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V
^OVA S('()774
•- 1 .
F'HOVINCK HorSK
i.
SUM!':
B
'■^m\M
•j!|03 'uo|i|3o,5 ^^^
M3Q Nia lllHdMVd
ON SOME UNSOLVED PROBLEMS IN GEOLOGY.
M
i;i|m:Bbei?t5iMfi[.iJi!jS^
\'
ADDRESS
or
J. W. DAWSON, LL.D.
'. ■!■ i S r ■■:•-
OF THB
American Association for the Advancement of Science.
DELIVERED AT THE
MINNEAPOLIS MEKTINO,
AUGUST, 1883.
SALEM PRESS:
1883.
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''HS''^'"i:f^
ON SOME UNSOLVED PROBLEMS IN GEOLOGY.
ADDRESS
J. W. DAWSON, LL.D.
I'ltKSITJKAf 'I'
OF TIIK
American Association for the Advancement of Science.
DELIVEHED AT TIIK
MINNEAPOLIS MEETINO,
AUGUST, IfiA!.
SALEM PUESS;
1883.
\^
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3>
X T-fb
A D D R E S S
11 V
J. w. dawso:n^, ll. d.,
TUK ItETIKINi; PRKSIDEST OK THE ASSOCIATION'.
O.V SOME UNSOLVED PROBLEMS AV GEOLOGY.
Ladies and Gentlemen of the American Association fok the
Advancement ok Science : —
My predecessor in olllce reinnrked in the openinot of his address
thill two courses are open to the retiiini^piesidentoftiiis Association
in preparing tlie annual presidential discourse. He vaay either
take up some tojiic relating to his own specialty, or he may deal
with various or general matters relating to science and its progress.
A geologist, however, is not necessarily tied up to one or the other
alternative. Ilis suhjeet covers the whole history of the earth in
time. At the heginning it allies itself with astronomy and physics
and celestial chemistry. At the end it runs into iuiman hi.story
and is mixed up with archieology and anthropology. Throughout
its whole course it lias to deal with questions of meteorology',
geography and biology. In short, there is no department of
j)hysical or l)iological science, w ith which geology' is not allied, ur at
least on which llie geologist may not presume to trespass. When,
therefore, 1 announce as my sutiject on tlit; present occasion some
of the unsolved problems of this universal science, you need not
be surprised if I slioukl lie isomewhat discursive.
I'eihaps 1 shall begin at the utmost limits of my subject by
remarking that in mutters ol natuial and physical science, we are
met at the outset with the scarcely solved (piestion as to our own
place in the iiivture which we study, and the bearing of this on the
(3)
i
ADDRK88 RT
(lidlciiltioa wo cnponntcr. Tlie or<j;nnism of man is (U'cidodly a
l)!iit of iialiii't'. Wo |)lnco oiirsolvcs, in tliis aspect, in tiic snl)-
kinirdoni vcrt(d>i'ala andclass nianinialia.anil rccooni/t* the fact that
null) is Mic tei'ininul linl\ in a eiiain of liein<r, exten(lin<^ liii'oiii{ii()iit
geologieal tinus. Hut tiie or<;aiiisni is not all of man, and wiuni wc
rejiard man as a scieiililic animal, wo raise a m'w (juestion. If
the Ininian mind is a part of nature then it is snlijict to natural
law, and nature includes mind as well as matter. On the other
hand, without lieiiijj; alisoliite idealists we may hold that mind is
more potent than matter, and nearer to the real essence of thin<i;s.
Our science is in any case necessarily dualistic, being the product
of the reaction of mind on nature, and must he largely sul)Jective
and anthropomorphic. Hence, no donlil. arise much of the contro-
versy of science and nuich of the unsolved dilliculty. We recognize
this when wo divide science into that which is experimental or de-
pends on apparatus, and that which is obsci'vational and dassili-
calor}' — ilistinctions these which relate not so nuicli to the objects
of science as to our nu-thods of pursuing them. This view also
opens up to us the thought that the domain of science is practically
l)oundl<'ss, for who can set limits to the action of mind on the
universe or of the univeise on mind. It follows that science nuist
be limited on all sides by unsolved mysteries; and it will not serve
any good purpose to meet these with clever guesses. If we so
treat the enigmas of the sphinx nature, we shall surely be de-
voured. Nor, on the other hand, nmst we collapse into absolute
despair an<l resign ourselves to the confession of inevitable igno-
rance. It becomes us rather boldly to confront the unsolved (jues-
tions of nature, and to wrestle with their didlculties till we master
such as we can, and cheerfully leave those we cannot overcome to
be grappled with by our successors.
Fortunately, as a geologist, I do not need to invite your atten-
tion to those transcendental questions which relate to the ultimate
constitution of matter, the nature of the ethereal medium tilling
space, the absolute dillcrence or identity of chemical elements,
the cause of gravitation, the conservation and dissipation of en-
ergy, the nature of life, or the primary origin of bioplasmic matter.
1 may take the nmch more humble role of an inquirer into the
unsolved or partially solved problems which meet us in consider-
ing that short and imperfect record which geology studies in the
rocky lasers of the uartli's crust, and which leads no farther back
than to I
earth am
geology I
of the sy
more rec
necessar;
What
this moi
dant wa;
very sin
the Low
nnition
tion, of
• gists ca'
gneiss ii
latiou t<
bedded
miueral
which a
hornbU
tion till
rock wH
atiiicou
quite t
deposi'
fact tl
these g
by the
been \
nous.
atmos]
to the
On ll
or lim
under
i For a
been
* siou 1
■ coolc'
throu
^fsii'^i0^-
I
i'dly II
Nlll)-
It Mint
IMIESIDKNT HAWMON. 5
llmii to tlic tiino wlicn a Holid rind Imd alipfidv formed on tin;
t'iirlli mid WHS idrciidv oovLMcd with itii (ici-
in.
Tliis ii'C'ord of
i;(M)l()<j;y covci's liiit a siiiall |mrt of tlic liistory of the eiirtli and
of tin- syslciii to whicli it licloii^s, nor does it enter at all into the
more reeoinliti! pioliieiiis involved ; slill it Conns, I believe, some
neeewsary preparation at least to the e^)mpreliension f)f these.
What do we know of the oldest mid most primitive loeks? At
this moment the riiii'stion may lie answered in miiiiy and discor-
dant ways ; yet the leading eleinenls of the answer may lie given
very simply. The oldest rock formation known to geologists is
the Lower Laiireiilian, the fiiiidamental gneiss, the l^ewisian for-
mation of Seotland, the Ottawa gneiss of Canada. 'I'liis forma-
tion, of enoriiioiis thiekness, corresiionds to what the older geolo-
• gists calli'il tlie I'lindamental granite, a name not to he seoiited, for
gneiss is only a stratjiied granite. I'erhaps tlie main fact in re-
lation to this old rock is that it is a gneiss, that is, a rock at once
lied(le<l mid erystallinc, mid having for its dominant ingredient tho
mineral orthoelasc, a com|)0(ind of silica, nliimina and potash, in
which are embedded, as in a paste, grains and crystals of (piartz iiiid
hoiiihlende. We know very well fr<jni its textiin^ and composi-
tion that it cannot he a product of mere heat, and being ii bedded
rock we infer that it was laid down layer by layer in the manner of
a(|neoiis deposits. On tiie other hand, its chemical composition is
quite dilferent from that of the iiinds, sands and gravels usually
deposited from water. Their special chiiracters are caused by the
fact that they have resulted from the slow decay of rocks like
these gneisses, under the operation of carl ionic acid and water, where-
by the alkaline matter ami the more soluble part of the silica have
been washed away, leaving a residue mainly silicioiis and aliinii-
nous. Such more modern rocks tell of dry land subjected to
atmospheric decay and rain-wash. II' they have any direct relation
to the old gneisses they are their grandehiidrcn, not their parents.
f)n the cdiitraiy. the oldest gneisses show uo pebbles or sand
or limestone — notiiing to iiulicate that there was tlien any laiiil
undergoing atinospheiic waste, or shores with sand and gravel.
For all that we know to the contrary, these old gneisses may have
been deposited in a slujreless sea, holding in solution or snspeu-
sioii merely what it could derive from a sulimerged crust recently
cooled from a stale of lusioii, still thin, and exuding here and there
through its lissures heated waters ami volcanic products.
c,
ADIHtERS lir
It is Hnu'Oply nooosftni'v to say lliitt I liiivo no ooiin<lPiK'o in tli«
Kiipposilion «)f imliko compoHition «)f the cartirs iuhmh on (iid'cicnt,
siilcs on wliioli Dunn lisis pjirtly biiHod liin theory of tlio oriniu <if
continents. Tlie most pi()l)iil)lo concpption sccnis to l»o that of
Lycll, njinicly, u molten mass, uniform evee|)t in so far as (lenser
inateiiai miglit exist toward its centre, ami a ciiist at. first approx-
imatoly oven ami li()mo<;eneons, and snlise(|n(>ntly thrown into
•jreat hemlines iipwaid and downward. Tliis (piestion has recently
heen aliiy disciiHsed by Mr. C'ro.slty in the Jiondon (leoloj;ical
Magazine.'
In short, tho Inndamental gneiss of the Lower Lanrentiim may
have heen the lirst roi k evci' loiined ; and in any case it is a rock
IVtrnied nnder conditions which have not since recnrred (except
locally. It constitutes the (irst ami hesl example of these cliemi- •
co-physical, acpieous or aciiieo-igneons rocks, so characteristic, of
the earliest period of the earth's history. Viewed in this way
tho Lower Lanrentian gneiss is prohahly tho oldest kind of rock
we shall ever know — the limit to our backward progress, beyon«l
which there remains nothing to tho geologist except physical hy-
l)otlicses respecting u cooling incandescent glol)e. Kor the chem-
ical conditions of these primitive rocks, and what is known as to
their prol)al)lo origin, I must refer you to my friemi Dr. Sterry
Hunt, to whom we owe so much of what is known of tin; ohh'r
ciystallino rocks"- as well as of tlu'ir literature, ami the questions
which they raise. My purpose hero is to sketch the remarkable
ditlerence which wo moot as wo ascend into the Middle and
Ui)por Lanrentian.
