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Mom Streel S'.S Rochester, Ne* York 14609 USA -^ ("6) 482 - 0300 - Phone ^= ('16) 288 - 5989 - Fqk CONSTRUCTIVE BIBLE STUDIES BDITBD EY ERNEST D. BURTON .-:L:X: CHRISTIANITY AND ITS BIBLE HENRY F. WARING L: : ' CHRISTIANITY AND ITS BIB..E A TEXTBOOK AND FOR PRIVATE READING BY HENRY P. WARING H CONSTRUCTIVE BI ,E STUDli.. ADVANCED ANL. SUPI\.^MENTAB'. SKRIr CHICAGO THE UNIVERSITY OP CHICAGO P LONDON T. FISHER UNWIN. 1 ADELPHI TERRA 1907 COPYRIOHT 1907 HY Thk UNivEi. tty or Ciiicaoo Publishod April 1907 Second Impreesion May 1907 Composed and Printed By The University of Chicago Frew Chicago, lllinoii, V. S. A. PREFACE This book on Christianity and Its Bible has been written for the congregation. For years I have had a deepening conviction that we needed a survey of the whole religious field in a small, readable, trust- worthy book that could be owned and used in practi- cally every home— a book that would be interesting to all and, at the same time, one that would richly repay careful study. The benefits of such a work are evident. The naturally studious would be helped in their further study of any or all the subjects of which it treats; others would be incited to further study of religious themes; and all would be put into a much better position for being benefited by their ordinary religious hearing and reading. Such a work would give a foundation on which to build a symmetrical structure of religious knowledge; or, changing the figure, it would give pigeonholes in which to put the valuable results of all future hearing, reading, and study concerning religious themes. The mastery of it at the beginning of a theological course would make the whole course easier and more profitable. In the preparation ot this book the purpose has been to help meet the need presented in the last chapter —the chapter concerning "clear-eyed middle-men ix * Preface between the specialists and the ordinary readers." In fact, the last chapter, in some respects, would have made a fitting introduction to the book, an important part of the purpose of which is not only to relieve doubt, but to prevent it. The endeavor has been to produce a book that every intelligent pastor would be pleased to see in e\ ery home of his congregation, and to have as a basis of study in the Sunday school or in some other department of his church work. // is a book for sahbath- school super- intendents, teachers and older classes, for Young Men's Christian Associations and such societies, and for thoughtjul readers generally. As Parts II and III are more factual than the others, it may be better 'or some, in going through the book for the first time, to pass directly from the end of the first part to the beginning of the fourth. The book as it stands is intended to give to thought- ful readers, whether in classes or not, a naturally arranged and helpful survey of the whole religious field. Classes using it as a basis of study may cover the ground in one, two, or three courses. If the book be taken in two courses, it is suggested that the first course be Part I, chapters vi, viii, and ix of Part II, and all of Part IV. This would make the second course mainly historical. If the book be covered by three courses, it is suggested that Parts I and IV be the first. Part II the second, and Part III the Preface XI third. The average length of the lesson would be determined by the number of lessons in the course. It is expected that the Analytical Table of Contents and the Index will be used both as aids in the study and as tests of its thoroughness. While a few other books are named, especially for the help of lay teachers, the one book of reference, the constant use of which is strongly urged upon all, is the one acces- sible to all— the Bible. Bible references, questions, and suggestions are given for each chapter. That these helps for study may not make the book less attractive for general reading, they are put into the Appendix. I wish to express grateful appreciation of valuable suggestions received from Professor E. D. Burton and his colleagues. Recognizing more than ever that to understand any one department of religious knowledge it is necessary to become acquainted with the others, and so, feeling more deeply than ever the need of the laying, by modern mediators, of broad foundations for religious thinking by the congregation, my prayer, in sending out this book into the world, is that it will help meet this need. H. F. W. Halifax, Nova Scotia 1907 ilAMlBw>_».iE;;ik-»c? .A ^^kiL^^Jr m ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS [The references are to paragraphs, not pages] PART I. INTRODUCTORY Chapter I. Religious Life and Literature /-//, Re- ^lous Lije. i, Religion difficult to define. 2, A kind of life. 3, True nature seen in growth. 4, Soul and sin. S, Sense of sin. 6, Man religious animal. 7, Communion and union with God. 8, Religion mysterious but real. 9, Religion and doctrinj. 10, Children of God. 11, Christian rel'gion. 12-19, Religious Literature. 12, What it is. 13, Of b. c— Assyria, Egypt, China, India, Persia, Europe. 14, Of /. D.— Judaism, Mohammedanism, Shir.toism, Eddas. 13, Specially Sacr 'd writings. 16, Of Hebrews, Jews, and eariy Christians. 17, Compared with religious life. 18, Bible con.par-.-d with other Specially Sacred writings. 10, Its influence — why ? Chapter II. Interpretation and Inspiration ■5, Misinterpretation and Its Remedy. 20, Through failure to consider times, etc. 21, Figurative language literally. 22, Literal language fguratively. 23, Text taken from context. 24, Inaccurate stress on separate words, j^, Evils and remedy. 26-37, Inerrancy a- ' Inspirafion. 26, Inerrancy. 27, Iner- rancy and insp' .1. 28, Ir Juctive and traditional views. 29, Dr. Sanda} ,. 30, Claims in Bible. 31, Are they 20 3,3. Georgp Fox inerrant? ^2, Similar claims elsewhere, and Paul. 34, Sensible judgment of claims. 35, Inspira tion in other Specially Sacred writings. 36, The canon 37, What the assumption of inerrancy imniies, xiii :-i^ XIV Contents Chapter III. Truest Bible Study 38, Introi! tory. 38, Three stcjjs and three prerequisites. 39-42, Contmon-Sense. 30, Its worth. 40. In interf -?tation. 41, Of liiblf as small library. 42, Uses dil'ferent transla- tions. 43-46, Result!: oj Scholarship. 43, Fat ts— archaeology. 44, Man cripts. 45, Chronology. 46, Wisdom and learning. 47-5''>< Spirit tuil In: 'ht. 47, Truihs. 48, Mysticism and the Bible. 49, Inspired common-sense. 50, .\nd scholarship. P.\RT II. THE BIBLE AND ITS TIMES Chapter IV. Oeography and COx\tempop-aneous History 51-54, Geography. 51, Three river territories. 52, Relation be- tween them. 53, From Persian Gulf around to F:gypt. 54, Palestine. 55-<52, Semitic History. 55, .Aryan-speaking and Semitic peoples 56, What were the Egyptians? 57, Babylonian, Assyrian, and Chaldean periods. 58, Babylonian. 59, Assyrian. 60, Chaldean or New Babylonian. 61, .\ftcr Chaldean period. 62, Other Semites. 63-65, Egyptian History. 63, Periods of. 64, Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. 65, Later history. Chapter V. History of Hebrews, Jews, and Early Christians 66, Introductory. 66, Two divisions. 67-jo, Before 586 B. C. 67, Before the division of the kingdom. 6.", The two kingdoms. 69, Fall of the northern. 7,, Fall of southern. 7i-79< After 586 B. C. 71, Persian period. 72, Greek period. 73, Maccabean period. 74, Roman period. 75, Jesus born B. c. 76, Herod family. 77, Roman Empire. 78, Jewish sects. 79, In temple and synagogue. Chapter VI. Literature of Hebrews, Jews, and Early Christians 8o-8g, Chronology. 80, Three dates— 722, 621, 586 b. C. 81, Before and after 586. 82 The same. 83,' Writings of Conlents XV Mosrs, David, and Solomon. 84, J, E, I), and P in first six books. 85, New Testament epistles. 86, The gospels. 87, DitTcrence between Old Testa-ient and New Testament. 88, Non-biolical literature. 89, Largely rharisair. gn-gS, Literary Forms, qo, Poetry: its extent. 91, Its paral- lelism. 92, Its kinds. 9^, Wisdom literature. 94, Proph- ecy and history. 95, Their authority. 96, History and law. 97, Gospels and ei)istlcs. 98, .■\poralyptic literature. Chapter VII. Anrs, Scienck, and Philosophy 00-104, Arts. 99, Egypt, .Assyria, and Phoenicia. 100, Fhe tcnple: its difTercnt parts. loi, Its size and contents. IC2, Temple, taberr <\c, and .synagogue. 103, Greek art. 104, .Ancient mu 105-106, Science. 105, Creation, flood, etc. 106, Earth flat, , 'c. 10/-11J, Philosophy. 107, Nature and periods. 108, Before Socrates. 109, Socrates and Plato— the logos, no, Plato- nism and Ari.stotelianism. in, .After Aristotle— the logos. 1 1 2, Greek philosophy preparing for Christ. 113, Difference from Christianity. Chapter VIII. DEVEtoP.ME.vT of Beliefs in Bible Times I14-I16, Monotheism and Individualism. 114, Great develop- ment. 115, Monolatry. 116, Individualism. IJ7-I2I, The Hereafter. 117, People's belief in Sheol. 118, Poetic hints and hopes. 119, Pro) Vts and resurrection! 120, Views in non-biblical writings, iit, Jesus and the hereafter. I22-I.r"^, Kingdom oj God and Millennium. 122, Kingdom of God. 123, And millennium. 124, Rev. 20:4-6. 125, Dogma- tism on these things. r 26-128, Satan. 126, Mainly in New Testament. 127, How in Old Testament. 128, How in New Testament. Chapter IX. Jesus as the Christ 129-133, Messianic Hopes. 129, Development of idea. 1^0, Two conceptions, of. 13,, Suffering Messiah. 132, Stum- bling-block and foolishness. 133, Early Christians and ^^^^^^^^^^^^^fT -i&. XVI Contents '34~l.3^' HV/n/ Jraiis Thought of Ifintself. 1^4, A> the Loros or Word. 1^5, As the Sun of David. 1^6, As thi- Son of man. 137, As the Son of (lod. 138, As the sutTering Messiah. I '^0-140, Jrsii^ as Goal oj Old Testiimenl Hopes. i,v). Jesus and Old Testament print iples. 140, Reigning or suiTering. PART III. CHRISTIANITY SINCE BIBLE TIMES CHAPTKR X. ir -r-WAY TO 1517 A. D. /.//-/.;,/, A Packgrnund oj (irnrrul History. 141, Topics of first period. 142, Roman Empire and its division. 143, The Aryans who took Rome. 144, Mohammedan con- (juests. 145-151, Fathers, Pagan Leaders, and Persecutions. 145, Ante- nicene Eathers. 146, Post-nicenc Fathers. 147, Three pagan leaders: .\pollonius. 148, Celsus. i i), Porphyry and Neoplatonism. 150, Persecutions until Nero's death. 151, After Nero. 152-157, Heresies, Creeds, and Papacy. 152, Early heresies and schisms. 153, Later heresies: concerning the Trinity. .'54, Concerning the natures of Christ. 155, Concerning salva- tion. 156, Four great creeds. 157, Growth of papal power. Chapter XI. To 15 17 15S, 15Q, Introductory. 158, Topics of second period. 159, Be- ginning of some modern nations. 160-166, Civil and Religious Conflicts. 160, Popes and civil rulers. 161, Division into Eastern and Western churches. 162, The real cause. 16,^, Feudalism. 164, Serfs and knights. 165, The Crusades. 166, Their results. l6y-iyj, Theology, Culture, and Reform. 167, Monasticism and schools. 168, The Schoolmen. 160, Seven sacraments — ordination, supper (mass). 170, Marriage, baptism, con- firmation, penance, and extreme unction. 171, Purgatory and indulgences. 172, Renaissance. 173, Reformers be- fore the Reformation. Conunts XVII Chaptkr XII. Since 15 17 ^74'J77> I-uther and Lulhrrniii.vn. 17.4, Topics of third pen I. 175, Luther. i7f), .And MchirK htun, Era.smus, and Zwin^li. 177, Luthcranism, 178-181, Calvinism on the Continent. 17R, In Switzerland. 170, In P>an(o— Huguenots and Caiholirs. 180, Chureh and state in Frame. 181, Holland and Belgium. 1S2-IQI, England and Scotland. 182, The Church of Kngland. 18,^, Puritans, Independents, etc. 184, King Jaire.;' Ver- sion and Westminster Confession. 185, Cromwell, Miifon, Bunyan, and Revolution of 1688. 186, Methodism, Salva- tion Army, and Y. M. C. A. 187, Tractarians and ritu- alism. 1S8, IVonconformity today. 189, .Scotland Prote.s- tant rather than Catholic, igo, Presbyterian rather than Epi.scopal. iQi, Divi.'-ions and unions within Presbytcri- anism. Chapter .Mil. Since 1517— Continued iQ2-i()Q, United States 0} America. 102, Pilgrim Fathers, two great wars. it)_^, A time of state churches and persecution. 104, Jonathan Edwards and new theo'ogy. 195, Andover theology, Horace Bushnell. ig6, 'the Disciples. 197, Mor- monism. 198, Plymouth Brethren and .\dventists. 199, Christian Science. 200-203, Jesuits and Catholic Doctrine. 200, Jesuits— their mis- .sions. 201, And methods. 202, Jansenists, Ultramontan- ism. 203. Papal infallibility, immaculate conception, and Mariolatry. 204-207, Creeds, Sunday Schools, and Temperance. 204, Creeds and catechisms of Eastern and Roman Catholic churches. 205, Of Protestantism. 206, Beginnings and leaders of Sunday-school work. 207, History of temperance move- ment. CHArxEE XIV. Christian Missions 208-211, Oj First Period. 208, Until the Council of Nicaea. 209, In the East. 210, Ulfilas and St. Patrick. 211, Co- lumha, Augustine, and Bfsnif.ire XVllI Conlenis 212-21], Of Second ' r'tod. ?i2, Tii St andinavi.tns and Slavs. 213, Missions rr rship of Roman church. 267, Roman attiturk to. 26S, Paul'.s position in view of it. 261;, Attitude to (■hi..,tiani y today. 370, The litotes for today? 271, In .!<•»• of indifference. 272, Picture of true Christian today. 27^-282, The Christian's Position De/endcd. 27 ^ The defense. 274, The KosFwl- 275, It.s salvation. 276, Through faith. 277, Wlioj^H'ver will. 278, It is God's [xiwer. 270, The marvelous |X)wer of love. 280, God's power through man. 281, The worth of exiierience. 282, The Beautiful Life. Chapter XVTIl. The Death of Jesus 2S3-2S6, Concirning Atonement Theories. 28,5, Purpose of chap- ter. 284, Theories in light of Bible. 285, Of church his- tory. 286, Of analogy. 287-2SQ, Figurative References. 287, The blood, propitiation. 288, Figure of sacrifices. 289, Cross not mere fire-escape. 2()(-2Q2, Death Seen from His Life. 290, Need of this vision. 291. How obtained. 292, The result. ^93-290, Revelations at the Cross. 29,^, Of awfulness of sin. 294, Of inefTable love. 295, "Human life of God." 296, Is God like Christ ? 297-300, Life in View 0/ Cross. 297, In fighting sin. 298, In manifesting true love. 299, Finding God through Jesus. 300, "Make Jesus king." Chapter XIX. The Fatherhood of God 3oi-3nj, Introductory. 301, Development of idea. 302, What Jesus did for. ,^03, Controversies due to difTercnt use of terms. JO./, Real Fatherhood. 304, Distinguished from figurative. 3'^5-3f>7, Figure as Used 0} God. 305, A metaphor. 306, Is God male ? 307, A rich figure. 3o8-2i)Q, Elasticity oj Figure. 308, Great variety of meanings. 309, Some more fitting than others. 3'0-3i3, Care in Making Meaning Plain. 310, "Father" relative term. 311, In Scripture. 312, Trinity. 313, F^xperience. XX C 'utile II Is ChAPTKR \\. TlIK MtRKAFTFR .V-1-3-'< C lilting and I'l'lishin/; ,i Dinmund Principlf. ^14. The abidinpt jtriiK iplc. ^15, llcztkiah and I';ml. ,^i6, Cause for (lilTcrcni <■. ^17, Urinhtrsi luvK f.ir Paul. ,?iS, Jesus lives. ,^i<), No (iiiails. 320, F.sscn(c of hravcn and hi-li. ,Vi. Fi'llowship with the I-athcr. 322-^2H, Hfll. S,il,in, iiiid Ihr Lir/^'-r Hop'. ^22, V/ortls fni hi-ll. 32 i HI to8, The lar^e and larger hope. CHAPTKK X\I. TlIK rilRISTIAN LlFK. T()I>AY 329-332, Its Pou'fr. _^2o, f)f purity. ,^30, (^f ju.stic e and mercy. ,^,V. Of l'>ve. 7,1,1, Of Christtikeness. 333-3-f'- Jt^ Problems. 3^,^, The problem— selfishness. 334, Not overcome by culture and laws. 335, But by Christ- likenes.s. 336, By the gospel. 337, Lirjuor trafl'ic. 338, Hearty co-operation needed against. 330, Boy problem, etc. 340, Spoils, graft, and labor problem. 341, Union in home and churih, the spirit of inquiry. 3-42-344, Its Prospects. 342, Selfishness in the church. 343, Christian life and antinomianism. 344, Need of living the cross. Chapter XXII. Mr.niT.xTiov 345-.347' Right Idea Oj. 345, Need of. 346, Not reverie. 347, Not study, contemplation, etc. 34S-354, R'*lf^ to Be Ohservea. 348, Sini/lc themes. 349, For energy is limited. 350, Practical themes. 351, Best times. 352, In solitude. 353, Much time. 354, Meet God. 355-362, Rfsu/s to Be Obtained. 355, F:nriches Bible. 356, Goes thi )Ufii it slowly. 357, Helps prayer. 358, Makes fo- flir:-,tlikr love for others. 3=:9, For friendship that fel- lowship.* .-,60, F'or missions and revivals. 361, For happi- ness. 3(12, Ineffable joy. Ca.*?TER XXIII. MlDnLE,MEN jrtj-3(5^, The Need oj Middlemen. 363, Troubled waters that divide. 364, Specialists and ordinary readers. Cott tents XX { 0f-?^?, Thf Stidiilrmiin Serdfd. ?fi5, Kninvi sprc i.ili>is nnd rrarlirs. ^fiA, His alliluilc. ^67, Not .i "rrtail talki-r." ,?6H, llis inctli'id. .^^V-374- Hi' MediiUi. . \(m), For safi-ty of < hur. h. ^70, To show steps ihrouRh slouch of (!.)uht. ^71, To Iraii to hiinhls of faith ^7^, Wor-l to hiRtit <>n roniparativr ri'li- Rion. .^7,?, Anrl higher .riiidsm. _}74, Hi, word to skrp- tirs. 37S~37^> lli^ ^ti-dil,ilion. ?75, Maki-s iiu-ssascs int;-,fslii)ir. ,^76, Atid nourishing. PART T INTRODUCTORY ■A. CHAPTER I RELIGIOUS LIFE AND LITERATURE RELIGIOUS LIFE 1. Purl I is introductory. It aims to get a true method of Bible study. It is to reach this that it first considers the Bible as religious literature, and then faces the questions of inerrancy and inspiration as they atTect interpretation. It begins by asking: What is religion? How commonly we use terms it would puzzle us to explain ! How much easier to describe than to define ! How much easier, for in- stance, to watch and to write about the working of electricity than to tell just what electricity is ! How- much easier to describe the effects of religion than to define it! 2. Many and varied are the attempts at definition. Let us notice two: "the life of God in the soul of man;" "the life of man in his superhuman rela- tions." Both of these use the word "life." Reli- gion 's not worship of God, nor work for God, nor faith in God, nor love to God; for none of these is large enough to include it. It, however, may in- clude all of them. The only word that includes it is the word "life." Religion is a life— a kind of life; for though we should be able to get to the very heart of the mystery of life and should find that there 3 ^ m^'^^tm 'w ^'m£i-.jtm^ Clirislianiiv and Its Bible all life is the same, yet, in view of its different mani- festations, we may legitimately speak of its dilTerent kinds. 3. How are we going to find out just what this religious life is ? The true nature of religion as a kind of life, uke the true nature of any living thing, is shown as it grows. It is important to keep this in mind. Failing to see this, some have argued from the morbidness of religions in their earliest histories that religion after all is but a morbid disease— some- thing t( '^e outgrown. To them theology, as the science of religion, is a part of pathology— the science of morbid conditions. Instead, it is a part of biol- ogy — the science of life. It is uoi a disease to be outgrown; so far, at least, man seems to be "incur- ably religious." It is rather a life that has grown; and we are to look for its true nature, not simply in its beginnings, but also and mainly in its growth. 4. What, then, is the true nature of religion ? The one word that includes it is too large to be satis- factory. There is "life" in plants and in animals; but we do not, save in poetry, speak of them as reli- gious. The distinctive principle of the religious life is to be found in that which distinguishes man from these. It is to be found in that which we commonly call his soul. Because of this, man is the religious animal in whose nature there is that which is higher and that which is lower. According as he is able to distinguish between them, and has the power to m;. Kcligious Lije and Literature 5 subordinate the lower to the higher, the failure to do so is sin. As the religious animal, therefore, man is capable of sin. 5. The study of the history of religion shows that, when man thought his union with God was akin to his physical blood-bond with the other animals, his moral sense was weak. As he distinguished him- self from the other animals and felt that he was united to God in a higher way than with them, he felt, in varying degrees, a sense of sin. This in Paul's writings found strong expression; for instance, in the sixth, seventh, and eighth chapters of Romans. These are some of his words: I delight in the law of God after the inward man; but I see a different law in my members, warring against the law of my mind, and bringing mc into captivity under the law of sin which is in my members. Wretched man that I am ! who shall deliver me out of the body of this death ? 6. In spite of, or even because of, that which we call his soul, man, as the religious animal, may, in a certain sense, go lower than the other animals. There is truth as well as wit in the words of her who said: "The more I see of men, the better I like dogs." Ernest Thompson Seton leaves upon us a very favorable impression concerning Krag, the \ootenay ram, as compared with Scotty, the hunter who murdered him. On the other hand, because he has a soul, or rather because he is a soul that has a .H>dy what p-ossibilitier, man has in fioing abrvc 6 Christianity and Its Bible the other animals! Though, as an animal, he is limited by the body, as the religious animal man's life is almost unlimited. Like the philosopher's garden, though short and narrow, it is high. As the carbon, though black, becomes luminous with the current of electricity, so he, though of the earth earthy, may be illumined with the living light of heaven. 7. By virtue of his religious life, man has a sense of communion and union with God. The more of this life he has, the sweeter the communion and the closer the union. Spirit with Spirit can meet; Closer is He than breathing, and nearer than hands and feet. We should remember, however, that our relation- ship with God is unpicturable. When we say "ne?r God," "in God," "from God," "to God," the ex- pressions are not to be taken as having spatial meaning, but rather as the inadequate efforts of the human mind and tongue to express transcendent realities. And the ears of man cannot hear and the eyes of man can- not see; But if we could sec and hear, this Vision — were it not He ? Though "now we see in a mirror darkly," Is not the Vision He? though He be not that which He scc'ms? Dreams are true while they last, and do we not live in Religious Lije and Literature 7 Ere the dawn of the eternal day in which we hope "to see Him even as He is, " to us, in this dreamland of time, the very essence of religion is, and in truth too, "practicing the presence of God," in whom "we live and move and have our being." 8. Though a mystery, the religious life is a real- ity. All life is hidden. Nature awakes from her winter's sleep to clothe herself in a garb of wondrous hues. The loving glances of the sun, and heavenly words of raindrops from the clouds, and sweetest words of dewdrops on the earth have wooed the buds to open up their hearts in floral messages of love; and the flowers fill the eye with their beauty and make the air heavy with the fragrance of their sweetest incense. We ask our friend the botanist: " What is the explanation of this wondrous change ? " and he quickly answers: "Life." We ask him: "What is life?" and he is dumb, or his words are unintelligible to us. But the zephyrs, stealing over the fresh green grass and kissing the flowers on the way, whisper: "It is hidden; it is hidden." We go to the woods, and we are thrilled by that song which a poetic Canadian has patriotically worded thus: "O dear Canada, Canada, Canada!" Who is the songster? Our friend the naturalist, who knows the sights and sounds and ways of the woods, takes us to a distant tree and shows us a shy little sparrow. We ask: "How is it possible for that little white throat to pour forth such a sea of melody upon some ^■'^t 8 Christianity) and Its Bible waves of which our souls arc lloating with delight ?" When he too ans^vers that it is due to life, we ask him: "What is life?" There is no reply. The silence is broken as the white-throated sparrow, lifting its head toward heaven, sings: "It is hid in God, hid in God, hid in God. " Hidden, yes, but real. Though the religious life, like all other kinds of life, is mysterious and cannot be defined, it is real. 9. The reality of this life hid in God is the very warp of a rational system of religious truth. This is the truth that is back of the great religious doc- trines. Regeneration means the coming of life from God. Conversion means the corresponding flow to God. Together they mean that there is a great at-one-ment between man and God. Prayer, praise, faith, and love are due to the Godward flow from man. This life in God is beautifully illustrated by such figures as that of the union of the vine and its branches. As there are the currents from the vine to the branches and from the branches to the vine, so there is a commingling of the life-currents of God and man. Wonderful, is it not — the currents of inspiring grace coming to man, and the return cur- rent of worship going to God; the arterial flow of the very heart-life of God, and the veinal flow to be purified with the very breath of God in the atmos- phere of heaven? 10. What a pity that men do not better appreciate the wonderful truth back of this figure of speech! Religious Lije and Lilenitiire The blood circulated in the living body before Har- vey made the great discovery of its circulation. So men may have the religious life even though they do not think of the wonderful circulation of its living currents. As, however, Harvey's discovery made such an advance in the science of health and healing, would i.ot a better recognition of the truth concerning these currents of religious life make for spiritual well-being ? It would help us, not simply to have the religious life, but to have it abundantly. It would inspire us to "seek those things that are above. " It would give us a dignity and holy pride that would keep us from sin. No matter how demo- cratic we may be, we believe in blue blood of the right kind. To learn that the blood of truly great ancestors is in our veins would give us pleasure and make us proud. How much more reason have we for joyous pride in the great truth that, in a way unrecognized before, the currents of a divine life are in us. In distinction from the other animals, wc have not simply life, but Life. We are not simply the offspring of the animal man, but are "children of God." We are not dogs, but gods. 1 1 . There is nothing morbid about this. In seek- ing the nature of religion, not simply in the history of its beginnings, but in its growth, we have come to the joyous truth of the Christian religion. In Jesus the essential germ of all religion found most beauti- ful florescence and choicest fruitage as he "practiced lO Cltrislianity and Its liihlc the presence" of the "Father" 'vith whom he was in h'vinj; oneness. The Fourth Gospel gives as his ])ra\vr for Christians: "I pray that they may all be one; even as thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee, that they also ma • be in us." The religion of a Christian is to be foinrl in that mysterious but real life that is "hid with Christ in God." RELIGIOITS LITERATURE 12. As life religion manifests itself in different ways, written and unwritten. In some religions there never have been written manifestations. In no religion has there ever been more than a small part of its manifestations written (John 21:25): but wherever, and to the extent, they are written, reli- gious literature ';■ the result. In some instances it may I .' diiTicult to tell whether or not a piece of litera- ture is to be classed as religious. In a general way, however, wc may look upon religious literature as that which (whatever else it may contain) gives us in a marked degree manifestations of religious life. As in the case of the Bible, this literature may be of great importance. Compared with the religion it- self, however, even in the case of the Bible it is of secondary importance. 13. It is significant that we find so much religion in all the most ancient literatures. Assyriology tells us of *he religious nature of much of the very early liiviaiun. M :;i\.ii :l net.:; uiOuj^i;i i\j ii^iii. iL ai=\J Religions life and Literature II impresses the lesson upon us by showing (in its IToetic account of creation and flood, its code of laws, and its many penitential psalms) most striking parallels between thai literature and subsequent literature in the Old Testament. F^gyptology tells us of the famous " Book of the Dead, " and of impor- tant religious texts inscribed upon the pyramids thousands of years before Christ. In China we find Confucianism's five important books. These were composed and compiled, mainly at least, by Confu- cius, who lived hundreds of vears before Christ. To China also belongs Taoism's " Book of Doctrine and Virtue," the Tao-ti-king. In India Brahman- ism has its Sruti, or revelation, and its Smruti, or tradition. The Sruti includes the Mantras (four books of Vedic hymns of many authors and ages), the Brahmanas, or comme' taries on these, and the still later Upanishads, oi philosophical treatises. The Smruti includes the Laws of Menu, or Indian Pentateuch, the Puranas, or legends, and two popu- lar epics, one of which presents the avatar (incarna- tion) of Vishnu, the popular second person of the Hindu triad; the first is Brahma, and the third Siva. Though now much more potent in more eastern Asia, Buddhism originated in India. Its Tripitaka ("three baskets") date back centuries before Christ. In the third and best part arc the impressive and popular Dhammapada, which must take a high place in reli- gious literature. In Persia originated Zoroastrianism's •■> CItrislianily and lis Hihle Zend-Avesta, in which Avesta is the text anrl Zend the inspired lommentary. In Kurope relij^ion per- vaded the i)ri' Christian writings of Greeks and Romans, though they have left no sueh sacred col- lection as we find in what are called the sacred lKK)ks of the East. 14. We pass to the religious literatures since the birth of Christ. Christianity has had an increas- ingly large religious literature. Of this the New Testament, though very important, is, after all, but a very small part. The Old Testament, it should be remembered, was adopted from Judaism, of the literature of which it forms but a small |)art. The Apocrypha and other pre-Christian writings of Ju- daism will be referred to again. First among its writers in Christian times we must place the dis- tini'uished {)hilosopher Philo, in whose lifetime Jesus was both born and buried. A ivw ;,ears after J.siis was buried, Josephus, the eminent Jewish historian, was born. He wrote of the antiquities and wars of the Jews. An important place in Jewish literature is taken by the Mishna, or "repetition," supposed to have come down orally from the time of Moses — the tradition of the elders. The Gemaras are its two expositions— one of Jerusalem and the other of Baby- lon. These, printed with the Mishna, give us the two Talmuds — the Palestinian and the Babylonian. Besides these there are targums or translations of the Oifi Te'^-tnmf'nt midrp.sliim. or rommentariefi. and ■!';.'*«#*gr— ^' - Religious Lije and Literature u & i I many other prmluctions of the rabbis throuj^hout the Christian icnturifs. It was in these centuries that Mohammedanism arose. In this the Koran — i. e., "readin};" (or better Alcoran, i. e., "the reafl- in^'"j - take, a very important place. This Mo- hammedan Bible consists of the scattered writir^s of Mohammed that have been put together, but not in the order in which they were written. In Japan Shintoism, now scarcely called a religion, is to be studied from the Kojiki (record of antiquities), Ni- hongi (chronicles of Japan), etc. — all written during the Christian era. From northern Europe comes a collection of alliterative, mythological poems, called the Elder Edda, and its prose commentary, called till Younger Edda — an Icelandic word for "grcat- gr.mdmother." Collection and commentary .tc commonly referred to as the Eddas. 15. We have seen that, as Christianity has its literature, so other religions have theirs. We note, next, that in each of a number of these difTerent reli- gious literatures there have been some writings that by the adherents of their religion have been com- monly viewed (i) as having special influence with deity; or (2) as having been specially influenced by deity in their production — i. e., of having been inspired; or (3) in both these ways. As Brahman- ism has its Sruti, Buddhism its Tripitaka, and Mo- hammedanism its Koran, so Christianity has its Bible. If, to distinguish thtm frora all other reli- 14 Christ'uuiily and Its Bible gious or even sacred literature, \vc should call such writings "Specially Sacred," the Bible m^ 1:" de- fined as the "Specially Sacred" writir. ,. of Chiie:- tianity. i6. Specially Sacred writings may b* ' I ook as in Mohammedanism, or, as in Brahmanism, it may be a collection of the writings of many in many difTercnt times. The Bible belongs to the latter class. The Greek title from which comes the very word "Bible" was used in the plural and meant "books." Later, through a meaningful grammati- cal blunder, the Latin word for it was used in the singular and meant "book." Suggested by this mistake is the important truth that th( re is a remark- able unity in the Bible. In gladly recognizing this, we need strongly to emphasize what was implied by the early Greek title — namely, that the Bible should be viewed, not simply as a book, but as a literature. It contains writings that, from many ages and from many difTerent places and circumstances, come to us as the works of many minds. Much of it has come down to us as the work of compilers as well as of composers, of editors as well as of authors. There is considerable dilTercnce of opinion concerning the dates of the origin of its different parts. Some of it was written before the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B. c. If we think of that date as that on which the history of the Hebrew nation closed and that of the Jewish people began, we must look upon the Religious Lijc and Literature IS Bible as the expression of the religious life of He brews, Jews, and early Christians. 17. Though the New Testament as the expression of the early Christians is commonly valued more highly than the much larger Old Testament of He- brews and Jews, what indications are there that, in founding the Christian religion, Jesus ever thought that through him a New Testament would be added to the Specially Sacred writings of his followers ? Brooding over such a question impresses us with the thought that, after all, even the highest Specially Sacred writings are only of secondary importance as comi)ared with the religious life itself. 18. How does the Bible compare with other Spe- cially Sacred writings? Morally and religiously it is much superior. It "finds" us as they do not. The more we compare the religious conceptions re- vealed in it and in them, the more do we appreciate its progressive revelation. Appreciation of this helps to a right understanding of both the difficuties and the truths of the Bible. For the sake of right method Christians should be willing, and in profound confi- df.:ice in the result they may well be eager, to have the Bible intelligently compared, for instance, with Sruti, Tripitaka, or Koran. When thus compared, especially because of its revelation in and through Jesus, it will be found to be beyond comparison. 19. Impicssive as coming from a liberal thinker are the words of Theodore Parker: 7^- i6 Christianity and Its J '>!e This collection of books has taken such a hold on the world as has no other. The literature of Greece which goes up like incense fron-. ihe land of temples and heroic dec '« has not half the influence of this Iwok It goes equawy to the cottage of the plain man and the palace of the king. It is woven into the literature of the scholar and colors the talk of the street. Why ? How great its power in both obtaining and retaining liberty! "The best of all allies that yo can procure for us," said Garibaldi "is the Bible; that will bring us the reality of freedom." Why? To another great soldier, General Grant, it was "the sheet anchor of our liberties." Why? How it has made the prison walls to resound with praise to God, and even the fiery tongues of martyrdom to tell of God's love! How through it our fathers and mothers have been strengthened for their work, cheered in their sorrows, filled wit!' unfathomable peace, lifted at times to the ecstatic summits of the mountains of heavenly joy, given grace in passing through the valley of the shadow of death; and at last, pillowing their heads upon its promises, with what calm trust they fell asleep ! Why ? Handel, in his production of the Messiah as obtained from the study of the Scriptures, said of himself: "I did think I did see all heaven before me and the great God himself. " So men throughout the ages, through the study of the Bible, that they might give to the world the inspiring music of a Christlike life, have beheld heavenly things and have felt the presence, and been thrilled by the love, the very life, of God. "I- \t. £ CHAPTER II IXTERl'RETATION AND IXSPIRATION MISINTERPRETATION AND ITS REMEDY 2C. Because of the greatness of the Bible, great care needs to be exercised in its interpretation. In this chapter, as we seek a remedy for the evils of misinterpretation, we shall be brought face to face with the questions of inerrancy and inspiration, and shall seek to face them honestly. Misinter- pretations of the Bible have been common, and some of them have been costly. Many of them have been due to the failure to consider the times and circumstances in which the writings originated. With liitle or no regard to the fact that ideas and the meanings of terms change through the centu- ries, the terms of the early writings have been given the meanings they had in the later writings of the Bible, and even in writings down to the present time. In the study of the Old Testament the dis- tinction between "religious" and "Christian" has been frequently ignored. Later ideas of the future and of God's nature have been carried back into earlier times and terms. Because the Bible is now frequently called the "Word of God," that and similar expressions are often treated as if they re- ferred to the Bible as a whole. 17 ^.■•U' i8 Christianity and Its Bible 21. A second class of misinterpretations is made by taking figurative language literally. While it differs from the other productions of the East, the Bible nevertheless abounds in oriental imagery which, if taken literally, leads into untold absurd- ities. You can drive any place you please, if you can make the figures of the Bible go on all fours. Numerous instances might be cited of the misinter- pretations of the parables. The imagery of Revela- tion is a stumbling-block to many. A cowboy preacher, who had been figuring on the dimensions of the New Jerusalem, in an eloquent sermon or^ heaven gave us some idea of how much room there would be per saint. It reminded us of the (juestion about the size of Noah's ark and the room per animal. 22. A third class of misinterpretations is due to taking literal language figuratively. It seems to have been hard for many to understi.nd that much of the Bible was local and temporary, and therefore has no special application to the very different life of later times. This has led to much spiritualizing of the narratives. That the lameness of Mephibosheth was to suggest, not simply depravity, but total de- pravity because he "was lame in both his feet," is but an extreme illustration of a tendency still too common. 23. A fourth class, and one of the largest, of mis- interpretations is due to the separation of the text --* ■ ,,.^J, r •>.»- V:%^'JjW^^^ Interpretation and Inspiration 19 from the context. If this method be permitted, there may be brought in proof of almost any absurd teaching iniaginable a large collectior of what Shake- speare calls "odd old ends stolen forth ox holy writ." With his Bassanio we ask: In religion Wliat damned error but some sober brow Will bless it and approve it with a text ? Hiding its grossncss with fair ornament ? How often "A little child shall lead them" (Isa. 11:6) is used with no thought of its context. Many other instances might be cited. Dean Stanley's story in his Eastern Church seems to cap the climax. Peter the Great, in introducing tobacco to Russia, asked if his tobacco-smoking was worse than her brandy-drinking. "Yes," was the deliberate re- ply; "for not that which goeth into a man, but thai which goeth out of a man, defileth him" (Matt., chap. 15, and Mark, chap. 7). 24. A fifth class of misinterpretations is due to inaccurate stress on separate words. By many minds pictorial words are magnified, while others in the same sentence, though more emphatic, are neglected. Sometimes a separate thought is sug- gested by each of several words, but the one central thought is overlooked. Many overlook the fact that the Bible is a translation, and that without a knowl- edge of the emphasis and choice of words in the original language in which the passage was written ^^mi.iMt^.i^ 20 Christianity and Its Bible it is not wise to attempt to discriminate between slightly different shades of meaning. I have a ser- mon by a somewhat successful evangelist who at- tempted to distinguish between " wash mc throughly " (Ps. 51:2) of the Authorized Version, which he un- questionably preferred, and "wash me thoroughly" of the Revised Version. He used this illustration: "I hand a sealed jar to my servant-girl and tell her to wash it thoroughly. She cleans it on the outside. I unscrew the lid and smell inside. Phew ! Then I tell her to wash it throughly. " 25. Misinterpretations cause much humor, but more harm. Church history from beginning to end is a commentary on Bunyan's doggerel: "By misin- terpreting evil ensues." Among the evil results have been the obscuring of the truth, the teaching of that which was false, the perpetuation of the evils of Bible times, the increase of isms, and the awakening of unnecessary doubts. To avoid these evils it can scarcely be emphasized too strongly that the inter- preter, as an interpreter, should seek first in the light oj their limes, etc., just wha' meanings the different authors intended to convey. INERRANCY AND INSPIRATION 26. In doing this, can it be assumed that these meanings must always be absolutely without mis- take ? In other words, must it be assumed that in all its parts the Bible is inerrant ? No matter what Interpretation and Inspiration 21 the author may seem to have meant, must true inter- preters assume that it could not have been meant if in it there is the slightest mistake? When difii- culties are presented that they cannot meet, have they a right to take refuge in the fact that we have only more or less imperfect copies of the original writings, and to assume that, if we could ^,et back to the originals themselves, w^e should surely r prob- ably find them to be inerrant ? As a matter of fact, is it not true, in a number of passages, that in getting nearer the original writings Christian scholars have found f.ifTiculties that otherwise would not have existed for them ? Apart from this alto- gether, as a matccr of method is it not true that in proportion to the extraordinariness of a claim we look for proof instead of mere assumption ? This claim made for the Bible is so extraordinary that to the logical mind its mere assumption is presumption. Those who simply refrain from asserting that the Bible is inerrant are not called upon to prove that it has mistakes. The burden of proof rests upon those who assert its inerrancy. It is for them to give good reason for their extraordinary assertion. 27. A common thought is that the Bible is iner- rant because it is inspired. Have interpreters, how- ever, a right merely to assume that it is so inspired ? Since "inspiration" is a word of various and varying meanings, to grant that the Bible is inspired is not necessarily to grant that it is inerrant. If the word Ai*!*:'. »-fe'- ::m .^:xmf^^ 33 Christianity and Its Bible "inspired" ever has a meaning when applied to literature, few would deny that the Bible is inspired. The question, then, is not: "Is the Bible inspired ?" but rather: "What is the nature of its inspiration ? " Speaking generally, the inspiration of the Bible is to be felt rather than critically defined. A working definition may sometimes be necessary, however, in order to correct or prevent a view that interferes with the true Bible study. The mere assumption of an inspiration that makes the Bible absolutely incrrant does interfere with this study. Such an assumption should be supplanted by a right view of the Bible's inspiration. 28. How is this to be obtained? Instead of taking a theory and trying to make it fit the Bible, it is better to begin with the study of the Bible itself. For instance, what claims for inspiration does it contain ? It is from such facts that a working defi- nition is to be framed when needed. Dr. A. H. Strong writes: Whatever theury of inspiration we frame should be the result of a strict induction of the Scripture facts, and not an a priori scheme to which Scripture must be conformed. The fault of many past discussions of the subject is the assumption that God must adopt some particular method of inspiration or secure an absolute perfection of detail in matters not essen- tial to the religioas teachings of Scripture. According to the traditional method, what naturally seem?, to be the author's meaninsr must not be Interpretation and Inspiration n accepted as the meaning of the passage unless it be inerrant. According to the inductive method, what naturally seems to be the author's meaning is ac- cepted as the meaning of the passage even though it may not be inerrant. 29. Of the "traditional theory" of inspiration Dr. Sanday writes: It may have Ixx-n lield somewliat vatruely and indefinitely, and those who held it might, if passed upon the subject, have made some concessions which would have involved them in [)erj)lexities It might bo allowed that the true text could not always be discovered, but when once it had Ix^en discovered, it could not be otherwise than infallible The danger of the traditional view is lest inspiration should be tliought of as something dead and mechanical; when it is arrived at inductively, it must needs be conceived as something vital and organic. Of the inductive method and its results he writes: It is no doubt a great inversion of method when the Ixjoks of the two Testaments are interrogated without any assump- tion whatever beyond that of a personal God who might be conceived as capable of putting himself into communication with men On the inductive view, inspiration is not inherent in the Bible as such, but is present in difTerent books and parts of books in different degrees. More particularly on this view — and here is the point of greatest divergence — it belongs to the historical books rather as conveying a religious lesson than as histories, rather as interpreting than narrating plain matter of fact. The crucial issue is that in this last respect they do not seem to be exempted from possibilities of error. 24 Chrhtianity and II-' Bible We should seek by "strict and rif^orous induction" "scientii'ic propositions which alone can be rightly pressed upon the unbeliever, and which alone the believer can take as his foundation" in truest Bible study. We should not endeavor to find that the Biol'e is what we diink it ought to be. In the pres- ence of the God of truth, we should honestly seek to find out just what the Bible is. 30. What does it claim to be ? It never uses such terms as the "Word" and the "Word of God" of all and only itself. It nowhere claims inspiration for itself as a whole. Yet it contains from many different people, for themselves and for others, many different claims of inspiration. In Old Testament narratives Jehovah frequently is represented as speaking to man; for instance, to Moses, Ex. 24: 3, 4. The Old Testament prophets often use such expressions as " Jehovah said. " Among the strong- est statements in the gospels are Matt. 5:17, 18; John 10:35. These, however, are to be read in the light of such passages as Mark 7:15-19; ^I^tt. 8" 1-4; 12:1-12. Important passages in the rest of the New Testament are II Tim. 3:^5. i^; and II Pet. 3:16. 31. Were its thoughts and words inspired accord- ing to the claims for them that it contains ? Here is an instance where even for the average Christian the thought of other religious literature is helpful. ..• f ^i-_ p:v-v. Of- ♦v.p ^T^orifiliv Racr^d writ- ill writing Ul tliC LiSUlC a:: iiiC .-i- '-,- — 1-' - Inlerf>niiilion and Inspirnlim 2 5 in^s of Christianity, we referred to the Si)ecially Sacred writings of other religions. The ordinary Christian can easily be led to sec that in these reli- gions there are writings in and for which claims of inspiration are made smiilar to those made in and for the Hible. He can easily be nadc to see that, though the results of the testing be very different, yet the viclhod of the testing of the claims of all these religions ought in all honesty to be the same. As he ,.tn readily see that the adherents of other religions have no right simply to assume the inerran y of the claims in and for their Specially Sacred writings, he can easily be led to see that he himself has no right merely to assume the inerrancy of the I'lims made in and for the Bible. 32. If, as claimed, Jehovah si)oke to >Toscs in the giving of the Law, how about the similar claims, and concerning somcwha'. similar things, that before the days of Moses were made by the Babylonian King Hammurabi for his famous code discovered in 1901-2? It is suggestive, to say t ■ least, to read that upon the monument upon which tho code was written there is also "" very interesting representa- tion of the king Hammurabi receiving his la\v3 from the seated sun-god Samas, 'the judge of heaven and earth.'" If David was inspired, as we read in I Sam. 23:2, was Mesha, king of the closely related Moabites, also inspired according to his claim? On the famous Moabite stone, discovered in 1868, 26 Chrislianilv ami lis Bible he wrote of his ;;;ocl: "And Chcmosh said to mc: 'Go sci/x Nobo u[)on Israel.' " Large numl)ers be- lieve that as a revelation from Gofl any part of the Bible is above the highest writings of any oth( r liter- atim . Large nunil)ers believe the same of the Koran. Where we have the different niigions making these similar, and sometimes mutual!) ' Ri CO Ul It-acl mt- into the 1 :ilasl Homer is dumb or -m ,ny power to ^nVv t o be l>s Is ii not .ncei\.:ble ' an nor ..en 'ut II .cSS. I in Bibl.: facts, but who is leadings of Got! on tl. ^mH-u ntly sub :t to the .t IS una to enter inio some nf i enter ihc .v.n] glorv . 50. s 'f spir th I n ship. insiizb the -ni dogma irdon .ho »i.\.V -,1 rui T"' hi may not at- ti. ,1 -n< , icri )n' noi ite, hislu nst -ho st o I clear he may ae 'icr im,>or mce unierstand II a-.sertioao coi « rnmg I , 'he place of .cholar- . ,ucn'"h of his spiritual in • diiiicult, and in lit ru f ioi^- makes vve may be ,„1^^, ii we utely think th.i . ■ is somewhat ..c^' m L fir. prerequisite in Bible study-com- ""'^ ^ : 'art of hi- view he claims that Truest Bible Study Spir of Go(l is infallibU', he may ' hi, ,lf ■ 'ifaniblc in (k-cidinK the degree the if ho txtei.i to whieu \Vhen< ■ er i^ i"^ ^i*st^ 4' he a^ked (1 the Holy Spirit has eiilight- ned i n. rted that, if we were all guided by Sp rit. hould not disagree, the truth in the ..sert^^on is that to the extent we are all guuicd by ,he SpirH we si ould not disagree. Who imong us, ,„.vever, is i 'il,le in deciding the exact degree I extent of guidance by the Sp.ra ? Lnough, ..l,,p,, has b> V. written to guard against the com- n error of i mkin,' that, wherever ol ,crs do not cc with v:s concerning the inspiration and the ■; erprct.Uior of the Bible, it is bee .use the> have notthe...igh of our spiriiual minds. J ^^^"^^ lore brin-' ^' 'nse our treatment of Bihlc study, .nd' witl rax c-r that there abide with us com- mon-sei -suit- of scl^olarship, spiritual in- ,ij,ht-th. ; and the greatest of these is spiritual in '•:■ Miu. PART II THE BIBLE AND ITS TIMES J J.. ■ .1 ^T'Shi i^j3^^ 1 ■ V. 'At.- t:^if^K ^1 m \M^-^ CHAP'^-.R IV CKOGRAPHY AND CO IPORA\i:OUS HISTORY GEOG .i.vPHY 51. The aim of Part II is to get a geographical and historical background, and then to put against it the literature, culture, and especially the religious beliefs and hopes, of the Hebrews, Jews, and cavly Christians. First, then, a lesson in geography. What follows should be read with the use of the maps which may be found here, in Bibles and else- where. It will greatly aid us in the attainment of our purpose if we fix in mind three river territories. The first is that about the Nile; the second, that about the Euphrates and Tigris; the third, that about the Jordan. While the Tigris and Eup' ra- tes unite less than one hundred miles before reach- ing the Persian Gulf, the Nile, about one hundred miles from its mouths, divides. Its two arms, to- gether with the Mediterranean Sea, inclose the very fertile triangle called the Delta. South of this, con- tinuing five hundred miles to the first cataract, and with the desert on either side, is a narrow, fertile ter- ritory annually enriched by the overflowing of the Xile. Fertile Egypt, therefore, like the Nile, is in shape somewhat like a great broom. The territory ' See lourlh paragraph of the Preface. 45 46 Christianity and Its Bible between the Tigris and F.uphratcs is shaped some- what like a human foot, with the toes reaching to the mountains of Armenia. 52. If from the heel of this ioot a straight line were drawn to where the crooked handle tits into the brush of the Egyptian broom (a distance of about one thousand miles), it would not even touch the land of Palestine. A knowledge of the country, however, shows that between the civilixation of the Nile and that of the Tigris and Euphrates the natural route, in war or peace, was near, or through, the territory of the Jordan. The reason is that the direct route would be almost altogether through the desert. Three-fourths of it would be in the great Arabian Desert. The other fourth would be in the continua- tion of that desert westward between Palestine and Sinai, and into Africa up to the narrow territory of the Nile itself. The Arabian Desert is continued northward also between the Euphrates and the Jor- dan and considerably farther north than the Jordan. With the Mediterranean Sea on one side and this great sea of desert on the other, the country about the Jordan was the natural isthmus between Asia and Africa. In the study of Bible times and thought it is important to keep in mind '.he natural relation that PalcMne had with the early civilizations of the world. 53. Going northwest from the Persian Gulf, we have, as the river territory of the Tigris and Euphra- H .?tr-.^ Geography and Contemporaneous History 47 tcs, Babylonia, Assyria, and Mesopotamia. West of the Euphrates, between Mesopotamia and the Medi- terranean Sea, was Syria. Northwest of this, and reaching out to Europe, was Asia Minor. This, with southern Europe, was the scene of much of Paul's work. It took a prominent place in the early history of the church. In the southern part of Syria were the Anti-Lebanon and the Lebanon Moun- tains, parallel to each other and to the coast plain of Phoenicia. The Anti-Lebanons from Mount Hermon were continued in the highlands east of the Jordan down to Mount Hor and were lost in the Arabian Desert. The valley between the Lebanons was continued in the Jordan valley, which itself, in the depression called the Arabah, was contirued to the Red Sea. The Lebanon range, with the excep- tion of an important break in the north, was con- tinued, in the highlands west of the Jordan, down through the south (Negeb) until it also fell into the desert, to rise again, however, in the mountains of Sinai. The break in the north looks like the result of a blow from a geological giant — a blovv' that swung the lower end of the break (with the excep- tion of the hills of Gilboa, Little Hermon, and Tabor) so that it abruptly met the sea in Mount Carmel. Between this and the Jordan there was thus left the triangular, fertile plain of ^ raelon, or Jezreel. The coast plain of Phoenicia, with almost a complete break at Carmel, was continued in the 48 Christianity nud Its liihie fertile plain of Sharon ami IMiilislia, ami through '.he isthmus of Suez, to Egypt. The central ridge de- scended in foothills to this maritime plain. 