IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) HI 1.0 I^Kfi ta III 1.1 r-^ KS 111== ly^ |||l.25 1^ ij^ -.- 6" > ^ 7: .»* V (? / Photographic Sciences Corporalion ^ o^ 23 WEST MAIN STRUT WIBSTER.N.Y. USU (716)873-4503 CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical IMicroreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques c\ Tachnical and Bibliographic NotM/NotM tachniquw at bibliographiqucs Th« Instituta haa attamptad to obtain tho baat original copy availabia for filming. Faaturaa of thia copy which may ba bibliographically uniqua, which may altar any of tha imagaa in tho raproduction. or which may aignificantly changa tha uaual mathod of filming, ara chaekad balow. □ Colourad covara/ Couvartura da coulour D D n D D D D Covara damagad/ Couvartura andommagAo Covara raatorad and/or laminatad/ Couvartura raataurAa at/ou pallicuMa Covar titia miaaing/ La titra da couvartura manqua Fy] Colourad mapa/ Cartaa gAographiquaa mn coulaur Colourad ink (i.a. othar ttian Mua or black)/ Encra da coulaur (i.a. autra qua blaua ou noira) Colourad plataa and/or illuatrationa/ Planchaa at/ou illuatrationa an coulaur Bound with othar matarial/ RaiiA avac d'autraa documanta FTI Tight binding may cauaa ahadowa or diatortion along intarior margin/ Laraliura aarria paut cauaar da I'ombra ou da la diatoraion !• k»ng do la marga inliriaura Blank laavaa added during raatoration may appaar within tha taxt. Whanavar poaaibla. thaaa hava baan omittad from filming/ II aa paut qua cartainaa pagaa blanchaa ajoutAaa lora d'una raatauration apparaiaaant dana la toxta. maia, loraqua cala Atait poaaibla. caa pagaa n'ont paa «t4 film^aa. L'Inatitut a microfilm* la maillaur axamplaira qu'ii lui a itA poaaibla da aa procurar. Laa dAtaila do cat axamplaira qui aont paut-Atra uniquaa du point da vua bibliographiqua. qui pauvant nriodif iar una imaga raproduita, ou qui pauvant axigar %»n9 modification dana la mithodo normala da f ilmaga aont indiqu4a ci>daaaoua. 1 D D D D D D Colourad pagoa/ P agaa do coulaur Pagaa damagad/ Pagaa andommag^aa Pagaa raatorad and/or laminatad/ Pagaa raataur^aa at/ou palliculAaa Pagaa diacolourad. ttainad or foxad/ Pagaa dAcolorAaa. tachat^aa ou piquiaa 1 P f t a a □ Pagaa datachad/ Pagaa d«tach4aa r^ Showthrough/ Tranaparanca Quality of print variaa/ Qualit* inigala da I'impraaaion Includaa aupplamantary matarial/ Comprand du material aupplAmantaira Only adition availabia/ Sauia Adition diaponibia Pagaa wholly or partially obacurad by arrata alipa. tiaauaa, ate. hava baan rafilmad to anaura tha baat poaaibla imaga/ Laa iMgaa totalamant ou partiallamont obacurcloa par un fauillat d'arrata. una palura. ate., ont 4ti filmAaa * nouvaau da fapon A obtanir la maillaura imaga poaaibla. 1 a 1 V b ri n n Additional commanta:/ Commantairaa tupplAmantairaa; Wrinfclad pagat may film tlithtly out of focus. Thia itam is fiimad at tha raduction ratio checked balow/ Ca document aat film* au taux da reduction indiquA ci-daaaoua. 10X 14X 18X 22X VK 30X y 12X ItX 2DX a4x 28X 32X TIm eo|iy fUmiMl hart hat bMii raproduead thanks to tha ganaroaity of: Univtraity of ManitolM WinnifMa Tha imaflaa appaaring haia ara tha baat quality poaslbla conaidarinfl tha condition and lagUblllty of tha original copy and In kaaping wMi tha filming contract spaclflcationa. L'axamplaira fllm4 fut raproduit griea i la gtaAroaM da: Univanity of ManHoba Winnipag Las Imagaa suhMntaa ont 4tA roprodultaa awae la plua grand sdn, compta tanu da la eo da la nattat* da l'axamplaira fllm4. at eonformiti avac laa co n dMona du oomrat da fNmaga. Original copiaa In printad papar covara ara fllmad baglnning with tha front cover and anding on tha last paga with a printad or llluatratad impraa- slon, or tha back cover whan appropriate. All othar original copiaa ara fllmad baglnning on tha firat paga with a printad or illustratad impraa- slon, and anding on tha laat paga with a printad or illustratad impraaston. Tha last racordad frama on aach microflcha shall contain tha symbol -^ (moaning "CON- TINUED"). or tha symbol ▼ (moaning "END"), whichavar appilas. Lss axampkiiraa orlglnaux dont la eouvartura an papiar aat Imprimfe aont fllm4a an c o mmaw ya wt par la pramiar plat at an tarmlnant aoit par la damMra paga qui comporta una am p ialt n a dlmpraaskm ou dlNustradon. aoit par la aacond ptot, aakm la caa. Toua laa autraa aMmpWraa origlnaux sent filmte m* commandant par la pramMra paga qui comporta una am p talma dimpraaaion ou dllluatratlon at an tarmlnant par tai damlAra paga q^ji oomporta una taia ampralnta. Un daa symbolaa auivanta apparaltra aur la damMra imaga da chaqua mi cr oflcha, salon la cas: la symbolo -^ signifia "A 8UIVRE'*. la symbolo ▼ signifia "RN". Maps, platas, charts, ate., may be filmed et different reduction ratlM. Thoee too lerge to be entirely included In one axpoeura era filmed beginning in tlie upper left hend comer, hift to right end top to bottom, aa many frames es required. The following diagrame illustrate the method: Les cartes, planchae. tableeux. etc., peuvant ttra fNmto A dee taux do rMuction dlff iie nla . Lorsquo le document eet trap grand pour Atra raproduit an un eeul cNchA, II eat flmA A partir da i'angia supArieur gauche, do gauche A drolto. et do haut en baa, en prenent le nombra d'imagaa nAcassalra. Laa diagrammes auivanta iilustrant la mAthode. 32X 12 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 ( I \ t li I « « ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCfETY. Supplementary Papers: FUBLI8HBD TODBB XHB AUTHOBITZ Of THE OOUKCQi, AMD XDIXIU) BT IBB AmSTAMT BBCBBIABZ, 1, SAYIUB BOW. I. \ I i Volume I. lyiW^f^t-^ ^ ,„,rvA.^^' v;rM>N^> .-^ LONDON: JOHN MUBBAT, ALBEMABLE STBEET. 1886. tones : PRntTEO n wnuAif onnrss LmiTEO, CONTENTS. PART I. Tbavbls and Besearches in Western China. {With thne Maps) .... fAac By E. CfOLBOBNE Babkb. PART II. I. Notes on the Recent Geoobapht op Centbal Asia; from Russian Sources. By E. Delhar Morgan. (With a Map) . . . 203 II. PRoobess op Discovery on the Coasts op New Guinea. By C. R. Mabkhah 268 BiBLiooBAPHY OF New Ouinea. By E. C. Rte .... 287 : • PART III. ,^' . I. Reports on Parts of the Ghilzi Country, and on some op the Tribes in the Neighbourhood op Ghazni; and ox the Route PROK Ghazni to Dera Ismail Khan by the Ghwalari Pass. By Lieut. J. S. Broadfoot ; edited by Major W. B roadfoot, R.E. {With a Map) 341 II. Journey from Shiraz to Jashk, via Darab, Forg, and Minab. By J. R. Prkece. (With a Map) 403 PART IV. I. Gboobaphical Education. Report to the Council of the Royal Qeogbaphical Society. By J. S. Keltie 439 n. The Cadastral Survey op India. By Lieut-Col. Barron . . 595 I ni. Spirit Levelling Operations op the Great Trigondhetbical Sur- vey op India. By Major A. W. Baird, R.E 619 IV. Some Remarks on Clinometrical, or Approximate Heights. By Major J. Hill, R.E. (With Diagrams) 633 V. Index to Vol. 1 642 TRAVELS AND BESEARCHKS INTEBIOE OF CHINA. By E. COLBOBME BASER, CRIHIU MCinABT Ot LMATIOtl, rKKIITO, ■:W t f ■• vi»- 'W-f CONTENTS. m I. A JOURNEY OP EXPLOBATION IN WESTERN SSU-OH'UAN. 1. On thb Road to ths Oafital. liCavcs Ch'ung-oh'ing ; best modes of conveyance, pago 1. — Hiring of coolies, 2.— Boad tlirough We8Uniuni Duildha (notoi); oontlnuocrh-pa ; wire auspunsion bridge across Buug-liu affluent ; drunk Bifana ; punishment of Bifan womau, 47. — Singular formation of Mo-ai-mlen valley or plateau ; magniflceut virgin forest ; eurioua appearance of a mound, 48. — The mound an extinct glacier; "fairies' scarf" on pine trees; rhododondrona and fran- colins, 40. — Violent winds in Ya-chia-kang Pass ; effeots of rarefaction on top of mountain : perpetual fog on mountains ; perpetual snow, SO. — The boundary between China and Tibet ; legend of volcanic craters ; nature of ground on the banks of tlie T'ung river; gold and sulphur round Tn-ohien-Iu; Chin-ch'uan or " gold stream," 51. — Floods at Chia-ting ; " great ferry," 52. — Devoatation caused by awoUen brook ut Ta-ahu-p'u ; history of Shlh Ta-k'ai, 53.— L«ng-pien (note) ; An-ch'ing-pa (note), 54.— Fight at the village of Tztt-ta-tl; "Saddle Hill" (note), 55.— Slaughter of local guides; fight at base of Saddle Hill; death of Sliili Tu-k'ai, wives, and children, 5C. — The plans of Shih Ta-k'ai ; Lai's division enters Cliien-oh'aug, subsequent defeat, 87. .^ 4. The CiUEx-Cii'Aso Valley. Prefecture of Ning-yuan; Ser Mnrco'g Caln-du; water-mlli for grinding com (note); foiling rocks, page 58. — Inaccessible liilla; village of P'ing-pa; kinds of tobacco ; the ' liolos ; only view of Lolo-Iand, 59. — Town of Ning-yuoli or Hai-t'ang ; situation of Hai-t'ang; soldiers in imlform; border Loloa, 60. — Peculiar head-dress of tlio Lolos (note) ; clotliing of a Loin, 61. — Young Lolo women ; Cliinese tcriVe ; curious custom of sending letters to dead people, 62. — Escort of soldiers; small village- camps; men of Sifiin tribe; Sifau women, 63. — DKHcuU track; town of Yueh-hsi Ting ; stouy riee-ilelds ; strange atone deposit ; Yueli-hsl river, 64. — Government and size of Yueli-hsi Ting ; Sifan maidens ; custom of presenting a cup of native wine ; Bpeecli made by Lolo on drinking wine, 65.— Lolo way of telling the seasons and moons; origin of the Lolos, 66. — Tlie name of Lolo; country occupied by inde- pendent Lolos ; " Blrtck-bono " ; " White-boue " ; Wn-tztt or Chinese captives ; Lolo treatment of Chinese slaves, 67. — Slarriage ceremony between Black-bones ; chorus by bridesmaids at the ceremony, 68.— Custom of beating, tlie bridegroom and liis friends (note) ; grotesque bridal ceremony among some tribes : ceremonies on tlie births of boys and girls ; a female guide the best, 69. — Autonomous tribes not on good CONTENTS. T tpriiii; DiiiIdliiMii among the LoIm ; ceromonlM to praTontdiMtten; notea gathered from P'ing-rtlmn captivca, 70. — Daitiea worabippml by Loloa ; a few mannera and oiixtotna of the Loloa; tite lubdiviaiona of I>-aa and Ngo-ra, 71.— jTho terra L^au; Dr. Anderion'it deacriplion of hia '* Loe-Mkwa " ; table of ■iniilarity of the Innguago of tlio Loin* and Loo-anwa ; aiJeoch of tho Iiidepenilent Loloa, 72. — Vocabulary of Bifun and liolo lanKuagua, 7:^78.— Snowy peak nnrth-wo»t of Yuoh-liHi (note) ; ralloy of Yuili-Iiti ; H»ia cr ^\ ii, Lc^m in the rock, for many of the beggars, who abound near this point, are armed with iron-pointed sticks, with which they prod out an infinitesimal particle of rock while entreating the alms of passers. Threo days' journey of 17 or 18 miles each, carried us to Yung- ch'uan, the first city on the highroad to tlie capital, through a very broken country, crossed at intervals of about seven miles by rar ^^s of 1000 feet or less elevation above the general level, which run approxi- mately N.N.E. As seen from the road, the land is rather sparsely wooded with bamboo, cypress, oak (Ch'ing-kang), and with the wide- branching banyan, the only use of which seems to be to a£ford its invaluable shade to wayfarers. Cultivation is everywhere dense; indeed, .with the exception of graves and the immediate neighbourhood of houses, and Government works such as the ancient walls which here and there close the approach to a pass over the hills, and the few slopes which are too steep for agriculture, every spot of gi-ound is tilled, and most of it terraced. Not much store is set by the wheat crop, the Ssiich'uanese being, at any rate in the southern districts, a rice-eating people. The rains are very irregular. The present year, however (1879), has returned a good rice crop, reputed to be nine-tenths of the best possible harvest ; «nd my register shows that rain fell on ten days in April, eleven in May, thirteen in June, and seven in July. Success seems to depend «hiefly upon a plentiful rainfall in June and fine weather in July, but in the early part of the latter month a moderate fall is desirable. Maizo «nd millet have this year shown a deficiency of 50 per cent, below the assumed maximum, owing to the July dryness, but a failure of these crops, which are devoted principally to the distillation of spirits, is not « serious disaster. On the Tibetan border, but still on the great plateau, i. e. in the region of which Batang may be considered the centre, the rainy season is almost perfectly regular, extending from the beginning of June to the middle of August, the rest of the year being fine ; and from what I can gather, this weather system impinges variably upon 4 A JOURNEr OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSl7-CH'(JAN'. Western Saii-oh'uan, making July, which independently should be, perhaps, our dryest month in Ch'ung-oh'ing, a very untrustworthy season. Thus, in July 1878 rain fell on fifteen days. Famines of wide extent are not frequent in the province, but it is easy to gather from the gossip of country folk that local scarcity is neither unknown nor unexpected. It might be supposed that the numerous rivers which permeate the country between Gh'ung-oh'ing and the capital would be available for pu. poses of irrigation ; but they pass through it without effectually watering it. There are few rivulets, and the surface is so irregularly worn down that there are almost no flat valleys ; even level bottom lands of small extent are rarely met with. The fields, therefore, lie too high above the water- courses to be irrigated from them by means of the usual machines. The soil, again, is by no means rich, and is generally very shallow. Nevertheless, the industrious and timely oaro of a numeroiis popula- tion has made the district the greenest of all Oliinese hill-grounds. Without much claim to the grandeur of abruptness, although some of the ranges rise to 1500 feet above the hollows, the scenery possesses a tranquil charm too varied to be monotonous. The face of the country is %11 broken up into little nooks, amphitheatres, and dells, so that the road is always turning comers and winding into new prospects, and when it ascends a ridge it sometimes almost loses itself among shrub- beries and plantations, which cut off^ the view of cultivation, and give a sudden impression of seclusion. Besides the usual farm produce, and a good deal of opium, tho district possesses mines of iron and coal. It is very possible that the latter may, before long, when steamers ply on tho Upper Yang-tzii, develop into an important source of trade. Even at present it i» worked on a considerable scale in a range four or five miles west of a village named Ma-fang Bridge, which seems to be the centre of the coal trade, and to which the output is carried, among other ' modes of transport, on the backs of cattle shod with straw sandals. I was told that the principal mines are eight or ten in number, and that one of them keeps a hundred men at work day and night to draw the coal from the workings to the pit's mouth. Each man is said to bring away about a hundredweight ten times in tho twenty-four hours, which would give 50 tons per diem for one pit, no small production for a. Chinese mine. At Ma-fang Bridge the coal sells for 100 cash per cwt.,. but at the pits the same qiiantity may be had for 70 cash, or say five shillings a ton. A small river runs through the village, and will one day, it is to be hoped, float the coal down to the Yang-tzii. The range where the seam occurs is locally celebrated for its general productive- ness ; the natives are fond of impressing upon visitors the information that " coal grows inside it, and opium outside." Another local lion is the bridge which gives its name to the village of Ma-fang. A really pleasing tradition is attached to this unpretendbg ' A JOURNET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. m, tho at the g-tzu, it i» west ceutr© other als. I ad that •aw tho bring^ which for a it oyrt.y »y five ill one range ucti ve- rnation arch, and is woi*th recording, if for no other reason than its novelty Amid the odious bathos of stories about dragons and phoenixes which form the stock of Ohinose folk-lore. The legend relates that when the bridge was completed, and the opening day dawned, a wedding proces- sion escorting a newly-married bride happened to come down the road. It is a custom, or for the credit of the story is said to be a custom, that the person who first crosses a new bridge should be allowed the privilege of naming it; but in practice an official of all available distinction is induced to lend his presence for the occasion. On the day in question, however, the local magnate was not forthcoming, so the engineer, with phenomenal gallantry for a Chinaman, invited the bride to supply a name, which she did in an impromptu verse to this effect : — " Across a new-made bridge to-day, *":::;• ' i A new-made bride I tnke my way ; ■ . ~: v-' ■' ( The bridge shall bear the bridal sign And join my liusband's name with mine." The bride's name was " Fang," and the husband's " Ma," and the bridge is called Ma-fang Bridge to this day. The story obviously ought to be true, but, if it is not, tho reason is that young Chinese ladies have neither permission, courage, nor ability, to pronounce themselves in «uch fashion. We were to have lodged, the first night of our journey, in the large village of Pai-shih-yi, but at 10 r.sr. the thermometer showed 93°, and in the crowded precincts of the inn 95°. Sleep being utterly out of question, I started again at 11 p.m., and walked on through the night, having been told of a high ridge, six or seven miles ahead, on the crest of which I hoped to find four or five degrees of lower temperature ; but it was not until two o'clock in the morning that I neared its base, only to find it separated from me by a deep glen hidden in such trackless obscurity that it was impossible to find tho way across. The night, though moonlefis, was astonishingly brilliant ; Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn were all blazing simultaneously, and it was precisely this illumination which threw the hollow into so dense a shadow. T^e village of Tsou-ma-kang is built on the hither side of the glen, and I looked about for a spare corner of street to sleep on during the cool hour which precedes dawn ; but the villagers, driven out of their houses by the heat, were lying naked on the pavement, and what was still more repulsive, they had lighted fires in the roadway to keep off mosquitos. It is odd how populous a village looks when all its inhabitants, or at any rate the male division, are spread out lengthwise on the streets. There was no help for it but to retrace a good deal of road in search of a clear spot on which to take a nap; and a proof of the density of cultivation in this part, which is one of the few flats, comparatively speaking, of Ssii-ch'wan, is that I spent a good half-hour in finding a bare space large enough to lie on. The roadway was not available, 6 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. for imsaengen were trooping along it pretty continnonsly. Hiring ono of these to fan me, for my cavalcade had not come on, I slept until shortly after daybreak, and then crossed the glen, finding on the other side a cool hill-top crowned by an ancient fortification. Near the summit a fresh, clear stream, the only cold water in the coiintry at such a season, issues from a spring and winds down the sward. Future traTcUers who may journey westward from Ch'ung-ch'ing in the summer, will do well to make this point their first stage. Yung-ch'uan is a mere country town, possessing no manufacture except that of paper fans, for which it has gained a certain celebrity. A curious industry carried on in its vicinity is that of pickling frogs. The animals are captured by angling in the paddy-fields, and the hind legs are out off, dried, salted, and sprinkled with chili pepper. Frogs are eaten pretty generally all over China, but I never before heard of this process of pickling. As the river, which runs six miles or so beyond Yung-ch'uan, is neared, a belt of country of a more broken and irregular nature is entered. As above remarked the hill-systems of this part of the pro- vince run N.N.E. and S.S.W., but the general fall of level of the country is at right angles to this direction, and is followed by the rivers which pay their tribute to the Yangtzii. Such a condition compels the rivers to pierce or turn innumerable obstacles, and gives them very devious courses, which add greatly to the picturesqueness of the district. On the southern side of the Yangtzu much the same character prevails, with the exception that the general slope occurs in a converse sense, and is more severe, the level rising somewhat rapidly towards the border of Euei-chon, and the mountains being much higher and strangely abrupt. And whereas the rivers on the left bank of the Yangtzu have overcome all obstacles with fair success, some of the streams on the other side have broken down altogether, and failed to make a passage. When a deadlock of this nature occurs the stream undermines the sandstone and disappears into a chasm to reissue, no doubt, further on. It seems evident that the hollows where this pheno- menon occurs must have been lakes at no remote period ; indeed, in many places they still form intermittent lakes, the access of water during the spring and early summer months being too great to find free exit through the tunnels. It thus happens every few years that pro- ductive rice-bottoms are inundated and yield nothing. The population of such valleys, which in favourable years arc of course the most fertile, subscribe from time to time a good deal of money for schemes of drain- age, but with very little effective result. This seems a point where tho skill of European engineers might be introduced with certain and speedy advantage. A steam pump or two, or perhaps some adaptation of the siphon principle would easily drain off tho greater part of such shallow overflows. , ; A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATIOX IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. The river which the high road croBsos by the Shnang-shUi bridge a few miles beyond Yun^-ch'uan, has an exceptional northern course, and winds delightfully along through a succession of wide pools, separated by beds of rocks and overhung by wooded oli£b. The bridge, evidently a structure of gi-eat age, which has undergone frequent restoration, is of a very primitive construction. Stone slabs piled rudely one on another form the piers, which suppoi-t wooden beams laid across them. The foot-way is forty yards loAg, and is roofed throughout like all the wooden bridges of Ssii-ch'uan. It is surprising to meet with structures of this rudimentary nature in a province where stone is employed in huge masses with an apparent carelessness of expense, and which boasts the finest stone arches in China. In this instance tho bridge is very ancient, and it has been found more convenient to repair it than to replace it ; but the same style is still employed in cases where the timid Chinese mason considers the channel too broad for an arch. A little conversation with natives soon satisfies the traveller that SsQ-oh'uan is practically a young province. They speak of K'ang-hsi and Kien-lung as monarchs of remote antiquity, and their chronology hardly reaches further back than tho end of the Mings, about 1645. That the country was peopled, or more correctly speaking repeopled, in the early part of the present dynasty, is, however, an historical fact which does not require any additional proof. Some scant account of the anarchy which depopulated the province during the progress of the Tartar invasion will be found in the concluding chapters of De Mailla's • History of China,' and is no doubt based on the experience of Jesuit missionaries who were in Ssii-ch'uan during the period described, for there is, of course, no Chinese history of the time. The most remarkable and ultimately almost the only figure in the story is a certain Chang Hsien-chung, who gained possession of the province in 1644 and pro- claimed himself Emperor of the West in Ch'eng-tu. There is a difSculty in the way of understanding the policy of this ruler, which it is to be feared will always remain insuperable, for his simple mode of govern- ment was literally to condemn all his subjects to summary execution. I have collected from De Mailla the subjoined list of some of the reforms which the imperial nihilist introduced : — MasMcred. — 32,310 undorgradnates ; 3000 eunuchs ; 2000 of his own troops ; 27,000 Buddhist priests; 600,000 inhabitants of Gh'cng-ta; 280 of his own concubines; 400,000 wives of his troops; everybody else in the province. Destroyed. — Every building in tho province. Burnt. — Everytliiug inflammable. This programme appears to have been got through in about five years, 1644-1649. Many stories are current about this singular potentate; among others tho following detail, not recounted by the historian, which occurred after the capture of Ch'eng-tu. By way of diverting his wife, to whom he seems to have been devotedly attached, he cut off tho feet of the women who had been slaughtered and built three pagodas « fA JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CR'lfAN. •mOx them* Unhappily his material was not quite sufBoient to oompleto the third monument, and the artistic eye of his empress detected the lack of symmetry, whereupon the humorous monarch chopped off her feet and added them to the summit. Chang's hatred of the human raco, and indeed of the whole animal kingdom of Sau-oh'uan, is explained by the Chinese, not adequately, by his having inadvertently sat down upon a bed of nettles, a plant for which the province is famous. His whole story reads like an extravagant burlesque, but its general truth cannot be doubted. The SsQ-ch'uanese believe that very few of the natives survived, and when I protest that a good many must have been loft, otherwise the Tartars, ^who are known to have slaughtered their hundreds of thousands, would have had nobody to massacre, they reply that the Tartars massacred the soldiers of Chang Hsien-chung. That devastator was the first of his army to fall by the Tartar arrow. He died a most heroic and glorious death, charging the whole Manchu host alone and almost unarmed.* The present inhabitants of at any rate the southern part of tho province are nearly all descendants of immigrants who came in under tho present dynasty from the east. Most of them claim Hu-kuang as their fatherland, but near Jung-ch'ang Hsien I found a colony of immi- grants from the Canton province, who profess to be able to speak Cantonese on occasion ; but from their pronunciation of the numerals and a few other words it is clear that their progenitors were Hakkas, One of these colonists claimed my acquaintance on the ground that his cousin had visited England, but on examination it transpired that he had mistaken Shanghai for that country. The market town of Yu-ting-p'u, reached by a steep approach 12 miles or so beyond Yuug-ch'uan, deserves passing notice for the com- mercial importance of its central position between the three cities of Yung-ch'uan, Jung-ch'ang, and Ta-tsu Hsien. Its chief industry is tho manufacture of agricultural implements from iron which is mined in its vicinity. The little town — for it deserves the name — is a good instance of the populousness of a province in which tliere are not a few villages rivalling the cities in extent and surpassing them in trade. So far as the country between Ch'ung-ch'ing and the capital is concerned, perhaps the most busy and peopled district is that which begins about this point and extends to the city of Tzu.chou ; it is one of the least mountainous parts ; it has good water communication by a commodious river and its affluents with Lu-chou, and consequently with the eastern provinces ; and two specially important products, salt and grass-cloth, furnish staples for a thriving industry. Its agriculture, again, favoured by the comparative level, and in some degree by the exceptional possibility of irrigation from the river and its tributaries, is successful above the average, particularly in sugar. It is to the trade arising from these * De Muilla, however, states that he 'kom surprised during a reconnaissance. A JOURMBY OP EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSO-CH'UAN. 9 of tho a under aang as »f immi- speak iralsand. IS. One ' B cousin le had y ICO. sources that tho existence of so many large villages is to ho traced. Speaking hroadly, the purely agricultural parts of Ssil-oh'uan are remarkahle for the absence of villages properly so called. In the eastern provinces proprietors, tenants, and labourers, with a few shop- keepeiv and artisans, gather together, apparently for the sake of mutual protection, in an assemblage of houses surrounded by a mud wall, often at some distance from their fields. But in Ssu-oh'uan the farmer and his workpeople live, it may be said, invariably in farm-houses on their land, and the tendency is to tho separation, rather than to the congrega- tion, of dwellings. Thus when several sons divide an estate and their increasing families demand more house-room, they generally prefer to erect new houses on each separate inhoritance, rather than, as in other provinces, to build close to the original family mansion, or to enlarge it. It thus results that the whole country is dotted over with cottages at a short distance from one another, picturesque and frequently spacious edifioes composed of a strong timber frame filled up in the interstices with walls of stone below and mud above, and roofed evenly downwards from the ridge pole, with only a slight slope to broad eaves, which — without any upturn at the corners, such as the typical Chinese roof possesses — form a wide verandah. The resemblance which these dwellings bear to the old style of English houses has been noticed, I think, by Captain Blakiston, and, with the exception of the roof, which reminds one of a Swiss ehdlet, the similarity is striking in outward aspect ; the wooden framework, black with seeming paint, shows out vividly on the whitewashed walls, and embowered as they generally are in a clump of greenery, the Ssu-ch'uan cottages convey a delusive impression of cluanlinesB, comfort, and neatness which it does not require a very close approach to dissipate. The hypothetical paint turns out to be grime, and tho whitewash mostly efflorescence. Being, however, more spacious, they are probably more healthy than the crowded mud-huts of other provinces, and at any rate it must be an advantage to so filthy a people as the Chinese to live as far away from one another as possible. Baron v. Bichthofen, in drawing attention to this broadcast distribu- tion of habitations, remarks^that " people can live in this state of isolation and separation only where thoy expect peace, and profound peace is indeed the impression which Ssu-ch'uan prominently conveys." There is doubtless much truth in the observation ; but the expectation of peace must have suffered many and grievous disappointments. Perhaps a more precise explanation is that tho immigrants, refugees, and exiles — for tradition relates that people were sent in chains to colonise the province by K'ang-hsi — who came in from distant localities in the early days of the present 'dynast}', naturally built apart upon the lands which were allotted them, having in general few family ties which would induce them at the outset to build in communities, and, moreover, speaking 10 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU.CH'UAN. variuuB dialucttt. No svrioua invasion occurred to modify this condition for nearly two centuries, until the Taiping outbreak made it necessary to unite for common safety. It is interesting to notioo how this emergency was met by so scattered a population. They subsoribed together and built stone walls round some convenient hill-top on which they took refuge at tho approach of the rebels, leaving their lands and houses to be ravaged. But the separate system having now become established, it did not occur to them to build houses inside tho walls ; so that the fortifications remain uninhabited and isolated, and will doubtless so remain until the next invasion. They are very common on prominent heights, especially near the Yangtzu, and Captain Blakistoii has indicated several of them on his chart under the name of " redoubts." The native name is chai-txu, a word which has much tho same meaning. Another characteristic of the purely farm life, as distinguished from village life, of the agricultural population is tho markets (ch'ang). These are generally long streets lining the main roads, consiHting of shops owned by the farmers and let to traders on market-days, which fall on every third, fourth, or fifth day, as tho case may bo. These gatherings aro the centres of news, gossip, oiBcial announcements, festivals, theatrical shows, and public, and even family meetings. If a bargain for tho sale or renting of land has to be concluded, the matter is put oif till market-day. If a marriage is to bo negotiated by the heads of families, tho high contracting parties go to market to draw up the preliminaries and to ratify the convention. All produce is disposed of at the same centre. The peddler, the barber, tho blacksmith, and tho tinker all repair thither, and it is there that tho rustic makes his purchase of the longcloths and woollens of Europe and America. It will easily be understood that these fairs are very lively scenes on tho days of meeting. They are indeed so thronged with trafiSckors and blocked with merchandise that it is difficult to make way through them. A traveller ignorant of the system is exceedingly surprised to find, a few miles beyond so commercial a villa;ve, as it appears to him, another of equal or it may be of much greater extent utterly void of inhabitants. On inquiring tho cause of its desertion ho will be told that it is not market-day, and he will gradually como to understand that there are few villages in agricultural Ssu-ch'uan, but a great many market- places. In manufactiiring districts, however, the case is very diflferent, and from Yu-ting-p'u forwards large villages are frequent. On July 12th we passed through Jung-ch'ang Ilsien. The public Examination Hall afforded us lodging during tho breakfast hour. In a lumber-room behind the institution I discovered two wooden cannon which fiittd evidently been discharged, though I was told that they were A JOURNKT 0¥ EXPLORATION IH WESTEIIN SSU-rnUAX. 11 loaded with gravol iustcad of Hhot. Each vim bovuu k>ot long, the exterior diauioter at the muzzlo bein^ tlwut nine irtrbcs, and the bore four inohea. They wore circled with bcv< ii Imnds of hooti iron less than one-eighth of an inch thick, the Imnd round tho mnxzlo being a little stouter, and, besides these, two strips of iron wore laid in along thu sides. From the muzzle to the vent, which was simply bored in the wood, measured about four feet, and the rear tapered away to a slightly curved tail. The whole affair weighed about 80 pounds. It was in tlio teeth of such war-engines that the Taipings, or their fellow niaraudors, got possession of the place. The interior city seemed rather poor and dilapidated, but it contains a good many handsome shops. A largo proportion of the citizens are of Cantonese descent. Starting again at 10 a.m. wo passed through the suburb, more than a milo long, and suddenly came upon an afBuent of the Lu-chou river. The stream is about BO yards broad, with littlo current, and is croHsed at the end of the suburb by a handsome stone bridge of six or seven arches, over which the high road passes. Instead of following it, however, we took boat and dropped down with the current some four or five miles, meeting a good deal of traffic, chiefly coal, bricks, and coffin-planks. But the principal industry of the place is grass-cloth (ina-pu), of which we noticed no small quantity laid oitt to bleach on the banks. Four miles or less from the city a ledge of rock, supporting a slab bridge of some forty arches, runs right across the stream, allowing exit to the water through one narrow opening between six and seven feet broad. All boats must, of course, be built by this inexorable measurement. The thermometer here stood at 101*^ in the best shade I could find, but a more satisfactory exposure at 3 p.m. showed 98°. A child had died from the heat shortly before we amved, its parents having brought it down to the river to cool it. Ileat apoplexy, known in Ssii-ch'uan as Lei Mu, or death from exhaustion, is a common and well-known cause of death among the Chinese, and there is, in my poor opinion and experience, no reason to suppose that foreigners are more liable than natives to sufier from it. The latter, no doubt, resist exposure to the direct rays with greater impunity, but they are on the other hand less able to bear up against the weakening effects of a long period of exceptional heat, though relieved by the constant use of the fan and the habit of sleeping naked. The nightly attacks of musquitos are not a whit less formidable to the Chinaman than to tho Englishman, and much severer cases of tho inflammation known as prickly heat may bo found among. the Ssu-ch'uanese than among the European colonists of Hong Kong or Shanghai. A native of Chekiang who was with us volunteered the information that in his province fatal cases of sunstroke are unknown, although people sometimes die of drinking cold water. In his opinion, the 12 A JOURNET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UVN. Ssii-ch'uanese are more susceptible on account of the thinness of their skins. Disembarking not far from the slab-bridge, we travelled five miles to the large village of Shao-chiu-faug, which owes its importance to a manu- facture of pottery in terra-cotta introduced during the last six or seven years only. Our sole ambition was to make our way westward out of the heat, which rendered abhorrent all thought of visiting kilns and clay-works, but as we neared Li-shih-chen, another spacious and'in- duEtrious village, 22 miles from our morning station, a cool breeze sprang up and depressed the thermometer to 86° at 9 p.m. On July 13th a heavy fall of rain delayed our start until 8 A.ir. Four miles brought us to Shih-yen-kai, a village lying on another small affluent of the Lu-chou river, crosse>l at this point by a stone bridge on piers which are carved to rejiresent lions and elephants. The whole place resounded with the clang of smithies. I was told that the iron is not mined in the neighbourhood, but is brought from Laojon-shan, in the magistrature of Pi-shan, near Ch'ung-ch'ing. Five miles beyond Shih- yen-kai the affluent is again crossed at the gate of Lung-ch'ang, a Hsien city which is the centre of the grass-cloth (ma-pu) trade. There is a large export of this article to the eastern provinces, as it is both cheap and fashionable ; but it is held much inferior to a similar fabric pro- duced in Kiangsi, and is three or four times cheaper. The best quality I could obtain in the city cost me about sixpence a foot. As far as Lung-ch'ang the road is excellent from a Chinese point of view, but beyond that it is in a very ruined ^and dislocated condition. Certainly no highway is so handsomely and expensively ornamented as this with stone portals (jai'ai-fang). Most of them^are erected by dutiful sons in honour of widowed mothers who have restrained themselves from contracting a second marriage. Perhaps the dread of a stepfather accounts in some degree for these pious dedications. Not a few com- memorate the administrative virtues of some local official, but these are notoriously paid for in many cases by the official himself and b^' an interested claque. A third category is built in honour of centenarians, but these are as unauthentic as the others : a Chinaman's age increases very rapidly after seventy-five, and he becomes a hundred years old and ■upwards in about a decade. In a country where such passive virtues as widowhood, office-holding, and longevity are thus prominently distin- guished, one would doubt whether more energetic civic qualities abound. However, the peculiarities of Chinese architecture and sculpture appear perhaps at their best in these monuments. The heavy curled roof is toned down, and the understructure is shapely and solid, so that they are mostly in very good preservation. With the exception of the human figures in relief, which, intentionally or not, all tend to the comic, the decorative details are pleasing. I noticed wall-spaces carved in imita- tion of basket-work with excellent eiFect, an idea suggested possibly by A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. 13 the wattled walls of the poorer cottages or outhouses. All are built of 3tone ; near Yung-oh'uan and Jung-ch'ang a dun-red sandstone predomi- nates, and about Lung-ch'ang a warm and very agreeable cream-coloured variety. Inside the cities very ancient specimens, with the surface almost entirely peeled off, may be seen, and upon these the houses have gradually encroached, until they arc now more than half built up. On the road, most of them are quite recent. The varying styles of p'ai-faug in different parts of China would make an interesting study, and it would bo useful archaeologically to discover and authenticate the earliest examples. It has been sought, without much justification, to connect them with the introduction of Buddhid.a ; but I venture to think that they are nothing more than developments of the primitive monuments, of which the great triliths of Stonohengo are the typo — two posts and a lintel. The Chinese have added a great deal of decoration, and an upper storey, and have protected the edifice with a roof ; other modifications have inevitably ensued, according to the materials employed. Thus, in Peking, where wood is used in the construction, and beams of appropriate size are costly and rare, while tiles are easily made and greatly admired, the p'ai-fang is little more than a top-heavy roof perched on poles — a hideous object. In Yiiunan Fu, pottery is largely introduced into the ornamentation, with a too gaudy and glaring result. But in Ssu-ch'uan the simplicity of the design is not sacrificed to details ; colour is very seldom employed, and the whole structure is of stone ; no roof is added to it, although the summit of the upper btory often simu- lates a light roof and is carved to imitate tiles. That many of them are graceful and pleasing monuments may be accepted on the faith of Von Kichthofen, who remarks: — "No traveller can help being struck with the great artistic perfection of the tritimphal arches worked in red sandstone which abound in the country. . . , Some of them are master- pieces of Chinese art." Two structures of characteristic style are met with throughout China, the pagoda and the p'ai-l'ang. The former, of which I shall have some- thing to say further on, is probably of direct Indian origin, but with the exception of the remai-kable Sanchi Tope, I do not know if there is any Indian exemplar of the p'ai-fang.* It seems to be peculiarly Chinese, and it may not be too credulous to expect that similar buildings or traces of them may be discovered in the ruined cities which are found, according to the reports of travellers, in the region beyond the north-west frontier, the supposed cradle of the Chinese family. If simplicity and grace at one end of a line, and grotesque degradation at the other, may bo taken as showing the direction in which an artistic idea has travelled, tho • The p'ai-fnng or p'ai-lou is tlio toran of India. Besides the stone examples at SancLi another hus siuco been found nt Bharliut. The toran is represented in bas-reliefs (e. g. nt Amaravati, see ' Tree and Serpent Worship,' 2nd. ed., pi. xuvi. flg. 3); and the tiling itself, in its originul timber form, is still used at Hindu weddings (see Ferguason, 'Ind. and Eastern Arch.,' p. 05 ; Cunningham's ' Stuj a of Bharhut,' p. 8, aud pi. iv.)— [H.Y.] 14 A JOUIINEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CHUAN. design of theso portals must have been derived from a source which spread south-eastward across the provinces. It would be a very interesting research to trace back the mention of the p'ai-fang to its earliest occurrence in Chinese literature. The second word of the compound seems to l)e used in an exceptional, or perhaps original, sense, and to mean mound. Fourteen miles, more or less, beyond Jung-ch'ang wo passed the village of Shuang- fcng-yi, where I was supposed to be the Eomau Catholic Bishop of Ch'ung-ch'ing on his way to the capital; summoned thither by the Governor-General to answer for various crimes. On othei- occasions I was taken for a Miao-tzu chief, or a high dignitary of the Buddhist church. Captain Gill, I hoard, had stopped near Lung-ch'ang to examine an exceptionally fine banyan, and with such baleful effect that, according to my informants, the tree fell down a few days after his departure. I have frequently been asked how many feet into the earth I could see. On the other hand, a Scotch missionary was accosted near Ch'eng-tu, and asked if it was true that all foreigners were blind. Kative ignorance of anything extra-Chinese is so dense that it cannot bo described; it can only be illustrated. I once stopped to inquire, in Chinese, of course, of two men who were hoeing a field, what was the purpose of a mound haixl by. After listening with evident interest to my question, and without making any reply, one of them remarked to the other, "How much the language of theso foreigners resembles ours ! " Eight miles further, we suddenly struck the main Lu-chou river, fully 200 yards broad, slow, shallow, and beset with sandbanks, and took boat at the busy little town of Pei-mu-ch6n, which may be con- sidered the port of the city of Nci-chiang, some seven miles further on. Nei-chiang (meaning mid-river) lies near the neck of a peninsula, at the extremity of which, but on the other bank, Pei-mu-chen is built. Thus, after dropping a few miles down the stream, we landed, walked a few hundred yards, and again came upon the river at its upper curve. Just as wo sighted the city, I observed near the bank a bamboo tube sup- ported vertically 10 feet above the ground by a light scaffolding and stays of rope. Several low buildings surrounded the construction, and on entering I saw a strij:) of bamboo IJ inches broad by ^ inch thick, issuing rapidly from the bowels of the earth through a hole, five inches broad, in a flagstone. The bamboo strip, joined to other strips by lashing, passed over a roller, and on following it into a shed, I found that it was being wound on a whim by a pair of buffaloes attached to the circumference. In a few minutes the connected strip, 260 feet long, had all issued f)rom the hole, bringing up a bamboo pipe 50 feet long. When the bottom of the pipe rose clear of the ground a workman seized it, opened a valve in it, and several gallons of salt water shot out into a tub placed alongside. The end of the bamboo strip being fastened to the bottom of the pipe, or A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'DAN. 15 ■bucket, as it may be called, coiild not of couise suppoi-t it vertically after it had cleared the mouth of the well from which it had brought up the brine ; but it was kept erect by its top entering the stout tube, or guide, which had first caught my eye. The buffaloes were then ungeared, the bucket dropped of itself at a great pace to the bottom of the well, where the brine pressed open the valve and again filled the bucket ; the buffaloes were reattached and revolved in their orbit, and so the method of working brine-wells in Ssu-ch'uan was made clear. The brine runs fiom the tub through pipes of the unfailing bamboo into pans, in which the salt is evaporated over coal-fires. The coal seemed very light, and is copiously watered to improve its effect. I could get nothing out of the valve-man, who was stone-deaf, and little more out of the buffalo-driver, in consequence of the noise of the revolv- ing whim ; but in the evening we found a merchant of Nei-chiang who owned a well at the great salt-works of Tzu-liu-ching, a long day's journey south-west of this, and who talked freely about his property and the method of working it. I need not repeat what Von Kichthofen and Captain Gill have already written respecting the manner of boring the wells. The merchant bewailed the great expense ho was put to for buffuloes ; he keeps two hundred, costing about Tls. 40 (say 121.) a head. The Tzu-liu-ching wells are worked at high pressure, the buffaloes being driven round at the best speed that can be got out of them. Only the most powerful beasts are suitable, and are fed at 300 cash (tenpence or a shilling) per diem. The buffalo suffers severely from the hot atmosphere and the unnatural haste ; for although he can gallop at a good round pace under excitement, he is by nature a sober, sluggish animal, and is not happy without a cool bath twice a day. Consequently the poor beasts die off rapidly, and support a thriving trade in hides ; much of the Ssu-ch'uan glue has the same oiigin. Probably there is no Chinese industry to which steam-power could bo applied with more immediate and obvious advantage than to the raising of brine from these wells. Those which I saw at Xei-chiang are not more than 300 feet deep, but at Tzii-liu-ching some are bored to more than 2000 feet. The gear which connects the revolving dram with the wheel over the well's mouth does not multiply speed, so that the buffaloes ttt each operation have to march or run the same distance as the depth of the well ; hence they have to bo driven fast to obtain a remunerative output, and " it is the pace that kills." Some adjustment by which they could pull harder, but travel slower, would bo an advantage to all parties, but in any case the biiffalo is very ill-suited to such work. Tlie sub- stitution of steam- for bccf-powcr would not diminish the need for human labour ; a man at the valve and another in the stable, with a boy to guide the buffaloes, are all that the present system requires for the mere raising of the brine, and as many, or more, would be employed if steam- 16 A JOURNEY OF EXPLOUATIOX IN WESTERN SSL'-CH'UAN. power were used, while the greatly increased outflow of biino would afford occupatiou for more hands in tho evaporating shod. At 'i'zu-liu- ching tho boilers could bo heated by gas, tho fuel by which the evapora- tion is now effected. The boiling-pauB are five or six inches thick, and weigh some 16 cwt. apiece ; few of them lust longer than a year, since the salt ha» to be evaporated to dryness, and tho fire soon burns or cracks them. They are cast in various places, but chiefly in the neighbourhood of Lu-chou, and are not sold, but let, to the salt-workers, Avho, as the odd trade-technicality puts it, " buy tho pan without tho iron " (" Mai kuo,. pu mai t'ioh "). When a pan is burnt through it reverts to the foundry proprietors, who recast and relet it. The hire under these conditions i& forty or fifty taels, carriage expenses being borne by the hirer. The Nei-chiang salt-production is comparatively unimportant, and there is no gas. The most noticeable industry of the district is perhaps- sugar, the cultivation of which begins somewhere near this point, and follows the valley of the Lu-ohou river down to the Yangtzii. On tho latter stream the cane is grown thickly from P'ing-ahan Hsion, tho limiting point, to Ch'ung-ch'ing, or oven further down. But the im- portance of Nei-chiang depends principally upon its advantageous river communication. Junks of large capacity easily ascend thus far with full cargoes of cotton, which is hero disembarked and distributed over a wide- district. Our journey on tho 15th led us through a most luxuriant valley ta the city of Tzu-chou, still following the river and crossing it just beforo entering tho city. At the ferry we poled out to a depth of 12 feet, and then took to our oars to cross tho channel. Small steamers could in all probability reach this place at any season, but a long though not violent rapid, and a wide stretch of shingle-bcds and reed-flats, do not afford, good promise of a higher ascent unless during floods, when the water sometimes rises 20 feet above its mean level. Between the two cities tho river is about 200 yards broad. Tzu-chou is about 24 miles from Nei- chiang ; the plcasantest part of tho stage is near Yin-shang-chtn, a large village somewhat more than hulf-way, where tho road, carried along a rock-terrace which overlooks the river, passes through groves of a well-kept and park-like appearance. This seemingly artifieiul neat- ness is frequently met with where Ssii-ch'uan roads cut through a steep hill-side. Tzu-chou is a clean and substantially built town, possessing no special commercial significance. Beyond it we entered a district where no rain had fallen for forty days, except in a few light showers, although further south there had been an exceptionally copious fall. 'l"he crops were in a pitiful condition; millet seemed to suffer most, but the paddy, which, a» it requires irrigation, one would expect to be tho first to succumb, seemed capable of holding out longest of all, although tho fields were as dry oa ■\ A JOURNET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. 17 the sancUtone road. Little or no work could be done, and the natives seemed to be keeping holiday: even in the smallest market-villages theatrical performances were being exhibited, gaudy processions wound among the slopes, and the parched fields were gay with banners ; but this display was no merry-making : its purpose was to propitiate the spirits and to avert the calamity of famine. During the day's march I observed that about half the millet was dead, that the people were pull- ing up the maize, and that the cost of rice had risen in four days from eight cash a bowl to twelve cash ; yet the country folk, though anxious, seemed by no means depressed, and I was told that even if the crops in this neighbourhood fail altogether, other parts of the province are sure to be productive, and there is no danger of starvation. Ssu-ch'uan manners are easy and simple, and when no convenient roadside hostel was near and the breakfast hour approached, we used to enter the most commodious cottage, and spread our frugal meal there as a matter of course. Sometimes we took possession of an empty house, the family having gone to market or to the fields. We were generally received with a frank welcome, but the fear of officialdom is so strong that the arrival of my sedan-chair was apt to cause uneasiness, from a suspicion that I was a military commander with a tendency to make requisitions. In such circumstances, I would open conversation by inquiring how far it was to the nearest inn, and would find an oppor- tunity of explaining indirectly that I had brought provisions with me and wanted nothing but fire and water; by which time my servant would have made some progress into the good graces of the inmates by a few unobtrusive salutations and compliments, and by purchasing half- a-dozen eggs or a fowl with the readiest money. By some such diplo- macy we always gained free approach and fair accommodation. A good way is to pick up a guide (a small boy is preferable) before arriving at a village, and to treat him unusually and unexpectedly well. Another plan in doubtful cases is to make no show of being hungry, but to sit down and smoke, buying something casually and paying for it after a little bargaining, which has a good e£fect, and then on second thoughts conceiving the idea of breakfasting. Many such devices occur according to oases, but in general there is no difficulty in gaining the villagers' con- fidence. We breakfasted to-dny among a bevy of countrywomen, wedded and single, who were engaged in spinning cotton, arranging the threads for the looms, of which two were in operation, and preparing the vermi- celli called kua-mien. In one comer was a buffalo lazily turning a mill, and in another a labourer working a noisy winnowing box with a treadle. Three children, each about three years old, were enjoying the freedom of the floor and the society of the cocks and hens and a pig, and, though unweaned, took very kindly to the cakes we had brought from Ch'ung- ch'ing. Some children, by the way, are not weaned until the age of five years or more. Customers entered from time to time to buy the VOL. I, 18 A JOURNEr OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSlf-CH'DAN. kna^mien, our coolies came and went just as they pleased, our cooking was conducted in a comer, and beyond a few questions prompted by courtesy or curiosity, nothing interrupted our repast or the day's routine of the cottagers. All this went on in the same apartment, half room, half court, about 85 feet square. Suddenly the sound of a gong and a bell is heard outside, and everybody runs to the door, to see a procession of nearly naked youths carrying poles with some green plant tied to the tips, headed by the gong-man, who is a village elder, and a young- ster with the bell. A standard-bearer with a gay paper banner brings up the rear of the procession, which marches sedately down the little street on its way to perambulate the droughty fields, in hope to induce the local genii to grant a fall of rain. The ofiScials of the distiict are everywhere conducting the regulation rites for the same end, and as they will continue the ceremonies until the rain responds, they will persuade themselves that their entreaties have prevailed. Pai Fo Ssu— "white Buddha shrine" — a temple 20 miles, or less, distant from Tzu-chou, received us for the night, and turned out to be a place of unusual interest. Vague accoants have from time to time been published of a Chinese sect who worship a deity called Tamo and regard the cross as a religious symbol, a story which has led the Boman Catholic missionaries to identify Tamo with St. Thomas, and to accept as proved the tradition that the Apostle made a voyage to China. On the other hand, the Tamo of Buddhism is, if I am not mistaken, a well-authenti- cated patriarch who came to China in the sixth century. It was. Fig. 1. ^ therefore, very curious to discover in this temple a graven image of the apostle, whether of Christianity or of Buddhism, depicting him with very marked Hindu features, a black complexion, and with a Latin A JOURNEY OP EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SsS-CH'UAN. 19 cross on his bi-east. I append a rough sketch (Fig. 1) of the symbol, which in the original is carved in relief and coloured red. Images of Tamo are numerous in Ssii-ch'uan temples, and he is nearly always — I think I may venture to say always— represented with black or very dark features. I have never heard of any other case of a cross being attached to his effigy. The sketch (Fig. 2) represents a stone pillar, one of a large number of similar objects which are met with at the foot of the low hill on which the temple is built. They appear to have no connection with Tamo or the temple, but to belong to a separate cult. They are votive offerings dedicated to the tutelary genius of the spot, in recog- nition or in hope of a favourable response to prayers for fruitful marriage. Archaeo- logists will probably see in them a wide- spread symbol of Nature-worship. They are composed of an upright stone pillar, from three to eight feet high, which transfixes a square slab, the whole being carved in sandstone. About thirty of them stand in couples in a confused clump on the roadside, all more or less chipped and fractured, and on the smooth face of a low sandstone cliff a great number — I counted more than two hun- dred—are seen carved in low relief, also in pairs. The bas-reliefs are of unknown antiquity, but some of the roadside pillars, though much dilapidated, seem comparatively recent. The votive pur- pose for which they are erected is familiar to the people of the neigh- bourhood. I was Informed that they are called masts, or poles {wei-kan) ; but when I ventured to ask what connection exists between masts and a flourishing progeny, no one could explain the relation or, indeed, showed any interest in the subject. What is the meaning of the two masts which are set up beside the door of every official residence in China ? They are generally assumed to be flagstaves, but I have never seen a flag exhibited, and they are unprovided with halliards. And what is the purpose of the transfixed pief^e which these poles carry? It is imagined to be a "top" — like the " main top " or " fore top " — but it has nt such use, and is altogether too frail ; moreover, there may be one, two, or three tops, according to the rank of the resident official, without any relation to the height or structure of the mast. The dupposed top is named by the Chinese c 2 Via. 2. 20 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN Ssff^H'OAN. ton, meaning a bushel, a measure of grain, where the allusion to fertility is obvious. Furthermore, I have seen oases where the mast is built up of stone. The official masts resemble the Pai-fo-asd pillars in all respects except size, and the variations necessitated by their con- struction in wood. The cone on the mast-head survives, and the tou retains invariably the shape of the cross-slab in the sketch, but being made of wood is, for eoonriny's sake, put together in open framework. The Chinese can explain neither the origin of these official poles nor their use, merely assurting that it is an immemorial custom to set them up outside public buildings. Near the summit of the hill at the foot of which these sculptures are found I came upon several ancient tombs, of which all that the natives could tell me was that nobody knows anything about them. They are nearly covered by the present cultivation. Each construction contains half-a-dozen or more sepulchral chambers built side by side, and along the front luns a gallery on which they all enter. The wholo system, including the gallery, is roofed, panelled, and floored with large stone slabs, perhaps six feet by three, though some are larger, put together with much accuracy and skill ; the rock seems to have been first excavated, not as a foundation, but so to speak, as a receptacle, of which the slabs form the lining. The chambers are high enough for a man of average size to stand upright in (say five feet eight), and four or more broad, by some eight feet in length. The gallery is a little higher, and is entered with difficulty from the outside by low, square ports, which seem to have been originally closed. The tombs now contain nothing but a few human bones and fragments of pottery, which are as likely to be fresh as ancient, since modem beggars live and die in buch places wherever the landlord's indulgence or negligence allows. Immediately outside the walls of Ch'ung-ch'ing there are many ruined tombs of a somewhat similar style, the latest bearing dates of the Ming djTiasty. On the 17th, after passing the market of Nan-ching-i, which is eight miles from the temple, wo saw, four miles further on, what is a rare sight in China — a pagoda in course of construction. Five stages were already completed, reaching a height of 60 Chinese feet, the lowermost story being of stone and solid, i. e. without any hollow interior space, and having a base of 11 yards square. The second story, of brick, was octagonal externally and circular inside, the thinnest part of the wall measuring eight feet through. The third story was in the same style, but the fourth and remaining stages were octagonal inside and out, and the rest of the tower was to be completed on the same plan to a total height of 130 feet. A very frail segmental scaffolding outside enabled the builders to raise their materials, but access could also be gained by ladders placed] inside. There seemed to bo no scamping of work, and although the tower was to have been finished from foundation to spire A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. 21 in six months, the brioklayerd were proceeding very leisurely and inter- mittently with their business. The bricks were in course of manufac- ture in sheds below, and the stone had been quarried from the base of the hill. The estimated cost of the monument was given me by several independent informants at between thirty and forty thousand taels, equal to about 10,000/., which, as the solid contents may be approxi- mately calculated at about 50,000 cubic feet, gives the heavy rate of one pound sterling per five feet. But it is notorious that if these pagodas are built for any other purpose than the benign geomantic influence which they shed over the countryside, it is for the advantages which they bring to local committees of construction. A population which subscribes for such costly and unproductive works must be fairly well-to-do ; but, perhaps, a more convincing proof of afiQuenoe is found in the numerous bridges of the province, massive and even luxurious causeways, which would fully satisfy the sense of symmetry were it not for some defect in the curve of the arches. These appear at first sight circular, but on a nearer approach a tendency to a point is noticed, not decided enough to be pleasing, and yet quite sufficient to afflict the jaded traveller with the uneasy feeling that the architect was not sure whether his arch would turn out to be pointed or circular, and had left it to take its chance. The want of a prominent keystone increases the unpleasantness, the vertex being defined by the division between two voussoirs. These bridges are, how- ever, very solidly and truly built, and are far superior to anything of the kind in Eastern China. After a day's journey of some 17 miles, we once more crossed the Lu-chou river, and entered Tzii-yang Hsien. The channel is here about 150 yards broad, and admits junks of large size — say of sixty or seventy tons. The place has no special importance. Chien Ghou, a larger city than any we had yet passed, about 21 miles farther, lies in a small plain on the river bank at the mouth of an affluent. Five minutes before reaching its gate we espied a temple of unusual appearance, and strolled into its court sure of finding something new or curious ; but it turned out to be, not a temple, but a verj' ancient pagoda surrounded by low buildings. The pagodas with which Europeans are familiar are polygonal in plan, and generally built of stone ; but in this province the older examples are square, and, what is singular in a country where stone is so extensively used, are of brick, coated with a durable white plaster, the well-known chunam. As one journeys across China the gradual change in style of these picturesque towers is very striking. In the typical pagoda of the suuth-eastem provinces the successive stages decrease both in height and diameter ; but as the Ssii-ch'uan border is passed cases begin to occur in which the fifth or sixth stories are of the same breadth, or as it seems, of even a greater breadth, than the base, so that the outline of a side of the building, that is to say its profile. 22 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SS"&-CH'UAN. reseniblea the aio of a bont bow when held with the atring vertical. Still fitrther west, as in the country we have reaohed, the old pagodas are square, and thoir upper stages are generally of very little height. In this Ohien Chou pagoda each of the four faces are slightly concave ; it is built of chunamod brick ; the stories have imitation doors and round windows, and tho cornices which divide story from story are not promi- nent, so that wore it not fur the suddenly pointed summit it might almost be taken for an English church-tower. It is very unlike the common idea of a pagoda, and yet it is a most authentic pagoda and a very old one, for high up on its eastern face, above a bas-relief of Buddha, is the inscription " Shih-kia-mu-ni ShMi pao-t'a" (Buddha Shd-li Pagoda). What is Shd-li ? I appealed to the attendant priest, who is attached to the place, for information. " A Shd-li," he replied, " is a particle of the essence of Buddha, having no special shape, colour, or substance, but in general it is a minute speck resembling a morsel of crystal, and giving off intense light. Its size may however change infinitely, and it is impossible to set limits to it. An iron chest oannct confine it in the custody of unbelievers, and its radiance on occasion l)ierces evbrything, so that there is no concealing it." Much more such like definition was offered me, which might have been credible if one could have understood it. But I have a reminiscence which almost amounts to a sure recollection that Sh^li is a transliteration of some Sanscrit word meaning relic;* in which case the inscription indicates that the pagoda contains a relic of Buddha, doubtless a partk {f of his ashes brought from India by a pilgrim. The extant journalc of Fa-hsien, Hsttan-ohuang, and others show that one purpose of their visits to India was to obtain relics (probably the term they employ is Sh6-li, but I have no opportunity of examining any of their accounts) ; and here is a fairly authentic instance of the way in which they disposed of their collections. Eight of the thirteen stories of this pagoda are ascended by an interior staircase, the walls of which are painted throughout with pictures of Buddhist saints and worthies, much in the style of the ruined Burmese temples at Pagan. The priest had no knowledge of the date of the building, and affirmed that there was no means of knowing it. I inquired somewhat deeply into this question, even sending to the prefect of the city to ask his opinion, but he replied that the date could not be ascertained. He himself evidently took no superficial interest in the antiquities of his jurisdiction, for he sent me a rubbing of an inscription which I met with on a singular object lying in the court below the pagoda. • This is correct, Tho Snnskrit word is sarlra, properly *' tlie body," and used by the Buddhists for "relic" (see, for instance, Hardy's ' Eastern Monachism,' p. 212). Of the Sanskrit word the Chinese have mnde she-li, and the Tibetans sliaril. The latter word occurs several times in Ssanang Ssetzen's ' Mongol Legends,' see Schmidt's transl., p. 249, &o.— [H. Y.] A. JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SsO^H'UAN. 28 It is not easy to deaoribe it. Take a well-developed pear and out it through it8 thickest part at right angles to its length ; in other words cut off its top, then lay it, with the cut surface downwards, on a small book, bnt the book must be square. Assume the pear to be *2i feet in diameter, and a little more in height, and to form with the book a solid mass of oast iron. Call this a " Shou-shiin," or " Mount of Longevity." Tliis forms the lower part of the machine. For the upper part imagine a coffee^up without a handle, and solid, also of oast iron, two feet eight inches in diameter, with a spheroidal hollow in its base which fits on to the tail end of the pear. Call this a " Fu«hai," or " Sea of Felicity." On the face of the coffee-cup, which, as I have said, is solid, as if it were full of coffee and the coffee frozen, are two oblong hollows, as if intended for the insertion of the ends of beams, and at one shorter side of each of these is an oval boss an inch or so in prominence. On the outside again, just below the rim of the cup, are eight shallow hollows which, if they were deeper, would give one the impression that they might have been meant for the insertion of capstan-bars; but although their edges are slightly raised no such supposition can be based on them, their depth not being more than two inches below the level of the circumference. The appended sketches (Figs. 8, 4, 5) will perhaps FlO. 3.— A MOUNT OF LOHOEVrTY. assist this description. The two portions lie a few yards apart on the grass in the open court. The base is a good deal damaged. The upper piece bears in large characters the Buddhist formula " Continually turn the wheel of law for the calm repose of tho universe," and on the lower piece is an inscription recording the names of the donors and the date of the mysterious implement, to the following effect :— A JOURNEr or EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSi^-CirUAN. *' Certain devout persona living in Little West Street in the Yang-an Magistracy, Ohien-ohuu [here follow the names of the contributors] have given alms for the purpose of casting a Longaaval Mount and FlO. 4.— A UA or FELIOITT. Felicitous Sea for the temple [or temples] of Heavenly Calm and Ever- lasting Contemplation, so that the wheel may be turned and [two characters are here worn down and ille- gible] prayers for long life and flourish- ing posterity. " Carefully recorded in the 12th month of the second year of Chien-yen, the cyclic term being Sh6n-wu [a.d. 1128]. " Hsi-kuang, head-priest, missionary, and Shaman. " Constructed by Ying Chih-li, foundry master, of Han Chou (a quarter of Ch'6ng-tu)." The Emperor Chien-yen, mentioned in this inscription, is renowned in Chinese history for his Buddhi.st pro- clivities. For several years before his uocession the Golden Tartars had ravaged the northern provinces, and about, or a few years previous to, the date in question had made themselves masters of all NortheiTi China except Siu-ch'uan, and perhaps Shensi. Chicn-ycn only retained power over the country south of the Yangtse, establishing his court at Nanking, and subsequently in other neighbouring cities. The monu- ment above described shows from the style of its date that the authority of the Golden Horde * was not yet acknowledged in Ssu-ch'uan, and thus supports the historical account. Ssu-ch'uan was finally conquered some * Golden Horde is generally appropriated to the Mongol dynasty that reigned on the Volga; tliough the dynasty meant here, which reigned in North China before the Mongol rise, was called also Kin or " Golden."— [H. Y.] FlO. 5.— FLAN or THE FACE OF THE SEA OF FELICITY. A JOUBMLY or EXPLORATION IN WE8TUIN 880-CH*UAN. 9S 180 yean afterwards, probably not long before the viait of Maroo Polo to the province, and, aa iiaual, all the inhabitants of the capital were uasaaored. The base also oontHiua a modem, or at any rate a aubaequent, inaorip- tion which, aa it was getting dark, I could not decipher. The prieat, on being conaulted aa to the uae of the machine, told me that it waa a pivot, and that on fitting a atatuo of Buddha to the orifices in its upper surface, and inserting apokea in the eight circumferential oavitiea, it will miraculously revolve of itself, and indicate the elect among the attendant worshippers. He admitted, however, that he knew very little about its adjustment, and I am disposed to believe him. The must probable solution seems to be that it formed the centre of a wheel, a materialisation of the Buddhist metaphor "wheel of the Law," or " Beligion," more or less resembling the so-called praying machines common in Tibet. It must almost oeitaiuly have been a pivot, although it is very ill adapted mechanically for such a purpose, and iiwreover the boss shows no traces of striation. But theu it may have been a failure, or no opportunity may have occurred for putting it in use.* On leaving the city the road crossed an affluent of the Lu-chou river by a bridge 76 yarc'.d long, built partly on arches and partly on beams of the nan-mu tree. On the footway lie two trunks of this tree, intended for repairs, the larger being 48 feet long, 18 inches in diameter at the thin end, and 32 inches at the butt. The city is environed by fine temples and a motit luxuriant cultivation, through which the river winds, 200 yards broad, but full of sand-banks and shoals. Ilevertheless a good many large flat boata were coming down. Seven- teen miles further the last belt of hills between Ch'ung-ch'iug and the capital has to bu crossed. On the highest point of the road, at the foot of a tablet inscribed with the words " Here you are near heaven," I calculated the height above Oh'ung-ch'ing to be 2400 feet, or about 3200 feet above sea-level. The view from near this point is very exten- sive and striking, the broken country to the east, through part of which we had come, resembling a stormy sea, and the red colour of the soil and exposed rooks mingling in about equal proportion with the green of crops and groves ; while on the west, some 1500 feet below, the great Ch'eng-tu plain stretches like a smooth lake and is everywhere covered * There can be little doubt that the apparatus had been intended for a pivot, or part of the machinery of a revolving pagoda. Hweu T'aoug obecurely describes such a revolving cupola over an imnge of Buddha in the valley of the Upper Oxua (' Fulcrins Boud.,' iv. p. 205). And the envoys of Shah Rukh to China (1420) describe a remnrknble structure of the same kind at Kau-chau (iu Kan-su ProviucL'). This was in the form of ttu octagonal kiosque flt'teen btories high, made of wood and gilt ; it revolved on a pivot (see ' Cathay und the Way Thitlier,' p. cciv.)' It is possible that this was a colossal and elaborate form uf prayer-cylinder. There ia said to be such a cylinder in one of the Lama temples at Peking, which extends tlirough the succesBive stories of the building to a height of some 70 leet (see A. Williumson, 'Journeys,* &c., ii. p. 34G).— [H. Y.] 36: ^ JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN Ssl&-CH'IIAN. with a verdure which would be monotonous were it not for the variety of shades. The plateau on this hill range, contrary to the general condition of Ssu-ch'uan plateaus, is but thinly inhabited, but the country near it on both sides teems with villages. The Ch'€ng-tu plain, indeed', probably supports as close a population as the most crowded parts of the seaboard. Seven-tenths of the natives at least are of the poorest class, living from hand to mouth, and beggars abound. We had evidence of the difficulty of obtaining employment in the eagerness with which the people touted for the tusk of carrying my baggage. Out of their slender wage my coolies subhired temporary substitutes at the rate of two cash per li, or a penny for four miles. The poorest classes are of course at once affected by a drought, since no work can be done in a hard baked soil. To-day, however, the raggedest were gay, for a fall of rain had set in with good promise of duration. The simple folk sat under shelter and watched the downpour with delighted eyes and admiration of the skilful officials whose prayers had proved so irresistible. The theme of the weather is never tiresome here, but one must not speak disrespectfully of it ; the public are warned by proclamation not to provoke the wrath of heaven by complaining of drought. Ch'Sng-tu, which we reached on the 20th, is about 15 miles from the foot of the range. Enough has been written about it by previous visitors to render any description of mine, superficial as it would be, unnecessary. To the traveller who could afford sufficient time to examine leisurely its antiquities and temples it would assuredly afford results of great interest. It is one of the largest of Chinese cities, having a circuit of about 12 miles, and although it contains a good many open spaces and temples with attached grounds, it may bo considered well populated. The census of 1877 returned the number of families at about 70,000, and the total population at 330,000— 19v,000 being males and 140,000 females; but probably the extensive suburb was not included in the enumeration. Perhaps 350,000 would be a fair total estimate.* Its principal trade is in the numerous wild products of Tibet and Koko-nor — furs, rhubarb, musk, medicines, &o., which it purchases with the tea, silk, and cotton cloth of Ssu-ch'uan. All Tibetan countries are more or less directly administered or coerced from Ch*eng-tu by the Governor-General ; and even distant Nepaul, known colloquially to the Ssu-ch'uanese as the country of the " Pi-peng," sends a decennial mission of tribute, which is per- mitted or forbidden to proceed to Peking much at the Governor-General's discretion. It is ao doubt owing to its proximity to the frontier that the * For Gh'uDg'Ok'ing the result of the abore-incntioned census was : — Total population 120,C7G Males 75,226 Females 45,450 Number of families 28,117 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. 8!f city is provided with a Tartar garrison, now become tmdistinguishable from the indigenous citizens. The fiction of a difference of language is, however, maintained, as may be noticed in the case of shop-signs, many of which are still written in Manchu. Ch'Sng-tu claims an historical celebrity as having been the capital of the famous Liu-pei, and some vestiges of the palace which he built about 222 a.d. are said still to exist on the site of the present Examination Hall. The tradition that his palace occupied that spot is at any rate not open to reasonable doubt. The reputed tomb of his friend Chu-ko Liang, known otherwise as K'ung-ming — ^the most popular name in Western China, and the centre of many legends — lies somewhere outside the south wall.* I had only time to visit one monument, but perhaps the most curious and the least known. A short distance from the North Gate, in the north-west quarter of the city, is an earthwork composed of two mounds some 40 feet high, and 50 feet broad at the top, distant from one another 120 feet, and connected by a lower terrace of about half the height and 70 feet broad. The whole work has the shape of a dumbbell half buried in the ground. Its direction is roughly north-west and south-east. On the south-eastern summit lies the singular object which I had been led to look for, and which had been described truly enough, though vaguely, as a large round white stone. It turned out to be a disc or cylinder of very hard limestone (silicate of lime) of enormous proportions, measuring approximately 18 feet in diameter. It seems to have slipped a few feet down the slope of the mound, and I cannot be altogether sure that its circle is complete, since more than half of it is hidden by superincumbent soil. Nor could I estimate its thickness, of which only 2^ feet are above ground. The surface of the monolith is a good deal worn and fractured, but the true circular form of the circumference is evident to the merest glance, as also is the porpendicularity of the rim to the face. The whole mass might probably be cleared of earth in an hour or two, but as the bystanders told me that any attempt to dig would cause the sky to darken and goblins to appear, I did not think it well to indulge a too intrusive curiosity. I could not find any indication of a similar object on the north-west mound, although analogy would lead one to suspect its presence, buried perhaps in the earth, as seems to have been the case with the extant stone. This huge grave-slab, for such it must almost certainly have been, is known locally as the Quern Stone (Mij-p'an-ehih, meaning the bed-stone of a quern), and is said to have been brought from Han-chung Fu in Shensi. The mound is called Wu-t'ai Shan (Military Terrace Hill), and tradition makes it the burial-place of an emperor's son — what emperor I could not asccrtain.j A Taot'ai of the * At the temple called Wu-Hou-Tz*0. See ♦ River of Golden Sand,' ii. p. 18.— [W. G.] t The explanation given to me was that this was the grave of a concubine of the aboriginal king Shu- Wang, who lived in the third century. See ' River of Golden Sand,* iL p. 17.— [W. G.] 28 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. «ity, to whom I applied for information, and who was engaged in re- editing the Topographical Account of Ssu-oh'uan, had never even heard of the Quern Stone. Ho was good enough to give me a printed plan of Ch'eng-tu, on which the mound is indicated, but La knew nothing of its builders or their purpose. From whatever quarry the stone was pro- cured, it seems most likely that it was conveyed by water to near its present position, since it is a great deal broader than any road in the province. 2. Mount O. On the 26th July we took ship outside the East Gate on a rapid narrow stream, apparently the city moat, which soon joins the main river a little below the An-shun Bridge, an antiquated wooden structure some 90 yards long. This is in all probability the bridge mentioned by Marco Polo. The too flf^tteriug description he gives of it leads one to suppose that the present handsome stone bridges of the province were unbuilt at the time of his journey.* The main river is a very disappointing waterway, about 80 yards broad in its wider reaches, but often naiTowing to 50 yards or less, full of small rapids and shoals, and navigable only by the smallest junks. Our own bark drew at most a foot and a half of water, but in many places the channel drew less, causing us to stick fast repeatedly. The stream being swift — between five and six knots — and the numerous bridges, though gene- rally well built, having uncomfortably small arches, the navigation is not devoid of danger. The luxuriant plain through which we were floating is thoroughly and easily irrigated by meaus of a modification of the machine known as the Persian wheel : a great quantity of water must be taken up in this way and spread over the country ; but when all allowance is made for the diminution of the river, one cannot help surmising that Marco Polo must have felt reluctant to call it the Chiang Shui, or " Yangtzu waterway." He was, however, correct enough, as usual, for the Chinese consider it to be the main upper stream of the Yangtzu. It was pleasant m the glowing summer weather to glide down through the rich cultivation amid the hum of the huge water-wheels which met us at every turn, and to reflect that here at least is a country which can never sufier from drought. A garrulous coolie whom I had brought with me, for other purposes, however, than to criticise scenery, was loud in his admiration of a region which seemed to him an earthly paradise ; and I was beginning to feel some of his enthusiasm, when the spectacle of a naked corpse, which two dogs were devouring on the towing-path, drew from him a burst of delighted laughter, and abashed all sympathy. * One need not accept tho supposition that Marco Polu di'soribcd things so loosoly nnd inaccurately. On this subject, and ou tho probability of great changes liaving taken place in the rivers about Cli'cng-tu, aeo the Introduction to Cuptain Gill's ' River of Golden Sand,>. [37].-LH. Y.] A JOUBNET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. 2» The limit of navigation for large junks is Su-ma-t'ou, a busy place in lat. 30° 28' (by obs.). Twenty-five miles or so further down we passed Chiang-k'ou, a flourisliing landing-place, at the junction with the river which runs down from Hsin-ching Hsion, some 20 miles away. This branch, locally called the Nan river, is beyond question a wider and deeper channel than that which we had been following, and should be regarded as the main river; but the waters of this plain are so intricately divided and subdivided, that their system is beyond compre- hension. That the torrent which issues from the Euan Hsien gorge should split up into an indefinite number of streams, and that these, after traversing the plain, should ultimately form two separate rivers flowing on different sides of a high range, namely, the Lu-chou river which we have coasted, and the Sui-fu river which we have now reached, would perhaps be credible if the plain were a dead flat, and its soil were an alluvium of considerable depth. But the streams have a swift current ; those which I have seen are little below the level of the land; and further they are obstructed by frequent shingle-beds. At Su-ma-t'ou the shore is a thick layer of roller-stones, five to ten or more inches in longer diameter, so closely strewn that they make landing unpleasant. How comes it that this one extensive depression amid a wide ring of mountains should possess in its distribution of waters, and in no other particular, all the character of a delta? The only intel- ligible explanation seems to be that the distribution is produced arti- ficially ; but there is a conflict of authority on the question. Baron v. Richthofen describes the irrigaticu and drainage as natural,* while Captain Gill speaks of "ingenious irrigation works" at Euan Hsien which direct the river " into the artificial channels by which the plain is watered." t Chiang-k'ou is historically famous as the spot where the great rebel Wang-san-huai threw overboard vast quantities of treasure, the plunder of the province, and then burned his vessels, somewhere in the early part of the reign of Chia-ching. A few miles lower down we passed P'eng-shan Hsien, about which point the river widens out after tho junction of all its subdivisions, and is called by foreigners the Min — a * See p. 64 of his letter on Sstt-oli'iian. t Tho exphination of the phenomena is, I npprcbend, to be sought in the " alluvial fan" (or convex delta) structure assumed by the d^ris spread by a stream which debouches suddenly from a mountain gorge into a flat valley, this structure being taken advantnge of by the people to carry rndiating channels of irrigation from the mouth of the gorge. " Thus the natural rivers of tho country seem to have disappeareil, or become merged in tho number of artificial watercourses or canals, into which tliey have been distributed by the industry of tho children of the soil. And instead of finding the streams diminishing in number and increasing in volume as wo follow them downward, it is the reverse that takes place. Thire is complexity below and unity above." This is quoted from remarks of the lamented R. B. Shaw on tlio rivers of Koshgar, in ' Pro- ceedings R. G. 8.,' XX. p. 48(5. He refers to a paper by Mr. F. Drew on the subject, read before the Geological Society in August 1873.— [H. Y.] 80 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SS&.CH'UAN. name given to it probably by the Jesuit surveyors and perpetuated on subsequent maps, but quite unknown locally. As above remarked, the natives regard the river which we have been descending as the main stream of the Tangtzu ; when they apply a distinctive name to it they call it the " Fu " river, after the three Fu cities of Ch'dng-tu, Chia-ting, and Sui-Fu (^Stt-chou). The plain begins to break up into hills a few miles below Mei-chou. Some hours before reaching that point my attention had been attracted to a dim but sharp-edged object rising high above the south-western horizon, whiuh I took to be a cloud; but at last, noticing that its profile did not change, I pointed it out to a boatman, who replied with a certain contempt, " Don't you know Mount Omi when you see it ? " From the point where I first caught sight of it, its distance was more than 50 miles. There must be something in the conditions of its position which greatly exaggerates its size, for when it is seen across the level country from the edge of which it rises, the mind at once refuses to believe that any mountain can be so high. How it looks from a nearer point of view I cannot affirm, for I have ascended it, travelled all round it, and three times passed close under it, without ever seeing it again, as it was always clothed in mist. Perhaps the mirage of the wide plain lends it an illusive majesty, which is en- hanced by its remarkable outline. Its undulating ridge gradually rises to the summit at the southern end, where, from its highest knoll, it is suddenly cut sheer down to the level earth — or nearly so, for the lower fourth part was hidden by clouds— forming a pre- cipice, or, it may be, a series of precipices, which it is disagreeable to think of. We naturally made all haste to roach such an imposing prominence, and were glad to land at Chia-ting Fu on the 28th, after a journey — not counting stoppages — of twenty-six hours and forty-two minutes from the capital. The distance may be estimated at a little more than 100 miles. The country becomes hilly as the city is nearod. What little river traffic we met consisted chiefly of coal and building materials. For more valuable goods it appears that the shorter and safer overland journey is preferred. The situation of Chia-ting at the junction of three large rivers, the Fu, Ya, and T'ung, in a district where wooded slopes contrast with bare cliflfs, is very picturesque. Its population may be stated at about 25,000. A verj' considerable silk trade has its nominal headquarters in the city, but official exactions have in practice driven it to the large village of Su-ch'i, five miles westward, which has water communication by means of a fourth river, little more than a torrent, issuing from the flunks of Mount Omi. White wax and timber are the other principal exports of the city. It lies in exactly the same latitude as Ch'ung-ch'ing, viz. 29° 34'. The road to Omi Hsien, 15 miles or so from Chia-ting, crosses the >etuated on narked, tho B the main e to it they , Chia-ting, J Mei-chou. n attracted ith-westem ig that its 3plicd with u see it?" I was more ions of its seen across nd at once w it looks scended it, it, without Brhaps the lich is en- gradually ts highest -or nearly ng a pre- ;reeable to :,%, '4> rominenco, journey — minutes ittle more is nearod. 1 building Lorter and ing at tho a district sque. Its liable silk exactions five miles rth river, unt Omi. city. It V rossos the f ^ '^ c E \ P ii t w w] sh cli ssi bii eai HIZ att enj thi vei ab< OIK hei wh cal ino feM who A JOURNEY OP EXPLORATION IN WESTERN Ssff-CH'UAN. 31 broadest part of the valley of the Ya, and coasting along the right bank of the Omi river, approximately bisects the right angle formed by the confluence of the Ya and T'ung. It passes through the most luxuriant part of the country in which the famous white wax is pro- duced. As I have described this cultivation in a previous paper, and the valley has been visited by former travellers, I will only mention here that its town of Chia-chiang lies in lat. 29° 44' 20" (I obtained no observation at Hung-ya), and that the head of the valley is at the market town of Lo-pa-ch'ang in lat. 29° 53'. The general run of the valley is north-west to south-east, but it is very tortuous above Hung- ya. The southern part, with its silk, white wax, and teeming rice- growth, so easily irrigated by the Persian wheels, may be fairly regarded as the richest nook of China. The little city of Omi, a square of a quarter of a mile on each side, is delightfully placed below the mountain spurs on the edge uf a tract, sown with woods and seamed with torrents, 'P'hich might be called park-like if nature had made it prim. It has a long suburb on the eastern side, and is thickly inhabited, a statement which I make authoritatively, since the whole population turned out to see me pass. Near the point where the road from Omi city, for all the world like an English country-lane, enters the woods, we found lodging in the temple of Pao-ning-ssu. One of the sixteen patriarchs (Lo-han)* whose portraits surrounded my chamber, held in his hand an inscription, of which Plate I. is a careful copy. On the 30th we travelled up by the bed of a torrent through woods which gradually thickened into forest, passing many a temple and shrine, until we reached the foot of a long series of stone stairs, and climbed to our breakfast halt in a monastery of forty monks — Fu-hu- ssu, the "tiger-taming temple." Its numberless halls and galleries, built entirely of timber, contain more than 800 statues of Buddhist saints and celebrities, none smaller than life, and several of colossal size, each having a separate individuality of lineaments, dress, and attributes, and an attitude which is not repeated. A Chinese artist was engaged in putting the finishing touches to a quadruple Buddha with thirty-two arms, standing about 1 2 feet high, beautifully executed in a very un-Chinese style. Above this a steep climb of 1400 feet, or there- abouts, leads up through pine groves interspersed with nan-mu trees, one of which I noticed 2i feet in diameter, and more than 150 feet in height ; the Ssu-ch'uan oak is also abundant. Nearly all the buildings which I saw on the lower slopes of Mount Omi, or 0, as it is locally called for [brevity's sake, are monasteries, and with the exception of monks, some 2000 in number, there are hardly any inhabitants but a few innkeepers. The land is church property. There is a certain * Tills is tlie Chinese transformation of t)io Sanskrit Arhan, a Buddhist saint, in whom all worldly desire has become cxtiuct. — [H, Y,] 82 A JOOBNEY OF EXPLORATION IK WESTERN SSif^H'UAN. onltivation in small clearings, but generally speaking the whole mountain is covered with forest. We had thus far, however, only climbed a spur of the sacred mount, and had to undo much of our work by descending again into a deep glen. A broad torrent is here divided by a precipitous island-rook, which is crowned by a temple and connected with both banks by bridges ; its crest thickly wooded ; its vertical sides bare except where they are festooned with creeping plants ; the bottom of the twin abyss filled with seething foam ; a spot where a hermit might abide, and a traveller may well linger. Near this point a few stalls are met with, on which the productions of Mount are exposed for sale to pilgrims. They are more curious than valuable — a kind of ginseng called o-$Sng, various sorts of tea produced in the vicinity, quartz crystals found in the rocks, carved staves for the support of weary pilgrims, and a kind of cicada with a long fungus growing out of its head. Close to this emporium, a beggar sitting by the roadside, with his back propped against a tree, attracted my notice by the extraordinary size and shape of what I took to be his ears, but which turned out to be the soles of his feet. His thighs and legs ran up behind his back, so that his feet were placed, with the soles in front, between his ears and eyes ; a most unpleasant specimen, which I did not care to investigate. We had now attained the foot of the central mountain, the ascent of which is made painful rather than easy by the stone steps which have been laid down for the benefit of pilgrims ; but there are many gradients which it would be impossible to climb without them. The mist thick- ened round us as our caravan plodded heavily up the devious stairs, with a primeval forest for balustrade, and when wo asked an athletic monk, who outstripped us with great ease, how far it was to Wan-nien-ssu, our resting-place, it seemed unkind of him to reply " Fifteen miles for you and five for me." We made Wan-riien-ssu (Myi-iad Years Monastery) early in the evening, and in the clump of temples of which it is the centre found much instruction and amusement. Just below it, in a kind of hostel, is a statue of Buddha twenty-fivo or more feet high, of a very rude and archaic style, reputed to be the oldest idol on the mountain. It is said to bo bronze, but I took it for pure copper. Nothing could be learned of its age. A more artistic work is found in a temple behind Wan-nien-ssu, in a separate shrine. Passing under a dark archway we entered a hall in the middle of which, as soon as wo could see through the dim religious light, wo observed a kind of palisade, and inside it an elephant cast in magnificent bronze, or some ■such composition, nearly as white as silver. The surface is of course black with age and the smoke of incense, but I was able to judge the colour of the metal by inspecting a patch which has been worn down by a practice of devotees who rub coins on it and carry them away as relics. The size of the imago is that of a very large elephant, that is to say some A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. 