces. The Nil r fare is very moinitainoiis, being com])osed of high moiuitains or table- lands, exttmding the whole lengtii of the peninsidti, about 1,10') miles, and called the Kl(ili)i ^Iniiiiliiiii.'i in the north, the Ihnn- jiilil MdiiiiliiiiiH in the miiMIe, and the llm- iliiii'li rii''l(l .V(ll(/l^//)^^' ill the sDiilh. These mniiiit.iins rise chielly from hii,'li jilateaus, anil tire most tibrupt and ]ireci|iitoiisontlii' West, where they sometimes form the sea-coast, and in Sweden decline more gradually to- wards the r.altic Sea. The principal platiwius are LnHHtiihl, SiHjiif- Jii'lil, lhtvn\l\ilil, and land, has a magnificent harbor, and is the centre of a large lliinlniuii rjlihl, all at cmisiilerable heights aliove tlu^ sea. trade. (!„hr,i,i is the largest town in Connaught, and pos- ' 'p|„. ,.,v,.,.k. nwiiig to the formation of the country, are sesses an excellent harbor, /./m-r/c/,' (;?7.<»7'-') and ll'.t/o/.-n/ ^,,„„|,,„,.„iv,,ly short, rapid turreiiis; the principal is the (21,7\iiuhiU;, IhiKihnln, fl'r.ifiod, and Sllijit are seaports eiigageil in (he export of provisions. /\"(7/,c(i»i;/ and Cloinnii are the most iiuportfint inland towns. Near Colcniliif is the celebrated (liaii ' Causeway, a mass of basaltic columns extending into the sea. 14 (I'.iiiiitiuii, flowing into (he Skager Rack after a course ot :t4() miles. Till' I'otiNt-IIno of Norway is remarkable for its deep indentations calletl fiords, narrow arms of (he sea, extending somedmes .')() miles into the Land between precipitous moiin- ttiins. and abou; Htiiuu'ii KuYcs; itit, 4,7. l.'f, 500 ; persons tit nipKire mile, ~7. NwtMlon occupies the eastern portion of the Scandinavian l)enins\i!a, including part of I-apland in tlie ncu'th, ami extending along tlie western shores of the Uulf of Bothnia and the llaltic Sea. It is divided into three great divisions, Ooltdand, Svadand, and Norland, and these are subdivided into 24 lilns or governments. Sweden resembles Norway in most of its characteristics, but the slojio of the mountjiins is more gradual towards the NuUttKiilAN SiKNKUV sea. It has m/uiy rivers, Imt they are rapid and impetuoi-s, and of little value for commerce. Mcjre than one-half of the surface is covei'ed with vast forests. Numerous lakes form the most striking feature of tlie country. The principal are Lakes Wetter, Wetter, Miilar, and Iliehnar. The Islands of Gothland and Oland in the Baltic belon^r to Sweden. The climate, like that of Norway, is severe, and figricul- ture is only carried on in the south. The mines of Sweden are very valuable. They are celebrated for their iron, which is considered the best in the world; the cop- per mines of Dalecarlia are also famous. The principal mining districts are in the valley of the Dal. The form of government is a limited monarchy, and the reli- gion Lutheran. Storldwlm (240,. ■ 1 DENMARK. 107 capitdl, uiiiiliuxl [ i.sliiiuls 3 Miilfir sessos a ir, iiml tl'iltlo. Koapiii't, 111 and us fur in the nail is- ation of IS C'.'lo- id C((/- is tlio nally to and tlio lU't ically t cliiitly >niustio it. many DENMARK. Aim, iri,Jfi9 sqfmn vilhs, vu>rc thtin iiro-thlnls the iii'-:e nf Niiva Srtjtiu; populiUiun, ^,MU,UOO ; j^tcwHs to sqiuur mile, 143. Denmark comprises the peninsula of Jutland and a group of islands lying at the entrance of the Baltic Sea. It is houn inliabitants. The chief town is Beikiavik. . The Faroe Idandu are situated between Iceland and tlio Sliot- land Tslos, antl export large <|uantitios of oidor-down. Tlie forvlifn ponNt'sKionN of M ICKLAMU UKVHKHM, I, MIS AMI KkIMIKKII. Di'Miuark are tiio islands of (S7. Tht)man,St.Jiili)i, and Saiila, ('ru:, in the \\ est Iiiilios, and Urei n- lond, in the Arctic Ociiui. riio {foviMMiiiiciit is a lim- jj ited mnnanliy, and ihooslali- lishod religion the Liilhtian. lucation is cfirefuily [trovideil for. Copenhaijea (.'{12,400), tlie cajiital, situated on the east coast of the iland of /o;il;inil, and possesses a lie Iiaibnr. It contains a university, id soiiu' lino palaces and buildings. ', was bombarded by Lord Nelson in IHOl, and by Admiral (lambier in H07, when the D.mish fleet was taken to Mnglaiid. Klsinnre is situated on the oast coast of tlie Island of Zea- land, at the narrciwoBt part of the Sound, the passage of which is commanded by the Castle of Kronborg. All vessels entoi'ing the Ualtic for- merly liad topay itmm 108 RUSSIA. duos to Donnuirk at Elsinore. Odenst (30,000) is an im- portant town. Adlhorg and Aarlnnis are seaports. [NoTK. — Denmark supplies Great T>iitain with Imtter to the annual value of fully 2l',0(M),(M»(» dollars.] RUSSIA IX KUItOPK. Area, 2,0'.)'),. ''lO^ square viilcx, ratlirr htnjcr than the Cana- dian Nnrth-tijed TiTrlloric.i and Manitoha ; population, 95,900,000 ; persons to sipiarc tnila, Jf5. RuHHta In Europe is bounded on the nortli by the Arctic Ocean; on the west ])y Sweden, the Gulf of Both- nia, the Baltic Sea, Ger- many, and Austria ; on the south by Roumania, the lilaek Sea, and Mount Caucasus ; and on the east by the Caspian Sea, the Tral River, and the Ural Mountains, which also separate it from Siberia or Asiatic Russia. The empire of Russia, of which by far the greater j)ortion is in Asia, com- prises more than one-half of Europe and more than one-third of Asia; the whole extent lieiiig a lit- tle less than that of tin; empire of Great Britain, and about ono-sixth of the whole land surface of the globe. In ]iopulation it is far inferior to the British Empire, contain- ing altogether only about lirt,0(K»,(MK) hdial)itants, of which Ilussia in Europe has the greater part. IIiihhIii in Kuro|>« is dividiid into 71 governments. It consists of one vast plain, with few hills, and without a ^iIlgle mount^iin, except on the boundaries. South and east of St. Petersburg are the ]"alilai J I ills, a table-land, in which most of the largo rivers of Russia rise. In the Mouth-east are vast stvjiftvs or desert sandy plains. The r'(((i Armintalns, forming the eastern boundary, extend about l,l.' country, is the great emporium of trade in the interior. It is noted for having been destroyed by its Russian defenders in 1H12, causing Najioleoii Bonaparte to commence his disastrous retreat. OdiMn (;U4,iixt>>i><)l, in tho Criuu.-a, is celebrated for its siege by the British and French armies in 1854 oo; since the destruction of Sebastojiol, Xikuhilrr is the chief naval station of the Russians on the Black Sea. ATiVr (1H:!,()(M)), on the right bank of the Dnieper, is one of the oldi'st cities in the empire. It was here that Cliristianity was tirst introduced, and it is regarded as a sacred city. Tula, alioul KMtuiiles south of Moscow, has largo manufactures, diieliy of iron and steel. A.itritl;h(ni, on an island at the mouth of the Volga, is the cmi>:irium of the trade on the Caspian Si'a with Persia and other easti-rn coiiutrit's. Sijni Xiiriinriitl. at tho junction of the Oka with the N'olga, is fanu'd foi' its anuu.d fairs, lasting from .Inly to September, ami attraetiiiLT upwards of "JtMI.CtiK) persons from ail jiarts of Murope and Asia. Kamtii (l.'W,000), 41^0 miles east of Moscow, nr.ir tlie Volga, has a large trade with Silteria anil Tartai}-. Othir important towns having jiopidations of 100,000 and upwards are Ludz, Khurkuff, iinmtoff, and Kuhlneff. CiiuvnHln is situated between the Black and Casi)ian Seas, both north and south of tho Caucasian range. Tho men were celebrated for their bravery, and long defied the power of Ru.ssia ; the women are remarkable for their beauty. Large numbers emigrated to Turkey, rather than submit to Ru.ssian rule. FMnland, iu the north-west, between tho Gulfs of Finland and Hotlinia, formerly bohmgod to Sweden, but was in 180'.> annexed to Russia. I'oland lies to the south-west of Ru.ssia, between Prussia and Austria. If was oi.jo a powerful indeiiendent kingdom, but towards the end of last centuiy was seized and divided among Ru.ssia, Prussia, and Austria. It was at one time rather larger than France, and conbvined l'J,0(M),(X)O inhabi- tants; tho greater part is now subject to Russia. Its surface is level, and well adapted for tho production of grain, wliich is largely exported. The Poles aro a bravo and patriotic people. In 18.'{0, and ag.iin in 18(!;5, they matlo determined but unsuccessful attempts to throw off tho foreign yoke. WiirxKir (4ti.j,'_'0f)), on the Vistula, was tho ancient capital. It suffered greatly in tho sieges of 175)4 and 18;{1 ; it is now the jirincijial station for the Russian army in Poland. Its university w;is suppressed iu 18;{4. A considerable nund>er of tho inhabitants aro Jews. IIOI^I.AND, Oil TIIIC >KTIIEni.AXDS. Area, I J,l'iJfS xiiinne uillis, iiinrhi tiro-lhinls flic ,si;<; of Nora S'l'tlii; jH'iiiil'fliiin, .'i,'i(jJ,OUU ; ^>('/'.so»ia to nqiutrn mile, llollanil is bounded on the north and west by tho North Sea, on tho south by Belgium, and on tho oast by Germany. It is diviili'd into elevi;n provinces. By the Treaty of IjondoM, 18(17, Lu\enil)urg, fornu-rly connected with Hol- land, was declared " neutral territory." Holland is the lowest and most level cf)untry in Europt^ a gi'eat i)art of the surface biMiig below tho sea-level at I'igh watei". It is pi'otccti'il from tjie encnachment of flie sea by eiioniioiis dvkes, or b.iiiks facetl with stone and wood. Canals, wliicli aie numerous, have long foruied tho chief highways for traffic, but railways now coiuiect the principal points. The foaHt-llne is much broken by the estuaries of the llii'irs l!hiiii\ Mdii.t, and S-lnhlt, which enter the sea liy a nuuibrrit< Ic Due has linen manufactures. Haarlem, (ironiu,L'f7,(>iil> ; pccfuna to .si/i/kjc mile, fi^U, liiillfluin is bounded on tlio north by Holland, on the west l)y the N(trth Sea, on the south by France, and on the cast by (Jermany and Luxemburg. It is divided into nine provinces. The Hiii-ruct^ is in general le\el. In the south and east the country preHents a jtleasing variety of plains and gently undulating eminences. The principal rIvvrN are the Scheldt, draining the ^\est, and the il/iK.sf, with its tributary, the (NVri/i/icc, draining the east; both How through Holland into the German Ocean. The coast is low, and the country is protected from the sea by sand-hills or dunes. The elliiiatv is mild and pleasant; the soil is productive, and most iudustricjusly cultivated. Belgium is the most densely peopled comitry in the world, and has large and im[)(n*tant manufactures, chiefly of lace, cambric, and wool- lens. It also possesses extensive iron and coal mines. Belgium was at one time the foremost commercial country of Europe, l)ut gave place to Holland, which in turn yielded its supremacy to Great Britain. Belgium, formerly called Fl.inders, belonged successively to Burgundy, Austria, S})ain, and France. In 1814 it was joined to HoHand, forming the Kingdom of the Nether- lands. In the Revolution of 18.'i0 it achieved its indepen- dence, and in 18."51, Leopcjld of Saxe-Coburg, uncle of Queen Victoria, was elected king. Brussels (482, 0rE. Area, 20.^,003 square miles, (diout the same size as the Proc- incc of (Quebec; populatio>i, ilS,^J5U,0U0 ; persons to stpuire mile, 187. France is bounded on the north by Belgium and the English Chainiel; on the west by the Bay of Biscay; on the south by Spain and the Mediterranean ; and on the east by Italy, Switzerland, and Germany. Previous to the Revolution in 1781), France was divided into ;J4 provinces; after that event it was divided into 87 (lepartnienis, named from the rivers or mountains within their Ixduitlaries. In 18(i0, the Duchy of Savoy and County of Nice were ceded to France by the King of Italy. At the close of the war of 1871, Alsace and part of Lorraine were ceded by France to (iermany. The lurfaro of France consists chiefly of undulating plains, except in the east, whiih is mountainous. The VAk 1 FRANCE. Ill highest mountains in the south are the Piimiees, forming the boundary between France and Spain, tlie highest sum- mit being Maladetta or Pie de Nethou (ll,l(i8 feet). In the east are the Aljt.s, forming tiie boundary between France and Italy, witli Mont Blanc 15,781 feet above the sea, the higliest mountain in Europe; tho Jura Mi)iint((uis between France and Switzeiland; and the Vnsijes MuiDitains between f^rance and the lately ceded province of Alsace. To the west of the .lura Mountains is the plateau of Burgundy, from whieh the Cunnnvs extend south-west, forming the boundary between the basin of the Rhone and the rivers flowing west into the Bay of Biscay. To the west of the central Cevennes chain are the mountains of Auvergne and France may be divided into four great river basins, all sloping from tlie mountains in the eastern part of the coun- try to the sea — that of the tributfiries of the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Meusv, flowing north; the Seine, flowing into the English Channel; the Loire and Garonne, flowing west from the Cevennes to the Bay of Biscay; and the lihone, flowing south into the Gulf of Lyons. The extent of navigable rivers and canals is upwards of 8,(XX) miles. France is very compact in territorj', and is washed on three sides by the sea. The principal cape is Cape de la Jldijiie, in the north. The principal bays and gulfs are: St. Michael's Baij, on the north-west; the Bay of Biscay, on the west; and the Gtdf of Lyons, on the south. The only island of importance belonging to it is Corsica, which is mountainous, and noted as having been the birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte. The Jhjvrcs IsUuids, near Toulon, in the Mediterranean, are celebrated for the siilubrity of their climate. On the north-west is Ushant; and in the Bay of Biscay, Belle Isle, li^, and Oleron. The cllmnte of Franco is one of the finest in Europe, as the country is situated about the middle of the temperate zone. The soil is fertile and favorable for agriculture, which forms the occupation of three-fifths of the population. Its jiroduetions are various: in the north, wheat and grain; in the middle and south, the vine; and in the south, olives, fi<,'s, oranges, almonds, ami other southern fruits. The wines and brandies of France are celelirated, and are con- sidered to be among the best in the world. Beet-root is extensively cultivated for the manufacture of sugar. In niannfiipturoH nnA coiiiinerco, France is one of the first countries in the world, but still much inferior to Cheat Britain. The principal manufactures are silks, woollens, ))orcelain, jewellery, articles of fashion, laces, gloves, and fancy-wares. Its imports and exports amount to about 1,(140.000,000 doHars. France is one of the five great powers of Europe, and maintains a standing army of from 500,<)()0 to (!00,000 men, which is kept up by conscription. .