In the next succeeding formation, the true Lower Lanrentian
of Logan, the Grenvillo series of Canada, we meet with a groat and
significant change. It is true we have still a pi-edominance of
gneisses which may have l)oori forme(l in tho same manner with
those below tliem ; hut we find these now associated with great
bods of limestone and dolomite, which nuist have boon formed by
the sepiuation of calcium and magnesium cari)onates from the sou
water, oithoi' by chemical precipitation or by the agency of living
beings. Wo have also (|nartzite, (piartzose gneisses, and even
pebl)lo lieds, which inform us of sand baid<s and shores. Nay,
more, w(* have boils coMtaining graphite which must l)c tho residue
of plants, and iron ores whi"h tell of the deoxidation of iron
'.IiiMf. ISS;). J lliint. Ksfiiys on (.'liuiiiiiiil Heology.
|o ill Mm
lid'crciif,
|>rijriii ,,f
lliat of
Is denser
■'"|>pr()x-
rMi into
liecenllv
loloiiienl
|iaii ni.-iyr
.■I rock
except
• elieini- »
■isti(! of
lis wiiy
oC rock
lie.voinl
eal liy.
e <lieiii-
11 as to
JStoiry
<) older
leslions
irkahle
lie and
I'onfian
'at and
iice of
r witii
jrioat
led hy
lie sort
livillfr
even
Nay,
'sidiie
■ iron
rriKSIDKNT l»AWKON. 7
oxide hy orf;niiic imitterM. In Hhorl, lieic we jiave evidence of
new ('actors in world-liiiildinir, of land and oc(!aii, of atniospjicric
<leeay of rocks, ol" ileoxidizinj; proccsHCH carried on liy v«'yetalti«
life on liie land and in I lie waters, (d* linu>Hton(>-liiiililin^ in the sea.
To nllord material for Hncli roeks, tlie old Ottawa }j;neiHs ninsl Inive
lieeii lifted lip into continents and nioiintain inasso. I'nder the
nIow lint Hiii'c fiction of the caiiioiiic dioxide dissolved in raiii>
water, its felspar had crnnihled down in the course of a}j;cs.
Its potash, soda, lime, magnesia and part of its silica had lieeii
washed into tlie sea, there to enter into new comltinations and to
foiin new deposits. The cnimliiing residue of line clay ami sand
had been also washed down into the borders of the oci-:iii. and hail
heeii there deposited in lieds''. Thus tlie earth had eiileied into a
new [iliase, which continues onward ihroii^ii tlie geological a;jeH ;
and I place in your hands one key for unlocking; the mystery of
the world when I alliiin that this <;reat change took place, this new
era was inaiiiiiirated in the iiiiilst of the Laiirentian period.
Was not this time a lit period for the lir.-t appearance of life?
Should we notex|)ect ittoa|)penr, independently of tin' evidence we
hiive of the fa(!t? i do not))rop()se to enter here into that evidence,
more I'specially in the case of the one well characteriztMl Lauieii-
lian fossil, Eozmm Cnuiidense. I have already amply illustrated
it elsewhere. I would merely say here that we should bear in luind
that in this later half of the Lowt'r Laiirentian. or if w»' so choose
to style it, Middle ]>aiiieiitian period, we lia\c the conditions re-
(|iiired for life in the sea and <mi the land ; and since in other
periods we know that life was always present when its conditions
were present, it is not iiir-easonalile t(j look for the first traces of
life in this formation, in which we lind for the fh'st time the com-
pletion of those physical arran<;ements which make life, in such
forms of it as exist on our planet, [lossihle.
This is also a proper |jlace to say something of the docliine of
what is termed metamorphism. The Laurentian rocks are undoubt-
edly greatly changed from their original state, more especially
in the matters of crystallization and the formation of dissemi-
nated minerals, by Ihi! action of heat and heated water. Sand-
stones have thus passed into cpiarlzites, clays into slates ;m(l gchists,
limestones into marbles. So far, metamorphism is not a doubtful
'< l>i', lliiiil lias iiiiw in |irr|inratiiin lor llio |ire.sN an iiiipuilaiil paimi' uii lliis Biibject,
reuil lii'loie Uie National Acailcniy of Srieuces.
yy
< m il i n ii
t
n AonuKss bv
(liiostioii ; hilt wlion lliooiios ornictainorpliisiii pro so fnr as to sup.
jioso ail actual clianiii' of oiio olciiu'iit for anotlior, tlicy fi<> lu'voml
tliol)oiiii(is()f('lu'iiii('aUTO(lil)ility ; yot snc'litliooriosofinctaiiiorpliism
are often lioldly advanced and made tlie l)asis of important conclu-
sions. Dr. limit lias liap|)ily i;iven the name " inetasomatosis" to
this iiiKij^inaiy a mpossihle kind t)f nietainoiphisin, which may
be regarded as an . xlieiiie kind of evolution, akin to some of those
forms of that theory emitloyed with refeienee to life, lint more
easily detected ;ind exposed. 1 would have it to lie understood
that, in spcakinu; of tiie metamorpliisni of the old(>r crystalline
rocks, it is not to this metasomatosis that I refer, and that I hold
that rocks which havi' been produced out of the materials decom-
posed by atmospheric erosion can never by any process of meta-
morphism be restored to the precise condition of the Laurent iau
rocks. Thus there is in the older formations a f>;(mealo<iy of rocks,
which, in the alisence of fossils, may be ust-d with some confidence,
but which does not apply to the more modern deposits. Still
uothiii}; in y;eol<j<]i;y absolutely perishes, or is aUojictlier discon-
tinued ; ami it is probabU' that, down to the present day, the causes
which produccil the old J^aurentian "iiieiss may still o|)erate in
limited localitii's. Tlicn. however, they were general not excep-
tional. It is further to be observetl that the term gneiss is some-
times of wide and (veii loose application. Heside the typical or-
thoclase and hornblendic gneiss of the lianrentian. there are
micaceous, (juartzose. garnetiferous and many other kinds of
gneiss; and even gneissose rocks, winch hold labradorite or anor-
thite instead of orthoclase, are sometinu's, though not accu-
rately, included in the ti'rni.
The Grenvilli- series, or Middle Laiirentiaii is succeeded by what
Logan in Canada called the ri)per Laurentian, and "liicli )llier
"•eoloiiists have calle<l tlu' Norile or Noriaii series. Here we still
have our old frieiuls the gneisses, but somewhat pi-culiar in type,
and associatetl with tlieni arc great beds, riidi in lime-felspar, the
so-called labradorite and anortliilc rocks. The precise origin of
these is uuciMtain, but this much seems clear, namely, that they
originated in circnmstanees in whleli tiie great limestones depos-
ited in the Lower «)r Middle Laurentian were beginning to be
employed in tin' m:iniifaclnre, i>roiiably by aipieo-igneous agencies,
of lime-felspars. This proves the Norian rocks to be much
younger than the Lament iaii, and that, as Logan sui>posed, con-
■■••« mm wwvmww «^^
riJKSIDKNT DAWSON.
•■>« to Slip.
:<) licyond
iioipliisiii
it <'on('lti-
liitosis" to
liicli iiiMy
of tlioso
'tilt iii()i(>
l(ilTsl()()(|
|i'vstalliiio
It I hold
Is (Icconi-
of lllOlll-
iiirciiliau
of roc'Ivs,
"(idoiicc,
's. Mill
' •iiscoii-
llt'CMllSCS
it'ralt! in
>t exri'p-
is soiiii'-
pic-al or-
licio are
liinds of
or aiior-
)t. ac't'ii-
I'.V wliat
■li )tli(.r
"(' still
II type,
|'!ll', lilt!
'i.yiii of
lit lln'V
dcpo.s-
; to 1(0
I'licii's,
iniicli
I, foii-
sidcrahlf oarth inovcmonts luid oooiirrod bclwooii flu! two, imply-
iiij; lapsi' of lime.
N'l'xt \^^^' lia\c the Iliiroiiiaii of F/Ouaii. a scries iniich less crvs-
talliiic a
nd in
oil' fi'auuu'iitai'v
ill'nrdiiin' iiioic t'vidi'iU't' ol
iiid
I'li'valion and at iiiosiiliciic and a(|in'()iis ciosion lliaii any of tlu!
otluTs. Itdias«irt'at (•on<:lonH'ral('s,sonu'of tlicni madciipof ronndod
pi'lihics of Lanrcnt.ian rocks, and ollicrs of (piartz polihlcs, which
nnist, have lii'cii the remains of rocks siilijected to very perfect ero-
sion.
The I
ini'c
inailz-ioi
■ks 1
ell the same laic, \\\i\
U- ill
nestoiie.s
and slates speak also ot' ciieinical separation of the materials of
older rocks. 'l"he liu.onian evidently tells of movements in (In^
previous l.anreiiti.an. .■ind clLaiiiiCs in its tevtiire soiircat, that, the
Idiiner may he reuaided as a comparal i\ cly modern rock, thoiiiih
vastly older than any part of the I'ala'o/tiic series.
Still later than the lliironian, is the Lirc.it Mi('acer)iis series,
(•■died liy Hunt th" .Mont AUiaii or White inonntain izronp. and
the 'I'ai'onian or Lower T.-icoiiie of Imiiiiioiis. whicii recalls in some
measure the conditions of Uie llnrnnian. The precise rehations
of these to the later formations and to ceitain doiilitl'iil deposit.s
around Lake Superior, can scarcely he said to lie settleil. thonLih
it would seem that they are all oMer than the fossilil'erous (ain-
liriaii rocks, which practically const it ill e the base of the I'ala'o/nii'.
I lia\('. I may say. satislie(| myself, in reiiioiis which I \\:i\v
stiidie<l. v)l' the existence .and order oft liese rocks as siu-ccssi\ e for-
mations, thonjih I would not doyinali/.e as to the precise relations
of those last mentioned, or as t() the precise ajic of sonu' dis-
]iiite(| f(inuati(ins \\hi<'li may either he iif the a;.;t' nf the nlder
Ko/.iiic l'i)rinations or n,a\' lie peiaili.ar kinds of rahe(>/oic rocks
modiiiid liy metainorplii -111. I'rolialily neither of the oxlreino
views now ;i^i,,ited is alisdlnlely cuirccl.
.M'ter what has lieeii said.ynu will perhaps not he astonislu'd
that a ;:ri'at m'liliiiiic.al liattle r;i<;es over the ohi ciystalliiii' roi'ks.