88 12 feet high ; its peouliarities are that it is somewhat too bulky, that the trunk seems rather too long, and that it has six tusks, three on eaoh side. With these exceptions, if exception can be taken, the modelling is excel- lent, and n glanco shows that the artist must have studied from life, for the folds of skin on various parts of the body, and the details of the trunk, are rendered with great truth and success, though with a certain con- ventionalism. The creature has been cast in three sections, belly and legs forming the lower, and back the uppermost. The contour of the belly is complete, but on stooping underneath one sees that it is hollow and that the exposed edges arc about five inches thick ; in other parts the metal is a great deal thicker. Each of his feet stands on a bronze lotus, and on his back the mammoth bears in place of a howda another huge lotus-flower, in which is enthroned an admirable image of Buddha, cast, I was told, in the same metal, but thickly gilt, his crown of glory towering to a height of 33 feet above the floor. Though generally called a Buddha, the image represents F'u-hsien P'u-sa (Samantabhadra Bodhi- sattva), the isaint who ia the patron or patroness, for the Chinese credit him with female permutations, of Mount O. The monks told me that F'u-hsien descended upon the mountain in the form of an elephant, and that the casting commemorates the manifestation. But it may more probably bear an allusion to the well-known vision in which the mother of Buddha saw before his birth a white elephant with six tusks. The fane which encloses the casting is not less curious, being a hollow cube, covered with a hemisphere, and roofed with a pyramid. The walls of the cube are twelve feet thick, and the floor of the interior is a scjuare of 33 feet on each side. The square becomes modified into a circle as the courses rise, by a transition which is gradual and pleasing but impossible to describe clearly without a knowledge of technical terms. Speaking clumsily, the four walls each terminate in a semicircular outline, the summit of each semicircle touching the circumference — i. e. the base — of the dome, and the four comers are each filled with three masses of brickwork, the surface outline of the central mass being an oval pointed at both ends, and the two others spherical triangles. The faces of all three are concave. The circumference of the dome is thus evolved from ' a square without any awkward abruptness, and it is only on trying to describe it geometrically that the arrangement begins to appear puzzling. To the eye the architectural process of squaring the circle is perfectly simple. The dome however springs from a rim which stands a little back from the circle thus formed, and so gains a few additional feet of diameter and increased lightness of appearance. The vault is to all appearance a hemisphere, very smoothly and exactly constructed. The whole edifice is of brick except, I think, a few insertions of stone blocks in the lower courses. The walls contain a series of ledges on which aro placed a number of small images said to be of silver. The only light 84 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSG-CH'UAN. which enters i« admitted by the two arohod doorwaya, before and behind the elephant. The outside of the shrine cannot bo seen, as it is enclosed in a timber building, which entirely covers it Clambering by means of this envelope on to the roof, I found, instead of a cupola, a confused heap of brickbats, the debris of a low four-sided pyramid which seems to have been fuooil with porcelain tiles. The timber casing was absurdly added by the monks to protect the dome fh>m the weight of the winter snow, a fair indication that tho shrine was not built by Chinese. 80 solid a building would probably stand fast even if the whole mountain were upset on to it. The precaution has gone far to defeat its own purpose, for the wooden husk has been twice burnt to ashes, damaging not only the roof but tho tusks of tho elephant as well. It is said that they were melted off by the intense heat. The present tusks are a feeble restora- tion built up of plates and bands. With respect to the age and origin of the shrine and its contents, the most atithentic information is found in tho Ss&-ch*uan Topography to the following effect. *' The monastery of * Clear Water Fu-hsien ' on Mount Omi, the ancient monastery where (the patriarch) F'u served Buddha, dates from the Chin dynasty (a.d. 265-318). l>uriug the T'ang dynasty Ilui-t'ung made his hermitage there. It was named 'Clear Water F'a-hsien Monastery ' under the Sungs ; Wan-li, of the Mings, changed its style to ' Saintly longevity of a myriad years.' The * Hall of Great 0' stood in front, facing which was tho 'monument of Illustrious Patriarchs of the South,' and on the left tho ' monument of Sylvan Repose.' The buildings included a series of seven shrines, tho first of which contained a ' Fi-lu,' the second seven Buddhas, the third a Deva king, the fourth a guardian dcfly (Chin-kang), and the fifth a groat Buddha ; the sixth was a revolving aptral eon$trueted of brieh, mdonng a gilded brovie image of P'u-htien, mxteen feet high, mounted oh an elepkanl. In the beginning of the Sung dynasty (a.d. 960) orders were given to set up a bronze shrine and a bronze image also more than 100 feet high. Under Wan-li, the Empress-mother directed the shrine of Pu-hsien, namely, the spirally constructed brick edifice, to be care- fully and thoroughly restored, and had the elephant gilt." The existing building is obviously the "revolving spiral" here mentioned, and the awkwardness of tho term, which oonveys no idea to a Chinaman, is another proof that the builders were not Chinese. A name has had to be ^invented for an exotic form of oonstruction, and there is, so far as I am aware, no other instance of a true dome of brick or masonry in China. It seems safe to conclude that the builders of the Fu-hsien shrine, as well as the artist who designed the costings, were Indian Buddhiste.* * In the name " revolving spiral " ve Mem to have another allusion to sooh stniotuiei as ate mentioned in tho note at p. 25. In the ptoaent oaae theie may have been some A JOURNEY or RXPLORATIOK IN WESTERN SsG-OH'UAN. 86 behind t timbor of this heap of to have ly added or snow, o solid A bin were purpose, not only hoy were > rostora- contents, pography hsion ' on 'u served the T'ang sd 'Olear 10 Mings, pho * Hall iment of lument of rines, the 10 third a be fifth a of briel;, lied on an iers were lore than ,0 shrine be oare- fcl" hero lo idea to inese. A |tion, and of brick lilderB of I castings, I Btraotuies I been wnm With rofuronoo to the patriarch P'n (a religious name which moans contemplation), I mado inquirioa of a learned abbot in Ch'ung-oh'ing ; but beyond aaoertaining that he lived in the early time of the Ohin dynasty, and is an historical personage, I only olioited the unsatisfying statement that " the joy of religion was his mistress, tho knowledge of salvation his estate ; grace and mercy wero his troasuros, and charity his vocation. To ask his lay name or his habitation is not per- mitted." Hui't'ung (also a religious name), is said to have flourished during the reigns of the throo T'ang emperors Wen-tsung, Wu-tsung, and HsUan-tsuug (i.n. 827-860). Tho second of thoso monarchs is the famous iconoclast who molted down all the bronze idols he could lay hold of, and turned the metal into currency. Hui-t'ung, it appears, had influence to save a certain number ; but tho reason why the elephant was spared is not far to seek. So intractable a mass of bronze could not well be melted whole nor broken up, unless at a cost which would outweigh its intrinsic value. It doos not seem likely that the " groat Buddha " alluded to in the above citation, is the bronze (or copper) colossus which now stands in a hostel a few hundred yards from tho Wan-nien-ssii. If the " great Buddha" had bee., of bronzo the fact would have been mentioned. It may be that the extant statue is all that remains of the " bronze shrine and bronze image oXto more than a hundred feet high." Tho word " also " has no correlative in the text, but the passage is an extract from some previous work, and the implied reforonco may well have dis- appeared in the process of compilation. The height of 1 00 feet may be taken as applying to the shrine, and perhaps a pagoda-lHce spire. The existing Buddha is, as I have said, about 25 feet high, and as compared with the elephant is a distressingly feeble conception. The latter, though more severe in style than modem realism is pleased to admire, cannot be refused tho praise of excellence, and I am not indulging the fonduoss of a discoverer in asserting that it would not disgrace a reputable artist of any school or epoch. The only defect I could dis- cover in the meohanioal work is that the three stages of the casting are not quite accurately closed together. China is reproached with its lack of ancient monuments, and one may be pardoned a certain self-gratula- tion upon the discovery of what may be considered, next to the Great Wall, the oldest Ohinese building of fairly authentic antiquity, contain- ing the most ancient bronze casting of any great size in existence. It wooden struotare, formerly pivoted in the dove, that revolved. The suggeation of Hindu builders does not help to solve the puzzle of the dome. The desoription of the square building, with pendentives and ciroulbr dome, rather suggests work like that of the Indian Mahommodans of the Deooan in the sixteenth century. (See Fergusson's ' Indian and Eastern Architecture,* p. 660 M9.) Bat place and date are far apart from these, and I commend this very remarkable aooount to Mr. Fergusson's own consideration. -[H.Y.] D 2 M A JOURNKY OF EXPLORATION IN WF:STERN SS&-CH'UAN. i« not ovory day that a tourist stumbles upon a handsomo monumont fifteen oentnries old. , Before I had dono wondering at the brazon monster, and the dome which shields hia rosplendont rider, a monk who was standing by said oonfidontially, " Come with me, and I will show you a stranger sight ; would you like to see a real tooth of Sakya-muni Duddha?" " Very much, indeed," I replied ; and he took me down an imposing iiight of ■teps to a tempio near the copper colossus, informing me on the way that Buddha had only four teeth, all of which aro extant. I followed my guide into a hall ohook-fuU of gods of brass and clay, and in a few moments the sacred tooth was extracted from a wooden box and pnt into my hands. I estimated its weight at about 20 pounds, but the priests who gathered round told mo that the exact weight is 13j^ catties, or 18 English pounds. It is about a foot long, and of a radely triangular outline: the grinding surface is level, but not smooth, and contains layers of transparent enamel. It is evidently a tooth, and may probably have been the molar of an elephant, or of some cognate beast. Em- boldened by the tolerance of the priests, who had no fanatical objection to its minute examination, I borrowed a razor from them and attempted to cut the surface of the relic, but I could make no impression upon the dense fossil ivory. They told me that it had been presented by a Chinese empvror, who gave a similar tooth to a monastery on Wu- t'ai-shan. I protested to the priests that it was an elephant's molar,* but they scouted the idea, affirming that they were well acquainted with the shape of elephants' teeth, which, they said, are " long things like horns st'oking out of their mouths." "But," I again objected, "if this was one of Sakya-muni's teeth, and he was reasonably well pro- portioned, he must have been 140 feet high." " How do you know he wasn't ? " they asked ; " and how do you know if the tooth hasn't grown since he entered Nirvana ? " f Such faith, defended by such dialectics, ia inexpugnable, and I withdrew from the controversy. Wan-nien-BSu is 8500 feet above sea-level. We loft it on the 81st, and mounted, through rain and fog, up and down — for the path is by no means a continuous ascent— to the temple of Hsi-hsiang-ch'ih. On the morrow we were stopped by heavy rain after three hours' marching of the severest kind, and compelled to spend the day in Chieh-yin-tien, at which point we had reached an elevation of 9000 feet. Nothing was visible through the thick mist during the two days, but the lower parts of the forest trunks and the interminable stairs. * Hr. Fortune has given a ont of a Buddha's tooth at Fu-ohau, which is evidently on elephant's molar. It is copied in ' Marco Polo.' Bk. iii. ch. xv.— [H. Y.] t The following occurs in my diary written before I had seen Mr. Saber's paper : — " Mashhad, 2nd Feb., 1881. — A man came with cariosities for sale, amongst others an elephant's grinder tooth ; the owner declared it was several thousand years old, and was the tooth of an antediluvian man. I asked him how many farsakhs tall that man was." -[W.G.] A JOURMET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSO-CH'UAN. w,' onnmont tbo dome { by said or Bight ; " Very flight of I the way followed I in a few d put into ;he prioBts catties, or triangular I contains jr probably MMt. Em- l objection attempted Q upon the inted by a ry on Wu- t'B molar,* Jnted with hinga like jected, "if well pxo- u know he sn't grown ialeotioB, is lert paper :— ■at others an fold, and waa lat man was." We visited sovoral temples, discovering among other ouriokiHei* a sloeping Buddha of a very realistio nature ; a nude figure lying in a genuine bed, with real blankets, mattress, and pillows complete. In another place two mummies— called by the priests jou-tMn or "flesh idols" — were shown us as the mortal remains of a pair of saints, set up like ordinary Buddhist images, and very much resembling them. An inspection of the damaged ends of their fingers showed a great many folds of silk bandage surrounding a central core, which was not, how- tDver, quite laid bare. There is no reason to doubt their authenticity, though their shrunken faces, which are exposed, are bo lacquered and " made up " as to have lost all human semblance. The abbot of Chioh-yin-tien turned out to b« a very intelligent ooclesiastic, and much bettor instructed in Buddhism tlian most of his cloth. He had travelled far and wide in Northern China, had often taken a passage on Btoamors, and was much interested in the subject of locomotive engines since a recent visit to Shanghai and an excursion on the Wusung Railway. His mind had been enlarged by these journeys to foreign parts, and ho allowed mo to kill a fowl which I had brought with me, probably the first tamo bird which had ascended the mountain for ton centuries. All eating of flesh or taking of life is,, of course, for- bidden by strict Buddhist discipline. Here the severest monastic rules are imposed ; oven eggs are contraband ; but the abbot made no difficulty, and oven mot me more than half-way. We sat long into the night round the wood fire, baking and eating the fine potatoes which are grown on the shoulders of the mountain, and listening to his remarkable stories. " Wu-t'ai Shan," he said, " is tho most ancient holy place in China, and contains a statue which stood there before Buddhism was preached. But Mount O is more strange and wonderful. Often during the ascent of the mountain have pilgrims been beguiled by the chant of iuvocationB, and the pleasant tolling of bells in lone spots where no luonaatery lies, and straying from the road towards such sounds, have lost their way. On a sudden they have descried in the thickest part of the forest immense halls in which images of purest gold are seated on jewelled thrones; there they have been daintily fed and delicately lodged by ministering priests, and guided on the morrow back to the main path, but never after their roturn from the Golden Summit have they been able to find tho mysterious abode of their hosts. Sometimes a pilgrim strays into the mouth of a cavo from which issues a gleam of no earthly splendour ; and lighted by the ray mile after mile without fatigue through stupendous chambers c which he never divulges the unutterable secrets, he at length falls asleep, to awake on the top of 0, gazing on the Glory of Buddha. The Glory of Buddha," said the abbot, " is unknown to you, but you may see it when you reach the Golden Summit. 88 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSlf^H'UAN. " You do not seem to believe all this. Well, you are not bound to believe it. I believe it myself. You ask me about the Wilderness (Lao-lin) behind the mountain. People will tell yon much which is not true. It is partly inhabited by charcoal-burners, potash-burners, wood- cutters, and miners of copper and iron. There are two mountains in it, Mount Wa and Mount Wa-wn, as high as Mount O, but with precipices on every side, so that they can only be ascended by means of ladders, and only in the summer months; in other seasons the falling icicles make the ascent impossible. Both have lakes on the summit. The Wilderness abounds in tigers, white bears, wolves, foxes, monkeys, musk-deer, and wild oxen. Ei'ght years ago I saw a tiger as big as a cow on a rock outside the door. Afraid ! No, I was not afraid. Why should a poor monk be afraid of a tiger ? The wild oxen are much like common cattle, but shorter in the body and far more active. Those I saw near Mount Wa-wu had long black hair, but generally they are the same colour as domesticated cattle. It is not easy to find them, and they are so savage that people fear to hunt them." What he told us about the two mountains is fairly true, for I have since caught a distant glimpse of Mount Wa-wu, and ascended Mount Wa, a most singular formation resembling a square tower.* All its four sides are very slightly out of the perpendicular for a height of about * The upper story of this most imposing moantain is a series of twelve or fourteen precipices rising one above another, each not much less than 200 feet high, and receding very slightly on all four sides from the one next below it. Every individual precipice is regularly continued all round the four sides. Or it may be considered as a flight of thirteen steps, each 180 feet high and 30 feet broad. Or again, it may be described as thirteen layers of square, or slightly oblong, limestone slabs, 180 feet thick, and about a mile on each side, piled witli careful regularity and exact levelling upon a base 8000 feet high. Or, perhaps, it may be oompnred to a cubic crystal, stuck amid a row of irregular gems. Or, perhaps, it is beyond compare. Some day the tourist will go there and compose " fine English " ; he could not choose a better, place for a bml purpose; but if he is wiser than his kind, he will look and wonder, and say little, and pass on. The plateau on the top, undulating so slightly that it may be called flat, is a grove of evergreens with a few open glades — the most charming park in the world. The rhododendrons begin 3000 feet below, but perhaps attain their fullest exuberance on the summit. The lake is a marsh, and at least two brooks meander among the knolls. It is not very necessary to add that in perfectly clear weather the unassisted vision extends, on all four sides, to a greater distance than 60 yards — the fog limit of our prospect during the twenty-four hours we spent on tho mountain. At the north-west angle a natural buttress crowned by a pinnacle, not easily dlscem- iblo from below, offers, though grudgingly, a safe but very narrow and sinuous way to within a thousand feet or so of the summit. Above this, following a track which takes advantage of the accidents of a corner, we wandered among broken cliff's, honeycombed with grottoes and irregular cavities, climbed tho rungs of a long wooden ladder, hid our- selves ttom the rain in crannies and crevices, the sockets of icicles as big as church steeple, — of course there were no icicles in June, but I saw them in March, and heard them fall and remember it— climbed another ladder, followed a level ridge, climbed three more decrepit ladders and several more huneycorabed steeps, lost all reckoning, and suddenly stmck a grovol path which led us so easily into the park, that if it had not been for the fog we should have forgotten that we were in the clouds. A JOURNEr OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSlf-CH'UAN. 39 2600 feet. The abbot's tiger was probably a leopard, a beast which is oommon in Western China. Musk-deer, foxes, and bears I have seen, but the latter were black, and after a good deal of inquiry I concluded that the white bears are black, with a white spot on the brttast.* A special interest attaches to the wild oxen, since they are unknown in any other part of China proper. From a Lolo chief and his followers, most enthusiastic hunters, I afterwards learnt that the cattle are met with in herds of from seven to twenty head in the recesses of the Wilderness, ivhich may be defined as the region between the T'ung river and Ya- chou, but that in general they are rarely seen. There is, however, a certain salt spring a day's journey or more north of Ta-t'ien-ch'ih to which they repair in early summer, and where they may infallibly be found some time in June. The Lolos, hardy and athletic mountaineers though they be, are evidently fearful of molesting the hill cattle — n^at-nttt in local Chinese. For such sport their weapons and hounds are miserably inefBcient. The hounds, a species of thick-built terrier, rough haired and mostly black, with straight legs, a coarse tail and muzzle, erect ears, tan eyebrows, and about 20 inches of height, though very useful for tracking and rousing game, will not fiice a beast at bay. The Lolos carry a pike, and a quiver of poisoned arrows only nine or ten inches long, which they discharge from a powerful bow made of the wild mulberry. During the four or five days when a band of them, and a pack of a dozen dogs, were living with me, they made continual hunting excursions, and I gathered from their accounts that only a very courageous hound would approach a boar. One evening after Iheir return from the hills they brought me a dog with a wound in his shoulder, saying that a bear had struck him and that the claw had remained stuck in the wound ; but when after much difficulty wo drew out the supposed claw, it proved to be the quill of a porcupine. A bear had, however, been brought to bay, and my guests admitted that they did not care to attack hi'n. The wild oxen are considered far more formidable game than the bears ; they hunt their hunters, and are said to be astonishingly agile ; but no doubt some allowance must be made for the feeble weapons of the Lolos. A rude pike is not a likely instru- ment with which to slaughter a wild bull on the steep slope of a jungle- covered hill, and their arrows are so short that they can only be used at close quarters. Moreover, they carry their poison in a little bag and do not apply it to the arrow tips until the time for action arrives, a habit whiah must cause hurry and confusion, and bo greatly in favour of the bull. The most successful mode of killing the cattle is by planting three pikes in a narrow run frequented by them, in such a manner that they may impale themselves on the points. Another way, which I could not quite understand, is to approach them with a largo number of * See ' Journal de mon troiHi&me Voyage en China,' Armand David, iii. p. 328, where four kinds of bears are spoken of, one greyish (de oouleurs gristltres). — [W. G.] 40 A JOURNET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSlif-CH'UAN. dogs and men, to separate one from a herd, and to drive him over a precipice. I was lucky enough to obtain a pair of horns and part of the hide of one of these redoubtable animals, which seem to show that they are a kind of bison. I do not remember if it is in speaking of this neighbour- hood that Marco Polo mentions his " Beyamini " ; but if the cattle . should turn out to be a new species, Boa Beyamini would be a good name.* It is an easy walk from Ghieh-yin-tien to the summit, although a formidable staircase of 400 or 500 feet is encountered at the outset. About this point the pines attain their greatest size. We saw several which divided into two trunks at a few feet above the ground, and which are said to yield the best timber. The path grows easy at about 10,000 feet, where a great variety of flowering plants and ferns line its border. Above that elevation the pines begin to fall ofiT, but the slopes are still well wooded with smaller kinds. Thick beds of weeds ore passed, a plentiful growth of large thistles is remarked, then comes a potato-field, and we issue on to the highest point of O, known as the " Golden Summit." The comparatively level space on the top — about an acre — is so holy that our company reached it in a high state of exaltation. The first object to be examined was a bronze temple of such excessive sanctity that it has been struck by lightning innumerable times. I had been led to suppose that it was still standing, the last of a long line of metallic buildings which had been successively demolished by thunder- bolts ; but I only found its ruins. The last thunder-bolt had fallen in 1819, since which event it had not been restored. The theory that a lightning stroke proves the sacred charauter of an edifice may perhaps be a Buddhist importation; the opinion of the Chinese is just the contrary. According to them a person killed by lightning must have been a monster of impiety. They hold, however, that any smooth and bright surface attracts a stroke, and they therefore jump to the con- clusion that all creatures with glistening bellies, such as the frogs and eels (or edible snakes) which abound in Ssu-ch'uan rice-fields, turn upon their backs by a kind of natural affinity during a thunder-storm, and so attract the flash. Such, at any rate, was the conviction of the priest who showed us the ruins. The masses of metal at present lying in a heap on the summit consist of pillars, beams, panels, and tiles, all of fine bronze. The pillars are nine feet long and eight inches in diameter, the * It is quite in tiiia region tliat Marco locates the oxen called Beyamini—" very wild and fierce animals." I have supposed tlie word to be probably a misunderstanding of the amanuensis for Bumiini, i, e. Boliemian, and that the traveller was comparing them to the Gorman. or Bohemian urus. It is not possible to say from what is stated here what the species is, but probably it is a gavccus, of which Jerilan desoribes three species (see ' Mammak of India,' pp. 301-7). Mr. Hodgson describes the Gaur {Gavteus gaurua of Jerdan) of the furests below Nopaul as fierce and revengeful.— [H. Y.] A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SS(J-CH'UAN. 41 thickness of material being rather less than an inch, for of course they are hollow. The only complete beam I could discover was a hollow girder 16 feet long, nine inches broad, and four inches through, the thickness of bronze being much the same as in the pillars. The panels, of which, by supposing the fragments roughly pieced together, I estimated there are about forty-six, are of the average dimensions of five feet by one foot seven inches. They are about an inch thick, but their frames are thicker, and for some unintelligible reason have slips of iron let into their edges. The panels are very handsomely ornamented with seated Buddhas, flowers, and scrollwork, and with hexagonal arabesques of various modification. The tiles, also of bronze, resemble ordinary Chinese tiles, but are twice as large. Besides these there are several hundreds of iron tiles stacked together. Many supplementary fragments, such as sockets, capitals, comer-pieces, eave-terminals, and decorative adjuncts, were lying about, all far too massive to be carried away down the steep mountain even if the priests would have allowed them to be abstracted. It is not L. -■: to guess what the size and shape of the building has been, since a.o r nc> wa number of panels and beams lie hidden under the heap of t'l' l e priests told me that externally it had two stories, that the inten^x was 19 feet 6 inches high, the same in breadth, and 26 feet long. If so it could not have been the shrine built by the Emperor Wan-li, for an imposing bronze tablet,* which, with pedestal and crown-piece, stands 6^ feet high by 32 inches in breadth, records that the dimensions were 25 feet high, 14^ long, and 13^ broad, and that it was erected in 1603. A few yards from the site of the bronze shrine is a temple crowned by a golden ball — whence the name of Golden Summit. Passing through this on to a small terrace, we found that we were at last stand- ing on the brink of ShS-shSn-ngai ("the suicides' clifiF"'|"), perhaps the highest precipice in the world. The edge is guarded by chains and posts, which for further precaution one :3 not allowed to touch ; but as the posts stand out a little over the precipice, one can easily look down without holding by them. The abyss was nearly full of mist, and I could not see more than 400 or 600 feet into it. The face of the rook seemed vertical. When I first caught sight of the mountain from a distance of 50 miles or more, it might have been likened to a crouching lion decapitated by a downright stroke close to the shoulders, the fore feet remaining in position. The down-cleft surface, i. e. the precipice, looked not more than 15° out of the vertical, but the steepest profile was not visible from that point of view. So far as I could estimate, the tablet contains a very long inscription, couolied iu theJiigbeaMidii^f ^^ rigmarole, of which I obtained a rubbing. ' ' , > v C..»-*Ji/^^ • The Buddhist rigmarole, of vhicl) I obtained a rubbing. ' , ' '' '^-■''*Ji7> t The name is so explained popularly, but shi-shcn — "to cast away the body "^ means to put off the fleiih, i.e. to become a monk or nun". 49 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. upper two-thirds at least of the mountain are out sheer down in this manner. My results for the height give 11,100 feet above the sea for the summit, and 1700 feet for the country below; but from a cause which I need not here explain, the measurement is open to a suspicion of error to the amount of about 600 feet in the case of the summit. Even if that allowance be deducted, this tremendous cliff is still a good deal more than a milo high. It is the outpost of the limestone forma- tion, which on this line of latitude extends westward to the T'ung river, where the syenite and granite of the Tibetan plateau first appear. Naturally enough, it is with some trepidation that pilgrims approach this fearsome brink ; but they are drawn to it by the hope of beholding the mysterious apparition known as the "Fo-kuang" or "Glory of Buddha," which floats in mid-air half-way down. So many eye-witnesses had told me of this wonder that I could not doubt ; but I gazed long and steadfastly into the gulf without success, and came away dis- appointed but not incredulous. It was described to me as a circle of brilliant and many-coloured radiance, broken on the outside with quick flashes, and surrounding a central disk as bright as the sun, but more beautiful. Devout Buddhists assert that it is an emanation from the aureole of Buddha, and a visible sign of the holiness of Mount O. Impossible as it may be deemed, the phenomenon does really exist. I suppose no better evidence could be desired for the attestation of a Buddhist miracle than that of a Baptist missionary, unless, indeed, it be, as in this case, that of two Baptist missionaries. Two gentlemen of that persuasion have ascended the mountain since my visit, and have seen the Glory of Buddha several times. They relate that it resembles a golden sun-like disc, enclosed in a ring of prismatic colours, more closely blended than in a rainbow. As far as they could judi^e by noticing marks on the face of the precipice, the glory seemed vo be about 2000 feet below them. It could not be seen from any spot but tl ~ edge of the precipice. They were told, as I was, that it sometimes appears by night, and although they did not see it at such an hour, they do not consider the statement incredible. It may be imagined how the sight of such a portent, strange and perplexing as it would seem in any place, but a thousandfold more astonishing in the depths of this terrible abyss, must impress the fervour of simple and superstitious Buddhists. The spectacle attracts pilgrims from all parts of China and its dependencies. Even Nipalese occasion- ally journey to the mountain. The Tibetans, lovers of their native snows, prefer the winter for the season of pilgrimage. The only tribes which do not contribute devotees are the Lolos ; but although they are not Buddhists, one of them told me that their three deities Lui-wo, A-pu-ko, and Shua-sh€-po, dwell on the " Golden Summit." The missionaries inform me that it was about three o'clock in the after- noon, near the middle of August, when they saw the meteor, and that A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SS0-CH'(JAN. 48 it was only visible when the precipice was more or less clothed in mist. It appeared to lie on the surface of the mist, and was always in the direction of a line drawn from thd sun through their heads, as is certified by the fact that the riiadow of their heads was seen on the meteor. They could get their heads out of the way, so to speak, by stooping down, but are not sure if they could do so by stepping aside. Each spectator, however, could see the shadows of the bystanders as weU as his own projected on to the appearance. They did not observe any rays spreading from it. The central disc, they think, is a reflected image of the sun, anu tne enclosing ring is a rainbow. The ring was in thickness about one-fourth of the diameter of the disc, and distant from it by about the same extent ; but the recollection of one informant was that the ring touched the disc, without any intervening space. The shadow of a head, when thrown upon it, covered about one-'eighth of the whole diameter of the meteor. The rainbow* ring was not quite complete in its lower part, but they attribute this to the interposition of the edge of the precipice. They see no reason why the appearance should not be visible at night when the moon is brilliant and appositely placed. They profess themselves to have been a good deal surprised, but not startled, by the spectacle. They would consider it remarkable rather than astonishing, and are disposed to call it a very impressive phenomenon.t 4 3. The T'uno Biver. .; .u; Beturning to the city of Omi we continued our journey up the Ya valley to Ya-chou, and then followed the high road over the Great Hsiang-ling PaBs| to Ch'ing-ch'i Hsien, a track which has been frequently * In a rude chart of the mountain, given to pilgrims, the ring is depicted as broken across on both sides in a line passing horizontally through the centre of the disc. t This remarkable phenomenon is evidently similar to that of the Qiant of the Brooken, regarding which see Sir D. Brewster's ' Natural Magic,' 1833, p. 130. I have described a like phenomenon as witnessed long ago in the Kaaia Hills of Eastern Bengal : " Standing on one of the highest points in the station at Gherra, about sunset, I have seen my sliadow uast on a distant bank of wliite fog that filled the valley to the eastward ; an appearance resembling tliat of the celebrated giants of the Hartz and the Stockhom. The figure was surrounded by a circular iris. The heavy fogs that fill the valley to the east of Cherra render this a common phenomenon at sunset. It has since been pointed out to me that any one may witness this phenomenon on a small scale, in going through the grass at sunriso oit a dewy morning. Each will see a faint halo surrounding the shadow of his own head " (' Journ. As. Soo. Bengal,' xiii. pL ii. p. 616). The lost-mentioned form of this phenomenon caused that extraordinary personage Benvcnuto Cellini to suppose it was a singular mark of supernatural favour to himself in consequence of certain visions ho had had: " Dallora in qua .... mi resto uu splendore (cosa maravigliosa !) sopra il capo mio .... Questo sp! .lore si vedo sopra I'ombra mia la mattina . . . . e molto meglio si vedo quando I'erbetta ha addosso quella molle rugiada," &o. (' Vita di Benv. Cell.,' Milano, 1806, i. pp. 452-3).— [H. Y.] X Both Abbe' Hue and Mr. Cooper have confounded this pass with that of Fei>yuel\- ling, two days' journey or so further west on the road to Tibet. Captain Gill bos ot course properly discriminated them. 44 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSO-CH'UAN. described and needs no further notice. I take up the thread of our mute at the village of Han-yuan-kai, the furthest place reached in that direction by Mr. Cooper, and called by him Hi-yan-ky. From this point forward my journey is indicated on the chart. The Liu-sha river, rising in the Fei-yueh-ling range not far from the top of the pass, joins near Han-yuan-kai a torrent, generally dry, which runs down from Oh'ing-oh'i, and then continues its course to the T'ung river — here called the Ta-tu — which it enters a little below the large village of Fu-lin. The cultivated part of the narrow valley of the Liu-sba is very fertile, but is liable to be invaded by the sand and shingle of its numerous torrents. The environing mountains rise in places to a height of 7000 or 8000 feet above its floor, and abound in preci- pices of wild grandeur. A good deal of lead, which includes silver, is mined in the rugged region immediately east of it,' and gold is known to occur, but is not allowed to be worked. The valley possesses great local renown for its rice, opium, and silk, the exceptional produce of which is easily accounted for by its low level. West of it there is no such low-lying country until the plains of India are reached. The only practicable road into it from the east is over the Great Hsiang-ling, for the southern track along the T'ung river, which I traversed on a subse- quent journey, is always dangerous, and in winter impassable for beasts of burden, on account of the deep crevasses with vertical sides which mountain streams have gouged into the limestone. In consequence of these natural obstacles, and of the occupation of a long strip of inter- vening country by independent Lolos, the only route by which Ohien- oh'ang can be reached from Ssu-oh'uan runs through this depression, and for similar reasons the still more important road to Tibet, the only road open since the stoppage of the Eoko-nor route, takes the same line. These two highways diverge at Ch'ing-ch'i Hsien, which it is natural to suppose should be a place of exceptionally large trade and population. The contrary is the case. It may be safely asserted that Ch'ing-ch'i is the smallest city in China. The explanation of the paradox is that its site is so closed in by steep mountains that there is no room for cultiva- tion. The villages of Han-yuan-kai, T'ang-chia-pa and Fu-lin have accordingly received the benefit of the Chien-ch'ang carriage, while Fu-chuang (otherwise Fu-hsing-ch'ang) and Ni-t'ou (Captain Gill's I-t'ou) have acquired the monopoly of the road tra£Sc with convoys to and from Tibet. I reached Fu-lin on the 17th August, after an excursion to a parallel valley. A mile or so further on we came upon the Ta-tu river, at this point 2200 feet above sea-level, running in a very rapid stream, about 180 yards broad. The Liu-sha enters it through a wide shingle flat, not much less than a square mile in extent. The main river sweeps in a grand curve from beneath a line of precipices 3000 feet above its waters, and after clearing the shingle plunges into a narrow gorge and A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSfj^H'UAN. 45 makes its way eastward, past blnflfs which ultimately rise, at Mount Wa, to not much less than the height of the "Suicides' Oliff" of Mount 0. The Ta-tn, or to adopt its more general name, the T'ung, should be regarded as the main upper stream of the Min river, since it brings down a much greater volume of water than either of the two confluents which join it near Ghia-ting. At Lu-ting bridge, one of the narrowest points, its breadth is a little under 100 yards, but it is not navigable above TzQ-ta-ti ; even below that town there are so many rapids and obstructions that the waterway is little used. Between Fn-lin and Sha-p'ing it is only practicable, for the whole distance, for timber-rafts which are floated down to Ghia-ting for sale; but the danger of the transit is so imminent that the owners of the timber have to bind them- selves to provide the raftsmen with coffins in case of fatal accidents. Below Sha-p'ing there is no difficulty. A wilder or more broken region than that which borders the T'ung can scarcely be conceived ; there are few reaches which are not overhung by bare olifis, often of immense height, and yet every here and there, in nooks betv'een the mountain- spurs, lie small cultivated glens which are models of secluded and tranquil beauty. In such spots opium grows to great excellence ; the flowers are mostly red, though the Chinese poppy in other districts is generally white. Nothing relieves the monotony of grey crags so gaily as a field of red and purple poppies. Wan-tung is a favourable instance of such dells ; but if the traveller turns his back upon the river any- where near that point, and ascends the hills on the right bank, an hour's walk will carry him away from cultivation, a day's journey will bring him into the thick of pine-forests, and after clearing these he may dimb for another day, or longer, to the summit of mountains 17,000 feet above the sea. The Tibetan road, vift Ta-chien-lu, crosses this range by a pass which, according to Captain Gill, is 14,500 feet above sea-level. Supposing an ezploi-er to select Tzu-ta-ti as his starting-place, and to turn west, with perhaps a little southing, he may ascend the gorge of Sung-lin torrent and march continually uphill for four days, when he will reach an undulating plateau, the pasture-ground of immense herds of half-domesticated yaks. Not a single tree of any kind grows on that highland ; every one of my informants specially averred that when the sun shines there is nowhere to be found a patch of shade from dawn to dusk. Beyond the uplands rises a system of forest-clad hills, among which the best rhubarb in China is gathered, and on the further side of these is a valley with a level bottom and a stream some 60 yards broad, called the Wu-la-ch'i. From the Wu-la-ch'i Mien-ning Hsien can be reached without crossing any high range ; it may therefore be suspected that its waters are the head of the An-ning river.* * Matnier coneideretion leads me to think that the Wu-la-ch'i is that tributaiy of the Ya-lung which rises in the Cheh-to Pass. ' • s '^..v 46 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SsO^H'UAN. FerhapB the traveller may prefer to take his outset from T'ien-wan for an exploration of these wild ranges, and to ascend the course of the torrent which flows by that village. The prospect of the track he will have to follow will be likely to dissuade him from the attempt half an hour after starting. A zigzag line of foam roars along a fissure between two rows of precipices which interlock one another. The way through is by clambering from rook to rock in the stream ; there is no path ; nor is there any moans of outflanking the precipices, the summits of the ridge being more like the spikes of a prison-wall than the peaks of a mountain. A Sifan who had made the passage told me that it is only practicable for experienced mountaineers unencumbered with baggage. At the western end of the ravine is a fine vsdley growing wheat, buck- wheat, and potatoes, and containing a lake said to be four miles long by two broad, from which the T'ien-wan torrent issues. The Tzii-mei Hills, of which we obtained a distant view, lie west of the lake, and beyond the Tzii-mei Hills again is the valley of the Wu-la-oh'i. Less formidable expeditions may be undertaken from Tzu-ta-ti. Mien-ning Hsien is made in four days by ascending the Lao-wa Valley, but a high divide has to be crossed, which is difficult for mules. A much easier route to the same city quits the T'ung and mounts the hill-side about two miles below Tzu-ta-ti. That village is the headquarters of a Sifan chief, Wang by name, and by title " Ch'ien-hu," moaning " a Thousand Families." There are other chiefs with the style of ' Hundred Families." Such designations do not of course intend any precise enu- meration of the aggregate of the families under their, jurisdiction, but they are, nevertheless, apt to confuse the uninitiated. When, for instance, one meets an "Eleven Hundred Families," it is natural to conclude that such a dignitaiy must be of more exalted rank than the chief of a thousand. But the error would be gross, " Eleven Hundred Families " being merely the style borne by the eleventh son of a chief of a hundred families. These terms are probably of Chinese invention, since they are also conferred on Lolo potentates. The well-known name^ T'u-Mu means aboriginal district, as well as aboriginal chief, and seems to be a general title, employed when precision is unnecessary. Wang's correct Chinese official title is Hauan-Justu (officer for difiusing control) bestowed upon him for distinguished services against the T'ai-pings. I did not make his acquaintance personally, in consequence of a delicate question of etiquette ; he was afraid to kotow to me, and at the same time feared to refuse the obeisance, being apprehensive, as he privately gave mo to understand, that his Chinese superiors would in either case disapprove his conduct. Many messages, however, passed between us. Finding that I spent much time at Tzu-ta-ti in sextant observations, he sent to ask if there was any underground gold in his village. These notes on the Upper T'ung were collected, it should be re- marked, during a second journey in the spring of 1878. On retuniing A JOURNET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSif-CH'UAN. 47 from Tzii-ta-ti I loat all my funds by a burglary at Na-erh-pa, juat out- side Wang's jurisdiction. The chief burglar escaped across the T'ung into the wildest part of the Ch'ing-ch'i magistratura, and when the local authorities were induced, after an appeal from me to headquarters, to make an e£fort for the capture of the culprit, the officers of justice started on his trail with two packs of hounds to pursue him, and a set of iron grapnels to seize him. Hearing of my destitute condition, " Wang of a Thousand " sent me, kindly enough, the sum of 7*. 6d. and a basket of eggs, with a message explaining that many of the country people are affected with leprosy, and that it is therefore dangerous to eat the eggs which are sold in the markets. The spittle of lepers, it appears, is pecked up from the ground by the poultry, which soon become ieprous, lay leprous eggs, and so transmit the contagion to the unwittiiig traveller. Circumstances which I need not recount led me, some days after the receipt of this timely but inadequate present, to make a second visit to Wang's residence, but I found no opportunity of thanking him ; he had gone to avenge an outrage which concerned him more nearly than my losses, namely the desecration and plunder of his father's grave. It was the evening of a market day when we returned to Tzii-ta-ti, and it is regrettable to relate that most of the Sifan visitors were drunk. But they are, withal, courteous in their cups. The Sung-lin affluent is crossed by a wire suspension bridge, some 120 yards long, an oscillating and vertiginous structure at best, on which it is difficult to pass a drunken man. Several unsteady Sifans, however, made way for me, and one, a good deal more than half seas over, who assured me that " he was drunk again," would not be dissuaded from escorting me across. Near the bridge I gathered a specimen of manners and customs. A young Sifan woman was lying on her stomach in the roadway, a second woman, her sister, sitting on her back and holding her firmly by the pigtail, while a very robust Sifan, her husband, was beating her about the hips with a large chunk of granite. Interference in such family misunder- standings is best made vicariously, so I directed two of my coolies to intervene, which they did with excessive zeal, carrying the husband by storm and knocking him down. I made them help him up, and then sit with him, one on each side, on a low stone wall, holdiug his sleeves and sitting on his coat so that he could not rise ; but while our attention was too exclusively devoted to calming his excitement, his wife rushed forward and tore a strip of skin down his neck with a stroke of her nails. She made no resistance when we drew her back, but ran off and rejoined her sister. As soon as she had left, her husband, to our great astonish- ment, became perfectly composed and amenable, actually thanking us for our interposition, which he said he fully appreciated, and entered into discursive details respecting the origin of the tiff. He spoke mongrel Chinese, and I could only understand that the party were returning from the trial of a law case, in course of which the wife had A JOURNEY or EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SS&-CH'UAN. given evidenoe on the wrong side, and they were now settling the case out of court. The lister, it appeared, was sitting on the wife and holding her tail es a token of condolence with her under punishment, and not as showing any sympathy with the extreme views of the husband. The latter, while insisting that his wife was a bad woman, promised not to beat her any more for present shortcomings, and went off home. I afterwards met the wife and sister, who looked at me seriously and sadly, but without surprise. The oddity of the affair is that both should so calmly have accepted our unwarrantable inter- ference. ' One does not see much of the Sifans between Tzti-ta-ti and Ta-ohien- lu, since the bottom-lands through which the route passes have been rented or bought by Chinese colonists. The immigration is quite recent. I have it on the best authority that the Sifan landlords of Mo- si-mien could not be prevailed upon to allow their Ohinese tenants to cultivate rice until 1876. The Mo-si-mien valley, or plateau — either term is applicable — is so singular a formation that a digression thither will be pardoned. I came down upon it from the pass north of Wan- tung, on the summit of which — 8000 feet above sea — there is a magnir fioent fragment of virgin forest, untouched as yet, though closely threat- ened, by the woodman's axe ; not a sombre and cheerless forest of pines, but a growth, of many varieties of trees, among the middle branches of which we saw huge globular bunches of parasitic flowers. Descending from this, we struck a milk-white river, which guided us to Mo-si-mien ; but instead of lying in the bosom of a glen, as we expected would be the case, the village is perched on the end of a long mound which rises from the floor of a narrow valley between tv;o unfordablo torrents. The end of the mound, beneath which the milk-white stream and the two torrents unite, looks like the bows of some immense ship, ready for launch- ing into the foaming waters which wash its forefoot. The deck, so to speak, is level, and the village occupies the forecastle. The sides seem vertical, at any rate from the route by which we approached, but the appear- ance is illusory, and we easily ascended by a steep zigzag path. Seeing that the valley bore almost in the direction in which Ta-chien-lu should lie, I determined to keep to it, instead of rejoining the T'ung — which is not far distant — and following the main route by Lu-ting Bridge. The mound in question turned out to bo more than three miles long, by a quarter of a mile or so in average breadth, and some 250 feet, or more, high ; the surface, generally level, but undulating, is sprinkled with a good many loose rocks of large size — I noticed some of more than 2000 cubic feet — but the mass of it is earth, to all appearance, and I could not discover any rock tn bUu. The two currents run parallel to one another, as will be seen from the chart, on which, for the sake of clear- ness, it has been necessary to separate them more widely than the tinth. A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SS0-CH'UAN. 49 Near the hamlet of Lamu-aaii, this ourioua ridge gradually effaoea itself to the level of the yalley. Ita proportions are ao great that it did not occur to me, while marching along it, to reflect upon its origin ; nor did I know, at the time, that we were beginning the ascent of a range covered with perpetual snow. But after entering the pine forests which begin a little above the hamlet of P'u-tEfl, it struck me that we had been travelling along the central moraina of an extinct glacier ; a referencer to the chart will show that the tail of the mound springs from a mountain spur between two valleys in precisely the manner which such a forma- tion requires. The lateral moraines would have formed the further banks of the existing torrents ; but under the circumstances I did not happen to look for them, nnd in any case they would have been undis- tinguishable from the hillaidea, covered aa theae are with long graases. Moreover, when the enormous glacier finally melted away, the side moiainoa, previously propped up by the ice, would have slid down into the beds of the present torrents, in which there are enough rocka, indeed, to aatiafy the most exacting demanda on that head. The central moraine, on the other hand, would merely have subsided without losing much of its mass. Whatever may have been the origin of the mound, it is well worth the attention of future explorers. The place is not more than a day's journey from the point where the Hua-lin-p'ing road strikes the T'ung, and the traveller who is on his way to Ta-chien-lu may very conveniently send his baggage on by the main road, while himself diverging into thi.H bypath with sufficient neoeaaariea for three days, and so gaining Ta- chien-lu over the eol of Ya-chia-kang. He will thus reach the town tilmoat as soon as his baggage, and in the pine forest and snowy paas will obtain a foretaste of Tibet. Not to prolong this digression unduly, I will merely add that wo walked for two days up the easiest gradient in the world through dense pines, from the branches of which hung, almost like veils, long streamers of a kind of moss locally called Mu-lu-ssii — probably the " fairies' scarf" mentioned by Mr. Cooper— imparting a blue-green tinge to every vista which the never-failing fog would allow us to perceive. A scarlet lichen clothed in many places the rocks which strew the watercourses. At 11,000 feet the pines fade away, but the rhododendrons are ao thick that it is not easy to stray from the path. Near this point a kind of froncolin walk across the track with the deliberateness of poultry. We attempted in vain to put them up, although we could openly approach them to within six or seven yards ; indeed, we went to the length of trying to catch a specimen, with the purpose of throwing him up in the air to see if he could fly. The rhododendrons were too close, and the birds far too clover, to allow of a capture, but I shot a brace with a revolver, by way of giving them law, which is a sufficient proof of their tameneaa. The highest hostel, a miserable cabin, where firewood Is not VOL. 1. I 60 A JOURNEY or EXPLORATION IN WKSTERN SS&'CH'CAN. to be obtained, einoe the epot ia woll nut of treo-limit, lies at 11,700 foot above lea. Beyond thia the path becomoi ■toop, vegetation dlsappoan, with the exception of a few aticki which locik like abortive rhododen- drons, and wo aoon reach the eol of Ya-chia, 13,000 feet above sea and 4600 feet above Ta-ohien-lu. Although there are higher pnHes in the same range — the Cheh-to of Captain Gill, written Jeddo by Mr. Cooper, is '1500 feet hi);her — Ya-chia-kang enjoys a pre-eminent reputation for its violent and asphyxiating winds, and is said to be the only pass in the neighbourhood which "stops people's breath" (hang jSn). The passage is much dreaded in windy weather on this account ; but although it was nearly calm when we crossed, wo were novorthelcfss affected in various ways by the rarefaction. One of the porters began to gasp and grow black in the face, but a short rest brought him round. A more curious adventure befall a Sifan who wus acting as my henchman, and waa burdened with nothing but an overcoat. Happening to require the garment, and turning round to take it from him, I saw him standing motionless in. the snow 200 feet behind. As he would not stir when called, I went back to see what had happened to him, and found him fast asleep, all standing. On being waked he complained of nothing but a sensation of drowainess, which he soon shook off. My own experience was a pleasant one ; a headache, which had come on at about 11,000 feet, disappeared completely as the top was neared, but returned during the descent. We saw almost nothing from the summit; the usual mist enveloped us, but a narrow break, opening through it like a tunnel, showed us for a few momenta in the south-west a high, jagged peak of the purest and brightest silver, overtopped by the moon, and backed by a patch of pure sky. Framed in very narrow compass by the rim of white fog, the picture was most magical and unearthly ; even the stolid Chinese waxed rhapsodical, and cried, "Silver, silver!" but as they think of nothing but silver all their lives, their enthusiasm may have been gross and worldly. The snow clears off the col in May, but as we went down the moun- tain, which is seamed by the most savage torrent gorges, we left the fog behind, and could see that we had passed between peaks and crags of great elevation. The snow never melts from these, and their height may therefore be assumed to be more than 17,000 feet. North of U8, on the other side of Ta-chien-lu, stretched a wide expanse of snowfields and ridges, probably of still greater height. In a few hours we struck the high road to Tibet, at the foot of the Cheh-to Pass, after strolling along a treeless pasture where a herd of yaks, the property of the king of Djia-la, were grazing, and soon trudged into Ta-chien-lu, a small town lying at the western end of a very narrow valley, so narrow, indeed, that for miles together it has no floor but the path and the torrent, which, after 15 miles of cataracts, plunges into the T'ung at Wa-ssu-kou ; a mere gorge, in short, between two snowy spurs of the range over which A JOURNEY or EXPLOItATrON IN WtlSTERN SsO-CH'UAM. 61 tbo Oheh-to road poMoi. One of thoae Hpun ia that which we have juat uroaaed, and tho other ia the region of aierraa and anowfielda which wo Haw from Ya-ohia-kang.— But Captain Qill will not thank me if I enoroaoh further upon his ground. That atretoh of the Tnng which runa f^m Wa-aaii-kou to Tsil-ta-ti haa the beat claim to be conaidorcssii Kavine; and, lastly, a corps was posted at Mo-si-inien to stop any advance upon Ta-ohion-lu. " Lai's band had by this time escaped into Shensi. After measures had been taken to cut uff their return, the Lolo chief Ling was directed to occupy the Yueh-hai passes, so as to prevent Shih Ta-k'ai from entering the Lolo territory. Presents were at the same time distributed among Ling's Lolos and the aboriginal troops of ' Thousand Family ' Wang to encourage and stimulate their zeal. " T'ang Yu- king's force reached the T'ung on the 12th of May, Shih Ta-k'ai having in the meanwhile crossed the Upper Yangtzu at Mi- liang-pa, entered Chien-oh'ang, found the Yueh-hsi main road blocked, took the alternative route by Mien-ning Hsien, and so descended, on the 16th, with 80,000 or 40,000 men upon the village of Tzu-ta-ti, in the district governed by Thousand Family Wang, at the confluence of the Sung-lin with the T'ung. During the night both streams ruse several yards in consequence of heavy rain, rendering the passage dangerous, and the rebels begun to construct rafts. They made a reconnaissance of the crosHing on the 17th, and on the 21st sent down a party 4000 or 5000 strong, carrying ' several tens ' of boats and bamboo rafts, upon each of which ' several tens ' of the most desperate embarked as a forlorn hope, covered by Nliiolds, and advanced to force tlie crossing. The whole army came out of their liuts to snpiwrt them from the bank and cheered them on with howls which echoed down the gorges like peals of thunder. Our men, however, stood fast, and when the enemy liad roachoil mid-channel opened a steady fire, which killed several chiefs in red uniform and exploded a powder magazine on one of the rafts, hurling the rebels pell-moll into the water. A few rafts which had boon carried away by the current were followed up from the bank and sunk, and not a soul of the attacking party escaped alive. " Nevertheless, during the following night the rebels again recon- noitred the crostiing, and appear to have satisfied themselves that it could not bo carried. Thenceforward they confined their efforts to the passage of the Sung-lin affluent, with the object of gaining Lu-ting Bridge, and invading the T'ien-ch'Uan region, but they were repulsed time after time by Thousand Family Wang, and lost several thousand men in the attempt. " On May the 24tb, Ling, coming up with his Lolos from Yueh-hsi, fell upon the rear of the rebels near Ilsin-ch'ang, and after repeated attacks captured their camp on Saddle Hill * on the night of the 29th. Frtnn that moment the rebel case became hopeless. After a futile * iSaiUllo Hill (Ma-ngnn-shnn) ia an eminence on tlio right bank of th« T'ung, a shcf t diittunce below Tzil-ta-ti. The villogc of Hain-oli'aiig lies on it^ western elnpc. 66 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSlf-CITUAN. attempt to gain over the native o'aiefs Wang and Ling, Shih Ta-k'ai, furions at finding himself involved in a eituation from which escape was impossible, slaughtered 200 local guides as a sacrifice tr his banners, and on the night of the 8rd of June attempted to force the passage of the main river and of the affluent simultaneously. Both assaults were again repulsed. After killing and eating their horses, the rebels, now reduced to the last extremity of famine, were allaying their hunger by chewing the leaves of trees ; nevertheless, on the 9th of June they made another general attack upon the crossings, but all their rafts were either sunk or carried away down the swift current. " The end had come. ' Thousand Family ' Wang, reinforced by the Mo-si-mien detachment, passed the Sung-lin on the 11th o' June, and assaulted the rebel quarters at Tzu-ta-ti. At the same time the Lolo auxiliaries, coming down from Saddle Hill, advanced upon the rear of the position, which was thus completely enveloped. Thousands of the insurgents were killed in the actual attack ; but all the approaches to the place being commanded by precipices and confined by defiles, the fugitives became huddled together in a dense mass, upon which the regulars kept up a storm of musketry and artillery, while the Lolos occupying the heights cast Aovm. rocks and trunks of trees, which crushed them or swept them into the river. More than 10,000 corpses floated away down the T'ung. .,, v -^ > " Shih Ta-k'ai, with 7000 or 8000 followers, escaped to Lao-wa-hsQan, where he was closely beset by the Lolos. Five of bis wives and con- cubines, with two children, joined hands and threw themselves into tho river, and many of his officers followed their example. As it was indispensable to capture him alive, a flag was set up at Hsi-ma-ku" displaying tho words 'Surrender, and save your lives,' and on tho 13th he came into the camp, leading his child, four years of age, by the hand, and gave himself up with all his chiefs and followers. Some 4000 poisons who had been forcibly compelled to join him were liberated, but tho remaining 2000, all inveterate and determined rebels, were taken to Ta-shu-p'u, where, on the 18th of June, Govern- ment troops having been sent across tho river for the purpose, a signal was given with rocket and they wero surrounded and despatched. Shih Ta-k'ai and three others were conveyed to Ch'6ng-tu on the 25th, and put to death by tho slicing process ; the child was reservi il the uge prescribed by regulation for the treatment of such cac'os.'' The above is a condensed extract from nn official report contained in tho Momoirs of Lo Ping-chang, Govenior-Goneral of Ssii-ch'uan. Tho main facts are unquestionably authentic, but the story is of course wiitten from tho Imperial point of view, which rcgai'ds all opponents as bandits and miscreants, who can hardly hope to escape condign * Iliti-nia-ku lies on the I.ao-wu rivor, sciinc kcvcii iiiilt'ii gnuth of T.ao>\vu-ljNiiiiii. A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SS6-CH'(JAN. 67 vengeance. It is therefore vain to expect from it any trustworthy indication of the plan of campaign which guided Shih Ta-k'ai in making these extraordinary detours, or any faithful account of the causes which brought about so complete a disaster ; but from inquiry along his line of route, I am satisfied that the explanation is not far to seek. The cause of his action was his inability to cross the Yangtzii at or near Sui-fu. The neighbourhood of the HSng river is a barren ragion of rocks and ravines, which his large force must very soon have "eaten up"; leaving out of the question the Imperialist statement, whioh does not deserve much credit, of his defeat in that district, it is evident that his supplies must soon have failed, and that ho could not have long maintained his position. Under such circumstances a sudden march upon Ch'Sng-tu by Hui-li-chou and Chien-ch'ang offered several advantages. It would at the outset have the appearance of an aoceptanoe of defeat and of a retreat into Yunnan, thus putting the Imperialists off their guard ; it would be a march through an undefended district ; and by the sudden return up the Ghien-ch'ang Yalley Ya-chou would be surprised, and the approaches to the capital of the province, and its fertile plain, carried without much difficult}*. The superfluous and less efficient part of the rebel forces was therefore sent on an expedi- tion into Kuci-chou, and with the view of drawing off the Imperial troops Lai's command was ordered to advance through Chien-ch'ang. Curiously enough it was the very inactivity and unreadiness of the Frovinciul Government which defeated these promising tactics. Lai's division, so far from drawing off Imperialist attention, took the Governor- General by surprise, and passed through almost without molestation ; so unimpeded indeed was their march, that I heard of cases where the main body turned back deliberately to avenge insignificant attacks upon stragglers in their rear. Not until Lai had entered Chien-ch'ang did the Governor-General surmise that his capital was exposed to be taken in reverse by such a movement. The dispositions described in his Memorial were in reality made to stop Lai's passage, but came all too lute for that purpose, though in the nick of time to prevent Shih Ta-k'ai's advance, which waa quite unexpected. It was then only necessary to close the pass — about two yards wide — which leads from Lu-ku to Yueh-hsi, thus forcing Shih Ta-k'ai's army to ascend the main valley, at that point alluringly broad and easy, to Mieu-ning Hsien, and so to become gradually involved in the inextricable gorges which liorder the T'ung. If the river could be held, the rebel force must then inevitably perish from more starvation. Only a personal knowledge of the countiy and of the tribes which inhabit it could have enabled the rebel chief to foresee these dangers. He was utterly ignorant of such details. He probably expected that the Lolos and Sifans would join him or remain neutral, or — as is moro likely — with the usuil conceit of the Chinese, who esteem themselves 68 A JOURNEY OK EXPLORATION' IN WESTERN SSU-CH'CJAN. the only fighting people in the world, made little account of their opposition, But it is certain that all the credit of his crushing defeat and surrender is due to these hill tribes, who fought purely for their own hand, and with their exact knowledge of the local defiles and approaches cattily cut off the rebel supplies, and then made short work of the blockaded starvelings. In the Qovemor-General's Memorial cannon, musketry, and rockets play a conspicuous part, but from all I could learn from the natives the battles were mostly conducted with such primeval artillery as bows and arrows, stones, rocks, and trec- trnnks. 4. The Ohien-ch'asq Valley. > Chien-ch'ang, otherwise the Prefecture of Ning-yuan, is perhaps the least known part of the Eighteen Provinces. Two or three sentences in the book of Ser Marco, to the effect that after crossing high mountains, he reached a fertile country containing many towns and villages and inhabited by a very immoral population, constitute to this day the only description we possess of Cain-du, as ho calls the district. The fact of its being unexplored is sufficient, without the other inducements held out by the generally sedate Venetian, to make it " a very pleasant country for j-oung fellows to go to." Our first plunge into the unknown did not, however, greatly prepossess us with its attractions. Wo ascended a narrow glen between treeless hills sparsely grown with maize to a pass about 2000 feet above the T'ung, then dropped 1000 feet to the bed of a torrent which disappears through a wild gorge to the west, and ascended again to the village of P'ing-i-p'u, bordered by a few rice-fields. Although the vale seems very unproductive, the water-mills for grinding corn are numerous enough to reassure one with respect to the food supply ; no doubt a certain cultivation of the ravines on both sides of the route brings a reinforcement of grist. The mill-wheel lies horizontally ; and the water, admitted by a side-adit, strikes the spokes, which are planks offering their faces to the current, and so drives a mill-stone having the same axis as the wheel.* ' ■' ". • •' The latter part of the day's route is rendered dangerous by falling rocks. Many loosened masses lie on the hillsides ready to shoot suddenly down on the hollow way from slight disturbing cause. Near the village we passed the corpse of an unlucky pony which had been battered to death in this manner, and were told that four mules, valued at 70 dollars apiece, had lately been cruslied near the same spot. After Ta-wan is passed the precipices close in upon tlie stream leaving barely sufficient space for a narrow path which works along under a wall of rock. The more dangerous bluffs line the further brink of the torrent ; * This is tlie mill-wheel employed in the Hinmlayii, in Norway (I believe), and in Sicily ; probably in other parts of tho world. In the Hinialayu it is called grdt, a word sun-ly identical with grit and groat in spite of Grimm'8 law !— {U. Y.] A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. »9 where a glance into ita bed is possible through the border of ferns and -wild flowers one sees that it is crowded with blocks whose fresh angularity shows that they have toppled from tho heights. In some places such stony cascades have cleared tho stream and shot across upon tho pathway. Hern and there the bluffs under which the way winds not only overloan but oven hang down pendulous masses, not of honest limestone, but of a very coarse conglomerate of that rock with pebbles and earth full of spreading roots. Tho wayfarer has twice or three times to stoop his head under such clusters, and although there is no danger at all ho draws a freer breath after passing. The precipices are not high ; the highest . is perhaps 200 feet. But the inaccessible hill-tops above recede very slightly, and rise to not less than a thousand feet above the stream. That they are inaccessible may be concluded from their being covered with forest growth ; no Chinese woodman ever spares a tree which he can approach within reach of axe or fire. Shen-kou (deep gully), as the ravine is called, leads immediately on to tho little plateau of P'ing-pa, and through the village of tho same name, a straggling collection of wooden huts the inhabitants of which were spending the afternoon somewhere else, possibly at work in the fields. Very little of the upland is tilled ; the chief products are barley, maize, buckwheat, and two kinds of tobacco, the lanhua and tho cVerh. Tho latter has a shorter and rounder leaf than ordinary tobacco, and affords a much more powerful narcotic. It is said to grow best at high elevations. The few people wo met were dressed in woollen cloth of two kinds ; one a coarse Tibetan frieze, and the other a close but rather hard fabric woven by the Lolos. Crossing the plateau between low hills denuded of timber, although through the gaps wo could see clumps of trees, the groves in which the Lolos burn their dead, wc ascended very slightly to a " divide " 7800 feet above sea, at which point we entered upon that part of the road which is considered to bo most endangered by Lolo incursions. And in fact a few miles further on wo reached a station occupied by a small garrison of Chinese and subject Lolos who keep constant watch against the maraiiding mountaineers. Spears and firelocks hang ready to hand under tho eaves of the pine-built cabins all along the littlo street ; vigilant communication is maintained with the sentinels on the hill- erests, and several of tho garrison carried the match for their firolookH coiled in readiness round their wrists. Wo had met no Lolos befoi-e this. The few representatives of that persistent nationality which wo here saw, though acknowledging allegiance to tho Chinese, and speaking Chinese fluently, retained their native costume in its integrity, and evidently admitted no inferiority to thoir Chinese comrades in arms. The post commands a grand prospect of a wide open valley, the trough of an affluent of the T'ung, the only view of Lolo-land anywhere obtainable down the whole length of Chien-ch'ang. The valley runs 60 A JOURNEY OF KXl'LOKATION IN WESTERN SS0.«H'UAN. approximately from south-west to north-east. Its southern boundary is a long level ridge extending as far as the sight can trace, its crest and upper slojws ooverud with forest, and its spurs cultivated. It rises in all probability to 11,000 feet and may be surmised to bo the western inolino of the snowy central ranges of Loloilom, heights of which we afterwards gained a perspeutivo from the further bank of the Upper YangtzQ. Wo dropped down a boulder-strewn path in half an hour to Hai-t'ang, otherwise Ning-yiieh, a small frontier town confided to the charge of a major, whose action is unhampered by the presence of any civil authority. Seven hundred soldiers, under his command, are distributed among various posts in the neighbourhood and receive 3200 cash — say lis. a mouth per man. The tovm. and all the hamlets many miles beyond are simply garrison stations containing inns for traders and traffic. We did not pass, during the day's march to this place, a single package of merchandise, but were told that in this part of the route goods ai-o detained imtil a company assembles of sufficient strength to protect itself from Lolo attacks. The situation of Hai-t'ang is likened to the bottom of a bowl, the rim of which is surrounded by Lolos. A deep gully, however, leads directly down into the valley above mentioned. About six miles from Hai-t'ang, passage is said to bo barred by a river which no Chinaman is suffered to pass unless he has found a Lolo to go bail for his good conduct. The Lolos tlieraselvos swim or wade across, according to the season, and with the aid of a rope climb a bluff which forms the further bank. Inquiry at many places on the border invariably elicited the assurance that Chinese traders that enter the country under bail are safe from molestation, and make good profits. In matters of trade the Lolos are simjile and conscientious, but at the same time they will not calmly endure sharp dealing, still less evident trickery or bad faith. We climbed out of *' the bowl " on to a down, two miles or less in bi-oadth, bordered by low hills on which a few patches of forest survive. Th.') land is very scantily cultivated ; the sparao hamlets are all fortified and there are no detached farm-houses ; the inhabitants are almost without exception soldier-colonists. Travelling along the level uplands wo frequently met well-clothed soldiers in uniform, armed with firelocks, npear, or bow with thick sheaf of arrows, and sometimes caiTying all those muniments. They told me that they lived easily, tilling as much land as they pleased at a nominal rent. The extent of waste gix)und which might bo grown with maize, buckwheat, and potatoes, is certainly surprising to one who has but lately quitted the crowded furrows of Ssii-ch'uan. While wo were at breakfast several border Lolos gathered round and I had a good opportunity of considering them. They are a far taller race than the Chinese ; taller probably than any European people. During the journey we must have met many hundreds of them, but wo A JOURNEY OF EXI'LOUATION IN WESTERN SSJJ-CH'UAX. 61 ar people. , but wo never saw one who could be called, even from an English standard, short or nndersized. They are almost without exception remarkably straight- built, with slim, but muscular limbs; many of them are robust, but anything approaching the pork-fed obesity of an affluent sedentary Chinaman seems unknown. Their chests are deep, as becomes moun- taineers; the speed and endurance with which they scale their native mountains is a prodigy and a proverb for the Chinese. Their handsome oval faces, of a reddish brown among those most exposed to the weather, are furnished with large level eyes. Prominent but not exaggerated cheekbones, an arched but rather broad nose, an ordinary mouth some- what thin lipped, and a pointed and characteristic chin from which tho beard has been plucked. Tho same process has denuded the upper lip, which is of good proportion. Their teeth are remarkably white and regular, a preservation for which they account by asserting that they never eat roast meat, but always boil their food. Perhaps tho most marked character of their faces is a curious tendency to wrinkles, especi- ally on tho forehead, which is low, but broad and upright. The lownesa of the features may be merely an illusive appearance, since it is over- shadowed by a peculiar style of hairdressing. With very rare excep- tions the male Lolo, rich or poor, free or subject, may be instantly known by his 7iom.* All his hair is gathered into a knot over his fore- head and there twisted up in a cotton cloth so as to resemble the honi of a unicorn. The horn with its wrapper is sometimes a good nine inches long.f They consider this coiffure sacred, so at least I was told, and even those who wear a short pigtail for convenience in entering Chinese territory still coiiserve the indigenoiis horn, concealed for tho occasion under the folds of the Ssii-ch'uan turban. I heard however of a subject tribe near Lui-po T'ing which has abandoned the horn, as a concession to Chinese prejudices, but without adopting the pigtail ; but since the retention of hair on the front of tho head would still be regarded as a horn, while if it were allowed to grow on the back it would bo construed into a pigtail, they have hit upon the radical expedient of shaving their heads altogether. The principal clothing of a Lolo is his mantle, a capacious sleeveless garment of grey or black felt gathered round his neck by a string, and reaching nearly to his heels. In the cane of the better classes tho mantle is of fine felt — in great request among the Chinese — and has a fringe of cotton- web round its lower border. For journeys on horseback they have a similar cloak differing only in being slit half-way up tho Ijack ; a wide lappet covering the opening lies easily along the loins and croup of the horse. Tho coloiir of the felt is originally grey, but becomes brown-black or black, in process of time. It is said tliat tho * See also Biddulpli's 'Tribes of tho Hindoo Koosh,' p. 129.— [W. G.] t See these hoTn» on figures from a Chinesu drawing in Marco Polo, Book ii. oh. l»iU.-[H. Y.] : - :r.,. 6B A JOURNEY OK EXl'LOUATIO.N IN WESTERN SStf^H'UAN. iDHOotfl whioh haunt humanity never infest thowi gabardines. The Lulo generally gathers this garment closely round his shoulders and orossos hiu arms inside. His legs, clothed in trowsers uf Chinese cotton, are Hwathod in felt bandages bound on with strings, and ho has not yet been Hupor^civilisod into tlio use of foot-gear. In summer a cotton cloak is ofton substituted for the felt mantlo. The hat, serving equally for an umbrella, is woven of bamboo, in a low conical shape, and is covered with fult. Crunching in his felt mantle under this roof of felt the hardy Lulo is itniiervious to wmd or rain. Of their women I have unhappily seen few but the younger folk ; joyous, timid, natural, open-uircd, neatly dressed, barefooted, honest girls, devoid of all the prurient mock-modesty of the club-footed Chinese women ; damsels with whom one would like to be on brotherly terms. Several of them, natives of the vicinity of Yuoh-hsi, came to peep at mo in the verandah of the inn, their arms twined round one another's nocks, tall graceful croaturos with faces much whiter than their brothers'. They did not imderstand Chinese, and scampered away when I made bold to address them. But a stunly Lolo lord of creation, Hix feet two iiigh — whose goodwill I had engaged by simple words — went out and fetched two armfuls of them — about half-a-dozen. It would have been unkind to presume upon this rather constrained introduction, especially as thoy were too timid to speak, so I dismissed the fair audience with all decorous expedition. Their hair was twined into two tails and wound round thoir heads; they wore jackets, and flounced and pleated petticoats, covered with an apron and rcachii. <; to tho ground. In disagreeable contrast to those petticoated Oreads an old Chinese scribe sat near my breakfast-tabl ) writing letters to the deceased relatives of the Chinese garrison, enclosing paper, stamped in imitation of money, to defray current expenses in the other world. When duly sealed and addressed, these "dead letters" are burnt, and the Post Office order is supposed to have reached its destination. Even tho murdered female babies are furnished with funds by this process. Well-to-do people forward, by the same method, servants, horses, and oven concubines of paper and stick ; and if the d sccased has been an opium-smoker, an imitation opium-pipe, with all tho apparatus com- plete, is transmitted to him. The Chinese imagine this odd custom to bo Buddhist; but it is more probably a survival of funeral sacrifice. It at once recalls a practice which Herodotus attributes to the Scythians who, " when their king dies, bury with him one of his concubines, his baker, his cook, his groom, his secretary, his horses, and tho choicest of his effects." The Chinese have found it more expeditious and economical to bum all such personal property in effigy. In the afternoon we descended a series of half-cultivated valleys to the camp of Liao-i-p'u, accompanied by an escort of some twenty A JOURNEY OP EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSt7-CH'(JAK. 68 privates relieved every two milea by a freah squad. The guardiaua of these lone uplands are very different from the ragged rascals who are supposed to guarantee the peace of Eastern China. They are well and oven luxuriously clothed in bhirt, uniform jacket, blue knicker- bockors, fifteen folds — I havo often counted tliem — of cotton leggings, and the true classic sandul, neatly shaped to the sole and bound round the ankle with coloured strings. A broad flapping straw hat covers their cleanly plaited hair. Their weapons, strange to say, are mostly bright, but this is perhai)B attributable to the dryness of the climate rather than to soldierly cleanliness. A sergeant armed with a brood- Hword led the van, and the roar was brought up by a mounted liuutenant. Every alternate private -jarried a gingall and match, the rest shouldor- i;ig spears, tridents, or partisans. Here and thoro on the hillside a long ^ear flying a white or red banner outside a hut indicates where a sentinel is, or should be, on the alert against the predaceous wild- men. Many of the subject Lolos along the border ar > soldiers receiving pay fi-om the Chinese officials. Some of the little T'illage-oamps wa passed through consisted of no more than six or eight contiguous houses, with a miniature street down the middle, the whole protected by a strong wall. The population throughout this part of Chion-oh'ang has a vcr}' martial air. Target prctctico with the matchlock alternates with archery every evening, on an exercise ground outside the wall. The bow practice is of the usual feeble character, the utmost effective range lieing 60 yards, with a very high trajectory and wild shooting. At Liao-i-p'u we met a few individuals of a Sifan tribe which lives to the west of Chicn-ch'ang. The men nre dressed much like the Chinese, but, though intelligent and appruachablo, seem an inferior race to the Lolos. I learnt from one of them that they do not weave woollen cloth, but buy it from the Lolos — a statement which may bo doubted. The same informant told mo that his people can make them- selves understood, with some difiSculty, by the Tibetans at Ta-chien-lu. Pleased with my curiosity, he produced from bis breast an amulet written on stout paper, which he said contained his name and certain Buddhist charms. Such an amulet is bought from the lamas by every Sifan, at a cost of about 6«. The characters were Tibetan, and I seized the opportunity to air my knowledge of that language — a knowledge confined to the invocation " Mani pami hum," whijh Lo at once recog- nised and repeated. The Sifan ladies of this district wear a broad conical hat made of cane, with a cotton cover stretched over it. A good deal of cowrie work decorates their bosoms, which are further adoioied with thin silver plaques stamped with a central boss and a number of smaller sur- rounding bosses. In some instances this is suspended from a clotli collar on which are sewn separate bosses resembling beads. In other M A JOURNEY or EXI'LOKATION IN WEgTERN 8S&-CH'UAN. respoots they droKS mnoh like the poorer olaMes of Chiiitwo woiiion, but do not, of ooumo, (li«tort their feet. Thoy are generally robuat and vigorous ; I have even Boon one or two dames, still youthful, of almost herculean, but yet graceful, physique. I artlessly asked a Sifan if his people were friendly with Ihe Independent liolos. lie seemed to take deep offence at the question, and walked off muttering, " They rob us, they rob us ! " On the 21st of August the road led us by a series of very stoop Eigzags up the western mountain side. So severe was the work, and so oirouitouH the way, that we only made about five miles of direct distance, putting up at Pao-an-ying, a camp-village of 120 good-natured soldier-colonists. The next day we came down a narrow valley between hills, unsheltered by a single tree, and without any habitations except a small camp or two. Here and there a patch of maize was passed, but nine-tenths of the flat grew nothing but weeds and wild flowers. The stillness of the place was most impressive. Chinese valleys are gener- ally full of sound ; but here there is no running water to attract small birds, and no branch for the cicada to perch on ; the orows, so populous elsewhere, find no provender, and there is no voice of domestic animals. A few Lolo girls bringing in scant burdens of firewood, charcoal, and brown-cared rice, troop timidly along with silent barefooted tread to the distant market-place. -h As wo neared the frowning crags of P'u-sa-kang, on our left, the valley opened out into the plain of Yueh-hsi Ting, the chief town of this disturbed border district. The level is laid out in rice-fields, but BO stony is the soil that it must bo difficult for the rico-plnnts to find space for their roots. The road runs for nearly a mile along a high causeway of stones; the cottages are built with stones and fortified with stone walls. Fences of stones border the rice patches, and great mounds of stones are piled at short intervals all across the plain. But in spite of this lavish expenditure of material, the fields are still covered with the same unfruitful mineral, so closely distributed that at three inches from every stone lies another. We crossed perhaps five miles of this strange deposit, which decreases gradually as the city is nearod. The stones range from the size of walnuts to that of pine-apples, and of course are rounded. They have clearly been brought down by inter- mittent floods of a mountain-stream which rushes down a wide break in the western range. Three or four torrents of considerable size unite their waters on this plain and combine to form the Yueh-hsi river, which runs down into the wide Lolo valley mentioned above, and after a course of 70 or 80 miles enters the T'ung river under the heights of Mount Wn. Ono of these streams I ascended to its source, half a mile from the roadside, and found half-a dozen cascades plunging from crannies in the foot of a hill and joining their forces to make a fuUgrown river, ^0 yards wide A JOURNEY OP EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSS^H'UAN. 65 onion, but ubuBt and of almoat with Ihe ) question, very stoop •work, ond g of direct lod-natured ey between ions except pnsBcd, b\it wers. The s are goner- btract small so populous itic animals, harcoal, and tread to the mr left, the lief town of !C-fiold», but ants to find ,ong a high ,nd fortified 8, and groat plain. But itill covered lat at three ive miles of is nearcd. ■apples, and rn by inter- ido break in Uers on thio down into ho of 70 or [tWa. Ono |ho roadside, lio foot of a yards wido and two feet deep. One source was a small oavom from which the fish are said to emerge with the water ; I can at any rate certify that some of them are seven inches long and of excellent flavour. The head of n second affluent, which runs from under a hill three miles S.S.W. of the city, wo failed to discover, having overrun the scent. We had, in fact, gone round the roar of its point of issue. It is narrower, but a good deal deeper, than the first stream, and by native account mns under the mountain in full volume from a lake on the Airther side. Yuoh'hsi T'ing is administered by a magistrate and a colonel with 760 men under his command. There is also a Lolo chief— T'uhmjI — who exercises groat influence and holds jurisdiction over the subject Lolos. The oity is about 700 yards square, is not thickly inhabited, and possesses no commerce, the produce of the plain being locally con- sumed. I was told that a few miles to the cost thero are mines of silver, copper, and iron, which until lately were worked by Chinese, but are now in possession of the free Lolos. lu this dale we passed many Sifan maidens, strapping and exuberant queans whom report calls hussies ; this must bo said without prejudice to well-conducted individuals ; but in general the Sifan beauties suffer giHiatly by comparison with their Lolo sisters, who are obviously gentlewomen. Many a time we mot the tall straight Lolo with his fringed mantle strung from his neck over his left shoulder, his wrinkled face peering curiously at the stranger, as he drives a few small but active and clean-made hilUcattle along the rough road. It is the oustom for persons of our dignity to present him with a cup of native wine. The potation is a lengthy process, for if any of his compatriots are present he first passes the cup round, everyone taking two or three infinitesimal sips, and then himself, slowly and with much display of appreciative gustivity, imbibes the remainder interruptedly, holding the cup between drinks close to his beardless chin, and all the while uttering profuse rhetorical thanks to the donor. The following speech was delivered to me on such an occasion: — "Your bounty is infinite. You are heaven ; I am earth. I am a civilized Lolo, not like the wild Lolos who are no better than Taiping rebels. I am a Black-bone,* not a Whit»-h• 66 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'(JAN. amount, all things being considered, to 720, that it seemed well to assume an air of conviction if for no other purpose than to acquire further information. I asked him how many moons there are in 360 days. '* Tiivelve," he replied ; but when I pretested that twelve moons would fall short of that complement, he not only appreciated the difiS- culty but took up an explanation of its adjustment. "Our teachers," he said, "add a number of days to make the year regular." "But," I asked, " how do thoy know what the additional number should be ? " His ready and perfectly satisfying answer was, "They judge by the time of flight of the wild geese." Such a system, though not minutely precise, is sound at bottom and must inevitably come right in the long run. But the Lolo proceeded to admit that the arrangement is inexact, and added that his teachers — he employed the word Haien-aheng — possess a more perfect method, the principle of which he confessed he did not understand. His explana- tion amounted to this : — the limits of the seasons, which, by the way, the Lolos count as two only, summer and winter, are indicated by the rising or setting of prominent stars over peaks or gaps in the hills, viewed from certain fixed positions. If his statement be taken as referring to the place of the sun with regard to such stars, as is almost evident, it means very much what the Astronomer Boyal means, when he annually -exclaims, " Sun enters Capricomus ; winter begins." There is, however, no primd-faeie reason for denying that this isolated people may possess the rudiments or, perhaps, the relics of certain sciences in the rough, since there is no doubt that they have books. " I have seen bushels of books, but was not allowed to examine them," is the expression of a French missionary who has visited their borders. Further on I shall be able to establish the most interesting fact that they possess the art of writing, in a form peculiar, it would seem, to themselves. What the Lolos are, whence they have come, and what is their character, are questions to which I can only make a very incompetent reply ; and it must be premised that it would be very unfair to draw a definite general conclusion from a small number of scattered and embar- rassed inquiries at points round their frontier. No description of them exists in any extant work, with the exception of a passage to be quoted further on and a few sentences in Captain Blakiston's book. It may fairly be said that nothing is known of them. They have been con- founded with Miao-tzu, Man-tzu, Si-fan, Yeh-jen, T'u-i, and other such like loose names, indefinite Chinese expressions, mostly contemptuous, and altogether devoid of ethnological significance. " Lolo " is itself a word of insult, of unknown Chinese origin, which should not be used in their presence, although they excuse it and will even sometimes employ it in the case of ignorant strangers. In the report of Governor- General Lo Ping-chang, above quoted, they are called " I," the term A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN, 67 rell to loquire in 360 jnoonB le diffi- kchera," "But," Ld -beV by the torn and eeded to lers — ^he bod, the explana- the way, id by the ;he hills, taken as is almost ins, when applied by Chinese to Europeans. They themselves have no objection to being styled " I-ohia " (I families), but that word is not their native name. Near Ma-pien they call themselves " Lo-su " ; in the neighbour- hood of Lui-po T'ing their name is " No-su " or " Ngo-su " (possibly a mere variant of " Lo-su ") ; near Hui-lichou the term is " L^-su " — the syllable L6 being pronounced as in French. The subject tribes on the r'ung river, near Mount Wa, also name themselves " Ngo-su." I have found the latter people speak very disrespectfully of the L6-su, which argues an internal distinction ; but there can be no doubt that they are the same race, and speak the same language, though with minor differ- ences of dialect. The country occupied by the independent Lolos, an area of about 11,000 square miles, is called, in conjunction with a good deal of debate- able border, "Liang-shan" or " Ta-liang-shan " (Great Eidge Mountains), a designation which does not mean any particular peak or peaks, or special range, but applies to the whole Lolo region, a district moun- tainous throughout, and containing a few summits which overtop the limit of perpetual snow. The word " Black-bone " is generally used by the Chinese as a name for the independent Lolos, but in the mouth of a Lolo it seems to mean a " freeman " or "noble," in which sense it is not a whit more absurd than the " blue blood " of Europeans. The " White-bones," an inferior class, but still Lolo by birth, are, so far as I could understand, the vassals and retainers of the patricians — the people, in fact. A third class consists of Wa-tzii, or slaves, who are all captive Chinese. It does not appear whether the servile class is sub-divided, but, at any rate, the slaves bom in Lolodom are treated with more onsideration than those who have been captured in slave-hunts. Near Fu-lin I met a Chinese youth who had been brought up in servitude by the Black-bones, and had lately made his esoape. He admitted without hesitatio:! that he had been well treated and i\ot overworked, but averred that he had always longed to escape. In P'iig-shan, on the opposite side of the Black-bone territory, I sent to the n agistrate, requesting him to allow some of the hostages, who are usually detained in his residence, to come to my lodging. Two of them were sent round under an escort, and turned out to be old acquaintances, whom I had visited in their prison-house two years previously. One of their slaves, a Chinaman, attended them in durance, into which they had been inveigled on a pretence of trading, and told me that he hoped to return with them when they were released. Near Ma-lieh a Chinaman who had escaped from captivity informed me that his condition as a slave had been comfortable enough, and that he had no complaint to make on that score ; nevertheless, he preferred his liberty. His masters had tattooed upon his forehead an indelible blue cross, as a mark of ownership. The children they capture are r 2 68 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. treated like their own children, and grow up to all intents and purposes Lolos ; but adult slaves, recently caught, are liable if recalcitrant to severe penalties, being placed in the stocks by night and very poorly fed. In extreme cases they may be flogged with nettles, a punishment of which the severity may be increased to a fatal result by keeping the lacerations wetted with cold water. When the captives become amenable to discipline their lot is easy; they are tattooed with the mark of the tribe, and then treated in all respects as White-bones. The same informant told me that the Lolos make broad roads, and live in fine stone houses. It might be supposed that the well-conditioned and generally con- tented slaves are half-breeds by Lolo fathers and Chinese slave-mothers, but such is not the case. Even the T'u-ssii — Lolos who hold hereditary rule over tribes subject to Chinese jurisdiction, and who speak and write Chinese and wear the Chinese official dress — never marry any but a tribeswoman. Many Chinese girls are, of course, carried into slavery, but only for the purpose of providing wives for Chinese bondmen. When a marriage is arranged between a Black-bone tod a damsel of his own degree, the bridegroom invites the bride with her relations to a banquet, which is spread on the hillside. After the festival the bride goes home with her friends, and it is not until after the third wedding breakfast that the happy pair are united. Presents are interchanged, of which it seems that the family of the bride obtains by far the larger share. The following account of the nuptial ceremony was given me by a party of Lolos near Mount Wa, and may be implicitly relied upon. The betrothal is ratified by a present, fror *he husband's family, of three vessels of wine and a pig. On the wedoing morning the parents of the bride assemble their friends, and the ceremony is opened by the bridesmaids with a melancholy song : — " In spite of all the affection and care your fond parents have lavished upon you since the day you were bom, you must now desert them ; never again will you sit beside them at work or at meals. You will not be nigh to support them when they grow old, nor to tend them when they fall sick. You must lea/3 them, and go away to the house of a stranger." Whereto the bride responds, also in song, broken with bitter weeping: — "Leave them I must, but not by my desire or fault. They must bear with my absence ; my brothers and sisters will support them. I go to my husband, md my duty will be to help his parents, not, alas ! my own. But if any trouble befall my dear father and mother, I shall pine to death ; I am Bure I shall. Seldom can I visit them ; but when they are sick let them send for me, and I will come, I will come ! " The antiphonal character of this chorus led mo to inquire if the chant is cut and dried. But A-niu (uncle), a rather cynical old Lolo, whose right eyebrow was obscured by a ecar gained in the chase of the A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. 