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[Re-Print from the "St. John Globe."] THE KAlllSS AND TERRACES OF SEW BRDNSWICK. BY R. CHALMERS, GEOLOGICAL SURVEYOR. The Keologigt or atudent of nature will find wherever he eoes in New Brunswiuk phenomena of more than ordinary inter- est to excite his ouriosity and prove in- centives to study. If ho has an eye to the pictoresque he will meet with views of natural scenery on every hand, by hill and shore, by woods and waters, which, althouKh not always grand, are yet im- pressive and vaiied. Should he ascend our noble rivers and penetrate the inter- ior, the tugged mountains and deep val- leys, there will afford him glimpses of the primeval architecture of the country, and suggest the power! \\ agencies which have been at work sculpturing and carv- ing out it3 massive features; while the pleasurable activities of mind and body called forth In traversing untrodden routes, in scaling mounTa'u heights and viewing the landscape from lofty peaks will more than .compensate for any hard- ships undergone. From the summit of the Blue or Sagamook Mountains, or the peak of Teneriffe, near Nepisiguit Lakes, each of which affords a magnificent prospect of hill and valley and distant forest-dad range, with quiet lake gleaming below, or river me- andering by, he will feel a higher and purer current of life flowing through his reins and "will return from theii preci- pices a wiser as well as a stronger man." A.Dd even where the scenery is less bold and imposing there are always sufficient diversity and charm in rounded hill ur smiling valley, in woodland or lake, to "lend enchantment to the view," and in- duce the passing beholder to linger over it Ferhaps, in few places m Eastern Canada are so many pleasing scenes to be met with as in the valley of the St John, whose gently undulating contours, unique terraced slopes, and fertile inter- vales and islands, are alike objects of interest to the geologist and the tourist. Among the many natural features and curiosities calculated to attract special attention and inculcate a desire for knowledge, as regards the works of na- ture around us, taose which form the subject of this essay are, perhaps, not the least inviting. Along our principal river-valleys, bordering our lakes, and in many places on the coasts, gently-round- ed ridge, or grass-covered terrace, rising in successive steps, will at once arrest the eye, and sot the enquiring mind meditating as to their genesis and his- tory. The formations discussed in this paper are among phenomena which are the re- sult of the great forces of erosion that have been in operation during the post- tertiary period, oeintrsome of the residu- al forms of the grand process of mould- ing and carving out hills and valleys through the iofluedce of atmospheric and marine agencies. The energy of nature is unceasing. Air, frost, rain, rivers, glaciers and the sea are her tools, each of wbich has been at work on the fair face of our country for long ages. As a well- known and eminent geologist, Prof. Archibald Geikie, says : "With these implements, out of the huge bulk of the land, she cuts the valleys and ravines, scoops the lake basins, hews with bold hand the coIobsmI outlines of the moun- tains, carves out peak and crag, crest and oliff, chisOis the courses of me tor- rents, splinters the sidos of the pre- cipices, spreads out the alluvium of the rivers ana piles up the moraines of the glaciers. Patiently and unceasingly has this great earth-sculptor sat at her task since the land first, rose above the sea, and there she will remain at work as long as mountains stand, and rain falls, and rivers flow." The phenomena of the kames and ter- races which I propose to discuss very briefly are, it may be remarked, neither new nor uncommon. Most persons who have travelled oyer the southern and western counties of New Brunswick must have observed the kames, with their greatly swelling outlines, or long, often tortuous, ridge-like forms, presenting conspionoas features in the landscape; while in river valleys, terraces, rising step by step like gigantic stairways, frequent- ly carpeted with a rich green sward in spring and summer, and shaped with a beauty and symmetry whion would re quiro the peaoil of the artist to justly por- tray. These will oause the ffeoloKisi or lover of nature to pause and contemplate their unique forms and structure. Kames are lo«r lidKes, from one or two hundred yards to several milus in leuKth, composed of gravel and sand intermixed with rounded utoces (boulders) and oc- cur at all eluvatlonf from sea level to the summits of the hi:{heBt water-sheds in the provincQ. A larfce and characteristic one may be seen stretchins 7 or 8 miles along the upper part of Eel Kivor, York County. Another fine kama was observ- ed near Pocawagamis Lake, a third at the head waters of the Maotaquao, and many more occur in the lake region and along river valleys, in westarn New Brunswick. In the St John valley two or three well formed kames have been noticed between Canterbury and Woodstock and others in different places as far up as