\\\ some <.reohi;^ists they are almost entirely expl.aineil away or
rererred to i;^ne()r.s action or to the alleratidii of ordinary seili-
nients. Inder 1 he ireatmentdf .another school, they «;ruw to ^reat
series of l're-( .•imlirian rocks, (•onslitntinn' vast systems of for-
mations. disliii'.^ui>lialilc IVoin ciudi oilier, not liy fossils. Imt liy
dillercnces of iniiieral cliar.aeter. I liaxc alicadx indicited the
nianncr ill which 1 lielieve the dispute will nlliinatily lie settled.
mm
ufm»^^ m% i i 7!%i i ' i
10
APDKESS BY
anil the rrcsident of the Geologi ml Section will treat it more
fully in his opening address.
After tilt' solitary apiiearanco of Kozoon in tlioLanrentian, and
of a few niR'tMlain i'ornis in tlic llMronian and Taconian, we lind
ourselves, in the Canil)rian, in tin; piesenee ol' a nearly eoniplete in-
vertelirate fauna of protozoa, polyps, eeiiinodernis, niollusks and
crnslaeea, and this not conlined to one loeality merely, but apjjar-
ently extended sinndtaneonsly throngiiont the oeean. This sud-
den ineoniing of aniiiud life, along with the snhseciuent introduction
of successive groups of inxcrlehrates, and linally of vertel)rate an-
in)als, furnishes one of the greatest of the unsolved prohlenis of
geology, whicii geologists were wont to settle by the supposition
of successive cr«)atio)is. In an address delivered at the Detroit
meeting of the Association in lM7r>, I endeavored to set forth the
facts as to this succession, and the geneial (jrinciples invtjlved in
it, and to show the insulliciency of the theories of evolution sug-
gested l)y biologists to give any sidisti ntial aid to the ge<jlogist in
thes(! (jufstions. In looking again at the points there set forth,
I lind they have not been invalidated l)y sul)se(iuent discoveries,
and that we are still nearly in the same position with respect to
these great (iiiestions that, we were in at that time. — a singular
profif of the impotency of that deductive method of reasoning
which has btH'ome fashionable among naturalists o|' hite. Yet the
discussions of recent years have thrown s<nne additional light on
these mattei's, and none more so than the mild disclainu'rs with
whieli my friend Dr. Asa (iray and other moderate and scientific
evolutionists lia\e met the extreme views of such men as Uoina-
nes. Iheckel, i-idiliock and (Irant. Allen. It may be useful to note
sonu' of these, as sjiedding a little light on this dark ctnner of our
unsolved problems.
It has liei'U urged on the side of rat ional evolution t lint this
hvpothesis does not profess to give an e \ plana 1 ion of the absolntt;
origin of life on our planet, or even of llie original organization
of a single cell or of a simple nuiss of protopl;i>m. lix ing or dead.
All experimeiilal alti'uiiils to prodiu'c by synlliesis the coiii|)|ex
albuminous siilistanci's or to obijiiu the living from the non-living,
have so far liceii fruitless. au<l indeed we cannot imagine any pro-
cess by which such <-liaiiges coiihl bi' I'lfccled. 'I'liat they lia\e
been ellectc'd we know, but the process employed by their maker is
*mmmmt»m
I'UKSIDKNT DAWSON.
11
?at it more gtill as mystorions to us us it prolialjly was to liini wlio wroto tl
10
Von Is
Ami (!(mI smM let till' wMtcrs swiiiiii witli swiiniu'i's.
•Piitian, jind
.'III, wo liiid
■(iinplulL- ill-
lollllsiiS 1111(1
)iit appar-
Tliis 811(1-
ntrodiielion
rtobrato aii-
iiolik'ins o/'
siipposilion
lilt' Detroit
•t forth the
involved in
)liitioii siijj;-
,^eolojii.st, in
e set loith.
(iisfoveiics.
icsjieet to
-a singular
if reasoning;
»■• Vet the
lal liulit on
:iiiiicrs with
1(1 seientilic
n as Uoina-
sefiil to note
>i iier of oMi
'M tll;|| thi.-
Iie ahsoliili..
ifzanizatjon
liji or dead,
le 0(>iiii»lex
noii-liviiio-,
le .•my pro-
tliey lia\c
.'ir maker is
II
()\v va>t is tiie <r;i
p ill our kiiowle(l<i<i and our praetieal power
implied ill this admission, which niust however he ni.'idc hy every
mind not alisoliitely hlinded by a suiierstilious Iieliel' in those
forms of words which too oflen pass current ,'is jihilosophy.
But, if we are content to start with a numlier of orjfanisms ready
made — a soinewhal humiliating; stall liowevci — we still have to aslc
— How do these vary so as to <ri\e now species? It is a singular
illusion in this niMttcr, of men who profess to he believers in natu-
ral law, that \ arialion iii.'iy lie boundless, aimless and fortuitous,
and thai it is by Npontaiicous selection fr(jiii varieties thus [iro-
duced that dcvelopiiieiit :irises. Ihit surely the sup[)osition of
mere chance and iiia<j,ic is unworthy of science. Varieties must
ha\ e causes, and their t:aiises and their etfeets must be regulated by
.some law or laws. Now it is easy to see that ihey cannot lie
caiiseil by a mere innate tendency in the oruaiiism itself. Every
oiii'anism is so nicely e(|iiilibratcd that it has no such s|)oiilaiieous
temlency, exce|it within the limits set by itsij:rowth and the law of
its perodical changes. 'I'licre may, however, be ciiuilibriinn more
or less stable. I lielieve all attennits hitherto made ha\e failed to
account for the li\ily of certain, nay of very many, ty|)es tlirougli-
oiit geological time, but the mere consideration that one may be
in a more stalde state of e(|uilibriuiii tli;tn another, so far
explains it. A rocUing stone has no more s[)ontaiieoiis ten-
dency l-o mo\(' than an ordinary iioulder, but it may be made to
mo\c with a touch. So it picjbably is with organisms. IJut if so,
then the causes of variation are external, as in many cases wo,
actually know them to be, and they must depend on instability or
change in surroundings, and this so arrangcil as not to be too ex-
treme ill amount ami to o|ierate in some deterininate direction.
Observe how reuiarkable the unity of the adjustinents invo!\-e(l in
such asii|)|>ositiim ! li()wsu[»erior they must be to our rude ami always
more or less unsuccessful att,em|)ts tj produce and carry forward
varieties and races in (lediiite directions I This cannot Ik; chance.
If It exists it must depend (ui plans dee|>Iy laid in the naliiri' of
things, else it, would lie mostnionstrous magic and causeless mira-
cle. Still more certain is this l■olH•lll^ion when we consider the va i
ami orderly .succession made known to us by {Ecology, aiul which
>i . ii [■■ ■m i L iiii in p yTL'A W iy i « i)>iiii'a
"^i
12
ADDRESS BY
must Imvc been rojiillnlod liy fixiM] laws, only .1 few of which nro
!is vol known to 11s.
P>cy(>n<l tlii'sc ucneral considcrMtions, we Iimvo otlioi's of a more
s|i('cial chr.ractcr, iiascd on pahi'onlolojiical facts, wliii'h show Low
inipcrlVc't are onr attempts as yet to reach the tine causes of the
intioilnetion of ifcnera and species.
One is tlie leniarUalile fixity of the IcadinL; types of livinir ite-
ings in ueoloijica! time. If, inslcacl of IVaminji, like Ila'ckei.
lancifiil piiyioij:cnies, we takt- the ti'onlile with ISanande and
'.anihv, to trace tiic foiins of life through (ho period of tlieii' ex-
istence, I'acii alonii' its own line, we shall he greatly struck wilii
this, and cs[)ecialiy with the continuous existence of many low
types of life throuj^h vicissitudes of physical conditions of the
most stu|)endous oiiaracter, and over a \:\\)so of time scarcely eon-
ceivaliie. What is still moi(! remaikablc is that lliis hoiiis in
<frou|)s which, within ccrt.ain limits, arc'pcrhaps the most variable
of .'dl. In the present world, no crcatiu'cs ;irc individnall}" more
variable than the protozoa; as, for ex!im|)le, tiie foiaminifei'a and
the si)onj4es. Yet these <j;ronps arc fundamentally the same, from
the bejiiuuinji' of the I'aheozoic until now, and niodern species
seem scarcely at all to dilfcr from specimens procured from rocks
at least half-w.ay i)Mck to the bejfiuninir ol' onr geolojjical lecord.
If we suppose that the present spou<i<'s and foiaminifera are thi^
descendants of those of the .Silurian perioil. we can allirm that
in all that vast lapse of time, they have on the whole made little
<j;realer chauue than that which may be oliserved in vari.alile forms
at present. The same remark applies to other low animal forms.
In forms somewhat hii;lier and less vaiiable, this is e(iually note-
worthy. The pattern of the xcn.'iliou of tiie win<i,s of cock-
roaches, .and the structure and form of land snails, ij;ally-worms
and decapod crnst.'iceaus were all settled in the Carboniferous ajie,
in a way that still remains. So were the foliaire and the frnetili-
c.'ition of clnli-mo^-ses and ferns. if, at anytime, members of
thesis groups l)ranched olf, so as to lay the foundation of new
si)eeies, this nnist luive been a ver}' rare and exceptional occur-
rence and one demanding even sonic suspension of the ordinary
laws of natiue.
Certain recent ntteiauees of eminent scientific men in Knglaud
and France, are most inslruclixc wiih reference to the dillicullies
4
'/"'b
J'UKSIDENT I>AWSON.
13
'>(■ a inoic
iiist'H oC the
livill<r l)(..
' ll.i'ckcl.
;iii(lc .-iiiil
t' tlicii- cx-
triiclc with
Mi.'iny low
"lis of the
ircciv coii-
s hoid.-s ill
>t vari.'ihlc
tally more
iiircra and
■iaiiic. IVoiii
111 species
roiii rorlvs
•al i('('(ini.