54. Rising at the snow ra])|)ed Ihrnum, the Jor- dan flows through the beautiful pear shaped Sea of Galilee. This is about twelve miles long and but eight miles wide at its widest part. The D» ad Sea, into which the Jordan empties, has no outlet save by evaporation. This is due hirgely to the >trange fact that the surface of this so-called sea is about a rpiar- ter of a mile below tlic level of the ocean. It is this great de!)ression that makes the winding, unnavi- gable Jordan so rapid and gives a tropical vegetation to the lower part of its valley. From Dan to Beer- sheba (a distance of one hundred and fifty miles from north to south), Palestine, west of the Jordan, increased in width from twenty-five to ninety miles. Though considerably larger than eastern Palestine, its area was only about six thouH,and square miles— i. c., less than that of Wales or of the small slate of Massachusetts. On its central ridge, west of where the Jordan emptied into the Dead Sea, was Jerusa- lem. Taking this as a center and drawing a number of circles with the use of the hundred-mile scale (marked on most maps), we find that Tyre in Phoe- nicia is distant about one hundred, Alexandria in the west of the Delta and Antioch on the north of Syria over three hundred, and Babylon on the Euphrates and Nineveh on the Tigris over five hundred miles (Uoj^riipliy 'inJ Coitlemponnieons History 49 frum Jcnisakiiv In thi' case of the first three the .iclu.il rouli' would he much nearer the direct dis- taru e than in the case of the last two. The actual route to Habvlon, for instance, must have been aljout twice a^ long as it would have Ijeen had it <;()ni- directly across thi' desert. SEMITIC HISTORY 55. Fri;i,i geography we pa^s to history. Of the two divisions of mankind with which our present his- lorii.il ^ludy is especially concerned, Professor J. F. Ml Curdy writes: * hir lii.sioiical, iiUcllectUiil, and moral gains from the jiast arr, Ijioailly siK-akini?, the resultant of two great dejjosits of tluiu<;lit and sctiiinunt, the one the gift of the Aryan, thi- "thir a Ixjon from llic Semitic raie. To the foniur we owt , aiiaiii s[x'aking gent rally, most of our mental and [lolitlcal atquisiiions; to the latter, the [)nncipal dements of our moral and spiritual hcritagi.-. The .'Xryan-.p aking peoples include the Hindus, Persians, and Armenians in Asia; and the (ireeks Latins, Celts, Anglo-Saxons, Goths, Slavs, etc., in Kurope. The Siniitcs include, besides the modern Arat;s, the ancient Babylonians and Assyrians, the Arameans of both Mesopotamia and Syria, the Phoe- nicians and Canaanites, and the Hebrews, with their kinsfolk, the Animn tes, Moabitcs, and Edomitcs. 5(). What were the Egyptians? I'here has been, and still is, considerable ditTerence of opinion con- cerning the place of Semitic elements. Remembering so Christianity and Its Bible that Libya was west of the lower Nile, Dr. Morris Jastrow's words are suggestive: It is not surprisinfj, in vu w of the location of Egypt, thus ojjen ti' invasion from two sides, tliat its |».)pulation was .1 mixed ciiaractcr. If one may judge from the language of Kgypi, the substratum of which has now Ix-vn ascertained to be Semitic, the basis of the p»)pulation is likewis. Semitic; but l>t)th language and people are largely mixed with "Ham- itic" elements, more jwrticularly Li'yan. This element in the course of time appears to obtain the n. tery, despite the frequent Semitic inmigrations into ECTpt, and to such an extent indeed that both the jieople ana ifio language retain but a few Semitic traits. Dr. Jaslrow classes the Amalekites and the Midi?n- ites as Semitic, as-umes that ' e Girgashites, Htv- iles, Jebusites, and P rizzites (L 34:11; Gen. 15: 20, 21) were Seiuitic groups allied to the Cc ^aanites, refers to thi Amorites and .He Hittitcs as doubtful, and agrees with the view that the Philistine were Aryan pirates who syion over the other cities of the territory. Tiu 'u;i • 01 these ancient cities in time became but mounds. In modem times the excava- tion of the ,': and of similar mounds in Egypt, Pales- line, etc., iias gi\cri much insight into those early times. One of the greatest finds, however, was not through excavations. It belongs to the rule of Ham- mt'rabi, but was not discovered until the present cc..t'-ry. It was some pieces of black stone that, when ;jt together again, made a monument be- tween seven and eight feet high. On it was inscribed Vt\ three or four ihuusund lines the ttuw famoua ir.v» 52 Christianitv and lis Bible code that has been called the oldest code of laws in the world. It has a score, or more, enactments simi- lar to Ex. 20:22—23:33. As has already been no- ticed, it has also a representation of the Babylonian sun-god Shamash, "judge of heaven and earth," who is lepresented as in the act of giving the law to Hammurabi, much .s Jehovah is described as giving the law to Moses. The significance of this is seen when we remember that Hammurabi and his monu- ment were in existence before the time of Moses. 59. n Assyrian history, beginning back a thou- sand years or so before Christ, we fmd, among other rulers, some Tiglath-pilesers and Shalmancscrs, fol- lower^ by another great Sargon, his son Sennache- rib, his gr .ndson Esarhaddon, and his great-grand- son Assur-bani-pal (Sardanapalus). Assur-buni-pal's library, with its famous clay tablets which were discovered b\ Layard about the middle of the nine- teenth century, has thrown much light on both the Assyrian and the Old Babylonian periods. George Smith and othe-i h; ve found much in the Assyrian tablets that is strikingly similar to the accounts of creation, of the Hood, etc., as given in Genesis. The account concerning the early exposure and later suc- cess of Moses is paralleled by an account of the early Babylonian Sargon who, like Hammurabi, lived b»"- fore the time of Moses. 60. One of the rulers of the New Babylonian empire was Nebuchadrezzar. Besides his military Geography and Contemporaneous History 53 achievements, he made Babylon one of the greatest cities of antiquity. Another ruler, Xabonidus, let his son Belshazzar govern Babylon, because he him- self was more of a builder and antiquarian. He reckoned that 3200 years before his time— i. e., about 3750 B. c— was the date of Naram-Sin of the 01(1 Babylonian period. The culture of Naram-Sin's time implies what excavations of remains from still earlier times confirm— many centuries of still earlier civilization. However the figures of Nabonidus may be qualified, that early civilization was in existence long before 4004 B. c— the date of creation accord- ing to Ussher's chronology. 61. Throughout the three i)eriods we have been considering there was contact, and frequent conflict, west of the Euphrates, with Arameans, Canaanites, Hebrews, B:gyptians, etc. East of the Tigris there was contact with different peoples. Among these were the Medes and the Persians, by whom, under Cyrus, Babylon was taken from Belshazzar. After Persian supremacy came first that of Greece and then that of Rome. 62. Under the name of Syrians, whose chief deity was Hadad, the Arameans frequently came in con- tact wiih Palestine, northeast of which was their important center, Dami'.^cus. While mainly a pas- toral pcoplt , many of them became traders. Be- cause of this and their location, when the Babylonian and Hebrew tongues declined, the Aramaic became 54 Christianity and Its Bible the language of the people in the whole territory of the northern Semites; and, despite the inroads of other languages, it was the people's tongue in Pales- tine in the time of Christ, and even until Moham- medan times. The Phoenicians settled on the coast land west of the Lebanons. The limited extent of this strip seems to have compelled them to become on the water what the Arameans were on the land. They became the traders and colonizers of the Medi- terranean. The closely related Canaanites settled in Palestine, to make it "a land flowing with milk and honey. " Of the peoples closest akin to the He- brews, the Edomites roved south of Canaan. The Ammonites, whose chief deity was Molech (Milcom), and the Moabites, whose deity was Chemosh, lived between the Jordan and the desert. The Hebrews themselves, having Jehovah as their deity, settled partly on the east, but mainly on the west of the Jor- dan. They thus settled among the Canaanites, whose Baal-worship was especially connected with the agriculture that the Hebrews learned from them. EGYPTIAN HISTORY 63. Before passing to a summary of the history of the Hebrews, something needs to be written about the history of Egypt. In a very suggestive para- graph in his recent History of Egypt, Professor James H. Breasted writes: After an archaic age of primitive civilization, and a period of small and local kingdoms, the various centers of civiliza Geography and Contemporaneous History 55 ?i tion on the Nile gradually coalesced into two kingdoms: one compa'sing the valley down to the Delta, and the other made up of the Delta itself. In the Delta civilization rapidly advanced, and the calendar year of 365 days was introduced in 4241 B. c, the earliest fixed date in the history of the world as known to us. A long development, as the " Two Lands," which left their imprint forever after on the civilization of later centuries, preceded a united Egypt, which emerged upon our historic horizon at the consolidation of the two kingdoms into one nation under Menes about 3400 B. c. His accession marks the beginning of the dynasties, and the preceding, earliest period may be conveniently designated as the pre- dynaslic age. Several centuries before Christ Manetho, a native priest, wrote of thirty-one dynasties. Of the dura- tion and events of some of these Httle is known. For (- nvenience, scholars have divided the early part of this history into Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms (or Empires) that by obscure intervals of uncertain lengths are separated from one another and from the subsequent periods. These periods were that of the foreign rule, that of the Restoration, and those allied the Persian, the Greek, and the Roman. As an aid to memory it may be well to note that the Si.xth Dynasty was the last of the Old Kingdom, that the Twelfth was important in the Middle Kingdom, and that the Eighteenth began the New Kingdom. 64. The Old Kingdom leaves "as its witness the irregular line of pyramids which stretch for forty miles along the margin of the desert on the west side £ ■'^m. m*si^!pm^ 56 ClirisliuHilv and Its Bible of the Nile from the npcx ..1 the Delta southward." The Middle Kingdom also left pyramids, and other great works, and extended its sway above the second cataract. This was a period of literary activity. During the New Kingdom, of which Thebes was the center, Palestine and Syria were contjuered, and the empire was enlarged until it extended from the u])per Euphrates to the third cataract. Some of the cap- tives were em[)loyed in building in a way at least suggesting the biblical account of the Hebrew build- ers. Prominent as a ruler in the New Empire v;as the idealized Ramses II, commonly looked upon as the builder of Pithom (Ex. i:ii), and so as the oppressing "Itiaraoh" of that chapter. To the New Kingdom belong the hundreds of clay tablets that were unearthed in 1887 from the ruins of El- Amarna in Upper Egypt, on the eastern bank of the Nile. They were written in the cuneiform fwedge- shaped) writing of the Assyrians rather than in the hieroglyj)hics (picture-writing) of the Egyptians. Some of these are letters from the rulers of Baby- lonia, Assyria, Mesopotamia, Syria, Asia Minor, and Palestine. These famous tablets throw light upon the condition of Palestine before the Hebrews entered it. 65. In the period of foreign rulr the Assyrian con- querors marched into Upper Egypt and destroyed Thebes itself. Then the civil war in the East that re- sulted in the supremacy of the Chaldeans gave Egypt Geography and Contemporaneous History 57 an opportunity to drive out the Assyrians. This was the period of the Restoration, during which the K<;;vi)tians again overran the territory between the Nile and the Euphrates. Defeating Josiah, Judah's king, at Megiddo on the plain of Esdraelon, they wre routed at Carchemish on the Euphrates by Nebuchadrezzar, then crown j)rince of the New Babylonian or Chaldean empire. As a result the Egyptians were driven back beyond PaU'stine. With the son of the Cyrus that conquered the Chaldeans the Pirsian period began in Egypt. The Greek period l)egun by Alexander, by wliom the city of Alexan- dria was founded, was continued by the Ptolemies. Queen Cleoi)atra, the last of these, and the Roman Antony, whom she had infatuated, were defeated by the Romans decades before Christ. Erom that time Mgypt was under the control of Rome or Constanti- nople until it was taken by the Mohammedans. CHAPTER V HISTORY OF HEBREWS, JEWS, AND EARLY CHRISTIANS INTRODUCTORY 66. In the history of the people of Jehovah, if there is one date that needs to be kept in mind, it is 586 B. c. This comes in the midst of the short pe- riods of the Restoration in f^gypt and of the New- Babylonian empire. It is the date of that destruc- tion of Jerusalem that was followed by the Great Captivity. All the rest of the history may be repre- sented as coming before or after that date, which thus divides it into two periods. BEFORE 586 B. C. 67. There are some much-discussed questions concerning the early part of the first period. What was the origin of the Hebrews and their kinfolk, the Moabites, Ammonites, and Edomites? What the meaning and importance of the fourteenth chapter of Genesis? What do the patriarchal stories give or imply concerning the early history of the Hebrew tribes? Just what was the relation of these tribes with Egypt ? What place had Moses in the making of the nation and in the molding of the religious life and thought of his people ? What their experiences before entering Canaan? What the relation be- 58 History of Hebrews, Jews, and Early Christians 59 twcen the temple and the account of the tabernacle in the wilderness? Having fought their way to a foothold in Canaan, they passed from the nomadic to the agricultural stage in their development. At first their leaders vere the judges, who arose as deliverers in times of special need. Then, over a thousand years before Christ, the lists of kings began with Saul. He was followed by David. David's son and successor, Solomon, built a magnificent temple in Jerusalem. In his reign the nation had already entered the commercial life in which as a people they have been so successful through the ages since. 68. In the reign of Rehoboam, Solomon's son and successor, the kingdom was divided into two king- doms. The territory of Judah, the southern king- dom, extended only a little north of Jerusalem, its capital. The much larger territory of Israel (the ten tribes) on the north, was sometimes given the name of its strongly fortified capital Samaria. (In the time of Christ, when western Palestine was divided into three parts, Judea was on the south, Galilee, including Esdraelon, on the north, and Sa- maria between them.) it is well to keep in mind that a most important part of the great route be- tween the Nile and the Euphrates went through the plain of Esdraelon and so through Israel. No such important route went through Judah. The geog- raphy and the topography of Israel made it much L 60 Clirisliiinily and lis Bible more exposal to attack than was Judah. This exphiins its earlier fall, and the fact that the history of the two centuries of its existence after it became a separate kingdom is largely a history of wars and alliances with Judah, Syria (Damascus), Assyria. Phoenicia, and Kgypt. Its fortunes varied from great prosperity under Jeroboam II to disaster under Iloshea. 69. It was in the period of foreign rule in Egypt, when that country, having lost Palestine, was seek- ing again and again to regain it, that Israel under Hoshea, unwisely in league with Ei,'ypt. was sub- dued by the Assyrians, who :it;er a loi- siege took Samaria. This was in the very beginning of the reign of Sargon. who in Di\iiTiber. 722 B.C., succeeded the king referred to ia 11 VJwn -^ Vj y. " 'a the ninth year of Hoshea, the king of A.5syria took Samnria, and carried Jsr \ol away unto Assyiia, aiid placed them in Halah, and in Habor, on the river of Gox.an, and in the citii of the Medes." II Kings 17:6, together with Sargon's inscription concerning Sa- maria, "I led forth 27,290 of those who dwelt in the midst of it," show that the ten tribes were never "lost" in the mysterious way that some theorists have supposed. Those who remained, in uniting with those who weie brought in (II Kings 17:24 and P>,ra 4:2, 9, 10), formed the Samaritan race. Of this race a small remnant, now living at Nablus (Shechem), still worships Jehovah on Mount Geri- Uistorv <)} Ifrhrnz's, Jnvs, atid Early Christians 6i zim. As Galilee, the norlluTn and more exposed pari of Israel, submitted more readily than Samaria, the southern part, fewer of its inhabitants were de- |K,rted, and there was less union with foreigners. Henre, in the lime of Christ, the (ialileans had more dealini;^ with the ])urir blooded Jews of Judah than was permitted, k, the Samaritans. 70. It was not until considerably more than a centurv after Samaria, the capital of the northern I.ingdom, was taken i)y Sargon, the .Assyrian, that Jtrusalem, the capital of the southern kingdom, w\:s destroyed by Xebuebadre/.zar, the Chaldean, jusl two decades after the fall of Samaria, Jerusalem was marvelously saved Irom the Assyrians undei Stnnacherib, Sargon'r) son and successor. His army, in its great invasion t)f the West, was victorious as far as the Delta. In 621, just a century after the fall of Samaria, occurred the memorable incident referred to in II Kings 22:0. The law thus given, which was at least very like that in Deuteronomy, played a prominent part in the reforms of the good king Josiah. His death, in 609, in the battle of Megiddo in Esdraclon, where he was defeated by the Egyp- tians, was a great blow to those reforms. A fevv- years later the Egyptians themselves were defeated by Nebuchadrezzar, the Chaldean, who in 586 b. c . destroyed Jerusalem and carried off many of the Jews to Babylonia. Though, a decade or so carliei. the king, Ezekiel the prophet, and others had also :-wf 6a C'riiliauily and lis Bible been deported, it \va> not until 586 B. c. that the Hebrew nation, as a nation, came to an end. AFTER 586 D. C. 71. The hiMory suhse(|ti('nt to 586 b. c. wc think of as the history of the Jewish people. It began with the half-century of Hahylonian captivity. It closed (as far as Hihle times are concerned) in the period of Roman rule, which be^an in 63 B. c. Be- tween the Babylonian and Roman peri(xls there were three peri'^d'^, the duration of which can easily be remeinl)ered; tor there were two centuries of Persian rule, one and one-half of Greek, and one of Maccabean, which was Jewish. In the Persian pe- riod, which began with the taking of Babylon by Cyrus in 538 b. c, different companies of Jews, in- cluding Zerrubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah, returned to Palestine and formed in Judea a Persian colony. There, in Jerusalem, they built the second temple. 72. The Greek period followed the great victory of Alexander the Great over the Persians, at Issus, in 333 B. c. Of the different divisions of his empire after his death, Syria was ruled by the Seleucidac, an J Egypt by the Ptolemies, until both were con- quered by Rome. Palestine was ruled now by the Ptolemies and now by the Seleucidac, until the time of the Maccabees. Under Greek rule the Jews, like oth'".! peoples conquered by Alexander the Great, wei'. iiiurc or less hellenized — a word derived from % J':jj History of Hebrews, Jews, and Early Christians 63 "Htllas," a name for Greece, Large numbers of them dispersed as traders, captives, etc., and, form- ing colonies outside of Palestine (in Alexandria, etc.)i spoke what is called Hellenistic, or mixed, Greek, as distinguished from Hellenic, or classical, Greek. Into this their sacred writings were translated. The Septuagint (the word for "seventy," and so often written LXX), the translation of which was begun less than three centuries before Christ, was the Hel- lenistic version of the Pentateuch, and more or less of the Old Testament and other Jewish writings. This version had great influence in the production of the New Testament, which also was written in the Hellenistic Greek. The Hellenists, or Grecian Jews, are distinguished in the New Testament both from the Greeks and from "the Hebrews" (Acts 6:1), who, however, sjwjke in Aramaic. This, which was the language of Jesus, is called "Syrian" in Isa. 36:11. It would seem that even before the exile Aramaic was known in ofHcial circles in Jeru- salem. 73. Though the Jews, with their genius for reli- gion, had made many proselytes to their superior faith, yet, surrounded by Greek cities and, doubtless, influenced by the visits of Grecian Jews, even Ju- dca (including Jerusalem itself) became consider- ably hellenized. Antiochus Epiphanes, one of the Scleucidae, determined to carry this to the extreme of forcing the Jews to repudiate their religion. He T •jlI"' XJ^ If^JI MMMfei i^HIBM MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 I.I 1.25 »" IS !: m 1.4 2.5 2.2 2£ 1.8 1.6 ^ A PPLIED IKV1GE Inc ^. '6;:' fosi Ugin Street ^S w,v_t,p,,ler. New York 14609 USA ^— ("B) 48; - OJOO - PHone ^= (716) 288 - 5989 - Fa, 64 Christianity and Its Bible ■ i I. J ii erected an altar of Jupiter (an "abomination of desolation") upon the altar of burnt-offering. It was the sacrifice there of a sow, in 169, that occa- sioned the successful revolt led by the priestly Asmo- nean family afterward named the Maccabees. A century or more before Christ these conquered Idumea (Edom) and compelled their kinsfolk, the Idumeans, to adopt Judaism. Antipater (or Anti- pas), a wealthy, forceful Idumean, was nade gov- ernor of Idumea by one of the Maccabees; and through his shrewdness became the power behind the Maccabean throne. In the midst of strife among the Maccabees, Pompcy took Jerusalem for Rome in 63 B. c. 74. Judea became a small Roman province, which was ruled, not by a proconsul or legate, but by a procurator, save when it w-as permitted to be a kingdom under a native king. The legate of the province of Syria seems to have had some power over the procurator of Judea, which at length be- came part of the Syrian province. Antipater, who was father of Herod the Great, like the Herods had a wonderful power of winning the favor of the Ro- man rulers. He was made procurator of western Palestine. His son, Herod, became governor of Samaria. After his father w-as murdered, Herod, narrowly escaping from the Maccabean family into which he had married, fled to Rome, where he was given the title of " king of Judea. " He became king '^is^izzs^ History oj Hebrews, Jews, and Early Christians 65 in reality by the taking of Jerusalem three years later, 37 b. c. In 20 B. c. he began to rebuild the temple. The most sacred part was finished in eight years. The temple as a whole, however, was not completed until some time after Christ's death, only to be destroyed in the destruction of Jerusalem in ^o A. D. Herod ruled over a territory like that of David and Solomon, with a firm but bloody hand, until his death in 4 B. c. 75. Though in 4 b. c, the death of Herod was after the birth of Jesus. It seems strange, since "B.C." means "before Christ" — i.e., before his birth — that Jesus was born some years b. c. The explanation is that not until over five centuries after Christ was it decided to take the date of Christ's birth as the beginning of the system of reckoning events. Before that there had been different non- Christian systems, one of which was that beginning with the year that was supposed to be the date of the founding of Rome. A. u. c. stood for ab urbe condita — i.e., "after the city was founded." In making the Christian system it was thought that Christ was born 754 A. u. c. As it was not until centuries afterward that it was found this date was some years too late, it was easier to change the few dates of Christ's life and to say that he was born before b. c, than to change the many dates that had become fixed by the mistake. 76. After the death of Herod the territory was TT'i I '" miiffii wiPiniFrT rr>TTT ' ji ■ iib wuBniiMr "mwsxBTe^stat ^mr^i& 66 Christianity and Its Bible divided among three of his sons — Archelaus, Herod Antipas, and Philip — with the title of either "eth- narch" ("ruler of a people") or ''tetrarch" ("ruler of a fourth part"). Archelaus (Matt. 2:22) became ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (Edom), but in 6 A. D. he was deposed for misrule. His ter- ritory was then ruled by Roman procurators, among whom were Pontius Pilate, Felix, and Festus. Her- od Antipas, frequently mentioned in the New Testa- ment, was tetrarch of Galilee and of Perea, which was east of the Jordan. Philip (Luke 3:1) was tetrarch of Trachonitis and Iturea, north and east of the Sea of Galilee. Herodias, mother of Salome, was a granddaughter of Herod the Great, whose grandson, Agrippa I (Acts, chap. 12), in becoming king of Judea, ruled for a few years over the same territory as his grandfather. Bernice (Acts 25:26) and Drusilla (Acts 24:24), wife of Felix, were daughters of Agrippa I. With the death of his son, Agrippa II (Acts, chaps. 25 and 26), about the end of the century, the rule of the Herods came to an end. They had helped to hellenize Judaism, and had given Palestine a political and social place alto- gether out of proportion to its size. 77. The success of the Herods was due largely to their influence with the changing authorities at Rome. Of these, Octavius Caesar, the first emperor, was ruling at the birth of Jesus, whose public min- istry was under the second emperor, Tiberius. : ■SLn,;Tr^^3Bmv»if^s9Ksm ■>«i'iA : ' ^:---^-?;,'-*:v '«-:-'i History of Hebrews, Jews, and Early Christians 67 After Caligula and Claudius came Nero. When Vespasian was emperor, Titus, who afterward suc- ceeded him, destroyed Jerusalem, in 70 a. d. In the time of Christ the Roman Empire consisted of the territory about the Mediterranean from the Euphrates to the Atlantic— a distance of about three thousand miles. North and south, and including Egypt, it extended from the desert to the Danube, and up into the British Isles. In a general way its area and it^ population may be likened to those of the United States. As Greek supremacy hellenized the East, Roman supremacy latinized the West, in which the Latin translation of the Bible, the Vulgate, became what the Septuagint had been in the East. 78. It is when seen against the background of the preceding history that the Jewisn sects in the time of Christ can most easily be understood. Though they are not mentioned in the Bible, a word, in pass- ing, concerning the Essenes. In some respects they were fanatical representatives of the post-exilic Puri- tans—the "righteous," "pious," "poor and needy" who " feared Jehovah. " The two great sects in the New Testament, the Sadducees and Pharisees, were representatives, in the time of Christ, of two oppos- ing tendencies that may be discerned before the exile. After the exile these tendencies may be seen with increasing clearness as the Jews were succes- sively under Persian, Grecian, Maccabean, and Roman rule. The one tendency, which was toward EflntiRrsiaosraK' •^'vm.vopJisirfi'Ji.'ir^^^f'SPis'Sfr i?xim,'Kimrjmfn- 68 Christianity and Its Bible political, social, and religious alliances with other peoples, and was in the Persian period represented by the "Nobles of Judah" and the high-priest Elia- shib, and : i the Grecian period by the hellenizing and aristocratic priestly parties, in the Maccabean and Roman periods was represented by the Saddu- cees. The other tendency — toward political, social, and religious exclusiveness — represente:! in the Per- sian period by Ezra and Nchemiah, and in the Gre- cian perio-. by the Pious (Hasideans), in the later periods was represented by the Pharisees, whose very name means "separatists." It should be carefully note 1 that, while the aristocratic Sadducees were, primarily, politicians, and only secondarily religious, the Pharisees were primarily religious, but were sometimes drawn into politics. 79. These two sects also represented two different institutions — the Sadducees the temple, and the Phari^L■es the synagogue. Whatever the history of the synagogue, it is to be studied in connection with the experiences of the Jews in captivity. In the synagogue the use of Scripture was what the sacri- fices and ceremonies were in the temple. What the priest was to the temple and its ministries, the scribes (prof(^ssional writers) were to the synagogue and its services. While the Sadducees were the priestly party and practically controlled the high- priesthood, Pharisaism, though not synonymous with scribism, is to a large extent to be identified with it. ^teimmmiS^: ■fr-: 7^^^^4 History of Hebrews, Jews, and Early Christians 69 While the Sadducces, though few, were prominent in the Sanhedrin (the great council of the Jewish rulers), the six thousand or more Pharisees were undoubtedly the popular party. Though, with the exception of the Annas and Simeons, the people were not very religious themselves, they respected the religious Pharisees, by wtiom they, in turn, were treated with indifference and contempt. BsBsar>5s«^^p?^«ssaf-jV''affFff-'if:'?; CHAPTER VI LITERATURE OF HEBREWS, JEWS, AND EARLY CHRISTIANS CHRONOLOGY 80. From a summary of the history of Bible times we pass to a consideration of the writings of the Bible — first with special reference to chronology, and then with special reference to literary form. Probably there never will be una ^mity among schol- ars as to just what books and parts of books were written before 586 b. c. and what after that date. All the literature of the northern kingdom was written before the fall of Samaria in 722 b. c. As this was before the period of great literary activity, the northern kingdom did not leave as rich a legacy of Scripture as came from Judah. The important date in the literature of Judah, after the fall of Samaria and before the fall of Jerusalem in 586 b. c, was the date of the giving of the law, 621 B.C. Thus 722 and 621, a century later, are the important dates in the history of Hebrew literature before 586 B. c. 81. The two OM Testament series of history could not have been completed until after that date, be- cause in each of them the history is continued beyond it. The first series, consisting of the first seven books together with I and II Samuel and I and II Kings, 70 i^.i'^^SlJii^jrik-x'-: V -ttlS:'.-.;. > '-'^ttii-i-i smrmmitrrmiBmsssmmi'i(¥ism:::xjri n I ' *'!-^;t"vv ■''■<-.. i .' ■A'-'-^-=yiy.t:4A^ Literature oj Hebrews, Jews, and Early Christians 71 contin -ed the history from the creation to the middle of the captivity in Babylon. The other (Chronicles, Ezra, and Ncl-cmiah) freely used the material of the first. Beginning with Adam, it continued to the middle of the Persian period. The historical situa- tion preceding the fall of Israel, described in these Old Testament histories, is reflected in the prophe- cies of Amos and Hosea. These, as distinguished from the preceding; prophets and cers (Elijah, Elisha, and others), are numbered among the first of the " writing prophets. " The historical situation of Judah between Israel's fall and her own, also de- scribed in these Old Testament liistories, is reflected in the prophecies of Isaiah, Micah, and Jeremiah. Jeremiah was living at thr time Jerusalem was de- stroyed. Ezekiel prophesied both before and after that event. 82. It is to be remembered that more or less of the written or unwritten material incorporated into the later literature goes back before the captivity. On the other hand, much of that written before the captivity was affected by compilers and editors after 586 B. c. It is now generally recognized that a con- siderably larger portion of the Old Testament was written after that date than was formerly supposed. Whole books, like Ecclesiastes, which was once com- monly supposed to be written by Solomon, are now placed after that date. So with large parts of bocxs once thought to be altogether before the exile. For ,(d«4l^-'i .'•^nfir-T^*:. 72 Christumity and Its Bible instance, according to many mofkrn scholars, aot only the second i)art of Isaiah, chaps. 40-66, but chaps. 24-27 of the first part, do not belong before the exile. Similarly it is held that the Pentateuch (or, including Joshua, the Hexateuch) was not simply edited, but a large part of its priestly narra- tive was written, after 586 B. c. 83. In the division of the Old Testament into the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings (or Holy W fil- ings) there seems to have been no ([uestion in New Testament times but that the Pentateuch "was given by Moses. " Among most specialists today, however, the question is not, Are "the five books of Moses" a mos:\ic in the sense of being a compilation ? but rather. To what extent are they a Mosaic mosaic? Another question is, not, Did David write even the psalms attributed to him in their somewhat old titles ? but rather, Did he write enough of the psalms to warraat the reference to the whole Psalter as the "psalms of David." Still another question is, not, Did Solomon write Proverbs, Ecclcsiastes, and the Song of Songs? but rather. What part, if any, in each of these books, may reasonably be said to have come from him ? In view of this, some who are not specialists refer to these books themselves rather than attempt to mention their authors by name. 84. Among specialists there is a growing agree- ment that in making the fir-t six books of the Bible four main documents have been put together. They u^^En^^i^^m^4^Wi^' ^'^E^^^w^wm^^^^m^ Uleratiire oj llebrrus, Jncs, and Early Christians 7.^ an- called J (from its preference for the word "Jah- weh" or "Jehovah," in the Authorized \ rsion transhited "Lord"), E (from its preference for the word "Elohim," translated "God"), D (Deuter- onomic), :;nd P (rriestly). As J and E do not differ from each other as much as from the others, many wlio are not specialists may profitably consider he four documents as three. To JE, the earliest, be- long the Decalogue— i. e., the law of Ten Words (rather than Commandments) (Ex. 20:2-17); and the Covenant Code (Ex. 20:20—23:33). To D, considerably later, but at least as early as the reign of Josiah (il Kings, chaps. 23), and so before the exile, belongs the Deuteronomic Code, which is an enlarged and adapted edition of the Covenant Code. In P, considerably later than 586 B. c, ceremonial law is so prominent that the name " Priests' Code" is sometimes given to the whole document. Imbedded in P, and to some extent adapted to it, is a somewhat earlier code, called the "Law of Holiness" (Lev., chaps. 17-26). Marked resemblances in subject and style exist between this and the prophecy of Ezekiel. While the priests made much of the cere- monial law, the prophets put the emphasis upon the moral law. This distinction should be kept in mind in the understanding of the attitude of Jesus, Paul, and others toward the Old Testament law. 85. What the Chaldean destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B. c. is to the dating of the Old Testament wmM''^mM}s^%.^w:^^' ^^^- -^^fSF'-; ^^^^^r^b^ism^L ' 74 Christianity and lis Bible writings, the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A. D. is to the dating of the New Testament writings. Their relation to that destruction is one of the impor- tant elements in the problem of dating them. We know that whatever letters were written by Paul were written before 70 A. D.; for before that date the time of his departure had come. It is interesting to note that all, or nearly all, the New Testament writings that have come to us from before his death are the works of Paul, who was not an eyt^vitness to the ministry of Jesus. Doubts have been raised con- cerning his authorship of some of the epistles often attributed to him— notably of the Pastoral Epistles, I and II Timothy, and Titus. On the other hand, his authorship of Romans, I and II Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, and I Thessalonians is almost universally recognized. Of these six, I Thessalo- nians is the earliest and Philippians the latest. There is strong evidence in favor of the Pauline authorship of other epistles, notably of Ephesians, Colossians, II Thessalonians, and Philemon. It is now generally agreed that Paul did not write He- brews. One of the conjectures concerning its author- ship is that the author was a woman. 86. While Mark, the earliest and shortest of the gospels, dates from before 70 A. D., John, the latest, was written considerably after that date. ^More than in forr r times it is recognized that the first three gospels differ from the Fourth, not only in having Literature oj Hebrews, Jews, and Early Christians 75 been written considerably earlier, but also in sayings, events, chronology, atmosphere, purpose, etc. This difference is such that the ^'iree, as distinguished from the Fourth, are commonly called the Synop- tists— from the two Greek words "together" and "view." While these three differ among them- selves in a number of respects, they have very much in common. The recognition and explanation of their resemblances and differences constitute what is called the " synoptic problem. " There is a grad- ual development in their presentation of Jesus that is not to be found in the Fourth Gospel. As dis- tinguished from its type of doctrine, they give another; the wri'^ngs of Paul give another; the Epistle to the Hebrews another; etc. In New Tes- tament study it is important to distinguish between these types. 87. In passing from the Old Testament to the New Testament we are impressed that we are making a great change. There is a difference in the spirit- ual atmosphere and life. There is also a marked difference in institutions and religious parties. The synagogue, for instance, comes suddenly into promi- nence, while the Sadducees and Pharisees, not even mentioned in the Old Testament, figure very promi- nently in the New Testament. While we do not believe that the Old Testament, which was the Bible Jesus used, should be looked upon as a "millstone" for the neck of the religion Jesus founded, we must 76 Christianity and Its Bible recognize that there is a marked difference between it and the New Testament that Jesus caused. What is the explanation ? The chief reason for the differ- ence is the personal one that Jesus is present in the New Testament in a way that he is not present in the Old Testament. A very important reason, how- ever^ is the temporal one that several centuries intervened. A knowledge of the history and litera- ture of these centuries is essential to a right under- standing of the views of the Jews when Jesus came. 88. For ages this non-biblical literature of Juda- ism did not receive the attention it deserved. It is an important part of the Hinterland of the New Testament. It is the smithy in which may be forged many links otherwise missing between the teachings of the two Testaments. It was the soil in which were germinated the views that through the Jewish Christians took deep root in the beliefs of the early church. What is this literature? Going back as far as the period of Greek rule in Palestine, and in the time of their origin following and even over- lapping the writings of the Old Testament itself, we mention first among the non-biblical writings of Ju- daism the Old Testament Apocr\'pha. This apoc- rypha includes among its writings Ecclcsiasticus and I and II Maccabees. It is about one-fourth the size of the Old Testament, and ^so nearly three-fourths that of the New Testament.* It represents, though not exactly, the writings in the Greek Septuagint I'- i Literature of Hebrews, Jews, and Early Christians 77 that were not found in the Hebrew Old Testament. Overlapping and following the Apocrypha are writ- ings called "apocalyptic"— i. e., "unveiling" or "revealing"— and " pseudcpigraphic"— i. e., "false- named," because attributed to those who did not write them. They include the Book of Enoch, the Psalms of Solomon, and the Book of Jubilees. Im- portant, too, among Jewish writings are the writings of the Alexandrian Jew Philo, in whose lifetime Jesus was born and died. Though not born until after the death of Jesus, Josephus too lived in New Testament times. 89. The non-biblical literature, especially in its later writings, represented the Pharisees more than the Sadducees. Since it was o t of the Pharisaic, rather than Sadducean, Judaism that Christianity arose, the fact that the non-biblical literature was largely Pharisaic is one of the reasons for the impor- tance of its study in learning the views of the Jews when Jesus came. LITERARY FORMS 90. It should be remembered, not only that the Bible was written by different authors and in different ages, but also that it was written in different liter- ary forms. An understanding of these different forms helps to a truer appreciation of the thought. It contains five books of poetry. None of these is in the New Testament. New Testament poetry 78 Christianily and Its Bible consists largely nf quotations from the Old Testa- ment. The liNc books, together with pieces of poetry (some of it not remarkably religious) found in other books, make about one-seventh of the whole Bible. This does not take into account the poetic lines into which the highest prose easily passes be- cause of the nature of Hebrew poetry, 91. It differs much from English verse. While "the dominant principle of the Hebrew line is accent or tone," its rhythm is that of thought as well as of accent. This it is that makes it so translatable into other languages. Its underlying and most common form is the couplet in which the second line repeats, completes, or is in contrast with, the thought of the first. These lines may have only approximately the same number of syllables. Quite frequently to muke this parallelism of thought, which is such a prominent characteristic of Hebrew poetry, requires three or four lines. Each one of l^ese may be parallel to one or more of the others. These parallel thoughts seem at times to be grouped into stanzas or strophes, as they are commonly called. The recognition of this parallelism is necessary for a true appreciation of the Bible as literature, and for a true interpreta- tion of much of its meaning. Compare, for example, tl> Authorized Version and the Revised Version of Ps. 19:3. 92. The Old Testament had no Milton to narrate, concerning others, an epic like Paradise i.ost, and Literature oj Hebrews, Jews, and Early Christians 79 no Shakespeare to portray, in drama, the character of others. Much of its poetry was lyric— i. c., it was such as might be sung to the accompaniment of the lyre or other instrument. In connection with the [)salms of tlie ?salter}' we think of the psaltery of which they sang. We like to think of Jesus and his disciples singing 'hem together (Matt. 26:30). Dr. S. R. Driver writes: Of uie two forms of poetry in which the greatest master- pieces of the Aryan races have been cast, tlie epos and the drama, the former is entirely unrepresented in Hebrew litera- ture, the latter is represented only in a rudirr.entary and imperfect form .... the Song of Songs is of the nature of a drama; and the Book of Job may be styled a dramatic poem. But the genius of the ancient Israelite was pre-eminently subjective; .... it was his own thoughts and emotions for which he sought spontaneously to find forms of expression. Hence Hebrew poetr\' is almost exclusively lyric or gnomic. To the latter of these belongs the Book of Proverbs. Lamentations, as its name suggests, is elegiac. This differs from the rest in having longer lines, which are broken usually into a longer and a shorter part. Lamentations itself is an elegy on the evil results of the destruction of Jerusalem in 580 B. c. 93. Two of the poetic books. Job and Proverbs, are classed with Ecclesiastes as "Wisdom" litt.ra- ture. In Jer. 18:18 we read of the "law of the priest," the "word" of the "prophet," and the "counsel " of the ' ' wise. " Because 01 their broader culture, these "wise" are sometimes called the "Hu- 8o Christianity and Its Bible manists" of the Old Testament. From them has come the so-called " Wisdom literature." This, with the prologue of John and a f^w other passages, may be called the philosophy of the Bible. In the practical philosophy of Proverbs wisdom is personi- fied. In Job the problem wrestled with is the mystery of the affliction that comes upon the godly. In Ecclesiastcs there seems at times a skeptical atti- tude—for instance, concerning Providence— and, as a result, a rather low ideal of life. 94. In interpreting prophecy, which at times is really poetry, it should be remembered that the em- phasis should be put upon its forth-telling rather than upon its foretelling. The true prophet, as a prophet, f.ppears sometimes as one telling events bejore they come to pass, but always as one speaking jor God. The prophets were preachers. What preaching! What boldness! What beauty! What grandeur! What vision! What poetry! What power! In the Jewish canon of the Old Testament much of its historical vvritings is classed as the "Former Proph- ets." In interpreting the history as well as the prophecy of the Bible, therefore, it should le remem- bered that much of it is scrmonic. As consisting of historical sermons, the emphasis is to be put upon the truth intended to be taught, rather than upon the question of the accuracy of what is given as his- torical illustration of the truth. q:;. To illustrate thought bv what mav not be Literature oj Hebrews, Jews, and Early Christians 8i accepted as a fact does not make the thought untrue. On the contrar\ , it may be one of the greatest truths. The thought that a preacher illustrates by a story concerning William Tell or Abraham Lincoln may be a great truth, though the story be un:orroboratcd or even contrary to t' * facts. Referring particu- larly to the New Testament writers' use of the Old Testament in corroboration of the resurrection of Jesus and of the virgin-birth, Dr. A. B. Davidson wrote: "The things they assert we take on their authority, but the kind of confirmation by which they support them, however valid they may have seemed as evidence then, may not seem of such importance now." Asserting authoritatively is not necessarily asserting infallibly. A great physician, for instance, may speak with great authority in his special department of medicine, and yet not be con- sidered infallible in it. Keeping this in mind. Dr. Davidson's sentence is very suggestive for the right interpretation of all the writers of the Bible. 96. Old Testament history comes to us in compi- lations. Much of the work of higher criticism is based upon the belief that through their differences in aim, treatment, and literary style the different documents, with more or less definiteness and confi- dence, can be separated from one another and from the work of the compilers themselves. There is danger here of unwarranted definiteness and confi- dence. Nevertheless, to get at the facts in and back mVMi •^»^T*T>^T^ 83 Christianity and Its Bible of the author's thought, it is not enough that the two series of Old Testament history be distinguished from each other. As far as possible, the different documents of which each is composed should be distinguished and viewed in the light of their differ- ent times. The difference between the two scries will be illustrated later when we consider their dif- ference with respect to beliefs concerning Satan. The difference between the documents of the earlier scries will be illustrated as we notice their different treatment of the tabernacle. We have already no- ticed that imbedded more or less in these different documents arc ihe different codes of law. As the important legal literature of the Bible, these codes are to be viewed in e light of their different times. 97. Most of the New Testament consists of gos- pels and epistles. The four gospels are biographies of Jesus in somewhat the same way that many of the Old Testament narratives are histories. They are homiletical biographies, or biographical sermons, and are to be interpreted accordingly. The use of material was determined largely by the purpose of the writers. These difTered somewhat. In the Fourth Gospel the declared purpose was to influence the readers to believe that Jesus was the Christ, the Son of God; and believing they might have life in his name (John 20:31). Of the twenty-seven New T(.^tament writmgs, the twenty-oue epistles, includ- Literature of Hebrews, Jews, and Early Christians 83 ing even Romans, are to be treated, not simply as theological treatises, but rather as religious letters in which there is more or less of the personal element. 98. The one class of literature that is dependent upon a knowledge of its times for even an approxi- mately correct interpretation is the apocalyptic. In the Bible it is found chiefly in Daniel and Revela- tion. To be understood at all it must be seen in the light of its times. Without this it is either absurd or occasions absurdity of views concerning the future. The large amount of it in the uncanonical literature of Bible times helps us to the right way to interpret the little that is found in the Bible. It must be treated as describing in a large symbolic way its troubled times. Naturally enough, the rulers, causes, circumstances, and hoped-for end of these could not be represented very explicitly. Its design was to give immediate help to a troubled present, rather than to predict what was to come in succeeding ages down to the present time. Rev. 1:1, 19; 4:1; 22:7, 10, for instance, point to the immediate future. If there is one class of literature in the Bible that especially needs the exercise of common-sense by the ordinary reader, it is this. There is meaning, for instance, in the numbers of apocalyptic litera- ture. The use of 3, 7, 10, 12, 40, for example, is significant. The trouble is that in the symbolism of numbers, as in the treatment of types, it seems very ip LI' I 14 ■ a "?'! I m\ T»" r^: ^^ ■ S^^j ', 84 Christianity and Its Bible easy for many minds to go to absurd extremes. Two thinf^s, then, are indispensable to an intelligent reading of apocalyptic writings— knowledge of their limes and a good degree of common-sense. F2ven so-called spiritually minded insight cannot dispense with these. CHAI FER VII ARTS, SCIENCK, AND I'HILOSOIMIY ARTS 99. We have now a historical and Hterary back- ground against which to see the arts, science, philoso- phy, religious beliefs, and messianic hopes of Bible times. In this chapter we consider first the arts. The sister-arts of architecture, sculpture, and paint- ing may well be considered together. Thousands of years before Christ the temples, tombs, and royal palaces of Egypt and Assyria were carved and colored to enhance their effect. While the principle of the arch was known, it was not used to roof great dis- tances, as in modern times. The nature of the archi- tecture was affected by the building material at hand. Mud-brick buildings were common in Bible times. Egypt, more favorably situated for building- stone than Assyria, has left us the pyramids and the Sphinx. Though Assyria built largely with mud- bricks, yet the capitals of her monuments are said to foreshadow the most graceful style of the Greeks; and Assyriologists are impressed with the eminence she attained in the bas-reli?f that adorned the walls of her palaces. "The cause of Phoenician suprem- acy in stone-work is probably from their occupying a rocky coast, where brick is less attainable, and a wet coast, where stone i-^^ more needed." 8s ■i '■fNimr ^•cfm&'an^m/srs-m.wvts'mi^^rers^m^iTt-si 1 , k^ 86 Cliristianilv and Its Bible loo. Phoenicians wiTe .(hi)lars is that in the Old Tes- tament references written before 586 B. c. we have a simple "tent of meeting" as the dwellmg-placc cf the ark, v.hich was looked upon a^ thr dwelling-place P^PP 88 Christianity and Its Bible of Jehovah. In those written alter that date we have thh tent ideaHzed according to the pattern of the templt of Solomon. While the synagogue would have some resemblance to the temple (the place of the Scripture answering to the Most Holy Place, and the different places for men, women, and strangers answering to the different courts of the temple area), the buildings naturally would reflect the styles of *he ages in which they were built. 103. It was in Greece over a century after 586 b. c. that art reached its greatest pre-Christian excellence. It was the age in which tragedy by Aeschylus, Sopho- cles, and Euripides, and comedy by Aristophanes, attained great excellence. It was the age when Athens was governed by Pericles, the brilliant patron of literature and art. In that age the Acropolis, or eminence upon which the city was built, was crowned with magnificent buildings. Among them was the marble temple c " Minerva, c lied the Parthenon. It arose under the superintendency of Phidias, the greatest of the Greek sculptors. Of the siyles of Greek architecture the simplest was the solid Doric, the column of which had as its capital a plain slab; the most graceful was the slender Ionic, the column of which had two spirals in its capital; and the most ornate was the Corinthian, with plantlike capitals. The greatest pre-Christian painter w-as Apelles, who lived in the time of Alexander the Great, through whom Palestine passed under Greek control. It was Kl Arls, Science, and Philosophy 89 before the time of ApcUes and among the Greeks that painting ceased to bo simply the handmaiden of architecture. 104. In the matter of sacred music it is almost impossible for the modern mind to put itself back into Bible times. The change would be so great. While the three divisions of musical instruments were then represented (the stringed by the harp and psaltery, the wind by the flute, and the instruments of percussion by the tabret or hand-drum), the in- strumental music itself was very crude. The skilful combining of notes played at the same time to pro- duce harmony, as it is viewed today, was then un- known. Even melody, with its pleasing succession of single notes, was but little understood. Of all the fine arts music was the latest in its development. It did not come of age until modern times. SCIENCE 105. The very beginning of the Bible— an account of creation— was written after 586 B.C. Imme- diately following this account is another account of creation, probably coming from before 586 b. c. They meet in the middle of Gen. 2:4. Similarly the flood has its different accounts. In the accounts of the creation and of the flood we have but two of a number of instances of parallel accounts. Some of these differ from each other so much in matter, method, conception, language, etc., that they must l:. 90 Christianity and Its Bible be the work of different authors and of considerably different times. The account of creation written after 586 B. c. differs very considerably from the one written before that date. It differs still more, how- ever, from what modern science has to tell us of the heavens and the earth. Its conceptions of these were very similar to those of the Babylonians. 