HOW TO STUDY BOTANY. 
 
 BY DR. T. J. W. BURGESS. 
 
 Read before thn Association, loth of Mav, iS8S. 
 
 ^Ik. President, Ladies, and Gen ilemen : — It is with feelings 
 of pleasure mingled with fear that I find myself, for the first time, 
 occulting a position as essayist before a general meeting of this 
 Association. To feel that I have been considered worthy of being 
 selected for such a task is an undoubted pleasure, but with that 
 pleasure comes the haunting fear, that I may not be able to do 
 credit to those who have so complimented me. An address, at 
 such a meeting, is always looked forward to as an important event, 
 and not unreasonably so, since the very fact of the speaker's 
 selection should indicate ability to handle his subject in a suitable 
 manner. Much more so is this the case when, as in the present 
 instance, that speaker has had thrust upon him, most undeservedly 
 I am afraid, the credit of being a specialist in the science selected 
 for his discourse. True, if a penchant for that wonderfully fascin- 
 ating study Botany, if an honest love for nature and nature's works 
 constitute a sneciiilist, I am one ; but that I am especially well up 
 in a knowledge ot plant-life, especially well able to communicate 
 what little knowledge I do possess to others, is open to grave doubt. 
 I can assure you, however, that I appreciate the confidence shown 
 m me, and will simply offer my hearty thanks for the honor conferred 
 on nv:. 
 
 Botany is that branch of science, or of natural history, which 
 comprehends everything relating to the Vegetable Kingdom. It em- 
 braces every scientific enquiry that can be made respecting plants ; 
 their nature, their kind, the laws which govern them, their distribu- 
 
2 HOW TO STUDY BOTANY. 
 
 tion, and their economic uses. The science is divided into 
 Physiological or Biological Botany, and Systematic Botany, the former 
 dealing with plants in respect to their structure and functions, the 
 latter in respect to their names and classification. Forming as it 
 does, the foundation of the science, the study of plants should begin 
 with I'hysiological Botany. But first a few words as to the value of 
 botany as a training for the mind. 
 
 The highest and most important object of all human science 
 should be mental improvement, and the study of natural history, in 
 particular field-work, when properly pursued, is assuredly adapted 
 to strengthen, discipline, and develop the mental powers. It robs 
 the mind of contracted ideas, and teaches us to take close as well as 
 comprehensive views of objects, and argue from facts not from 
 fancies. Though the study of nature in any of her forms is calcu- 
 lated to bring about these results, none of the natural sciences is as 
 good for beginners as bo' any, the materials being everywhere 
 abundant and inexpensive. To the average student, plants, j)ossess- 
 ing life, are more interesting than minerals, while animals, though 
 affording the most striking marks of designing wisdom, cannot be 
 dissected and examined without painful emotions. 
 
 One of the most apparent of the many advantages to be gained 
 by the study of botany is that it systematizes the mind, by un- 
 printing on it and establishing habits of order and exactness. It 
 thus gives all the benefits of mathematics or logic without the 
 drudgery which debars so many from pursuing the study ot these 
 sciences. System is essential not only in science, but in conducting 
 any kind of business and in the most trivial affairs of every -day life, 
 thus the very logical and systematic arrangement prevailing in 
 botanical science cannot but induce in the mind a habit and love of 
 order, which, when once established, will operate in even the 
 minutest concerns. The methodical habits of thought, by which 
 alone plants can be properly examined, must necessarily be incul- 
 cated, and will prove invaluable in any vocation of life. Not is it 
 essential that the study (to be of use as a training for the mind) 
 should be carried to any great length— we cannot all hope to be 
 Grays or Darwins — the elements of the science alone are sutihcient 
 as a means for the practice of this training to habits of methodical 
 thought. 
 
 The taking of notes in a neat and systematic way, by whicb 
 
HOW JO STUDY BOTANY. 3 
 
 alone the results of examinations and discoveries can be recorded in 
 a manner ready for reference, begets a concise style and an accurate 
 use of exact words ; while in the very collecting of material to form 
 an herbarium the faculty of observation is cultivated and developed, 
 and the j)ower to discriminate between species, thus to appreciate 
 minute differences, is obtained. Most important of all thmgs to the 
 botanist are these faculties of observation and comparison. Many 
 persons have a natural acuteness in perceiving details ot structure 
 and in generalizing results, while others are very obtuse in such 
 respects. Yet, in all, these powers can be cultivated and strength- 
 ened, and herein lies one of the great educational uses of botany, 
 that it trains us to see and to think. 
 
 l!ut in addition to the direct benefits to be gained by the study 
 of botany, there are others of a more general nature, and man's 
 great aim in life being the pursuit of happiness, I would place first 
 the added pleasure it gives to life. lo one not trained to an 
 innuisitive appreciation of 1 )ame Nature how comi)aratively few are 
 the beauties she displays. 
 
 " A primrose l)y the river's brim 
 A j'ellow primrose is to him, 
 And it is nothing more." 
 
 Very different is it when he has the slightest knowledge of botany. 
 Then, in even the humblest of the vegetable creation, he can note 
 the structure, take cognizance of the relationship borne by the 
 several parts to each other, see the marvellous way in which each 
 organ is adapted to serve a certain end, and in all admire and do 
 homage to that All Wise Being at whose creative fiat all things first 
 were made. 
 
 Last but by no means least of the advantages to be mentioned 
 IS, that the pursuit of the science, leading to exercise in the open air, 
 IS conducive to health and cheerfulness. Botany is not a sedentary 
 study, which can be followed in the house, but one the love of which 
 compels its devotees to seek their amusement out of doors, thus to 
 breathe the pure air where the objects of their search are to be found ; 
 'n the fields, along the winding brooks, on the mountain side, or in 
 the cool depths of the forest. In every pursuit a certain amount of 
 recreation and exercise is necessary fo maintenance of health, 
 
 and walking is the means commonly c ed to procure this. A 
 
 walk taken merely as a duty is wearist but when indulged in 
 
 • 
 
4 HOW TO STUDY HOTANY. 
 
 with a definite and pleasant end in view it becomes delightful. As 
 soon as one in his rambles begins to search for and collect any 
 special class of objects he becomes interested, and marvels how he 
 could formerly have Oeen blind to so much that is curious and beau- 
 tiful. To those who know anything of outdoor life what a source of 
 enjoyment it is to wander through the fields and woods. Ea( h step 
 brings some object of interest or some new discovery ; a flower not 
 hitherto noticed, or some familiar one showing variation from the 
 common form ; a rare bird flitting from branch to branch, or some 
 brilliantly colored insect pursuing its erratic flight. 
 
 Of the value of botany as an economic study I shall say but 
 little. None of you but recognize what an important part it plays in 
 nearly all the arts and sciences. In medicine great discoveries have 
 been made as to the value of certain plants in the cure of disease, 
 and daily fresh discoveries are being made. Vegetables, fruits, and 
 cereals are most important articles of diet, and great advances arc to 
 be made in the production of new varieties of these, while the study 
 of the injuries done to them by the lower forms of vegetable life, 
 such as fungi and rusts, presents an immense field for research. 
 