Grand Falls. Along the Viilleys of the Magaguadavic, Dig- deguash, etc., formations of this kind are likewise frequently met with. Near the coast of the Bay of Fundy we find a large wide kame at Penntiuld, called Penufleld Kidge, another at Lake Utopia and sev- eral in tiie vicinity of St. John. The latter have been described by Mr. Mat- thew in the Keport of Prozress, Ueologi- cal Survey of Canada, 1876-77, and else- where. Kames are found in other parts of Can- ada and in the Northern United States, and, icdeed, in all countries which have been glaciated during the Ice age. In the British Islands and Scandinavian pen- insula, where they are largely developed, they have been asbiduously studied for the last quarter of a centui y and various theories advanced to explain their origin. The two most generally accepted of these are (1) the marine theory, which supposes thorn to have been formed by oceanic currents during the quaternary subsi- dence of the land, and (2) the glacial theory, which is an attempt to explain their formation by assuming they were built up from glacial debris, morainic material, or boulder clay by the floods resiilti>ig from the melting glaciers. My study of these singular formations in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Quebec for several years has convinced me that neither of these theo- ries taken alone is competent to explain the origin and the phenomena pt:rtaiuing to all our kames. The glacial theory was once held by me, but the inexorable logic of facts obliged me to abandon, or at least to modify it very considerably. At the same time it appeared highly probable thit each of the agencies indi- cated has been instrumental in some de- gree In developing certain kinds of kames, In investigating these interest- ing features of our surface geology for the Geological Survey of Canada I have classified them into three groups, dis- tinguished according to locality, trend, elevation above sea level, physical and external oharaoteriitics, etc. Group I. comprises all kames occurring at the sources of rivers, in Inke bnsins, and on water-sheds, usually following the cours- es of streams where there are dead wat- ers. They are not oontlned within nar- row valleys and are almost invariably ridges with steep sides, tortuous cours- es, often narrow, sharp crests, peaty areas on one or both sides, and branches diverging from the main ridge. Kames of this class are found on the higher levels, above the 20') feet contour line, in localities that the sea has not reached during the quaternary age. Group 11. includes kames met with in confined river valleys which are general- ly parallel in direction to these and com- posed of similar materials to the higher terraces found near them. The kames of Group III. occur along our coast and in the area near it up to the 200 feet contour line above sea lev^!. They are usually wide and flat and often flanked by marine terraces which are fossiliferous. Those in St. John and Charlotte counties, already referred to, seem, so far as I have examined them, to belong to this class, and a long one in Restigouche is also, in part at least, com- posea of marine deposits. A large well* formed kame occurs at tne mouth of Cascapedia River, on the north side of the Baie des Chaleurs, forming its east- ern bank for about 5 miles; height 100 to 150 feet. It becomes wider and higher as we proceed up river and terrace-like in places, being in fact a denuded marine terrace, shells of Saxieaoa, Leda, etc., having been found in its upper part. In reference to the mode of formation of the kames of Group III. there is in- dubitable evidence that they are, to a large extent, due to the action of marine currents, eroding bed, of tile, or morainio or other materials which have Veen thrown down near the coast; but in some instances currents from the land would would seem also to have played an im- portant part. The fact of their being developed in greater numbers and mas- si veness at or near the mouths of our larger rivers, goes to show that portions ared highly {enoies indi- io some de- kinds of Bse interest' geolof;y for nada I have Itroupsr dis- iaiity, trend, physical and Gronp I. Tin;; at the sins, and on It; the cours- re dead wat- within nar- inrariably tuouB oours* irestfi, peaty md branches dge. Kames the higher ntour line, in not reached met with in are general - ese and com- the higher :. occur along near ic up to )ve sea levol. tlat and often s which are it. John and r referred to, tned them, to 1 long one in at least, com- A large well* tne mouth of north side of ning its east- height 100 to and higher as errace-like in uded marine Leda, etc., per part, of formation . there is in- tiey are, to a ion of marine e, or morainic ; have been b; but in some e land would layed an im- '. their being lent and mas- louths of our that portions of the materials have been supplied from such sources, and have been thrown into rid (res partly by fluviatile and partly by marine action. The (^ascapedia kame is the residual portion of a terrace denuded on the west side by the river and on the east by two or three small