106. Geology had not read on its strata-pages the wonderful story of the long history of the earth. Astronomy had not learned of ttie great universe in which the earth is but a planet revolving around the great sun which is but one of the many stars. In Bible times the earth was viewed as not round but flat, and as resting upon "the waters" of the "great deep." Somewheic beneath the surface of the earth was Sheol (Hades, Abaddon), viewed as the place of all who died. Above the earth was the " firmament," "called heaven," with its sun and moon and stars. Of these, though the sun and moon were "two great lights" as compared with the stars, they were small as compared to the earth itself. Above the firmament also were " the waters." In the firmament were the " windows of heaven." The flood was due to the opening of these "windows" and to the break- ing-up of the "fountains of the great deep." PHILOSOPHY 107. Science seeks to learn and classify the facts. Philosophy seeks to get beneath these in order to get Arts, Science, and Philosophy 91 ! their meaning. It has been called the "science of principles." It aims to get, beneath the islands of fact, the underlying, unifying meaning of them all. Philosophy aims to co-ordinate the interpreted resuUs of all science in a form suited to satisfy the demands of the intel- lect for a reasonable account of the universe. Theology aims at a synthesis of the same elements which shall meet the needs of man as a moral and religious being endowed with feeling and will. When man's inquiring into natur' was not oimply for the gratification of his immediate wants, but rather for the satisfying of a more intellectual demand for the reason of things, philosophy was born. Her chief abode was among the Greeks. The history of Greek philosophy may be conveniently divided into three periods. The middle one would be the cen- tury of the great three— Socrates, Plato, and Aris- totle who died in 322 B. c. Of these Plato was the pupil of Socrates and the teacher of Aristode. 108. The first of these periods sought an abiding principle for the explanation of the changing forms of nature. The first efforts were unscientific, judged by the science of today. Thales who lived at the time of the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 b. c, and with whom Greek philosophy may be said to have begun, held that "from water everything arises, into water everything returns." Decades later Pythagoras claimed that nu-iber was the essence of all things. He is said to have been the first who m^ir . ■'■y^ «i I 92 Chrislianily and lis Bible "wise" the title "philosopher," took for the term or "lover of wisdom." 109. Socrates, the first of the great three of our second period, is called the first moral philosopher because of his endeavor to get careful definitions for the different moral terms. An interesting compari- son might be made between the different representa- tions of him made by Plato and Xenophon, and the different representations of Jesus given in the four gospels. Platonism was influenced by the teachings of Socrates and by elements from earlier philosophy, including that of Pythagoras. Prominent in it is Plato's view of "ideas." This, in brief, was that all objects come from, and are more or less imperfect copies of, "ideas" which are the immaterial patterns for the classes to which the objects belong. For instance, actual men differ only as imperfect copies of the ideal man from whom they came. It was this teaching that prepared the way for the logos doc- trine of Philo, the eminent Alexandrian contemporary of Jesus. This doctrine was that the logos — i. e., the ideal world in the mind of God— originated the actual world. Plato himself occasionally used the word "logos" as "descriptive of the divine force from which the world has arisen." no. Though influenced by Platonism, Aristote- lianism differed from it considerably. The influence of both on later thought has been great. Coleridge wrote: "Evcrv man is born an Aristotelian or a ,4^5, Science, and Philosophy 93 Platonist." They differ in their methods. The Aristotelian method is inductive (a posteriori), be- cause it infers general conclusions from a considera- tion of particular cases. The Platonic is deductive (a priori), because it applies a general principle to the particular case. Thv y differ also in their theory of knowledge— i. e., in their epistemology. The Aristotelians are expcrientialists (empiricists, asso- ciationists, sensationists, etc.), because they hold that all knowledge is based on, and must be tested by, the senses and exp ncnces. The Platonists, on the other hand, are intuitionalists, because they hold that man has immediate knowledge of (i. e., he intuits) necessary truths. The Aristotelians are realists, as distinguished from idealists, because they hold that they can actually perceive, and surely know, not merely ideas, but what seem to be, and are, external objects. However idealists may differ among them- selves as subjective, objective, absolute, etc., idealism in its different forms is to be traced back to Plato's view of "ideas." III. The third period of Greek philosopliy began early in the period of Greek rule in Palestine. It was through Stoicism rather than through the opposite school of Epicureanism that the logos idea is to be traced. Epicureanism, founded by Epicurus, be- lieved in seeking individual happiness from the objective world. Stoicism, founded by Zeno and rmresrnted in Christian times by Seneca, Epictetus, nil :^i^ilk' 94 Christinnilv and Its Bible and Marcus Aurclius, "seekers aftci God," believed that the essence of things is the one universal logos, or reason, in harmony v/ilh which man should seek to live. That there is a connection between the Logos, or Word, of John i : i and tl logos of Greek philosophy there can be no (lucstion. The question is concerning the nature and extent of the connection between the Word c*" John i:i and the Platonic phraseology and thought that so influenced the Stoics and Philo. 112. Another term of Greek philosophy, to be taken into account in the study of the New Testa- ment and later doctrines, is the term "plcroma" (" fulness;" Col. i : 19, etc.). The philosophy found in the Wisdom literature of the Old Testament, if it may be called philosophy, is practical rather than speculative. An interesting question is concerning the relation between this and the later Greek philoso- phy. What, for instance, is to be said concerning the relation between the skepticism of Ecclesiastes a- " the skepticism of the Greek philosophers ? The development of its skepticism was one of the ways Greek philosophy prepared for the coming of Jesus. By its intellectual processes it undermined the religion of heathendom and prepared forms of thought for Christian thinkers. While one of its main roads led to a skepticism concerning the certainty of knowledge, another (Epicureanism) led to a moral decay, and its best (Stoicismj led to but an insufficient salvalion. Arts, Science, and Philosophy 95 Thus, both negatively and positively, it made ready for Him who came in "the fulness of the time." 113. In its contact with the speculative and skep- tical philosophy of the Greeks Christianity could pray: "This is life eternal that they should know Thee, the only true God, and him who Thou didst send, even Jesus Christ." With it the great dual- ism of experience was not, as with the Greeks, be- tween changing forms and abiding matter, and between reason and the senses. With it the funda- mental dualism was that between the will of God and the will of man. It taught, as the principle underlying all other principles, the willing oneness of God and man. It taught, as the solution of the problem of experience, the reconciliation between God and man— that God was in Christ reconciling the world unto himself. Philosophy as a school- master helped to prepare the Greek world for this lesson. I- ? ;! CHAPTER VIII DEVELOPMENT OF BELIEF IN BIBLE TIMES MONOTHEISM AND INDIVIDUALISM 114. Against the background of the history, and with a chronological use of the literature, we are better able to appreciate the fact of the development of belief in Bible times. We will notice first the growth of monotheism and individualism, then of views concerning the hereafter, then (as a continuation of this) of beliefs concerning the kingdom of God and its doctrine of the millennium, and finally of the belief in Satan and his hosts. First, then, concern- ing growth in conceptions of Deity and the place of man. While the Greek preparation for Chris- tianity was largely philosophical, the Jewish prepara- tion was largely theological. There were many lessons to be learned concerning the nature of Deity and the consequent relationship with man. It took centuries of schooling. The beginning of each of the lessons, and the extent to which at any particu- lar time it had been learned, may not be definitely determined. It is evident, however, that there was a great development in belief. It is hard, for in- stance, for our modern minds of the West to under- stand that the earlier Old Testament religion, in common with other religions, had as its unit before 96 Development oj Beliej in Bible Times 97 God, not the individual soul, but rather the com- munity or the people as a whole. God was primar- ily God of the nation, and only secondarily, of the individual as part of the nation. As Chemosh was the god of Ivloab, so Jehovah was God of but the Hebrew people and its land. 115. This is what is called monolatry. Like ix)lytheism, it believes in more than one God, but, like monotheism, which believes in only one God, it worships only one. Monotheism in theology sug- gests monism in philosophy. Monism would explain all phenomena by one ultimate substance or prin- ciple of being. This differs in different monistic systems. One of these, pantheism, says all is God. When and how did the Hebrew worship become monolatry, and when and how did it change from monolatry to monotheism ? The changed social and economic conditions resulting from the settlement in Canaan, the centralization of national govcnr- ment in the rise of the monarchy, ano. the effects of the captivity were among the influences at work. The captivity was a time of testing the strength of their attachment to the worship of Jehovah. Those who stood the test were helped to a higher view of their God. For such, instead of leading to the worship 01 the gods of the conquerors of Palestine, the captivity helped to the belief that he was the one God of the whole world, including Babylonia itself; and to the belief that the exile was a discipline . 98 Christianity and Its Bible through which this one God was causing the Jew to pass. ii6. The captivity affected them in two ways. It helped to give them a telescope and a microscope through which they learned, not only that Jehovah's rule was more extensive, but also that his interest was more intensive than they had thoui;ht. Though the increase of his greatness would tend to increase his transcendence, yet the breaking- up of the national unit increasrd the comparative importance of the individual unit before him. This growth of indi- vidualism is one of the most interesting studies in the Old Testament. That the 'solidarity of the family, clan, etc., overshadowed the worth of indi- viduality is seen especially in the early literature. It is shown in such instances as the destruction of the families of the guilty individuals (Num., chap. i6; Josh., chap. 7; II Sam., chap. 21; etc.). Back of Ex. 20:5 is the thought of solidarity rather than of heredity. The change from nomadic to agricul- tural, commercial, and town life helped to increase the comparative worth of individualism which had attained to clear, definite expression in the time of the exile. THE HEREAFTER 117. This great event, in helping to increase the domain of Jehovah and his interest in individuals, helped to a different v i.;w of the hereafter. It helped to the beh'ef that his presence and power were in Development oj Beliej in bible Times 99 Sheol itself, where the departed, as individuals, might hear his resurrecting voice. While like the Babylonian Aralu and the (ir.ek Hades in being an underworld, unlike Aralu and Hades, Sheol had no king nor queen, no God nor devil , of its own. There was no communion between its s)iades and Jehovah. The popular, indetinite, unphilosophical conception wa^ that Sheol was deprived of all that made the earthly life desirable. The ex-eptional incident of Samuel has an interesting parallel, among the Greeks, in Teire^ias. Of this' blind soothsayer we read in the tenth book of the Odyssey: "To him Persephone hath given judgment, even in death, that he alone should have understanding; but the other souls sweep shadow-like around." Yet thii same poet makes his hero excla im, as recorded in the next book: "Muc' ni 'her would I work, as a servant, on a poor man's field, in the land of the living, than rule over all the hosts of the departed dead." Even the most ambitious Hebrew could say: "Though to reign is worth ambition, I would rather serve on earth than reign in Sheol; for it is the land of silence and darkness and dust." 118. How strange the pathetic acquiescence of even the godly in the common fate of Sheol ! The few and uncertain searchlight flashes of the poets only impress us the more with the dark prospect of so many and -n so many generations. As indicated by the changed prepositions in the Revised Version of II lOO Christumity and Its Bible the last two verses of the sixteenth psalm, and as suggested by the parallelism of Hebrew poetry in the last verse of the twenty third psalm, these two psalms by no means teach the j^really developed belief in the hereafter that they often have been used to illustrate. More important references are to be found in the seventeenth, forty-ninth, and seventy- third psilms, and in the fourteenth and nineteenth chapters of Job. It is significant that, while it is not safe to be positive about the appro.ximate dates of the poetic passages in which the personal hints and hopes are found, yet the indications are that, for the most part, they reflect the lessons learned after 586 B. c. What is true of the jwetic suggestions is also true of the very few, but more positive, utter- ances of the prophets concerning the resurrection of the individual. It was not until the discipline, following the destruction of Jerusalem, developed the individualism of the earlier poetry and prophecy, that there were any sure expressions concerning resurrection of the individual. 119. The reference to resurrection in Hos. 6:2; 13: 14, and E/.ek., chap. 37, are nai; >nal and figura- tive — in the tirst to a national recovery, in the other to a national restoration to Palestine. In a late, somewhat apocalyptic, booklet (chaps. 24-27), found embedded in the first part of Isaiah, we find a prayer to Jehovah to the effect: "Thou hast increased the nation, O Jehovah, but how about the I Drehprnent oj Ikliej in Bible Times loi individuals who hiivc died?" The- answer comes: "Thy dead shall live; my dead bodies hhall arise. Awake and sin^', ye that dwell in ihe dust; for thy dew is as the dew of herbs, and the earth shall east forth the dead " (Isa. ->6: 19). In another late book, also ajjocalyptic, we hear the fullest 0\d Testament notes on the resurrection of the individual: "And many of them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlastin«5 life and some to shame and everlasting contempt" (Dan. 12:2). Besides the suggestive ixietic additions which may be likened to enriching grace notes, we have thus only a few, clear, ringing notes in the Old Testament prelude to the New Testament song. 120. In the non-biblical literature of Judaism in Bible times the representations of the "last things" are oft-'n sneculative, uncertain, and inconsistent. Shtol (or Hades, as it was call-d in the parts of this extra-canonical literature that were written in Greek) was sometimes simply the place of shades, sometimes the place of punishment; sometimes it was undivided, bometimes it was divided into diFerent compartments for the evil and the good; sometimes it was the final state, sometimes the intermediate state. Sometimes the resurrection was only of the righteous, sometimes of the wicked as well; some- times of all Israel; sometimes of all men. 121. This variety of beliefs, suggestive of different lines a!on" which the Old Testament views might be If. I02 Christianity and Its Bible carried, should be borne in mind by those who would understand the New Testament representations of the teaching of Jesus concerning the hereafter. A study of these shows that they are expressed in the figurative language of fire, etc. We of the West do well to remember the suggestive words given to us by Mozoomdar, a seer from the East, when he said: "Jesus was an oriental; and we orientals understand him. He spoke in figures. We understand him. He was a mystic. You take him literally; you make an Englishman of him." While the rejjorted words of Jesus are not to be taken too literally, they are nevertheless free from the sensuous details and extravagant speculations of the non-biblical writings of the scribes. Of all his teaching, however, that concerning the hereafter is most akin to that of these important writings. This is especially true of its phraseology and its form. What in the Old Testament was simply a germ seems to be developed by him in the highest way suggested by these writings. Much that was materialistic was spirituali/.ed, and much was omitted that was gross. KINGDOM OF GOD AND MILLENNIUM 122. As the doctrine of the kingdom of God has an important bearing upon much-discussed views of the hereafter, let us notice briefly its development. As we have seen, in the thought of the early times Jehovah's interest was identified with that of the Development oj Belief in Jible Times 103 people and land from which he received his worship. In this we have a j^ood clue to an understanding nf the origin, and so of the significance, of the . . c lan- guage, there is back of it a millennial belief. This passage is, however, the sole exception in the whole New Testament. 125. With this exception, whatever else it may or may not be, the millennium is not biblical. Its power in the early church was due to the influence upon the Jewish Christians of their much-prized non-biblical writings. Historically considered, the doctrine of the millennium (with its thought of the second coming of Christ) is but the cocoon of the old Jewish temporal kingdom (with its thought of the coming Messiah) still clinging to the spiritual king- dom of Christ. A most interesting study, indeed, is that of the relation between the doctrine of the second coming of Christ and the expectations disappointed by his first. In view of the little support that there is for many of the beliefs concerning the hereafter, the dogmatic utterances (especially by the untrained) concerning future probation, intermediate state (with its doctrine of purgatory), the millennium, and such questions, forcibly recall the words of a devout scholar. As professor of theology he wrote concern- ing his teaching in eschatology (last things): "In io6 Christianilv aud Its Bible this entire subject special care will be taken to be faithful to our human ignorance." SATAN 126. It is this special care that, in view of the modern teachino;s of science and philosophy, has, among students, so noticeably lessened dogmatic utterances concerning the belief in Satan. A recent great work in systematic theology omits all reference to such a being. In the Scripture, how. vcr, the word "Satan," which means "adversary," is found about fifty times; the word "devil," which means "slanderer," over thirty times; and the words for demon (in the Authorized Version wrongly rendered "devil' ), over seventy times. Of these over one hundred and fifty references, only about thirty are found in the Old Testament. Remembering that the Old Testament is three and a half times larger than the New Testament, this means that these words are found, say, twT'nty times more frequently in the New Testament than in the Old Testament, where they are found, mainly if not altogether, in the writings after 586 b. c. 127. It seems that it was not until after that date that the serpent of the Garden of Eden was identified with Satan. After their Babylonian captors were conquered by the Persians, the Jews doubtless were in touch with Persian beliefs. According to these, Ormnzd. as god of goodness and lirrht. was onnosed Development oj Belie} in Bible Times 107 bv Ahriman, the evil spirit of darkness. Beneath these were different orders of good and evil spirits. How much the "germ which lay hidden in Judaism was fertilized by contact with the Persian religion" is a question. In II Samuel 24:1, written before the exile, we read that ''Jehovah moved David against Israel." In I Chron. 21:1, written after the contact with the Persian religion, the Chronicler reproduces the earlier passages thus: ''Satan stood up against Israel and moved David to number Israel." Though before the exile there was a belief in evil spirits, they nevertheless were agents of God. Even as late as the exile itself Jehovah is represented as saying: "I create evil." In writings as late as Zechariah, in the third chapter of which Satan appears in the r6le of an accuser, and the first part of Job, where he appears as a tempter, he, in both cases, is still an official of God. By New Testament times, however, he had become God's powerful enemy. 128. In the New Testament itself we see the belief that, as God had his Christ and his order of angels, so Satan had his Antichrist and his order of demons. To the agencv of these demons physical and mental evils, such as epilepsy and insanity, were supposed to be due. While in the Fourth Gospel such references are noticcablv few, in the first three gospels the fre- quent references to the diseased as those who were possessed with demons clearly reflect the belief of the times. The belief was held among other peoples loS Christianity and Its Bible as well as among the Jews. As far as the Jews were concerned, it is noteworthy that it is written in Acts 23:8; that the Sadducees "say that there is no resur- rection, neither angel nor spirit, but the Pharisees," who more than the Sadducees were represented by the later non-biblical writings, "confess both." Throughout the Xew Testament there is manifest a strong belief in Satan and his hosts. As sug- gested already, and as will be seen more clearly in Parts III and IV, change of \iew does not neces- sarily mean improvement of view. All four sections of this chapter ha'.-e shown changes in beliefs. The result of these changes differ very much in worth. For instance (and this is preparatory to Part IV), modern scholarship is favorably disposed to the changed views of Dcit} and of the relation between Deity and man, rather than to the later belief in Satan and his hosts. The next chapter, after con- sidering the development of the messianic idea, will give in a word the attitude of modern scholarship to the question of the relation between Jesus and the Old Testament hopes. -f mmM^-m CHAPTER IX JESUS AS THK CHRIST MESSIANIC HOPES 129. We should not forget that a main part of the road over which Christianity through Judaism came to its own was built by the Jewish hope of a coming Messiah. Remembering that the Hebrew word "Messiah," which means "anointed," corresponds to the Greek word "Christ," let us ask about the relation between the Jewish Christ and Jesus Christ. Who was the Jewish Christ— what was the Jewish conception of the nature and work of the expected Messiah? In the New Testament we find many references to this Jewish expectation. Indications of its development are seen in the Old Testament, and to a great extent in the non-biblical literature of the Jews. The process of the development, how- ever, cannot be determined with desirable definite- ness. We are uncertain concerning the dates of the different messianic passages and the significance of their very different, if not conflicting, representations of the messianic idea. Before they had any definite thought of a coming person, the messianic idea may be found in the early history as one of the seeds of hope that "springs eternal in the human breast." This hope was germinated and developed in the soil log no Christianity and lis Bible of expcriencr and in the varylnix light of changing conception^ of God. It was not until somewhat late in this process that the terms "Anointed" ("Messiah"), "Son of David," "^,on of man," and "Son of God" were used as distinctive titles of the expected Messiah. 130. When the prosjjerity under King David, fol- lowed by a decline in the national fortunes, led to an idealization of his reign, the varying national hope looked for a Davidic king or kings who would repre- sent Jehovah and reign for him as his anointed in a. material kingdom of God. The still later experi- ences of the nation, especially that of the captivity, modified the conception of the coming kingdom by giving more room in it for other nations and for individuals as individuals. The greatest change, however, was through the prophets' increasingly moral conception of God. Through these higher conceptions of God the blessings of the coming king- dom were looked upon as more spiritual; and the conditions of obtaining them became, not simply rites and sacrifices, but repentance and righteousness. Thus it was that Jesus and his forerunner were able to preach so impressively "Repent ye" and "Bring forth fruit meet for repentance," "for the kingdom of heaven is at hand." 131. For the majority (including the disciples) me predominating conception was that a son (i. e., a descendant) of David would rpicrr> o'-'cr a Jesus as the Christ III political kingdc n. Next in importance to this seems to have been the moral conception of the prophets. What indications are there in the Old Testament, in the uncanonical literature of the Jews, or in the New Testament, to show that the Jews entertained the thought that their salvation wouid be through 'he suffering of the Messiah? Though, in its development, the messianic idea ramified in many and very different directions, we do not find the idea of salvation through suffering as one of its main branches when Jesus came. Whatever our view of the fifty-third chapter of Isaiah (whether we look upon its suffering servant as collective or indi- vidual, as ideal or real), when Jesus came it was not popularly understood as referring to the one who was to come as the Messiah. According to the representations of subsequent uncanonical literature, this coming king could have prophetic characteristics, and could even be mortal ; but the salvation of others through his own suffering and death was no bought to be for him. 132. Such a thought would have been, then, as later, "to the Jews a stumbling-block and to the Greeks foolishness." On part of an old wall, dis- covered in 1858, is a picture by means of which, it is supposed, some Christian, of maybe the third century, was mocked. It is supposed to be the work of one of his companions. Underneath a rude drawing of one in the attitude of devotion before a 112 Christianity and Its Bible crucified man with a beast's head, is scrawled in Greek: "Alexamenos worshi{)s God"— "to the Greeks foolishness." In one of Dora's largest paintings Jesus, with the disciples near him and the accompanying multitudes shouting hosannas to the son of David, is making his triumphant entry into Jerusalem. In another (Dore's masterpiece) Jesus is represented as a condemned criminal. In leaving the Practorium for his ignominious exit from Jerusa- lem, he is forsaken even by his disciples. To them, then, as then and later to their countrymen, the thought of a crucified Messiah was "a stumbling- block." 133. As related to the variously cc ived Jewish Christ, who was Jesus Christ? Though there is uncertainty about the process, there is no question about the fact, that Christianity, in its beginnings, did adopt and adapt the messianic hopes that were current among the Jews when Jesus came. In fact, the early Christians made these fundamental in their ministry to the Jews, as later, in their ministry to the gentiles, they adopted and adapted the Greek con- ception of the logos or word. Did Jesus adopt this Jewish hope ? Did he adopt this Greek conception ? If he did adopt, did he adapt and how ? What did Jesus think of himself ? Did he claim for himself a virgin-birth and that he was the Word, the Messiah, and the Son of God ? Important questions these. ■Ttt^ Jesus as the Christ "3 WHAT JESUS THOUGHT OF HIMSELF 134. Did Jesus claim a virgin-birth and that he was the Logos ? A consideration of the Greek con- ception of the logos woul'l take us back to Plato's view of "ideas." We have noticed that the question is not whether the "Word" of John 1:1 has any connection with the language and thought of Plato. The question is rather concerning the nature and extent of the connection. There is no question that in the New Testament the claim is made that Jesus is the Logos or Word. The unique prologue of the Fourth Gospel teaches the pre-cxistence (vs. 1) and the incarnation (vs. 14) of the Word. The nearest parallel to this in the New Testament is the famous passage, Phil. 2 : 5-9, which teaches the pre-existence and self-emptying of Jesus. We are surpriocd to find that neither in Philippians nor in the Fourth Gospel is there any reference to the virgin-birth. In fact, this is found only twice in the New Testa- ment — once in the first and once in the third gospel; and even in the?° there is no record of Jesus himself claiming it. All this suggests that "the question of physical methods how God got hirhself embodied is far less important than the ethical and spiritual question how God got himself so mar- velously expressed." As there is no record that Jesus claimed the virgin-birth, so there is no record that he claimed to be the Logos. It is significant that even the Fourth Gospel, though representing Jesus as the i' 'iL- 114 Christianity and Its Bible Logos and as claiming prc-existcnci' for himself, d^cs not R-prt'sont him as adopting and adapting to him- self the current philosophical conceptions of the Logos or Word. 135. Wry dilTcrent is the representation of his treatment of the current Jewish hope of a Messiah. In view of its remarkable elasticity and the way it was variously conceived, he could easily have adopted it without being committed to any one definite conception that was already held. However we may endeavor not merely to get back lo, but back oj, the gospels, it is ditTicult to get away from the conviction that, as applied to himself, Jesus did adopt and adapt this current messianic hope. Hu- manly speaking, it was thus he got his standing- ground in Judaism in order that he might lift the world. Of the four messianic terms — "Messiah" ("Christ," "Anointed"), "Son of David," "Son of man," and "Son of God" — the meaning of the first is seen in the meaning of the others. How were these used ? How about the term "Son of David" ? It is significant that, though it had a large place in current thought when Jesus came, we lind no in- stance in the New Testament where Jesus himself used the term, as applied to himself. Inst^^ad, we find, according to Mark 12:35-37, that he suggested a difiiculty in the way of accepting the scribal teach- ing that Christ is the Son of David. 136. now about the term "Sun of man"? The indications are that in the time of Jesus it was not Mi ■' ',f ^ Jesus lis thf Christ "S recogni/.c'l —at least not commonly -;is messianic. While there are only two or three instances of its use by others, there is no ((ueslion hut that it was frc- (|iiently used by Jesus himself, and often most evi- dently of himself. What he meant by it, and why he used it, are very important ([uestions, but dillicull to answer. The diiricujiy is increased by the fact that in Aramaic the |)robable word for "son of man" really meant, not a particular man, but "mankind." In Ps. 8:4 we read What is man that thou art mindful of ■.. : And the son of man that thou visiltst tiim ? Here ihe parallelism of Hebrew i^oetry suggests that "sun of man" is equivalent t( "man." To what extent the view of Jesus was influenced by a study of this psalm and of the second psalm, and of the use of the term son of man in Dan. 7:13, we do not know. In eighty or more pa>sages it occurs, as used, on about forty ditTerent occasions, by Jesus himself. From a study of these we are led to believe that, while his use of it was messianic, yet, as is sugg' ted by the Aramaic word, it was used by him, not in a narrow, Jewish, but in a broader, deeper, human sense. This sense would, with less ditTiculty, admit the thought of the Messiah suffering 10 save. It could be said of the Son of man who came "to seek and to save that which was lost," that he must "sutTer many things" and "be killed" to "give his life a ransom for many." ii6 Christianity and Its Bible 137. How about the term "Son of God"? In the Old Testament different individuals, and the whole nation as Jehovah's peculiar people, are figuratively referred to as his sons. According to some scholars this figure is used in a messianic sense in a few Old Testament passages. It is also claimed that in the uncanonical literature the term "Son" appears as a title of the expected Messiah. There is no question but that, as such, it sometimes was applied to him in the New Testament. What did it mean ♦:o Jesus himself ? Through his conception of his relation to the Father it had a meaning into the depths of which I do not feel able to go. One of the world's greatest scholars has said: In this consciousness he knows himself to be the Son called and instituted of God to be the Son of God, and hence he can say: ".\fy God and my Father;" and into this invo- cation he puts something which belongs to no one but him- self. How he came to this consciousness of the unique char- acter of his relation to God as a Son; how he came to the consciousness of his power, and to the consciousness of the obligation and the mission which this power carries with it, is his secret, and no psychology will ever fathom it. In Jesus as the Son of man we see the one that so wrought and taught among his fellows that, at first in a messianic sense and later in a higher sense, they looked upon him as the Son of God. In Jesus as the Son of God we apprehend, but do not claim to com- prehend, how he was so much at home with God his Father that he could bring his fellows into such rela- ■■KH Jesus as the Christ 117 tionship with God that they too, gentile and Jew, could call God "Father." 138. We do not know when Jesus first was able definitely to say to himself: "I am the Messiah." We do not know just when the cross came above his horizon and he felt that it was as the suffering Messiah he was to be the savior of his people. It is probable, however, that he early thought of God as his Father; that after his baptism, if not before, he looked upon himself as the Messiah; and that before he came to Calvary, as far back on the road as Caesarea Philippi, he had a vision of the cross. Though the gospels tell us that he told his vision to the disciples, it was not until after he was crucified that they could believe and seek to prove from Scrip- ture that it " behooved the Christ to suffer." Speak- ing in a general way, before coming to the cross the kingly, prophetic, suffering servant, and other streams of Jewish hopes, though coming nearer to- gether and exerting some influence over one another, were commonly kept distinct; but in passing the hill of Calvary they seem to have quickly converged, and l^ !— a marvel : instead of a Jewish Jordan, that might have ended in a Dead Sea, there was a mighty river flowing for the blessing of all nations and into the limitless ocean of the very life and love of God. JESUS AS GOAL OF OLD TESTAMENT HOPES 139. Advanced Christian scholarship today agrees with the earlv Christians in looking upon "Jesus ii8 Christianity and Its Bible Christ and him crucified" as the center into which converged the different radii of Old Testament hopes. It reaches the same goal, though it reaches it in a somewhat different way. It shuns applying to Jesus the details of the Old Testament in the forced, fanciful, and often fantastic way of the early, and even of the later, times. Nevertheless, it sees fulfilled— i. e. filled full— through him what was but partly filled by the Old Testament views of God. It does not say, as has actually been taught, that the five stones for David's sling stand for J-e-s-u-s: for it might be suggested facetiously that, viewed from the other side, they stand for S-a-t-a-n. It does see, however, in the story of David and Goliath, truth that was there before Jesus came, but which, because he came, we are better able to understand. Through- out the Old Testament it sees Jesus prefigured and foreshadowed in the enunciation of principles that were exemplified in him, and in the expression of ideals and hopes that, when purified of their dross, had their golden realization in him. In their "splendid failures" to reach the Eldorado of their dreams it sees that the Old Testament worthies helped to chart the main over which, as crossed and mapped out by Jesus himself, we may reach the golden shore of the true kingdom of God. It sees how, though colored by the conceptions and experi- ences of the times, the fifty-third chapter of Isaiah and kindred passages contain the principle of salva- HMHiaiHHip mm Jesus as the Christ 119 tion through another's suffering, and that this prin- ciple was so exemplified in the life and death of Jesus that its most sacred symbol in all the world is the cross on which he died. 140. The words of E. S. Ames in the American Journal of Theology are appropriate in closing this our last chapter on the Bible and its times: It is an impressive fact that the two typical Jewish con- ceptions of the redemptive work of Jehovah were the counter- parts of two contrasted periods of the national life. One was projected from the background of the golden age of the mon- archy under King David. As he put to silence his enemies and established a glorious kingdom, so God would some day, by another mighty one, deliver his people and make them supreme. The other view of divine deliverance was an expression of the humbled and chastened national spirit in the period of oppression and exile. Humility and suffering innocence were its central elements. In the end, when his life was completed, the character and work of Jesus con- formed best to the lattt type, while his own experience and powerful personality added vividness and strength to the ethical, social conception of God as a loving Father. ■V*^'«:"l^ PART III CHRISTIANITY SINCE BIBLE TIMES ■J^-^fcffiff^Ur Jl CHAPTER X HALF-WAY TO 15 17 AD. A BACKGROUND OF GENERAL HISTORY 141. The aim of Part III, which begins with this chapter, is not to preach historical sermons, but simply to give a survey of the whole field of church history. Dividing it into three periods, wc will first give attention to the leading topics of each period. Then, with these periods in mind, we will give atten- tion to missions, general culture, and religious be- liefs of the whole history since Bible times. What are our three periods ? What 586 B. c. is in the his- tory of Bible times, 1 51 7 a. d. is in the history of the Christian church. The fixing of this one dale will help keep in mind three periods into which church history may be conveniently divided — half the way to 1517, from that to 1517, and since 1517. In the first period the church was one ; in the second it was divided into two great divisions; in the third, into three. The close of the first period (about the middle of the eighth century) was about the date of the death of John of Damascus, the last of the church fathers. The first period, therefore, may be called the period of the church fathers. In it the Roman Empire is divided into the Eastern and the Western Empires; Rome itself is talcen by the barbarians of "3 124 Clirisliauity and Its Bible the North; Mohammedanism rises, sprciiJs rapidly, and i;. checked; and Christianity is persecuted, spreads, opposes heresies, and writes creeds. 142. Titus, by whom Jerusalem was destroyed in 70 A. D., succeeded his father Vespasian, and was succeeded in the first century by Domitian and iNcrva. To the second century belong Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Corn- modus. In less than a century following there were many army-made emperors, including Decius in the first half of the third century. Joint rule and civil war, ending in 324 A. D., resulted in the sole rule of Constantine, the first Christian emperor. In the following year, 325 (a date that may well be kept in mind), was the great Council of Nicaea, the first of the ecumenical (i.e., "universal" or "general") councils of the early church. Constantine built Constantinople and made it the seat of his govern- ment. Julian the Apostate was one of the emperors who succeeded him before the time of Theodosius I. Zealously orthodox, Theodosius I, called " The Great," in the thought of the early church had a glory second only to that of Constantine. After his death in 395, the empire was divided into the Eastern, or Greek, and the Western, or Latin, Empires. While the Eastern Empire lived over a millennium longer (until 1453), the Western Empire lasted less than a century. Rome fell in 476 — four centuries after it had destroyed Jerusalem. ^ •smmm^^ llaljWay tn 1517 A- D- 125 143. Odoaccr, its Teutonic conqueror, bdonRcd to a much later westward movemint of Aryans than that which brought the Greeks and Romans to the two great European jK-ninsulas inside the Mediter- ranean. In the extreme west of Europe were the Cehic Aryans, represented today by the Irish, Welsh, and ir-.;hland Scotch. Eastern Europe was overrun by the Slavonic Aryans, among whom the Russians arc cL ?d. In central and western Europe, between Celts and Slavs, were the Teutonic Aryans, including Goths, Vandals, Burgundians, Franks, Saxons, Lombards, Danes, etc. Of these the Franks under Clovis proved to be the strongest. 144. It was while, in Europe, the Franks were under the rule of the house of Clovis (Merovingian) that, in Arabia, the Mohammedan era began with the ' Hegira- i. e., Mohammed's "departure" or flight from Mecca to Medina in 622. This date is in the Mohammedan calendar what the supposed date of Christ's birth is in the Christian. In less than a century and a half later Mohammedanism had not or overrun Arabia and the three river-territories of carlv Semitic history, but had gone a thousand miles farther east in Asia, to the river Indus on the borders of India; in Africa, two thousand miles farther west, to the very ocean; and in Europe, over the Spanish peninsula to the kingdom of the Franks. Besides Mecca, among its important centers were Bagdad on the Tigris (one of its caliphs, or succes- I 126 Christiiuiilv iind lis Bible sors of Mohammccl, was Ilaroun al Rnschid, of the Arabian A^/.{j/.'v), Cairo on the Xilc near the Delta, and Cordova and Granada in Si)ain. Defeated at Constantinople, and thus failinj^ to enter Europe from Asia Minor, and seeking to penetrate into Europe farther ih in S|)ain, they were defeated at Poitiers by Charles Martel. As mayor of the palace he was the power behind the Merovin<;ian throne. FATHERS, PAGAN LEADKRS, AND PERSECUTIONS 145. Mohammedanism overran the territory from which had come most of the church fathers. These were divided by the Council of Nicaca (325) into two classes — the ante-Nicenc and post-Nicene fa- thers. Some of them wrote in Greek and some in Latin. Their writings are what is called the pa- tristic literature. A consideration of this begins with the writings that have been attributed to the so- called apostolic fathers— i. e., writings supposed to have come from those in close fellowship with the apostles. Patristic literature also includes the apolo- getic fathers (apologists), who wrote defenses of Christianity against the attacks of Jews and others. Belonging to the ante-Xicene period, and in the time of their origin overlapping the New Testament it- self, we have, corresponding to the Old Testament Apocrypha, a New Testament Apocrypha. It has gospels, acts, epistles, and an apocalypse. Among the antc-Xirene fathers whr> wrnfc in Greek was the Ilalj Way to 151? •!• ^^• 127 j,hilosoi.hical, allcRori/.in;; OriRcn of Alexandria. Prominent amons those who wrote in Latin was the practical, forceful Tertullan of Carthage. Of very great value for the ante-Xicene period are the his- torical writings of Eusebius of Caesarea. The pe- riod of his bishopric included the date of the Council of Nicaea, 325. The great worth of his history is due mainly to its extracts from the early Christian and non-Christian writings that have been lost. 146. The post-Nicenc fathers include, among the Latin fathers, .\ugustine, Jerome, and Gregory the Great, with whom the Latin fathers end in the be- ginning of the seventh century. The Greek fathers include, among many others, .Xthanasius of Alexan- dria, Chrvsostom, and John of Damascus, with whom they end' in the middle of the eighth century. As far back as th- -xth century, however, among both the Latins and the Greeks, and indicating that inde- pendent work was practically over, we have mainly catenae— i. e., collections of quotations from writings of the distinguished fathers of the early centuries. The authority of these writings so increased with the lapse of time that they came to rival the Bible itself. 147. Of pagan leaders in the anti-Nicene period three names may be mentioned, one in each of the first three centuries— ApoUonius of Tyana, ^ .sus, and Porphyry. The philosophy of Pythagoras, re- vised and mixed with other elements, and m called Nco Pythagorcanism, hnd, .as its chief representa- ll I. % ♦.a 128 Chrisfidttilv nnd Its IVti<., tivc in the first century, Apollonius of i yan.i in Cai>|);i(loc-ia. Horn about the time of Christ, he lived nearly a century. Philosopher, asr(>tic, -nd religious reformer with numerous fv)li rs he claimed the gift of prophecy and the i)0'.vi r • \ «rk miracles. He has often been compared v it !■! -, and the account of hi^ life by Philostrai \ it', l ^e four gospels' accounts of Jesus. 148. In the second rvntury pagan sn, str* igly asserted itself through (aIsus. it'^ earliest real af'r n cate as against Christian -ty. His i)oleniic, a large part of which has come down to us in the answer of Origen, was written near the beginning of the last quarter o*^ the century. The Jew introduced in the first part of his work repeats 'he slanders riirrent among the Je\^ , representini; Jesus as a vagatKind impostnr, liis mother a.s an adultert-ss, his miracles and resurrection as \\\n^ faliies. ... Mmost everything that modem opponents down to our own day have advanced against he gosfx;! history and doctrine is found here wrought out with original force and subtlety, inspired with burning liatnd and bitter irony, and highly spiced with invective. fKunz.) 149. .\s an ojiponent of Christianity, Porphvry in the third centur\ took the place of Celsus in the second. He claimed that there were contradiction - in the Bible, that I'aul and Peter differed, ihni Daniel was late, and that the common, alh ^orical method of interpretation was wrong. He ai-o, in a collection of sayings, gave to paganism a heallun Ifalj n\iy to I D '9 I I Bible, as rhilostniiu.-, in hi tur ot .\{K»Uo!r^ht to comuinc n itsi t the b- t of rdl^^ion an. ?hu)soph. ^ had gr. -nrl t-n. •/ 11- on the cai V vhurch A r* . >1c ^lai-ii-.i fourth I 'Uiiry wu lot! t^e X'wstatc 1 1 ausc wl In •m, i Jul ' . oando" I ' h h souf^h 'o • ic 'h c'-nr.. .ri. I'V )rk \va^ ii/i. nil nt'.' lad. ' du nroni ,tU' u , inlu, 1 of the 1 .10(1 t;anitv ijr Ncopl.itoni , nie iiligion of the sla! . I lia. heroine of Kinj^ 1 nt representative. T' Xeopl.lloni^|n, as a >ysti ence ca bi f et thri . Middle vges, aown 'he p: ^ciit ' in> 150. The ante-Ni .< ' wa- rapid growth, not sin^>!v .. 'ite of. 1 I he fact th, :■ ihe\ .ve • ccutu' - " Till l)luud ' he m.ift) r- is the h A^ . -Iv IS e reig i of T^beriu u! . -h •he> ling of Stephen th, !: 11 rtyr) and thv' martyr- .ri'ier "^'pi'' ^- ' Suetonius, a I ,at ir linv' of Claudius mperc. >. iie J-ws from tyn!' of Je> all. doi p:^ f- ,• . Rom. period of lecause of, rsi ution. ine c I'h." li-; tl. mar- ^'.apt. by iici »i Ai' ipas and im. writer, ts 18:2! e. luse lluy •■•ere co. lUy stirring up lumui' iiUcr li I30 Christianity and Us Bible is supposed to be a misspelling of the name "Christ." The next emperor, Nero, was the first of the emperors to persecute the Christians as Chris- tians. In the year 64 he blamed and fiendishly tor- tured Christians for a nine-day fire, of which he himself was supposed to have been the fiendish cause. It is probable that both Peter and Paul were put to death in Rome under Nero. 151. In Asia Minor Christians, as adherents of a forbidden religion and as those who had what seemed at least to be the forbidden secret societies, were being put to death by Pliny, the governor of Bithynia. Finding them morally and politically blameless, he wrote to the emperor Trajan. The result was an edict to the effect that Christians were to be put to death only when, after having been for- mally accused, they refused to sacrifice to the gods and burn incense before the emperor's statue. Before the time of Decius, though persecutions had become legal, they were local. With him began determined and general efforts to suppress the religion of Christ. Many of the Christians lapsed from the faith by observing heathen rites or by misrepresenting their own position. They were called "Lapsi." Those who publicly confessed Christ, but were not com- pelled to become martyrs, were called "Confessors. " Because of the number of these and of the many joyous martyrs, th'. impossibility of uprooting Christianity was admitted. Edicts of toleration Halj-Way to 1517 A. D. 131 were issued, and soon an emperor himself professed to be a Christian. Whatever may be back of the story of the cross in the heavens, the words "by t\ . sign conquer," and Christ's confirmation of this in a dream, the victory of Constantine over his rivals meant a great temporal advantage to Christianity which became the religion of the state. HERESIES, CREEDS, AND PAPACY 152. Some of the patristic literature was written in view of heresies and schisms. The earlier here- sies were mainly the result of religious eclecticism — i.e., the combining of elements from d Terent reli- gious systems: Jewish, Greek, Persian, etc. The judaizing tendency that was combated in Paul's life and writings made istelf manifest in post-apostolic times in v/hat is called Ebionism. This was the result of the attempt to incorporate into Christianity the narrow particularism of Judaism. In a num- ber of New Testament references, including the reference to the science, or rather knowledge, ("gnosis") of I Tim. 6:20, we discern at least the embrv'o of post-apostolic Gnosticism. This in its heretical development resulted from the effort to combine Christianity with the religious and philo- sophical ideas of paganism. It appeared in many forms — Marcionism, Docctism, Priscillianism, etc. Marcionism was named from Marcion of Asia Minor. While Paul lontrastcd the righteous law f>!LLJI'ili''J k J.r 'f .: ' .^ . ' U Ji ,"■... A. 132 Christianity and Its Bible with the gospel of grace, and Judaism with Chris- tianity, Marcion put them in opposition and did away with the Old Testament altogether. He ad- mitted in the New Testament only ten epistles and one gospel. Keeping in mind such scriptures as I John 4:2 and II John, vs. 7, it is interesting to note how the idea that Jesus had no real body is to be found in these Gnostic systems, and how it led to the rise of a sect called Docetists, from the Greek word for appearance. The first instance of the capi- tal punishment of heretics was that of Priscillus and some of his followers, 385. Priscillianism, which arose in Spain, was a Gnostic development of Mon- t:'nism. This widespread movement, which was originated in Asia Minor in the second century, was at first but an extravagant reform movement, but later was treated as a heresy and destroyed. The place that Jewish thought took in Ebionism and that Greek philosophy took in Gnosticism, Per- sian dualism took in Manichaeism, which appeared in the third century. It was somewhat influenced by the ethics of Buddhism, and sought, and was adapted for, a more popular acceptance than Gnosticism. 153- rhe later heresies were due largely to dis- proportionate emphasis of views that otherwise would have been considered orthodox. Origen of Alexandria had taught that the Son in some way was subordinate to the Father. He also taupht that mm Halj-Way to 1517 A. D. ^33 i the Son was begotten, not once for all, but from eternity. This, called " eternal generation," implies that the Son always had a separate personality. In 318 Arius of Alexandria was accused of denying Christ's divinity because he taught that Jesus, though first and greatest of all created, was himself created. The eloquent Athanasius, also of Alexan- dria, was later his greatest opponent. The Athana- sians denied the subordination, but held to the eternal generation of the Son. The Arians did not believe in the eternal generation of the Son, but held to his subordination to the Father, The Athana- sians were Homoousians — i, e., they believed that the Son was of the same nature, essence, substance as the Father. The Arians were Heteroousians— i.e., they believed he had a different nature from the Father's, Semi-Arians were Homoiousians — i. e., they believed he had a like nature with the Father's. The question of the separate personality and nature of the Holy Spirit was brought into the discussion. It is therefore known as the great trini- tarian controversy, lasting from 318 to 381. The controversy became so heated that Constantine called the Council of Nicaea to settle it. The result of that council was a victory for the Homoousians, the excommunication of Arius, and the making of the Nicene Creed. Though • '•inism in differeit forms again gained the asc- y in some coun- cils, the victory begun at Nica. was completed— as jj'.AKiaw 134 Christianity am' Its Bible far as councils go— in the Council of Constantinople in 381. 154. In the Council of 381 Apollinaris, an oppo- nent of Arianism, was himself excluded because of his view concerning the relation between the divine and human within Christ himself. In teaching that the Logos took the place of a human mind in Christ, he did away with the completeness of Christ's human nature. With him the christological, as distinct from the trinitarian, controversies may be said to have begun. The Nestorians, named after Nest>'ius, were opposed because they kept the divine and human so distinct as to make of Jesus practically two persons. On the other hand, the Monophy- sites, as the word suggests, held that Jesus had but one nature. The Monothelites, as the word sug- gests, held that, 'hough Jesus had two natures, he had only one will. 155. While in the speculative East the christo- logical controversy was engaging attention, in the practical West was waged a great controversy con- cerning what is now called soteriology, which, as the word suggests, treats of salvation. Against the doc- trine that man is absolutely dependent upon divine grace, a doctrine taught by Augustine, and against the related doctrine of predestination or foreordina- tion, there aros. in the early part of the fifth century, through Pelaglus, a British monk, what is called Halj-Way to 1517 A. D. 135 Pelagianlsm. In its emphasis on free will it is re- lated to the later Arminianism. 156 Belonging to the first of our three periods, and occasioned by its controversies, are the four great creeds— the Nicene, Chalcedon, the misnamed Apostles', and Athanasian. The creed of the Coun- cil of Nicaea, 325, as we have seen, was written in view of the trinitarian controversy. It was after- ward considerably changed. In its altered form (often called the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan Creed) it was adopted, with important additions, as the creed of the Council of Chalcedon in 451. The important additions thus made were due to the christological controversies. Concerning the Apos- tles' Creed there is a legend to the effect that at the time of their scattering from Jerusalem the twelve apostles composed it as a universal creed. In its present form it is later than that of Chalcedon, but it is similar to a confession of faith earlier than the Nicene Creed and connected, it would seem, with the baptismal injunction of Matt. 28:19. The Athanasian Creed is later than that of Chalcedon, and a long time after the death of Athanasius. It represents the Augustinian development of the doc- trine of the Trinity. It teaches that the Spirit is not begotten, and implies that it proceeds from both the Father and the Son (John 15: 16). Over a cen- tury after the altered Nicene Creed had been incor- 136 Christianity and Its Bible porated into that of Chalcedon, in that part of it which said that the Holy Ghost "proccedeth from the Father" there was inserted 'he one word filioque ("and from the Son"). This one word is the only doctrinal reason, or excuse, for the great schism be- tween the Eastern (Greek) church and the Western (Latin) church. 