-v^: BkAXCII of MfLBKUY TRKK, SILK-WORM, CofdO.V, AND MoTllH. The annual revenue is greatly in excess of that of (ireat Bri- tjiin, uiid the public debt is one of tho largest in the world. France has 1 leen the scene of many revo- lutions and changes, , commencing with the memoral)le Revolu- tion of 1789. The present government is republican. In literature and science, France has always held a high position in the world ; but popular educa- tion was much neglected until Louis Philippe ascemled tho throne, since which time an extensive and well-organized system has been established uiuler the control of (Govern- ment. The established religion is the Roman Catholic, but all religions are tcjlerated, and Protestant clergymen are also paid by the Stiite. The forutgfii pohhohhIoiis of France are tho colony of Alijeria and the protectorate of Tunis, in the north of Africa; Hcneyal, and other settlements in the west; ])ortions of tho Sahara and Soudan, amounting to over half a million s([uaro miles; French Conyo and Gaboon countries, amount- ing to 250, (XK) S(|uare miles; and portions of Madaijascar, tho island of licunion, or Bourbon, with some smaller islands in tho Indijin Ocean. In Asia, Yanaon, Chandcrnnijore, Karihd and Fondichcrnj, on the east coast of Ilindostan, and M,()(K)), tho capital, situated on the Seine, is tho second largest city in Euroj)e; in architectural splendor and beauty, it ranks first. It was much improved during tho reign of Ilmpemr Na[)oleon 111. It is the great centre for the numufacture of articles of taste and fashion; and is distinguished for the number and high character of its literary, art, and scientific institutions, not less than for its numerous splendid palaces, churches, and places of amuse- ment. Near Paris uro }'erscrs(>us to square viilc, IJft. Portusnl occupies the south-western portion of the Iberian Peninsula, and lies between Spain and the Atlantic Ocean. It is divided into six provinces. -^ Portugal resembles dgi^.., T^* ;^ Spain in most of its phy- sical features and produc- ticmx. It is traversed by sev- eral of the mountain ranges and rivers of Spain. The Hvrra d'En- tri'lla, a continuati(m of the mount^iins of Cas- tile, terminate in Capt' de lioca, the most westerly ])oint of Europe. The Scrra d'Osna and Serra Mo nchique, continua- tions of the Sierra Neva- da, terminate in Cape, St, Viiireut, off which Ad- miral .fervis defeated the ^l^'-'^iC^r UlllRALTAR. ^'«-ik&in ti4^r about one for each 118,000 inhabitants. All (piestioi.s of war, ])eace, diplomacy, and conunerce are in the l):.nds of tlie Emperor, but each State controls its own local affiiirs. PKUSSIA. Area, 134,463 sqi(are mllvx, one-th ird xnuilUr than the. I'mnnce of Quebec; popvlaiion, ii9,'JB6,000 ; periuyiis to sipMre mile, 223. Prussia is the first country in Germany for size, popula- ticm, and importance, and is bounded on the north by the Baltic Sea, Mecklenburg, Denmark, and the North Sea; on the west by Holland, Belgium, and France; on the south by some of tlie smaller German States and A ustria ; and on the east by Russia. Its fourteen provinces are: East Prussia. Sa\nn.v, West I'russia. SchleswiK-IIolstein (iui'ludin^ Berlin. Heligroland). BraiHleiilnirif. Hanover. I'otneruniu. Westphalia. I'oson. Hessen -Nassau. Silesia. Itlieinlaml. Hi)ht'ii7.oll('rn. The surface is in general flat, sloping towards tlie nortli. In the south are tlie Um::, liiem'ti (iehinjf, and Hxdetic chains of mountiiins; in tliu norlli-oast it is covered to a great extent with vast sandy and marshy tracts, and numer- ous small, shallow lakes. The rivers are slow, and favorable for navigation. The j)rincipal are: the lilihin mid Elhc, flowing into the North Sea, and the Odvr, Vistnln, and Nivmen, flowing into the Baltic Sea. None of these rise in Prussia. The sea-ooast of Prussia is on the Baltic, with a small portion on the North Sea; opposite the mouths of the rivers long sand-banks or islands nearly enclose the gulfs called the Stettinn- Haff, FrLnche Huff, and Cuiisvhe Jfaff. The climate in the east and north is subject to extremes, but in the western provinces it is milder and more favorable to agriculture. The soil in the west and .south is fertile, and all the ordinary grains are grown in suthcient (piantities for exportation. The vineyards of the Rhine are celebrated, and tobacco is grown in the south. Pru.s.sia is not rich in minerals ; but iron, copper, lead, and coal are found in the mounbiin ranges. Amber is found on the shores of the Baltic. The commerce of Prussia is largo. Tlie principal exports are grain, wool, linen, flax, and Rhenish wim-s. It has also important linen, woollen, cotton, and iron manufactures. The form of lerovernmont is an hereditary ccmstitutional monarchy, with I'pper and Lower Houses of Representa- tives; but the King, who is also Emjieror of Germany, still ])osse,ssos great power. The constitution was granted by Frederick William IV. in IHoO. The royal family, and the greater part of the inhabitants, are Protestants, but all religions are e(|ually tolerated. The sy.stein of education is very c,000), on the Spree, a tributary of the Elbe, is the capital ; it is the hirgest city in Germany, and one of the first in Europe; it is noted f,000), the second city in size and importance, with large woollen and linen manufactures; and Frankfort, with large manufactures of cloth and an extensive trade. On the Elbe are i Magdebnrg (202,000), one of the strongest fortiesst!s in Europe, sacked by Tilly in 1631; Wdtenhcrij, where the Reformation began; and Altona, the capitnl of Holstein. Hidle, on the Saale, a tributary of the Elbe, has a notable university. On the Rhino are « Cohxjm (282,000), celebrated for its magniticent catiiedial, and the principal seat of commerce on the Rhine; Bonn, with a university; DuasehUnf an import- ant town and river-port for the cotton and silk manufactures of EUxrJivld (12(>,0(KJ), Borincn (IKi.OOO), etc. Cohhntz, at the junction of the Moselle with the Rhine, with EUrenhreit- xteia, (m the ojiposito side of the river, one of the strimgest fortresses in p]uro])e; Bimjin, with a large wine trade; and Miitjcncc, a stnmgly fortitied town. Ai.r-lrtant seaport on the Trave, near the Baltic. These free cities belonged to the old llanseatic League. In Ituvarla, which lies west of Austria- Hungary, is Mn- nirh (;J48,0(MI), the capital, on the Isar, a tributary of the Danube. It is a large and beautiful city, with attractive galleries of painting ;iud sculpture, besides literary institu- tions of note. Aii'jxliiny, where the Protest-iint Confession of Faith was presented to Charles V., and li0,0(iO. The Austro-Hunierarian ^loiiarrby is bounded on the north by Russia, Prussia, and Saxony ; on the west by m 118 ArSTRIA-HL'NGARY. i ■ U ;5i :^ , I ;'fi Bavaria, Switzorland, and Itily ; on the sout'.i by Itoly, the Adriatic Sua, Turkoy, Scrvia, and Kouinania; and on tho east ))y Rouniania and Jluss'a. It is rtno o^ the five great powers, hut has, during tlie last few yt'ars, lost considerable territory' and much of its former pi'csfige, in contests witii France, Italy, and T'russia. Although it has, through the influence of its ascendant rival, Prussia, been excluded from all connection with the political division of Europe called Germany, still, as most of the inhabitants of tho western }>ortion of the empire s])eak (Jer- man and are of German descent, it is divideil into (Ji-rman. or Cisleithan Austria, or Austria Proper, and Transleithan, or Hungarian Austria. The ficrman i)art is mountainous. The Sudetic chain extcntls along the northern frontier, and Hohemiaand Mora- via are almost enclosed by mountains. The Alps, in the .south, e.xti'ud fiom the Tyrol in two chains, in a north- easterly and south-easterly ,')(«) feet. ( )n the north they are abrupt and precipitous, but on the south they slojje more gradually into Hungary, which forms a vast plain, almost surrounded by mountains. The ])rincipal rivor of Austria is the Jhtindiv, which Hows in an easterly and south-easterly direction through the coun- try, receiving the Jini, Ihaii', anil >S'in'c from the Alps, anil the 3/(1 /•(■/(, WiKtij, aiul 77(r(',<,-f from the northern mountains. I'he ]'Jllir, (nhi\ au,!>Ut> .square miles, about fon)\tifths the f,lze nf Nova Sriitia; population, 2,U17,,7Hl feet; Monte Kosa, 10,217 feet; and the Matterliorn or Mont Cervin, 14,t)3U foot. In the Bernese Alps the .luiigfrau striking contrast to the peaceful scenes in the valleys, with their pictuii'si[uo chalets, waving fields of grain, (irchards ripening umler a southern sun, and the deep clear laktis almost hidden 1)y the mountains. The Hoil of Sw'^/erland varies greatly with the locality, and wlun-ever it is possilile, it is industriously cultivated. The valleys yield grain, grapes, and various fruits, and the mountains give iiaslmage to herds of cattle and goats. Tlu' niaiiiifact ures are ehielly cottons and woollens, with a largo trade in watches. The Swiss are a brave, industrious, and fi'ugal | joplo, and are faiiieu for their love of liberty. They speak the l''reii(h, Italian, ortierman language, aceoriling to tiie country they l)order upon. Three-fifths of the population aro Protestants and the remaindin' Roman Catholics. lieruc (4<1,(KM)), on the Aar, the chief toivii of the largest 11 120 ITALY. \ i situiitud cii the lake of tliiit imiiiu, Othor towns arc L(ni- saiiiie and Chmix-de- Funds. I 'I' A I. Y . canton, is also the Boafc of the Fedornl Diet, (rcnerrt (72,000) 18(ir>, Austria was compelled, after a short war, to cede is beautifully situated oA the laive of tiie same name, anil \ Venetia to the new kingdom. has important manufactures of watclius and jewelry. Btixlc Ttaly is a long, nan-ow peninsula, resembling a boot in (70,000) and »S'(7i(i/^7unMfH on the Rhine, and Ziu-ic/i, (W,(K)0) shape. Its nurfuce is much divei-sified, presenting every on the lake of the same naiue, carry on the principal i variety of rich and varied huidscape. The Al[)s curve round ccmunerce. St. Gall is a manufacturing town. Ntitdutiel lit on the north and north-west, and the Apennines extend has clock and watch manufactures. A i/(Tr/i« is charmingly 1 from the Maritime Alps, the southern extremity of the Pennine Alps, through the ^g«5. ^ ^--■r,:^;--^i>a^-^^ft . _ cntiro Icugth of the penin- sula, rising in the south to the height of about 5>,50O feet. These mountain chains divide the country into tiiree parts : the large fertile plains of Pied- mont and Lombardy in the north, between the Alps and Apennines; and the eastern and western slopes from tlio Apennines to the sea. Italy is well watered by rlverH, and tlieir basins are remarkably fertile. Tiie prin- cipal are the Po, with its tributary the Tlrlno, and tiie Adlijr, Howing into tlie Adri- atic through tlio nortiiern plains; the Ariio anil TIIht, Howing west into tlie Medi- terranean. Nortli of till' l*o, at the foot of tiie Alps, are the bi'autiful Lxhs i'liiiu), Ln- (/(Mio, J/;((/(//'();v', and (tiiiild. Tlie const is irregular, and indented witli many tine gulfs and bays, of wliich the prin- cipal are the WiiI/k , 500 feet. liiis divide ree {Kirts: ;i.s of Pietl- dy ill the Alps and le oiistern I from the 3!l. atered l»y basins are Theprin- , with its (I, and the ) tlie Adri- niirtliern imd Tiliii; the INk-di- of the Po, Alps, are CiDllll, IjII- (toiild. ular, and fine i^idfs tlie i)riu- Kiijih s, and 1 the west f Tiiiimht the tlulf ist, at the Sea. The jiiiii'd, the f Mixsinii IK i/dcio VA the Sfr(tlt ,y of It^ily 10 inhalti- havti uIhu important fisheries of anchovy and sardines. Sirlhi, the largest and most fertile island in the Mediterranean, separ- ated from the maiidaud by the Strait of Messina. In the east is M<)\uit Etna, the largest European volcano, nearly 11,000 feet high. Elhn, on the west coast of Italy, between Corsica and the niainland, was the first [)lace of banishment of Napoleon. The Lipuri Iddudu, north of Sicily, with Stwmholi, called the Lighthouse of the Mediterranean, from its volcano, which is always burning. The cllninte of Ibdy is delightful, but on the west coast, between the Island of Elba and the Gulf of Gaeta, the heat of summer csvuses malaria from the marshes, rendering large tracts of the country uninhabitable. These tracts are called the Motrmma, Fonthic Marnhvn, and the OtmiMdjna. The soil is very fertile. Rice, wheat, and maize are extensively cultivated, and vines, olives, oranges, and lemons are abundant. Italy pos- sesses few minerals, V)ut is cele- brated for its line marbles aiMl alabaster. Silks are manufac- tured in the north, and are almost the only manufacture of conse- quence. Although till iar)9 disunited and unsettled, Italy is, famous as having been the seat of the old J{oman Empire, the mistress of the world in former ages, and it possesses many interesting clas- sic remains of its former gran- ileur, forming an ample and in- teresting study to tli'j traveller and schohir. It was also the seat of several of the most jiowerful commercial republics of the Middle Ages, such as ^'enice and (ieiioa, an (20«1,(MM>), a lino city, with gri-at eonniieree ; jI/i.s.i/ok, (I7H,(MMI), the prin(;ipal commercial city; Cutiniia (9(i,(KM(), with manufactures of silk ; Sijriu-ii.Hc, famous for its ancient greatness, and menior- 122 GREECE -TURKEY I\ EUROPE. able in history; and Marndla, noted for its wines, ditjluiti is the chief port of the l.sliind of S;'.rdiiii;i,. The iHlaiHl of 31altu, to the south of Sicily, belongs to rireut IJritjiin. Valdla is the capitiil, iind the cliief station for the British fleet in the Mediterranean. ORKKf'K. Area, 25,0^1 square mih», (Die-Jiftli liinjir tlmn Nova Scotia; population, ii, 200,000 ; pvimnis ti> sfitair mile, ST. Oreoco, anciently termed Hellas, is bounded on the north by Turkey, on the west and south by the Mediterranean, and on the east by the Gre- cian Archipelago. The Hurfaeo consists of a succession of gentle hills and valleys, well adapted for culti- vation. In the northern part are the celebrated mountains Paniussits and Helicon. There are no rivers of iin- portanct) in Greece. The coun- try is almost intersected by tlie (liilf (if LvpniUo on tlie west and the (inlf of ^Ktihui on the east. The southern part is called the Moira, or ancient Pelo[>onnesus, and is joini^d to the mainland by the IxlhiiiuK of Voriiilh. Greece possesses numerous bays and islands. Of the latter, the princi|)al are the Ionian Js- lanih on the west coast, in- cluding (^orfii, Saiitti Maura, llliara, Cijilialonia, Za)ilf, and (\ri(jo, Tliey were fornu^rly inider the protection of l$rit- ain, but were given up to Greece in 18(!4. t)n the east coast are Ni'tjropoitt or Euhoa, and the Cijclitdi'.i. The i)rincipal gulfs are: Li'itanto, Nai(plia, and j^ijina. Tile most soutlu'rly points of Groeoo are Capes Matapati, Malio (or Malea), and I'oloiuia. The clitiiiito is delightful, and the soil fertile, producing in a)>undance grapes, oranges, lemons, and all southern fruits. The Ionian Isles export large i|uantitii's of currants. Owing to tlie long unsettled state of tlio country, agi'icultiu'i! l\aH niiulo little progress. ManufacturoH are few, and thi^ means of internal counuunication are indill'erent, but cun- Miderable improvements are being made. A MdllAMMKDAN MilHljIR (TlUKKV). Previous to 1829, Greece was subject to Turkey. It then achieved its independence;, and in 1832 elected Otho of Bavaria to be king. He was deposed in 1802 ; and in 18<).S, William, the son of the present Kiiig of Denmark, wao elected in his stead, under the title of George I. At the Berlin Conference (1880) a strip of territory be- longing to Turkey, lying along the then northern boundary of Greece, and containing an area of about 5,1()2 sipiare miles, with a population of nearly 300,000, was awarded to Greece. After some resisbmce and delay on the jmrt of Turkey, it was finally handed over to Greece in 1882, Although small in teiTitory, ,^>3?