streams which ran parallel to it as the land emersed from the post-tertiary sea, but which have since out passages throush it In the case of those occurring near the coast of the Bay of Fundy, the powerful tidal currents which sweep up and down, scouring its bottom and eroding the land margin, would seem to have been siiffl- oiuntly utrong to form thew, a subji-ot which Mr. Matthew has fully elucidated in papers and reports, and it is therefore unnecessary for me to dwell upon it. Group II., which, as already stated, occur in confined river valleys, are usual- ly stratified, except, perhaps, in the bot- tom, and often flanked by terraces. Their summits never rise above the brow of the valley in which they are found, and along the St. John they seldom exceed a height of 160 feet above the surface of the river at the nearest i>oint Moreover, they art more regular in form than kames of tL'. higher levels, and in places are flat and terrace like. Their genoral similarity as regards materials and structure to the higher terraces of the valleys in which they occur is a distinguishing feature, and the conclusion reached is that they are residual portions of these which have escaped erosion, as the river chunnel shifted from one side of the valley to the other. This view will be more clearly elucidated, however, when I come to speak of the formation of terraces. Group I, presents several features and characteristics distinct from the others. The larger of theue kames form conspi- cuous objects in the lake region of South Western New Brunswick, not being en- closed in narrow valleys. Similarly to those of marine formation they are, to some extent, moiainio, but, nevertheless, contain great qaaotities of stratified ma- terial, and while in somepartn bulky and hummocky, in others they consist of narrow ridges with steep sides. In this re9pect they di.Ter entirely from marine kames which generally have low sloping sides. This feature and the absence of leda or other clay beds on their summits or slopes, are regarded as proofs of their saprd-marine origin. Moreover, their oom-ses invariably conform to those of the rivers or lake borders, along which they are found, while those uear th« coast generally have a trend parallel to it A remarkable one in Cum* berland county, N. 8., called the "Boar's Back," described by Sir William Daw- son in Acadian Oeology, exhibits features closely resembling those of the great Eel River Kame already referred to. In the "Boar's Back" none but boulders of local rocks (grey Carboniferous sandstones) are met with, which, in some places, seem to form a large portion of its mass. A considerable amoun*; of discussion has taken place among geologists in re- gard to the genesis and obaracteristics of this class of Kames, and the literature of the subject is voluminous, nevertheless, up to the present no satisfactory theorv has been adduced to aoouunt for them. The phenomena which they exhibit, whatever explanation be finally adopted, indicate that they bear a close relation to the drainage of the respective districts in which they are found, and their occur- rence along the sources of rivers where there are dead waters, or in the vicinity of lakes, tr>gether with their sinuous, river-like courses show that the streams along whose banks they are met with have been largely instrumental in their formation, although the precise mode of action is not evident Further study and a larger body of oaref tlly collected facts relative to these very interesting deposits seem necessary before any theory res- pecting their origin which will stand the test of discussion, can be arrived at TBBBACB8. These features of the surface geology of New Brunswick are here, as else wheie, of the two kinds called river and sea border terraces, according as they are found in river valleys or along the coasts. I shall first refer to the former. Any one who has visited that part of the St John valluy, between Woodstock and Grand Falls, must have been agree- ably impressed with the beauty and Bvmmeti y of the great number of terraces there uzhibiwd. Dr. tiesner, who ex- plored that region 46 years ago, described them in felicitous terms. Occasionally they may be seen rising in four or five steps above each other, nut usually there are only two or three. Fine examples occur at Bath, East Florence vi He, Salmon River, and just below Orand Fulls. None of these are longer than a mile or two, however, and, generally, they are only a few hundreds yards. They have more or less slope down stream, corresponding to that of the river, and in height above it vary from ten to one hundred and fifty feet Sometimes 6 there are upper terrMee et the inme elevation on ooth aides of the river, but this ia accideutal, eaoli terrace appar- ently having been formed separately and independently. The materials are sand and eravel with a few small boulders, utualiy beoomiuK coarser towards the summit, while the lower terraces are capped with loam to the depth of one to live feet. Boulder clay underlies ihem, especially in the upper slopes of the valleys. Terraces occur in all our river valleys, and