'a an- tlio
•/linn that
ladc liuj,.
iltio forms
lal Coiins,
illy ii()t(>-
ol' coi'k-
ly-woriiis
Toiis njic,
' fViictin-
IIiImts of
I of new
II occiir-
ordiiiiuy
Kiiuland
llk'iillifa
wliicli eiicompuss this siil\ject. IFiixloy, at proseiil the Iciidcr of
Kiiii'lisli I'voliitionists, ill his '• Hcdc Lcctmc"' delivered al (am-
brid<ie, iMiulaiid, holds tliiit there are only two •• possihle
alU'rnallve liypothcseH" as to the ori|j,in of species — (1) that of
'' constriK'tioii" or the mechanical pntlinjx toilet her of the mute-
rials and parts of cacii new species separately; and (2) that of
"evohition." or that^ one; form of life "proceeded from another"
liy the " estalplishinent of small siiccessi\e ditfcrences." Alter
compai'ini:: tlioe modes, much to the disad\ antaue of the (irst. he
concludes with tin- statement that •'this was his case for evolnlioii,
which he rested wholly on ai'Linnieiits of the kind he had adduced" —
these arnnmenls lieing the tlireadhare false analogy of ordinary
rcproduclion and the Iranslormation of species, and the mere
siiccession of forms more or less similar in Ljeoloiiical time, neither
of them liavini: any hearing' wJialcM'r on the oriuin of ;iny species
or on the cause of the observed snecession. \\ itii reference to
the two alternatives, while it is true thai no certain e\idence lias
yet been obtained either liy experiment observation or so-md induc-
tion as to the mode of oriLiin of any species. eiioiiLih is known to
show that tlu're an' numerous possible methods, grouped usnallv
nndi'i' tlu! heads of absolute creation, mediate creation, critical
I'volution and i;radnal exolution. It is .also true tii.al .almost the
only tliinti we certainly know in the matl(r is that the dilference.s
characteristic of classes, orders, e-enera and species must have
arisen, not in oiu' or two, but in many ways. An instructive com-
mentary (Ui the <a|)acity of our :i<ie to deal with these urc.at (pies-
tioiis IS alibrded by the f.act that this little piec(' of clever ment:ii
iiymnastic should ha\'e been |)iactised in a nniversit v lecture and in
presence of an educated audience. It is also desei'vinu, of notice
that thoimh the lecturer takes the developmeiit <jf the Xa 'Hi and
their allies as his principal illustration, he evidently attaches no
weiiiht to the ar;j;uinent in the opposite sense dednceil h\ I'.arrande,
the man ot' idl others most profoundly ac(|Uainte(l with these aiii-
m.als. from the I'aheozoic cephalopods.
Another example is allbi<led by a lecture recently delivered at
tlie Koyal Institution in J-ondon by Tidf. Flower."' The subject
is, "The Whales, past and present, and their probjdile oiii^in."
The latter jioinl, as is well known, ^iaudry had candidlv uivcii up.
" We have (|nestioneil," he says, •' these strange and Ltiuaiilic sov-
I lir|n)il III •■ N.ihiii'," .liiin'JI, r.iiicTlcii liv llic ;iiali(ir. ■' l!i|Mirl(i| iii •• \:iuiic."
'•«*.
^
-SMflg-
iv-Wi
14
ADUItKSS IIV
>i
er('i<.Mis of tlio Toitiiiry oceans jvs to tlicir ancestors. — lliey leave
lis willidiit reply." I'"l()\vci' is Ipolil enoiiL'li to face this inulilcni.
ami III' (Iocs NO ill a fair ami siuoroiis way, llioic^li liiiiitiiiii liiin-
si'ir to tlie siipiiositioii of slow aii<l j^radiial cliaii^ic lie "fives ii|i
at once, as every anatomist must, the idea of an oii<:;in IVoin fishes
or rcptili's. lie tliinUs the ancestors of the whales must have
lieeii i|iiaih'iipe(lal mammals. He is ol)liij:ril for ^ood reasons to
reject the sisals ami tiie otters, and turns to the nimnlates. tlionuh
liere also the dilliciilt ics are forniidalile. I-'inally. he has recourse
to an iuia;j;inary aiu'cstor, supposed to ha\i' haiinlcd iiKirsiies ami
rixers of the M»'so/.oic age. ami to have been internieiliate Itetween
a hippopotamus and a. dolphin, and omnivorous in diet. As this
aiiiinal is allo'^'ether iiiiUnown to ;ieolo|^v or /,ooloe;y. and not
niiii'li less dilllcilt to accoiiiit for than the whales tliemst'hes. he
Very properly a(lils : " IMease to recollect, however, that this is
a mere spfcnlation." He trusts. liowe\er. that such speculations
;ire " not without tluMr use :" lint this will depend upon whether
or not they lead men's minds from the path of legitimate science
into the (|nicksands of iiaseless conjecture.
(iandry. in his receiitr work, ••l-aichainenicnls dii Mondc! Ani-
mal,"'' though a strong ailvocale of evolution, is oliliged in his
final ri'siiine to say : •• II lu' laisse pointi perc(-r le mystere
((III enlonic^ le ileveloppemeiit primitif des grandi's classes dii
moiide animal. Niil homme iic stiit comment out etc forna's
les pieiiiieis iiidi\idiis de forainiiiifeies. dc pol\pcs, d'etoiles
(le mer, de crinoiiles, etc. Les lossiles priinaircs ne nous
out [las encore foiinii de [ireiives |)ositi\es ilii passage ilos animaux
d'liiie classe a ceiix d'nne antic classe."
I'rof. Williamson, of Manchester, in an address delivered in
Fehrnary last liefore the lioyal Institution of (treat IJritain, after
showing that thi' conifers, fi'rns aii<l lycopods of the I'ahcozoic
ha\(' no liiiown aiicestr}'. nses the signilicant words: "The time
lias not }et arri\ cd for the appointment of a botanical Uing-at-arms
and constructor of pedigrees."
Another caution which a paUnontologist lias occasion to give
with regard to tlieories of life, has refc'rence to the tendency of
biologists to infer that animals and plants were introduced under
enibryiMiic forms, and at lirsl in i'cw ami iiiii)i'rfect s()ccii's. Facts
do not substantiate this. 'I'he first appearance of leading tyi)es
•■■I'iiris. 1SS3.
V^"^ i.
T*-",
.1^-
I'UKSIDF.NT DAWSON.
15
— iIk'.v loinc
lis |l|-|)ll|clll,
"liliii.i^ liiiii.
lt'i,nv»'.s ii{i
I'loiii (islic
must liMVi'
rcM.'sons to
l<'s, Ilioiiuii
Is rcioiusc
•'ll'slics ,-11111
lie l)flvv('oii
As lliis
;.v. .•111(1 not
lllsclvfs. he
lli.'it lliis is
'|ii'<'iil;ili()iis
oil Mhctlicr
lie s<-i('iicc
I<)ll(i(! Aiii-
'i,i(t'il ill his
le iiiystcrt'
t'lasscs (III
•'•ti' loiiin's
S (I'l'toilcs
lie nous
"S iuiiiiiiuix
'livcrod in
liiiii, jirter
I'alii'ozoic
' 'I'lic liiiiu
ig-iiL-:iriiis
" to gi\o
nlciicy oC
••'•i iiinlcr
i-i. Fuels
iig typos
of life is ruroly cinhryonic. On Uic coiitrjiry, tlicy oflon nppoar
ill lii>j;iily ixM'I'fct and siiecializcil I'ornis, ollon liowevcr ol' coni-
posile type iinil expressing cliiiriieters til'teiwarils s(j separated
fcs to iuloiii; to liiulicr groups. 'I'iie triloi)ites oj' the Cainhiian
arc some of Ihciii of few segments and s(» far einliryoiiie, Imt tiie
gicaler part, arc niany-se^iiunted and very complex. The hatra-
cliiaiis of tiie Carlioniferoiis present many eliaraeters lii^her llian
those of tiieir modern sueeessors and now appropriated to tlie
triK^ reptiles. The reptiles of the I'ermi.an and 'l"ii;is nsin'ped
fiome of the preroc.atives of the manim.als. The ferns, iycopods
jiiid c(|nisctiiiiis of the l)c\()iiiaii and C'.'irlioiiifcroiis were, to sav
tiie Ic.isi. not inferior to tlicir modern rcprcsentati\es. The shell-
bearinji eephalopods of the l';ila'u/.oic would seem to have pos-
sessed struelnres now spcei.al to a hiiihcr i;i<>ii[i, lli;it of the
enttle-lishes. The liald and e<)nlem[iliioiis ne^.alion of these faets
by lla'cUel and other liiolouists does not tend to uive geologists
imieh eonfidencc in their dicta.
Aiiaiii, we arc now prepared to say tiial the sIriiuLrle for exist-
ence, howcNcr pl:iiisihle as a theory, when put hefore us in
connection with tiie prodiictivenessof anim;ils and the few survivors
of their multitudii pro<ieny. h.'is not lieeii the dett-rminiiii;
cause of the iiilrodiietion of new speiies. 'I'lie periods of r,-i|iid
inlrodtiction of new forms of m;iriiie life were not periods of
BtiiiLiule liiitof expansion — those periods in which the snhinei'-
{iciicc of conlineiils all'oidecl new and lar<re space for their exten-
8i(m and comfort.alde sulisistence. In like manner, it was
conliiient.ai emei;^('iice th.at aliordcd the o|)p()rlunily for tiie inlro-
dnctioii of l.'iiid .'inimMls aiicl plants, l-'uither. in coniieciiun with
tliis, it is now Mil e^l alilisjied eoncliision that the i^reat aiiuressivci
lamias and llor.'is ol' the continents haxc oriuinated in the north,
simic (jf them within tlie arctic circle, .a ml this in periods of excep-
tional wariiitii. when the perpelnal suuimei ■^un^liiiie of the arctic.
n'sii(ius coi''\i.>,led with a warm temperature. The testimony of the
rocks thus is that not strugele hut expansion fnrnisheil the re(pii-
site conditions for new forms '■'" "le, and that the periods of striiiigle
wei(; characterized liy depaiipei al ion and exlinclion.
r>ut we .are somclimes told that oriiaiiisms are merely inechani-
eal. and that the discussions respect inn their (uiu in hav e no si^nili-
eaiice any more than il' they related to rocks or crystals, hccaiise
the\' ri'lale merely to the organism considered as a machine, and
^^M.
^
f^
'■M/^'
*»5i "'5 fr .«■
IG
ADnUKSS HY
m
not to lliaf wliicli mny l>o siipposcil to lie iiioro iinportnnt, iiiuiicly.
till' •jiciit (iotcrmiiiiiiii; iMjwcr of iniml and will. Tliut this is ;i
mere eviision liy wliicli wo really <>aiii n<)tliiii<j;, will appeiif IVoin ji
cliariicteristie extract of an article hy lui eminent liiolojfist in tin
new eililion of lie iMicyi'lopedia l?rilanniea, a pnlilication wliicli.
1 am sorry to way, insteail of its proper role as a repertory of faet.-^,
has become a stronjj partisan, stating extreme uml unproMMl 8|)ee-
nlations as if tliey were conclusions of science. The statement
referred to is as follows: '"A mass of living protoplasm is simi)ly
ii iiiolecniar niacliine of gi'eat complexity, the total results of tin'
working of which or its vital plicnomena dcijcnd oil the one hand
on its construction and on the otlii'r on the energy sii|)[»lied to it;
and to spi'ak of vitality as anything hut the lame for a series of
operations is as if one should talk of the horologity of a clock."