^- "^*^ '^"'^ ""W of little political importance, Greece jmsses-ses much interest on account of the niagnilicent remains of its ancient monuments, and the rememlmvnce of its former greatness. Almost every spot is classic ground, as tlie scene of some remarkable event in its ancient history, when it held the first rank among the nations of the world. Athens (107,000\ the capi- tal, owes its chii'f interest to its past greatness. It has only now tlie remains of its ancient magnilicence. Kaiijilia, at the head of the gulf of the same name, possesses a tine harbor and fortr.ss, and is a consid- erable seaport. Xiirnrino, in the south-west, is memorai)k' for the destruction of the Turkish navy in 1827 by the combined fleets of Britain, France, and Russia. Corinth and iS/)«r/<(, both in the Mo- *•('((, were once renowed cities, Patras (33,500), also in the Morea, is an important seaport near the entrance to the (lulf of Lepanto. Corfu (10,0(X)), on an island of the same name, is the capital of the bmian Islands. IlertmoqioliH anay. «>f •k, wius ory l^e- vrded to part of ei-ritory, political jjosaesses ;count of iiins of its , and the s former jvery Mpot the scene . event in , when it aniony the .1. , the c-ipi- interest to It has only its ancient lyi/iK, at the If the same tine havhi Il- ls a consid- i((C(n'/ii'i, in jiiiemoraoU' Inn of the S27 hy the |,f Britain, IV. Corititli |in the Mo- also in the ,i»co to the lif the same linipolix iiiid •uier having iirirr (In' ■s'-.i' per>ion» <<> Turkey, or the Ottoman Empire, comprises possessions ' and Sclavonic races, helontjing mostly to the Greek Clmrch. in Euroi>e, Asia, and Africa. European Turkey is boiuided on the north by Austria, Servia, and Roumania ; on tlie west by Austria, Montenegro, and the Adriatic Sea ; on the south by Greece, the Archipelago, and the Sea of Marmora; and on the east by the Black Sea. By the Treaty of Berlin (1878), considenible changes were made in European Turkey. Servia, Roumania, and Montenegro, which had been tribu- tiry provinces, were made indei)endent. Bulgaria was erected into a tributory self-governing principality, East Roumelia into a tributary self-governing province; and Bosnia and Herzegovina were jjut in the occupation and under the administnition of Austria-Hungary. Turkey is a mountainous country, although diversified with rich and fertile val- leysand extensive plains. "— - Tlieprincijial mountains ^^ arc the iirt//.'an, extend- ^■^^Si- ^^fe-? ing from east to west _ _:. *!^"=^^^^^t tln-ougli the centre of the country. From the west end of that raiige tlie I>in(trir Alps extend north-west, and the I'in- du^ MdiintaiiiH soutb; and from about tiie mid- dle of the s;ime rau'^e, the l>i'spoto or liltDdoji'' J/()i//i/(M'/i,sst retell south- east, and another chain north-west, to the C'ar- patliians, mei'ting them at tlie Iron (iate on the Danube. The princi jKil lakes are Si'iildfi and Orhrida. ClINKTA.NTI.Voll.F. The chief features of the coast are the (riilfs of the whole po|iulatioii are pure Turks, though alniut 4,tKX),0 said to constitute their religion, laws, and literature, iie- forms have, however, l)een introduced, and some progress is being made in educating the people. Condnnthinple (874,000), tho capital, one of tho largest cities in Europe, is beautifully situated on tho Bosphorus, or Strait of Constantino] )le, and possesses a magnificent harbor, called the "(jolden Horn." The city present.s a splendid appearance from the water, owing to its numerous nios(iues, glittering douies, and graceful minarets; but the interior is poorly built, and dirty. The houses are in general built of woo.'{. Ad rid )i<>ple (10. M>()), oil the Marit- zji, is the set'oiid city in importance, and was for- merly the capita! of tho Ottoman Empire, (iiilll- piill, on the Danlaneilt's, an(l.SW/(/((//,«(((ll).()(>())(the ancient ThessaIonica)are important seaports. Hill arar la. now includ- ing Ma.-^t Roumelia, is a tributary state of Tur- key. It is iiounde(l on thi! iiortli by Ivouniania, •in the south by T\n-lIMI). iSuIguria con tains the f.iiiious fortre.s.ses of U'iddin, ItiistrlniL, SiliKlriit, Sclnonlii, and I'urnK. I'ltilililiiijKills (:;;{, 4IM)) wa.s the former capital of Mast Rouiui'lia. The country along tho south of the Balkans and the valley of the Maiitza is famous feu- its rose garilens, and exports largo cpiantities of the attar or oil of roses. ItitNiilu and irurovliin, now under the administration and military occupation of .Viistria-lliitigary, lie between that country on the north, Montenegro on tho south, Servia on the east, and Ualmatia on the west. Area, L'4,fMM» sipiarc miles; population, 1,4IM»,()<)(). Tho capital is (SVivijcro or lltimtd-Sridi. r 124 ROUMANIA—SERVI A- MONTENEGRO. I i i i! HOUMANIA. Area, 4S,ii07 sqnnre miles; population, o,/JOO,OUi> ; jwrsoms to sqiuire mile, 115. Rouiiiania is lioiinded on the north and west by Austria- Hungary and Sorvia, on the south Ijy Bulgaria, and on the east Ijy Russia and the Black Sea. It consists of \\'^allachia and Moldavia, formerly tribubiry provinces of Turkey, but by the Treaty of Berlin (1878) it was declared independent, and that portion of BulgJiria lying between the Danul)e and the Black Sea, called the Dobrudscha, was added to it. In 1881 it was erected into a kingdcjui. The country consists of fertile plains, sloping from the Carpathian Mountains to the valley of the Danube. The fliiiiato, however, is subject to extreiues, being intensely liot in summer and cold in winter. The principal wealth of the country consists in its cattle, sheej), and horses, of which immense numbers are reared on its extensive pasture lands. The rlvcPH arc numerous, being all tributary to the Dan- iihc, which Hows along the southern boundary, and empties itself into tlie Black Hea by several mouths. The other principal rivers are the I'rnth, forming in part of its course the boundai-y between Moldavia and Russia; the Srrclh, running through Moldavia, and the Alnta through Wal- lachia. The peop' ! are a mixed race, formed by the amalga- mation of ' rajan's Roman colony with the original Dacian jiopulatii .. The language, kiKiwn as Wallachian, is mainly derived from the Latin. The Greek Church is the dominant religion, but .Jews are very numerous, amounting to about 400,000. The chiei" cities are Bnchured (221,800), the capital ; Jassy ({M),100), the chief city of Moldavia; and (Udutz (80,700), at the confluence of the Danube, Sereth, and Pruth, the great centre of commerce and emporium of trade f(jr the whole kingdom. SKRVIA. Area, 19,050 square miles ; population, 2,163,000 ; persons to s(p(are 7»uZe, llJf. Sepvia is bounded on the north by Austria-Hungary, f>n the west by Bosnia, on the south by Turkey, and on the east by Roumania and Bulgaria. It is a principality governed by an hereditary prince. It was formerly tributary to Turkey, but was made independent, with added territory, in 1878, by the Treaty of Berlin. The country is mountainous, with extensive heath and forest lands. The soil is fertile, but agriculture and com- merce are backward. The ])rincipal exports are pigs, cattle, grain, and oak and other woods. The j)eople are Sclavcmians, and the dominant religion is the Greek Church. Belgrade (55,000) is the capital. MOXTENEGRO. Area, 3,630 square viilen ; 2^<>P"^fition, 236,000; persons to sq)iare mile, 68. "Wontenegro is a small mountainous country lying south of Herzegovina, on the Adriatic Sea. It was formerly tril)u- tury to Turkey, but was made independent, with additional territory, by the Treaty of Berlin (1878). The people are hardy mountaineers, distinguished for their bravery. They are governed by an hereditary prince, and a State Council, or legislature, one-half of whom are chosen by the prince, and the other half elected by the people. Cettinge (1,500) is the capital. FOIIKST AREA OF EUROPE. According to one authority, the following table shows the forest areas of the principal countries of Europe, as compared with the total areas (jf the respective countries : ColNTllV. AnRA OK PnllN- TllY— AUIIKS. Aura of Foh K!*T— AcRKH. Percrnt- A(IK. ColNTRY. Arka op Coun- TllY— ACREB. Arra op For- K8T— ACRKS. Pbrcrnt- AUR. KuhhIiv . . Swi'di'ii itml N'orw i,,i.to,;tr.3,7i)r. -"i;>,387,(K}r) rin3,88(),(«)i) 02,,'ti-.,ii;w 40 :t4 Spiiiii r.i'l^riiiin 110,792,223 7,207,1)75 8,r.23,830 r.01,4()5 7 7 AUHtrillllllllKi;' (U'rnmti.v Turkey i,;i,707,;i8o i.i:i,028,l)H0 .. •.,701,0:14 4r>,;ioi),2i.'i 34,mii),071 2.1,44:1,284 211 20 22 IIlllllUlcl.. I'orliiital (Irciil Uritaii mill liclarid .. 8,441,225 22,811),(mri 70,(IO,'i,.'t21 rm,im l,lflr),420 3,110,811) 7 5 4 Hilly SwKzcrliiiMl I'ranic .,i,flr.i,ririO p,ii7i,;«)o iM(),r>57,.v.r. 14,228,1)78 1,788,780 22,087,710 22 18 17 Duiiiimrk Total l:t,87(l,28fj 404,300 3 2,:)84,8r)4,04i) 720,085,017 .■10 OruDcu ii,07i),r>(K) 1,721,(K«) 14 the great :he whole persons to ingary, on )ii the east ' governed ibutary to territory, lieath and ) and coni- are pigs, ])eople are ■ek Church. ; 2^'^»''*(>'is to lying south nierly triV)U- h additional people are very. They ite Council, the prince, thige (1,500) Eiu'opo, as r For- CKKS. I'RUCKNT- A(IR. 1,830 7 1,405 7 ■),420 .i,Hl9 7 5 4 4,;«io 3 5,017 30 ASIA. 125 Tub Uimalayah. ASIA. Ared, l,'ijiii0,0()t) xiiikiiv lallt.^ ; jiopidation, ,^.'ilt,iiiiti,(i(li) ; pfrstnm to .siyunrc iiiili', .'i>i. Asia is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean; on tlie west l)y tlio Ural Mountains, Ural River, Caspian Sea, Mount Caucasus, lUack Sea, Sea of Marmora, Medi- terranean, and the lied Sea ; on the soutli by the Indian Ocean; and on the east by the Pacific Ocean. It is the largest and most poi)ulous of the great divisions of the globe, and is jiarticularly interesting a.s having been the first aliode of man, and the scene of most of the import- ant events recoi'ded in the ]Ul)le. Its chief physical features are as remarkable as its extent, the rivers being of great length, and efpialled by only some of the largest in America; while its mo\nitains are the highest in the world, and its higli table-lands arc nowhere surpassed for their vast extent, or height above the sea. Tlie two great chains of the llininliiiiti and Altui Moun- tains, extending across the brofulcst part of Asia from west to east, under various names, form the most striking feature of the continent, and divide it into three regions. viz., a great northern jilain, siojiing towards tlie Arctic Ocean, through wliich tlie (H>l, Yi-nlsi'i, and Lena riveni flow; a central mountainous region, whicli is sulidivided by other mountain chains; and a southern slope towards tlie Indian Ocean, divided into three great jieninsulas. Hetween the two great ranges the slope is mainly eastward, and tliis vast valley contains the minor j)arallel chains of the Tlnon Slitin, Kiiinlun, and Kurnhoruni or MnsliKjIi, and the moun- tains of China, forming the basins of the great rivers .1 »ioor, Hiuin(j-ho, and Yumj-tsc-Kinnij ; a smaller western slojio ia shown by the course of the ^1 moo and Kir, flowing into the Sea of Aral. From tlie Himalayas and their continuations east and west is a southern .slope, as shown by the courses of the rivers Mvkung or Caml)oj(t, Saliun, Irnni-ddij, and others in Farther India; the (ritn(i(s, Jinilnndiintm, and Indus, in Hindo.stan ; and the Ti> smmt the world, about one hundred and twenty of their j)eaks rising over 20,000 feet in height. Mount Everest is 29,002 feet, and Kanchinjiiufa 28,15G feet high. The Kamkorum or Miuitar/h range is anotlier stupendous chain, scarcely inferior to the Himalayas in magnitude. It runs through Kaslimir and Thibet, north of the valleys of the Indus and Tsanpu or Brahmaputra, parallel with the Hinialaya.s. Its direction is south-easterly as far as Liike Namcho or Tengri Nor, where it turns southerly and joins the Himalayas at the east end of Bhotan. Several of tlie peaks are over 25,000 feet high, and it culminates in Moinit Dapsang (28,278), the second highest mountain in the world. The princifKil rtvors of Asia already mentioned are of great length and volume, and many of them are navigable for long distances. Tiiose of Silteria, however, are almost inaccessible, as they tlijw into the Arctic Ocean. The table-lands of Asia are of great extent, and occupy a large portirus, in the eastern end of the Mediterranean ; Ceylon, the Laecadire, Maldive, Andaman, and S'.ubar Inlands, in tlie Indian Occiiii; Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celelwx, the Molurcan or Sj'ire /■■inne», in the Kiistern Arc^hiiiela^'o; and Hainan, l-'nrniona, Lou Clmo Islandu, the d^apan Islandu, .SViy/ta/iVii, Kurile, and Aleutian IslandK, in the Pacific. The principal Seas and Ciiiirs are t Tlie Levant, Bed Sea, Araliian Sea, I'erninn (liil/. Gulfs of Cuteh and ' "^aiuhaii, Ilaii of Bemjal and Gulf of Martahan, China Sea and Gulfs of I J e. The climate of Asia is, in general, warmer than that of North America in the same latitude; but the high table- lands are subject to violent extremes. In the north it is excessively cold; in the middle it is dry, and almost rain- less; and in the soutli hot. In the ea.st it is more moist than in the west; in the south, the seascms are divided into wet and dry, and their changes are accompanied by a change in the winds, called the mon.soons, or season winds. Tlie tundras, as the lands lying along the Arctic Ocean are called, are barren wastes. The northern j)lain of the continent, lying south of the tundras, is forest bind; the gi'eat central table-land is either agricultin-al and pastural land, or sandy desert ; while Farther India and Malaysia possess immense tropical forests. On the southern slope of the Him.