 During the past thirty year? the method of teaching botany has 
 undergone a radical change, and what is called "The New Botany" 
 has sprung into vogue. As formerly pursued the study consisted 
 mainly in learning from some book the names of the different kinds 
 of roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. If plants were obtainable per- 
 haps the scholar was made to run superficially over a few of them, 
 and by aid of an artificial key determine their names. The terms 
 were hard and unfamiliar and there were no specimens used to illus- 
 trate the lessons. Was it any wonder then that pupils acquired a 
 disgust for the science ? Little or no field work was attempted, 
 and no thought was taken to prom.ote habits of close observation, or 
 to secure a knowledge of the mysteries of plant life. By the new 
 system, the special design of which is the training of pupils to lit 
 them for original work, objects are studied before books, and the 
 student is at once set to investigating and experimenting for himself. 
 Of this system an able exposition is to be found in a lecture, on the 
 best method of teaching botany, delivered at a meeting of the 
 Michigan State Teachers' Association, by Mr. VV. J. Beal, Professor 
 of Botany in the Agricultural College at Lansing. The tide of the 
 
HOW TO STUDY BOTANY. 5 
 
 paper, which was published in the Transactions of the 29th Annual 
 Meeting, is " 'l"he New Botany," and it will well repay an attentive 
 perusal. To give you an idea of the method pursued at Lansing I 
 have made a short resume of it. l>efore the first lesson each pupil 
 is furnished with, or told where to procure, some specimen for study. 
 If it is winter, and flowers or growing plants are not to he had, each 
 is given a branch of a tree or shrub. The examination of these is 
 made by the pupils themselves during the usual time for preparing 
 lessons, and for the first recitation each tells what he has discovered 
 about his specimen, which is not in sight. If there is time each 
 member of the : lass is allowed a chance to mention anything not 
 named by any of the rest. If two members disagree on any point 
 they are requested to bring in, the next day, after further study, all 
 the proofs they can to sustain their different conclusions. In learn- 
 ing the lesson, book? are not used, nor are the pupils told what they 
 can see for themselves. An effort is made to keep them working 
 after something which they have not yet discovered. For a second 
 lesaoii the students review the first lesson, — report on a branch of a 
 tree of another species which they have studied as before, — and 
 notice any points of difference or of similarity. In like manner new 
 branches are studied and new comparisons made. Time is not 
 considered wasted in this. No real progress can be made till the 
 pupils begin to learn to see ; and to learn to see they must keep 
 trying to form the habit from the very fir-^^^t; and to form the habit 
 the study of specimens is made the mam feature in the course of 
 training. The use of technical names is not avoided, nor are these 
 "thrust upon a student." They are learned as they ate needed, a 
 few at a time, from the teacher or a text-book. After from four to 
 ten lessons on small branches, the following points, and many others, 
 are brought out. Is there any definite proportion of active and 
 dormant buds in any year? Where do branches appear? Is there 
 any certain number of leaves in a year's growth, or any definite pro- 
 portion between the length of the internodes ? Is there any order 
 as to what buds grow, and what remain dormant? etc., etc. The 
 pupils are now ready for a book-lesson on buds, branches, and 
 phyllotaxis, and will read it with interest and profit. In like manner 
 any other topic, as roots, seeds, stamens, leaves, or petals is first 
 taken up by the study of specimens. Very little stress is placed on 
 investigating a number of chapters in the definite order as given in 
 
6 HOW TO STUDY BOTANY. 
 
 a text-l)ook. For example, it makes little difference whether a inipil 
 begins with a study of i)etals or stamens, buds or roots, leaves or 
 pistils ; but it is desirable after begining any topic, not to abandon it 
 till many of the various forms have been thoroughly studied. After 
 a day, tv^, three, or more of study of specimens jiertaining to one 
 topic, comes the study of the book. Even in the shortest and most 
 elementary course, a study of some of the specimens by all of the 
 class precedes the study of the text. A young man of eighteen 
 begins and pursues the same course as a child of ten, only he will 
 progress faster and go deeper. As students advance in morphology 
 and systematic botany, subjects for descriptive compositions, "Obser- 
 vation Papers," are assigned them, usually from one to three a term, 
 of which the following will serve as examples. Each i)upil studies 
 the living plants for himself and makes his own observations, exper- 
 iments, and notes, the only help afforded him being brief hints as to 
 how to set to work intelligently. For instance, — one studies the 
 arrangement and develo[)n;ent of the parts of the flower with refer- 
 ence to its self-fertilization or fertilization by birds, insects, wind, or 
 other means; one the vines of dodder; one the climbing of Virginia 
 creeper ; one the time of opening and closing of flowers ; and so or. 
 ad infinitum. When completed the theses are read in the class-room. 
 During five-sixths of the academic year, in which the students have 
 daily lessons in botany, fully three-fourths of the time is given to the 
 study of plants in some form or other, the books serving only for 
 reference. But little time is occupied with lectures, short talks of 
 ten, fifteen, or twenty mmutes being occasionally given. In the 
 whole course there is kept constantly in view how best to [jrepare 
 students to acquire information for themselves with readiness and accu- 
 racy, in other words, they are trained more than they are taught. 
 
 I have been thus lengthy in my abstract of Professor BeaFs 
 paper as it most plainly set? forth the modern method of teaching 
 botany. This, or some modification ot it, is the system now most in 
 repute, and wisely so. I agree with him fully, that the great object 
 in teaching botany should be, to put students in the way of becoming 
 independent and reliable observers and experimenters, and that the 
 method of study pursued should be primarily objective and based 
 upon the actual examination of the appropriate material. But while 
 agreeing with him as to the end to be attained, I am not quite in 
 accord with his method of attaining that end. To my mind, a cer- 
 
HOW TO STUDY BOTANY. 7 
 
 tain, though slight, amount of knowledge gained by the old system is 
 necessary before niuc'i can be accomplished by the new, and I 
 would prefer, if teaching, to first of all give my pupils some idea of 
 vhat plants are, how they grow, the nature of their structure, and the 
 number of their parts. This to be done in a short series (five or 
 six) of familiar talks, made as simple as possible, with each point 
 illustrated by drawings, models, dried specimens, or, best of all, 
 freshly gathered plants. Without some faint idea of plant life, to 
 plunge a i)upil headlong into the depths of the study, were to me 
 like setting him to solve some abstruse mathematical problem prior 
 to his learning the meaning of addition and subtraction. Mr. Beal, 
 too, in his paper, whatever he may do in practice, makes no mention 
 of a point which I deem of vital importance, viz., that every student 
 in botany, from almost his very entry on the subject, should be 
 urged to start and taught how to make an herbarium, or collection 
 of plants, for himself. I-'ield-work is of the greatest importance in 
 promoting familiarity with habitats, and in solving most of the prob- 
 lems of plant-life, and to induce pupils to engage actively in field- 
 work there is nothing ecjual to starting them to form an herbarium, 
 for in no other way can such an interest be excited. In my experi. 
 ence, young people can best be stimulated to take an interest in any 
 branch of study by giving them something to do in connection with 
 it. Some striking examples of this have fallen under my observa- 
 tion in Philately, the modern rage for ])ostage stamp collecting. I 
 have known those, to whom the study of geog'-aphy was most 
 irksome, led to take great interest in it by encouraging them to form 
 a stamp collection. The questions naturally arising in their minds, 
 on the obtaining of a stamp from any special country as to the 
 whereabouts of that country, led to a desire for more extensive 
 knowledge of it, and thus was laid the foundation of a love for 
 geographical study. Nor is the interest excited, through collecting, 
 in the general study of any science, confined alone to the young, 
 students of all ages yield to its fascination and are thus led, often 
 insensibly, to pry deeper into its mysteries. But it is not alone in 
 the excitement of an interest in the study of botany that the value of 
 an herbarium lies. The ultimate end of any scientific study being 
 the mastery of all that can be learned concerning it, the formation 
 of a collection of plants in a manner most convenient for reference 
 is a necessary part of the science of botany. 
 