157. With the growth of the church its organiza- tion was changed. A clear distinction was made, not simply between deacons and presbyters, but also between the presbyters and the presiding bishop, who, if in a capital city, was a metropolitan bishop. Special importance was given to the apostolic sees— i. e., those claimed to have been personally founded by the apostles. After the model of the political divisions of the empire, though not in exact corre- spondence with them, the bishoprics of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, and Jerusalem became patriarchates, with bishops (called patri- archs) having jurisdiction over the others in their territory. In time, however, Rome, as the world- capital, making much of Matt. 18:18, 19, and of the belief that both Peter and Paul were martyred there, persistently pushed its claim to being Peter's cathe- dra ("chair"), from which its bishop, as the succes- sor of Peter, in speaking ex calhrdra—l c, officially —had authority over all the rest. This is called the primacy of the pope. The word "pope" (from the Greek for "f:Ub.'r"\ fr«rr«..>^i.. .,f-_"-5-i--^ - " . — 5... ., ,.j,<.,^^.-^ =omc-.Viiai gcncraiiy Myf. M/\ll Hal} Way to 1517 A. D. 137 used of Christian leaders, became restricted in its use. It has been officially used of the Roman bishop since Leo I, the greatest of the popes before the fall of Rome. Between the fall of Rome and t'- ? close of our first period the pope that most increased the papal power was Gregory I, 590-604. He is also called Gregory the Great, and, as wc have seen, is classed as the last and one of the greatest of the Latin fathers. f!F.W ISJH CHAPTER XI TO 1517 INTRODUCTORY 1 58. Our second period of church hist'-ry is from the death of John of Damascus (about the middle of the eighth centur>') to 151 7. To it belongs the division into the Eastern and Western churches, and the subsequent fall of the Eastern Empire. It is ' period of conflict between popes and civil 1 crs; a period of feudalism, Crusades, Schoolmen, Renaissance, discoveries, and reformers before the Reformatirn. 159. The nominal rule of the house of Clovis, king of the Franks, was brought to an end by Pepin, son of Charles Martcl and father of Charlemagne! With the division of Charlemagne's kingdom among his three grandsons, the history of France, Germany, and Italy as separate nations may be said to have begun. In the meantime the Anglo-Saxons that had taken possession of Britain united their seven king- doms into one (827), under Egbert, grandfather of Alfred the Great. CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS 160. The great "dramatic event ' the Middle Ages" was the struggle between the popes and the 138 ■■ To 1517 139 civil rulers. On Christmas day, 800, in Rome and bv the Pope, Charlemagne was crowned as the successor of the Caesars, with the understanding that, while he was to be the temporal, the Pope was to be the spiritual, head. This was what is called tlic "Holy Roman Empire," which continued, in name at least, for a millennium. This dual headship naturally led to the controversies and quarrcb that make up much of the history of Europe in the Middle Ages. One of the most important conflicts was con- cerning investitures— as to whom belonged the right of investing the bishop with his bishopric, which usually meant the possession of large estates. This was the question at issue between Hildebrand and Henry IV of Germany, who, in fasting, wearing sack- cloth, and standing barefooted in winter in order to get access to the Pope, made his famous humiliation of himself at Canossa. With the frccthinking Frederick II of Germany it was a question of sover- eignty in Naples. In France, with Philip Augustus, .t was concerning marriage; and with Philip IV, concerning the taxation of church property. In England, with Henry II, it was concerning the jurisdiction of the court over the clergy; and with John, concerning the appointing of an archbishop. This \dT~i resulted in a complete victory for the able Pope :• \nocent III, in whose time the temporal power oi the Pope reached its highest point. 161. Opposition toth' pnpal Haim to the primacy m I40 Christi>ntil\ and Its Bible IcH, in our scrnnd period, to l!ie tlivision of Christcn- flom into whii is called he K.islern and Wesicrn churches. The most sdiohrly opponent of the papacy \va- Photius. He ( harged the Roman chureh with heresy for inserting filioqu,' into the treed of Chalcedon, which should read that the Holy Spirit "proceedeth from the Father" without the addition of fiUoque ("and from the Son"). The Eastern church maintain^ that, though the Spirit was sent by both the father anrj the Son and comes through the Son, yet the eternal procession of the Spirit is only from the Father. Since schisms are due mainly to rivalries, questions of polity, worship, and morality, while heresies are due to doctrinal ditTerences that are considered imi)ortant, it is interesting to note that the Western church has never declared this view of the Eastern church as heretical. In fact, while Protestants arc heretics, members of the Greek church are only schismatics. 162. As distinguished from the clergy of the Roman church, those of the Greek church marry and do not shave. There is also some difference concerning fasting, anointing, etc. The division, however, was due neither to doctrinal nor to cere- monial ditTerences, save as these were occasions for the manifcstatif)n of the real cause. The real cause was that, as Caesar could brook no equal and Pom- pcy no superior, in this case the Roman church was Caesar and •!- (;rppk, Pompcy. Hildebrand To 1517 141 (Gregory VII), who was popr ;ibout six centuries after the fall of Rome, and who raised the papacy to a higher j-zowcr than before, decreed that the title "jK)pe" should be used only of the Roman bishop. It was just before he became |)ope, however, that the Eiistern church was separated from the Western In mutual excommunication in the Churtl^ of St. Sophia. Almost four centuries later this ihurch was turned into a Mohammedan mosque, when, in 1453, Constantinople w;;Mlf, and because the warriors wore on their rig 't shoulders a red cross, the Crusades are commonly called the "wars of the cross." 166. They resulted in ily about a century of Christian ilc tv.r Je'-usalciu. Sino 1187 (when i« was retaken by the Su -acens under Saladin) it has- been under Mohammei in lontril. The Crusades, however, had oth' and very important results. The Turkish {)Owcr was checked at the imi^ortant forma- tive period of European nationalities. Before the Crusades had come to an end, the foundation < f con- stitutional liberty in England had been laid in the Magna Charta that King John reluctantly agreed to, in 1 215. As through sale and leath the number of fiefs decreased, feudalism dee ined. Because of this, logeiher with the enhanced importan- c of the citifs, 144 Christianity and lis Bible freedom increased, and there was a development of representative government. As suzerain and serf fought side by side for a common ciusc, the sym- pathy increased, and the social difference decreased, between them. Both had their horizon broadened by contact with other peoples in other lands. Thus their wants, and so their trade, increased. After the Crusades the ocean travel that the mariner's compass had made possible increased this develop- ment of the people. The discovery of America and of the passage to India around the Cape of Good Hope, together with the invention of printing, all near the close of our second period, helped to broaden men's minds and to give them different ideals than those of monasticism and cf scholasticism. THEOLOGY, CULTURE, AND REFORM 167, While monasticism is of early origin and con- tinues today, the Middle Ages was the period of its greatest power. Its abbots, or heads of monasteries, equal to bishops and about as numc'-ous, and its vast armies of monks who were pledged to obedience, celibacy, and poveity, exerted great influence. In the thirteenth century arose the two great mendicant (or begging) orders— the Franciscans, founded by Francis of Assisi, and the Dominicans, founded by St. Dominic. Despite its excesses and shortcomings, mediaeval monasticism did much good, charitable, and missionary work. It kept learning from dying ^^tatsM To 1517 MS out in the Western church. Out of the schools in connection with the cathedrals and monasteries were developed some famous universities-among them that of theology in Paris. 168. Our second period of church history includes all the Schoolmen, who began in the eleventh and ended with the fifteenth century. Scholasticism sought to analyze and systematize what had already been given by th" Fathers, councils, and popes. In so doing it often made such trivial distinctions and raised sucli absurd questions that frequently since it has been referred to with a jest. Taking on faith tl «e teachings of the church, it sought to give them a rational basis. In doing so it sometimes had skeptical tendencies. Its watchword was: "I be- lieve that I may know." It sought to unite faith and k. >wlodge, theology and philosophy. It reached its highest in the thirteenth century, in which arose the two schools— the Thomists, followers of the great Dominican Thomas Aquinas, and the Scotists, followers of the great Franciscan Duns Scotus. Dante's great work is based upon this scholastic theology, which gave to Roman Catholicism a large part of \ii theology today. 169. According to this, as developed by the School- men, there were seven sacraments— baptism, con- firmation. Lord's Supper (Eucharist), penan.e, extreme unction, marriage, and ordination (holy orders). These were looked upon as being in them- 146 Christianity and Its Bible selves channels of grace, the imparting of which depended upon neither the faith of the people nor the morality of the officiating priests. On these priests there was conferred, in the sacrament of ordination, an indelible character, >o that as a dis- tinct class of men they were to stand between God and men. In keeping with the idea that the clergy- men were not merely preachers, teachers, and pastors, but priests, the Si-^per was not figuratively, but actually, a sacrifice t ered upon the altar on behalf of the people. After considerable controversy it was finally settled, three centuries before the Reformation, that the blood and the wine actually became the body and blood of Jesus. This is the doctrine of transubstantiation. For fear some of the actual blood of Jesus be spilt, the cup v/as not given to the people, who, for fear the smallest particle of the body would be lust, v.ere given wafers. The name of the wafer, the "host" (from the Latin word for "sarritlce") is significant. The word "mass" is used both of tlie celebration of this sacrifice and of the whole service in which it is celebrated. Tn high mass, js distinguished from low, the service is sung. 1 70. To marriage was ascribed an indelible char- acter, ,,o :liat, though separation was permitted, divorce > vt n for adultery was not. Baptism also conferred indelible c^anuter. It was never to L.- repeated. It was a saving ordinance the doctrine of baptismal regeneration. Infants were baptized To 1517 147 tc save them from the effects of the state of sin into which they were born-i. c., from original sin. The sacrament of confirmation was administered by bishops to those at least seven years old. In it the sign of the cross was made upon the forehead with consecrated oil. The sacrament of penance atoned for actual as distinguished from original sin. It had three parts— sorrow of heart, confession to the priest, and some work of satisfaction ("doing penance"). Extreme unction-i. e., the anointing the dying with oil-was the final purifying of whatever remainders there might be after baptism and penance. 171. Mortal sins— i. e., deadly sins— meant eternal punishment in hell. The punishment of venial sins —i.e., of minor offenses— might be remitted by penance. Believers for a longer or shorter time after death were sent to the purifying fires of purga- tory, to be prepared for eternal happiness. Prayers, and especially masses, on their behalf were helpful in getting others through purgatory. According to the doctrine of Thomas Aquinas, who was the great- est of the Schoolmen, Christ, and some of his btst followers, had done more than they were strictly under obligation to do— i. e., they had done works of supererogation. They thus had laid up a store of merit that was in the possession of the church. This treasure could be used to make the satisfaction neces- sary for the sins of others. This was the belief back of the sale of indulgences, according to which freedom 148 Chrislianitv and Its Bible from works of [)enancc here, and purgatorial fires hereafter, was obtained for a money consideration — forgiveness was bought with money. 172. In contrast with the theological studies of the Schoolmen, and in response to a growing desire for a broader culture than theirs, came, most mark- edly in the fifteenth century, the revival of letters called the Renaissance, or new-birth. The period between the barbarian invasion of the earlier Greek and Latin culture of Europe and the Renaissance is called the Dark Ages. Before the Reformation the dawn of a new day of culture had come. The fall of Constantinople resulted in an inflow of Greek scholars into Italy. There they were cordially received at the Vatican, or papal residence in Rome, and by the Medici, the distinguished patrons of learning in Florence. The result was a great revival of the study of Greek language, literature, etc. In contrast with the theological Schoolmen, there thus arose what are called the Humanists, who studied the humanities— i. e., studies that made for general culture, and distinguished from the narrow, scholas- tic study of divinity. Sir Thomas More of England, the author of the famous political romance Utopia, was a representative of Humanism. The greatest representative was the brilliant Erasmus. In his Praise of Folly, and frequently elsewhere, he ridi- culed both scholasticism and monasticism. Human- .1-- To 1517 149 ism not only helped to prepare the way for the Reformation, but it also helped in the work itself. 173. Before i: Reformation there were many attempts at reform. Noticeable among these were the attempts of the Waldenses, who, despite much persecution, are in existence today. Against a her- etical sect called Albigenses a ruthless crusade was waged, and the awful tribunal for the detection, ex- amination, and punishment of heretics was founded and given into the hands of the Dominicans in 1232. This tribunal, known as the Inquisition, played an important part in later history also. In England, in the fourteenth century, John WicHf, called the "morning star" of the Reformation, sought for evangehcal reform and was influential in sending out travehng preachers of the gospel. His greatest work was his translation of the Bible from the Vul- gate into Er dish. In denying that the bread and wine of the sacrament were actually changed into Christ's body and blood, he repudiated what is called transubstantiation. Influenced by Wiclif's writings, John Huss of Bohemia and his friend, Jerome of Prague, sought reform and suffered martyrdom a century before the Reformation. In Italy, almost at the close ot the century, Savonarola, an enthusias- tic Dominican reformer who assumed the r6le of a prophet, suffered martyrdom as a heretic and a false prophet. CHAPTER XII SINCE 15 1 7 LUTHER AM) LUTHERANISM 174. Our third period Ix-gins, in 15:7, with the posting, on the door of the church at Wittenberg, in Saxony, Germany, of ninety five theses, or proposi- tions to be defended. According to the custom of the times, this meant a readiness to defend them. They were concerning indulgences. The money from their sale was to be used for the building of St. Peter's Church at Rome. Tetzel, who was sell- ing them in Saxony, was one cf the most ■■hnmeless traffickers in them. They were the occasion, and one of the causes, of the Protestant Reformation. Discoveries, inventions, the revival of learning, the meditations of the Mystics, the work of preceding reformers, and the growing discontent with the management, practices, and teachings of the Roman Catholic church, had prepared the way. The fulness of the time had come. Martin Luther appeared. 175. As monk, professor, and preacher, the study of the Bible, especially of Paul, on the doctrine of justification by faith, had the greatest influence upon him. Next in importance were the works of Augus- tine, and next to these a book of the Mystics called German Theology. "The just shall live by faith" ISO mm H' 8, Since 15^7 '51 had given him htlp and wa?- the heart of his message. At first he had no thought of breaking away from the Church of Rome. In the discussion that fol- lowed his attaclv on indulgences and the teaching back of them, he denied the supreme authority of the Poi)e and atTirmcd that the efficacy of the sacra- ments depended upon the recipient's attitude of soul. When in 1 521, at the Diet of Worms, he was asked to retract he replied: " I am not able to recall, nor do I wish to recall, anything; for it is neither safe nor honest to do anything against conscience. Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise. God help me. Amen."' p:xcommunicated by the Pope and under the ban of the emperor, by order of his friend, the elector of Saxony, he was protected by being seized and carried olT to remain for a time in W^artburg castle. There he began what is often called his greatest work— the translation of tlie Bible into German. 176. Prominent among Luther's helpers was Philip Melanchthon, a brilliant young Humanist. Between Erasmus and Luther, who luul been .(uite intimate, a difference arose. L was due panly lu their dilTerent temperaments and partly to difference of belief concerning the will. Another Ilumauistit contemporary of Lulher. Lirieh Zwingli. who al.o pri-ached .>u.^:nst indulgen. cs, was [hr kadrr of a parallrl relormation in Suii/crland. Lufii. r ai.d he differed Lon< c-ming ihc Lord's Supper. '»hile r-'^:.^- f^-f-'' .vy».' •52 Christianity and Its Bible :^.l\. Luther (k-nicd the Roman Cathoh"c doctrine of transubstantiation, the actual change to the body and blood of Jesus, he nevertheless aflirmed that "in, with, and under" the bread and wine the true body and blood of the Lord were received. To Zwingli the service was simply a memorial service. The broken body and shed blood were simply sym- bolized in the bread and wine. "This is my body" meant, "This signifies my body," Largely because of this dilTerence, the adherents of the new move- ment were divided into Lutherans and Reformed. 177. Because of the view that each state must have uniformity in faith and worship, civil wars arose between Protestants and Catholics to deter- mine what would be the religion of each state. The history, therefore, may be considered best by coun- tries. Let us consider those in which Lutheranism figured prominently. In Scandinavia Lutheranism became the slate religion, first in Sweden, and then in Denmark and Norway. In German) it was defended by the Smalcald League of Protestant princes. This Smalcald war ended in a peace by which each state was to be Lutheran or Catholic according to the belief of its ruler. Theological controversies followed within Lutheranism. An insult to a Catholic procession early in the seven- teenth century led to the formation of an evangelical union of a number of Protestant states, as opposed to a Catholic league. Between these began the ittri Since 1517 »53 Thirty Years' War, into whirh other countries were drawn, (iuslavus Adolphus, the king and hero of Sweden, brought success to the Protestant cause. After him. Cardinal Richelieu, the eminent French statesman, figured prominently. According to the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the war m 164H, the state religions were to be what they had been in i6-'4-choscn as the normal year. In this peace not onlv Catholics and Lutherans, but the Reformed churches also, were given civil and religious freedom throughout the empire. These three have today by much the largest number of adherents. CALVINISM ON THK CONTINENT 178. Passing from Germany to Switzerland, we pass from Luthcranism to the Reformed church. Zwingli him?
  • not iciuhcd until early in the dghtee-:h century. The greatesi na-ne among the Reformed churches was John Calvin. !::xiled from France ' ecause of his faith, he came 10 Geneva m Switzerland a few years after the death of Zwingli. In influence he rivals Luther. His masterpiece in theology, entitled The Inslitutcs oj tke ChrisUan Religion, together with his commentaries, have left their impress on the confessions of faith of the Reformer churches. From him came, in distinction from episcopacy with its bishops, etc., the prcsby- & K\J^X1 »S4 Christianity and Its lUh'it tcrian form of government. In his i' e ministers arc all of the same rank, and are aided by dders elected from and by the congregation. 'F"oday th'^ Protestants of Switzerland are somewhat in the majority and belong almost entirely to the Natioi il Reformed church. There i> a Free Church, but its membership is small. i/Q. In France, where the intlm nee of Cahin was such that he may be called one of its Protestant church fathers, a series of i ivil wars broke out be- tween the Catholics and the Protestants or Hugue- nots. During these wars occurred the treacherous massacre of the Huguenots on the night of St. Bar- tholomew. At the close of the sixteenth ccntr.ry the Edict of Nantes gave them the free exercise of their religion. Near the close of the seventeenth century, in which they were sui)pressed ix)litically by Riche- lieu, the edict was revoked. The result was the enriching of Protestant countries of Europe by the intelligence and industry of the Huguenot refugees. Some of th( M- descendants were ofTicers in the victori- ous invasion of France l.y the Germans in the Franco- Pri'ssian War of 1870. Because those who remained in France met in out of the way places, this period is that of '• the church of the desert." 180. Toward the close of the eighteenth century an Edict of Toleration was issued. This was just before the French Revolution (1789-1815). At the beginning of the ninetccnih century Napoleon HMOll ^3 x^«»jr^w.Ji Sire 1517 '55 cnf red into a ronconlat (i. c, a treaty between the Pope ai, ' I state concerning the Catholic church), according to which while the Catholic church was recognized as being the religion of the majority and was maintained by the state, its proiK-rty was owned by the state. State aid was given to Protestantism as well. At the beginning of the twentieth ( entury a bill providing for the sejjaration of church and state became law. Its aim was to prevent .ac scandals of ecclesiastical and political intrigues. According to this law of 1905, the cost to the state of the support of the clergy was through the death of those then living gradually to become nothing. It was to ^ into effect December 11, 1906, by which time every religious body was required to be regis- tered as an "association for worship" (association cultuelle). The Protestants, who are in a small minority as compared with the Roman Catholics, complied. Pope Pius X refused to permit Roman Catholics to register. He also rejected the govern- ment's offer to give its recognition of Roman Catholic worship according to the condition in an earlier law (1881). On the situation thus produced a Protestant pastor in Paris, Charles Wagner, author of the Simple Lije, wrote a sugge Mvely entitled article: " Rome against the Republic." In it he wrote; And thus a system most massive and most logical has led to incoherence through the exaggeration of authority. In Ml M'iL IMi*i MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART lANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 I.I 1.25 IS 1^ 1^ 13.2 z m 2.5 22 2£ 1.8 i.4 IIIIII.6 ^ APPLIED IK/MGE Inc SS^_ '6-".3 EC'S! Uoin Street "^ ^octiester, Ne.v ^ork i4bQ9 USA '— f'^6) -^82 - 0300 - Phone '«sssHiaKV«'^»«sn^aKij^«&s»:^ssPM2Sfri^ »S6 Christianity and Its Bible olden times a council would have been called, and light would have arisen out of discussion. Today there is one individual who thinks for all the rest. And, as he is badly informed, he stands in the position of a blind man leading those who 'see clearly with their own eyes. i8i. The influence of Calvin was also strong in the Netherlands or Low Countries. In the conflict there the cruel Duke of Alva and his Bloody Coun- cil put many thousands of Protestants to death. Through William Prince of Orange (William the Silent) and his son, the seven northern and Protes- tant provinces in time became freed both from the yoke of Spain and from that of the Pope. At the close of the Thirty Years' War, in 1648, the Re- formed church became the state church. In the early part of the seventeenth century arose a contro- versy through Professor Arminius and his followers who emphasized the freedom of the will and uni- versal grace— i. e., ArminiarJsm as against Calvin- ism's view of election, atonement, will, grace, and final perseverance. These, the "five points" of Calvinism, were expressed in the Canons of Dort— a synod called because of the controversy. In the adjustment following the French Revolution the seven Protestant provinces were united with the southern provinces. It was not long, however, before there was a division into Holland, in which Protestants are in the majority, and Belgium, in which Catholicb predominate, but in which there is no state church. '^mis^r'mF^vmsis^ssiw::^- ':Jirte^.^^^'''.^5lSIP*ft^4JiiiiiS£' "i'ii: A^^^iF. iilLt Since 1317 157 ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND 182. The influence of Calvin was deeply felt in Scotland, where through John Knox, one of his dis- ciples, the Presbyterian form of Protestantism took such Jeep root. Before passing to that interesting history, it will be better to treat first of another type of Protestantism distinct from both Lutheranism and Reformed— the Church of England. Because he had, as against Luther, defended the seven sacra- ments, Henry VIII of England had won from the Pope the title of " Defender of the Faith." When, ho\ve\ r, the Pope did not give his consent to the divorce and subsequent marriage of the king, the king took the place of the Pope as head of the church in England. Otherwise the church was then but little changed. Henry was succeeded by his three children— Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth. In the reign of the first. Protestantism made rapid progress. A confession of faith (forty-two articles, which in Elizabeth's time were changed to the cele- brated Thirty-nine Articles) and the Book oj Common Prayer were prepared. In the reign of Mary the persecution of Protestants was such that she has been ci'Ued "Bloody Mary." It should be remembered, however, that when in power the Protestants also persecuted. 183. In the reign of Eli/.abeth Protestantism was restored to power. Its form of government was episcopal rather than prcsbyterian. In its worship ^ PTMiMK ^R 'W^^HfmS %- ■ 'PPv.' itl. ^^M^i^^EM^^^^^lT^^^^nZ^yi^^AMEMl- iS8 Christianity and Its Bible it used prescribed forms— i. c., it was liturgical or ritual. As the state church its legislation was unfav- orable, not only to the Catholics, but also to those Protestants whom we call Puritans. An Act of Supremacy required all clergymen to assent to the supremacy of the sovereign in the church. An Act of Uniformity sought to force upon all the pre- scribed form of worship. Those Puritans u ho, with- out separating from the established church, did not conform to this were called nonconformists— a term applied today to all dissenters. Those who separated from the church were called Independents. Among these, and going back to at least the first half of the seventeenth century, are the Congregationalists and English Baptists. In the middle of the century the Society of Friends (Quakers) originated through the preaching of George Fox concerning the "inner light." 184. In the beginning of the seventeenth century the Stuarts followed the Tudors on the English throne. James VI of Scotland, son of Mary Queen of Scots, became James I of England in 1603. What is called the Authorized Version is also often called King James' Version, because translated and author- ized in his reign. The tracing the connections (and the comparing) of his version with earlier versions (Wiclif's, Tyndale's, Covcrdale's, Genevan, Bishops and Rheims and Donai) and with later versions (Revised, Twentieth Century Testament, etc.) is an ■H v-if^'^'itjiifi? •■«'.■■ ^TC^*'; •>:yiiirt- .' ^'H^iTitaki t tti Since ijiy 159 interesting study. In the reign of his son and succcs • sor, Charles I, in the conflict between episcopacy and Presbytcrianism, the latter gained a temporary ascendency in England, and, with the help of the Scotch, framed the famous Westminster Confession that was adopted in Scotland. 185. The reign of Charles, who was beheaded, was followed by the Commonwealth of Cromwell. As an Independent he was favorable to neither prelacy nor Presbytcrianism. After Cromwell's death these united to bring about the restoration of the Stuarts, and Charles II, son of Charles I, was crowned king. In his reign Paradise Lost was written by the blind Puritan, John Milton, and Pilgrim's Progress by the imprisoned Puritan, John Bunyan. Ever since the Restoration the Episcopal church has continued to be the established church of England. Though James II, like his brother Charles II, favored Catholicism, his two daughters— Mary, wife of William of Orange, and Anne— had married Protestants. The birth of a son to his second wife, who was a Catholic, occasioned the revolution of 1688, when William and Mary came to the throne and gave a degree of liberty to the dissenting bodies. In the bc.'^inning of the eighteenth century they were followed by Anne. 186. In the first quarter of the eighteenth century Methodism began as a needed revival in the estab- lished 'church of England. It v/as led by John and s:^mk. i'^ii ■S-'iM.-ii--^U'ii.'> m i^-vi:f>'l^-'-^-\ii*i,i\:^^' i.^!-",lii?-.j&*' i6o Christianity and Its Bible Charles Wesley and George VVhitefield. A promi- nent feature was their eloquent field preaching. A difference that arose between the Wesley's and Whitefield concerning the doctrine of predestination led to a Calvinistic and an Arminian (Weslcyan) branch of the movement. The separation from the established church of England did not come until the last quarter of the century, after Whitefield's death and before the death of the Wesleys. Of these, John had the executive qualities of a leader, while Charles is famous as the writer of hymns. A very evangelistic Methodist of London, William Booth, in the last quarter of the nineteenth century (1878) founded the Salvation Army. Its theologv was that of Methodism. Dressed in its distinctive uniform, it aims to take -'the world for God." The red, yellow, and blue of its " blood-and-firc flag" symbolize Christ's blood. Holy Ghost fire, and heart purity. It spread rapidly and has done a great work, especially among the lowest classes. It was in London, also, that the Young Men's Christian Association began. It was founded, in 1844, by a clerk named George WiUiams, a member of the established church. Fifty years later he was made Sir George Williams. Dying in 1905, he lived to see the organization (commonly called the Y. M. C. A.) spread throughout the civilized world, and "become transformed from a prayer-meeting and missionary enterprise for dry-goods clerks into a Since 1517 i6x great modem lay order, masculine in character, plastic in its constitution, devoted to a broad and varied development of young men, and engaged in many enterprises for general social progress." 187. In the first half of the nineteenth century the famous "Tracts for the Times" appeared at Oxford. They favored the teachings of Catholicism, and in the ninetieth tract, which was the last, showed how the Thirty-nine Articles might be interpreted in a Roman Catholic sense. Among the results of this Tractarian movement at Oxford was the passing of a number of Protestants into the Catholic church. Notable among these were John Henry Newman and Henry Edward Manning, botn of whom became cardinals. Professor Pusey, one of the leaders of this Anglo-Catholic movement, remained to be the recognized leader of what is called the High Church partv. As, since the middle of the century, the Romanizing party -n the established church has been zealously introducing Roman Catholic ritual, etc., the name " Tractarians " has given place to the name of " Ritualists." 188. We trust that even this short summary of the salient events in the history of the established church will help to a truer understanding of its relation, on the one side, to Roman Catholicism and, on the other, to the dissenters now commonly called "non- conformists." These latter in the beginning of the twentieth century began a "passive resistance" W^^^^i^ 1 62 Christianity and Its Bible movement, in which they declined to pay their school taxes. Suffering the consequences in the spoiling of their goods and in imprisonment, they showed their disapproval of the Educational Act of 1902, which, they felt, gave the established church an unfair advantage with the children of England. With the understanding that this condition of affairs was to be improved, the Liberals were put into power with a large majority. A bill amending the Act of )02 passed the Commons in May, 1906, with nearly 200 majority. Its purpose, however, was so changed by the House of Lords that their amendments were rejected by the Commons, and the bill was withdrawn. In the feelings thus engen- dered, thoughts of mending or ending the House of Lords and of disestablishment have come to more frequent and more distinct expression, 189. Turninor now to Scotland, we find that from the time of ]c ■• . himself its history has been characterized ' ... conflict. In the sixteenth century it was between Protestants and Roman Catholics; and Protestantism won. In the seven- teenth century it was within Protestantism, between episcopacy and Presbyterianism ; and Presbyterian- ism won. Then it was within Presbyterianism itself. In the time of John Knox, Mary Queen of Scots sought to restore the Roman Catholic religion. In the reign of her son, James VI (who became James I of England), the first of the Scottish cove- nants was signed. It is called the National Covenant k:/^^JM^^'i'"''-i tl Since 1517 163 in which the king and people pledged themselves to maintain the Reformed religion as against Roman Catholicism. 190. The conflict between episcopacy and I'resby- terianism followed. When Charles I tried to intro- duce a liturgy into Scotland, Janti Geddes, in Edin- burgh, flung her stool at the reader. The National Covenant, with a reference to innovations, was again signed at Grey Friars' Church in Edinburgh. Later in Charles' reign what is called the Solemn League and Covenant was prepared and signed, even by the king himself. This aimed at the extirpation of prelacy as well as of popery. It was prepared during the temporary ascendency of Presbyterianism in England. This was overcome by Cromwell the Independent. After the Restoration the Covenant- ers suffered bitter persecution, especially at the hands of John Graham (Claverhousc). After the revolution of 1688 Presbyterianism was re-estab- lished, and in the union of England and Scotland, in the time of Queen Anne, one of the articles of union was that Presbyterianism should be the established church of Scotland. 191. In this very reign, however, an act was passed which has led to much contention and division within Presbyterianism. It was the Patronage Act, according to which whoever was patron of the parish had power to appoint its minister. This led to the forming of the Associate or Secession Church, which itself became divided. A little later, through this C'.'ii ; '■' V ..'VOJ^M*.! 'I'T^ ?"jh-' ■^i:^ ~'^MtT'^'s:Mmsmi^^^¥-^:rr'^''^Sr\ 164 Chrisliiinilv and lis Bible same act, the KdiVf Church and, in ihc nineteenth century, the Free Church went out. Meanwhile, however, a tide had set in toward union. In the early part of the nineteenth century the divisions in the .Associate Church were healed. Near the middle of the century, and shuiily after the secession of the Free Church, the Associate and Relief secessions became the United Presbyterian Ciiurch of Scotland; and ill 1900 these and liie Free Church became the United Free Church of Scotland. Two do/en ministers of the Free Church and opposers of the higher criticism, etc., that had so leavened that church, laid claim, on ecclesiastical and theological grounds, to the twenty millions worth of property of the Free Church. .Appealed to the House of Lords, the law lords decided in favor of what is commonly called the "Wee Frees," and made a most trying and dilTicuU situation. A royal com- mission xais appointed and recommended, in view of the fact that the Legal Free Church was unable to administer a'lcquately the whole property, that a commission be appointed with power to divide the property so as to gixe to the Legal Free Church all it can adequately administer. In the transference of the rest preference w^as to be given to the United Free Church. The division of the property took place before the close of iyo6. " "lie wholesale spoliation of the 'heretics' nhich the Wee Frees began after their legal victory in 1904 has thus boen rcdrcabed and brought to an cud.' :>.' '^•,: . CHAPTER XIII SINCE 15 17- D STATES -Continued UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 192. Passing from the Old World to the New, vvc note that North America was discovered in time to become a refuge from the persecutions following the Reformation. Persecuted in England, some of the Puritan Independents tied to Holland, which they left for America, reaching it in 1620. Their landing at Plymouth is often referred to as the land- ing of the Pilgrim Fathers. All the other events of United States history may be treated as coming before or after two great events. The first was the War of Independence (1776-83), which resulted in separation from the mother-count rv. The other was the Civil War (1861-65), whli ulted in the preservation of the union f the st:W' s ar d in the freedom of the sla\ -. 193. In the period before the \\ ir i>\ ence Congregationalism became the the New England colonies. These ]h r- tans were intolerant to other Protest ails Roman Catholics. Massachusetts bani Williams and other Baptists, who under hin Rhode Island. Massachusetts persecuted u ers, who found refuge in Rhode Island. L. 165 depend- 'igion o' '■■ Pun 10 T^oger unded >uak- thc. W^71y^M^WS^(^^^W 1 66 ChrisUanity and Its fiibli settled in Pennsylvania, which was named after the Quaker William Penn, to vviiom Charles II i^avc it in payment of a debt. In ditTerent colonics where it became the state religion the Episcopal church perse- cuted the dissenters. Soon after the War of Inde- pendence the states in ;■ hich the Episcopal church predominated obtained religiou. liberty. In some places where Congregationalism predominated the connection between church and state lasted into the nineteenth century. There is now ,.o established church. 194. Among the prominent names before the American Revolution, or War of Independence, is that of Jonathan Edwards. He was an ardent adherent of Calvinism, but gave it a germinal modifi- cation that was afterward greatly developed. This explains the fact that, while he is sometimes called the founder of New England theology, it is some- times referred to as the reaction from his Calvinistic teachings. Prominent in the development of this theology of modified Calvinism are the names of Hopkins, Emmons, and Taylor. Unitarianism u ^' Universalism also exerted considerable influence upon it. This new theology or divinity played an important part in the separation of Presbyterians, for over three decades, into New and Old Schools- divisions that were united again a few years after the Civil War. The hero of reunion was Henry B. Smith. A contemporary, Charles Hodge, of Prince- :,v= • i,\-»j: : 'V'tivr J^IS<^^-:.r^ r'--im^Mti^ii]ssfii!mF Since l^iy i6; ton, was an opjK^nint of the New Schawl. Two of his sons taught in I'rinctton. 195. By the time of the Civil War (1861-65) the new divinity was in the ascendency among C^ongre- gationalists. A compromise between two dilTerent degrees of "^ 'illed Calvinism made the creed of Andover ' 'V, near Boston. It represents what is c. . "Andover theology." Oberlin, in Ohio, like Andover, was both Congregational and New School. Charles G. D. I'inney, the great evangelist, was first professor, then president, in Oberlin. Congregationalism gave to the world another great evangelist in D. L. Moody. Among the greatest of its divines, however, was Horace Bushnell of the first three quarters of the nineteenth century. His writings have exerted great influence on the decades since. His treatment of the doctrine of the Trinity and his moral-influence theory of the atonement were strongly questioned in his day. 196. As contributions from the United States to the number of religious movements of the world we have the Disciples, Mormons, Adventists, and Chris- tian Scientists— all of the nineteenth century. Early in the century, and largely through the influence ni Alexander Campbell, arose the Disciples of Chri-i , or Christians, who are sometimes called Campbellites. They made much of Christian union, had weekly communion, and practiced the immersion of penitent believers as in some way connected with remission mSSfW9tt-T'^MmiWM. \ *-^ . ,'*-*E(» .' .. i il.,^^v*^.:-,^^6:^^ i68 Christianity and Its Bible of sins. One of their ministers, Sidney Rigdon, had considerable to do with the originating of the Mormon cliurrh. 197- It seems that a Presbyterian minister, Solomon Spaulding, in support of his view that the North American Indians were Israehtcs, wrote a kind of romance, but failed to get it published. Through Sidney Rigdon it was edited so as to be strongly colored with his views concerning immer- sion, etc. As thus edited, it was that which Joseph Smith claimed to have discovered written upon gold plates. This was in the hill Culmorah, near Pal- myra, N. Y., in the year 1823. Twenty years later he claimed to have received his revelation concerning polygamy. The following year he was murdered. This, represented by his followers as martvrdom, increased the influence of his views. Brigham Young, the ablest of the "twehx- apostles," be- came the leader. They "treked" to Utah in 1847. Nearly all the additions to their ranks have been from the lowest classes of Protestants. The influ- ence of Rigdon is seen in their practice of immer- sion and in their literal interpretation of the Bible, which is one of their three Specially Sacred books! 198. Other literalists in the treatment of Scrip- ture are the Plymouth Brethren and the Adventists. The former originated in the Old World, whore they are often called Darbyites, from John Nelson Darby, a leader who joined them in 1827. They are mainiy Since 1517 169 Calvinistic in doctrine and have no ordained minis- try. The founder of the Advcntists was WiUiam Miller, who through his unscholarly treatment of Scripture predicted that at a particular time, not many years after his prophecy, the Advent, or second coming, of Jesus to the earth would take place. He lived longer than the date he fixed. Among its half-dozen or more divisions are the Seventh- Day Advcntists, who keep Saturday as the sabbath. Their common behef is that the personal coming of Jesus is near. It is not to be preceded by the millennium. 199. The movement called Christian Science was originated in 1866 by Mrs. Eddy, then Mary Baker Glover. In her chief work, called Science and Health, much of the results of her efforts after philo- sophic statements can scarcely be called intelligible. Christian Science as a science claims that " mind acts on mind to dispel the illusion of sickness." Back of its claim to be " Christian" we find Christ defined as "a divine principle not person," and Jesus as the "spiritual idea of God coming to material behefs, rebuilding and destroying them, and bringing to light man's immortahty." The truth in Christian Science is the acknowledged power of mind in the matter of health. JESUITS AND CATHOLIC DOCTRINE 200. The Reformation caused a counter-reforma- tion of the Roman Catholic church. Most notable 170 Christianity and Its Bible ^IS3-: in this are the Council of Trent and the work of the Jesuits. In the twenty-five sessions of the famous Council of Trent (1545-63) Roman Catholicism strongly expressed her doctrinal position as against Protestantism. Taking the place after the Refor- mation that the once powerful Monastic societies had in the Middle Ages, the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola at the middle of the sixteenth cen- tury, was a mighty power to check, and often to turn back, the tide of Protestantism. This was especially the case in Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary. In understanding Jesuitism two words may be kept in mind— "missions" and "methods." The missions were of three kinds— home missions within Catholic jurisdiction, foreig; missions, and missions for the conversion of Protestants. 201. Among the methods used were probabiHsm, amphibology, mental reservation, and intentionalism. Probabilism means that in what is doubtful it is not necessary to take the way that has the more evidence in favor of its being right (that would be probabili- orism), but one is at liberty to follow his own wish in a way with less evidence in its favor. Amphibology is the constructing of a statement so that, though the separate words be understood, the whole meaning will be doubtful. Mental reservation means the adding mentally to that which is spoken something that might make the whole statement appear very different from that spoken, and even directly opposed Since 1517 171 to it. According to intcntionalism the end justifies the means. 202. All this, however, docs not mean that among the Jesuits there were none that were pious and honest. Their methods gave them power, but caused them to be distrusted and hated, with the result that their fortunes were checkered. In France Pascal's famous Provincial Letters exposed the im- morality of their casuistry. They were opposed to the Jansenists. These were followers of the teachings of Bishop Jansen, who in the seventeenth century, after careful study of Augustine, sought to bring the Roman Catholic church back of the Schoolmen to the religion of Augustine. Jesuitism as opposed to Gallicanism was Ultramontane. Ultramontanism (a word meaning "beyond the mountains"— i.e., beyond the Alps where Rome was) held to the abso- lute control of the Pope over the whole world. Gallicanism (derived from the word for Gaul, which was on the other side of the Alps from Rome), as opposed to Ultramontanism, was the spirit and principles of those who, though at the expense of the Pope's absolute control of the church, would have a large degree of freedom and power given to the Catholic church in France as the national church. 203. It was Jesuit Ultramontanism that obtained from\he Vatican Council of 1870 the dogma of papal infallibility-i. e., when he speaks ex cathedra in matters of doctrine the Pope always was anl is 172 CliristiiDiilv and lis Bible infallible. This implied the infallibility of the papal decree of 1S54 concerning immiculate concei)iion. This, it should be remembered, is not concerning the belief of the virgin birth of Jesus, as m.iny Pro- testants think, but that the \'irgin Mary herself -.vas free from original sin. An important explanation cl the place that Mary, the mother of Jesus, holds in tlie Catholic church is that, as a result of the Arian controversy, the humanity of Jesus was tlxrurcd bv the emjjhatic insistence that he was (Jod. The desire for someone to come between him and man was satisfied in his mother. The condemnation of Nestorius for refusing to call her the "mother of God" increased the worship that was given her. This worship, called Mariolatry. is now an impor- tant part of the Roman Catholic religion. Some that were opposed to the dogma of papal infallibility were called Old Catholics because holding to the belief of Catholicism with the exception of this new leaching. In sympathy with these Old Catholics were the Jansenists. CREEDS, SUNDAY SCHOOLS, AND TEMPERANCE 204. As distinguished from our second period, our third, like the first, has been a creed-making period. To the first, as we have seen, belong four great creeds. In the second the one noticeable thing is the rejection, by the Eastern church, of the one word, filioque, that the Western church had inserted into Since 1517 173 the Creed of Chalccdon. The Eastern church holds to this creed, which, we have seen, is ihe enlarged Nicene Creed as it was indorsed at Chalccdon in 451. In our third period three confessions, including a wtechism, have been added to he doctrinal state- ments of the Eastern church. To this period also belongs. - the Roman CathoHc church, the Triden- tine Creed, or the doctrine of the Council of Trent. This is based on the scholastic theology of the Middle Age., and includes the Nicene Creed with the filoque inserted. Together with the two important later dogmas of immaculate conception and papal infallibiUty, it therefore goes the teaching of Roman CaihoHcism, as opposed to that of both the Eastern church and Protestanism. Its standard catechism, xvith its questions and answers for the theological training of the children, was prepared a few year? aft^T the Council of Trent. 205. The creeds of Protestantism are mrny, and originated for the most part before the middle of the seventeenth century. They include the Lutheran Book oj Concord. This consists of the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, and a number of distinctly Lutheran confessions. It includes the Confession o^ Augsburg and Luther's two catechisms for the trai , of the .hi'.dren. We have already referred to the Thirty-nine Articles of the Episcopal rhurrh of England, and to the WestmiiiGter Con- fession-the g~reat Presbyterian symbol. Its longer 174 Christianity and Its Bible and its shorter catechisms have also played an im- p( tant part in Prcsbytcrianism. 206. The historical connection betv ecn the later catechisms and the catechetical work of the early church (i. c., its work of training converts and chil- aren) wo'-Vl be considered In a full discussion of the Sunday-school idea. This idea may be found before the time of Christ. Church schools for Bible study may be found in difTercnt Christian ages before 1780. It is in that year, however, that the modern Sunday school most commonly is said to have begun. Its father was Robert Raikes, editor of a paper in Gloucester, England. While some religious leaders opposed it, John Wesley and others threw their energies into it. It has had such rapid growth that its pupils now are to be numbered by the tens of millions. Advance has been made in the nature and method of the work as well as in numbers. Efforts have been directed toward making the study systematic and toward putting oxellent helps within the reach of all. The undenominational Sunday School Times was started in 1859. Dr. Henry Clay Trumbull was for years its efficient editor-in-chief. Another name prominent in sabbath-school work is that of Bishop J. H. Vincent, leader of the movement called Chautauqua after the place of its great educat- ing assembhes. Still another of its prominent names is that of B, F. Jacobs, of Chicago, who was largely instrumental in bringing about the systematic study Since 1517 175 of the Bible in uniform lessons. The great need is of superintendents and teachers with such common- sense, 'raining, and spiritual insight that they can and will take the three important steps in truest study of the Bible and other religious literature. 207. The use of fermented liquors is much older than that of distilled liquors— rum, brandy, whiskey, gin, etc. Fermented liquor from earliest times has been used for its taste as a beverage '.uid for its effects as an intoxicant. The use of distilled liquor can be tra. .d oack into our second period of church history. It was highly praised by Raymond '-.uU, the missionary. Had he but foreseen its effects, how different his words would have been ! It v not until our modern period that it came into general use. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, while coffee, tea, cocoa, etc., were largely taking the place of wine as a beverage, distilled liquor was largely taking its place as a means of intoxication, which was thus more ea< "ly within the reach of the poor, who could " get drunR for a penny." Though, earlier in the century, John Wesley and others opposed the drinking habits of the times, the modern temperance movement may be said to have begun in the last quarter of the century. Prominent in the movement at that time were the influential writings of Dr. Benjamin Rush, of Philadelphia. The first quarter of the nineteenth century saw the formation of a number of te aperance societies, of which one 176 Christianity and Its Bible formed in Morcau, N. Y., in 1808 is claimed to be the first. In the second quarter a number of total- abstinence societies were formed, including Father Matthew's, originating in Cork, the Washingtonian in Baltimore, and the Sons of Temperance in New York. The third quarter saw different attempts to bring temperance iss'Ts into politics. It also saw the formation of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, which in the last quarter of the century pronounced in favor of woman's suffrage and prohibition. To this last quarter of the century belongs the great work of Miss Frances E. Willard (1839-98) in connection with what i= commonly called the W. C. T. U. CHAPTER XIV CHRISTIAN MISSIONS THE FIRST PERIOD 208. The history of Christian missions, in our first period, is that of the one church; in our second, that of its two divisions, east and west; and in our third, that of the three divisions of which Protestant- ism is the third. In our first period the New Testa- ment itself was born in the midst of missionary work. As the result of this the number of Christians at the close of the first century had increased from hundreds to hundreds of thousands. They were to be found, especially in the great centers, all around the Medi- terranean Sea and eastward. In the next two cen- turies persecutions only fanned and fed the mission- ary fire, so that it spread into the country districts and reached lands afar. At the time of the Coun- cil of Nicaea (325) Christians were to be numbered by the millions, and were increasing rapidly both east and west. 209. In the East, however, with the rise and spread of Mohammedanism in the seventh century the tide was turned, so that before the close of our first period (the middle of the eighth century) the early Christian centers in Asia and Africa, with but few exceptions, were completely submerged. Among the 177 178 Christianity and Its Bible exceptions were the Abyssiniuns in Africa, and, in Asia, the missionary Xcslorians. This interesting Christian body, originating \ eastern Syria as fol- lowers of the teaching of Nestorius concerning the two natures of Christ, did most noble missionary work in central and western Asia. Before the close of our first period the Persian church had become Nestorian, and Nestorian missions had extended into India and even into China. The story of this early entrance of the gospel into China is told in the mscriptions on a Chinese monument, on which the names of Nestorian clergy were found in both Syrian and Chinese. 