-dayas vegetation becomes most luxuriant, producing the plants and grains of all the zones, according to the elevation. Chuia is famous for its tea and rice. In the southern part of the continent, and in the islands, coffee, cotton, rice, ginger, pepjier, and spices are produced in great abundance; while the forests furnish palm, teak, sandalwood, gand)oge, and caoutchouc trees. Jungles cover a large part of the country in the south and south-east, affording refuge to the lion, tiger, leopai'd, elephant, and great numbers of large and venomous serpents and other reptiles. In the north are found the bear, wolf, reindeer, ermine, marten, and many otlier fur-l)earing animals; horses, cauiels, and dromedaries abound in the miildle and .soutli- westerly region. Iron, tin, cop|)er, coal, and other minerals are found in various parts. Precious .stones are foinid in India. The mo.st densely peopled parts of Asia are China and Hindostan. The iidiabitants of Asia are generally of the Caucasian race in the south-west; Mongolians in the middle and east; and Malays in Malacca and the East India Islands. They almost all profess either the worsliip of Brahma or Buddha in the south, and the system of Confucius in China, or tliey are followers of Mohammed in tlie west, which is the centre and cradle of Moiiammedanism. There are native Cliristians iti Syria and Arnu'nia, anil the llussian colonists of Siberia belong to tiie (ireuk Cliurcli. The ClouiitricH of Asia are t Turkey in Asia. Aniliin. I'( r.sia. Afirhaniflan. lli'luiicliiHlaii or naluchistan. India or Hindostan. Kastern I'eninsnltt, coinprisiint Ihniiiah, Siaiii, Aiiani, etc. Cliinnsc Kni|iiri', inchidinu Tliibct, Miin'„'oliu, clc. Independent Turkestan. UiiHsiu in Asia, Japan. 128 ANIMALS OF ASIA. ft M ^*-.. .. fekai4^ ■iiffilii '0^.^ ll%«A. 1. Zebit. 2. Bactrian Camrl. 3. Tiokr. 4. Kkopard. 5. Rminockaoh. 0. Indian Bi80n. 7. Indian Biffalo. 8. Taimr. 9. Yak. 10. Ermine. 11. I'oRcrpiNE. 12. Ant-Eatkr. 13. Ciiektaii. 14. Aroi'8 I'iieasant. 15. Ml'SK Deer. 1(1. Cohka di Cai-kllo. To the Teaclier. — The Zebu, or Indian Ox, is used m alwast of burden and of drauifbt, esi)ecially in attriculture. The zclii ha.s alwajM been held in high honor by the Brahmins, and he is treated with great consideration l>y them, being allowed to do ahnost everything that he pleases ; it is thought wrong to beat him. — The Baetrian or two-humjied Camel is larger and more robust than the Arabian or oiie-humiied Camel, and is much rarer. It is found in the more northerly and easterly parts of the continent, and can endure the severe winter cold of those regions.— The Leopard, unlike the tiger, is seldom found in ojk'U jungles; it haunts woody i)laees. It is, ho\ve\er, far more common than the tiger, and is e5^tW-^'^ ^^'■"^i^-Z"- '^^ TURKEY IN ASIA. 129 Ermine. 11. «T. 15. Musk burden anrt of ill high honor y them, heing lie; to beat him. an the Arabian e iinrtlierly and er cold of those lilies; it haunts and is eciually •d, is found only ,s with which it »(ls that of any horned, and in [lalily had their or "tiaur," is iuit of the bison Indian liiiflalo, all the aiiinials }Ie is fond of in Tavir is found and while its ■Uy are white.— finer, turns to a ains a jet black, iiiow-white Kkin, rcujiine is iiuito iliffers from the lis covered with •asant, so called its iiluniasfe, is li^g.—The Cobra lost venomous of I he easily killed. ~/ff. TURKEY IX ASIA. Ana, about 682,931 siptare viiles, about three times the si'^c of Quebec; popidation, 31,008,000 ; persons to square mile, 31. Turkey in Asia is bounded on the north by the Black Seiv and Russia, on the west by the Grecian Archipehiyo and the Mediterranean Seu, on the south by Arabia, and on the east by Persia. It comprises Asia Minor, Amvenia, Sijria (including Palestine), J^LHrciWa/i (the ancient Assyria), Irak-Arabi (tlie ancient Clialdea), and AUjerArah (the ancient Mesopotamia). These countries are all celebrated in the records of the Holy Scriptures, both Old and New, and for that reason form a peculiarly interesting study. It also comprises all the west- ern, and part of the eastern divisions of Arabia. The islands of Ciiprus and lihodes, \\\ tiio Mediterranean, with Mitylcnc, Scio, Siinws, and all the Asiatic islands of the Grecian Archipelago, belong to Turkey. Cyprus, however, is occupied anil administered by Great Britain, under treaty with Turkey. Asia Minor comprises the peninsula between the Black Sea antl the Mediterranean. The greater part of the country consists of a high plateau, enclosed by the Taurus Moiintains on the south, and the parallel range of tlie Anti-Ti urns on the north, both extending close along the coast. The former are tlie higher, some of the peaks reaching to 13,000 feet in heigiit. The rivers, owing to the mountainous nature of the country, are suiall and rapid, but are numerous, and many of theiu celebrated in ancient history. The principal are the Kir.il iDiiak, the ancient Halys, formerly the bovuidary betweon Lydia and Media; the Sakaria, flowing into the Black Sea; and the Meander and Sarahat, fl(jwing into the Archipelago. There are several .salt lakes in the interior. The oliniatv on the plains is hot and dry, but healthy, and in tiie mountain-lands conl and pleasant. The soil is fruitful, especially iu the valleys, but much neglected. Grain, tobacco, cott(jn, and all southern fruits, such as tigs, olives, grafies, and pomegranates, grow in abundance. The elevated parts of the country all'ord excellent jiasturage to large flocks of siieep and herds of cattle. Along the shore of the Black Sea a dense forest covers the land. The coniniercu of the coimtry is chiefly in the hands of the Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. The people are chiefly Mohammedans, but a large num])er belong to the Greek and Armenian churches. The population is about eleven millions. SrmjriM (200,000) is the chief commercial city of Asia Minor, and makes largo exports of dried fruits. It is situ- ated on a fine bay, and claims to have been the birth-place of 17 Homer. Scutari, opposite Constantinople ; Brusa, (.3H,000), near the fotit of Mount Olympus; Kutai/a and Aniiorn, on bnmches of the Sakaria, tlie latter celebrated for its silky- haired goats, are the most importjint towns; Trehizimd (45,000) and Hinope are ports on the Black Sea ; Tokat luis cofiper mines and maimfactures. Tarsus, celebrated as the birthplace of St. Paul, is on the southern coast, op[)osito the island of Cyprus. Armenia lies to the eaut of Asia Minor, between it and the Russian Province of Transcaucasia, south of the Caucasus Mountains. It much resemWes Asia Minor in physical features, cliuuite, .-.nd jiroductions, but is still more moun- tainous. The land of Eden is supposed to have been in Armenia; and Mount Ararat, u\Hm which the ark rested after the flood, is on the borders of Armenia, Persia, and Tran.scaucasia. It rises in two peaks, the highest being 17,11- feet high. The rivers Etiphrates and Titjris rise in the mountains of Armenia, and flow southwards into the Persian Gulf; and the Kur, with its tributary the Arasj flows into the Caspian Sea. Erzeroum (60,000), the largest city, is situated on an elevated plai i, 0,000 feet high, near the source of the Euphrates, Nyrlu nnr Hollow Syria. Mount Carmel, on the coast, forms a bold and lofty promontory to tiio soiitii of the Jiay of Ac^e. In tiie north, the river Orontes rises and flows past Antioch into the Mediterranean. Near Mount Hermon are tlie sources of the Jordan, which flows soiitliwanls tiirough tlie Sea of Galilee, or Tiberias, so celeiirated for the stirring scenes which occurn^d there during the life of our Lord u[)on earth. From this lake the .Jordan flows into the Dead Sea, after a course, including many windings, of aliout 2(J0 miles. The Deail Sea is a lake many times salter tlian the ocean, and is Ij.'iOO feet below the level of the Mediter- ranean; and the Jordan, for the greater part of its course, is also below the level of the sea, being the only known instance of such an extraordinary depression. The moun- tains of Lebanon are continued southwards by the mountains of Palestine; and still farther by the mountains of Seir, 130 ARABIA. I Ml terminated at the extremity of the peninsula at the head of the Red Sea by the Sinaitic group, on one of which Moses received the Ten Commandments. One of the muno group is Mount Hwch, where Moses saw the burning bush. To the east of Jerus;ilein is the Mimnt of (Jlires, the favorite resort of our f>aviour. To the east and south of Syria is a great sandy desert, extending into Arabia, and inhabited by wild and rapacious tribes of Arabs, who live by pasturing their ficjcks and by plunder. The climate in the valleys is hot, and the soil is naturally rich, but it is poorly cultivated, and, owing to long neglect, has become sterile and barren. Grain, olives, figs, grapes, and pomegranates grow abundantly with but little labor, and the land wotdd be literally a "land flowing with milk and honey," if its resources were developed. The mounbiins of Lebanon are inhabited by two indepen- dent tribes : the Mfironites, a kind of Christijvns ; and the Druses, a brave and warlike race, whose religion is a mix- ture of Christianity and Mohannnedanism. Dninnscnx (200,000) is the largest and most important city of Syria, and one of the oldest in the world, having been in existence in the time of Abraham. It lies on the route of tlie caravans to Mecca, and carries on a large trade in silks, jewellery, etc. Beijront is the seaport of Damascus, and has also a large trade in silks, oil, and wine. Aleppo (120,000) is the capital of Syria, and carries on an extensive trade in cotton and siP: manufactures. In 1822 it was nearly destroyed by an eartlujuake, and 20,000 persons lost their lives. A^dioch, on the Orontes, was formerly a city of great importance. linaUnc, in C(ole-Syria, and Palmyra, the Tadnior of the Old Testament, in the Syrian desert, l.'JO miles north-east of Damascus, are remarkable for the remains of their ancient temples and buildings. By Palestine is generally understood the country extend- ing .south from the mountains of Lebanon to the southern end of the Dead Sea ; and from the Mediterranean Sea acro.ss the River .Jordan to the Syrian Desert. It was called tile Ljind of Canaan in patriarchal times; tiie Land of Israel from the time of its concpiest by the Israelites under Joshua; and after the division of the kingdom at the death of Solo- mon, the northern pai't, occupied liy the Ten Tribes, was known as the Kingdom of Israel, with Samaria as its capital, Jiud the southern part as the Kingdom of .ludah, with .leru- siilein as its capital. After the return of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity, they re-occupied mainly the southern part of the country, which has ever since been known as Judea; while tlie contml part was called Samaria, and the noithern jiart Oalilee. Jerusalem (28,000), the celebrated capitfd of ancient Judea, IB now widly fallen in im[)ortance. Only about ono-fovnih of its inhabitants are Christians, and the Mosque of Omar now occupies the site of the ancient Jewish temple. It is only half the size it was before its destruction by Titus. Most of the interesting spots memorable in the life of our Lord are still pointed out, and churches have been erected upon them. It is much visited by pilgrims and travellers. Jaffa, the port of Jerusalem, is the ancient Jfippa. Tyre and Sidoti, formerly important cities and sea[)orts on the coast, are almost deserted ; Bethlehem, the birthplace of our Lord, six miles south of Jerusalem, is now a straggling viUage. Hebron is ten miles farther south. Nahloiis is the ancient Shechem or Sychar, near which was Jacob's Well. Acre, on the coast, near Mount Carmel, is famous in later times for the sieges it has withstood. Gaza, to the south- west of .lerusiilem, is still an important town, carrying on trade between Palestine and Egypt. Kardlstnn, Irak-ArabI, and Algrezlrah. These countries, representing the ancient Assyria, Chal- dea, and Mesopotamia, occupy the south-eastern part of Turkey. Kurdistan, on the borders of Armenia, is moun- tainous ; but the greater part of the country is a level plain, through which the Tigris und Euphrates flow south-east into the Persian CJulf. These rivers overflow their banks when the snow melts on the mountains, and for a brief period the plains are covered with vegetation ; but the hot sun soon scorches it all up. Along the course of the rivers, vines, rice, and date-palms flourish, but the rest of the country is desolate, and is infested by warlike tribes of plundering Kurds and Arabs. Lahe Van, in the north, is 5,500 feet above the sea, and about one-fifth the size of Lake Ontario. Bassora or Bxissorah (200,000), near the Persian Gulf, has a large trade with Persia and the East. Ba Britain since 1839. Muscat (60,000), on the east coast, is the capital of Oman, the most enterprising and maritime country in Arabia, and even in western Asia. It carries on an important trade in gums, myrrli, and frankincense, a large portion of which is brought from Africa. Biad (30,000), in the centre of the country, is the capital of the kingdom of Nedjed and the chief town of the Waha- bees, a particularly strict sect of Mohammedans. The ruins of Petra, the ancient capital of Edoin, in the north, about midway between the Dead and the Red Seas, consist of a long street or narrow valley, in which houses, temples, and all tlie buildings are hewn out of the solid rock ; and are amongst the most interesting ancient remains in existence. PERSIA. Area, 62S,000 square miles, ahmit one-third larger than On- tario, Quebec, and Nenfoitndland; pojrtdtition, (tbont 9,000,000 ; persons to square mile, 12. Pcrslrt is bounded on the north by Asiatic Russia, the Caspian Sea, and Turkestan ; on the west J)y Turkey ; on the south by the Persian Gulf ; and on the east iiy Afghanis- tan and Baluchistan. It was formerly a nation of great importance, f(jnning one of the most powerful empires of ancient history,, but is now »idly reduced. About one-fifth of the people are nomadic; including 700,000 Turks, about the same number of Kurds, and large numbers of Arabs, Baluches, Gipsies, and Luis. The Murfiiro is mountainous, especially in the nersoii,8 to nqiiarc mile, KJ. Afs'arley, peas, and l)cans, is sown in fall and reaped in Hunmier; the other is .sown in tlie end of spring and is reaped in autunni. It in- chidus rice, millet, iind In- dian corn. The castor-oil plant, madiler, and the asa- f(eti(l;i |il.int abound. Fruit of all kinds is plentiful, and largely used as food. Two famous mount.'iin passes le.'ul from the higli ])latt;aus of Afghan ist.in to 'he valley of the Indus, 'i'hey ai'e the Khyber i'ass and the Holan Pa.sH, and are on the two great ro.ads between India and the West. The towns are chietly in- habited by I'ersi.ius and Hindoos, wiio carry on the trade; wiiilo the Afghans are [irincipally |iriestsor sol- dii'i's, holding trade in eon- temi)t. Tliey arc divided into a munber of Bomi-inde- peutient tribes, but tniite for the conunon defence of the country. They were for- merly very ])nwerful, and had j)ossession of a large part of Western India. Most (jf the inhabitants are Mohammedans of the Hunni sect. Kahnl (fiO.OOO), the capital, i.s situated 3,400 feet above the sea, and is surrounded with gardens. It is the key of Ilindo.stan on the west. K00,000 1 persons la Stjuore mile, .,'.7. KaflrlNtaii, whicli may be calK'd the Switzerland of re miles, alf times \inmrirk; SOn,()UO; s ti) the tivn, 1)0- Ar.ibiiin L'XtoIlfc ii, ami is Libject to is niiniii- : in tho ho L'lXlSt wIrto •-palm iitiy is r.ahi- (l I ho I'.oth I'SS Mo- Hin- in tho I' town. I he sea. ' ((•(' •s/'.i' "/ iilitl iini, laoiis to 1 may 1.0 land of INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN. 133 Asia, is a small mountainous country lying between the Hindoo Koosh Mountiiins and North-western India. It is ohieHy interesting^ on account of the people (who are called the Siah-Posh Katirs), who belong to the Caucasian race, having light hair, fair skins, and blue eyes, and who, though rujieatedly attacked by their more powerful neighbors, have managed to retain their independence. Lautidaish (2,500) is the princijial town. IMHA. or HINUOSTAN. Aran, 1,5S7,1U4 sqimre milcx: piipiilniion, ,l20,')00,()ni), nr, inclndiiKj the ilepeiidtnl xtittf.s, ..'SiJ,!