69 wild cattle, told me that it is for the most part extemporised, and that he thought the girls could go on for ever if they liked. Other passages of this touching marriage service lament the leave-taking, and give advice to the bride's sisters to be submissive, kind, and gentle. In the mean time the bride is being arrayed in rich garments and gawds of precious metal, and when she is fully decked the final strophe of the bridal wail begins, a lyrio dread that the groom and his parents will behave harshly to the parting sister. A crisis of tearfulness ensues, when, suddenly the brothers, cousins, and friends of the husband burst upon the scene with tumult and loud shouting, seize the almost distraught maid, place her pick-a-back on the shoulders of the best-man, carry her hurriedly and violently away, and mount her on a horse which gallops oif to her new home. The violence is rather more than simulated, for although the male friends of the bride only repel the attacking party with showers of flour and wood-ashes, the attendant virgins are armed with sticks, which they have the fullest liberty to wield. " Probably they do not strike very hard," I remarked ; but A-niu replied, " Oh, oh ! the sticks are thorn-branches,* an-^ the girls lay about them with all their might." The husband's family furnish the young couple with horses, cattle, and sheep ; the parents of the bride supply clothes, ornaments, and com — chiefly maize and buckwheat. Among some of the tribes a ceremony is said to obtain which seems too grotesque to be true ; perhaps it is only a game. The bride is perched by her parents on an upper branch of a large tree, while the elder ladies of the family cluster on the lower branches. The ardent bridegroom clumbtrs up the trunk, assailed by blows and pushes from the dowagers, and it is not until he has succeeded in touching the foot of his sweetheart that he is suffered to claim her as his house- wife. When a boy is born he is washed in cold water, and his forehead baptised with cowdung to render him robust and fearless. But the birth of a girl is generally regarded with more satisfaction. Indeed, the women hold a very respected position, and may even succeed to the sovereignty of a tribe. The best guarantee a stranger can find who desires to enter the Lolo hills is a female guide, who before setting out puts on an extra petticoat ; by Lolo law a traveller thus personally con- ducted is sacred. If any serious molestation is threatened, the woman, after giving due warning and formally calling upon all present to witness the act, takes off a petticoat and spreads it solemnly on the ground. There the token remains, with its coloured flounces fluttering h\ the breeze or reeking in the rain, until the outrage has been fully • Tlio Lolo thorn, which lines every road side above P'ing-slian, is armed with rows of blood-red points half an inch or more in length, all turned tho wrong way, like shark's teeth. In some wny which I could not understand it may bo used for food. 70 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSlJlCH'UAN. condoned. . The neighbouring chiefs are Vound to punish the offenders, and until justice has been done the petticoat is as inviolable as an ambassador's flag. I am also informed that the women are allowed to take part in battles, Tvith the tacit convention that so long as they do not use pointed or cutting weapons they shall not be attacked by male warriors. Although traders pass freely through the whole country, it is clear that the various autonomous tribes are not very amicably united. A captive among the F'ing-shan hostages told me that his chief, by name Kata, had lately crossed from Lui-po to Ning-yuan ; and being asked how many days the journey had occupied, he replied, "Kata had to avoid many enemies (yuan-chia), and therefore took forty-four days." Now the direct distance from point to point is only about 80 miles. The same informant, who remembered with gratitude my visit to hib prison- house during the time of Mr Grosvenor's mission, cried out, on being told that I had lately passed the borders of his tribe near O-jien T'ing, " Why did you not let us know ? Although we are prisoners, we could have sent word to our countrymen, and I warrant they would not have let you go by without a welcome." " But would they have taken me through their tenitory ?" " Certainly they v/ould ; but they could not pass you into the country of their enemies." It is remarkable that Buddhism does not count a .single convert among the Lolos. Their cult, whatever it may bo, is fostered by a class of medicine-men, who are held in great reverence and monopolise the art of writing. It is very difficult to elicit a reply to questions regard- ing their religion, but the following traits, gathered from Chinese who had escaped from bondage, are credible. The deities are consulted by tossing sticks in the air, and examining the positions into which they fall ; or by burning mutton-bones, the marks produced by the calcination indicating the fortune, good or evil, which has been t'.ecieed. The feathers of a fowl, 'userttd into a split bamboo and thrown oa to the roof of a house, avert evil influences. Sheep, cattle, or horses are slaughtered when a disaster threatens, on a kind of insurance principle — " I am willing to sacrifice this, in the hope of preserving that " — the theory, perhaps, of all sacrifice. Trial by ordeal is common. An article of value having been stolen and the thief remaining undiscovered, t^e people of the place are assembled by the luedicinc-men, and a handful of rav/ rice is served out to every one. A solemn period oi: mastication follows, after which the resultant is spat out, and a stain of blood on the chewed mouthful infallibly betrays the culprit. It vi affirmed that the gums of the guilty bleed, and that a confession alwaj s ensues. The order of succession to property and chieftainship is curious ; the youngest son generally succeeds, and after him the eldest. The following stray notes were collected from the P'ing-shan captives. They compare the world to an open hand : the thumb, A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSff-CH'UAN. 71 etretoliod out far from the digits, represents foreigners, the forefinger themselves; the middle finger indicates the Mahommedans, the third the Chinese, and the little finger the Tartars. (Perhaps the thumb was, for the occasion, transferred from Tibet to Europe.) The great Emperor of China is imagined to sit enthroned in the middle of the palm. They worship three deities — Lui-wo, A-pu-ko, and Shua-shS-po, of whom Lui-wo is the greatest ; all three live on Mount O. Old people say that the Liang-shan tribes are a branch of the La-ka (?) family, and caiuo originally from the west. The first three numerals were formely tu, fan, yi, but have been changed. They procure fine woollen cloth from E'erh- ka-ta, which is not far from Ghien-oh'ang Fu (Ning-yuau). Tibet is two months' journey from their tribe; and beyond Tibet lies a foreign country from which goods reach them. They have not been to that country. In 1849 a foreigner dressed like myself, but with long beard and black hair, paid them a visit at a place which is five days' journey from Ma-pieu, and gave them 20,000 cash — about sixty-two shillings — for a cow and a sheep. They would like to know what has become of him, as he was very friendly. (I have no idea what this can mean ; the French missionaries without exception wear Chinese dress.) Some of their people have red or yellow hair. A chief marries throe wives, a sub-chief two, and the common people one. They cultivate wheat, barley, and millet, and Uiake wine of these, but grow very little rice. They use knives and forks, and eat beef, mutton, and park, but not horse or dog-flesh. They make their own swords, three and a half to five spans long, with square heads, and have bows which it takes thre6 men to draw,* but no muskets. Their women weai' pleated petticoats, ornaments of silver and gold, and embroidered shoes. Hearing that foreigners possess instruments which indicate the time of day, they would be glad to obtain a specimen. There is much in the free-hearted manner of these Lolos to attract the traveller, and ^aore in the interest which attaches to so original or aboriginal, a people. Possessed as they seemed to be with half an idea that I was akin to their race, they wore everywhere curious to see their far-away tribesman. A European could doubtless stroll over the length and breadth of their meads and mountains in complete security ; but he must be furnished with references; an introduction en regie is indispensable. They appear to keep a wary watch along their border, and the character of a visitor is soon appreciated at its true value. Should he belong to the category of honeet folk he will find no diflSculty in crossing the frontier, unless it be from Chinese officials. Whatever may bo the diflfei'ence between the subdivisions of L^su and Ngo-su, it is impossible to deny that they belong to the same family. Physique, manners, and language, all correspond. It is most noteworthy • Seo this from a Chinese drawing in ' Marco i'olo,' Bk. ii. ch. xlix.— [H. Y.] 72 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATIOK IN WESTERN SS&-CH'17AN. that the term Le-8U — or some variant of it — is nationally used by aeveral tribes in this part of Indo-China, widely separate from one another both in the geographical and other senses. I find in the work of Abbe Desgodins an account of a people whom he names Liwou, inhabiting the region immediately south of Tibet, and to whom he attributes a very independent character. He adds that their language differs wholly from those of the numerous tribes by which they are bordered. Again, in the valuable journal kept by Dr. Anderson of his experiences with the Sladen Mission, mention is made of a people whose tribal name he writes Lee-saw, and whom he proposes to identify with the " Lei-m " euoountered on the Tibetan border by Mr. Cooper. The Doctor's dopcription of his " Loe-saws " as " a small hill pec pie with fair, round, fliit faces, high cheek-bones, and some little obliquity of the eye," differs ioto ccelo from the tall, oval-faced, Aryan-like race I saw m the Chiou- i:h'ang border. Nor is the resemblance between Mr, Cooper's friends .oriu> of Lfft B*nk of Tung Rlrar. Shy-thdhra Names borrowed Chinese from •/ Willow Bamboo Buried pine Wine .. Cow .. Dog .. Goat .. Pig .. Fowl Duck Sheep Yak Hare Bat Snake Tiger .. Dragon Bird .. FiBh .. Hawk .. Sparrow Pigeon Musk deer Mbo-u He-ka Tobu-si Wo ,. Mwe Tch'o Tch'i Bgo .. Bga> Nto-tsi} Yo .. Bga» Mi-dzi; Gu .. Byr .. Mi .. La .. Ri-dji Wolf .. Fox .. Leopard Bear .. Lie. Nday* Shih-wo Jih-pa Dse-tch'uo Yi-mi-dzy (Ohineie?) To-ba (llapien dialect) Zo Sha (Oliinese) Bbu-dza (Chinese) (Chinese) (Chinese) Dy.p'u (Chinese) (Cliinese) (Same as Wolf) Bge Mo-slioa ' .-! Ma-tohie ^^ Djih Ly, or Lygh K'e Tch'i Wo'-pa (male), Wo»-ma (female) Wo* E-pu (male), E-ma (female) Yo Ta-la He Vu A-uuo La Luo A-tsy Hai-yi Tohuo A-tohao Si-atsy Ly-pu (maleX Ly-ma (female) Viy Mie-guo Zu Wo (in a deep tone) 76 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SS&.CH'IJAN. BirAM (pn MmiA) Father Mother Elder brother .. Younger brother Sinter Huaband Wife Son Daughter Father's elder brother Father's younger brother Father's elder sister Father's younger sister Grandfather .. Grandmother Grandson Granddaughter Nephew, or niece (pruprrly M uf T»a-U-tl, A-ba .. A-ma A^ya N-a .. Hoi-ma Si-p'a Mb-iiiu .. Yl-za Zi-e A-ba-k'«ra ., Bel-ka A-ma-k'wa .. N-ka Sho .. Jyn-te Jih-yi T'eif Shuo Ua-ma ifa-Bhe-toh'a Za-taa Mbo< Zy .. liOLo of li«fl B»nk of T'ung Rlvar. Bsy-gu Tiy-ma Wu-ma .. Sho . . He-ma .. He-bu .. DJi-mi Toh'u Mie-go-lo^mo (tinder- stone) Ko-dty (Chinese) Do-ge Lo Djia-pa T'oo-wo T'ao-shu-pe T'1-tu-dzy Ssy Toh'U-ti K'a-dzy Wo-ye Toha-mo Hhih-nie Black Da-na .. White Dy-lu Bed De-nie Green La-mi Blue Da-ba Yellow Dy-sho Good Ya-lie, or Yan-dy .. Bad .. .. .. Ma-Iie, or Man-dy High Yam-bo Low Ya-nie Long Ya-she Short Ya-4jo Thick Ya-du Thin • Ya-bu Near Mbwe-sha .. Far Ya-rgo-she .. Fast Yan-tch'e .. Blow Di-wa Old K'wa-k'wa .. Young P'u-za Big Ya-k'wa Little Yie Strong Sho-mo-ya-djo Weak .. .. Da-ma-shia-tu Handsome Yan-toh'uo .. Ugly Ma-sha-nga A-no-BO A-tohU-w A-ni-80 A-lu-so A-wu-so A-shih-80 Bei-so, or Bni-BO A-bei-BO A-mo-so E-hi-so A-shie-so £-nu-80 A-tmbu-sho E-bu-sho (Same as "short") (Same as" long "^ Kwo-tch'a A-lt-a-li Mu> So-lie I-8U Dji-su Wo-ni-ko P'a-ko Sii-erh-te-ko Shih-Ia-te -)>. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^ ^ I !.0 £fi2i lii Sf 1^ 12.0 u !j25 |U 1 1.6 kW FhotogFaphJc Sdmces CorptXHtion '^^ \ <^ 4^' 33 WIST MAIN STRUT WnSTIR,N.Y. 14510 (716)«72-4S03 4tf 78 A JOURNET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSd'-CH^AN. ' I tktAH CprapntT liwtax') houtothatHuik ofTilMttltt of rang BItw. Clever Tsn-tch'e-tv .. .. O-c^i Btapid Han-tdi'e Bi)m-s9-k-4jo Awkwaid K»-ti} Bioh Ta-bo Sa-ga^o Poor M»-bo So-dia Dead T'o-ahm Sav^wo Alive Dqii-io DJnHM Bifan (themselves) .. .. Lo-ss? O-dno Tibeteni Ndo-a La-ma Chinese Ndsi Ha-ga LoIoB Na-p'a Ngo^o (L e. thonselves) M ap%tg Siftn Tn-pno Come La-mn La Go Yi Tie Eat (as food) Ng^-dsi} Do Eat (OS tobaooo) .. N^^-tohe Drink Ng«}n-tohe Bhi-do Sleep £'o-me E-^ Beat Na-ka Ddno . Kill K'o-tchno Bie This man is good .. T'^-ss^bn Yan-di; .. Tsa ta^^-ma Irai-ko This man is bettor than that l"i}-B89-ba Fai-bn Toh'n Ta^nta^-maha-di-makwa- Yan-di; dzf These two men aie very bad Tij-fla^-nv-ba Ya Mao-di; Ts'a ts'9-iu-i>>& *-l>Bi That mania bad .. TaHi ha-di-ma a-bei This horse is faster than T'lj-moPai-moTch'aYan- M ta^ma ha-di-ma kwa- that toh'e dci} ds^-shno To drink tea .• Laahi-do To smoke tobacco Yi-tch'a ngu-tche I want to sleep AVo-me Kgae-djo-go I will come to-morrow Aso-ninla Nga shih-ta-di la He beat me yesterday T^ ya-nin a-wa na-ka Ts'i; arni-di nga ddno Don't beat me A-wa na-t'a-ka Ngafa^dduo Don't kUl him .. T'^-wa k'o-t'a-tchno In writing the above sounds Sir T. Wade's method has been followed, with the necessary extensions. The vowel e, however, is to be pro- nounced like a French accented e {hib^, and the vowel u with a dot below (yi), like « in the English word " but." Bg, in Sifan words, is a guttural r with a graaseyement. Both Lolo and Sifan have tones. In a few cases these have been indicated according to the Pekinese scale. All the way from the T'ung there is no break in the western hills, under the brow of which the road for the most part runs ; but near Yueh-hsi it becomes evident that these hills are merely the offshoots of the Cheh-to range, the boundary wall of Tibet. Northwest, or there- abouts, of Yuch-hsi rises a snowy peak which may be regarded as a comer of the Tibetan plateau, since south of it there are no oonspicuous A JOURNET OF EXPLORATION IM WESPTERN Sstf-CHVAN. 79 mountains in the line of the range. I only obtained a vety fleeting view of it, and even then the snmmit wan hidden by a maas of oomnlns ; bnt as the snow-line lay far down the mountain at the hottest time of the year the height of its culminating peak* oannot be much less that 18,000 feet. The valley of Yueh-hsi opens southward into the territory of the Blaok-bones, touching their confines at' some 15 miles from tiie dty. Our object being to follow the highroad, we edged round the spurs of a high confused mountain-mass, full of gullies and chasms, and turning up a narrowing glen reached the fortified outpost of Hsiao-shao ("little guard"). As we left the main valley, we left cultivation and cottages, and it is evident that caravans huny through the glen, for at a tempo- raiy booth in which we breakfasted we could only procure rice enough for half our party. HsiaoHshao lies at the foot of the Little Hsiang-ling Pass, the most elevated point of the Ghien-ch'ang road. The col has an elevation above searlevel of 9800 feet, and though a few hundred feet higher than its " Oreat " namesake, is easier of ascent. The hillsides are broken up into the precipitoub wooded blufb which Chinese artists delight to portray. Black-bone incursions seldom cross the I'ange, the strong walled camp of Teng-hsiang, 2100 feet below the summit, effectually dosing all access down the gorge to the rioe-plain of Mien- shan. We were escorted by squads of well-clothed soldier-colonists, and by a pair of trumpeters, whose blasts echoed impressively down the ravines, and every little sentinel blockhouse returned a salute of three gingalls, to the great discomfort of my mvle, which at each discharge seemed to apprehend a Lolo foray and threatened to upset me, loosely mounted on a packsaddle, into the profuse nettle-beds which border the track. On the 25th we continued the descent to Mien-shan, a flourishing little town at the junction of two valleys which yield copper and iron (manganese ore). We met several loads of the latter coming in from the mines. A small river here runs out of Lololand through an open vale and joins its waters with the torrent which had accompanied us from the top of the pass. We followed the united stream through the narrowest con- ceivable gorge by a path which in one place is excavated, parapet and all, in the face of the precipice, high above the foaming waters, and is closed moreover by solid gates — the pass, in fact, which Shih Ta-k'ai found occupied and did not attempt to carry .f A little further on, the tortuous ravine opens, suddenly, into the main valley of Ohien-ch'ang at the important town of Lu-ku (or Lo-ku), a customs and Likin station for the collection of dues on cotton cloth, Yunnan opium, and many other * The peak bore nearly dne west ftom my station, bo that its latitude, as laid down on the ohart, is fidily coneot; but as I nerer caught sight of it again, its longitude is only estimated. t See p. S7. 80 A JOURMET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSJf^S'CJAN. artidea — it would be nearly safe to say- aU other artides. The trade in foreign oottons is insignificant, the native fabric imported vi4 Ta-ohon being far more suitable to local demand. The principal Lu-ku firm annually distributes 6000 bales of Eastern Chinese cloth, each bale con- taining forty-eight pieces 30 feet long. The bales cost about Tls. 14 in Hankow, and by the time they have reached Lu-ku they have paid two taels for duty and Likin, and about the same amount for carriage. The average sale at Lu-ku is Tls. 18 per bale, by which it appears that the profit on an outlay of some 20,0001. is exactly nU. But any one acquainted with the conduct of native trade will easily guess the solution of the mystery, which is that the exchange of silver and the diffisrence of weights and measures is greatly in favour of Lu-ku. These differentia- tions give the traders a profit of five or six per cent ; but most of the import is exchanged for Tiinnan opium, a staple which yields a far more gratifying remuneration. Chien-oh'ang proper, which we have now reached, is a valley, or perhaps plain, lying due north and south, a degree of latitude in length, and, on the average, about throe miles broad. The Anning river, an impetuous, shallow, and unnavigable stream, runs down its whole length in a sandy and shingly bed. The mean level of the valley is nearly 5000 feet above sea, and in the course of 60 miles It falls about 900 feet. The steep and high mountains which form its eastern wall, breached only at Ning-yuan Fu, are the home of the Black-bones, while its western boundary is a system of lower, less abrupt, and less wooded ranges, inhabited partly by Chinese and partly by a great variety of indigenous tribes (Sifan, or Mantzu), subdivisions of the Tibetan race. Besides being the habitat of the famous wax-insect, the valley and its lateral ravines are reputed to be exceptionally fertile, producing all crops from buckwheat to rice. Its fruits also are unusually large and delicate. Soon after passing Lu-ku we saw crops of a' gorgeous purple plant, a cereal called locally " Mantzu Hsu-mi " ; sunflowers are very extensively cultivated, and it is curious to see their golden faces, eight or ten inches broad, all turning persistently to the east. The cactus is common from Lu-ku downwards, but is not so large or abundant as on the Upper Yangtzii above F'ing-Bhan, where it is used for fencing fields, and even villages. The discreet and observant gentleman who came this way from Venice six hundred and odd years ago, has recorded that after travelling several days over high mountains he entered a level country, called " Caindu," in which there are many towns and villages. There can be no doubt that by Caindu he means this valley. Colonel Yule, whose admirable edition I can only quote from memory, sees in the word Caindu a variation of " Chien-ch'ang," and supposes the syllable " du " to be the same as the termination " du," " do," or " tu," so frequent in Tibetan names. In such names, however, "do" never means a district, A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SsD-CH'UAN. 81 but always a confluence, or a town near a confluence, as might almost be guessed from a''map of Tibet. Ta-ohien-lu is a case in point, and serves at the same time to illustrate the formation of a myth. As written in Chinese, the term meaps " arrow-forge," and successive travellers relate the various explanations by which the Chinese attempt to account for the expression. AbbS Hue gives one version; Captain Gill — small blame to him — another; and nty own notes contained a very romantic story on the subject. But I have since learnt that " Ta-ohien-lu " is merely the Chinese transliteration of the native name " Tar-tsen-do," which me9.nB " confluence of the Tar and the Tsen," the two streams which unite at that place.* Unsatisfied with Colonel Yule'e identification, I oast about for auuther, and thought for a while that a clue had been found in the term " Chien-t'ou " (sharp-head) applied to certain Lolo tribes. But the idea had to be abandoned, since Marco Polo's anecdote about the "caitiff" and the loose manners of his family could never have referred to the Lolos, who are admitted even by their Chinese enemies to possess a very strict code indeed of domestic regulations. The Lolos being eliminated, the Sifans remained ; and before we had been many days in their neigh- bourhood, stories were told us of their conduct which a polite pen refuses to record. It is enough to say that Marco's account falls rather short of the truth, and most obviously applies to the Sifan. A succinct expres- sion of Chinese opinion is contained in the border saying " ChSn-chieh Lolo; kou Sifan," where chin-chieh means lady-like reserve, and hou broadly hints its antithesis. It has already been remarked that Si/an, (Convertible with Mantzu, is a loose Chinese expression of no ethnological value, meaning nothing more than western barbarians ; but in a more restricted sense it is used to designate a people (or peoples) which inhabits the valley of the Yalung and the upper T'ung, with contiguous valleys and ranges, from about the twenty-seventh parallel to the borders of Eoko-uor. This people is subdivided into eighteen tribes, the names of which according to Tibetan pronunciation are as follows : — 7. So-mung. 8. Djiu-tae. 9. Zur-ga. 10. Tcluro-shiop. Jl. G^shie. 12. Pa-ung. Djia-la is the native name of the district ruled by the King of Ta-ohien-lu, whose style is Djia-la Ljie-po (King of Djia-la). His * Horace Delia Penna, in his account of Tibetan countries, makes allusion to the 8tnte, or city, of Tar-chen-ton, which supplies the whole of Tibet with tea, and lies on tho confines of China. It is evident enough that Tar-chen-ton is Tar-tsen-do, alias Ta-ohien-lu, the great entrepot of the tea-trade between Ssfl-ch'uan and Tibet. What is said in the text regarding tlie etymology of Ta-ohien-lu, &c., corroborates tho KUggestiona made in notes to Captain Gill's work. See " Introductory Essay," p. [88], and vol. ii. p. 77.— [H. Y.] VOIi, I. a 1. Djia-la. 2. Djum-ba. 3. Djia-k'a. 4. Wo-j^ or Go-je'. 5. Bap-ten and Tsen-la. 6. Tam-ba. 13. Tohra-tin. 14. Ma-zu, or Ma-zc. 15. K'nng-snr. 16. P*-r^. 17. Tehran-go. 18. Dje'-gu. 89 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSd-CH'lTAK. Chinese title is Ming-eMng-uu, which, if it is to be translated, means ** Bright-ruling official." Djjum-ba is better known to foreigners by its Chinese name of Mn-p'ing. So-muttg, near Sung-p'an T'ing, may perhaps be identified with Captain Gill's StHmu. Tibetan, or a dialect of Tibetan, is the language of Djia-la and of the last five in the list. Djum-ba possesses a language of its own, and in the rest another different language is spoken. In Oi-»kie, however, Tibetan is generally under- stood. The Tibetan alphabet is employed in all. The tribes numbered firom 2 to 13 (Djum-ba to Tchra-tin) extend northwards from Ta-chien-lu to Eoko-nor ; but Djia-la and the last five, Tibetan-speaking tribes, form a separate division under the general name of Miuia, and inhabit, roughly, the valley of the Yalung rivor. Menia appears in some European maps of the region under the form *'Miniak," doubtless the same word; in pronouncing Tibetan many written consonants are suppressed ; * the "Bos Grunniens," for instance, otherwise the Yak, is called " Ya " by natives. It will also be found that the Yalung is named on some maps the Minia-chu — Minia river. Again, the native Chinese map applies the name of Me-li-na-ka to the territory west of Chien-ch'ang between the Yalung and the Wuliang ; but it is possible that this term refers to the country of Melt, a distinct region. Although the main valley of Chien-ch'ang is now principally in- habited by Chinese, yet the Sifan or Menia people are frequently met with, and most of the villages possess two names, one Chinese and the other indigenous. Probably in Marco Polo's time a Menia population predominated, and the valley was regarded as part of Menia. If Marco had heard that name he would certainly have recorded it ; but it is not one which is likely to reach the ears of a stranger. The Chinese people and officials never employ it, but use in its stead an alternative name, Chan-ttt or Chan-tut, of precisely the same application, which I make bold to offer as the original of Marco's Caindu, or preferably Ciandu. (See note on the Sifan tribes.) It was a pleasant change, after the rugged mountain passes, to travel along the broad level vale to Li-chou, a small sub-magisterial city, with a new wall environed by flourishing farm-houses and well-conditioned temples — a city where few are very rich and none absolutely poor. We saw many people clothed in rags, of which they were not ashamed, explaining that they wear their old suits in summer, but possess better garments for the cold weather. Bice and maize are so abundant and so little exported that no one is enriched and no one starves. There is a traffic in goat-skins from the hills, in wax-insects, and of course in * The name of the town of Darjeeling, well known to Tibetana, is a good example. In Eaatorn Tibet it is pronounced Do-gie-lin, but is written Sdo-rgie-glin, meaning "Dia- mond Country." Western Tibetani, on the other band, read Tu-git-lin, but write Stud- rgiat-glin, which raeaoB "High Broad Gountry." A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. 88 opium, but the whole export amomits to very little. The carriage bnsinetM, for which Li-chon is the chief station on the highway between Hui-li-ohou and Yaohou, affords employment to a great part of the inhabitants. Seven or eight miles further on we came to Ning-ynan Fu, the capital of - Ohien-oh'ang, built on the northern slope of a lateral vcdley which has been the scene of two calamitous visitations. During the early part of the Ming dynasty the present lake, it is said, had no existence, but was a dry hollow, in which the city lay surrounded hy forest. A sudden earthquake, says tradition, shook the plaoe to frag- ments, and a rush of water from underground converted its site into a lake ; after which cataclysm, the forest was cleared and a new city built in the present position. However much precision the tale may lack in date and detail, it is rendered credible by what occurred in the autumn of 1850 (80th year of Tao-kuang, 8th moon, 7th day), when an earth- quake threw down two-thirds of the buildings, and even those which remained standing were for the most part wedged up and buttressed by the surrounding debris. The crisis was preceded by a month's con- . tinuous rain. Soon after the cessation of the culminating shocks the ruins of the city took fire. It is asserted that only one house remained whole, and that from 15,000 to 20,000 persons perished, but such state- ments are always grossly exaggerated. Here is the account given me by a survivor : — " At about ten o'clock in the evening I was asleep in bed. It hail been raining very heavily. On the two preceding days shocks of earthquake had occurred, but not violent enough to throw down houses. The second shock was accompanied by a roar like that of a hurricane. When the great shook came I woke up and felt my bed rolling about like a boat in rough waves ; the roof of my house was giving way, the tiles were falling on me, and the walls were heaving and bending. I heard the scream of the people in the Examination Hall, and ran out to help the wounded. I suppose I ran out because my roof was falling ; but I was dreadfully frightened and did not understand what had happened until I heard the shouts of the neighbours. I found the Examination Hall overthrown, and assisted in rescuing about thirty persons, but not less than fifty had met their death and lay under the ruins. I then went with the neighbours to help such people as might still be alive under the fallen houses. Most of the deaths occurred in private dwellings. Two families, my relations, one of six persons, the other of eight, were crushed every one. I am quite certain that a great deal more than half the population perished. Fires broke out almost immediately in several places, but were kept down by the rain. Widows and orphans, drawing relief from the granaries, did not suffer much on the score of hunger ; but while the fires were burning a sudden cry was raised that the Lolos were coming, and although it was false, more than 200 people, principally terrified women, ran into the flames o2 84 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSd-CH'UAK. or drowned themselves. I was at the time, and still am, a doorkeeper of the Examination Hall. I spent the greater part of the next day or two between the walls of my roofless house, warming myself — for it was cold and wet — ^by burning the beams and rafters, and overcome with great fear. Soon, however, mat sheds were put up outside the city, in which we took refiige. During the four or five days which followed the calamity the ground continued to heave at intervals, so that water jumped out of the water-butts. At every fresh shook the folk ran out of the sheds, fearing to be crushed by tiieir fall, but very foolishly and unreasonably, since the light pole-work and matting could not hAve hurt any one, and they did not hesitate to sleep under them. The fact is that everybody was giddy aad trembling and soared. Many of the dead were buried by their families, but most were laid together in a great pit outside the wall, where I think I helped to bury 800,000 or 400,000 corpses." In spite of his absurd notion of number, the old man's story is terrible enough. He added that the houses were soon rebuilt, as well as part of the dty wall which had been overturned. The place is neither large nor populous, and, lying some distance from the high road, has very little commercial importance. The interior is fairly clean and neat, owing, no doubt, to its having been so recently rebuilt, but the suburb is thin and mean. The circuit of the walls — about three miles, the regulation ten It and three fin — encloses a good deal of open space. Goitre is extremely prevalent in this part of the valley, especially among the women. We saw very few cases before reaching this point. The weather having been unfavourable for sextant work, I took advantage of a change for the better, and of unusually convenient quarters in the Examination buildings, to halt for a day or two. But there vras a more special reason for prolonging my stay. A couple of months before our visit a French missionary, the only European besides mymlf who has ever entered the city, was driven away by the staves and stones of a mob instigated by the Commandant. My arrival, directly protected as I was by a new and determined Governor-General who had already shown his subordinates that the law, which in China means the Governor's fiat, possessed a strong if not a violent arm, was calculated to put the gallant Commandant in a desperately false position. Having publicly given out that he would never allow a foreigner to pass the city gates, and having incited his myrmidons to lapidate the lonely missionary, he found to his horror another foreigner dawn upon the scene, whom, at the risk of his head, he was compelled to protect with an escort of probably the very satellites by whom the previous persecu- tion had been organised. I therefore considered that I should be doing all parties a service by remaining a few days until the thorns on which tho anti-foreign warrior was sitting had effected sufficient penetration. An amusiii<; detail of the situation was that tho Commandant A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. 85 imagined me to be a Roman Catholic bishop. An officer whom ho had been directed to appoint aa my conductor to the Gold Biver inquired in all aimplioity and sincerity how many times a week I celebrated mass. It must not for a moment be supposed that the natives of Western China draw any distinction between one foreign nation and another ; so far {torn that, they are apt to include Japanese and Nipalese, and even ManohuB and Mongols, in the same category with Europeans. One very soon discovers that any discrimination of so minute a chamcter is far beyond the range of native intellect. I was therefore obliged to accept the position of a foreigner in general, without distinction of race or religion, nationality, language, or business. The authorities believed that my errand was to verify the publicity of the Margary proclama- tion, and accordingly it was generally posted in some situation oou- spiouous to our view whenever we entered a city. I took every occasion to explain that such was only a part, though a very important part, of my duty. " I wished also to see how o£Bcials and people were disposed towards foreigners. I hoped that the civility which I had received would not provo exceptional. I had been sent to the province to inquire about its commerce, its routes, its produce, and its geography generally." It is needless to say that nobody believed me; but as I freely showed visitors everything I possessed, and betrayed what seemed to them a frivolous interest in very unimportant matters, they satisfied themselves that on the whole I was more eccentric than dangerous. Little obstmotion, therefore, was placed in my way so far as regards mere tri^velling, and those officials whose consciences pricked them for previous sins against foreigners seized the occasion to afford me a too ostentatious protection. It must be admitted that the Commandant took the most delicate care of me ; and thereby of himself. I traversed all the principal streets three times escorted by his retainers, and every here and there emissaries might be seen among the multitude maintaining not only order but silence. The natives were evidently well inclined towards me, but were afraid to answer questions. On the third day the Commandant invited me to visit the lake, informing me that he had prepared a temple for my reception. A journey of an hour and a half brought us to a handsome building a few hundi-ed yards up the slope of a hill, overlooking from numerous balconies a lovely scene of woods and water. Nowhere had we seen a temple maintained in such complete repair, order, and cleanli- ness, and, unable to explain the mystery, we went to examine tho shrine in which the idols are installed. There we discovered that wu were in the Commandant's own temple, not that it belonged to or had been built by him, but in the sense that Jupiter's temple is the temple of Jupiter. It had been erected to him by a public grateful for his successful exertions against tho horde of Shih Ta-k'ai. Incense was urning before the Commandant's imago, a slavish likeness, with half- 86 A J'OURNEY OF EXPLOKATIOX IX WESTERN SSJf-OH'UAN olitHod eyes, goitroiu nook, and long fingor nails ai black aa life. It i», therefore, no hyperbole to call htm the idol of hia people ; but it ia rery duubtftil if the provincial authoritiea would be utiafied with the pre- •umption of «o inaignificant a personage as a commandant in allowing himself to bo promoted to heaven before hia time. The rogue had evidently invited me to behold his deification. The lake is about eight milea long by two and a half broad, bordered by thick groves, and commanded by gently sloping hills from IftOO feet to 2000 feet above it. The groves are for the most part orchards. Russet pears of unusual sise, fine pomegranates, peaches, plums, and delicious oranges shaped like pears with a lemon-like rind, may bo had for little more than the asking. The lake is reputed bottomless, like roost Ohinese lakes ; nevertheless, the buildings of the drowned city are said to be visible in calm seasons, and from its submerged ruins chairs, tables, and bedsteads float frequently to the surface I Grossing the low hills south-west of the lake, we soon regain the main valley. Somewhere befbre this point a sandstone region begins, through which the Anning river runs in a very sandy bed, spreading its waters, now tinged with red, round many an island and shingle- l)ank. Though replenishetl by numberless rivulets, its volume is not gi-eatly enlarged, the increased supply being carried away with a pro- portionally greater velocity. The vale narrows considerably at the village of Huang-lien-p'u, an advantageous post, in which a customs and Likin collectorate is installed. Tho officer who had been deputed to escort us hurried past this place, leaving a note to warn us against halting there, on account of the insecurity of the neighbourhood. Whether in consequence, or in spite, of his advice we put up in tho most available inn, surrounded by a wall 25 feet high, with a narrow approach secured by double gates of thick pine-slabs, and inside these a strong barricade. I was lodged upstairs in a chamber, the floor of which was encumbered with heaps of rounded stones ranging between the size of apples and turnips, the use of which I failed to divine ; but inquiry showed that they were laid up in preparation for a Lolo attack. During tho evening a customs officer came in and related how, a fortnight previously, a band of from twenty to thirty Lolos had entered the village soon after midnight, armed with sticks and stones, had burst in the gate of the Custom-house, possessed themselves of 700 tacls (about 200/.), the produce of the local dues, and, not content with this booty, had invited the officers and underlings, some fifteen in all, to strip and hand over their clothes. Packing up clothes and silver, the marauders proceeded to confiscate the copper cooking-pans of the establishment, and then withdrew. Now this village contains some 150 able-bodied, males, and I naturally remarked that it was a shameful thing that they could not protect their property against thirty Lolos armed only with sticks and stones. My visitor, not in tho least appi-ecinting tlie A JOUIINEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSC-CH'UAN. 87 Wring of the oritioiam, replied, " Certainly it ia ^ory shamefal, but how can you expect Lolo«, more aavageit, to have any nr w of shame ? " What is atill more disgraceful, the robbers were subject Lolos, and not the autonomous Blaokmbination rod copper is not 80 r about thu dty is 4*6, Map illuKtrating Ihe distribiitifm cf ihe Sifan 'fiibes n.Sluirhau R S .iai^ /'nl«i:!/if,/ rhr thr f'r<>,f.'itinjAi .^'t/ii- itvytti t'teoiinifhutd Sf<-J'-tyi\yf:ttiiun/S6infor\ix-n7i,triii>Jii"y-^ ISS2 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU^E'UAr 93 NO^YtaN-FU and it strongly affeots the needle of a compass. Father Yincot, the accomplished Frooureur of the Roman Catholic Mission at Ch'ung-ch'ing, having kindly tested my specimens with the best means at his disposal, calls it nickeliferous snlphuret of iron, but his analysis leaves a residue which he has not succeeded in identifying. The miners told me that a mixture of a small proportion of this ore with copper pyrites yields what is locally known as old copper ; a larger proportion gives the alloy called white copper. Hui-li-chou, according to my result, is 6000 feet above sea-level, an approximation which agrees fairly well with Garnier's calculation of 1900 metres, or 6234 feet.* During our journey down Ohien-ch'ang we wore favoured with bright weather in the daytime, but soon after sun- set the sky generally became obscured. The wind was southerly, and often blew great guns. The thermometer showed at 7 a.m., from the 27th of August to the 5th of September, a mean of 67°, from which it would seem that the climate is three or four degrees warmer than might have been expected. Note on the Si/an Tribes. — Since the national names of the Sifan, cited above, are trustworthy, and several of them are recognisablo on the Chinese map, it seems well to make the most of them as a clue to the involved question of the ethnology of the region. Menia, or Miniak, an unobjectionable designation, includes Ta-chien-lu and the last five. For the rest, Nos. 2 to 13, 1 would suggest that the name Sifan, which has no very depreciatory meaning, and is occasionally used, should be adopted, and should be confined to them. The lost aborigines who sculptured the caves on the Min river and other tributaries of the Yangtzu, and who have not yet been satisfactorily identified with any existing people, may conveniently be called Mantzu. The Lolo limits are shown on my chart, and the term Miao-tzu, not much employed in Ssu-ch'uan, may be relegated as a monopoly to the aborigines of Kueiohou. Unless some such arrangement of nomenclature bo agreed upon in speaking of these various races, the confusion which has already arisen will become inextricable. Now let us open the Chinese (native) map, and do our best to identify the position of the twelve Sifan tribes. J)/a»i-6o is known to be Mu-p'ing. ^ «> '^ > Djia-Va means " near the Chinese," but is not discoverable, any more than TTo-je, otherwise Gfo^'e. . . ^^r * AiJdotdum. In his introduction, p. 88, to Captnin Gill's ' River of GolJeu Saml,' Colonel Yule gives 5900 feet as the altitude of Hui-li. (I regret to find that, owing apparently to my having used a wrong figure in eon- verting the metres of Gnriiier into feet, all the heights in the note which Mr. Babcr n fors to are erroneous. They should run : ,Ta-li-fu, 6955 feet ; Yunnan-fu, 6397 ; Tougeople up to the ago of fourteen are clothed in a single garment of sack- cloth, even the Lolo felt being beyond their means. From this point, to the banks of the Gold River, we were greatly perplexed by a currency question. Soon after leaving Hui-li-chou wo found small and debased cash in use, fourteen hundred of which the traveller may obtain for a thousand ordinary cash ; but when ho finds it necessary after a journey of two days to get rid of the local coinage on leaving the district in wluoh it circulates, he is obliged to -pay fifteen hundred debased cash for a thousand current coins of the realm. This exchange di£Sculty enters into every transaction, no matter how insignificant ; maize-ears, oil, and rice are all haggled over, and always to the detriment of the stranger. Such a condition, though exasperating, is more or less explicable ; but at Tu-ke the circulating medium has fallen to u depth of degradation which almost outvies comparison. There tho local cash exchange for silver at the rate of forty thousand per Chinese ounce— in other words, one hundred and fifty of them are equivalent to one British farthing. They aro mere rings, rather more than a third of an inch in diameter, without any pretence of a superscription. Even tho natives do not generally count them, but rather measure out certain lengths of thoni on a board. But a further complication arises from tho natives refusing to accept payment from strangers in these coins for local produce ; the seller demands ordinary coins, and possesses eironeous l)nt invincible opinions about the rate rif exchnnj^o. Owing to the lack of comestibles, and the abundance of coins, it took us longer in that country to pay for our dinner than to eat it. The best lodging we can find in Tii-ke is a small ruined temple of one chamber, without deities, doors, or windows. Wo soon light a A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IX WESTERN SSU-CH'UAX. 105 blazing fire of brushwood round wliioh every one huddles in hopes at least to dry his steaming clothes; for the piercing wind and rain, finding easy entrance, allow little prospect of getting seriously warm. A meal of potatoes and maize is not exhilarating, and the blinding smoke and flickering rush-lamp do not conduce to accuracy of mapping or freedom of thought in posting up a journal. In the morning every- body is ill-tempered and mutinous, but a factitious bond of union exists in the general anxiety to get away from such inhospitable quarters, in spite of the continuous rain. In consequence of such troubles, we only made some seven miles on the 1 5th, glad to find more comfortable lodging in the residence of a T'u-ssu, or hereditary chief of subject Lolos. Lu by name. The place is called Gh^-po and is nominally a village, but does not contain more than a dozen huts. Lu*s residence, however, has evidently been a handsome and extensive establishment; its white walls still show imposingly in the distance ; but after passing the court-yard, which retains some remnants of former elegance in a series of stone panels carved with animals and foliage, we found little but ruin inside. The chief is a tall, good-looking young man, twenty-thi-eo years of age, a Lolo pur sang, but being under Chinese jurindiction his dress and bearing are Chinese. His manners would be pleasing were it not for the clammy lacquer of Chinese etiquette which his position as a blue-buttoned official has plastered over him. One detects the Lolo, however, even under such disguise ; the Chinese skull-cap sits uneosily on his crown, and droops forward with a sidowise cant in the manner of the Blackbone's hom. Occasionally, too, he speaks more directly and boldly than a Chinaman would venture to do. I caught a glimpse of his wife, a graceful, clear-faced girl, as she was engaged in catching a glimpse of me, and remarked her Lolo petticoats and bare feet. Lu's situation, between the Chinese and Lolo fires, is anything but comfort- able ; the Chinese officials treat him as a savage, while the Lolos regard him as a renegade ; his succession to the blue button of chieftainship — or, more truly, of subjection — was only secured by heavy payments to the local Chinese authorities, who were thereby induced to petition the Governor-general for his recognition. He receives no salary. His establishment, his court of justice, his soldiei's, officers, escort, and underlings, a hundred persons in all, are maintained at his cost. Although he owns a very wide property both in Lolodom and in the country we have been traversing, agriculture affords so small a return that he expressed his intention of embaiking in the wax-insect traffic, or preferably, if he can form a connection, in the import of Yiinnan t)l)ium. His residence at Che-po was demolished by Shih-ta-k'ai's army ; the total loss which his family suffered by that invasion ho estimates at 7000Z., since besides the destruction of house-property he was plundered of a collection of valitable objects which had been amassed by an immemorial lino of ancestral chieftains. He possesses. 106 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. however, other mansions besides that of Ch4-po, and in far better preseiTation. The village of K'u-ohu,* otherwise Tsan-yU-pa, is built upon his property. All the mountains and vales between the stream which passes that village and the Gold River have been the domain of his famil}' since the beginning of time, a period which, I displeased him by observing, must have been a good many years ago. His retainers and servants are all hereditary. His people submitted to the Chinese domination during the reign of Kien-lung. Should he have no children the succession is still secure, for he has several hundreds of relations, any one of whom, even among the females, is eligible for the chieftain- ship. On the Chinese map his territory is written " Cho-pao" a corruption of the name of this village. The plague of his peace has been the Huo-erh-liu (apparently not a OhineHC term), a banditti, composed mostly of Chinese outlaws, which infest the border all roiind Lolodom. The outrages which are attributed to the Blackbones — always excepting the slave hunts — are in general committed by these freebooters. A deep valley called Mu-ti-lung, bounded by a high black-looking range of the same name, which was visible to the northwards during the last two days' journey, had until a few months before my visit l)een the headquartere of one of such robber-chiefd, Chang San Piao-tzii (" Chang, tho third spearman ") by name, whose habit was to waylay Lolos and to exact a ransom by com- pressing their heads in an iron ring. Unable to obtain redress from Lu, who is powerless against Chinese, the Lolos assembled, surrounded the village of Mu-ti-lung (otherwise Hsin-kai-tzii), secured Chang, con- ducted him to the bank of a river, and there decapitated him. This act of wild but condign justice has been represented to the Chinese authorities as another Lolo atrocity, and Ln is held responsible for it. During the sway of Chang, Lu had to maintain a force of nearly a thousand men for his own protection, at great expense, and he is now in process of disbursing what is likely to prove a still more formidable sum in presents, which he hopes will securu him against an accusation of murder. With regard to myself, Lu had received instructions from his Chinese superiors to the effect that " they had not been informed of the purpose of my journey, and that the deputies who had been appointed to escort me from place to place had each and all uniformly failed to discover it. Nevertheless it would be well for him not to cause trouble." Such a system of suspicion and antipathy is pre-eminently Chinese. Incapable of speaking the truth, they are equally incapable of believing it. It was * 8uch natuea as K'u-cliu, Tu-kc, Chu-po, Wa-wu, Mu-ti-lung, are Lola Tfacte several pkcca also possess Chinese names which are little used, nlthough but fevc Lolos are now found in the country. Lolos, however, still inhabit parts of the district round Ta-ch'iao (cide Goinicr's chart); a place which, by tho way, is called Old Ilui-li-c/wu on the Chinese map, and is mistaken for the modern Uui-li.chou ou most European maps. A JOURNEr OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'ITAN. 107 vain to repeat on all oooasions the aaauranoe that I had come to see what facilities the oountry o£fered for trade, or to exhibit a safe-conduct from the Tsungli Yamen containing the same simple declaration. " Chercher midi h quatorze heures " is a pursuit in which Chinese ofiScialdom lias attained high proficiency. In the lower part of Chien-ch'ang the authorities had given out that I was a member of the Imperial Manchu family, sent on a piivate mission to inspect the border ! Leaving Che-po we crossed a ridge, descended into a valley, forded a large stream, and then mounted a high range, from the summit of which wo descried the line 'of mountains which form the right bank of the Yangtzii. It is not likely that Marco Pulo came this way from Hui-li-chou ; he probably continued his route southward from that city into Yunnan. But why does he call the Upper Yangtzii by the name of Odd River instead of Golden Sand River (Chin-sha-chiang) ? * To any one who feels confidence in the accuracy of the Venetian's narrative the answer to such a question should appear direct and decided — Marco simply wrote down the correct name as it was given him by the natives. And there is in fact no mystery whatever in the matter ; the river is never called locally by any other name than Chin-ho, or " Gold Biver." The term dhinsha-chiang should in strictness bo confined to the Tibetan course of the stream ; as applied to other parts it is a mere book name. There is no great objection to its adoption, except that it is unintelligible to the inhabitants of the banks, and is liable to mislead travellers in search of indigenous information, but at any rate it should not be sup- posed to asperse Marco Polo's accuracy. Oold River is the local name from the junction of the Yalung to about P'ing-shan ; below P'ing-shan it is known by various designations, but the Ssu-ch'uanese naturally call it " the Biver," or, by contrast with its affluents, the " Big Biver " (Ta-ho).t As we came down the slope we began to notice, at the height of about 4000 feet above the river, that the path had cut deep into the mountain-side and that we were passing between vertical walls of a deposit which might easily be mistaken at first sight for a very soft sandstone. Further on, when the view began to open out as the lower spura were approached, it became evident that most of the slope was covered with this substance, and to no slight depth judging from the * Mr. Saber's memory has misled him here. Manx) Polo nowhere calls the river " Gold River." The name he gives it is Brius, wliicli upiiears to be a corruption of one of tlie Tibetan names. He saj's indeed: "In this river is found much gold-dust," Bk. ii. ch. xlvi.-[H. Y.] f Between Sha-shih und the confluence of the Tung-ting Lake the Yangtza is some- times called C/iinj-ho, a name which Captain Blakiston very pardonably confounded witli Chin-ho. That term, however, means " Tliorn Biver," and is obviously taken from the ancient name (Ching) of the country which the river drains, much as the word yungtzU is traced to the kingdom of Yang. The cities of Ching-ohou and Yang-chou have retained the names of the primitive states. 108 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. fissures which seamed it. Thrusting a knife into the face of one of the walls at about twenty feet below the general eui'face, we extracted a snail shell and a small calcareous concretion. Still lower down, where the road ran nearly level for a few hundred >ards, we passed along the brink of a crevasse with truly vertical sides and sharp edges, about 60 feet deep by 12 broad, having a stream at the bottom and other crevasses branching from it. The colour of the deposit is a brown- yellow, with a reddish tendency; its substance, though not very easy to dig into in $itu with a knife, crumbles into fine particles and does not differ in appearance from loam. While I was looking into the crevasse my servant, who hod travelled with Baron v. Biohthofen, came up and said — " This is the kind of earth in which the people of Shansi dig caves to live in ; but in that province the precipices are so deep that it makes one giddy tj look down." There can be hardly any doubt that he was right, and that this layer of dense and almost rock-like loam is the same as the Loett of Northern China. The discovery in so unexpected a quarter of a patch of vertically cleaving loam cannot fail to interest geologists. It extends from near the Yangtzii bank to about 4000 feet, perhaps a good deal more, up the mountain-side. How deep it may be it is impossible to say from so cursory a view, but perhnps 50 feet would not be too high an average. On the right bank at Ch'iao-chia-T'ing, the place where we crossed, tho deposit is hardly perceptible, but a mile or two further south the narrow strip of exceedingly fertile land on the river bank, known as Mi-liang- pa, is said to be covered with it. I cannot affirm that it existed west- ward of the mountain-ridge on the left bank, but I have an ex-post-facto idea that thin patches occur l)etween Che-po and Ta-t'an-kuun-yao. The thickest layer we came across is about two miles up the hill-side above Wa-wu, the village where we struck the river. With so superficial a knowledge of the subject, and of the locality, it may be presumptuous to possess an opinion respecting tho mode in which this soil has been formed ; still there is no harm in hinting a suggestion, though it may seem a fanciful one. The idea that tho deposit may have l»een submarine is hardly conceivable. If it had been formed by tho steady secretive waters of a lake — as it is very probable that this part of the river was at one time a long lake beforo it had drained down to its present level by the opening or erosion of tho gorges further on — then we should have expected tho layer to show a more or less horizontal surface ; u condition which it does not in the leant fulfil, but merely coats the undulations of hill spurs. Moreover other lakes v the neighbourhood should have amassed a similar sediment, which they have not done. The plain of Tung-ch'uan for instance, evidently a lacustrine flat and indeed still a lake in part, is a peat-bog from which peat is dug for fuel. Under the lake theory one would look for loess, but without finding it, in every hollow above a Yangtzii gorge. A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SsG-CITUAN. 109 Whence then has this exorbitantly thick soil been derived ? Is there any contiguous region which is exceptionally soilless? Most certainly there is ; for the face of the plateau between Hiii-li and K'u-chu, as we have seen, is strangely naked, containing wide expanses of almost bare sandstone. But does any cause exist to convey soil from that district to the slopes of the Yangtzii depression ? It sepms sufficient to reply that the winds of winter and spring blow from the south-west and west, precisely in the requisite direction. But why should such winds fail to cany the particles beyond the banks of the Tangtzd ? The traveller who descends from Ta-t'an-kuan-yao to Wa-wu will see the obstacle staring him in the face, in the form of a very steep mountain ridge 8000 feet above the river and about 10,000 above the sea.* A few miles below Wa-wu is a village named P'ei-sha which is indicated on European maps. X'robably the Jesuit surveyors paid it a visit; but it seems certain that they drew the course of the river from that point to F'ing-shan Hsien by mere guess-work, and very erroneously. Wo crossed the Yangtzii, quitting Ssu-ch'uan and entering YOnnan on the 18th of September. The river is here 490 feet broad at the narrowest part, and evidently of great depth, running between sandy banks M'ith a speed estimated at six or seven knots in mid-channel. There were no shoals or sandbanks to obsti-uct its course, and navigation from Meng-ku, 80 or 40 miles higher up, is said to be safe and easy, though veiy little advantage is taken of it. We saw no vessel except the small and crazy punt in which we crossed. Half a day's journey north, we were told, all boat ])assage is barred by a succession of cataracts! far more dangerous than any similar obstruction on the Lower Yangtzii. It was our intention to follow a track which keeps along the right bank ; but wo were told that it was next to impracticable at all seasons, and was now submerged. There was nothing for it therefore but to climb again into the mountains. A mile or more up the slope wo entered Ch'iao-chia T'ing, a small, loosely built, and impoverished town, purporting to bo celebrated throughout China for its pomegranates, which are grown on the fertile tract called Mi-liang-pa, beneath and south of the town. Here wo had to make now acquaintances and obtain. * Tho theory of the sub-ai-rial deposit of loess, which Mr. Babcr hero bHefly illustrittes, has been worked out by its originator, Biiron F. t. Richthofen, with e\tni- ordinary elalwratioii and skill, in his great work ' China,' vol. i. — [H. Y.] t From ^Vifwu to Huang-kuo-shu tho river fulls, roughly, about six feet per mile ; from Huang-kuo-shu to P'iug-shan, about three feet ; from P'iug-shan to Ghung-ching, >iu)re approximately, nineteen inches, and iu its lower oourso loss than six inchos. From Uat'ang, un the Tibetan border, to Wa-wu its fall is not less than eight feet per mile. For tlio differeuoo between the river levels at P'ing-shnn nnd Chuug-ching I have computed three results (A) from tho barometrical record iu Captain Blakiston's book, and tlirce others (U) from a similar record kept by myself when attached to Mr. Grosvenor'd 110 A JOURNET OF EXPLORATION IK WESTERN SSff-CH'dAN. if poHuble, a fresh oondnotor. The magistrate of the place, a native of Hankow, was much interested to hear that the foreign settlement is floorishing. The military ofBoial is a relative of the Prefect of Tientsin who was punished for complicity in the massacre of 1870. Notwith- standing such advantages, they exhibited the usual dense Chinese ignorance ; the military gentleman, for instance, being anxious tdknow whether the Duhe of Englr.ad is also the ruler of France. They informed me that a Lolo foiay was expected, and that I had better take the high road, by Tun^-ch'uan and Chaotnng ; but this I declined to do, wishing to see more of the Gold Biver. For their objection that there was no road through the mountains I was prepared, having with the assistance of a peddler compiled a list of stages. The officials examined this document with close attention, and after consultation declared that no such line of route existed ; which is not surprising, for I afterwards discovered that most of the places were imaginary. They promised, however, tr furnish a guide who would conduct us to the bank of the Niu-lan river, but on starting next morning no such functionary put in appearance. As seen from Ch'iao-ohia the ascent looks short and gradual, but having surveyed it leisurely from the heights on the other bank we knew that a whole day's climb was to be expected; and in effect the steep zigzag required eight hours to surmount, including frequent rests. After having ascended a little more than 7000 feet we stood on the top of the pass, expecting to see the plateau of Northern Ytlnnan stretching before us. No such easy fortune awaited us; the highest point of the pass is a small flat ending abruptly on the east in a precipice some 25 degrees out of the perpendicular, and 1500 feet deep, which again terminates in an undercut limestone bluff, the wall of an encased torrent running in a contrary direction to that of the Yangtzu. The further side of this chasm is a broken plateau, partly cultivated, mission. The three determinations in both oases are derived from the several morning, midday, and evening pressures. (C) and (D) are obtained from a comparison of tlio ihia in those two records with the mean pressure at Ghnng-ohing for the corresponding periods, registered by myself during the last three years, and duly corrected. A. B. Means. 427 feet. 363 feet. 395 feet 402 „ 384 „ 393 „ 415 „ 373 „ 894 „ c. D. 878 „ 354 „ 366 „ 416 „ 354 „ 385 „ 437 „ 318 „ 377 „ 385 „ For the level of the Yangtzfl at Chung-ohing I have obtained 630 feet, a determination which cannot lie very wide of the truth, as it is the resume of some four thousand readings for pressure (with Kew cotiections) and temperature. A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SStf-CH'tJAN. Ill but a few miles ■onthward the rarfaoe splits into a wild region of bare crags and gullies. Our company lodged for the night in a hut the door of which was the only adit for light and exit for the smoke of a fire of dwarf bamboos. The place — or rather a walled hamlet on a promontory close at hand- is called Ai-ohuo (" preoipico-foot ") and is appropriately named. The nari'ow path, a mere step from one precipice to another, is imminently perilous. At one point called T'an-pdng-tzfi (" charcoal-shed ") it crosses a kind of shoot down which stones and masses of earth descend with very impressive velocity, dislodged from the heights above by wind, or rain, or browsing goats. We saw nothing more formidable than fragments the size of paving-stones come down crashing along with leaps of 100 feet into the gulf below. At this spot the path, which for 60 yards is a foot-wide track rammed with the back of a hoe in the loose slope of earth launched from above, is of course in continuous process of being carried away. There is probably no danger for an unencumbered passenger who can run lightly across, and moreover the approach of tho cannonading stones can be heard several seconds before they reach the track ; nevertheless our heavily weighted coolies were glad to gain the safe side. In winter an additional danger is caused by falling masses of snow for which reason a man is stationed at the spot to warn travellers. A little further on we were shown a less abrupt slope down which, on the day before our arrival, a native had rolled some 150 feet, bringing up fortunately in a clump of shrubbery. The poor fellow had superfluously increased the depth of his descent by beginning it from the branches of a tree out of which he fell. Being very thickly clothed he broke no bones, but his face was terribly damaged. When we arrived he was beginning to recover, after an insensibility of fourteen hours. We were surprised to be overtaken, at Ai-chuo, by the military officer of Ch'iao-chia, who, anxious, as he said, for my safety, had thought it better to come and escort me himself. Strangely enough, almost as if to prove the danger of the track, his servant had fallen over the edge, but in one of the least precipitous places. Although he had only gone down about thirty feet, in two bounds, he seemed seriously hurt and had to be left behind in charge of tho cottagers. The stream which has excavated the floor of this ravine probably enters the Tung-ch'uan river somewhere near its mouth (see Gamier's map). Various ways in which a torrent wears out hard limestone may here bo studied from abundant examples. High upright bhiffs — there is a splendid instance about three miles above Fa-ni-wo, closing the avenue in that direction ; solitary towers and pinnacles left standing in the middle of the ravine, and natural bridges, are all met with. At Fa-ni-wo the track crosses the torrent by a broad natural viaduct ; in A9 A JOURNET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SS&-CH'UAN. other words, the torrent diaappeani into a cavern from which, after a •ubterrauean pauage of aevoral liandred feet, it reiMues.* The tannel was only opened in 1869 ; before which date the now perforated bund of rook was the dam of a lake. The water is said to huve burst through underground suddenly, leaving a large expanse of its bed, now a oluster of paddy-fields, high and dry. Fa-ni-teo means, and is, a " mud-nost" From that villagd to Woi-ku, on the bank of the Niu-lan river, we journeyed for three days over a range the highest pass of which wo orrjssed at an altitude of about 9000 feet. The road is not difficult, unless in such rainy weather as wo plodded through. Grassy plateaiii* well adapted for pasture and wooded glens not too steep for cultivation support a spai-se population which lives, in a large degree, on maize and potatoes. Maize keeps for a year, I was told, without becoming mouldy, and potatoes last about half as long. This season, however, the maize bad failed, but the nativen laughed at the idea of famine since they can procure grain for next to nothing from the lower country. Food is always abundant; the great difficulty is to obtain clothes, money being very scarce. Although to a passing view the people seem plunged in the deepest poverty, they are probably far better off than tho lamine-threatened millions of Northern China. From the dangerously steep descent to Wni-ku a grand view is obtained of the Niu-lan gorges — much grander indeed than from tho narrow approaches to Chiang* ti whore the same river was . i /seed by the French expedition, and more lately by Mr. Grosvenor. Little idea can be given by mere description of theso stupendous gullies. A series of bluffs, height above height, inaccessibly abrupt, rise on both banks to an average of at least 4000 feet above the river, and many peaks rc«u;h a much greater altitude. The confined stream is from sixty to a hundred yards broad, with a velocity too graat to allow of fair estimate. Speaking roughly, its level must fall some 1200 feet in the twenty miles from Ohiang-ti to Wei-ku and has still to fall about 1000 feet before tho Yangtzti is reached. Wei-ku pretends to be a market village, Imt if the residence of a harber be accepted as a criterion it cannot claim tho style. The barber is itinerant. The tax-gatherer, on the other hand, is a confirmed resident, collecting a few cash as Likin on the miserable tra£Bo in sugar from Mi-liang-pa. The jurisdiction of Ch'iao-chia T'ing terminates at this point. We crossed the Niu-lan in a ferry-boat sixteen years old, up to our ankles in water, half the crew of four being employed in baling, and after a zigzag climb of 3600 feet found ourselves on the rim of tho Ohao-t'ung plateau at the hamlet of Shui-kou. * On the constant ocoarronce of such phonoroena in South-West China, see nn interesting extract of a luttcr from tlic lato Lieutenant Francis Gamier, in tlie " Intro- ductory Eswy" prefixed to Captain Gill's 'Biver of Golden Snnd,'p. [60].— [H. Y.] A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SsG^H'UAN. lis The copper for which Yttnnan i» famous ia mined almoet ezdnaiTely in tbia part of the province, that ia to aay from Hattn-tien Chou north- vrarda to the Saii«oh'uan frontier, and from the Gold Biver eastwarda to the border of Kueiohon, or a little beyond. The moat productive centre ia reputed to be in the neighbourhood of Tung-oh'uan. In the low hilla immediately aouth of that city the metal ocoura in a pure state, though generally in massea too large to be capable of profitable exploitation. Silver is another valuable product of the same region ; the richest minea in the whole Empire, if native opinion may be accepted, are aituated close to Lo-ma-ch'ang, a village three or four miles east of Shui-kou. In general the richest fields of both metals lie near the Gold River. No doubt the Lolo cotintry, intervening between this region and the similar metalliferous district of Ghien-ch'ang, contains the same resources. The disorders, robberies, jealousies, peculations, and prejudices, which repress mining industry throughout China attain their culmination in this part of YUnnaa. Before the mines can be adequately worked Yttnnan must be peopled, the Lolos must bo fairly treated, roads must bo constructed, the facilities offered for navigation by the Upper Yangtzfi must be improved: — in short, China must be civilised. A thousand years would be too short a period to allow of such a oonsum- mation unless some force from without should accelerate the impulse. Perhaps the best hope for the improvement of this region is that the management of the mines may be withdrawn from Provincial control and worked directly under Imperial authority by some such mixed organisation as that which at present regulates the' collection of the maritime customs. There is a good deal of cultivation on these downs in the neighbour- hood of Lu-tien and T'ao-yuan and round Chao-t'ung Fu, but the greater part is untilled. At Shui-kou half my company of coolies, alarmed by the widespread apprehension of a Lolo invasion, broke into rank mutiny and made for the Chao-t'ung road ; but we had little difficulty in replacing them and rather gained by their desertion, which taught us how to economise carriage. After traversing ten miles of unproductive slopes we descried, near Hui-lu-ch'i, the surprising and pleasant novelty of a cartroad, along an open vale grown with maize and buckwheat, and bordered b> the red-leaved lacquer-tree, the trunk of which is seamed with black tiger-stripes, the scars of. incisions through which the lacquer has been drawn. Farm-houses were now numerous, and many a rude cart built exclusively of wood without a particle of iron was laid up in ordinary at their doors. Ku-chai, where we were glad to find rice, wheat-flour, and a plentiful provision of oil, is the first village worthy of the name which we had seen since leaving Ch'iao-chia. We travelled twenty miles or more along this fortunate vale between low ranges which retain a few vestiges of forest. The pasture-land supports large flooka of sheep, and cattle of a dwarfed race. VOL. I. I 114 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SsD-CM'UAN. A oow i« worth about 10«., and a sheep about 4*. A pony suitable for ploogh-work fetches 40«. The Chao-t'ung plateau should rather be regarded as a basin ; its waters either disappear into the ground or converge by circuitous channels into the Ta-kuau river. A high rim prevents their entering the Niu-lan or (directly) the YangtzQ ; a fact which seems to show that the gorges in which those rivers run have been split open by upheaval. We ascended this rim as wo quitted the vale, and at Pai* fa-ch'i, a hamlet which we reached on the 80th, we had risen to a height of nearly 9000 feet above sea. There are poorer communities in the world than that of Fai-fa-oh'i, but it may serve as a specimen. The hamlet is composed of six huts, including the custom-house, all built of wattle and dab, the latter being cow-dung, since the local mud will not stick. The largest hut measures 24 feet by 10 ; to secure it against tke fierce winds which sweep over the downs, its walls are propped on the outside with poles. A rude plough, two hoes, a flail, an axe, three buckets, a tub, a table two feet high, two stools six inches high, and a comfortable looking wicker bed strewn with hay, form the inventory of the furniture. The goodman is blind, one side of the housewife's face is black, and the child has a stiff knee. The six huts lodge forty people. To build a hut costs 13«. ; a year's rent for the same is 3«. 4d., but nobody who can afford to be absent stays here in the winter, llio custom-house is also of wicker and cow-dung. The staff of officers consists of a commissioner and four tide-waiters — an eighth of the population. The office furniture is a bed and a hole in the ground, which latter the Commissioner supplies at his own expense with a fire of oak charcoal. Affable as his kind generally are in matters uncon- nected with business, he invited us to eat our breakfast in this apart- ment, but as there was not space to stand upright in we preferred the more capacious hut next door. He collects what are called " fourfootod dues" — an ad valorem levy on cattle, sheep, ponies, and pigs— and annually returns a total of nine pounds sterling to his superiors, besides supporting himself and under-strappers on the receipts. Here we were informed that near Lo-ma-oh'ang more than forty silver mines are intermittently worked ; that the most productive, called Shih-tzu-nao (" Lion-skuU ") yields eight ounces of silver for every pound of ore; that the rock is exceedingly hard, and that the miners keep large fires burning for ten days together in order to soften it. That the workmen gain little profit, but are enabled to live some- what more luxuriously than farm-labourers. That before the Moham- medan troubles the mining inspector, resident at Lu-tion, made Tls. fiO (Ibl.) a day by his appointment, but that at present he makes nothing. That in consequence of disorders and maladministration very littlo work is now conducted, and that the surrounding country is more impoverished than ever. >< A JOlTRNEir or I^XPLORATIOK IN WESTERN SSl^-CH'UAN. 116 A few milefl beyond Pai-fa-oh'i we reached the point where the trftok attain* its higheat level, vis. 9700 feet. A venerable but blaated pine, the only tree within aigbt marks the position. The downs are here covered vrith a dense growth of dwarf bamboo a foot or more high. As we turned a knoll, one of those discoveries which so seldom fall to the fortune of a modem tourist flashed upon me. About twenty miles distant to the north-west, in a cloudless sky, rose a stupendous boss, the culminating point, and the terminal, of a snowy ridge some fifteen miles long. The height of the ridge can only bo estimated, as I pos- Bossed no means of measuring low angles conveniently. An approxi- mation may however be easily made since the snow lies low upon it (luring the hottest season. Captain Gill found the snow-line in Eastern Tibet at about 17,000 in lat. 80°; here our latitude is 28°, and we must allow at least a thousand feet for the snow-covorod part ; 18,000 feet Heems therefore the lowest permissible ostimate. The predominating boss, which resembles a cap of liberty, rises probably 2000 feet higher. The summit falls to the YangtzQ in a series of terraces, which fVum below appear like parallel ridges, and abuts on the river with a precipice or precipices — which must be 8000 feet above its waters. The undu- lations of the plateau prevented a fair sight of the gorges beneath, and a turn in the river sbat tham from view when we descended to its bank. The next visitor, it is to be hoped, will do the region more oouxpletely. I was standing too near those overwhelming heights and depthti to bo able to judge calmly of their proportions — physically too near the gorges, and mentally too close to the liberty-cap, although, as I have sail, it was some twenty miles away. Later and mature reflection has brought little result beyond a violent desire to go there again. Being in Lolo-land the mountain is of course inaccessible to the Chinese; but it is a conspicuous object to the natives of the ,Yung-8han district, who call it " T'ai-yang Ch'iao " — l^e " Sun-bridge " — surely a magnificent name, and not inappropriate ; the sotting sun traverses the crown of that portentous causeway. The mountain-ranges of Ssii-ch'uan run, with very little exception, in a direction varying from N.E. to N.N.E., and the Sun-bridge abides by the rule. It seemed therefore almost certain that the Gold Biver must follow this same general course from Ch'iao-chia to F'ing-shan, and that the elegant northward meander with the graceful turn eastwise provided for it by cartographers is a bit of freehand drawing. This Burmise turned out to be correct. The Jesuit surveyors, it is probable, did not visit the stretch between Ch'iao-chia and Fu-kuan-t'sun, but trusted to such information as was obtainable in the neighbouring towns ; in their time both banks were in Lolo territory, and indeed they were more concerned with the position of cities than with the minute delineation of rivers and ridges. Continuing our journey we began to find that the Chao-t'ung plateau I 2 116 A JOURNEY" OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAX. here breaks up into a number of parallel ranges enclosing deep and narrow ravines. At the end of two short marches a sudden turn brought us into the grassy hollow of Hua-ku Lake, — lake being in this instance a euphemism for marsh. Thousands of sheep are here bred for the sake of their wool, which is manufactured into Lolo felt. We bought a sheep for 2«., returning the skin to the shepherds. The animals are said to suffer greatly from foot-disease, caused by the dampness of the climate. Bain had here fallen for forty days, with three days inter- mission, and came on again towards evening with a wild wind. It needs not to describe the misery of a night spent on a bed of hay with a pigsty beside it, a sheepfold next door, and a pair of cats caracoling and romping about the place in the hope perhaps of keeping themselves warm. Tlie cold blast whistled through the cow-dung and wattle, scarcely allowing our bamboo fire even to smoulder.' Growing reckless towards morning we woke up the housewife and desired her to turn the pigs out of doors and to take the cats into bed with her; for the interstices of the wattle, though close enough to exclude pigs, allowed free admission to cats. She acceded to this exorbitant request with apologies instead of murmurs, and about noon next day we parted on the best of terms. Here we began a continuous descent, but delayed by the rain, did not reach the Yangtzii bank at Yang-liu-shu until the 4th, after two days' downhill, a horizontal distance of .eight miles, and a vertical one of 8000 feet. During the first day we passed through the most impressive scenery of Western Ssu-ch'uan, but the deep gorges bounded on the further side by the immensities of the " Sun- bridge " must be described by the next traveller ; all was invisible to us. Indeed the fog was so little trauslucent that we were several timeH brought to a standstill by the impossibility of seeing the path under our feet. Miao-wa, half-way down, is a hamlet not more than 70 yards square, suiTOunded with a bastioned mud-wall 20 feet high. A little further on we passed on our right the small city of Yung-shan, high up on the slope. It is said that the geomancers who selected its situation weighed the soil of the neighbourhood bulk against bulk, and choosing that which showed the highest specific gravity, built the city upon it, as being likely to afford the most solid foundation. The weather had cleared, and we could now see hero and there the precipitous sides of the " Sun-bridge " peering blackly through rents in the white curtain of mist. Now and again wo could just descry tho summit, but it8 dazzling fieWs looked more like gold than snow, and from our low level the irregular edges of the terraces were projected like peaks upon it. In the north-west, beneath a patch of lighted sky, a long jagged crust sharp and clear as a new cut saw, and not verj' different in colour, showed the continuation of tho range towards and beyond Lui-pu-t'ing. From «uoh a position the whole system seemed a wilderness of peaks ; A JOURNEY OF IXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU^ITUAN. 117 but when we afterwards gained a higher level it became evident that the tendency is to form plateaus rather than pinnacles. As we were plunging down the steepest of gorge-roads among cliffs and cascades we met General Chung, the commandant charged with the protection of the district against Lolo invasion. The old gentleman, who was on his way to YungHshan, greeted me very kindly by dis- mounting, taking off his flapping straw hat, and shaking hands. During the T'aiping wars, he said, he had made friends with many foreigners ; and meeting me suddenly in this wild region reminded him of those stirring times. Hearing of my approach he had left instructions at his quarters of Mi-t'ien-pa to make me comfortable. I think the veteran was unfeignedly glad to see me. Soon we struck the bank of the Gold Biver near the hamlet of Yang-liu-shu, in lat. 27° 50', where it issues from the mouth of a narrow defile, the height, breadth, and depth of which could perhaps be more easily measured than described. Until Her Majesty's Foreign Office supplies its servants in Western Ssu-ch'uan with delicate scientific instruments, or allows then, to write reports in blank verse, little justice will be done to the Sun-bridge and its gorges, unless some Humboldt come this way. The stream, now a reddish-yellow mud-colour, runs in rook-strewn whirls and races which snub any question about its naviga- bility. Yang-liu-shu and its neighbourhood is much favoured by Lolo invaders as a point for crossing into Chinese territory. Many an anecdote was told us about their inroads. They were driven across the river in the reign of Yungchfing— a hundred and fifty years ago — and up to the present time the Chinese authorities have contented themselves with maintaining that line, though in a very incompetent manner. General Chung has only 300 soldiers to guard 60 miles of frontier.' When the Black-bones project a foray they send heralds several months beforehand to proclaim their intention, and the Chinese, knowing that the severest reprisals would follow any ill-treatment of these emissaries, allow them to return, accept their warning, and retire to a safe distance or assemble in a fortified position. The invaders cross the river at iinwatohed places in boats built of thin plank (more probably coracles Huuh as may be seen on the T'ung river,) capable of floating six or seven men, and so light as to be easily carried by one. Early winter is the season they generally affect for their forays. They do not kill unresist- ing people provided a nominal ransom be paid or promised ; but vigorous youths, young women, cattle, and salt, are unsparingly carried away. If resistance be offered they destroy crops. Their most trusted weapon, the spear, is a twenty-four foot pole of Ch'ing-kang wood — a kind of oak — headed with a spike four or five inches long. They have no fire- arms, but commonly use crossbows. The country people seldom make any resistance. Captives who have been carried off may be ransomed, but the price is generally too high. The goodman of my lodging 118 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IX WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. outside Miao-wa has seven relatives now in captivity, and in twelve years his cottage has been nine times burnt out. A woman whom we met had been delivered from bondage at what seems the moderate valuation of sixteen taels — say 51. — but such a sum, I was told, is difficult to raise. Great numbers of Chinese, for the most part slaves, are to be found in the Lolo country ; those bom there, or captuied young, and who speak the language, are very well treated ; many even do not care to return ; but when I asked three or four refugees what they had found to complain of, they replied with derisive laughter — " They make us shepherds and woodoutters and only give \is one buck- wheat cake a day." Seeing therefore that the natives live almost next door to slave- hunters, it is not surprising to find all the farm-houses fortified. Here indeed, every Ohinaman's house- is, literally, his castle ; generally a high wall on four sides with a bastion at opposite angles, and sometimes a donjon tower throe stories high in the interior ; the whole bailt of mud, and perhaps girdled with a thick cactus-hedge. Additional biiildings being often required, fresh works are appended to the original defences, so that in course of time a very picturesque confusion of brown towers and irregular walls results. The interior of such holds is less attractive, being filthy beyond expression. Persons unacquainted, or superficially acquainted, or one-sidedly acquainted, with the Chinese rigime will ask how it can be that this paternal government spends ridiculous million n in the recovery of Kashgaria and Kuldja, and leaves thousands of its nationals, within the bounds of its patrimonial eighteen provinces, in a condition or an imminent possibility of arrant slavery. It would be hopeless to think of contradicting such an argument by the authority of the sparse and ignorant witnesses I have been able to interrogate. But fortunately for the interests of truth and credibility I can adduce the evidence of a European, who had the ill-luck to be overtaken by a Lolo foray in the country between Yung-shan and Takuan. It will be observed that he regards the question from a Chinese point of view. As an educated Frenchman, long resident in Western China, he may be considered capable of judgment, and a devoted missionary will not be refused the privilege of credence. For that matter, the mixture of pathos, humour, and piety, which composes his narrative, is luminous with ingenuous veracity. , "In the beginning of 1860 I intended to make an excursion into the country of the I-jen, not only with the object of promoting the conversion of those tribes, but to obtain the release of several Christians who had been carried into captivity. Unfortunately I had laid my plans without consulting the Mantzii. The season in which those brigands commit their ravages being already well advanced, wo hoped to keep clear of A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. 