8 HOW TO SlUOV liOTANY. 
 
 l?ut enough has been said to give you an idea of the general 
 principles on which botany is now usually taught in colU-ges and 
 schools, I-et me next devote myself to telling you what I coiT^ifUr 
 tiie best way for you to enter upon the study. The first step is to 
 procure a text-book on structural botany. It matters little what 
 this is. (iray's "How Plants (irow," \Vood's " Object Lessons m 
 Botany/' Spotton's "Elerients of Structural Botany," or (Irav's 
 "Lessons in Botany:" — any of them will answer, but for ( hoice 
 I prefer Gray's " Lessons." It is not too complicated and yd 
 is extensive enough except for advanced students, who wish to 
 devote themselves specially to the study. To such I would recom- 
 mend Gray's " Structural," and Goodale's " Physiological I5otany," 
 Sach's "Text-Book of Botany," or Bessy's " Botany for High-Schools 
 and Colleges." A work on systematic botany is also essential and 
 the choice is large, though I know of none better than dray's 
 "Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States," which 
 covers our Ontario Flora. I would advise any one purchasing to 
 get the " Lessons " and " Manual " bound together. In this shape 
 the books are not only cheaper but more handy, and we have in 
 combination excellent works on both departments of botany, struct- 
 ural and systematic, no small desideratum to the beginner, who, 
 in naming plants by the latter, will from time to time meet with un- 
 familiar terms for the meaning of which he will require to refer to 
 the former. Spotton's systematic manual, "The (Commonly Occur- 
 ing Wild Plants of Canada," is a Canadian work and very good, but 
 it is too meagre, Working with it, one runs the risk of occasionally 
 spending long and patient labor trying to name a plant, only to fail 
 because it is not mentioned, and I know no experience more likely 
 to disgust the beginner than this. More extensive systematic works 
 are Torrey and Gray's "Flora of North America," and Gray's ".Syn- 
 optical Flora of North America. " 
 
 A text-book secured, comes what is generally looked upon as a 
 rather dry part of the science, viz,, the reading of it. Many words are 
 met with which are strange and difficult to remember, but let me 
 say that the labor of learning technical terms is usually much 
 over-estimated ; with practice they soon become quite tamiliar, while 
 the discipline taught the mind in acquiring them is worth all it 
 costs. There is no royal road to solving the problems of nature any 
 more than there is to deciphering the mysteries of mathematics or 
 
HOW TO STUDY BOTANY. 9 
 
 metaphysics, but at each step the way becomes easier till at last 
 what was a wearisome ta-;k l)ecomes a pleasant and absorbing recre- 
 atioa. The so-called drudgery is greatly lessened if the reading be 
 pursued in a proper manner, and especially if the reader has before 
 him tlie , roper material to illustrate the more important points in 
 each topic as it is taken up. He, who has some oMer botanical head 
 to advise him what material to provide beforehand for each chapter, 
 is greatly blessed, but, whether he has specimens to examine or only 
 the plates in his text-book to guide him, I would strenuously advise 
 him to make no effort to commit all the terms he meets to memory. 
 Let him try to read slowly and understandingly, but let him bear in 
 mind that the object of this primary reading is only to get a general 
 notion of plants and their parts, and to learn the meaning of a few 
 of the most material technical terms, so as to be able to start collec- 
 ting and naming plants for himself. Thus, in the first reading, he 
 will gain an idea of the life history of a plant, and discover that as a 
 .ule a miniature plantlet, the embryo, exists ready formed in the 
 seed. If now this seed, say that of the maple, be plrced in the 
 ground and allowed to germinate, the miniature plantlet will soon 
 be seen to develop in two opposite directions ; downward into a root 
 or descending axis, and upward into a stem or ascending axis. The 
 stem as it reaches the surface of the ground will be seen to bear a 
 pair of narrow green leaves, the seed-leaves or cotyledons. Soon 
 between these seed-leaves will appear a little bud, which shoots up- 
 ward into a second joint bearing another pair of leaves, which, 
 however, differ in shape from the first pair and resemble those of 
 the maple as usually seen. Later, a third joint shoots up from the 
 summit of the second, bearing a third pair of leaves, and so on until 
 the plant likeness of the seed becomes a fully developed tree. The 
 three organs, root, stem, and leaves, which existed in the embryo in 
 a rudimentary state, are called the fundamental organs or organs of 
 vegetation, because they have for their object the development and 
 nutrition of the plant ; while all the parts which succeed the leaves, 
 such as the flower and its organs, are only modifications of them 
 designed for a special purpose, and are called the organs of repro- 
 duction, since on them depends the increase of the plant in numbers, 
 or the continu-.nce of the species. 
 
 Proceeding onward with his reading he will obtain some general 
 knowledge of the various sorts and forms of these two sets of organs. 
 
10 HOW TO STUDY ROTA NY. 
 
 For instance, regarding the organs of vegetation, he will learn the 
 meaning of the terms annual, biennial, and perennial as applied to 
 roots, — of herbaceous, shrubby, and arborescent as applied to terres- 
 trial stems, and rhizome, tuber, and bulb to subterranean ones ; he 
 will remember the parts of the leaf, blade, petiole or leaf-sta'k, and 
 stipules, and the distinction between netted-veined and parallel- 
 veined, simple and compound leaves ; and he will discover that 
 leaves are named, from their general outline, linear, lanceolate, ovate, 
 cordate, etc., Irom their apex, acute, obtufic, truncate, etc., and, from 
 the degree of their division, entire, serrate, dentate, incised, cleft, 
 and divided, which last makes the leaf rf-ili^ a compound one. About 
 the organs of reproduction he will learn the distinction between a 
 raceme and a corymb, an umbel and a spike as applied to the inflor- 
 escence ; will note that the parts of the individual flower are of two 
 sorts, protecting organs and essential organs, the former consisting of 
 the calyx formed of the sepals and the corolla formed of the petals, 
 the latter of the stamens and pistils. He will also understand the 
 meaning of and perhaps remember some of the names applied to 
 different kinds of flowers, as complete when it has calyx, corolla, sta- 
 mens and pistils, and incomplete if any of these organs, as they may 
 be, are missing ; perfect when it has both stamens and pistils, and im- 
 perfect when either of these is wanting ; staminate when it possesses 
 only stamens, and pistillate when only pistils ; polypetalous when it 
 has both calyx and corolla and all the petals are distinct, mono[)eta- 
 lous when with the same organs the petals are all united, and apetalous 
 when either calyx or corolla, or both, are absent ; regular when all 
 the sepals, all the petals, all the stamens, and all the pistils are alike, 
 and irregular when any or all of them are unlike. 
 