It- would I think scarcely lie possihlc to put into the same numher
of wonis a greater aiiiouiit of iiiiscieiitili<' assumption ami iiiipro\ed
-.lati'incnt than in this sentence. Is •• living protoplasm" dilterent
in any way from dead iirotoplasni, and if so, what caii'^es the
ditterence? What, is a '•machine?" Can we conceive of a self-
produce(l or iim'aiised m.acliine. or one not intended to work out
s(jiu(' definite results? 'l"he results of the machine in (|uestion are
s;iid to lie "vital phenomen;i ;" ceit:iinly most woi erliil results,
and greater than those of any machine man has yet been able to
construct. Ihit why '•vital?" If there is no such thing as life,
surely tliey are merely imysical results. Can mechanical causes
piddiic*' other than [iliysical elfects? 'I'o Aristotle, life was '• the
cause of form in organisms." Is not this (piite as likely to lie true
as the convers(> pioposil ion ? If tlie\ital pheiioiiieiia depend on
the '•construction " of tli<' machine, aiicl the "energy supplied to
it." wlu'iice this construction .•tiid wlieno this energy? The illus-
tration of the i-lock does not lielii us to answer this (juestion.
The construction of the clock depends on its maker, and its energy
is derived (roin the hand that winds it up. If we can think of a
clock which no one has inadi.' anil which no one winds, a clock
Constructed hy chance, set in harmony with the universe liy
chance, wound up periodically liy chance, we shall then have an
idea parallel totli.-it of an organism living yet- without any vital en-
ergy or creative law, liiil in such a case we should certainly have
to assume some antecedent cause, whether we cull it" horologity"
or liy some other name. rcilia[is the term e\olution would serve
PUESIDKNT DAWSON.
17
n(, ii.-imclv.
I Mii.s is ':,
K'.'ir IVoin ;i
.li'isl ill 111,
li<'ii wliicli,
'■y of faHs,
■o\ ■(! sptic-
stfUfiiicnt
"1 is simply
lilts of the
one liiiiid
>i>ii('il to it,;
.•I si'iics of
'I" -i clock."
lie iiiimiIk'i
<l iiiiproM'd
ii'MiUcrciii
causes tin.
c of a sflC-
o work on!
nostioii arc
'ill results,
!cii al)l(' t(,
"J^- as lif,.,
ical causes
' was '• til,,
to he true
IcpOlul oil
iipplicd to
'I'lic illtis-
'incsiioii.
its ciieruy
liiiik oC a
«, a clock
ivcrso hv
li.'ivc an
vital cn-
II ly iiavc
ologity "
il<i s('i\(;
M woil as any othor, wcrt; it not tiial, coniinon aonsc tpfirlios tliat
notliiiifj; can lu; s|)ontancoiisly cvoUcd out of that in wlilcli it did
not previously exist.
'I'liere is one other unsolved prolilcni in the study of life liy
tile ;;eolo^ist to which it is si ill necessary to aijverl. This is th(!
inability of paheoiitolojiy to fill ii|) the j:;a|is in the chain of lioiiiji.
In this respect we are constantly taunted with the imperfection of
the I'ccord ; hut facts show that this is much more complete than is
geiierally snpposeil. Over ion;; periods of time and many lines
of Iiein;4 we liav(! a lu^arly contiiiiioiis chain, and if thi^ does not
show the lendene}' desired, the fault is as likel^' to he in th(> theory
as in the record. On the other hand, the aluiipl and simultaneous
appearance of new ty|)es in many speeilic and generic forms and
over wide and separate areas at one and the saine time, is too often
rt'iteated to he acciihiiital. IIcMice paheontologists in endeavoring
to estahlish evolution, have Iteen obliged to assume periods of ex-
ceptional ai'tivity in (he introduction of species ••ilternatiiig with
Others of stagnation, a doctrine dill'eriiig very little from that of
special creation as held by the older geologists.
'I'he attempt has lately been made to account for these bri-aks
by the assumption that the geological recMird relates only to
periods of submergence and gives im information as to those of
elevation. This is manifestly untrue. In so far as marine life is
conceriu'il. the periods of submergence are thosi- in which new
forms aiioiind lor very ohvious reasons already hinted ; but the
jx'iiods of new forms of laud and fresh-water life arc; lUosv of (ile-
vation, and these have their own records and momiments, often
Aery rich and ampK', as for ex.'imple the swamps of the Carbo-
jiiferous. the tr.ansition (rom tlu; Cretiiceons subsidence to the Lar-
amie ele\-ation, the Tertiary hike-basius ol" the west, tlu' Terraces
and raised beaches ol the l'leisto(,'eue. Had I time to refer in
detail to the bieaks in the continuity of life which cannot bo
explained by the imperfection of the recoril, I could show at least
that nature in this case doesailvancc per sdltirni — by lea|)s. rather
than by a, slow continuous process. INIany able reasoiiers. as Le-
Coiite in this coniitry, and Mi\art .'iiid Colhird in JMiglaml, hold
this view.
Here, as elsewhere, a va.>t aiiK.i.nt of steady conscientious work
is retiuired to enable us to solve the problems of the history of
life. But if so, the more the hope for the patient student and in-
3
I
s
18
APDUKSS ijy
vpstigiitor. I know nofliiiig more cliilling to research or iinfavoi
able to progress than tlie pronu)l<<;ation of a ilojimatic dccisioi
tliat tliore is nolliin.^ to he lojirni'd but a merely Ibrtiiitoiis iiiii
nneaiised .sneeesssion, amenable to no law, and only to be eovcrnl
ill order to hide itn shapeless and nneertain proportions, by tin
mantle ol" bold and gratuitous bypolliesis.
So soon as wo lind t'vidence of eontiuiMits and oceans we rai-i
the (juestion, Have these continents existed from the lirst ii,
their prtsent position and form, or liavo tlio land and water changeil
places in the course of geological time? In reality both state
nients ar.^ true in a certain limited sense. On tin; one hand, any
geological map whatever snlllies to show that the general oiitliiu
of the existing land began to be formed in the tirst anil olde^'
crumplings of the crust. On the other hand, tin; greater part o:
the surface of the laiul consists of marine sediments which xi\u>\
have been derived from land that has perished in the process,
while all the continental surfaces, except perhaps, some liigh peaks
and ridges, have been many times submerged. IJoth of these »\\-
parenliy eontradictoiy statements art' true; and without assumiui!
both it is impossible to explain the existing contours and reliel-
of the surface.
In the case of North America, the form of the old nucleus ol
Lani'cntiau rock in the north alrt-ady maiks out that of tiie linisheil
continent, and the sncccssivo later formations have lieen laid upon
the edges of this, like the successive loads of earth dumped over an
enitiankinent. IJut in order to give the great thickness of thr
I'aheozoic sediments, the land nuist liav(! Iieeu again and again
submerged and for long periods of lime. Tiius, in one sense, the
continents have i)een fixed ; in another, they ha\e been constantly
lluctualing. Hail and Dana have well illustrated these points in
so far as eastern Xorlli America is concerned. I'rof. Hull of tiir
(ieological Survey of Iri'laml lias i-eceiitly had the boldness to re-
duce the tluctuations of land and water as evidenced in the Hritisli
Islands to the form of a series of maps inteniled to show the
physical geography of each successive period. The attempt is
pi'obal)ly premature, and has been met with nnich adverse criticism ;
but tlierc can be no iloul)t that it has an element of truth. ^\'hen
we attempt to calculate what conlil have been supplied from the
ohl Ko/oic nucleus by decay and acjueous erosion, and when we
take into account the greater local thickness of sediments towards
the prcj
extensi)
Bnl t"
lands ii|
In \>
ian c\il
oldest. [
Oceanij
bed of
Bometii|
times
peeial
rarely :
tary a(
Kvei
by the
Allant
same t
lines <
ology
these
under-
Btill a
. The
Uie CM
lands
«iu'<n
gener
of th
the e
ship
this
tions
push
Hort
land
of i
dist
^Sxf
(
"11 or iiiiliivoi
iii.'itic (Iccisim
I'oilllitoils !l||,
Id 1)1' (•(>\C||.,|
orlioii.s, hy III,
cans we rjiis(
Uie lirst ii
wtiWr cliaiiiicii
y botli stale
>iio liaiiil, any
'it'ial oiilliiu
st and oldcs'
'*'"<<'r |)arl, o;
^ W'liioli 11,11^1
lilt! process,
iii'liijrli jx-aKs
I <>(• these ap-
'iil a.s.siiiiiiiii;
■^ and reliels
'' niiclens of
f fill' (inislied
'•'11 laid upon
iiped overall
:iii^^.s.s of tlif
II '"ind !|irjii||
1'^' -^fHse, till'
11 <'()nslanllv
•<<' lioints ill
Ilidl <)(• til,.
liK'ss to re-
1 tilt! Hi'itisli
o show 111,.
'ilti'inpt is
i!eritieisni ;
til. AVI.en
'I from tile
' ulieii Wi-
lts towards
rUKSIDKNT DAWHON.
19
the prosoiit scn-Itasliis, wc can scarcely avoid the conelusioii lliat
extensive areas once occupied by hiifli land are now iiniler the sea.
But to ascertain the precise areas and position of these perished
lands may now lie inipossilile.
Ill point ol" (act we are oliiined to lielieve in the eontemporane-
Oiis existence in all <^eolo;^ical periods, (except peiliaps the very
Oltlest, of threi! sorts oC areas on the surface of the t-artli: (1)
Oceanic areas of deep sea. which nnist always have occupied the
bed of the present ocean or parts of it; (2) Conlinental [ilateaus
ionu'lin\es e.\istin<j as low Hats or as hiijiier taltle-lands and some-
times sul)mer<;ed ; (.'5) Areas of plication or folding, more es-
pecially aloiiir the holders ol" the oceans, Corminj^ elevated lands
rarely siilunerj^'eil and constantly alfordiny; the material of sedimen-
tary accunndations.
Kvery jieoloi^ist know.s the contention which has heen occasioned
by the attempts to cori-elatt! the earlier ralix'ozoic deposits of the
Atlantic mai<iiii of North America with those forminu; at the
same time on the interior plateau, and with those of intervening
lines ol' plication and i^ueoiir^i ilisturli.auce. Stratijrra|>hy, lith-
olojiy and fossils, are all more (»r less at fault in dealiiijf with
these questions, and while the <!;eneral nature of the jjroblem is
understood liy many jfeologists, its solution in particular cases is
Btill a source of apparently endless deliate.