119 them, but as will be seen in the sequel onr expectation was disappointed. The Mantzu and the I-jen are one and the same people ; they treat one another as brothers, and indeed are brothers. The only difference is that the I-j€n live in submission to the Chinese Government, paying taxes and allowing the officials to visit them, but at the same time retaining complete authority over their own people. The Mantzu, on the contrary, have never been reduced to subjection ; too feeble to oppose the Imperial forces they have chosen to abandon their country rather than endure a foreign yoke and have taken refuge in the mountains called Liang-shan, which form a considerable plateau, protected by inaccessible heights, between the provinces^of Ssu-ch'uan, Yiinnan, and Kueichou. " When I started on the 2nd of January I had heard nothing of a Mantzu incursion, but on the way, news came of the inroad of a body numbering 3000. It was near noon and a few miles more would have taken us out of danger, .... when on a sudden three of tho bandits ran out of a pine-forest towards us and cut off our retreat. I at once gave the alarm and cried, " Sauve qui pent " at the top of my voice, but alas it was too late. One of our party who was on ahead managed to hide himself in the underwood and was lucky' enough to escape discovery ; the rest of us, three in number, took to llight ; two of our enemies stopped to ransack my bundle which had been abandoned to them, while the third followed us up ; but the yells of the whole band, which was ap- proaching, took away all thought and power of resistance. My servant, tho first to bo overtaken, received six thrusts of a spear, and after being stripped of all his clothes was left for dead. Meanwhile I ran with all my might, in company with the man who remained, and already began to have hopes of escaping, when we met another band waiting for us in tho way. Seeing them come on, ready to run us through with their spears, I called out that we would surrender. Eight or ten Mantzil throwing down their weapons, immediately rushed upon me, and literally raised me off my legs clear of the ground ; one 2)ulled off my shoes and socks, another my coat, shirt, &c., all ^vorking simultaneously, so that the business was soon over. I felt giddy and dazed during the operation, especially as there was no knowing how it would end, but I remember thai I repeated without cessation an invocation to Jesus and Mary. " Having torn up my clothes, and given every man his share, they set off again, taking me with them. Being among the first to arrive in the plain, we made a short halt to eat part of our booty, pigs, fowls, ducks, &c. Hero it is every one for himself; those who had looted any- thing partook of the banquet; tneir less fortunate comrades watched them at work. As for myself, squatting under an old wall, I did my l)est to give the wind as little hold as possible. When any of them came near mo I said in a respectful tone — ' Master, it is very cold ; lend me a garment no matter what, and I will return it.' Many of them laughed, tho bettor made no reply, some asked if I would like a flogging to warm my 120 A JOURNEV OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'OAN. back ; but one, more compassionate than the rest, gave me a little bit of a cloak, which although too short was of the very greatest service. May the Lord recompense hira for that good action. " By the time the brigands had devoured the few pigs they had killed, the whole band had assembled, composed of from 1200 to 1500 men. It was now getting late, and every one looked for quarters ; a good many camped out on the open plain, and the rest found lodging in buildings which the Chinese had deserted on their approach. The troop to which I belonged retired to a good-sizod house which sheltered us from the rain, snow, and mnd, most luckily for me, for I was not in a state to brave the open air in such weather. Our installation was effected without much ceremony, and I had to wait outside until everybody was suited. The day's chase having been pretty successful, it was merry in camp that night though without much charge for cooking. Nothing can well be simpler or speedier than the manner in which these people prepare their food. Having lighted a great fire with our host's benches, tables, and beds, they threw into an iron pan four or five pigs, large and small, turned them two or three tinges with a stick, and the beasts were con- sidered to be cooked, although the hair was hardly half singed. The head cook then performed his office und every one came up for a piece according to his rank. I have never been able to understand how those rude gullets could so easily swallow the bristles of the animals. To eat raw flesh is nothing out of the way for people of their condition ; but not to remove the hair seems a novelty. By way of dessert they brought in an ox, which was prepared in the sbme way, hair, hide, and all. Though I had eaten nothing that day, the idea of claiming a share of the banquet did not occur to me ; indeed the thought of being offered any was alarming, for it must be remarked that one is obliged to eat all they offer, under pain of incurring their indignation. If any one shows signs of disgust he will have to swallow the filth which they will at once add to his ration, and will get beaten into the bargain. I was beginning to think myself safe, when the man who had given me the cloak came up with about a pound of flesh, all red and reeking with the natural heat of the animal. It may be imagined how embarrassed I was, especially when I saw that the man was watching how I should get through it ! My condition was quite wretched enough without making it worse by betraying any repugnance, so I made the best of it by biting off four mouthfuls, which took many a turn in my mouth before passing into my stomach. But when ho happened to look the other way I seized the opportunity to hide the morsel, and for want of a better place put it between my feet. Ho returned a moment after and asked me if I had eaten it all, and when I replied ' You have given me a great deal too much ; I will finish it to-morrow,' the good fellow picked it up from where I pointed to it with my finger, and ate it very comfortably, although it was quite cold. This induced me to believe that he had deprived A JOURNEY OK EXPLORATION IN^VVESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. 121 him^lf of it for my sake. From that time forward we were very good friends, and I have no doubt that he did much subsequently to sot me at liberty. " After supper I was chained up, but contrary to general usage my hands and feet were left free, and I managed to get a little sleep. The forenoon of the following day was a trying time. My friend and bene- factor had gone to pillage in the neighbourhood. Besides going without breakfast and dinner I had enough to endure, and they would hardly allow me to approach the fire. Some would pull my hair, or give me a kick, or a box on the ear, or a blow with a pipe ; others amused them- selves by plucking my beard, this one pulling out the white hairs and that one the black, while a third, finding the operation tedious, brought a flaming brand aud roasted my chin unmercifully. More than once I had a very close view of knife or spear, but there was always some helping hand to put aside the blow, or some tender heart to intercede. At last they sent mo to turn the mill, and this was the end of my miseries and the beginning, I may almost say, of comfort. I had scarcely begun work when all the chiefs came to look on ; some wondered at my white skin and others made sport of my awkwardness, but before I had ground many handfuls they all cried out together, ' That will do. Come and warm yourself ! ' It was quite time, for I was all stiff with cold, and could only walk slowly and with great difficulty, so that it was easy to see that I could not long endure such a life. The Mantzii accoi'dingly offered to ransom me for 1000 ounces of silver ; a little later they reduced the demand to 50 ounces, with 1600 lbs. of salt, and twenty pieces of cloth. ' Well," I said, ' you do not require overmuch, but how can I raise money here, or find cloth, or borrow salt? You have taken everything I had with me ; what can I offer you now I have nothing left ? ' My arguments were so clear and just, even in the eyes of these brigands, that nothing more was said about a ransom. " * Do you know who we are ? ' one of the chiefs then asked me. The question seemed a difficult one to answer, since I did not know what he was driving at. I got out of it with a bit of Gascon slyness, which could not however have deceived anybody, for the chief immediately added * Well, well 1 you are frightened to-day. We know you Chinese call us thieves and robbers, but it is you who are the robbers. All this country once belonged to our fathers ; they had always been its masters and l^eaceable possessors until the Chinese came and unjustly expelled them. Wo were the weaker, and had to yield ; our country was neither sold nor given away ; we come to collect the rent. If you retire to your own territory you will find that we shall not follow you.' • But, at any rate,' I replied, * you need not kill the sick and feeble.' ' If we did not,' said he, ' who do you suppose would follow us ? They would all pretend to be sick, and we should never make a single capture.' Unfortunately for the Chinese Government, this is true. It is admitted that the first emperors 192 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. of tlio present dynasty gained possession of Yiinnan by the violent expulsion of the aborigines ; but it remains to be known whether the latter gave occasion to severe repression by their brigandage. " During the forty-eight hours, more or less, which I spent with the Mantzu, I noticed a fact which has singularly surprised me. I had always supposed them to be an exceedingly corrupt people, for such is the reputation which the Chinese have given them. I can nevertheless testify that with the exception of a few expressions, rather vulgar than indecent, I saw nothing in their manners at which even a Christian need blush. Of course this is no proof that these bandits are always so well con- ducted when they return to their mountains, but it shows at any rate that they can behave well when they choose, even in the midst of an incursion which is favourable to every abuse of power. " I thus passed the afternoon of the 5th, and as my masters had shown me a certain kindness, I hoped to be better treated henceforward ; but I was soon nndeoeivef' ;. one of my fellow slaves whispered in my ear during a moment when we wore not watched, ' Things are going badly — they have resolved to kill you to-night after supper, or before starting to- morrow.' I thanked the man with a nod, for it was unsafe to talk much. Seeing no way of escaping death, I thought of preparing for it the best way I could. Two hours went by in this manner ; night had fallen ; several had finished supper, and some were still eating. I felt sure my last hour had arrived, especially when they came and took away the little cloak which covered my shoulders. In this extremity my good angel, who doubtless watched over me, inspired me with the idea of making what iq here called the CKin-cKing — the appeal to kindness — and this is how I acquitted myself of the ceremony. Our band was divided into five groups according to the number of rooms in^the house ; I went to each group and in the attitude of a suppliant exclaimed, ' I appeal to the goodness of your hearts ! ' The plan succeeded oven beyond my expectations. The Mantzu, flattered to see me on my keees before them, granted me not only life but liberty as well, which I should never have dared to ask for. In fact, no instance is known of their ever having released a prisoner ; it is ' March or die.' It happens now and then that at the moment of capture they dismiss some of those whom they have despoiled — an old woman, for instance, or a disabled man; but the encampment once entered thei'e is no leaving it. This is not merely a general rule, but one which has no exception whatever. Blessed be the name of the Lord who for my sake softened the ferocity of these men I Death had no great terror for me, but the thought that my parents, my brother missionaries in China, and my friends in Europe, would remain in cruel uncertainty about my fate was excessively painful. " I was beginning to breatho again and to feel the pleasure of life, and almost of liberty, when the man who had seemed all along to take an interest in me drew me apart and said, ' There are several bad people A JOUnXEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. 123 among us who, uotwithstanding their solemn promise, are quite capable of giving you a stab with a knifo before starting to-morrow. You had bettor be oflf to-night.* ♦ Where can I go ? ' I replied ; ' the mountain is full of yoxir people, I am ignorant of the way, the night is dark, and I have neither clothes nor shoos ; oven supposing these difficulties over- come I should still die of hunger and cold. Good young man, make your meroy complete I Let me spend this night under your roof and I will start to-morrow at daybreak ! ' But it was in vain ; I had to go. I cannot conceive why they wanted to get rid of me at such an hour. They must have had somo other motive than the wish to put mo beyond reach of danger. " I had scarcely taken a dozen steps, however, when, feeling the utter impossibility of going further, I came back and said, * Kill me if yoii like ! It makes no differenco whether I die indoors or out.' " The bandits, genemlly little accessible to compassion, could not help saying that I vriM much to be pitied, acd assigned me a comer of the house to sleep in, where by a stroke of luck I found a few handfuls of rico-straw to spread over me and retain as much warmth as possible. You would not believe how cold and long that night was! Next morning no one thought of hurting mo. When the place was a little cleared they lot mo come near the fire. Seated on the ground, I saw with pleasure that the time for starting was drawing nigh, and while I was impatiently awaiting it, a wag of the party, thinking to divert his com- rades at my expense, filled a pot with cold water and came and poured it over my back. This attention of his made everybody laugh heartily, myself excepted. The rascal was about to indulg-e me with a second Hhower-bath, but I did not give him time ; I gained the door with all despatch, and fear made me find a remnant of strength in my legs when I saw the whole party join in the chase and pelt me with stones. I very soon perceived, however, that they only wished to hasten my flight, and did not really intend to catch me ; nevertheless, for greater safety, I jumped into a rice-field, being pretty certain that they would not caro to paddle after me through the slough. I purposely fell first on one side and then on the other, pretending not to bo able to keep my legs, so ^reat was my dread of being called htjk in earnest. At last I hid behind a hillock, and when the Mantzii lost sight of mo they started, leaving large fires burning in the house. " Sitting and half lying in the mud, it was long ere I ventured to budge. When all was quiet I risked a glance out of the comer of my eye, without lifting my head too far, and at length put my nose in the air and saw the last of the Mantziis disappearing over the ridge of the mountain. After making sure that I was really free and that not one . of my enemies remained, I went back to the house, where I could at least warm myself at ease ; but it was not prudent to make too long a stay. The owner woiild not fail before long to come out of the cave in 124 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SsC^H'UAN. -which, -with his family, he had taken refuge ; and it was to be feared that in the first moment of surprise, and not knowing me, he would make me pay very dearly for the havoo which the robbers had com- mitted in his dwelling. As quickly as possible, therefore, I made myself a broad girdle and a little cloak of straw, and having come upon a basket which was not altogether unlike a hat, I filled it with straw, stuck it on my head the best way I could, and took joyously to the road, thinking much less of present difficulties than of the dangers which I had already encountered. " In the evening I reached a small (Chinese) village, the inhabitants of which had only partly returned. I had great trouble in finding a lodging; nobody would take me in, because I had no money. I remember that I went from door to door saying the handsomest things in the most doleful tones, without any success. Some, while leaving me in the streets, would recommend me to be patient, remarking that times were bad «ud that, moreover, I was not the only unfortunate — with other truths of a similar nature. These were the most civil. Others would declare flatly that I was a thief, and that their houses were not meant for people like me. I saw the moment coming for me, not to sleep, but to die, in the street of that inhospitable village. My entreaties and my courage were alike exhausted when I heard some one calling ine — ' Old fellow ! old fellow ! come here ! ' It turned out to be one of those who had refused me shelter. The good mun gave me supper and performed that night an act of charity which, to those who know what the heathen are, will seem incredible. There was only one blanket in his house, the others being hidden in the mountain for fear of the robbers. Well, my host had kept this solitary blanket for his own use, and yet he lent it mo for the night without being asked, sleeping himself in his clothes on a bench beside a small fire which he relighted more than once without succeeding in getting warm. I am firmly per- suaded that the Lord, in his mercy, will give that heathen the Faith, of which he already performs the Works, and I earnestly recommend his conversion, as well as that of his family, to your good prayers." It may be affirmed with something like certainty that the above is the only paragraph of European literature which makes authentic mention of the Liang-shau Lolos. I need make no apology for extracting it from the *Annales de la Propagation de la Foi' (latest edition, vol. xxxiv.), since while it illustrates and confirms the results of my inquiries about the redoubtable Black-bones, it gains interest and value from a knowledge, which the vmter did not possess, of the large extent of territory occupied by them. The frontier, at almost any point of which Chinese may be hunted for in the manner recounted, has a length of more than SOO miles and lies wholly within China Proiter. , It is pleasant to bo able to add that although the excellent missionary A JOURNEY OF 5XPLOUATI0X IN WESTERN SSU-CH'UAN. 125 has since enoountored dangers of a not less formidable kind, his prospect of martyrdom seems more distant than ever. We kept along the bank as far as the village of Huang-kno-shu, whore, to out off a wide bend in the river, we climbed 3000 feet up a mountain-spur to Ya-k'ou, a scattered hamlot of fortified cottages. A little further on we selected as our lodging a large farm-house, girt with walls and towers, the only occupants of which were two Lolo women ; they told us, however, to make ourselves at homo, saying that the master was away, but would doubtless bo glad to receive us, and that they would send to inform him. It was here that I made the most interesting discovery of the journey. The master did not return until next morning, but in the meantime we learnt that he was a Lolo of rank and that this part of the country on the right bank of the Gold Biver, over which his family once reigned, had submitted to the Chinese under his grandfather. Ho had received a Chinese education, and, except in the matter of inter- marriage, had adopted Chinese forms, though still maintaining relations with the independent tribes on the opposite bank. The room in which I was installed measured some 25 feet by 14 feet, and one-third of the floor was covered to an average depth of about 18 inches with bundles of waste manuscript and printed papers. The Chinese make such collections with the purpose of solemnly burning them, from a pious respect for the art of writing. Now, while travelling along the border, I had been many times assured that the Lolos possess books, the power of deciphering which is confined to their priests, or medicine-men, or magicians, or whatever their correct style may be. The Chinese call them " tuan-kung" a word which is generally translated by the uncouth term " thaumaturgist." • I had made every effort to obtain one of their books, but without success. Lu, the Che-po chief, promised to send me an exemplar, but although I have since corresponded with him nu Black-bone classic has reached mc. Here then at Ya-k'ou, the point where our route quitted the immediate frontier, an expiring hope ^'ompted me to examine the mass of fugitive literature which encumbered tho floor of my chamber. After a hasty dinner I summoned my native clerk and we began an exhaustive exploration of thousands of documents. The search was not so difficult as might appear, since the printed papers, mostly proclamations, placards, and Ixand-bills, formed three-fourths of tho mass and were packed up separately from manuscripts. Tho Lolos do not possess tho art of printing, and wo h^d therefore only to examine the written documents. These were principally drafts of letters, rough accounts, and children's copy-books, the latter in great number. Not wishing our unhandsome * This looks like the word tuin, wLioh was applied by the Mongols (or properly by the XJigburs) to their lamas. See tbs references in ' Cathay and the Way Thither,' p. 241, note.— [H. Y.] 1S6 A JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SsO-CH'UAN. inquiBitivencu to bo mado public, wo had frequently to relax oporaiions on account of interruptions, bo that we did not ooiuploto our work until soon after midnight. We found nothing to our purpose in any of the packages; bti\ under the last low, almost in the furthest comer, wo discerned with gloating eyes the scrap of writing of which a facsimile is appended — a specimen of Lolo oharaotors with the sound of each word, or syllable, approximately indicated in Chinese. (Plate II.) It might have been expected that the Lolo writing would turn out to be some form of Pali. It shows, however, no relation to that system, but seems to take after the Chinese method. In any case the discovery possesses no small value and raises so many interesting questions that a little 3xultation may be pardoned. A now people may be discovered anywhere, a now language any day ; but a new system of writing is a find of exceeding rarity. Many a rival galled the kibes of ColumbuH, but tho achievement of Cadmus has been deemed so astonishing that his very existence is now denied ! I did not care to carry otf tho original — " convey " the wise it call — but yielding to a subterfuge which no casuistry can palliate, I mado my clork copy it on a superposed sheet of transparent paper and have since had it cut in wood. When the master returned nexb morning I asked him if ho would allow me to keep tho original ; but, as wo had foreseen, ho refused, nor could we obtain from him any consistent explanation of tho meaning of tho document, although in all other respects he was profusely obliging and hospitable. It is necessary to recount the above discreditable details for tho purpose of putting beyond doubt tlio authenticity of the document and of showing that it was not made to order. Hearing in th? H>urse of the forenoon that a lettered medicine-man from the oppoctito bank was in tho village, I asked our host to send for him, which ho at onco did. Tho medicine-man, a tall and robust Lolo, with his horn concealed under the Ssd-ch'uan turban, appeared to havo somewhat reluctantly accepted the invitation, and for a long time I could hardly elicit a word from him. Tho exhi- bition of weapons and instruments excited littlo emotion ; but his curiosity was at last pricked by a Nautical Almanack which happened to lie open at a page of Lunar Distances. He carelessly indicated a line of figures and, speaking of course Chinese, asked what they meant. Now by the greatest luck in the world I remembered tho Lolo word for moon since it is a remarkable word which exhibits the Welsh aspirated {; and furthermore, I had a rude acquaintance with tho numerals; so that it was easy to reply in tho medicine-man's own language " Hlo-po t'au-ha-ni-fo " — " Moon, a hundred and six." Whether the translation was correct, within a hundred degrees or so, was of small account ; indeed it is quito possible that he may havo understood me to say "a hundred and six moons"; but from that moment the ice was broken and communication became easy, mostly, however, to his PlaU^n. to fai)e Paye. 126 oxl^i «: r ^ — )* e ■^: "^ * ^ ;s "^jlr L-» ^ t, ^ c Plate U. IV fai* Pnne. I't t-ij ^ '&-«t IL A JOURN iulviintago, for ho = roH ^ -)r! e,^ i>» '^ ^^ ^ To i'ace p. 128 1 on ^= ^ dPCJfO 51 ^flS* ^.^ 1^ •y *t*^ •V -^^ ^r?;?- (H?: :^5n. ) »rr7 ^^^ c^*^. ^+-?5F^ zn I To face p JZ8 . Seczj^ "n ^Z^^ ttT7 HO >+-»' ^-. i-rp ' li' Tofui-e p128. !^ ta3 w^ (d. ^ 3-- ^ ri^ I J 3 -1 i f r ^ m { m :?=- 9^ a: tr' j=, > 4- m^n s^ y 4^ 2^^3^ 'VZ^'^ ^ OO W7 ^^ o W i^ •tf? urf- uj L T?; 'S' 4= O \>o: 1 1' Zt 1?5 at) y cibi v^ _ -^ ObJ ^ O CD ' n^ y To face p. 128 P^l= 3^ Tp; # D^^ iM 030 -'■3-- Ob) n ^ 2') T^ »-rr> ^4 •?^ >> s^ 00' V coo If? H^Tnf^ t-1 0) 3-2- o u5fc Vf 1?; ^ Tefd >- 1=7 Tofae^p/i28 V\m Pi n '»i| ■fhi hi I 3z ^ ^ rriO -=riD-tl n- Tcfac^p.128 g ^ 3= OK u=- 1? Vi 3t ^ I- i A 3 or, X " O le? VU7't7 ^ =^* dDC ^oV<^ Wn t-Tp CD ^l^^^^ >l^^ 5:: ?i| 3z \^ iif < 'I tl 1 ^x. u. <^ uy ^ TOf -^ t 3- ^/N OD ^ y ( ^Tq-f; t^ L?, M^T ie; "^ CD ■'■ 9=ey '?^'' t^** i^§ Z'/ f7 u^ ^ ill af ^1s^J^K^s> 7) /g- w^^::^ -^^v^ — mi II 1 g-T— 1 fn-ngT-nnrniii " 4ti^ a -i 9^ 1^ rC ■^ =r- '-+^ yu ^ -T-. ^ ■G r*s^ ZP-CJCL -«-» ""^ Lfs -- - Qi^ ^ ^ *> — (jj^ -^ I ?£ -O.- E= '^ vjr- tfe ® V^ ^ "==^ -='5 , A Jouij; 1 to 8] — liavo beei line. I am quite nnabli) to declare Tho foregoing if it has not huc most part an int ^S'este^n SHu-eh*ni seldom knows wh( Tho purpose of t which premises a A hundred yar rli'ing, which I ha jiofisilily an aiicici fields and ulTaccd 1) a prominent featu it a pleasant spot wliieli Ssu-ch'nan oil such an occasi (li'lineatcd on tho Vie fore a -little n ]ire8eiiee of an oh lialf, whieh accor Aliiildin and othei a Huliterranean ca was 11(1 ringholt 1 it. until assistanco in China, ]mniHhal weeks j)assod heiV tsuca'i'dcd, after e injjeiinity, in rais a nulc saroophagJii (Iraiiu'J iu tiirongli ileKiMT^iturs. liut i to warrant tho in I I'lolialily a blind to wiiiuii may l)o exj tiiumhiH. Nevertheless I > tet-ii made. From end, tlio landlord jiolishod stone axel nil ut was jiorfect, 1 and surmising tha VOL. 1. A JOUIIXKY (»F KXPLOHATION IN WKSTEUN SSlf.CH'UA\. 129 1 to 8] — liavo boon cjircfiiUy ci'piocl from it, i»ago for page and line for line. I am quite ignorant t)f tUo nature of the work, and am oven unablu to declare at which end it begins. Anciknt Stonk Monumknts. The foregoing narnitivo will have failed altogether of its intention if it has not Bucceodcd in liinting how groat an interest — for the most part an interest in the unknown — attaches to exploration in Western Ssu-ch'uan. Ihit the misfortune of tho oxplonr is that ho BolJoni knows where to look, and never knows how much lie has missed. Tlio purpose of this note is to indicate one special vein of research whicli premises a rich output. A hundred yards or more distant from a country house near Ch'ung- cli'ing, which I have from time to time occupied, lies a mound which is ])088il)ly an ancient tumulus ; but it lias Iwen so eaten into by paddy- fields and effaced by tho erection of a modern tomb that its outline is not a prominent feature. Its few s(iuiire yards of uncultivated nwiird make it a ]deasant spot on wliich to sun oKoself during tho rare intervals in which Ssu-ch'uan weather combines mildness with sunsliino, and it was oil such an occasion that I one day detected a straight line faintly delineated on the surface of tlio tiirf. Very few moments i lapsed before a *littlo removal of soil with a pointed stick disclosed the ])ro8ence of an oblong slab of sandstone, about seven feet by two and a half, which according to all precedent contained in tho records of Aladdin and others should have l)cen countersunk into tlie mouth of ft subterranean cavity. And, sure enough, so it was, althoiigh there was no ringbolt liy wliich to raise it. 1 hiul therefore to (bfer lilting' it, until assistjince could Ik) obtjiined ; and since such operations are, in China, punishable by decapitation, or strangling at the least, several weeks passed l)eforo occMision served tho purpose. When we at last Kucwidrd, after expending much misapplied force and pretentious ingenuity, in raising tho slab, we discovered that it was the lid of a rudf sarcophagus containing nothing but wet numld, which may have tlraiuid in through ill-dosod chinks, or have been deposited by previous ileseirators. lint in any case the sarcophagus lies too near the surface to warrant tho inference that it has ever housed a corjise ; it is more imilmlily a blind to divert oiriosity from tho situation of the true coffin, which may l)o exiH'cted to re^)oso in some more recondite part of tho luuiulus. Nevertheh'ss I was not at all depressed, for a vahuible find had already been made. From beneath tlu^ head of the lid, which juts over at ono t'Utl, tiio landlord of the house had, a fow days before, pickeil out a ])olished stone axehead of serpentine. When first discovered tho instru- ment was perj'ect, but the friends of tho tinder, ignorant of its character and surmising that it contained gold, attemjited to break it oneu by vol,. 1. K 130 A JOUnXEV OF EXPLOIIATION' IN WJi^STKHN SSlJ^H'UAX. A J( daHhin<; it ngninst a rock, ond Bcrionsly mutilated its odgcf). Tho tough material ufTercd, as a whulo, so Mtout a rcHistuiivo to tho vandals, that it retains a very prescntahio and oven eK»gant apjio^iranco, and now fonns No. 1 of my cabinet of ixilished stono instnimontM fo ind in Ssu-ch'unn. That evervthiiij^ must havo a Ix'ginning is ono reason why tho collection hus not yot extended lieyond No. 2, a siK'cinien which owes its discovery to tho habit of opium-smoking. In a street in Ch'ung-ch'ing my servant met a smoker scraping tho opium-stains from his fingers with its chiscl-likc edge. Tho man let mo havo it for tho cipiivalent of a shilling, and on being asked how ho came by it said that ho had found it, and another, in a stone cuffin in a field near his house. Tliis exemplar, though muc'li ililiipidatfd, is a good specimen of polished flint. It is therefore undeniable that these objects are found in connection with coffins, though what tho connection may bo is not clear. Tho Fio. 6. Scale 10 feet to 1 inch. natives call llniii "/(«i'(7»"- — wcdgt-s — and conceive that their uso was to fasten down the lidK, nf Miiroojtliagi in Honio unexplained niiuincr. A moro plausible KUi)puHitiou is that they wore buried witli tlio dead in conformity wi theory is impo monoliths wor It is curioi sandstone cofli purpose, and t( ever that nmy sarcophagi wit must exist tho these construct I vihitod, is iH indicated on ni spot by careful Tho scries ( through A, whi cleared of the s high. Tho d porch is shown lapping lintels. of the living roi second is sculpt between two g hntel immediate also mueli Worn dition will adini Passing throu-i atid six feet bi;i is carefully ronn K^rcophagus, l)ui enough for pur intended fen- a bi A JOURNEY OK EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSlf^H'UAN. 131 confonnity with Bomo traditional or BuporHtitioiiR rito ; nt any rate the theory in iiupoSKiblo thnt tho pcoplo who hoUowod ont thoRU poiuluroua luonolitha worked with Htoiio chiHulH, and loft, tbuir toola insido. It ia curioiia to find in many a farni-houso nnd roadaido inn aimilar sandatono coffora in uho a.s ciNtoma, though of unnouoHBiiry nize for the purpose, and to bo told that thoir origin ia roinoto and unknown. How- ever that may ho, tho explorer cannot help connecting such tanks and sarcophagi with another class of sandstone oxi'avations of which thuro niiist exist thoiis4inds of shapely and impoNing siwcimens. Tho iirst of theso constructions — if a perforation can bo called a construction — which I visited, is near Ch'ieii-wei Ilsien, on the Min. Tho exact locality is indicated on my chart of that river, and tho plan (Fig. (i), made on tho spot by careful measurement, will help to expla'n tho following remarks. Tho series of excavations shown on tin plan can only bo entered through A, which may bo called the porch ; tho doorway a, if it wero cleared of the sand which at present obstructs it, would l)o some 4J feot high. Tho distance to which tho roof of rock extends over tho porch is shown by the dotted line, at which point there are three over- lapping lintels. It should bo borne in mind that all is part and parcel of the living rock. The uppermost lintel is plain, but on tho face of tho second is sculptured in relief a couchant animal (Fig. 7), possibly a horso, Fig. 7. iKtwtcii two glub-'H, till- carving of which is very much defaced. Tho lintel immetiiatcly ivcr tin- lutraucebt-'ars the ornament shown in Fig. 8, also much wuin down, although its uutlino is distinct ; so fur as its con- dition will admit of ex.v t measurement, it is just an English foot long. Passing through th(> doorway I entered a chamber some 12 feet long and six feet high bi-iiciith tlic er-iwn of tlie low arch into which tho ro<.)f is carefully rouncUd. On tlie left is wliiit apju'urs at first sight to Ihj a sareupliagus, but on ilcaiing out the sand 1 found tliat it is hardly deep enough for purpusiw of burial. Still, it seems too deep to have been intended for a bed-place, and although its outer rim is a good deal l)roken E 2 'M I.* Si h I ,1 1 f!' < t 'I'l I i 132 A JOUUXKY OK KXrUHIATION IX WK-STKIIX SSU^irUAN. nway, tliu luuHt i)ruliulilu Hup2**^i«itiuii ia tjiut whiuh takes it fur a tauk, ur ciBtini. At tlio first IiIuhIi I had iniajjint'il tlio nivo y the nnjdi awintly stronj; drau:;iit wliich.evm diirinj^my exphiru- tlon, was Idowinj; from tlie inner eml of tln< chamlx-r. Ahm^Kide the fire-itlnce, at a comfortable hiij;ht ftir Ihe hard-worked cook, a spacioUH ledj^e hu8 Ikmu chiselled in the rock-wal" when' hinhnttfrie dentiniue could Ikj comn>o*Unu»'1y de]H',Hited. Tlit^ e.vigeneies of space, and the conven- tionalities of narraiive, forbid me to dwell ninm the intense interest wliich now Ujjan to attend the examination, or to renmrk iipon the severe inflm-nza which the draught inflicted. At the further end of the chiimlK-r i.- an arched niche, not so low as the floor nor so high as the roof, which may liavc served as a shrine for the Lares of the rock-dwclleiH ; and on the propel left of this is a very I'urrow and low passage h, witli a detji Htcp in its tlcxir. In the face of tho step (i. 0. its vertical face) and partly in the lower floor, is a rough irr ;(ular hole a foot or more in diameter and ]H>rhaps two feet deep. Crawling v ith diflicnlty through tlie passage Icutcr.d tiie short chamber C. which opens like an embrasure on to tlie face of tho cliff at about 15 feet above its base. IVom tho mouth of thoeml'rosnre I sjiw chamber O, on the right, but concluded that it was imposHiblo to reach it, and ]>eering round the cpening, otherwise tho snioko of tluir fire would have stifled tho inmates of D. At any rate tho chamlnTS difi'er in plan, and each lias its own ])aHsago difl'ering in detail as regards the jaojections on tho walls. Chamber K, again, is slightly longer than I), as a glam.-e at the jdan will show Chamln'r P, runs nmeh further kick than the other two, and ojmmik to the (external air })y a very long passage. Hero again the partition is broken away. ChamlwrF contains a tank similar to the one first mentioned. We have now visited five apartments, Imt there is still a sixth (G), somewhat higher in level, and only to Ihj gained by a hazardous effort of hUnirming round the inside of tlu! corner from V, When safely landed in it one olwirvts that it commands the mouths of tho four parallel chamlH-rs, and that its inner «'nd. originally terminating in solid rock, has Ikvu broken througli, probably during the process of cutting tho moileru liigh road which nuis immediately Ih'Iow. Thi> jjurpose of tljo projections oji the passage walls seems clear enough on the phm, but it is not so evident while ono is scrambling about tho interior. They can hardly lie anything elso than doorposts ; if there bo any doubt it is disjiosed of by tho existence of Iioles through their edges tor tho inH( rtion of strings to act as hinges or fastenings. liut then tho quLMtion occurs why should each of the three pasmiges have luid two doors, us appears from tho plan? To this I reply by another question, why should there lie any si-parate chamU-rs at all, when it would have l)eon so much easier roughly to hew out ono huge cavern than to take tho minuto and clalM>rate pains necessitated by so much subdivision? I imagine tliat tho familiis wiio hail their dwelling in tho rock were ri'spectable folk and loved privacy. Hy closing both doorseach chamlx'r with its passjige would form two separate bedrooms. The space between the diK)rs is about the rijjht length ftir a comfortable bed, leaving room i'>r the sleeper's clothes at one end, and it will bo observed that in }ia88ag(! V, the space between the doors renuiins much the same lengtli as in I) and E, although its whoUi position lies several feet further inwards. Cnamber D seems originally to have had only one door. Tho . F i k ' » 5 SSf!;! ■"■III", r ■'I ;■■« i ^f^"^- IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 115 ■tt lii 12.2 £ |£o 12.0 Photograiiiic Sciences Corporation r-S 23 WIST MAIN STRHT WilSTH,N.Y. 14StO (716)S73-4$03 184 A JOUBNET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SsH-CffUkS. vny in which the wall has been afterwards notched out shows that a second door was added after the completion of the excavation. The persistent adherence of the architect to straight lines and sharp angles is very remarkable, notably at the inner entrance to chamber C, where so many comers seem quite unnecessary. Another noticeable feature of this complicated cave-system is the extreme difficulty of getting into it. The only entrance is by the neck of chamber C, through which, even in its present enlarged condition, a stout man could not pass. More- over there is a step in the neck, and the step is undercut. A person in C, by simply pushing a large stone into the hole, could easily close the orifice beyond the power of anything but dynamite to open it from the side of B, and probably this was the intention of the device. But why communication between C and D should not have been e£fected by means of a doorway in the partition, instead of by clambering round the face of the rook, a transit, by the way, only practicable for grown-up people, is not so intelligible. It may fairly be assumed that C was not designed for habitation, since it is unprovided with doorposts ; it was therefore merely a kind of entrance lobby. Perhaps this labyrinthine arrangement was a precaution against surprise. An enemy, or a robber, feeling his way by means of the handholes from C to D, would be helplessly at the mercy of a sentinel posted in G, and the same disporition admirably protects the mouths of the chambers from escalade from below. Whatever may be the secret of these singular excavations, the key to the mystery lies in the entrance lobby C. The want of parallelism in its walla is exceptional, and it should be noticed that the obliquity of its northern wall causes the difficulty of access to G. This particular cave contains no seats, but in others which I ex- plored I found bed-places arranged so as to form low and very comfort- able settees. The edge of the bedsteads, i. e. the comer which would bear against the back of the knees of a person sitting on them, is rounded — not merely smoothed away, but boldly cut into a liberal curve; while the rear part of the seat fiftlls as it retreats, the whole appur- tenance exactly resembling a soft divan with a luxurious spring cushion. This similarity is so striking that I almost unconsciously looked for the feet. Absurd as the hallucination may have been, its justification was undeniable, for the feet are there! The iipholsterer has undercut the rock, leaving feet tn titu. Enough has been said to show that the excavators were no rude happy-go-lucky borers. A higher idea of their art — I use the word advisedly — is gathered from an examination of the fa9ade. Standinfr on the ground outside, and fifteen feet or so below, the mouths of the parallel chambers, one sees that the rock has been cut away into a smooth face, leaving the overhanging cliff to act as eaves; and this must evidently have been done before the perforation of the chambers was begun. Several feet above the line of openings a curious ornament A JOUBMET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSff-CH'UAN. 186 miui along the faoe, oomposed of a Bnooesaiou of discs, looped together, and underlaid by a row of the patterns which in heraldry are called labels. In the same line of olifis there are several smaller oaves, one of which is remarkable for the sculpture on its triple lintel ; the middle slab bears the trident symbol depicted in Fig. 9, and beneath the trident K. at mlt »n» yardf ^^:,:-?v?^ Fto. 9. on the nethermdiit slab is a large, prominent human face. The trident might be sapposed to support the upper slab, or lintel, and to represent a capital ; but although there is the indication of the insertion of a rod, or handle, or thin pillar on its under surface, this part is nearly conterminous with the under side of the slab, so that the idea of its being a pillar-head is untenable. But both this and the disc-and-label pattern are so characteristic that they might reasonably be expected to recur in other caves, and I looked forward with confidence to finding them elsewhere. Fortunately I knew precisely where to search, since all my informants agreed that the most highly decorated cave was to be found near Sui-fu. It lies within an easy day's water-journey from that city, on the left bank of the river, about three miles below the village of Huang-sha- ch*L Access should be obtained by a ladder, which can be borrowed from the hamlet dose at hand ; it is possible to scale the 18 feet of vertical rock beneath it by means of the notches which have been cut for the purpose, but the notches are much worn, and the experiment is to be deprecated. The principal feature of the work is a verandah of grandiose pro- portions, 39 feet by 12, and about 10 feet high. From the rear of this three apartments run into the rock, the central one, 48 feet long, being at right angles to the verandah, and the two side-chambers inclining towards the central one, so that their innermost ends are nearer together than their entrances. Fig. 10, which is a sketch from memory, and not an exact plan, will make the arrangement clear. Along the front of the verandah three or four pillars have been left to support the roof. To judge by what little of their original surface remains, they were square. The walls are worked smooth, and in parts which are m A JOUBNET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSff-CH'UAN. vnu^QTed show an even surface, retauung no marks of the tool ; this is so noticeable that the flat faces do not look like sandstone, bnt appear almost as if they had undergone some hardening process. The .waU« spaces are divided into compartments, some of which may have been VERANDAH 38 FXBYI2. n n n. Vta. 10. Scale 12 feet to 1 ineh. sculptured in relief, and others perhaps have formed hollows for the reception of carved panels, bnt they are dilapidated beyond all possibility of deciding this point. Very soon I discovered the diso-and-label pattern running along the upper part of the inner wall of the verandah in a condition of almost perfect preservation, and showing the same appearance of comparative hardness observable in other places. The pattern is here most exactly A JOURKET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SStlJCXnjJtJS. 187 and preoisely carved, and although saoh an ornament may not aeen^ highly decorative, it accords admirably with the solid and severe dignity of the cavern. One cannot keep one's eyes from it; and soon a certain irregularity is detected, caused by the labels not being syn- chronous, so to speak, with the discs, although the distances between indi- viduals are regularly maintained in each row. Every fifth label, however, regains vertical coincidence with a disc. Thus, supposing Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, to represent a series of equidistant labels, and No. 1 to coincide with a disc. No. 6 will be the next to coin- cide. Fig. 11 is a sketch of the pattern. It did not occur to me to observe how many discs correspond to five labels, but judging from my original sketch the number would be fourteen, in which case thirteen spaces in the upper row are equivalent to four spaces in the lower ono. Now it is curious that the length '^f the verandah compared with its breadth exhibits this same ratio of thirteen to four. The best conjecture I have to ofier respecting the origin of this decora- tion is tiiat it represents a highly conventionalised row of eaves, the discs being the ends of rafters, the festoons indicating the tiles, and the labels the ends of beams. But other carvings which adorn the cavern will not admit of being explained as sur- vivals. The whole design of the verandah and its details is planned with perfect regularity and symmetry except in one striking particular. Be- tween the doorways of the middle and western chambers — ^but not centrally between them — tbe trident symbol recurs ; but unlike the example first mentioned, its three prongs spring out into several flamboyant branches. There is no carving on the 188 A JOUBinr OF IXPLOBATIOM IN WESTERN flSlT.CH'UAN. oomapondiiig space between the oentnl and eastern doorwi^ys. On the outside fikoe of the pillars again the same theme is repeated, but with a different rendering in each case. Above the pillars a frieze covered with various details in relief exhibits personages seated upon unrecognisable npiwiftlf, and at its eastern end is an object the meaning of which alto- gether defies conjecture, although its preservation is good. I scarcely know to what it can be likeifed, but it may be distantly compared to the press full of pigeon-holes in which the railway-clerk who takes fares keeps his tickets. In this instance the pigeon-holes are of various dimen- sions, and some of them are much fuller of tickets than others. I could not make a satisfiaotoiy examination of it, owing to the physical pain caused by its inspection. Any one who has sufTered from exhibition headache will appreciate the sensation brought on by standing on the verge of a ptedpice, with one's back to it, and gazing almost vertically upwards at a surfiAce very slightly inclined to the direction of sight. The xepresentation of the object is of considerable size, perhaps five feet high. A still more remarkable, though not more artistic excavation is that which, tat want of a better name, may be called the King's Monument, carved in the body and &ce of a cliff on the left bank of the Min half way between Tao-ssu-kuan and Mo-tzii-ch'ang. It is known in the neighbourhood as the " Man Wang Tung " — Cave of the Mantzfi King — and will be easily discovered by any one who inquires for it under that name. After ascending the diff by a steep path the explorer walks along the brink which overhangs the monument until he sees a much steeper path leading down the precipice. Scrambling down the best way he can — there are plenty of weeds to hold on by — he comes after a few yards' progress to a doorway, the entrance to a flight of stairs which plunge into the heart of the rock. At the foot of these is a second flight forming in fiaot a pair of stairs, which lands him again on the face of the diff in a small recess profusely carved with defaced and timewom images, some of which are nearly detached, while others, possibly representing Buddhas, are sculptured in low relief on the sandstone wall. The most imposing effigy is a battered statue, 12 feet or more in height, the face of which is flattened away and pierced with deeply-cut square holes, pre- senting a most ghastly aspect, and really impressing a momentary horror upon a mind already troubled by the slippery descent and the sudden unexpected stairway leading down to the unknown. Now the word " Man-Wang " — ^Eing of the Mantzd — ^is loosely pronounced " Ma Wang," and a native who was with me insisted that the latter is the correct form and should be interpreted " The Pitted King," the evident intention of the square holes being to represent a severe case of small-pox. Un- happily for his most ingenious theory, this statue is not that of the king, and it is more probable that the holes were bored by the original sculptor for convenience in affixing a plaster mask which has been sub- sequently washed or worn away. A JOURNET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN Sstf^^H'nAN; 189 All the carvings in this reoess are more or leas unrecognisably mutilated. The floor is a mere ledge, without any parapet to save one from the precipice ; but a levelled way leads a few yards along the face of the blu£f into a kind of doset, wholly excavated in the sandstone, and overlooking the river by a window neatly cut through its thin outer wall. Beyond this is another ledge with a levelled floor about six feet wide, and here the explorer finds himself in full presence of the king. His Majesty is represented by a very successful statue almost detached from the rook, and about as large again as life, seated on a bench in an easy and not ungraceful posture with, one foot crossed upon the opposite knee and a hand laid upon the ankle, the body inclined slightly to the left and the face turned still more in the same directioli. Although the work is not very delicate, it cannot be called rude. The sitter has an air of simple and unpretending affability, immensely differing from the "stuok-up" deportment of Chinese potentates as rendered by native sculptors ; none but a bom artist would have dared to portray an Oriental magnate in such imaffeoted guise. I should not even have observed the dress, but for a remark of my servant who noticed that the closely fitting coat was more like my frock-coat than a Chinese robe. The garment reaches to about mid-thigh, or a little lower, and very loose trowsers almost cover the shoes. The work is in fair preser^ vation, and even much of the colouring has survived. Perhaps the king's image is of later date than the other effigies. The people of the neighbourhood seem to take no interest in their conserva- tion, but the approach to the grot is so secluded that they run little risk of gratuitous assault. No immediately local tradition, so far as I could learn, is attached to them. A Chinaman is always delighted to afford the fullest information about matters of which he is totally ignorant, but when he has remarked that the principal statue represents a Mantzii king, and inferred that it was carved by the Mantzii, he considers the subject exhausted. Whether the Mantzu — the aboriginal inhabitants of Western Ssu-oh'uan — were exterminated, absorbed, or exiled, is a question which historical research must solve ; a stray traveller cannot expect, or be expected, to decide it. Mr. Alexander Wylie was the first to draw attention to these caves, and Baron von Bichthofen makes allusion to them ; but the proposed identification of their architects with the modem " Sifan," the twelve tribes who people the valley of the Upper T'ung, can hardly ^be more than a hopeful conjecture. The Lolo chief who spent a few days with me under the precipices of Wa Shan professed to be acquainted with the Man Wang cave, and assured me that the statue portrays a certain Hsi-po, an ancient Lolo king — date unknown— of four powerful tribes, called Lin, Lung, Ma, and Wan, whose territory extended from Yueh-hsi to Ghia-ting. It may be that Hsi-po is the same as the deity Shua-hsi-po, mentioned above ; at any rate the Lolos worship Hsi-po, and bum as incense to him the 140 A JOUBNET OF EXPLORATION IK WESTUtN SSff-CH'tJAN. frag^nt twigB of a dwarf fir which growB only on the loftieat (nunmits. When apeaking Chinese the LoIob call him Ma Wang — the Hone-king. "When we begin any entexprise," said the chief, "we invoke his name, much in the same way as the Chineae call upon Omito Fo. He is called the Horse-king becanse he could ride 600 li (100 miles) in the time it would take to cook a fowl (half an hour). The Chinese killed him, and ate his heart." Very likely this legend contains a grain of truth which more direct light may illumine. The three oavenui above described aro the most elaborate I have seen, and the only examples I have gone many yards out of my way to visit. Hundreds, probably a great many hundreds, of a less artistio category exist, square or oblong chambers of five to eight feet, and some six feet high, entered by a doorway a yard or more square, which is out into jambs on all four sides as if for the insertion of door-slabs, to dose the opening. No trace however remains of such slabs. These are the most frequent, and are often excavated side by side, half a dozen together, in a convenient olifif, an arrangement which shows a certain resemblance to that of the ancient tombs at the temple of Pai-fo-ssQ* mentioned above. Some of them, indeed not a few, are drilled high up in the face of a bluff, and impossible of approach ; but in general their embrasures are level with the soil, or even beneath it in places where earth and fragments of rook have fallen from above and raised the surface. I have seen one instance, on the right bank of the Min above Chia-ting, where no less than twelve portholes, apparently entering upon oaves of this character, are arranged with almost geometrical precision in three tiers, one above the other, and very close together. There is probably an internal communication between them, but they are too far aloft to be scaled without the aid of longer ladders than the Chinese employ. Caves of this kind, in one irregular tier, are common near Ch'ung-ch'ing, and some single specimens are met with even in the city. A case has occurred within my knowledge of a citizen digging in his garden at the foot of a low rock and coming, at four or five feet beneath the surface, upon the entrance of a cave which, however, contained no remains and, like all the rest, was unprovided with a door. A trustworthy observer informs me of an example near Ch'i-chiang Hsien, ubout 60 miles south of Ch'ung-ch'ing, which has been carved in a loose boTdder of sandstone; in process of time the boulder has been upset, probably by a flood, in snch a manner that the doorway now lies uppermost, like the mouth of a pit. Another kind consists of a short gallery containing the settee above described, and sometimes a tank. There are many varieties of this species which it would be tedious to describe : enough has been said to show the interest and extent of the subject and to promise a rich reward to the patient explorer. Two or three leading facts may be regarded as fairly established* The ^ JOURNET OF EXPLORATION IN WESTERN SSff-OH'ITAN— DUCOSSION. 141 The oayes are alwaya littiated near running water; bat they do not ooour, oorioualy enough, on the YangtzQ. Even if I had not failed to find them along the banks of that river, Oaptain Blakiiton's silenoe on the nibjeot would be almost ooncluBive. Again, none of them contain iuBoriptiona. Brown, Jones, and Bobinson, have indeed incised their signs-manual and recorded their impre$Honi de voyag€ in the free and accepted manner of tourists, whether Chinese or cockney ; but the style of such impromptus is easily recognised. If the caverns had been designed by Chinese architects, every instance would have exhibited a prominent and symmetrical inscription ; the absence of anything of the kind is a proof that the constructors were not Chinese, and seems to indicate that they were not Buddhists, still they may have been early Buddhists. The ante-chapel leading to the King's Monument is carved, as already remarked, with small bas-reliefs very much worn down, which look like presentments of Buddha, and moreover colossal rock-statues are here and there met with in the cave country. One such, about 200 feet high, purports to be carved in the cli£F opposite Chia-ting, but I failed to discover any trace of the sculptor's hand except in the face, which is roughly rounded from a projecting rock, and furnished with a plaster nose six or eight feet long. A more genuine colossus is found two days' journey east of Chia-ting, where, as a Bussian traveller informs me, a hill has been hewn into a seated image of Buddha "several hundred feet high, which far overtops the roofis of the sur- rounding temples." The last point worthy of remark is that while the Ssii-oh'uan caves are pierced in sandstone bluffs, the Lolo and Sifans inhabit a region of hard limestone in which such extensive perforations are impossible. It will consequently be hopeless to look in their countries for modem ex- amples of such works with a view of supporting the theory that eilLer of them are the descendants and representatives of the ancient MantiO. A persistent and plodding exploration of these interesting monu- ments will have to precede the formation of any trustworthy opinion respecting their design and their designers. The caves are of many kinds, and may have served many uses. They may have been tombs, houses, granaries, places of refuge, easily defended storehouses, shrines, memorials, and even sentry-boxes, according to their disposition and situation. The local Chinaman, a person of few thoughts, and fewer doubts, protests that they are the caves of the Mantzu, and considers all farther inquiry ridiculous and fatiguing. His archaeological speculations have not been greatly overstepped by my own theory, which I ofier with diffidence, that these excavations are of unknown date, and have been undertaken, for unexplained purposes, by a people of doubtful identity. Previous to the reading of the ahove paper, The Pbesidbht said that he believed Sir Butherford Alcock, their former PKsident, was the author of the plaa for the improvemeat of foreign diplomatic 142 ▲ JOUBNKT or EXPLORATION IN WESTERN 88if-OH*UAN— DISCUSSION. MnriM in Ohiiw, the good rcmlto of which wwe now being reaped. Sir Rutherford pennaded the Qoremment to eetebliih in that country a echool for the education of promiaing yoong men in the Ghinew language^ aa well aa in other n e ce e eary diplomatic information. Among theie atudenta Mr. Baber waa one of the moet distinguiahed. He acquired a remarkable knowledge of the Ghineae language, and waa choeen to accompany Mr. Oroavenor in a Journey which extended acroaa the whole of the ■outhem portion of Ohina, when the inquiry waa made into the manner by which the unfortunate and gallant officer, Mr. Maigary, met hie death. Subaequently, he waa appointed a conaul at the principal town of Weat Sefl-ohuan, and it waa in the remoter portiona of that prorince that the explorationa were conducted which were deacribed in the paper. In the absence of Mr. Baber, the paper would be read by Captain OiU, who had hinuelf reoeiTed the gold medal of the Society for his extenaiTe and accurate explorationa in China, the results of which had been given in one of the moat valuable worka upon Chinese travels which had ever issued from the press. Captain Oill was the personal firiend of Mr. Baber, and travelled for three months with him up the great river through which the heart of China is entered. At the same time, the particular part of China about to be described haa been visited only by Mr. Baber. It waa oommonly thought that in these dajrs voyages of discovery were made rather to enlarge existing knowledge than to find new regions or new people, but Mr. Baber had visited an absolutely new country, and had been fortunate enough to come acroea a people of whoae existence, race, and character, hitherto nothing at all had been known. After the paper, Sn RunnsfOBD Aloook said the Society was very fortunate in having received a paper so full of original matter, and of such great scienttfio value as that of Mr. Baber. They were also fortunate in having (in the absence of the able writer) such a distinguished Chinese traveller as Captain Gill to read it. No one who was acquMnted with Mr. Baber would fail to value not only his powers of mind, but his originality. His paper manifested a sense of humour in the narrative of his careful observations. He (Sir Rutherford) was glad to know that the paper had been written by a gentleman who first made his appearance in China while he was Minister at Fekin. Mr. Baber had previously distinguished himself at Cambridge, and had fully justified the hopes that were fwmed as to his future career. His discovery of what appeared to be a new language, and of a new people never before visited by any European, not even by Marco Polo, was a feat that could be reserved for^very few in the preaent age of the world. M. TxBBiKK DB LaCoopxbib Said: Je suis tr^honor^ et ne eaurais trop remerder le Prteident de son trte gracieux appel & mes Etudes spMales 2i propos de Tune des plus importantea contributions qui aient M depuis longtemps foumies k I'ethnologiti et k la linguistique de rextrdme-Orient. Je ne saurais jusqu% prfoent dire que peu de choee du MS. Lolo envoytf par Mr. Colbome Baber. J'en d eu com- munication grftce k I'amiti^ duCapitaineOill,mai8 sans avoir eu aucune connaissance des nombreuses et valablee informations contenues dans le rapport qui vient de vous 6tre soumis. La copie xylographite que j'ai examinee comprend sur huit feuillets 1800 mots dont 460 ^fiMrents, en plusieurs textes qui ne sent pas tons de la rafime main et me semblent traiter de mati^res varices. Un mot est rdp^ttf plus de cent foia^ quelques uns une cinquantaine, nn plus grand nornbre de vingt k trente et ainsi de suite progressivement ; le plus grand nornbre est oelui des exemples uniques. L'teriture est phontftique compost d'un petit nornbre de caractdres, moins de qua- lante ; elle est alphab^tique, los lottres se oombinent en groupes. Le fait le plus remarquable k signaler et qui au premier moment causera quelques surprises k cause des thdories pr^matur^ est son extrSme ressemblanoe avec quelques ^critures A JOUBHCT or BXPLORATION IN WESIlRir 88&-CH'UAK-J)I80D88ION. . 148 da grand arahipel d'Atie. Son afBniM Mt renuuqiuUe avao 1m toitniw det Lampung et det RacUang da Snmatm anxqnellaa m rattaohent oellaa d«a Battaki, Bngia at Mankaiaan, et profaablamant ploaiann antna plna & I'aat. 8i Ton vaat bian le nppeler qne ranthropologia nooa a aignaM depnia qnelqnaa annte Feziatenoa «t rexteuion andanne rera le and da la raoe an type dit Gaoeaaiqae k laqaalle appartiennent lea Loloa, on aera moina ne words. The result of this farther inquiry is that I have notliing to modify in the foregoing statements, and that the Lolo writing is undoubtedly phonetic, and presents the moat remarkable afflnitiea with the writings of Snmatra to which I have referred.— T. de L. 144 A JOUBNIT OF EXPLORATION IN WISTIRN 8stf.OflTAN-^I80U88ION. Mut by Mr. Balwr to th»t inUaman with » nqoMt that 1m would focmud it to tho Bojal Oaognpbtel Sootely. Oaptftin OiU did u ho wu nqnatttd, but th* Ttlm of tho pftper wm only btsinning to bo MoartaiMd whm tho Sooiety noaived • notloo from tbo Foioign Ofllot nyiag that it ongbt not to hare been forwarded to the Sooiety, bat shoald htm been oommonioated to the Foreign Ollloe. It had been ■oiBelently enmined to ahow that it waa entirely of geographical and in no raepect of political intereat, bat of oonrae the Society ooald not rehae to annender it aa it had been lent by an official oonncoted with the Foreign Offioe. At the laaie time repreaentationa were made to the Foreign Office, and a hope waa expreeaed that it might be retamed to the Society. Hardly twenty-four hoara before the meeting • letter waa received from the Foreign OfBoe requeeting that the Society would fbmiah them with a printed copy of the paper in order that it might be placed in the archivea. Captain Gill had, therefore, had the very difficult taik of making ■deotioaa from it at very abort notice, but the ipedmena that had been read ehowed that Mr. Baber waa not only a man who could think, but one who waa able to expreaa hia thoughta in the moat felioitoua manner. At the eame time it waa impoaeiUe by a few extrMta to couTey to any audience an idea of the amount of minute and TaluaUe information contained in the paper, which included aeveral iheeta of obeerrationa moet oarehiUy taken, llie author had acquainted himself with all the knowledge required by the traveller who desired to obtain aoouiate information. His obaerrations and his admirably made oharts rendered the paper one of unusual and extraordinary intereet, quite apart from the fact that the region discovered waa inhaUted by so singular a people as the Lolos appeared to be. The paper would shortly be published, and would Justify the enlogiums passed upon it by all those who had had an opportunity of reading it. ( 1*« ) APPENDICES. APPENDIX A. COBSIOTID RBAOIMCHI Ot TbMPBRATUBI AHD ATMMPBmO PMMVn AT Gu'i7Iio.0h'iho. The itatioD \a a houM in the street known as Chiang-ohift-hang, 228 feet abor* the lerel of the Yang-tzfl, in latitude 20° 84' N. and longitude 106* Sff E. The annexed table gives the monthly means of temperatorea recorded three timee a day at the hours indicated. « TimnuTnai. Jan. Feb. Mar. AprU May June July Aug. Bept Oct Not. Deo. int. UTt. llt(. isso. t AM. 8 rjt. » M. • A.IC. .. 4a-6 66' 1 71''0 66*6 70-0 74-2 72 76-4 82*2 78- 79' 49*9 1 1 77-4 65-2 57'7 fil-549-9 Srj(. Spji.* A.M. .. 44*846-8 .. .. 49-6 .. .. 02J: .. .. 6S0 .. .. 69-4 .. .. 75-7 81-0 80-682-7 87'9 85-088-2 88-8 78'177-0 681 66'864'8 60-9 09-O87-6 52'9 81-6|49-7 3 r.w. • M. • A. 49-8 48-044- *3'8 81-847' 38-9 88 087' 70'8 67-4'68- 77-0 74-871' 81-0 781 74' 88-8 84-980' 9U-2 86'Oi .. 82-8 78-676 66-6 69-8,66 60-9 89-4 ., 82-9 81-81 ., M. s r.ir. 6 47'6 8 80-1 8 60-6 76-6 78-6 88-7 8 88-6 8 70-1 • r.M. 48-7 48-7 60-6 68«8 78'4! 78'7i 82-8 79*'6' 68-0 Mean tAJt. 44-8 48-8 84-6 64-9 70-1 78-4 80-7 82-6 76-9 68-8 87*7 49-8 a TM. • pji. 48-0 47-8 81-8 80-2 86-7 67-8 70-7 78-9 78- 80-6 77- 86-0 81- 89-0 88- 88-8 78-8 68-8 66-7 60-9 69-2 82-9 81-8 -8 ■8 •8 ■8 -8 64-2 69-0 66-8 The pressures shoim in the following table were read from aneroid barometers, whose index error was frequently tested by comparison with boiUng»point ther- mometers (with Kew corrections). Faissviis. 187T. 18)8. I 18t9. 1880. ! H«MI. • AM. »,M. Sr.!!. « A.II. 3 ,M. 9 ,M. 9 A.«. 3 F.«. 9 P.I.. 9 AJI. 3 tM. 9 rM. 9 A.li. 3 r.M. 9 PJI. Ju .. , , .. 39-49 39-34 39-43 39-48 39-33 39-43 39-488 39-33S a9-4M Feb. .. , .. 39-38 39-31 39-3r!39-3S 39*33 38-33 39-380 39-330 39-310 Mwob.. • • • • • • .. .. 39-39 39- IT 39-34 39-80 39-11 39-33 39-398 38-lTO 39-188 ^:: M-n 39-13 39-1II .. .. 39-13 39-00 39 0838-30 39-CS 39-18 39-183 39-080 39-140 as'ST as-ss aicgs, .. .. 39-01 3888 28-93 39-04 38-88 38-00 39-OOY 28-900 38-980 Jma .. as'Rt M'ts as-M ,, .. ,38-91 38-81 38-8939-00 38-93 38-98 98-93T 38-840 38-80S Jnly .. ,, .. 38-85 38-TT 28-83 38-89 38-81 98-81 38-8t0 38-T90 38-880 Augnit • a .. |28-9t 28-86 38-83| 28-9t0 38-880 3S-9S0 8ep». .. ,, .. 39-11 38-99 29-09 29-19 39-08 39-14 39-180 S9-08B 39-llS 29-33 39-35 29-38 39-33:29-41 39-31 29-ST 39-STS 39-380 39-340 Cot .. • • •• •• a9-3« 39-38 Nov. .. 29-6S 39-43 39 50 39-39 a9-2( 39-3«| ,39-410 39-S40 S9*41S Dm. .. • • ■ • • • 39*Sa 39-3t) 39-44 29-40 39'3T 39'34 ' i 39-480 39-S3B 39-390 Hmu 39-313 39-098 39-188 A comparison of these readings with data supplied in Dr. Fritsche's ' Climate of Eastern Asia ' places the station at 845 feet above sea-level. The above means have been employed in calculating the altitudes in the next Appendix, i. e. Ch'ung-ch'ing has been taken as the Lower Station and 845 feet added to all results. TOL. I. L ( 1*6 ) APPENDIX B. Calculation or Autitudis. Although I carried no hypsometrical apparatus by which to test aneroid read- ings, my lines of route cross very happily altitudes previously determined by Captain Gill, and I am thereby enabled to deduce the requisite corrections and to obtain fidrly trustworthy results. The first stations of comparison oocor a little beyond Ta-chou; the contrast between Captun Gill's record and my uncorrected readings was as follows : — SUtlon. DMeofMr. Babcr's visit. Mr. Baber'i Uncomcted Reading*. Dtte of Ctptain OiU'i Visit. Captain OiU'i CotrecicdMean Pnisure. Knan-yin-p'n.. . Yung-«uung Hsien. Hiiang>ni-p'a.. . Tm Haiang-Iins . Gh'ingHshI Hden . 27-17 27-85 26-03 21-30 24-48 Allowing for the difference of date the comparison shows an index error of 0*77 + which I have accordingly applied to all subsequent readings. No. Date. PlMo. Oorr. Oon. Bar. iTIier. n<4uced Bar. Ther.l at US. at LS Altitude 1 ■ 1 Remarlu. 1877 ! feet. 1 Aug. 17, 4 P.M. Fu-lin 27-57 78 28-87 88 2175 On Tartn river. 2 „ 18, noon PaasS. ofTa-ahn-pu 25-28 75 28-92 86 4770 8 4 f, „ 9r.u. n 1», 8 „ P'ing>i-p'a .. .. /Pass above Hai-\ \ fang .. ../ 25-11 22-77 73 73 28-94 28-89 84 88 4910 7700 5 „ 20, 7A...{=^^r"!'T[ 28-71 62 28-97 78 6490 6 » 21, 8 „ Liao-l-p'u .. 24-27 62 28-98 80 5870 7 n 22,10 „ Kuan-ting .. 23-61 Ti 28-98 82 6720 8 „ „ 10p.«. Yaeh-hsi T'ing .. 24-72 72 28-96 82 5380 9 » 23,11 „ Hsiao-ahao .. .. 23-81 67 28-97 81 6440 10 „ 24, 11 A.M. Hsiao Hsiang-ling 21-27 71 28-98 84 9710 On summit 11 „ „ 10 p.m. T6ng-liBia->g-ying 22-91 69 28-97 82 7550 12 „ 27, 7 AJi. Lu-ku 24-80 65 2900 76 5290 18 .. 28, 6 „ Li-ohou .. .. 24-94 66 28-98 74 5110 14 „ »/, 7 p.m. Ning-yuanFu .. 24-99 76 28-99 83 5135 15 .. 31.11 „ Huang-lien-p'u .. 25-21 70 29-00 80 4870 16 Sent. 1.10 .. Ha-li-chai .. .. 25-22 69 2900 80 4860 17 „ 2, 9 „ Hsiao-loHHshlao 25-67 72 29-01 81 4380 18 « 3,10 „ T'ieh-liaiang-fang 2601 75 29-00 80 4000 19 „ 5, 7 a.m. Tien-sha-kuan .. 25-62 68 29-04 74 4430 SO „ 6. 7 „ Mo-Bo-yiDg .. .. 25-72 65 29-04 74 4300 81 » 7, 7 „ Pai-ko-wan.. .. 23-82; 68 29-04 74 6435 22 „ 9, noon Hui-liOhou 24-26 67 2903 81 6000 23 „ 12, 6 a.m. Tan-kuan-yao .. 24-281 61 29-05 71 5980 24 H 18, noon Liu-shn-wan 24-89 75 29-04 81 5895 25 M 14, 7 AH. XearK'u-obu .. 24-54 68 29-06 73 5650 On river. 26 „ „ 3 P.M. Summit of ridge 22-07 72 29-00 83 8695 27 „ 15, 7 P.M. Tu-k^ 22-83 58 29-06 80 7670 28 „ 16, 9 a.m. Chtf-po 28-44 58 29-11 77 6965 29 .. 17, 8 „ Ta "Tan-kuan-yao 24-92 63 29-10 75 6240 80 „ 18, noon NearWa-wa .. 28-05 74 29-07 80 1900 On Gold Biver. CALCULATION OF ALTITUDES. 147 No. DMe. Plant. OmT. Corr. Thcr. Bar. Thar. ttL.8 DcdoMd AlUtadB Hcnurki. 1877 1 fctt. 81 SaptlS, 8 p.m. Oh'iMMhiftT'ing 27-41 70 29-10 77 2680 82 n 19, 4 „ /Bidge ou R. B. of\ 1 QoldBWer ../ 21-98 72 29-02 82 8816 88 tff 20, noon Ai-ohuo 22-68 71 l..>-10 79 7960 84 ft » 7 P.*. Mao-p'o .. .. F»-nf-wo .. 28-47 63 20-11 78 6940 85 tt 22, 8a.1I. 23-86 61 29-14 78 6470 86 M » 1 P.if . Summit of paM .. 22-08 50 29-10 79 8680 87 tt 24. 8a.1i. Ta-p'ing .. .. Kear^i-ka .. 24-55 56 29-17 73 6670 88 ft 25, 9 „ 27-25 63 29-18 74 2780 OnNin-lanriver. 89 ft 26, 9 „ Shni-kou .. .. 28-97 54 29-19 78 6340 40 ft 27, 9 ;• Hei-luHsh'i .. .. 28-12 48 29-20 78 7320 41 tf 28, 8 „ Kn-ohai .. .. 28-42 52 29-19 72 6970 42 tt ^ 8 ,; Hnn-kai-titt 23-50 49 29-21 68 6885 48 ff 80, 8 „ Tuan-obia-taFti .. 23-28 49 29-21 68 7095 44 tt ..10 ; Pai-fiH;h'i .. .. 21-97 47 29-28 73 8780 45 It „ 8 P.II. rHighMt point ofj 21-29 48 29-12 77 9540 46 Ooi . 1, 7A.lf. Yeh-ohu-chai 22-04 49 29-22 66 8600 47 ft 2,10 „ Kuan-ohai .. .. 21-97 49 29-25 72 8760 48 ft 4. 7 „ Jlsin-tien-tia .. 26-02 67 29-24 64 4060 49 n 6, 9 ■„ /Near Hnang-kno-1 UBho / Ta-k'on .. .. 28-91 69 29-28 68 1200 On Gold KiTor. 50 ff „ 4 P.M. 26-07 70 29-16 71 5090 51 tt 8, 8 a.m. Mi-fien-pa.. .. 25-65 63 29-28 64 4525 52 tt TinK-ohiang-ao .. 24-98 71 29-25 69 5340 58 tt 9, 7 a.m. Ta-wn 26-17 67 29-28 63 8945 54 ft 10, 7 „ Leng-fim-kou 26-87 66 29-28 68 8785 55 ft 11, 7 „ C!hing-ti .. .. 27-67 68 29-29 62 2425 56 n 12, R „ Kno-oh'fian-t'an.. 29-04 70 29-32 68 1115 /A few feet above \ GoldBiTOr. 67 »» 15. 7 „ /f mile N. of Nan-) \ mu-p'ing.. ../ 26-80 60 29-32 61 8330 58 it 16, 7 „ 1878 Ghno-pang-ai ,. 27-88 63 2932 61 2745 9aji. In Tillage (see 59 Uar.ie, Sp.m. Fu-Iin 27-87 65 29-22 58 2146 Nob. 1 and I - 78). 9 a.m. Ho-oh'ang-pa ... 60 >• n. 8 p.m. 9 « 27-76 55 29-22 58 2250 61 »» 9AJI. 22, 8 p.m. JTza-ta.ti .. .. Pass between 27-54 64 29-20 69 2465 A few feet above Ta-tn river. 62 Apr. 19, 5 p.m. TMen-wan and Wan-tnng PaasbetweenWan- 23-82 71 29-04 70 7020 68 ft 21. 8AJI. tnng and Mo-si- mien .. .. 22-17 59 29-13 64 8410 64 ft 22, 8 „ La-ma-sstl .. 24-52 53 29-13 64 5590 65 l» 23» 8 : Ta^jh'iao .. .. Pass between Ta- 22-27 39 2912 64 8135 66 tl 24, 8 „ oh'iao and Ta- chien-ln .. .. 18-69 32 29-12 64 12820 67 May 7'{9p."m. iTa-chieu-ln 22-08 56 29-00 70 8480 /Oapt. Gill has \ 8346 '« M on /9 a.m. *®' 19 P.M. [Lu-ting-oh'iao .. 25-42 70 28-96 72 4615 » ., 4640 69 l» 24, 8 A.M. Hua-lin-p'ing .. 23-19 61 28-97 69 7080 n „ 7078 l2 148 CALCULATION OF ALTITUOES. No. DM*. Plaae. Out. Btr. Oorr. Thar. Btf. 'at L.& Ther. Deduoad Altitada Bamwka. 70 71 72 78 74 78 76 77 78 79 81 88 88 M 88 86 87 90 91 1878 MBy24,10A.M< „ 25, 8 „ n 26, 8 w t» 80, 7 „ » n 8P-" n ", I » me 1, 8a.11. M „ 4pjc n 2, Oa.m »» 5,11 n 11, 7 „ 12, 9 „ 18, 9 „ f9 „ 17,{3pji l9 „ Fei-yueh-ling Nl-t'on .. Fn-ehnaog .. Fn-Iln . Ma-Ue.. Ma-Ue-ahao Hnang-mn-oh'aag Bo-i-lingPaaa .. T^t'ien-oh'ih .. BaminitofMtWa Obin-kon-ho Bhui-tiao-Iln Hsin-ob'ang Ohia-tingFa Hnang-mao-kang Ttt-lnng . Ta'ui-kon . Omi Hsien . Mt. Omi . Lnng«h'ih . La-lu-p'ing Ping-alian Hrien 21-84 62 24-9li 26-091 27-84 71 24-69 22-80; 28-931 21-74| 24 -lo! 20-87 78 67 58 65 68 48 28-97 28-97 28-96 28-95 28-87 28-92 28-95 28-86 28-95 28-90 28-04! 71 28-90 26-24; 68 27-12 66 28-66, 75 28-89 28-93 28-98 78 67 78 74 71 79 73 75 71 75 75 75 IM. 9410 5090 8790 2450 5290 7540 6150 8775 5985 10545 1695 8600 2670 1070 (OapL GUI has 9022 »» » 488 ii » n 8878 In apper chain- bev of temple. Acorot 8100 for Mrel ti /1670 ft. above Ghia-\ ^^ \ tingPu .. ../ ^** 2480 „ „ 8500 2560 „ „ 8630 400 „ „ 1470 9770 „ „ 10840 OnilTer. 1660 „ r2560 ft, above Ohbi' \ koa-ho 2720 '*l 4255 1025 {A few feet above >ke. The following levels, observed in 1876, are somewhat less trufitworthy : — Ko. Date. Flaoe; Oorr. Bar. Coin. Bar. Thw. atL.8. Ther. atLJB Deduoed AlUtnde Remarka. 1876 92 Feb. 4, 3p.1I. An-pien .. .. 29-27 52 29-25 51 870 (low by 100 feet. 98 n 9, 7A.if. Lao-wa-t'an .. 2900 41 29-82 45 1140 94 n n I'-M. /Summit of Li-\ \ Shan .. ..; 26-18 46 29-28 50 8865 95 n 10, 9 a.m. 9 p.m. jOh'i-li-p'n .. Ta-knan Hrien Yang-liu-sbn .. Wn-ohai .. .. Ta-ngai-tnng .. Wu-ma-hai .. 27-48 48 29-34 48 2610 96 97 98 99 IQO „ t, n „ 14, 8 a.m. „ 1 P.". 15, 9 „ „ 1 n 16, 9 a.m. 8 „ 17, 2 p.m. 9 „ 21. 9 „ 22. 8 „ 26-35 25-86 24-22 23-84 28-48 42 29-34 48 29-27 39 129-31 50 29-27 88 29-35 47 51 49 51 48 3725 4195 5950 6410 6805 101 » Ghao-t'ung Fu 23-67 44 29-29 1 50 6585 102 108 » » Ln-tien .. .. Ma-tsao-kou .. 28-78 22-98 85 48 29-80 29-21 52 54 6420 7380 CALCULATION OF ALTITUDES. 140 Ho. DUi. Haoe. 0^. Bu. Corr. Th«. 1 1 B>r. !Th»r. BtL.&itL.S Dtduoed Altttad* Bcmwka. 104 1876 Feb. 28, 8a.1i. Ghiuig-ti 28-78 42 29-82 48 tnt. 4800 riOO feet aboTO Nin-lanB. 108 106 107 108 109 '» .R ? »» » 84, 8 „ „ 28, 8AJI. « n »PJi- I-oh£-hs&n Shui-hiiHiha .. Hong-ahih-ngai Tang-ch'iumFii 28-60 2408 22-98 28-84 28-10 61 84 44 81 86 29-27 29-29 29-21 29-81 29-28 82 82 84 49 82 6780 6220 7888 6880 7190 110 » S7, 8 „ Oh'Mn-ohiiig .. 21-00 82 29-20 88 (nmorS^^^- 111 112 118 114 118 116 M«. 1, 1 „ » » 2 »» „ 4, 8ajl n 8, IPJI. Lia-ahn-ho Hafin-tien Ohoa Ohiang-ao I-long .. .. Tang-lin .. .. Ffin-ahui-ling.. 28-40 28-84 28-72 28-83 28-71 28-22 70 88 69 84 66 68 29-24 29-28 29-24 29-27 29-80 29-28 84 68 88 84 80 88 7020 6470 6650 7040 6610 7190 117 » ".{9^:}Yuii-ii«aPu .. 28-78 ' 61 29-28 68 , 6490 APPENDIX ai Latitudes of Positions. Ho. SUtioo. Ol^Jeci Observed. Dedooed Lutitode. Mew oroorrected Utitude. Remark!. 1 F1iig4han Haien .. StarN. o 28 1 It 39 6 o ' 1 If 2 >» •• Snn 28 89 8 28 89 7 1 0n river bank at ; eaatendofoity. 8 Ten-tia-ngai .. .. Sun 28 24 28 28 49 4 T'am-ton Stars. 28 19 49 28 19 88 8 Un-ohiaiiK-ch'i Sun 28 9 23 28 9 12 6 Bommit of Li-shan .. Sun 28 3 21 28 8 10 7 Ta-ngai-tung .. .. Sun 27 31 29 27 81 18 8 Oha^hang .. .. Sun 27 25 23 27 25 12 9 Ohao-t'nng Fa Stars. 27 20 42 • • /Examination' \ HaU. 10 >> •• Sun 27 20 29 V — — - 11 f9 ** Stars. 27 20 41 12 ft ••• Stars. 27 20 49 18 if ** Sun 27 20 43 27 20 80 * 14 Oba-la-hsfin .. ,. Sun 27 16 31 27 16 20 18 Ghiang-ti Stars. 27 1 16 II •• •• StarN. 26 89 89 26 59 50 17 Ta-kon-fang .. Sun 26 54 52 26 54 41 18 I-ohe-haUn .. .. Stars. 26 49 30 26 49 19 19 Shan-liu-atan .. Sun 26 42 48 26 42 87 20 Hung-shih-ngai Stars. 26 87 88 26 87 27 21 Tong-oh'nan Fa Stars. 26 24 69 26 24 48 /Eznmination \ Hall. 22 Haiao-oh'ang-t'ang .. Sun 26 19 49 26 19 88 28 Ohe-chi Stars. 26 14 37 24 ff •• ■• •• StarN. 26 14 20 26 14 28 28 Lai-fou-p'o .. .. Star 8. 26 1 42 26 19 * ' •' StarN. 26 1 39 27 >> •• "' Sun 26 1 8 28 >» •' •• Stars. 26 1 27 26 1 40 180 LATITUDES Of POSTnONS. No. StaUon. at^nA Dtdooed Otwrrcd. UUtode. or OMTBCtod UtltQ(la(N.) RMurln. { o 1 « o f W n Kong^hui Star 8. 25 45 7 80 >> •• *• BtarN. 1 25 44 49 25 44 58 81 lin-aho-ho .. .. Son : 85 40 9 25 89 58 88 HiOn-tien Ohoa Star S. ! 85 84 6 88 it ** StarN. 85 88 84 25 88 SO 8t Ohiang-w .. .. Sod 25 26 28 25 26 17 85 Mnng Ho-^ StarN. 25 22 9 25 22 20 88 Son 25 17 11 25 17 87 Tang-lin Stars. 25 18 86 88 ff •• •• •• StarK. 25 18 18 25 18 87 88 Gh'ang-pPo .. .. Stars. 25 7 46 40 II •• •• StarN. 25 7 48 25 7 45 41 Fen-flhni-Ung Son 25 5 24 25 5 20 48 Pkn-ch'iao .. .. Stars. 25 S 6 48 ft •• •• StarN. 25 8 18 25 8 18 44 Ynn-naiiFn .. .. Stars. 25 2 41 45 H •• •• StarN. 25 8 85 46 II •• •' Stars. 25 2 45 47 II •• •• StarN. 85 2 55 25 2 44 48 LiM-i-p'n .. .. Star S. ' 28 54 87 28 54 48 Ptu>4ui-yiiig .. .. Star S. ; 28 49 58 28 49 15 50 TtDg-luiaDg-Tlng .. Stars. 28 28 22 28 27 44 51 Ning-juD Fa SMurS. 27 54 14 • • /Examination \ Hall. 68 II •* Stars. 27 54 8 68 II ** StarN. 27 52 41 27 58 25 64 Huug-lien-p'n Star a 27 41 19 66 II •• StarN. 27 40 10 27 40 44 66 U»-U-olud .. .. Stars. 27 S2 8 27 81 80 87 Haiao-kao-oh'iao Stars. 27 22 14 27 21 86 68 Chln-oh'fkMi-ch'iao .. Snn 27 11 82 27 10 54 68 Hoi-Ii-ohoa .. .. Snn 26 89 85 • • /Examination \ Hall. 60 II •• •• Son 86 89 85 26 89 61 /imUeN.W.ofHriao-l L,P* • / Iiia-uiv-ww> .. .. Snn 26 84 28 26 88 45 * 68 Snn 26 85 56 26 85 18 68 Wa-wn Snn 86 58 47 26 58 10 64 OhlMMhisTing .. StarN. 26 54 14 65 II ** Stars. 26 55 29 26 54 51 66 Ai-ohuo StarN. 26 65 5 67 II •• •• •• Stars. 26 56 88 68 II •• •• •• Snn 26 56 6 26 55 48 68 Ma»-p'o Nin-Ko-oh'ong .. .. StarN. 26 57 55 26 68 88 70 Sun 27 2 58 27 2 20 71 Near Lung-sha Snn 27 18 29 27 17 51 72 P«i-fiw)h'i .. .. Snn 27 88 2 27 82 24 78 8an-ohia-ohai .. .. Sun 27 89 27 27 88 50 74 Yang-liuHiha .. .. Snn 27 50 48 27 50 10 75 Hnkng-p'ing .. .. StarN. 27 52 76 II •• •• Stars. 27 58 28 27 52 41 77 Sha-ho Snn 27 57 22 27 56 44 78 Kui-fien-p« .. .. StarN. 27 57 16 78 II •• •• Stars. 27 58 40 27 57 58 80 Hnang-kao-sha Snn 28 2 27 59 24 81 Ttpk'oo StarN. 28 26 88 II •• •• «• Stars. 28 1 85 28 1 88 84 Tn4uig-koa .. .. Sun Snn 28 28 5 18 8 26 28 28 4 12 25 48 LATITUDES OF POSITIONS. 161 Ko. 8«^<»- OtaSR^ IMiietd LMttote. ll«Mt UMtodr. Bmuki. 85 Ching.ti StarM. o 28 18 42 o » m 86 ^ Stars. 28 14 51 28 14 16 87 OnbluffKofOhing-ti San 28 15 5 88 14 27 88 Ku(M!h'Un • StarN. 29 16 104 II •• •• ■• Snn 29 17 28 29 16 44 , 105 Lao-wa-hsQan .. Snn 29 15 38 29 14 58 106 K*-6rh-pa *. •• Snn 29 16 22 107 II •• •• StarN. 29 14 87 108 II •• ■• Stars. 29 16 14 109 II •• •• StarN. 29 14 38 110 II •• •• Stars. 29 16 13 29 15 25 HI Ch*a-la Ravine StarN. 29 19 50 112 11 •• •• Stars. 29 20 53 29 20 20 118 /Ta-ohien-In(100yHnla\ \ N.ofSoathOate) 'StarN. 80 2 40 114 »f >i StarN. 80 2 25 116 »$ 91 Stars. 80 8 49 116 l> 9t Stars. 80 8 28 80 8 S 117 Ln-ttng-ohlao .. .. StarN. 29 54 27 118 >r •* Stars. 29 55 8 119 »f •• Stars. 29 55 24 120 >9 ■• StarN. 29 54 43 29 54 55 121 Fa-ohaang .. .. StarS. 29 83 23 29 32 54 ( IM ) APPENDIX D. LoHorruDi o> FounoMB. iMiMdor LonaHodtE. Bemnki. ChlM 1»ieh-liaiAiig-fiuig .. .. Hni-^Ghoa Chiaiig-ohoa .. .. .. Lo-po-ti Ai-chon .. .. •• .. 1 mile N. of Teh-olui-ofaai Sui-«hi«-oIud Hain-tieii-titt Nwr ditto .. .. •• •• Ta-ieou NouOhing-fl Soi Fa (Su-ohoo Fa) TM^Mfl-lnuui Ln-lo-p'ing On Ma-lieh Moantain .. Near LM>-w»-ha&an .. .. TMl-ta4i Hiiao-ina-ohang .. .. TR-cbien-la liiHtiiig^'iao DMa. if«.yw. 1876 Hu. 11, P.11. „ 12, AJL 1877 Aug. 26, p JL »t 28, I, n 29, A.II. »t »» ^••'. n 80, „ Sept 2, „ II 8, »i n 9, „ n ", ,, i» 19, ,, Oct 1, „ n « P» f 8 "» » 4, A.M. 6, P.11. ft 7, AJI. n 10, PJI. 1878 Feb. 14, PJI. „ 24, AJL Mar. 6, „ „ 13, P.M. n 21. „ n 22, ,, April 16, „ „ 25, A.M. Hay 20, pji. o I 4 10 580 20 80 45 40 25 6 80 5 15 10 7 30 4 10 4 8 S40 8 30 8 80 35 25 SO 50 8 50 4 80 Bemarki. Mean: 4«50'E. Ohien-cfa'ang Valley : Mean Mag. Var. abont 40 10*15. District of Hni-li Gbon : Mean Mag. Var. about 6° 10' E. Monntatnons reKion on right bank of Gold Biver. Vallqr of Gold River: Mean Mag. Var. about 8°40'B. )Min river: Mean Mag. Var. about 2° 45' B. Begion of T'ung river : Mean Mag. Var. pro- bably about 4° 30' E., with great local devia- tion. ToAjDt)PkgBl52. ^ snuifln* »•'. wtow. o. a ii tix niiiM r autioD Mo. 4 .( thatwoiwolti hereftm Im ae- u nMtnttally itM bM 1040 ss*. too bM 106° W. ki. Galley: Yar. aboat l-liOhon: Var. about KKion on GoldBiTW. River: Yar. about tfean Hag. ? 45' E. ig river: Yar. pro- 4» SO' E., local devia- Supplamt Sea-levml. S,im4Wtaer,r.iih. 8mm. level SECTION OF COUNTRY along AC^ Baber's routes l»et»reen HITI-LI CHOU 9t YANG-LIU-SHU (anihe Upper Yan^ttii). AND LU-KU fort the An-ning R). Se. CHINKOUHO (on theTta^a,). Bot^ontat mcale—lS Geogrofihutal JiSle»'l inch. Vertieal scoIe^SOOO Feet « 7 inch. Se». level Supplait^ntary JbAee 1^152. Sea,Jevgl, SMLlevvJ. ■{--* EdwlWeJler.AirA. Suf>pl»menlaty Dtp^ra Royal Gno^raphical Society ISBi. XM" H "»,■: ( 168 ) II. JOURNBY TO TA-OHIBN-LU, IN 1878.* Ohuno-ohiko, My 7, 1878. I iiAVi the honour to report mj return froin « Journey which, originally plunned h a mere New Yoar'i holiiUy, extended, ttom one etuw and another, to Ta-ohien-lu. I hud itarted with the intention of making a rough lunrey of the river between Kiatiug and Sui'fu (Dlakliton'ii Stt-oliow), and of crouinK the mountain* from the former city to Fu'llu, in lonKitudo lOS". On reaching Pu-liu, h«iwuver, the country ^lrther weet held out eo many attraotioni, that I woa induced to travel on to Tsu-ta-ti, the hiad-quarU-n of a Hifan chief etylod "Wang Ch'ien-lui" ("Wang of a 1000 fumiliea"). Hero I heard of the exiMtence of a mountain track to Ta-ohient, but wiahcd nie to wait a few weeks until the money arrived from Yui'h-hai-T'ing. Thia I altogether declined to do, and the end of the negotiation was, that I offered to travel on to Ta-chien-lu and to receive i«yment on my return. Q'hia concession to hia wishes he accepted with alacrity. I'aymonts of such indemnities are usually made by permanent Committees established fur the ]iur|x>se ; but oven if the loss fall ultimately on the natives of Na-erh-pn, I see no objection to their realizing the fact that the burglers whom they house in their niidst are likuly to Ixicome as disagreeable to them as they are to travellers. Ho I again turn north-west« On the road to Tzu-ta-ti I met two packs of hounds, and discovvred that they were sent by the Sifan chief to hunt any roblwrs in the event of their taking to the forest. Dramatic justice was dealt out to that potentate for his refusal to protect me, by the plundering of his father's grave; when I repassed Tzu-ta-ti he hnd gone in pursuit of the marauders. The country may perhaps be considered unsettled, but the remainder of the journey was impeded by nothing worse than natural difficulties, such as fevers and the extreme ru<.'gi>dueHS of the mountain ranges. Wo quitted cultivation at the * Reprinted fh>m the Patlinmentary Report, GmvA, No. 2 (1879). 164 MOTES ON ROUTt: Or MR. QROSVKNOR'S MISSION foot of a pine fomt, through whioh we travelled three dayi, ascending oontinually until we came to a snowy pasa— the only pasa in the country whioh, as the natives say, " hang Jtii " stops people's breathing. Descending its northern slope we soon fuund that we had left China behind. There were no Chinese to be seen. The ▼alley was nearly all pasture land, on which were grazing herds of hairy animals, resembling immense goats. These I rightly conjectured to be yaks. On entering a hut, I found it impossible to communicate with the family, even a Sifan, whom I had brought with me, being unintelligible to them ; but they were polite enough to rescue me ttom the attack of the largest dogs I have ever seen, and to regale me with barley meal in a wooden bowl, which I had to wash down with a broth made of butter, salt, and tea twigs. Further on we met a company of cavaliers, armed with matchlocks and sabre, and decorated with profuse ornaments in silver, coral, and turquoise ; a troop of women followed on foot, making merry at my expense. A mile or two further, and I came to a great heap of slates, inscribed with Sanscrit characters, whereupon I began to understand that we were in Tibet ; for although Tibet proper is many hundred miles west of this point, yet tribes of Tibetan race and language extend right up to the bank of the Tatu river — a fiiot whioh I had not been led to expect. At the foot of the valley we struck the high road from Li-t'ang to Ta-chieu-lu, and I walked into the latter town on the evening of the 23rd April. I stayed there three weeks, and learned much regarding the condition of the numerous countries included in the general name of Tibet. Inquiries respecting commercial production and distribution occupied most of my time, and I shall have a good deal to report which is interesting and, I think, useful. We returned to Fu-liu by the high road, and the sub-magistrate of Ta-shu-pu duly paid over the sum of 170 taels, the estimated total of my losses. From Fu-liu to Kia-ting we followed the by-road by which we had come. I took the opportunity afforded by the arrival of a Lolo chief, who called upon me, to make notes of the customs and language of his tribe. I had previously collected a snfiBcient vocabulary of one of the Sifiin dialects. From Kia-ting we dropped easily down the flooded current, in six days, to Ghung-ching, without encountering a single rapid, and in deep water all the way, making Chung-ching on the 24th June, after an absence of nearly five months. The information collected during my journeys enables me to report, with some confidence, on the trade and production of Western SBJl-ch'uan, and their bearing on the commercial capabilities of Ghung-ching. I am preparing a report on this subject, whioh I propose to supplement with a full account of my explorations. m. NOTES ON THE ROUTE FOLLOWED BY MR. GROSVENOR'S MISSION THROUGH WESTERN YCNNAN, FROM TALI-FU , TO T'iNG-TUEH.* , ^ " When you have left Carajan and have travelled five days westward, yon find a province called Zardandan. The country is wild and hard of access, full of grent woods and mountains which it is impossible to pass, the air is so impure and unwholesome ; and any foreigner attempting it would die for certain." Thus Marco Polo, in the fiftieth chapter of his second book. * Reprinted from the Parliamentary Beport, China, No. 3 (1878). THROUGH WESTER.* Yi}NNA^. 166 ou find a of grent ipure and We, who had the good fortune, tliOn^h for nuwt fitmentable raaioD, to follow many of his stepa, MMrched hia book page i y |>Bge aa we jonrtieyed day by day ; and it ia with the view of aupplementing hii memoini, ami aasisting future explorera who may enter the same region, that theae few notes arc proiiarcd. That Yachi and Carajan repreient YUnnan-fu and Tali, ia proved by topo- graphical and other evidence of an overwhelming nature. I venture to add one mora proof, which seems to have been overlooked. If there ia a natural feature which must strike any visitor to those two cities, it is that they both lie on the shore of notable lakea, of so large an extent as to be locally called seas ; and fur the comparison, it should be remembered that the inhabitants of the Yttnnan province have easy access to the ocean by the Red River, or 8ung-Ka. Now, although Marco does not circumstantially specify the fact of theae dties lying on large bodies of water, yet in both cases, two or three sentences further on, will be found mention of lakea ; in the case of Yachi, ** a lake of a good hundred miles in compass " — by no means nn unreasonable estimate. Taii-fu is renowned as the strongest hold of Western Yflnnan, and it certainly mnst have been impregnable to bow and spear. From the western margin of its majeatic lake, which lies approximately north and south, rises a sloping plain of aboat three miles average breadth, closed in by the huge wall of the Tien-taang Mountains. In the midst of this plain stands the city, the lake at its feet, the snowy summits at its back. On either flank, at about twelve and six miles' distance respectively, are situated Sbang-kuan and Hsia-kuan (upper and lower passes), two strongly fortified towns guarding the confined strip between mountain and lake ; for the plain narrows at the two extremities, and is intersected by a river at both points. Shang-kuan we had no time to visit. Hsia-kuan, built on a river to which it gives its name, is circled by a labyrinth of walls. One long arm of masonry even follows the right bank of the river into a gorge through which the high road passes, and there finds an appropriate terminal in a solitary tower of native rock. These two outflanking fortresses constitute the strength of Tali-fu. That city is a more or less regular square of one mile and a quarter, surrounded in the usual manner by a high wall backed with earth. Of itself it is neither stronger nor weaker than other Chinese cities ; but so long as Shang-kuan and Hsin- kuan are held, it is unapproachable except by the snowy passes in its rear. It was by these passes, we were told, that the Mohammedan insurgents succeeded in cap- turing the place. The long, narrow plain — some eighteen miles by three — celebrated as the most fertile rice ground in Yilnnan, affords the garrison and people an abun- dant harvest of provisions, and the lake never fails to supply a plentiful tribute of excellent fish. The fish of Chinese lakes and rivers are generally very insipid and unappetising, a fact which is usually attributed to the muddiness of their natixe waters. But the streams and meres of Yilnnan are remarkably clear, with gravelly bottoms. - The tastelessness of the fish is more probably to be accounted for by their being kept alive in impure and unchanged water until their sale to consumers. A visit to Tali-fu entails a deviation from the main western road, and we were met (exactly as was the experience of our poor friend Margary) with objections on the part of the authorities to our branching off to their city. The Chinese seem or pretend to be incapable of understanding the restless curio- sity of foreigners who waste their time in exploring regions to which their business does not necessarily conduct them. In such cases we never paused to discuss matters ; we stood not upon the order of our going, but went. All before us was now a land of mystery. Margary had indeed traversed it, but 166 NOTES ON ROUTE 0/ MR. GROSVENOR'S MISSION his journal stops short two days before reaching Hsia-kuan. The continoation was no doubt carried off by his murderers; it is clear that they would have hastened to destroy documents which might have contained an intimation of expected foul play. Is the Tali range snow-capped ? was a question often discussed by us. Margary himself, who bad passed several days in full view of those forbidding heights at much the same season as oui-selves, observed no snow, and even ridiculed the suppo- sition of its existence in conversation with Colonel Browne ; on the other hand, Mr. Gamier, an explorer of the highest authority, describes the chain as " couverte de neige pendant neuf mois de Taan^e." At the station before Hsia-kuan, from which place the heights are not visible, one of our party made careful inquiries about the duration of the snow. His informants, some of whom had crc -<8eid the passes, laughed outright at his scepticism, and told him iihat on reaching Hsia-kuan next morning he would find snow hawked in the streets, that the snow rarely melted in the summer, and that a bad harvest and many diseases invariably followed its disappearance. On rounding a spur of the hills which wall in the southern end of the Tali valley, we came abruptly into full view of the western range, rising and receding into black saw-like peaks, the summits of which, sheeted with brilliant white, seemed nearer and more real than the lower mass of the mountain. There seems no reason to doubt the statement that the Sierra is generally snow-capped all the year round, but only slightly so during the hot months. I am not aware what is the line of perpetual snow in this latitude (2b° to 26°) ; but we were satisfied that the heights towered from 7000 to 8000 feet over us, raised as we already were 7000 feet above the sea-level. The range is, in character, what Mr. Gamier calls it, a "chaine," raggedly serrated, but with no very prominent peak. The highest point, as it seemed to us, lay about north-west of the city. The view given in Mr. Gamier's work depicts very fairly the general appearance of the range, but the colour is unsatisfactory, and from the southern end, at which we entered the plain, the mountain mass bears a much bolder and grander propor- tion to the breadth of the lake. Although now within a few hundred yards of that glorious sheet of water, we were at first much puzzled at not seeing it, the explanation being that a slight undu- lation of level, not apparent to the eye, intervened, over which the sight passed immediately on to the opposite hills without being conscious of the interval, just the same illusion, in fact, that is often taken advantage of by scene-painters. The road here lies through a weary bed of sand and shingle, but the traveller is cheered by a charming view of Hsia-kuan, glistening white at the mountain foot. Shortly before reaching that town, we {mssed a family on their way to the quarterly fair of Tali ; they consisted of a man, two women, and a child. The man was a wild-looking copper-coloured creature, somewhat resembling a Mongol, clad in a single sack of very coarse woollen cloth, wretchedly jioor, but cheerful notwith- standing, and disposed to be communicative. But as he had mnde even less jirogress in tlie Chinese tongue tlian ourselves, knowing in fact little more than the numerals, intercliange of ideas was attended with occasional difiiculty. All we could elicit from him was that he came from Kutung, or was a Kutungman. We had previously met jxiople of the same description engaged as conductors of caravans, but neither we nor our Chinese following ever succeeded in understand- inn them, nor could we obtfiin any information from ofiicials nor jjcople regarding them, except that they were Kutungmen. What or where Kutung is, I have not to this moment any idea. The men are of a dark reddish comjilcxion, with rather THROUGH WESTERN YUNNAN. 