>Sil, !>(!() ; pi'rsnit.s to iKpKtre mile, li^H. India, or H;niloHtan. is 1 on the north by the llimalayi tiiins; on the west by Af- ghanistan, Baluchistan, and the Arabian Sea; on the south by the Inad, ami the pemnsula between the Arabian Sea and the l!ay of iteugai. „,„,,„ „„ C„rn„un,d,l(:,„.4. Cpr ,00'2 feet in I'very variety of climate, from that of perpetual snow to height, being tlie highest known mountain in the world, that of the toriid zone. Like other tropical coinitries, the The nV.s/o/i ted for navigation. The Ganges rises in tho Himahiyas at a height of about 14.(K)0 feet, receiving tho (Unjrii, Jmnnn, and other trii)ut.iries, and flows into the Bay of Bengal by a number of mouths, after a course of 1,,500 miles. It is navigable for steamers as far as Cawnpur, and so is the Jumna as far as Delhi. The Br(dim<>initra .-ind the Indus ri.so on the north side of the Himalayas in Thibet, and How east and west respectively, turning the ends of tho Himahiya chain. The Brahmaputra joins the eastern mouth of tho CJanges, and is a very rapid river. The Indus receives tho iSi»//<»j with its three main tributaries — which give the name of the Panjab, or "Fiv« llivei-s," to the country through which they How -and after a course of 1,8(K) miles, falls into the Arabian Sea. Tho lower part of its course is through a dissert composed of sandy |)lains and jungles. The Irnnrttdii rises in Assam, .and tlowing almost due sol nil past Mamlal.ay and Ava, empties itself by sev- eral mouths into the Bay of Beiii,r,il .and tho (iulf of .Maitaban. The Sulifin, Somewhat smaller, flows almost paralhil with the lirawady into the (iiilf of .Maitalian. The other rivers are the A« //»i'(/i/i(, flowing west, ami the MiilHtnuddij, Uoditvenj, Krinlimi, and ,-- ~ (.^ im. u 134 BRITISH INDIA. During the heavy rfiins, the rivers, especially the Ganges and Bmlniuiputra, overflow their Ijanks to a great distance, rendering the soil very fertile. Rice is the great staple and general food of all classes. Opium, indigo, sugar, tea, and cotton are largely cultivated and exported. The teak, hanyan, bamboo, mangrove, and a vaiiuty of palms, are the [trincipal trees. The teak is as valuable for ship-building as the oak. A single banyan tree covers a largo space of ground, as each branch curving downwards, takes root, and produces other branches. Of late years the cinchona tree, from wliich Peruvian bfvr'.v and (piinine are obtained, lias been largely ])lanted. Tlio soil in numy parts is not culiivated, and is covered with jungles, affording a refuge for tigers, elephants, and otlier wild animals. India is rich in nunerals, and especially in pi'e- cious stones. The Hindus excel in manufactures of ivory, silks, fine muslins, and cottons. The shawls of Kashmir, made from the hair of the Kashmir goat, are un- rivalled. imiTISH INDIA. Hindus form the greater jiart of (lio population; and aUliough tlie countiy belongs to Britain, it contains very few Eurojieans, and these are chiefly military. Tiie native soldiers in tiie i)ay of the British are called Sepoys. The natives are mostly jiag.ins, Imld- ing sacred IJrahuwi, Buddlia, \'ish- nu, theCianges, and many animals. Widows were formerly burnt on tlie funeral piU'sof tlu-ir dead luis- bands, ami eliildien were tlirown into the (Janges, but the Govern- nu'iit has now ])roIiibited these and Honio otlier customs. In the north-west there are great numl)ers of Mohammedans. Tiio most ri'iiiai'kable feature in Hindu society is the division of tlio ])eople into four castes- l>ra]iiiiins or priis.sts, soldiers, mi'rehaiits, and laliorers. None of tlu'se may intermarry, or oven eat ami drink togi^ther. Those who have been degraded fi'om their caste are called pariaiis, and are outAjasts from soeiety, but tlie tendency of British inllueiiee is to modify this absurd and demoralizing custom. Twenty-ono n.itive languages ai-i! spoken, the chief of which are Hindustani by 82,r)(K),tMH», and Bengali by 40,(XK),(K)0. Area, 944,108 srpuire miles; piqynlation, 220,530,200 ; persons to square mile, 234, Brltlfth India, with its dependencies, was formerly divided into three parts, tiie Bengal, Madras, and Bombay Presiden- cies, but now forms nine provinces, the whole being under the control of the Governor-General and Supremo Council of India. These are : Bengal, comprising the country watered by the lower courses of the Ganges and Brah- ma[)utra, and extending from Pat- na on the west to Chittagong on the east and Chilka Lake on the .south; the Nurth-nrst Provinces (including Ou(//i), along thecourses of the Ganges and Jumna, from Delhi to Patna; the Punjab, or "Five River.s," situated on the tributaries of the Indus in the north-west (these three provinces are under Lieutenant-Gf)vernors) ; the Central Proei)ires, situated .south-west of Bengal Profier (gov- erned by a Chief Couimi.ssioner); Assam, on the Bra!ima])utra, to the north-east; Biir)ii(i, in Far- ther India; Madras iiml linmliaij, com{)rising the east and west coasts respectively; and tho iJe- taeheil Proviiiees umler tlie direct control of the (Jovernor-General. liviiffiil. — Area, 140,720 scpiaro miles ; jjopulation, 7<>,!>(»'t,(l(i(). This province lies ahmg tiie Inwec course's of tlio Ganges and Bi;ili- iiia[)Utra. At tlie moutii of the Ganges and extending about 2(10 Bamhoo urovb. miles up, is a swampy district, called tho Sunderbunds. It in- cludes Orissa, a district lying to tho south-west, which, being ill-watered, is liable to drought. Tlie chief ])roducfs are rice, opium, indigo, and jut(^ Calnitla. (840, (MM)), the largest city, and tlieea|)ilMl of IJriti.sh India, is situated on tho left bank of the llugU branch of tho Ganges, about l(M> miles from its mouth. The river hero is about a mile wide, and is generally full of Hlii[)piiig. The citadels, spires, minarets, temples, and villas, extending ahmg tho river for a distance of tivi^ miles, give the city an aspect of great mag- niliceiice ; but the native portion is low, dirty, and ill-built* INDIA— NATIVE STATES. 135 I) S(|ll!ll'0 |o<),(t()0. ,1 I'.nJi- of tho IxMit 200 Idistrict, It iii- wliicli, ItnxliK'ts H)), Mill at I'd nil lioiit, 100 |lo wiili', ivof for •lit mji;^- lU-built. The European population is only about 20,000. Higher up on the Ganges are M'5,100), celebrated for its defence against the Sepoys daring the Indian Mutiny ; and Bareilly (121,800), an im- portant place of trade. Punjab. — Area, 111,016 square miles; population, 20,- 807,000. This province lies still farther to the north-west, })etween tho river Junma and Afglianistan. Its name, which means " tive rivers," was given to it in consequence of its being traversed by five main streams, tho Indus, Jheluiii, (,'henab, Ravi, and Sutlej. It includes the former State of Delhi. The principal cities are JJclhi (10;3,6OO), the "Rome of India" in respect of historic associatifins and splendor; Lidnire. (176,700), the capital; Amritsar (i;{6,500), the holy city of tlio Sikhs, and tiie chief seat of trade; Fcshainir, an iiiqiortant fortitied t(»wn, on the Afghan fron- tier; and ^fultt^n, with manufactures of silk. Coiitral l*rovlnco». — Area, 8(i,501 sipmre miles; popula- tion, 10,775, (M)0. These lie to the south-west of Bengal. Tlie great railway between Bombay and Calcutta passes through the n.irtherly portion. SiKijuif (118,000) is the largest city ; hnt Jiihliidiinr, on tho railway, does the great- est trade. Cotton is the chief product. ANNain lies along the Biiiliiiiapiitia, fo (he north-east of Bengal. Area, 46, .'Ml squnre iiiilis; ]Hipiilat ion, r),425,(M)0, It is tho tea-producing district of India. The principal town is (roirlmlL Itiiriiia lies to the cast of Bi'ni^al. Area, 156,000 s(|iinri^ miles; population, 7,554,000. The liills are Inw, but they are tlensely covered with forests of titnk and other valuabh^ timber. Rico is the staple prodiu'tion ami chief artick! of food. Ava (50,000), the foriiicr capital, is situated on the Irrawady, about 400 miles fnnu its mniith. Near it are largo wells of petroleum. M>iHilidit.al. Indoro, or the Holliar States, are along the Yindhya Mountaina. Siltklm, lying south of Tliibet, has an area of 1,550 square miles, with a Buddhist population of about 8,000, Haldurabud, or the Nizam's Dominions, lies south of Berar, between the province of Bombay and the river Goda- very. Uaidaraluul (312,400) is the cai)ititl. Near it is Gulconda, famous for its diamonds. Aiirnngahad is the chief town in the north. Near it are the cave-temples of Elora. Gujrat and Katch or Kutch are small territories on the west coast. Baroda (11<>,500) is the capital (jf Gujrat. Miilsur, the territory of the celebrated Hyder Ali, occupies the south of the Dakhan. The Christians form one-eighth of the ])opulation, a larger proportion than in any otiier part. MaUiir is the ca])ital. t^i'rinijdjxddin, on the Kaveri, is strongly fortified. Baiujalwc (17iJ,700) is the largest town. Cochin and Trnvancore arc small States on the south- west coast. (\)cltiii is the capital of the tirst, and I'ricaiidnon of Travancore. ■'"reiivh and t'ortn^iicNc India. The ■'■'roiK-h possess: ClmndvnaiijDir, above Calcutta; I'ddKo/i, at the moutii of tiie Gndavery ; i'oiidirhvrni, tlie capital, on the Coromaiidel coast; and Mnhv, on the Malabar coast, near Calicut. Belonging to the l>oi'tnn:ni'M«<, Vmijim or Oixx, on tlio Malabar const, with a capital of the same name; Diii, and l>iiiiiiiii in (iujrat. IHi. ANDN. Ari'n, J5,i)il^ Kij^iiKir iiillrx; /utindul iitit, i>,()()S,.JO() ; peraons /(> K(iiu(ir )iiih\ I IS. Teylon is rather less than New Hrunswii'k in size, and is situated at tlie south-eastern extremity of India, with whicli it is almost connectt^d by a chain of shoals culled Adam's Bridge. The Gulf nf ^flll^alt)' and I'alk SI rait are between it and tlie iiiaiiilaud. It is mountainous in surface, and possesses a much more 18 healthy climate than the mainland. It abounds with pre- cious stones. In the Gulf of Manaar arc valuable pearl lisheries. Colombo (127,000) is the cajiital and chief seaport, export- ing large cpiantities of cott'ee. Trim-oiiudee possesses a iiiagniticent harbor. Cuiidij is the ancient capital. Guile (33,50t)) is an importiint town. The Lacendlvc and Maldivo Islands, on the west, are coral islands. They are low, and of little importance. The Andaman and Nlfobar I.dtinils, in the Bay of Benpal, are luountiiiuous, and yield valuable timber. I-'AKTHEK IXOIA. Fartlier India includes the countries south-west of China and south-east of British India. It comprises Siam, the Laos or Shan States, A nam, Kambodia, French Cochin China, and the Malay Peninsula. Mountain ranges extend north and south through the peninsula, and between them flow largo and important rivers; the Jrntirddii and Stdncii. into the Gulf of Martab.-iii, the Meuiim into the Gulf of Siam, and the Mebmy into the China Sea. From the south-west the narrow Malay rcnin- ,si(/(t stretches southwards, and is separated from the Island of Sumatra by the Strait of Midacca. Very little is known of the interior. The soil is fertile, producing rice, cotton, sugar, and indigo. The forests are very extensive, and the trees, growing to an enormous size, include teak, sandal- wood, rosewood, cinnamon, and sago and other palms. Laos produces benzoin and gumlac; gambcjgo is peculiar to Kambodia. The forests are the haunts of vast numbers of monkeys; tigers and elephants als, 000,000) lies to the uorth-i'ast of Burma, and is watered by the Menam River. It includes also the northern jiart of the pi'iiiusiila of Malaei^'a. The country is very fei'tile, pro- ducing rice, sugar, cocoa, besides jialms and fruits in great abiiiidanee. It exports gamboge and gumlac. It is inlia- biteini|/A(>/i' (iiOO.OOO), the caiiital, is situated on the Menam, about 20 miles from its mouth. A great part of the city is on tlie river, and is built upon bamboo rafts, each sujiporting several houses, and arranged into streets. Ayidhia, the CHINESE EMPIRE— CHINA PROPER. 