2IO. Largely through Christians now unknown Christianity spread westward in early times, reach- ing the shores of Great Britain long before they were invaded by the Anglo-Saxon heathen. Besides Paul and others mentioned in the New Testament, notice- able among the missionaries of this early time are Ulfilas, of the fourth century; St. Patrick, of the fifth; Columba, of the sixth; Augustine (or Austin), dying early in the seventh; and Boniface, of the eighth. It is to be noted that the first translator of the Bible into a barbarian tongue, "the noble- hearted Ulfilas," in his great missionary work in central Europe among the Goths presented an Arian Christianity. Over a century later, in the year 496, the baptism of the Prankish ruler Clovis ■nfo . rm'.tanan Cinstianity, as opposed to this, was .**!• Christian Missions 179 ont' of the secrets of the success of the Franks, who thus had the support of the church. This baptism took lace about the time of the death of St. Patrick, who, as the great apostle to Ireland, began a most remarkable missionary movement. One of his best iielpers, especially in the educational part of his work, was a woman by the name of Bridget. Of himself he wrote: "I was reformed by the Lord, and he has fitted me for being, at this day, what was once far enough from me, that I should concern myself or take trouble for the salvation of others, when I used not to think even of my own." His call to the Irish suggests Paul's vision of the man i om Macedonia. 2ii. One of the great representatives of St. Pat- rick's missionary movement was the apostle to Scotland, Columba. He helped make the isle of lona such a missionary center and was, like Patrick, a man much given to prayer. They both repre- sented an early and less papal type of Christianity than that which was introduced, later, by Pope Gregory I, into Anglo-Saxon England. It should be remembered that the invasion of the Anglo- Saxons at the time that the power of the Roman Empire was waning there had made England pagan again. Gregory's missionary, Augustine (or Austin, and to be distinguished from the great church father), opposed the early type of Christianity of the British church, and in time it was practically i8o Christianity and Its Bible ti I overcome. Boniface, the great a{x>stle to the Ger- mans, was also a zealous representative of the papal church. The account of his unpunished felling of the oak sacred to Thor, and of the effects of this upon the pagans, suggests the story of Elijah before the priests of " siin empire over North- ern Asia to the Pacific .. i> n. ^ isbionaries have l82 Christianity and Its Bible been engaged in work in Europe, in Northern Asia, in Alaska, and even in Japan. A "Society for Ortho- dox Missions" was organized in 1870. 215. Protestantism at first expended so much en- ergy in differentiating itself from Catholicism, and m differentiating between the manv sects into which It divided itself, that it had hVle to spare for missions. The missionary honors for the first part of the modern period belong to Roman Catholicism. The leading place, among maritime powers, then held by Catholic nations, should be kept in mind in under- standing the colonial missions of this period. Fran- ciscans, Dominicans, and others with the opening up of the x\ew World engaged in zealous, heroic work among the natives. Before the middle of the sixteenth century Jesuitism also was sending out its missionaries. One of these, Francis Xavier, who was enthusiasm itself, spread his enthusiasm in India, and oven into Japan, where he had marked success. The missionaries to the North American Indians manifested much heroism. While much of the Roman Catholic missionary work of this period was superficial, and some of the methods were objectionable, it was effective. In about a century after the Reformation, by the year 1622 (an impor- tant date in Roman Catholic missions), Africa's coast had been touched in spots. North America had been penetrated, Asia pierced through even into Japan, Europe had given back several countries Christian Missions 183 from Protestantism, and Central and South America had been won. 216. In 1622 there was founded, by a Jesuit pope, ■d society for the spread of the faith. To this, com- monly called the Propaganda, is intrusted the whole mission work of Roman Catholicism in all countries where it is not predominant. Its territory is divided into five parts— Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Oceania. H. W. Hulbert wrote: One cannot help but admire the compact organization, the shrewd foresight, the zeal and devotion, of the individual missionaries, the economy in the handling of men and means and the breadth of view taken by its leaders. The wonder is that it should not have accomplished more. This is not the place in which to point out many and glaring defects that are obvious. Wherever today Protestant missions are found, there are the Roman Catholics in larger numbers and with seemingly larger resources. There is a mutual feeling of distrust and active opposition all along the line. ciy. The history of Protestant missions may be divided into two periods. The first extends from Luther to Carey — i. e., from early in the sixteenth to late in the eighteenth century. In explanation of the failure of both Luther and Calvin to appre- ciate their duty to foreign missions, he whom we have just quoted wrote: "The smoke of the battle about them obscured the distant horizon." The early Protestant missionary work was largely colo- nial. Coligny, the great leader of Protestantism in France in the sixteenth century, attempted to 1 84 Christianity and Its Bible found Protestant colonies, first in Brazil and later in Florida, but failed in both. Catholic supremacy on the sea gave way to that of Protestantism, as repre- sented by English and Dutch. Much of the colonial missionary work of the Dutch was superlicial. even mechanical. Though far from fully awake to the missionary opportunities in her growing colonies, England did put forth some effort there. The colo- nial seal of Massachusetts in the first part of the seventeenth century epresented an Indian as saying: "Come over and help us." Among the greatest missionaries to the Indians were John Eliot, in the seventeenth century, and, in the eighteenth,' David Brainerd. 218. The missionary event of the first half of the eigliteenth century was the beginning of the marvel- ous work of the Moravian church. With its motto, " Venture in faith, " it has ever since been to the world what in earlier times the Nestorians were to the East. This remarkable Christian body dales from before the Reformation. It originated in Bo- hemia after the martyrdom of John Huss. While rejecting Mariolatry and the doctrine of purgatory, it made more of life than of dogma, .^fter a very checkered career, which included much persecu- tion, these Bohemian Brethren, as they were com- monly called, took a new lease of life in 1722— i. e., just a century afcor the founding of the Propaganda! Under Uie protection of th- godly, heathen-loviag Count Zinzendorf, they built the town of Hernhut tS^m tfh te»»« M i rg wr ■1 Christian Missions i8s in Moravia. Hence their faith is sometimes called Hernhuterism. It is atTirmed that by the middle of the century, in a period of less than two decades, they had established more missions than all the rest of Trotestantism combined had established in two cen- turies. Two great sayings of Zinzcndorf are repre- sentative of these United Brethren, or Moravian Brethren, and arc explanatory of their missionary success: "I have one passion, and that is He— He alone;" and "Henceforth that place is my home where I have the greatest opportunity of laboring for my Savior." Prominent among the missionary names outside this body is that of Frederic Christian Schwartz, whose heroic work in India for most of the second half of the century continued long enough to overlap that of Carey himself. 219. In 1792 William Carey, who had been a cobbler, preached his famous missionary sermon from Isa. 54:2, 3, with the memorable divisions, "Expect great things from God," and "Attempt great things for God. " With the organizing in that same year of the Baptist Society, with Andrew Ful- ler a^ its secretary and Carey as its first missionary, the era of effective Protestant missionary societies had come. Among the great missionaries since may be mentioned: Henry Martyn (1781-1812), Robert Morrison {1782-1833), Adoniram Judson (1788- 1849), John Williams (i 796-1839), Robert Moffat (i 795-1883), and David Livingstone (1813-73). x86 Christianity and Its Bible M 220. Henry Martyn was the devout, loving, com- passionate Church of England missionary in India and Persia. He translated the Bible into Persian, and wrote concerning India: "I lay in tears interceding for the unfortunate natives of this country, thinking within mvself that the most despicable Sudra of India was of as much value in the sight of God as the king of Great Britain. " Robert Morrison, sent out by the London Missionary Society, was the scholarly layer of foundations for Protestant missions in China. 22_ Adoniram Judson's Burmese Bible and other labors place him in the front rank of missionaries. In 1810 with a few other students he joined in an appeal that led to the formation of the American Board. One of these students, Samuel J. Mills, was one of the five who made the memorable conse- cration at Williamstown in the famous haystack meeting, the centennial of which was celebrated in the fall of 1906. His words make a good mission- ary motto: "We can do it if we will." Theo- dore Parker declared that, if the modern missionary movement had done no more than produce one Adoniram Judson, it were worth it all. John Wil- liams, the martyred apostle to the cannibal South Sea Islands, had such marvelous success that an English bishop on reading his life remarked: "I have now been reading the twenty-ninth chapter of the Acts of the Apostles." ■Mk ^M m ^<> Christian Missions 1S7 222. Robert Moffat, missionary in South Africa, by his Christian courage and love tamed the fierce chief Africaner into the loyal Christian who said 'n dying: "My former life is stained with blood, but the blood of Jesus Christ cleanseth from all sin. ' Moffat, like Carey, Morrison, Judson, and others, waited seven years before the beginning of the harvest of souls. His daughter, Mary, married the great missionary explorer of Africa, Livingstone, whose motto was: "Trust in God and work hard." In 1871 Henry M. Stanley was successful in the errand on which he had been sent by the New York Herald. He found Livingstone in the heart of Africa. There, less than two years later, the great missionary was found in the attitude of prayer — dead. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. 223. Less than a decade after this death occurred the first baptism in Uganda, that marvelous mission in the heart of Africa. From its instigation through Stanley's letter, "Here, gentlemen, is your oppor- tunity — embrace it," its record is one of the most thrilling in the annals of missions. Prominent among the names in connection with it is that of the Scotch engineer, Alexander Mackay. Because of "his heroic exploits" Lord Rosebery called him "the Christian Bayard whose reputation will always be dear." He, like the French knight, was "without fear and without reproach." And what shall I more sav ? For the time would fail me to tell of John G. 1 88 Christianity and Its Bible Paton in the New Hebrides, and many others, still with us, or but recently passed to the growing number of noble missionaries who have gone before. Through faith they subdued kingdoms and wrought righteousness, because in the Macedonian "Come" they heard the great commission, "Go." FIELDS AND STATISTICS 224. There is time further for only a few general words concerning the most important missionary fields. Morrison did not commence work among China's four hundred millions until early in the nineteenth century. Today there are thousands of missionaries and over a hundred thousand communi cants. At the beginning of this century several hundred foreigners and thousands of native Chris- tians were murdered, and much missionary property destroyed, by the uprising of the anti-foreign Boxers. The missionary work speedily recovered. All Chi- nese cities are now open to Christian influence, for the introduction of which modern facilities have rapidly increased. The use of opium has been a great curse to the people, and a stain upon the reputation of the British through whom the awful trade has been continued. Never before in a single year have so many official acts favored Christianity as during 1906. Two viceroys have either ordered or advised the use of the Christian Scriptures in the eovemmenf schools and amone officials. The most Christian Missions 189 influential viceroy in the empire has written a book in which he commends Christianity.' A national awakening has begun that will make for a rapid progress like that in Japan. 225. Japan, with its half a hundred millions, since its seclusion was broken by Commodore Perry, of the United States, in 1854, has astonished the world, with the rapidity of its progress. From the standpoint of war this was shown in its victory over China and, still more markedly, in its successful conflict with Russia. Though the adherents of Christianity are still comparatively very few, their influence in different departments of national life i- altogether out of proportion to their numbers. Of great significance is the way in which Japanese influence is permeating China and Korea. The latter, which has come under the protection and tutelage of Japan, was opened up by medical mis- sions as late as 1884. Today, however, Korean Christians are numbered by the thousands. The war between Russia and Japan opened up a wider missionary way to about one-half of the pagans of the world. In eastern Asia the great competition (to use a mild word) is that between an awakened, aggressive missionary Buddhism, with its over- whelming numbers, and Christianity, with its few representatives. It is said that in 1904 the repairs of a Buddhist temple in Japan cost more than was » Missionary Rtview, Januarj", 1907. I go Christianity and Its Bible spent all that year in Christian missions in Japan. The problem of native churches becoming decreas- ingly dependent upon the superintendence of foreign missionaries is being worked out in Japan. The Japanese characteristically are adapting as well as adopting Christianity, of which they are developing an eastern, as distinguished from a western, type. 226. Of India's i)opulation (about one-fifth of that of the world and crowded into about one-thirtieth of the earth's area) Hinduism claims two-thirds. In the way of the christianizing of these stands the great barrier of caste. This keeps the people separated into innumerable classes, with the Brah- mans, or priest caste, at the head. The restriction of marriage and work to the caste into which the Hindu is born, and the treatment of child-widows, many of them not in their teens, yea scarcely more than babes, have made for the physical, intellectual, and moral degeneracy of the people. The great gain of Christianity has been from the lowest of the four great divisions of castes (Sudra), and from the pariahs or outcasts, who nevertheless are divided into many castes of their own. Many of even the Brahmans are, at great risk, openly becoming Chris- tians; and many more, who are not, are vying with Christians in their tributes to Christ; but they are saying to the Christians: "You are not like your Christ." Mohammedanism has a large part of all its adherents in India, of whose population it has ■SUittiHIH Christian Missions 191 about one-fifth. Like Buddhism and Christianity, Mohammedanism is a missionary religion. The great conflict between its crescent and the cross is on, not only in India and westward into Europe, but also, and mainly, in Africa. In keeping with the growing feeling of the natives of India that they have not the place they should have in the govern- ment of the country, is a promising missionary movement that is laying special emphasis upon the work of native Christians. Foreign missionaries have not their access to the minds and hearts of the other natives and, compared with India's many millions, are ver)' few. In the work of these native Christians, therefore, lies the hope of India's evan- gelization. 227. In Africa among the greatest difficulties in the way of Christian missions are the intoxicating liquors from Christian nations and the polygamous, slave-trading Mohammedans. It now scarcely seems credible that it was not until early in the nine- teenth century, and after a parliamentary fight of decades, that a law went into force for the abolition of slavery in the British Empire; and that it was not until the second half of the century that a similar law was issued in the United States of America. Most of the interior of Africa was unmapped and unknown as late as the middle of the nineteenth century. Today there are still large stretches country, both north and south of the Equator, in i ,kMrf*^V 192 Christianity and Its Bible a which the rosih'1 can scarcely he said to have had yet a chance to be heard. However, a splendid befjinning has been made; and the "dark continent," from coast to coast— '.ast and west and north and south— has its means )' civilized travel and its lines of missionary lights. A sugi^estive comparison for a missionary article that would awaken sorrow and indignation, admiration and joy, is that between the atrocities of a profes:,cdly Christian civilization in the immense Congo Free State and the benefits of a truly Christian civilization in the neighboring Ugan- da. Africa and Asia (the two largest of the con- tinents) as compared with the others are non- Christian. South and Central America are mainly papal and pagan. Thrilling are the anna's and marvelous the success of missionary work on the islanus of the Pacific. 228. Omitting for the moment the statistics of the non-Protestant— i. e., larger— part of Christendom, and estimating the non-Christian population of the world in round numbers at a billion, how pitifully small seems the statistics of the Protestant missionary societies of the world in their mission to non-Christian and non-Protestant peoples! As given for 1906 in the Missionary Review oj the World, we find ovc^ a million pupils in the schools of the missions, ap- proaching to two million communicants, over four million adherents, an income of twenty-five mil- lion doliarb, one-seventh of which came from the for- ■■ Ch. istian Missions 193 vign field itself. In this there was a force of over one hundred thousand missionary workers, five-sixths of whom were natives. Estimating Catholic missions, though of a different kind, as having numbers some- what larger than these, and the Greek church with figures very much less, surely foreign missions are still a babe in swaddling-clothes and lying in a manger. But in that babe what divinity, what power ! Let us be wise and bring to this babe gold, frankincense, and myrrh. Inspiring are many of the records of foreign missions, but so much is yet to be done! Let those of us who are playing at foreign missions get to work. CHAPTER XV LITKRATURE, ARTS, AND SCIENCE LITERATURE 229. As the expression of its religious life, Chris- tianity has an increasingly large literature of which the New Testament is a very small part. Its prose includes the works of Fathers, Schoolmen, reformers, philosof)hers, theologians, historians, and preachers. To mention but one devotional book for each period, we have Augustine's Conjessions in the first, the Imitation oj Christ by Thomas a Kempis in the second, and Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress in the third. In the first period Origen, Augustine, Ambrose, Chrysostom, and others of the Fathers were able preachers. In addition to iht reformers before the Reformation, Bernard of Clairvau.x and John Tauler were among the eloquent preachers of the second period. To our third period, in the sixteenth cen- tury belonged the reformers; in the seventeenth, in England, Taylor, Baxter, and Bunyan and, in France, Bossuet and Fenelon; in the eighteenth the Wesleys, Whitefield, and Jonathan Edwards; and in the nineteenth, Beecher, Brooks, Chalmers, Spurgeon, MacLaren, and others. 230. The poetry of Christian literature includes innumL-rablc hymns. The Ejiglisli-speaking world 194 Literature, Arts, and Scieme >95 is ikfi)ly indebted to the High Churchman Dr. Niale for his beautiful rc-ndcring of the larly hymns. The best Oreek hymns, according to him, beh)ng to the hundred yean, beginning with the second (juarter of the e).;hth century, and so beginning in our second period. To that hundred years belongs the original of his e.viuisite hymn " Art thou weary ? " From the first part of a very long Latin poem of Bernard of (Tuny, Dr. Xeale has given us those beautiful and popular hymns concerning heaven— "Jerusalem the ^rolden," etc. Contemporary with Bernard of Cluny was the great Bernard of Clairvaux, the irresistible- preacher of the Second Crusade. From a Latin poem by him we have been given some b.-autiful hymns addressed to Jesus. To the next century belongs the hymn rendered by Walter Scott "That day of wrath,'' etc. A little later the hymn concern- ing " Mary at the cross her station keeping" {Stabal mater) was composed. In our third period the Reformation owed much to Luther's hymns, espe- cially to his "A mighty fortress is our God." Next to Luther in German hymnody is Paul Gerhardt, of the seventeenth century. The two great names in English hymnody are Watts, practically its creator, and his successor, Charles Wesley, both of the eighteenth century. To this century also belong the hvmns of Philip Doddridge, and the Olney hymns of John Newton, of Olney, and hi> friend, the melan- choly William Cowper, who v/as a contemporary of 196 Christianily and Its Bible i Burns, the peasant poet of Scotland. In the nine- teenth century Roman Cathoh'cism ',v , -, rv-,.r^-tnted by Faber, the Engh'sh church by K t'li , am non conformity by Bonar. 231. Its hymns are only a part oi the pu^.i • of Christian literature. Prominent among its great works must be placed the Divine Comedy of Dante, who may be placed with Homer, Shakespeare, and Goethe as one of the four greatest poets of the world. Akin to Dante's great work, in our second period, is that of Milton's Paradise Lost and Regained, in our third. To the last part of the eighteenth and to the beginning of the nineteenth century belong Words- worth and Coleridge. These, with the less gifted Southey, belong to what is called the "Lake school." They were contemporaries of Byron and Scott. Of these, Byron was the greate- poet, but his poetry, to say the least, was not very religious. Scott ex- celled as a novelist. In fact, the study of all fiction may be wisely divided into two periods by the works of Scott. Stopford A. Brooke begins his comparison of Browning and Tennyson with the words: "Par- nassus, Apollo's mount, has two peaks, and on these, for sixty years, from 1830 to 1890, two poets sat till their right to these lofty peaks became unchal- lenged." While Browning represented robust faith, and Tennyson the doubts of the age as well as its faith, Matthew Arnold represented its unbelief as well as it' ubt and faith. ^ ■^m m ^m Literature, Arts, and Science 197 232. The influence of the Bible upon subsequent Christian literature has been altogether out of pro- portion to its size. How great its inspiration in English literature, especially the best ! Its influence upon Milton was such that the presentation of his religious views have been so identified with the Bible that sometimes, where they differ from or supple- ment it, they are viewed as if taken from the Bible itself. Intelligently to read Shakespeare and Tenny- son implies a knowledge of the Bible that many col- lege students do not possess. The pages of Macaulay and of Ruskin are brightened by it, and the eloquence of Gladstone, Webster, Burke, and Bright is heigh- tened by it. Dickens replied to Walter Savage Landor that he got the style that Landor praised "frou. the New Testament to be sure." That he got more than his style from the Bible his writings frequently show. Its influence upon Thackeray was also great. To Scott it was The Book. Through the whole range of English which it has pr ictically made, its influence is reflected, not only in definite references, but also in the making and the molding of the greatest thoughts; and as with English lit- erature, so with those of other tongues. ART 2^1 After Alexander's time Greek art declined. Then military supremacy passed to Rome, whose art was inferior to that of Greece. The excavation 198 Christianity ani lis Bible of Pompeii and Herculaneum, buried by the eruption of Vesuvius, shows that much of the Roman art was immoral. Because of this, together . "th its service to idolatry, it was opposed by the early church. As the early period of church history was largely a period of persecution, there was not much occasion for church-building. To this time, however, belong the catacombs and their symbols. 234. The catacombs are associated with the times of persecution as the hiding-places of the living as well as the burial-places of the dead, including some of the martyrs. The most important from the standpoint of Christian art and history are those just outside of Rome. There are over fifty of these, in which millions were buried between the beginning of the second century and the beginning of the fifth. They consist mainly of many n "Us of galleries, cut out of the white tufa stone, which is easily worked. Into the sides of these galleries the bodies were placed, and the opening was closed with a stone slab bearing an inscription and a Christian symbol. One of these was the fish, because the letters of the Greek work for "fish" were the first letters of the Greek words for "Jesus Christ, God's Son, Savior." Upon the walls and roofs were symbols and scenes. The so-called "catacomb churches," which were in connection with the galleries, the light, and the air, were too small to accommodate many. 235. When the period of persecution passed, Literature, Arts, and Science 199 occasion arose for the building of many churches. In the time of Constantine they were built in two distinct styles— the Byzantine and basilican. Of these the Byzantine, in which the cupola or dome is prominent, has flourished mainly in the East. In Constantinople the Church of St. Sophia (now a Mohammedan mosque) was built in this style. Because of the grandeur of its dome and the richness of its material it is said that the emperor Justinian, exclaimed at its completion: " I have surpassed thee, O Solomon!" A notable example of t later devel- opment of this style is St. Marks in Venice. The basilican style arose in imitation of the Roman basilica. This was a rectangular building, with a platform at the farther end and with the central part or nave separated from the side aisles by rows of rolumns. This flourished mainly in the West, where in the eleventh century it was developed into the Romanesque. 236. In the Romanesque, in place of a flat ceiling, the round arch abounds. It is commonly viewed as but a transition to the Gothic style. In this the pointed arch and spire, which are so prominent, suggest, not simply an aspiration, but a striving for the highest. A great example is the Cathedral of Cologne in Germany. It is interesting to note that in the development of both the Byzantine and the basilican styles increasing prominence was given to the form of the cross in the ground-plan of the church .v-» 200 Christmnit\ and Its Bible 1 —the Greek cross in the Byzantine and the longer Latin cross in the basilican. By the time of the Reformation, while the Byzantine still ruled in the East, in the West the Gothic had given place to the Renaissance, in which the round arch of the Roman- esque, the cupola of the Byzantine, and the Greek columns are found. Its chief example is St. Peter's at Rome. For the building of this was used the money from that sale of indulgences that occasioned the Reformation. 237. It is interesting to notice how many great artists were alive in the year 151 7. To menti(m but six of the greatest artists the world has ever seen, we have Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, Raffael, Titian, and Correggio among the Italians, and Durer among the Germans. In painting, and still more in sculpture, after the golden age of Angelo and Raflfael the arts declined. Among the names worthy of prominent mention, however, are Murillo, the Spanish painter of the seventeenth century; Ho- garth, the English painter of the eighteenth; and in the nineteenth, among painters. Turner, Holman Hunt, and Tissot, and among sculptors, Thorwald- sen and Ranch. 238. The extreme attitude toward art taken by Puritanic Protestantism is seen in Macaulay's description of the Puritan regime in England : The Parliament resolved that all pictures in the royal col- lection which contained representations of Jesus or of the - ,„^amBBsam ;♦ : .,■; IJterature, Arts, and Science 30I Virgin Mother should be burned. Sculpture fared as ill as painting. Nymp!..s and Graces, the work of Ionian chisels, were delivered over to Puritan stone-masons to be mado decent. Though having as elaborate a ceremonial worship as Roman Catholicism the Greek chur-' does not make as much use of the fine arts in its worship. The use of sacred images ("icons") in worship led to over a century of bitter strife and persecution. Those who opposed it are called "iconoclasts." The result was that in the Eastern church, since the middle of the ninth century, while the worship of raised images has been forbidden, flat images are used in worship. 239. The source and center of Christian art is Christ. In fresco, mosaic, sculpture, and painting, however affected by the artists' nationality an 'me, there is recognizable one " supreme face " through- out the centuries of Christian art. In the Middle Ages especially he was represented as a judge. A common representation of him is as the suffering Savior. In striking contrast to the realism of the painted crucifix is the modern painting,where, instead of a portrayal of his physical suffering, there is between the crosses of the thieves but an indescrib- ably beautiful light. It is for us all to get the truest vision that the eyes of our souls can see, and not to be disobedient to the heavenly vision. 240. The prominent names in the development .;:.X 2oa Christianity and Its Bible j*^.-.- of church music before 15 17 are Ambrose and Gregory the Great. Shortly after that date, when there was danger of music being banished from the Roman Catholic church, the genius of Palestrina saved the day. "By his songs he has conquered us," said a certain cardinal concerning Luther, because he had made much of sacred song. The Wesleys, Moody and Sankey, and later evangelists, have followed his example. By the beginning of the' seventeenth century the secular opera and sacred oratorio had come into existence. Among the masters of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were Bach, Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and Wagner. Of these. Bach, Handel,' Haydn, and Mendelssohn are famous chiefly because of their religious music. In the present century the effort of Pope Pius X for the reformation of church music is another incident in a conflict manifest from as early as the days of Ambrose— a conflict between the two tendencies toward, and away from, the secularizing of the music of the church. SCIENCE 241. Though in our second period Roger Bacon, a physical scientist of the thirteenth century, suffered imprisonment for writing against the monks as standing in the way of progress, it was not until early in our third period that the conflict between progress- ing science and the prevailing theology began in ^^iSBBMI «,,-■« 4* Uleratiire, Arts, and Science 203 earnest. The conflict was largely over the accounts of creation. Roger Bacon's position itself was at times r.ear that of astrology and alchemy, the fore- runners of astronomy a d chemistry. Early in our third period a priest by the name of Copernicus discovered the error of the Ptolemaic idea that the heavens went around the earth. Thi' idea goes back to early Christian times. In the seventeenth century Galileo was opposed at Rome for advocating the Copernican view that the earth went around the sun. At first, under pressure, he retracted his teaching, but afterward died in prison "for thinking in astron- omy otherwise than the Franciscan and Dominican license thought." 242. In the meantime an English contemporary of Galileo, Francis Bacon, whose Essays have been so popular, was preparing the way for the progress of science by emphasizing the importance of the induc- tive method. Born in England the year of Galileo's death (1642), Sir Isaac Newton breathed a freer atmosphere in which to make known his great dis- covery—the law of gravitation which was applicable to the whole universe. He lived into the eighteenth centurv, in which the French naturalist BufTon was criticized for being unorthodox in his work on natural history. The result was that he wrote, as given by Lyell: "I abandon everything in my book respecting the formation of the earth and, generally, all which may be contrary to the narrative of Moses." ■*:^^^^ssiMmM 304 Cltristianilv and Its Bible 'li^ 3; Meanwhile the conclusions of geology were coming into inc. cased conflict with the account of creation in Genesis. Then, with Charles Darwin's Origin 0} Species (1859), perhaps the most influential book of the nineteenth century, arose the great controversy concerning evolution. While Xev to 1 discovered a great law of universal space, Darwin discovered a great law for all time— the law of development. His great work was to collect facts that showed how higher species were evolved from lower ones. One of the ablest advocates of Darwin's view was the literary biologist, Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-95), who stood for freedom in scientific thought. As most of the other members of a certain society were "ists," for himself, who sought neither to aflirm nor deny what was beyond knowledge, he invented the t'de of "agnostic." He wrote concerning it. "It came into my head as suggestively antithetic to ihe 'gnostic' of church history, who professed to know so much about the very things of which I was ignorant." 243. The idea of development has influenced study in ditTerent departments of knowledge. Upon it is based the new psychology. This is functional as well as structural; i. e., it not simply tries to analyze the mental life, but it seeks the origin and the function of the ditTerent phases of consciousness. In this it is evolutionary. It is thus closely related to what today is called the new theology, according to which religion :"m-:J I Literature, Arts, and Science 205 is a growth in consciousness, and the different ideas concerning God have been, and arc, more or less valuable working hypotheses. They influence con- duct, and like hypotheses in natural science, have been, and are, changed by results. 244. The chapters in Genesis with which physical science came into conflict are the chapters with which the modern controversy concerning the Old Testa- ment began. In 1680, Simon, a French priest, called attention to the two accounts of creation and of 'he flood. Considerably less than a century later it was discovered that these accounts of creation had each a difTerent name for deity. Just a century later, 1 780, Eichhorn, a German, discovered that there were other noticeable diflferences in the language used. Investigations were extended to include, not only the Pentateuch, but Joshua also. In the first part of the nineteenth century De Wette pointed out the pecu- liarity of the teaching and style of Deuteronomy. Before Darwin's great work on natural science had appeared (1859), in the science of historical criticism the theory that the Hexateuch was made up, mainly, of four documents, had come to stay. The same pro- cess of examining the Scripture itself to get the facts from which to form conclusions — i. e., the inductive method of Bible study — has been used in the treat- ment of the rest of the Old Testament, and of the New Testament as well. 245. Because of the interesting parallels made 206 Christianity and Its Bible between the accounts in Genesis and those of Assyri- ology, the stories of creation and of the flooJ figure largely in the early development of the science of comparative religion. This science, loo, has not been without its more or less bitter controversies with common conceptions of Christianity and its Bible. ^^SSL, CHAPTER XVI PHILOSOPHY AND ISMS PHILOSOPHY 246. To our third ptTiod of church history modern philosophy belongs. It began in the first part of the scvinteenth century. Among its forerunners were (liordano Bruno of Italy, Francis Bacon of England, anfl Jacob Boehmc of Germany. Francis Bacon's great influence, as we have already noticed, was largely due to the place he gave to the inductive method. The name of Jaco' Bochme will appear later in the chapter, when ^ e consider Mysticism. Giordano Bruno was burned as a heretic in Rome in 1600. As indicative of the changv the centuries have wrought, it is interesting to note that in 1889, at tho place of his martyrdom, a statue was erected in his memor>'. His teaching has been called a "poetic pantheism." If asked the lames of those repre- sentative philosophers who:,c lives rould span the stretch between the sixteenth and twentieth centuries, one would not go far astray if he named Descartes (1596-1650), Spinoza (1632-77), Locke (1632-1704), Berkeley (1684-1753), Kant (1724-1804), Hegel (1770-1831), Comte (1798-1857), Schopenhauer (i 788-1860), and Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). Seeking for an undoubtodlv reliable starting-point 207 2CS Chrislianilv and Its Hi hie Drscarti'S brgan with his famous words: Cof^iio, ergo sutn (" I think, thcn-foro I txist"). Following this, the [)anthtistic philosophy of Spinoza, a Jew, has exerted a potent influence. The pantheism of Si)ino7.a is to be connected with that of (Jiordano Bruno. .'47- Ri-turnin« to Kngland, when the revohiiion of 1688 brought Wiih'am and Mary to the throne, John Locke, especially through his famous essay on the human understanding, exerted a great influ cnce on both sides of the Engl; h Channel. It also strongly influencerl Edwards, and so New England. According to Locke there were no innate ideas. The mind was as a blank pajier, on which all that was written came from experience through the senses, and through reflection ujKm the sensations thus received. According to Bishop Berkeley, uf Ireland, there were no external things, not even a human body, th-ough which to receive sensations. The mind's ideas concerning these things were due to the direct operation of God upon it. 248. Nearly a century after Locke's great work there appeared, in 1781, Kant's Critique 0} Pure Reason. He distinguished between pur> reason and practical reason. In pure reason the mind knows nothing save what it obtains both through the senses and the undcrstamhng. It therefore does not know God. Even in its sensuous experience it knows only phenomena, or things as they appear to be, and not JUic&.a i Philosophy and Isms 309 things in ihi'mM-lvts. Kant's Critique oj the Practi- oil Reason is transctndintal. In practical reason the mind becomes transcendent— i. e., it oversteps tx|Krience and is a law unto itself. It assumej; the ixistenie of (iod, freedom of will, and immortality. Witli Kant religion was but a handmaid. Morality was the mistress. Just half a century after Kant's gnat work ajjpeared, >Iegel passed away. He was the last of the great idealists. With him God was tlie Absolute— i. e., the Unrelated One. His system, called "absolute idealism," was largely speculative. For a time it exerted great influence in Germany. The intluence of the ideaUstic philosophy of Germany was felt in England, especially through Coleridge. 249. As a reaction from the metaphysical specula- tions of the idealists came the scientific investigation of realism. This naturalism led to widespread materialism. Auguste Comte was the founder of Positivism. According to it, the third, and highest, intellectual stage of man was the positive. In this stage man, in his study of phenom'jna, no longer bothered about any theological (i. e., supernatural) or even met physical origin for them. A little older than Comte, and outliving him by a few years, Schopenhauer, the founder of the philosophy of j)essimism, taught that existence was an evil and the world the worst possible. Our last name, Herbert Spencer, is to be classed, with that of John Stuart Mill, amonp the associationalists who, by the law of 2IO Christianity and Its Bible the association of one iJea with another, so that the two tend to be together in consciousness, sought to explain all the laws of thought. The great object of Herbert Spencer's hfe-work, in his synthetic philoso- phy, was by means of the laws of evolution to explain the principles underlying all the sciences. ISMS 250. Our third period is a period of isms. Be- sides those already noticed, among the most notable are Anabaptism, Mysticism, Pietism, Quietism, Socinianism, Unitarianism, Universalism, Deism,' Encyclopaedism, Rationalism, and Ritschlianism. 251. Anabaptism ("again baptized") means the baptism of those already baptized in infancy. The Anabaptists go back to within a few years of 1517, and include all denicrs of infant baptism. With this one thing in common, there could easily be much difference between them. The result is that it is necessary to distinguish between evangelical and fanatical Anabaptists. The one was represented by Hubmcicr, and has been continued until today by Baptists and others. The other was represented by Miinzer and Hoffmann, and was manifested in such immoral excesses as at Munstcr. 252. Mysticism is difhcult to define. Theologi- cally it is a striking contrast to Rationalism. It believes in a divine enhghtenment above the reason. It seeks immediate, blessed consciousness of the ■liH wiMiBiiifll Philosophy and Isms 211 divine essence. It fills an important place in other religions as well as in Christianity. There is a true and a false Mysticism. The dividing line is difficult to draw. On its false side it is related to Theosophy ("wisdom of God"), and is commonly made o coincide with it. Theosophy has been defined as "God-intoxication"— the wisdom that sees God in everything and everything in God. Instead of beginning with phenomena, it starts with an affirmed direct knowledge of God, and from it seeks to explain phenomena. 253. Among Christian Theosophists may be men- tioned Jacob Boehme, of Germany, who died in 1624, and Swedenborg, of Sweden, but who died in London in 1 772. Swedenborg, of a good family and himself simple, courteous, faithful, hard-working, and humble, beginning in 1745, claimed to have angelic communications concerning the spiritual sense of the Bible. In Judaism the Theosophic Cabala was claimed to be the laws handed down orally from the time of Mos and put in writing early in the Christian centuries. In her advocacy of the system of Buddhism, Madam Blavatsky, in 1787, founded a Theosophical society in the United States. In Mrs. Besant Theosoj.hy found one of its ablest advocates in recent times. 254. In a general way it may be said that, while Theosophy speculates concerning the universe, true Mysticism is chiefly concerned with the soul's 312 Christianity and Its Bible relation to Deity. Both Mysticism and Theosophy are found in Mohammedan sufism. A tendency to Mysticism and Theosophy was a characteristic of Neoplatonism. In fact through its Mysticism it influenced the Middle Ages, and its influence has continued down to the present time. This was due largely to the Neoplatonic writings ascribed to Dio- nysius the Areopagite (Acts, chap. 17), though un- doubtedly written centuries later. This important Mystical work of our first period was quoted in the Monophysite discussions in the sixth century. Early in our second period it was translated into Latin and greatly influenced the Schoolmen. Among the prominent Mystics of the Middle Ages may be men- tioned the brilliant pantheistic Dominican, Eckhart, the poetic servant and knight of eternal wisdom,' Heinrich Suso, and the author of the famous Imita- tion of Christ, Thomas k Kempis. 255. Mysticism after 151 7, like Anabaptism, is discounted because of the excesses of many of its representatives. At its best it is related to a move- ment for the cuh- ion of piety. This, called Piet- ism, originate Spcner in the last part of the seventeenth cc .. It was a reaction against the Lutheran reliance upon mere orthodoxy. Answer- ing to Pietism in Germany, Jansenism in France, and Quakerism in England, there arose in Spain what is called Quietism. It v.as a reaction against dogma, Philosophy and Isms 213 and was based on the writing of Molinos, a Spanish priest of the last part of the seventeenth century. Madame Guyon, of the next century, was a great French representative of Quietism in its contem- plation of God. 256. In the sixteenth centur}' prominent among those not believing in the Trinity were Servetus and an uncle and nephew by the name of Socinus. Ser- vetus also opposed the doctrine of original sin, that of Luther concerning justification, and that of Calvin on predestination. His burning in Geneva leaves a blot on Calvin's record. While differing from Arianism and modem Unitarianism, Socinianism is akin to both. Among the distinguished representa- tives of modern Unitarianism are to be included James Martineau, in England, and William EUery Channing, of the United States. The literature of the latter country owes very much to Unitarian writers. It is suggestive of the trend of thought between the great religions that American Unitarian- ism is in touch with the Brahmo Somaj, a Unitarian kind of Brahmanism. It is also now in close touch with Universalism. This, while believed more or less from early Christian times, was organized in America by John Murray, near the end of the eight- eenth century. Prominent among the Universalist leaders was Hosea Ballou, who came to the belief soon held by a large part of his denomination — i. e., ^1 214 Christianity and Its Bible Unitarian Universalism which, stated negatively, does not believe either in the Trinity or in eternal punishment. 257. In England in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were some who did not believe in the Trinity and were opposed to belief in supernatural- ism. Known as the English Deists, they exerted much influence. It was to meet the "loose kind of Deism" prevalent in the first half of the eighteenth century that Joseph Butler (afterward bishop) wrote his famous Analogy, of which the full title is The Analogy of Religion Natural and Revealed to the Constitution and Course oj Nature. 258. As developed in France, along the line of sensation alone, which was looked upon as including reflection, Locke's philosophy resulted, in the eight- eenth century, in a materialistic philosophy that had no place for a distinctively spiritual nature. This French materialism led to a modern Epicureanism— the sensuous becoming sensual. Locke himself was a believer in Christianity and in the Bible. The brilliant Voltaire, who introduced Locke's essay into France, though strictly not an atheist, but rather a deist, was a bitter opponent of supernatural religion. At the end of his letters to his friends he wrote: Ecrasez I'injam (" Exterminate the wretch "). Dide- rot, the chief of the Encyclopaedists (so called from their relations to a rationalistic encyclopaedia of the eighteenth century), was nearer materialism than -:;:i84toL- Philosophy and Isms 215 Voltaire. This period, with its exaltation of reason and its contempt for authority and tradition, is sometimes called the period of enlightenment in France. 259. In the eighteenth century, corresponding to this "enlightenment" in France, was the Aujklarung, or period of enlightenment, in Germany. In this, Rationalism, as opposed to supernaturalism, made reason rather than the Scripture supreme. Though the term "Rationalist" is not used until our third period, the thing itself is found in the second. The name of being the first Rationalist is given to Abelard, who lived in the twelfth century. He was a most popular lecturer in philosophy and theology. After a debate with Bernard of Clairvaux he was con- demned as a heretic. One of the most pathetic romances in history is that between him and H^oise. Early in the eighteenth century, Wolff, besides other contributions, made reason the arbiter between experience and what was thought to be revealed. German Rationalism, unlike English Deism and French Naturalism, though it strongly emphasized the limitations of Bible times, did not break away completely from the Bible and the church. Before the end of the century an extreme deistic position was reached in the notorious " Wolfenbuttel Frag- ments." According to these, Christ was a visionary reformer, whose plan of a temporal kingdom miser- ablv failed. A distinguished English opponent of 2l6 Christianity and Its Bible this rationalistic tendency of the eighteenth century was Paley. His most influential work was his famous Evidences of Christianity, 1794. 260. In Germany the tide was turncu through the influence of Jacobi, the philosopher of faith, and Schleiermacher, the most prominent name in German theology in the first part of the nineteenth century. Trained by the Moravians, the influences of his early religious experiences remained with him despite his subsequent doubts. His first important work put the emphasis upon religious feeling. His greatest work, Christian Dogmatics (to be placed alongside Calvin's Institutes), is based upon experience and the sense of complete dependence upon God. While he was influenced by Spinoza's pantheism, and was accused of not being orthodox concerning the Trinity, tiie Bible, the birth of Jesus, etc., he made Christ central in his thought. 261. In 1835, a year after Schleiermacher's death, Strauss's Life of Jesus appeared. In it the New Testament records concerning Jesus were rep- resented as largely the product of a myth-making tendency. One of the great results of the extensive and intensive controversy that followed the publica- tion of this book was an increased appreciation of the value of Jesus to the world. To be placed with Strauss's work, though not appearing until 1863, is Kenan's beautifully written Lije oj Jesus. Accord- ing to Renan, Christianity was but a natural out- I Philosophy and Isms 217 growth of its times, and Jesus simply "a lovable hero of a Galilean village." Baur, a contemporary of Strauss, was the founder of what is called the Tubingen school. According to this, most of the New Testament was written in the second century as the result of the conflict between Paul and the original apostles concerning the extent of Judaistic influences upon Christianity. Baur acknowledged that Paul was the author of Romans, I and II Corinthians, and Galatians. 262. At first an adherent of this Tubingen school Ritschl broke from it and became the founder of the .vitschlian or Gottingen school. It includes a^ong its representatives Harnack, Hermann, Kaftan, Lob- stcin, Schultz, and Wendt. Prominent in kitschl's system is the theory of value- judgments (Werih- Urthcile), according to which the test of reli- gious truths is their value to us. We do not know things in themselves. To say with Hegel that God is the Absolute, the Unrelated One, is unwarranted. Any thought of God that has value for us brings him into relation with us. The thought concerning Jesus is not speculative, but practical— not what is his nature in itself, but what he is worth to us. Much is made of the kingdom of God as that which was founded by Jesus, who in disposition and will was one with the Father. The death of Jesus is not made central. The traditional view of inspiration is discarded. Religion is a growth. Conversion is a 2l8 Christianity a.id II Bible process. In America noticeable among the influ- ences preparing the way for it was that of Horace Bushnell. As the conclusion of Part III perhaps we had better add that, as in Bible times, so in Christian times views have been changed, sometimes for the better nd sometimes for the worse. A knowledge of church I story should affect our attitude to both old and w beliefs today. On the one hand, it should pre- vent a precipitate acceptance of the latest theories and beliefs. On the other hand, it should guard us against extreme conservatism in holding inherited beliefs. They may have been the results of a wrong change of view in the more or less distant past; or at best they may be but good inns on the road to truths of greater worth— good places to have tarried a little, but not places to abide. Though we have not preached historical sermons in Part III, it is hoped that between the lines many helpful lessons have been learned— such as the importance of deep convictions, and of loyalty to them even though it mean martyrdom; the importance of being open to conviction, and of guarding against that spirit of intolerance that forbids others (even though they are doing a noble wcrk) because they "followed not us " (Mark 9 : 38-42) ; the importance of emphasizing the fundamentals in which we agree with others, and of avoiding undue attention to the minor points of difference; and above all and including all, the importance of being actuated by Christian love. PART IV CHRISTIANITY TODAY .-■.5» V^^ ^«MI9 •,' ►»/ m?^J.^ ',>. ,.i»^l CHAPTER XVII THK GLORIOUS GOSPKL INTRODUCTORY 263. The aim of Part IV, which begins with this chapter, is not to give a complete systc-m of theology but rather to give helpful |)oints of view from which to judge the different theological questions; to give the most important of the beliefs that may be said to be established; and to give most attention to that which will mp.Uc most for a holy, helpful, joyous life. Let us begin with a text of Scripture : " For I am not ashamed of the gospel for it is the power of God unto salvation to everyone that believeth; to the Jew tlrst and also to the Greek." If asked to select from all Paul's writings the one verse that would give most, ;md best, his spirit and message, it would be this verse in the first chapter of Romans. The context reveals Paul the preacher. The context and con- tents reveal Paul the Christian. Keeping in mind its esjx'cial appropriateness to preachers, let us look u[>on it as a text lor all Christians. It is a golden lot kc-t that from her infancy has adorned the church. It has two golden "fors." The first is a link con- necting the locket wit! the chain of golden thought preceding. The second is a hinge. As the locket Opens UjKjn it, .VC- UCUOU; l--:\j s.O;ii;.iiaiUil j-:' 22 I 333 i'hrisii tnity and its Rihie In onr Paul is fUfinif lis tH)Kiri<>n with rrsj-x-. t to the pu^pt 1. In the o i. r he i ' ikir ■; df 'ense. Notice, then, fsrst, THK (TTPtSI 2f) '''^^ lion . \N ,'F'> in vic\' (»( age aiKi b'- i« vn or neii a. 'r ntr. [tow O! 'ill th. ri( v)\. rosn ON i»Ki kn<.'Aii ' >li irro' 'in,"- \\h \cc tion I ii . ten i/ir trie I osition r Chr ti "'s toii Komans wis w^ 'cn. ,iiv, i 5S was the cent r of tY w know Paul's age. S her position, but '"'^'u^, the Circle of worl 'roe 'i kcI. into h( t c nverg* ' th radii ui 'nii ar to id mercantile rojtes. rhro thest hese.itl :h uer power and drew in her v iltli \',^ 'his, arts, especially archit <■(■'' 're, . and wasdt ifl, bu! is orks rei >t si Ar hir britk, ' •' lef" it mirble. bed. Augustus U' "ound Rome marl still. The ■•-n )]( f I'Mi icr, t'" foH' in.dc aqueducts, d liams hoN( ^at C( me t ic loremost city th' id Pom in 58 as the brain of the orl<^, hi i simply of power, but, to a ertain t ni (n un - wi , Much of this was mnte. T- ]\ r mn ttnr any direct connec- >n betwf ( - if( a, the losopher, and Paul, C'hristian apostle, we a' w they were contem- p riTiCs. irgil, Livy, Horace, Ovid, though dead, Thr Glorious iospfl 3 2.^ sfill spoke. Much was rctfivcd from without. Thr- njrh her efferent nerves Kum 'Manifested her p. ver in smiting the nations, but, - she did, her afferent nerves were thrlle-' .vith the hmpuage, !'!