■ The causes and mode ol' oi>eration of the great movements of
the I'arth's crust which have produced mountains, plains and table-
lands, are still involved in some mystery. One patent cause is the
uneipial settlinjj; of the crust toward the centre; but it is not so
generally understood as it should be, that the greater settlement
of the ocean-bed has necessitated its pressiu'e against the sides of
the ('(Mitinents in the same manner that a hug(! ice-lloe crushes a
8lii[) or ii pier. The geological map of North America shows
this at a glance, and impresses n.s with tlie fact that large por-
tions of the earth's crust have not only been folded but bodily
pushetl back for great distances. On looking at llu; exti'cmo
north, wc see that the great Laurentian mass of central Newfound-
land has acted as a protecting pier to the space immetliatelj- west
of it, and has (!ause<l the gulf of St. Lawrenci; to remain an un-
disturbed area since J'aheozoic times. Immetliatcly to the south
of this, Nova Scotia and New IJruiiswick are foldetl back. Still
further south, as (itiyot Las shown, the old sediments have been
\'*.^
20
AKKItl.SS IIY
I
criisli(>i1 in sliai'|i folds :i;_';iiiisl llio AdiiondMck initMH, wliicli li;i-
8lii'll»'it'd llif l;di|i-laiid ol' llic CidskillH ;iiid of t lu' Jj;! cat Inki >.
Soiitli of this :i;^.'uii 1li«> rorixH ol' I'l'tinsvlvaiiiii and Mai'vland Iium
bcfh driven iiack in ii jjit-at cniv*' !<» liu' wcHt. NOtlnnji, I tliiiiix,
m nioif lorfiidy sliow liic cnoiiiioiis picssiirc lo wiiicii tiio fili;i ^
of llu' conlincnls liavc ix'cn cxposi'd, and at. tlii> same tiinr tin'
ffrt-al sin!\in;i "' 'li'" ocfan-licds. ('oni|ilcx and dillicidt to ealiu-
iatt' tlKiii'^li tlii'si' inoxfiiniils of |ili(ation arc, tlit'V arc niorr
inlclli;j;iiilc tliaii tlu; a|iparcntl\ rc;iid:ir pulsations of (lie Hal conti-
nental areas, whcrehy tliev lia\c altcrnatciv been lielow and alio\i'
tlic waters, and wliiili nnrsl have depended on sonivwhal regidarlv
recnrriii^f causes, conni cled citlier willi the secular cooliuLt of tin
earth or \.'\\] the ^r.-idual retardation of its lotation or with lioth.
Thronfihout these chanixes, each sui'ccssixc elexatioii exposed Ihc
rocks for lon<i ae;es to the decomposing; irdinence of the atmos-
phere. Kach sidimcr^ence swept away and di'positi'd as sedimenl
the material accumnlated \<y decay. Kvery chaiijfe of elevation was
accoini)anied with changes of clinnili'. and with niodillealions of
the liahilats of animals and plants. Were it, possihle to restore
accurately the physicid <;c(jj;raphy of the I'arth in all these re-
spoels. for each ij;e()logi<'al jMM'iod, the data lor the .solution of
many dillictdt (juestions would he furnished.
It is an uidbrtunate circumstance that conclusions in jicol-
<)<ry arrived at by the most careful oliservation and iu'luctiou do
not remain uiiilisturlied. Imt re(|uire constant vij;ilance lo prevent
them from lieinjj; o\(,'rthrowii. Sometimes, of coui'se, this arises
from new discoveries throwing; new lijiht on old facts ; liut when
this occurs it nuely works the complete sul)vt>r.sion of previously
received views. The more usual case is that some over zealous
specialist suddenly discovers what seems to him to overturn all [)re-
vious JK'liefs, ami rusli(>s into piinl with a new and plansilile tluMji'y
which at once caiiies with him a IkjsI of half informed people,
hut the insullicicMcy of which is speedily made manifest.
Had I written this address a few years aj>o, I mii;lit have re-
ferred to the mode of formation of coal as one of the thin<;s most
surely settled ami understood. The labors of many eminent gool-
o<:;ists, miiToscopists and chemists in the old and the new worlds
had shown thai coal nearly always rests u[)on old soil surfaces pen-
etrated with roots, and that coal-beds liave in their roofs erect trees,
the remains of the last forests that grew upon them. Logan and I
have il
■net <s
thoNVU
(Icposit
that tl
whose
ill ihe
iUlijei
iliat i
bUnmi
water
of ep
caili'>H
bence.
that 11
the co;
of llial
manx
and A
snlijec
slices
cnmsti
of tlu
of the
ulely
being
of mil
theor;
to dc!
this \
and f
\vonl(
later
emin
in o\
my I'
be V
revii
had
f
I'llKslhKNT IIAWSON.
SI
l'\-
N, Wllicll |i;|.
' urciit Ink. s,
■II.vIiUkI lltiM
'IIILI, I tllillli,
' ll lilt" (•(!<;.<
i"f liinc t|,|.
nil i(, c-alcii-
IH' IIIOIC
III' (lilt colli |.
»v and alioM'
I'll iffiuliuly
'>liiiii- ()(■ till.
'I' with liotli.
<'\|)().SC(| III,.
'" I lie iitiiios-
•■I"* wcijimcnt,
■ •'vatioii was
ili<'ati()ii.s of
'' lo rcslon;
11 tliesc r,..
Solution of
)1IS in jrof)!-
"Iiictioii ll,,
to prt'vcnt
1 lliis arises
i ''111 wlicii
incvioiisly
t'r zoaloiis
"111 allpic-
ililc tiicory
ii'tl jioopjo,
t liavo IT-
iiiij,'s most
"out geol-
■w worlds
(iU'fS jXMI-
I'cc'tlrcrs,
,'aii and I
hftvc iiliiHtrMtcil tliin in tin- cuxf <»f llic wiics of moio tlinn sixty
•IU'<'CHsi\(> coui lit'ds i'\|ioH<'d lit tilt' Soiilli •lo^uiiiN, iiinl liiiM)
ibowii iiii('i|iiivo('al cN idfiicc of land snrliiccs at tin- tiiiH> of llio
dc|>ositinii of llic coal. Microscopical cxaniiiiatioii has piuvcd
tbal llicsc coals arc conipoM'd ol' llic niatcilMls of the same trees
whose roots arc loiind in the iiiidei'cla\ s. and their stene^ and lea\ es
III the roof Nlialcs ; tliat much of the nialciial of the coal lias lieeii
•iiliieeted to siiliai'-i'ial decay at the time of it- miilation ; and
tliat in ihis, ordinary coal diircrs froin h! dc earthy
bitnmen and some kinds of caniicl, which has .01.. d iimU'i'
Water; that the mailer reinaininj^ as coal coiisisi s almost enliiely
of epidermal tissues, which lieinjj; siilicrose in character arc hi^ddy
Ciuliomiei'ons, very diiraMe and iniperniealile liy water,' and are,
liciice, the best littt-il for the production of pure coal . and linally
that the vp^otatioii and the cliinalal iind jieojiniphical fealnies of
tlie coal period were eminently lilted In produce in the vast swamps
of thai period, pre<'isely the ell'ecis oliserv ed. All these points and
many others ha\e been tlioroniihly workeil oiil I'or holh iMiropean
tiid Amorican coal-lields, and Hceined to lea\'c no doiilit on tliu
Bnlijeet. lint several years a<fo certain microscopists oliserxt'd on
■liees of coal layers tilled with spore-cases, a not nniisnal cir-
Ounistance, since these were shed in wast alMiiidance liy the trees
of the coal forests, and lieeaiise they contain snlierose matter
of the same cliaracler with epidermal tissues Ltener.ally. Immeili-
utely we were informed that all coal consists of spore>i, and this
bein<; at once accepted hy the iinthinkinj,', the results of the labors
of many years are thrown aside in faxor of this crude and partial
theory. A little later, a (Jcrinan mici()sco|)ist has thoii^hl proper
to descrilie coal as made up of miimle alua-. and tries to reconeilu
this \iew with Ihe appearances, dexisiii!:; at the same time a new
and Ibnnidalile nomeiiclaliirc tjf ;ieneric and specilic names, which
would seem larjfoly to re[)reseiit mere fiauiiients of tissues. .Still
later, some local facts in a French coal-tield have induced an
eminent l)otanist of that country to revive the drift theory <jf coid,
in opposition to that <jf jirowth in i<llii. A year or two ;\ii{), when
in\' friend Professor Williamson of MaiK'hester, informed im." that
lie was prepaiin<4 a lariie series of slices of co.al with the view of
revising tlie whole subject, I was inclined to say that after wli.at
had been done by Lyell, (ioi'piiert, Logan, Hunt, Newberry and
' AiMili:iii Oi'ujiijrj , 111 ill I cilltloii. sii|i|il.-iiii.'iil,|i, ros.
"W^
w.
P ' l I l» M l
'•^'m
^'
22
ADDUKSS BY
I
myst'lf, tliis was scarcely neccssaiy ; l)iit in view of wliat I liavr
just, stiitcil, it uKiy lit' tiiat all lu' can do will he required to reseiu'
from total ruin llie resnlt.s of our labors.
An illustration of a ditl'erent eliaraeter is atl'ordeil liy the eonlju-
versy now ranini; with respect to the so-called I'ucoids of tlu'
ancient rocUs. At one time the <rronp of fueoids or aly;!v eo.nsti-
tntt'd a iit'ucral place of retujic foi' all sorts of nnintelliiiilile forni>
and niarUinus ; jj;raptolitcs. worm-trails, crustacean tiacks, shrink-
a;^('-cracUs. and aliove all rill-niarkin^s forming a hcti-roueneous
jiroup of fiicoidal remains (listin<j;uislu'd hy generic and speeilie
names. To these weie also added some true land plants, liadly
preserved or exhiiiiting structures not well understood liy hoL-,-
iMsls. Such a group was sure to lie eventually diMueudiercd.