in dimensions and number have a close relation to the size of the river, the depth of the valley, the drainage area, etc., of each river along the banks of which they are found. The largest rivers have invariably the largest terraces, and vice versa. In regard to the precise mode of forma- tion of river terraces there has also been much discussion and many discordant opinions, and the explanatiou now gen- erally accepted is that they ware formed by flooded rivers at the close of the glacial epoch, which afterwards, owing to a decrease in the volume of water, became confined to a narrower chauuel and thus cut more deeply into the deposits, as it wound from one side of the valley to the other, leaving the terraces along its banks. While this explahation, considered in a general way, may be true, yet it seems to me, after a careful examination of facts, that It will, in matters of detail, have to be somewhat modified, for the following reasons:— First, it presupposes a rapid dissolution of the glacier or glaciers, which covered the country in the Ice age, and a filling of our river valleys with a torrential flood pouring down to the sea. That there were heavy floods in the rivers of that period, especially during the summer months, seems cer- tain, for, at that season, there would be the water due to precipitation, plus that resulting from the melting snow and ice, seeking outlet by these valleys. But the season of greatest melting would also be the season of greatest evaporation, and this would tend, in some measure, to lower the rivers and thus check the flood. That the waters filled the river valleys to the height of the upper terraces, how- ever,— the St. John, for example, 150 to 175 feet above the present river surface-^ seems not only improbable, but is, more- over, for reasons given below, contrary to fact For (a) it is now pretty certain that the ice covering was by no means as thick as has been supposed by a large number of land glaoialista. Again, (6) it is only reasonable tu infer that the withdrawal as well as the coming on of glacial con- ditions being the result of a secular change of climate would be plow, and the ice- covering would disappear by degrees through a long serleb of years, or, per- haps,of centuries.its dissolution beingpor- bably due partly to evaporation as well as to actual melting. Its final disappearance from the area under digcasiion would not necessarily, therefore, be attended with such floods as have been supposed, unless precipitation were also greater than at the present day. Secoudly, a flood as high as the upper terraces, iliai is to say, 150 to 175 feet deep, in the valley of the St. John, would in some parts of its coursr, as, for example, between Grand Falls and Andover, where the descent of the river is considerable, carry away all the surface materials and scour the valley down to the solid rod's. Instead of this being the case, however, we find a great ridge of boulder clay, not eroded, re- maining along the west side, besides thick deposits of stratified material8,con- stituting the highest and best developed terraces here, that arc to be met with in the whole St. John valley. Thirdly, teriaces formed by a flood, such as has been assumed to exist, ought to be long aud continuous, at the same relative ele- vation to the river, either on one side or the other, at least in many of the straightest of river valleys; but as has been shown such do not occur. A close examination and study of the deposits in river valleys for some years has led me to the conclusion that the origin of the terraces aud kames found in them has been somewhat as follows: At the close of the glacial period these valleys were, in certain places, partially flllecf with masses of till sufficiently thick to block them up nearly to the general level of the country on both sides. This is evidenced by the fact that such accu- mulations are still found occupying them in places, and sometimes causing a diver- sion of the river from its old preglacial channel. Examples of this fact can be seen at Grand Falls, St. John; the "Nar- rows," Tobique; Aroostook falls, epo. On the final retreat of the ice of that period, the old river valleys, or such por* tions of them as were open between the embankments of till referred to, would be again filled with the waters arising from the melting ice and the rain fall. These waters would consequently form lakes, or chains of lakes, all tending to overflow by the lowest passage, which, y b) it is only witbdrawM slaoial oon- I a secular low, and the by degrees Bars, or, per* on beiogpor- ou as well as isappearance on would not tended with posed, unless ater than at a flood as bai is to say, valley of the parts of its iween Grand le descent of arry away all lur the valley istead of this ) And a great b eroded, re- side, besides nateriAlB,oon- est developed e met with in jy. Thirdly, , such as has a(ht to be lond e relative ele- )n one side or nany of the s; but as has our. i study of the or some years ision that the kames found it as follows: period these Etces, partially ficiently thick o the general h