 Having thus obtained some knowledge of the various sorts and 
 forms of plants and their parts, the student will next, from his text- 
 book, learn somethmg of vegetable fabric, and get an insight into 
 the life of plants and the mode in which they do the work of 
 vegetation. He will discover that all plants possessing leaf-green 
 (chlorophyll) as the pigment which gives the green color to the leaf 
 is called, possess also the power of assimilation, that is of making 
 starch and similar organic compounds out of inorganic elements, 
 such as water and carbonic acid; which transformation, briefly 
 speaking, is thus effected. The plant through its roots, by the jjrocess 
 known as osmose, takes in, dissolved in water, various compounds 
 
HOW TO STUDY HOTANV. II 
 
 containing carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, potassium, and other 
 niaicrials. The pressure exerted by the htjuid as it conies into the 
 roots, together with the attraction exerted by a constant process of 
 evaporation from the leaves, causes the " sap," which is the plant 
 food, to rise, and gives us what is known as the plant circulation. 
 When, by this osmotic action, the sap finally reaches the leaves, it, in 
 conjunction with carbonic acid derived from the air, is converted, 
 in the chlorophyll grains u/der the influence of sunlight, into organic 
 materials, which pass into a whitish granular \u\u\d called protoplasm, 
 and are used in "growth," that is in the building of new cells to 
 form plant tissue. Assimilation takes place only in sunlight, but 
 growth goes on most rapidly at night. In the former process oxygen 
 is set tree and given off through the leaf-pores or stomata, but in the 
 latter air is taken in through the stomata, and, as its oxygen is used 
 up, carbonic acid gas is given off. It will thus be seen as tersely 
 put l)y Mr. L. H. Jiailey, Jr.,—" If the leaves are the lungs of the 
 plant Decause they breathe, they are more emphatically the stomachs 
 of the ]:)lant because they assimilate and digest." 
 
 It is now in order for the student to learn something of class- 
 ification, as it is by this means he is enabled to analyze and recog- 
 nize by name the plants with which he meets, thus to avail himself 
 of all that has been recorded concerning them by botanists before 
 him. 
 
 To the ordinary observer plants differ so much from one 
 another that he can see no points of resemblance which could con- 
 nect them naturally. For example, what likeness is there between 
 the common strawberry and the mountain ash ? Yet both belong 
 to the rose family. Notwithstanding this great external dissimilarity, 
 the botanist can readily point out in both, characters which at once 
 stam[) them as closely akin. The points which determine the re- 
 lationship of plants are not confined to any one part of them ; they 
 may exist in the roots, leaves, flowers, or fruits, but the natural system 
 now in use aim-S to bring together those which most closely resemble 
 each other in all these particulars, laying especial stress on the flow- 
 ers and fruit. In this respect it differs from the Linniean and all 
 other artificial systems, which took up a certain set of organs and 
 based kindredship on those alone. 
 
 The means by which a plant reproduces itself and is prevented 
 from becoming extinct is evidently its most important and essential 
 
12 HOW TO STUDY HOTANV. 
 
 part, and it is on this, the fruit, that the vegetable kingdom is prim- 
 arily divided, viz., into flowerless or cryptogamous plants, such as 
 ferns, mosses and fungi, and Howering or pha^nogamous plants, 
 such as herbs, shrubs and trees. The former reproduce themselves 
 by means of spores, which are commonly simple minute cells and 
 contain no embryo; the latter by seeds, which are embryo plantlets 
 enclosed in an integument. The greater part of the flowerless 
 plants, which are by far the most numerous, are as yet very imper- 
 fectly understood, and, on account of this imperfect knowledge as 
 well as the fact that their study, which often r*equires the use of a 
 good microscope, is very difficult, we will exclude them from our con- 
 sideration. Confining ourselves then to (lowering plants, we find that 
 increase in diameter forms the first basis of division. There are two 
 general methods in which this increase takes place. In the one 
 case, the woody tissue is scattered as separate threads throughout 
 the whole stem, and the increase in diameter is by the interspersion 
 of new woody threads which stretch its surface ; while in the other 
 case, the woody tissue is all collected so as to form a layer between 
 a central cellular part, the pith, and an outer cellular part, the bark, 
 and the increase in diameter is by the addition of new layers of 
 wood beneath the bark. The former class of plants, which includes 
 our grasses, sedges and lilies, is called endogenous or " inside- 
 growing ;" while the latter, which includes all our northern trees and 
 shrubs and most of our herbs, is known as exogenous or "outside- 
 growing." In Canada the endogens are all herbs with the single 
 exception of Smilax, but in warm climates they are largely represented 
 by the palms. It is not, however, only the manner of growth that 
 separates these two great divisions of flowering plants ; marked dis- 
 tinctions exist in the seeds, flowers and leaves. The seeds ot 
 endogens contain but one seed-leaf or cotyledon, while those of 
 exogens have two or more, the former are iherefore said to be 
 monocotyledenous, the latter dicotyledenous ; the parts of the (lower 
 in endogens are usually in threes or multiples of three, while in 
 exogens they are never in threes, but usually in fives or multii)les of 
 five ; the leaves of endogens generally have the veins running 
 parallel to the midrib, that is they are parallel-veined, while those of 
 exogens are netted-veined. Excluding the endogens, which form 
 only twenty-one of the one hundred and twenty-eight orders given in 
 Gray's " Manual," we find that the exogens are subdivided into three 
 
HOW TO STL'DY BOTANY. 1 3 
 
 divisions based upon the character of the protecting organs or floral 
 envelopes ; viz., Polypetala.% which have both calyx and corolla, and 
 the petals not united with each other ; Monopetalx or Gamopetala^, 
 \vhi( h have also both calyx and corolla, but the latter is composed of 
 more or less united {)etals ; and Apetala;, which have no corolla, the 
 floral envelopes being in a single series, or sometimes wanting alto- 
 gether. The pine family (Coniferje) belongs to the exogens, but as 
 it forms part of a group represented in Canada only by itself, it is 
 not included in either of these three divisions. Each of the 
 divisions is again divided into natural orders or "families," which in 
 turn are composed of genera, made up of species. The orders are 
 large groups of closely related genera, while the genera are assem- 
 blages of species, which have a general similarity of fruit, flowers, 
 leaves, and habit. The families and genera are so numerous, and so 
 generally only distinguishable by a combmation of marks that the 
 points on which they are founded must be sought for in your text- 
 book : the orders in the analytical key at the begmning of the work, 
 the genera in the work itself at the beginning of the orders. To 
 give you a more comprehensive view of it, the system of classifica- 
 tion may be thus tabulated. 
 
 r Cryptogams 
 
 \_ Phanogams -| / P 
 
 l^ Exogens! C, 
 
 Vegetable Kingdom ^ j' Endogens — Orders — Genera — Species. 
 
 Polypetalae— Orders-Gen. -Spa. 
 
 Exogens -! (Jamopelalae-Orders-Gen.-Spe. 
 (I'ixclusive of I 
 
 Coniferae.) V Apetalae — Orders — Gen. — Spe. 
 
 To illustrate the method of applying the system of classification 
 to the naming of plants, let us suppose the student to have found 
 the wild strawberry, which is now in flower, and that it is 
 unknown to him. He sees that it is a flowering plant and must first 
 deterniine whether it is endogenous or exogenous. The netted-veined 
 leaves and the fact that the parts of the flower are in fives show it to 
 be the latter. It is evidently not a pine, so that it must belong to 
 the polypetalai, gamopetaLt, or apetalae. Both calyx and corolla are 
 present so that it cannot be to the last, and the petals being all dis- 
 tinct it must be to the first. Turning 'now to the analytical key we 
 find polypetalous exogens to be divided into three classes, marked 
 A., R., and C, according to the number and position of the stamens. 
 In A. the stamens are more than twice as many as the petals ; in B. 
 