'I'lie writer has himself doni' souu'thing towaid this."^ hut Pro-
fessor Nathorst has done still iiK)re.'' and now S(jiue intclligililc
explanation can lie gixcn of many of these forms. (.||uite retteutly,
liowe\er the Count de Saporta, in an ehiliorate illustrated memoir'"
has conu' to the dcferce of the I'ucoids. more especially against 'he
deslruclivf experiments of Nathorst, and would c rry hack into
the \egelaMe kingdom many things which would seem to he
nieic trails of animals. AVhile writing this address, I have re-
ceived from I'lofessor C'rie of Heniies, a pa|)er in which he not
oidy supports the algal uatui'e of JiH.sirJinitcs, Arthrirlniites and
many other supposed fueoids, lint elaii for the vegetable king-
dom even Jiircptaoilitcn and .Irrlia dO/al/iKs. It is not to be
ileuied that some ol' the facts which he cites respecting the
struetuic of the S/j,liiiiii<r and of certain modern encrusting .l/j/c
are \ efv sngge>ti\i'. thoueji 1 e.'iuuot agree with his conclusions.
M\ own experience has convinced nie that, while non-botanical
geohigists are [irone to uustake all kinds of markings for plants,
even good iiotanists. when not familiar with the chemical ami
mechanical conditions of fossilization, and with the present phe-
inimena of tidal shores, are (piite as easily misled, though they
aie very prone on the other hand to regard land plants of some
complexity, wlieu liadly preservi'd, as nu-re alga'. In these cir-
cumstances it is very dillicult to secui'e any consensus, and the
truth is only to be found by careful observation of eomiietent men.
■ l''iMil|iiin(< .'Hill nn|iie8>iims mi ( ,-irli<iiiiron>u.- lioi ks. Am. .loiir. ul Science, IS?:!.
" Itiiyal S\vimIi«Ii AiMilciiiy. Sliirkhi^lin, l>sl.
'".\|iiii|ios (lr> Al^;^l^'^ riiMsilL'.-*. I'jiiis. I>s;i.
rUESIDENT DAWSON.
2S
I' "liat I liave
ii'<'(l fo rcseiii'
'V I he conticj.
coids of the
algii' coj'isti-
iigililc CoriiiN
;icl<s, sliiiiik-
cli'ioirenooiih
••iml spt'cilic
il.-lllls, I.adly
"><l ''.V Ikh;,-
iMiU'inheivd,
«.'' Iiiil l»Io-
f iiitcllioji,],,
"It' ivcciillv,
te'l nieiiioiii"
y !iiiain.stt|n;
I'.v hack into
soeiii to h(.
. I liavo ic-
iiicli lie not
•'ic/niiWs and
L'tablc lvin,<;-
i not to lj(.
peeling tlio
iistinj; Jl(j(r
•oncliisions.
'ii-liotanieal
lor plants,
einical and
resont j)lie-
lonjih thev
l'^ of sonic
llii'sc cir-
«, and tlif
)o tent men,
I'li'iicc, iS7;i,
One ti'oul)le is that tlicse usually obscure markings have been de-
■pisod by the greater number of paliuontologists, and probably
would not now tie so much in controversy were it not for the use
made of tlu'in in illustrating supposed pliylogenies of plants.
Jl would be wrong to ciost> this address without some reference
to that which is the \eritable pons aninoru'Di of the science, the
great and much debated glacial period. I trust that you will not
8up[)i)se that in llie end of an hour's address, I am about to dis-
cuss this vexed (piestion. Time would fail me even to name the
hosts of recent authors who have contended in tiiis arena. I can
hope onlv to point out a few landmarks which nuiy aid tiie geo-
logical adventiucr in traversing the sii[)pery .'iiid treacherous sur-
face of the hypothetical ice-sheet of pleistocene times, and in
avoiding the yawning crevasses 1)V which it is traversed.
No conclusions of geology seem more certain tiian that great
changes of climat(! iia\e occurred in the coiu'se of geological time,
and the evidence of this in that comparatixcly modern period
which initnediately pret'cded the human age is so striking that it
has come to be known as [)reeminently the ice age; while in the
preceding tertiary period'>, tem[)erate conditions seem to have [)rc-
vailed e\'en to tiie pole. Of the many theories as to these changes
which have been proposed, two seem at present to divide the suf-
frages of gi'oloiiisis, either aloiu' or coniliined with each otiier.
Tliese are (l)lhe theory of the precession of the eqnino^-es in con-
nection with the vaiying eccentricity of the earth's ori)it, advo-
cated more especially l)v C'roU ; and (2) the dillorent ilistribntion
of land and water as affecting llie reception and radiation of heat
and the ocean currents, ;v theory alily propounded by F-yell. and
8ul)se((nenliy extcnsix t'l\ aiiopted either ahme or with the previous
one. One of thes(> views may be called the astinnoniical. the
other the geograplii<'al. I confess that I am ineline(l to .-iccept
the second or Lyellian thi'ory foi such reasons as the following :
(1) (ireat elevations and depressions of land Inive oc'curred in and
since the I'leistoccne, while the alleged astronomical changes ,nre not
certain, more especially in regard tot heir pro! lable elfcct on the earth ;
(2) When the rival theories are tested by the present phenomena
ol the southern polar region and the North Atlaniie, there seem
to 1)0 geogrtiphical causes adeqmite to account for all except ex-
treme and nii|)roved glacial conditions ; (3) Tlie astronomical
cause would sni)posc regularly recurring glacial periods of which
'.yu.'i.
m
AODUKSS BY
there is no evidcnco, ami it would <^ive to the latest glaeial age ;u
nnti(|iiitj' wliioh seems at variance with all otiier facts ; (4) Ir
those more northern regions whore <.>:lacial plicnoniena are mos'
proiioiinced, tiie thcorj' of lioalin'/ sheets of ice, with h)cal glacier-
(U'sccntiing to the sea, seems to meet all tlie conditions of lli.
case, and these would he ohtained, in tlu; North Atlantic at least
by very moderate changes oi level, causing, for exan)i)le, the ei|ii;i
torial current to How into tlie I'acitic. instead of running north
ward as a gulf stream ; (o) The geographical theory allows th'
supiiositiori not merely of vicissitudes of clinnite quickly follow'
ing each oilier in unison with the movements of the surface, Im
allows also of that near local ttpproximation of regions wholly
covered with ice and snow and others comi)aratively teuiperat(
which we see at pn'sent in the north.
If, however, we are to adojjt the geographical theory, we nnis;
avoid extreme views, and tiiis leads to the iniiuiry as to the evi-
dence to be fouml for any such universal ' extreme glaciation a^
is demanded liy some geologis, .
The only huge continental area, in the northern homisplicrc sup-
posed to he entirely ice- and snow-clad is (Jreenland, and this sn
far as it goes is cortaiidy a l<;cal case, for the ice and sncjw nt
(ireenland exteml to the .south as far as (!()° N. latitude, while
liotli in N'cjrway and in the interior of Xortli America the climate
in that latitude permits iju' growth of ceicals. Further, (Jriniicl
Land, which is separated from North (ireenland only by a narrow
sound, has a couiparatively mild clinnite. and as -N'ares has shown
is covered with verdure in summer. Still furthei, NordensUiold.
one of the most experienced ai'ctic explorers, holds that it is prob-
able that the interior of (ireenland is itself verdant in summer,
and is at this monu'iit prei)aring to attempt to reach this iiiterioi
oasis. Nor is it didieult with the aid of the facts cited iiy
Wo'ickolf and Whitney." to peiceivc the cansi' of the I'xceptional
condition of (ireeidand. 'I'o give ice ami snow in large (|Uaiili-
ties. two conditions are reijuired : lirst, atmospheric hunudity, and.
secondly, cold precipitating regions. Both of these condition^
meot in (ireenland. Its high coast ranges receive and conden>i'
the humidity from the sea on both sides of it and to the soulli.
Hence the vast accunndatioii ol' its coast snow-tields, ami the in-
tense discharge of the gUiciers emptying out of its valleys.
" .Meiuiiii- 1111 (iliu'ioi- . (.it'ol. Sof'y, ni-rliii, Is.sl, ( liiiiiilicClniiiges, HustDii, l8S:i.
-V
I
!a(!ial age ai
(•lets; (4) I,
'iia :uv. iiios'
local glac'i.i-.
lilions of til,
iiitic at, Icjist
l>lt'. tllO ('(|l|;|.
"iiiiiiij,' iioilli.
r.v allows tli.
wk'ly Col low'
••^iiirafo, I Ml
jions wliollv
ly UMl)|)t'|;tt.
oiy, we iiiii.s;
"^ to the evi-
iilaciatioii n-
li^plicro siiii.
I iiiul this so
•'iikI snow oi
'i'liiie, while
•'I the ciiinali
t-lior, Grill 11(1
li.v a iiiiri'oH
'« lias shown
oideiiskiold.
It it is jiroii-
in siiiniiu'i.
his intt'fior
ts cited liy
t'.Vfc|)tioii;il .
^ijj:*. <HiMiiti-
"lidity.aii'l.
<'on(lilioiis
1 COIkIcii-c
tlie south.
lilll 1||(. lil-
ts valleys.
>li>ii, 18S:i.
PtlESinKNT DAWSON.
25
When extreme elaeialists point to Greenland iiiid ask ns to believe
that in the ylaeial age tiie whole continent of North America as
far south as the latitude of 40° was covered witli a continental
glacier, in some places several thousands of feet thick, we may
well ask first what evidence theie is that (Jreenland or even the
Antarctic continent at pi'csent shows such a condition ; and, sec-
ondly, whether there exists a possibility that the interior of a great
continent conld ever receive so large an amount of precipitation
as that reipiired. So far as jiresent knowledge exists, it is cer-
tain that the meteorologist and the physicist must answer both
questions in the negative. In short, perpetual snow and glaciers
must be local and cannot lie continental, becaus(! of th(> vast
amount of evaporation and contlensation retjuired. Tiiese can
only be possible where comparatively warm seas suppl}- moisture
to cold and elevated land, and this supply cannot in the nature of
tilings penetrate far inland. The actual condition of interior Asia
and interior America in the higher northern latitudes allords posi-
tive proof of this. In a state of i)artial submergence of our north-
ern continents, we can readily imagine glaciati<jn by the combined
action of local glaciers and great ice-Hoes, hut in whatever way the
phenomena of the boulder day and of the so-called terminal mo-
raines arc to be accounted for. the thec^ry of a continuous conli-
iiental glacier must lie given up.
I cannot better indicate the general bearing of facts, as thej'
present themselves to my mind in connection with this subject,
than by referring to a paper by Dr. (i. M. Dawson <ju the distribu-
tion of drift over the great Canadian i)lains, east of the Rocky
mountains.'- I am the more inclined to refer to this, because of
its recency, and because I have so often repeated similar conclu-
eions as to eastern Canada and the region <jf th(> Great Lakes.