( niture, and general eulture of the conquered. In vome the wisdom of Orecce and the sjjlendor of the Orient joined hands with Roman f)Ower. 2' ;. The Roman girl of Mrs. Ifemans sang truly: 'hy seven hills of yore thuu satst a queen." Ml, IS bowed submissively to her royal will and fxe' ited exjK^ditiously her im^K-rious command. Her sons and daughters, and even her adopterl chil- fi'-cn, were kings and qu( is. No wonder, then, in \s lever land they were, ih( " gloried in their royal Roman riches, rights, and |)ower. Paul had found Xi 'ence of the empire exceedingly helpful in his ionary travels. He himself was bom into citi/enship; and again and again it had 1 him. He vva thus the better able to :\ tc tb( prou<' Roman's attitude to the gospel w; V lOUiider was, not a Roman, but a poor Jew who had been crucified by Rome. 266. In the membership of the Roman church were both Jews and gentiles. Many of the latter prob ibl . had takt n a preliminary step in becoming, to a great ^ or ess degree, believers in Judaism. The prcsclyling zeal r)f the Jewish rulers is rofr-red to in Matt. 23: 15. The ^ult, as given • verse, should be taken in connection '■ 224 Christianity and Its Bible t^ and Hcadlam's words concernng the Jews of the Dispersion : Round most of the Jewish colonies there wa^ gradiially formed a frini^e of gentiles more or less in active sympathy with their reliRion — the "devout men and women," "those who worshiped God," of the Acts of the Apostles. P"or the student of the origin of the Christian Church this class is of great importance, because it more than any other was the seed plot of Christianity; in it more than in any other the Gos|x;l took root and spread with ease and rapidity. 267. Though the social standing of the Roman Christians may well have been above the average condition of the early Christi;. is, yet from some things in the epistle (such as the names in the salu- tations) we infer that many of them were slaves. About such the haughty Romans would know little and care less. Doubtless, however, the great objec- tion to Christianity was the offense of the cross. To get the meaning of the cross for that time, we must forget the sacred associations that have clustered around it and think of it as being viewed then as we view the gallows today. The opinions of Tacitus, Suetonius, and Pliny, writing about the end of the century, throw some light ujwn the Roman attitude toward Christianity in the time of Paul. To them it was a new, dire, harmful superstition to be classed among the shameful and atrocious things encouraged at Rome. Describing, in a word, the attitude of Paul's age, wi would say: It was ignorant indiffer- iiv fii The Glorious Gospel 225 ence that, with increase of knowledge, deepened into strongest contempt and even hate. 268. To such an age Paul preached. The Epistle to the Romans is his written sermon, or rather con- densed notes for a series of sermons. His theme is the verse we have already mentioned. He leads up to it by stating his position. Let us hear it as he explains and expands his notes. " I am separated unto 'he work of the gospel ministry. I have preached in other gentile cities with good results. I feel your need of instruction. I am eager to preach to you also who are in Rome." He pauses a moment then continues: " I am not unmindful of the increas- ing contempt in which we are held in Rome. I have ftlt the pulse of the age. At Athens, before my sermon, they said one to the other: 'What will this babbler have to say ? ' Before I finished they inter- rupted me by mocking at the resurrection of the dead. Even the Jews, from whom we are distin- guished only to be treated with greater contempt, themselves despise and persecute us. At Lystra they left me for dead. I have felt all this; I have felt keenly the reproach of a Christian. Yet," he continues, "yet, in spite of Jewish persecutions, in spite of gentile contempt, this is ever my position in this age : I am eager to preach the gospel, for I am not ashamed of it; and I have reason for not being ashamed." And he had. 269. We turn from Paul's age to our own. Time 226 Christianity and Its Bible has wrought great changes. The Roman Empire, the glory of 58, is now but a fact of history. Chris- tianity, a thing to be ignored in 58, is now the all- important factor of the age. Its rise has been greater than the fall of Rome. Where stood grim Roman for^s, now Christian churches stand, and through these, many lands unknown to Rome have been conquered and kept. The angle remaining the same, the larger the base of the pyramid, the higher the pyramid rises. Christianity, by its mar\'elous spread, has risen in the estimation of the world. The center has changed from Rome to Calvary. The despised GaUlean malefactor has taken a higher place than Caesar in the worship of mankind. His heralds are sent to every quarter of the globe. His soldiers fight in every I md. On their banners is the once despised, but now glorified, cross. Everywhere the spires of their garrisons catch the first glint of the rising sun. Everywhere they catch his last rays as he smiles good-night. The learned seek wisdom of Him who was "meek and lowly in heart." The wealthy of the earth pay tribute to Him who was poor in material things as well as in spirit. Even the kings of the earth and the mighty ones let fall their scepters and prostrate themselves before him who was despised and rejected of men. 270. What a difi' between Paulas age and ours ! In view of th nge., it is but idle for us to repeat Paul's words: I am not ashamed of the The Glorious Gospel 227 gospel." We should be ashamed to have them repeated in our pulpits. We should be ashamed to hear them so often in our meetings. More fitting for a citizen of Rome, in the days of her greatness, to say, " I am not ashamed of Rome," than for a Christian, in this age, to say (in the very church of Christ, whom everyone in the audience either loves or respects), "I am not ashamed of the gospel of Christ." Someone may urge: "You forget that this expression is a figure of speech called litotes, in which F^ ■■! meant much more than he said." Very true; but it is a litotes that should have no phce whatever among us. The heralds of the gospel must adapt themselves to the age in which they live. Paul's was an age of contempt; therefore he said: " I am not ashamed of the gospel." There followed an age of persecution, in which he, and many others after him, said: "I am not afraid to own myself an adherent of the gospel." Not until we get the char- acteristic of this age do we learn the true litotes for today. 271. There are still those who look upon Chris- tianity with contempt. There are still places where Christians are persecuted for Christ's sake. The greatest characteristic of today, however, is neither contempt nor persecution. One of the greatest, if not the greatest, characteristic of the age, in its attitude toward the gospel, is indifference. This is common in the church itself, as well as in the world outside 228 Christianity and Its Bible of the church. Many in the churches are satisfied with an external application of what is to them the gospel remedy, and they are indifferent to the gospel as an internal cure. The result is that many outside the churches are indifferent to both the external and the internal treatment. Whatever justification there may be for the common criticisms of Paul's sacrificial, theological presentation of the way in which it was possible for the gospel to come, he did earnestly teach and strenuously live the gospel of a living oneness with God in purity, justice, mercy, and love. A great need is for the driving or drawing of Christians out of whatever false refuges prevent them from experiencing this pure, just, merciful, loving heaven here. Can it be that many are more or less affected by such a belief in an easy entrance into a heaven hereafter that it makes them indifferent to the securing of a present heaven ? In the midst of the sluggishness inside and outside the churches, the clarion call comes to awake. Our litotes should be: "I am not indilTcrent to the gospel as a power for making heaven here." 272. A great artist so painted that his pictures, though beautiful in his own age, would become even more beautiful through the invisible softening touches of the hand of time. That hand for ages has been retouching the first picture ol our locket. It has lightened the shadow in which the true Chris- tian stood. We see him in the light of todav. His m r-;v^ The Glorious Gospel 229 cheeks are not blushing with shame nor are they pale with fear, nor are his eyes dull with indifference. His face is flushed with pride. His eyes are sparkling with the good news he bears. W*^ imagine we hear him speak. We catch his first words— words that burst forth from a strong soul uttering what is im- plied in the litotes of Paul: "I glory, I glory in the gospel." It is the picture of the true Christian to- day. Our position, then, in this age of indifference is zeal for the spread of the gospel because we glory in it. We have reason for it, too. Paul's reason is ours. THE christian's POSITION DEFENDED 273. As we look at the second picture of our locket, w find that it also has been affected b- time, but in a very different way. It is now the composite photograph of Christians throughout the ages. It is decidedly Pauline. His defense is our defense. Wc changed his words a little in defining our position. We retain his words in making our defense. Notice, then, as applying both to Paul and to ourselves: The Christian's position dejended. Does the word "defended" seem too strong for this age? It is because our glorying is too weak and we are lacking in zeal. Then let the preacher from the pulpit say: "I glory." Let the Christian "who heareth" him say: "I glory." Thus will others who are "athirst take of the water of life, freely" and say: "I glory" 230 Christianity and Its Bible ,/••''■ in the "gospel of the glory of the blessed God;" jor "it is the power of God unto salvation to everyone that believeth." 274. This defense is a unit. For our Ci...venience, however, it naturally divides into two parts. The first part is that the gospel saves everyone that believes. This truth is implied— epitomized— in the very word "gospel." Gods pel (Godspell) means " God-stor>'," i.e., of Jesus. Codspel, the word from which it seems to be derived, exactly corre- sponds to the Greek word translated "gospel." God means "good." Spel means "history," "story," "tidings." Godspel, then, from which the finger of time has rubbed cut d and shortened 0, means "good tidings." We glory in the gospel because it is good tidings. We glory in it because its good tidings are true. We glory in it because its good tidings are of the greatest importance loo. It saves. Sin brings a sense of separation from God. To feel justif'od, pardoned, forgiven, is to feel that we are saved from the sad condition of those lost from God. To be saved from this implies being brought into re- lationship with him. This relationship is often called eternal life. This, it should be remembered, has a qualitative as well as a quantitative meaning. It is intensive as well as extensive. 275. Gospel salvation is commonly used to include this eternal life. It is thus not simply negative, it is positive. We glory in our armies and navios thai i^ The ij^o^^ious Lospel 231 destroy; how much more should we glory in that which saves— which saves man's soul ! Words will not expre='^ what that means. Only he can know, in anv d. what it means who, in his sorrowful medita u. has seen the pitiable condition of a soul lost from God; and, in his joyful meditations, has caught sweet glimpses into the Presence and heard the songs of the redeemed. We have not been in the counsel-chamber of Omniscience, and do not know all about the why and the how of this salvation that comes to man. We may not fully understand or agree with the philosophers and theologians (including Paul himself) who have endeavored to explain the mystery; and we may even question whether they themselves fully understood the lan- guage they have sometimes used; but we ourselves have obtained this sweet sense of forgiveness and of communion with God. Belie\ ig that it has been obtained, and that it can be obtamed by many others, we glory in this so great salvation. 276. How is it obtained ? It is so great that it is beyond the works of man alone. The Jews felt that, through their Jewish birth, or by keeping the law, they could be saved. Paul at the begiiiring of his epistle says: "No, salvation is not obtaintd through birth." "They are not all Israel that are of Israel." It is also beyond the reach of man's good works. Not of works "that no man should glory." It is a gift obtained through faith. Thi so «^- 232 Christianity and Its Bible great importance that the gospel, and even Chris- tianity itself, are spoken of as the Faith. It is a word of various meanings in the Bible. There is a faith that does not ^ave. We read that "the devils also believe and shudder." The belief that saves implies repentance. In this there may be little emo- tion, or there may be much; but to be true repent- ance there must be the exercise of the will in turning away from that which brings the sense of separation of the soul from God. Conversion is the turning from sin to God. The tu;ning from sin is repent- ance. The turning to God is faith. Whatever the teaching of Paul and others concerning the kind of faith necessary for the beginning of the Christian life, the truest prayer of Christian faith is not, "O Lord, impute," but, "O Lord, impart" thy righteousness unto me. For salvation, taken in its positive as well as in its negative meaning, the faith that is necessary is a faith that aj^propriates the life of God, and as a consequence is manifested in good works. The greater this kind of faith, the greater the salvation of those " who are being saved " by the " power of God " (I Cor. 1 : 18-R.V.). 277. Faith, with all that it implies, is the only condition of obtaining t ais salvation. All nations can believe. The wildest Indian, the lowest Hottentot, I. n then be saved. The little child and the chief of sinners can believe. All, then, can be saved. The gospel invites ail because it can save to the The Glorious Gospel ^33 uttermost. It cries aloud: "Whosoever will." Can wc be indifTercnl to this universal invitation? Rather, since confessing Christ is part of the righteous obedience of faith, let us zealously confess him before men. Let us cry : " Who shall forbid us from glor\'ing in this gospel which saves everyone that believes ?" Let the confession of our lives be commensurate with the glorying with our lips. During vacation as well as during a revival, in the summer resort as well as in the congregation of our church, let us ever be seeking to save souls. 278. The second part of Paul's defense is that the gospel is the "power of God." Great results must have great causes. Back of this great salvation there musi be a great power. History speaks in clearest tones of the power of the gospel. What painter changed the dark picture of the world in 58 to the bright picture of today? The gospel. What has overthrown the dark institutions of slavery and idol- atry ? What has reared the magnificent churches, cathedrals, and philanthropic institutions ? The gos- pel. We need not look into the distant past. The converts among the heathen Tclugu, the converts in cannibal Aniwa, the Jerry McAuleys of our city mis- sions, all corroborate the testimony of history to this powerful gospel. In the days of Greece and Rome phvsical and mental po' climbed to heights before unknown. They found but little there to satisfy the increased yearnings of the soul. Roman might was i jii^'^-JP 'MmE^: 334 Chri.sliattHv anif Its Bible unable, Grecian mind knew not how, to meet the deepest longings of the soul. The gospel meets these because it is the power of God, omnipotent, omniscient, ever sulncient. 279. As a boy, running about a sawmill, I remem- ber being impressed with the work of what we called a "shifter." By means of this the L, It was shifted from one pulley to another alongside, but independ- ent, of the first. When the belt was on the pulley or drum, not connec'cd with the machinery upstairs, it went around all right, but no work was done. When, by means of the shifter, it was run on to the other drum, away went the machinery, and much work was the result. The shifter was simply a wooden frame in which two rollers were set. Useless, save when back of it was the po^' er of man. Ry the gospel story the current of a man's life is so changed that he no longer expends all his energies in simply living for himself, but in accomplishing a great work for the glory of God. How great the change ! How simple the shifter! Insufficient if back of it, in it, was not the power of God (I Cor. 2:4, 5,. The story goes that concerning a sword with whir'i a hero had done wonders someone remarked to the effect that it was not much of a sword after all. To this came the reply: "You see the sword, but not the arm that wielded it." Men often marvel that the simple gospel story has wrought such wonders in the world. They see but the story, and not behind it the The Glorious Gospfl 235 almighty arm .' God. It is the sword of the Spirit. It is the power of Go the power of G^ 1. We need also in the still hour to learn the second truth: the gospel is the power of God through man. Wc may thus, with PauL call it s a.^fi Chrislianiiv and Its fiihle "my gospel," bc< ausc, to use Pinil's own words, "it is the RosjK"! committed to my trust." 281. Let us, in conclusion, ask ourselves a |)crti- nent, jx-rsonal rjuestion: Are we as zealous as we should be for the spread of the gospel at home and abroad ^ If not, why not ? If not, • ."s because the great truths of Paul's defense have not taken full possession of our souls. They were a part of Paul's very being. Why ? Because they were incan.atcd by his rich experience. To him the gospel was the power of God because !-■ felt its power in saving him (and o'hcrs through him) from the lower self into the higher life with Christ in God. What was it that made John G. i'aton so to glory in the ix)\ver of the gos[i(l ? His rich experience r,f that power. How his words thr'led, as he said: " 1 do not Vticvo that th. TOspel is wv k today. It is just as , 'ul as . the day.-, of the aj)Ostlcs. We may not .. ,. ; to glory with sue 1 veierans of the cross. 'I'hen ,1 -. time, howrver, when John G. Paton himscll \ r. inexperieni d. I shall not forget seeing him— the picture of a patriarch— as with tears in his eyes he said, in a voice tremulous with emotion: "I do not see how a man can love Jesus withoui lling it to others, who can believe in him without trying to get others to believe also." That was the secret of his later, richer experience We have felt .he gospel's power in saving us. Let us so tell it to others, especially by the holy hclpfuln- ss of our lives, that The Glorious Gospel 'M wc si iil sec it manifested in saving them. Thus shall ir experience incr ase. Thus shall wc go on from i.iith to faith, from strength to strength, from zeal to zeal, from glory to "lory. Thus shall wc both live it ourselves and lead ethers to the source of the "Beautiful Life." 282. A beautiful twice-told tale is that told by L. VV. Waterman, who heard it in Appleton Chapel as it was told to Harvard students. It is a story of a suggestive question— why it was asked, how it was answered, and the result. A Japanese student in America, when ushered into a clergyman's study, abruptly asked: "Sir, can y< u tell mc how I can fmd the Beautiful [jfe ?" To the questions of the puz- zled clergyman he replied that he had seen, but did not care for, the Christian's Bible, church, or religion ; but he had seen the Beautiful Life. It was lived in a board :nc-house in San Francisco. The one who lived it w;i3 a poor, uneducated old man; but he was alvovs bflping others and was very hapi:)v. The , cgyvKM impressively read Paul's great chapter on love as a description of the Beautiful Life. "It sounds like it," said the Japanese. Then he was toU t.-c story of Jesus and given a twentieth-century New Testament. Though inquiring for a more modern book, he took it and was gone. The next time they met, the student was on his way back to Japan to tnke an important position there. His face was aglow. As described by the rlcrgyman him.self : ii 238 Christianity and Its Bible " It was as the face of one of you young men who had just told of his love. He did not need to utter a word. He caught my hand and said: 'I can only stop a minute; but I felt I must sec you once more, and tell you I have found the Beautiful Life; I have found Jesus.' " CHAPTER XVIII THE DEATH OF JESUS CONCERNING THEORIES OF THE ATONEMENT 283. What does it mean to find Jesus? The derivation of his name suggests his mission. " Thou shalt call his name Jesus; for it is he that shall save his people from their sins." To find Jesus is to find the Savior. As his death has taken such a large place in the great salvation of the glorious gospel, we will give this chapter to the significance of his death. Let it be stated at the outset that the purpose is not to formulate and advocate a particular theory con- cerning what is commonly called the atonement. The purpose is simply to offer some suggestions that will make for right living, and to this end will help correct some erroneous ideas concerning the meaning of the cross. I have five suggestions to offer. The first is that the most important thing is, by no means, to make sure of a definite, clearly stated theory of the atonement. I would insist on this in the light of the Bible itself, of church history, ard of analogy. 284. In the light of the Bible itself. One cannot read it without being impressed with the significance that is there attached to the death of Jesus, whose blessed hands "were nailed for our advantage on the bitter cross." The four gospels give about one- 339 . 240 Christianity and Its Bible fourth of their space to the 'rcatmcnt of the last week of his life. Their representations of his own attitude toward his death are suggestive. In the rest of the New Testament his life is seldom referred to; but the frequent references to his death and resurrection suggest that these were constantly in the thought of the early church. His death, undoubtedly, was viewed as very significant for salvation. Neverthe- less, the New Testament contains no clearly formu- lated theory as to how his death saves. Not only that, but, from all the passages referring to his death, we find it exceedingly difficult to formulate a perfectly consistent and satisfactory theory. From a closer study of these passages, we more than suspect that Christ's death is somewhat differently viewed by different writers. We should not be surprised to be shown that it was somewhat differently viewed by the apostle Paul at different periods in his life. 285. In the light of church history. For about one thousand years the theory commonly held was that developed from the New Testament figure of the ransom. Christ's death was a ransom paid to the devil. It was even held, as suggested by Origen, that God exchanged for the souls of men the soul of Christ, which he knew could not be permanently retained by the evil one. It was actually believed by many that God thus outwitted the devil in the bar- gain. We wonder nov/ how those Christians could ever have held such a crude, and even immoral, i' I,' ' . The Death of Jesus 241 theory concerning the significance of Christ's death. We do not deny, however, that they were saved from sin through that death. In the history of the church, men, who professed love for God and their fellows, have fought bitter theological battles among them- selves because, while professing to be saved through the death of Jesus, they differed in their views as to just how his death saved them. Imagine some brothers wrangling over a brother's grave, and, in so doing, letting their other brothers die, when, by iieeding the counsels of him who died and the les- sons learned through his life and death, they might have saved their brothers. Such is much of the con- troversy in church history over the theories of the atonement. 286. In the light of analogy. I have heard scientists readily acknowledge their ignorance of the essence of electricity, and that they differed in their theories concerning it. That, however, did not i)re- vent them from being benefited by the fat t of elec- tricity. A man may ditler from others in his history of electricity, or may change from (me theory to another, or may have no theory to speak of. and yet may use the mighty fact itself. So a man may differ from others in his theory of the saving significance of Christ's death, or may change from one theory to another, or even may ha\e no theory to speak of, and yet, through the saving power of that death, be made at one with God. The legend goes that St. 242 Clirisdunitv and lis Bible Dominic, leading his forces to victory, went through the tight unharmed because he carried in his hand a largr cru..uix. The Christ of the crucifix was also untouched, but the cross itself was pierced by the weapons of the foe. That cross represents any particular theory of the saving significance of Christ's death. It may be marred. The crucified Christ, however, will remain unharmed to protect from the harm of sin and to lead to victory over sin. CONCERNING FIGURATIVE REFERENCES 287. Our second suggestion is concerning figura- tive references 10 the death of Christ. Be verv care- ful of a figure of speech, especially if it travels alone. Do not let il run on all fours, or it will take you into dangerous places. Do not try to bridge the gulf between man's sin and the hc'.iness of God with the netwo: -. of a single metaphor, or you will fall through its meshes. Let one metaphor be overlaid with a number of others, and even then be cas ful how you proceed. For instance, let the figure of c leans- ing blood (I John 1:7) be qualified by the figure of drinking the blood (John 6:56). Let the idea of a propitiation of an angry God be qualified with other representations of God, such as that he himself makes the j^ropitiation. We could not then have such thoughts as found expression in: 'I love Jesus Christ, but I hate God." 288. Be very careful about the figurative use of ■tiliiliillliiliHI *Sffi^ The Death oj Jesus 243 the Old Testament sacrifices. Let it be kept in mind that, in the Old Testament prophets, such lofty passages as Isa. 1:10-17; Am. 5:21-24; and Mic. 6:6-8, emphasize righteousness as compared with rites and sacrifices. Progress was made when the prophetic idea of righteousness dominated the priestly idea of rites and sacrifices. Let not, there- fore, the erroneous idea of actual sacrifice, that was condemned bv these passages, return in the fi rure of sacrifice as applied to Christ's death, no matter by whom the figure may be used. Let the modern prophets inveigh against any figurative use of the death of Christ as a sacrifice that, in any way, works against the most strenuous endeavor for right cousness, mercy, and humble walking with God. If the death of Jesus makes for anything, it makes for righteousness. If it means anything, it means the impartation of righteous, joyous, strenuous love. 289. Surely in vain was the cross of Calvary stained with the Hfe-blood of Jesus, if through his death men in the presence of temptation are but weakened with the false and fatal belief that the full Dcnaltv of their sins will not be meted out to them ^impl^' because they have that belief. The cross is not an iron anchor with which to grip the lazy shore of false security. It is the mast on which to spread the sail that makes for joyous progress to the haven of a heavenly bliss through Christlike character. Those who look upon it as a fire escape from hell, iiisj I 5 3 ' Am 244 Christianity and Its Bible rather tluin as a mt'i.ns of rising above the selfishness of sin, have missed its mighty meaning for this sinful world. Cursed through the cure of Calvary's cross Are they, not cured through Calvary's curse, Who tliink the remedy a simple wash Ant! would apply, but not assimilate The blood thereof which is the life thereof. Unless the death of Christ imparteth life What Ix'tter than an idol is the cross ? The faith that saves is not the faith that says That "Jesus died for me" and finds the blood A sleeping potion, not inspiring wine. The faith that saves receiveth life from God .And manifests itself in loving deeds. THE IMPORTANCE OF HIS LIKE 290. The third suggestion I would make in deter- mining the significance of the death of Jesus is: Let due emphasis be given to the significance of his life. It is natural to expect that the knowledge of how he lived would be helpful in obtaining the knowledge of how and why he died. All will agree that we are on the way to wisdom concerning the meaning of his death when "we would see Jesus ' in hi^- life upon the earth. Edward Everett Hale i)eliev.d Fanny Kemble was right wOien she told him she was glad she did not know more of ih-' personal life of Shakt>jMare. He liimself was .^orry that Hallam Tennyson, in writing tlie biography of Lord Tenny son, had made that great \)ov{ beem ve' earth). ■iiMi The Death 0/ Jesus 245 Even though some may fear that increased knowledge nl the actual Jesus would show a considerable differ- ence between him and the Christ of theology, is it not true that the nearer we come to him, as he actually lived, the nearer may we come to the right position for the truest consideration of the meaning of his death ? ;yi. The information concerning the life of Jesus given in the early non-Christian writings is very meager. Practically all the material for the study must be obtained from Christian sources and mainly from the New Testament. I would suggest that the GosfX'ls of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John be considered separately; that the first three be com- pared to get a synoptic view of Jesus; and that this be compared with the Jesus of the Fourth Gospel. I would suggest that other New Testament references to his Hfc be carefully considered. I would not, by any faLe view of inspiration, interfere with the most critical investigations. I would be willing that those who are able to do it go back of thu documents to estimate their worth. I would simply ask for an honest effort to find out who Jesus really was, and to walk with him whose feet {)ressed the soil of Pales- tine, and whose voice was heard upon its waters and among its hills. I have a passion lO bring men into touch with K'sus of Nazareth and have them stay with him until he becomes Jesus of Calvarv. Along the wav of Jesu^,' life I would have men come to the foot of the cross and see the Savior. :» J 346 Christianity and Its Bible 292. Could his church come into touch with him thus, I think she would marvel, though often empha- sizing the simplicity of the plan of salvation, that she herself should have stumbled over the simplicity of the way to God through him. To a modern Nico- demus asking concerning the way of salvation, "How can these things be?" the modern Philip makes his truest answer when he says: "Come and see. Get acquainted with Jesus himself. Follow the best that is in you as you learn of him, and you will find yourself at one with God." The Fourth Gosjx>l gives as the words of Jesus: ".And I if I be lilted up from the earth will draw all men to myself." If we can bring men into the magnetic field of this magnet, so that they expenencc the fact of salvation in being drawn away from sin, we need not care so much about their thev>ries concerning the magnetic influence. REVELATIONS AT TH^: CROSS Ay3. Our fourth suggestion is: Viewing his death as :"ae climax of his life, what are its great revela- tions ? There arc certainly two- ^in and love. It reveals the awfulness of sin. What a tragedy, what an awful climax to a protracted tragedy, was that scene on Calvary! The subtle selfishness of the legalistic religious leaders; their bitter opposition to the teaching of Jesus that religion was of the heart; the cruelty of their envy and hate; the coarse mock- The Death oj Jesus 247 cry of the soldiers; the despicable conduct of Pilate; ihe (iulness of ev.-n the disciples to the spiritual nature of ihii" Master's work; their selfish ambi- tions even when the cross was near; their desertion in the time of danger; the shameful denial by Peter; the deeply dyed treachery of Judas; the insistent cry, "Crucify him, crucify him;" the travesty of justice when he was tried; the via dolorosa; the thorns and nails and s{x;ar; the shameful death- p(,nalty; the protracted ])hysical agony; the deeper ngony because of the sinfulness of it all; tb" inno- cence of the victim; his heroic heart breaking because of the sinfulness of the wo l'~v ^i ^'- reve- lation of the awfulness of sin! Ii "ot ..ly reacts upon the sinner, but it reaches out v.itii .Is awful consetjuenccs to the innocent, and smites and wounds and I leaks the very heart of love. This is the depth uf the sin of Calvary. It was a sin against love. " Be afraid of the love that loves you," says one; "it is either your heaven or your hell." Jesus "came unto his own and his own received him not." They enviously, hatefully, mockingly, cruelly put to death their best friend, who .^iradfastly set his face to go to this awful death in very love for them. This is the tragedy of Calvary. This is its glory too. 294. This brings 'is to the other gnai revelation a! the cross— the revelation of love. Coming along the way of his Ufe to his cross, we see this sap< r- scription in the language of religion, b'lsiiiess, a.-ii i 348 Christianity and Its IMble culture: "Ji-sus of Calvary, the Kinj,' of love." \\. X (krply the cross has impressed ufX)n the sorls of men tlic K..e of Jesus for (iod and man! It has been sugf^esled that in all true love there are a recog- nition of worth, a desire to ix)ssess, and a desire to bless. How the cross seals the evidence to the presence and greatness of these three elements in the love of Jesus! The great test of true \ ve is the third. For Ciod's sake and man's, Jesus endured the cross and despised i he shame. How brightly his love stood the fiery test of martyrdom ! This is the glory of the cross. This is why "all the light of sacred storv gathers round its head sublime." We have already referred to an American artist's suggestive picture of the crucifixion, where there are but two crosses visible — those of the robbers. Over them is a bow of hope. Between them, where we would expect the cross of Jesus with its representation of agony, is a flood of ineffable light. It is the light that gives hope to the world. It is the light of love. 295. Is it the love of God as well as of Jesus? Browning makes the aged ajx)stle John say : I say the acknowltii^mcnt of God in Christ, Accepted by thy reason, solves for thee All questions in the earth and oui of it And has so far advanced thee to be wise. The place of increasing importance given to the belief in the divine indwelling has made this "acknowledg- ment" "accep'i'd" more readily by many, and has V^' The Death oj Jfiux J49 "advanced" them "to Ix- wise" (onccrninK the great (jucstions of theology, inrluding that of the sipnifiianee of Christ's death. Tlu- story has fre- (juently been told of the children to whom was given a dissected map of the world. Trying to put it together, they failed, until on the other si«le of its fxrplexing pieces they found pictures of different pa rts of a human body. Soon the {)icture of a man was before them, and lo! on the other side was a com{)letc map of the world. How perplexing the relations within and between the difTcrent parts of the world of Christian theology! If men could but sec Jesjs in the symmetry of his "human life of God," these jxrplexing relations, including what we prefer to call the atonement, would be better understood. 296. "Human life of God"— how niiningful that expression as we stand at the cross! 'Ahat a glimpse it gives into the heart of God ! God':-, heart bleeding because of sin! How awful then is sin! God seeing such worth in man, desiring so to possess him, yearning so to bless, and suffering on his behalf ! What ineffable love! Suggestive, then, the words of President W. H. P. Faunce: The Rrcat conviction that in Christ the mind of God has entered into the life of man has been the source of incalculable moral energy. It is not so important to be sure that Christ is like God as it is to be possessed of the immovable conviction that God is like Christ; that God is not a Caesar or a Sen- nacherib; but is like Jesus. This is the renovating idea which has purified and uplifted the moral world. QjL-- \m The Fatherhood of God 259 used concerning God it is a metaphor, the "word of likeness" is express( ' in some passages where we read : Like as a father pilielh his chlMr*. n So the Lord pitit-th them ih-it fi-iir him. Even as a fatlicr the son in whom he delighteth. 306. As the primary meaning always essential to real fatherhood is ''male parentage of a human child," when the term is used, not only of the devil as father of men and of God as father of lights, but also of God as father of men, surely the meaning is meta- phorical. In 'ifferent religions the goddess has had a prominent place, especially among people who recognized the mother as the head of the family. It seems necessary to use some pronoun in speaking of God. Though, of the three, "he" is used rather than "she" or "it," yet, after all, is God really a male ? Unless as such he has begotten human chil- dren, he is not their real father. Unless as nh he begat Jesus as a human child, he wa'^ not his r al lather. Suggested by such terms a ' first V rn " and " only-begotten," the exprcr^sion eternal g ntra tjon"— the Father's eternal generation of the bun - is most evidently a figure of speech. Surel\ lof most, at least, it is not necessary to go farther. \- 1 order that there may be male parentage there mus; be female parentage, need we ask that, if God bi. a real father, how about the real mother? If the immanence of God be taken to mean that God, being « * "TT's^mjawj ;;/5S'iH" 'mr*:jM'Fy a6o Christianity and Us Bible in all falluTs, is real fathiT to all, then, in the same way, he has also real motherhood an*, childhood. In times of sorrow as in God's pnsence I have been as "one whom his mother comforteth" (Isa. 66: 13). I have felt God was a mother as well i's a lather. Is God a real mother? It would not be ne':essary to carry out this line of thought as far as w have, if it were not that many, who readily recognize as figures of speech the representations of God as shep- herd or as king, yet have great difiiculty in under standing that the representations of God us father are also figurative. I have even heard a self-made theologian who was so incapable of distinguishing between literal and figurative language that he strenuously asserted that the new-birth was literal. Many fail to see, not only how crass it is to think of God as a real father of men, but also how narrow. The term "regeneration" is but a figure of speech. Paul uses the figure of adoption. Regeneration and adoption, taken literally, are contradictory. 307. With some there is the feeling that, when real fatherhood is taken away, everything is gone. If this feeling were displaced by the conviction that the fi.gurative meaning is richer than the real, and that the reality that the figurative meaning seeks to express is richer than the meaning of the figure at its best, how much misinterpretation and controversy would be saved ! The "good measure " of the figure, even though it be heaped up, "pressed down and J he Fiilhfrhood oj '!od 361 shaken together and running over," is still unablr to contain the rich meaning of the reality of God's relationship to us. Faber sang: The love of (Jod is broadt-r Than ihv mca.^urf of man's mind. While man's mind h lipii*'"!: his speech is yet more limited. God certain! ater than any repre- sentation of him in 1; human speech. Kept down by ♦he inadequacy of literal language, the human soul seeks by figures of speech to climb nearer the expression of the truth it feels concerning God. One of its highest figures is that of fatherhood, but the reality is higher still. ELASTICITY OF FIGURE 308. III. Because of the elasticity of figurative language, the range of the possible figurative mean- ings f' "fatherhood" is limited only as the power of thi lagination 's limited. The American school bov ci*ii say that Washington was the "father of his country." V/ordsworth said: "The child is father o: the man." Elisha called Elijah his father, and was called father by the king. Job said that he was a father to the needy, and that corruption was his father. God is the father of rain as well as of lights, and he is the begetter of the dew. If one has imagi- nation strong enough he may stretch the figure of fatherhood so that it would practically cover his whole conception of God. To this there is no serious '11 viiiki -^i^anm. 262 Christianity and Its Bible objection, provided it be recognized that fatherhood is a figure; and that other figures, such as kingship, may be similarly stretrhed. Here are three persons — a good man, a bad man, and a boy who is not the real son of either of the men. Speaking figuratively, however, the good man may be kind enough to the boy to be called his father; and the boy may be enough like the bad man to be called his son. So, speaking figuratively, the good God may, in some ways, be a father to those who, because of their bad- ness, are called children of the devil. A child can have only one real father. Speaking figuratively, however, the one child may have two fathers; and the one man may be father more than once to the same child. God could not be man's father in creation and also in regeneration, if we look upon fatherhood, in both cases, as real. If, however, we look upon them as figures of speech, they may each express an important truth. The question is not: "Which is real?" Since both are figurative, the question is: " What is the meaning of each ? " When- ever we use the term "father" otherwise than con- cerning the male parent of a human child, the ques- tion is not : " Does the term denote real fatherhood ? " In the unlimited variety of possible figurative mean- ings the one question is: "Just what is the meaning intended ? " 309. In this variety some applications of the figure are more fitting than others. The sculptor who i The Fatherhood of God 263 makes a childlike statue may be said to be its father. If he should give life to the statue, so that in many respects it would be like himself and capable of loving him, the term "father" would be more fitting. If further, by means perhaps of another being, the living statue so increased in likeness to its maker and in love for him that the relations between them become con-,iderably changed for the better, the term "father" has a richer meaning and is still more appropriate. So the references to God's fatherhood of creation vary in appropriateness, and are not so rich in meaning as the references to his fatherhood of regeneration. In Browning's "Saul" we read: God made all the creatures and gave them our love and our fear To give sign we and they are his children, one family here. While the poet thus may sing of even the other ani- mals as God's children, yet the figure of father is more fitting when used of God's relationship to all men, who are figuratively represented as being made in his image; and the figure is more fitting still for those who, through Christ, are made still more like God and have closer fellowship with him. CARE IN MAKING MEANING PLAIN 310. IV. Because, therefore, the figure may mean much, or little, and sometimes that which, when taken literally, is contradictory, is not the great need simply that, when fatherhood is used concerning 264 Christianity and Its Bible God, the one who uses it be more careful to make plain what is really meant ? It is important here to ask how much the relation between the relative terms, "father" and "child," helps to understand the meaning of the one from the meaning of the other. All we can answer definitely concerning ; eal father- hood and real sonship is that the primary physical meaning of the one necessarily implies the primary meaning of the other. On the other hand, while, from the figurative meaning of the one, more or less may be indefinitely suggested or naturally expected concerning the other, nothing definite is necessarily implied. A man, for instance, may be fatherly to one who is not filial to him. Since "divine father- hood" and "human sonship are figurative terms, we cannot necessarily infer from the meaning of the one anything definite in the meaning of the other. The meaning of each is to be determined neither by the term itself nor by a necessary inference from the meaning of the other term. While both these ways may be helpful in finding its meaning, that which determines it is the way in which the term is used. The one who uses it in a discussion about it should therefore be careful to make his meaning plain. 311. It should be borne in mind that the figure of fatherhood, in both its universal and its limited sense, is legitimate whether or not, as thus used, it is to be found in the Scriptures. It should also be borne in mind that, as its meaning varies according to our The Fatherhood of God 265 view of God, the passages to be searched for an under- standing of it are not simply those where the figure itself is stated or suggested, but all those that teach anything concerning God in his relations to men. Remembering that the expression is figurative, there surely can be no objections to saying what to all may express more or less truth, namely, that God is the father of all men; but it should not be ignored that in the Bible the great thought is that the filialness of loving obedience to God means enjoyment of his fatherliness, of love, communion, etc. If with the recognition that divine fatherhood and human son*- ship are elastic figures it also be recognized that the work of interpreters is not to put meanings or emphasis into the Bible, but rather to show what meanings are there and with what emphasis, how much misunderstanding and misinterpretation would be saved ! My prayer is that this irenicon will give some a clearer understanding of terms, and thus help them out of the dark labyrinth of discussion into the sunlight of the glorious truth that is figura- tively but fittingly represented as the fatherhood of God. I hope it has been shown that the difference, after all, has been mainly, if not altogether, a differ- ence in the use of terms. 312. Is not the same true concerning the doc- trine of the Trinity— one God, but three persons? Would it not make for harmony if the fact were made known generally that the meaning of the word ■ ?s i. 266 Christianity and Its Bible "persons" has greatly changed ? The Latin word persona meant a mask worn by an actor. The one actor could have different masks. Modern thouKht insists ufxin the separateness and self- included nati-re of personality-a conception unknown to an- tiquity; and if we claim that there are three persons in God wc cannot wond.T if we arc understood to mean that there ar^ three full personalities, like three men -an idea scarcely dis- tinguishable from that of three Gods. The word persona ind jatcd, and should still be understood to indicate, much vaguer distinctions. It corresponds more nearly to the word ''character" as it is used in the drama. In early Christian discussions it was never meant that there were three modernly conceived persons in God, nor can it now be maintained. There was no such word as -'Trinity" in apostolic times, and no perplexing thought of the mystery of three in one. There IS no indication that Paul ever encountered the question how the three are one. The spiritual and practical interest was at the front. Belief in Father, Son, and Spirit, all divine, was light, not darkncs.s, to the eyes of the eariy Christians, as the New Testament shows. The divine Son had been among them, the divine Spirit dwelt in them, and by both the divine Father was made real to them. (W. N. Clark.) 313- In a passage in Ephesians, treating of the work of Christ, we read that "through him we both have our access in one Spirit unto the Father." If, as is commonly done, we spell "Spirit" with a capi- tal 5, this text is strikingly illustrated by a paint- ing by a German artist. An older brother is down on his hands and knees. On his back is his younger brother, put there, it would seem, by the mother, *^?*"^ ©.•■^■'v ■fS''--i The Fatherhood of God 267 who is lovingly watching over him. The father has Ftretched out his arms and is saying: " Come, come !" Aided by his elder brother, and under the watch- ful ca, of the mother, the little fellow is going to his father, and the whole picture is one of joy. Jesus is often calleJ man's elder brother. The Holy Spirit has beer. ..ailed "the mother-principle in the Godhead." Through the aid of God as Holy Spirit, and throug*^ J.^us as Son of God, man, in his childhood of weakness, is brought to God, the loving Father. Thoughts of the Son and of the Holy Spirit help to make the mean'ng of God's fatherhood riche' to us. The more we learn about Jesus, the more loving and redemptive the Father become? to us. The more we take hold of the truth in the doctrine of the Hoy Spirit, the closer does it bring "Our Father'' to us. After all, however, the truth about the relationship between the Father and man must be experienced io be known. The riche; the experience, the greater the knowledge; ;md the fuller the religious life, the richer the experi- ence. In our treatment of Jesus as the Messiah we touched the question of what Jesus thought of him- self as the Son of God. Oh, the depths of Christ's knowledge of God, the Fa '! How unsearchable his experience, and his lif ast finding out ! The Christian religion will prove itself to be the religion, as it proves itself to be that in which this experience is richest and the result the best. CHAPTER XX THK HEREAFTi: R CUTTING AID POLISHING A DIAMOND PRIxNCIPLE 314. In our treatment of the question of the here- after we shall first notice the cutting and polishing of a diamond principle, and then consider more specifically questions concerning hell, Satan, and the larger hope. As mortals who today are here and tomorrow are gone, more than the miser loves his gold, we long for diamond truths concerning the hereafter, -.v^e need to guard against the mistake said to have been made by Brazilians who, in their successful search for gold, failed to sec that with their gold were diamonds. We have the highest appreciation of the rich discoveries of golden fact only as we find among them the diamonds of truth. If in the Old Testament we should carefully exam- ine the people's belief in the shades of Sh'eol, the poetic hints and hopes of a hereafter, and the pro- phetic belief in resurrection to retribution (including rewards) ; if, also, we should scrutinize the extrava- gant, inconsistent views of the Jews when Jesus came, the spiritual, practical teachings of Jesus ^yhile he was here, and the qucryings of the Chris- tians after Jesus died: amid their golden treasures what Kohinoors should we find to enrich our lives ? 268 '^:M The Hereajler 269 Our lives would be blinded to a number of lesser gems by the brilliancy of an abiding principle, with its different facets of application. The abiding principle is that true and lasting life consists in one- ness with God. There were progressively lustrous applications of this principle as through different, and often :,ad, experiences it was seen from better points cf view. This Kohinoor of truth, found at first almost ir the rough, has been cut and polished through the experiences f' le ages, until today it shines forth as one of the brightest gems in human- ity's crown. 315. This cutting and polishing process, though to be discerned in the life of the individual, is most marked in the history of the people. It is instructive to compare the thought of the apostle Paul with the representation concerning good King Hczekiah who lived uefore the exile. Wc read that after Hezekiah "was none like him among all the kings of Judah nor among them that were before him, fo.- he clave unto the Lord." Yet we read that, when he was il! lilgh unto death, he felt he was going "into the i^ates of Shcol," where he would be deprived of divine and human fellowship, and would simply exist as an intangible shade in the underworld of darkness and dust. For him to die was loss. Paul wrote: "For me to die is gain." 316. What made the difference ? It was not that Hczekiah was in the noontide and Paul, "the ageil," 270 Christianity and Its Bible was in the eventide of life. The explanation lies in the fact that the good king and the great apostle belonged to different stages in the development of the Christian doctrine of the hereafter. This devel- opment through the centuries, but especially through Jesus Christ who "brought life and immortality to light," cannot be shown bett . than through the words of Kezekiah and Paul. Pathetic is Heze- kiah's pica to Jehovah for continued life: Shcol cannot praise thcc, Death cannot celebrate thee; They that go down into the pi' cannot hope for the truth. The living, the livinj;, he shall praise thee as I do this day, The father to his children shall make known thy truth. E.xulting are Paul's words in prospect of deaih: "For me to live is Christ, and to die is gain. Hav- ing the desire to depart and be with Christ; for it is very far better" (Phil. 1:21-23). 317. "For me to live is Christ"— that explains it all. In the famous words of Raymond Lull: "He who loves not lives not; he who lives by the Life cannot die." Paul's soul was enriched with the diamond principle of immortality. To him its most lustrous facet was the love of God in the face of Jesus Christ. His life was " hid with Christ in God." A German ballad, with two words changed, fittingly expresses what was to Paul the truth about heaven and hell: O mortal, mortal, what is heaven ? O mortal, what is hell ? To Ijc with Jesus that is heaven. Without him that is hell. The Uereajter 271 318. Prominent in the message of the early church was the belief in the resurrection of Jesus. "What- ever may have happened at the grave and in the matter of appearances" to inspire with this belief, "one thing is certain: This grave was the birthplace of the indestructible belief that death is vanquished and there is a life eternal." The life of Jesus was such that he could not die. A bright lad, from far inland, who has never seen the ocean and its tides, comes into the city of St. John, N. B., where the difference between the tides is very marked. He sees a beautiful vessel somewhat sunk in the un- sightly mud of one of the slips. Though he sees that valuable cargo is being obtained from her, he feels somehow that there must be some mistake somewhere. When, however, he learns of the in- coming tide by means of which the vessel will be able to wing her way out into the ocean beyond, his perplexity comes to an end. In spite of all wc have received from the beautiful life of Jesus, freighted as it was with such heavenly blessings for the sinful world, we feel that there would be some mistake about it, after all, if we had not the assurance that the tidal wave of enduring life has borne him beyond present human vision, out into the illimitable ocean of God. This, in a figure, is the great thought in the accounts of the ascension — Jesus, though now unseen, lives. The tide that bears one vessel may bear many more. Because we are assured that he IP 372 Christianity and Its Bible lives, wc arc filled with the inspiring hope that we shall live also. 319. From the life of Jesus wc dc not obtain de- tails as to the nature of the life beyond. Thinking of his departed dead, the poet stood upon the preci- pice of life. Dropping over it the plummet of the concentrated thought of ages past, he sought to reach the depths. He listened, but in vain. The awful silence was broken by the cry from the depths of his own heart: Ah Christ, that it were jxissihlc For one short hour to see The souls we love, that they mipht tell us What and where they be. Yet as a dying swan the same poet sang this sweetest song: For though from out our bourne of Time and Place The flood may bear me far, I hope to see my Pilot face to face When I have crost the bar. From the life of Jesus we are assured that there is to be enduring life, but are not assured in any detail what it is. In answer to many questions concerning the "what," we must answer: "We do not know," "May be so," "It seems so," etc. Adapting the saying of another, we prefer to be ignorant of some things concerning the next world rather than know a good many things that may not be true. 320. The teaching of Jesus, ronrerning the here- The Ilereajter 273 after seems to have been practical rather than theo- retical. The one great thought was that life here determines life *>ereafter. He gets into heaven hereafter who gets heaven into him here. Hell be- gins here. Its brimstone is sin. Sin and hell are correlative terms — the one implies the other. The essence of hell is separation from God through sin; and the essence of heaven is fellowship with God in righteousness. The way to both and the keys to both are ways and keys that make for character. 