137 fonner capital, is situated on an island ftirnied liy the Meiiaui. The Lnos, or ng, east of Hiani. Tlu;y consist of a number of semi-independent States tributary to Siam. The country is fertile, but little known. Most of the trade is with Siam. French Dependencies. Anain is watered by the Mekong. In the north and west are vast alluvial plains, very fertile and well cultivated. It produces, besides cereals, tea, cott'ee, tobacco, sugar, cin- namon, and gamboge. The population is al)out 5,000,000. nu<( (100,000), the capital, is situated about ten miles from the east c(jast, on a navigable river, and is strongly fortified. Tonquin, with an area of .'J4,740 sfjuare miles and a popu- lation of ;>,000,(MK\ was annexed to France in 1884. It possesses g(M)d iron ami copper mines. Hanoi or Kcslm (150,(K)0), in the north, has a considerable trade. Kanibodlu, to the south of Siam, is a separate State under the protection of France. The present State is oidy tlio feeble remnant of a once powerfid and flourisliiiig king- dom, tiie civiliwition of wliicli is attested by numerous magnificent architectural remains. I'nom-rcnh (20,000) is the capibd. l-'rencli Tocliln China lies to the south-west of Kam- bodia, at tlie mouth of tlie Mekong. Its climate is fatal to Europeans. Suiijon (180,000) is tiie capital. The ItritiHh StraitN ScttleinentK in tlie Malay Penin- sula include i'lidoi;/, or Prince of Wales Island, Wcllcdcii, M(tl(uciiii' (14:.', 0(10), on tlie island of the same name, and tlie seat of a large commerci', is the caiiital. The 3lalay rciitnHula is traversed by mountains from north tf) south. It is divided amongst a number of petty States. The inhabitants are Moliaiiiuu'ilaiis, and liehiUg to tlie Malay family. They funiieily li\t'd by jiirai'y, but the influence of IJiitain has in a great measure put an end to it. The forests sv.pply timber atid gutta-porclm, but trade and iiiilustry are altogether neglected. < IIIM'.SK KMIMUK. .1/M(, Jf,^IS,Jfi)0 .iiipiiiii>n III' Ciiniiilii ; iiii/iiiliil Inn, nhmit Ji(U,ttH(),(H)(), The ("lilnene Kinplre consists of ('liiiiit Vrnprr in the south-east, Tliilut i.i the soutii-wesf, Mniiiinliii in the north, Miinrhuria in the north-cast, Dziiiiijririo in the north-west, and Hnnlern Tiirkoitnn or Kaahijariit in the west. It occupies the great central and eastern slope of Asia, is enclosed on three sides by the higiiest mountains, and watered by three of the greatest rivers of Asia. On the north are the Altai MoiDttiiins, on the south tlie JlhiKihiiina, and on the west the Piniiir. From the west the Km u- Linn and Tliinn Slum Mninitnins extend eastwards in two jiarallel chains through the centre of the country; and in China Proper the I'dhiff and Nanlhiij Mniinfiiina extend also in the same direction. Hetween these mountain chains How the Aiinir in the north, the Ilixtniiho in the middle, and the Yuliition, rstimatvd at about 3SG, 000, 000 ', persona to Hi/iiarr mile, iL'S9. China I'ropcr is the most imiiortant part of the country, and lies north-east of Burma and Anam. In the west it is moiiiitaiiious, l)ut more level tr)wanls fiie coast. lietween Pekin and Nankin is a vast plain, which is tlie most densely popidafed part of the empire. The country is watered by the I'elho, IliHinijho, Yiniij-tse-klati dollars. Uie.^ forms the principal focnl of the inliiibitants ; but whe/if and other grains are also cultivated. The iiiulberry, tallow, and camphor trees the two latter peculiar tortod ehielly from India. (iold, copper, eoal, and otlier minerals iire fnimd in various parts. Tim Biimifl'FTiMiwtefaW 11 1 188 CHINA PROPER. ' Chinese are celebrated for their manufactures of silks, porce- lain, cotton, ivory, and paper. The manufacture of jiapcr and gunpcjw'der, the art of printing, and the mariner's compass, were known in China long before they were discovered in Europe, and great advancement had been made in astronomy; but for centuries tlie Chinese have been at a stand-still, and are making little further progress. Trade with foreigners was formerly confined to the ])ort of Canton. In 1842 several additional ports were opened to foreign commerce, but it was not until 18(50, when Pekin was taken and occupied for a time by the British, that the country began to be opened up. At the present time twenty-four ports (called Treaty Ports) are open to foreign trade. Iron, steel, wool- lens, and other goods are im[)orted from Europe, and cotton and opium from India. China is themostdense- ly peopled country of its size in the world, although England, Belgium, and otlier Kuiull countries con- tain a greater number of jiersons to the S(|uare mile. Accortling to the most trustworthy esti- mates, it contjiins nearly one-fourth of tiio wiioie |)opulation on tlie globe, altliough less than one- half the size of the United States. For two centuriesChina has been governed by a Tatar (commonly spelt Tart(tr) dynasty. The (Jreat Wall on tlie northern frontier, 1,400 miles long, is su|)i)ose(l to liave been built 200 years before the Christian era, and is carried over hills and valleys. It was intended to protect the country from the inroads of the Tatars. Learning and parental autliority are held in high esteem by the Chinese; and tlio chief men, or mandarins, are selected for their proficiency in learning. The language is monosyllabic, and recpiires a distinct written character for every woi'd, rendering it one of the most remarkal)le and diflii'ult in the world. 'I'he government is a despotism. 'I'he three religions aekno\vliMlg(>d by the Cliiiu-se are Ibiild- hism, Confucianism, and Taoism. Ilie founders of the two latter flourished about 500 years before Christ. iVAiH (1,000,000), the capital, on the Peiho. is about 50 Tka I'i.\ntatios. miles south of the Great Wall. It is divided into two se[)arato t(»wns, the Tatar and Chinese, the former con- taining the imperial palace and gardens. In 18()0 it was captured by an allied British and French force, and the British ambassador now resides there. Kanhiii (l.j0,00t)), the former capital, is on the Yang-tse-kian<-, about KJO miles from its mouth. Nankin contained a famous j)orcelain tower, which was destroyed by the rebels a few years ago. It is the chief seat of learning, and is noted for its manu- factures. Canton (1,000,000) at one time was the only port with which Europeans C(juld trade. It is situated on the Chu- kiang river, abou; 70 miles from its mouth. A large part of the population lives in boats ( )n the river. Among the other j)orts now open to foreigners are: Anion (96,000), situated on the coast opposite tht) Island of Formosa, with a mag- nificent harbor; Foochoir (636, WK)), farther north; Nimjpo (250,000), with silk manufactures; Hhon- (jhai (;{80,000), near the mouth of the Yang-tse- kiang, with the princii)al foreign trade ; Tioi-tnin (050,000), where tlie trea- ty of jsr)8 was signed; nnir/-/vr);i(/ (221,500), a small island at the mouth of the Canton River, 40 miles from Macao, and 00 from Canton, became a British settlement in 1842. The chief town is ]'iclovi(i (l.'JO.tMM)), Mitidi) is a I'ortuguese settlement, at the mouth of the Canton River. Tliihot lies between the Kucn-Luen and Himalaya ISIoun- tains. It consists of high table-lands, having an average altitude ..f J5,(K»0 feet. COREA— RUSSIA IX ASIA. 13f) Many large rivers take their rise in Thibet, as the InJun, iHiUlej, Brahmaputra or Sanpu, and Yung-tne-kiamj. Luke Falte is a remarkable ring of water round an island 100 miles in circumference. Luke Namrhu or Tvmjri Nor is remarkable for its great elevation, being 15,200 feet above the level of the sea. The clliiinte, owing to the great elevation, is in winter cold and dry, but it is hot in summer ; and owing to tlie refraction of the heat from the plains, the snow-line on the Thibet side of the Himalayas is nearly .'3,000 feet higher than on the south side. The country is well adapted for ])astur- age, and large Hocks of the yak, sheep, deer, and Kashmir goat are reared. Part of the west is subject to Kashmir. Thibet is the chief seat of Buddhism, and the Grand Jjiima, or Dalai Lama, supposed to be an incarnation of Huddha, lives at Ltutsd in great splendor. The (government is in the hands of the Chinese, and the Viceroy also lives at Lassa, which is the capital. extending into Mongolia. The country is cold, owing to its elevation, and is adapted only for pasturage. The inhabi- tants are Tatars. Tliey were formerly subject to China, but became independent in 18(»4. In 1877-78 they were reeon(inered by China, and nearly exterminated. Yarknnd (150,000), the commercial centre, is situated in a fertile plain, and is the cliiof emporium <)f the caravai» trade between Ciiina and Western Asia. K(U^hJi,77ft siiiiari' mihn, <»it tirice the si::e of the Dinniniun of ('mnidu ; jtopidatiou, 17,600,000, abmit three persons to the stpiare mile. itiiHNia 111 AhIu is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean; on the wi^st by the I'ral Mountains and I'ral River; on the south by Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, and the Chinese Kuqiire ; and on the ea.st by the Pacific Ocean. It is divided into Siberia, Transcaucasia south of the Caucasus Mountains, the Trans-Caspian district, lying on the east of the Caspian Sea, and Ci^ntral Asia or Russian Turkestan, lying east of the Sea of Aral, between Siberia and Afghanistan. Owing to the severity of the climate, by far the larger portion is but thinly peopled. The north of Siberia consists of vast, frozen, treeless stepjies, or tundras, but in the south it is mountainous, and covered witli forests, 'i'he slope of the country is north- wards. In the south are the Cniirnsiis Moiintuin.i, between the Black and Caspian Seas; and the Altai Muunluins, m 140 TURKESTAN, IJOKIIAKA, AND KHIVA-JAPAN. extending from Turkestan in a north-easterly direction, and continued to the Pacific under the niuiics uf the Y(dil<»i(>i and 8l(utov<>i MouHln'ms. The rivers are lar;,'e, hut sh)\v, owing to tiie level nature of the coiuitry, and all flow north into the Arctic Ocean. They are unfit for naviijafinn, as in the lower j)arfc of their courses they are gi'iierally covered with ice. The princifjal are the Ohi, Yaiiixci, and Jjiiki. The ]»iincipal lakes are: Aral, Bidhish, and Baikal, all in the south. The peninsula of Kamiirliafha extends from tlu^ north-east into the Pacific, and encloses the Sid of Ol.ltolsl:. In the Arctic Ocean are the Linhlun Idamls, which are unin- liabited, hut contain ren>;irk;il)le fossil remains of elephants. TJio island of HmjhnUcn belongs also to Russia. The elliiitito is intensely ccjld, hecouiing more so towards the east. East of the Lena is the coldest inhabited region in the world, being more so than any part of the American continent. The country derives its importance from its valuable mines of gold, silver, phitinum, copper, and iron, which are found in the I'ral and Altai Mountains, and from its trade in fur.i. The mines are under (lovei-nment control, ;.nd are worked by jiolitieal exiles and criminals. Fur-bearing ani- mals abound such as the ermine, sable, beaver, marten, and others, Rears, wolves, wild bo.ars, and the argali, or wild shee|), are numenais. The inhabitants are chiefly vi the Tatar origin in the south, and Samoieds, 'resembling the Eskimos, in the north; the Kiighis trilies roam over the com -y north of the Sea of Aral ; the jieople of Kamschatka are of short st.iturt', and use the dog for drawing their sh'dges. Tlie towns are principally inhabited liy European JJussians, who carry on the trade of the country. l*olitieaI and other criminals are bai\ished from Russia in Euroite to Kiberia. Siberia is divided into Western and Eastern. In Western Siberia, Ttish-nt ov Tii>^hh'ml{Vl\Am) is the chief town and centre of comnu'ree of the pro\inee of 'Vnv- kestan. SintKiiLiijiil, the capital, has a po]iuIation of .'{MjOdO. TnholA- ('J(».-0(») is situjited at the junction of the Toi)ol and Irtish, tributaries of the Oi)i, Ktiknnd (r)-l,(l()()), south-east of T0 feet. The Nicinnlil iloiintaiits and somo other smaller chains extend from ea.st to west across tho central part of Cape Colony, rising in Compass Berg ]0,OfJO feet. On tho east coast of Africa are several chains of mountiiins, some of which rise to a great height, but are yob w ;?■ 144 AFRICA. ^i^^^ ^;?; ""^w little known. MomitK Kilma Njara (20,005 feet) jind Kenin (18,0(X> feet) .•no iv little south of the e(iu.itor. Owiiij,' to tlie general proximity of the mount.iins to the coast, the rivera are not so numerous, nor, with few exceptions, so im|Mirt;int as in the other great continents. The principal is tlie Nile, which has two sources— the Blue Nile, rising in Abyssinia, and the White Nile, the sources of which are connected with the Nyanza lakes, close to, and on each side of the equator. The river is afc least 4,000 miles long, and receives several tributaries, but none lower than 1,200 niilea from its mouth. Next in importance is the Coiujo, an innnense river, 3,500 miles long, rising in British Central Africa, about 12" south latitude, and flowing, after a very circuitous course, into the South Atlantic. (It is second only to the Amazon in the volume of its waters). The Nlijer, or Quorra, rises on the north side of the Kong Mountains, re- ceives a large tributary, the Beiinv, and flows round the eastern end of that range into the Gulf of Guinea. The Senegal flows into the North . ' Atlantic Ocean ; the Oranrje, or Gurifp, into the South Atlantic; and the Zaiiilnsi into the Mozambique Channel. The principal lakes of Africa, so far as are yet known, are: Demlieti, or Tand, in Abyssinia; Chud, in the interior; AlbcH, Albert Edward, and Victoria Nyanzas, under the equator; and Tanganyika, between the Congo State and German territory; Lci>iiuld, east of Tanganyika; Bangweolo, on the shoio of which Liv- ingstone died; Moero, Nya.ssa, and Shirira, with Ngami, farther south. Most of these have been recently dis- covered, and are but imi)orfectly known. The const-lino of Africa is very even, with but few indentations. St. On the south, Oooil Hope and Agulhas. On the east, Currientes, Uflgrulo, ;um1 fliinnlnfui , Mary, the north and south i)oints of Mada(fa»car. ami Capes Amber ond m The principal Bays and GulfH nroi On the north, the Giil/g of Sidra and Cabes. On the west, the Uulf «/ Guinea, includini; tlie Bights of Benin and Biiifrn. On the south, Table Ray and Algoa Bay. On the east, Snfala Bay, Gulf of Aden, and the Red Sea. Tlio principal Straits nrct Gibraltar, hetween Morocco and Spahi ; Mozanibiijiie Channel, liotwccn Madiijfx-M'ur and the mainland; Strait of Babelinandeb, between Eritrea and Arabia. The principal Cnpvs arc : On the north, Bon, Blanco, Ceuta. On the west, Blanco, Verde, Palmas, Lopez, and Frio. 19 The cllninte of Africa is in general hot and drj', more than three-fourths of the continent being within the tropics. Towards the middle and south the seasons are alternately dry and wet, as in other tropical countries ; but in the vast sandy deserts no rain ever falls. The Sahara extends from the Athintic Ocean to Egypt, and occupies an area of l,(i00,000 square miles. It is not, as commonly supposed, wholly a sandy desert, but a vast plain having a mean elevation of abo 1,500 feet, and diversified witn mountain chains as high as from 6,500 to 8,200 feet, whose tops are covered with snow and ice for several months in the year. The desert portions do not occupy more than one-tenth of its entire area. Its total pt)pulation is estimated at little more than a million ; and there are several towns of from 2,000 to 5,000 people. Along the shore of the Mediter- ranean the climate and productions resemble those of southern Europe; but in the mterio'" it becomes hotter, and the products vary. South of t' Sahara, ])oth on the coast and in the great central h region, vegetation is rank, and the climate in general somewhat unhealthy for Europeans. The European possessions farther south are cooler and more healthy. The inhabitants of Africa consist of difierent races, varying in complexion, from the light-skinned Egyptian and the tawny Mted only with j,MV'al dilticulty. The artilicial bn'cclini; of the ostrich is now a s\icce8sful anil important industry in I'ape Colony. — The Kooio may be eas- ily clonn'slicatcd. The Striped Kyciia is pec\iliar to soiitli western Asia and norlliern Africa; the .Spotted Hyena is peculiar to soiitlicrn Africa. Tl;e .liu'kal, a, distant relative of the hyena, but a smalh animal, is common throu.rhoiit all Africa. Iloth the hyena and the Jackal are useful as scavi'ii- Hers, beitiir fond of carrion; and both can be perfectly do- nii'slicaled. 