14 HOW TO STUDY BOTANY. 
 
 they are of the same number as the petals and opposite them : and 
 in C. they are not more than twice as many as the petals, and when 
 of the same number are alterr.ate with them. Our plant has the 
 stamens numerous and so must come under the first class. This 
 section, A., has two subordinate headings marked i and 2 ; the 
 former includes species with the calyx entirely free from the uvary, 
 the latter those where it is more or less coherent. The calyx being 
 evidently free, the plant we are examining must belong to No. v 
 This has several divisions regulated by the pistils, and by careful 
 comparison of the plant with the key we find that it falls under the 
 one headed, " Pistils more than one, separate and not enclosed in 
 the receptacle." This division is again split up according to the 
 point of insertion ot the stamens, and the specimen having them 
 fixed on the calyx clearly belongs to the order Rosacere. Turning 
 now to this order we find it to be made up of three suborders, and 
 a very little consideration will show us that the name we aie looking 
 for must be in suborder II, known as Rosacei\^ proper. In this class 
 there are three tribes formed chiefly on the number ot pistils, and 
 they being numerous our plant is certainly in the third. Reviewing 
 the genera composing this tribe we soon settle that it can be only a 
 Fragaria, and so pass on to this genus, which we see is made up of 
 three species. IJy comparing our specimen with the characters of 
 each of these we decide, and rightly so, that it must be Fragaria 
 Virginiana. 
 
 This analysis, or naming, of plants, I have no doubt, seems very 
 tedious and difficult to most of you, but, believe me, such is not 
 really the case. After a few analysis the primary steps can be 
 passed rapidly over, and I will guarantee that any one who will 
 conscientiously study out twenty or twenty five good examples will 
 afterwards experience little difticulty in naming most of our flowering 
 plants. Be not discouraged at the slow progress you will at first 
 make ; each successful analysis will facilitate the next, and \ery soon 
 it will become so that when you have worked out one spec ies of a 
 genus you will be likely to know others when you see thctn, and 
 even when plants of a different genus of the same family are met 
 with, you will, ere long, generally be able to recognize their order at 
 a glance from the family likeness. A capital practice for the 
 beginner is to work out, in the manner I have indicated, a few plants 
 with whose nanies he is already familiar. Success in these attempts 
 
HOW TO STUDY BOTANY. 15 
 
 will naturally inspire confidence in the delermination of plants previ- 
 ously unknown. 
 
 By his initial reading over of his text-book the student has got 
 some knowledge of plants and ];lant-life, as well as an insight into 
 the manner in which their names are determined. He is like the 
 lace-horse to which the jockey has just given a preliminary canter 
 that he may "feel his legs" preparatory for his true task, the race, 
 which lies before him. The knowledge he has gained is slight I 
 grant you, but he is not (juite in the dark. A foundation has been 
 laid upon which it now beco'iies his duty to raise a creditable super- 
 structure ; a superstructure, the first step toward which should be 
 the conmiencement of an herbarium, which, however, should be 
 subservient to, or a co-partner with, the highest aim in botanical 
 science, the elucidation of the mysteries of plant-life. Laying such 
 stress as I do on the formation of a collection as an aid to further 
 study, let me for a little call your attention to the advantages to be 
 derived from having one, and the best appliances and methods for 
 accomi)li3hing this. 
 
 The use of an herbarium is, in general terms, to have constantly 
 on hand material for study in any class of plants, for, by soaking 
 them in water, dried specimens can be studied almost as easily as 
 fresh. In no other way can we see simultaneously specimens of 
 neighboring species, different states of the same species, and speci- 
 mens of a species from different localities ; and some of the brightest 
 theories on the distribution of plants have been worked out by the 
 aid of the " hortus siccus " or herbarium. The nomenclature and 
 classification of objects can be best acquired by the constant handling 
 of them, and the price of a good herbarium is incessant vigilance in 
 warding off the attacks of insect pests. But in this vigilance what a 
 throng of pleasant memories is perpetually being called up ; the 
 time and the locality, the surroundings, and, if you were not alone 
 when gathered, your companions. Each specimen represents so 
 much information, and the very mention of its name will recall to 
 mind associations connected with its study. These results from the 
 possession of an herbarium have been so beautifully set forth by 
 Professor Bailey of Brown University, that I cannot refrain from 
 quoting his words on the subject. " In looking them over one sees 
 not alone the specimens themselves, but the locality in which they 
 
1 6 HOW TO STUDY BOTANY, 
 
 were gathered. Many an incident of his Ufe, the memory of whic h 
 has lonj,' since become dormant, will be re-awakened as by an 
 enchanter's wand. lie will thread the forest paths gay with flowers ; 
 he will pause in imagination for the nooning by some fern-laced 
 spring ; he will climb the mountain ravine where the blood-root and 
 orchis bloom; or wander, full of speechless yearning, by the ocean 
 shore. Not only do the natural scenes return thus vividly, but the 
 faces of friends who enjoyed the occasion with him. He is once 
 more seated, may be, by a little lake on the mountain, in a garden 
 ot alpine flowers. Cool streams flow by him, and he picks the tart 
 fruit of the cowberry. The world lies mapped at his feet, and the 
 infinite heaven is above him. He hears the merry jest and ringing 
 laughter, and his heart becomes gay with the thought of those old- 
 time rambles." 
 
 A collectors outfit, which will answer all ordinary purposes, is 
 cheap, and most of it can be got or made at home. It consists of a 
 botanical box or vasculum ; a plant-press or portfolio; a pocket lens ; 
 a trowel : a sharp jack-knife ; and a note book. The clothing worn 
 in collecting should be strong, as one often has to make their way 
 through a tangle of thorny bushes, and old, so that no nervousness 
 at fear of spoiling it may be excited. For foot wear stout shoos are 
 generally recommended, but I prefer the oldest and easiest pair I 
 have, with plenty of holes in them. One occasionally has to wade 
 through a swamp where the water comes above the tops of any 
 ordinary boot, a: d it is much better that it should run out freely as 
 fast as it enters, than to have to sit down, take off and empty one's 
 shoes, or continue to walk with the water sogging about in them. 
 
 The vasculum, which is most useful for holding specimens that 
 are to be examined fresh, is of tin, and varies greatly in shape. The 
 form usually adopted is that of a compressed cylinder, with a lid 
 opening for nearly the whole length of one side. It is generally 
 about 1 8 or 20 inches long, and has a light strap to throw over the 
 shoulder. Any easily portable box will answer the purpose, but ot 
 late years I have entirely abandoned the vasculum, putting my 
 specimens directly into the press, and carrying in my pocket an old 
 newspaper or two, in which, previously dampening it, I loosely wrap 
 up any plant that I wish to make special examination of. 
 
 Plant-presses or portfolios arc of various kinds. The one that I 
 use, and which has done good service from Cape Breton to 
 
HOW TO STUDY HOTANV I 7 
 
 I'.ritisli Columbia, is made of (luarter inch basswood strengthened by 
 four cleats, and is i8 inches long by ii)^ inches wide. The straps 
 ar"^ provided with a cross piece, like a shawl-strap, which prevents 
 them becoming separated when the press is open, and also serves for 
 a handle to carry it by. If desired, a shoulder strap can also be 
 attached. Wire presses and those of lattice wood-work are highly 
 recommended by some, the advantages claimed being lightness and 
 a free esca])e of moisture. In wet weather, however, the ordinary 
 form has the great merit of keeping one's paper dry. For an excur- 
 sion the press should contain a good supply ot specimen sheets and 
 driers with one or two pieces of mill-board or thin deal, all of them 
 a little smaller than the press. Any thin, cheap paper will answer 
 for specimen sheets. What is known as printing paper is the kind T 
 ordinarily use. For driers a special paper is manufactured, but it is 
 expensive, and I substitute " filter paiier," which is obtainable at 
 most druggists. Blotting paper of any kind will do, and, if economy 
 be an object, old newspapers can be made to serve. Some of the 
 finest and most beautiful specimens I have ever seen were turned 
 out from newspapers alone. The object is to have a medium 
 that will quickly absorb moisture and as quickly part with it again. 
 The millboards or deals are to keej) apart the damp papers con- 
 taining the plants and the dry unused ones. I also usually carry in 
 my press a few sheets of cotton-batting to lay over ripe fruits, such 
 as strawberries or raspberries, to prevent their receiving too much 
 pressure and so getting crushed out of shape. 
 