321. Throughout the Scriptures heaven is repre- sented as God's dwelling-place, and therefore heaven. The Old Testament picture is rather that of a heaven) • king on a throne high and lifted up above his subjects. The New Testament picture is that of a heavenly father who has provided for his children a "house" of many rooms. This lellow- ship with God as "father" is one of the brightest facets of our diamond principle. We pass now to a more specific treatment of questions concerning I ;- ■/"■ i;^^V:U,, 274 Christianity and Its Bible only in II I\t. 2:4, where we read of the punish- ment of anj.'els; "Hades," in the New Testament, corresjionds to "Sheol" in the Old Testament, and to the Old English use of the word "hell" as the hollow, hidden place. This is the sense in which it is used in the Ajx) ' <' Creed, where we re:id of Christ that "he descti.wai into hell." The Greek word that corresponds to the modern meaning (as a place of torment) is the word "Gehenna." It is made up of two words that mean "the valley of Hinnon. " This was abhorred as the place where some Israelitish children had been offered in sacri- fice to Mole ,h. It was used as a place of refuse in which, it is said, fires were constantly burning. Whatever may have been the use of the word in Old Testament times, in the period between the Old Testament and the New Testament in Pharisaic Ju- daism it became a term which, though varying in meaning, \vu:i understood to denote a place of pun- ishment in the world to come. As such evidently it is used in vhe gospels; and of the twelve times it is used in the New Testament it is found eleven times in the reported sayings of Jesus. 323. The belief in Satan and his hosts, developed, as we have see,' oy New Testament times, con- tinued with various iiiodifications throughout the Christian centuries. It found expression in such works as Dante's Inferno, Milton's Paradise Lost, and Goethe's Faust. In view of the prominence The llereajler 275 given to this bL-licf, not only in the part of the Scrip- ture most highly valued, but throughout the subsc- t|uent history of the church the comparative silence concerning it in scientific and philosophical Chris- tian circles today is very significant. It is one of the tilings that must be taken into account in the (jues- tion of the authority of Bible, Fathers, Schoolmen, reformers, etc., for the church of tcnlay. 324. While it is the head that finds diO'-'dty in the doctrine of the devil, it is the heart ''>ment, 276 Christianity and Its Bible unless we feel in them the throbbing of love and the earnest desire to save men from sin. 325. Is it hell for the great majority ? The fol- lowing pictorial representation has shocked some into thinking more deeply into the great problem. At the top of the picture is a radiant cloudland. In the center of this, and enthroned in effulgent glory, is the heavenly Father. In the middle of the pic- ture is the earth. It is represented as God's manu- factory of immortal souls. At the bottom of the picture is the flaming pit of perdition. What is the output of God's manufactory? Look! On the left an awful torrent of human souls is falling over the edge of the earth into perdition. On the right, here and there, a winged soul is ascending to glory. Are few to be saved ? Are the great masses of hu- manity but refuse (and O God, for eternal burning, literal or figurative), and from the great manufac- tory, built by God himself, is the output only a few souls ? 326. If so, we can understand why Froude should say: "Alas: then, if Omnipotence could not bring but wild grapes there, why was the poor vineyard planted?" and how Bloody Mary could say: "It is fit that I should burn the heretics here whom God is to burn in the other world forever and forever. " We can enter, too, into the mood of an eminent Presbyterian divine and commentator, when he gave expression to his perplexity in these words: The Hereajter 277 Friends tell me that they have been able to find light on this problem. I have listened to their explanations and have tried to understand them; but when I look over the world and see millions on millions of men utterly careless and indifferent, and going down to everlasting death, and when I remember that only God can save them and he does not, I am strurk dumb. It is all dark, dark, dark to my soul; and I cannot disguise it. Many humane hearts, yearning for a larger hope find not finding what they want in the specific refer- ences in the New Testament, are inferring it from the general revelation that "all's love, " though "all's law. " Many are crying out in a kind of agnostic faith : Behold, we know not anything; I can but trust that good shall fall At last — far off— at last to all, And every winter change to spring. 327. We read in the thirteenth chapter of Luke that, when Jesus was on his way to Jerusalem, "one said unto him: Lord, arc they few that are saved? And he said unto them. Strive to enter in by the narrow door: for many, I say unto you, shall seek to enter in, and shall not be able." The word translated "strive" is the word from which comes our English word "agonize." This passage, then, suggests those thrilling Hnes of Arnold: \o! No! theenergyof lifemay be Kept on after the grave, but not lx.'gun; And he who flagged not in the earthly strife. From strength to strength advancing, only he, His soul well-knit and all his battles won. Mounts and that hardly to eternal life. 278 Christianity and Its Bible 328. Are they few that arc saved? We answer: "Strive to enter in." We would not, could not, be dogmatic concerning the number and destiny of those who have little or none (if indeed there be any with absolutely none) of the spirit of striving. We are helped by the thought that they are in the hands of the Father whose name is Love. This is the thought that is back of the larger hope. We rejoice in hope concerning those who strive; and in propor- tion as they have the striving s_nrit do we entertain for them a bright and brighter hope — a hope that inspires to Christlike living here. It is the hope of Browning's grammarian: That before living he'd learn how to live- No end to learning: Earn the means first— God surely will contrive Use for our earning. Others mistrust and say, " But time escai^es; Live now or never:" He said , "What's time ? Leave Now for dogs and apes: Man has Forever." 2i>- CHAPTER XXI THE CHRISTIAN LIFE TODAY ITS POWER 329. Our chapter on "The Hereafter" closed with the thought of the importance of the Ufe that now is. In the present chapter we will consider the power, the problems, and the prospects of the Christian life today. First, its power. As a Hfe the Christian religion, though hidden, is not like the hidden talent of the parable. It is like the leaven which the woman hid in the measures of meal, like the machinery in the hold of a steamer, like the dyn- amos in the power-house of the city. It is hidden to leaven the world for good, to make for progress on the ocean of life, to illuminate the world with the light of heaven; it is hidden, yes, but for power. Wnu is the nature of its power ? We shall notice that, while purity, righteousness, and mercy enter into it, its one great, underlying principle is love. This, expres ■'-'(] in a personal way, is Christlikeness. The power of the Christian life is the power of purity. As the strength of Sir Galahad was as the strength of ten because his heart was pure, Chris- tianity is powerful if it be pure and undefiled and keeps itself unspotted from the world. It is the religion of joyous power, as its huts and palaces are 279 38o Christidiiity and Its Bible homes for the children of God rather than barns for the animal man; as with it marriage means, not license, but liberty to take up a great trust; 'and as its adherents heed such injunctions as are given in Col. 3:5-17- If, hkc Lancelot, the mightiest knight of King Arthu "s court, it is impure, in view of the highest endeavor it will say as Lancelot con- cerning the search for the Holy Grail: "This quest was not for me." 330. The power of the Christian life is the power of both justice and mercy. The Christian religion "does justly," i ney were playing beneath the lilacs under my window— Charlotte, my neighbor's little girl, and her companion. The companion had taken a great liking to a toy that Charlotte had. When a doll was olTered for it, Charlotte quickly asked: " What doll, your big one ?" So great was the desire for the toy (which was in sight) that the answer came: "Yes, I will give you my big doll." There was silence for a moment. Then I heard Charlotte's voice, in a tone I hope never to forget, as she slowly said: "I'd like to, but it wouldn't be fair to you. " When the opportunity comes to get gain from others, and the lower self " would like to, " the religion of Jesus refrains if it would not be "fair" to them. The Christian religion seeks to be fair and more. Because it walks humbly with its God, it not only does justly, but it "loves mercy." It is not only moral and just, it is philanthropic. It rjM^^ The Christian Lije Today a8i dominates animalism and cultivates a joyous altru- ism. The place that lowci religions give to rites it gives to righteousness, while to its righteousness it adds what has been called the "greatest thing in the v.orld" — love. 331. The power of the Christian life is the power of love. Apparelled in the majesty of simplicity, she sways the scepter of righteousness, which is the scepter of her kingdom. Of all the Christian graces love is queen. How beautiful she is when she re- joices with them that rejoice ! Her smile is full of sunshine, and her laugh of merry music. More beautiful is she, however, when she weeps with those that weep. Her tear-drops are richest diamonds that reflect into the darkened soul the celestial light of sympathy. Even more beautiful is she as she blesses them that persecute her, as she blesses and curses not. Because her heart is filled to the brim, ii overflows in kindness, even to enemies at the slightest touch of an opportunity to do them good. Love was the secret of the wondrous power of Chris- tianity in the early centuries of its history. Love is the secret of its truest success today. In its pure and joyous spirit of loving sacrifice for others is its greatest difiference from other religions. The Chris- tian Ufe "3 not a selfish career, but an unselfish mission. Its one great, underlying, all-embracing principle is love. x-i,2. This. exD'-esscd in an inspiring personal term. 282 Christianity and Its Bible is Christlikcncss. We read that the Son of man "came not to be ministered unto but to minister, and to give his h'fe a ransom for many." We also read that "he said unto all, If any man would come after me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross daily, and follow me. For whosoever would save his life shall lose it; but whosoever shall lose his life for my sake, the same shall save it." The Christian life, however, is not simply for the imitation of Christ. It is for the reproduction of his work. We follow his example in proportion as we have the same life within us. How did that life manifest itself when he moved among men ? The Gospel of Mark tells that he was a carpenter as well as a teacher. In going about doing good he min- istered to the body as well as to the soul. Can we say, however, that he entered into every department of life? A modern poet overheard the heart of a bereaved parent softly say in the presence of the Crucified: "Thy wounds were many, but thou hadst no child." Because of the simpler life of his time, should we expect his teaching to give in any detail a delinite social programme for the complex life of today ? We know, however, that he did teach some great principles; that with personal purity and altruistic power he did enter into different de- })artments of Hfe; and that the application of these principles and the presence of this life are needed to solve the great commercial, social, and religious problems that confront us today. The Christian Life Today 283 ITS PROBLEMS ;^^Ti. So great arc these problems that many a conscientious man, situated so that they arc pressing upon his soul, is tempted at times to cry out with Hamlet : The time is out of joint; O cursed spite That ever I was born to set it right. Before considering the ditTcrcnt problems, let us find the problem. If there be such, what is the one difTiculty that underlies them all ? Those who have gone beneath the surface of the problems recognize that back of immorality, private or public, beneath the spirit of competition in business, underlying the unjust dist ..ctions in society, and underneath much of the perpetuated differences in doctrine, the funda- mental cause of all the difficulty is selfishness— sel- fishness of the individual heart. It is manifested by the cultured as well as by the ignorant, by the poor as well as by the rich. It has therefore been well said that "all quick and easy processes for regener- ating society without regenerating the individuals that compose it are delusions." 334. The problem of problems then is: How is this selfishness of the individual man to be over- come ? Culture is good, but mere culture is not enough. A man may be very cultured, as the word goes, and yet be very selfish. His selfishness does not manifest itself in such gross ways, perhaps, but it may be present in even greater strength. The 384 Christianity and Its Bible goofl manners of the cultured consist in little sacri- fices. Because of these sacrifices culture is good, but because they are little it is insufficient. Legis- lation is also good, but mere legislation is not enough. Laws cannot enforce themselves. If good laws do not have back of them healthy fjublic opinion, they may be miserable farces. Laws that would do away with the free play of selfishness woulfl need back of them strong, unselfish, public opinion; and in proix)rtion as they had that they would not be needed. 335. Sir Thomas More in his famous political ro- mance described an island that he called "Utopia." On it was a race which had such perfect organiza- tion thai it was free from all the troubles afflicting the societies of actual life. The name of the island is suggestive. "Utopia" means "nowhere." No- where in actual life has human legislation, organiza- tion, or cultivation produced a society free from enormous evils. They do not eradicate the selfish- ness that is the underlying cause. It is possible for man only as through appropriating faith he receives the love, the life, of God. In a Christlikc partici- pation of this life, an incarnation of love which means culture of the cross rather than of worldly wisdom— in this lies the hope of the world. As men by living union with God have their citizenship in heaven, they become true citizens of earth— willing to bear one another's burdens, and so fulfil the law The Christian Life Today 285 of Christ; yea, loving their enemies and praying for their persecutors. ^36. In the words of others: "Social stability reqairi s character, and character requires religion;" "The soul of all improvement is the improvement of the soul;" "The conviction that the true solution of the world-problem is the religious solution was never stronger than it is today;" "The remedy for social discontent and dynamite bombs is Christian- ity as taught in the New Testament;" "Talk about the questions of the day; there is but one question and that is the gospel. It can and will correct everything needing correction." 337. Having considered the problem, let us turn our attention to some specific problems that Chris- tianity has to meet today. One of the greatest is intemperance. Let us have gospel temperance. Let it be honestly recognized that, while the Bible condemns drunkenness, it at times speaks highly of wine that undoubtedly was intoxicating. Total ab- stinence is more wisely supported by the use of Rom. 14: 21 than by such methods as the " tw^o-wine" theory. According to this, Jesus gave his sanction only to that which was unfermentcd. Such methods are doubtful, and in the end unsuccessful. What are the reasons for the strength of the liquor trafBc ? It is due mainly to the drinker's love for liquor (its taste, but mainly its stimulating effects), to the sociable nature of the saloon as a democratic club, wmmmmium j86 Christiiinilv and lis Bible and to the flcalcr's love of Rain. The dispensary system of South Carohna, the Gothenburg system in Sweden, and the Norwegian system seek, with more or less success, to do away with the last of these. Coffee-houses, bovs' chus, etc., and various substitutes for the saloon, arc aimed at the second. Moral suasion is pre-eminently the means of over- coming the j)ower of the first. 338. Besides its awful pow«.i, the chief difficul- ties in overcoming the liquor traffic arc the differ- ences in opinion among temperance workers and the practical indifference of the masses of those who are not intemperate. What is needed for uniting temperance workers and for inciting others to the work is a better knowledge and deeper realization of the meaning of the facts of the liquor problem. In England in i8i»9 there appeared the first edition of an influential book by Rowntrcc and Shcrwcll, The Temperance Problem and Social Reform. In the United States of America a committer of fifty, organized in 1893, has published its results, after a decade or so of investigations into the physical, legislative, commercial, and ethical aspects of the liquor problem. A study of such works as these impresses us that temperance workers should guard against exaggerating, for instance, the physiological effects of liquor, and should be willing to see both the pros and ti.e cons of any particular legislation — license, local option^ private profits, etc. The deep- The Christian 'Aje Today 387 est impression these results leave, however, is that the whole worUl should be roused to the enormous economic and moral evils of intempc-rance. For prevention and protection there is need of strong legislation, with strong active public opinion back of it. For the making of this opinion wc need tem- perance organizations working strenuously. At- tractive substitutes for the saloons are also greatly needed. The greatest need of all, however, is more of the spirit of Him who went about doing good in loving fellowship with all, including the publicans and sinners. This spirit is needed for the right meeting of the other needs in overcoming the liquor curse. Wc need gospel temperance. 339. The "boy problem," especially in the cities, is a great problem. Is it well that, while wc range with iencc, glorying in the Time, City children soak and blacken soul and sense in city slime ? Surely, "a child has a right to be bom, not dammed, into the world. " The gospel would construct better houses for the poor, and more playgrounds rather than more reformatories for the children. It not only believes that an ounce of prevention is better than a pound of cure, but it delights to delight the children. It moves the hearts of parents and others to say with Froebel, founder of the kindergarten: "Come let us live with our children." The ques- tion of domestic help is also quite a serious one. 388 ('hri.slitinilv nnd lis Bible The p;osj)cl floes not tri-at the helper simply olitics, and graft wherever found, are great evils. A senator of the United States once said: "The Decalogue and the (}oldeii Rule have no [)lace in a jxilitical campaign. " and, "The purification of [xjlitics is an iridescent dream. " " Business is business, " as used by many, covers a multitude of sins of greed, chicanery, and perfidy. We read that the great Roman Colosseum was being sf)oiled by the jx-ople to build their own houses. Laws seemed of little avail in checking them. Pope Benedict XIV planted a cross in the center of the arena and declared the building sacred. The pi'hi^e ' e^^^ed. It is for Christians to plant the cross of fidelity and love in the very center of politics and business, and to declare and practice the sacredness of the individual vote, of public trust, and of ordinary business. It is for them in all these things to rcali/.e that they are God's colaborers 'or the good of all. This is the thought that must pre- vail, if there is to be a permanent settlement of the great difficulty between capital and labor. The fight that is on will not be stopped by a scries of victories either by the labor unions or by the trusts. The great need of the spirit of being " fair to you " of love, the spirit of Jesus the Crucified. The Chri.\liitn Lijt Today 389 341 . The gospel would do more for the great social evil than is being done. In view of this, and of the prevalence of unhappy marriages and divorces, it would emphasize the sacredness of the human body, of the human soul, and "^ the mairiage vow. It would teach to bear and to forbear. It would domi- nate the self-seeking of the lower nature and lift to int joys of self-sacrificing love. It would make for ever richer union in the home. It would also make for richer union among the churches. A pleasing sign of tht* times is the spirit of union within and between the different denominations — a spirit in keeping with John 17:20, 21. The gospel encour- ages one church to say to another: "Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between thee and me; for we be brethren. In view of the great need of power at home and abroad, in view of the added power union gives to meet this need, in love for God and man let us co-operate — yea, let us unite. In the name of the Prince of Peace, let us not fight." The need of union for missions suggests the great problem of missions. That suggests comparative religion, which in turn is associated with historical criticism. This, with other sciences and philosophy, represents the prevalent spirit of inquiry. The church has to face the problem of the right attitude to this spirit today. A guilty man shuns an investigation. An innocent man who knows that he is suspected not simply courts, but asks, dciimnds it. vViicn its great religious tenets are questioned, it is for Christianity 290 Christianity and Its Bible today to invite, to require, the fullest investigation In purity, justice, mercy, and love for God and '.c.n, it wants the light, the truth, the foundations thrt are sure. THE PROSPECTS 342. We have noticed the power and the prob- lems of Christianity. We notice further that its prospects of solving these problems depend on the degree in which it has this power. Because it has a considerable degree of power, the prospects are by no means black; but because, speaking generally, it has not a very high degree of power, the prospects of an eariy solution of the great problems of today are not very bright. The final correcting of all that today needs correcting does seem a long way off. As selfishness is beneath all the great difficul- ties, Christianity lacks power in meeting them be- cause of its own selfishness. This manifests itself in so many ways in the lives of Christians, who need to be awaked to the fact that the crying need of the age is not gospel-preaching, but gospel -living. If even the lowest races, as religious animals, are "in- curably religious, " even the highest Christians seem still to be incurably animal. The noted monolith in Central Park, New York City, represents even the highest Christians of today. Ten feet from its base a stratum of hornblende extends across it and weakens it. Be thr "'^ristian ever so religious, there sv> -. r/ie Christian Life Today 291 remains in him this side of the grave a streak of unsubordinated lower nature— the "radical bad- ness" or original sin— that is not yet eliminated. The result is that sometimes he is unable to stand the strain to which he is subjected in business, in society, in the home, in the heart. Like the legend- ary flute that lost its wondrous music when it was incased in gold, the inordinate desire to be sur- rounded with that which gold can get robs many a Christian of the sweetest music of religion and of the power to thrill other souls with the melodies of heaven. 343. While with the advance in civilization there has been increased facility for the satisfying of hu- man wants, the number and intensity of these wants have been increased yet more. While man needs "but little here below," his wants are innumerable. The effort to gratify them is the explanation of the rush and rivalry, the stress and strain, of modern life, in the midst of which Christians are not seeking as they should the "shelter to grow ripe," " the 1 'sure to grow wise. " The Christian religion would subordinate the physical, and even the intel- lectual, life in the life that is hid with Christ in God. It would give a simplicity that would not be nerve- less and lifeless, but one in which the currents of the divinely human life would pulsate with mighty power. Enthusiasm would be ours. In God we should be in the world, but not of it— free for its Ai.i^ 292 Christianity and Its Bible salvation because free from its sin. We should not be satisfied with waiting to play the golden harps in the "sweet bye and bye." We should be willing o work with iron shovels in the "nasty now." It is because the church is deficient in the strenuous, simple life of purity, righteousness, mercy, and love that the prospect for an early solution of the great problems is not very bright. Why this deficiency ? A number of answers might be given, each with its measure of truth. The conviction has been deepen- ing with me for years that a wrong view of the cross is an important explanation for this deficiency. When Christians sing of their "happy condition" as "free from the law" because "Jesus has bled," it should be definitely understood that the freedom is not in any degree that of antinomianism. This, from two words meaning "against law," i : its em- phasis on faith ignores, and even denies, its obliga- tion to keep even the moral law. It has different forms and degrees. In its worst form it is expressed by the lines: You may rip you may tear, You ma\ cuss you may swear; But you're just as sure of heaven As if you'd done gone there. I frequently have heard this erroneous view of the cross expressed in a milder way in such testimonies as this: "I am covered with the blood. God does not see me; he sees the blood. My standing f ~ *•>, .,^v^:':' 'ef^fifj, r The Christian Lije Today 293 therefore is all right in heaven, no matter what my state is here on earth." The danger of this wrong view of the cross is not when it expresses itself in these forms; for, in so doing, it is committing sui- cide today. The danger of this view is its subtle presence in such a vague way that it does not find clear expression in words, but, nevertheless, works disastrously in preventing the Abounding Life. Here, for instance, is a deacon of a church. He has had an emotional experience of which he sp'^iks as his conversion, and has what he calls faith in Jesus as his Savior. Nevertheless, he is not living as pure and honest and loving a life as his neighbor who belongs, according to the deacon, to the class of ''sinners" whom the deacon exhorts to come to Christ to be saved. Deep down in his heart he knows that he would not care to have his own record (in business, etc.) compared with that of his neighbor. Yet he firmly believes that, while his neighbor's future is dark, if not black, his own fu- ture is gloriously bright; and this belief, to some extent, prevents him from being as good a man as his neighbor. Antinomianism, so large that it is seen in its grossness, is abhorrent, but not dangerous today. Antinomianism widely diffused, and so subtly that it is commonly unrecognized and unsus- pected, is one of the most dwarfing influences at work upon the church of today. 344. It can scarcely be emphasized too strongly i»si 294 Christianity and Its Bible that the secret of the power that is needed to meet present-day problems is not a nominal faith in the cross, but an appropriating faith that makes us live the cross. Then we should be willing to leave father, mothei, wife, yea life itself, for Christ's sake and the gospel's. We should not be willing to profit in a worldly way through representing the question- able or erroneous opinions of the many. We should be even glad to suffer in a Christlike way for repre- senting the, at first, unwelcome, but higher, truths of God. Centered in God, we should be eccentric to those centered in self. We should be willing to be considered crazy, as was the Christ. We should be willing to take up the cross and follow him. We should lose sight of self in love for souls. By lips and lives we should tell them the old, old story of the cross. I shall never forget seeing it. I see it now. The dark spire of the chapel is almost invis- ible against the blackness of the cominp storm; but the spire's golden cross stands out against the blackness as if heaven itself were saying: "By this sign conquer. " Would that against the black back- ground of the world's sin we humbly could so up- hold the cross that others would read its heavenly message. Would that upon its golden glory they would see the diamond name of Jesus, and learn its meaning — Savior — and the meaning of his life — Love! The prospects of Christianity depend upon the extent to which its adherents learn and live the f w The Christian Lije Today 395 great lesson of the cross— ihe lesson of love. Well might they sing: "Tell me the story often, for I forget so soon. " Paul wrote that Jesus said at the Last Supper: "This do in remembrance of me." According to this, the Lord's Supper is a for-get- me-not he left to his bride before he went the way of the cross. Whatever the critical questions con- cerning the origin and meaning of the ordinance, we would strongly urge its observance today — "lest we forget, lest we forget." If through this and other means of grace (especially secret prayer and meditation)— as we receive cumulative revelations of sin and love — there comes into our souls the very [jower of the cross — the power of love against sin — then, then indeed, as far as our part in the solving of the world's problems is concerned, is the prospect bright ; for ours is the power of the Abounding Life — the life of love. 'f p. i ^ ■"* !■: CHAPTER XXII MEDITATION THE RIGHT IDEA OF IT 345. Men may read the living epistles of the Christian life and may come in touch with the Chris- tian lives of literature, even the life of Christ, him- self, and yet not have the Abounding Life. As a further means, therefore, of knowing God who gives this life, we would call attention to religious medi- tation — the right idea of it, the rules to be observed in it, and the results to be obtained from it. We aim to get a right conception of it. There is need of careful treatment hc-ie. Concerning this sub- ject many are without a single thought sufficiently definite to be called an idea. Many more whose thoughts are definite have erroneous ideas concern- ing it. We shall not consider the diflferent meanings of the words that, in the Bible, have been translated by the word "meditation." Neither shall we con- sider our subject historically, and seek the different meanings that the different ages have given to it. We confine our attention to the meaning of the meditation that is needed today for the Abounding Life. Instead of giving a definition at the outset, let us go through the process of making one. This means first to put meditation into its class, and then Meditation 297 to Histinguisli it from the other members of that class. It may certainly be classed as religious thinking. Even from this, however, it is never dis- tinguished by most minds. Relig.ous thinking is the large field of which meditation, though very rich, is only a few acres. It is the genus of which meditation is a species. Reverie, study, contr^n- plation, reflection, and prayer are also species. H ->w shall we distinguish meditation from these ? 346. Reverie is common. Meditation is uncom- mon. Many can sit for hours in dreamland, build- ing castles in the air. Few can sit a minute to meditate. It is so easy to let the thoughts wander at pleasure from "Dan to Beersheba." It is easy because it is purposeless. Meditation is not so easy, because in it we think to a purpose. Reverie is a day-dream in which the mind simply associates. Meditation is no dream. In it the mind associates and compares. Reverie has a peculiar fascination for minds that have a sad vein running through them. The glowing coals suggest some idea, that another, which is connected with another; and so a whole train sweeps through the mind. We put forth no effort at reason or comparison. We are satisfied to sit quiet and amuse ourselves by watch- ing the procession pass. Such reveries are pleasant. Yes; but costly, even if religious. If we do not wish to enfeeble our intellects, if we wish to be of some use in the world, we must give up these waking 298 Christianity and Its Bible ^ii dreams. Wc must not mistake them for medita- tions, which, while they produce truer pleasure, have much mental activity in the thinking, and lead to much activity of mind and body after the thinking. Reverie unfits a man for the battles of life. Such was its result in the history of the dreamy bpecuL.- tions of the eastern monks. Meditation, on the other hand, nerves and equips man for the fight. 347. Study accumulates facts and truths, puts to- gether those closely related, and arranges all so systematically and compactly that they take up as little room as possible and are ever ready for use. Meditation docs not store up knowledge in such handy bundles, but rather from these bundles, bound by study, selects the truths it needs. Meditation commences where mere study leaves oflf. Study carries the brick and mortar. Meditation builds the palace. The object of religious study may be no more than to collect religious facts and truths. The object of meditation in using the results o<" study is the building of a godly character. When con- templation is used in its highest sense, it practically coincides with meditation. Contemplation, how- ever, commonly suggests the use of the senses and may not be conscious of the presence of God; but the appropriate prayer concerning meditation is: "Let the meditation of my heart be acceptable in thy sight, O Lord, my rock, and my redeemer." Reflection, as its derivation suggests, is thinking i\t editation 299 upon what is already in the mind. Pope wrote: "The learned reflect on what before they knew." Meditation, however, while giving a prominent place to reflection, also seeks to bare the heart for holy influences direct from God. Prayer speaks to God. Meditation seeks to listen to him. Meditation, therefore, may be defined as that religious thinking in which the soul seeks to listen to God for the purpose of becoming godly. SOME RULES TO BL OBSERVED 348. As one of the most important rules to be ob- served in religious meditation we notice first: Medi- tate upon one theme at a time. "One thing at a time, and that done well, is a very good rule" here. "How many can tell" from experience? Undi- vided attention to one thing is what secures and insures success in this day of specialists. Concen- tration of thought is what secures true meditation. It is not attained by firing a shot, now at this part of the wall, now at that. It is attained by keeping the gun pointed at the one spot until the breach is made, the seigc ended, the victory won, and the soul enriched with captured truths. Polytheists, in wor- shiping one of their inferior deities, often worship it as if it were for the time being supreme. In true meditation upon even a lesser truth we must make it for the time being supreme. 349. The energy of man's mind is limited. He is 30C Christianity and Its Bible most efficient when he concentrates all his energy upon one thing. With the use of snowshoes \vc can walk over the surface of great snow-drifts because we are not heavy enough to press down the extent of snow our snowshoes cover. We pass lightly over the surface of a great truth because we attempt to cover too much of it at once. We think of God in a vague way— as Creator and Father, as omniscient, omnipresent, and omnipotent, as merciful and just, as loving, unchanging, etc., all combined. Our minds are not able to grasp all this at once. Our meditation would be more profitable in making us more godly if wc would meditate on these attributes one at a time. We hear a thoughtful sermon, or read a chapter of the Bible, and it docs us a little good. It would be much better for us to take only one of the truths expressed, and by undivided atten- tion to it to get what it has for us, than to get no practical benefit from the many truths that have been expressed, but all of which we have not time and are not able to digest. At the same time, it may be necessary to some extent to view it in its relations to other truths. Above all, we should lisicn to learn how it should affect our lives— in what part of the building of a true character it should be set. 350. A second important rule is: Let these themes be practical. There are many themes from which, even after much thinking, we derive very little good. Those are the best themes which produce the most 'edifutinn 30« valuable fruit. Some plants take up much of the gardt ner's time and attention and produce no fruit. How often we waste on barren themes the time that, if s{x-nt in developing fruitful truths, would yield us such rich returns! Much time may be wasted in trying to reconcile foreordination with man's free agency, and in trying to see into tl infinity and eternity of God's nature. Meditation is to fit man for life. Much time spent upon such themes may unfit us for life and its duties. A lx)y on a cloudless day la summer lies upon his back and tries to see the noonday sun. With what result ? He cf nnot do it. When he gets up, all is dark around him. It blinds his eyes to the things of earth. After such an experience it would be foolish for hi . co persist in thus trying to look into the eye of day. By look- ing toward such themes we do not really sc them, and only blind our eyes to the duties lying all around. If, in the selection of themes, we need to be taught by experience, let us learn her lessons. Christian scholars are engaged in many speculative questions. They indulge in theories that may hav little or no practical bearing on Christian living. The rnedita tion of the unlettered, whc know nothing of these great theories, but who long to be more like Christ and who, with this in view, meditate upon practical questions, brings more refreshment and greater stimulus to work than all the studies and theories of the mere scholar. Theories are good in study, but ^03 Chrhliiinity und lis Bible .-■< in meditation tiic need is for thcmis that arc prac- tical. The Bible and other books, the nc\vsi«i;ter, nature, and everyday life, contain enough of these to take up all our time. Ine.\haustil>le is the quarry from which meditation can obtain foundation , key- and corner stones for the building of a noble character. 351. \ third imf)ortant rule is: Seek and use the times when you can meditate most effectively. The ideal, even in a strenuous life, would be a life of constant prayer and meditation, because in all our cxjx^rienccs we should be conscious of the prudence of God; but our actual lives are such that we feel the need of calling attention to sjKTial times of prayer and meditation. We rea■ as brothers to minister to this need. Meditation 3" Meditation, then, is the great need in missions. It is the birthplace of revivals, which should never be needed, but, when needed, should never be hindered, though the frequent accompanying and consequent evils should ever be guarded against. Meditation makes for missionary success, and for revivals at home and abroad, because, speaking after the manner of men, God then has a chance to impart of the Abounding Life. 361. The last result that we shall mention is: it gives increased happiness. The three results we have given '^hovv that meditation makes us better; and, in prof)ortion as it does, it accomplishes its one purpose. In addition to this, it makes us feel better. This follows naturally ; for true happiness is ever the handmaid of virtue. Constant meditation frees us from that which distresses the true Chris- tian — evil thoughts and desires. These are crowded out and kept out if the heart is filled and kept filled with the results of Christlike meditation. "Fill the bushel with wheat, and then there will be no room for rubbish and chaff." It gives us, further, the pleasure of good thoughts. If the scholar is held by thought in itself, if his heart is made to rejoice within him at the discovery of new truths that have no decided moral quality, how much more ought we to be held with moral thoughts and deHght our souls in truths, ever new, and ever leading us to higher planes of Christian living ! Some of these truths are 5 . I f ": ! I i ".^f^^'^m^^ •'SiJ 312 Christianity and Its Bible very delicate plants. They will not grow in every kind of soil or climate. They will not produce fruit without pure air and good care. In meditation there are a removing of the impurities of heart and head, an enriching of the soil, and a fostering of these tender plants so that they bring forth fra- grant flowei and luscious fruit that delight and refresh the . 1. 362. The joys we derive from the promises of God's Word are increased manifold by meditation upon them. As, when you press the fragrant leaf, its fragrance fills the room, so, when pressed by meditation, the fragrance of these promises fill and delight our souls. The joy of meditation is the joy of seeing the cathedral windows from within. Medi- tation feeds and fans the flames of love. " While I was musing the fire burned." No earthly joy is comparable to that of him whose heart is all aglow with love to God. The face of Moses shone as he came from the presence of Jehovah. If we deUght to medi *e in his presence, our happy faces will emit the light of holy joy within. Ineffable is the joy obtained by shutting yourself in from the world and communing face to face with God. In view of all this, we, in this busy age, are not meditating enough. The great corrective for its materialism is meditation. May the consciousness of our lack of enough spiritual helpfulness and happiness lead U3 to this. Ask me about the spiritual life of a soul, and I will ask you Meditation i^i " Does he meditate ?" Ask me how he can increase his spiritual life, and I will answer: "Let him medi- tate." Meditation is both a test of the spiritual life and a means of increasing it. If he says it is diffi- cult to meditate, I still say: "Let him meditate." Let him, by an act of the will, shut himself in with God; for he cannot long remain unmoved when he is con- scious of being alone in the presence of God. 1 < i ifllf CHAPTER XXIII MIDDLEMEN THE NEED OF MIDDLEMEN 363. The main purpose of this last chapter of the book is to influence congregations to expect from their leaders, especially from their clergyman, the important work in which this book seeks to aid— the work of mediators or middlemen. Perhaps, because of the theological and sacerdotal associations of the word "mediators," we had better give the preference to the word "middlemen." It suggests business. They are about their Father's business, in being mid- dlemen in the religions world. The question of the relation between the divine and the human in both Jesus and the Bible has occasioned much contro- versy. In their discussions concerning the person of Christ theological leaders have often manifested much theological heat and hate. In many discus- sions concerning the nature of the Bible at times there has been manifested much un-Christlike bitter- ness. Between Apollinarianism, which robbed Christ of his humanity, and Arianism, which rob*- ■■; him of his divinity, there was a great gulf. Between those who have so magnified the divineness of the Bible that they have practically denied its human _.i_jj^„j,tc r^r^(\ thoc.e who have laid such stn^?s upon 314 Middlemen 3^5 its human elements th?t they have failed to see its divine riches, there has yawned a great chasm. Through th's there has leaped, at times, a Niagara torrent of denunciation against irreverence and higher criticism, and against ignorance and supersti- tion. Pausing only to hail with joy the indications that, more and more, this wasteful rush of energy is to be cxpenrled in turning the wheels of progress in the kindgom of God, we turn away from the troubled waters ♦hat divide, to the grand suspension bridge. Over it may the one side add to its faith both knowl- edge and love, and may the other side add to its knowledge both faith and love. It is the bridge of Christian education. Both words are important. The one side needs the emphasis upon the noun, the other, upon the adjective. 364. When first we realize the great importance of this bridge, we are filled with sorrow as we think of the comparatively few who reach the school for bridge-builders. Our sorrow is mingled with joy as we think, further, of the number these schools may 'fach. A great responsibility, then, rests upon their students, especially those who enter the work of preaching, teaching, or writing on religious themes. Theirs, in an increasingly large degree, is the work of bridging the chasm and of diverting to the work of the kingdom the worse than wasied energies that divide. On the one hand, defending the Bible from its overzealous friends, who claim more for it 1 t ^11 ) 3 '6 Clirislianih iind Bible than it daims for it>vli, they , c-prriaily by Christlik( "vin^, ,< onvinci 'hcu ■"hrisilikt ludcni of thcnttfl of the Christlikf life. On the>^fhtTh.'i !, thc-y arc t( rorrcif lln misintcrpaiations . irduiary rcadc-^ and, )y })r<)»xT mclhod.s of ( .itin^ 'I''" Bibi and wii do< trin ■■ 'hrist, " * commi nr preach ng, tcaciu .g ;inj . nting th .itfu mini '^ !icy an to r '■ cit. m^ .. Tier bclw' n the s{)eriahsts id the r* Man ol th' greatest speci;!i>-tso ■ iln tian^ Generally spe.ikin^' howev >•, closch enough in touch wit th li ■ntm !ely to know theirnccd x\\ n* and too biJ^y to help them mv, On whiie an incr asinp "un )er o^ rdii ry thinking foi hemsuves ! alon .ae -fHciah>ts, their informal i is 'n feet. Great, ih( refore, i- H- Who re the middlf en ' cc d r iry r < er"- ■ucst ( ris •-'v are iu. v r rs re to ♦her n 1, a( are oidablv ol mi( )1 le npcr- men. 765. Ti- the "ough St specialists panionsh able to 1)1 -;mply '^ -a them, but wh; they THK .)D1.^ MAN NEEDE! ■leal ni Ir'' -man, ■la ' is ibic to lU. 'oj ow iroupn road and recia whiit the id constant c om- rf rei I lasses 'f sor'f'ty, he is it- ne' He has not ;iaiists, t ly r^ad ;• II ive wha about tli s so .^iu».,,ed them i he knows iiidivi*' lals think is poss.ble, what .0^m..^^ Afiddlemen J'7 prob. !e, and what cstablishcfl. By a rarofu! com- parisoi of the r many opinions, he is abli to ' >tin gui-^h , tw( n what is, and what may be, ' om only held by them. Free from the bondage )l the belief ^ha? he 'ruth of Christianity depends uf)on the absolute iTrancy of the Bible, and hrlprd to the very heart of 'he Bible through the belief in progres- sive r. velatio , he needs no outside aut'K)rity to prove its au 'y. Because it has s«j insjnred him, ad he has i such a rich religious experience trough its trails, he has a direct appn iation of its 'hority. 366. His -ncntal attitude is that o one anxious to ' c certa'n ai ut what is right, rather th m to be safe from either Ji.Tcsy or hell. He has such confidence in the tr t' as Se doe? not twist the results of his inductio at they will square with any theory, cal. He is neither domineered by traditioi, the dogmvii infatuated b He ran rccog spiritually minded ignorance, nor ll-o' the-wis-)s of critical intuition, i he phantasies, vagaries, and more or less ingenious guesses of some of the criiics. He can also recognize the worth of criticism in which these arc often but incidental in the pioneer work of specialists — often due to their precipitate haste for results. He approaci s tb records of the miracu- lous prejudiced neither for nor against them. He carefully examines the evidence for t' credibility of each. He appreciates the meaningfulness of & 1 ■%Mn 3^8 Christianity and Its Bible words of Professor Borden P. Bowne: "The undi- vineness of the natural and the unnaturalness of the divine is the great heresy of popular thought respect- ing religion." He looks upon conversion neither as a. wholly unintelligible supernatural event, nor as something closely akin to hysterics. He looks upon it as something that, to some extent at least, can be psychologically investigated. In seeking to free men from error, he seeks also to free them from suf- fering and sin. In the quest for truth he forgets not the world's great need of salvation. 367. Though well trained in theology, his method is not to spend his time in trying to prove the exi ence of God. For the most part at least, he assumes with the writers of the Bible that God is, and he speaks and Hves as one conscious of the divine presence ; yea, conscious of the divine indwelling. Though a careful student of philosophy and apologetics, he does not spend much time philosophizing about Jesus Christ. Instead, he aims to bring men under the spell of the personal Christ. Though desirous of a legitimate popularity, he does not sink into even an entertaining "anecdotage," nor does he spread himself in superficial liberality of speech. Instead of being a mere " retail talker" in the language of the specialists, having assimilated what to him is the best of their thinking, he speaks with the weight of per- sonal conviction. 368. With a Christlike love for the people he does vTrtB^f3E5E»Si»" Middlemen 319 not seek as a theological time-server to flatter them with what they want. He gives them what he be- lieves they need. With a Christlike sympathy for the people, without any dissimulation or dishonest compromising with what he believes to be the truth, he patiently presents it to them as he believes they need it and are able to receive it. His words are more ircnic than iconoclastic. By using what is common to both the older and the newer views of truth, he makes the transition from the errors of the old as easy as possible. He aims for the minimum of critical processes and the maximum of helpful results. Nevertheless, he keeps in mind that many today, including so many sabbath-school teachers, need instruction, not only in the matter of the Bible, but even more in the method and means of interpreting it for themselves. In all his instructions he gives first things first place, and emphasizes the different facts and truths in proportion to their worth. He gives diligence to present himself "approved unto God, a workman that needeth not to be ashamed handling aright the word of truth." HIS MEDIATION 369. His meditation in the spirit of his Master may mean for him the bearing of the cross. If so, he has the assurance, not simply that God will exalt him in good season, but that, through his mediation, men will be brought nearer to each other and to God. i;^ i^yusHT^' '»v''';r«E»i!(j#jiHHi ^mws^^ixv^:'^^^^^:. i-i^ 320 Christianity and Its Bible Concerning the safety of the church to which Kings- ley belonged, Huxley wrote to him: "It must be by the efforts of men who, like yourself, see the way to the combination of the practice of the church with the spirit of science." By the efforts of such men archaeology and the comp?'-ative study of religions are shown to be but means of strengthening belief in revelation, inspiration, and other great doctrines; because they give these doctrines a broader base on which to stand. 370. Many are questioning these doctrines today. The ipse dixit of the preacher is no longer sufficient. Men arc not satisfied to find out what he believes. They are asking him why he believes it. It may be said that, after all, these questioners are few. Com- pared with the many in the churches probably they arc, but they are increasing in number, and some of them are of the best. If they are to be helped, not simply to get out of their slough of doubt, but to get through it, and if large numbers of the bright- est and best are to be prevented from falling into it, they must have their attention called to the "certain good and substantial" steps through the very midst of it. This is the work of middlemen. If once it be learned that inspiration is not identical with in- fallibility, and that there was manifest progress in the views of morality and of God, will be less fog and more faith. 371. In a bicycle tour through the . jautiful seen- Middlemen 321 ery of Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, somewhat tired, we reached the summit of " Smoky, " to be ricMy repaid. Beneath, draping the valleys and reaching almost to our feet, a heavy vapor completely hid the sea. Above the noise of the falling waters, which sounded like the boiling of a mighty caldron, arose the whistling of a steamer uncertain of her course. All around us, however, the granite rocks and evergreen trees were not only vi-ibie in the clear sunlight of heaven, but were beautiful in the golden sunshine from the cloudless Li'ie. Those who, though after much difficulty, reach the height of the truth that the Bible contains the Word of God, not simply in spite of, but because of, the fact that it is the work of man, are richly repaid. Emerging from the mists that perplex their fellows, they enter into the light and splendor of the unveiled truth of God. To lead to such heights as this is the privilege of middle- men. As we have them, may we sing of our times as Whittier of the State: Nor heeds the sceptics's puny hands While near the school the church spire stands, Nor fears the blinded bigot's rule While near the church spire stands the school. 372. To the bigot the middleman says: Let us not be afraid oi investigation and comparison. Let us not be afraid of comparative T-eligion. Let us be willing for the Bible to be honestly compared with other religious literature. Let us not in our little- f| MS- 322 Christianity and Its Bible ness seek to defend it by an unhistorical and unscien- tific method of study. Why should we be filled with such great solicitude for the welfare of that which we believe is inspired of God ? It suggests the story of the mayor who, in his solicitude for the welfare of a well-armed regiment, offered it the protection of four of his policemen in order that on its way to the next town it might not be overpowered by a few way- side robbers. The Bible is not only its own best defense, but it will win victories for truth and right- eousness. The more it is known, therefore, the better. Knowledge comes through comparison. 373. Let us not be afraid of higher criticism. Let us understand what it is. Condemnation of all higher criticism indicates an ignorance of what it is. While textual (lower) criticism aims to give us the original words as nearly as possible, higher criticism aims to give their authorship, dates, etc. It is true that critics sometimes come to conclusions without sufficient evidence. It is also true, however, that many conscientious Christian specialists are now engaged in this historical and literary study. Their work is more and more recognized as a means of getting a truer appreciation of the Book of Books. Let us not forget that the critic most to be feared is not the so-called hight r critic, but rather the ordinary critic of the Bible as it is translated in our lives. Let not the triteness of the expression that Christians are the world's Bible rob us of the appreciation of its Middlemen 333 truth. May the interpolations of the flesh be more and more eliminated, and, as a sure token of the Holy Spirit's work, may the world read in the lan- guage of our lives and in an increasingly felicitous translation: "love, joy, peace, long-suffering, kind- ness, goodness, faithfulness, meekness, self-control." 