157 prominent features, above the average heig])t, and well proportioned, dressed in close* fitting woollen garments, which in some cases we observed to be neatly cut and hand- somely embroidered. The Chinese have not acquired the art of spinning and weaving wool, and the clothes of these people never came, it is evident, from a European loom. The two women, aged about twenty-five and seventeen years respectively, at once arrested our attention. I have the authority of my two companions for stating that they would have been considered handsome anywhere. Paler in colour than the man, their oval and intelligent faces instantly reminded us of the so-called Caucasian type ; and in every step and movement there was a decision and exactness widely different from the sluggish inaccentuatioi. jf the Chinese physique. The younger was particularly remarkable for a peculiarity of her long hair, which was naturally wavy, or " crimped," a feature which is never met with among the Chinese. While watching those jjeople, I felt in the presence of my own race. Their straight and shapely forms, ill-concealed by a very short and scanty gown, their sympathetic demeanour, their poverty, and their presence with ourselves in a strange land, may possibly account for the interest my two companions evidently felt in them. The river which relieves the excess of the lake at its south-west foot is not visible from the road until one is in the act of crossing it in Hsia-kuan. We breakfasted in the suburbs of that town without having succeeded in discovering its stream, and in fact we began to feel incredulous of its existence, especially as the rivt.Ists we had passed all ran towards the lake. But shortly after starting aptain, we crossed, by a fine arched bridge in the centre of the town, a clear and winding stream about 35 yards in breadth. So slow was the current, that we could only detect its direc- tion by noticing the inclination of the water-weeds. Snow from the mountain-top was being offered for sale, and we celebrated the event by iceing the last bottle of our dozen of champagne. The said vintage was designed for the purpose of entertaining native officials, but it is to be feared that our hospitality was, on occasions, not altogether disinterested. We bought here for a dollar two pairs of magnificent Amherst pheasants, which we confided to our taxidermist. Through a long paved street, up a steep incline, we quitted Hsia-kuan and entered upon the slope which rises from the margin of the lake to the mountain spurs. Tlie land here is thickly cultivated, principally with rice, for which crop it possesses a great reputation. We were told that before the Mohammedan insurrection the route from Hsia-kuan to Tali, about 9} miles long, was one continuous street; but this does not seem probable. The traces of Mohammedan and Imperialist destruction are very distinct. Temples and houses still lie where they fell. But such ruins were not very frequent along the roadside. Still the place must once have been wealthy and populous, as is proved by the massive stone bridges, often of luxurious and superfluous size, spanning the numerous torrents which run down to the lake. The fine trees which once adorned this slope have, with a few lone exceptions, disapi)eared. The idols lie in fragments beneath the ruins of their desecrated shrines. One temple alone, about six miles from Tali, relieves the monotony of ruin and desertion ; it is new built and indeed uncompleted, having been lately erected by Ts'en, the Governor, and the Generalissimo Yang-yii-k'e. The usual miniature pond with gold fish, complete, is shadowed by the conventional toy bridge and willow- pattern balcony ; but the cfiect is pleasing enough, the fine white marble of the Tali quarries furnishing the materials. We passed a pleasant hour of rest in this teniirted on THROUGH WESTERN vlJNyAK. IGI carriageii, but laid in cages with their muzzles elevated towards the gate. They are probably the gnns which protected the gateway of Tu Wdn^hsni'a palace during the rebellion, and were intended to fire grape, but how they were to bo fired remains unexplained. It is, however, possible that they have been carefully and accurately spiked without leaving any trace of the operation. The dimensions ar« from memory. On the 15th of April we returned to Hsia-kuan. Leaving the town tho next morning, and following the left bank of the river which issues from the lake, we were surprised to find that rather imposing stream, which seems almost navigable, suddenly plunge under a natural bridge of rock, and become a rushing torrent. That a boat once came up the Mekong and entered the htke by this branch, as local tradition has it, is clearly fabulous. About a mile from Hsia-kuan the route enters a gorge by a massive gateway, part masonry and part rock, which forms a fit portal to the majestic scenery it guards. The precipitous mountain sides are at first bare and rugged, but an hour's walk along an easy road brings the traveller into a wcll-woodcd region. At 2^ miles from Hsia-kuan, the hamlet of Fang-tzu-pn is reached, remarkable for its hot spring. The route traverses the mountain side at a considerable height above the river, but descends again to its level immediately after passing Shih-ch'uan Shao, 6} miles. So far, there is very little cultivation, the way being a mere mountain pass ; but, on approaching the scattered huts which comprise Mao-t'sao-t'ang, 7} miles, a wheat crop was observed, and further on the inevitable poppy-field. The route now becomes densely wooded, and coasts along the river through pleasant glades of walnut trees. The 40 yards' breadth of clear stream which lingered through the sands of Hsia-kuan here appears a sheet of foam 10 yards broad, surging over enormous boulders. It is easily crossed by bamboo bridges in several places ; but, as our midday stage, the hamlet of Hsiao-hof the valleys. The wide-spreading banyan trees which crowned the ridge we bad attained formed a shady halting place, from which we watched our unfortunate coolies, burdened with some 70 lbs. weight, toiling with frequent ])auses up the dusty slope, often sliding back, and gladly availing themselves of branches and shrubs as a point d'appui. From this spot we descried a bright stream, largo enough to be called a river, flowing down a valley on our north-west. This valley is said to produce much of the gold for which Yiinnan is famous ; but the whole district seemed to ns almost uninhabited. The route continues a short distance along the ridge, and then descends again tluvngh fine glades to the stream we crosseil at starting. We run merrily down the slope to the hiimlet of Niu-p'ing-pu (34^ miles), and thence follow the stream until our path is barred by the river above mentioned. A largo cotton caravan was waiting on the floor of the valley for more carriage. The first half of the cavalcade had just passed. The head of the leading mule was completely hidden in an elaborate ornament of coloured wool and silver buttons, and plumed with a panache of the toil feathers of the Amherst pheasant. All the succeeding animals we saw, some twenty in number, bore aigrettes of the same description. We encountered eight or ten caravans with the same insignia, and seeing that it takes several tails to form a plume, there must be good shooting somewhere. The whole turn-out was very well appointed, and caparisoned with a luxury far beyond the requirements of the route. 166 NO-lKS (»X noCTH OF MR. GROSVENOR'S MISSION The swagger of tlio well-droued and 'Well-fod muloteera wna alto new to ui, and new it seemed to them to have to yield the crown of the causeway to outlandish foreigners, who they found could on occasion assume the devil-may-care swashbuckler as well as thnnselves. The trade of this region, chiefly cotton and opium, is almost monopolised by two merchant princes— Yang, the Generalissimo of Western YUnnan, and his Majesty the King of Burma. The former appears to take the lion's share, and it was one of his caravans that had Just passed. His conductors, disbanded braves, notorious for their high-handed conduct, are the dread of the inoffensive villagers, and no one ventures to deprecate their exactions. The Generalissimo himself cnjoyH a reputation of no common order ; but as ho wns courteous and even hospitable to ourselves, it may be well to give him the benefit of the doubt, and to assume that scandal has exaggerated his failings in crediting him with all the qualities of Barnbbas and Blue Beard. He is beyond doubt the richest and most influential man in Yilnnan, and if the province is opened to trade, we shall probably have close relations with him. Shanghai was favoured by a visit from him two years ago, when ho did ius the honour to abduct a nacivo damsel from our midst, and escaped his pursuers by the unromantio but simple device of hiring au omnibus. A sudden turn to the right brought us to a very dilapidated suspension brid[;e (361 miles) over the river, an insignificant stream easily forded during winter, but as the bridge indicates, swelling to an iniposing volume at other seasons. The Shan-pi, as it is locally called, will not bo discovered on any map. It was at the time we paissed it the clearest of streams, about 80 yards broad, flowing with an easy current in a gravelly l)ed from the heart of the hills. A well-made road coastoil its right bank, and as good roads are not made without scmr' extraordinary reason in China generally, still less in YUnnan, I ascended it for a sIk n distance, but with- out meeting a single person or habitation. We were told that the road was for tho convenience of gold-diggers ; the future traveller, with more time at his disposal, may decide the question. At many points of our journey, and notably in this neighlwur- hood, we lamented our inability to remain a few days and explore its attractive recesses. The natural charm of these glens is heightened by the fact that their secrets are unknown except to their own sphere of population. We follow the right bank at some elevation above tho stream, and enter a curiously labyrinthine region, in which the river abruptly doubles back round a narrow peninsula of hill and then disappears into a very mountainous country on its way, no doubt, to the Mekong. After descending into a deep and dangerous hollow, apparently the bed of an ancient lake, we again mount up to the road which makes a detour round the chasm, and soon reach Huan-lien-pil (38i miles), a poverty-stricken and half-ruined hamlet. The next day, 20th April, is again one of the severe hill work. A gully down which a small stream trickles to tho Shan-pi is first crossed, and then a most formidable hill, " Chino-kou-shan," temple-crowned and grove-clad, so steep as to be inaccessible from the eastern side, has to be worked round and taken in reverse. The road then follows a ridge between two deep valleys and becomes easier, still, however, rising. We pass the two hovels, which are called Pai-tii-p6 (48i miles), and the ruined temple of Wan-sung-an (45i miles), and at Tien-ching-pii (47 miles), when we stop for the night we have reached an elevation of 8600 feet, being 3800 feet above the level we quitted in the morning. The converse descent had to be accomplished next day ; the western slope becoming gradaally,les8 wooded and at last completely bare. This condition is generally notice- able beyond Tali, and may perhaps be attributed to the influence of the winter winds which seldom vary more than from west to south-west. We were still traversing tho THROUGH WESTERN vUnXAN. 167 same almcwt dciertod ragion. A tnodorately euy {nth led us through Sh»«ingi«hao (48| miles), a hamlet of ftve huts, Moi-hua-pu (60| miles), consisting of » ooaple of huts, and wo halted at midday in one of the two sidings whioh constitute Ping, man^hao. The hill-sides at this point are dry and sandy, but there is no lack or water in the courses. The contrast between the eastern and western slopes is vary Btriking. Descending a rough and fissured ravine, we issued on to the plain of Tung-p'hig, whioh does not exceed three miles in breadth, and is perhaps nine miles long. It is to all appearanc<> abruptly closed iu at both ends, but there is probably an exit towards the south along the stream, which disappears througli a pass in that direction. The city of Yung-p'ing was dimly discemiblo through the haze at about three mlle^ distance. It seemed of small extent, and we were told that the slight import- ance it possesses is rapidly yielding to the Urge village of Ch'U-tung at the soutbom ■ cud of the vnlley. Tiie chief authority of Yung-p'ing, a magistrate, is generally to bo found at Cii'U-tung. Besides these two places, four or five hamlets, mostly in ruins^ dot the plain, of whioh certainly not mora than half is under cultivation. The neighbourhood of Ch'U-tung (58^ miles) is a little better than a marsh, through which flows the stream above mentioned, some 12 yards broad, and where we forded it scarcely a foot deep. It no doubt enters the Mekong, receiving on its way many accretions, one of which runs through Ch'ii-tung. A little beyond the ford we encountered a pitiful indication of the misery which Tartar misrule and Mohammedan rebellion have brought upon the country. By the path-sido vera kneeling in a row somo thirty women, with hands clasped in nipplication of ourselves. Our first impression was that they were beggars, but it 18 doubtful if a beggar could exist in these deserted mountains and desolate vales. These women were, besides, comfortably dressed, though rather in the costume of the Tai (Shan) race beyond Tdng-yueh than a la Chinoi»e, Their greeting — " A respectful welcome, great Sirs " — was no more than the usual formula. On inquiry it turned out that they wore begging to be protected from the approach of beggary, and not to be relieved from its actuality. They were the women-folk of well- to-do Mohammedans slain during the outbreak, or missing ; they still retained the ancient title-deeds of their lands and houses, but had been deprived of civil rights. Mistaking us for Mohammedans — a very frequent error — and hearing that we were ofHcials on an important mission, they awaited our arrival to implore, in their igno- rance, an intercession whidi, coming from us, would certainly have injured their cause. Indications are not wanting to show that Mohammedan influence is far from extinct in Yilunan. These women are furnished with money by their refugee relations, who keep up communication with them from regions inaccessible to the authorities. At any moment imperial tyranny and fatuity may provoke an outbreak, and with so many wrongs to revenge and 'i^hts to recover, it may be imagined if tlie Ute masters of the country are likely to seize the occasion. Ch'ii-tuug is remarkable in our memory for four points : for its cleanly appear- ance ; for its battered condition, three-parts of the place being covered by the ruins of substantial buildings ; for the great number of small birds which frequent it ; and for the capture, at which we wore present, of a large snake in the very centre of the little town. It proved to be a jungle cobra 8 feet 1 inch in length. On the morrow the inevitable climb awaited us. A winding track leads through a wooded glen to the foot of a steep ridge, which wo only surmounted to 6nd a most forbidding range still barring our advance. Descending to T'ieh-ch'ang (62^ miles), which means " ironworks," but contains neither works nor iron, being nothing but a squalid gathering of half-a-dozon huts. 168 NOTy:S ON ROUTE OF MR. GROSVKNOR'8 MISSION w« found onneWet near the centra of a onltWated hollow ; the itretm whioh dniu it Mcmi to flow inexplicably into a bay of hlUi, without any exit— another enigma to be lolved by the traveller of the future.* Uiiao-hua^ih'iao (681 miles) ("little flower bridge") is not much more flourishing, bat Hua-ch'iao, a mile further on, is a village of some pretension and preservation, a short distance up the slope. From about this point a continuous steep ascent winds among rocks and knolls through thick woods and thicker Jungle, which obstruct the view in such a manner as to render bearings and distances problematical. Bixty-threo minutes' severe labour, not including stoppages, brought us to Tieo vided with a forked rest, and selected a white stone about seven inches in diameter, which he placed at a distance of 30 yards. Lying down on h's stomach and adjusting his rest, he took a prolonged aim and then pulled the match previously lighted, slowly and carefully down upon the touch- hole. Nothing of importance resulting, he pricked up the powder and recommenced ; still nothing worthy of n Dte ensued, but not at all disconcerted, he roae with the remark that bis gun had not gooii off, that the match was probably damp, and he would fetch another. Thus reinforced, he contrived to hit the stone, and we warmly congratu- lated him on the achievement. His matchlock was furnished with a ring sight near the lock, but had no fore sight. The bullets were cylindrical. As we were now on the best of terms, I inquired why his young compatriot had drawn upon me. He explained, much to the delight of my companions, that ho was anxious about his earrings ; but he was kind enough to exonerate me from any pro* penalty to brigandage, and subsequently rebuked the young fellow roundly. The latter was told to hand me his dagger fur inspection, which he did with a good grace, but I remarked that with pardonable circumspection he had divested himself of his earrings. In the afternoon we descended to the valley of Sha-yang, a stony, half-cultivated bellow a mile and a half broad, and stretching, as far as we could judge, about four miles to the south-cast. That it cannot extend far is shown by its stream running north-west, in contradiction to the general conditions of this water system. The stream must enter the Mekong, and from the direction of the mountains we feel safe in assuring our successors that by following its course for a few miles they will discover gorges and defiles of unusual abruptness. We had undergone a hard day's work, and took advantage of our arrival at a spacious temple to rest for a day. Ten miles per diem may seem a small matter to tiie British tourist, but if he will make the experiment of emptying the contents of his dust-bin down his backstairs, turning on all the water-cocks, and sprinkling a cartload of bricks over the whole, he may, by marching up and down until he has com- pleted 10 miles, arrive at an approximate conception of a day's journey in Western Ytinnan. Our coolies were delighted with the prospect of a day's repose, and so seemed the willing mules and ponies — " the hollow pampered jades of Asia, that cannot travel thirty mites a day." Our jades were more hollow than pampered. Tliey were p;ene- rally left to find their provender on the hill-side. The ponies ars wonderful animals, absurdly small, but of surprising pluck and ^lertinacity. 170 NOTES OX POl'TK OK MR. QnOSVKXOR'S MISSION i Tho temple is attuntcd on a hill-«1ope above the village of Sba-yang. It wilt form very agreeable head-quarters for travellers who intend to examine this section of the Mekong Valley, but it will bo advisable for them to occupy the hall in wliich the idols are installed in preference to the lodging rooms. These are low and thinly roofed, and one of our party who slept in them suffered from a severe access of fever. The terrace of the temple is shaded by fine trees, and on the hillfr at tho back, hog, deer, and partridges may be found without too much exertion. Our sportsmen found it best to mount a commanding point and shoot down. In the event of the larder failing, those who consider doves worth eating will make a plentiful bag. Sha-yang, or Sha-mu-ho, a little below our temple, is a village of some importance. . A fair was being held there, to which our Kutung friends had brought a stock of peddling. We tried in vain to induce them to port with their swords and daggers, some of which were handsomely ornamented with silver. •Although now less than three miles distant from the Mekong, we could form no idea of its course ; the abrupt wall of hills facing us seemed the introduction ta another moimtain journey of 10 or 12 miles ; but on the 24th, after passing through Sha-yang and Yung-fSng-chuang (74 miles), the latter a small but well-todo village, a steep climb of twenty-five minutes suddenly brought us on to a ridge almost verti- cally above that famous river. A scries of short and dangerous zigzags leads down to a bold suspension bridge of GO yards span, striding the river at its issue irom the darkest of goi^es. The perpendicular walls are not 100 yards apart; from our confined position we did not venture to estimate their height, 'fhe heath-clad domes which surmount them towered far above us while we were still on the ridge. A narrow road which crowns the right bank leads invitingly into the gulf, but we were compelled to turn reluctantly away. The Mekong is 60 yards broad at this point, but it widens below to about 80. The reach seen by us is a smooth, steady stream, without rapids, the current scarcely more than 21 miles, and probably, though this is a mere estimate, affording 10 feet of water. We could only see about four miles down the stream ; at that distance it disappeared from view between precipitous barren walls ; the whole reach was, in fact, nothing but a floor of the gorge. Un the left bank the mountains rose immediately from the margin of tho water, but on the right there was an occasional shingle bed. The ' Yunnan Topography,' a Chinese work published under the Ming dynasty, remarks, " The Lan-tsang river (Mekong) 80 li north of Yung-ch'ong at the base of the Lo-min Mountains, is 90 yards in breadth ; its depth has not been ascertained. Flowing by Yung-lung and Shun-ning, it passes through GhVli, and enters the Southern Ocean." The height of the Mekong above the sea-level is about 4700 feet. We make no doubt that it is at this point capable of boat navigation, but there is no trade, nor any town to trade to. At the time of our visit it was swollen by rains ; and it is noteworthy that the Salwcn and Shweli, which we afterwards crossed, were not in the least discoloured, although the rains had by that time fairly begun. We saw no boats on the river, nor, indeed, anywhere after leaving the Inke of Tali-fu. There seems to be no trade from north to south ; we passed very few paths running in that direction, certtiinly nothing worth the name of road. This fine stream, instead of affording au easy highway for traffic, forms an obstacle to commnnication. " Lan- tsang-chiaug " is the received native name of the Mekong, but it is generally abbre- viated into " Lan-chiang." The three main streams of Western Yiinnan are locally known by the conrenient terms Lan, Lu, and Lung. The suspension bridges, which are the pride of Yiinnan, are all constructed on tho same system ; five or more chains formed of oval links about six inches in tho long TUnOUGH WESTERN yUnNAN. 171 diameter, and S-inch thickness, nro strained very tiglitly across, tlio ends being embedded in rock or masonry, but ho\7 secured did not appear. The way consists of planks laid on tbese, not sus|iendcd from them, and two other chains hung from massive gatehouses at both ends form a protection and assistance to the passenger. In some cases the road chains are tied with bars. The bridges vibrate considerably, but the curve is not very great. It would be interesting to ascertain how, with their miserable appliances, the Chinese contrive to stretch the chain so tightly, decreasing the strength of the bridge while rendering it easier to cross. We saw no instance of the roadway being suspended from the chains. Wo were now on the border-line between Carajan and Zardandan : " when you have travelled five days you find a province called Zardandan," says Messer Marco, precisely the actual number of stages from Tali-fu to the present boundary of Yung-ch'ang. That this river must have been the demarcation between the two- provinces is obvious ; one glance into that deep rift, the only exit from which is by painful worked artificial zigzags which, under the most favourable conditions, cannot be called safe, will satisfy the most sceptical geographer. The exact statement of distance is a proof that Marco entered the territory of Yung-ch*ang. F'ing-p'o (76 miles), a hamlet about a mile beyond the bridge, is also called Lan- tsang P'ing-p'o (" Mekong terrace "). The blufl"8 above it seemed utterly inaccessible ; but a rough and slippery way, in many places cut in the rock, climbs the almost vertical cliff, and after a parting gaze at tho great river we threaded a narrow valley between low heights and reached Shui-chai (77i miles), our resting-place for the night, a well-built and populous village, perched in a small amphitheatre amid grassy hills. There is a good deal of cultivation, chiefly rice and poppy, in tho neighbourhood. Next day, April 25th, the first of the spring rains came upon us. We followed a very devious path, above a small cultivated valley, and not long after starting, espied in a south-east direction, two stupendous crags of bare rock. Unfortunately they ' were soon hidden from our view by rain clouds and intervening hills, and I had no op[iortimity of fixing their ix)aition. They seemed less than four miles distant, and probably overhang the Mekong. Black, jagged, and utterly bare, they are in strange contrast with the rounded and verdant summits which they dominate. All the faces visible to us were precipices, apparently 1000 feet sheer, but we could not see their bases. If they overhang the river, the view from its gorge must be of unusual sublimity. A dense rain-cloud suddenly burst over us, and in a very few moments our whole party — some tweuty-five in number, not including escorts and muleteers, who had not yet come up — were as thoroughly wet through as if they had just swum the Mekong. The hamlet of Tali-shao (80} miles) afforded us temporary shelter, but after quilting it, which we did rather prematurely, we had to encounter the full force of the deluge for forty-two minutes. One of us, profiting by his experience of rain storms in Formosa, took off all his upper garments, rolled them up as tiglitly as possible, and, pressing them under his arm, made all haste on^anls. The narrow and confined track soon became a nmning stream nearly a foot deep, and boots and socks had to be dispensed with. One of our party, with that readi- ness of resource so characteristic of distinguished travellers, effected a rush up a ' slope of red clay, with a view to outflank the torrent ; but after a successful ascent of 40 yards, he found it impossible to proceed or return, or even to retain a standing position. The sudden glissade which he was compelled to execute, plunging with great accuracy and splash into the deepest part of the flood, was inspected with minute curiosity by his companions. i ' ii 172 >\'OTES ON ROUTE OF MR. GROSVEXOR'S WISSIOX A mile and a half of similar scrapes brought us to the village of Tien-ohing, which boasts half a hut and a floating population of three. The fragment of a hovel was little better than a lean-to, composed of two walls and a crazy reed roof. Our whole party huddled into it, and proceeded to wring out their clothes. Those who had taken the precaution of rolling them up found the inmost convolutions almost dry, but the rest had to endure chills and cramps for the space of a couple of hours. We had prudently carried with us a light iron stove, and were all rewarded by its usefulness in this washed-out hovel, where there was no fire-hole sufficient even for the simple requirements of a Chinese cook. During the spring rains, which begin in May and fall more or less continuously for about two months, the traffic of Western Yiinnan almost ceases. Even on the level road we had found progression barely possible ; what it must be on the steep slopes and zigzags I would rather imagine than experience. The coolies tie iron "crampons" to their straw sandals, and we found the latter preferable in many cases to the heavy and slippery European boot The sun broke through again, and we strolled pleasantly down a dell by a rushing stream, post the two huts of Niu-chio-kuan (83 miles), to the village of Knan-p6 (84 miles), which overlooks the large valley of Yung ch'ang, "at the close of the eve, when the hamlet was stilL" We sauntered about the place to pick up scraps of information, and met two traders who had just returned from Manwyne, where they had been trading profitably with a venture of YUnnan opium. They considered the route which lay before us fairly easy as far as Manwyne, with the exception of the two days' journey beyond the Sal wen; we should find this the most toilsome ascent of our whole journey. We must not fail, they said, to cross the Salwen and its valley before sunrise, or we should inevitably succumb to malarious fever. The mountain road beyond the farther bank \\ iis difficult and wearisome in the extreme, and in addition to ordinary dangers from brigands, an attack was to be apprehended from a band headed by a certain Li-ch'ao, sometime a Mohammedan partisan, who had lately taken to the mountain and declared war to the knife against Imperial officialdom. This person was seconded by a trusty ally, carrying on concerted operations farther west, in the shape of a priest endowed with miraculous powers to exter- minate the unregenerate by spells and exorcisms. The Tai (Shan) people beyond T'eng-yueh were, they informed us, very genial and hospitable. The Yung^h'ang Plain, which we entered next day (April 26tb), is the most extensive we had seen since leaving the capital. Here alone did we meet any signs of the great population which common report has attributed to Yiinnan before the Mohammedan troubles. A level plain, some six miles in breadth, stretched north and south for a distance of 20 or more miles, teeming with villages and seamed over most of its oxtent with the demarcations of rice-fields— a joyous prospect, at first sight, of prosperity and peace ; but descending into its midst, we found its habitations generally a heap of crumbling and deserted ruins, and the fields for the most part a malarious morass. The village of Pan-ch'iao (88i miles) had retained certain vestiges of population and trade, to be accounted for by its advantageous situation on the central stream, making the irrigation of its vicinity more convenient than elsewhere, and by the fact that the causeway which supports the high road passes through it. We traversed its one long street on a market morning ; but with the exception of a few stalls of crockery, iron pans, hoes, and nails, little more was displayed for sale than the pigs and agricultural produce of the neighbourhood. Its stream, crossed by a stone bridge, which gives it the name Pan-ch'iao (slab THHOUGH WESTERN YUNNAN. 173 bridge), is about 20 feet broad and of insignificant depth. On most maps a large lake is depicted south of this point. It may once have existed ; the plain is very marshy, though the borders of former rice-fields can everywhere be distinguished, and is impassable except along the paved causeway leading to Yung-ch'ang, but there is at present no body of water which could even be mistaken for a lake. Tung-ch'ang, the westernmost prefectuml city (Fu) of China, is visible from a long distance, being partly built on a spur of the Western range. From the north- east this spur has the appearance of an artificial pyramid raised behind the city, an illusion which is heightened by a part of the wall running up from the angle. A cluster of temples and pagodas some little distance up the height give the place an imposing appearance ; but more than half the space within the city walls consists of waste land, supporting a flourishing population of pheasants. The plain is about 1200 feet lower than that of Tali, being 5880 feet above the sea-level. A word regarding the dialect of Yiinnan. The farther we advanced towards the west, the purer we found the language. Any one who possesses a moderate know- ledge of the so-called " Mandarin " colloquial will be charmed with his intelligibility in Yunnan. Yung-ch'ang is specially distinguished for the clearness of its pro- nunciation, approximating to the Peking dialect, but devoid of most of the vulgar and superfluous r final. Things have indeed changed since Marco's time, when the people " had a language of their own, which is passing hard to understand." How comes it that the language of the remotest province of China is almost identical with that spoken at the capital, while in the intervening provinces so many uncouth and distorted jargons are encountered? The patois of Ssfi-ch'uan, at any rate in the mouths of its country folk, was more than half unintelligible to our northern followers. Hunan was, in addition, ridiculous; but in Western Yiinnan we were accosted In a familiar and luminous speech, which made us feel as if we were nearing home. Philologers would fail to discover the reason, independently of history, but it is of infinite simplicity. The natives of Yunnan were forced to learn the language of the north on pain of death. Wu San-kuei, the Chinese general who sided with the Tartars at the rise of the present dynasty, and subsequently reduced Yiinnan, became its king, and imposed a despotic and grammatical rule upon his subjects. Selecting those of his veterans who spoke the purest Chinese, he set them to instruct the vanquished. Tradition does not state how many dunces were decapitated, but in any case his educational policy has produced admirable results. '^ At times kings are not more imiierative than rhymes." But here was a king more imperative than a whole language. Biot has it that Yung-ch'ang was first established by the Mings, long subsequent to the time of Marco's visit, but the name was well known much earlier. The mention by Marco of the Plain of Yochan (Unciam would be a perfect reading), as if it were a plain par excellence, is strikingly consistent with the position of the city on the verge of the largest plain west of Yiinnan-fu. Hereabouts was fought the great battle between the " valiant soldier and excellent captain Nescradin," with his 12,000 well-mounted Tartars, against the King of Burmah and a large army, whose strength lay in 2000 elep. .nts, on each of which was set a tower of timber full of well-armed fighting men. There is no reason to suppose this "dire and parlous fight" to be mythical, apart from the consistency of annals adduced by Colonel Yule ; the local details of the narrative, particularly the prominent importance of the wood as an element of the Tartar success, are convincing. It seems to have been the first occasion on which the Mongols engaged a large body of elephants, and this, no doubt, made the victory memorable. Marco informs us that " from this time forth the Great Khan began to keep 174 NOTES 02J ROUTE OF MK. GROSVEXOR'S MISSION numbers of elephants." It is obvious that cavalry couUl not inauccuvro hi a morass such 08 fronts the city. Let us refer to the acrount of the battle. " The Great Khan's host was at Yung-ch'ang, from which tliey advanced into the plain, and there waited to give battle. This they did through the good judgment of the captain, for hard by that plain was a great wood thick with trees." The general's purpose was more probably to occupy the dry undulating slopes near the south end of the valley. An advance of about five miles would have brought him to that position. The statement that "the King's army arrived in the plain, and was within a mile of the enemy," would then accord perfectly with the conditions of the ground. The Burmese would have found themselves at alwut that distance from their foes as soon as they wei-e fairly in the plain. The trees " hard by the plain," to which the Tartars tied their horses, and in which the elephants wore entangled, were in all probability in the corner below the "rolling hills" marked in the chart. Very few trees remain, but in any case the grove would long ago have been cut down by the Chinese, as everywhere on inha- bited plains. A short distance up the hill, however, groves of exceptionally fine trees are passed. The army, as it seems to us, must have entered the plain from its southernmost point. The route by which we departed on o'lr way to Burmah would be very embarrassing, though perhaps not utterly impossible, for so great a number of elephants. Leaving Yung-ch'ang — in which city, by the way, we were not impressed by the truth of Colonel Yule's encomium on " the remarkable beauty and fairness of the women " — we started down the plaiu in full view of the great battle-gix>und, through fields purple and white with the curse of China, over a bridge which spans a dry watercourse, past a largo reservoir for irrigation, and then rested at Wo-shih-wo, the " Den of the Sleeping Lion " (961 miles), a ixxjr hamlet. From this we immediately entered the hills, and a short ascent brought us to the mouth of a cave from which the hamlet derives its name. This cave possesses great local celebrity as a curiosity. The peculiar name does not appear to be connected with any tradition. According to the topographical work quoted above, " the cave is situated at the foot of Sleeping Lion Hill, and is called Banana Cave ; it is two fathoms broad, the same in height, and penetrates the mountain a distance of 150 paces. The glittering stalactites within resemble lilies, bells, and umbrellas." A further ascent brought us to Kao-tzu-p'u (98} miles), and in the afternoon we loitered through a pleasant upland, thick with fine trees and shrubberies, until, after extricating ourselves from the dark and forest-hidden dell of LSng-shui-ching, we issued on to the usual barren western slope, and descended by a very winding path to F'u-p'iao (lOGi miles), situated in a small circular valley amid fields of rice aud poppy. Good lodging can be obtained in a temple a quarter of a mile beyond the village. General Thunder came in the evening with an anxious countenance to inform us that the rebel Li-ch'ao was encamped on the hill-side a few miles beyond. Li-ch'ao had played a conspicuous part in the Mohammedan rebellion, but, on its suppression, had tendered his submission. While living quietly on his farm he had been sued for a debt equivalent to about 65^ ; this he paid, but shortly afterwards was again sued for the same debt, the authorities afiirming that he had not paid it. When he protested against this extortionate tyranny, he was refused a hearing as being a notorious rebel. He once more paid the money, but when an attempt was made to obtain a third exaction by the same tactics, he was driven to a fit of desperation, such as not seldom seize the Chinese. He proceeded to murder his mother, wife, and children, burned his house, then took to the hills with a band of followers, many of whom, like himself, had been persecuted to desperation, and swore death to all oflBcials on whom he could lay hands. . THROUGH WESTKRX YUNXAM. 176 Wo bnd iicraoually, in all probability, no cauHe toappreliciid the nuimosity of tin's jre perched a few mat-sheds newly transported from below. On our left, looking towards the river, a deep and pathless gully, dark with pine and under- growth, shot down to the plain, and all around nothing arrested the eye but a stray crag towering above the forest. Under a bush dose to the hamlet lay the corpse of a murdered woman — murdered by a robber for the sake of a parcel which the victim was attempting to conceal in her bosom, and which turned out to contain nothing more valuable than a common opium pipe purchased by the poor creature fur her son. Still np through the forest we mounted, until, at an elevation of 8730 feet, wo paused to admire the paradise of dense greenery which undulated below our feet. This was the highest pass we encountered in Western YUnnan. Poor Margary writcH favourably of this region as compared with the " horrid passes " between YUnnan-fu and Tali ; but in the matter of gradients and difficulties of route there is really little to choose between the two sections. We feel at liberty to say that if British trade ever adopts this track, we shall bo delighted and astounded in about equal proportions. By a circuitous path more and more thickly overshadowed as we descended, Tai-p'ing-pu (131i miles) was reached, a mere cluster of shanties surrounded by an impenetrable forest. I write " imponetroble " with complete confidence, as General Thunder had specially requested the Nimrod of our pa ..ty to take him out for an evening's shooting at this point. Tlmnder was held fast by his petticoats in a thorn- bush within 30 yards of the road, and did not attempt further exploration. " Dinr.h," our unfaithful retriever, sat down in a comfortable spot, and declined to interest her- self in the operations ; and Nimrod himself, after worming his way like the veriest Mohican a few yards farther, just managed to obtain a snap shot at the hind-quarters of a small deer, which did not remain long enough to allow its injuries to be substantiated. To return to Marco Polo. Tlie generally received theory that "the great descent which leads towards the Kingdom of Mien," on which "you ride for two days and a half continually downhill," was the route from Yung-ch'ang to T'dng-yuoh, must be at ona abandoned. Marco was no doubt speaking from hearsay, or rather, from a recollection of hearsay, as it does not appear that he possessed any notes ; but there is good reason for supposing that he had personally visited Yung-ch'ang. Weary of the interminable mountain-paths, and encumbered with much baggage — for a magnate of Marco's court influence could never, in the East, have travelled without a considerable state — impeded, in addition, by a certain quantity of mer- chandise, for he was " discreet and prudent in every way," he would have listened longingly to the report of an easy ride of two and a half days downhill, and would never have forgotten it. lliat such a route exists I am well satisfied. Where is it? The stream which drains the Yung-ch'ang plain communicates with the Salwen by a river called the " Nan-tien," not to bo confounded with the " Nan-ting," about 45 miles south of that city, a fair journey of two and a half days. Knowing, as we now do, that it must descend some 350C Tdct in that distance, does it not seem reason- able to suppose that the valley of this rivulet is the route alluded to? The great battle on the Yung-ch'ang plain, moreover, was fought only a few years before Marco's Tisit, and seeing that the king and his host of elephants in all probability entered the valley from the south, travellers to Burma would naturally have quitted it by the same route. But again, our mediojval Herodotus reports that " the country is wild and hard of access, full of great wooda and mountains which 'tis impossible to pass, the THROUGH WESTERN YUnNAN. ^W^ •ir ia so impure nml uuwholetome ; and any roroignen attempting it would dio for certain." This is exactly and literally the description given us of the district in wliioh we crossed the Salwun. To insist on the theory of the descent by thin route is to malco the traveller ride downhill, ** over mountains it ia impossible to imss." The fifteen days' subsequent journey described by Marco need not present much difficulty. The distance from the Junction of the Nan-ticn witli the Salwen to the capital of Burma (Pagan) would bo something over 300 miles ; fiitoen days acema a fair eatimate for the distance, seeing that a great part of the Journey would doubtlcaa be by boat. But we must continue our route. We paaaed the night at Tai-ping-pu in a hovel belonging to a Mohammedan family, who imagined ui«, as was often tlie case, to be co-religionists. Our host, for fear of heretic persecution, did not care to confess his faith, but the woman made very little scruple of iii)caking out. Our carriers and escort, having no shelter, managed to bivouac comfortably round huge tires of " good sappy bavins," furnished by the primeval forest which hemmed us in. As we descended on the 2nd May, the woods gradually thinned, and we very soon came in sight of the Shweli river, named " Lung-ch'uan," or more generally " Lung " by the Chiiie«o. It is a clear stream somu 50 yards broad, running in a deep gully and much obstructed by rapids. The valley is not flat, ns in the case of the Salwen, but easy sloiies rise fri' ovc the sea, 200 feet lower than the Mekong. The bridge is distant 136) milis from Hsiii-kuan ; a mile and a Iialf further brought m to the village of Kan-lan-chan, very poor, but showing indications of former pros- purity. Tho higli range wo had been crossing on the two previous days is seen a' great advantage from tliis point. To tho north-east a jagged crag appears to attain a heiglit of 13,000 or 14,000 feet ; wo saw no snow. The name Kan-lan>chan, in which Dr. Anderson tries to recognise a trace of Marco Polo's term Kara-zan (Carajan), is certainly curious and unlike Chinese designations in general. If a meaning must bo extracted from tho words, it would be " preserved olive stage," but it is exceedingly dangerous to rely upon tho meaning of names as interpreted from the Chiueso characters in which tliey are written. In all probability tlic name was indigenous, and the Chinese conquerors have preserved some semblance of the original sound, while utterly perverting the meaning. " Shan-shan-chan," the earliest name for the province of Yiinnan, is probably another example of the process ; reckless etymologists might bo tempted to compare it with " Zar-dandan." A heav} fall of rain set in at this place and continued for some ten hours. The aneroid needle fell from 25 -37 at 9 p.m. on May 2nd, to 25*11 at 8 a.m. next raoruing. One range alone now lay between us and T'eng-yueh. It turned out to be an elevated plateau of downs rather than a range, and was ascended without difiiculty. Tlie single farm-house of Kan-lu-ssu (141 J miles) presides over a few fields, but beyond this there is little or no cultivation. The road sinks deep into the surface of the down, and winds about in such a manner that the traveller can neither see where he is going nor what he is passing ; but after crossing a small affluent of the Taping, we mounted a grassy but treeless upland, and halted for purposes of tiffin at the hamlet of Chin-tsai-pu, composed of four huts (144 milcii). Descending a gradual 183 N0TK.8 OX ROUTK OF MR. OROSVKXOIIS MISSION ilope for three milea' diiitanoo, we niddcniy ramc into ftill view of thu plain of Ttnz- yuoh, 1000 foot immodintely below ut. Thii hollow, abont four mitoi loni; by tlireo brond, wna populoui and cultivated to an extent we had not witneiMcd ilnco leavintt the plain of YUnnan-fu. Throe Inr^o villnges and aomo half-dnsen Bmitll onoa emorxo like ialanda fhrni a loa of rico-fioUlN, irrigated by a stremn which ap|)i*arcd to ut to be an nfl*"9nt of the Taping. This river (Tapin;;) utTurdR a very gooyuuh was Iho work of only a few hundreds of the train*Uuids, under a certain Su, but the revolt was strengthened by tho acocssioa of about 1000 partisans recruited from Chanta and Nan-tion by Wang." There can bo no doubt wliatevvr that Margary was murderi'd by the abovo- mentioned train-bands of T'dng-yuoh. Whether their discontent was occasioned hj the disgrace into which they loll on account of the ignominious repulse inflicted upon them by C!olonul Browne, or was aroused by the alacrity with which the local autho- rities disavowed all participation in the murder and subsequent attack, and proceeded to levy exactions on thorn os the iienalty of their discountenanced activity, and in view of the heavy indemnity which it was thought would bo exacted, it is impossible to say. In any case, it is not without some feeling of i)ardonable satisfaction that one reads of the slaughter of these miscreants to the number of "some hundrods," besides those who " perished in the ponds." If a Chinese of average intelligence and education be asked what he knows of Yttnnan, he will rojily that it is rich in gold, silver, white copper, and precious stones; that it is a long way off; that travelling is very difiScult throughout the province, as shown by tho proverb " Ch'ih Yiinnan-k'u " (to eat the bitterness of Yunnan) ; that it is a very unhealthy country ; that the inhabitants speak a very intelligible tongue ; and that it is cool in summer. It will be complained that our expedition has added little to this general infor- nuktion ; but it should be remembered that tho business which occupied our best attention was of a political nature, and that we had no time to deviate from our route, or even to pause for the purpose of examining points of interest. The mineral wealth of tho province is unquestioned, but the only proof that came under our notice was a scanty export of white copper and salt. It is well known, however, that during the Moliammedan rebellion the metal trade almost disappeared, and has not yet had time to revive. Of the sole agricultural export, opium, wo can speak with some certainty. Wa were astounded at the extent of the poppy cultivation both in Ss&-ch'uan and Yttnnan. We first heard of it on the boundary line between Hu-pei and Ssti-ch'uaii in a cottage which appears in an illustration given in the work of Captain Blakiston, the highest cottage on the right of the sketch. A few miles south of this spot the most valuable variety of native opium is produced. In ascending the river, wherever c Itivation existed wo found numeroas fields of poppy. Even tho sandy banks wore oitcn planted with it down to the water's edge ; but it was not until we began our land journey in Yunnan that we fairly realised the enormous extent of its production. With some fear of being discredited, but at * Degraded a year proviously.as having been responsible for the safety of liaigary. 4 ', if 184 NOTES OX ROUTE OF MR. GROSVEXOR'S MISSION the same time with a conscioiunoss that I am under-estimating the proportion, I estimate that the poppy fields oonetituto a third of the whole cultivation of YUnnan. We SAW the gradual process of its growth, from the appearance of the young spikelots ahovo ground in January or earlier to the full luxuriance of the red, white, and purple flowers which were already falling in May. In that month the farmers were trying the juice, but we did not see the harvest gathered. We walked some hundreds of miles through poppies ; wo breakfasted among poppies ; we shot wild ducks in the poppies. Even wretched little hovels in the mountains were generally attended by a poppy patch. The ducks, called locally opium ducks, which frequently supplied us with a meal, do really appear, as affirmed by the natives, to stupefy themselves by feeding on the narcotic vegetable. We could walk opnly up to within 20 yards of them, and even then they rose very languidly. We are not, however, com])clled to believe with the natives that the flesh of these birds is so impregnated with laudanum as to exercise a soiioriflc influence on the consumer. They are found in great numbers in the plain of Tung-ch'uan, in Northern YUnnan, and turn out to bo the Tadoma wHpanwr. In the same district, and in no other, we met with the Grtu einerea, an iniiK>sing bird, which is also a frequenter of opium fields. The poppy appeared to us to thrive in every kind of soil, from the low sandy borders of the Yang-tzu to the rocky heights of Western YUnnan; but it seemed more at home, or at any mte was more abundant, in the marshy valleys near Tung- ch'uan, at an elevation of 7060 feet (7150 feet, according to Garnier). I am not concerned here with the projects or prospects of the Society for the Abolition of Opium ; if, however, they desire to give the strongest impetus to its growth in Yunnan, let them by ail means discourage its production in India. The trade route from Yunnan-fu to T'6ng-yueh is the worst possible route with the least conceivable trade. It is actually dangerous to a cautious pedestrian, not on account of the steep ascents and descents which constantly confront him — time, patience, and a proper conservation of breath suffice to overcome these — nor from the precipices which await the unwary, but from the condition of the path itself, lliis is paved throughout the whole distance, except on some of the high downs and ridges — a proof, if any were wanting, of the former importance of the route. The paving is of the usual Chinese pattern — rough boulders and bliHsks of stone laid somewhat loosely together on the surface of the ground : " good for ten years and bad for ten thousand," as the Chinese proverb admits. On the level plains of China, in places where the ix>pulation is sufficiently affluent to subscribe for occasional reimirs, this system has much practical value. But in the Yiinnan mountains the roads are never repaired ; so far from it, the indigent natives extract the most convenient blocks to stop the holes in their hovel walls or to build a fence on the windward side of their poppy patches. The rain soon undermines the pavement, especially where it is laid on a steep incline ; whole sections of it topple do^vn the sloiw, leaving chasms a yard or more in depth ; and isolated fragments balance themselves here and there, with the notorious purpose of breaking a leg or spraining an ankle. The track often exhibits very much the appearance of a London road when "the streets are up," and one almost looks for the familiar gas-pipes. It is a joyous moment for the traveller when he reaches a sandy uni>aved down, and can use his eyes for other purposes than that of selecting the stone which is least likely to break his nock. In some parts, however, of the un^iaved route the ground splits vertically, and THROUGH WESTERN yUnXAX. 185 tho ■0U8 his rcak Iiugo flakes of earth, carrying the path with them, peel away into a gully or preci- pice. This would probably not be dangerous to a |)ede8trian if he were moderately cautious, and he would soon be rendered so by the sight of the body or bones of some unlucky mule which has accompanied the landslip. By an improved system of paving and a better selection of gradients, the route might be ma'Je convenient enough for carriages by mules and coolies; but it seems hopeless to think of making it practicable for wheel carriages. The valleys, or rather abysses, of the Sahvon and Mekong must long remain insuperable difiiculties, not to mention many other obstacles. I do not mean that it would bo absolutely impossible to constract a railway. A high authority has informed me that if shareholders will provide money, they will always find an engineer to spend it. By piercing half-a-dozen Mont Cenis tunnels and erecting a few Menai bridges, the road from Burma to Yiinnan-fu could, doubt- less, be much improved. It seems to have been assumed by the members of Colonel Sladen's mission that when T'eng-yueh is reached, the obstacles to a highway into Yunnan have been surmounted. The fact is that the difficulties begin at T'Sng-yueh. All homage to Dr. Anderson for his careful consideration of the subject. The Doctor has our humble corroboration for his assertion tliat a practicable road might be constructed, without much difBculty, through the Kakhyen hills to Manwyne. From that village to T'6ng-yueh the route is direct and easy ; but T'Sng-yueh draws whatever prosperity it possesses from tho Ta-pSng valley; the trader is still separated by many steep miles from Yung-ch'ang, and when he arrives at that city he will fail to find a market. He must struggle on to Tali ; in the quarterly fair he may meet with a certain demand for pedlery, but for little else. It is not to be 8upi)osed that however energetic the British merchant is, or ought to be, he will attempt tho wild route of Yilnnan-fu ; but in the event of his attaining that capital, he will suddenly be aware that foreign manufactures can be conveyed with ease and rapidity from Canton, and his intelligence will at last open to tho fact that Ytinnan-fu is only 400 miles distant from the sea. Loth as most Englishmen are to admit it, tho simple and evident approach to Eastern YUnnan is from the Qui f of Tonquin. But it by no means follows that the same holds true of the western part of the province. The object should be to attain some town of importa, je south of Yung-ch'ang and Tali-fu, such as Shun-ning, from which both those cities could be reached by ascending the valleys, instead of crossing all the mountain ranges, as must be done if the T'eng-yueh route is selected. 'Iliis brings us back to tho old project for a route vift Thein-nee, which Dr. Anderson allows " has been recognise*! for centuries as a highway from China to Bimna." The Doctor gives an alarming account, drawn from Burmese sources, of the diffi- culties to be overcome, in the shai^e of forty-six hills and mountains, five large rivers, and twenty-four smaller ones; but until a competent observer has traversed the route this must bo considered somewhat vague. The Government of British Burma might with advautngo send a native, duly instructed, to decide the matter. It is disappointing to tind these difiiculties alluded to, without any mention of the obstacles wliich beset tlio route favoured by the Doctor. Here is a notice, dug out of the ' Toiwgraphy,' which may in some degree supply tho want :— "Tho upper route for the elephants sent as tribute (from Burma) is by Yung-ch'ang and Pu-piao, crossing the Wu-chuang range by a narrow and dangerous track, on which horses cannot travel abreast. Beyond these mountains is the Salwen, and beyond tho Salwen is the district of the Po-i (Tai) people. Still farther on, the Kao-li-kung range has to be ascended, and travelling again becomes dangerous in i^' 186 XOTES ON ROUTE OF MR. OROSVEXOR'S MISSION the oxtreme. The uativcs construct palisades on the mountain toiw as a defence. Proceeding iouth>west from Tdng-yueh, the three towns of Nan-tien, Muangla, and Lung-oh'uan are Bitocessively passed. Beyond Lung-ch'nan (we are now entering Burma) all is level ground, and a thousand miles of country may be seen at one view. There are no hills or gorges whatever. In ten days more we arrived at Hdng-mi, in two more at Pao-king, and in another ten at (the capital of) Burma. Ten days farther bring the traveller to Toun-goo, and yet another ten to P^u, which is at present under a savage chief." As this was written some 300 years ago, the latter passage can intend no disre- spect to the Chief Commissioner. Bat there is, after all, no necessity for Governments or merchants to be exer- cised about the special advantages of this or the other route. Given a certain trade, and well-devised regulations to encourage and protect it, the discovery of the easiest lines of communication may safely be left to the traders themselves. Let us first discover the trade. \ For the benefit, however, of enthusiastic path-finders, I conclude these very desultory remarks by citing from the ' Topography ' an entirdly new and original route :— " The lowei route for tribute elephants leads from Ghin-tung to ChSn-yuan-fn, one day's journey, and then in two days enters the district of Ch'd-li. Two days more bring the traveller to P'u-erh, which is subject to Ch'&-li. This region produces tea, and contains a lofty and beautiful hill called Ming-kuang, on which a chief of Gh'Mi resides. In two more days a great river is reached, making a bend round some 300 miles of country in which elephants breed. The hills have been named ' Ghi- ohien ' (arrow-flight). There is here a tablet engraved in ancient times, but the inscription is undecipherable. In four days more one comes to the headquarters of the Gh'd-li Government, situated at the foot of the ' Nine Dragon Hills,' near the great river, which is called the ' Nine Dragon River,' and is the continuation of the Black Water (Mekong). '* Travelling from Ch'6-li eight days' juurncy to the south-west, one reaches Pa- pe-si-fu (eight hundred wives), a country abounding in temples and pagodas. Every village possesses a temple, every temple a pagoda; there are 10,000 villages and 10,000 pagodas. This land is called the Kingdom of T'zQ. The ruler abhors the taking of life, and is inclined to peace, but when his enemies seized (part of his terri- tory), he had nothing for it but to despatch an army and settle the question. M " One month's journey to the south-west lies Lao-chua, the chief of which has a son to succeed him, but no daughters. Fifteen or sixteen days westward bring one to the shore of the Western Sea in Pegu, the country of a savage chief." * Latitudes. The following observations for latitudes by meridian altitudes, and many others, were made with an 8-inch sextant belonging to Mr. Grosvenor. In calculating the latitudes the barometric pressure has been neglected, as it can- not materially afiect the result of observations taken in pairs north and south at short intervals of time. Many opportunities occurred during the journey of comparing the determinations of Messrs. * Ch'eli la the Chinese name of Kiang Hung (or Kinng Hung uf Gamier) ; Pa-pe-si-fu was the CbiuoM name of a medieval SLan kingdom on the Mekong, of which the capital appears to have been Muang-Yong, in about lat. 21° 10' (see Gamier, i. pp. S85-887, and p. 479) ; Lao-c/iva was the Shan or Thai kingdom of Chandapuri or Vien-cbang, the laot of the Dutch mission of Gerard von Wuithof (1641), and of the 17th century Jesuitsk — H. Y. -, , No. P 1 TUnnan 2 Ditto a Ditto 4 Ditto 5 Lao-yo- 6 Lu-f£ni 7 Ditto 8 Lu-li-ol 9 Kunng- 10 Cha-b8 11 Ditto 12 Oh£n-ni 13 Ditto 14 Sh»-ah' 15 FiUo 16 'l-ip- 17 D» 18 Cuai : 19 Tali-i . 20 Ditto 21 Ho-chia 22 Ditto 28 Tang-p 24 Ditto 25 Huang- 26 Ditto 27 T'ien-cl 28 Ditto 29 Gba-tui 30 Ditto 31 8hii-yai 32 Shui-oh 33 Ditto 34 Knan-p 35 Ditto 36 Yung-c 57 Ditto 38 P'u-p'ia 39 Ditto 40 Ta-pan 41 Ditto 42 Ho-mn 43 T-ai-p'i 44 Ditto 45 Tfing-j 46 Ditto THROUaH WESTERN YUNNAN. 187 of HessTS. Blakiaton and Gamier with my own. The only serious case of discre- pancy appeared at Tali-fu. As Mr. Garnier was in great difficulty and hurry during the few hours he spent at that city, I make hold to stand by my own result. No. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 28 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 Flace. Date. YOnnan-fu .. ..; Ditto .. ..| Ditto Ditto .. .. Lao-ya>kuan Lu-fSng-hsien ..' Ditto Ln-li-ehins Kunng-t'ung-Iioicii Chu-hsinog-fu .. Ditto Gh£n-nan-chou .. Ditto Sh»-«h'iao .. .. ritto .. .. 'l"if"<. ■ . '■ tu.ig .. Dv. Cuai .ho>. . ..' Tali-i Ditto Ho^hiang-pu Ditto Tang-pi Ditto Huang-Iien-iiu Ditto T'len-ohing-pn .. Ditto Ghtt-tung .. .. Ditto .. .. Shifyang .. .. Siiui-ohui .. Ditto .. .. Kuan-p'o Ditto .. .. Yung-ch'atig-fu .. Ditto Fu-p*iao .. .. Ditto .. .. Ta-pan-«hing Ditto Ho-mu-8hu .. Tai-p'ing-p'u Ditto Tfing-yueh .. .. Ditto .. .. Mar. Apr, May 6 8 9 12 27 28 28 29 81 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 10 11 11 16 16 17 17 19 19 20 20 21 21 23 24 24 25 25 26 20 28 28 29 29 SO 1 SiriuB 8 Urs. Mbj. Sirius SUra.Miij Spica t Urn. Maj. Spicn tUrg.Maj. SUr8.Maj. Spica 3 Urs. Mnj 8UrB.Maj. Spica 9 ViH. Maj. Spica 8 Urs. Mnj. Spica Soica 8 Un. Maj. Spicii 8 Urs. Maj, Spica 8 Urs. Maj. Spica rs. Maj. Spica 8 Urs. Maj, Spica 8 Urs. Maj, Spica 8 Urs. Mai 8 Urs. Maj. Spica 8 Urs. Maj Spic'i 8 Urs. Maj Spica 8 Urs. Maj Spica 8 Urs. Muj Spica Spica 8 Urs. Maj Spica 8Ura.Maj Spica Double Altitude corrected for I. K. 96 50 105 16 96 50 105 17 109 3 105 29 108 41 105 37 105 32 108 .'>6 105 15 105 34 108 37 105 39 108 31 105 49 108 20 107 49 106 34 107 35 106 20 107 50 106 31 107 39 106 13 107 57 106 12 107 68 106 1 108 9 105 50 105 43 108 27 105 37 108 33 105 25 108 45 105 12 108 58 105 12 108 57 109 3 105 5 Bcmarks. 50 40 311 20 20 10 10 40 10 10 20 50 20 40 50 50 10 10 40 10 50 50 50 40 30 50 20 10 40 10 40 25 9 25 8 25 13 25 10 25 1 25 2 25 11 25 10 25 14 25 14 25 19 25 19 25 35 25 41 25 41 25 34 25 34 25 40 25 40 25 31 25 31 25 30 25 30 25 25 25 25 25 19 25 16 25 15 25 13 25 12 2<}25 14 ,« }25 19 01 25 35 g}25 41 g|}25 34 §j}25 40 ^^^25 81 |0biicrvatluii8-> Good. Fair. Good. Fair. 50 jFair. j. 5 Good. ■-•-. JFnir. 20 jXotgood. 45 iFair. u . 10 Good. 2 Good. 10 48 48 6/ 16 25 30 26 Good. Satisfactory. Good. Satisfactory. Good. Fair. Good. Good. Good. I Hazy. 25 25 25 25 25 4025 20 24 57 3024 57 ii|26 13 7 }25 19 Fair. rJGood. [ Very good. 109 4 1024 57 31 «ii}25 25 19{Kf^^«* .15| 25 19 — j;,}25 16 20' 42 ^)» ^;}« 56| 24 58 18; I 24 57 105 14 108 56 5025 025 i 43 49 •I 125 1 47| Good. Fair. Good. Good. Fair. Good. Good. Indifferent, rejected. Good. Fair. Altitudeg. Of three aneroids, which were procured at Shnnghae, only ono proved equal to the exigencies of the route. Before leaving it was compared with a standard mercurial barometer, and showed an index error of — *06, that is, *06 inches were to be subtracted from all its readings ?r?;il i88 NOTES 0» ROUTE OF MR. GROSVENOK'S MISSION fo give the true reading. On returning to Slianghae tbe comparison was repeated^ and exhibited an error of + '09. It was also tested by means of an air-pump as low 08 23 inches, with a column of mercury, a few days after our return. The com- parison was most satisfactory, and the needle after a short interval returned precisely tu its original position. It seems, therefore, safe to ossume that for all practical ends the indications afforded by this instrument were suflBciently exact. The index error may be neglected, considering the much greater inaccuracies entailed upon absolute altitudes by weather changes. On the route under consideration the weather was, with slight exception, very equable, clear, and with a light breeze from west or south-west. There is a difficulty in deciding what to pssume as the sea-level pressure. Mr. Gamier took the mean pressure for each separate month at Macao as his basis for calculating heights in this same region. He gives these as 768 mill, for February, 766 for March, and 762 for April. These were taken in the year 1867. By the kindness of Father Lelec, Director of the Observatory attached to the Jesuit Mission at Sicawei, I am enabled to give the mean pressure at the sea-level near Shanghao lor the same months in 1876 : — February 768-25 .: March 765-02 April 761-75 J cannot do better than employ these. The only remaining difficulty is the question of correction
p'o Yung-ch'aug-fu Kao-tzil-p'a .. P'u-p'iao Ta-pan-ohing . . Salwen River . . VUlageonB. B. .. Ho-mu-Bhu Haiang-po Highest point of pass T'ai-p'ing-p'u Da-li-aliu .. .. Shwe-li River Kan-lan-chan . . Cliin-t'aai-p'u.. .. T'eng-yueh-clioii . . 24-99 24-1I 2391 23-87 23-65 23-29 22-50 23-12 23-17 23-43 23-58 23-47 24-07 24-21 22-65 23-25 23-45 23*32 23-29 24-74 24-87 24-64 24-85 22-45 23-52 24-89 24-78 22-65 22-10 23-35 24-64 22-20 24-87 25-24 23-60 22-32 23 -US 24-35 23-45 25-33 25-56 27-62 27*41 24-65 23-25 20 05 22-68 24-61 25-68 25*24 23-11 24-56 71 62 71 67 as 73 57 72 60 76 64 59 80 60 60 71 59 66 69 74 57 83 61 67 60 74 60 71 59 83 6J 73 73 77 67 61 66 71 84 80 69 96 96 71 75 75 65 62 62 65 59 61 6,360 6,100 6,340 6.270 6,440 6,980 7,890 7,320 7,000 6,6^0 6.746 5,570 5,590 7,740 6,740 6,780 7,020 7,090 5.450 5,150 5,660 5.200 8,090 6,710 5,290 5,270 7.910 8,410 7,179 5,5^6 8,510 5,300 4,920 6,700 8,166 6,600 ^,880 6.980 4,550 4,490 2.430 2.670 5,56) 7,230 8,730 7,780 5,480 4,300 4,810 7. 209 5.509 ^if ; Probably too high. April 11th to 15th. April 20th. April 25th. April 30th. MaySrd. Itinerary. The following itinerary from Yiiunan-fu to Tali-fu gives the distances as estimated by ourselves, with full allowance for the windings of the road, in statute miW. and the distance in It as given by the local oiScials. In the itinerary from Hsia-kuan to T'eng-yuth I have put side by side the 193 NOTES OX BOUTE OF MR. QROSVENOR'S MISSION distanoea aooording to four different parties. Golumn A exhibits onr estimate ; B gives that of a Burmese Mission to China quoted in an Appendix to Dr. Anderson's • Expedition'; C is the estimate furnished us by the Chinese ofBoiab; and D is taken from a list of distances prepared by a caravan contractor at Tiinnan-fu. iTnrEBABT, YOmnan-fu to Tali-fv. Drte. Mar. 26 „ 26 „ 26 „ 26 „ 26 n 2« „ 26 „ 26 " -t „ 26 „ 27 » 27 „ 27 „ 27 „ 27 .. 27 „ 27 „ 28 „ 29 ., 29 „ 30 „ 30 „ 30 „ 31 „ 31 April 1 fj ^ ,, 1 „ 1 YUnnan-fu. Pi-ohi-kuan .. .. Ch'ang-p'o .. . Tn-sbn-p'o .. . Anning-«hoa .t . P'ing-ti-shao .. . Tsao-p'u Gh'ing-lung-shao .. An-feng-ymg.. .. Ln-piao Lao'ya-kuan .. .. Ch'ing-shui-kou .. Po-han-ch'ang .. Yang-noo-shao .. Tft-yao-chan .. .. Wang-chia-wan .. Huang-t'u-p'o Lu-{7ng-hnen Ta-t'zu-Bstt .. .. Ln-Ii-ching .. .. Hsin-p'u .. .. .. Ta^hao Shd-t'zfl M£og-hsi-p'n .. .. Kuang-t'nng-hden Hui-t£ng-kaan .. Sl)ih-chien-p'a •• Hsia-yao-olmn .. Skoi-oh'^Hshao ., CL'u-hsiung-fu •• San-chia-t'ang .. Ta-shih-p'u .. Ch'iDg-yuan-flhao .. Lii-ho-kai .. .. Koo-fcng-shao ., Chun-nan-chon 8hui-p'ang-p'u T'ien-hain .. .. Slm-cli'iao .. Hain-p'u .. •• Ta-fo-ssfl .. .. Tso-lin-p'u .. .. Ying-wu-kuau .. Tien-8h£D-t'ang .. P'u-chang-ho .. .. P'u-p'eng .. .. Chin-chi-mino 6kai-p'ang-pu DtaMnon in Mllei. 7 Ill 16J 211 221 261 80{ 31 f S5 371 38 401 43i 471 551 5G1 62 64} 681 71 7Sl 791 851 891 92 95 991 1031 105f 1101 llSi 117 120} 123} 128 128i 131 ISol 137 1381 141f 143} 14-| 150} IflS 15C| PManceIn It acoonllng to Cbtnese. SO 45 50 70 95 110 130 135 150 162 170 175 190 215 240 245 275 285 805 335 865 895 410 425 435 445 465 475 495 505 525 540 555 570 580 590 610 620 630 640 650 670 680 700 Benurk*. Small village. Hnmlet. Small village. Poor, sm^, and dilapidated city. Hamlet. Small village. Small village. Wretched mumlet. Half-ruined village. Village, less poor than usual. A few cottages. Wretched hamlet. Wretched hamlet. A few huts. Very poor ruined city. Five huts. Hamlet Poor hamlet. Guard-house. Poor village. Humlet. City rather more prosperous. Guard-house. Poor hamlet. Poor village. Four huts. Large city; ruinous and very thinly inhabited, public buildings falling. Hamlet. Hamlet Considerable village, much ruined. Guard-bouse. Small and very poor town. Mlierablo hamlet Hamlet. Large but poor village. ' Poor hamlet. A few huts. One hut. Small hamlet and guard- house. Poor hamlef Wretched village. -..: Poor village.' Ruined temple and one hut Poor hamlet Pate. I April 16 16 16 »» 16 99 16 »» 16 19 17 )» 17 ff 17 ft 17 9t 18 Jt 18 »1 18 >• 19 91 19 19 19 « 19 If 20 ff 20 9f 20 20 21 If 21 21 fl 21 tl 21 • TheBi for nnlformlt farther west. t This a THROUGH WESTERN yUnNAN. 191 ' Date. Name of Place. niiiUnce la MIlM. DMance In « according to Chinese. Remarks. April 7 Annan-kaan 187} 710 Two huts. ,. 7 Hu-pan-p'n .. ... .. 163} 720 1 Conalderuble village^ half ruined. » 7 Tunimn-i 168 740 Village. „ 8 Kas-kuan-p'n 169 ,, Large village. , » 8 Knu>t'iun-p'u 176 770 Hamlet. ," 8 Ch'ing-huft-tung .. .i 177 179 775 Temple near oaTO. I, 9 I-ohiang-p'u 785 Poor hamlet. ' ,. Ohia-mai-p'u 182 800 Hamlet. » 8 Hung-ai .. .. .. .. 186 815 Large village, half ruined. „ 10 Oh'ino-t'ow 187 ,, Hamlet. „ 10 TiDg-hsi-lIng 189} 830 / 845 Hostel on highest point of col. „ 10 Ta-shao 192i Hamlet somewhat ruined. „ 10 Hain-p'u-t'ang 196} 860 Village nearly all ruins. Large and well-to-do town. „ 10 Ghao^hou 200} 875 .. 11 Haia-kuan 207J 908 / Small town on river; mnoh traffic. f ;; ,, 11 Tall-fu 215 935 Itinekary, Tau-fc (Hsia-kuan) to T'fiNC -YUEH. Pate. Kamo of Pluco. A. B. C. D. Remarks. miles miles ti \ li April 16 Hsia-kuan .. .. .. • • ■• Fortified town. }l 16 T'ang-tzu-p'u.. .. ^ 10 Poor hamlet. 19 16 Shih-oh'uan-p'u si I . 25 Very small hamlet. 16 Mao-tsOo-t'ang 7} . ' • • •• Hamlet. 9) 16 Hsiao-ho-chiang . . 9} . • 45 Hamlet. >» 16 Ho-chiang-p'u* .. 10} 11 50 55 rSmall village near \ junction of streams. '* 17 Chi-i-p'u .. .. :. 12 65 Hamlet ' 17 Chin-niu-tan .. .. 13 • 80 Hamlet. .', 17 Ma-«h'ang .. .. 16 90 Hamlet. jf 17 Yang-pi 10 2 3 100 110 Walled town on river. ff 18 Fei-mCn-p'u .. .. 22 110 Hiimlet, now building. 18 Ch'iug-shui-slmo .. 27 140 A few huts. 9f 18 T'ai-p'ing-p'u.. .. 29i 155 A few huts. )9 19 Tou-po'-ehao .. .. 31} 170 Three huts. IT 19 Niu-p'iug-p'u.. .. 34} 185 Hamlet. ]t 19 8hun-pi Bridgo .. 36} ' 196 Iron suspension-bridge. 9f 19 Huang-lien-p'u 38| 1 4 4t 210 170 Village small. 9f 20 Chiao-kon-shau . . m i 225 One hut. )f 20 Pai-t'u-p'u .. .. 43} 1 240 Two huts. 99 20 Wan-sung-an .. ., 45} 250 Temple in ruins. }9 20 Tien-ohing-p'u 47 200 Poor hamlet. }9 21 Sha-sung-shao 482 270 Five huts. 19 21 Mei-hua-p'u .. .. 50i 1 285 Three huta. 91 21 P'ing-man-shao . . 52i ". 295 Two huts. j9 21 Hei-yu-kuan .. .. 55 305 Seven or eight huts. )» 21 Shu-tui 56 ■ • ■ • Hamlet. • The Bunnpsc and the Carrier's Itineraries begin at this point. For the prevlons dl!itaiice<<, I assume, fur uniformity, that A made somewhat the same proportionate estimate with B and C with D as they did farther west. t This also 1» an assumptlou. 192 ON THE CHINESE TEA-TRADE WITH TIBET. Dit«. Nunc of IMucc, A. a c. D. VltmukM, miles mtlea i>-. li. April 21 |Ch*a-lung, near \ \ Yung-p'ing.. .,/ T'ioh-cb'wig .. .. H8iao-liua-«n'iao .. 58} • • 820 • • Large village, balfruitu. » 22 62i , , 330 ,, A few buta. 22 63f , , , , • • Hamlet. , 22 Hua-oh'iao .. .. 64} • • 340 • • Long village. , 22 T'ion-ohiog-p'u .. 66} .. 860 ,, Two huta. n 22 YllIlK-kU0-88fl.. rSba-Mu-ho or Slia-^ [ yang / C7t ■ • 370 • • Two buts. „ 22 71J 80 890 340 Large village, fab-. ., 24 Yung-feng-okuang 74 ,. ., • • Small village. ,. 24 Ue-kongBivor 75 .. .. .. riroii 8uapen8ion>bridge, \ 60 yarda long. .. 24 P'ing-p'o Sbui-ohai .. .. 76 ,, 420 ,, Hamlet ., 24 77J ,, 435 410 Village. !, 25 Tali-ibao .. .. 80i ,, 430 • • A few huts. ,, 25 Tien-cbing-p'u .. 8Ii ., 465 • • One aliod. ' ^ , Two huts. •: * „ 25 Niu-ohio-knan 83 ,, 475 ,, „ 25 Kuan-p'o 84 96 480 .. Small village. ; „ 26 Pan-oh'iao .. .. 884 90| ., 495 * • Large village. « 26 Fei-kuan-t'ung .. 505 ,, Buined vil&ge. „ 26 Yung-ob'ang .. .. 93 104 515 500 • , 28 Wo-shih-wo ,. .. 96i • • 533 ,, Poor bnmlet. I, 28 Koo-tzu-p'u .. .. 981 • • 550 ,, A few bnts. „ 28 L£ug-sbui-cb'ing .. 101 ,, 568 • t Small hamlet. .. 28 P'u-piao 106} 116 585 570 Large vilkge. ,. 29 Kuan-yin-Bsa.. 110 ,, 600 ^, Buined temple. Buined bamlet. „ 29 Fang-ma-ch'ang .. II3I ■ • 610 • • • ,, 29 Ta-pan-cbing.. • • 618 • • Four or five huts. „ 30 Salwen Biver.. .. 121 • • 638 • • riron anapension-bridge, \ 140 yarda long. Poor bamlet. ., 30 Ho-mu-Bbu .. .. 125 ^, 673 660 May 1 Hsiang-po .. .. 127i • • 698 • • Very poor bamlet. 1 ,. 1 Higbest point of pasB 129 ., 1 T*ai.ping-p'ii .. .. 131 ■ • 723 ,, Very poor bamlet Four nuts. ,! 2 Tali-8bu 134 • • 748 ,, ,. 2 Sbuay-li Biver .. 1361 ■ • 758 V. riron snapenBion-bridge, \ 53 yards long. .. 2 Kan-Ian-clian.. .. 138 146 766 770 Poor viUage. 3 Kan4u-88tt .. .. I41J ,, 783 ^, One hut « 3 Cbin-t'8ai-pu .. .. 144 ,, 798 ,, Four huts. .. 3 Li-obia-p'u .. .. 1481 • • 818 .. Large village. „ 3 T'eng-yueb, Momein 1501 162 833 840 166 168 miles. IV. ON THE CHINESE TEA-TBADE WITH TIBET.* Though very widely cultivated in Ssti-ch'uan, tea does not form the subject of any considerable export. With certain exceptions, it merely supplies the local con- sumption, and with respect to the probability of its ever being exported to foreign countries, it is enough to say that it is generally insipid to European taste, and in many cases actually nauseous. In the hilly country which bpunds Ssti-ch'uan on the east, a variety is grown which possesses a good reputation among the natives, but the quantity is smalL The eastern provinces already furnish more tea than the * Beprinted from the Supplement to the 'Gazette of India,' No. 45, XovemberS, 1879. Calcutta. on THE CHINESE TEA-TRADE WITH TIBET. 193 foreign market demand*, and there seems reason to doubt whether even that demand will be maintained in the face of the superior and aolcnowledged excellence of Indian teas. There is, however, one point of great and increasing interest in this connexion, viz. the export of Safl-cli'uan tea into Tibctnn countries. A good deal has been written, without much circumstantial foundation, on this subject, in support of a project for supplying Tibet with Assam teas. The matter resolves itself into the consideration of route, quality, quantity, and price— subjects on which I have collected some fairly precise information. The area on which tea for the Tibetan market is grown, and of which the city of Yachou may be considered the centre, as it is also the head-quarters of the manufac- ture, includes six or eight districts, of which the chief are Hun^- pieces, the cake, with its mat envelope, is brought back to the fire over which its' comixMition was originally steamed, and when it is thoroughly dried, the ends of the envelope are closed up, and the long narrow package, called a pao, is ready for transport to Ta-nhien-lu. This was the process of manufncturo as I saw it conducted in Yung-ching. The cake thus formed is fairly dense when it issues from the mould v but the dr.ving and the casualties of the roiul considerably loosen its consistency ; and as the tea is weighed in its steamed condition, the theoretical weight is much reduct>d when it is dried. The quantity of wot tea in the Yung-ching packages i» fourteen catties, which diminish to about eleven. The Yaohou cakes are longer, and weigh, or purport to weigh, eighteen catties in the saturated state. On arrival at Ta-chien-ltt the cakes are cut into portions which then receive the name of " bricks " (chuan) and are repacked. " Brick," however, is hardly an appropriate term. They are rather clods of not very closely matted foliage some nine or ten inches by seven, and three inches thick, containing a good deal more stick than leafl The best kind of tea, Mr. Cooper was informed, " is spread in the sun till slightly withered, and then rolled with the hand until moist with the exudation of the sap. In this state it is rolled into balls about the size of a largo tea-cup, and laid up until it ferments. It is then ready for the wooden brick moulds." I heard nothing of this, but there is no reason for doubting the credibility of Mr. Cooper's informant. Such a preparation must, however, be rare and exceptional. The packages are conveyed to Ta-chien-lu by tea-porters or on mule-back. A porter carries twice as much as a mule, but a mule travels a good deal more than twice as fast as a porter. The man's burden is arranged on a light wooden frame- work disposed along the whole of his back, and rising in a curve over his shoulders and high above his head, the structure being supported by a couple of slings, gene- rally made of coir, through which his arms are passed. 'Iho great weights that can be carried in this manner are certainly ostonisbing. Von Richthofen writes, " There is probably no road in the world where such heavy loads are carred by man across high mountains. Six or seven pao is considered a small load ; ten or eleven is the average ; and, incredible ns it may apjiear, I have seen frequently as much ns thirteen carried by one man. I was assured that some men carry eighteen pao, or 324 OS THE CHINESE TEA-TRADE WITH TIBET. 195 oatties." I have levoral times aeon eighteen pao carried by a single porter, and on one occasion I overtook a ratlier slenderly built carrier freighted with twenty-two of the ]iir);e Ynchou packages. Although a pao weighs, in reality, conHiderably less than 18 catties, this man must have had, at the lowest computation, more than 400 English pounds on his back. I noticed tiiat the greatest burdens were carried, not by the most muscular men, but by those of the stroightest conformation ; and that these porters, in spite of their excessive loads, suffer less from varicose swellings than ordinary chair-coolics. Laden thus, they take a rest after every few hundred yards' progress, and as it would be impossible for the carrier to raise hia burden if it were deposited on tlie ground, bo carries a kind of short crutch with which ho supports it, without releasing himself from the slings. Travelling six or seven miles n day, and resting in the inns at night, these porters toil with their prodigious loads over two mountain passes, 7000 feet above their starting place, along a rudely paved road, whore every stop of the way must be picked, making the 120 miles from Tachou to Ta-chien-lu in 20 days or less, and receiving from 250 to 300 cash a day according to the number of packages they carry. The manner in which the loads are disposed is well depicted in an illustration to Mr. Cooper's work, but the packages are larger, and the burden much more top-heavy than he has rei>re- sented them. Inquiries into the quantity of the export are involved in much difiSculty on account of the variation in the weights of the different packages. The best approximation to the total production is made by taking as a basis the number of permits (?/>») issued annually in Yachou and Yung-dung. Three hundred cash is the duty paid for each permit ; in Yachon a permit has to be taken out for every five packages ; in Yung-ching for every six. The annual Yachou issue of these passes is about 80,000, and that of Yung-ching 60,000, giving 400,000 and 300,000 respectively as the total number of packages. The Yung-ching packages coufain nominally between 14 and 15 catties of tea, and those of Yachou between 17 an>i 18 catties; but they have been gradually scamped until a brick of 60 nomina.' ounces now only weighs 44 ounces or less. Applying this correction, we obtain a total export of nine million catties, or twelve million English pounds. But this is merely a rough estimate, since the number of permits could only be ascertained within 16,000 or 20,000 of the truth, and they possibly do not represent the Tibetan trade alone ; a good deal of the Yachou tea in all probability finds its way northwards to the districts round Mu-p'ing by other routes. I obtained more precise figures in Ta-chien-lu. By a series of inqniries among the traders I learned that the annual duty-paying export lies between 500,000 and 600,000 packages of four bricks each ; the mean of these gives 2,200,000 bricks. The duty-paying unit in Ta-chien-lu is the " load," of six packages, nominally weighing; 96 catties. I ascertained indirectly from the customs that duties were collected in 1877 upon 108,000 loads, otherwise 2,592,000 bricks, agreeing per- fectly well with the traders' estimate. This result may be accepted with full confidence. Precision must not be expected in the reduction of bricks to pounds. Leaving out of question the superior and exceptional teas, which form an infinitesimal frac- tion of the whole export, there remain only two qualities, or rather prices, although tiiere are several kipds. A brick of either of these weighs, theoretically, GO Chinese ounces ; but actually the better quality only balances from 55 to 60 ounces, and the other from 42 to 45. The obstacle to exactness lies in the impossibility of knowing what proportion the export of large bricks bears to that of the smaller. I was assured that it is "as two to eight," but have no means of checking the o 2 190 ON THE flllNESE TEA-TIIADE WITH TintT. statement. Accepting it. however, for want of n bettor, thin will give tii the totiil 'ribetan ox|iort from Ta-chien-Iu to Batang almoit exactly ten million P3ngliih IxnindR, which, at the pricei given below, are worth in Tii-cliien-lu Rs. 1,814,400, or «ay 160,000/.* An addition of no great importance ahould perhaps bo made for the tea which CHcapes the payment of duty. The smuf^^led total cannot be great, since there is but one route to Ta-cliico-lu, closed in as it approaches tho town by steep mountains covered with perpetual snow. But there is an item, too considerable to be alto- gether neglected, which entirs Tibet as part of the baggage of officials, and which escapes all duties except those on tlie permit. Other goods, such as silk, also orow the frontier in this way ; but it is mostly by means of tea that the Chinese resident officials feather their nests. Of these administrators and their gains, tho Tibetans say, " They come to our country without trowsers, and go away with a thousand baggage-yaks." At Ta-chien-lu the tea passes into Tibetan hands, and being wrapped, like all Tibetan goods, in skin*, is conveyed on pack-saddles to Batang. The saddle is a much lighter contrivance than tho cumbrous framework employed by tho Chinese, and is probably equal in efficiency to any that has been invented. Two light boards, not more than 14 inches lon<;;, thickly padded with cloth and felt, are connected by two wooden bows. The girth is drawn close to tho fore-legs, and a breasting which lies vary low down on the animal's breast, is made fast, not to the saddle, but to the girth. A breeching, lying still lower than tho breasting, is also connected with tho girth ; but in addition to this the saddle-boards are secured to a crupper consisting, in the cases I saw, of a straight stick a foot long, although the Tibetans employ for riding ordinary cnipiwrs covered with soft loather.f From the bows, which stand high on the animal's back, loops of hide depend, and the packages are inserted into these, or unshipped, almost in an instant. Tiie saddle and all its appurtenances, weighed by myself, balanced sixteen English pounds, which docs not of course include the numerous layers of sheep-skin saddle-cloth. The boards are nearer together, and consequently lie much higher on tho dorsal ridge than in tho European arrange- ment. They will fit any animal, being equally adaptable by a judicious disposition of soddlo-cloths to tho prominent chine of a donkey, or the rotund hump of a yak. One advantage claimed for tho system of susi^ending the packages in loops is that, if the burden strikes a projecting rock or other obstacle in a dangerous pass, it becomes detached, and falls down the precipice without overbalancing the animal. A horse, mule, or yak carries by this means a load not exceeding IGO lbs. ; a dzo * There must be some mistake or misprint here. According to Mr. Bnber'a flgurei>, the number of better class bricks will bo -,», of 2,592,000, or 518,400. These weisli from 55 to 60 Chinese ounces each ; sny 57i, wliieh will give tho total weight of tlio bettir class tea 29,808,000 Chinese ounces ur 1,803.000 catties, equal to 2,484,000 EngliHli iwunds. Tho number of inferior cluss briclss will be ^»-, of 2,592,000, or 2,073,000. Tliese weigh from 42 to 45 Chinese ounces eiicli ; sny 43 J, wliich will give tho total weiglit of the inferior close tea 89,104,800 Chinese ounces or 5,573,425 cattieg, cquol to 7,431,233 English pounds. Tlie total weight in English pounds will tlienfore bo 2,484,000 + 7,4!tl,233, equal to 9,915,233, or ns Mr. Babcrsnys, almost exactly 10 millions. Tlio value of the better clnss ten, however, will bo 2,484,000 llis. at 8'4 nunns, 527,725 ruiiees. Tlio value of tho inferior class ton will bo 7,431,2.H3 at 2*7 unnas 1,254,021 rupses, and the total viilue of tho two clnssrs will bo 527,725 + 1,254,021, equal to 1,781,740 rupees. Taking the rnpeu ot Is. Sd., this would amount to 148,479/, -[W. G.] t Tlio straight stick was tho invariable form of crupper noticed by mo in tiiis country.— [W. G.] ON THE CHINESE TEA-TRADE WITH TIBET. 107 .ri< ihii TIKN ViNti ib420) /iKi nti- JuHf|||^ti .43001 ■ Aiii .1/(1 f'htuJifl If SHEET I ROUTE MA P OF EXPLORATIONS I H WESTERN CHINA hy £ Colborne Eaber, ERGS. v.'hiiie: *■ S«-: ! -^t.-i" y. •■ V I -'6r>ti('r, Ff»kiii^ fhr hrt4/tifA i/r r.rfirrA-ni in feet ithi\e tJu w« !f^ti m I OWN S(-iilt> 4>1 Slaliitr Mill <-tif tiMiiii &nu .^ yyn^' 1 .' s .'^^AV5%,,*t^.__'^ ^ 1 I i. L 1 t •■ -1- -i- J^ All./* ,f M'A ( H.itfi _ . M. All* Ol tjlf^luh Ulllxi J »() ' oCr no hWfti' Tiiw t >■ 'W« ' :mi ■ ",w^'Jk Ul 'j: • '-i i»i^ thMi 1 fV>ii ■»h)ifu' (/(Bo; i i Sn TTEN riKUT C (64/0) ■hiMrls'un n^ ('0«o) r 1 ieal»' ol- Suj ?0 I^-T— 1 "1— 4- ; nil II Li tll» \ II 1 1 1 I'll 1 1 im Hitiiiii) >'«u />,' I'r /, SU 1^-. -L-i;: .IP "^4^^ «> -i-:^x- to 104 ujAiuspi- r 15 i " - ■'li ; i , (H i .jki siw i IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 4p C 1< 4" 1.0 1.1 I^IM 12.5 Hi lii 12.2 :s i£° 12.0 1^ KA z ^' ^> '/ Photographic Sciences Corporalion 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. USSO (716) •72-4503 B Sharhau,. R (i 3 djuL- =*= ■ 'III' =f ^ I I I I I I I T r =R= KB* ^JUm-BAI I than/ . I CHOT J LAKE CUINOhUSO -NANl ^■Mi ^^^..y^ )3bi^ N ...lU>>'' «*^' ^ "I ■^^ '^ W I ■ ■ ' SHEET II. ROUTE MAP OF EXPLORATIONS I N WESTERN CHINA by £. Colborne Baber. F.R.G.S. Chinese Secretary, H.M. Legation, Peking. The, htigkte are eapreasecL Uv feet ahove the sea- Uvel. ■ TOWN • -A^WieVilk^ O OrHnary Village • HamUt lt»9 ^ (6660)SiiA CHEK- (64^IQ LiirfSiltaiM (e340)(l KUANG-l'UNG ,^"" Tfir»hiK pliN Son.***' Ya2l vi-diA-Shaa ^•210) ^-HSroWG VXJ _,„.P,s.o), -mo duuv t ■#= I ^■|--i f -i^ I 1 I r T-Hr ' ' ' I J , I I I I I I ■ I I I I I I I I I -I — I- =^— I I I I I I I I t I I I I J ^ I I I ■ t I I J I I I I [ rich W' L i i I 3Q1' liOtaltrtude laal 3(3 ibani Grrenwich /'lil'itsfini ri'f l/ii" i'n'.-i'iulmiis ''t' i.'if itiiviii /-Vi './/■<./«/.. ■'.< .■. ■. "-a .•» .../ii./j./ >hithi'itl..>.'t'ftii"iiif. t,, . . !,■„ ROUTE MAP EXPLORATIONS I N WESTERN CHINA by £. Colborne Baber. F.R.G.S. Chinese Secretary, H.M. Legation, Peking. ■ 11 Tht heighta are eapreased, uv fut abov tht sea, Imel. m TOWK • \feiTlat4eVill«|B O Ordinary VUlage • Sandat ^■ \l KITANG-TONG- (6M0) ^vA*" '■Ictci] (6340> Toj-Mhpii rdii-Sluuf aon.*^*' 102)0) ■HSniNGTTT I' I ' I I ■ ' I ' I i—f ± le 'icurt! die' d= ' ' ■ ' V ' ' 1— ^ ■ ''''■■ 9G-IISIEN Laororlatai (66»0) Lota|titud( ibcm Grremricsh BO 302° f'tihiiHUPti inr l/if I'nti-ft'tit/u/jt • •/ ' thf lUiyui llrHfii'tiftn,. h V MM .III IK. ■X- IT \\ I i ' i ; ii r ill liw^iyiiB— w "' ^. .-T-.. . ■ T- , T 1 r 1 r'.' "• _« ¥ SHEET III. ' ■ ' " ' ' ' ' 1 ■ ' ■ ■ T ' ' ' ' 1 1 ROUTE MAP 0*^ : EXPLORATIONS w ■ IN '■ WESTERN CHINA - by r £. Colborne Baber. F.R.G.S. • ' Chinese Secretary HM Legation, Peking. • ■' Itl ■ ^ Thehetghuafaiprfsmlin.fitt4MibevUiama.lmmL ■'■ ' ■ __ TOWN ■ • VetylarJeVjU*^ O Orimary Wlaq* ' • • Hamlm, - ,- "i ■ * Tht posUten cfJthame it takm, irom S.EUan'obatrvatumx *^ VftlfO YPEH BHOU/^ t^ Stt. Jtrumal R. &S voL XLV3. p. 226. OK MUMKin WfStJr*. ' ■ '.-=.''.' - ■, ' ■ "^"T^^ ■ ' UtUurlfo^W ^ id ■ ^ ^X \- or Kuf?I^fal w w • ^1^ TiiJ^a^^r ' or JSnrisnolapMSC* IKf ■ w^ie »^ *•»' / .^fKs f 1 ' % '^JoWiutw-lafnaA' ,ff IBIIAMO "I'v _ _ 1 f— ,- ■, , r + -1 1- 1 1 -f— I i-r— .-■) -1 1— 1 — rill r— ■■ 1 1 i i { 1 ■ i i i ■ ■ ... 1 . ... • , 1 . , • w fb' W m W io 88' Loi^ttudel But IhanGrvanridi TO' j'uirijiU' R S Jjtl J\t.i'Us!u-H :,'i'tiii- i'..'.- ■•■i//u.:t 't'.i'i,- /I'ouu i:i,-,jrti/-/,tj-.i ^•■'^•^■^dCy '\\ tV./n.'-w ^^^ ^' . .-, V ,, ap'