sides. This ^at such accu- sonpying them iusing a diver- 3ld preglacial is fact can be bn;the "Nar- ok falls, epc le ioe of that Bt or saoh por- m between the red to, would nrateis arising the rain fall, equently form all tending to usage, which, in most oases, would be along the course of the old valley. Erosion and tbu 61Iing up of these lake expansions with snnd, gravel, etc., would then oommenco, every tributary as well as the main rivur carrying down its contribution of detrlluH, which, vberever the lake ex- pansion was of any considerable size, would have time to subside before reach ing the next point of outflow. Delta formations would thus be deposited in these lakes and gradually the smaller and narrower ones would become filled towards the centre, except the passage or channel through them occupied by the river. As the embankmenti) of till across the valley hold in these lakes became eroded and the river channel deepened through them these partially-flllea lake basins would become drained, tho lakes themselves obliterated and terrace after terrace appear along the sides of the val- ley, where it had been occupied by them. Finally, the present equilibriun between Ereoipitation, evaporation and drainage y the rivers would be reached, and the water courses confined to a comparatively narrow part of valley as wo now find them. Erosion and the deepening of river channels i& still going on, however, coincident with a general seaward move- ment of the materials of their valleys. Portions left standing, or escaping ero- sion form islandi>, which, under certain oondiiions, are enlarged by periodical increments. The oldest, or first formed islands, are now, in many instances, the kames of river valleys. The loam which covers these terraces to various depths, and in a few oases forms intercalated beds, appears to con- sist chiefly of the fine material carried down by freshets, which have settled in the quieter portions of the flooded val- leys. It has usually an nnstratifled ap- pearance, except, perhaps, in the bottom of the thickest deposits. The mode of its deposition and the disturbance it re- ceived aftor sedimentation, from rain, winds, frost, snow and subsequent fresh- ets, as well as from the roots and stems of plants, have destroyed the traces of stratification which might have existed from the annual increments of material. That the process of forming these de- posits has been a slow one seems certain. Beds analogous to them are being de- posited in river valleys at the present day. None of the New Brunswick rivers have succeeded, since the glacial epoch, in eroding the drift from their old valleys down to tne ilolid rocks. But, although tbere would seem, on the contrary, to be an accumulation of material in many parts of the river channels, owing to de creased speed in the currents locally, yet the deepening of these channels is a secular process slowly but surely going- on. Marine terraces in New Brunswick have not been found higher than 180 to 200 feet above sea level. They occur usually two or three together and occu- py considerable areas in some places. Around Bathurst harbor they cover an extent of about 26 square miles, stretch- ing along the coast line 7 or 8 miles. These terraces are not flat on the sum- mit, except locally, but have a slight slope seaward wit]' low undulations, re- presenting ancient beaches, parallel to the coast line. They consist of beds of sand and gravel on top. with clay under- neath, frequently holding shells of the testaceous animHls which inhabited the shallow seasot that day. Those deposits are called Saxicava sand and Leda clay from the presence of two of the most abundant shells met with in similar beds in the St. Lawrence valley. The fauna indicates a colder climate, or at any rate, colder seas than obtain on the New Brunswick coasts of the present day. There is a marked distinction, there- fore, between river and marine terraces, which is well to bear in mind, as those of the former kind are often supposed to have been formed similarly to the latter. But the river terraces bear no relation to the height of the sea; for, during the period of their formation, they were, as now, beyond its reach. They rise in suc- cessive steps, longitudinally, as well as at right angles to the river's course, it is true; bat their general height relative thereto, is nearly the same throughout, whatever slope the river channel may have, while the marine ter- races have always a horizontal attitude lengthwise. During the past summer a large number of facts concerning river and marine terraces were obtained in the drainage basin of the Bale des Chaleurs, fully confirming the above views. These are a few of the considerations which have presented themselves to a student of nature from an examination of these interesting features of our surface geology. In conclusion, I desire to ex- gress regret that the necessity of being riof precludes my bringing forward a larger array of facts in support of the views advanced ; but I hope my statement is sufficiently explicit to be readily un- derstood by those interested in the sub- eot