 A pocket lens should always accompany the collector, and 
 should not be of too high power. A very powerful lens, while mag- 
 nifying greatly, inconveniently narrows the field of vision and 
 shortens the tocus. An instrument of an inch to an inch and a half 
 focal distance is to be preferred for field work. For ordinary house- 
 work a focussing lens with legs is very useful, or better still, the 
 " Botanist's Microscope," the price of which is about $2. It is 
 provided with a couple of needles mounted in handles and a pair of 
 tweezers for dissecting pur[)oses. 'J'o save expense its glass can be 
 carried in the pocket as a field lens. For advanced work on the 
 Cryptogams and for physiological botany, one of the many good 
 microscopes now offered for sale will be necessary. 
 
 The trowel, which is used for taking up pi' its by the root, is 
 generally replaced by a strong knife, as l)eing more portable. A 
 stout table-knife sharpened at the point will answ^er every purpose. 
 
I 8 HOW TO STUDY liOTANY. 
 
 A sharp pocket knife cannot ht dispensed with in trimming 
 woody sj)ecimens, slicing tubers and stems, etc. 
 
 The note hook is an object of prime importance and should he 
 of such a shape as to be readily carried in the pocket. It should 
 have a plare for a pencil and a pocket to hold some slips of paper 
 for field-labels. In this book should be jotted down any observa- 
 tions one cannot trust to memory, e. g., the color of flowers, the 
 height of plants, the character of the soil in which they grow, the 
 association of particular plants or insects, etc., etc. Unless ihe 
 collector takes field-notes he will run the risk of letting important 
 observations escape him, and he cannot too soon learn to make 
 them in a concise, systematic, and legible way, never mixing up 
 conjectures with actually observed facts. Everyone is prone t(j get 
 into a hurried way of making notes, under the idea that they are for 
 his own use only, and that he will readily recollect the rest of the 
 facts omitted at the time. This is a great mistake and one that the 
 student must carefully guard against. Notes are not often re(]uircd 
 immediately after being made, because every circumstance connected 
 with the subject is fresh in the memory. But it frequently hajjpens 
 that a long time after, weeks, months or years, in pursuing some 
 branch of study, the exact facts then observed are required : and I 
 know nothing more disappointing than, on turning to one's note- 
 book for the record of some experiment or observations, to find that 
 at the time, trusting to memory, some of the details had been omitted. 
 
 In collecting, when a number of plants of which specimens are 
 desired are discovered, the first thing is to make a judicious selec- 
 tion. To be really valuable the specimens in a collection should be 
 as perfect and characteristic as possible, so that any one referring to 
 it can learn full particulars about each species. A perfect spec- 
 imen comprises all that is necessary for complete botanical investi- 
 ga'.ion ; leaves (both mature and immature, cauline and radical) 
 flowers and fruit. Specimens can often be secured showini; both 
 flowers and fruit on the same plant, or fruit may be found on more 
 advanced plants at the same time. If not in fruit it must be col- 
 lected in this condition later in the season. The same rule applies 
 to the obtaining of specimens with different leaves, or leaves in dif- 
 ferent stages, and it may rec^uire several seasons to make a complete 
 specimen. The plant should be so arranged as to be no larger 
 when dried than can be readily mounted on the herbarium paper. 
 
HOW TO STUDY liOTANV. I9 
 
 Of .small herbs, the whole plant, root and all, should be taken, but 
 in every case enough ot the root should be collected to show whether 
 the plant is annual, biennial or perennial. Large plants may be 
 doubled into a V or N shape. Thick stents, roots, bulbs or tubers 
 can be divided and thinned down. 'I'hc name of the plant if 
 known, but always the locality and date, should be written on a field- 
 labcl and put with the specimen into the press. A specimen of un- 
 known date and locality loses much of its value and interest. My 
 method of using the plant-press is this ; having picked a specimen or 
 specimens I oi)en my press and on the blank side lay a coui)le of 
 driers, on these a specimen sheet, and on this a plant followed by a 
 drier. This process is continued, alternating plants and driers, till 
 all I have gathered are in. On the last drier I i)ut one of my thin 
 boards, and on this my dry pap-rs, close my press, and start on the 
 search for fresh objects of interest. In the case of very delicate 
 plants, as many ferns, a specimen sheet should be placed above as 
 well as beneath, the specimen, in which sheets it remains until per- 
 fectly dry. The object of the double specimen sheet, which is not 
 necessary with ordinary jdants, is to prevent the delicate leaves trom 
 doubling up or becoming displaced in changing the driers. Care 
 should be taken to display the specimens neatly, if possible showing 
 both sides of the flowers and leaves, though in some cases it is easier 
 to spread out the leaves and remove creases after a night's pressure 
 has somewhat subdued their elasticity. Morning is the best time to 
 collect most flowering plants, as many close their blossoms by noon, 
 but those that open in the evening, Vespertine flowers, should be 
 gathered at that time. 
 
 The actual pressing and drying of specimens is done at home 
 in the ordinary field press or a similar but stouter one. A couple of 
 pieces of inch board will answer every purpose. The pressure is 
 made by screws, straps or weights, the latter being preferable, as 
 under them the press follows the shrinkage of the plants. Half a 
 dozen bricks, tied together with a cord strong enough to lift them by, 
 makes a capital weight. Specimens should be put into the drying 
 press as soon as possible after gathering, but often on returning 
 from an excursion one is too tired to care for more labor, and I 
 commoniy leave mine in the field press until next morning, nor do I 
 find them suffer any harm from so doing. The thin sheets (specimen 
 sheets) containing the plants are transferred to fresh driers, heated in 
 
20 HOW 10 STUDY liOTANY. 
 
 the sunliglit or by a stove, and remember always, the hotter they ar, the 
 
 better. I'c ( areful to i)lacc the specimens in such a way that Dne 
 
 part of the bundle is not materially thic ker than the other, by i)la( ing 
 
 them on alternate sides, or putting in wads of paper if necessary. 
 
 I'lants dry best in small piles, and for dividing up a package if too 
 
 large, or for separating the lots put into the drying j^ress on different 
 
 days, use thin deals like those taken out in collecting. When 
 
 transferring to the home press be careful to remove all folds of the 
 
 leaves and petals, and arrange the specimen as naturally as possible. 
 