''''' (•MO) ^i^-^'fj^j^dnMBv . ■ r i ■ ' ■ :,•• r^v^^ ^ " . ^ ^" ' ^'"^ 'mS^^^Ww^^r'fl^i^v ^^P@!^@!^^^r^^0 1 . ■ - ^fy^^^^^&^S. Mom, ^x ■P • 1 ' ■ * ■ ad Scale of Statute Miles. !»| 1 , 10 S 10 20 30 40 60 I ■ r -( 1 1 I 111 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 i 1 - < ■ 1 L t 1 ■< ■ 1 i J I 111 J 1 , t - j< < 1 1 ' < I I t 1 i 1 J 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 I 1 thmn Qmonrich W' 30 W W W to' W' 30' ti/'iy.* .^I'.'itf livy*U ('■n',jni/'/iij\.i .'"o.vAiy 'A i'.,li\>">i Stuhto''iJ.'>'4''iayifu) Oos^ i$Xf- m KECEN1 1. GENEIIAL 2. KARATEG 3. DARWAZ 4. THE 7. AW A ■f this region was unknown to modern explorers. It wuf only by patient and long study, by coniparinir all the old writers and geographers Chinese, Arabian, and Persian witli those native Indian explorations of a modern date, that Colonel Yule succeeded in removing some of the obscurity which enveIoi)ed tliese highlands, and, in his essay to \V(.K>d's Oxus, laid down their geograi)hy in its maii« features witii something like an approach to general trutli. lie whetted our desire to plunge into those dark and gloomy gorges in which, as in the canons of North America, rivers bury themselves to reappear alter many miles of subterranean course, and gave additional zest to the study by collecting a number of historical notices dealing with the past great- ness of the country. The student therefore who would acquaint himself with the Upper Oxus tributaries cannot tlo better than read attentively the highly suggestive introductory paragraphs to Lieutenant Wood's travels. But since the publication of that work the world has not 1)een idle. There is indeed no longer the same desire manifested V)y Englisli- meu to be first in the field of research. With the single exception of Captain (now Colonel) Trotter's journey from Kasligar to Wakhan in 1874, not an effort has been made from the IndiaTi side to follow in the footsteps of Wood, of Moorcroft, of Burnes, of ConoUy and others of that gallant band who set forth to explore tlie countries north of the Hindu Rush. 'J'imes have changed, and when we look for information on Central Asian subjects it is lo the IJussians and tlieir literature that wo turn. On their side progress has been uninterrupted and rajtid beyond expecta- tion. Twenty years ago tlieir frontier, wliielr had for previous generations lain to the north of tlie Kirghiz Stejipe, suddenly took a bound to the Syr-daria, and before Europe had time to recover from its surprise another great stride was taken, and the Amu-daria came to be regarded as the southern limit of Kussian Turkistan. I'arts of Bokhara were indeed allowed to retain a somi-indcpeiideiice, but this was a measure of prudence, for, with such inadecjuate numbers, Ifussia could not have attempted more witliout endangering all she already possessed. The wiser policy was pursue.l of preparing the highland states and bekships for eventual absorption by encouraging the Ameer of Bokhara, now a faithful vassal, to bring them under comi>lete subjection. For this jmrpose, Bokhariau troop.s.sui.plied witli superior arms and munitions of war, overran the states of liissar, Karateghin, and Darwaz, overawing tiou. M. Fedc NOTKS ON THK IlECKNT QEfKiKAPHY OF ("KNTRAL ASIA. 205 tlio iiihalntrtnts, and caiTying away their native princes into cai>tivity at Bokhara. Meanwhile RuHHian Hcientifio oxplorora kept pace with the military detachments, and .completed the nnich needed details required for the cartography of High Asia north of th" Pandj. In this way MM, Severtsof, Kostenko, Oshanin, Maief, Mushketof, IJej^el, and others, visited Hissar, Karateghin, and Darwaz, explored the I'amir table-lands, traced the courses of the northern head-streams of tlio Oxns, and threw a new light on its orography. The picture they have drawn for us differs widely from former conceptions. Instead of the wlude space consisting of great plateaux divided by single chains, wo ore introduced to an alpine region dwarfing into insignificance the Swiss mountains. We cross range after range, one higher and greater than the other, and fr(jm deep valleys look up to snow-clad peaks seoniing to touch tlio sky. The l)a88es are hardly if ever Ijelow the snow-line, and the traveller has to feel his waj- often along ledges of rock or over swinging wooden In'idges many hundreds of feet above the rushing torrent. In tlio wider jjarts of the valleys we meet with the inhabitants, a bravo, patient race of Tadjik, i. e. of Iranian blood, as distinct in language as they are in hal)its and character from their Uzl)ek neighbours in tlie plains. Only in the very highest belts bordering on the snow do wo find tlie nomadic Kara- Kirghiz with their flocks and herds ; but even tlioy begin to feel the restraint of advancing civilisation, and surround their winter haunts with jiatches of cultivated ground. Such, tlieii, ar(> a few of the leading features of this country, which will be found fully treated of in the following notices translated from the liussiun. To begin with, Colonel Kostenko's Itook, published in 1880, a work compiled for military purposes, but arranged witii cominendablo siin- jilicity from beginning to end, has been consulted. Starting with the orography, Colonel Kostenko has descrilted all the mountain lunges, and given particulars of each pass ; he then proceeds to speak of the rivers, inhabitants, roads, S:c., and in tiiis way conveys r general idea of the country as far as his material will allow. In borrowing largely from him wo desire to acknowledge our obligation. M. Oshanin's articles on Karateghin and Darwaz. giving tlio results of his journeys in 1870 and 1878, have been translated verbatiiu, and the same lil)erty has Imjcii taken with M. Mushketofs exploration of the /anifshan glacier in 1880, a work which extends and corrects the sur- vey of General Abraniof's expedition in 1870, and which, combined witli Fedchenko's journey to the 8t)urces of tlie Isfara, ac1M. Skossi and Schwartz, accompanied Severtsofs expedition to tl»c ramir iu 1877, and they i)robably fixed tho iwsitiou of tlio Kizilynrt Pass across Ihc Trans- Alai rnngo, that of the source of tho Kizil-6U being taken relatively. t See Journal B.O.S., xlvii. pp. 22-47. jl < * )>| rr M- 111 90S NOTES OX THK RECENT OEOORAI'HY OF CENTFJAI, ASIA. the more westerly parts of the rauge being higher than those on the east. The shtpes vary, those on the north side being as a rule more gradual and ton tinicH longer than those on the south which descend steeply to the Kizil-su. The snow-line on the Alai lies at 14,000 feet on the north, and higher still on the south side of the range.* The glens are overgrown with archa or arborescent juniper (J. pseudosabinnf) 35 feet high, grow- ing so thickly as to resemble a forof^t. The upper limit of this tree according to Fedchenko, is 11,200 feet, the lower 6000 feet, a zone 5000 feet in breadth re{)resenting its vertical distribution hero. De- ciduous trees have a range of 2500 feet, and are rare above 6000 feet, though the birch was seen by the same oljserver at 8500 feet ; 300 to 400 feet higher were solitary specimens of ephedra and honeysuckle, but lower down nearer the birch trees, barberry, mountain ash, roses, and willow were found mostly in sheltered places along the banks of brooks, whereas honeysuckle and ephedra preferred open slopes. In the Isfairam defile brush woml grows at 3150 feet, hence its rauge is much more extensive than that of trees. Wheat and barley flourish no higher than 8000 feet, and arc sown by the nomads in valleys between mountains. Artificial irrigation is largely used, though in Kome parts cultivation entirely depends on rains. This kind of arable land is called lialmi. The yield is in proportion to the elevation, thus at 8000 feet wheat returns fourfold and Iwrley fivefold. The Alai range is pierced transversely by rivera flowing from south to north to join the Syr-daria, but some of them are exhausted before reaching it. The principal rivers are : — 1. The Sokh flows from the mountain uutss of Kok-su, and is the westernmost of the rivers rising in the Alai lange. About twenty streams contribute to make it up. From the village of Sokh it becomes a steppe river, and on entering Ferghana is soon drained off into aqueducts for irrigating purposes, some of its water being utilised by the town and gardens of Kokand. 2. The Shah-i-murdan rises in Kara-kazyk Pass, after which it is called for the first part of its course. Further on it is known as the Ak>su, and after uniting with the Kara-su at the village of Shah-i- murdan, it takes this name. 3. The Isfairam has its source in Tenghiz-bai Pass. Further east are (4 ) the Naukat, (5) the Akbura or Tui-uk, (6) the Kurshali, and (7) the Tar. The Turkistan range begins with a broad belt, in long, about 71° east, and is a westerly continuation of the Alui range. From its beginning to the meridian of the town of Ura-tiubc its almolute elevation is very great, and about in the 70th meridian its peaks ex<;ecd 20,000 feet. Large • Severtsof, wlio cros-sed it in Octolwr, fixed it nt 15,000 feet. Fcdchcuko, forlicr in the yciir, found it tu be 14,000 feet. NOTES OX THK RKCENT GEOGKAI'HY OK CENTRAL ASIA. 209 glaciers are met with in its eaatcm part, and of these the Zarafshan is the chief. The upper end of this glacier lies near Mount Kok-su, the lower d ^cends to 8675 feet, but we shall speak of it more fully in our translation of M. Mushketofs paper. ^Vithin the above limits the Turkistan range does not present a continuous upheaval, but is rather a series of parallel ridges rising in terraces and divided by occasional deep valleys. One remarkable depression occurs in the range in the meridian of Ura-tiubo between the towns of Mitko and Auchi, and continues ns far ns the road between Uru-tinbo to Vurziminor. This depression separates an outlying parallel ridge from the main chain. The passes across the Turkistan range are as follows : — 1. Akltba-Bama, near the Zarafshan glacier, leads to Kokand. This is an extremely diificult road, lying partly over icefields, and imiting with — 2. Akhha-Tro. — The road begins at the Zarafshan, near the town of Langlif, follows the river Tro, then mounts to the pass itself, which is only available in summer. 3. Akhba-Vndif. — This pass, lying above the snow-line, and also imiting with Akhba-Tro, is only fit for pedestrians. The road to it begins at Vadif, on the Zarafshan. 4. Yamjhi-Sabak, crossed twice by the Russian troops in 1870. Its summit, crowned with a glacier, is 13,300 feet high, and the descent into the valley of the Syr-daria is dangerously steep. The troops, in ascending it towards the Zarafshan, W(?ro obliged to make use of long ropes to raise men, horses, and mules. The road begins two miles east of Tavushin, on the Zarafshan, follows a defile seven miles long by the side of a torrent to the top, and descends by a wide ravine and the deep gorge of the IIodja-Bakarga-sn, known near its sources by the name of Jiti-Kupriuk, or " Seven Bridges," that being the actual number thrown across it. After leaving this gorge, which is five miles long, and has almost poriK'ndicnlar sides, the road bifurcates, the eastern branch lead- ing to the village of Lailak, the western to the town of Isfaneh, in the district of Khodjend. Between the pass and the gorge grass is abundant, and trees of various kinds are seen, such as juniper, birch, mountain iiHh, &c., whilst water is everywhere plentiful. The road, difficult for horses, is impracticable for camels. The inhabitants of Tavushin and Sabuk have nearly all relatives in Lailak, and nomadise together in summer on these mountains. Tlie stern, forbidding character of the scenery, one would have supposed, might have deterred human beings from resorting thither. Such is not the case, however, for in summer they congregate as thickly as ants, attracted by the excellence and abundance of tlie pasture lands, of which, in the Zarafshan Valley, there is a scarcity. In this way close ties are formed by inhabitants of towns who for eight or nine months of the year are separated by impassable mountains. 5. Akhba-Yarhit. — The pass is 11 miles from the Zarafshan. Tho M 910 NOTES OX THE REi'ENT OEOflRAPHV OF «^ENTRAL ASIA. road leading to it begins two miles from Langar-yus on that river, and follows the course of the Yarkiit stream to the summit. Horsemen can with difficulty make use of it even in summer. The descent in by the Sarkat glen to Dinau, and Iwyond by the river Ak-su to Nau. A footpath leads from the Sarkat glen through Mareng jel, a lateral pass to Andarak. 6. Akhba-Hudgif is extremely difficult, dangerous for pedestrians, and quite impassable in winter. The road to it begins at Hudgif and ends At Dinau. 7. Akhla-PogligaU'IUitJcc unites the Zarafshan Valley with Ura- tiube. The road begins at Postigau, on the Zarafshan (whence it is six miles to the pass), is full of difficulties, and only practicable in summer. During winter, wild boar, which are numerous, have it all to themselves. AlK>ut 15 miles from Postigau are the villages of Mitke and Ilodja Mitkc (in Khodjend). The descent, by no means easy, lies at first over snow and ice, then winds by a steep track between bushes and junijier to Hodja Mitke, the first settlement reached on the northern side. Here the rocks are siliceous schists in layers, with occasional quartz, sandstones, and limestones ; fartlier down are blocks of conglomerate. From Mitke tlie road follows a rivulet to its confluence with the Ak-su, continuing along this river till it reaches Dokhat, where it bifurcates, the eastern branch probably leading to Nau, the western to Ura-tiube. From Dokhat the western track rises by a steep ascent to a great height, descending again on the nortli side and continuing to Ura-tiube viii Mudjir without further obstacles. The whole distance from Postigau to Ura-tiube is 50 miles. South of the latter and three miles from it is a low chain of hills connected with the range dividing the Sanzar Valley from the Ura-tiulxj district. It stretches from east to west, and forms the southern limit of the terraced highlands on the north. On this plateau, 17 miles wide, are situated numerous hamlets belonging to the town of Ura-tiube. At Ynngi-arik a chain of mountains 0000 to 10,000 feet high has to be crossed, but these are ueparated from the main Zaraf- shan range by a long valley beginning a little to the west of Mitke and extending through Ugiit and Auchi to the Auchi-Oburdan road, whicli crt»8se8 it, and beyond this in a westerly direction to the highway leading from Ura-tiube to Varziminor. The length of this valley is about 20 miles. 8. Ahhha-Ugut or Akhba-Komatlon. — The road begins at Komadon on the Zarafshan, and follows a defile t)f the same name to the pass. It descends by the Tengri-ugut defile to Ugut, whence it turns west to Auchi by the longitudinal valley already mentioned. From Auchi it reaches Ura-tiube by the Basmandy defile. This road is comparatively eaay and mostly frequented in summer by inhabitants of Ura-tiube and Matcha. By it, too, the villages near the Shahristan defile com- municate with those on the Matcha. NOTES ON TIIK KEcENT GEOGRAPHY OF OENTKAL ASIA. 211 9. Ahhba-Oburdan-Aiichi unites Obunlan ou the Zurafahan with Ura- tiube. Tho road from Ura-tiubo to Yangi-arik, 18 miles long, is smooth, iind rises gradually in a northerly direction. At Yangi-arik tho defile of Basmandjr bogins, watered by a rivulet of tho same name, which issues from tho valley uniting Mitke and Auchi, and bursts through tho outermost chain of the Turkistan range. Its length is eight miles, which is therefore tho breadth of the chain. On either side rise lofty precipitous mountains, composed mostly of siliceous schists, here and there disposed in horizontal layers but generally inclined at various angles and partly tilted on edge. These are common, but otlier rocks are to be met with. Along the western margin of the detilo an aqueduct four miles long has been made, artificially supported on wooden props and various other contrivances. From Aiichi ti defile leads southward to the pass. No inhabited places are met with the whole way to Obnrdan. A wi(.le but very uneven and stony path leads to the ascent, which is long and arduous to the top, 11,200 feet high ; the descent to tho Zarafshan is steep at first, but afterwards becomes sufficiently gradual. Near the southern end of the pass rises a brook which pours its waters into tho Zarafshan, distant five miles from the summit by a tolerable road. 10. Akhba-Ustanaki-Shamtitch. — The road leading to it begins alM>ut a mile to tho west of Shamtitch on the Zarafshan. Horsemen ride up it in summer as far as Auchi, 12 miles. The pass is five miles from the river, and is both difficult and dangerous. From Aiichi it is easy to get to Ura-tiube and Shahristan. 11. Akhba- Vinhab. — The road starts from Yishab on the Zarafshan, and lies up the right bank of the Obi-Vishab by a gradual and easy ascent to tho pass six and a half miles from Yishab. The descent is nine miles to Auchi, and the road is practicable throughout the year. 12. Akhba-Shavatki. — From 8havatki-ba1a on the Zarafshan to Aiichi, 16 tuiles by a footpath crossing the pass in a northerly direction and entering the above-mentioned longitudinal valley, uniting Auchi, Mitke, and Shaliristan. 13. Akhba-Pahut. — A bridle road from Pahut on the Zarafshan through a defile of the same name to Aiichi. The pass is blocked with snow and only practicable in simimer. 14. Akhba-Rarz, from Rarz on the Zarafshan by the loft bank of the (3bi-Rarz rivulet, over the snowy crest of the range, descending by the Khanjei-lau glen to Shahristan defile, 21 miles. This is a mere bridle- path, ver}' diflicult, and only practicable during the summer months. 15. Akhba-Ispan, from Fatmi on the Zarafshan over Nan-Forgan mountain through Ispuu village, (Icscending by a glen to Shahristan defile. It is reckoned to be 27 miles by this route to Shahristan, and 1 8 miles from tho Zarafshan to the top of tlie pass. There is no traffic by it except in summer. i; ; Iff m ai2 NOTES ON THE RECENT GEOGRAPHY OK CENTRAL ASIA. 16. Ahhba-Putkin, from the vicinity of Taumin on the Zarafshan through Putkin glen; 11 miles to the pass, with dangerously ateep ascent and descent ; 34 miles altogether to Shahristan. 17. A footpath from Senkistan on the Zarafshan across the snowy range to Shahristan. 18. Aihba-Ki$hkat, unites Varziminor with Ura-tiube, yiA the Shah-^ ristan defile. Between Ura-tiube and Falgar the road is well trodden by inhabitants of the last-named town on their way to and from th& bazaar at Ura-tiube. The pass is approached in two ways : first, from Eishkat up a defile of the same name, along a brook to the mountains. This is an easy route. Secondly, from Varziminor the road lies over Jobis- tagh Mountain, intersects the Obi-bars defile, then crosses mountains by steep and long ascents, entering Hishkat defile and joining the fore- going road about three miles above the village of Hishkat. The oecond is by far the more difficult of the two. The top of the pass is 10,700 feet above sea-level, and 11 miles distant from the Zarafshan. 19. Ahhha-Taumat, from the village of Dardar on the Zarafshan to Shahristan, 33 miles. The ascent is by the Taumat-sai defile. Beyond the mountains the road, which is only practicable in summer, joins No. 18 at Eizil Mazar. 20. Akhba-Langar, from Urmitan on the Zarafshan to Zaamin and Ura-tiube, lies along Langar defile to a low and easy pass, whence it descends to Obi-kul defile. At the fifth mile it turns towards the eost,^ crosses a mountain of no great height, and enters Eizil Mazar rivulet.. Another low ofi&hoot of the mountains has to be crossed before the Machit rivulet is reached. Then the road lies through Eata-shibar, rich in pnsturage and trees, to the Eum-bol Pass, after ascending which the descent is by a brook to the Shahristan defile. Near Obi-kul a road branches off to Zaamin, 16 miles. The distance to Shahristan by this rou-ts is 40 miles. ' It appears, therefore, that all the passes enumerated, with the ex- ception of two, are difficult and of great height; that in the eastern part of the range they are fewer in number and higher than in that part situate between Oburdan and Urmitan ; that the absolute height of the Turkistan range, very great at first, gradually diminishes towards the west. Thus the Tanghi-Sabak Pass is 13,300 feet, whilst the Shahristan is 10,700 feet. Water is everywhere abundant, and trees, mostly juniper, are not wanting, whilst at an elevation of 7000 to 10,000 feet above sea-level there are splendid pasturages for cattle. From the meridian of Urmitan the Turkistan range stretches away in a broad belt to the north-west, filling the eastern and northern parts of the Central Zarafshan basin with hills. Near the town of Jizak it becomes much lower, though its chains continue to skirt the southern border of the Eizil-kum desert. In the meridian of Urmitan the range separates into two, forming in this way the Sanzar Valley. The southern. NOTES ON THE RECENT GEOORAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. 213) range aooompaniea the course of the Zarafsban as far as Penjakend, whilst the northern reaches Jizak, a town about 50 miles north-east from Samarkand. The road from Jizak to Samarkand crosses the lowest dip in the range. Here lies the so-called Jilan-utinsk defile, in the centre of which (eight miles from Kliuchevoi) precipitous cliifs almost meet on either side, barely allowing room for a narrow gorge known as Tamerlane's Gates. On a rook in this gorge on the right-hand side (going towards Jizak) may be seen two inscriptions dating from the time of Abdullah Ehan. On the right of the Zarafshan and on the left of the Sanzar Valley extends the ridge of Osmut-tau, barely 6000 to 6000 feet high, and much lower near the Stone Bridge Fort. North-east of this are the low Sanzar Mountains, very easily traversed. Farther westwards the range breaks up into several small chains, but these do not enter into our map, and we will therefore confine ourselves to those which do. The Zarafshan range, stretching nearly due west from the mountain knot of Quibas, and parting the valleys of the Upper Zarafshan and Yagnaub-daria, is pierced in the meridian of Yarziminor by the very deep and narrow gorge of the rapid Fan-daria. This part of the range is very regular and of great height. The following passes cross it serving to connect the hamlets of the Upper Zarafshan with the settle- ments on the Yagnaub. 1. Akhha-TavMtfin. — From the village of Hairabad on the left bank of the Zarafshan the road lies up the Tavastfin defile, through the summer camping-grounds of Ustan, Hukimi, and Hishkat. The top of the pass is 10 miles from the Zarafshan. The descent is by the valley of the YagnauL-daria to Senghi-mailek, 16 miles altogether. The road winds, though it can be used in summer by horsemen, and is upon tho whole comparatively easy. 2. ATchbor-Revut. — A footpath from the Zarafshan village of Isis lies through the Bevut gorge, crosses the range at the twelfth mile, and reaches Senghi-mailek on the Yagnaub three miles beyond. ' 3. AkMM-Guzun. — The road begins at tho hamlet of Hodji-shar on the Zarafshan, and follows the Guzun-sai defile by the villages of Pud, Haz, Bavaz, and Guzun, entering the Yagnaub valley at Novobot. 4. Ahhba-Surkhat. — From the gardens of Postigau near the Zarafshan, via Tamshin, Surkhat, and Amagan, 11 miles to the top of the pass, which is only accessible in summer. From the summit the distance to the Yagnaub village of Tagi-Chenar is rather over five miles. a. Darkh Pass. — Bather less than half a mile from the Zarafshan village of Shamtitch a road leaves the river in a direction almost duo south, forming the chief line of communication between the hamlets on the Zarafshan and those on the Yagnaub-daria. In the Darkh gorge the road has to be carried along narrow cornices and balconies 300 feet above the river. At the fourth mile it enters a wide and cultivated valley 314 NOTES ON THE RECENT aEOQRAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. reaching to the village of Darkh, situated at the point of oonfluenoe of two rivulets. Here three roada meet, the easternmost leads over the snowy range to theTagnaub hamlet of Bidif, the central one also crosses a snowy pass to the hamlet of Yarzaut, whilst that on the west follows the narrow defile of a mountain torrent to the summit, 18,000 feet above sea-level. From Darkh it is seven miles to the top, with splendid pasturage and occasional thick clumps of poplars. The first mile of the steep ascent is over rocks, the second over snow. The descent is abrupt to the village of Kishartab in the valley of the Yagnaub. The length of this road is 16 miles in all, 14 miles from Shamtitoh to the pass. 6. JHtnoro. — The road leaves the Zarafahan at the village of Falmaiit, «nd rises by the bank of a stream through a defile. At the eleventh mile the pass is covered with snow and full of diflSoulties ; the descent is by the Luilau gorge in an easterly direction to Kishartab — 16 miles — only practicable in summer. 7. Marda-Kishtigeh. — The road turns off the Zarafshan riparian route at Barz, and crossing the river by a bridge leads iip the Margelak defile to the pass — 12 miles to the top. After five miles of descent by the valley •of the Fshansa, the village of Tak-fan is reached. This road can be used for pack-animals, though not without difficulty. It will be seen from the preceding remarks that of all these passes that of Darkh, though extremely difficult, offers the fewest obstacles to traffic. It may therefore be readily imagined how wild and inaccessible is this region. Yet even here, as in eastern parts of the Turkistan range, excellent pasturage is to be found and every requisite for summer encampments. The Darkh pass illustrates a feature generally character- istic of all these ranges, in the abrupt and steep fall of its southern slopes as compared with those on the north. The following figures will help to make this clearer to the reader : — Length of Length of 5 Northern Slope. Southern Slope. Pass of Tavastfin 10^- miles . . . . 5^ miles „ Revut 12 „ .. .. 2g „ . „ GuBun — .... — „ Surkhat 10^ „ . . . . 5^- „ „ Darkh 13J , H ,, „ Minora 10} „ .... 5^ „ „ Marda-Eishtigeh .... 12 ^1 murda. Two roads lead across it ; the first, though shorter, is extremely difficult, the other, much better, is also hardly practicable. In order to follow the shorter route it is necessary to turn to the right and ascend by a gradual and easy incline to the summit of the pass, marked by two pyramids. Difficulties only begin with the descent, and none but djigits ride down this way in their rapid journeys. Travellers mostly get off their horses and lead them by the bridle, for besides its steepness the descent is dangerous owing to frequent landslips. This leads into the bed of a small brackish stream, the Sarim-sak-bulak*^ (Shur-su). Then the track ascends to a level gravelly plain, continuing over it to some reddish sandstone hillocks, overgrown with juniper and forming the side of the deep bed of the so-called Sarim-saklik (Sarim- saglik, according to Eodionof), a noisy mountain torrent. This gorge opens into the still narrower Bakhcha cleft, cut by aqueous action between lofty overhanging walls of rock, almost meeting overhead, and excluding daylight from its gloomy recesses. Below rushes a stream a few paces wide, except when melting snows in spring swell it« waters, when it occupies the whole width of the gorge (which is only 150 to 200 feet long) and interrupts c'^mmunication. The second more circuitous track keeps to the left of the first from Lagar-i-murda, and also leads into Bakhcha cleft. The road descends by short but very steep terraces, avoiding the deep channel with its brackish stream by means of a narrow ledge. Then it enters the Surfa lange, twice crosses a valley of no great depth with excellent grass, and, by a series of gradual ascents and descents, at length enters the bed of the Sarim-saklik. This too may be turned by a detour westward, passing along a tolerably easy river course opening into the valley of Bakhcha-sai below the gorge where the two tracks join. From Bakhcha cleft the road continues along^the narrow Bakhcha-sai or upi)er Sang-gardak, supported on ledges of rock overlooking the * Sarim-sak is tlio Kirghiz name for the wild onion. It grows plentifully on tlic Tian Shan and ite mmiflcations, and doubtless originated the Giinose name of Tsung-ling, " onion mountains," for this runge. "X Noil's ON THE RECENT GEOGRAPHY OK CENTRAL ASIA. 321 impetuonu and boulder-strewn Sang-^rdak-daria, occasionally descending to the river itself, and constantly crossing and recrossing its stream. The road is very stony and dangerous, and often ascends by steep paths to the cliffs above in order to avoid impassable parts of the river. The village of Bakhcha, not large but straggling, stands in a side glen formed by retreating heights, its huts and gardens alternating with patches of arable land occupying whatever level ground there is. The road from Bakhcha to Sang-gardak is no better than that leading to Bakhcha from the gorge of the same name, having continually to cross the Sang-gardak-daria. This river is fordable only during the dry season, but in spring and summer bridges of the most primitive descrip- tion, in fact nothing more than juniper trees, are laid across from bank to bank. The distance from Bakhcha to Sang-gardak is reckoned at two task or 11 miles. Sang-gardak is larger than Bakhcha, but like it in other respects. An amlakdar resides here, whose jurisdiction extends over the moun- taineers, or lUebai Turkomans, as well as over the local population. From Sang-gardak to the end of the pass the road is less dangerous, though in many places unsafe, where balconies * have been thrown out to widen it, or where the bed of the river is confined by cliffs, and heaps of stones, over which it is necessary to pick one's way, have been thrown into the water. Frequently, too, lofty precipices have to be scaled to avoid masses of fallen rock. About a mile below Sang-gardak a sparkling cascade leaps down the side of the defile and keeps vegetation green, forming a welcome oasis of verdure amidst the prevailing sombre tints of the rocks. Not far off stands the hamlet of Chujak, a collection of mud hovels. Throughout the whole length of the ravine there is a variety both of trees and bushes. The first met with are the characteristic arcJta or juniper (Juniperm •pseudoaahina), mingled with ash (^Acer iataricum) afterwards. Standing alone lower down are willows and tamarisk {Tamarix floridus) covered with elegant sprays of rose-coloured flowers. After these comes a belt of mulberry {Morua alba) and the dense bluish- green foliage of the iron tree conspicuous amidst the prevailing lighter shades of vegetation. In still lower parts of the ravine grow apricot (Pruma armentaca), wild cherry, and plum. But poplars, elms, called by the natives karagoUch (Vlmus campestria), and other trees characteristic of the cultivated zone are only seen in plantations at Bakhcha and Sang-gardak, mingled with an undergrowth of thorn, Siberian acacia, Caragana juhaia, honeysuckle of various kinds, and bushes of Colutea arhoreacena. Below these again are cherry and stunted apple trees, whilst at the very end of the ravine, near its entrance to ♦ A good illustration of an artifioiBlIy widened road supported on wooden prcns along the prooipitoua side of a gorge is given in Mr. T. T. Cooper's 'Pioneer of Commerce.' K 2 !■: ?' 222 NOTES ON THE RECENT GEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. the plain, are a few fig trees (Fi'ctM carica), with small but sweet and edible fruit Towards the end, where the defile widens out, the road improves, and quite at the extremity stands the village of Dagana, surrounded by gardens and fields. Six miles beyond is the town of Sari-jui, on the river Turpalan. Its citadel, like all others in Hissar, has lost all strategical iin]K>rtanoe, and is falling into ruins. Sari-jui is the residence of a bek, to whom Sari-asiya with its district and Yurchi are also subject, both these towns, formerly centres of independent bckships, being now under officers appointed by the bek of Sari-jui. From Dagana to Sari-jui the road is throughout good and even, and there is another direct way from Dagana to Yurchi. - 2. Kauateohin. Earateghin is the mountainous country occupying the whole of the central course of the Surkhab. In a straight line it extends approxi- mately 100 miles, with an average width probably of 25 to 30 miles. On the north and east it borders on Bussian dominions, on the south it touches Darwaz, and on the west Eulab and Hissar. Its orography is very intricate, for it wholly consists of a collection of valleys, separated by numerous offshoots of the great ranges which stretch along its northern and southern borders. Besides those north of the Surkhab, there are apparently other parallel chains : one at all events follows the right bank of this river. The northern border of Earateghin is occupied by two ranges, the Alai and Hissar, converging at the mountain knot or group situated near the upper end of the Zarafshan glacier. All recent maps, from that of Eohistan by Aminof, give the name " Eok-su " to this mass of mountains. Yet this must be an error, for so inappropriate a name as " Green Water " — the meaning of the Turki words composing the name — could never have beer, given to any single peak or group of peaks. But however this may be, three chains radiate from this knot — one towards the east and two towards the west. The first forms tlie watershed between the Syr-daria and Surkhab, and was named by A. P. Fedchenko the " South Eokandian " range, while on more recent maps it is marked "Alai-tau." But this name was found inconvenient, owing to its re- semblance to Ala-tau, and therefore on the military topographical staff corps map of 1878 it appears as " Echi-Alai," i.e. " Little Alai." This too is a misnomer, for the term is applied by the native Kara-Eirgbiz ex- clusively to the valley at the upper course of the Ak-buru. Of the other two branches the northernmost or Turkietan chain forms the watershed between the basins of the Syr and Zarafshan, and does not belong to Earateghin ; the other, the Hissar chain, divides the systems of the Zarafshan and Surkhab. This terminology, however, cannot be NOTES ON THE RECENT GEOGIUI'HY OF CENTRAL ASIA. 229 adopted as final till the geology of these mountains has been studied and their inter-connection finally decided. Near this mountain knot the Hissar, Tnrkistan, and Alai ranges apparently attain their culminating height. Many circumstances favour this presumption. All the passes in this part of the mountains are extremely difficult of access; some are almost impracticable for laden animals, and only remain open for two or three months in the year. Most of the glaciers, which are generally scarce in Central Asia, are to be found here, and the few persons who have been near this tangle of mountains have estimated the height of its surrounding peaks at not less than 18,000 feet. For instance, Baron Aminof judges the peaks near the head of the Zarafshan glacier to be over 18,000 feet. Fedchenko estimates those inclosing the amphitheatre of the Shurofski glacier at between 18,000 and 19,000 feet. The mass itself has hitherto been visited by no European. Of the three ranges radiating from this centre, only two, as we have already seen, viz. the Hissar and Alai, and these only as regards their southern slopes, are comprised in Karateghin. The former touches it on the east from its commencement as far as the sources of the Sorbokh. Throughout this extent its crest is apparently above the snow-line, which on the north side has an elevation of 12,000 feet, while some, if not all the passes, are above the limit of perpetual snow. The eastern part of the Hissar range was mapped during AbramoflTs expedition to the head- waters of the Zarafshan, in 1870.* Since then it has not been visited. M. Oshaniu could not see the chief range from the Surkhab side for intervening heights. At a few of the higher stations between Muju- harf and Garm snowy peaks were visible, but it was impossible to say for certain whether they belonged to the chief axis of the range or were situated on its offshoots. From the Karateghin side this range is crossed by five passes. The westernmost of these leads to the sources of the Yagnaub, and is only available for pedestrians. Three — the Pakshif, Vadif, and Piobrut — lead from the sources of the Sorbokh to the Upper Zarafshan, and lastly the Yarkitch conducts thither from' the right, westernmost, head tributary of the Obi-kabud. Only one of these cols, the Pakshif, has been insfrumentally measured, and found to be 12,000 feet. This and the Yarkitch are available for pack-animals, the remaining three can be crossed only by foot passengers. They are all difficult of access and only open in the summer months, though frequently used by the in- habitants of the Upper Zarafshan, who bring their bread supply from Karateghin by these routes, especially over the Pakshif Pas-s. The eastern part of the Alai range bordering on Karateghin is even less * See R.G.S. Journal, vol. xli. pp. 338-342— a short notice of this important expedi- tion. The detailed narratives by Mishenkof, Amiuof, Grebionkiii, &e., have never appeared in English. 224 NOTES ON THE RECENT GEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. known than Hissar. No European has ever set foot in it, for the mountains explored by Fedohenko at the sources of the Isfara apparently belong to the Turkistan and not to the Alai range, and are situated west of the mountain knot. There appear to be only two very difficult passes across it, the Tarak and Alaa88ed by that chain which lies along the left bank of the Surkhab, and was named by M. Oshanin in honour of the first Russian sovereign who took in hand the exploration of Central Asia, " Peter the Great." Unmasked by outlying mountains, this range rises as a lofty wall, stretching from the mouth of the Muk-su along the Avhole southern border of Karateghin. Its connection, however, with the mountains rising from the left bank of the Muk-su opposite Altin-mazar is not apparent. It begins, probably, at some peaks near Tupckek, a favourite summer pasturage of the nomads, duo south of the mouth of the Muk-su. From this point the range extends along the left bank of the Surkhab with a general direction E.N.E. and W.S.W. West of the meridian of Obi-garm it is pierced by the Surkhab, then crossing to the right bank of this river it forms the southern watershed of the affluents of the Obi-gami and niak rivers, and stretches away to Faizabad. The Surkhab bursts through it with a very narrow gorge, apparently m'^t difficult of access, '■i NOTilS ON THE RKC'ENT QEOORAl'IIY OF CENTKAL ASIA. 337 fur at its entrance the mountains appear to meet over the river. But the usual approach to Karateghin is by the Faizabad and Obi-ganu road, not by the Surkhab. Farther oast, Peter the Great range is again pierced by the Khullios, a tributary of the Surkhab. Its westerly part is bare of snow, but in the meridian of Qarra patches of it make their appearance, and farther east the range rises to an enormous height. Directly opposite the Karateghin hamlet of Nimichi-bolo and about seven miles south of it the triple-headed Bari-Kandal peak rears up to a height estimated at 18,000 feet, its central head throwing up two sharp pinnacles. Even from Garm, Sari-Kandal is the most conspicuous object in view, and from Nimichi-bolo its grandeur is remarkably impressive. Between this place and Garm, from a deep glen in Peter the Great range, a glimpse is obtained of a still higher group of peaks south of Sari- Kandal, but whether in the range itself or in a subsidiary chain lying on the left bank of the Khullias it is impossible to say. To the east of Sari-Kandal, Peter the Great range rises above the limit of perpetual snow. Here stands the isolated peak of Saganaki, 10 miles from Sari-Kandal and about the same distance due south of Kalai- Khait, whence it appears to have the same elevation as Sari-Kandal when viewed from Nimichi-bolo, but the distance being somewhat greater than in the case of the last-mentioned, it is probably very little of it at all below 20,000 feet. East of Saganaki the range is almost entirely masked by its outlying mountains and can only be seen from two or three deep glons. This part has apparently a lower altitude, snow only lying in patches, and it cannot, therefore, exceed from 14,000 to 15,000 feet. Beyond this depression and to the oast of it the elevation is again enormous at Tupchek, where a group of four peaks rise. They are distinctly visible from Zankn, but from Jailgan their appearance is very striking, for they stand forth prominently from this point of view, the nearest, easternmost, of them being only 15 miles off, and its height may therefore be taken at 25,000 feet, while the others cannot be less than 22,000.* The two easternmost only have a direction parallel with the axis of the range, those on the west are farther south and appear as if they belonged to some other chain. No. 1 appears to be the starting-point of Peter the Great range and of another chain, dividing the basin of the Khullias from that of the Wanj-ab ; this ridge M. Oshanin proposes to name " Darwaz." There can be no doubt that from peak No. 1, Peter the Great range extends in a westerly direction without a break beyond the borders of Kara- teghin. It may, of course, turn out that the ridge of mountains which margin the left bank of the Muk-su from its sources to peak No. 1 are also * In order to distinguish these four peaks it will be found convenient to number them 1, 2, 3, nud 4, biginning with the highest, easternmost, nud ending witli the westernmost. ri 328 NOTES ON THE DECENT OEOORAPHY OF OENTKAL ASIA. a continuation of the mmo groat rango. M. Ouhanin mw them only in two places, at the hoatl-watorg of the Muk-su and oppusito ita month. From the laat-mentioncd station he could aoo, but indistinctly owing to the clouds, great numbers of snowy crests in a south-easterly direction. At all events, in the present state of our knowledge and while there rouiaiuH some uncertainty as to the orography of this part, it will bv more prudent to limit Peter the Groat range, and nut extend it farther 'cast, leaving to future explorers the task of deciding any doubtful points. East of the KhuUias, Peter the Qieat range is crossed by three passes open only in summer, for in winter the only moans of communi- cation between Karateghin and the valley of the KhuUias is along the Itank of this river. The westernmost is the easiest of these ools and mny be crossed by pack animals. The Kamchirak, for that is the correct name of the pass, is erroneously named on all ma]i" Shah Keud, or Shah Kendu, the word Shakandaohi, properly speaking, only applying to the descent. Kamchirak faces the Kanitoghin hauc'. Tau-mnrmn is the mountain's nose. NOTES ON THK RECENT OEOORAI'MY OK CENTUAL ASIA. 281 and t-\iiy, and therefore Jh rnroly oiiltiviited, for thu largu <|imntity of I>«bbl<«m provontH tho plough from pcnutruting. Tlieir horiiontul planu, mi>* iaily of tho uppermottt, is Hliglitly iiiclinod, not moro thun 2'^ or 8°, towurds the rivor ; their aidon fall abmptly at an anglo of 45°. Between tho lowest terraco and thu rivor there in a level expanso, alHo covered with alluvial doposita. In those widcnings of the valley the Surkhab invariably flowa by several arms, and the soil is n loose, easily eroded alluvium ; this oiroumstance, combined with the rapidity of the current, acoounts for the continual changes taking place in the direction, depth, as well as the number of channels into which the river divides. Tho trough-like valley widoningH, with their raised beaches, occur most frequently between the mouths of the Obi-zanku and Obi-garm duria, where the villages of Pillon, Garm, Fomboi, and Ali-galiabon are situate. Aa already stated, tho Surkhab in Kanitcghin is unfordablo. The lasi: ford is on tho border, near Katta-Karamuk, in Bussian territory ; but evon here it is only after tho end of August, i. o. when tho Hiiuimer floods have subsided, that the river can be safely crossed. Houcv three brid^ies have been thrown across the Surkhab in Karateghin ; two above the mouth of the Muk-fv. at T)uvana and DurnVratchi, the tlmd below Garm, near the hamlet of Saripul. They i.re ail constructoi after one model in tho following fashion : rough piorit of alternate rows of timbers and stonoc are raised un either bank, so atJ gradually to incline over tho rivor, the higher the inoro they overhang the water and diminish tho Hpan ; timbers are then laid across to sup^ ort tho roadway, which is made of boughs, earth, and stones. These bridges are very unsafe, and shake even when crossed on foot ; to ride over them requires the steadiest of nerves and some experience. There arc no carts in Karateghin, and the bridges are therefore only wide enough to admit of single horsemen. Handrails are dispens(;d with in these primitive constructions. Bridges being so few in number, communications between tho several hamlets on either bank are with difficulty maintained, and in order to avoid long circuits it is customary to swim the river. In parts where tlie channel is subdivided, this may be done on horaeback, elsewhere recourse must be had to skins : these are tho entire skins of gofts, sheep, or cows filled with air, and sufficiently buoyant to support a man on the surface. Several swiiumors are in the habit of roping themselves together when about to cross, and tho most cx^ierienced takes the lead. These crossings are not devoid of danger, especially where the banks are precipitous and the current very rapid, and deaths by drowning occur every year in the Surkhab. Within the borders of Karateghin tho Surkhab receives several important tributaries, besides a largo number of minor feeders. The following join it on the right: Kichik-Karamuk-su, Obi-zanku, Obi- kabud, Sorbokh, Obi-dnshta-siab, Obi-muju-harf, and Obi-garm-daria. 232 NOTES OX THE RECENT GEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. These all riso in tho Earatoghin range, except the Obi-zankn, Obi- kabnd, and Sorbokh, which burst through it in narrow gorges, difficult of access. They are the only channels by which the melting snows on the Alai and Mi>ssar ranges reach the Surkhab ; they are therefore more copious than all the otliers, especially the Sorbokh. The Obi-zanku is known to the Kirghiz under the frequently re- curring name of Kok-su, and is formed of two rivers — the Lai-su, flowing from the left, and the Taradi-kul, which may be regarded as the parent stream, whereas the Lai-su is merely a tributary. Tho Tamdi-kul rises iu the Alai range at tho Tarak Pass. The Lai-su has its source apparently iu tho oflFshoots of the principal range near the pass of Tiulvoye-davan. Its water, judging from the name (Lai-su, i. o. dirty w^ater), must bo very thick, and it is highly probable that this river is fed by glaciers, which give it a muddy appearance, tho more so as the colour of the Obi-zanku is a greenish white, precisely similar to that of the combined Kaindi and Suak-sn, tho latter of which flows from glaciers. Towards its mouth the ( )bi-zanku divides into several channels in a wide, pebbly bed margined on two sides by well-defined terraces, and is fordable. M. Oshanin and his party forded it two miles above its mouth, and the Avater barely reached the horse's belly, but the current was rapid, although the river had fallen. At high water this must be a difficult and dangerous crossing. The Obi-kabud is somewhat greater than tho last-mentioned river. Its sources are in the Alai ami Hissar ranges. Its upper waters are incorrectly named on all existing maps Dahi-milia-adal,* a corrupted form of a hamlet whoso proper name is Dehi-mullah-badal, i. e. village of the IMuUah Badal (probably an early settler). The names of inha- bited places are, it is well known, often applied to rivers flowing near them. At the sources of tho Obi-kabud, as already stated, there are two passes : one, the Tarak, to the village of Sokh, in Ferghana ; the other, Yarkitch, to the Zarafshan. The roads to these cols apparently bifurcate * Some Centre! Asian nnmes become strangely distorted on mnps. Thus Yakobak frequently takes the plore of Yiikka-bngo (single garden), Kaflrnahan appears instead of Kafimihan (hidden infidel), Kanituhkuiu and Knratchkhum take the place of Karatchki-knm (robbers' sands), &o. These mistakes are unavoidable. Hnrts and Kirghiz pronounce so indistinctly, swallowing some of the syllables, that without a good interpreter (and these are scarce) even ofter the words have been repeated several times, one may fuil to catch the sounds. There is yet another canso for these mistakes. In many parts of the country now occupied by people of the Turk race, Persian names of places have been preserved ; tho people not understanding the meaning of the words, of course distort them. Analogous instances are everywhere to be met with iu Russia, where German names, e.g. Schllis- selburg, Oranienbaum, and Banenbcrg, have been vulgarised into Sohliushin, Ranbof, Ambur. Tu instance one more name iu Central Asia, the river and town Sang-girdak signifying "surrounded by stones," has been altered in several ways, and appears on the map in the corrupted form Sangridagh. uctly, arce) unds. now tho ogous NOTES ON THE RECENT GEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. 238 at the village of Dehi-muUah-badal, rockoiied to bo fotir tash or 20 miles from Kalai-Khait. Tho defile by which the Obi-kabud bursts through the Karateghin range is said to be very narrow, and hardlj' practicable. It has numerous cornices. Opposite Khait, and but two miles above its mouth, the Obi-kabud divides into several arms, and may be forded, though not without difficulty, owing to the depth and velocity of the current. Above Khait there used to be a bridge, but it was carried away during the unusually high floods in 1878. In its lower course the Obi-kabud flows across a longitudinal valley of the Karateghin range. The two sections of this valley formed in this way are watered by two tributaries of the Kabud meeting hero. The eastern portion is not above five miles long, and is occupied by the Obi-Khait, at whose mouth is a village of tho same name. At the head of the valley is a small lake Khanzi-Khait (Khait pond), having no visible outlet. Between the lake and the source of the Obi-Khait an eminence may be remarked from the foot of which this river flows, fed by the water of the lake which filters through a crack in tho rocks. The western section of the valley is much the greater, measuring 12 miles in length, and from two to three in width. It is watered by tho Obi-yasman, and is one of the most populous and fertile tracts in Kara- teghin ; west of tho Obi-yasman lies the Soz Pass, leading to the Sorbokh, whilst southwards a road over the Turpi Col debouches on the Surkhab. The Sorbokh takes the first place among the eight tributaries of the Surkhab. It bursts through the Karateghin range by the defile of Darai-Kamaran, a name applied on many maps to the whole river. Tho head-waters of the Sorbokh apparently drain a wide tract of the southern slopes of the Hissar range. From them, as already m mtioned, three passes cross to the upper Zarafshan — the Piobrut, Vadif, and Pakshif. Near its mouth the river flows in a wide transverse valley with well- defined torraciform beaches ; at tho hamlet of Podjeh it is bridged, and at its mouth the river divides into several arms, and is fordablo at low water, but even so late as 20th August (1st September), when M. Oshanin saw it, the water was too high to be safe. Of the left affluents of the Surkhab we sliall only dwell on the Mnk-su and KhuUias. None of the others deserve to be called rivers ; they are merely streamlets, for the crest of Peter the Great range closely aligns the Surkhab. Let us begin with the Muk-su, and describe the orography of its upper basin, though it docs not belong to Karateghin, but forms part of Ferghana. This locality was visited previously to M. Oshanin's expedition by L. F. Kostenko in 1876 and J. F. Mushketof in 1877. But neither of them went beyond Altin-mazar, and therefore much additional information has been gained by M. Oshanin. Altin-mazar lies at tho southern foot of the Ters-agar Pass, situated in a much lower part of the Trans-Alai range, 9842 feet in height. The ascent of the pass is very gradual from the side of Alai ; it con> t 231 NOTES ON THE RECENT GEOGRArHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. tinues the whole way by the Tuz-su, a left affluent of the Surkhab. The transverse defile occupied by the course of the Tuz-su bears the name of Tuz-dara and Altin-dara.* It is 50 miles long, and has a fall in that distance of 1800 feet, so that the road is very good, and easily travelled even with camels. The descent from the Ters-agar Pass, on the other hand, is very short and steep, but perfectly safe. The height of Altin-mazar has been estimated at the same as, or a little over, that of Daraut-kurgan. Altin-mazar is tlio name of the tomb of a Mussulman saint, Hodja Fazilmanda, a descendant of the Ehalif Omar. It is situate at Euta-Eushta, which comprises a tugai or flat overgrown with trees and bushes, and a few fields with a nearly wholly abandoned Kirghiz wintering place. Three rivers unite at Altin-mazar, viz. the Suak-su, Eaindi, and Sel-BU, to form the Muk-su, which flows by several channels in a pebbly valley about li mile wide. On the south it is confined by a lofty ridge which rises directly from the valley, without any intermediate heights, considerably above the snow-line. Directly opposite Altin-mazar three peaks rise from this range, viz. Shilbeli, Sandal, and Muz-jilga. The first and easternmost fills the angle formed by the union of the valleys of the Sel-su and Muk-su ; Muz-jilga is the westernmost of the three. Beyond, the range is invisible either from Altin-mazar or Ters-agar Pass, being hidden by the summits of the Trans-Alai Mountains. Sandal is the highest of the throe peaks (23,950 feet) though the others are not much below it. The sno^-lino appears to be below the half of their height. However this may be, these are among the highest mountains of Central Asia. The view of them from Altin-mazar and Ters-agar Pass is superb. Nothing intervenes between the observer and their summits, and owing to their being so near they appear to shoot up to the sky. M. Oshanin had seen nothing in the Alps, the Caucasus, or Central Asia to equal the wonderful effect produced by their rugged grandeur. Two small glaciers descend from the slopes of Sandal, each of them probably less than a mile long and 230 yards wide at their lower ends. They terminate before reaching the valley, and appear to be either wholly inaccessible or at all events very difficiilt to approach. Their lateral and terminal moraines are distinctly visible, medial they have none, for they receive no tributaries. These glaciers were described by Eostenko, and were inserted on maps, but a third also represented as descending from the mountains near the mouth of the Eaindi does not apparently exist. Of the three rivers forming the Muk-su, the Sel-su flowing north- west contributes the greatest volume of water. Its valley is similar to that of the Muk-su, the bed being composed of pebbles and sand and the river divided into several channels. On the left it is hemmed-in by * Altinin-dara according to Fedchenko. Tuz-arasi in Mushketofs narrative. to or by NOTES ON THE KECENT GEOGnAPHV OF CENTItAL ASIA. 235 the slopes of Mount Shilbeli, and on the right by lower hills. Both descend very steeply, and in places almost precipitously, to the valley, which is 1^ mile wide. This is its character for a distance of 1 2 miles, when it is closed by a glacier from beneath which the Sel-su issues at several places. The glacier which has given its name to the river (Sel in Kara-Kirghiz dialect signifies glacier) is formed of two principal amis uniting at its end. The first and largest of the two occupies the upper extension of the Sel-su valley, and therefore lies north and south. It is closed on the east and west by lofty snowy peaks seen from below to extend for 10 miles. After that they open out and their continuations are invisible ; ou the south no peak appears to bound the head uf the glacier. There is therefore an absence of data for an estimate of its length, but in any case it cannot be less than 13 miles long. Hence it is a glacier of the first rank. M. Oshauin's expedition named it " Fedohenko " in honour of the traveller. At the lower end Fedchenko glacier is joined by another which occupies the Taminas defile. This latter is much shorter and has a general east and west direction. The whole width of the lower end of the glacier is 1| mile. The terminal moraine is only visible in places, in other parts a vertical ice-wall 210 feet high is presented to view, and scattered about its foot are huge lumps of ice. The end of the glacier is irregular, bulging outwards. It partly enters the valley of the Baland-Kiyik, opening on the east into the valley of the Sel-su. The glacier nearly closes the month of the Baland-Kiyik valley, leaving only a narrow entrance 280 feet wide. According to old inhabitants of Altin- mazar, there are years when the glacier entirely closes the exit of the Baland-Kiyik valley, obliging the river to form a lake above the icy barrier. The water then continues to rise till it bursts through the ice, producing in this way serious floods in the valleys of the Sel and Muk-su. An inundation of this kind is recorded to have taken place about ten years ago, when many of the fertile tracts were entirely swept away. At present the glacier is again apparently advancing. M. Oshanin and his party were there on the l2/24th September when the passage of the Baland-Kiyik was 420 feet wide, and the ice formed an arch at this spot. Three days later they found the arch broken, and the passage narrowed by blocks of ice to 280 feet. That part of the glacier towards the valley of Baland-Kiyik presents a terminal moraine, and there the glacier ^y be ascended, but where it finishes with precipitous sides it cannot be approached without danger owing to constantly falling stones. Unprovided with either guides or regular mountaineering outfit M. Oshanin did not venture to go further, the more so as he had not the necessary experience for such work, but he climbed on to the glacier and saw its medial moraine. A rising wind and the threatening aspect of the sky also conduced to turn M. Oshanin back after passing two hours on the glacier. The slopes of the surrounding mountains at VOL. I. 8 i: J: 236 XOTES ON THE RFICKNT GEOGRAPHY OK CENTRAL ASIA. its end descend very steeply, and it is quite impossible to climb them. M. Oshanin could therefore obtain no distant view of the surface of the glacier or count its medial moraines. At Altin-mazar, however, he met an old sportsman who in his youth had frequently visited the glacier on hunting excursions after ibex, and according to his report the glacier is 20 miles long. From it there is a paus to Darwaz, known as Eashal- ayak, or the long-legged. It debouches in the valley of the Vandj ; only the most experienced mountaineers venture this way, and for several summers not a soul has traversed it. The glacier being within the Russian frontier, and easily reached from Alai, it is to be hoped that some one will undertake its exploration at no distant future. It should be added that the lower end of the glacier is about 9000 feet. The Baland-Eiyik which, as already stated, joins the Sel-su on the right, has no glacier at its source and its water is therefore trans- parent and green. It flows in a valley extending from east to west. Three passes lead from its head-waters ; the Eokui-bel debouching on Kara-kul, the Eaindi on the river of that name, and the Takhta-korum on Poliz, and thence to the Murghab, i. e. into Shighnan (Shugnan). M. Oshanin followed the last mentioned, but after proceeding 10 miles along the Baland-Eiyik was obliged to turn back for the path proved quite impracticable for laden horses. The Eirghiz usually avoid this mauvata pa8 by first ascending the Eaindi from Altin-mazar, and then crossing the pass of this name into the valley of the Baland-Eiyik where it presents no special di£Sculties. But this route was not available foi- M. Oshanin as the Eaindi col, at all times covered with perpetual snow, was unusually blocked owing to the heavy snowfall of the preceding exceptionally severe winter. While they were there a Eirghiz arrived who related how he got his horse across by placing felt under its feet and thus kept it above the snow. With their large number of pack animals however M. Oshanin and his party could not attempt such a mode of proceeding. His personal survey therefore of the head-waters of the Muk-sn was limited to the course of the Sel-su and the lower part of the Baland-Eiyik valley. Of the other two rivers which form the Mnk-BU he only saw the mouths. Both the Suak-su and Eaindi flov- through defiles from east to west, at their sources rise lofty mountains covered with perpetual snow which are visible from Ters-agar. l"he Suak-su issues from a glacier ; this was evident from the colour of its water and was confirmed by hearsay reports. The river is auriferous, and the Eirghiz have for a long time obtained gold alluvium, but in small quantities. It flows in a very naiTow deflle,* while the road up the Eaindi is reported to be without any great difiicnlties. As above stated, the confluence of these three rivers, the Suak-su, Eaindi, and Sel-su, form the Muk-su. This river from Altin-mazar to * M. Oshanin heard of a road from the sources of the Suak-su, leading ncross tlie Trans-Alai range to Aral-kungoh at the northern end of Tuz-dara defile. NOTES ON THE RECENT GEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. 237 its estuary is only known from report. Centres of population, i.e. wintering places of Kirghiz, are only met with at its mouth, not far from which is a bridge at Liaksh, a wintering resort. The greater part of the Mnk-su is said to be very narrow, the road is carried along cornices, and is impracticable for laden horses. Even pedestrians cannot pass it in winter, on account of the snow which fills the defile. According to the Kara-Kirghiz, at one day's march from Altin-mazar there is a waterfall on the Muk-su, six spears' lengths, or from 35 to 40 feet high. Other Kirghiz denied its existence. The estuary of the Muk-su is near Dumbratchi. Here the river flows in several channels, with a rapid stream and with dirty brown water. Another loft affluent of the Surkhab is tho Khullias, which in its upper course from its source to Tabi-dara bears tho name of Yakhia. The expedition only saw the mouth of this river. Its valley id separated from that of the Surkhab by Peter the Great range, and from that of the Yandj-ab by still loftier mountains. As already stated, the Khullias near its mouth bursts through Peter the Great range, and only that part of its course below the gorge belongs to Karateghin. Its valley is wholly .comprised in Darwaz, and therefore will be considered later on in the description of the last-named country. Karateghin is inhabited by two races, the western part by Tadjiks, the eastern by Kara-Kirghiz, only in its westernmost comer, on the head-waters of the Obi-garm-daria, are the summer pasturages of the Uzbek tribe of Kalluk, who in winter remove to Hissar. The Tadjik territory appears to be gradually extending upwards and infringing upon the Kirghiz camping grounds on the east. Forty years ago the whole Surkhab valley above the Obi-kabud was said to have belonged to Kara-Kirghiz. At the present time the tract between the mouths of the Obi-kabud and Obi-zanku is occupied by Tadjiks, and it is only above the last-named river that encampments of Kara-Kirghiz are continuous. The Tadjiks, as all over Central Asia, lead a sedentary' life. Their villages are numerous, but not large. Many of the hamlets number no more than five houses ; Garm, the capital of Karateghin, has only 300 houses. Of towns proper there are none, not even a trading centre or a bazaar. Forts are constructed at Garm, Muju-harf, Obi-garm, Nam- donak, and Kalai-liabi-ob. Most of the hamlets are on the central Surkhab, between the estuaries of the Sorbokh and Garm ; still denser is the population in the valley of tho Obi-yasman. The tributary valleys of the Surkhab are it appears, from hearsay information, thinly populated. Agriculture is the chief occupation of the Tadjiks. They produce enough com in Karateghin to supply the Upper Zarafshan and Darwaz. The fields are of two kinds : those which depend on the rainfall for their water supply, and those artificially irrigated. The latter are compara- s 2 388 NOTES ON THE RECENT GEOCiRAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. tively inaignificant, because they require level surfaces on which to admit the water. The soil of the shore beaches, as already remarked, does not usually admit of culture, owing to its nature and the immense quantity of pebbles, which prevent the plough from penetrating. Irri- gated land is therefore only seen in small plots, with the exception of the valley of the Obi-yasman, which is irrigated throughout. On the flooded lands are sown common millet {Panicum miliaceum), Italian millet {Setaria italica), lucerne, flax, tobacco, melons, water-melons, vegetables, such OS carrots, onions, beetroot, turnips, and cabbage, in small quanti- ties, besides maize and cotton occasionally. Cotton is very little culti- vated, and M. Oshanin only saw two small patches of it near Qarm. It is liable to perish, owing to early frosts, without yielding any return. Near the hamlets all the hill-sides which have any soil at all, and are not too steep, are cultivated. These depend on the rainfall for their supply of moisture. Some of them are at a great height above the valley, and often on such steep gradients as to be approached only with diflBculty. Nevertheless the Karatcghinians contrive to till them with a plough yoked to a pair of bullocks. They bring their corn home in sledges, a practice common in other mountainous districts of Turkistan, and in the Caucasus, Suanotia being an instance in point. The sledges are short, light, and furnished with a pole, to which they fasten a pair of bullocks in the usual way. The non-irrigated land is for the most part sown with wheat and afterwards with barley. The seed-time is always in spring, never in autumn. The hamlets are surrounded with gardens, which are of great use to the inhabitants. The most common of the fruit-trees is the mulberry of both kinds, white and black ; the fruit dried either in the sun or in ovens is an article of food, and is known as tut talkan. It keeps well, and forms an agreeable relish in winter when eaten with bread. Besides mulberiy, peaches, apricots, grapes, plums, cherries, apples, pears, quinces, and walnuts are cultivated. Only two kinds of fruit-trees grown in Turkistan are not raised in the Karateghin valleys, viz, figs and pomegranates. All the above-mentioned fruit-trees are cultivated at Kalai-khait, and apricots thrive ns high as Zanku. The wild apple is met with at Atchik-alma, not far below Kichik-Karamuk. Besides the cultivated sorts, the people of Karateghin also make use of wild fruits. These are plentiful, especially in Lower Karateghin, below the mouth of the Sorbokh, a kind of plum, yellow and red, about the size of a cheny, being particularly frequent. The Turki name for this is tag- alincha, or " mountain cherry." The other wild fruits are nut, apple, haws, barberry, and pistachio (very rare). Cattle breeding is with the Tadjiks of secondary importance; and what strikes one as strange is the almost total absence of asses, so common among Tadjiks in other parts of Turkistan, in the valley of the Zarafshan for instance, in the district of Khodjend, and in Ferghana. NOTES ON THE RECENT GEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. 239 Oxen are exclusively used for field work. They posaoss a very peculiar kind of goat, small with very long ooarse hair nearly reaching to the ground. They spin the wool of their goats and sheep, and make cloth or stockings of it ; their cloth gaiters are a characteristic feature of their costume, and that of the inhabitants of the upper Zarafshan Valley. Though supplying their wants for the most part with home produce, the Earatoghinians are not wholly independent of imports. These are cotton and iron. Gotten and the materials into which it is made are brought by itinerant merchants from Ferghana; iron comes from Parwaz. The trade is exclusively one of barter, for money is very scarce, though Bokharian and Eokandian tengas of the value of 20 copecks * each are current. The chief exports are com and furs (marten and fox). Corn is sold by measure. The unit is the bo/man, equal to 15 bowls or 45 tiuhetikasli filled to the rim. The inconvenience of this standard, Tvhich must vary in every case according to the size of the seller's head, must >be very great, notwithstanding which it is in universal use in Earateghin. In the summer of 1878 a batman of wheat was worth 10 tengas, i. e. 2 roubles (48.), at Garm ; but in the winter of 1877-8 it rose to double that price. Very many Tadjiks of Earateghin hire themselves out for service mostly as saraimanni, i. e. labourers about a caravanserai, in which capacity they are met with in all the larger towns of Russian Turkistan and Bokhara. This is in fact their exclusive monopoly, a class of occupation for which their tried honesty and great strength well fits them. They have almost driven all rivals out of this branch of industry. Their attachment to their country is another very marked feature of the Earateghinian character; a man who has put by a little money invariably returns home, laying out the wages he has earned in the purchase of cotton yarn which has always a ready sale in Earateghin. Eastern Earateghin is inhabited by Eara-Eirghiz of the Eara-tait Tupchak, and Hidirsha tribes. Their winter quarters aro in the valley of the Surkhab and on the lower Obi-Zanku, Eichik-Earamuk-su, and Muk-su ; their summer pasturages as far as the snow-line on the southern skirts of the Alai and the northern slopes of Peter the Gi'cat ranges. Here they lead their usual semi-noniadic life engaged in cattle breeding but also growing a good deal of corn round their winter habitations. Some of them sow as much as twenty batiuans and oMain on an average a yield of sixfold. Their system is one of sharing half and half. The rich man supplies his poor neighbour with seed and lends him oxen to plough his land and get in his harvest. He never remains near the cultivated fields for his wealth consists chiefly in cattle, and this obliges * At the preseut exchange (1883) a copeck is worth about a furthing of our money. 20 copecks would be tlicreforo &d, •f Tlie skull-caps generally worn by all Itlalioinmedaus in Central Asia from Bussia to China. L 240 NOTES ON THE RECENT GEOOltAPHY OK CENTRAL ASIA. him to fieek the higher belts. The grass near the winter quarters i» reserved for winter use ; to obtain it the beasts must sorapo away the- snow as they invariably do in all parts of the Kirghiz steppes. Hill-sides swept by the violent winds are best suited for this purpose. Little snow and much wind is the Kirghiz idea of a favourable winter. Neither man nor beast mind the severity of the frost provided the snow is not too thick and the winds strong enough to blow it away ; otherwise the animals perish from starvation. One such disastrous season happened in 1877-8, and was felt keenly by the nomads in Karateghin and the Alai. M. Oshanin heard many complaints of that inclement winter and convinced himself they were not exaggerated. It was the same all over Central Asia. Even on the lowlands snow remained a long while un- melted, and in Tashkend sledge-driving lasted a month, with the ther- mometer as low as — 22° B. (— 17° Fahr.) ; the mountains were of course thickly covered, and parts of the valleys to a depth of 14 feet. Then followed severe frosts without wind, instead of the usual violent gales- common on the highlands. The cattle sought in vain for food and began to lose strength, their owners tried to stave off the evil time by feeding them on grain reserved for their own use, hay they never store for winter ; at last the com was all gone and starvation stared them in the face. The few who had money bought flour and millet in the- Tadjik settlements. But the horses had by this time mostly succumbed ; the survivors were so weak from want of food as to be hardly able to move, and the Kirghiz whose habit was to ride no matter how short the journey he had to make, was obliged to set out on foot and walk forty or fifty miles to fetch a sack of flour, weighing about a cwt., and return with it on his back. In the Tadjik settlements cum was dear, the harvest of the preceding year having been a failure, and the reserves had been eaten by the cattle. Prices rose enormously and 20 copecks (5d.) were paid for a tiubeteka of millet. The Kirghiz herds, particularly the sheep, died off in large numbers. Individuals who had owned 2000 head were left with fifty in spring, and horses became so scarce that when M. Oshanin visited the country the year after this terrible season a bowl of kumtga (mare's milk) was considered a rarity. The camels fared better, and here let us remark that the Karateghin and Alai Kara-Kirghiz are the only people who keep, besides the two-humped camel {Cam. lactrianua) the ioghmak, a cross between the Bactrian species and the one-humped camel. The one-humped camel {Camelu» dromedariua) is never bred in this highland country. Neither are yaks {Poephngtu grunniens) domesticated in Karateghin, though met with on the Alai above Katta-Karamuk, and M. Oshanin saw a herd of these animals at Mamai, five miles to the east of Dai'aut. In conclusiou, a few remarks on the roads. Those in Karateghin, as in all other mountainous districts, are mere tracks, wide enough for pack animals to pass in single file. The chief road lies along the ripht bank of NOTES OX THE RECENT GEOGRAPHV OF CENTRAL ASIA. 241 the Siirkhab, and is open throughout the year, though communications lire occasionally interrupted for days together by violent storms. Somo of the villages lying in lateral defiles are inaccessible in winter, and their inhabitants remain out off from the rest of the world. The route taken by Oshanin is not particularly di£Scult, though steop ascents and descents are frequent, and among its other incidents are hanging cor- nices, bridges with a lively vibratory movement, namo(l prinoo wm takuu priHonur in 1877, and Karatogliin finally unite«l witli Itokhara, Suradj-uddin pro- claimed luH indui>ondoni«, and diticontinnod hiH oiiHtomary tariuk or proBonta. 'J'homu)H)n tho Bokharian troops, conimandod by Jtudai- nazar-datkha, tho now bok of Karatoghin, invaded Darwaz in Deoomlior 1877. The war was apparently not attondod by much Iubb of lifo, bnt it lasted till tho spring of 1878, tho doop snows and sovoro frosts of that Hoason having caused its duration. Only ono serious engagement was ro])ortod to havo taken place near Kala-Khumb, where tho defenders lost 200 of their men, while tlio Bokharians, according to their own account, had only three men killed. At all events Darwaz was com- pletely dcfeater and lower ooorse of this river. As the Surkhab, however, is also known as the Vaksli, it would lie convrnient and prolaMy porr.'ct fo retain the nnnio " Khnllins." NOTKS OX THK KECENT QEOailAI'IIY OK CKNTRAL ASIA. Ii4;i Hiiitlcuti by lofty prooi|iitoiiH oliffH with n torri'iit riiHliin^c ulon^ ut their fiK)t. Hero thoro in no hAgo or "cornifo" to h'im) a f«x)tiii^, ruuourHo muHt 1h) lifiil to u lii'ottk-iu'ck arriiiigomont, tltoiigh the roailH aro not quito HI) bad aH thuy nru HomotiniOH rcprimontt!)!. It whh told to M. OHltiinin that tnivuUorH in Darwitz wrru Hwun^ alon^ in l)aHkotH HUHpondcd from the fauu of the cliff, tho niannta- of progrcHii being thuN. Tli» travullcr ;;ot into tho firHt iNtiikot, Bwiing hiiuHolf till ho caught hold of tho Hocond, ontorod it, and oontinnud tho niancouvro till ho had roauhod tho laMt iMUikot. TluH Hccmud on tho face of it iuipoHHiblo, for how could bhHkotH 1)0 hung from tho cliff ho far apart aH to bo beyond arm's length ? Tho explanation, however, wan Him|)le, and throw an entirely different light on thoHe marvoUouH contrivaneuH. The}' wero merely a variety of tho ho- callod " balconies " to wliieh alliiHion han already lx!on made. InHtead of ]mng oonHtructed in tho ordinary manner, tho horizontal timlierH let into the rock (uHually light) wore connected by trcHtle-work, and their outer cndH faHtonod with ropcH to projecting rockH and trees. Some of these balconies aro long, and oscillate under the feet of the passer-by. Tliis, thon, is tho explanation of tho story of swinging baskets. Some of them aro boarded over, but in any cast) tlioy will only bear the weight of a man, and owing to their being seldom repaired, accidontn to travellers aro not unfroquent. Darwaz has no towns, not oven a l)azaar or market-place, but merely a few forts, tho chief of which aro KalaKhumb, Kala-Vaudj, Childara, and Tabi-dara. Kala-Khumb stands on tho right bank of tho Pandj, and was always considered the capital of Darwaz and tho seat of its Shah. Now, since tho union of Darwaz with Bokhara, it has become tho administrative <;ontre and the residonco of tho bok. Its citadel has tho reputati(m of great strength, and is larger and better than Gann. It stands at the confiuenco of tho Pandj and Khumbou, where the former of these rivers flows in a single channel, and may bo crossed in autumn and winter in boats. Kala-Khumb means " fortress of the i)itcher," a name said to bo derived from a rock having the form of a pitcher near tho source of tho Khumbou. This rock, after which the river isalsi „ „ Tabidaw 10 „ „ Hngri-daslit 10^ „ „ Unbu hnnilet lU „ „ Kala-Khumb 16 „ 78 miles. I I ! the ding wav These distances are of course merely approximate. The unit every- where in Central Asia is tho tash, a quantity varying in tho different loculities, but generally considered to bo equal to 12,000 paces, eight Ycrsts, or rather over five miles. No attempt has been mado to calculate distances in Darwaz with anything approaching to accuracy, for here, as in the more civilised parts of Central Asia, tho length of road is roughly estimated by the time it takes to travel it. It is obvious, therefore, a wide margin should bo allowed for possible errors. A few words in conclusion on tho valley of the KhuUias above Tabi- dara, whore this river is known as the Vakhia-balk. Tho valley con- tinues the same &s before, i.e. is well peopled and cultivated. Three tash or 16 miles beyond Tabi-dara is Fort Ishtiun on the Yakhia. Hence there is a direct ro: 1 into Karateghin by Kalai-liabi-ob and Kalai-khait, crossing the Liuli-harvi Pass. From Ishtiun to Kalai-khait is reckoned to bo half a day's march. There aro settlements in the Khullius (Vakhia) valley for some distance above Ishtiun, and it is only in quite the highest parts, whence Karateghin may be reached by the Gardani-Kaftar Pass, that encampments of Kara-Kirghiz are met with. This long KhuUias 216 NOTES ON THE RECENT aEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. valley, then, is bounded on the north by Peter the Great range, while on the south rises a still higher chain, 'which M. Oshanin has named the Darwaz range. 4. Thk Zakafshan Glacier. M. Mushketof'a Exploration.* M. Musuketof's narrative of hib ascent of theZarafshan glacier ap- peared in the Igvestiya, 1881, No. 2, but has not been translated-t The month of August (1880) was chosen because the rivers are then at their lowest, and the snow line at its maximum height. Fine weather may then be generally depended upon, an important consideration in such an enterprise, which necessitates walking for ten days over ice and snow, the estimated distance being 33 miles. Meteorological observations were undertaken by M. Ivanof, and a topographer of the name of Petrof kept the route survey and took sketches of the scenery. The party were further provided with a dragoman or interpreter by General Ivanof, commanding the Zarafshan district, and an escort of seventeen Cossacks, with two native guides or jigits. By August the necessary instruments and implements were ready, and on the 6th the expedition started — a caravan of forty horses — from Ura-tiube. They first went south, crossing the Turkistan range by the Auchi Pass, the summit of which they found to be 11,800 feet above sea-level. From thi' point they could see the Hissar range, which even at that distance appeared much higher than the one they wei'e on, and was ■covered by greater masses of snow and ice. The Upper Zarafshan or Matcha valley appeared as a chasm or rift between the ranges, and seemed incapable of sheltering a whole tribe of people. Oburdan was reached at 9 p.m. the following night, the eifect of moonlight on the weird outlines of the mountains being very remarkable. The Upper Zarafshan is one of those characteristic longitudinal valleys, the sides of which are composed of uniform clays and schists, sandstone and horu- blende, the bed of the river being filled with alluvium of sand, loess, and conglomerate. As far as the village of Postigau chalk is met with. Wherever the schistose strata are synclinal, the valley is somewhat wider and the sedimentary deposits more marked. Jt is in these spots that the natives have erected their miserable dwelling-places, harmonising in their wretchedness with the stern aspect of the mountains. It took five days to travel about 100 miles from Oburdan to the glacier, such are the difficulties of the path which often overhangs the frothy waters of tlie Matcha. The valley of the Zarafshan, says M. Mnshketof, with those of its affluents, especially the Anzob and Yagnaub, has for a long while served * Thid section of Mr. Morgan's Memoir was read as a paper at the Evening Meeting, Miirch 12tli, 1883. t A brief notice of it appears in the ' Proceedings,' vol. ii. p. 70i5. NOTES ON THE RECENT OEOORAPHV OK CENTRAL ASIA. 247 as a place of refuge for all the discontented spirits in the neighboiiring khanats. It was the resort of such characters who laid the foundations of those independent communities which are now included in the high- land districts. But isolated as were these mountain communes, the Mrild and barren nature of the country could not satisfy their daily wants, and this as well as perhaps other causes compelled them to hold intercourse with the lowlanders, and brought them into connection with the blood- stained annals of Bokharian history. They often suffered from the tyranny of some Khan, and occasionally threw off the hateful yoke. Their own form of government, however, was not distinguished for its humanity', and the sanguinary administration of their kazis is to this day remembered with horror by the inhabitants. It was only with the advent of the Bussians that they knew a more tranquil existence. In fact, the history of the highland ttumens is anything but attractive, although one cannot help admiring the staunchness displayed by the people in preserving to the present time thoir old customs and habits. The inhabitants of the Upper Zarafshan are typical Tadjiks known under the general name of Oalelia. They have led so secluded a life that to this day they speak their old language, and are so proud of it as to consider it unnecessary to associate with the Uzbegs, and have held aloof from their kinsmen for ten centuries, a phenomenon only to be explained by the influence of mountains in preserving the original character of their inhabitants. Like the neighbouring Uzbegs, too, the Tadjiks have occupied every available plot of ground, turned every slope of the valley to account, only to keep starvation from their doors, and wrest with extraordinary labour a bare sufficiency from ungenerous nature. A comparison of the settlements of the lowlanders with those of the highland districts brings forward a very striking feature. All the towne and villages of the neighbouring plains of Turkistan are built of loess or clay, and stand on clay. Throughout the East, from China to Turkistan, this greyish-yellow, sandy, siliceous clay takes a prominent part in the well-being of the natives ; this, the " black earth " of the East, is as important as water : no wonder the Sarts should say " where there are turpdk and an — clay and water — thero will you find the Sart." But ascending to the mountains the quantity of clay diminishes, con- glomerate takes its place, and with this change the settlements are less numerous and the people poorer. Absolute elevation has, of course, something to do with this, but clay is the principal factor. Oburdan, the first of the highland settlements, as far as climate is concerned, is admirably situated, but in culture is far inferior to the villages lower down the valley. There is still, however, enough clay here to make huts; there are gardens, and small plantations of poplars whose pyramidal shapes accord well with the pointed peaks of the mountains. Above Oburdan, ascending towards the glacier, vegetation and fields i: 248 XOTES ON THE RECENT GEOQRAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. become ecarccr, and at Paldorak there is no longer a single garden or plantation seen ; instead of clay the houses are all of stone ; low, four- cornered bnildings of boulders, put together often without cement, hovels rather than houses ; irregular groups of them without streets, merely connected by paths, constitute the village. These huts are often placed so near cliffs that it is only on close inspection they can be distinguished from the surrounding masses of rook. At Vadif and Dihauz vegetation is still scantier ; there are no treee, only a few stunted bushes of juniper and willow. The cultivated ground is only recognisable by the green blades of grass springing up between the stones, though carefully fenced round with the same boulders and irrigated. Yet these cultivated patches, often situated ou fearfully steep and lofty slopes, difficult of access, and affording a preqarious foothold when reached, are all the natives have to depend upon for subsistence. They contrive to till them, ploughing their land and harvesting their crops. Of domestic animals they have but few ; donkeys, sheep, and an occasional cow are all they possess ; there are no horses or camels ; indeed, there is nothing for them to eat. Even dogs are very sparce, and the ten required by Mushketofs^party to take with them up the glacier were with difficulty procured, thanks to the exertions of Akimbetief. Fowls too were hard to find, but this was exceptional, and was due to an indiscriminate slaughter of poultry that year, preached by a hadji from Mecca who said that fowls would be the ruin of the Tadjiks ; therefore they sought to secure themselves from danger, and not only the people of Matcha, but Kokandians, Syr Darians, and others. The natives of Matcha perform all their journeys on foot, and only use donkeys as beasts of burden. When Mushketof appeared with his caravan of forty horses, doubts were expressed as to the possibility of feeding so many, " and it must be confessed," says M. Mushketof, " we ate up half their year's supplies, our silver kokans being much preferred to their stores." All the natives are excellent pedestrians, as will be readily understood. At Oburdan Mushketof came across a remarkable one, Abdu Samat by name, who in a day and a quarter walked 66 miles, over difficult mountain paths with fearfully steep ascents and descents. But his exploits appeared nothing remarkable when compared with those of the inhabitants of Paldorak, Vadif, Sabak, and other villages. An old man, a native of Sabak, crossed the difficult Yanghi-Sabak Pass in one day. Akimbetief said that the Matcha people traversed the Bama glacier, a distance of 32 miles, in fifteen hours. Grave but good-natured faces, with shaven Mussulman heads and black, bushy beards, broad shoulders, high chests, and thin wiry legs, these are the characteristics of the Matchinians. " Their joyless lives, their stone villages, all remind us," says M. Mushketof, " of prehistoric man of the stone age ; just as sandy clay takes the first place in man's life in the lowlands, so here at NOTES ON THE IlEOENT GEOGRAPHY OP CENTRAL ASIA. 24'J the glacier do stones, boulders, and uhinglo. Of stone is his house, on stone his land, stone are his implements, handiwork, and defences. In the course of all my travels in Central Asia this was the first time I saw undressed stone put to so general, so rude, and in its way so original a use. The nearer the glacier, the more striking the peculiarities of this distant relative of the men of the stone age, living among almost bare rocks and within sight of the glacier." Thirty miles before reaching the glacier, the first ancient terminal moraine was met, closing the valley as with a wide rampart ; from it three rows of lateral moraines led upward, much disturbed by the action of water, nevertheless preserving their form. Enormous masses of granite, syenite gabbro, and other of the higher formations, had been carried hither long ago and deposited on slopes of schist. Many of the boulders are 30 to 40 feet in diameter and 500 tons weight. These unmistakable moraines afford positive proof that the Zarafshan glacier formerly descended much lower and was at least 30 miles longer than at present. The erratic blocks extend uninterruptedly to the glacier, where they are connected with recent terminal moraines. Misled by this connection and the partial destruction by water action of the ancient moraines near the glacier where the three large streams, the Yarkitch, Rama, and Zarafshan unite, the Iskander-kul Expedition fell into the grave error of denying the existence of these moraines, though any careful observer would find too many proofs to be overlooked of their continuance for upwards of 30 miles ; for instance, they are particularly conspicuous near Diaminor, Paldorak, at every step near Langlif, Vadif, Dihissar, Dihauz, and other places, so that M. Mushketof was at a loss to explain the extraordinary mistake of his predecessors. The old moraines, however, far away from the present end of the glacier, differ but little in elevation above the sea level from those in course of formation. Thus the lower end of the glacier is 9000 feet high, Paldorak is only 8000 feet, but the lx)ulder drift occurring on slopes 700 to 800 feet above the bed of the valley, the maximum difference in height is not much over 200 feet. About four miles before the glacier is reached, the valley widens a little, and at the same time is enlivened by small bushes and patches of grass. From this point the aspect of the glacier is peculiar. In the midst of lofty steep slopes with sharp schistose peaks lies a yellowish- grey mass, filling the whole valley, putting an end to the boisterous torrent of the Zarafshan, and looking very unlike ice. The impression produced by it is novel, but the nearer the glacier the more imposing its appearance. After crossing the enormous moraines of a lateral glacier descending from the Hissar range and called Navishur, the ends of several others are at once seen. Near them M. Mushketof halted to prepare for the ascent. On the left was the great Rama glacier, on the right the Yarkitch, and straight in front the w^ido, principal Zarafshan L 350 SUtSS OM TH£ KECENT GEOaRAPHV^ OF CENTRAL ASIA. glacier, the goal of their wanderings. It was a marvellous sight ; from every side, from deep gloomy ravines advanced the quiet masses of ice bearing enormous moraines and finally discharging streams almost black in coloui', bearing away boulders and lumps of clear ice. The stem, lifeless region of ice contrasted wonderfully with the bushes of willow and juniper in the midst of which they were encamped. The first thing noticed on approaching the principal glacier was the vast accumulation of the terminal moraine through which the Zarafshan has cut a channel. Its banks, ore-third of a mile higher, terminate in an ice arch underneath which the river rushes forth. The rapid melting combined with the erosive action of the stream causes frequent falls of the ai-ch with its superincumbent masses of stone, breaking from time to time the pervading silence. The ice sections exposed by these falls show admirably the irregular strati6cation of the ice, depending on the greater or less pressure to which it has been subjected. The Yarkitch glacier still joins the principal one, but the Kama glacier is disunited, both having receded, though the moraines clearly show that they have not long been separated. The Kama glacier is frequently traversed by natives on their way to Ferghana by the sources of the Isfara and the Shurofski glaciei*. All unnecessary Impedimenta were left behind on arriving at the foot of the glacier, and nothing but the indispensable taken, for from tliis point the caravan had to be sent back, and the ascent commenced on foot. All this would have been soon arranged had not the porters protested. It seemed to M. Mushketof surprising that such excellent, untiring pedestrians as these natives, should have on no account consented to accompany thera merely because the Zarafshan glacier was difScult to walk ovoi", that none of them had ever crossed it or knew the road. Their fears arose chiefly from some fable of stone pillars at the summit, an extensive snow-field where it was easy to lose one's way, and lastly, Kara-Kirghiz on the other side who would infallibly kill them. Presents however, in the shape of boots, halats, chekmerii, and fur coats soon produced the desired efiect, and a plentiful meal of mutton quite pacified them. But though they agreed to go with M. Mushketof, they refused to carry the things, i. e. do that for which they were engaged. Akimb^ticf wasted much eloquence and cunning before he could per- suade them into believing that the loads were mostly rusks, i. e. food for themselves, and that besides rusks and presents they would receive daily payment. From this place M. Mushketof despatched his first telegram to Tashkend, to the Ethnographical and Anthropological Society, and did this every^day he was on the glacier. At last, having come to an agreement with the porters, twenty of whom were taken, and selected five Cossacks and the two jigits, they started on the 13th August, a party of thirty men armed with long pikes and laden with packs to ascend the glacier. They proceeded by NOTES OX THE RECENT GEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. 261 its left side along a moraine which filled the space between the side of the glacier and the contiguous slope. This commencement was difficult enough, and the men halted very frequently, out of breath with the weight of their packs, tho heat, and the exertion of springing from stone to stone over enormous pointed blocks of granite. The first day M. Mushketof and his friends exchanged their European boots for native leather stockings without heels, which gave greater security and ease to the feet. After about a mile they could measure the thickness of the iv d, finding it to be 250 feet, or exactly the same as its thickness at the vault over the Zarafshan. The slopes still exhibited occasional green patches of grass, but the surface of the glacier was a complete waste of rocks. Not a trace of ice or snow could be seen ; the whole was covered with a drift proceeding from the medial moraine formed by the union with the Zarafshan of its tributary instreams. Heaps of stones were piled in rows of cones more or less regular in form. These com- bined with its dreary aspect, tho high temperature (25° Celsius), and the monotony of the scenery, produced an impression similar to that of tho Eizil-kum, the only difference being that instead of sand dunes there were hillocks of stone. It was difficult for the travellers to realise that they were marching over a glacier, particularly as the first day they ran short of water. Farther on it was obtained in hollows between distinct cones, but this was almost too impure to use. Besides the difficult ascent, the first day was full of troubles ; the goats and dogs had to be trained to work, the loads equally distributed, &o. All this occasioned some amusement, particularly when the Matchinians began boxing the goats' ears as a punishment. By sunset that evening the expedition had only advanced three miles, when finding a pool of cleaner water they halted for the night opposite the large lateral glacier of Farakhnau and its via-a-via Porak, uniting almost at right angles with the principal glacier. Though their position under the open sky on sharp-pointed shingle was not an enviable one, the more so as a cool mnd began to blow after sunset and the thermometer fell below zero, their supply of wood enabled them to make fire sufficient to warm them- selves and cook their food, which pacified the Matchinians, who had 1)egun demanding their day's pay, and frankly announced their intention of deserting at night. Of course their demands were refused, but a few kokans and a supper off goat's flesh restored good relations with them. The next day progress was more satisfactory, the moraines were less numerous and composed of different rocks. The granites were now nearer the right or the Turkistan side,* whilst on the left or Hissar sido schistose drift was brought down in large quantities by two new glaciers, Nazar-ailak. It was much easier walking over the schistose moraines where there were none of the large boulacrs and more of the pebbles, and progress was proportionately more rapid ihe second day, * That la to say to the right of the glacier, but to M. Mushkelofa left. VOL. I. X i 262 NOTES ON THE RECENT aEOOBAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. when six miles were accomplished, a result partly dne to the greater traotability of the dogs and goats, partly owing to fatigpe and partly hunger, particularly the goats, for the dogs had still bones to gnaw. And the second day the excellent qualities of the porters began to show themselves, especially their elder the Akhund, whose instinct in picking his way between fissures, deep, wide, and difficult to distinguish amidst the conical heaps of stones, was extraordinary. The second day also level patches of snow began to make their appearance, with small crevasses, especially on the loft side where a huge glacier (named by M. Mushketof " the Akhund," in honour of the chief porter), falling abruptly from the Hissar range, joins the main stream. This day's march was also marked by the occurrence of several lateral glaciers, viz. Nazar-ailak, first and second, the enormous Akhund, and others smaller. The Akhund descends at an angle of 30° from a vast amphitheatre lying almost on the crest of the Hissar range between lofty peaks. Its surface is seamed by a tangle of fissures. Lower, the fissures are more regular, and at its junction with the chief glacier itidiate from common centres ; lower still the surface is covered with dirt-bands. All the glaciers of the Hissar range are remarkable for their abrupt fall, their network of fissures, their comparative shortness, and their small slaty debris, whereas on the right side the glaciers descendiiig from the Turkistan range, such as Farakhnau, Tolstof, and Skatchkof (the two last were named after two Ural Cossacks who accompanied the expedition and were nearly lost) lie in deep ravines with steep sides, are long, gradual, and have granite moraines. These glaciers unite with those of the Tsfara, are of older formation and have worn beds for themselves, whilst the Hissar glaciers are more recent and have only begun to scoop out their channels. In fact the lateral glaciers on the right and left are altogether distinct except in one feature common to all, viz. their direction lying nearly at right angles with that of the principal glacier ; affording an explanation of the strong lateral pressure to which the great central mass is subjected, as evi- denced by the appearance of the ice, the direction of the crevasses, and the confusion of the medial moraines. The temperature during daytime rose to 30° Celsius, and even to 40° Cels. at noon, but at night fell to — 4°-6° Cels., and this with a strong wind made their encampment on the ice opposite Tolstof glacier, at a height of 11,000 feet, disagreeable. The third day was the most di£Bcult and dangerous for them. They now walked over pure snow in the region of neve, met with several more lateral glaciers, Biely, Miramin, and so forth, and approached the amphitheatre and the pass beyond it across the Alai range, the whole of which was covered with a continuation of the same nevo. Crevasses were frequent, but as there had been no fresh falls of snow they were open, and the treacherous ground could be seen and avoided ; it was not even necessary to loose the dogs. The wide crevasses were circum- have recent ateral in one angles strong as evi- , and aytime fell to ent on leable. They several cached whole ovasses y were it -was circum- NOTES ON THE RECENT GEOGRAPHV OF CENTRAL ASIA. 263 vented, the narrower jumped with the help of the long pikes, which were now only appreciated by the people who took them so unwillingly at first. There are on the surface of the ice an immense number of narrow but deep cylindrical holes. At the bottom of these there is always a small quantity of mud from the glacier mixed with water ; thcHc are little glacier tumblers. Millions of streamlets course over the surface, uniting frequently to form rivulets with oascadee. These form fissures quite distinct from the crevasses. Under nearly every stone were found heapa of small ugly insects, Deaoria glacialia,* apparently the only living denizens of the dead region of ice and snow. The remarkable stillness was broken but at rare intervals by avalanches, which resounded in the mountains with a mufBed roar. From the right lateral glacier of Miramin the slates and granites of the Turkistan range are replaced by medium grained gabbro, and of this are composed all the prominent peaks on the right side, reaching a height of 17,000 to 18,000 feet, as for instance Obrif (Precipice) Mountain. On the left side at Biely (White) glacier the granites stand forth, at first in small out- crops, but soon afterwards as the predominant rocks, composing all the peaks of the left side, and uniting at the pass with gabbro. They also rise in enormous sharply-pointed pinnacles, Igol (Needle) Mountain being conspicuous among them. As the rocks change so does the glacier in some degree. Opposite the opening of the Miramin glacier it widens, instead of one mile it measures two, across; its surface is comparatively smooth and even; there are no wide crevasses, only numerous and beautiful glacier tables, and its direction becomes from this point more north-east ; lastly, the results of its movement are more evident here than anywhere else. From Precipice Mountain to the pass itself, those characteristic roehe» noutonneea, glacial scorings, furrows, troughs, &o., are met with, all of them much better preserved on the granites and gabbro than on the friable schists. Beyond the strait formed by Precipice Mountain on the one side and Biely on the other, there are hardly any moraines, and the glacier becomes a wide field of neve. Owing to its apparently boundless expanse on the east and south, the vast amphitheatre, the inexhaustible store- * Alao noticed by Fedchenko on the Shurofdki glacier. He says, " In order to see tliu colour and structure of the ice, I raised a few stones scattered over its surface, and vas astonished at the moving black mass under each stone ; they proved to be small black glacier fleas, and I at once recognised them as such. I knew that these insects are met with in the glaciers of the Alps, and therefore was interested to find them in Central Asia, the species found by me having been subsequently ascertained to be identical with Desoria glacial is or scandens Ag. They were of every size underneath the stones, and it is therefore higlily improbable that they come to the glacier from the sur- rounding mountains. Doubtless they are brougitt into existence on the glacier and pass their whole lives here. I found them at a height of 12,100 feet,"— Futeshustviye v. ■i'm-liestan, torn, i., chart ii., p. 84. T 2 i \ : 'A I < \ i: 264 NOTES ON THE RECENT GEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. hoTiBe of ihe glacier, appears exceedingly grand ; the n6v6 covers both the Alai and Hissar ranges, and it is only on the north-west that it is fenced in by the vortical jagged ridges of gabbro which divide it from the glaciers of the Isfara. Looking upon the enormous supply of snow in this amphitheatre, the size of the Zarafshan is at once accounted for. This and the numerous tributary glaciers, the Forak, the Akhund, the Farakhnau, the Miramin, the Skatchkof, the Tolstof, and others, when considered in conjunction with the small width (one mile) of the chief trunk, explain the comparatively low level reached by the foot of the glacier and its descent far below the upper limit of vegetation. The numerous tributaries too produce frequent irregularities in the direction of the cracks, and are the immediate cause of the peculiar, desert-like aspect of the lower part of the main glacier, already com- mented upon. For upon closer inspection it appeared that each of the branches bore at least five rows of moraines in a channel not more than one-third of a mile across ; so that reckoning the minimum number of rows and the chief branches only, upwards of thirty lines of moraines would be discharged into the main trunk, and would there become so confused and intermingled as not only to cover the whole surface of the ice, but pile up entire hills of debris. M. Mushketof reached the nev6 at a height of about 18,000 feet ; the PMs was not far distant but the efforts necessary to reach it were great. The soft wet snow, and the exertion of leaping across crevasses at such a gi'eat elevation, retarded their progress and increased their difficulties. Their worst sufferings were occasioned by difficulty in breathing and pain in the knee-joints, producing a feeling which may bo compared to that of having iron weights attached to the legs. Though the ascent to the pass was not steeper than 20° it appeared more like 60°, such were the conditions, and though repeatedly measured it was impossible to realise that it was only 20°. But when all difficulties had been overcome and they stood on the summit a marvellous picture was displayed before their eyes— a scene as grand as it was beautiful and diversified. In the foreground lay the boundless snowfield, glistening under a clear sky and southern sun with blinding brilliancy. In the sea of snow here and there rose jagged ridges, grandly towering peaks and bold cli£b, drawn with remarkable sharpness of outline on the white back- ground. Far away on the west could be seen a labyrinth of mountains vrith fantastic crests, alternating with glittering belts of glaciers, and gradually dissolving in the distance, veiled in that transparent haze so characteristic of the whole of Central Asia.