1 !# ii'f} ^ in E ''1 lite MOROCCO— ALGERIA— TIN IS— TRIPOLI. -«i.v 147 MOROCCO. Area, 219,000 sqiuxre milen, ahunt the size of Ontario; popu- latiim, about '),000,000. The Empire of >forocco occupies the north-western cor- ner of Africa, between the Sahara, the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, and Algeria. It is the most important of the Barbary States in power and population. These St;ites were celebrated in ancient history under the name of Mauritania, Vmt have now been lonf^ sunk under tyranny been made within the last few years to colonize it more extensively. It is divided by the French into three provinces; Algiers, Constant ine, and Onni. It is traversed l)y the continuation of the .\tlas Moun- tains, the northern slope of which is very fertile, lietwcen them and the coast is a narrow strip of rich lan,0(M)), on the Mediti'rraneaii, tlu^ <;apit,il, IS The AtluH MoiititalnH traverse the country in a direction strongly fortified, and was long a formidalile nest of pirates, nearly parallel to the coast. They attain their greatest ; It was bombarded and taken by the British under Lord height in Morocco, and several of their peaks are covered Exmoiith in l.Hl(». ^'unntunthie (■liij^^^)), Oran ()i8,()(Hj), and with snow. Mount Miltsin, near the city of Morocco, is ViotiK (;{0,0 are ehielly .Moois ami Berbers, professing n,,ii,i,„i ],n„lnclioiis it leseiubles Algeria. Caravans from Mohammedanism. .lews are numerous in the seap.n-ts. the iiiterinr visit it regularly with ivory, gold dust, etc. Tiie Roveriiiiiciit is an absolute monarchy, the Sultan Tiiiii.\ rjr>,(M>()) is an important commercial city on the having unlimited ]>.iwer over his subjects so far as it ex- ^.,1^^ „f Tunis, which is connected with llu^ Mediterranean, tends, but the larger part of the country is virtmdly ruled Tiiirty thousand of llie inhaliitants are .lews. About ID by independent Berber mountain chiefs. 1 miU's to the iiortii -east are the iiiiiis of ancient ('aithrth ccjast, the prin- tiu^ once formidalile rival nf ibmuv (inlilla (the port of cipal of which is (Vnta, opposite (libraltar. Tunis) is distant 7 mihs, and a canal will soon coniieet tiiu I'ltlPOI.I. .U..r...r., ((H».(MMI). situated ill a fertile i.ialn, was formerly '«" '"^^"•'" f<'<'""'<<'^ •''""" ^O miles south ..f Tunis, tliu the cai.ital : .U.,,../,,.-. (.M»,(M)()) is an imperial ivsid.'iice: /-'. - ''''"tre "f the inland trad.', is lli.' Iiuly city ..f Tunis. (KO.tMMt), tlu! present capital, eeleliiated under the aiuiciit j Saracen nniiiarchv. is a holy city, and contains IflO mosipifs. ' Miiii'idiir Mid Tniniii r ari' small seaports; Tnjilit is situated ,|imi, {0",""" simiir niili's. hss Ihmi /ii/.-i //ic sl:e of (Jiieltf ; in a fi'iiile distiii't in the interior. //../iii/k/h.ii, h/k/k/ I .■ln'ijinii. Tritiiill liis to the snuth east of Tunis, along the shore of .\l.4iKltlA. )],,, .Mrditcnaiuan, between tlii^ (iuifs of Sidra and Cabes. Ann, .''I'o.nno .s-,yii((/'i' (imVi'.s. innilii Mini lintis the .liy nf \i h- iiiii-i'ii lies iict Weill it and I'lgypt, and l''c/./.aii lietwrep it III iin.tiriili ; )iitpiihiliitn, itliiiiit .•'..V,'", onn ; ^h /•.sim.s / sifiiare ntili\ I'k Allirerla lies to tin.' e.ist uf .Morocco, along t and the Sahara. The three togetluir eoiiMtitnle tlu' vilayet nf Tripoli, a pro\iiiee of the Ottoman Kmpiie. he shore of j T"!//..!// (about ;{0,ed. There are now nearly 1.1250 mill's of railway completed, and upwards of ;{,(MMt miles of telegraphic com- munication, with about 5,500 miles of wire. Sulunarine ERTTRBU-SOMALI AND CiALLA-ABYSSIMA. 149 lly ilo- •iiilwiiy cables connect the system oi Egypt with those of liritdin and India. Egypt is one of the most interesting countries in the world, from its connection with sacred history, and from its early civilization. Its pyramids, temples, and obelisks, with their hieroglyphics (which, owing to the extreme dryness of the climate, are admirably preserved), render it a favorite resort of travellers from all parts of the world. Cairo (308,100), the capital, situated on the NQe, about five miles above the head of the Delta, is tiio largest city in Africa. It is poorly built, but its nmuerous and elegant nios(iucs give it a tine api)earance. Close to the city are the celebrated pyramids. Alexandria (208,755), on the coast, is an ancient city, originally founded by Alexander the Great, through which all the trade with Pjuroj)e passes. Here Euclid tivught, 320 years before the birth of Christ. Here, also, Abercromby fell in 1801; and at Aboukir, 15 miles to the east. Nelson gained the famous battle of the Nile, in 17*^8. Alexandria was b<»mbarded by the British fleet in 1882 and its forts almost completely destroyeil. Jiiwtfa (17,000) and Ihimidia (.34,000) are considerable towns to the east of Alexandria. Ptnt Haid (l(),.f)00) and Hmz (11,000) are situated resjiectively at the northern and southern ex- tremities of the canal. TanUih (34,000), Maunonrah (27,000), and Zai>au, in rpi)er Egypt, are ]irinci|)ally trading stvtions for the caravans. South of Kenneh are the ruins of Thvhex, tlie ancient cai>itfil of Egypt, and the tem- ples of Karnac, Luxor, and Dendereh. In the oasis of Siirah, 320 miles west of Cairo, are the ruins of the temple of Jupiter Amnion. by the Egyptians. Ipnamhil is noted for its temples, which are cut out of the solid rock. El Ordch, or Nuio Ihnujulii, is a considerable town on the Nile. At Snahin Moham- me), at the confluence of the two blanches of the Nile, is the capital. »SV)i/i(rrrr, the former capital, fi'oui which the caravan route lies wcstwanl through the «lesert to Darfur and the oast «tf L/iko Chad, was dostroyod EKITHEA. Area, 5.2,000 square miles; papihtlion, 300,000; jfertums to square milf, (>. Erltren is an Italian colony on the Red Sea, comjirising the territory of which 3/ri.<.s.. ir<(/i (l(),fMM») aiul .l.s.srt/) (7, (iALI.A. With the exce|»tion of a strip along the (iiilf of Aden, under Britain, this country which extends as far south as the River .Tuba, is an Italian protectorate. It yields gold dust, spices, gums, hides, and ostrich feathers. Popuhition, 210,0(X). AHYSNIMA. Area, l'J'>,kcn up. Anfnlo, the old capital of Tigr*^, is half-way hot ween Magdala and the coa.st. None of the towns conbiin 10,(X)0 inhabitjints. Gondur (r),00SVm((//i((;/, on the Upjjer Niger; Jlmiixi, liornn, and Fnmbinii or Adumoini, between the Niger and Lake Chad; and Wnditl, A'loio/i, liitiihinii!, Ihirfitr, and Korddfini, between Lake Chad and Al)yssinia. The last two named States belong to Egypt. The Xlffcr is the j)rincipal river of the country. It rises to the north of the Kong iMountains, and, after a circuitous coiu'se, falls into the (iiulf of (Juiuen. It receives, on tlie east L'lnk, the ChtuhUt, a large rivi-r rising south of Lake Chad. L(d;e Clnid is said liy some to lie nearly twice the size of Lake Erie. It is shallow, studded with islands, and receives sevi'i'al rivers. A nuuiber of towns of cnnsideraliie size are situated on its shores. The countries on the upjier ' art of the Xhjcv aniirtiii> ('JOJKMI) is the most im- |)ortant town on the caravan I'oute betwi'en (iuiuttii, Seni""'l, Oandiia, and Itarbary. Nn/.o/n (Ho, 000), in llausa, Hldn (85,000), on the Niger, and Sego, in Baud)arra, are great trading- phiccs. South of Egyptian Soudan and Abyssinia, under the equator, are high table-lands, or mountain ranges, contain- ing a lake about as large as Lake Michigan, which has been called Victoria Niftuzn, and another, the Albert Nijanzit, in which lakes the White Nile takes its rise. South of this is another lake, Tammnyiht, 420 miles long, and from 15 to <50 miles broail. Still farther south are Lakes Bangweolo, \ij(iiis(MI,0(M). I'llKXril SAIIAltA AND SOUDAN. Witii the exception t f what is occupied by the British, Portuguese, anil (iermui colonies, and Liberia, Franco elaiiiis nearly all the riinainder of West Africa, south of the l>arl>ary States. It includes the upper Senegal, and coun- Irii'son till' rppi'rand Midopulation variously estim.iied from 'jr>0,O(M) to over a million. It extends along the river Senegal as far as Matam, and em- brai'es all the Atlantic coast from north of Cape Verde to (he (Jamliia on thi' south, it prmluces gum, ground-nuts, india-rubber, wocmIs, and skins, ,S'/. Lixtlii (•-'0,(MIO) is the chief town, aiul Ihihir is an important trading centre. FRENCH GUINEA AND DEPENDENCIES-NIGER TERRITORIES. 151 I'itisli, ''niiico )f tho c'otin- ntiii's aH an iliition It (I CKl- 'do to -llUtH, is III! FREXCH GlIXEA AND DEPEXDEXCIES. The territory lying lietween (Sambia on the north imil Sierra Leone on the sontli now fonns a separate French cohjny known as RlvIercM du Sud, with Conakry as its capital. The Gold Cf)a8t and Bight of Benin settlements are admin- istered under Rivieres du Sud, and tlie country is ottieially known as French Guinea and Dependencies. The products are similar to those of Senegal. Biafra. It liecame a German possession or protectorate in 1884. It has a coast-lino of 120 miles, between Campo Ri\er and Rio del Itey. Its chief physical features are the moiuitains from which it bikes its name. Vast quantities of cacao and tol)acco are now grown. Other exports are ivory and i)alm-oil. Chief town, Camcroonii. ItniTI.SH WEST AFRIC A. Tho Gold CoiiHt, stretching .350 miles along the Gulf of Guinea from ."» west longitude to '2' east longitude, has an estimated area of 4(i,t>00 square mile.s, and a population of l,iM)r),(X)0. Ciipe Citmt Castle (25,000) and Amu (20.000) are the chief towns. ExiM)rts are palm-oil, india-rubl)er, and timber. LnffOR, including Yorul>a, has an area of 21, (MX) .s(|uare miles, and a population of ;i,(JO(J,000. Lagos itseL is an Lsland lying otf tlie Slave Coast. Its exports include ))alm- oil, gum-copal, india-rubber, ivory, and cotton. Guiiiblu, at the mouth of the Gambia River, has an area of 2,7'>0 square miles, and a population of 5(),(MM). Chief products are groinid-nuts, hides, bees-wax, rice, cotton, anil india-rubber. Capital, Bittlmrst ((),0(X)), on the island of St. IMary. Hiorra Lconc includes tho islanopidation 0.">0,tX)0. It produces cocoa, palm-oil, india-rubber, and dye-woods. Lllfle r<>i») is regardetl as the capital, but Lome is the chief port. I.lltEltlA. I.llieria was originally founded by the I'nited States fur euiiiueipated slavi-s. In 1847 it was formed into a repuMic wilii a constitution modelled on that of tlie rnittil States. Liberia has 500 miles of coast line, aii GABOON. Area, :,'20,U(HJ n'lnnre. miks; population, rario\id\j edimated from J,.JO0,000 to nea rUj 7,000,000. This territory occupies the tract on the right bank of the Congo, from Brazzaville, or Manyanga, to the mouth of tho Mohangi River; and northwards to Cameroons. The coun- try is covered with valuable forests. The chief exports are palm-oil, india-rubber, ivory, and ebony. Attempts have been made successfully to grow sugar-cane, cotton, vaniUa, cotl'ee, and tobacco. In this ami a to 35,000,000. These territories extend from the Gidf of Guinea to the souihem limit of the Sahara, and from the Niger on tin- west to Lake Cii.id ciu the east, the south-eastern boundary being eoMtermihous wilh ('amerroti>i'toi-atv (British) is an important region lying but wet-n Lagos and Cameroons. Its exports are simi lar to tho.so of the Niger Terjitories, wilh the adilition of ebony, camwooil, barwood, indigo, and cacao. i Chief towns are IhiI.e Toirn, Creel: Toim, Konnij, and Hratm. 162 CONdO FREE STATE-GERMAN SOUTH AFRICA. ' l! II I) CONGO FREE STATE. Area, 860,400 square miles; pojtnlntion, 15,600,000. The State iiicludu.s a sin'fill section on the north or right bank of the Congo, from its mouth to Manyaiigi, where it touches French territory. It extends to 40'' north hititude and to 30" east hmgitude. Southwards it reaches Liike Hungweolo. It is Ijordered on the south by British Central A f I'ica and the Portuguese possessions. It is a protectorate of Belgium, The Congo River almost doubles on its course through this immense region, flowing in a northerly direction until it crosses the ccpiator, then making a large sweep, it reachea the Athmtic in a south-westerly direction. It is navigable for 4(!0 miles from its mouth to Vivi. Between this point and Stanley Pcjol (Leopoldville), a distance of 200 niiles, navigation is obstructed by rapids, but beyond this is navi- gable water for about 1,000 miles, and many of its ti'ibutaries may be navigated for hundreds of miles. Boma, on the lower river, is the capital. SOUTH AFRICA. South Afrlrn comprises Gtpp. Colony (including Fondo Laml and Walfisch -Bay), Jinsnto Land, Natal, Znhdand, Tonijoliind, Bcrhmmaland, Xand>rsiit, Nijasstdand, German Soiith-inst Africa, and the Transratd and Orarje Jiepiddics. In the south and east it is mf)unhainous ; in tiio nortli and west are vast plateaus, almost destitute of water. Three parallel ranges of mount^iins extend in a north-easterly diiec- tion, I rising one above the other from the south upwards; the first being from 20 to (10 miles from the coast. The most northerly in Capo Colony is that of tlie NIcuitrtd Moiiiit((ins, whose summits are generally covered with snow. Mount Compass rises to the height of over lOj'JoO feet. The Liipata Mountains extend iiorth-eastei'jy through Bechuana- land and Matabele to the Zambesi. The Oranijv, or (iavicp, is tiio principal river, rising in the Dinhnlxnj Moutihtlns, west of Natal, and llowing through level country into the .Vtlantic, 4ri0 miles from the Cape of (inud llojie. The LimfKipo, rising on the o[)posite side of the Drakenberg, flows north-easterly, and then south into Delagoa Bay. RRITISir NOl'Til AFRICA. Area, !l,''i'.>,JiSli sijuatr iiillis; pojudaliDn, ,!,7>^(i,()0(K The HritUli VoNm'MNlonH form tlie soutlu'i'u extremity of the African eontinent, and exliud about, I, ()()(( miles from last to west, and from l,riO0 to J,H(K) miles from north to soutli. It includes Cape Colony, witli its dependencies; Basuto- laiid. Natal, Zulidand, Tongaland, British lU^chuanaland, Bechuanaland Protectorate, Nyassaland, and Zambesi/i. 20 The country was originally colonized by the Dutch, buti since 1800 has been in the possession of the British. Ab lultivated P'S to the iicr.sdii.s to lid. lias a .l;mt. It l/.f. Tca- Lc capital, 1,1,1, ilhdilt \a oxtoiids Uiviv on Itisli, and It'linito. country, If any ini- ORANGE FRi5)te STATES AND TRANSVAAL REPUBLICS-BRITISH ISLANDS. 