 Tiie elasticity so troublesome in many plants when first gathered, 
 
 will have in great measure disappeared, and the jarts will stay as 
 
 arranged. Some very succulent plants, and others with rigid leaves, 
 
 such as stone-crops and pines, dry better if plunged for a moment 
 
 into boiling water ere being put into the drying press. Every day, 
 
 or at first even twice a day, the plants in their specimen sheets are 
 
 to be shifted into fresh hot driers, the moist ones taken off being 
 
 spread out to dry in the sun or by a fire, that they may take their 
 
 turn again at the next shifting. The more freciuently the plants 
 
 are changed the better will they retain their color. After the 
 
 first three or four days the changes need only be made every other 
 
 day until the specimens are thoroughly dry and no longer moist or 
 
 cold to the touch. The drying usually occupies from a week to ten 
 
 days, but varies according to the succulency of the plants, the state 
 
 of the weather, the fretjuencyof the changes, and the degree of heat 
 
 of the driers. The most convenient place for changing plants if it 
 
 can be managed is a table beside a good hot range or stove, the top of 
 
 which is free for use. If a damp drier be laid flat on the hot metal, 
 
 steam at once begins to rise from it, and the moment it ceases to do 
 
 so the paper is dry ; leave it yet for a second until it becomes so hot 
 
 as to be barely touchable with the naked hand, then lay it quickly on 
 
 a specimen previously moved from the damp pile, and continue thus 
 
 until the v.hole lot is changed. This plan is invaluable when driers 
 
 are scarce, as sometimes happens on a botanizing trip, for l)y it the 
 
 same driers, no matter how wet, can be used again immediately. A 
 
 plan adopted by myself a few years ago, while collecting in Nova 
 
 Scotia, might be mentioned as worthy of remembrance should any 
 
 of you ever be placed in similar circumstances. Though not to be 
 
 recommended for common use, as the specimens fall short of those 
 
 obtained by the ordinary method, yet, if so situated that an abun- 
 
HOW TO STUDY nOTANY. 2 1 
 
 danf t: of driers is not obtainable, or if the weather be so foggy and 
 wet that they cannot l)e properly dried, it will be found of great 
 practiral value. On the trip referred to a large number of specimens 
 had l)een collected, but so bad was the weather from rain and sea 
 foj^s that there was great danger of losing them all. Under these 
 circumstances the thought came to me to take advantage of occa- 
 sional glimpses of sunshine in the following way ; each sheet of spec- 
 imens was placed between two driers, which were spread in a single 
 layer on the floor of an oi)en balcony exposed to the sun. IMtces of 
 board, logs, or bark placed in the sun would of course answer the 
 same purpose. Small stoner, placed on the corners of the sheets pre- 
 vented the wind disturbing them, and no pressure was used except 
 the weight of the single drier covering them. An hour of good 
 sunshine seived to fully cure most plants. The plan is only appli- 
 cable to specimens previously somewhat wilted in the i)ress, as the 
 leaves of fresh or insufficiently wilted ones curled up in the absence 
 of pressure. 
 
 A collector's work does not cease when his specimens are dried. 
 Plants are subject to the attacks of insects and it is therefore neces- 
 sary to poison them in some way. The best protection is corrosi"e 
 sublimate dissolved in alcohol, which is applied lightly to the speci- 
 mens with a soft brush. It should be done as soon as the plants are 
 dried, care being taken afterwards to leave them spread out until 
 the alcohol has evaporated. The formula I use is : 
 
 Corrosive sublimate, . . . i ^^ drachms. 
 
 Carbolic acid, i }^ drachms. 
 
 Alcohol, 12 ounces. 
 
 .Ml the work hitherto done, the collecting, drying and poisoning, 
 is hut the preparation for the formation of an herbarium, the speci- 
 mens in which should be fastened on half sheets of stiff white paper, 
 either by slips of gummed paper or by glue applied to the backs of 
 the specimens themselves. For a few cents a supply of white 
 gummed paper, sufficient to last for years, can be purchased at any 
 printing establishment. A narrow slip of this is cut off, moistened 
 with the tongue, and placed over the part of the plant to be fixed 
 down. The advantage of this process over actually glueing the 
 specimens to the paper is, that in case the plant has to be removed 
 for examination or any other purpose these slips can be easily lifted. 
 
22 HOW TO STUDY BOTANY. 
 
 In mounting plants rare must he exercised to keep the pile 
 forming ea( h genus and order as nearly level as ])ossil)le hy scat- 
 tering the specimens over the sheets instead of [)lacing them all 
 exactly in the centre. If the plants sre small put some at the tup of 
 a sheet, some at the hottom ; some at the right side and some on 
 the left, occasionally, in the case of large specimens, reversiuL; ihcm, 
 so as to have the thick stems and roots at the top. In no case 
 should more than one species be put on the same sheet, but, if 
 small, two or more specimens of the same species may be so placed. 
 The sheets for the herbarium should all be exactly the same si^e, 
 which size is a matter of personal choice. I would, however, advise 
 anyone starting a collection to adopt what is known as the standard 
 size, from its being the one used in the public herbaria of the 
 United States. This size, 16^2 x 1 1}^ incheSj experience has deter- 
 mined to be the best. The advantage in adopting it lies in the fact 
 that specimens are now generally made with a view to being mounted 
 on such, and when any other is selected, in exchanging, plants not 
 suitable in size are often received. My own sheets, I am -jorry to 
 say, are smaller than this, being only 15)2 x 10 inches, but my col- 
 lection was started and had grown to such a size before this standard 
 was adopted that to change it all would have entailed gr^at labor and 
 expense, so I have considered it advisable to continue as I began. 
 The Linna^an herbarium is on paper of the common foolscap type, 
 but this is much too small. The generic and specific name of the 
 plant, the name of the botanist who bestowed it, the habitat, place 
 where collected, date of collection, and name of collector should be 
 placed at the lower right hand corner of each sheet, either wiitten on 
 the sheet itself or on a label attached there, the latter being the 
 usual and better plan. These labels vary according to taste, but the 
 points desirable of observance are clear type, neatness and simplicity. 
 They should not be too large nor yet too small. The late Dr. 
 Gray recommended one 2x4 inches. At the top of the label is 
 usually printed the word Herbarium, followed by one's own name, 
 and in sending away c specimen to anyone, there should be written 
 on the label, which must invariably accompany it, in front of this 
 word, the Latin prefix ex or its English ecjuivalent from, to show 
 who was the sender. On receiving a specimen the accompanying 
 label should always be mounted with it. My own practice when 
 given a specimen is to put the donor's label in the customary place 
 
HOW TO STUDY nOTANV. 23 
 
 and my own name, of which I keep a supply on gummed paper, at 
 the lower left hand corner. Some attach their labels permanently 
 with jiaste or by having them printed on gummed paper, but I prefer 
 to inertly fasten ihem lightly at the sides, thu-. allowing their removal 
 should it ever be necessary to transfer the specimen to another sheet. 
 All tlie sheets containing plants of the same genus are placed in 
 genus covers, which are full sheets of stout, colored paper, that when 
 doul)lcd measure about a (juarter of an inch more in width than th° 
 herbarium sheets. The name of the genus is written at the bottom 
 of the genus cover, either in the middle or at the left hand corner, 
 or sets of printed genus labels can be purchased cheaply and one of 
 these pasted on instead. For convenience in reference the names 
 of the ( ontained species may be written in pencil on the genus cover, 
 the reason for using a pencil being that this list is liable to constant 
 change. I'he various genera are arranged systematically, or for 
 greater convenience ali)habetically, under the order to which they 
 belong, and laid flat in large pigeon-hole compartments in a closed 
 cabinet, or else placed in portfolios, which stand upright like books 
 in a bookcase, with the names of the contained orders lettered on 
 the back, or on a tag attached to the portfolio. The herbarium is 
 made complete by a list or catalogue of the plants it contains, by 
 referring to which one can at any moment tell what species are 
 represented. 
 