* The farthest * The phenomenon here alladed to ia oommon both in the Tian Slian and Himalayas. It ia produced by the wind blowing acroea the heated plains and raising great quantities of fine dust. Itu effect on the topa of glaciers, aaya General Strachey, at an elevation of 10,000 or 11,000 feet is to obscure the view, though not quite so bad as a London fog. Koatenko observed the same phenomenon in Kokand and on the Pamir. — See R.6.S. Proceedings, O.S., vol. xxL pp. 131, 139. NOTES ON THE RECENT QEOGnAPHf OF CENTRAL ASIA. 255 appeared saspended baseless in the air. From the huge upper snow- field the main Zarafshan glacier unrolled itself by degrees, harsh- featured and lifeless, yet majestic in its tranquillity. It was like a massive trunk spreading out its branches on either side ; on the right, long and deep in gloomy defiles; on the left, steep, dazzling, and uneven, like frozen waterfalls. But this does not exhaust the picture. On the east from the valley of the Zardalya rose a similar panorama of mountains even grander and more diversified; rays of glaciers descended abruptly into the dark abyss of the Zardalya defile, their surface scarred by huge ice-falls. Up to this time the ascent, though full of difficulties, had not been so dangerous as the descent into the Zardnlya afterwards proved. The glacier on the other side is no longer a wide hvel field, but falls in steep ledges. The first, about 150 feet high, is still within the nSv6 region and terminates in a snowy expanse; here the descent was by a rapid glissade. The second, nearly 300 feet, is of frozen snow and ice, and abuts on a fearful ice-fall, seamed with deep, gaping fissures ; to keep one's footing on a slippery incline of 40° or 50°, or to slide down it, were alike impossible without falling into a crevasse. Only one course was open — to fasten an anchor, attach ropes to it and holding by these to cut sti^ps. This was done, but the work was tedious; day ended, cold had begun, all were wearied, more crevasses lay before them. After several hours' exertion, however, thoy succeeded in descending and lowering the loads, but not without accidents, though happily not of a dangerous kind. Two Cossacks only, Skatcbkof and Tolstof, slipped on the incline, and would have infallibly perished had they not by some lucky chance stopped their headlong flight on the very brink of the crevasse, escaping with bruises and contusions. The third ledge was comparatively easy, but after it was passed there was another ice-fall and endless fissures to be crossed. Darkness had set in; to proceed farther or encamp was equally impossible ; it was difficult even to find a level space a few yards square; there was no tiine for consideration, and they decided to lie down where night had overtaken them, especially as the topographer had fallen ill and could go no further. As misfortune would have it, the worn out Aiatchinians raised a protest. Naturally they were dissatisfied with the prospect of passing a night on bare ice with 4° of frost. Throwing down their burdens they departed, and though next to certain that they could not go far in the darkness, nevertheless their behaviour made an extremely unpleasant impression, heightened as it was by hunger, cold, and weariness. Meanwhile, M. Mushketof and his party hacked their sledges to pieces, broke off the handles of their instruments, in fact used all the wood they could get, to make a fire and cook their food in order to refresh themselves a little. These preparations soon attracted the mutineers, and after a distribution of rations peace was restored. There was no fear of an open attack, for L ii )| NOTES ON THE RECENT QEOOBAPHT OF CENTRAL ASIA. then people are timid and Iiavo too much respect for Russian strength to venture upon suoh a course. The third day's march was nine miles, a groat distance under the ahovo-montioned ciroumstanoos. The fourth and last day, with great exertion, a descent from the glacier was o£feoted, its length on this side proving to be only four miles. The Zardalya glacier dcsoonda very abruptly in a ' :i granite ravine, and consists of three prinoi|Mtl branches which - .-eoently formed one, but at present a right branch has retreated so as to detach itself, and form a diutinct glacier ; the loft arm is still united with the centre. The left glacier ap{>arcntly crosses a granite spur and unites with the Isfara glaciers, the right and centre unite with the Zarafshan. Owing to the a1>8ence of a wide amphitheatre and the steepness of the narrow defile, i. e. purely topographical conditions, the Zardalya glacier does not roach n uly so low a level as does the Zarafshan, fur while the lower end of the Zardal is 11,000 feet, that of the Zarafshan is 9000 feet, or 2600 feet lower. A comparison between these two glaciers, in like manner as did that between the lateral branches on either side of the Zarafshan, shows very plainly the influence of topographical conditions on their size, a phenomenon by no means new, for it has already been observed in the Alps, but illustrated here in the clearest and most convincing way. All the glaciers indeed of the region described are in precisely similar conditions as regards temperature, aerial deposits, wind, &c. ; their difference whully consists in the form of their amphi- theatres and valleys, and yet this apparently immaterial diiferonce affects their relative size in such an extraordinary degree, as shown by the Zarafshan and Zardalya glaciers, as well as by those of Kama, Farakhnau, Tolstof and Yarkitch, Porak, Akhund, and others. The same topographical influences may also explain some oscillations in the height of the lower ends of the glaciers, which of course vary with the configuration of mountains and valleys, and these are in their turn affected by waste and denudation of rocks. . . . Thus the entire length of the Zarafshan-Zardalya glaciers is about 20 miles. From the lower end of the Zardalya extend vast accumula- tions of debris lying in three principal rows continuously to a height of 10,000 feet, i. e. nearly to the mouth of the Utren, and on the lower course of that river is a whole system of comparatively small glaciers also visibly receding. After four days on the glacier they were glad to meet with even the filthy encampments of the Kara-Kirghiz, who were not a little astonished and alarmed at their appearance from the Matcha Pass, not believing it possible for any one to cross from the Matcha side or Upper Zarafshan, particularly peaceful individuals, and convinced that none but robbers intent on plundering and securing rich booty would have attempted to descend this almost impracticable pass. Soon, however, their fears were allayed by the slaughter of three sheep, and the travellers forgot their fatigues. The 17th August, the day after NOTES ON THE RECENT GEOORAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA. 267 this iiuproviHod foast, M. Mushkotof Imdo adiou to tho kindhoartod Matchinians, who did not hoHitato to return tho way thoy had oome, preferring its diffioultioa to tho enouuuter with Kara-Kirghiz, whom they dread as merciluBs rubbers. M. Mushkotof had still a few versts farther to proceed on foot along the Zardalya vallo^ before meeting, near tho mouth of tho Tarak, tho saddle-horses sent for his party. With these they continued their journey. Tho deep \ alloy of tho Zardulya is at first composed of granitu and gneiss, lower down of schists and mountain limestones, and lower still, near tho confluence of the Zardalya with tho Sukli, of sandstones and schists of tho York scries. On the slopes of this deep valley several other glaciers could bo traced : tho Kalta-kain, Kashka-su, &c. All aro rapidly retreating, and their old moraines aro much lower than the modem. Tho lower end of the Kalta-kain glacier almost reaches the foot of tho valley ; its former activity was apparent in the huge moraino which blocks tho wholo width of tho valley like a dam. iloro the valley narrows, and tho river Zardalya, hitherto flowing a tranquil current, divided into many arms, collects into one mighty stream and bursts through tho moraine near the left side, forming tho picturesque and powerful waterfall of Kalta-kain. The mass of water as it dashes down from ledge to ledge is broken into the finest spray, and for about two miles presents the appearance of the curly fleece of an arkari or wild mountain sheep, a feature suggestive of the well-known Imatra fall in Finland. Tho fall, about 800 feet in a little o\ er three miles, is unusually fine, and may be reckoned almost unique in tho Tian Shan, where these phenomena are generally scarce. The topographical conditions of the valley of the Zardalya at Kalta-kain and of tho moraine where the river forces its passage, led to the conclusion tlat tho waterfall is caused by the glacier in the vicinity and the altered rocks in this part of the valley, that is to say, the replacement of the gneiss by the more friable slates. The village of Sokh was only reached by the party on the 20th August (1st September), after they had accomplished 4500 feet of descent. Hoi-e their caravan, which had crossed the difficult Yanghi-Sabak Pass, met them. Then came a period of sickness, each of them taking it in turns to suffer either from slight inflammation of the eyes or fever. Summarising the scientific results of his expedition, M. Mushkotof says: 1. Tho Zarafshan glacier may bo traversed though with difficulty. Its length to the pass is 16 miles. Tho lower end is 9000 feet, the upper 14,000 feet high. 2. It unites with tho glaciers of the Zardalya, and their combined length is 20 miles ; it therefore belongs to the class of glaciers charac- 'teristic of the Alai. 3. Fedohenko supposed that the n^vSs of tho Isfara and Zarafshan 258 NOTES ON THE RECENT OEOORAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA— DISCUSSION. glaoiera were nnitod. Thia does not prove to bo the case ; they are only oonneotod by brunuhoa, and their principal atema arc diatinot. 4. Tho groat Zarafahan trunk glacier iaauea from an oxtenaivo JPim or nM, large enough by itaolf to account for the aize of thia glacier, which ia atill further inoreoaod by numerous lateral tributaries doaconding iVom the Turkiatan and Hiasar rangoa, and adding largely to the acoumulationa of moraine drift with which the lower half of tho glacier ia entirely covered. 5. Tho right and loft tributariea are as distinct in character as the glaciers of the Zarafshan and Zardalya. This distinction, othor con- ditions being precisely similar, deponds exclusively on tho topographical character of thoir amphithoatros, and tho diversity of structure of the Turkisian and Ilissar ranges. 6. All tho glnciors of the Zarafshan, as well as thoso of the Zardalya and Sokb, exhibit tho same phenomenon of retrogression observed in other glaciers of the Tian 8han and Pumir, as ovidoncod by their enor- mous terminal moraines and local traditions. In the recent past the Zarafshan glacier was incomparably greater, deeper, more massive and longer by 30 miles, so that it reached to tho villages of Paldorak and Diaminor. M. Mishenkof a theory that the glacier is lowering iu there- fore refuted. 7. The Turkistan range ia tho immediate continuatiun of tlio granite- gabbro Alai range, and ought not therefore to have a distinct name. 8. Tho Hissar range is of more recent formation than tho Turkistan, and is separated from it by chalky formations, which extend along the valley of the Zarafshan to the village of Postigau ; it in built up of granite, gneiss, and metamorphio rocks. It begins as a separate chain to the west of tho mountain mass of Karamuk, consisting chiefly of diabase. This tanglo of mountain chains is not caused by the interlacing of the already mentioned ranges with the Trans-Alai, but is the result of denudation by aqueous action. Besides the above-mentioned conclusions, the expedition brought back geognostio collections, a survey of the glacier, and a number of sketches showing better than any description tho external appearance of the glacier and its surrounding mountains. The success attending their investigations was greatly due to fine weather. One moderate storm would have disorganised their plans, and perhaps been fatal to them. The following discussion ensucxl on the reading of the above paper on M. Mushketofs ascent of tho Zarafshan glacier, at tlie Evening Meeting, March 12th, 1883:— Sir DouoLAB FoBSYTH said although he had not actually been in the Zarafshan Valley he had travelled, {perhaps, as near to it as any Englishman could go, namely, Kashgar, and had traversed the mountains to the south, the character of which was very similar to that described in the paper. Evidently the Russians had their pet glaciers, but there^were some on the British side of India which would bear NOTES OH THE RECCNT QGOORAPHY OF CENTRAL ASIA— DISC(7S8IOK. 269 eompAriaon with them. The writer of the ptper had itretched his glacier by talciDK the two sideB and making It 20 miles, but on the Indian frontier there waa a glacier 30 milea long on one slope and 30 on the other, making 60. Ho could only speak of these things in a very unioientiflo way, but he was particularly struck during his Journey to Koshgar at the absence of glaciers un tho slope towards the north-west of the great range. Of course that would bo explained by tho absence of all humidity in the desert ; and what snow did fall in winter abont Kashgar and Yarkand was dried up almost immediately, the atmosphere being so very dry. With regard to the retrogression of the glaciers, ho went over the Sasser, which waa about 30 miles long. There they hod to cross enormous crevasses, and it appeared as if each time they had to got down to the bed of the rircr and thou ascend. It was like going up a large mountain, but underneath the morain" was the debris of the mountainH which bod been gradually brought down, and as > he molting operation went on the moraine settled down upon the bed of the vaiUy, and it appear''d as if the glacier was recoiling. The Tajiks, spoken of in the vall'jy of tho Zarafshan, were the moru settled natives of the Aryan type. They were quite '^istinci from the nomad Kirghiz, who travelled over tho mountain tops of the Pamir, nnd always Uved i.i huts. He had met them, and travelled with them, and on oi o occasion v(.d with them for about three weeks. He found them most hospitable and agreei .: people to deal with. Some of them were stated to be robbers, but he fancied Jtween the two nations whieh pretended to divide the world : for the Papal Bull declared that Spain was to have all to the west, and Portugal all to the east of a meridian drawn in the Atlantic. But it was no easy matter to decide the line where the two all-grasping nations met on the other side of the world. It was long disputed whether the famous Spice Islands, so anxiously coveted by both, were on the Spanish or Portuguese side of the line. It was a 'question of longitude, which was only guessed at in those days by the VOI-. I. 268 PROGRESS OK DISCOVERy ON THE roughest dead reckoning. The Portugueso sought the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, from India and Malacca, the Qpaniards by sailing across the Pacific. It was inevitable that there must be a collision where the two ambitious peoples mot, and that the discovery of New Guinea — lying right in the way of vessels coming to and fro from America — would be the consequence. Magellan, in his memorable voyage, led three ships across the Pacific in 1521 ; and when, after his death, Sebastian del Cano brought the Victoria round the Cape, and achieved the first circumnavigation in 1522, he reached and traded at the Spice Islands, but did not sight New Guinea. The Portuguese were already established at Temate. The success of Sebastian del Cano led to his being despatched on a second voyage to the Spice Islands, by Magellan's Straits, in 1525. In August 1526, the first circumnavigator died, and was committed to the deep in the centre of that Pacific Ocean which he had been the first to sail over ; but the ship went on, and Don Martin Yniguez, who had succeeded to the command, brought his Spaniards to the Spice Island of Tidore. The Portuguese were at Ternate,.which is in sight from Tidore, and soon there was open hostility between the rivals. In the course of this rivalry. New Guinea was discovered. In 1511 the Portuguese Antonio de Abreu had made a voyage from the Am Islands to the Moluccas, and had possibly sighted the coast of New Guinea. But it was Don Jnrge de Meneses, a Portuguese commander sent from Malacca to take charge at the Moluccas in 1526, who was the actual discoverer. The usual roate from Malacca was by the south of Borneo and Celebes. Meneses tried a new route by the north of Borneo and Gilolo, far overshot his mark, and came to a land inhabited by a curly-headed black people, called Papuas : a name given to them by the natives of the Moluccas, on account of their woolly hair. Meneses remained at an island, called by him Versija, on the equator, until the change of the monsoon, arriving at Ternate in May of the following year. He must have been at some anchorage near the point now called Cape Good Hope, the most northern point of New Guinea, pos- sibly at Dorey. Of coui'se Meneses little dreamt of the significance of his discovery, that he had reached the largest island in the world save one — covering 806,000 square miles, 1500 miles long by 500 broad, as large as France and Great Britain put together ; and that it yet would be more than three centuries and a half before any serious attempt would be made to explore its interior. ' v '. ; ■. No thought of all this occurred to Meneses touching his discoveiy, when he gladly shaped his course away from New Guinea, and reached Temate ; to find the Spaniards still in force at Tidore, under Heman4o de la Torre ; for the good Martin Yniguez had died in the interval. ^Meanwhile, the conqueror of Mexico, Heman Cortes, equipped an COASTS OF NEW GUINEA. 269 expedition to oo-operate -with the Spaniards at the Spice Islands, under tho command of his kinsman, Alvaro de Saavedra. Saavodra reached Tidore in June 1528, aud on his return voyage, he coasted along the whole northern shore of Now Guinea, which he called the golden island — " Isla de Oro." He sighted New Guinea during a second voyage in 1529, dying on the return passage to Mexico. By a treaty in 1529, Charles V. sold the Spanish claim on the Spioe Islands to the crown of Portugal. Still the Spaniards sent three more expeditions across the Pacific, which reached New Guinea. A\ uen the Yncas of Peru made their memorable attempt to drive out the Spaniards in 1536, Fizarro sent to Mexico for help, and Heman Cortes promptly despatched two vessels under Hernando de Grijalva and Alvarado. After landing the reinforcements, Grijalva sailed from the Peruvian fort of Payta in April 1537, and crossed the i'acifio Ocean. He refused the demand of his crew that he should break the treaty by crossing the Portuguese line and steer for the Moluccas, upon which there was a mutiny and Grijalva was murdered. Eventually the ship was wrecked on the north coast of Papua, the survivors became prisoners to the natives, and were generously ransomed and released by the Portuguese commander at the Moluccas. That commander was Antonio de Galvano, the author of the ' Discoveries of the World.' Yet another expedition was despatched from Mexico to cross the Pacific under the command of Buy Lopez de Yillalobos, a good sailor, and a brother-in-law of the Viceroy, Don Antonio de Mendoza. Yillalobos sailed from the west coast of Mexico in the end of 1542, and took formal possession of Mindanao for the Emperor Charles Y. in February 1543. It was Yillalobos who first gave the name of " Filipinas " to the Philip- pine Islands ; but he acknowledged the right of the Portuguese to the Moluccas. At the same time he went to Tidore, whence he despatched one of his vessels, the San Juan, to Mexico, under the command of Yniga Ortiz de Betes, in May 1 545. Betes sailed for many leagues along the north coast of New Guinea, and it was he who gave the name. Galvano says, " Betes knew not that Saavedra had been there before, so he challenged the honour and fame of that discovery. For the memory of Saavedra was then almost lost, as all things else do fall into oblivion, which are not recorded and illustrated by writing." Thus it was that Betes changed the name of Saavedra's " Island of Gold," the " Papua " of Meneses, and called it " New Guinea " because the black and woolly haired people reminded him of the negroes he had seen on the coast of Guinea. Betes anchored in several forts, and found wood and water ; but he was unable to make his way much further east- ward, and returned to Tidore. Yillalobos died at Amboyna, and his people were sent home by way of India, by an agreement with the Portuguese. Unfortunately, the journals of these Spanish voyages haVe not been u 2 • i'l Lii (7 270 I'nOORESS OK DISCOVERY ON THE dffloovered ; and tho few facts thut have been prcaorved can only be gathered from general historians — namely Argensola, Barros, Qalvano, Herrera, and (Honiara. Thus the nortliem coast of New Qninea was diNoovered during tho sixteenth century. Its southern side nnd tho tlistance it extended to the south was unknown. YetOrtelius, in his edition of 1587, has a map entitled " Typus Orbis Terrarum," on wliioh New Guinea is coujecturally made an island, with the words " Nova Guinea qum un sit insula aut pars oontinentis Australis ino<)rtum." A groat southern continent was assumed, and in subsequent maps New Guinea wus gonomlly connected with New Holland by a line forming a great bay. The seventeenth century opened with the important discoveries of Luis Vae/. de Torres, tho second in command in the expedition of Quiros, which sailed from Callao to discover tho grout southern continent in December 1605. (juiros reached an island in tho Now Hebrides, which ho named " Australia del Espiritu Santo," supposing it to ho part of thu continent of which ho was in quest. But, for some unexplained reason, he made sail from this island at midnight of the 11th of June, 1606, leaving Torres to prosecute the voyage. In July Torres fell in with a coast which he rightly assumed to be the eastern extremity of New Guinea. He made a survey of the large bay, since namod Milne Bay by Captain Moresby, on July 18th, 1606 ; but as the existence of his map was never made known until 1878, it does not detract in tho slightest degree from the merit of Moresby's discovery. Eiing unable to pass to wind- ward, Torres bore away along the south side of the land for many leagues, in an archipelago of islands without number, and he was engaged in this iutricato navigation for two months. He I id discovered tho strait between New Guinea and Australia, which at length bears his name, but it was several scores of years before his report and his maps were made public, and the memory of Torres received the credit that is his due. A copy of the report of Torres was lodged in the archives of Manilla, and was discovered by the hydrographer Dalrymple, when Sir William Draper took that city in 1762. Sir William is best known to us in connection with riis literary duel with Junius. Geographers should remember him for having been the indirect means of justice being done to Torres. Dalrymple brought home the Ileport, and very properly gave the name of " Torres Strait " to the channel between New Guinea and Australia, which it still retains. Translations of the Report were published in Bumey's Voyages, by Mr. Major in his ' Early Voyages to Australia,' and by Lord Stanley of Alderley. The original is at Simancas, dated July 12th, 1607, and is reprinted in the Boleiin of the Madrid QeographioaJ Society for January 1878. In the same number aro published the maps drawn by Diego de Prado y Tovar, one of tho officers of Torres ; and one of these maps delineates the Milne Bay of Moresby, and adjacent islands ; another shows Triton Bay of the Dutch. COASTS OK NEW GUI.NKA. By making a neorot of the important diaoovoricB and survoya of Torres, the Hpaninrds did their bent to annihilate the fame of one of the moat illuatrioua of their marine worthioa. Jiiatioo was first done to his memory more than a century and a half after his death, by the Knglish- mon Dairy mple and Bumey ; and more tardily a century later, by his own countrymen. The opening of the aoventeenth century saw the Dutch power rising on the ruins of the I'ortugueso colonial empire in the Eastern Archipelago. The first Dutch expedition to New Quiuea was contem- poraneous with the voyage of Torres. The Duyfken, under the com- ifiand of Willem Jans/., sailed from Bantam in 1606, visited the Am and Ki Islands, sailed along the west and south coasts of New Guinea, then southward along the islands on the west side of Torres Strait, to the coast of Australia south of Capo York. But f|ll these lands were believed by the commander of the Duyfken to be connected, aiid to form the west coast of New Guinea. Yet in the very same year Torres had sailed through the strait wbioh bears his name. Subsequent Dutch voyages from Banda to the western shores of New Guinea were numerous, but their objects were merely the development of trade. Schouton and Le Maire, the first navigators who over rounded Cape Horn, sailed along tho north coast of New Guinea in 1617, and dis- covered the Schouton Island at the entrance of Geelvink Bay. The memorable voyages of Abel Jansz Tasman in 1642 and 1644 are important as regards the history of New Guinea discovery, because the instructions drawn up for the explorer's guidance, first published in English by Dalrymple, contain a summary of previous Dutch voyages. In 1663, Nicholas Vinck was the first to describe the deep inlet afterwards explored and mapped by Lieutenant McCluer : and in 1678 Johannes Eeyts sailed to New Guinea in a vessel called the Saxenburg, and explored several bays along the west coast. His journal was published for the first time in full, by Major Loupe in 1875. We now come to the expedition sent forth by the English Admiralty of William III., solely with the object of discover}'. No better man could be found for such work than the famous buccaneer William Dampier, who was wisely selected in 1699, and sailed from England in an unseaworthy old tub — II.M.S. Boehuck. After visiting tbo west coast of Australia, Dampier sighted New Guinea on the Ist of January, 1700. He sailed round the eastern end of the great mass of land which he named New Britain, and which he discovered to be separated from New Guinea bj' a strait known as Dampier's passage. On the island of New Britain are Capes Anne, Gloster, and Orford, on the opposite coast King William's Cape, and Sir George Rooke's Island in the channel, all names which revive memories of the time when Dampier flourished. Five years after the important voyage of Dampier, the Dutch des- patched an expedition consisting of two vessels, the Geelvink, or yellow- 372 I'KOOKESS OK DISCOVERY ON THE hammer, uiid the Kraaa-vogel, or orano, under the command of Jacob Weyland. Iliu orders wore to i)roco4.'d tu Schouten iHland, and aurvey the adjacent coaMtH. In \10h he disoovurud the deep indentation on tho northern coaat, which ho ex[)lored and mapped, giving it tlie name of Qeelvink Bay, after hia own aliip. While frequently doBpatohing flmall exploring expeditions, the Dutch East India Company was extremely jealous of interlopers, even among their own countrymen. In 1610 they voized tho ships of the circum- navigators Schouten and Lo Maire ; and in 1722 when another bold voyager, Jacob itoggevoon, arrived at Batavia, after having crossed thu Pacifio and coasted tho northern shore of New Guinea, he received similar treatment. Dampier was tho first Englishman who entered the field as a Now Oitinea discoverer., He was followed, in 1707, by Captain Carteret in the Swallow, who discovered the channel separating New Britain from New Ireland. Captain Edwards in 1791, Captains Bligh and Portlock in 1792, passed through Torres Strait. Captain Cuok made a valuable survey of Torres Strait ; and ho was followed by Captains Bampton and Alt of the East India Company, who visited and described several islands in Torres Strait, and explored to the head of the Gulf of Papua in 1793. Captain Forrest, another captain in the sei'vice of the East India Company, undertook a voyage to New Guinea in 1774, in a little native craft of 10 tons, called the Tartar ; and he afterwards published an interesting narrative of his voyage. He landed at Dorey, near the western entruuce of Geelvink Bay. This place has a woU-shelterod anchorage, an open cultivatedited by Eobide van der Aa. Italian scientific expiu.crs have also achieved very important results. In 1870 the enthusiastic geographer Emilio Ceiruti made a survey of Galewo Straits, between Salawatti and the main laud. Dr. Odoardo Beccari and Signor D'Albertis reached an island in Galewo Strait in 1872, whence they made excursions to the main land of New Guinea. They afterwards explored the Arfak Mountains, the home of the birds of paradise, but D'Albertis was attacked by fever, and was obliged to retire to Sydney. In 1875 Dr. Beccari started on a second visit to New Guinea, with generous aid from the city of Genoa. He lu'.ided at Dorei Ham, ascended Mount Morait to a heigh^. of 3500 feet, and explored the courHO of the Wa Samson, the largos'; river on the peninsula, flowing westward from the Arfak Mountains. He then examined the whole curve of Geelvink Bay, and visited the islands in it; finally ascending the Arfak Mountains to a height of 7000 feet. The higbif-t peak was found to be 9500 feet* above the sea. Dr. Beccari returned with immense natural history collections. But perhaps the most complete journeys in this part of New Guinea were performed by Dr. Adolf Meyer in 1873. Our own illustrious * So fixed by the oflScers of the Coquillc. COASTS OF NEW GUINEA. 277 uaturalist, Mr. Alfred Wallace, resided at Dorey, at the western entrance to Geelvink Bay, for three months, and described the northern peninsula of New Guinea as very rugged and mountainous, while an unvarying forest spreads over the whole country. Dr. Meyer resolved to proceed in the first instance to Dorey, where Captain Forrest and Mr. Wallace had previously resided. He had a small hired schooner, and in her he visited the islands in Geelvink Bay, and the north-east end of the bay, Avhere he mentions the great river Amberno as sending voluraes of fresh water to the sea. At the head of the bay he resolved to try to cross the isthmus to the south coast, west of Utanata ; but the countiy was iininhabitod and ho ran short of provisions. He, however, obtained a view of the sea to the southward from his farthest point, which was 3000 feet above its level. He learnt that to the eastward there was a large fresh-water lake, the shores of which are densely populated. Dr. Meyer afterwards succeeded in marching from Geelvink Bay to MoCluer Inlet, which took him four days ; in the course of which he crossed a chblix of hills 2000 feet higli. Finally he readied a height of 6000 feet on the Arfak Mountains. It was here that he obtained all those rare and splendid birds of paradise for which New Guinea is famous. The work of Wallace, Beccari, and Meyer on the north-western peninsula of New Guinea has thrown a fluod of light on the natural history and ethnology of this portion of the vast island ; while our geographical knowledge has also been considerably extended. The Reports of the Utrecht Missionary Society, wliose labours have boon chiefly on the islands in Geelvink Bay, also contain much valuable information. Trade is regularlj' carried on between western Now Guinea and other Dutch possebsions, and steamers periodically touch, four times a year, at Skroe in McCluer Inlet. These voyages were inaugurated by the steamer Egeron under Mr. Haitog* The claims of the Netliejlands on western New Guinea are based on the rights of the Sultan of Tidore, who acknowledges the suzerainty of the Dutch ; on the right of discovery ; on a formal act of possession ; but chiefly on the constant trade and intercourse between western New Guinea and other Dutch possessions. A sense of justice led Mr. Wallace t to deprecate any attempt to ignore or cavil at these claims, a feeling in which I confess that I fully concur. If expeditions are undoitaken to explore parts of New Guinea to the westward of the 141st meridian, it should be with the official knowledge and concurrence of the Netherlands Government. I believe that our own Government has recognised the Dutch claim by implication, as they defined the limits of the jurisdic- tion of our Commissioner in the Pacido, as regards New Guinea, at the 141st meridian. * U.G.S. Journal, xlviii. p. 294. Tlio Kijcron discoveitd Egeron Strait, dividing Timor Laut into two islands, t Ibid., xs.\. p. 175, II y H 278 PROGKESS OF DISCOVERY ON THE The yast tract of country to tho eaistward of 141° east may now be considered as practically belonging to Great Britain. It is 860 miles lo?g by nearly 400 broad, and is as yet almost entirely unknown. The soiithem coast of eastern New Quinea was explored by the surveying parties under Captain Blackwood, in H.M.S. Fly, in 1842. The western side of the Gulf of Papua was examined for 140 miles, including the delta of the " Fly " river, whose channels were ascended for several miles. The interesting narrative of the surveying voyage of the Fly was written by the naturalist, Mr. Jukes, and published in 1847; and another book was published by Mr. Macgillivray, Lord Derby's collector, in tho Satfleanake, in 1852. liicutenant Yule, in the Bramble, continiied the survey from tho head of the Gulf of Papua to Capo Possession, including Yule Island and Bedscar Bay; and he took formal possession for the British crown. Captain Owen Stanley, in the BcUtlesnake, completed the examination of the Louisiadc Archipelago and the south-east end of New Guinea in 1849. The most remarkable feature on this coast was a high range of mountains seen at a distance, extending for nearly 200 miles to Bedscar Point. Some of tho peaks are 10,000, and Mount Owen Stanley itself is 12,800 foot above the level of th • sea. Tho discovery of the south-eastern extreme of the Owen Stanley Peninsula was completed by Cupttiin (now Admiral) Moresby, in 1873, in H.M.S. Basilisk. lie, and tlic able surveyors under his orders, including Lieutenant L. Dawson, fotind that eastern New Guinea did not end in a long wedge as previously delineated by map-makers, but in a huge fork, the lower prong of which is cut up into an archipelago of islands. Between these islnnds and tho northern prong there is a sheet of water about 45 miles deep and 12 to 18 broad, named by Captain Moresby — Milne Bay. The newly-discovered islands are mostly lofty, volcanic, and ricl'y wooded. The Basil sk also fixed the position, and laid down the coast-lino of the D'Entrocasteaux group, seen by that navigator at a distance, when in searcli of T^a Perouse in 1793. Still more iiseful work was the discovery of f,everal new harbonrs on the New Guinea Coast, such as Port Moresby, on tho south-west coast of the peninsula, Eobert Hall Sound, 60 miles further to the north-west, and Pitt Bay on Moresby Island, at the gateway of a new Austro-Chinesc route. Lastly, the ofiBcers of the Basilisk carefully ex"..ained the northern coast from the East Cape to Astrolabe Bay, and Captain Moresby gave a most interesting account of tho Malayan race inhabiting this eastern extremity of New Gui^aea. At Astrolabe Ba} we come upon the researches of a solitary and most indefatigable traveller, the Kussian Micluclio Maklay, who, through the good oflBces of the Grand Duchoss Helen, obtained a free passage on board a Russian frigate in 1870. He was attracted to the Astrolabe Bay of Diimont D'Urville, because there he hoped to study the jiure Papuan COASTS OK NEW GUINEA. 2f» race. In September 1871, a hut was built fur him ou shore, the BuBsian frigate VUiie fired a salute in his honour, and left him alone. For more than a year nothing was heard of the adventurous student. Then the ship Tzumoud was sent from St. Petersburg, and found him aadly altered by illness, and seamed with wounds. He had compiled a vocabulary of 800 Papuan words, and collected much valuable informa- tion respecting the people, but was unable to penetrate any distance from his hut. He departed on board the Tzumoud in December 1872 ; but he paid his friends in Astrolabe Bay a second visit some years afterwards. Signer D'Albertis, who had accompanied Dr. Beccari to the Arfak Mountains, arrived on the coast of south-eastern New Guinea in 1875, and settled for a time on Yule Island, oif the entrance of the Eobert Hall Sound of Moresby. It is 550 feet in height, fertile, and well cultivated ; the opposite mainland consisting of a vast extent of low, swampy ground, backed by range after range of hills, which culminate in the magnificent Owen Stanley Mountains. In November 1875, D'Albertis joined Mr. Macfarlano of the London Missionary Society, who was about to visit the mouth of the Fly river in tlxe steamer Ellengowan. Notwithstanding the hostility of the natives, they succeeded in ascending the river for about 150 miles. Be turning to Sydney, the liberality of the Government, and of a few p7 ivate citizens, enabled D'Albertis to equip another expedition ; and in 1876 he ascended the Fly river for a distance of 500 miles. His vessel, the Neva, drew 4 feet, and this was the limit of navigation, amidst hills forming the counterscarp of the high central chain called the Charles Louis Mountains, where the Fly river takes its rise. The highest point was reached in June 1876. He made a third ascent of the river in 1877, but did not ascend so far as on the second occasion. Signor D'Albertis attaches great importance to the position of Yule Island, and believes there is a great fixture in store for it, whenever New Guinea becomes a field for colonisation. He was not, however, favourably impressed with the country through which the Fly river flows. The interminable forests are under water for the best part of the year, and the vast grassy plains are converted into lakes during the rainy season. But it was Admiral Moresby who gave the great impetus to the exploration of New Guinea, and especially of the Owen Stanley Peninsula, by his discoveriep, and the information he collected. The missionaries of the London Sociuty, who began their work in 1871, have secured a footing on the coast, at Port Moresby and other points, and have made some interesting journeys to the j"oot of the Owen Stanley range. The Hev. W. G. Lawes, who lived at Port Moresby and Hood Bay from 1874 to 1877, has given us some interesting details respecting the country and the pcoi.le. In 1875, the missionary Mr. M'Farlane with Mr. Octavius Stone, in the Ellengotcaii steamer, discovered the mouth of IJ 280 rnOGRESS OF DISCOVERY ON THE tho Mai-Kossa, wliich thoy called the Baxter river * (142'' 18' E. and 9° 8' S.), and found it to be two miles wide and 10 fathuras deep. The river was ascended for 91 miles, and a bird was seen flying, which was estimated to measure 16 feet across the wings. The steamer wont down stream in nine hours, and the impression received by the exploi'ers was that southern New Guinea, in this part, was intersected by large streams which might easily be explored in a steam launch. The course of the Baxter river does not appear to extend beyond tho deltaic region of the "Fly." Port Moresby, and the neighbouring coast region, having proved unhealthy, the Eev. James C'lialmers made a journey in 1879, of ten weeks' duration, into the interior, to explore the country for more suitable Ljcalities. He travelled up the west bank of the Laloki or Goldie river, through a wcU-pooplcd country; with cultivation and abundant supplies of water. But ho was unable to cross tho main Owen Stanley range, owing to the height and inaccessibility of tho moiintains, the thick bush, and huge boulders. Mr. Chalmers desovibos tho country as ono mass of forep^-covored ridges, with fertile and well-watered valleys between them. Tiie river Laloki, which drains the whole region, falls over the face of a precipice in descending to the low land behind Port Moresby. The height of tho i'all is about 900 feet. Another river falling into Hood Bay, called the Kemp Welsh, has been ascended for 18 miles by tho Kev. '1 homus Beswick ; and in 1881, Mr. Chalmers and Mr. Beswick explored tho Aroa river, flowing through the Kabati district, behind Kedscar Bay. In 1882, the two enterprising missionaries, (.'halmors and Lawcs, accompanied by Mrs. Lawes, undertook another journey into tho interior, to visit tho Kouna Falls. They ascended the Veriata Mountains, whence a glorious panoramic view was obtained, embracing the valley of the river Laluki. Tho falls were visited, and tho party retui-ned after having spent ten days in the mountains. It appears that Mr. Goldie, the naturalist, had his camp for some months in this district. Captain Armit, tho correspondent of the Melbourne Argm, has also made a journey to the foot of tho mountains. Our last accounts of New Guinea were from Mr. Wilfred Powell last Apri', nid xvill be fresh in the menmry of Fellows of this Society. He gavo us an interesting account of his observations during a cruise along tho northern coast ; and especially dwelt upon the importance of tlie river Ambcrnoli (Aniberno) as a route for future discovery. Ho also alluded to the coniniorcial capabilities of Kew Guinea, enumerating its more valuable products. It would certainly appear from tho letters of the missionaries at Port Moresby, that they are able to expL.ro tho country in all directions, and that even an English lady has ascended mountains and visited falls in the interior. Physical difliculties alone appear to have stopped them. * After llu' lady wlio presented the f-.'l/cngovian stenmrr. 'P:^:^,. COASTS OK NEW GUINEA.— DISCUSSION. 281 We may, therefore, look forward to a complete examination of the peninsula, and of the Owen Stanley range, before very long. The naturalists have also succoedod in ascending the Arfak Mountains in the north-west peninsula. The two extremities of the vast island are begin- ning to be known in their general features. But the central portion, covering thousands of square miles, is still unexplored and unknown. It offers a wide field of the greatest intorost and importance to geographical enterprise. In thus passing the discoverers and explorers, and their achieve- ments, in rapid review, wo obtain a general idea of the way in which the coast-lino was slowly and very gradually delineated. There is, I think, some use in such a rapid review of past work, because when nanicH of plactss are brought before us hereafter, tlioy will become to us something more than mere names. The discoverer, and the occasion of the discovery, are brought to our memories, and thus a more intelligent interest is attached to future narratives. It is with this intention that the present paper has been prepared ; and I trust that it may have, at least in part, secured its object, in spite of numerous deficiencies and imperfections. Tlio following liscuBsioa ensued on the termination of the reailing of the fore- going paper: — Admiral Morksiiy said that although it lessened the credit which he had thought l)clon<;ud to bimscU", he was gkd to hear that to an older and better navigator the honour was duo of having discovered Milne Bay. But whilst that was the case, he was also glad to think that the ship's company and the officers of the Basilisk, and the old ship herself, had still the unique claim of being the tirst to pass between the Louisiade Arcliiixilago and round the eastern end of New Guinea, so opening up what he was firmly convinced would be the future passage from Australia to China and Japan. It was this conviction that made him take the responsibility upon himself of the voyage in which he discovered the passage. The passage had not yet been generally made use of, but, although the sea on the north-eastern coast of New Guinea was said to be studded with reefs, he felt quite certain that when it was surveyed it would be found to possess not only one, but numerous channels through which vessels could pass, and thus diminish the voyage from Australia to China and Jaiian by some 300 to 400 miles. Objections to that route had been made on the ground that the trade winds did not blow tJiere — that it was a region I if calms and bafllling winds as well as of coral ^eefs; but steamers had now taken the place of the old sailing vessnls, and if the Ddsilink could pass by a clear channel through this coral-sprinkled sea, making her own charts as she went, it is contrary to a seaman's common sense to argue that the passage when surveyed would not be a i)erfectly safe one. The Jia^ilis/c was the first vessel to explore the north-eastern coast of New Guinea. It afforded him great pleasure and pride to be able to write the names of Nelson, Trafalgar, CoUingwootl, Gladstone, and Disraeli, on that north- eastern coast. He called two mountains which faced one another by the names of Gladstone and Disraeli. When he asked Mr. Gladstone's permission to give his name to the mountain, which was about 9000 feet high, Mr. Gladstone declared himself unworthy of the honour, but permitted it ; but Mr. Disraeli bantered him very much, and expressed a hope that he should agree better with his rival in New ■ n IIm t I ! V 282 PROGRESS OF DISCOVERS ON THE < ruinea than ou the floor of the Hou8e of Commous. He could fully bear out what Mr. Markham had said about the general friendliness of the natives, and therefore lie thought that Mr. Powell, who was about to undertake the exploration of the central part of New Guinea, would be able to accomplish his taisk successfully, without loss of lif • or bloodshed. That view of the case was borne out by what Baron Mackley,the Russian traveller, had told him. Baron Mackley seemed to think that with proper consideration and proper nerve and presence of mind, and treating the New Guinea natives with firmness, and at the same time with kindness, almost anything could be done with them. He (Admiral Moresby) believed that that was true with regard to the east coast, though it might not be true further to the west- ward. No one could doubt that the futurt of New Guinea was a great one, and ho was glad to hear that Mr. Markham, who must have a great deal more know- ledge on the matter than he himself, had R|ioken so emphatically of the island being virtually a part of the British Empire. He trusted that it would soon be not only virtually, but de/acto, pert and parcel of Her Majesty's dominions. Sir J. Thos. M'Ilwraith (late Prime Minister of Queensland) said he could not add anything to the geographical information which had been given by Mr. Mark- ham, but he cordially agreed with that gentleman in congratulating the Society that New Guinea was now virtually annexed to the British Empire. He himself had done what ho could to bring that question into the field of practical politics, and when he left Australia it was in such a position that the statesmen of England and of the Colony must find a remedy for the present condition of affairs. That the island would ultimately be annexed he had not ti.? slightest doubt. Queensland had sufiered much more than was generally known in England from the French convicts that were continually landing there. At one time it was very probable that New Guinea would fall into the hands of the French, but the action of Queensland had prevented the convict question coming so close home. It had been said that the Empire could not be rounded off so as to avoid having neighbours, but there were neighbours and neighbours, and the Colonists would welcome the Dutch as good neighbours, for that nation had made good use of Java and all tlieir Eastern possessions, and were able to teach English colonists a great many lessons which they would bo very glad to learn. The greatest advantage, however, that had •nrisen from the raising of the question of the annexation of New Guinea, was the imjietus it had given to Colonial federation. He did not mean simply the union of three or four colonies so as to perform the work of government more easily among themselves, but that confederation which would ultimately have the effect of unitinj; the Colonies and England in one empire. Colonists perceived a coldness in a great many Britis^h statesmen with regard to the position which the Colonies hold. He himself was now a Queenslander, but be reckoned himself as good a Briton as he was when only a Scotchman. He wished always to remain connected with the Empire, and there was nothing that annoyed colonists so much as the prospect, constantly hinted at by a party in this country, of their being at some time or other separated from the Empire. Federation among the Colonies was the first step towards th 3 confederation of the Empire. On that account he looked back with pride on the action that Queensland had taken. It did not spring from a paltry desire to get more land, for they already had 400,000,000 acres with a population of only 300,000 ; nor from a wish to get niggers to work in the sugar plantations, because they knew that the natives of New Guinea were not fitted for that work, but simply for the purpose of preventing bad neighbours coming near them, and in order to become part and parcel of the British Empire. Mr. CouTTS Trotter said that we hardly realised how little was known of New Guinea from a geographical point of view. The best known, i. e. the north- COASTS OK NEW GUINEA.— DISCUSSION. 283 they )ly for econie western portion, had been penetrated only 20 miles inland though the peninsaU was 200 miles across, so that even the interesting disooveries of the naturalists there are an insufficient basis fur general deduction. Dr. Meyer's mention of a lake was very carious, as only lagoons had be«o previously known. He had no doubt that the dwellers on its shores built their houses on piles as the old lake dwellers did. But Dr. Meyer's native companions were very satirical and witty about the very scanty costume worn by the people there, and considering what the ordinary Papuan dress was, that which they laughed at must be very scanty indcei). Ho entirely agreed with Mr. Markham as to the spirit in which the Dutch claims should bo treate«l. At the same time, discussing the matter purely in an academical sense, he thought that those claims had no validity at all. Their first claim was on the south coast from the 14l8t meridian to the north-western comer of the island. That was a genuine annexation, but in 1848 the rescript of the Govemor-Qeneral decUred that the rights of the Sultan of Tldoro extended to the 14l8t meridian on the north coast. That, however, was a mistake, because the natives there utterly repudiated his pjzerainty. Tlie line drawn across the map from north to south was far too sclent '.ic a frontier to have been drawn by the Sultan of Tidore. By our treaty with the Dutch in 1824, the two nations bound themselves to inform each other of any annexation that took place in the Archipelago, but na far ns he knew the Dutch had never notified any such annexation to us. Theoreticnlly, therefore, the annexation by the Dutch had no validity, and ho did not think it was ever intended as an annexation. The idea, no doubt, was to put in a provisional caveat, so that if their resources were equal to it they might develop those coasts, but he did not think their resources wore now suflScient for the task. The claim of the Sultan of Tidore extended over " all Papua," which meant the countries inhabited by black, frizzly-haired people. These extended as far east as Fiji, and he supposetl that neither the Sultan of Tidore nor the Dutch laid any claim to that group uf islands. Sir Rawson Rawson said that New Guinea consisted of two parts, the smaller one separated from the other by a narrow isthmus. The whole covered 300,000 square miles, while Australia covered about 2,100,000 square miles. The north-westera peninsula was about one-seventh of the whole of New Guinea, and the fact was that the Sultan of Tidore, upon whose rights Holland founded its claim, never had any authority, and was scarcely known, east of Geelvink Bay. When in 1828 the Dutch claimed westward from the 14tst meridian, they did not do so as the suzeraiit of Tidore, but took possession of it in the name of the Netherlands Government, actually accepting four small districts upon the ground that they were claimed by tlie Sultan of Tidore. It was not until 1848 that they claimed any part of northern New Guinea as suzerains of Tidore. In 1858 a Dutch man-of-war went to Humboldt Bay and laid a foundation for the claim of Holland to that coast, but at that time, although the captain of the ship had a prince of Tidore on board, the natives knew nothing of the Sultan, and did not recognise any authority as resting in him. Mr. Markham had stated that the British Government had to a certain extent acknow- ledged the claims of Holland by adopting the 14lst meridian as the limit of the district within which it exercised some authority, but the limit was the 143rd meridian, and the Government probably adopted that meridiac in 1877 on account of the southern coast having been surveyed by British ships of war as far westward as 142i°. Mr. Markham had expressed sympathy with the Dutch Government in regard to its claims, but he (Sir Rawson Rawson) couid not approve of their com- mercial or their political policy in the East, As lonj as Holland conid keep the monopoly of the Spice Islands it did so, but when it was obliged to surrender it, its claims were extended eastward to New Guinea, to shelter and protect (as its own VOL. I. X PROaRESS OF DISCOVERY ON THE COASTS OF NEW GUINEA. writers said) the Spioo Islnndii against competition. Mein8nu^ when giving aa account of the poBaeasionii of Holland in the Jlitfitorn Archipelago, distinctly stated that in 1828 they claimed a part of New Ouinoa («' rhat purpose; while Temminclc stated that they did so as a counterbalance to Koglish influence in that part of the world. Windi«or Earl also, in his introduction tn the translation of KollTs Voyage in 1825, said that the Dutch sent a ship to the east coast because England bad formed a settleiiii'iit in Melville Island and had begun to establish an influence in Australia. Holland, however, had not planted a single colony in New 'Juinra, and was not likely to do so. He therefore had no sympathy with the Dutch policy in the East. Mr. Wilfred Powell rtmHider^d that the Aml)erao must be an immense river, because the Chalhnger when off the coast found that the water was brackish at a distance of 60 miles from the island, and the drift-wootl and mud from the river wore found still further out. He regarded the Fly rivor as the great water route to the interior from the south, and the Ambemo from the north. The heights of the Charles Louis range, as sot down on the Admiralty chart, must bo only con- jectural, because no one had as yet been there to ascertain whether they were 16,000 feet or not. The range undoubtedly formed a l>ackbone to the island, and branched off at either end. Admiral Moresby had made a remark with regard to a new route to China, and he (Mr. Powell) know for certain that there was a deep- water channel from China Straits the whole distance along the coast of New Guinea. The Lusanoay group of islands formed a lagoon, but there was deep water between them and the shore of New Guinea up to Dampier Straits. He hoi)ed to be able to traverse the Ambemo river to the Charles Louis Mountains, liecause there the fauna and flora of Asia and Australia divided, and it was im|K>ssible to say what might bo found there. The flora of the Alps, or even Snowdon, might possibly be met with there. New Guinea was the home of the tree kangaroo and the bird of paradise, .and it might be of other strange things that had not yet been discovered. Valuable information might also be obtained about the geological, formation. Buildings had been discovered on the island of Paanopa far away to the eastward, and Sir Frederick Evans had received a copy of them. They were most wonderful remains, extending over an area of five miles, and it was quite possible that similar buildings might bo found in New Guinea. The Chairman, in proposing a vote of thanks to Mr. Markham, said it was quite clear that before long our knowledge of New Guinea would be greatly Increased, and he was quite prepared to find the island grow in importance, both nationally and commercially, within a very short period. f ( 288 ) THE EARLY DISCOVERERS OF NEW GUINEA. 1627. JoROE Di Mbnebeb (alleged diiooverer of Now Quinea).— £arro«, Joao de, ' Di-codas da Asia. Dos feitos quo o8 Purtugiiczoa flzeram na conquiita e descubrimiento dai terras e mares de Oriento.' Deo. iv. lib. i. cap. 16. Lisboa: 1777. Argensola, B. L. de, ' Conquista do las Islas Maluoas,' lib. i. Burney, JavMs, ' A Chronological History of tho DisooTeries in the South Sea or Paoiflc Ocean.* London : 1^^*^ 4to., vol. i. p. 145. 1528. Alvaro de Saavedra (Spaiii lyage). — Hcrrera, Antonio de, 'Historia Qeneral de los hcchoa de Ioh (Jiiatellanos en las Islas y Tierra Ij'irme del Mar Oceano." Dec. iv. lib. 3, cap. 6. Oomara, Lopa de, ' Historia de Mexico con el deacuVrimiento do la Nueva Espafia.' F. 113. Argensola, lib. ii. Oalvano, Antonio [Governor of Tcrnate], 'Tratado . . . dos diuersos Se desunyrados caminhos . . . Sc assi de todos os descobrimentos antigoa & modemos,' Sic, Lisboa : 1563. Translated into English .s ' Tho Discoveries of tho World,' and published by Hakluyt, London, 1601 ; see also 1809 edition of his ' Principal Navigations,' Supplement, vol. iv. Reprinted, with the Portuguese text, by the Hakluyt Society in 1862. See pp. 176, 177. Burney, i. p. 161. 1537. Hernando de Grijalva (Siianish Voyage).— JJerrem, Dec vii. lib, v. cap. 9. Oalvano, Hakluyt Society ed., p. 202. Burney, i. p. 180. 1545. YSiao Ortis de Retes [or de Rotha : a Commander under Rut Lopez de ViLLALOBOS] (Spanish Voyage).— //errera, Dec vii. lib. .v. cap. 9 [date given as 1543]. Oalvano, Hakluyt Society ed.j p. 238. Orijalva, 'Historia de la Orden de San Agustin en Nueva Espafla.' Edad i. cap. 34 et seq. Burney, i. p. 241. 1G06. LciB Vaez de Torres (Spanish Voyage). — Memorial of Juan Luis Arias, p. 1, and Relacion de Torres, p. 31, in Major's ' Early Voyages to Terra Australis,' Hakluyt Society's series, 1869. Letter of Luis Vaez de Torres, dated 12th July, 1607, forming Appendix vi. (p. 402) of * The Philippine Islands by Antonio do Morga,' translated and edited by Lord Stanley of Alderley, Hakluyt Society's series, 1868. Dalrymple, Alexander, 'An Historical Collection of the Several Voyages and Discoveries in ihe South Pacific Ocean.' London : 1770-71, 2 vols. 4to. Under Quiros's Voyage, vol. i. Burney, ii. p. 312. ' Descubrimientos de los Espafioles en las costas de la Nueva Guinea.' Boletin de la Sociodad Geografica de Madrid, iv. No. 1 (Enero 1878), p. 7. (Maps, t&c, made during the voyage of Torres.) X 2 H i /■*> IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1.1 11.25 ■tt lii 12.2 2.0 U 110 U 11.6 6" '/ Photographic Sdaices Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRKT WnSTIR,N.Y. USM (716)«73-4903 '^ 386 THE EARLY DISCOVEREBS OF NEW OUDtEA. '*: 1616. Jacob Lc Maibb Se Willxk Gobkclisz Sohooteh (Datoh Yoytgf)).-' 'lonmal ofte BeHohryriDghe van de woDderlicke rayae, ghedten door Willem Goraelisz Sobonten van Hoom inde Jaren 1616, 1616, en 1617.' Amsterdam : 1618, 4to. De Bry, Grands Voyages, xi. !. Oppenheim : 1619, foL < Journal et Miroir de la Navigation Anstrale de Jaqnea Le Midr^ Chef et Conduoteor de deux NaTires.* Amsterdam : 1622. Dairymph, ii. pp. 61-65. Bwmey, ii. p. 356. 1642. Abel Jaksz. Tasmak (Dutch Voyage).—' Een kort verhael nyt bet Joumaal van den Kommander Abel Jansen Tasman, 1642.' Amsterdam: 1674. TaXmtyn, Francois, 'Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indi6n.' Dordrecht: 1724-26, 8 vols, fol., iii. Banda, p. 47. ;., v. DeiZry»»j)?«, ii. pp. 65-84. V Burn«y, iii. p. 63. . r \- 1663. ViMOK, — (Dutch Voyage).—* Togt der chaloep Walingen hi't jaar 1663 na Nova Guinea.' Valentyn, iii. Banda, pp. 58-61. Jllgemeine Biatmrie der Beiten, xviii. pp. 537-539. '■' > ' ' 1678. JoANKBs Ketts (Dutch Voyage).— ' Togt van de Hoer Keyts in't jaar 1678 na Nova Guinea.' Valentyn, iii. Banda, pp. 61-67. Allg. Eist. Beta., xviiL pp. 639-542. 1699. William Dahubb (English Voyage). — * A Voyage to New Holland, See., in the Year 1699.' London : 1703, 2 vols. Bumey, iii. p. 389. 1721. Jacob Roggeveen (Dutch Voyage).— • Twee Jaarige Beyze rondom de Werolde.' Dordrecht: 1728, 4to. 'Histoire de I'EzpMition de Trois Vaisseaux.' Leipag, 1738; Hague, 1739. DaJrytnple, ii. pp. 86-120. Bumey, iv. p. 556. [For various minor Dutch voyages to New Guinea and its islands from 1606, see Leupe's ' Beizen der Nederlanders ' in Bibliography, it\frb.'] ( 987 ) A BIBUOGBAFHY OP NEW GUINEA. By E. 0. Bim, r.z.a. Librarian B.a.i. [For Voyages eulier tium BongainTiUe, sae pp. 285 and 236, Soc.:,Q'c(>yr. /lbum): 1843, 2 vols. 8vo., plates. [VoL ii. pp. 78-103, with 3 pis., refer to the north coast of New Guinea.] ,•: SeeHindB. Bennett, O.— See lyAlbertis. Berokel, J. H. van. — Dienstreis van den Kontroleur J. M. van Berckel op Zr. Maj. schroefstoomschip'Batavia' onder bevel van den Luitenant ter zee M. A. Medenbach, van 18 Januari tot 1 Februari 1882, naar de Mapia-Eilanden, Dorei, en de eilandjes bewesten Waigeoe. Jaarhoek der K. Nederlandsch ZeemagU 1881-1882, p. 380; KdonUuil VenHag, 1882, p. 25 (Van der Aa, 'Eritisch Overzicht,' 1883, pp. 223 and 224). Bernstein, [Dr.] H. A. — Yorloopige Mededeelingen nopens Reizen in den Moluk- schen Archipel. Tijdachrifl voor Indische Tuul-, Land; en Vdkettkunde, uitgegeven door het Bataviaasch Genootschap, &c., xiv. (4th ser., v.) 1864, pp. 399-495. [Pp. 461 et seq. refer to journey on the north coast of New Guinea, early iu 1863.] Mededeelingen nopens Reizen in den Indischen Archipel (1864). Op. cit. xviL 1869, pp. 79-109. [Contains at the end account of ornithological work in the western islands of New Guinea.] See Meinioke, Mussohenbroek. Beswidk, [Bev.] Thos.— The Kemp- Welsh River of New Guinea. Proc. £. 0. S., (n.s.) ii. 1880, pp. 511 and 512; L' Exploration, x. 1880, p. 389. New Guinea. Hood Bay and District [with Chalmers, Jan. 1880]. Chronicle of the London Missionary Society, 1880, pp. 192-195. Letter on Massacre of Mission Teachers in March 1881. OjK eit, 1881( I ■ I pp. 168 and lf>9. See Chalmers. m BIBUOORAPHT OF NEW OUIMEA. Blnk, — , ft Jens, —^Journey of theae Dutoh HiaaioiuuriM in 1877 to ICuize- man, Ariak: in] Berigten van de VtrtekUcht Ztnding$veremiging, 1878, jip. 170-180. Blaokie, Walter O.— Sketch of the present state of our knowledge of the Island of New Guinea. Froeeedingi 6uinea, aangeboden door H. van Rosenberg. Nat. Tydi. Ned. Imlii, xvi. 1858-59, p. 420. -^^— Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Vischfauna van Nieuw-Guinea. VerhatMUiingm der Natuurkundige Verteniging in Nederlandtch'Jndig (Batavia), vi. 1859, pp. 1-24. Viochsoorton van de Aroe-eilanden aangelxiden door 0. Mohnike. Nat. lyds. Ned. Indie, xx. 1860, p. 332. Visrhsoorton van Nieuw-Guinea. Op. eit. xxii. 1860, pp. 98-100. Notice 8ur quelques poissons de I'tle Grand-Key. Ver^gen en Medadee- lingen der KoninMijke Akadtmie van Wettnschappen (Amsterdam), xvi. 18 64 pp. 361-362. Notice sur la faune ichthyologique des lies Arou. Nederlandsch Tijdaehrift voor de Dierkunde, ii. 1863, p. 101 ; VertJag. Akad. Wttenech., xvi. pp. 366- 368; 2"« notice, Verdag. Akad. mtemeh. (2) iL 1867, pp.305 and 806 ; 8"* notice, op. cit. (2) vii. 1873, pp. 35-39. Troisidme notice sur la faune ichthyologiquo de la Nouvelle-Guin^e. Verdag. Akad. Wetentch.., (2) ii. 1868, pp. 281 and 282. Notice sur la faune ichtbyolog^que de Hie de Waigiou. (see also pp. 331-335). Over nieuwe Vischsoorten van Nieuw-Guinea. 1877. L. c pp. 295-301 Op. cit. Proc-verb. Oct. 27, — — Quatridme m^moire sur la faune ichthyologique de la Nouvelle-Guin^e. Archives Nierlandaites des Sciences exactea et nalurelles, xiii. 1878, pp. 35-66. [See also this author's general papers on the Indo- Archipelagic fish-fimnn.] Bligh, [Capt] W.— See PUnders. Bloaseville, Jules de. — Lettres de M. Jules de Blossevillc k M. L.-I. Duperrey, capitaine de frigate. Nouvelles AnnaifJ des Voyages, xxxix. (2°* s^r. ix.) 1828, pp. 116-124. [P. 121 contains a few details on occurrences at Dorery, after the vibitof thc'Cciquille'.] BIBUOORAPHY OK NEW GUINEA. 991 Nat. Boiadttval, J. A.— Faune Entomologique do I'Ocdan PaciRque, Pt. 1, 1832, Ft. 2, 1886, in Zoologie of Dumont D'Urville'8 Voyage do ' I'Astrolabe.' [Pp. 25-28 of Pt. 1, and descriptive matter throughout, refer to New Guinea species.] Bona], T. O. V.— Reia van den Kesident van Ternato, Jhr. Th. G. Y. fioreel, op het stoomachip 'Sing Tjin,' van 14 October tot 8 November 1822, naar Gebe, Waigeoo (Fofag-Baai en Moemoes), Dorei, Jappcn (Ansoes en Ambai), de voor de kust van Tabi liggende eilanden Walcd^ en Koemaroba, Korrido, Mefoor. Andai, Dorei, en Salawatti. Koloniml Verslag, 1883, p. 20 (Van der Aa, 'Kritisch Overzicht,' 1883, pp. 231-238). Bory de Saint- Vinoent [Ool.] — L'Homme. Essai zuologiquesurle genre humain. Palis: 1827, 2 vols. [vol. i. p. 803.] BoMoher, C^Staat aantoonende de voomaarasto eilanden der Aroe-groep, benevens de voomaamste negorijen en het antaal van hare bewoners in huizen in 18fi0. 2'ijds. Ind. Tool-, Land-, en Volketikunde, i. p. 828. Staat van den in- en uitvoer op do Aroe-oilandou gedurende het joar 1849. X. c. p. 827. Statistieke aanteekeningon omtrent de Aroe-eilanden. Op, eit, ii. p. 337. Bijdrage tot de kennis van de Keij-eilanden. Op. cit. iv. p. 23. Botany.— See Baker, Beooari, Oesati, D'Albertis, Oiokie, Byer, Bngler, Oaudiohaud, Hinds, Miquel, Mueller, Oliver, Bichard, SohefRsr, Solma-Laubaoli, Valkenhoff, Zanardinl, Zippeliue. Boucher, F.— The Indian Archipelago : a concise account of the principal Islands and Places of tho Indian Archipelago, with suggestions for promoting commerce and colonisation. Sec. London (Jones and Causton) : 1857^ 12ma, map [pp. 26-31 refer to annexation of New Guinea]. 'Boudeuse' de 'Btoile.'— See Bougainville; Bougainville, Ii. A. de. — Voyage autour du Monde par la Frigate du Roi ' La Boudeuse ' et la Flftte • L'fitoile ' en 1706, 1767, 1768 et 176D. Paris : 1771, 4to. (also 1772, 2 vols. 8vo.)' [Voyage in June, 1768, along tho south coast of New Guinea, doubling the eastern point.] Bowerbank, J. 8. — Description of five new siiecies of Sponges discovered by A. B. Meyer on the Philippine Islands and New Guinea. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1877, p. 456. Bradley, H. H. B. — The Aranoides of the ' Chevcrt^ Expedition. Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wale$, i. 1876, pp. 137-150 (see also p. 222 and p. 240) ; ii. 1878, pp. 115- 120. ''Bramble* and ' Oastlereagh.' — Extract of a letter during survey in these 8hii)s in 1840, referring to tlie south-west coast of the Louisiadca Nautical Magazine, 1850, pp. 361-365. SeeTule. Brauw, C. P. de. — Reis naar Banda, do Geram-kut-Eilandeu, het Zuid-VVestelijk gedeelte van Nieuw-Guinea, de Aroe- en de Zuid-Westereilanden door Z. M. Schoonerbrik ' Egmond ' . . . Feb. . . . Mei 1852. In Tindal and Swart's Ver- handdingen en Berigten betrekkende de Ztevaart, het Zeeioezen, en de KdUmien (Amsterdam), 1854, xiv. pp. 205-217, xv. p. 194. Braiier, John.^Description of thirty-live new species of Land Shells collected during the'Chevert' Expedition. Jfroc. Linn. Soc N. S. Walea, i, 1876, pp. 98- il3. 292 BIBLIOORAPHT OF NEW GUINEA. [Bxmsiar, John]— Llit of Land Shells ooUeoted during the 'CheTert* Expedition. L. 0. pp. 117-183. A List of the Pleurotomidss collected during the 'Ohevert* Expedition, with the description of the new species. L. e. pp. 161-164. List of Marine Shells, with descriptions of the new species collected during the ' Gherert ' Expedition. L. e. pp. 169-181. ' MolluBca collected during the ' Ghevert ' Expedition. L. e. pp. 199-215, 224- 240, 249-261, 283-301, 311-321, 362-368; op. eit. ii. 1878, pp. 1-6, 20-25 (see also p. 25 separately), 41-46, 46-58, 65-60, 74-89 (seo also p. 120), 128-135, 143- 145, 368 and 369; op. eit. iii. 1878, p. 156. ' Bromo '. — See Oldenborgh. Brown, [Dr.] Bobert.— The (Countries of the World. London (Cassell) : n. d. 4to. [vol. ir. pp. 236-243, illustrations]. Races of Mankind. London (Cassell) : n. d., 4to. [vol ii. pp. 86-118, illus- trations : The Papuans or Oceanic Negroes]. BruUn, A. A. — Bijdrage tot de Land- en Yolkenkunde van Nieuw-Ouinea. Nut, Tijdt. Ned. IndiS, xxxvii. 1877, pp. 182-194. [Reproduced as] Het Land der Karons. Tijd$. Aardr. Oenootieh., iii. 1879, pp. 102-106. - [Abstracted by Meyners d'Estrey, as] Les Karons, Les Kebars, et Les Amberbaks. Annaiet de VExtrtme Orient, i. 1878-79, pp. 338-343. BrumnncU X !*• O* — Proeve over de Aroe-taal. Tijdi. Ned. Indie, ii. p. 820. Brunialtl, A.— Recente Esplorazioni nelia Nuova Guinea. Boll. Soc. Oeogr. Itah, (2) i. 1876, pp. 21-38. [Beccari, the 'Vettor Pisani,' 'Challenger,' Maclay, Macleay, Eugliidi Missions, Sec] La Nuova Ouinea e la questione delle Colonic. L'Htploratore, vii. 1883, pp. 273-277. Brutel de la Biviftre, J. M. J. — Reis van Z.M. Schooner ' Circe ' naar Nieuw- Guinea. [Aiyi'nt of surveying expedition along north coast and among the islands in M&.^ !^- Tune, 1850.] In J. M. Obreen's Tijdichri/t toegemjd aan het Zeewetm (Amstc: 'xca), 2ad ser., xi. 1851, pp. 353-382, map. See De Bruyn Kops. Butler, A. O.— Descriptions of new species of Lepidoptora from New Guinea, with notice of a new genus. Proc. Zod. Soc., 1876, p. 765. On a collection of Lepidoptera from Gape York and the south-east coast of New Guinea. Op. eit. 1877, p. 466. CabaniB, J., & Belohenow, A.— Uebersicht der auf der Expedition Sr. Maj. Schiff 'Gazelle' gesammelten Vogel. Journal fUr Omithologie (Leipzig), 1876, pp. 319-330 [see Salvadori, Proe. Zool. Soc. 1877, pp. 194-196]. Cambiaso, Ii. — Perlustrazione dell' entrata sud dello Stretto di Galevo. Cotmot, iii. 1875-6, pp. 107-116. Cameron, John. — [Yisit to New Guinea, July-Nov. 1883], Sydney Morniny Herald, Nov. 23, 1883. Campbell, [Iiord] George. — Log Letters from the ' Challenger.' London (Mac- millan): 1876, 8vo., map [pp. 247-268 refer to visit to Humboldt Bay in Feb. 1875]. ,,,. BIBUOORAPHY OF NEW QUINEA. 99a Oampwlo, H.— Le ultime notiaie geognfiohe lulle Spedixioni .... nells NuoTa Guinea. Boll. Soc. Qtogr. Hal., (2) i. 1876, pp. 122-127. Reoenti Eaplorazioni nella Nuora Ouinea. L. e. pp. 164-174. Oandtes. B.— Relertf des £laMrid«i reoueillii dam leu lies Halalses, k la Nouvelle Goinfc et au Cap York, par MM. G. Doria, 0. Becoari, et L. M. D'Albertig. Ann. Mu$. Civ. Genova, xil. 1877-78, pp. 99-143; addiUon, op. cit. xr. 1879-80, pp. 188-198. Oantonu, Jan.— [Journal of his voyage in 1628 published by L. G. D. Tan Dijk in] JUtthdetlingm uit het Ooit-Indiaeh ^roAfe^ (Amsterdam), i. 1859, 8vo.; see also Leupe, 'lUizen der Nederlanders, ' p. 8, and Van d«r Aa, 'Kritisch Ovsrzioht,' 1883, p. 198. Nieuw-Guinea, 1623. Bijdragm tot de Tool- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nedetiandtch Jndii, (2) ii. 1858, pp. 43-46. Oauvin, O. — M^moire sur Lea Races de POo^me. Arehtvei des Miuhns Seien- tiflques et Lxtt6rairea, (3) viii. 1882, pp. 313-489, table. [Les Papous, p. 446 ; Nouvelle Gulnte, pp. 461-456.] Oerruti, O. IL — ^Esplorazloni alia Nuova Guinea [1870]. Qazzetta Piemontete (Torino) for Sept. 1, 0, 15, 22 and 29, and Oct. 6, 1872. Coemos, i. 1873, pp. 147-152. See also A-^tOand, xlvi. 1873, p. 934. Esploradone delio Stretto di Galevo. Coemos, i. 1873, pp. 152-159, map vii. Esplorazione delle bale Freshwater e Alexandra. Tom. cit. pp. 270-278, map xii. ■ Cenni sal clima dolla Costa N.O. della Nuova Guinea. Tom. eit. pp. 279 and 280. Esplorazione delle Isole Kei. Op. cit. ii. 1874, pp. 97-101. ' On his recent explorations in north-west New Guinea. Report ef the AQth Meeting of the British Association /or the Advancement of Science, Qh^ovr, 1876, p. 182. Cesatl, Vinoexuo de. — Prospetto delle Felci raccolte dal Sign. 0. Beccari nella Polinesia, durante ii suo seoondo Yiaggio d'explorazione in quel mari. Bendiconto delta Beale Accademia deUe Scieme fisiche e mcUematiche di Napoli, 1877, Feb. [Ferns from New Guinea included.] 'Challenger.' — See Baker, Oampbell, Dickie, Moeeley, Spry,'^ Wild, Willemoes-Buhm. , Der ' Challenger ' Im ostlichen Archipelagus. Globus, xvii. 1875, pp. 73-75 [Aru and Kei islands]. Bezoek van de ' Challenger ' op Nieuw-Guinea. Tij'ds. Aardr. Oenootsch., i. 1876, pp. 823-325. Chalmers, [Bev.] Jas. — ^Letters from Mr. and Mrs. Chalmers, with Report of Capt. Dudfield in Sydney Morning Herald, March 28, 1878 ; translated in Bulletin de la SociM de Oiographie d'Anvers, ii. 1878, pp. 503-520. Also in Chron. Land. Miss. Soc., 1878, pp. 219-224; and AUgemeine Missions Zeitschrift, Jan. 1879. [Journey with Mr. Chester in 1878.] Toum and Country Journal, Sydney, Sept 14, 1878. • New Guinea, an inland journey [July 1879]. \Chrim, Lond. Miss. Soc., 1880, pp. 77-80, cut. S94 ^IBUOQRAPHr or MEW GUINEA. [OhaliiMn, B«y. Ju.]— Ntw Quinea [Journey near Qoldie Rivtr in 1879]. ^'^• R. 0. 8., (D.I.) ii. 1880. pp. 816 and 816. Further Eiplorationi in New Guinea [with Her. T. Beawkk, Aug. 1880]. Op. eit. iU. 1881, pp. 226 and 227, and Chron. Lond. Miu. Soe., 1880, pp. B6-40 (Kahatl). New Ouinea. Fint weeka at South Cape. Chron. Lond. Miu. Soc, 1888, pp. 142-146, woodout. ' [Jonm^ along ooaat in canoe. Dee. 1883]. Proo. R. a. /GL, (n A) tU 1884, p. 166. See BMWiok. MaoflglMW. Kaw Ouliwa Miaaion. S^n«y MaO^ Jan. 6^ 1884 Ohaatar, H. M.— [Journey to Toot, Tnd, or Warrior Iiland, Torres Strait, and the south coast of New Ouinea.] Queeniland Esepnu, Jan. 14 and Feb. 18, 1871 ; Petermann'$ Geographuche MittheUungen, xviii. 1872, pp. 264-266. Acoouut, with Instnioticms, of Journey up the Baxter river or Mai-cuaiar in December 1877. Bri$bane Courier, Jan. 29, 1878 ; Pefermann's Oeogr. MitthtU., xziv. 1878, pp. 242 and 243. Report of Journey in the 'Ellengowan* in July 1878. Briibane Couritr, Aug. 12, 1878, and Sydney Morning Herald, Aug. 16, and Sept 24, 26, 1878. Voyage da M. M. Chester sar la cdte mjridionale de la Nouvelle Guinde. VExplmUion, vii. 1879, pp. 366-359 [transUted by J. Qirard from last reference]. La Nuova Guinea. Roma (Fide) : 1879, 8to. SeeOhalman. 'Chavert* — See Allayne, Bradley, Maolaay, Xaatera. *Oiroa.'— See Brutal de la Bivltoe, De Brusm Kopa. Clarke, M. — [Visit to Saibai Island.] Briibane Courivr, January 26, 1874; Cotmoe, ii. 1874, pp. 108 and 109. [Oookerall, J. T.]— Cockerell's Besuch auf den Aru-InseliK Olobut, xxv. 1874, pp. 298-296, illustrations. Ooello, Franolaea — Nota sobra los Pianos de his Bahlas deaoubiertas, el aflo de 1606, en las Islas del Espiritu Santo y de Nueva Guinea, que dibujo el Capitan Don Diego de Prado y Torar, en igual fecha. lidktin de la Soeiedad Qeografica de Madrid, iv. 1878, pp. 67-86, map i. ' CkMtloKon.'— [VLdt of this French vessel to Dorei in 1876 : in] Ber. Utrecht. Zend., 1876, p. 204. Colonial Inatitute Deputation to Earl Carnarvon, Account ot Proceeding* qf the Royal Colonial Institute, vi. 1875, pp. 189-204. SeeTiele. Comrie, [Dr.] Peter. — Exhibition of, and remarks on, Zoological specimens collected during the Survey by H.M.S. < Basilisk ' of the south-east coast of New Guinea. Proc. Zod. Soc., 1876, p. 422. — — Anthropological Notes on New Guinea. Journ. Anthrop. Intt., vi. 1877, pp. 102-119, pi. L and table. See also Globus, xxxi. 1877, pp. 87-9a [This writer is the " Comire" of various continental references.] Comyn, F, 8.— Letter on Annexation in Anglo-Australasian, Nov. 1875. . [Cook, Capt. Jamea.]— An Account of the Voyages undertaken by the Order of His present Majesty for making discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere, and BiBLiooRArar or new guinea. Mft ■noooMirely pwrfonned hj Goamodon Byron, Captain WtllU, Captain Carterat, and Captain Cooli, in the ' Dolphin,' tho • Swallow,' and the • Endeavoar.' . . By John Hawkeaworth, ll.d. London (Strahan and Cadell) : 1773, 3 vols. 4to., map* and illnatrationii. [Vol. iil. pp. 246-257 deioribe the voyage along sonth coast and Unding in Aug. 1770, on Cook'a Pint Voyage.] Ooormc*!, J. O.— Jonmaal eener leia naar Miaool, Onin, en de Oeelvinkhai, van October tot December, 1872, door den GouTcmements-CommiMarta J. 0. Coorangel, Oud-Hcsident van Timor. In Van dar Aa'a * Reisen naar Neder- landioh Nieuw-Guinea,' 1879, pp. 178-210. . * Ooqullla.* — See Dupamy. Oors, Ottida— Spedizione Italiana alia NuoTa Guinea. Cenni di Ouido Cora. Roma (Givelli): 1872, 12mo. [Alio abbreviated a8"Un Viaggiatore Italiano alia Nuova Guinea " in the Oiomale popolare di Viaggi, It. 1872, pp. 66-68.] OrAwftird, J.— A DescrfptlTe Dlotlonnry of the Indian Islands and adjacent countries. London (Bradbury & Evans) : 1866, 8va, maps [pp. 297-800]. See also Journal of the Ethnologieal Society «f London, i. 1848, pp. 334 and 836. D*Alb«rtia, L. M.— Un mese Tra i Papuan! del Monte Arfak. Boll. 8oe. Oeogr, Ital, X. 1878, fasc. 2, pp. 67-71. — — A Month among tho Papuans of Mount Arfak, New Guinea, being extracts ftom the Journal of Lulgi M. D'Albertis, of the Italian Natural History Expedi- tion. Translated and edited by Dr. O. Bennett Sydney Mail, May 31, June 7, 1878; Nature, viii. 1873, pp. 601-603, ix. 1874, p. 482; Comot, I. 1873,. pp. 218-220. Notes on Birds collected In New Guinea. Proe, Zool. Soe., 1873, p. 667. Characters of a new Species of Kanproo (Halmaturus luctnosus) from New Guinea. Op. eit. 1874, p. 110. La Nuova Guinea. £oll. Soc. Oeogr. Ital., xi. 1874, pp. 311-820. See also Sydney Morning Herald, Oct. 22, 1876, March 1876 ; Tijds. Aardr, Genooteeh., i. 1876, p. 322 ; Schwlch, Bulletin de la SociAe de OA>graphie de Lyon, I. pp. 366-372. [Letters from]. Boll. Soe. Geogr. Bed., xll. 1876, pp. 158-160 (quoted from letter in Biviita Marittima, viii. 1876, pt. 2) ; also /. c. pp. 488-499, map, and Cownos, Iil. 1875, pp. 103-107, 221-230. Letter from, giving some account of several excursions into Southern New Guinea. Pioc. Zool. See., 1875, p. 530; 1876, p. 519. ' Proposed further Exploration of New Guinea. The Colonien (London), 187G (May 27) p. 141. Remarks on the Natives and Products of the Fly River, New Guinea. Proc. B. G. S., XX. 1876, pp. 843-366 [Extract from lettei^ in Sydney Morning Eeratd, March 1876] ; Globua, xxx. 1876, p. 23. See also 11 Oiomale delle CoUmie (Roma), No. 157, July 1, 1876 ; Sydney Mail, Oct. 13, 1876 (and Jan. 20, 1877); Bolt. Soc. Oeogr. Ital., (2) i. 1876, pp. 677-680; Verhandlungen de* naturwiuenicha/tlichen Vereins von Hamburg-Altona, ii. 1876 ; Nature, xv. 1877, pp. 165 and 452 ; Joum. Anthrop. Inst., vi. 1877, pp. 214-223 ; Zeitschri/t der Oetdlscha/t/Qr Erdkunde zu Berlin, xii. 1877, pp. 22 and 23, 147-150. -*New Guinea Exploration (Extract from the Log-book of the steam-launch. • Neva '). Report to the Colonial Secretary, New South Wales. Sydney, 1877, 4to. 996 BIBUOGRAPHY OP NEW OUINiU. alio London (Trilbner), 1878, fol. 8m kIm Sydney Mail, Jan. 1877, reprintad with prafaca by O. Bennett aa Journal of the Kxpeditinn for tha Exploration of the Fly Hirer, Sydney (White), 1877, 8vo. ; aim Sydnry Morning Ntrald, March 8, 1878, tranalated in Bull. Soe. Giogr. dPAnvtrt, ii. 1878, pp. 474-601 ; VEfjilo- raltoN, vii. 1870, pp. 110, 170, 240 { Natun, xvii. 1878, p. 388, quoting letter in Jl Movimento. [D'Alb«rtia. L. ]I.>-D'Albertia'a Yordringen auf dem Fly in daa Centnim New Guinea's. Neuo lieiae. Ptttmumn^t Otogr. JUittktil., xxiii. 1877, pp. 41, 102, 802, 807. -^— Letter on Flora of New Guinea quoted ; Nature, xv. 1877, p. 488. Notes on some IMrda collected during the Exploration of the Fly River. Sydney Mail, Feb. 24, 1877 ; Ibit, 1877, pp. 86»-872. — Note intorno ad alouni Ucoelli raccolti durante la exploraaione del Flume Fly. Tnuluziune con not! di T. Salvadori. Ann. Mut. Civ. Qenova, x. 1877, pp. 5-20. Osservazioni sugll abitanti ed i prodotti del flume Fly. CotmM, iv. 1877, pp. 102-105. ■ Secondo viaggio sul flume Fly. Yiaggio dalla coata al centre della Nuova Guinea. L. c. pp. 105-100 (niso p. 110) ; Sydney Mail, March 16, 1878 ; Boll. Soc. Geogr. Hal, (2) iii. 1878, pp. 106-108; Petermann'$ Oeogr. Mitthcil., xxiv. 1878, pp. 108, 423-426, map xxiii. [Summary of his work.] Co$mot, v. 1878, pp. 118 and 110. — — New Guinea: Its fltness for Colonisation. [Lecture before R. Colonial Institute, Dec. 17, 1878.] Colonies and India, Dec. 21, 1878; Pi-oe. B. Cot. Inst., X. 1878-70, pp. 43-68; Petermann't Geogr. MitHuU., xxr. 1870, pp. 275-280. See also Lindcman, Deuttche Geogr. Blatter, iv. 1881, pp. 122-128. I miei ultimi Viaggi alia Nuova Guinea. Nuova Antologia di Scienee ed Arti, xlii. 1870, No. 1. Exhibition of some new and rare birds from the Fly river, New Guinea. Proe. Zool. Soc., 1870, p. 218. Journeys up the Fly river and in other parts of New Guinea. Proe. B. G. S., (n.8.) i. 1870, pp. 4-16, map ; Boll. Soc. Oeogr. Hal., (2) iv. 1870, pp. 11-26, map. ■ New Guinea: What I did and what I saw. London (Sampson Low & Co.) : 1880, 2 vols. Bvo., map and plates. [Translated into Italian, 'Alia Nuova Guinea,' Roma (Bocca), 1880, and French (by F. Bernard), Paris, 1883, 8vo. See also review by A. R. Wallace, Nature, xxiii. pp. 152, 175. Expeditions sur le Fleuve Fly, Nouvelle Guinde. 2'our du Monde, xliv. 1882, pp. 321-336. See Antoine, Beooaii, Oeatro, Salvador!, Semper. & Salvadori, T. — Catalogo degli Uccelli taccolti da L. M. D'Albertis durante la 2a e 3a csplorazione del Finme Fly negli anni 1876 e 1877. Ann. Mut. Civ. Genova, xiv. 1870, pp. 21-147. [See Salvadori & D'Albertis.] De Bruyn Kopa, G. T. — Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Noord- en Oostkustcn von Nieuw-Guinea. Nat. Tijdt. Ned. Indie, i. 1850, pp. 163-235, map. Translated in the Journal of the Indian Archipelago and EoBtem Asia, [vi. 1852, pp. 303- 348, as " Contributions to the knowledge of the North and East Coasts of New Guinea," Voyage of the ' Circe' in 1840-50, with map. — — See Brutel de la Rivitoe. ), xliv. invau ilated 303- New DIBLIOORAPHY OP NEW GUINEA. 397 DMkcrt, X.— Nouguinca, beimiulerR mlt Bociehung auf duutitohe CuloniMtiona* bMtnbungen. xviii., xix. u. xx. Juhmbtrieht da Vereini fir Krdkuhdn mu Drttdtn, 1883, p. 47, and Vtrhnndlungm drr (ItHlhchaftfUr ErdkuHtletu Derlin, X. 1883, p. 89. PubliMhed In full In Allymeine Zntumj, Nov. 27, 1882, No. 331. IMargjr [Oapt]— Viiit In the 'Active,' 1800; JUtutmUd Travth, edited by H. W. Dateih ii. pp. 287-280. Danikar, J.— Les Papimt de la Nouvello Guinitans do Tile Waigiou," pp. 585-500. Vol. ii. pp. 628-601, astronomical and utlcir observations ip Waigiou.] See LabiUardiAre. Deagrai, — .—See Dumont D'Urville. [Dialeotio Publloationa.]— Spel- en Loenlioekje voor de Scholen up Nieuw- Ouinea. Utrecht (Kondnlc) : 1807, 8vo. Hot Evangelie van Markus overgezot uit de Ncdcrduitsche in de Papocsch- Noefoorsohe TaaL Utrecht (Kcmink) : 1870 and ) 971, 8vo. See A. E Meyer, Bijdr. Taal-, Ac, Ned. Indie, (3) x. 1875, pp. 388-392, with note by U. Kern. Buka kunana le/aleva tuahia adipaia. First School-book in the language of Port Moresby, New Guinea. Sydney : 1877, 8vo. ' Buka kunana haroharo vahaia adipama. First School-book, printed in tho language of Hood Bay, New Guinea. Sydney : 1878, 8vo. See Oeiaaler, Haaaelt, Ottow, Rinnooy, Zohn. Dickie, [Prof.] Qeo. — Contributions to the Botany of the Expedition of H.M.S. 'Challenger.' Algoo, chiefly Polynesian. Joum. Linn. Soc (Bot), xv. 1877. IV. Algffi collected by Mr. Moeeley from the surface of the sea among drift-wootl 70 miles north-east of the Ambernich river. New Guinea. VI. Algas collected by Mr. Moseley at the Aru Islands ; pp. 241 and 242. Bietrioh, O. — Papua>frauen und Kinder von Oniutu (Tanah-Berau, Nordkiiste des Macluergolfes in New Guinea, c. 135° O. L.). Kannibalen. (Photograph) Tijdtchrift van het Indiich Aardrijkskundig OenooUehap (Samarang), i. 1880, Afl. ii. [see also Qlobut, xxxii. 1877, p. 111]. Kapeur (Nieuw-Quinea). [Sketch map with various observations; text]. L. e. Afl. i. D^k, L. O. D. van.— See Carstenss. Doria, Qiaoomo.— Enumerazione dei Rettili raccolti del Dott. 0. Boccari . . alle Isole Aru ed alia Isola Kei durante gli anni 1872-73. Ann, Mvb. OenotxK, vl 1874, pp. 325-357, pis. xi. and xii. I Katurtilisti Italiati alia Nuova Guinea e specialmente dellc loro scoperte zoologiche. JtoU. Soc. Geogr. Ital, (2) ill. 1878, pp. 154-160. no Civ. ■ i\ UIBUOGRAPHT OF MEW GOINEA. •Dourga.'— Sec Kolir. Dubouaet, — w— See Dumont IVUrvlUe. Dubrony, A. — Enumeration des Orthoptires rappoit^s par MM. J. Dotia, 0. Beccari, et L. M. D'Albertis des r^ons Indienne et Austro-Malaice. Ann. Mus. Civ. Genom, xiv. 1879, pp. 348-383. Dudfleld [Capt.]— See Ohalmen. , \ , . ... i Duivenbode, M. D. BeniMe van. — [Notes on his 30 years' trade experiences in New Guinea, and death] Van der Aa, ' Ueisen naar Nederhmdsoh Nieuw- Guinea,' 1879, pp. 215 and 459. Dumont D'Urville, J.— Voyage de la CJorvette ' L'Astrolahe' .... pendant les ann^es 1826-1829. Histoire du Voyage, iv. (1832) pp. 541-612. Paris (Tastu) : 8vo. See Boisduval, Oaimard, Quoy tc Oaimard, Biohard. Voyage an Pole Sud et dans I'Oc^anie aur les Gonrettes ' TAstroIabe ' et * la Z^l^'. . . . pendant les ann^es 1837-1838-1839-1840. Paris (Gide): 1842-54, 22 vols. 8vo., Atlas 7 vols. fo. [Histoire du Voyage, vi. 1844, pp. 21-26, 108- 145 (March-May, 1839) and notes pp. 296-315, by Jacquinot, Dubouzet, Marescot, Montravel, Desgraz, and Hombron.] See Dumoulin, Dumoutier. Dumoulin, Vinoendon. — Hydrographie : in Dumont DUrville's Voyage supnt ii. 1851, pp. 135-147, with various other incidental references, and map No. 24 of Atlas Hydrographique. Dumoutier, — . — Anthropologie : in Dumont D'Urville's Voyage $upm, 1854, pp. 112-120, with pis. 11, 16, 33-35 of Atlas Anthropologique. Duperrey, Ii. I.— -Voyage autour du Monde . . . sur . . . «La Coqnille,' Hydro- graphie et Physique (1829), p. 56*. Paris (Bertrand) : 4to. Histoire du Voyage, Atlas (1826), pis. 29-37. Hydrographie, Atlas (1827), pp. 12, 16, 17, maps 12, 15, 34-36. [Route and observations along northern coast, Aug. 1823. The text of the ' Histoire du Voyage * is incomplete, and does not touch New Guinea. Parts of the first oflBcer Dumont D'Urville's journal referring to New Guinea are given in the ' Voyage Pittoresque autour du Monde ' published under his direction Paris, 1885, ii. pp. 188-190, 200-203, and in G. L. D. de Rienzi's 'Univers pittoresque, Oc&inie,' Paris, 1837, iii. pp. 317-320, 326-329.] See BloBseville, IiesBon, B. P. Dutch ClaimB.— [Proclamation of Dutch possession on north coast to 141° E. long.} Staats-Courant, Sept. 2fi, 1829 ; BttU. Soc. Giogr., xii. 1829,5)p. 168-170. [As to south coast, see Stedenbaoh.] Nouvelle Guinfe. Le Mcniteur des Indet, [ii.] 1847-1848, 2"« partie (Revuo Coloniale), pp. 72 and 73. [For 1824 Treaty, see Hertslet's * Complete Collection of Treaties,' iii. 1827, p. 284.] Dutch Settlement in New Guinea. — Asiatic Journal and Monthly Jiegitter, (n.s.) XXV. 1838, p. 59. Dyer, W. T. Thiseltoiu— On the Diptcrocarpaceas of New Guinea. Journal of Botany, 1878, pp. 98-103. BIBUOOiRAPHr OF NEW GUINEA. 399 Earl, a«org8 WindBor. — On the leading cbataeteristics of the Papuan, Auatia- lian, and Malayu-Polynesian Nations. Journal <^ the Indian Arch^Utgo and Eaitem Atia, iii. Nov. 1849, pp. 682-689 ; iv. 1850, pp, 1-10, 66-74, 17Si-181. The Trading Ports of the Indian Archipelago. Op. cit. iv. p. 246 [Adi Island], p. 247 [Aiduma and Aiou or Yowl]. The Native Races of the Indian Archipelago. Papuans (Vol. i. of the Ethnographical Library, conducted by Edwin Norris). London (BaiUiere) : 1868, 8vo., maps, plates [pp. 1-92 refer to New Guinea]. See Pijnappel, B^jdr. Taal- dtc. Ned. Indie, ii. pp. 344-370. Eaton, [Bev.] A. E. — Palingenias papuanss, specie! Ephemeridarum novae, diag- nosis. Ann. Jim, Civ. Oemma, xiv. 1879, pp. 898-400. •Egeron.*— [Voyages of this steamer in 1875-76: in] Kdloniaal Verdag, 1877, p. 36. See Hartog. . .7 < EgmoncL* — See Brauw. BUbergen, H. C. van.— Korte Woordenlijst van de taal der Aroe- en Keij-eilandeu. Tijds. Ind. Taal', Land; en VMenkunde, xiv. 1864, pp. 557-568. Verslag eener Reis naar de Aroe en Eeij-eilanden in de maand Junij, 1862. Op. «Y. XV. p. 220. .... in de maanden April en Mei, 1864. L. c. p. 293. * EUengowan.*— See Chester, MaoFarlane. 'Endeavour.' — SeeLeupe. Engler, A. — Aracee specialmente Bomeensi e Papuane raccolte da 0. Beocari. BuUettino della, B. Soeietd Toscana d^Orticultura, iv. 1879, Nos. 9 and 10. [Includes also some collected by D'Albertis on the Fly river.] Etheridge, B., Jun. — Notes on the Geology of New Guinea. Geological Magazine, (njL) iii. 1876, p. 428 [on Wilkinson's work]. [Ethnology] — Catalogus der ethnologische Afdeeling van het Museum van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen. Tweede Druk. Batavia (Braining) : 1877, 8vo. [Pp. 154-162 refer to New Guinea.] See Anthropology. ' Etna.'— [Cruise of the Resident of Temate, J. H. Tobias, in this Dutch steamship iu 1857 on the north coast.] Kdloniaal Verslag, 1857, p. 57. See Friedmann, Bo^er. FabritiuB, O. I.— Aanteekeningen omtrent Nieuw-Guinea. Tijds. voorlnd. Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde (Batavia), iv. 1855, pp. 209-215. Fauvel, A. — Les Staphylinides des Moluques et de la Nouvelle Guin^. Ann. Mm. Civ. Qenova, xii. 1877-78, pp. 171-315, pis. i. and ii. ; xv. 1879-80, pp. 63-121. Pfeis, Baiile.— La Nouvelle Guin^. Sevue Scientifique, 1884 (No. 36, April 12), pp. 461-468. Finaoh, Otto. — Neu-Guinea und seine Bewohner. Berlin (MUller): 1865, 8vo., map. On Pristorhamphus versteri, a new genus and species of Bird from the Arfak Mountains, New Guinea. Proc. Zod. Soc., 1875, p. 641. VOL. I. T gaw 800 BIBUOGRAPRT OF NEW GUINEA. (TinMh, Otto]— Reise nach Neu-Guinea. Verhandlungm der Berliner OeteU' achnftfOr Anthrcpdogie, Ethnologie, und UryeichicMe, 1882, pp. (309>-(313)> Tdpferei in Neu-Ouinea. X. e. pp. (674)-(676>. Ueber weisse Papuas. Zeitachriftfiir Ethnologie, xt. 1883, pp. 206-206. Visit to New Guinea. Proc. B. G. 8., (n.8.) tL 1884, pp. 88 and 89. — — — Anthropologiwhe Ergebnisse einer Reise in der SUdaee und dem malayiachen Arohipel in den Jahrea 1879-1882. Beschreibender Catalog der auf der Beise gesammelten Gesichtsmarken von Volkertypen. Berlin (Asher) : 1884, large 8vo., pis. [Neu-Guinea, pp. 41-54.] [Fleurieu, Charles Pierre Claret de.]— IMoouvertes des Fran9oi8 en 1768 et 1769 dans le Sud-est de la Nouvelle-Guin^ Paris : 1790, 4to., maps. Discoveries of the French in 1768 and 1769, to the south-east of New Guinea, with the subsequent visits to the same lands by English navigattnrs, who gave them new names. To which is a£Szed an historical abridgment of the Voyages and Discoveries of the Spaniards in the same seas. Translated from the French. London (Stockd^e) : 1791, 4to., maps. ninders, M. — A Voyage to Terra Australis ... in the years 1801, 1802, and 1803 in H.M.S. the ' Investigator,' &c. London (Nicol) : 1814, 2 vols. 4to., plates and atlas. [Vol. i., Introduction, pp. xxx.-xlv. give the journals of Gapt W. Bampton, who in June- Aug. 1793, visited the south coast in the * Hormnzeer,' in company with Capt. Matthew B. Alt in the * Chesterfield.' P. xxvii. contains the account of taking possession of the islands between New Guinea and Cape York by Captain Bligh on his second voyage, in 1792.] * Fly.'^See Jukes. Foley, — . — Quatre Ann^s en Ocdanie. Histoire de I'Homme et des Soci^t^s qu'il organise, mceurs et coutumes de certains Papons Australieus, &c. Paris : 1876, 2 vols. 8vo. Fontpertuis, — de. — La Nouvelle-Guin^e ; sa geographic, ses races, et ses explorateurs. Bevtie (kientyique, 1881, Oct 1, et Hq. Forrest, [Capt] Thomas.— A Voyage to New Guinea, and the Moluccas, from Balambimgan ; including an account of Magindano,Sooloo, and other Islands; . . . performed in the ' Tartar' Galley, belonging to the Honourable East India Com- pany, during the years 1774, 1775, and 1776. London (Scott) : 1779, 4to., maps and plates ; 2nd ed., with index, 1780. Also in French, Paris, 1780, 4to. Forster, W. T.— The Wreck of the ' Maria ' ; or, Adventures of the New Guinea Prospecting Association. Sydney: 1872, 8vo. Reproduced in the Nautical Magazine, xli. 1872, pp. 809-817, 902-908, 965-971 ; xlii., 1878, pp. 41-49. Freigang, Ludwig. — Auf Neu Guinea. Neun Jahre unter den Orang-Woks. Leipzig : 1878, 12mo. See Tr^ganoe. Frenael, A. — ^Mineralogisches aus dem Ostindischen ArchipeL Jahrhuch der k.-k. gedogischen Beichtamtall (Wien), xxvii. 1877 (Neu-Guinea : pp. 306-308). Freyoinet, IiOtiis de. — Voyage de De'couvertes aux Terres Australeii, exteut^ sur les corvettes ' le Geographe,' ' le Naturaliste,* et la goelette * la Casiiarina,' pendant les ann^ 1800-4, sous le commandement du Capitaine de vaisseau N. Baudin. Paris: 1815, 4to. Navigation et Gdographie, p. 462, atlas (1812), pi. 1. Voyage autour du Monde . . . ix6cat6 sur les corvettes de S.M. 'rUranie ' et < la Physicienne ' pendant les Ann^s 1817, 1818, 1819, et 1820. Paris (Pillet) : ■ k.-k. BIBUOORAPHT OF NEW GUINEA. 1826-44, 9 vols. 4to., 4 vols. fo. HiBtoriqne, ii. pt 1, 1889, and Atlas Historiqae [Refer to north-western islands of New Guinea.] [Fnyoinet, Louia da]— See Oaudlohaud, and Quoy ft Oaimaid. Triedmann, [Dr.] 8. — ^Ueber die Zust&nde und YoriUlIe in Niederlandisoli-Indien in den Jahren 1867 und 1868. Znfe. aOg. Erdkunde, (n.{.) xii. 1862, p. 446. [Dutch disooveries in New Guinea by Roijer in the * Etna.*] Die Nordwestkfiste von Neu-Guinea. Op. eit. xiiL 1862, pp. 270-282. Die 08t-Ariati8che Inselwelt. Land und Leute von Niederl&ndisch Indien : den Sunda Inseln, den Molukken, sowie Neu Guinea. Beise, Erinnenmgen und Schilderungen, aufgezeichnet wfthrend seines Aufentlialtcs in Holl&ndiach-Ost- Indien. Leipzig (Spamer) : 1868, 2 vols. 8vo., maps and illustrations. See Malte-Bmn. iranie •illet) : Proidevllle, H. J. Monod de. — Reis van den Kontroleur H. J. Honod de Fioide- ville op Zr. Haj. schroefstoomschip ' Batavia,' onder bevel van den Luiten&nt ter see eerste klasse H. van der Heer, van 20 tot 30 Juni, 1882, naar Wtdgeoe, eerst naar Saonek en verder beoosten Waigeoe om naar de op de noordkust liggende Fofag- en Rossel-Baaien. Onderzoek naar de niet bestaande Duif-Eilanden. Jaarboek der k. Nederhmdseh Zeemagt, 1881-1882, pp. 381 and 382 ; Kolmiaal Vertlag, 1883, p. 20 (Von der As, ' Kritisch Overzicht,' 1883, pp. 226-231). Gabelenti, Georg von der, & Meyer, A. B. — ^Beitrfige zur Kenntniss der Melanesischen, Mikronesischen, und Papuanischen Sprachen, ein erster Nachtrag zu Hans Conon's von der Gabelentz Werke "Die Melanesischen Sprachen." Ahhandlungen der phiMogiKh-historiichen Claue der Kdnigl. SdchBuehm Oeiell- tchafi der Wusentehaften, viii. No. IV. pp. 371-642 (Leipzig, Hirzel: 1882). [Gontidns a vocabulary, with localities, of known Papuan words, llie original work of the elder Gabelentz has no reference to New Guinea except for comparison.] Gktimard, PauL — ^Vocabulaire de la langue des Papons du Port-Dorei (Nouvelle Gnin^), pp. 146-161, and Vocabulaire de la langue des Papons de Waigiou (Terre des Papous), pp. 162-156, in Philologie, pt. 2, 1834, of Dumont DTJrville's Voyage de * I'Astrolabe.' See Quoy. Oalton, J. C. — Dr. Von Miklucho Maclay's Researches among the Papuans. Nature, ix. 1874, pp. 828-330. The Ethnology of the Papuans of Maclay Coast, New Guinea. Op. cit. xiv. 1876, pp. 107-109 ; 136 and 137. Further Notes upon the Papuans of Maclay Coast, New Guinea. Op. cit, xxi. 1880, pp. 204-206, 226-229. [All practically reproductions of Miklucho- Maclay's articles, with notes and comments.] Oaudlohaud, C. — ^Botanique: in Freycinet's Voyage autour du Monde . . . sur .... M'Uranie' et 'la Physicicnne.' Paris: 1826, 4to. [pp. 52-59, Res des Papous, Rawak et Vaigiou.] ' Qaselle.'