15.3 ORANGE FREE STATE AND TRANSVAAL REPUBLICS. These countries, lying north of Cape Colony, are sur- rounded by British territory. The estimated area of the Orunee Free Ntute is 41,500 square miles, and the jiopula- tion amounts to nearly 80,000. Farming and grazing are the chief occupations of the inhabiUmts, who are mainly of Dutch (Holland) origin. Gold, dianumds, garnets, and other precious stones are found here. Bloemenfontein (3,500) is the capital, Trunsvaal, north of the Free State, is about four times its size, but .scarcely exceeds it in population. The occupa- tions of the people and the resources of the country are much like those of the sister repulilic. The people are also of Dutch origin. I'ntirrin is the capital. Between tiie Dutch republics and the Atlantic is the country of the Bucliuanas, Namaquas, and Damaras, an inottensive, ])astoral jjcople. The Zulus are a war-like tribe of Kafhrs who.se territory lies north of Natal. GERMAN EAST AFRICA. Area, SriJt^OoO sipinre milva; population, 1,700,000 to ^,'>00,OllO. The limits of German East Africa are somewhat undefined. It emliraces a strip of the Zanzibar coast purchasetl from the natives, and at various points inland it touches Lakes Tan- ganyika, Victoria, Nyaiiza, and Nya.ssa. The products are ivory, india-rubber, copal, gum, and coffee. Ihir-i's-Salaatn, liiUjamo\io, and Tainja are jiorts of some importance. ItRITISH EAST AFUU A (lltEA). Ana, over 1,000,0110 siiuarf milen; population, 12,500,000, British East Africa occupies the northern portion of the Zanzibar coast. It is limited on tiie noi'tli-east liy tlie rivi'r .luba, and meets (ierman' East Africa on the sontli. Inliiml it readies .Vbyssiiiia and Egy|it at the north, wiiile to the west it extends to tiie watershed of the Nile, and touches Oongo Free State. It includes Uganda, I'soga, I'nyoro, and other native kingdoms, besides the great Ecpiatorial 1'rovinie formeily held by Eiiiin I'asha, jiarts of Kordofan and Darfur, and a large jmrt of Somaliland. It was first takt'n possession of and governed by a company known as tlie Imperial British East Africa Company, the initials of whicli title have given ri.so to the name Ibi'a. Among the products are cloves, ivory, india-rubber, gum, copra, coir, orchella seed, and hides. Tlie chief ports are Wonga, Momhassa, Malindi, ami L(()iu. 3Iombasiia is the capital. Systems of railways and canals are in course of con- struction. ISLANDS OF AFRICA. MADAGASCAR. Ann, J2S,r>00 stpiare miles, rather lanjer than, the Frovince of Quebec ; jxipulation, ^,000,000. Mndagnacur is the largest of the African i-slands, and is separated from the east coast of Africa by the Mozambiciuo Cliannel. Lofty mountjiins traverse it from north to south, ap- proaching nearest to the eastern shore. The climate is hot, and the soil fertile, jiroducing rice and sugar abundantly. Iron is found in the mountfiins. The government is despotic. Christianity, to which the natives were formerly hostile, has now liecome the established religion. Tanana- rivo (100,(XM)), the capital, is situated on a lofty t^dile-land, near the centre of the island. Tamatave (10,000), on the east coast, is the princijial seajiort. Madagascar is a French protectorate. OTHER FRENCH ISLANDS. Rvuiiion, or lloiirbon (1<)5,()00), rather larger than Mau- ritius, lies UO miles south-west 1,(MM>), IV considerable island, formerly called the Isle of Fi'aiifc, is 4H() luili's to the east of Ma, 000,000. Most of the islands l)elong to European nations. The Dutch possess Java, with portions of Sumatra, Horneo, ami Celebes, besides a number of the smaller islands. The Spaniards possess the greater ]>art of tlie Pliilippines. The IJritish have jjossessed the small island of J.idman, ofl' the coast of 15ornoo, since IHM!. The nortliern part of Borneo is now subject to ISritain. The Dutch possessions were cai)tured by the British in the beginning of this century, but were restored at the jieace of 1814. The Dutch now own the greater part of the island. Sumatra is a long, narrow island, upwards of 1,000 miles in length, lying to the south-west and south of the Malay I'eninsula, from which it is separated by the Strait of Ma- lacca. The island is about three-fourths the size of Quebec, and is directly under the eipiator. It is traversed liy ciiains of lofty mountains, one of their sunnnits rising over 12, (KK) feet in height. Most of the surface is covered witii dense forests, afl'ording a retreat to numerous wild animals. Be- tween the mountain ranges are large and fertile plains, {)ro- ducing coffee, pepper, rice, and camphor, which are largi'ly exported. The Dutch possess all that ])art of the island lying south of the eipiator; the remainder is occupied by native States. The principal Dutch towns are Pabmhamj, Padanij, and the seaport of liiin'iiolru. The islands of BuHi'ii and P>illiti)ii, otr file oast coast, belong to the Dutch, and contain valuable tin mines. Java lies to the south-east of Sumatra, from which it is se])arated Ity tlie Strait of Sunda. It is about one and one- fourth times till) size of Newfoundland, and is the most populous and fertile of the Malaysian Islands. It is travei'sed 1>» a lofty chain of volcanic mountains, and has numerous I'ne harbors and bays, liargo ((uantitics of eotl'i'e, rice, sugar, and cinnamon are expoi'ti'd; and in tlie interior are extensive forests of teak. >liif the year. Farther north the chain continues, under the name of the Blue Mountains and tlie Lirerpind Rauije. In Western Australia, near the cfwst, are ranges of low mountviins, extending inland about 300 miles, and forming a table-land. The Jiighest summit is about r),r a considerable distance. It receives, on tlie north bank, the Dariinfj and the Murrumbidijee, with its atHuent the Lrwhlan. On the eastern coast are numerous small rivers, rising in the mountains and flowing east; b\it they are small, and of I little service to commerce, owing to the jiroximity of the I mountjiins to the coast. In South Australia are several : largo lakes: Torrens, Oairdner, Chegorij, Eijre, Frome, and Amadeus. In Western Australia are Lakes Austin, Barlee, j Lefroy, and Brown. 158 NKW S( X'TII WALES- VKJTOUIA—QrKKNSLANDSOlTH AVSTUALIA. ■; ; Australia is very cninpact in form, tlie only grunt Indoii- tatioiiH being the Gulf of ('iiri>eittari<(, on the north, find almost opposite!, on the soiitli, the (in-at Aiiatrdlimi, Biijhl. Besides these are : on the cast, Ilfrve]/ li>utli Wales, but in 1859 was made a separate colony. Brisbane (49,000), the capital, is at tin of the Brisbane River, which flows into Moreton !'> SOUTH AUSTRALIA. South Australia (315,000) is an important agricultural country, and possesses very valuable copjier mines. A range of hills extends northwavds along the eastern shore of WESTERN AUSTRALIA— TASMANIA-NEW J-^EALAND- PAPUA— POLYNESIA. 159 ^ortli of It WilS ■v mill lit" the St. Vincent Gnlf, and some smaller detached r.inges occur ! in the soutli. It contains also several large lakes, such as Torrens, Gairdner, Gri'gory, Fronie, and Aniadeus. Grain is e:;iK)rted to t!io neighhoring colonies, and largo (juantities of copper and w<.'ol go to Europe. Adelolde (13.'},.'{0t)), the capital, is near the eastern shore ■of St. Vincent Gulf. The chief coj)|>er mines are the linrni Bnna, 35 miles north-east of the Gulf of St. Vincent, the Moontc, and the WnllitiDo. WESTF IIX Af.STR AM A. AVt'storn Aaiitralla has the largest area of any colony in the island. It contains only about 50,0<)(( inhahit'ints, not including the aborigines. I'lrth (10,00(J), the capital, is on the Swan River, on the west coast. TASMANIA. Area, 26,215 atjuare milm; jiupiilation, 140,700. Tasmania is an island lying to the south-east of Australia, from which it is separated by Bass's Strait. It is nearly as large as New Brunswick. The surface is hilly, and the coast indented with fine bays and harbors. The climate is mild and healthy, and the soil fruitful. It is a rich mineral country, especially in the west. Hohart (25,000), the capital, is on the River Derwent, which flows into Storm Bay, on the south-ea.st of the island. It is beautifully situated, being surrounded by liills. LiiHHceaton (17,000) is on the north side of the islan , on the River Tamar, which flows into Bass's Strait. cultural les. A Ihore of NEW ZEALAND. Area, 10^,^71 square miles; population, 6(18,353. New ZcttlantI 'consists of two large islands and several smaller ones, lying about 1,100 miles south-east of Australia. The larger islands are called Xorth Inhoid and South Idand, and are separated by Cook's Strait. Steu-aii Idand is small, and is separated from St)uth Island by Foveaux Strait. The area is about the same as that of Great Britain and Ireland. Along the west coast of both of the large islands extends an elevated chain of mountjiins, many of their peaks being covered with perpetual Know. Mount Eijmont, in North Island, is over 8,000 feet high ; other j)eak8 rise to a higher elevation, culminating in Mount Cook (l.'J,.'WX)), in the South Island. There are a nund)er of small rivers, some of them navigable. The cllmute is mild and healthy, and the soil fei le, producing most of the grains and fruits of Soutliern Europe. The taro, sweet potato, and flax are cultivated, and sheep are extensively reared for thuir wool. Tlie natives are o.vllcd Maories, and are of the Malay mce — a tall, well-foniiod, intelligent people, bravo and unedi)i, (45,8(55), near which are valuable gold fields; Jiiverton, Invercaryill; and AVetitlnnd. Norfolk iHland, to the north of New Zealand, was for- merly a penal settlement, but it now belongs to the Pitcaim islanders. Chatham, Antipodes (so called from being the land most nearly opjwsite to Great Bribiin in the southern hemisphere), Aurklnnd, and other islands to the south-east of New Zea- land, are stations for the South Sea whale and seal fi.shory. PAPUA, OR NEW GUINEA. Papua, or Now Oulncu, next to Australia and Greenland the largest island on the globe, is situated to the north of Aiistralia, from which it is separated by Torres Strait. It lies directly under the ecjuator. The Northern Territory, extending from 26° south lati- tude to the Arafura Sea, is provisionally under the govern- ment of Sf)uth Australia. Little is known of its resources, and there are no important settlements. On some parts of the coast it is mountainous, but the interior is still unexplored. It is mainly under the jinisdic- tion of the Briti.sh and Dutch, and is visited by the Chinese and Malays for trepang and edible birds' nests. The beau- tiful bird of paradise is a native of the island. The chief British town is Fort Moreshij, The numerous groups of islands lying to the east of New Guinea and Au.stralia are but little known. The principal are: Admindty Islands, Neio Ireland, New Britain, Lonis- iade Arehipidaejo, Sulonioii Islands, Q^ieen Charlotte Islands, Neir Hebrides, and New ddedonia. The French have possessed New Caledonia (which is a penal settlement) since 1854. POLYNESIA. Polynesia is the name given to the vast n)iml)er of islands .scattered over the Pacific Ocean, chiefly within 30^ north and south of the ecjuator. The larger islands are volcanic, m- 160 ANTARCTICA. I'l luit most, of tlio Rinaller onos h;r »■ linoii jirnduceil liy the discoverer, was killid. HunUnlii ('J0,5(X)), un one of the lahors of the (liniiimtivo conil creature, improperly called Hiiiiiller islaiidis, is the capital. an insect. j TJie Jartrest of the Society Islands is Tahiti, or (Hahrltr. The ])rincipal groups north of the cM|iiator are: tho Lddmnr, It contains ii population of ll.'JdO, .-nd is niemorahlo as tiie or M.irianne, I'lUw, ('uniliiK', Mor.shtill, (iillinf, and Snnd- scene of tiie mutiny of tlie liinnilii. J'itrnirth I.-Jnnd, wluav irirhlnliiitiln. Soutli of the O(piatorare: the Fiji, Fiii-ndhj, or the mutineers settled, is south-east of the Low Archipelago. Tnn"^'a, Ndriifdinr'.'i, or Samoa, r..,,/,'.s. or Hi ivey, and /!^ie, and Mnninisii.i Jslands, I Christian missions have lieen very successful in Polynesia, The coral islands are generally very small, and are raised ' many of the islan.ls being completely Christianized. but a few feet above the level of the oce m. Tlu^y are often | circidar in shape (atolls), with lago.ms of still w.iter almost .»-.r »•./■'■.«- » wholly enc(»mpassed. Ihoseof volcaipc formation are moun- ' tainous, with rich and fertile valleys, as the Manpiesas, This name is given to several extensive tracts of land Society, and Sandwich Islands. in Ihnmli, one of tlif supposed to form part .f a Southern Continent, and a num- latter group, there are two volcanic mountains, rising up- , ber -.f islands whicii have been discovered in the Antarctic wards of i;5,0(K) feet in height. .Mtliough these islands are nearly all within the torrid /.one, the cli- niatu is delightful and healthy, being tempereil by the sea breezes. The soil is remarkable for its fer- tility, ])roducing tiie cocoa-palm, bread-fruit, plantains, bananas, yams, and other tropical trees and fruits. The natives are ehietly of the Malay race, and are well-made and active; diflering greatly, however, in dis|)osition, Iteing m^id and hos- pital)le in some islands, and in otiiers savage and treauheroiis. T!ie Fiji Islands, as well as the I'apuan .Vrchipeiago, are inhabited l(y the Austral-neg"o race (1-1,- 'JIM)), who are among the west and most degraded inhabi- tants of tlie world. Tlie Fiji Islands are fertile, and form convenient siopping-plai'cson vhe voyage between San Fran- cisci and .\ustralia. They wore annexed to Hrit^iin in lH7r>. »S'»(i<( is the cliiof tow»\. The Nanilwlcli and Kocli'ty .NlmtiSN are the most im- portant groups in Polynesia, a'.id their inhabitants have made the greatest advances in civilization. The Samlwiih Islands have a popidation cean. The ])riiicipal tract of land is Siiiilh Virtnrid, lying to *he south of New Zealand, discovered in 1H40 by Sir .lames Ross. It is covered with glaciers and pe-rpetual snow, and has lofty mountains along the coast. Its most notal)lo feature is the great volcano of Mmnit Fnlm.i, 1L'.4(MJ feet high, the Hames of which rise to a considerable height above its crater, ami throw a weird light over these desolate regions. Farther east is Mmutt Tirrnr, an- other voKano, nearly 11. (MM) feet high, liotii are named from the exjiloring ships Ki-rlnin and Ti rrnr. West of these is the south magnetic pole. Till' otiicr principal trai'ts are: Adiliti and Siilirlmi l.ntids^ soulii of Australia; farther west, A'af/cc/i;/ and /v'l //(/< l^nud.s, south of .Madagascar; and Hiidntm Laitil, (i(M) miles soutii of Cape Morn. Rount'i .he coast of (iraham Land are numerous islands llie Smdh Shitliiiiil, South Oil.inii, ,Si, idh (iiniijiitn Idiiiids, and otliera. Besides these are a nundter of small islands, lying much fartln-r north, of the same cold, barren, and desoliili' chiiracti ;'. They are chiefly volcanic in forma- t' .1. Tluir shores are freipuiited by the albatross and vast ninubers of penguins; seals and whales idiound in theneitdi boring se.is. The mo)e notable of these smaller islands ..i': Trisldii il' .Iciiiihii, J'riiirr F>'