 Having thus described the method of collecting and preserving 
 specimens, let us briefly consider what may be called the second step 
 in the study of botany, viz., excursions; the first, as already stated, 
 being a preparatory reading over of the text book. The object of 
 collecting excursions should be threefold : ist, to cultivate habits of 
 observation and secure knowledge of habitats and the growing ap- 
 pearances of plants ; 2nd, to gather specimens for the herbarium ; 
 Srd, to secure material to work on during a second and more thor- 
 ough study of structural botany. Each division of the text-book 
 should now be taken up and studied until the subject-matter is firm- 
 ly fixed in the mind, the requisite material for the complete illustra- 
 tion of each chapter by actual observation being gathered on an 
 excursion prior to commencing it. Even in the winter season ex- 
 cursions should not be entirely abandoned ; the true naturalist can 
 always liiid something to admire and much useful work can be done 
 
2 4 HOW TO STUDY P.OTANY. 
 
 in observing the trunks, branches and buds of trees and shrul)s. 
 Winter is, however, the time pre-eminently fitted for herbarium work, 
 preserving, mounting, labeUing, cataloguing, and, if the nerossary 
 appliances are obtainable, laboratory work with the microscope. 
 
 The best place to begin collecting is where you live. Be your 
 abode where it may there are surely some plant rarities near it, and 
 the first goal to struggle for is a thorough knowledge of the resources 
 of your own vicinity. When you have made a special study of the 
 plants there you may easily extend your researches. If on your 
 excursions you can have the company of some older botanist so 
 much the better, since from him you can get the names of the plants 
 you gather and the prominent characters on which the naming is 
 founded. I would, however, strongly advise you always to take 
 home one or two unnamed specimens, on which to practice analysis, 
 for it is only by such practice you can ever become so familiar with 
 the orders as to be able to, pretty nearly, locate strange ones at a 
 glance. The accumulation of a mass of unnamed plants is to be 
 avoided, lest a pleasant task become a wearisome labor, inspiring 
 only disgust. Make it a rule to get your specimens named as soon 
 as possible. If you have no one near to whom you can show them, 
 enter into correspondence with some botanist and arrange with 
 him to name the packets you may send him from time to time. 
 You need not fear that your letter asking the favor will be 
 unanswered. The wonderful spirit of fellowship, comradeship if I 
 may call it so, existing among scientists, and evinced by their willing- 
 ness to lend a helping hand to even the humblest votary, is to me 
 one of the greatest charms in scientific pursuits. But here a word of 
 warning,^never send scraps of plants to be named, for though a 
 good botanist can often identify them, it is unfair to ask him. His 
 time is too valuable to be spent in guessing riddles. Courtesy also 
 demands that in all correspondence the seeker after information 
 should enclose stamps for return postage. In collecting a specimen 
 for yourself, if it be at all rare, always, if possible, gather duplicates 
 to be used in exchange. Under no consideration, however, oblit- 
 erate a rare species from any locality, and do not even make Hi 
 whereabouts known to any except true lovers of the science. There 
 are vandals, who, through mere vanity, would not hesitate to destroy 
 the last survivor of a species ; nor would they do it only unthink- 
 ingly. From the duplicates of the best things around you a large 
 
HOW TO STUDY BOTANY. z^ 
 
 variety of plants can be got by exchange, and the pleasure and ijrofit 
 in making a collection is largely due to the intercourse thus brought 
 about with those of kindred tastes. Nor is this confined to those 
 in your own country ; it is often necessary to have certain specimens 
 from other regions, and you are thus brought into correspondence 
 with scientists in all parts of the world. Let your specimens be well 
 made, and never send away a poor one unless it be of something 
 very rare. A man soon becomes known by his exchanges, and if 
 his specimens are poor he is made the subject of much unpleasant 
 criticism and will in time be avoided by all good collectors. Always 
 preserve the choicest specimen collected for your own herbarium, 
 but after this send the best you have to the first correspondent who 
 asks tor it. Keep even a fragment of any species not represented 
 in your collection until you get a better, but of your duplicates 
 destroy any too poor to send away. Do not hoard up duplicates. 
 The man who studies science for science's sake would sooner give 
 away every specimen for nothing than allow them to remain buried 
 like a miser's gold. Make sure that all plants you send out are 
 correctly named, and notify your correspondent whether they are 
 poisoned or not. Never promise a plant unless you actually have it 
 or are positively certain of being able to get it, and keep a catalogue 
 of your duplicates that you may be prepared at all times to answer a 
 brotber collector who applies for anything. 
 
 The last stage in botanical study, and the one to which all others 
 should be only stepping-stones, is the working out of some of the 
 many unsolved problems of plant life by independent and intelligent 
 observation and experiment. The breadth of the field for explora- 
 tion by original observation is immense, as comiiaratively little is 
 known of the laws governing many of the phenomena of plants. For 
 e.xample, little is known of the hosts of some of our parasitic plants, 
 and in some cases it is even disputed whether certain plants, com- 
 monly considered such, are parasites at all ; though all plants' move 
 more or less, we possess scanty knowledge of the nature of this move- 
 ment in many of them, and still less of its object ; we know that 
 cross-fertilization is generally necessary for the production of perfect 
 seed, but in many cases we do not know the particular agents that 
 perform the work; we are aware that cleistogene flowers produce pods 
 tar more fruitful than the ordinary blossoms, but we know almost 
 
26 HOW TO STUDY HOTANY. 
 
 nothing about the proportion of the kinds or why a plant should be 
 provided with two sorts of blossoms. There are many other points 
 just as vague, hints as to which may be found in snch works as Dar- 
 win's " Climbing Plants," Baileys "Talks Afield," Prentiss' " Mode 
 of Distrihution of IMants," and Kerner's " Tlowers and their Unbid- 
 den Ciuests." Enough, however, has been said to show that the wav 
 to discoveries new to science is open to even the youngest student. 
 There is practically no limit to the papers that could be prepared by 
 any of you for this or similar societies : papers both interesting and 
 useful ; papers of value to the scientific world at large ; paj^ers that 
 any of our scientific journals would be only too glad to find room 
 for. And here, in conclusion, I would say, that if withm his means, 
 and they are very cheap, no student of botany should neglect to 
 take at least one of the periodicals devoted to the science. The 
 " Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club," the "Botanical Gazette," 
 and the " American Naturalist," are among the best. The first two 
 are devoted entirely to botany, the last takes up other sciences as well. 
 
 If I have trespassed too much on your time, or wearied you 
 with my effort to give an idea of how I think botany can best be 
 studied, I pray you pardon me. Each of you who takes up this 
 beautiful science will, I have no doubt, see modifications that you 
 may think might be advantageously made in the method suggested. 
 Should it be so by all means adopt them ; the method enjployed is 
 of little importance provided only it brings about the great aim and 
 end of the study, which is to learn to observe and compare. Do 
 this honestly and you cannot fail to become lovers of nature, and, 
 being lovers of nature, better and happier men and women, men and 
 women in some degree approaching that illustrious scientist of 
 whom was said ; — 
 
 " And Nature, the old nurse, took 
 The child upon her knee. 
 Saying: ' Here is a story-book 
 Thy Father has written for thee.' 
 
 •' •Come, wander with me,' she said, 
 ' Into regions yet untrod ; 
 And read what is still unread 
 In the manuscripts of God.' 
 
HOW TO STUDY BOTANY. 2^ 
 
 " And he wandered away and away 
 With Nature, the dear old nurse, 
 Who sang to him ni^ht and day 
 The rhymes of the universe. 
 
 " And whenever the way seemed long, 
 Or his heart began to fail, 
 She would sing a more wonderful song. 
 Or tell a mo.e marvellous tale."