The great interior phiin of western Canada, between the Lau-
rentian axis on the east and the Uocky mountains on the west,
is seven hundred miles in breadth, and is covered with glacial drift
presenting one of the greatest exiimples of this deposit in the
world. Proceeding eastward from the base of the Hocky moun-
tains, tlui surface, at lirst more tlian 1.0(10 feet (iliove the sea
level, descends by successive steps \o 2..")00 lect. ami is based on
Cretaceous and Laramie rocks, coveretl by boulder clay and sand,
in some places from one hundred to two hundred feet in depth,
'■J Science, .Uily I, IS-Si.
'/'U^l ' -^-^
26
AUDRE9S BV
!ii!(l lillinj,^ lip prei'-xisting liollows, tlioiigh itself sometimes piled
into ridges. Near tlie Uoeky iiiountiiins the bottom of the drift
consists of irrnvcl not glaciated. Tiiis extends to ai)OUt one linn-
dred miles east of the mountains, and in\isl iiuvt! been swept by
water out of their valleys. The boulder elay resting on this de-
posit iH largely made up of local debris, in so far as its paste is
concerned. It contains many glaciated boulders and stones from
the l.aurentian region to the * ast, and also smaller pebbles from
the Kocky mountains, so that at, the time of its fornuition there
must have been driftage of hiig<' stones for seven h\indred nules
or more from the east, and of snudler stones from a less distance
on the west. The former kind of material extends to the base
of the mountains, ami to !i height of more than 4,000 feet. One
boidder is mentioned as being 12 X 10 X '' feet in dimensions.
'l"he iiiglicst Laincnti.'in iioulders seen wi're at an elev;ition of 4,<1C0
feel on the base of the Kocky mountains. The boulder clay wlien
thick can be seen to be rudely stratified, and at one place in-
cludes beds of laminated clay with compressed jH'at, similar to
the forest beds descriiied by Wttrtlien and Andrews in Illinois,
and the so-calleil interghicial bctls described by Hinde on Lake
Ontario. The leaf i)eds on the Ottawa river and the drift trunks
found in liie boiddcr clay ul Manitoba belong to the same cate-
gory, and indicate that throughout the glacial period there were
many forest oases fai' to the noitli. In the valleys of the Kocky
nutuntains opening on these plains there are evidences of large
local glaciers now extinct, auti similar evidences exist on the
Lanrentian highlands on the east.
I'erhaps the most rem.-irkalile feature of the region is that im-
m
ense series of ridges of drift piled
ainst an escarpujcnt of
Laramie ami Cietaecous rocks. ;il an elevation of aliout '2J)i)0
feet, and known as the " iMissonri Cote.'ui." It is in some places
,">() miles broad and li^O feet in height above the plain at its foot,
and extends north anil south for a great distance; being in fact
the northern extension of those great ridges of drift which have
bei'u traceil south of the great lakes, and through Pennsylvania
and iS'ew .leisey. and which ligure on the geological maps as the
edge of the eontini'iilal j^lacier, — an explanation obviously inap-
plicable in those western regions where they attain their greatest
development. It is plain that in the north it marks lln; western
limit of the deep Water of a glacial sea. width at some periods
)
mm
^
rUKSIDKNT DAWSON.
27
oxtondod iiuicli fartlior west, perliai)s witli a firoator proportionate
(loi)ro3sioii in {j;oin<^ westward, and on which heavy ice from tiio
Lanreiitian districts on tlio cast was wal'tcil soutiiwcstward liy
tiic arctic, cnrrcnits, wliilo iifiiiter ice Ironi tlie liocky Mountains
was being borne eastward From tiiese mountains by tiic prevail-
int^ westerly winds. We tinis liave in the west on a very wide
scale the same phenomena of varyinj^; siibmerjience, cold cur-
rents, <rreat ice floes and local j^laciers producing icelicrgs, to
which I have attributed the boulder clay :'.nd u|)per boulder tlriCt
ofeastern Canada.
A few sntisidiary points I may be pardoned for meuti(niing here.
Tlu! rival tin^ories of the glacial period arc often characterized
as those of land glaciation ami sea-borne icebergs. Jbit it nuist
be reuiem!>ere(l that those who r(!J(H;t the idea of a continental
glacier hold to the existence of hjcal giaciei's on the high lands,
more or less extensive during dilfereiit porlious of the great I'leis-
tocene sul)mergence. They ais j l)elieve in the extension of these
glaciers seawards, and |)artly water-borne iu the manner so well
explained by iMattieu Williams, in the existence of those vast
Hoes and fields of current- and tide-borne ico whose [lowers of
ti'ansport and erosion we now Icuow to be so great, and in a gn-at
sut)nu^rgeuce and rei'levatiou of the land bringing all parts of it
and all elevations up to i5,0UO feet successively under the intliieuce
of these various agencies, along with those of the ocean currents.
They also hold that at the beginning of the glacial suijuiergence,
the land was deeply covered by decoujposed rock, similar to that
which still exists on the hills of the southern states, and which as
Dr. Hunt has shown would atford not only etuthy deljris but huge
(piantities of boulders ready for transportation by ice.
I would also remark that there has been the greatest [)ossible
exaggeration as to the erosive action of laud ice. In 1S()0,
after a visit to the Alpine glaciers, I maintaine(l that in these
mountains glaciers are relatively piotective rather than erosive
agencies, and that the detritus which the glacier streams deliver
is derived mostly from the atmospherically wasted peaks and
cliffs that pioject al)ove them. Since that time many other olt-
servers have nniintained like views, ami very recently Mr. Davis
of Cambridge and Mr. A. Irving have ably treated this sui)Ject.'''
"I'rocijLMliiij!' ISii-sldii Sue. Nal. Hi>i., XXII. .lourn.il of (icnliiitii'.'il s,ici,;ty. Ki'lirii-
.nry, IstiJ.
"*?|<%:*^1
aitiS
iiJiS*^'*^
msm
^L:_jiiv£t:'^''^
28
A DDK ESS Br
Siiiootlilnf!; mill striatioii ol" rocks arc iindoiihtciily important effects
liolh (»r laml-jilacicrs aii<l licavy .sca-h(ii-nc ice, ))iit tlic i«;v('ilin<i;
Mill! lilling aj^ciicy of liicsc is niiicli gicatcr tlian tlic erosive. As
a tiiallcrof tact, as NeuhenT, limit, Hclt, Spencer and ollicrs liavo
siiowii, llie glacial a;ie lias liamnieil np vast niuiiliers ofold olianiiels
wliicli it lias liecii left for modern streams paitiaily to excavate.
The till or hoiildcr clay lias liceii called a "ground moraine,"
Imt there arc really no Alpine moraines at all corres[)ondiiig to it.
On the oilier hand, it is more or less stratilied. often rests on soft
niaterials which glaciers wonhl have swept awa)-, sometimes coii-
lains marine shells, or passes into marine clays in its horizontal
extension, and iiivai'ialily in its embedded lionldcrs and its paste,
shows an iinoxidizeil conililion, which could not have existed if it
had hccii a snliaeiial deposit. When the Canadian till is excavated
and ex[)osed to the air, it assumes a brown color, owing to oxida-
tion of its iron, and main' of its stones and lionldcrs break np
and disintegrate nnder the .nctioii of air and frost. These are
nneciiiivocal signs of a siibMi|iieoiis ileposit. Here and there we
find associated with it. and espci'ially near tlie bottom and at the
top, indications of p(jwerfnl water action, as if of land torrents
acting at particniar elevations of the land, or heavy snrf and ice
action tni coasts, and the attempts to ex[)lain these by glacial
streams have been far from snccessfiil. A singular objection
sometimes raised against the siiliacpieous origin of the till is its
general want of maiine remain:* : bnt this is by no means universal,
and it is well known that coarse conglomerates of all ages ai'c
generally destitute of fossils, except in their pebbh's, and it is
further to be observed that the conditions of an ice-laden sea are
not those most favorable for the extension of marine life, and that
the period of time cf)vered by the glacial age must, have been short
compared with that represented by some of the older formations.
This last consideration suggests a question which might alford
scoi)e for another aihh'css of an hour's duration, — the (piestion how
long time has elapsed since the close of the glacial period. Ile-
ceiitly tlieo|)inioii has been gaining ground that the close of the
ic(!-age is very recent. Such reasons as the following lead to this
conclusion. The amount of atmospheric decay of locks and of
denudation in general which have occurred since the close of the
glacial period are scarcely apiircciablc. Little erosion of river
valleys or of coast terraces has occurreil. The calculated reces-
*>
C*
rUESMlKNT KAWSON.
29
sion of waloi'f;ills and of produflion of lake lidf^cs load to tlie
sanu- foncliisioii. So do tlie rcci'iit state of lioncs and slu-lls in
tlu! IMcistocone deposits and tiic pcrfoctly niodi'in facios of llieir
fossils. On sncii evidcMict; liic ci'ssation of llic <;la('ial cold and
sci.'i'incnt of our continents at tlicir invscnt levels are events
wlii li may liavo occurred not more than (JOOO or 7U(»() years aj4(),
tlio ifili such time estimates are proveritially uncertain in geology.
Tliis sultject also carries with it tlie greal(!st of all geological
problems, next to that of the origin of life, n.'iniely, the origin and
early history of man. Such (piestions cannot he disi'usse<l in the
closing sentences of an hour's address. I shall only draw from them
one practical inference. Since the compjiiatively short Post-
glacial ami recent periods apparently include the whole of human
history, we are hut new comers on the earth and therefore have
had little opportunity to solve the great problems which it presents
to us. Hut this is luA all. (Jeology as a science scarcely dales
from a i-eiitniy ago. We have reason for surprise in these cir-
cumstances, that it has learned so much, but for equal surprise
that so many persons appear to think it a comi)lete .and full-grown
science and that it is entitled to speak with conlideuee on all the
great mysteries of the e.-irth that have been hidcU'u from the gener-
iitions before us. Such being the newness of man and of his
science of the earth, it is not too nmch to say that humility, hard
work in collecting facts, and abstinence from hasty generalization
should characterize geologists, at least for a few generations to
come.
In conclusion, science is light, and light is good ; but it must
be carrietl high, else it will fail to enlighten the world. Let ns
strive to raise it high enough to shine over every obstruction
which casts any shadow on the true interests of humanity. Above
all, let us hold up the light and not stand in it ourselves.