374. To the skeptics, on the other hand, the middlemen say: We submit the Bible, as we would any other literature, to your most critical examina- tion. We simply ask that you be honest with it and with yourselves. Do not confound a particular theory of inspiration with the fact of inspiration. While we do not ask you to minimize the diflliculties of the Bible, we have a right to ask you that you do not magnify them. Because through them you feel that you can pi -e a particular inflated theory of inspiration, do not therefore conclude that the Bible is not inspired at all. We are not only willing, but are anxious, for you honestly to compare it with other religious literatures. Believing that "the worst infidelity is fear for the truth," we ask simply that our Scriptures be permitted to enter where there is a fair field and no favor, for we ourselves want them only as they win by their own inherent worth. Very important is the history of the making of the Bible; very important also the making of history by the Bible. Study both, trying especially to get the Bible's Pictures of Jesus Christ and its influence through him. Then, as you strive to live according to the 324 Christianity and Its Bible best that they present to you, we should like to have the honest expression of your thought of the Bible and of him. We think you would agree with us that the Bible belongs to the inspired movement of which Christianity is the religion and Jesus Christ " the bright consummate flower;" that it is an inspir- ing supporter of that now world-wide movement ; and that its authority is the authority of truth revealed especially in and through Jesus Christ. HIS MEDITATION 375. In conclusion I would urge the importance of meditation by middlemen. We (for in what remains I should like to say v/e) if any, should know by experience what it is. Rightly to mediate we must truly meditate. Our work is to make religious topics of great interest to all— the most vital of all the live questions of the day. They must then be full of life to us. Sometimes they are not. Most of us have at times reached, in our ordinary experience, what Ezekiel reached in his vision— " the valley of dry bones." For instance, after a sermon, the feeling concerning the topics discussed (among them some bones of contention) has been expressed in Ezekiel's words: "Lo they were very dry." In some way they " came together bone to his bone," "sinews" came "upon them and flesh came up and skin covered them above;" and sometimes Middlemen 325 they became, according to our thought, good-looking homilies; "but there was no breath in them." What was needed was a ^ ditative listening in the spirit of Ezekiel's pray. Come, () Spirit, and breathe upon these that th .7 ay live." Only as we have it will the Spirit breathe into them "the breath of life," and they become "living souls" that will go forth to "accomplish that whereunto they are sent." 376. Our work is to feed the people. Paul wrote of his ministry to the Corinthians: "I fed you with milk, not with meat; for ye were not yet able to bear it, nay, not even now are ye able." Let us learn the lesson. Many of those to whom we minister are like those Corinthians. They are "such as have need of milk and not of solid food." Let us not think our work is done when we have cut out and carved up a piece of theology. They long not for theological meat, but for spiritual milk. What, then, shall we do with our theologies and philosophies ? Eat them, digest them, assimilate them ourselves, as the mother assimilates the solid food that she might nourish the child she loves. In other words, we should meditate upon them; for meditation, as it has been so aptly defined, is "spiritual digestion"— the incorporating into our very being, as the bread of heaven, the truths of God. The better the digestion, the more abundant the life. If the words of our mouths and the language of our lives are to be helpful in the s f , i i^i 326 Christianity and Its Bible world, the meditation of our hearts must be accept- able in the sight of God. Thus shall we have good success in our presentation of the glorious gospel, with its revelation and inspiration through the life and death of Jesus; with its rich, real relationship with God, "Our Father;" with its inspiring hope of the hereafter; and with its power for the life of today. " So mote it be." APPENDIX Hi if mSmmmmnmii w 1v^ r? ):^'i .,:i^ '^immitt^mmmmmmtf APPENDIX SUCKIESTIOXS TO STUDENTS Thrse suggestions will be arranprrl under four licaflinRs: (i) "The Taliic of Contents and the Index;" fa) "The Bible and the Pen;'' (3) "Other Books of Reference;" and (4) "Ques ions and Other Suggestions." I. THE TABLE OF CONTENTS AND THE INDEX The Analytical Table of Contents and the Index were prepared to be used both as aids in the study, and as tests of the thoroughness of the study, of this book. In going through each chapter, and in reviewing it, the .Analytical Table of Contents will commonly suggest for each paragraph th. most important question or questions that that paragraph helps to answer. The Index also should be used in going through the book. For instance, in studying the first paragraph, by turning to the word "definition" in the Index it will be found to refer ta other paragraphs also. These contain some- thing that will hdp answer the question naturally arising in connection with the first paragraph, namely: What does it mean to define ? The nature of the book is such that thi' Index makes it a small dictionary of religious knowledge I>et it be used as such. When the whole book has been studied, a most helpful exercise would be to take each word in the Index and ask: "What do I remember concerning this subject ? What fu her should I inquire concerning it ?" It is expected that l- ih the Analytical T hie 0} Contents and the Index will lake the place that otherwise would be taken by hun- dreds oj questions designed to test the reader's knowledge 0} the rr-nttnls oj this book. 339 ^^o CUrvlianity nnd It'' fiiMr i II. THK BIBLE AND THE PEN The ..nly ii .lisjK-nsable b<«.k of refcrrnrc is the BiWe. WV recommend the use of the Rrvisr.l Version, of its marRinal referenas. anH of ron...ren in narking for emphasis, in making references and not. , in drawing, in copying luota- tions, and in comixising n ant paragraphs and longer ar- ticles. It makes the work much more definite. Practice drawing maps of Bible lands until you are able to draw good maps from memory. In other words, be sure you are well acquainted with -he geography of these lands, if you wish to understand the ix>lilical, ^oc-'al and religious histories of their ,H ,ples. When appropriate Scripture pasMges are not too long, it is well to copy them. Chapter I. Religious li}r: J.is. 1:26, il\ Oal. 1:1.^, m; Acts 26: 5; i,V.43; Rom. 7.2t-2S; Gal. 5:. 6-25; P^^ -^i^^'^i 42; 46; 139; etc.; Mic.6:S; John .^.i-". Actsi; A ppendix ,Ui lo.io); [ Cnr. f>:i Rom. 8:n-i7; J"hn iT^-^-^V Rrli *•""' '•"""«"••• JT -:,, 4. ft, 8. ,8, ,7. ,- „; Lukr 11,-4. John .o;.,o. .,,; ,,:, R,„n. j:,.;. j j.,f,„ ,.,_^^ „ ,v„^ i:iH; II rim. ,v i.S-17. K-mi. 15:4. Chapter II. Sfinnt,rprH.ition^: II Ph ; ,4^,8 (sp, a|^„ 1:20); II Sam. 0:1,; Isa. n:A; Mark 7:18, jo; Ps. 5,,: N>h 8:8; Matt. ij:jq. Infrrancy and inspiration: Kx. 24: ,, 4; I Sam. 8:6, 7; ha. i:r. 10, n, iH; Am. ^7. 8; .Matt. 5: 17. i«; John io:,,5 (Mark 7:'S-''>; Matt. 8:1-4; ia:i-w) IF Tim. .,:,s. ,6; II p,.,. ,;,,. ,f,. ,.;, ^,.,, ,j^. j ^^^ ^^. '■ " Kings .1:4; I Cor. ,o;,5; II f, ,r. ,:,4; II Sam., rhap. U (I Chron., chap, j,); p,. ,,7:8. r,; I Cor. 15:55 (IIos. i,v 14); II Cor. .vi.^ff (Kx. U-.U); Oal. 4:"fT. ((ien. ,,:,o, la); I Cor. q:q (Deut. 25:4): (lal. 3: ,6 (Gen. ly.iy, ,7:8). Judf, VS.V 13-15 (see Enoch 18:16; 59:8). (HAPTKR III. Trut Bible study: .Arts .7:,,. Nch. 8:8; Kpl'. 3:4; II Cor. 13:8; Phil. 3: K, II John li; IITim. 4-,v* John 5:39; 7:17; ,4:,6, 17, 26; ,7:, 7; I Cor. ,: ^16, 7:40,' FITim. 3:15-17. ' v'HAPTER IV. River tfrritorifs and races: C.en. 2:14 ,,• |n; 41: I (Isa. 23:3); Gen. ,0; ,,; ,5:20. .,; Ex. ,'4:11; Josh. 13:1 ^; Isa. 19:3^-25. Babylonia and Assyria: Gen. 11: 38; chap. ,4; II King, ,,ip,. ,5_,„ ,^_ ^^. ^-^^^ ^^^^^ ^. II Chron., rhap. ^y, Dai,! ', fsa.. chaps. 7, 8, ,0. ,3, ,4, 2,, ,0, .1'. .l^ ,^7. 39; and t • o'hi. prophets. Egvpt, Gen. 37-ET 15- I Kmgs 14:25, . U y n^, ,y,^. ,^,^. ,,.^^. j^^ _ ^j,^p^' 19. 20, 30, 31; and ^.c. prophets. Other '.ices: Judg. t; I Sam 14:47.48; irnj;sir:,-8; II Chron. 25: 20; Jer. 25: 15-26; etc. Chaitfk . Genesis-Nehcmiuh (i. c, a little more than half 'he Old Tesl., lent); r.fc.cn(es in the rest of the Old Testament, especially ir the prophets, Dan., and some of the psalms; Mat- thew-Acts (i.e., a little more than half the New Testament); refe.cnces in the epistles and Revelation. '■ftapter VI. It is suggested that the students mark their Bil c -n a number of different vvays to indicate their views con- cernl^^; ' .e dates and literary forms of the different wriling.s. The wr ...gs, for instance, that are later than 586 b. c. might be 33' Christianity and Its Bible marked down the margin with a red line. Isa., rhaps. 24-27 would thus stand out from its surroundings. It is helpful thus to make the Priests' Code stand out from the rest of the Hexa- teuch. A synopsis of it, given by Dr. S. R. Driver, is to be found at the end of the first chapter in his Introduction to the Literature 0} .he Old Testament. Scattered throughout the prose there is considerable poetry not printed as such even in the Revised Version. It is interesting to make this poetry stand out from its context. Apocalyptic passages also may be marked with profit. Chapter VII. Arts: Luke 12:36; Ezek. 13:10-12; Mark 2: 4; Josh. 8:20; .1 Sam. 7:1-^; I Kings 5-7 (II Chron. 2-5); John 10:33; Ex. 33:7-11 (see Ex. 25-31 in the Priests' Code); Num. 10:33-36; Luke 4:16-30; 7:5. Music: Gen. 4:21; Ps. 150; Am. 6:5; Matt. 26:30; Acts 16:25; Eph. 5:19. Scietue: Gen. i; 2; 7; Am. 9:6; Pss. 78:23; 148:4. Phi- 'isophy: John 1:1-18; Acts 17:18; Col. 1:19; 2:8, 9; John Chapter VIII. Monotheism and individualism: Num. 21; 29; Judg. 11:24; 11 Kings 3:27; Ex. 20:3; I Sam. 26:19; Tonah 1:3; II Kings 5:17; Num., chap. 16; Josh., chap 7; :. Sim., chap. 21; Ex. 20:5. Hereafter: Gen. 37:33, 35; Nun . 16:30, 33; I Sam., chap. 28; Isa. 38:10, 11, 18, 10; Pss. 16:10,11; 23:6; 17:15; 49:14,15; 73:24; Job 14:13-15; 19: 25-27; Hos. 6:2; 13:14; Ezek., chap 37; Isa. 26:19; Dan. 12: 2. Kingdom oj God: II Sam., chap. 7; Pss. 89:3, 4, 19-37; 132:11, 12; Obad. 21; Isa. 13:6; Joel 2:11, 31; Am. 9:7-10; Ps. 72:10, 11, 17; Isa., chap. 60; Matt. 3:2; 4:17; chap. 13; Luke 17:20, 21; Rom. 14:17. Millennium: Rev. 20:4-6; I Thess. 4: '6, •?; I Cor. 15:23, 24. Satan: II Sam. 24:1 (cf. I Clion. 21:!); Isa. 45:7; I Kings 22:19-23; Zech. 3: 1,2; Job 1:6-12; Matt. 4:1-11; 25:41; I Thess. 2:18; I Cor. 10:19, 20; Rev. 20:2; Acts 23:8. Chapter IX. Son of David: II Sam., chap. 7; Isa. 96, 7; Matt. 21:9; Mark 12:35-37; John 7:42. Son of man: Ps. 8: 4; Dan. 7:13; Matt. 9:6; 13:8; 16:13; Luke 19: 10; John 12: 34, SonofGod: Gen. 6:2, 4; Ps.82:6; II Sam. 7:14; Hos. 11: A ppendix 33i i; Pss. 2:7; 89:26, 27; Mark 1:1; Matt. 27:40, 43; John 20: 17; Luke 2:49; Matt. 10:32, T,y, 11:37; J"hn 10:30; 14:7. Suffering Messiah: 153.52:13-53:12; Mark 8:31, 32; 10:45; Matt. 16:13-20; John 20:9; I Cor. 1:23, 24. Chapters X-XVI. The Bible abounds in passages sugges- tive in the study of Part III, but, iK^cause references to them would need more or less explanation, we must leave the collect- ing and selecting of them to the students themselves. Chapter XVII. Rom. 1:16; Acts 13:16, 26, 43 (Matt. 23: IS); Rom. 16:3-16; I Cor. 1:23; II Tim. 1:12; I Tim. i:ii. Salvation: Ex. 14:13; Luke i:fx), 71, 77; Acts 1^26; I Pet. i: S; Mark 10:30; John 3:15, 16; I Thess. 5:9, 10; Rom. 5:9, 10; I Cor. 1:18; Eph. 2:8. Faith: Matt. 8:10, 26; 9I29; Luke 15:22; I John 5:4, 5; Acts 6:5, 7 (Jude 3:20); Acts 16: 31; Rom. 1:17; 3:22-28; 5:1, 2, 10, 11-13; Eph. 2:8-10; Heb. 11; Jas. 2:14-26 (Rom. 4:5); I John 5:4, 5. Everyone: John 3:16; Rom. 3:22; 10:11-13. Power and Love: I Thess. i:S; I Cor. 1:18, 24; 2:4, s; I John 3:1; 4:8; I Cor. 13; John 10:10. Chapter XVIII. Matt. 1:21; chap.s. 21-27; Mark, chaps. 11-15; Luke, chaps. 19-23; John, chaps. 12-19; Rom. 5:10; Eph. 2:16; Coi. 1:20; Matt. 20:28; I Tim. 2:5, 6. Figura- tive references: I John 1:7 (John 6:56); I John 2:2; 4:10; Rom. 3:25, 26; Lev. 1:4, 4:20; 17:11; Isa. 1:10-17; Am. 5: 21-27; Mic. 6:6-8; John 1:29; I Cor. 5:7; 6:20; Eph. 5:2 Heb. 9:13, 14, 22, 26, 28; 10:3, 4; I Pet. 1:18, 19. Revela Hon of sin and love: Tohni:u; Acts 2:23; 3:13-19; Rom, 4: 25; 8:3; Gal. 1:4; Rom. 3:25 (i:i8fT.; I John 3:4, 5); Rom. 5:5-8; Eph. 3:19; John 3:16; I John 4:9, 10; Rom. 8:39. Life in view of: Eph. 5:25-27; Col. 1:21, 22; Titus 2:14; I Pet. 2:21-24; I John 1:9; II Cor. 5:14-16; Eph. 5:2; John 12:32; Luke 9:22-24. Chapter XIX. Mai. 3:6; Jas. 1:17; Eph. 3:5; John 8: 42-44; Matt. 6:9, Figurative language: Ps. 23:1; 183.54:5; 66:13; Eph. 3:14, 15; Ps. 103:13; Prov. 3: ,2; Col. 1:15! John 3:16; 3:3-6; Rom. 8:14-17; Gal. 4:4-7. FJaslicily ./ figure: II King.s 2 : ,2; 6:21; Job 29:16; 17:14; :i8:28; Jas. i : n bk 334 Christianity and lis Bible I 17; references under Son oj God for Chapter IX. Trinity: Matt. 3:16, 17; 2«.'9; " ^'or. ly.iA (I John 5:7 of A. V. is omitted from R. V.); John 5:32, 371 '4-26; 'S-J^; Oal. 4--6; I Pet. 1:2; Eph. 2:18. Chapter XX. II Kings 18:3-7; I^a. 38; in chapter VIII references under Hereajter. Matt. 28; Mark 16; Luke 23, 24 John 20, 21; Acts 17:18, 32; Rom. 1:4; 6:3-11; I Cor. 15 14, 17; II Cor. 13:4; Phil, y-io, It; I Thes.s. 4:14; I Pet. 1 3; Matt. 25:31-46; IThess. 1:10; Col. 3:3; Ps. 11:4; Isa. 6 i; John 14:2; II Pet. 2:4; Matt. 16:18; Luke 16:23; Matt. 23:33; Mark 9:43-48; Luke 13:22-30; John 5:28, 29; Acts 34:15; Eph. 1:0, 10. Chapter XXI. Nature 0} Christianity's power: Jas. 1:27; 3:15-18; Col. 3:5-17; I Pet. 1:14-17; Mie- 6:8; II Tim. i: 7; Matt. 5:43-48; Prov. 15:17; Luke 7:47; J"*^" 21:15-17; Rom. 12:9, 10; 13:9, 10; I Cor., chap. 13; Gal. 5:6, 13, 22; I John. Chrixtlikeness: John 11:36; 15:12; Eph. 5:2; Luke 9:23; Mark 6:3; Acts 10:38. Tlie Problem: II Tim. 3:2; Phil. 2:21 (I Cor. 10:24; 13:5; Phil- r-^o)- Temperance: Gen. 9:21, 24; Judg. 9:13; Ps. 104:15; Prov. 31:6; Rom. 14: 20, 21; I Cor. 10:23-11:1; Matt. 11:19; Titus 2:14- Other problems: Deut. 11 : 18-21; Prov. 22:6; 29:15; Matt. 11:16, 17; 19:13, 14; II Tim. 1:5; 3:15; Eph. 6:1-9; Luke 7:2; Prov. 11:1; Luke 3:11-14; i9-8; I Tim. 6:10; Acts 24:17, 26; Matt. 19:3-12; Heb. 13:4; Gen. 13:7.8; John 17:20,21; Rom. 1:18. Antinomianism, etc.: John 6:29; Eph. 2:8, 9; Rom. 4:4, 5; 6: 1-23; 12:1, 2; Jas. 2- 14-26; I Pet. 1:14; H Cor. 6:17; I Cor. 11:25; Matt. 6:6; John 10:10. Chapter XXII. Gen. 24:63; Josh. 1:8; Pss. 1:2; 5:1; 19:14; 49:3; 63:6; 77:12; 104:34, 119:15= 23, 48, 78. 07, 99. 148; 143:5; Phil. 4:8; Hos. 2:14, I Kings 19:12; Luke 24: 32; Ps. 116:1, 2; Matt. 9:11; 28:19, 20; Ex. 3j:29. Chapter XXIII. II Tim. 2:14, 15. ^i' ^ Cor. 1:10-12; I Tim. 0:3-5; Titus 3:9; Gal. 5:22; E/.r... vs. 37; I Cor. 3:1, 2; Heb. 5:12-14; II Cor. 1:24; 4:2; i.v8; Rom. 1:14-16; I Cor. 13:11-13. A ppendix as HI. OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE Probably HastinKs' Dictionary oj thr Bible and a good general history of the church would give enough of the Ix-st reading profital)Iy to occupy the time of those for whom this book has been written. Prominent in the extensive literature that might be consulted are: The Bible, Its Origin and Nature. By M. Dods. The Use oj the Scriptures in Theology. By \V. N. Clarke. Bamplon Lectures on Inspiration. By VV. Sanday. Historical Geography of the Holy Land. By. G A. Smith. History oj Babylonia atid A ssyria . By G. S. Goodspeed ; K . W. Rogers (2 voLs.). History of Egypt. By J. H. Breasted. Early History of .Syria and Palestine. By L. B. Baton. History of Hebrew and Jewish People (t, vols.). By C F Kent. Old Testament History. By H. P. Smith. History, Prophecy and the Monuments {t, vols.) By J. F. MrCurdy. History of tlie Maccabean and Roman Periods. B\ J. S Hiitory of Npv Testament Times in Paleslnie. By S. Ma- thews. The .Apostolic Age. By G. H. Gilbert; \. C. McGitTert. The Church in thf Roman Empire. }\v W. M. Rams.iv A Guide to Biblical Study. By A. S. Peake. Introduction to the Old Testament. Bv |. E MrFadven- S R. Driver. ' - > •• Tlie Problem of the Old Testament. By J. Orr. Introdurlion to thi New Testament. By M. Dods; B. W. Bacon; et al. Harmony of the Gospels. By \\. A. Stevens and F. D. Burton. Life of Christ. By W. Sanday; E. D. Burton and S. Mathews Life of Paul. By E. D. Burton. G. H. Gilbert; W. M. Ramsay; et al. Theology of the Old Testament. Bv FT Srhull/; W. H. Bennett; et al. 336 Chrislinnity and Its Bible Bv VV. F. Adency; F,. P. Theology 0} the New Testament. Gould; G. H. Stevens. Commentaries. In New Century Bible; etc. General Histor- 0} I.. Jhnrch. By J. W. Monrrief; G. P. Fisher; A. J. Newman; J. H. Kurtz; P. SrhufT. Tlie Lije oj Our Lord in Art. By E. M. Hurll. Sncred and Legendary Art. By Mrs. Janiieson. History oj War jure oj Science with Theology (2 vols.). By A. D. White. History oj Philosophy. By A. SchweRkr; Ucberwcg; VVindel- band; et al. History oj Doctrine. By G. P. Fisher. What Is Christianity? By A. PTarnark. Outlines oj Theology. By W. N. Clarke. Christian Bdiej Interpreted by Christian Experience. By C. C. Hall. Christian Ethics. By N. Smyth. Social Teaching:, oj Jesus. By S. Mathews. The Christian Pastor and the Working Church. By \V. Gladden. In Reliej oj Doubt. By R. E. Welsh. A word alxmt the use of these book.s in connection with "Christianity am is Bible": It will Ix' easier for the average reader to obtain and retain the rich stores of information in these reference hooks if, before consulting them, he reads (though rapidly) the whole course as given in this textbook If their riches should prevent a mastery of this outline study, its one chief purptise may be thwarted— in a vague idea of much there may Ix- clear definite ideas of little. IV. QUESTIONS AND OTHER SUGGESTIONS The purpose of these questions and suggestions is not mainly to test the reader's knowledge of the contents of this book.' As has U-en stated already, the Table of Contents and the Index were prepared for that purpose. The main purpose of the following questions and suggestions is to stimu- A ppendix 337 late to furthtr study and meditation concerning the religious themes of which Christianity and Its Bible treats. Let the questions mariortant movtmc nis and , « riods in the history of surrounding jx'op'is. 12. Descril>c p' litically, sociaiiy, and religiously the world into which Chrisi: 'nity came. 13. *VVritc out, la'-ge!'. in qnotni' n.s from Scripture, an account of the developmeia anc! a description of the Scribes, the Phari es and the Sadducees. 14 Shut your Bible, and try to recall book b> book what yo"i ki\(>w ' f the histories and stories each book contains. Chapter VI LITERATURE OF HEBREWS, JEWS, AND EARLY CHRISTIANS I. Though it have many blank places and question marks, go as far as you can in making a chronological arrangement of the wri'ini^s of the Bible. 2. Make special efforts to fit the prophets and their writings into general history. Describe them as social reformers. *Give the leading nv ssage of each. Appeniix 341 3. To what extent is the Pentateuch Mosaic ? 4 *VVhat is your conception of the real David and the real Solomon? *VVIi;'t wen- their relations to the writing of the Old Testament ? 5. Compare the different law codes in the Old Testament. 6. Classify the New Testament writings as those of which you a (a) surely, (h) probably, or (c) i)ossibly know the author Of authors. *Give the |)urix)S<' and, in brief, the plan of each writing. 7 Read the 0\-,\ Testament Aix)crypha. How do they compare with the Ginonict.I bks of the Old Testament ? How does Ecdesiasticus comp^ire with Esther? 8. *Name and descrilx- the other non-biblical le^ish writings of Bible times. 9. Compare H brew poetry with Engiisl. | etn to. *Make a collection of the choicest l;iti, --f \¥>< / lu the Bible no! printed as fxxMry even in the Reviscv' Vf -rion. 11. Classify the different kinds of parallelism of two, three, four, or more lines What have you to say about accents in Hebrew pwtry ? 12. *S('Ieci what to you are the choicest illustrations of the different kinds of prose in the Bible. 13. How large a place has prediction in biblical prophecy ? Has there been a noticeable change in the place that prediciion occupies in apologetics ? If so, why ? 14- Read some apocalyptic literature not found in the Bible, and give your impressioi! • concerning it *Coinpare prophecy and apocalyptic literature. Chapter VII ARTS, SCIENXK, AND PHILOSOPHY I. *Compare from the standpcjint of the ar' s the ditfi>rent peoples of Bible times. Seek to explain tl ■ comparative excellences and deficiencies. i' M J43 Cltristidtvlv^iiHii Its Hihle \t I w 2 Shut your t vis iti.l st-c irerod's ti-mplr as .1 whole. Kl 1 r 1! rwss from |)latv to jjlacc in it, and note who and what you see. J. What place do !hc tt-mpic-s in Jtrusakm take in the Ililili' ? Paint for yoursilf HiJik- sanis that Ixlong to them. 4 ♦Which was earlier -Solomon'^ Temple or the account of an elaljorate taU-rnacle ? *Give the reasons for your answer. 5. < »f how much are y,)U sure concerning the Ix-ginning of synagogue worship? Picture this worship in the lim. of Jesus. 6. *Give an outline history of the places of worship from the tent of meeting to the Chrisii.m church at the ct to where they put the emphasis in the matter of fvr- st)nal responsibility. 11. What are your own views cona-rning the value of the changes of views in Bible times ? 12. *Write a short article on the philosophy and develop- ment of the Christian religion. Chapter IX JKSUS AS THE CHRIST 1. Make a collection of the most imj^rtant Old Testa- ment passages claimed to be messianic. 2. *Make a collection of the most important messianic passages in non-biblical writings before the time of Christ. 3 *Illustrate, largely in quotations, the different .stages in if^ ■ m. '^ »^- - ^ ■M MICROCOPY RESOIUTION TEST CHART lANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 I.I 1.25 mil ^-^ ^ m *■- i«l|40 L. 2.5 III 2.2 [2.0 1.8 1.6 J >^PPLIED INA^GE Inc 1653 £ast Men Streer Rochester, New York 14609 USA (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone (716) 288 - b989 - Fa. m'^-^M'^^^^m^'' 344 Christianity and Its Bible p. I the development of the messianic idea and the diflerent phases of the messianic hope 4. Is belief in the virgin-birth a necessary part of belief in the divine sonship of Jesus? What is the worth of the doc- trine of the virgin-birth ? 5. What is the relation between the prologue and the rest of the Fourth Gospel ? 6. *Make a collection of the reports of Christ's own uses uf each of the messianic titles. 7. To what exu^nt were his messianic views eschatological ? Compare them with the messianic views in the non-biblical, Jewish writings of Bible times. 8. *Go more deeply into the question of development of view in Christ's own thinking. 9. In what way and to what extent was Jesus in the Old Testament ? What bearing have John 5 : 39 and I Pet. i : 10, II, upon this question ? 10. Whom had the prophet in mind in writing the fifty- third chapter of Isaiah ? PART III Chapter X IIALF-WAY TO 1517 A. D. 1. Between its lines of facts let the student of Part III read its great truths. 2. What close r-'lationship exists between Mohammed- anism and the two religions, Judaism and Christianity ? 3. *Compare the Koran with the Bible, Mohammed with Jesus. 4. *Make a fuller list of the church fathers, and be able when any of them is named to place him in the time and group to which he belongs. 5. *Make a list of the most notable martyrs. Know the stories of their lives and deaths. A ppendix 345 6. Flow do Arxtllonius, Cclsus, anrl Porphyry compare with Jesus ? 7. What are some of the points of contact between Nco- platonism and early Christianity ? 8. *Compare the four great creeds. 9. Carefully examine the validity of the claims made for the prihiacy of Rome. What is the meaning of Matt 18 • 18. 19? Chapter XI TO 1517 A. D. 1. When and how did the modern European nations begin? 2. Enter more fully into the "dramatic event of the Middle Ages." >}ive in outline the history of the Holy Roman Empire. 3. In addition to the doctrinal and ceremonial differences, what are the characteristics that distinguish the Eastern church from the Roman Catholic church and from Protes- tantism ? 4. *0f what importance is the study of feudalism and of the Crusades for the understanding of the social questions of today ? 5. What are the origin and the explanation of monasti- cism? 6. Name a number of the great Schoolmen, and be able to distinguish clearly between them. *Compare the influence of Plato and Aristotle upon them. 7. *State the different views as to what a sacrament is. Compare them. 8. *What is the relation iKHween the Renaissance and the Reformation ? 9. *What are the most impi;rtant events and sayings in the thrilling records of the reformers before the Reformation ? •^^Mm^t 13-^ iiftVr'^ ^- 346 Christianity and Its Bible Chapter XII SINCE 15 1 7 A. D. 1. Get personally acquainted with Luther. A knowledge of his contemporaries, of his times, and of subsequent Luthcr- anism will then be easily obtained. 2. Get personally acquainted with Calvin, if you wish to understand the subsequent history of a large part of Protes- tantism. ,3. *VVhat were the "five points" of Calvinism? 4. *What is the history of the relation between church and itatc in France ? What countries still have state religions ? 5. Explain historically the Anglo-Catholic movement in the established church in England. 6. *Explain historically the relation in England between the established church and nonconformity. *Give the history of the question of religious education at issue between them. 7. Get well acquainted with the Wesleys, William Booth, John Henry Newman, George Williams, and John Clifford. 8. *I^arn something important and definite concerning each of the most important English versions of the Bible. 0. To what extent have the theological experiences of Scotland found expres.sion in her literature ? 10. Get acquainted with Roberston Smith, his times, views, etc. 11. WTiat is your opinion of the decision of the law lords in favor of the orthodox "Wee Frees" ? How much did the "Wee Frees" gain ultimately through that decision? Chapter XIII SINCE 1517 — CONTINUED 1. Keep in mind the two great wars in the history of the United States. Get .veil acquainted with Roger Williams, Jonathan Edwards, and Horace Bushnell. ■r^j.*T??^jis'" A ppendix 347 2. Read concerning Alexander Campbell, Joscpli Smith W.lham Miller, and Mrs. Eddy, and seek to explain the influ- ence of their views. 3. Look up the history of the Jesuits. Illustrate the four methods named. 4- *Give the leading events in the history of Ultramon- tanism. 5- What is the origin, development, and present condition of the Old Catholic movement ? 6. What, after all, is the greatest difference between Prot- estantism and Roman Catholicism ? 7. *Give an outline history of the relation between church and state in Protestant lands. 8. How does the average Sunday school today rliffer from that of Robert Raikes ? 9- *Alon,«Af A ppendix 349 5. Just what is meant by the seci-Iarizing of church music ? Consider it historically. 6. *Give an outline history of the cc.flict between thf logy and the other sciences. 7. *What benefit have these other sciences been to reli- gion ? 8. *What are the views of the new theology concerning the great tenets of the old ? 9. Give a brief history of both higher and te.Ktual criticism. 10. Give the nature, history, and practical value of the science of comparative religion. Chapter XVT philosophy and isms 1. With the use of the Index, review what has been .vritten concerning philosophy. Distinguish it frrm theology. Be sure you know what the inductive method and what idealism are. 2. Though it mean a little effort, fix in mind the little that is written here about modern philosophers. It will make easier any extended reading in modern philosophy. 3. *Give as fully as possible the history of philosophy in biblical and Christian times. 4. What is the relation between Anabaptists and modern Baptists ? 5. *What is the history of Mysticism ? *What connection had Mysticism with Neoplatonism, the Schoolmen, Pietism, etc.? *What do you thmk of its method of treating the Bible ? 6. Compare Arianism, Socinianism, and Unitarianism. 7. See deism in its historical setting. 8. Get acquainted with Schleiermacher, Strauss, Baur, and Ritschl. 9- What do you know about Ritschlianism ? What have 35° Chrislianity and Its Bible you re. ' by its leading representatives? Perhaps you have only heard and read about it. lo. Compare Bushnell and Ritschl. ir. *Carefully review Part III and write out at least twenty great truths that are to be read between the lines. PART IV Chapter XVII THE GLORIOUS GOSPEL 1. Notice the three parts in the aim of Part IV, and give the relations between them. 2. Compare t cross of Jesus as viewed in Paul's time and as it is viewed today. Compare the worth to Paul of Roman 'zenship and of the cross of Christ. 3. *What are the earliest non -Christian references to Christianity and Jesus ? 4. To characterize the attitude today to the gospel, what words would you use besides indifference ? Is it the chief characteristic ? What is the explanation of the present atti- tude? 5. *What is salvation ? Let the answer be in view of both the penalty and the pow Is a false view of it vaguely but commonly held ? 6. *What is forgivene- .v^sat effect has it on the sin- ner's relation to God, en the consequences of his past sins and on his future conduct ? How is the conviction of for- giveness to be obtained ? 7. ""What is faith ? Is a false view of it commonly but vaguely held ? Is faith that which links us to God's power ? How is it to be obtained ? 8. What place has Jesus in our obtaining this faith and power? What meaning and authority has Acts 4:12? 9. What place has experience in theology ? 10. *What is the essence of Christianity? wm^S A ppendix Chapter XVIII 351 THK UF.ATH OF JESUS 1. Xame and distinguish Utwt-en the most important "theories of the atonemt-nt. " Do you distinguish bctvNoen a vicarious and a substitutionary theory ? Would it be helpful to clear thinking if the word "atonement" were not used in connection with some of the many theories ? 2. As far as jxissible explain the difiFerent theories from the times and circumstances of their origin. 3. *l5 the substitutionary theory taught in Scripture ? *If so, in what passages and what authority have they ? 4- *In the light of the prophets, what do you think of the New Testament use of the Old Testament sacrifices ? *VVhat are the leading thoughts back of the Old Testament sacri- fices ? 5. From the records what may we infer about the thoughts of Jesus himself concerning the significance of his death ? 6. The question is often asked: "How does the death of Jesus diflfer from that of any other great martyr?" *What answer would you make ? 7. *Coming to it along the way of his life what does the cross of Jesus mean for your thinking? What is its main thought ? 8. What eflfect upon your life has the cross of Jesus ? 9- Do you profess to be his follower ? What do you mean by it ? and how are you folloving him ? Chapter XIX THE FATUERHOOD OF GOD 1. Before the time of Jesus in the Oid Testament and else- where what references have we to the fatherhood of God ? 2. *Give the biblical development of the idea of deity— from the eariiest times to Jesus' conception of the fatherhood of God. ,>52 Christianity and Its Bible 3. *Collect all the passages in which Jesus is represented as using the word "father." 4. Show how the figure of kingship could be stretched to includi a very large part of our conception of God. 5. What is the relation between ihe fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man ? 6. What is the New Testament basis for the doctrine of the Trinity? In Matt. 1:20 and Luke 1:35 the s[)ecific references are to the Holy Spirit rather than to the Father. Has this fact any bearing upon the significance of fatherhood in the Trinity ? 7. *How does the teaching ot the New Testament com- pare with that of the early creeds concerning the Trinity? 8. What is your own view concerning the doctrine of the Trinity? Do you distinguish between Trinity and Triunity ? 9. What is your own view concerning the fatherhood of God and concerning the nature of the Holy Spirit? What pronouns can yon use in referring to "God" and to the "Holy Spirit"? 10. How did you get your views concerning the Trinity, the fathcrhoo 1 of God, the sonship of Jesus, and the nature of the Holy Spirit ? Why do you continue to hold them ? As revealed in your life what are they worth ? Chapter XX THE HEREAFTER 1. *Make a fuller comparison between Hezekiah and Paul as illustrating the development of the Christian doctrine of the hereafter. 2. *Wniat place in the New Testament has the resurrec- tion of Jesus ? 3. *What has it meant to the ages since ? 4. Do you have any difl6culty in harmonizing the different ma A ppendix 353 accounts of the resurrection of Jesus? If so, what is the right attitu- '\„- as middlemen clergymen and others who approach n ,iir ideal of a middleman. 3. *Descrih( ,s far as convenient in their own lan- guage) their attitau^; to the questions of the origin and devel- opment of religion. In the same way describe their attitude to the literature of different religiims and to otlu-r phases of the science of comparative n-ligion. 4- *To inspiration and interpretation, and to spiritual as distinguished from merely scholarly insight into the Riblc. 5. *To the chronolog)', history, literature, etc., of Bible times. 6. *To the question of development in the Bible and of evolution in general. 7. *To the creeds and missions of the churches. 8. *To new psychology, new theology, higher criticism, and other is;ns of today. 9. *To the virgin-birth, the resurrection of Jesus, and miracles in general. 10. *To Christ's death, the Trinity, and the hereafter. 11. *To bigots and to skeptics. 13. *To the great practical problems of today. ".^*^^;)»mrKJ:K-'^ V'... ', is*;'; i»f' T-r- [The references Abaddon, io6. Abelard, 230. Adolphus, Gustavus, 177. Adoption, 306. Adventists, 198. Alrica, 222, 223, 227. Agnostic, 242, 326. Agriculture, 62. Agrippa: see Herods. Ahriman, 127. Albigenses, 165, 173. Alchemy, 241. Alexander the Great, 65, 72. Alexandria, 65. Allodial, 163. Altruism, 330, 331. Alva, Duke of, 181. Amalekites, 56. Ambrose, 229, 240. Ammonites, 62, 67. Amorites, 56. Amos, 8i. 302. Amphibology, 201. Anabaptism, 251. "Analogy," 237. Andover theology, 195. Angelo, 237. Angels, 128. Anne, 185, 190, 191. Ansgar, 212. Antichrist, 128. Antinomianism, 343, Antiochus, Epiphanes, 73. Antipater, 73. 74- Apelles, 103. Apocalyptic writings, 88, 98. Apocrypha, 36, 88, 145. ApoUinaris, 154, 363. ApoUonius, 147. Apologists, 14s, 367. INDEX are to paragraphs, not to pages] A posteriori, no. Apostolic fathers. 145. Appearances, 318. A priori, no. Aquinas, Thomas, 168. 171. Aralu, 117. Aramaic, 62, 72, 136. Arameans, 62. Archaeology, 43, 38. S9. 60, 64. 369. Architecture, 99, 103, 233-6, 264. Aristotle, Aristotelianisra, 107, no. Arius. Arianism, 153. 210. 363. Arminianism, 15s, 181. 186. Arnold, Matthew, 231, 327. Art. 99-103, 132, 233, 234, 238, 264, 294. Aryans, 55, 92, 143. Ascension. 318. Ashurbanipal, 59- Aspiration, 236, 297, 298. Associationists, no, 249. Assyriology, 13, S7-S9. 99. "8. Astrology, 241. Astronomy, 106. Athanasius, 146, 153. Atonement, 9, loi, i8i, 186. 195, 222. 283-300. 332. A. U. C, 75. Aufkldrung, 259. Augustine, 146, 155, 156, 175, 202, 229. Augustine or Austin, 211. Aurelius. Marcus, in, 142. Authority. 95, 146, 323, 365, 374. Avatar, 13. Baal, 62, 211. Babylon, 57, 60, 61. Babylonia, 57, 58, 60. Bach, 240. Bacon, Francis, 242, 246, 359 ll :Mi,^:i- "■^-•fr'i'S^f- _ •* 360 Clirisliauity and Its Bible Bacon. Roger, 241. Ballou. Hosea. 256. Baptism, 156, 170. jio, 312, 251. Baptists, 183. 193, 21Q, 251. Basilijan, 23.';. Bauer, 261. Baxter, 229. B. C, 75- Beccher, 229. Beethoven, 240. Belgium, 181. Belshazzar. 60. Berkeley, 246, 247. B^rnaid of Clairvcaux, 229, 230. 259. Lcrnard of Cluny, 230, Besant, Mrs., 253. Bible: meaning. 15, 16; and other Specially Sacred writings, 18; in- fluence, 19. 232; misinterpreta'.ion, 20-25; Word of God, 20, 30. 371; oriental, 21; inerrancy, 26-29, 31, 37; inspiration, 27-37; inductive study, 28, 29; claims, 30-34; canon. 36. 37; steps and prerequi- sites in study, 38; common-sense, 39-42; library, 41; translations, 42, 72, 77. 173. »7S. 184, 212, 220, 221. 226, 282; languages, 42, 72; style. 42; archaeology, 43; manu- scripts, 44; geography, and contem- poraneous history, 51-65; history of Hebrews, Jews, and early Chris- tians, 66-79; series of histories. 81; types of doctrine, 86; difference be- tween Old Testament and New Testament, 87; literary forms, 90- 98; Jesus and Old Testament. 139. 140; the Fathers, 146; pagan leaders, 147-49; Swedenborg, 253; rationalism, 159; science, 105-8, 241-45,341,369. Schleiermacher, 260; difficulties, 302, 374; father- hood, 311; meditation, 355, 356; education, 363; criticism, 372-74; Jesus and New lestament, 28->, Bigot, 372, Biology, 3, Bishop, 157. Blavatsky, Madam, 253. Boehme, 246, 253. Bohemian Brethren, 218. Book of Concord. 205. Book of the Dead, 13. Bonar, 330, Boniface. 211. Booth. Commander. 186. Bossuet, 229. Boxers, 224. Brahma. 13. Brahmanas, 13, Brahmanism, 13. 226, 256 Bnhms Somaj. 256. Brainerd, Da\id. 217. Breasted, J. H,, 63. Bridget, 210. Brooks, 229. Browning, 231, 271, 295. 309. 338 Bruno. 246. Buddhism, 13, 35, 225. 226, Buffon, 242. Bunyan, 185, 229. Bushnell. Horace. '95, 262. Business. 340. Butler, Bishop. 257. Byron, 231. Byzantine. 235. Cabala, 253. Calvary. 138, 291. Calvin, John, 178, 217, 256. Calvinism. 178-82. i86, 194. 195. 198. Campbell, Campbellites, 196. Canaanites. 62. Canon. 36. 37. Capital and labor, 340, Captivity, 115, 116, 117. Carey, William, 219. Ca.stc, 220, 226, Catacombs. 234. Catechisms. 204-6. Catenae. 146. Catholicism. R., 168, 230-303, 204, 215, 3l6. Cause, 303. Celsus, 148. Chaldean, 57, 60. Chalmers, 229. Character, 320, 336. 347, 340 ff- Charlemagne, 1,9, 212. Chautauqua, 206. Chemosh, 32, 62, 114, Children, 170, 204, 306, 226, 332, 339 ?w.«^mi^''l Index 361 China, aog, 220, 224, 225. Chivalry, 164. Christ, 129-40, mg; see Messiah. Cliristianity, 26Q, 378, 279, 329. Christian Science, 199. Chronology, 43, 63, 80-89. Chrysostom, 146, 229. Church building. 339; see .Vrchitec- ture. Church of Englai.i, 182-88, 193. Church of desert, j. CiWlization, 343. Claudius, 77. 150. Claverhouse 190. Clei)p-.;ra, Gj. Clrrgy, 162, 11)9. Clovis, 143, 144, I5Q, 2,0. Codex, 44. Coleridge, 231, 248. Coligny, 217. Colossians, 85. Columba, 2.1. Commerce, 67, 116. Common sense. 39-42, 98. Comparative religion, 241;. 369, 372. Comte, 246, 249. Concentration, 348. 349. Concordat, 180, Confessors, i_i. Confirmation. 170. Confucianism, 13. Congregationalists, 183, 193. 1.55. Consecration, 221. Constantine, 142, 151. Constantin-,ple. 142. 162, 172. Comrrversies, 153-55- 161, 162, 176- 91, 194, 195- 202, 203. 251, 255- 6i. 283-89, 303. 310-12, 324-26, 363, 369-74. Conversion, 9. 262, 276, 366 Copernicus, 241. Corinthian Epistles, 85. Coreggio, 237. Councils: Carthage. 36; Chalcedon, 156. 204; Consta.itinople. 153. 154; Nicaea, 142, 145. ,53, ,56. 208; irent. 36. 200, 204. Counter-reformation. 2c«d. Covenants, Covenanters 189, 190. Cowper, 230. Creation, 59, 60, 105, 241, 242, 244 24s. ' Creeds, 156, 204, 205, 32a. Criticism, higher, 45, 96, 191, 363 366. 373; I, Ktual, 373. Cromwell, 18 ^. Cross, 138, 139. 236, 239, 267, 260, ^ 283-300 (csp. 289. 297), 340, 34^. Crusttdes. 165. 166, 213. Cuhure, 334, 335. Cyril and Methodius. 212. Cyrus. 61. 71. Dam.'xscus, 62. Daniel, Book of, 98, 149. Dante, 168. 231, 323. Darbyites, 198. Dai ..In, 242. David, 32, 67, 8j, 130. Day of Lord. 122. Death, 19, 117, 283-300, 315-18. Decius, 142, 151. Deduction, no. Definition, i, 303, 304, 310-12, 345- 47. Deism, 257, 258, 259, 354- Demon, 126, see Satan, Denominations, 341. Descartes, 246, Desert, 52. Deuteronomy, 70, 84, 244. Development, 114. 129. 138, i56, 242 243. 316, 370, Devil, 126. 285; see Satan. Devotional literature, 229, Dhammapada, 13, Diderot, 258. Diet of Worms, 175. Dionysius 254, Disc pies. 196. Divorces, 341. Docetism, 152. Doddridge. 230. Dominicans, 167. 173. 215. Doubt: see Skepticism. Durer, 237, 362 Christianity and Its Bible E,84. Easten church 156, 161, 163, 204, 313, 314. 3^ Eastern Empiu, 143. Ebionism, 153. Ec. lesiastes, 83, 83, gj, 113. Ecclesiasticus, iS. Eckhart, 354. Ecumenical, <3. Eddas, 14. Eddy. Mrs. igg. Eden. Garden, 137. Edict of Toleration, 151. 180. Edict of Nantes, 175. Edomites, 63, 67, 73. Education, 188. 343. Edward VI, 183. Edwards, Jonathan, 194, 32Q, 347, J24. Egypt, 51, 56, 63-6S. 00- Egyptology, 13. Eichhom, 3 • 4. Election, 133, 181. Electricity, 286. Elegy, 03. Elijah, 81, 311. Eliot, John, 317. Elisha, 81. Elizabeth, Queen, 183. Emperors, 77, 143. Empiricists, no. Encylcopaedists, 258. E.igland. 159 311, see Ch. of England Enlightenment, 338, 359. Enoch, Book of, 88. Environment, 339. Ephesians, 85. Epictetus, III. Epicureanism, in, 113. Episcopacy, 178, 183, 184. 185. 189. I go. Epistles, 97. Erasmus, 172, 176. Esarhaddon, 50. Eschatology, 120, 125. Essenes, 78. Eternal generation, 133, 306. Eternal life, 374, 318, 327, 338. Eternal punishment, 256, 334. Eusebius, 145. " Evidences," Paley, 259. Evolution, ?'•}, 243, 249. Experience, 260, ^75, 281, 30;, 313. Experientialists, no. Ezekiel, 70, 81, 84, 302. Ezra, 71, 'S. Fab?r, 230. Facts and truths, 38, gs, 314. Faith. 9, 168, 218, 319, 222, 276, '98, 326. Fatherhood of God, 137, 140, 300, 301-13, 325, 354, 360. Fathers, 141, 145, 146, 229, Faunce, Pres. W. H. P., 296, 300. Felix, 76. Fenelon, 329. Festus, 76. Feudalism, 163. 164, 166. Fiction, 231, 232. Figure of speech 9. 10, 21, 23, 131, 370, 387, 288, 303-11. Filioque, 136, 161. Finney, Charles G. D., 195. Flood, 59, los, 106, 244, 345. Foreordination, 155, 186, 356, 350. Fox George, 33, 183. France, 159, 179, 180, 238. Francis of Assissi, 167, 213. Franciscans, 107. 213, 215. Friendship, 358, 359 F'roebel, 339. Fuller, Andrew 319. Galatians, 85. Galileo. 341. Gallicanism, 303. Gautama: see Buddha. Gehenna, 333. Gemaras, 14. Geography of Bible times, 31-54. Geology, 106. 343. Gerhardt, 330. Germany, 139, 177, 311. Girgashite. 56. Gnosticism, 153, 242. m%^^m Index 363 God, s. /. itj, 114, ^43, 248, 287, 301,367. Goethe. 48, 231, 323. Gospels, 07, 122, 138, 147. Gothic, 236. Gottingen school, 262. Government, 166. Grace, g. 181. Graft, 340. Gravitation. 242. Greek. 72, 103. Gregory the Great, 146, 157. 211, 240. Guyon. Madam, 255 Haead, 62. Haues, 106. 117, 120. ^? Hammurabi. 32, 58. Handel, 19, 240. Happiness, 361. 362. Harnack, 137, 261, 299. Haydn, 240. Heaven, 21, 230, 271, 317, 320, 321. Hebrews, 16, 62, O7-70. Hebrews, Epistle to, 85, 86. Hegel, 246, 248, 262. Hegira, 144. HeU. 289, 317, 320, 322, 325, 366. Hellenistic, 72. Henry VIII, 182. Hereafter, 121, 314-28. Heredity, 116, 339. Heresies, 152-js, 161, 259, 326, 366. Hermann, 262. Hemhuterism, 218, He-od the Great, 74. Herodian family. 76. 150. Heteroousians, 153. Hexateuch, 82, 84, 244. Hezekiah, 315, 316. Hildebrand, 160, 162. Hinduism, 226. History, 55-6$, 94-96, 141, 278. Hittites, 56. Hivites, s6. Hodges, 194. Hoffmann. 251. Hogarth, 237. Holland. 181. Holy Spirit, 48-50. 153, 156. 161, 186, 3>2. 313, 354. 373. Homer. 49, 117, 231. Ilomoiousians, 153. Homoousians, 153. Hope. 324. 326, 338, 360. Hosea. 81. 302. Hoshea, 68, 69. Host. 169. Hubmeier, 251. Huguenots, 179. Humanists, 93, 173. Hunt, Holman, 237. Huss, John. 173. Huxley. T, H., 242, 369. Hymns, 230. Hypatia, 149. Icons. Iconoclasts, 238, 368. Idealism, 109, no, 247, 248. Idumea, Idumean: see Edom. Images. 238. Imitation of Christ, 229, 254, 33a, 358. Immaculate conception , 203 , 204. Immanence, 306, 354. Immersion, 196, 197. Immortality, 122, 199. 248, 317, 318. Incarnation, 134. Independents, 183, 185, 192. India, 209, 215. 318, 220, 236. Indi is 215. 217. Indifitrence, pyi. Individuals. Individualism. 116, 118, 119, 399. 359. Induction, 28, 29, no, 242, 244, 246. Indulgences. 171. 174, 336. Inerrancy. 26, 29, 31, 37, 365, Infallibility, 50, 95. 203. 204, 370. Infidelity, 374. Inquisition, 173. Inscriptions, 43. Inspiration, 27, 39, 30-36, 362, 369. 370. 374- Institutes, Ca! .in's. 178. Interpretation, 20-37, Qi, 94. 9S, >49. 197. 3". Intentionalism, s^ji. 364 Christianity and Its Bible Invfstiture. 160. Ireland, no. Irenics, Irenicon, 311, jfig. Isaiah. 81, jo3. Isuiah, B(Kik of. 83. Israel, 68, 6g, 80, 81. m?. Italy, ijg. J. 84. Jacobs. U, F.. J06. Janscnists. 303. aoj. Japan. 314. 215. 335, 383. JE, 84. Jebusites. 56. Jehovah. 63. 114. 116. joi. Jeremiah, 81 Jerome, 146. Jerome of Prague, 173. Jerusalem. 68. 70. 73, 74, 165, 166. Jesuits, 300, 303, 3:6. Jesus: and reliuion, n; when born, 7s; Old Testament, 84, 87. 139, 140; oriental, 131; second coming, see Millennium; Messiah, i3g-4o; pre-existence, 134; thought of him- self. 134-38; compiired, 147; as seen by non-Christians; 148. 150; divinity, 113. 153, 154, igg, ags, 3y6, fish symbol. 334; in art. 33g; rationalism, asg. 260; lives of. 261, 263; Paul, 300; revealer,303; name, 283. death. 283-300; hereafter, 317, 318; life here, 282, 332, 344, 358, 363. 367. 374. Jews, 16, 7i-7g. 148. Job, Book of, g2, g3. John Baptist, 130, 150. John of Damascus, 146, John, Gospel of, 86, 122. Josephus, 14, 88, Joshua, Book of, 82, 244. Josiah, 6s, 70. Joy, IQ, 362, Jubilees, Book of, 88. Judah, 68, 70, 71, Judea, 68, 74, Judges, 67. Judson, A,, 331. Julian the Apostate, 142, 149, Jupiter, 302. Justice, 330, 340, Kaftan, 262. Kant, 246, 248. Keble. 230. Kempis. Thomas a. 23g. 354. 358. Kindergarten. 33g. Kingdom of God, 133. 133, 363. Knighthood. 164. 333. Knox. John. 183, iSg. Koran. 14. 303. Korea, 225. L-Vir and capital. 340, ^apsi. 151. I^amentations. g2. Laws, 58, 70, 84, 96, 334. 338. Liberty, 166, Life, 3, 8, 383, 339-44, Literature: religious, 13-ig, go-8 107. 33g-33, 35s; mm biblical, of Judaism. 88, 8g, 130, 131, 133, 125, I3g, 131, 137, Litotes, 370, 371, Livingstone, D., 333. Lobstein, 262, Locke, John, 247, 258. Logos, log. III, 133, 134. 154. Lord's Supper, i6g, 176, 344. Lost, 274, 360. Love, 9, ig. 48. 27g. 282. 3g3-g6, 2g8. 2gg. 300, 317, 334, 330, 331. Loyola, 300, Lull, Raymond, 207, 313, 317. Luther, Martin, 174-76, 317, 230 340. Lutheran church, 176, 177, Maccabees. 73. Miccabees, Book of, 88, Mackay, 323. Maclaren, 329. Man, 4, 6, 7, 10, 113 397, 343, Manicbaeism, 153. Manning, 18,'. Manuscripts, 44. Marcionism, 153, 301. Mark, Gospel of, 86. Mariolatry, 203, 218. Marriage, 160, 170. 183, 197, 337, 34«- L.Jex 365 Martel. 144, i;g, Martineau, 356. Martyn. jjo. Martyrs, 150, jj4. Mary. Queen, iSj, 326. Mary Queen o{ Scots, i8y. Mary, Virgin, 148, aoj, jjo. Mass. i6g, 171. Materialism, J49. 258, 362. Medici, 173. Meditation, 275, 345 62, 375. 376. Melanchton, 176. Mendelssohn, 240. Menes, 63. Mental reservation, 201. Menu, laws of. 13. Messiah. 125, 129-40. Metaphor, 305. Methodism. 186. Methodius and Cyril, 212. Micah, 81. Middlemen, 364-76. Midianites, 56. Midrashim, 14. Mill, J, S., 240. Millennium. U3-25. ig8. Miller, ig8. Milton. 18s, 231, 232. 323. Mii'aclcs, 147, 148, 366. Mishna, 14. Misinterpretation, 20-24, »5. I30. Missions, 200. 208-28, 278. 358, 360. Moab, 63, 67. Moabite stone, 32. Moffat. 222. Mohammedanism. 14, 144, 162, 165, aog. 2:3, 226, 227, 354- Molech, 62, 322. Molinos, 355. Monasticism, 167. 200, 313, 346. Monism. 115. Monolatr> .115. Monophysite, 154, 354. Monotheism, 115, Monothelite, 154. Montanism, 152. Moody. 10^ 240. Moravians, 318. 360. More, Thomas, 172. 335. Mormons, 107. •Morrison. 220. Mortal sin. 171, Moses, 30, 33. 4J. .?8. s«. 67. 83, 242 ioz, 362. Motherh()od of God. 306. Mozart, 240. Miinster, 251. Miinzer, 351. Murillo, 237. Murray, John. 256 Music. 104, 340, 300, Mysticism. 48, 49. 149, i-'s, 252-55, 354- Nabonidus, 60. Napoleon, 180, 279. Naram-sin, 58. 60. Naturalism, 249. Neale. Dr., 330. Nebuchadrezzar, 60. 65. 70. Nehemiah, 71, 78. Neoplatonism, 149. 354. Nero 77. I JO. Nestorians, 154, 309, 313. Netiierlar.ds, 181. Newman, John Henry, 187. New Theology, 194. 195, 343. Newton, Isaac, 343. Newton, John. 330. Nineveh. 57. Nonconformists, 183. North America, 193 ff. Numbers, symbolism, 98. Odoacer, 143. Old Catholic, 303. Omnipotence, 336, 354. Omnipresence. 354. Omniscience, 354. Opera. 240. Opinion, public, 334. 338, 344. Opportunity, 223. Oratorio, 340. Ordination, 169. Origen, 145, 140, ijj, 339, 335. 366 Christianity and Its Bible Origin oj Spteits, 241, Uriifinal sin, j4i. Ormund, la;. Orlhoduxy, ni, 255 P. 84. FaintinR, go. loj, 13a. jj7, jja I'alty, asy. Palestine, 5a-54, 61, 64, 68, 71. 7a, 74, 76, 77, 14a, 144. Pulrstrina, 340. Pantheism, 115, a46, 354, 354 Papacy, 157, 160, 161, i6a, aoa. ao3. Paper, 44. Parables, 40, Parallelism, 91, 118, 136 Parchment. 44. Passive resistance, 188. Pastoral Epistles, 85. Palon. John G., aa3, a8i Patrick, St., aio. Patristics. 145, 15a. Paul, 3i. 34, 84, 85, 86, I4g, 150, IS7. 175. an, a6i, 371, 275. 300. 315, 31O, 317- Peace of Westphalia, 177. Pelagianism, 155. Penance, 170. Pentateuch, 8a, 83, 244. Pessimism, a4g. Pericles, 103. Perizzite, 56. Persecutions, iso, 151. i8j, 2ii, jyo. Perseverance, final, 181. Persians, 61, 71, aao. Personality, 31a. Peter, 140, 150, 157. Pharisees, 78, 79, 87, 8g, laS, 3aa. Phidias, 103. Philemon, 85. Philippiauj, Epistle, 85. Philistine, 56. Philo, 14, 88, log. Philosophy, 93, 107-13, a46-4g. 375, 333. 367. 376. Phoenicians, 6a, gg, 100. Photius, 161. Pietism, ai;i;. Pil.it c. 76, ISO. PikrimaKe, 16'. Pil»;rim Fathers iga. Plulo. Platonism, 107, log lis. Pliny. 151, '.7. Plymouth Brethren. ig8. Poe'.ry. 48. go-03, 330, 331. Politics, 307, 34a Polygamy, 197. Polytheism, 115, 348. Porphyry, 149. Positivism, 349. Pustmillenuialists. 133. Praise. 9, 357. Prayer, 9, an, 333, 347, 357. Prayerbook. 183. Predestination; see Foreordiii.ition . Pre-existence, of Jesus, 134. rre-millennialists, 133. Presbyter, Presbyterians, 157, 178, 184, 185. 189. 191, 194. Pride, holy, 10, 373. Priests, 169. 388. Principles, 139, 399. 314, 33a. PrintinK, 166. Probabilism, aoi. Probation. 135 PriscUlianism, ija. Proctirator, 74, 76. Propaganda, ai6. Prophets, 81, 94, 130, 147, lyS, a38 Propitiation, 387. Proselytes, 73, 366. Protestantism, creeds. 305. Protestantism, missions, 316-28. Proverbs, 83, 93, g3. Psalms, 83, gj. Fseudepigraphic, 88. Psychology, 137, 343. Ptolemies. 65, 7a, 341. Puranas, 13. Purgatory, las, 171, 318. Puritans, 183, iga, 238. Purity, 186, 3ag. Pusey. 187. Pyramids, 13. 64, 99. Pythagoras. 108. 100. 147. Index 367 Quaken. 18 j. Quietitm, 135. RaflacI, aj7. Raikci, Robert. 106. Rationaliim, .,1, 159, j6o. Rauch ^37. Realism. 249. Rraliits, no. ReaioD. 49, 148. ReflectioD. 347. Reformation, 1740., joo, 230. Reformed Churches. 176. 178-82, 189-91. Regeneration, 9, 170, 303, 306, 308 309. Rehoboam, 68. Religion, 2, 3, 11. 12, 17, 245, 262, 34»- Renaissance, 172, 236. Renan, 261. Repentance, 130, 276. Resurrertion, 95, 118-20, 128, 148, a68, -^4, 318 Retreat, 3<2. Retribution, 122, 314. Revelation, 302. 3(^5, 369. Revelation, Book of, 21, 98, 124. Reverie, 346, 358. Revival. 360. Revolutions, 180, 185, 194. Richelieu, 177, 179. Rjgdon, Sidney, 196, 197. Righteousness, 276, 288, 330. Rites, 288. 330. Ritsrhlianism, 262. Ritualism, 183, 187. Roman Empire, 77, 142, 137, :6o, 265, 268, 269. Romanesque, 236. Romans, Epistle, 85, 97, 264, 268. Rush, Benjamin, 207. Russia, 212, 214. Sabbath school, 206, 368. Sacraments, 169, 182. Sacrifices, 288. Sadducees, 78, 79, 87, 89, 128. Sai-.-aiion, 140, 155, dj$—j-i. Salvation Army, 186 Samaria, 68, 69. Samuel. 117. 302. Sanday, 29. Sanhedrin. 79. Sankey. 240. Surdaoapalus, 59. Sorgon, Assyrl^in, 59, 69. Sargon. Babylonia, 38. so- Satan, 96, 117, 126-28, 323. Saul, 67. Savonarola. 173. Scandinavia, 177, 212. Schism, 161. Schlciermacher, 260. Scholarship, 43-46. 49, 50. Schoohnen, 168, 202, 234. Schopenhauer, 246, 249 Schultz, 262. Schwartz. T. C, 218. Science, 103-8, 199, 241-45, 369 Scotland. 182. 189-91, an. Scott, 231, 232. Scotus, Scotists, f68. Scribes, 79. Sculpture, 99, 103, 237, 238. Seleuddae, 72. Selfishness 333, 344. 338. Self sacrifice, 294. H 33i. 34i- Semites, 33. Seneca, in, 264. Sennacherib. 59, 70. Sepluagint, 72, 88. Serfs. 164. Serpent, 127. Servants, 339. Servetus, 236. Shakespeare, 23, 231, 232, 184, 290 333 Shalmaneser, 39. Shamash. 38. Sheol, 106, 117, n8, 120, 322. Shintoism, 14. Simile, 303. Simon of France, 244. SirapUcity, 343. sin, 4, 5, 171, 293, 342. 368 Christianity and Its Bible ^^ Sinai. %i. 44. Siva. I.J. Skrpliilxm, iij, 168, i(>o, .no, J74. Slavery, ioj. 217. Smakalil. 177. Smith. H. U . iy4. Smith. Juwph, nn. SHial evil. J41. Soclnus. 2.fh. SKiology, ihj. 104. i(VJ. jj. Sotralrs. 107. loy. Sulumon. 67, 81, 8}. Solomon, rsalm.t of, 88, Silidarity, 116. Son of iJavi.l. 1,55, Son (if God, IJ7. Son of man, i(6, 137. Song of Sonus, 8j, yi. Sophia, Churth of St,, ibj. 3)5, Sotcriology, 155. Soul, 4. Spencer, Herbeit, 340. J4y. Spener. 255. Spinoza, 146. Spiritual iniuKht, 47-50, yS, 366. Spurgeon, 334. Sruti, 13. St, Marks, 33;. St. I'elers, 236. Stanley, H. M,, 112, 333, State and church, 177, 180, 181, lyo, Statistics, missiunary, 338. Stoicism, 11:, 112, Strauss, 261, Strong, A, H., 28. Strophes. 91. Study. 38-50. 347. 351. Suetonius, 150, 2G7. Sutism. 254. Supererogation, 171. Supper. Lord's, lOy, i j'j. 51 j. Supremacy, Acts of, i8,i. Suso, 354. Suzerain. 163. Swedenborg, 253. Switzerland, 178. Symlxilism, u8, 234. SynagcHjue, 79. 87, 103. Synoptintii, 8<), Syrians, 62, 73. 74. 'I'abemacle. 67, 1/,, lot. Tuiitus. 367. Talmud, 14. Taoism, 13. Targum. 14, Tartarus, 322. Tauter, 33g. Taylor, 22g, Temperance, 23, 207, 237, 337, 338. Temple, 67, 71, 74, 70, 100-102. 165, if)6. Tennyson, 7, 231. 290, 319, 3,-6, m). Ten tribes, lost, fag. Terms, 20, 303, 310, 311. Tcrtullian, 145, Tetzel, 174. Thales, 108, Thebes, 64. 6?, Theism, 354, Thetxiosius. 142. Theology, 3, 86, 107, 114, 168, 175, 178, 194. ig.S. 241-45, 260, 263, 375- 295. 367. 376, Theories, »83-6, 320, 350. Theosophy, 2,53-4, Thissalonians. I and 11, 85. Thirty-nine Articles, 182. Thomists, 168, Thorwaldsen, 237. Tiberius, 77, 150, Tiglath-pileser, 59, TijchcnJorf, 44, Tis.«ot, 237. Titian, 237. Tolerance, 262, Tractariaa. 187, Trajan. 142, 151. Transcendence, 116, 354. Traiiiulisianlialion, 1G9, 173, 176. Travel, 166. Trinity, 153, 195, 2:0, 256, 260, 303, 313. 3'3. Tripitalca, 13. Index .569 Trumbull. H, C. loft. Truth. .j8, )Sj, ,14, ,44, J,,, 36, .166. 374- TUtiingen (ch'tnl. >6i. Ufand«, jjj. I'Ifilai. 110. L'llrimontanism. 101. joj. I'm lion, cxtrrme, 170. rniformily, 177, iMj. L'nion. Christian, 11, lyi, (41. I'nilarianism. 256. I'nitnl Free Church, igi. I'nivcrsalism. a 5ft. I'poni.shads, ij, I'topia. I7J, JJ5. Value-j'udgment.'t, j6j. Vatican, 17a. Vedas. 13. Villains. 164. Vinci. Lrunardi da. jj7. Vincent, J. H., jo6. Virgin hirth, g5 1J4, jfta Vishnu, 13. Vladimir, in. Voltairf. 358. Vulgatr. 77. Wagner, 140. Waldenses, 173. \Vf.rs: CiWI. igj; French Revolu- in. 180; Independence, iga; nalcald, 177. Thirty Years, 177, Washington, agg 308. Watts, a 30. "Wee Pre^s." igi. Wendt, If):. Wrrlh-Vrlhrilf jftj Wesley, Charles. iHft, jjo. Wesley, John, iHft, jo6. jo7, t»). Westminster Confessinn, 184. Whitefield. iHfj. jig, Whiiiier, j^a. 371. VViclif, 173. Will, M4, 17A, 148. Willard, Frames V... ao7. William of Orange. 181. iS^. Williams John, jji. Williams. Koger Wisdom liter ii na. WolfenbU" ' ..is. isg. Wolff, J Woman s ,» ranee, etc.. ao?. Word : tt )Kos Word of (lixj. ao, 30. 371. Wordsworth. 331. 308. Worship. Q, Xavier, Francis, an. Y. M. C. A., 186. Young. Rrigham, ig7. Zend .\vesta, •■\. Zerrubbabel. 71. Zeus, 301. Zinzendorf, a 18. Zoroastrianism, 13. Zwingli, 176, 178.