— See Cnbanis Sc Beiohenow, Martens, Naiunann, Sohleinitz, Btrauoh. Studer. [Qeelvink Bay.] — Map, &c., in Verhandelingen van Qeleerde Mantmi, iii. p. 185. See Weyland. T a - w^...--'MI«MB PiW 802 \ BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NEW GUINEA. Oelssler, J. O.— [Misaionoiy Journey in 1868.] Ber. Uirteht. Zend., 1869, p. 6. Faijasi rijo refo, &o. [Biblical history in the Haroor dialect.] Utrecht (Kemink): 1870, 8vo. PBalmen en Gezangen in de Noefoorsohe Taal. Utrecht (Kemink) : 1871, 8vo. it Jasrioh, — .— [Miadonary Journey in 1863.] Ber. Utrecht. Zend., 1864, No. 1<^ pp. 14 and 15. ft Ottow, P. W. — [Minionary Journey in 1858.] Licht en Schaduw in het Omten, Noe. 20 and 25. ft Van Hasaelt, — . — [Journey to Mefoor in 1868.] Ber. Utrecht. Zend., 1869, pp. 105-108 ; see also p. 109. See Ottow, Zahn. a«oIognr and FolaBontology.— See Btheridge, Freniel, Hombron, Wilkin- son, Woods. Oerlond, [Dr.] Oeorg.— Die Volker der SttdBoe. Zweite Abtheilung. Die Mikronesier und nordwestlichen Polynesier [Sect. 2 of Part Y. of Theodor Waltz's Anthropologic der NaturvSlker] : Leipzig (Fleischer) : 1870, 8vo. [Pp. 634-641 refer to New Guinea, with incidental references in the other parts of the diviuon ' Melanenen.'] Oestro, B. — Enumerazione dei Cetonidi raooolti nell' ArcipeUgo Malese e nella Papuasia dai Signori G. Doria, 0. Beccari, e L. M. D'Albertis. Ann. Mtu. Civ. Oenova, vi. 1874, pp. 487-636. [See also op. cit. xii. 1877-78, pp. 26-81 ; xiv. 1879, pp. 5-17.] Descrizione di un nuovo genere e di alcune nuove specie di Coleotteri Papuan!. Op. cit. vii. 1876, pp. 993-1027. Diagnose di alcune nuove specie di Coleotteri raccolte nella regione Austro- Malese dai Signori Dott. O. Beccari, L. M. D'Albertis, e A. A. Bruijn. Op. cit. viii. 1876, pp. 612-524. Enumerazione dei Longicomi della tribik dei Tmesistemini raccoiti nella regione Austro-Malese dai Sig. 0. Beccari, L. M. D'Albertis, e A. A. Bruijn. Op. cit. ix. 1876-77, pp. 139-182. Descrizione di una nuova specie di Lucanide del genere Gyclommatus, raccolto nella Nuova Guinea meridionale dai Sig. L. M. D'Albertis. Z. c pp. 324-326. Aliquot Buprestidarum novarum diagnoses. L. c. pp. 351-362 [including many from New Guinea]. [See also op. eit. %. 1877, p. 641 d seq."] Descrizione di nuovo specie di Coleotteri raccolto nella regione Austro- Malese dai Signer L. M. D'All)erti8. Op. cit. xiv. 1879, pp. 562-565. Enumerazione dei Lucanidi raccoiti nell' Arcipelago Malese e nella Papuasin dai Signori G. Doria, 0. Beccari, e L. M. D'Albertis. Op. cit. xvi. 1880, pp. 303-d47. Oiglioli, Enrico Hlllyer. — Odoardo Beccari cd i suoi Viaggi. Nuova Antdogia di Scienze et Arti, March 1873, pp. 658-709, May 1873, pp. 194-225, [Voyages in New Guinea]. Published separately, Firenze, 1874. See Archivio per V Antropdogia e la Etnologia (Firenze), v. 1876, pp. 113-121. I Papua della Nuova Guinea. Arch. Antrop. Etnol., iii. 1874, pp. 163-157. [Chiefly (pioting Beccari.] BIBUOGRAPHT OF NEW GUINEA. 808 [Oiglioll, Henrioo Hlllyer] — Indigeni della Nuova Oainea. Op. eit, iv. 1874, p. 434. The Italian Explorers of New Quinea. Oeajraphical Magazine, ii. 1875, pp. 103-105. Yiaggio intomo al globo della R. Pirocorvetta Italiana 'Magenta' negli anni 1865-<58. Milano (Maisner) : 1876, 4to., illustrations [p. 826 et teq., with cuts, refer to Papiuuu of New Guinea]. ' Notizie sni Nuovi^uineani e sui Maori. Arch. AtUrop. Etnd., ix. 1879, p. 353. SeeBeooarl. OIll, Pttev.] W. Wyatt— Three visits to New Guinea. Proc. It. 0. S., xviii. 1873, pp. 31-49 ; Joum. B. O. 8., xlW. 1874, pp. 15-30 ; Co$mos, i. 1873, pp. 228-225. New Guinea revisited. Sunday Magazint, (n.8.) iii. 1874, pp. 767-770, woodcuts. Life in the Southern Isles ; or Scenes and Incidents in the South Pacific and New Guinea. London (Religious Tract Society) : 1876, post 8vo., illustrations. Oirard, Jule8.--Les Connaissances actuelles sur la Nouvelle-Guinde. BuU. Soc. Giogr., (6) iv. 1872, pp. 449-479, map. —^-^ Voyages et d^uvertea dans la Nouvelle-Guinde. La Nature, December 13, 1873. Les Explorations rentes dans la Nouvelle-Guin^ Bull. Soe. Qiogr., (6) xiii. 1877, pp. 621-040. La Nouvelle-Guinde. Historique de la D^uverte, Description G^ra- phique. La Race Papoue, Mceurs et ooutumes des Indigenes, Produits du sol, GoIonisaUon. UEx^mution, xiv. 1882, pp. 793-800, 825-830, 865-869, 897-901, 929-935, map ; xv. 1883, pp. 1-5, 32-40. Also separately, Paris (Lev^) : 1883, 8vo., map. La prise de possession de la Nouvelle Guinde. V Exploration, xv. 1883, pp. 686-688. Oodman, F. D., & Balvin, O. — List of the Butterflies collected in Eastern New Quinea and some neighbouring Islands by Dr. Comrie during the voyage of H.M.S. ' Basilisk.' Proc. Zod. Soc., 1878, pp. 643-648, pi. xl. Descriptions of some supposed new species of Butterflies from New Guinea. Op. cit. 1880, p. 609. Ooldie, Andrevr. — [His natural history collecting expeditions in 1876, recorded in] Boll. &K. Oeogr. Hal., (2) ii. 1877, p. 258 (quoting MtHboume Argue) ; Zeite. Get. Erdkunde, xii. 1877, pp. 151-153 ; also as " Mr. Goldie's Reisen in Neu- Guinea," Audand, Ii. 1878, pp. 178 and 179. A Joiuney into the Interior of New Guinea from Port Moresby. Proc. B. G. S., xxii. 1878, pp. 219-223 [2nd Journey, July-Nov. 1877]. Tijeup«. Hoedt, 7). a— [Natural-history Collecting Journey to Mysol and the west coast, 1866-67.] Kdotiiaal Versing, 1868, p. 325, and 1870, p. 471. Hoevell, G. W. W. O. van. — OverdeBeteekenisvanhetwoordPapoeaof Pttpoewa. Bijdr. Taal., Ac. Ned. Indie, (4) iv. 1880, pp. 525 and 526. Hombron, — . — Aper9U g^logique et ethnologique de TAustralie et de la Nouvelle Guintfe. Nouvellea Annales des Voyages, cvi. (5"" s^r. i.) 1845, pp. 381-387 ; see also Revue de V Orient, x. 1846. SeeDumont IVUrville. Hopp, B. O. — Neu-Gninea [und Madagaskar], Deutsche Jiundschau Geogr. Stat., iv. 1882, pp. 202-207 refer to New Guinea [quoting " Capt. Lawson "]. 'Hormuseer* te * Cheaterfield.* — See Flinders. Hunter, — .^)ver eenige Eilanden ten Noord-Oosten van Nieuw-Guinea gelegcn, door Kapitein Hunter van het Schip 'Marshall Bennett.' Pilaar Ss ObreenV Tijdschrift toegewyd aan het Zeeuiesen (Amsterdam), v. 1845, p. 195. Znooronata, [Dr.] Angelo. — SuUo scheletro e cranii di .Papua mandati da 0. Beocari. Arch. Antrop. JStnol., iv. 1874, pp. 252-281. T« g h # m, _._See L'Exphratum, vii. 1879, p. 126 ; and p. 541 for account of his murder. Iperen, Josua van.— Beschrijving van eene blanke Negerin uit de Papoesche Eilanden. Verhandelingen van luit Bataviaasch Oeiiootschap von Kunsten en Wetenachappen, ii. 1780, p. 125. 'Iiis.'— SeeBastiaanse, Modera. Jackson, John B. — The Vegetation of New Guinea. 7Ae Qardeneri Chronicle (London), Jan. 8, 1876, (n.8.) v. p. 52. DIDUOGRAPHY OF NEW GUINEA. 807 Jaoobd, ThomM JcfllnrMii.— Soenes, Inoidenti, and Adventures in the Pacific Ocean, or the IiUnds of the Auatralian Seaa during the Gruiae of the Clipper * Margaret Oakley * under Capt. Benjamin Morrell, clearing up the mysteiy wbidi has heretofora surrounded the famous expedition, and containing a full account of the exploration of the Bidera, Papua, Banda, Mindoro, Sooloo, and China Seas, Sec. New York (Harper): 1844, 8to., illustrations. [Chapters xii. and xv. refer to New Guinea, and xxiz., xxx., and xxxi., specially to the Ambemoli river.] SeelCorMU. Jaoqulnot, — b— See Dumont D'Urville. JwuM, [Dr.]— [His murder on east coast of Hall Sound.] MiUheil. ijeogr. Oes, Wien, (n.f.) ix. 187G, p. 597 ; Olobtu, xxxi. 1877, p. 16. [See OreflVath.] Johnson, IL — ^The Colonising Association (Limited). New Guinea. Rules and Regulations. London (Phipps) : 1876, 8vo. JvOum, J. Beete. — Narrative of the Surveying Voyage of H.M.S. * Fly,' commanded by Otptain F. P. Blackwood, B.K., in Torres Strait, New Guinea, and other islands of the Eastern Archipehtgo, during the years 1842-1846 : together with an ex- cursion into the interior of the eastern part of Java. London (Boone): 1847, 2 vols. 8va, map and illustrations. Kan, [Dr.] O. M.— De Reis der ' Soerabaija ' naar Nieuw-Guinea, 11 Nov. 187i)- 20 Maart 1876. T^da. Aardr. QtnootBch., ii. 1877, pp. 175-189 (see also p. 217), map No. 10. Proeve eener Qeographische Bibliographic van Nederlandsch Oost-IndiS voor de Jaren 1865-1880. Utrecht (Beijors): 1881, 8vo. [For private circu- lation : pp. 122-128 refer to New Guinea.] Keate, Oeorge. — ^An Account of the Pelew Islands . . . from the Journals . . . of Captain Henry Wilson ... in the ' Antelope,' ... To which is added a Supplement, compiled from the journals of the ' Panther ' and * Endeavour,' two vessels sent by the Honourable East India Company to these Islands in 1790, by J. P. Hockin, of Exeter College, Oxford, M.A. London (Nicol ; Aspeme) : 1803, 4to., map and plates. [See Hookin for Supplement, which alone refers to New Guinea.] Keppel, [Oaptn. the Hon.] Henry. — A visit to the Indian Archipelago^ in H.M. Ship ' Mseander.' London (Bentley) : 1853, 2 vols. 8vo., map and illustrations. [VoL ii. pp. 198-201 refer to the north coast of New Guinea.] Kirsoh, T. — Beitrt^ zur Kenntniss der Lepidopteren-Fauna von Neu Guinea. MittheUungen aut dem k. zoologiachen Museum zu Dresden, i. 1875, pp. 103-134, pis. v.-vii. [Meyer's captures.] Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Coleopteren-Fauna von Neu Guinea. L. c, pp. 137-161. [Meyer's captures.] Zwei neue Coleopteren-Arten aus Neu-Guinea. Ann. Mus. Civ. Oenova, xiv. 1879, pp. 18-20. Kolir, D. H. — Reize door den weinig bekenden Zuidelijken Molukschen Archipel en langs de geheel onbekende Zuidwest Eust van Nieuw-Guinea ; gedaan in de Jaren 1825 en 1826. Amsterdam (Beijorinck) : 1828, sm. 8vo., map. Translated from the Dutch by George Windsor Earl, as : — ^Voyages of the Dutch Brig of War * Dourga,* through the Southern and little-known parts of the Moluccan Archipelago, and along the previously unknown Southern Coast of New Guinea, performed during the years 1825 and 1826. London (Madden) : 1840, 8vo., maps. 308 ninLIOGKAPHY 01' NEW OUINEA. [Kolff, D. H.]— lets over KolfiTs Reize door den MolukMhen Aroliipel. Jitdue/i Magatijn, 2^ Twaalital, vi. pp. 100-103. Kolir, — -, Boan, — , ft Xool, L. — Wnnraemingen gedaan op oene Roii naar Eilanden gelcgen bowcaten on beooston Amboina, in hot bijiondor naar do west- kust van Nieuw-Guinea, on Ontdekking van eene Straat aldaar, Tolgena do Berigten der lieutenants ter zee Kolff, Boerg, en Kool. In Sohrdder't Berigten en Verhan- ilelinijen over Onderwerpen der Zeevartkunde, 1837-1840, 1. p. 484. Altio separately, Amsterdam : 1840, 8vo. ; mo aim DM. Soc, Qiogr., (2) v. 1836, pp. 436 and 486. Kool, L. — DiscoTery of a new strait at the South-western extremity of New Guinea, in the ' Postilion,' 1835. Joum. R. 0. 8., vi. 1886, p. 430. Kr«flt, O. — Notes on Atistralian animals in New Guinea, with desoription of a new species of fresh-water Tortoise, i^c. Ann. Mu$. Civ. Uenova, viii. 1876, pp. 390-304. KruMnttem [Adm.] A. J. de.—RecuoiI de Mdmoires Hydrographiques, pour sorrir d'analyse et d'explioaiion a I'Atlaa de TOctfan PaciAque. St. Ptftersbouri;, 1824-27, 2 vols. 4to. [Vol. i. pp. 61-83 refer to New Guinea. See also Nouvelka Anualea ties Voyagea, xxix. 1826, p. 233.] Kune, O. — Forschungsreisen von Londoner Missionaren en Neuguinca w&hrend der Jahre 1877-1881. Mittheilungen der geographi$ehen Oeidt»eh<\ft (fir Thiiringen) zu Jena, i. 1882, pp. 28-52. Labillarditee, J. J. — Relation du Voyage h la recherche de La P^rouse pendant les ann^ 1791-04. Paris : 1800, 2 vols. 4to. Voyage in search of La P^rouse, &c London (Stockdale) : 1800, 4to., pis. [Stay at Waygiou, p. 440 ; Waygiou VocabuUry, p. 30.] 2nd edition, 2 vols, Svo., 1882. See Dentreoastesux. Laglalu, Ii6on.— See Bruyn. Lang, [Bev. Dr.] J. D. — New Guinea : a highly promising field for settlement and colunizatiou ; that such an object could l)e most easily and successfully accomplished. Tranaactiona of the Jloyal Society of New South Waka/or 1871, V. 1872, Article No. 4, pp. 35-47. Iiange, H. — Neu-Guinca. . Die Natur, 1865, Nob. 21 and 28 et aeq. Iiangeveldt van Hemert, A. J., St Swaan, F. — Verslag der reis van hct stoomschip 'Soerabaja' naar de Noord- en Westkust van Nieuw-Guinea, van November, 1876, tot Maart, 1876, door de Gekommitteerden A. J. Langeveldt van Hemert, Resident van Ternate, en P. Swaan, Kapitein-Luitenant ter Zee. In Van der Aa's ' Reizen naar Nederlandsch Nieuw-Guinea,' 1870, pp. 211-342. Iianguages. — See Brumund, Dentreoasteaux, Bialeotio Publications, BUbergen, Oabelents & Meyer, Oaimard, Qeissler, Hasselt, Hoevell, Labillarditoe, Ueyer, Mikluoho-Maolay, Miiller, Rinnooy, Btrauchi Turner, Zahn. Iiatham, Robert Qordon.— The Natural History of the Varieties of Man. London (Van Voorst) : 1850, 8vo. [Oceanic Mongolidae, Kelssnonesians, Papuan branch, pp. 211-229.] Iiauts, O. — Naam der Straat tosschen Nieuw-Holland en Nieuw-Guinea. dam: 1801, Svo. Aniatcr- UlBLIOOKAPHr OP NEW OUINLA. 80» LawM, [B«v.] W. O.— Letter to Prof. BoUeston. Academy, June 20, 1876, vii. ]). 661 ; AutHand, xlix. 1876, pp. 417-410. [On Joameyi from Port Moreiby]. Vhron. Land. Miu. Sor., 1876, p. 214 } 1876, pp. 98-103; [to Hood Point] 1877, pp. 107-200; FetennannU Oewjr. MiUhtU., xxW. 1876, p. 106 ; 83rd Ittport «/ tht London Mmknary Sooiety, 1877, p. 76; Colonit$, July 1878; Nature, xvili. 1878, p. 280. [Journey to Munlkaila, with Stone, Unrgreave, and Broadbent.] lllwimted Auitndian Nem, Feb. 23, 1870; Nature, xir. 1876, p. 16. Journal during Voyage with Rev. S. Maofarlane to China Stiuite. TVniM, Nov. 27, 1876; Nature, xv. 1876, p. 100. Ethnological Notes on the Hotu, Koitapu, and Koiari Tribes of New Qttinea. Jowm. Anthrop. Jmt., viii. 1870, pp. 300-377. Notes on New Guinea and its inhabitants, i'roo. It. G, 8., (n.8.) il. 1880, pp. 602-616. An Excursion in the Interior of New Guinea [Rouna Fnlls]. Op. ot^ T. 1883, pp. 356-358. Boll. 8oe. Qewfr. Ital., (2) viii. 1883, pp. 620-683. New Guinea — Anuapata. Chron. Land. Miss. Soe., 1878, p. 162, plate. New Guinea [Port Moresby, Aloma]. Op. cit. 1882, pp. 227-233, woodcutN. South-Eastern New Guinea. Op. cit. 1888, pp. 809-314, woodcut. [On Labour Question,] Brisbane Courier, Feb. 1883, quoted 1. c. p. 313. Recent Explorations on South-Eastern New Guinea. Proc. S. 0. S., (n.8.) vi. 1884, pp. 216-218, map. [Chalmers, Amiit, Morrison.] " Lawaon, [Captain] J. A."— Wanderings in the Interior of New Guineu. London (Cliapman & Hall) : 1876, post 8vo., map and frontispiece. [Fiction : seo Moresby in Athencetun, May 20, 1876; Meyer, DetUsche Bundschau Oeogr. Stat., 1875, p. 66.] Le Oras, A.— Routier de I'Australie, cOte est d'Australie, Detroit de Torres et Mer deCorail, revu et compl^ttf jusqu'en 1874. Deuxi6me Partie. 2"** vol. com- prenaut le Detroit de Torres, la Mer de Corail, la cute sud de la Nouvelle-Guin^u et I'archipel do la Louisiade. (No. 636, D^p6t de la Marine.) Paris : 1874, 8vo. Leon, Th. B. — Ecu Reis naar Nieuw-Guinea. Aardrijkakundig WeekUad, (n. s.) i., No. 32, 22nd May, 1880, pp. 81-«0. [Journey in 1878 to MacCluer Day, quoted from the Java-Bode of March 27, 1880.] Lesson, A.— Les Polyndsiens. Lour Origine, leurs Migrations, leur Langage .... Oiivrage rMig^ d'aprte le Manuscrit de I'auteur par Ludovio Martinet. Paris (Leroux) : 1880-84, 4 vols, large 8vo. [Race Papua, vol. i. (book 1 ; chapters ii.- iv.) pp. 25-108 : see Martinet, Bevue d'Anthropdogie, x. 1881, p. 342.] B. P. — Zoologie, i. : in Duperrey's Voyage autonr du Monde . . . sur . . . * La Cloquille.' Paris : 182G, 4to. Considerations gdn^ralcs sur les lies du Grand- Oc&m et sur les vari^t^s de Tesj)^ humaiuo qui les habitent. Fapouas ou Papons, pp. 84-101 [see also the same author's * Coup d'ceil sur les ties oc&iniennes et le grand Oc&kn,* in Annates des Sciences Naturettea, v. 1825, pp. 172-188]. Observap tions gfodrales sur I'histoire naturelle, &c.. Bale d'Offack, ile de Waigiou, pp. 348- 358, and Havre de Dor£ry, Nouvelle-Guinde, pp. 436-448. [See also Lesson's ' Traits,' < Manuel d'Ornithologie ' and * Histoire des Paradisiers," &c.] Voyage m&iical autour du Monde, 1822-26. Paris : 1820 [pp. 200 and 201]. See also Journal dea Voyages, xxxvi. p. 65. m BIDLIOORAPHT OP MEW QUINEA. [IjMMn, B. P.]— Voyage autonr du Monde entreprii par ordre du goovernement lur la corvette 'U CnquiUe,' 1822-1826. Parii: 183U (Bruxelles: 1889X 2 vok 8to. [BeferonouM to New Oiiineft iilande oxtnwtod in MelviU'a M\. 396,486; see also op. cit. xii. 1876, pp. 502, 505. Incidents of Travel in Papua-Koviay (New Guinea) [1873], Proc. R,0,S., xix. 1875, pp. 517-521. Dr. N. von Miklucho-Maclay's Forschungen auf Neu-Guinea. Petermann'a Geogr. Mittheil., xix. 1873, p. 192. Mijn Yerblijf aan de Oostknst van Nieuw-Guinea in de Jaren 1871 en 1872. Nai. Tijdt. Ned. Indie, xxxiii. 1873, pp. 114-12G. Anthropologische Bemerkungen uber die Papuas der Maclay-Kiiste in Neu- Guinea. Tom. cit. pp. 225-250 (and Cosmos, ii. 1874, pp. 287-291 ; iv. 1877, pp. 111-115). Notice m^t^orologique concemant la Cdte-Maclay en Nouvelle-Guinde. Tom. cit. pp. 430-432. Ueber Brachyocephalitat bei den Papuas von Neu-Guinde. Op. cit. xxxiv. 1874, pp. 345-347. [Translated under the author's supervision in Hie Journal of Eastern Asia, vol. i. No. 1, 1875, pp. 101-103. See also letter by the author in Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthrop., 1874, p. (177). Ethnologische Bemerkungen iiber die Papuas der Maclay-Kiiste in Neu- Guinea. Op. cit. XXXV. 1875, pp. 06-94, and xxxvi. 1876, pp. 294 -333. Meine zweite Excursion nach Neu-Guinea, mit einer Kartenskizze. Op. cit. xxxvi. 1876, pp. 148-180 ; Globus, xxvi. 1874, pp. 317 and 318, 333 and 334 ; Cosmos, iii. 1876, pp. 344 and 345. Verzeichniss einiger Worte der Dialecte der Papuas der KUste Papua-Kowiay in Neu-Guinea. Tijds. Ind. TaaU, Land-, en Vdkenkunde, xxiii. 1876, pp. 372- 379. [Letter dated July 3, 1876, from Maclay Coast.] Qdos, Nov. 28, 1876 ; Nature, xv. 1876, p. 149. [Second Stay on the Maclay Coast, New Guinea, June, 1876, to Nov. 1877.] Itoitt. Imp. Buss, Geogr. Ohsch., xvi. 1880, pp. 149-170; Cosmos, vi. p. 236. TOL. I. Z t M 316 BIBUOORAPHY OF NEW QUIMEA. [MiUuoho-lCaolay, Nioolaua von]— Reisen seit Juni, 1876. OIobu$, xxxi. 1877, piv 74 and 76. lleiso in West-Mikronesien, Xord-Melanesien, und ein dritter Aufenthalt in Neu-Ouinea, vom Februar, 1876-J8nuar, 1878. Fetermann't Geogr. MittheiK, xxiv. 1878, pp. 407-408. Ueber vulkanisohe Erscheinungon an der N6rdo8tlichen KUste Neu., (3) i. 1878, pp. 524-531, figs. 1-14. [Note oii manners and customs of Papuans of Maclay Coast]. Nature, xviii. 1878, p. 387 (quoting ' Naturalists in the North- West,' Sydney). [Note on start for 4th voyage.] Nature, xx. 1879, p. 131. La Nouvelle-Quinde et les Papons. Btilletin de la SocUte J/istorique, Cerck- St. Simon, 1883, pp. 103-118. [General aoconnt of all his journeys in account of Proceedings of Imp. Rues. Geogr. Soc. of Oct. 11, 16, and 18, 1882: in] Proc. B.G.8., (n.s.) iv. 1882, pp. 768-770; Oolos, 4 (16) Oct. 1882; Nature, xxvii. 1882, pp. 137 and 184: of. also p. 371 ; Verh. Ges. Erdkunde, x. 1883, pp. 104-109. [Nikolai Nikolajewitsoh Miklucha-Maklni : Sketch of his life and portrait.] Deutsche llnndichau Geogr. Stat., vi. 1884, pp. 283-285. See also Deniker, Galton, Hlekisoh, Monod, ITledennttller, Tfaomassen. ' Minahassa.' — See Sleeker. Miquel, F. A. W. — De Palmis Archipelagi Indici, Observatioues novaj. Verlian- delitujeti der k. Akademie van Wetenschappen (Amsterdam), xi. 1868. [Catalogue of palms, pp. 22-30, including thCse known from New Guinea]. Missionaries. — [Dutch] See Sink 4e Jens, Oeissler, Oeissler & Jasrich, Ottow, Ottow Se Hasselt, Mosche & Beyer, Rinnooy; [English] Bes- wick, Chalmers, OiU, Kurse, Iiawes, MacFarlane, Murray, Turton. Modera, J. — Verhaal van eene Reize naar en laiigs de Zuid-Westkust van Nienw-Guinea, gedaan in 1828, door Z.M. Cor^'et 'Triton,' en Z.M. Coloniale Schooner de ' Iris.' Haarlem (Loosjes) : 1830, 8vo., map (and NouveUcs Annaks de$ VoyageK, xlv. 1830, \\ 119, quoting Gazette dee Pays Bos). See Maoklot. Monod, — . — La Nouvelle Guinoe. Les Voyages de M. Miklouho-Maclay. Nouville Revue, Nov. 15, 1882. Montravel, — . — See Dumont D'Hrrllle. Moresby, [Capt] J. — [Hydrographic information collected during the recent cruise of the 'Basilisk.'] Supplement to the New South Wales Govermnenl Gazette, Sydney, Oct. 25, 1872. Recent Discoveries in the South-eastern part of New Guinea. Pivc. B.G.S., xviii. 1873, pp. 22-31; Mercantile Marine Magazine, 1873, pp. 324 and 325, 347-349 ; Nautical Magazine, 1874, pp. 57-62 ; Chron. Land. Mist. Soc., 1874, pp. 51-54 ; Annalen der Ilydrographie und maritimisch Mdeordogie, iii. 1875, p. 203; Journ. B.G.S., xliv. 1874, pp. 1-14, map; Cosmos, ii. 1874, p. 109. Discoveries in Eastern New Guinea by Captain Moresby, and the oflScers ut H.M.S.' Basilisk,' Proc. B.G.S.,\\x. 1875, pp. 225-244; Journ. B.O.S.,xW. 1875, pp. 153-170, map. BIBUOORAPHT OF NEW GUINEA. 817 [Moresby, Oapt J.}— Timet, Aug. 11, 1874, Oct. 6, 1875. New Guinea and Polynesia. Discoveries and Surveys in New Guinea and tlie D'Entrecasteaux Islands. A cruise in Polynesia and Visits to the Pearl- shelling Stations in Torres Straits of H.H.S. * Basilisk.' London (Murray) : 1876, 8va, maps and illustrations. [See also Edinburgh Review, No. cxliv. p. 282 ; Tijdt. Aardr. GemoUch., i. 1876, p. 216 ; Le Globe, xvii. 1878, pp. 70-78.] See Ctomrie, Oodman 4fe Salvia. Morrell, [Oapt.] BeivJamin, Jun. — A Narrative of Four "(Voyages to the South Sea, North and South Paci6o Ocean, Chinese Sea, Ethiopic and Southern Atlantic Ocean, Indian and Antarctic Ocean, from the year 1822 to 1831, Ac. New York (Harper): 1832, 8vo. [pp. 458-468, 4th voyage, 1830, refer to cruise in the * Antarctic ' along the northern coast of New Guinea]. See Jaoobe. Morrison, O. XL— [Expedition in 1883.] Mdboiime Age, Nov. 21, Dec. 15, 22, 1883, Jan. 5, 12, 19, 26, Feb. 2, 9, 16, 1884; Proc. R.G^^ (n.s.) vi. 1884, p. 87 ; Petermann't Geogr. MiUeil., xxx. 1884, pp. 73-75. Mosohe, — , A Beyer, — . — [Missionary Journey in 1866.] Ber. Utrecht. Zend,, 1866, pp. 186-191. Moeeley, H. TSf. — Notes by a Naturalist on the ' Challenger,' being an account of various observations made during the voyage of H.M.S. ' Challenger * round the World, in the years 1872-1876, under the command of Capt. Sir O. S. Nares and Capt. F. T. Thomson. London (Macmillan) : 1879, 8vo., map and plates [pp. 432- 447 refer to Ambemoh river and Humboldt Bay]. Motu auf Neu-Guinea, Die. Globus, xxxiv. 1878, pp. 18G-189. Mueller, [Baron] Ferd. von.— Descriptive Notes on Papuan Plants. Melbourne (Skinner) : 1875, cr. 8vo. [Prof.] Priedrich.— Ueber die Melanesier und die Papua- Race. Mittheil. Anthrop. Ges. Wien, ii. p. 45 ; Atuland, xlv. 1872, pp. 188-190. Johannes. — Die Humboldts-Bai und Cap Bonpland in Neu-Guinea ethno- graphisoh und physikaliach untersucht durch eine niederlandisch-indische Com- mission. Berlin (Miiller) : 1864, sm. 4to., illustrations. Salomon. — Land- en Yolkenkunde; vol. iii. pp. 3-80, of Yerhand. nat. Geschied. Ned. Overz. Bez. [See Temminok.] Reizen en Onderzoekingen in don Indischen Archipel, gedaau op last de Ncderlandsche Indische Regering, tusschen de Jaren 1828 en 1836. [A new edition of the work last above noticed, criginally appearing in the 1st and 2nd series of Bijdr. Tool- &c. Ned.-Indii, and afterwards separately, among the Werken van het Koninklyk Itistituttt voor Taal- Sec Ned.'Indie, Pt. 2, in 2 vols., 8vo. (Amsterdam : Muller, 1857), pp. 1-128 and map 1 of vol. i. referring to New Guinea (Vocabulary, pp. 112-117). Translated in part by John Yeats as ' Con- tributions to the knowledge of New Guinea,' Proc. B.G.S., ii. 1858, pp. 181-185 ; Jmmai B.G.8., xxviii. 1858, pp. 264-272.] [A revised and augmented form by the author given as :] Notice sur quelques points de la Nouvelle-Guiude (Bijdrngen tot de kennis van Nieuw-Guinea), in Le Moniteur des Indts-Orientalts et Occidentales, [i.] 1846-1847 (La Haye and Batavia, 1847) pp. 71-77, 117-122, 213-218; [ii.] 1847-1848, pp. 45-47, 376- 383. 8 2 M S18 BIBUOORAPHY OF NEW GUINEA. Mullen, W. Ij.— New Guinea. "Bowen" English Prize Essay, Melbourne University, 1884. Melbourne : 1.884, 8vo. Munniok, O. M. de.— Dienstreis van den Resident van Ternate, 0. M. de Munniok, met den goevernement stoomer * Havik ' in Augustus 187U, naar Dorei en de Mapia-Eilanden. Koloniaal VerKlag, 1880, p. 23 (see Van der Aa, * Kritisch Overzicht,' 1883, pp. 172 and 173). Murray, [Rev.] A. W. — Journal during Aug.-Sopt. 1873, in the 'Alice Jardine. Chron. Land. Miss, Soc., 1874, pp. 54-59. Subsequent visit to Port Moresby, Sec, in March 1874; I. c. pp. 207-221 and op. cit. 1875, pp. 53-54. The Mission in New Guinea. Op. cit. 1874, pp. 145-157. Forty years' Mission Work in Polynesia and New Guinea, from 1835 to 1876. Loudon (Nisbet) : 1876, ixMt 8vo., map. • A Week at Port Moresby. Chron. Loud. Miss, Soc., 1882, pp. 291-294, illustrations. tc Maoftirlane, [Rev.] 8. — Journal of a Missionary Voyage to New Guinea. London (Snow): 1872, 8vo., map, woodcuts. Also as 'Missionary , voyage to New Guinea,' Sydney Morning Herald, Oct. 6, 1871. See also Sydney Mail, July 5, 1873. ! Mueachenbroek, a C. J. W. van.— Dagboek van Dr. H. A. Bernstein's laatste lleis van Ternate naar Nieuw-Guinea, &c, 17 Oct. 1864-19 April 1865. s'Gravenhage (Nijhoff): 1883, 8vo. Bijdr. Taal- ic. Ned. Indik, (4) vii. 1883, pp. 1-258, map. Also separately. ' ITaturaliate * & ' Caauarina.'— See Freyoinet. Naumann,' [Dr.] P.— Briefe des Dr. F. Naumann an Dr. P. Prahl. Zeits. Oes. Erdkunde, xi. 1876 [pp. 138-140 refer to the stay of the ' Gazelle* in MacCluer Bay, in May 1875]. Ueber Land und Leute an der MacCluer Bay, Neu-Guinea, und in Mela- nesien. Verh. Berl. Oes. Anthrop,, 1876, pp. 67-69. Nasimoff, — . Nouvelle Guinde. Extrait d'une lettre de M. Nazimoff, Com- mandant du ' Vitiaz ' [with Miklucho-Maclay]. Bull. Soc. Qiogr., (6) v. 1873, pp. 107-112 ; Boll. Soc. Geogr. Itil., ix. 1873, pp. 200-203. [Netherlands Indies.] — Handleiding tot de Aardrijkskunde van Nederlands Oostindische Bezittingen. Uitgegeven door de Maatschappij : tot nut van't algemeen. Leyden (Du Mortier) : 1843, 8vo., map. [Pupoewa, of Nieuw-Guinea, met de Papoesche Eilandeu, pp. 334-343.] Aardrijkskundig en statistisch Woordenboek van Nederlandsch Indie, bewerkt naar de jongste en beste Berigten. Met eene Voorrede van Prof, i . J. Veth. Amsterdam (Van Kampen): 1869, 3 vols, large 8vo. [Nieuw-Guinea, vol. iii. pp. 571-573 ; special bibliography, pp. 524 and 525. See vol. i. pp. 489- 520 for bibliography of Netherlands Indies generally.] •Neva.'— Sea D'Albertls. Neu-Quinea. — ^Ein Besuch der Inseln in dCr Tor-es Strasse utad Daudi's (Siidkiiste von Guinea). Avtsland, xzxii. 1859, No. 46. »B Naturproducte. Op. cit. xxxvi. 1863, No. 35. Yolkstamme in nordlichen ; Zur Religion der Papuas ; Das Arfak Gebirge anf Neu -Guinea. MUtheil. geogr. Oes. Wien, (n.f.) i. 1868, pp. 171-173 [from Tifds. Ind. Taal; Lcmd-, en Volkenkunde']. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NEW GUINEA. 819 [ITeu-Guinea] — Deutsche Rufe von den Antipoden. Pctermann's Oeogr. Mittheil^ XV. 1860, pp. 401-406, map 20 [chiefly letters to Dr. Petermann]. und den Aro6-Inseln, Englaml auf. Aualand, xlv, 1872, p. 552. und die englische Expedition. L. c. pp. 733-739 [by Robidtf Van der Aa, according to Petermann*s Geogr, Mittheil., xix. 1873, p. 147]. Die Papuas an der Dourga-strasse nnd am Usanata auf. Globus, xxi 1872, pp. 214-216. und die benachbarten Eilandgnippen. L. c. pp. 241-245. ... . Zusammentreffen mit den Papuas auf. Op. cit. xxiv. 1873, p. 28. Expeditionen nach. Petermann's Geogr. Mittheil., xix. 1873, pp. 147 and 148. Fortschrittc in der Erforschung von. Op. cit. xx. 1874, pp. 107-116, map 5. Neue Beisen auf. Globus, xxv. 1874, pp. 161-167, 177-184, illustrations. Die Erforschung von. Gaea, 1874, p. 513. —— Beschreibung der Inseln an der Ostkiiste von, von der Insel Heath bis zum Ost-Cap von Neu-Guinea. Hydrographische Mittheilungen, 1875, No. 2. Entdeckungsgcschichte und gegenwiirtiger Stand unserer Kenntuiss. Atis alien Wellentheilen, Nov. 1875, pp. 56-61, map ; see also pp. 225-228. Fl'issfahrten im siidlichen. Petermann's Geogr. Mittheil., xxii. 1876, pp. 84-s!», map 6 [Macleay in the 'Chevert'; McFarlane and Stone in the * Ellenguwan ']. Bemerkungen iiber die Siidostkuste von, Annalen der Hydrographie und maritimiach Meteorologie, v. 1877, pp. 351. .... und den Louisiadc-Archipel. Op. cit. 1879, p. 422. Reisen auf der luseL Oaea, xv. 1879-80, p. 261. Die Papua auf Neuguinea. Ausland, liii. 1880, pp. 124-131. Die Papua Neuguinea's und der Nachbarinseln. L. c. pp. 764-768. die grosste Insel der Erde. Petermann's Oeogr. Mittheil., xxvi. 1880, p. 160. [See also op. cit. Ergiinzuagsband xiv. 1881, No. vi. p. 48.] New Guinea and its Inhabitants. Chamhers's Journal, Aug. 1876. Gardens in. The Garden (London), ix. 1876, p. 540. Exploration of. Colonies, May 27, 1876, p. 114 ; Times, Nov. 27, 1876 ; Brisbane Courier, Dec. 4, 1878. On Productions of. Manchester Examiner, Dec. 28, 1878. Exploration of. Field, liii. p. 549, May 10, 1879 [murder of Mr. Ingham and party ; from Allgemeine Zeitung']. ProiMsed English Annexation of. Sydney Morning Herald, May 20, Aug. 14, 19, 1875 ; Mar. 1, 2, 1876 ; Goulburn Herald, Nov. 24, 1875 ; Sydney Mail, March 4, 1876 ; Melbourne Argus, March 1 and 22, 1876 ; Nautical Magazine, 1875, pp. 657-660 ; Morning Post, May 22, 1878 ; Sydney Morning Herald, July 16, Aug. 15, Sept. 24, 1878 ; Town and Country Journal, Sydney, Aug. 10, 17, 24, 1878 ; Melbourne Argus, July 17, 1883 ; Brisbane Courier, Oct. 20, 1883 ; Tijds. Aurdr. Genootsch., vii. 1883, p. 124 ; Corre- sao BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MEW GUINEA. spondenco on annexation. Proe. R. Col, Init., x\r. 1888, pp. 247-260. Deputa- tion to Earl of Derby, /. e. pp. 260-263. See also B«lMim-8oliwanbaoh, ChwArath. [N«w Onlnea, Proposed English Annexation of] Bee Ck>lonial Initltuto, Oomyn, CHrud, Mlohla, Tiele. — — Correspondence respecting. Presented to both Houses of Parlia- ment by command of Her Majesty, July, 1876. London (Harrison and Sons) : 1876 [C— 1666], map, fo. Further Correspondence (in continuation). May, July, and August, 1883. London (Eyre and Spottiswoode) : 1883 [C— 8617, C— 8691, C— 3814], fa (1883, New South Wales) Intercolonial Convention, 1883. Report of the Proceedings of the Intercolonial Convention, held in Sydney, in November and December 1883. Sydney (Richards) : 1883, [331~], 4to. [Contains corre- spondence, &C., on proposed annexation of New Guinea, also published separately, 88— A.] New Quinea and the Western Pacific Islands. Correspondence respecting New Guinea and other Islands, and the Convention at Sydney of Representatives of the Australasian Colonies. London (Byre and Spottiswoode) : 1884 [C— 8863], fo. [Proposed German Annexation of.] Alhjemeine Zeitung, Nov. 27, 1882. Proposed Colonisation of. [Australian] Petermann^a Qeogr, Mittheil., xiii. 1867, p. 346; see also Hay; [English] VEjcploration, in. 1879, p. 704; [German] Petermann'a Geogr. Mittheil., xvi. 1870, p. 304, and G. Rohlfs, quoted op. cit. xxviii. 1882, p. 433, also Bull. Soe. Geogr. Maraetlle, vii. 1883, p. 70, quoting Gazette de Waas ; see also Deokeit ; [Italian] Nature, xix. 1879, p. 471, quoting the Timea, L'Exjdur'iticn, vii. 1879, pp. 510, 540, and 541. See Armit, Bnmialti, D'AlbertiB, Johnaon, Iiontf. Colonial Expeditions to. Bull. Soc. G6ogr., (5) xx. 1870, p. 227 (translated from Melbourne Auatralasian) ; ^Exploration, vii. 1879, pp. 126, 819 ; Bull. Soe. Geogr. Itah, (2) v. 1880, pp. 254-256 ; Cvmpte Rendu de la Sociite de G^ruphie, 1883, p. 462. See Armit, Chester, Morrison. Mission. Chnm. London Misa. Soc,, 1882, pp. 11-17, 54-59, map and woodcuts (from Diaries of Chalmers and Lawes). The Early History and Present Conditions of. Coloniea and India, June 22, 1883, No. 566, pp. 11 and 12. Nautical Magazine, lii. June, 1883, pp. 409-419. Exploration of. Proc. R. G. S., (n.s.) v. 1883, p. 656. [Notice of British Association Committee.] IVioholls, Kerry. — New Guinea. Coloniea, 1876, No. cciii. pp. 7 and 8. Nloholson, — . — New Guinea, a field for exploration. Auatralaaian, 1871, Nos. 262, 265, and 269. Niedermiiller, A. von. — Miklucha Maiilay unter don Papuas auf Neu-Guinen. Amland, xlvii. 1874, pp. 841-847. Nieuwenhuisen, — . — [Journey in 1868 to Dorei and Geelvink Bay, in the •Suriname.*] Ber. Utrecht. Zend., 1868, pp. 137 and 138. BlfiUOQKAPHT OF NEW GUINEA. 891 Ktouw-OuiiM*, Eca Togtje in de BinnenUnden tou. JJiJdr. Waal- Jbc. Ntd,- Jndii, (2) ii. 1868, pp. 47-62 [tnnalating an account of an anonymous Dutch traToUer, from a Baa. Fianci«oo paper, given in Au$land}, ethnographiich en natuurkundig ondersocht en bewhroven in 1868 door een Nederlandaoh Indiache Commiuie. Uitgegeven door htt Koninkiyk Inatituut Toor Taal- Land* en Volkenkunde van Nederlandwh Indie. Amsterdam (F, Mailer) : 1862, 8Ta, plates, and atlas of maps, sm. 4to. [Forms also vol. t. of the Second Series of Bifdr. Tool' Jte. Ned,-Indie. Van der Goes, Roijer, Beckman, ' and Grookewit, Commissioners.] Vulcanioiteit van. TijcU. Ned. Indie, 1867, p. 106. De jongBte Ontdekkingsreizen in. T^ds. Aardr. QenooUeh.^ ii. 1877, pp. 61-63. [MoFarlanc, Stone, D'Albertis, Madeay.] Drie expeditien naar. D9 Inditche Oid», 1879, p. 604. Ecn bezoek aan. Tyds. Ned. Jndii, 1881, pp. 475-480. [Steamer ' Batavia ' on the south coast.] * Northumberland.' — [Wreck on the north-west coast and attack by cannibal Papuans.] Nouvellet Annate* de» Voyages^ lii. (2*°* 86r. xxii.) 1881, pp. 121 and 122, quoting Asiatic Journal. ITouTalle Ouinte, Note sur lfL.—Bull. Soc. Giwjr., (5) xx. 1870, pp. 227-220 [from Melbourne AuMtralmianl. [General articles with map, by De Compidgne, Oirard, and Herts, in] UEx^onOew, ii. 1875, No. 36, pp. 342-344. Nouvclles Explorations dans la. Bull, Soc. Oiogr. (PAnvers, ii. 1876, pp. 472-523. Colonisation Allemande dans la, [referring to North Borneo !]. et les Nouvellea-Hdbrides. r Exploration, xiv. 1882, pp. 736-738 Op.eit. xvi. 1883, p. 808 (quoting L'Economitte franfai$ on annexation). Oberthttr, O.— £tude sur les L^pidoptdres recueillis en 1875 h Dorei (Nouvelle Guin6e) par M. le Prof. 0. Beccari. Ann. Mm. Civ. Oenova, xii. 1877-78, pp. 461-470. TttvAe sur les collections de L^pidoptSres Oodaniens, &c Op. cit. xv. 1870- 80, pp. 461-520, pis. ii.-iv. Oldenborgh, J. van. — Eerstc Reis van den Kontroleur J. van Oldenborgh met den goevernement stoomer ' Havik,' gezagvoerder Scholten, van 15 Januari tot 13 Februari 1870, naar Gebe, Waigioe (Biantji en Saonek), Dorei, de Mapia- Eilanden, Andia, Jappen, Boon, Wandammen, Salawatti en Misool. (Ec^oniaal VersUuj, 1870, p. 20). Van der Aa, ' Kritisch Overzicht,' 1883, pp. 164-172. Tweede Reis . . . van 22 September tot 11 November 1870, naar Misool, Atti-atti, K.'ipaur, naar de eilanden Karas, Adi, Namatotte, Aidoema en Lakahia, naar Wakar.i bij de Oetarata-Bivier, naar Prinses Marianne-Straat, voorts naar Salawatti en I»orei. (^Kol. Ver»l., 1880, p. 23.) Van der Aa, I. c. pp. 173-182. Derde Beis ... op Z.M. raderstoomschip 2* klasse * Bromo,' onder bevel van den Kapildn-luitenant ter zee K. W. E. von Leschen, van 17 Mei-21 Juni, 1880, naar Misool, Roembatti, Kapaur, de Prinses Marianne-Straat en naar Irfdcahia. (^Kol. Versl., 1881, pp. 22 and 23 ; Jaarhoek der k. Nederlandwh Zeemagt, 1870-1880, pp. 373-376.) Van der Aa, I. e. pp. 182-1«9. sin piBUOORArHY 01 gW QUIMEa^ [OldMiborgh, J. van]— Venlag o«ner Rein uiat Z.M. HtoowAr 'BaUvia' van TenuU< lusr de Zuitlkiut van Nleuw-QuiiiM tot 141° 0. L. Tydi. lud. Tool-, Land-, m Volkmkunde, xxvii. 1881, pp. 363-870. AIho under title. Vieide ReiH ... op Zr. Va], Mhroefttoomwhip 4"** klaaae ' Batavia,* onUer bevel van den Lnltenant tor zee M..A. Medenbach, van 3 December 1880 tot 21 Januaii 1881, naar Nieuw Guinea's Zuldkuat op 141" 0. L. en van daar terug langs die kuiten de ZuidwestkuBt tot 186° O. L. voorbij do Oetanata-Rivier. (Jaarb. Ned. Zeemagt, 1880-1881, pp. 438-440 ; Kol. Ter*/., 1881, pp. 2^-26.) Van d«r Aa, I. e. pp. 190-204. Yeralag cener Beis van Tornate naar de Noord- on Noord-wctt>kust vau Nieuw-Guinea, per Z.M. Stoomichip ' Batavia ' godnrende Maart on April, 1881. Jm$. Ind. Tiud- Ac., I. c. pp. 409-437. Also under title, Vijfde Reis . . . van 14 Maart tot 29 April 1881, naar de Asia*, Ajoc-, en Mapia-Eilanden, Dorei, Korrido, de noonikust van Jappen en naar de Humboldt-Baai ; terug naar de Sadipi- en Walckenaers-Baaien, de zuidkust van Japiwn, ooatkust der Geel- vinkbai, Roon, Dorei, Haas, Salawatti, en naar de MoccluerHgolf. (Jaati. N»L Zwn\agt, 1880-1881, pp. 446-451 ; Kd. Versl., 1882, pp. 22-26.) Van dar Aa, I. c. 206-222. [A list of othnologioal objects collected between 139° and 140° 30' E. long. : in] Bijlage I., pp. i. and ii. of Nolukn van de ulyemeene en beatuwt Vergaderingen van liet lialaviaaich Oenootschap, xix. 1881. Oliver, Daniel.— List of plants collected in New Guinea by Dr. A. B. Meyer, sent to Kew, December 1874. Journ. Linn, Soe, (Bot.), xv. 1877, pp. 29 and 30. Oaten Baoken, B. — Enumeration of the Diptera of the Malay archipelago, col- lected by Professor 0. Beocari, Mr. L. M. D'Albertis, and others. Ann. Mtu. Ciu. Genova, xvi. 1880, pp. 393-492 ; xviii. 1882-83, pp. 10-20. Ottow, P. W. — Gezangen in de Mafoorsche taal gebruikt door de Zendelingen te Dore en Manzioam op Nieuw-Guinea. Amsterdam : 1861, 8vo. Se Oeissler, J. O. — Kort Overzigt van hot land en de bewoners der kust van Noord-Oostelijk Nieuw-Guinea. Amsterdam : 1867, 8vo. Oustalet, S. — Description dequelques espies nouvelles [Birds] . . . de la Nouvelle Guin^. Bulletm de la SocieU PhOomatliiqw de Paris, (7) ii. pp. 60-69. Sur quelques oiseaux de la Papouasie. Asiociation Scientifique de Fi-ance, 1878, Bull. No. 533, p. 247. Observations nouvelles sur les Oiseaux courours de la Papouasie. Op. cit. Bull. No. 639, pp. 349 and 360. 'Panther* & 'Endeavour.' — SeeLeupe. Papous, Lee. — L'Exploration, vii. 1878, pp. 749 and 760. Papuans, Notes on. Nautical Magazine, 1849, p. 364. Pesohel, Osoar. — Yolkerkunde. Leipzig (Dunker & Humblot): 1876, 8vo. [Papuanen: pp. 368-368.] Peters, W. — Diagnosi di tre nuovi Mammiferi della Nuova Guinea ed Isole Eei. Ann. Mils. Civ. Oenova, vi. 1874, p. 303. • See Sohleinita. ft Doria, O. — Diagnosi di alcune nuove specie di Marsnpiali apparte- nenti alia Fauna Papuana. Op. cit. vii. 1876, pp. 541-544. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF' NEW GUINEA. 838 [F«t«r«, W., Ac Dori*. O.]— Ditgnori di tre nuoTe ipecie dl Mammibri delta Nuora Quinea e Salawatti. Op. eit. viii. 1870, pp. 835 and 836. Dewrizione di una nuova speoio dl TachyglosRUR proveniente dalla Nuova Guinea lettentrionale. Op. eit. ix. 1876-77, pp. 183-187. (Alw in Tij'dn. Ned. Indie, xxxvii. 1877, p. 178 : see obaervationa with woodcut in Natun, zv. 1877, pp. 257 and 268). Catalogo doi Dettili e Batraci raocolti da O. Bcccari, L. M. D'Albertis, e A. A. Bruijn nolla notto-rogione Austro-Maletc. Op. eit. xili. 1878, pp. 323- 450, pla. {.-vii. Enumerazione dei Hammiferi raocolti do 0. Boccori, L. H. D'Albertii, ed A. A. Bruijn nella Nuova Quinea proprlamento detta. Op, eit. xvi. 1880, pp. 665-707, pU. v.-xviii. Pathcrick, IL A. — European Enterpriae in Australia. Melbourne Beview, Oct. 1883. [Advocates the taking poasesaion of Now Ouinea by Great Britain.] Early Disooveries in AuMtralasia. Athenteum, No. 2952, May 24, 1884, pp. 664 and 665. [Refers the Nueva Guinea of De Retes to Carpentaria. See R. H. Major, I. o. No. 2954, Juno 7, p. 731 ; Pethcriok, No. 2957, June 28, p. 827; Major, No. 2959, July 12, p. 53.] Pettard, W. O.— [Notes on New Guinea Land Shells.] Quarterly/ Journal <^ Conehoiogy, 1878, No. 17, p. 394. PUnappel, J. — Eenige bijzonderheden betreffendode Papoea's van de Geelvinksbaai van Nieuw-Guinea. Tijdtchryft van het Delftsch Initituut [= Bydr. Taal- Ae. Ned. Indie], ii. 1854, pp. 371-383. Port Moresby, Die Eingcborenen bei. Qldbut, xxix. 1876, pp. 314-318. ' Poatilion.'— See KooL Powell, Wilfted. — Visits to the Eastern and North-eastern Coasts of New Guinea. Proc. R. O. S., (n.8.) v. 1883, pp. 505-517. Wanderings in a Wild Country; or three years amongst the Cannibals of New Britain. London (Sampson Low) : 1883, 8vo., map and illustrations. [Includes observations on islands, &c., of south-eastern apex of New Guinea.] [Lecture on New Guinea before R. Colonial Institute, Nov. 13, 1883, abstracted in] Field, Nov. 17, 1883, No. 1612, vol. lii. p. 666. Plan for Exploration of New Guinea. Proc. B. O. S., (n.s.) vi. 1884, p. 36. Prager, J. O. — Port Moresby und desscu Umgebungmit Riicksicht auf Colonisation. Aua alien Welttheilen, x. 1879, pp. 134-138 [from the English]. 'Prlns Hendrlk der Nederlanden.'— [Cruise of this frigate in 1853 on the west coast, under De Brauw : in] Koloniaal Veralag, 1853, pp. 42 nnd 48. Pruner-Bey, — . — De la chevelure comme cnract^ristique des races huroaines. Mimoirea de la Socie'te d' Anthropologie, ii. 1863. (Papousdo la Nouvelle Guinee, p. 16, pi. ii.) • Pylades.' — [Cruise of this despatch brig in 1855 on the west coast, under W. A. Kleyne : in] Koloniaal Vtntag, 1855, pp. 66-67. Quarlas van Ufford, J. K. W. — lets over von Rosenberg's Zending naar Nieuw-Guities. Bijdr. Taal- &c. Ned. Indie, (3) vi. 1871, pp. 47-54. QuatreflageB, A. de.— Les Papous. Journal des Savants, 1872 (Feb. and March). fitude sur les Mincopies. Bev. d^Anthrop., i. 1872 (see p. 228 et seq,). I: UIBLIOURAPHY OK NEW tiUIN£A. [QuatMltegM. A. d«] * Hunjr, >. T. — Crania Ethnioa. rurla (Halliiro)^ 1871-82, 8vo. Livniaoiii 7 and 8 (1880) rafor to the Tapuau race. B«o Jiev, irAnthrtp., (2) iii. 1880, pp. 110-12a. for review by E. Huuvago. iltaoy. — . ft Oalmard, P. — Zoolo^io, in Freyoinot's Voyafto . . aur . . . •rUranie' et Ma PhyaioioDno,' 1824. [H«e pp. l-U for Etimolojjy, boaidex general deacriptiona of apcciin from Now Cluinoa Weatom lalanda, for which aet alao Annalei de$ i8ci«Nce« Natunlle$, vi. 182S, pp. 138-luO.] . — Obaervationa aur la oonatitution phyaique doH Pn|iou8 qui habitent lea ilua Rawak ct Vaigiou. Atm. tki. Nat., vii. 1H2 Baflfray'a Reiao durch die Molukken und an dur Nordkilate von Neu- Guinea, 1876 bia 1877. O'Mui, xxxvi. 1870, pp. 12i)-136, 146-151, 161- 167, 177-18.3, 103-190, uiap and illustrationa from photographs. Alao aa Voyage en Nouvellc-Ounitfe, in Tour du Monde, xxxvii. 1870, pp. 225-288, same ilhiatratioua ; and «eparate1y, Viajo k Nucva Guinea (Madrid): 1881, 4to., illuatrations ; seo also / Exjtloration, vii. 1870, p. 401. See Tapparone-Oanafti. Hauuay, B. Pienon.— Description of a new species of Kangaroo [Ualmatorus crasMipea] from New Guinea. Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. WoIm, i. 1876, j). 162. —— Notes on a collection of Birds from Port Moresby, with descriptions of some new specius. X. e. pp. 386-305. The Mammala of the ' Chevert * Expedition. Op. cit, ii. 1878, pp. 7-15. ■■> Note of a species of Echidna (Tachyglossus) from Port Moresby. L. c pp. 31-33, pi. Descriptions of some new species of Birds from L. e. pp. 104-107. the South-east Coast of New Quinen. Descriptions of five species of Birds from Torres Straits and New Guinea. Op. cit. iii. 1878, pp. 72-75. Zoology of the ' Chevert.' Ornithology, iiart 2. L. c. pp. 100-116. On the Goshawk from Port Moresby. L. c. p. 173. Contributions to the Zoology of New Guinea, i. and II. Mammals und Birds, I. c. pp. 241-305 ; iii. Description of a new Marsupial allied to the geuub Perameles, I. c. pp. 402-405, pi. ; iv. and v. Remarks on certain collections, made by Mr. Andrew Goldie, in the south-east portion of New Guinea and the Louisiades, op. cit. iv. 1870, pp. 85-102 ; vi. on some new and rare birds from south-east coast of New Guinea, &c., Z. c. (1880) pp. 464-470. [See Salvodori, IbU, 1879, pp. 317-327.] Description of a new species of Honey-e.iter from the south-east coast of New Guinea. Op. cit. vi. 1881, p. 718, UIBUOOUAPIIY OF MEW aUINFJ^. HM < BattlMDMlM.*— Bee 'BnunbU,' MMCilUvniy. KwUloh [Mript. B«dllokJ, Xdwln. — A Cruiie amonj; the GaiinibniH. Ocean Highway (2) i. 1878, pp. 861-864. Hoe Auttmluxht Deuttche Xtitmg, M«y 20, 1878, and Pe/emtann'a 0»ogr. Mittheit., xx. 1874, ]>. 107. Nolei on the Weatern Inland! of the Paciflo Ocean and New Ouinca. Joum. R. G. 8., xliv. 1874, pp. 80-37 [pp. 84-87 refer to Qnlewo Strait and Halwatti Iilandi]. Tranilatcd in Coimot, iii. 1875-0, p|i. 240-242. See alio Moresby's • New Quinea,' 1876, pp. 818-821 (also published by Admiralty). Itoffalia, BttON. — Su nove Crani Metopiol di Raua Papua, Arch. Antrtip. Elnol,, Tiii. 1878, pp. 121-162. See ManUgaiiit. Bain*, PauL — Ueber die Dewohnor der Insel Rook, (istlioh von Neu>Uuiiwa, nebst einigen Notisen Uber Nou-Quinea und bunachbarto Inseln. (Nach milnd- liohon Mitthoilungen und schriftlichen Notizen dos itaiienlnchen MlHsionars Horru Paul Reina). Zeiti. alio Krdkun-l,, (•^) iv. 1858, pp. 353-366. lUittmr, XL— Neue NitiduUden, &o. Ann. Mm. Civ. Qettom, xv. 1870-80, pp. 124-128,464-460. Rlooardi, P. — Armi i utensili dcgl' indigeni della Nuova Guinea. Arch. Antrop. EtHol., vlii. 1878, p. 643. Biohard, A. — Port Dorei (Nouvolle-OuindoX pp. xvi.-xxiii. of Botaniiiue (pt. 2, 1834), of Dnmont D'UrTillo's • Voyage de I'Astrolabo.' Riemadiik, J. J. W. X. van.— letz over de Vcrrichtingen van de Italiuanscho Oorlogslcorvet * Vettor Pisani,' Kommandant 0. Lovora di Maria, in de watt-rcn dor Key-oilanden en de Zuidliust van Nieuw-Ouinca. Nut, T^jth. Ned, Imlie, xxxT. 1875, pp. 41-65, map. Rinnooy, N.— [Missionary Journey in 1860] Ber. Utrecht. Zend., 1870, p. 1G2. Eeuige Psalmen en Gesangen in de Papoescho Taal (Noofoorsch Dialect). Utrecht (Keminlc): 1875, 8vo. — — Moses* oorste book geuaamd Genesis in do Papoesche taal (Noefoorsch Dialect). Utrecht (Kemink): 1875, 8vo. Ro^er, O. — Reis van Amboina naar de Z.W. en N. kust van Niouw-Guinea gcdaan in 1858 met Z.M. stoomschip 'Etna.* In Tindal and Swarfs Verhundtliuffen en Berigten hetrekkelijk het Zeeivesen, &c., xxi. 18U1, pp. 341-404 ; xxii. pp. 73-04. Also separately, with a preface by Prof. G. Lauts, Amsterdam (HuUt van Keulen) : 1862, 8vo. Boaenberg, O. B. H. von. — Natuurhistorische Voorwerixjn van Xieuw-Guinea, vurzameld door H. von Rosenberg. Nat. Tijds. Ned. Indie, xvi. p. 3G4. Reptilien van Nicuw-Guinea. L. c. pp. 420-423. Beschrijving van cenc Reis naar de zuidwest en noordoostkiist van Nieuw- Guinca. Op. cit. xix. 1859, i)p. 399-422 ; xxii. 1860, pp. 300-353 ; xxiv. 1862, pp. 333-353. Nieuwe Vogelsoorten van Mysool en Salawatti (Nieuw Guinea). 0;>. cit. xxiii. 1861, pp. 42-45. Verhaal eener Reis naar de Eilanden Misoul, Salawatie, Batanta, en Waigeoe. Op. cit. xxiv. 1862, pp. 363-402, pi. I m 336 lUllLIOCRAPIlY OF NEW (lUINKA. [Rosenborg, C. B. H. vonj— OrorziKt dor Paiwguniauorton (IVittaculuu) van den IiidiMchuii Aivliiiwl. Op. cH, xxv. 1803 [pp. 142-14f> refer to NuwGuinoA spi-cics]. Dijdi-ago tot do Ornithulo<;iti van Niiuiw-Guiiien. L. e. pp. 222-26G. Kou WiX)rd oviu' dm gnwtmi PamdiJAVogol, on bcsohrijviiig van ocuige uiouwe ' op do Aroo- en Kei-eilandon ontdokto viig«ls French by Moynora d'Estroy, in Ann. (le rK.itrriiie Ot-ient, i. pp. 13, 129, 192, 220, 228, with map and cuts.) S»!0 also Auslam/, xlix. 187(5, pp. 641, 065. l)t^r Malayisclie ArcliijM'l. Ijand und Louto in Sohildorungen, geiiammolt wiihrond eineti droissig-jiilnijton Aufonthaltcs in don Kulonicn .... mit cinoni Vorwort von Professor P. J. Vetli in Leiden. Leipzig (VVoigel) : 1878, 8vo., majs and pis. [Pp. 412-564 refer to Now Guinea and its fauna. See Andand, xlli. 1880, pp. 124-131.] Los lies Kei. Notes Etlmographiques. Anit.de Vl'Jxtrane Orient, ii. 1880, pp. 231-235, pi. [Extnujted from tiio Dutch.] See Quarles van Ufford. RoBsel. — Sec Dentreoaateaux. Ruge, BophuB. — [On Ortiz, do Ilotes's claim to bo considered discoverer of New Guinea] xiii. u. xiv. Jahimh, IVr. Kidk. Dresden, 1877, pp. 107 and 108. Salerio, Carlo. — U. Carlo Sidcrio iibcr ilie Inseln ini Osten von Neu-Guinoa. Pitermann's (ho^r. Mittheil.,\i\i. 1862, pp. 341-344, map 12 [refers to Rook and Woecio di Uccolli . . . della Nuova Guinea e di altro Isole Papnane, raccolte dal Dr. 0. Ucccart e dai cacciatori del Sig. A. A. Ihuijn. L. c. pp. 890-976. &c BinUOGRAPHY OK NEW OUINICA. 8917 ilullu Kui u (Icllo [Balvodorl, I.] — DoHoriziono di ho! iiuovo Hpeciu di Ucculli Aru, &o. L. e. pp. 988-000. Catalugo dugli Ucoelli raocoUi . 010-625. Ornitologia dolla Papuasia e delle Molucchc. Torino : 1880-82, 3 vols. 4to. [originally published in Atti & Memoric Ace, Torino], XLottor 01 Papuan birds.] Ibin, 1881, p. 280. & D'Albertis, L. H.— Catalogo di una cullezione di Uccelli dell* Isoln Yule e della vicina costa meridionale della peninsola orientale dolla Nuova Guinea, raccolti da L. M. D'Albertis. Ann. Mhh. Civ. Genova, vii. 1875, pp. 797-830. [See D'Albertis 9t Salvodori.] Sauvage, H. B.— Kssai sur la faune herp^tologiquo do la Nouvelle-Ouin^, &c. litdl. Soe. Philmn. Pari», (7) ii. 1877, pp. 25-44. SohefflBr, [Dr.] R. H. C. C. — I<^numiSration dcs plnutcH de la Nouvelle Guin^e, avcc descriptions des espies nouvellcs. Annale^ duJardia Dotauique de liuitmxorff, publides ptir M. le Dr. Molchior Troub, i. 1870, jip. 1-00. Epilogue & r(5num()ration, &c., pp. 178-181. Siu: quolquos plantes nouvelles ou jicu connucs de I'Archif el Indian. Oj). cit. ii. 1881, pp. 1-31. J niBLIOGRAPHY OF NEW GUINEA. Bohlegel, N. — De Zonurus Novas Ouinew: in Rchlegera Monographie van het geschlackt Zonurus. Tijthchrift voor NutuurUJke Oeaehiedenis eti Phyakiogie, i. 1834, p. 203. Obserrationa Zoologiqucs. Ntderlandtch Tijdschri/t voor de Dierkunde, iii. 1866, pp. 181-213, 249-258, 325-368 ; iv., 1873, pp. 1-32, 33-61. [Deacriptive of mammala and birda from New Guinea and adjacent iaiands.] Sohleiniti, [Csptn. Freiherr] von. — Qeographiache und ethnographiaohe Be- obachtungen auf Neu-Guinea, dem Ncu-Britannia-, und Salomons Archipel, angeatellt auf S.M.8. 'Gazelle' bei ihrer Keisc um die Erde 1874-76. Zeits. Ges. Erdkunde, xii. 1877, pp. 230-266. 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Mus, Civ, Geneva, xiv. 1879, pp. 287-324. Semper, Otto. — D'Albertis briefliche Mitthoilungen Uber Neu-Guinea. Teri. Ver. Nut, Unterh. Hamburg, ii. 1876, pp. 64-94. Sharp, D.— Description of a now species, indicating a new genus, of Coleoptera. Ann. Mus. Civ. Oenova, ix. 1876-77,' pp. 320-323 [found by D'Albertis at llattni]. SharpeJ ofthrJ (/oo?.i 1879,1 New . 1878, : 8ignore| H^mi[ •Sing Smith, Walla pp. 135! BIBLIOGKAI'HY OK NEW OUIXEA. 329« Sharpe, R. B. — Mr. 0. G. Stone'a Expedition to New Guinea [includes descriptions of throe new birds]. N< ture, xiv. 1876, pp. 338 and 339. Contributions to the Ornithology of New Guinea. Jotirn. Linn. Soc. (Zod.), xiii. 1876-78, pp. 79-83, 805-321, 457 and 458 (pi. xxii.), 486-506 ; xiv. 1879, pp. 626-634, 685-688 ; xvi. 1882, pp. 317-319, 422-447. On the Collections of Bii^ made by Dr. Meyer during his Expedition to New Guinea and some neighbouring islands. Mittheil. Zotl. Mut, Dresden, 1878, pp. 349-372, pis. xxviii.-xxx. 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Soetermeer, J. M. — Extract uit het Joumaal, gehouden aan boord van's Rijks Fregat ' Zaan ' op ecno licis naar de Moluksche Eilanden, van Mei tot November, 1837. In Tindal and Swart's Verhandlivgen en Berigten hetrekhdijk het Zeetvesen, Ac. (2) ii. 1841, p. 680 et seq. [pp. 695-697 describe voyage, 12-17 July, 1837, along the south-west coast of New Guinea]. Sohne-Iiaubaoh, H. [Oraf au]. — Ueber die von Bcccari auf seiner Reise nacli Celebes und Neu-Guinea gesammelten Pandanaceio. Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitemorg, iii. 1883, pp. 90-119, pi. xvii. Sonnerat [Pierre]. — Voyage it la NouvcUe Guinec, dans lequel ou trouve la description des Lieux, des Observations physiques et morales, and des details relatifs k I'Histoire Naturelle dans le Regno Animal and le Regno Y€g^tal> Paris (Ruault): 1776, 4to., plates. [Contains no reference to New Guinea : the furthest point i-eached was Geby island near Gilolo, not Jobie iu Crcelviuk Bay : see Michand's Biographie Uuivcrselle, xxxix. p. 611.] An account of a Voyage to the Spice Islands and New Guinea. Bury St. Edmond's : reprinted by W. Green, 1781, 18mo. Spengel, J. W. — Dos "biischellormige" Htwr der Papuos. Corre^ndengbldtter der tteHtachen OeseUscha/tfit Anihropologie, 1873, pp. 62, 70. Spry, W. J. J.— The Cruise of Her Majesty's Sliip 'Challenger.' London (Sampson Low): 1876, 8vo., map and plates [pp. 258-267 refer to visit to ' Humboldt Bay in Feb. 1876]. Translated into German by H. von Wobeser, 'Expedition des Challenger,* I^eipzig: 1877-80 [h>. 235-243]. 380 BIBUOGRAPHY OK NEW GUINEA. Stanley, Owen.— See Maoglllivray, Stokes. Stedenbaoh, [Oapt] H. A. — Een Tocht naar Nieuw-Ouinea. TycU. Aardr. Qenootsch., y. 1881, Med. p. 72 [quoting statement in Batavian Handblad as to planting Dutch flag at tho 141 meridian on the south-east by the 'Batavia']. See also pp. 161 and 162. See Oldenborgh. Steinthal, — . — Ueber die Volkor und Spraohen des grossen Oceans. Verh. Berlin, Qes. Anthmp., 1874, pp. (83)-(90). Stokes, (Oonunr.) J. liort.— Discoveries in Australia ; with an account of the Coasts and Rivers explored and surveyed during the voyage of H.M.S. ' Beagle' in the years 1837-38-39-40-41-42-43 . . . also a narrative of Capt. Owen Stanley's visits to the islands in the Araftlra Sea. London (Boone) : 1846, 2 vols. 8vo., pis. and maps. [The Arru and Ki islands, vol. i. pp. 462-470, with map including N.W. New Guinea ; Capt. Stanley's account of same islands and trade with New Guinea, vol. ii. pp. 332-340.] Stone, Ootavius C. — IMscovery of the Mai-Kassa, or Baxter River, New Guinea. Proc. B. O.S.,xx. 1875, pp. 92-109; Cosmos, iii. 1876, pp. 462-458; Verh. Ver. Nat. Unterh. IJamburg, ii. 1876. '■ Letter from, en his recent Explorations in the Interior of New Guinea, from Port Moresby. Proc. B. G. 8., xx. 1875, pp. 266-272. Description of the Country and Natives of Port Moresby and Neighbourhood, New Guinea. Tom. cit. pp. 330-343 ; Joum. B. O. 8., xlvi. 1876, pp. 34-62 (see review by E. Sauvage, Bev. cFAnthrop., vii. 1878, pp. 556-565). ' On his recent Journeys in New Guinea. Bep. iGth Meeting Brit. Assoc., Glasgow, 1876, (Trans, of Sect) p. 184 ; Nature, xliv. 1876, p. 489. A Few Months in New Guinea. London (Sampson Low) : 1880, post 8vo., maps and illustrations. Nature, xxi. 1879, pp. 64-66. See Sharpe. Strauoh, H. — Verzeichniss von 477 Wortern, gesammelt wahrend des Aufenthaltes S.M.S. 'Gaiselle' in Neu-Guinea, Neu-Hannover, Neu-Irland, Neu-Britannien, und Brisbane (Queensland). Zeits.f. Ethndogie, viii. 1876, pp. 406-419. Allgemeine Bemerkungen ethnologischen Inhalts liber Neu-Guinea . . . im Anschluss an die dort gemachten Sammlungen ethnologischer Gegenstandc. Op. cit. ix. 1877, pp. 9-63, 81-105, pis. i.-iv. EKruyok, N. — ^Vervolg van de beschrijving der Staarsterren [in the same author's "Inleiding tot de algemeene geographic," 1740], &c. Amsterdam (Tirion): 1763, 4to., map and pis. [map of the Papuan Islands, with account of Weyland's journey in the ' Geelvink,* 1705]. Studer, [Prof.] Th. — ^Ein Besuch auf den Papuainseln nordlich von Neu-Guinea, von Prof. Th. Studer, mit dem Deutschen Kriegsschiff' Gazelle.' Detitsche Oeogr. Blatter, i. 1877, pp. 182-200. Ueber Neu-Guinea. V. Jahresbericht der geographischen Gesellsclia/t in 5em, 1882-1883, pp. 1-35. < Sulphur.' — See Beloher. * Buriname.' — See Nieuwenhuisen, Van der Crab. ' Surprise.' — Visit of the schooner ' Surprise,' under Captain Paget, to New Guinea Coast, ascending Manoa river. Nature, vi. 1872, p. 14 (quoting Sydney Herald). I ii 8vo., land's uinea %ld). BIBUOGRAPHY OF NEW GUINEA. 881 Burville, De. — See Marion & Duolesmeur. Bwaan, P. — [Report on the Voyage of the steamer 'Socrabaija' in 1875-76: in] Janrboek van de K. Ned. Zeemacht, 1875-76, pp. 333-355. [Swaan, P.] — Hydrographische Bcsohrijving der Kusten van Nieuw-Quineaender aangrenzondo Yaarwators. Behoorendo bij de Kaart van Nieuw-Guinea tot oan den 141° 0. L. Tijds. Aai-dr. Omootsch,, iii. 1879, pp. 85-91, map No. 10. Beknopte Beschrijving van de Wijze waarop do Kaart van Nieuvr-Guinea is samtngesteld. L. c. pp. 92-97. See Beooari, Kan, Langeveldt van Hemert, Van der Aa. Tapparone-CanefH, O. — Contribuzioni per una Fauna Malacologica delle Isole Papuane. Ann. Mus. Civ. Oenova, vi. 1874, pp. 548-568; vii. 1875, pp. 1028-1033; viii. 1876, pp. 823-332; ix. 1876-77, pp. 278-300; xii. 1877-78, pp. 97 and 98 ; xvi. 1880, pp. 59-61. • F'lua Malaco'ogica della Nuova Guinea e delle Isole adiaccnti. Parte I. Mollusclii cstramarini. Op. cit. xix. 1883 [all the vol.], pis. i.-xi. Catalogue des Co»|uillea rapport^es de la Nouvelle-Guindo par M. Kaffray. Bulhtin de la Society Zodogique de France, iii. 1878, pp. 244-277, pi. vL Recherchcs sur la Faune Malacologique de la Noavelle-Guin^e. Comptet liendus des seances hebdonrndaires de VAcaddmie des Sciences, Paris ''■•■"■•xvi. 1878, pp. 1149 and 1150 ; Annals and Magazine of Natural History, (5; .i. p. 111. ' Tartar.'— See Forrest. Teijsmann, J. E. — Extrait du Rdcit d'un Voyage & la Nouvelle-Guin^c. Ann. Jard. Hot. litiiteiizorg, i. 187G, pp. 61-95. Verslag eener Eeis iiaar Nieuw-Guinea. Nat. Tijds. Ned. IndiS, xl. 1881, pp. 192-282. [Voyage in 1871 with Van der Crab in the • Willem III.* and •Dassoon.'] Siee Van der Aa, Van der Crab. Tenuninok, C. J. — ^Verhandelingen over de natunrlijko Gcschiedcnis der Kedcr- landschc Ovcrzcesche Bezittingen, door do Leden der Natuurknndige Commissie in Indie en andere Schrijvors. Leyden : 1839-47, 3 vols. fo. [See Miiller, 8.] Coup- • * * Uranie ' & • PhyBiolenne.'~Suo Freyoinet. Valkenhoff, T. A. 0.— Srie-Olie van Nieuw-Guinoa. Nat. Tij'ds. Ned. Indie, xxxii. 1873, pp. 28-30. Van der Aa, P. J. C. B. Robid^. — Ncderlamis roeping ter Verkrijsing van mcer Keonis van Nieuw-Quinea. Tijds. Aardr. Oenootsch,, i. 1876, p. 31. Reizcn naar Netlerlandsch Nieuw-Guinoa ondomomcn op last tier Rcgeering van Nederlandsch-Indie in de Jardn 1871, 1872, 1875-1876, door de Hoeren P. ' Van der Grab en J. E. Toysniann, J. O. Coorengel on A. J. Langeveldt Van Hemert en P. Swaan, mod gescUiedcn aardrijkgkundigo toolichtingen. B'Gravenhage (Nijhoff): 1879, 8vo., maps. [_Aardryk8kundig Weekblad, (u.s.) \. 1877-80, l)p. 166, 246, 326, ii. p. 313.] Kritisch Overzicht der reizcn naar Ncderlandsch Nieuw-Guinoa in do Jaren 1879-1882, met kaart dor toon vour bet eerst nador opgenomon Zuidkust. Bijdr. Taal- l Van der Grab, P. — Reis naar de zuidwestkuat van Nieuw-Guinea, de Goram en Geram-laut eilandcn, en oostelijk Ceram. Tijds. Ind. Taal-, Land-, en VoUcen- kunde, xiii. pp. 531-533. [Journey to Dorei in 1863.] Koloniaal Verslag, 1863, p. 1020, and Ber. Utrecht. Zend., 1863, No. 10, p. 13, 1864, No. 4, pp. 9-12. [Tbo like in 1864.] Kol. Verslag, 1864, p. 508. [Visit in tbo ' Suriname ' to Dorei, Oct. 1866.] Ber. Utrecht. Zend., 1867, pp. 41 and 22, and Kol. Verslag, 1868, p. 297. te Teysmann, J. E. — Verslag ccncr reis uaar do Maccluers-, Geelvink-, en Humboldt-Baaien in Nieuw-Guinea, van Augustus tot November, 1871, door den Gouvernoments-Commissaris P. Vnn der Crab, mot Aanteekeningen uithet Journal van den Inspectcur-Honorair der Cultures, J. E. Teysmann. In Van der Aa's ' Reizen naar Nederlaudscb Nieuw-Guiuca,' 1879, pp. 1-210. Van Dijk, Ii. C. D. — Mcdcdeoliugen uit bet Oost-Indiscb Arcbief. Amsterdam : 1859, 8vo. [for early Dutch explorers]. * Vesuvius.' — See Ooldman. Veth, P. J. — Geograpbiscbo Aanteekeningen bctreffendo de Koi-eilanden. Tijds. Aardr. Genootsch., ii. 1876, pp. t>;^-96, map. See Netherlands Indies, Rosenberg, Wallace. ' Vettor Pisani.' — Sec Lovera di Maria, Riemsdijk. Vines, Francisco. — Isla Vaigiu (Australasia). JJol, Soc. Ocogr. Madrid, x. 1881, pp. 150-153. Virohow, R. — Ucber Scbiidel von Ncu-Guinea. Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthrqp., 1873, pp. (65)-(73.) ■ [Observations on Meyer's ' Die Papua's und Neu Guinea,' based on skulls examined from New Guinea.] L. c. pp. (175)-(177). 2 A 2 J 884 BIDUOQRAPHY OF NEW aUlMEA. [Virbhow, R.]— [On lottur from Mlklucho-Maclay.] L. e. pp. (188) and (189). Vlaanderen, [Dr.] O. Ii. — Eotbnre aardo van de Humboldtsbaai, Niouw Quinen. Jaarboek van het Myntwzen in Nalerlamiich Ooat-Indk (Amsterdam), 1874, pp. 179 and 180. [Voloanlo Aotion.]— Over ecn niouw nit zeo opgerezon eiland in do nabijhoid dor KeiJ-oilandcn. Nat. Tijd». Ned. Indie, vii. p. 160. Seo also Notuhu van de Verg. cit. viii. 1865, pp. 102-130. Descriptions of some new species of Dipterous Insects from the Island of Salwatty, near New Guinea. L. e. pp. 130-136. — Synopsis of the Dijiiera of the Eastern Archipelago discovered by Mr. Wallace, &c. Op. cit. ix. 1868, pp. 1-30. Catalogue of tho Homopterous Insects collected . . . by Mr. A. B. Wallace. Ojy. at. X. 1870, pp. 82, 276, pi. iii. Wallace, Alfred Bussell. — On the natural history of the Am Islands. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., xx.l857, pp. 473, 485; Nat. Tijds. Ned. Indie, xvii. 1858-9, pp. 356-376. On the Arru Islands. Proe. Ii. O. S., ii. 1858, pp. 163-171 ; Zeits. aVg. hnlkunde, (n.f.) v. 1858, p. 266. Notes on a Voyage to New Guinea. Proc. 11. 0. S., iii. 1859, pp. 358-3G1 Jotirn. Ii. G. S., xxx. 1860, pp. 172-177. Narrative of Search after Birds of Paradise, and on some new and rare Birds ii-om New Guinea. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1862, pp. 153-lGl, and 164-166. On tho varieties of man in tho Malay Archipelago. Traiimctiona of the Ethnological Society of London, (n.s.) iii. 18C5, pp. 196-215. The Malay Archipelago: tho land of tho Orang-Utan and tho Bird of Pai-ndise. A narrative of travel, with studies of man and nature. London (Mac- millau) : 1869, 2 vols, post 8vo., maps and illustrations. Subsequently issued in ono vol. by amo publishers. [Vol ii., chapters 34-36 refer to Now Guinea and its islands.] See Meinicko, Zeits. f. Etlmdlogie, iii. 1871, p. 84. et seq. BIUUOORAPHY OK NEW GUINEA. 885 [Wallsoe, AlflMd RuMell]— Dor Malaylgcho Archipol. Braunschwoig (Wmter< mann) : 1860, 2 vols. 8vo. [translated by A. D, Moyor]. L'Arohipol Malaiaion, &c. Tour du Monde, xxii., xxiv., xxvi. 1871-73. ■ Insulind? : het land von den Oranft-oetan en den paradijavogel. [Translated with notes by 1'. J. Voth.] Aoistordam (Van Kampen) : 1860-1872, 2 voU. 8vo., pis. Introduction to F. Smith's Catalogue of Aculeate Hymenoptera, Sce^ of India and the Eastern Archipelago. Joum. Linn. 8oe. (Zool.), xii. 1873, pp. 285-302. [See also Wallace's paiwrs on the Zoology of the Malayan region : — Birds, J'roc. Zodl. Soc., 18G4, n. 272 ; Jbis, i. 1865, p. 365, ond Journal of Omithd., ziv. 1866, p. 268 ; Proe. Zod. Soc., 1865, p. 474 { Ihit, iv. 1868, pp. 1 and 215. Land shells, Proc, Zod. Soc., 1865, p. 405. Insects, Transaetionii of the Entmno- logical Society of London, 1857, p. 272, and Zoologist, xvi. 1858, p. 5889 ; Tram. Linn. Soc., xxv. 1865, p. 1; Tram, Ent, Soc., 1868, pp. 301 and 510; 1860, pp. 77, 277, and 821.] See Gray, O. R., Gray, 3. ISL, Gould, Hewitson, Stxitth, Walker. The Geographical Distribution of Animals, &c. London (Macmillau): 1876, 2 vols. 8vo., maps and illuatrationa. [Papua, or the New Guinea Group of the Austro-Malayan sub-region, vol i. pp. 409-417, pi. z.] Now Guinea and its Inhabitants. Popular Science Monthly, 1879, April et seq. New Guinea and its Inhabitants. Contemporary Beview, Feb. 1879. Australasia : in Stanford's ' Compendium of Geography and Travel,' based on HoUwald's * Die Erde und ihre Yolkor ' . . . with ethnological appendix by A. K. Keanc. London (Stanford) : 1879, cr. 8vo., maps and illustrations. [Pp. .134- 464 refer to New Guinea, with map. See also Appendix.] Weyland, Jaoob. — Geschied- en zeevoartkundige toelichting botreffendc eene kanrt van do Gcelvinskbaai, op de Noordkust van Nieuw-Guinea, volgcns de opnamo van Jacob Weyland in 1705. 'sGravcnhage : 1866, Svo. [by P. A. Leupe and J. M. Obroen]. See Iioupe, Struyok. Whitmee, [Bev.] 8. J. — Now Guinea [Letter on Missionary Stations]. Nature, vii. 1873, p. 362. Recent discoveries in New Guinea; and Papua or Papooa? Op. ct^xiv. 187G, pp. 48 and 49. Fauna and Flora of New Guinea and tho Pacific Islands. L. c. p. 271. \ A revised nomenclature of the Inter-Oceanic Races of Man. Joum, Anthrop. Imt., viii. 1879, pp. 360-369. Wild, J. J. — ^Tho •Challenger's* Visit to New Guinea. Illustrated Neiva (Lon- don), 1875, p. 590; reproduced in Journal Offieiel de la BdptthUqtie Frangaise, July 12, 1876 ; Comos, iii. 1876, pp. 379-381. A t Anchor. A narrative of experiences afloat and ashore during the voyage of H.M.S. 'Challenger,' from 1872 to 1876. London (Ward): 1878, largo 4to., plates. [Pp. 132-13S and 2 illustrations refer to Humboldt Bay.] 886 BIBLIOtiRAPHV OK NEW QUINGA. Wilkinaon, 0. 8. — Notes on a collection or geological apeoiincns collected by William Maoleay . . . from the coasts of New Guinea, Cape York, and neighbouring islands. Five. Linn. Soc. N, 8. Walet, i. 1870, pp. 113-117 ; American Journal (/ Seimoe and Arts, (3) xiii. 1877, pp. 1S7 and 168. [Disoorery of Mioconu formations suggesting fwmer connection with Australia.] See Btharidg*. Report on Auriferous and other specimens from New Guinea. Annual Report of the Department of Mines, N. S. Wales, 1878 (Sydney, 1870), pp. 167- 159 ; see A. G. Look's ' Gold ' (London : Spon), 1882, p. 477. ' Willem m.' ft ' Dasaoon.'— See Van der Grab. Wlllemoea-Suhm, B. von. — Bcsnch des 'Challenger' in der Humboldt-Ducht in Neu-Guinea nnd auf den Admiralitilts-Inseln. Mittheilungen der deutichen OeMlltcha/l /ilr Natur- und VHkerkunde Oita»ien$, Sept. 1876; Petennann'n Qeogr. MittheiJ., xzii. 1876, pp. 106 and 107. Ueber die Eingeborenon Neu-Gninea's uud benachbarter Inseln. Arclt.f. Anthrop., ix. 1876, p. 09. ' Challenger ' Briefe. Bay]. Leipzig : 1877, 8ro. [pp. 160-163 refer to Humboldt Winokel, F. — Einiges |^ueber die Bcckenknochcn und die Beckon der Fapiias. Mittheil, Zool. Mas. Dresden, i. 1875, pp. 87-90 [Meyer's collections]. [Winds.] — West Coast of Now Guinea : in Winds and Weather of the Indian Ocean, Nautical Magazine, 1857, pp. 216 and 217: see also op. eit. 1868, p. 660. See Mikluoho-Maolay. Woods, [Bev.] J. B. Tenison. — Now Guinea [Letter opposing colonisation]. The Australasian (Melbourne), Juno 29, 1867, p, 808 [seo VAnnde Qiographique, vi. 1867, pp. 285-287]. On a Tertiary formation at Now Guinea. Proc. Linn. Soc, N, S. Wales, ii. 1878, pp. 126-128. On some Tertiary fossils from New Guinea. L. c. pp. ^67 and 268. On some fresh-water shells from New Guinea. Op. cit. iv. 1870, pp. 24-26, pLiv. Yeats, J.— Seo MUller, 8. Yule, [liieut] O. B. — [Survey of South Const with H.M. Schooners ' Bmmble ' and ' Castlereagh ']. Australia Directory, ii. 1879, p. 467 et seq. * Zaan.'— See Soetermeer. Zahn, P. Ii. — Bijbelsche geschiedenis.sen, vertaald in de Papoesch-Noefoorsche taal, door J. G. Geisslor. Utrecht (KcUiink) : 1870, 8vo. Zonardini, J. — Phycenj Papuanai novas vol minus cognitie, a A. O. Beccari in itinere ad Novam Guincam annis 1872-75 [colleotOB. N. Qiorn. Dot. Ital,, x. 1878, pp. 34-40. Zaragoaa, Juste.— Descubrimientos de los Espafioles en el mar del Sur y en las Costas de la Nueva-Guinea. Ddl. Soc. Qeogr. Madrid, iv. 1878, pp. 7-66. Zippelius, — . — Heise nach Nou-Guinea. Flora, odor allgemoino botanischc Zoitung (Regensburg), xii. 1829, pp. 281-287 ; F^russnc, Bulletin des Sciences Naturdles et de QMogie, xviii. 1829, pp. 90-93. Over nieuve Plantcn van Nieuw-Guinca. Allgemeene Konsi- en Letterhode, 1829, p. 294. BIBLIOaRAPHY OK NEW OUINEA. 887 Zoology.— 800 [Oenerol] Louon, Maogillivray, Mftolaay, Maindron, Quoy it Oalmsrd, lUmaay. Sohlegal, Solater, Wallace; [Mainmalia] D'Albcrtla, Oray, J. IL fr. O. B., Fet«ra, Petera tt Doria, Ramiay, Walker, A. O. ; [AcsJ i/icaoari, Oabanle ft Relohenow, D'Albartle, D'AlbertU ft 8alva i f^i- y^^^: _ /J ^.Al,M'W''' ■■'>^* t.»^ «Spfr «K -S'l- St!"?'!;; ^^..^iAu/.:.'^ ^y^^ I' '^ •"i^^L.^'-J^! ''^»;;f;> m^r *■ «^;' J'^ fev.l haGSouil^ 1 ASIA id Amu-Daria Rivers *Delmar Morgan's paper . Serdoba Reaervoir . Karaut Guard- Stadan- . Tiube BuriaLMound, . Kuigan WaUed. town, fortress . iSoUh S^SoUh 71 ^1 cV- *' ?%rf*^ s 72' ;!!^<*: » 30 aSi:' ^yW!^*^ mf^ k391 IUO\ ^Chmkeik ■'-* •^VS"; M^mai] "^"k ■'ft**!,:' '.■.f?> ,:i«i Imlikk rhiduJtW. WJ ■^%W ■•«;, ■'m '■> f . ■. ■...■vv;.' ■■M,f: .*- . .,.fi /. ^}' •!■;,>■■• %^ ,»i^' ^' >«" vV,-.,. jAur-l (* .IM'^ / Ll t-lP? •« 1 H b^^ ^fr 1 1 f^ S,n 1 1 ' S^' ] Jni d J 1 r'.iftff ^ A ^ ■IS ^ %.^; 1 !ip-«* *«M! r^. ^■^'<4.^ 4/ ,.>■ JZttUinfcd li!-<|fe^' r-T>dAatiw . i-" ,^^' *!^ h -^t} \gan.W.^ "^ Djta^lBUiya SKindb «^«bJ'*T7\ /J '•ap^ . .-"Y •*>;. wm TofiArn iFxnafui' #f, toT S:h^iuh: M m0»mi0ttiHrimLm^ ^«^i SemtMii-m ^hmmndk Longitude East 69* from Oreenwick . Scale of Endish Miles . 1 inch - 13'6 miles 10 20 30 40 so Heights irhEngli^Feet . SupplenverOMiry Papers , RcryaZ Geographical Socte^ ,1884. 'Kf^. >• m ■■*^' ^^ 130 ■'^Xi W 'v^S|».^,*---'«*w.' i*^ SM&S*;"'' ■sw J ■'jii^Vii^if :'-^l i:*,' HII 1 HI ■AS' >Ats paaht X- ■% ¥- &C 30 mn ii!^ 37 ^. sMe; 72° Edw*Weller, lith , Redlion Square. II '■ -\ EEPOETS ON PARTS OF THE GHILZI COUNTRY, AND ON SOME OF THE TRIBES IN THE NEIGHBOUEHOOD OF GHAZNI; AUD ON THE ROUTE FROM GHAZNI TO DERA ISMAIL KHAN BY THE GHWALARI PASS. By Liedt. JAMES SUTHERLAND BEOADFOOT, Cexgal £kgineer8, 1839. Edited bx Major WILLIAM BROADFOOT, k.e. vol., I, V REPORTS ox PARTS OF THE GHILZI COUNTRY, AND ON SOME OK THE • TRIBES IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF GHAZNI; AND ON THE ROUTE FROM GHAZNI TO DERA ISMAIL KHAN BY THE GHWALARI PASS. By Lieut. James Sutherland Broadfoot, Bengal Eugiueeis, 1839. Edited by Major William Broadfoot, r.e. Map, p. 438. I:!}trod; CTORY Notk by the Editor. These reports baving recently come into my possession, I was struck on reading them with their interest, geographically; no description of these parts of the country, except a somewhat short account of the route described in Iteport H. by Mr. G. T. Vigne, baving been published. As Lieut. Broadfoot's reports had always been considered confidential, I applied for sanction to present them to the Royal Geographical Society, which was accorded by the Secretary of State. As I had Lieut. Broadfoot's original journal, I have in places added to, and cor- rected or eliminated parts of the reports as printed in Calcutta in 1870. With resjiect to the spelling of the names of people and places, I have generally followed the mode adopted in Sir Charles Macgregor's compilation or Gazetteer of Central Asia, except where I have had reason to think that the transliteration was incorrect, or not intelligible to ordinary English readers. I make no pretence to accuracy in the matter of spelling Afghan names, and will be more than satisfied if I can make them generally intelligible. Lieut. Broadfoot accompanied the army from Firozpur, across the Indus at Sukkur, to Kandahar and Ghazni. He was engaged with the other Engineer officers in blowing in the gate, and took his part in the storm and capture. He was then left in Ghazni to repair and strengthen the place, and this he describes as six weeks' hard work. From Ghazni he was sent to join Captain Outram's force against the Ghilzis and other refractory Afghans in the neighbourhood. He remained with this force whilst it was in the field, and marched 340 miles in a month, surveying the country, assisting at the occasional fights, and collecting information regarding the tribes of that unknown country. This information is given in Report I. When this expedition was over, Lieut. Broadfoot wa'i allowed to explore the route described in Report IL From his journal I extract the following: — "The proposal to explore this pass had been started, I heard at Kabul, by Outram, whom the Commander-in-chief would not allow to go. Outram assisted me by asking Sir 2 B 2 84a liKrORTS ON PARTS OV THK OIIILZI COUNTUY, ETC. f J ^i \V. MacnAUghten'g permiBgion ; and Mnjor Maclaren alloweil mo to go in anticipa- tion of sanction." In a letter homo, written Just after tlio journey was accompliHlied, ho lays, " Between Afghanistan and India runs the great Stiliman range of moun- tains from C to Vj. Kumal, whonco tlie army started, is D ; tlie army liad marclicd round by tlie line D E 7 to (!liai',ii;<»t A, nearly 800 miles out of the straight line; it r FQ'kandal.iif KiwncU. r f;<>iiig ii Hiiflieicnt diHtunco to allow a ilifforont l)uai'iii};. Ev(>ik Uioho, it in hoped, will aiVunI ustfiil ntilitiiiy inronuutiun. Biicli a rapid Niirvoy r.iiiHt havo Nomo crrorH, and 1>u iiioagro iii dotailH ; I'or tluH 1 can only apologiso, that it wa« niado at my own oxponwc, withont any UHHtHtanco, ondoavonring to Riipply l>y labour tlio plaoo of inHtnnuentH, funds, and Hurvcyin^ cHtahliHliniont. lint the orrorH aru not conHiderablc, aH ih hIiowu by tho ncarncHH with which my Hurvoyod pluco of Dora lumail Khan agrccH with that doturminud aHtronomically. iJuring the Qhilzi cami>aign, 1 hmt by fnmt and plundurorH tho wholo of my camolH, and with thorn my (ihazni i!uId-l)OokH, on which nmoh labour had boon iHmtowod. Tho romaiuH of my papora aro umbodiud in tho idans and ro])ortH. I Hhall treat of:--lHt. llazaraH and Wardaks. 2nd. Table-land of Cihazni and tho OhilziH. 3rd. Tho (Jhwalari PaHS. Tho triangular Hpaeo between Herat, Kandaliar, and Ghazni is closely filled with niountainti, inhabited on tho went by AinmkH, and on tho east by ITuzariiH. From Ghu/ni three diHtinct ranges aro porecivcd, running north-onst in ono unbroken chain. The highest peak isdulkoh, in tho clefts of Avhich snow lies tho wholo year. ^Vithiu 1)1 miles of the city aro six jiassos, all leading into tho valley of tho Rod i-({Iin/.ni ; their names aro Kakrak, Turgan, Gulbari, Roba, Barakat, and Markul. Being alike in character and iii>pearanco, a description of (julbari will servo for all. It is a ravine, at first 800 yards wide, onclosod by rugged hills. Tho bottom of good soil sciittered with fallen rocks; littlo rivulets run through its wholo length and water tho land of nine forts. After G miles of gentle ascent, it narrows to '.\0 yards, water and cultivation ceaso, and a short steep slope leads to the top of tho first range. The view now embraces largo barren rocks, with a few green specks in tho narrow ravines, and tho high nmuntain of Karesuf * b. — Kk. 1 RKI'Onrs ON PAUTS OK nil, «;ill(.ZI roWNTRV, KTO. 346 eyes, Tho ispoct. boots ;owcrs and hriir- [>ys to read the Koran, but their hiiiKim^o in irnicli oorni|itoi:NTI!V, YAV. riiption. A rovonuo of n few thoimaiul hIiocj) ami a littlo moiioy in cliiiinod \>y tho Oovornor of (ihnziii, iind Koiuimlly puiJ hy KarabiiKli mid tho iwurest vnllo.VH. Tho HazuraH hato tlir Afj^lumH, who opj)iv8H them, Olid who aro Suiuiin. Nfiwur iind Sir-i-ali, a fow years ago, rofuHcd tho trilmto, and colliictcd a formi.liiMo hody of men. A Bon of 1 >' t Muhammad at tho lioad of somo horuo, contrivod fo drag a light gnu th igh tho jiuhhch. Tho vory sight of thin diHsolvod tho confoderacy, and tho trJltnto was paid. In spito of this nxamplo, I con- sider tho conntry west of tho Ihst range to l>o qnito impasHaMo for aitillory ; and oven were thoy dragged along hy ropes, in snch a country tlioy would bo immovable and nseless. If a force is ropiiied, it Hhould consist of infantry, and a fow cavalry, with scaling ladders and bags of powder for tho forts. All baggage must bo loft behind, and grain and ammunition carried on mnU's or ponies. Provided with a month's supply, ilOOO men could then jieuotrato whore they pleased and find no Bi-rious opposition. In tho valleys, grass, water, and a fow sheep could bo obtained : in Niiwar some grain might be got, nothing more could bo furnished. Tho Wurdaks inhabit tlio valley of Sokhta, that of tho Gliazni river, and that west of tho Logar. Thoy aro neither Ghilzis nor Duranis, but nearer in descent to tho latter. 1 have heard them called Sheikhs. 1 found thorn quiet and hospitable ; the country well cultivated ; always melons, and sometimes grapes. Sokhta, so called from its burned-up look, gives them several lino veins of lead, the ore being evidently vorj' jmro, from tlio ease with which it is worked. Small quantities of iron have been found ; a shrub on tho hills, in appearance like a fern, bears a medicinal gum smelling of turpentine; tho specimens I had were lost with my camels. The Wardaks seldom molest travellers or interfere with tho Afghan squabbles. Dost Muhammad, unable to mako them join him, extorted a considerable sum to pay his troops. From Qhazni, along tho river to tho Band-i-Sultan, and thenco through tho Wardak valleys, a road goes over the Gardan to Kabul; it is sometimes travelled, as it avoids the Tang-i-Sher defile, but would be difficult for guns. In the maps tho Ghazni river is represented as a branch of tho Logar running to tho north. This is not correct, tho Logar rises somewhere near Bcsud, but the river of Ghazni was made by Mahraud, as follows : — In a littlo valley 12 miles from the city, three rivulets meet ; anciently thoy flowed through ditferent clianncls, fertilised a fow fields, and were lost ; Mahmud dammed uj) all but one outlet and thus made the present river. It issues from hero a stream in tho dry season 20 feet wide, 2 feet deep, with a velocity of 5 I'cct per second. In spring it is mucii larger ; the Band-i-Sultan,* by which this is efibcted, is a wall of masonry closing a rocky valley; the dam when complete must have been 300 yards long, its height varying from 20 feet to 8 feet, and its thickness * Tliia (Inm is descrilcJ by Jlr. Viguc, but not iu bo great detail ns licio. — Ed. t)r longc yards when witli soveru it is Malim it riNi'i •20 mi direct! tho ri for a canals baro s] thinly Tang-i HKPOiaS ON I'AUTS OV Til.'. OIIII.ZI COtrNTUV. KTC. 347 iorfero join iloiig leys, as it k: — cntly weiv 'csent wide, nuch loiiry 301) cncss or 7 foot. lu autumn, whuii thu ploughing Ih uvor und wutor ii(» lougor wanted, tlitt iiutlot ih Hliut (iind u lukt* filla tlio vuUuy GOO yurds wido with u groatoHt doptli of about 30 foot). In Bpring whuu oultivutiou bogins, tbo oriAco (a nioru liolo in n rock, ututlod witli bruHliwood and oartli) Jh opunod, and tho Htroam ruNbos out in Hovoral cuHOudcH, tbiiH giving tbo wlndc wator ol" tlu> ywir in tbo Heason it iH rociuirod. Tb(> btsting bonolita of tbia yrmk utc - in part for Alabniud'H roligiouH cruulticH. Tbo principal of tho rivulots wbich food it rm\H on tho uortborn shtpo of Sir-i-ab, and running to tlio north for 20 miles tlirough h narrow valloy, tuniH to tbo right by Sokbta in tbo direction of tbo dam. In its couruo to Gba/.ni, fi>r tbo firHt four miloH tho rivor is oonflucd by limcBtono rookH, opening ocoaBioually, enough for a fort and a patch of corn ; after tbiti it Hondu otf numerous irrigation eanuls to a lino of villages on each of its banks. On tlio west nro the baro Bjllirs of tho Ilazara Mountains, and to tho oust a still barer tract thinly sprinkled with camol shrubs, and sloping up to the defile of Tang-i-Sher. GlIAZNl AND TIIK GlIII./( COU.NTUY. The country from Mukkur to Ghazni may bo considered a sort of table- land, bounded on tho north-west by tbo Ilazara MoMntains and on the oast by tho Jadrun range. Six miles north of Ghazni the plain attains its ;^reato8t elevation and declines towards Kabul. South of Mukkur it sinks rapidly into the valley of tbo Tarnak. Between tbo t wo greet ranges a low chain of bills conducts the drainage from both sides into the Ab-i-Istadab Lake. Elevated from 7000 to 8000 feet alwve tho sea, tbo climate is severe. It freezes every evening in October, and tho ice lasts till midday; in November il never thaws; in Uocomber tho country is covered with throe foot of snow, which melts in tho middle of March. Tho people then issue from their long confinement, and find the fields green with corn, and tho plain covered with flowers which last only a few days. The climate is then genial, but even in July the heat is not oppressive. Except the periodical snow, rain seldom falls. This has retarded the decomposition of tho rocks and tbo formation of soil ; but the time may confidently bo predicted, when much of tho limestone, slate, und trap, shall bavo crumbled to powder, and tbo barren plains turned into forest or meadows. These ideas are confirmed bj' tho fact that tho Jadrun range, whose height and situation intercept much of tbo moisture destined for the plains, thus contributing to the dryness vi' Iheir climate, is well covered with soil and sprinkled with trees; w*i:lo I.Uls of the same formation, but placed in its lee, have scarcely soii li iigb for shrubs a foot high. Tho rocks here splinter by frost, not crumble 1 i ain ; their general appearance is a precipitous crest, Avith a base of angular debris, at first waving in hillocks, and then sinking in a long gentle slope to the plain. 4 348 KEI'OIITS ON PAUTS OK TllK GIllLZI COUNTRY, ETC. Those slopes are scattered with a thin, low, camol shrub called " Tirkba," and have many subterranean springs. By some strange method the Afghans discovered where the springs wore situated, and digging down to them formed wells : but wells are emptied by mechauioal labour, and the Afghans by groat labour have dug subterranean galleries from the springs to the valley lower down ; these galleries having a small slope, the water pours through them, and the woUs thus emptying themselves are called Karez.* "Where the water • issues from tho ground is a fort with a few acres of corn and lucerne. The general landscape is a brown stony moor bounded by distant hills, whose black rocky tops and shelving sides I have already noticed ; some- times a diminutive fort and its patch of cultivation look like green specks in the large waste ; sometimes forty or fifty aro in view at once, but they never hide the naked plain, and the general aspect is one of desolation. At Ghazni I observed that the wind during the day was constantlj' from the south. It may perhaps bo accounted for by the fact that tho trade winds tending to accumulate at the equator all the air of tho globe, an up])er current towards the poles is absolutely necessary. Tho altitude of Ghazni may bring it into these currents. At Mussoorio there is a great preponderance of tho south or Doon breeze ; but tho theory requires more confirmation. The Jadran range runs N.N.E. It is the chief of the Suliman chain. I saw it in tho distance overhanging Gardez and joining the Micholga hills, tho last spurs of tho Safcd Koh. It is named after the wild Jadriins, who occupy its eastern slopes. To tho south it is penetrated by the difficult l*ass of Paltu, and continued under various names to Eonak and Sargo ; from thence passing the lake it goes south, skirting the Tokhi and llotaki country, and ajiparently ends near Quctta. All the streams of its eastern slope force their way to tho Ijidus, showing that no intermediate range is so high or continuous ; indeed, standing on ground 3000 feet above the sea, it may fairly bo presumed as higher than tho Takht-i-Suliman ; a rough method made it 4000 feet above tho plain. It throws out branches which shelter the Turis, Jajis, and other hill tribes, and direct tho streams of Kuram, Kundar, and Gomal. I am at present uncertain whether tho AVaziri hills are a range running between tho Throne of Solomon and the Jadran Mountains, or are the spurs and ofisets of tho latter ; another journey would settle tho point. From Gardez to whci'o I passed it in Sargo, this range is tolerably wooded ; its peak and eastern face aro covered with pines, and its lower parts with trees, whoso Pashtu names I can give, but not a botanical description. The " Shne " has an eatable berry ; tho " Zrilg " an excellent gum, sometimes exported to Multan ; ^ho " Kurye " is much praised as a remedy for wounds ; 1 he " Khang " f furnishes wood for bow pine, w * Kurez, a Persian word meaning,' cnnnl or channel.- t " Piir>tuiiii" of Mr. Vigiic— Kii. -Ell. KEronrs ox tarts ok Tiir. ghilzi countrv, etc. 340 All tho , not lU IS i^ood for bows ; tho " Adzarna " gives out a pungent oil ; but the " Manzeh " pino, whoso fruit is tho chilgoza, is tho most important, as whole tribes live on the nut, which is like an almond tainted with tar. Tho principal rock is clay slato, dipping 45° to tho east. Parallel to this groat mountain is tho Hazarnow or Gharikoh, a ridge about 2500 feet above the plain, bare and rugged in its aspect. Ala-koh is the poak of a mountain similar to tho Hazarnow, on which it abuts to tho east, running westward to Ghazni and crossed by the Kabul road at tho defile of Tang-i-Sher. On a low spur of it, the Koh-i-Takht, Komo thousand Ghilzis were put to flight the day before we took Ghazni, Between the last two ranges is Kharwar, an elevated barren district, thinly inhabited by Anders and Suliaks. To tho north Kharwar opens on the fertile valley of Logar ; to tho west it commands the Kabul road ; to tlie east it is entered from tho Drang I'ass from Zurmfil ; and on tho Hnuth by tho llobat Pass from Shilgar. The Zintig Pass is between tlie two. Of these I understand the Drang is tho best, being passable for camels. Tho central situation of Kharwar makes it a favourite haunt of robbers, as they have on all sides a sure retreat. Tho country is dry and j)oor, guns could not easily cross it, and troops would find little forage. Takri is a rocky ridge about 1000 feet above tho plain ; it is 18 miles long, steep in the centre, but easily passed at either end. The range continues Avith intervals through Spinsak and Jarak-kana, the hills being of precisely tho same character, and then may bo tri»ced in the rocky isolated peaks of Nanai Ghund, Zizhgai, Khwaja Tlilal, and i)i) Kui. On tho western base of Jarak-kana is a lower ridge, evidently of contemporary origin ; and on its eastern side a chain of rounded hillocks formed of its debris, and called in the north Kharbin, in tho south Gazdara. This is continued on a larger scale in Zhora, a rocky peak, surrounded by miles of hillocks and finally sinking into the Ab-i-Istadah Lake. Girdunai is the last of a range running from near Kandahar along tho south-east bank of the Tarnak ; it has, as usual, a rocky top and base of hillocks, with a pass every five or six miles. Before it is hid by tho high land of Ghazni, its continuation may be traced in the disjoined ridge of Karghana, which has a few peaks of rock rising above a long ascent of moorland. The river of Ghazni has been traced to tho cit}*. It passes between Shilgar and Xani, sending off many irrigation outs, till the water, after ten or twelve miles, becomes much less, and its banks too steep. It next runs west of Pannfdi and Khwaja Tlilal between Do Kui and Ab-band ; in this desolate tract it is strongly impregnated with salt, and falls into the Ab-i-Tstadah Lake. A curious circumstance occurs : the fish, brought by the stream from tho upper parts, on entering the salt part sicken and die ; thej' may be taken by the hand in all stages of illness. The next feeder of the lako is the .lilga or Surkhrud, Avliich, rising ,!! d50 KKPOIiTS ON I'AUTS OK TlIK OHILZI COUNTin', KTC. M in Gardoz and Mieholga, flows througli tho whole of Zunnul, and passing through Sardih joins tho Ghazni river opposite Moshuki. At 8ardili it has perpendicular banks 15 feet deep, cut into hard clay ; tho stream wua 1 foot deep and 20 feet wide ; in spring it is barely fordable. In tho lower part of its course it is not used for irrigation. A third stream is tho Paltu, which rises in the jmss of that name, and nins through Kattawaz to the lake ; in its course it becomes slightly brackish ; its banks are never above fourfuet high, its dimensions those of the .lilga. A very small stream runs into tho lake from tho Turkani Nawah, a few miles of which it drains. The Afghans insisted that tho water runs out of tho lake through this stream ; tliey must have been trying to deceive me, as tho stream would run further to tho south or else form a new lake, and also such a drain would prevent the lake rising in its level during spring, tho proofs of which are very evident in the newly dried banks of clay all round its cliannol. As wo passed tho greatest part of the Ab-i-Istadah by night, I cannot answer for its exact figure, but am not far wrong in estimating it at 17 miles broad and 15 long ; its depth, I understand, is very trifling, probably not above 12 feet in the centre ; it is bounded b}' a gently shelving margin of naked clay; not a tree is in sight, or a blade of grass, and hardly a fort ; the blue hills in tho distance make it look more lonely still. There wero several largo flights of chikor and rock pigeon, but we looked in vain for the myriads of water-fowl whic'^ tho Emperor Baber declares give its blue waters a red a])pearance ; the only instance 1 have detected of oriental exaggeration in his book. Its waters are as salt as brine : I think, with soda, but had no tests. Sliilgar is included between the Alakuh and Takj'i ranges and the river of Ghazni. Tiie pojmlation are Anders, with the exception of tho Tajik villages, Rakmak and Robat. each of about 150 houses. It con- tains about lUO square miles, and I estimate its population at 20,000. Tho western part, well cultivated with wheat, barley, lucerne, and clover. partly supplies Ghazni ; tlio country is iliit and easily 2)aKsed in all directions ; water is abundant, and troops ■'A-ould be well supplied. Those estimates of population wero made from lists of the number of tho forts and water-mills as given by tho Ari;lians, and are to be looked on as mere approximations. Zfirmfd is a valley 40 miles long and 20 broad ; in its northern part is the Tajik village of Gardez, numbering perhaps 250 houses. Betwoeii that place and Kolalgu the inhabitants air Ahmedzais and Ali Khols. The mojintains on each side furnish many karezcs, and occasionally a lino of forts parallel to their bases ; a tliinl lino follows for some miles the course of tho ri: er, by which its fields are watered ; Kolalgu is a Tajik village of 200 houses. From thencotii" western lino efforts as far as Sardeli belongs to the Anders, and the eastern. which is more jiumerous, to tho Suliman Khels. The roots or spurs of tho Jadran Mountains shelter a few hundred families of wandering;- RHPORTS ON PARTS 01- IHK (illlLZI COUN'l'UY, KTC. 851 ill I'Sl' rts us A : tlH' my ir.l .Is rii. iirs iiii;' shepherds and roblioivs ; tlie population is al)out 40,000. From Gardez a good road goes by Logar to Kabul and a more dillicnlt one by Michelga to Jalalabad ; the valley is passable for artillery in all directions ; watci-, forage, and grain abundant. The road from Glmziii to KoLilgTi is very easy as far as Killa Daulat Klian, from thence it crosses two low hills, and winds among some small ravines caused by the water from the east of Shilgar falling into Zfirmfd. These would give a little work to the liioneers, but I think they might bo avoided by keeping to the north of my route. The wide space marked Uarra is a plain inhabited by Sohaks, and the entrance to the pass of the Kuram river and to the country of the Jajis. The Pass of the Paltu is said to bo difficult, and leads among craggy mountains to the Kharoti country and the source of the Dwo * Gomal at Shorkaeha: the country is impreguatod with salt. Sardih is a narrow strip between the lower end of the Takri and the hill Spinsak. It has seven or eight forts o^ Anders comprising aboTit 1000 souls. The ground is covered v . camavisk bushes, and cut up by ravines running into the Jilga. ITero are the remains of a dam erected by Mahmud, but now commonly ascribed to the prophet Ali ; its object was to irrigate the land by means of the Jilga. Opposite Mursal there is an easy pass into Shilgar over the low end of Takri ; thei'o are others lower down ; a gnido can show sciveral easy passages through the ravines. Melanai and Joga are clusters of forts of Anciurs included in the Shilgar district. The roads from them to Panniih are over an easy plain. Pannrdi and Maibolagh are little districts of Anders, together con- taining about 1000 souls. The road here winds among hillocks, but has no serious difficulty. Supplies for a small force could be obtained at Panniih. Among the hillocks are camps of shepherds and Lohani merchants who emigrate in winter. Mulla Khel, Alisher Kliel, and Zizhgai, are inhabited by Anders and Tarakkis mixed. The country is now even barer than before, and is a series of low swells and hollows ; water is found near the forts, but supplies are scarce. At Shinbuti a .spring of water issues from a hillock, and is the usual seat of a pastoral khel ; at Ashlan there are two forts with twenty families. Tiie ground is now completely void of brushwood, and palt ; no supplies could be obtained ; the road is eas3% and parallel to the Ghazni stream now flowing sluggishly between steep banks. Dila is a fort ot Khudazais with a few families, a strip of cultivation, and a well of good water; another fort of the same tribe is nearer the lake. During the night march to Mansur Karez, the shepherds' fires were all we saw. They tantalised us greatly as far as 15 miles — they seemed always close in front. At that place wo saAv the last of the Tarakkis' five or six forts of the Shibo Khel. From thenco wo marched among hillocks to Ferozai, the boundarj- * Tlio Shoi (Juninl of Mr. Vigno. Thi; other brunch is called Keim : Shci meaning "■iglit, anil Kcna kit. — Ki>. 8fta RErOUTS ON I'AKTS OF TIIK (illliai COrNTlJV, KTC. \^ of tho Tokhis; no supplies oxcopt water and canxd furagu could bo procured. (From this placo to Barik Khel* I was constantly occupied by my field duties, and could only take occasional observations ; this part must be taken with loss confidence, but tho Bombay army having passed leisurely along, can correct mo whoro I am wrong.) For nine miles tho roud lies among diilicult hillocks as far as a spring of water, from thouco wo got into tho Turkani Nawiih f (" Nawah " is a plain), an open plain, well cultivated by tho Tokhis and Ilotakis in the south, and the Tarakkis in tho north-east. After passing five forts, wo arrived at Killa Abdurahraan, tho fort of the Khan of the Tokhis ; this was a square of 120 yards with a mud wall 6 feet thick and 24 feet high, with largo towers at each anglo, ond in tho centre of each face a ditch had been dug and partially filled. Some years before, this fort had succoesfuUy resisted all tho troops of the king. After blowing up tho placo wo marched 20 miles through u tolerably well-cultivated part of tho nawah, or " plain," and passing near the fort of the Khan of the Tarakkis, and a village called Lalezai of tho same tribe, wo reached Barik Khel. Tho nawah has on tho west, tho Bozanai and Sarrim Sokhta or "Sakhtu" hills, dividing it from Sirmagha, inhabited by tho ]\[uhammad/ai Tokhis, and from the plain of tho Tarakkis. These hills are about 1000 feet high, but not very steep. In tho last tho prolongaHon of Shinkai divides it from Wazikhwah, a hilly district of the Suliman Khols, and from Alitagh, a iino valley of tl< Shamalzai- Tokhis. To the south is tho Maruf and the valley of tho Arghosan. From Barik Khel to Mil Ghazzab, tho beginning of Wazikhwah, is about 20 miles, the road lying among barren hills, but, I beliovo, pass- able for guns. Mir Ghazzab has four families and a spring of water. Tho inhabitants are Nassir Suliman Khels. Tho chief was usually called the "Mama," because ho was both father-in-law and uncle to Kohan Dil Khan. lie had a fort with good thick Avails, large towers, and a ditch, yet he would not stand an assault, but fled at our approach, taking with him two Mushirs t of his tribe. Ketuming from Mansur Karez, wo passed an open plain to Killa Arzbegi. Tho Arzbegi was said to bo good and kind, yet every one know him to be a notorious robber. Gilan, Mukknr, and Oba aro fertile dis- tricts, inhabited by Tarakkis and a few Duranis. Water was evory- whero abundant, and the road a level plain. Between Malimud and Eozanai all the forts are mined except Lalam Pijari Khel and Ilabib- ulla. Three miles to tho west were many forts, which I pass over, because they have been closely surveyed by Lieutenants Anderson and Durand of the Engineers. From Rozonai to Jamrad are fifteen forts • Bnrik in Lieut. Brondfoot's notes : Bara KIicl on some of llie maps. t "Nawnr" in Macgrcgor's 'Central Asia'; nn error, I iiresurac, for Nawuli, wlsicli means a tnict or dintrict. — Eo. X Mushir means elder, eouncillor.— Kn. II' RKI'OKTS OX P.MITS OK THK QHILZI COUNTRY, ETC. 863 with oxccUont cultivation, tho road good, and water and supplies abundant. Karabugh has been previously mentioned ; Moshaki and Nani are like Itozunai and Janirad ; Moshaki is inhabited by Anders. Ghazni has 900 inhabited houses, which, at five to each house, will give a population of 4500 persons. To this may bo added 1000 for garrison and camp followers. There are generally about 200 Hazaras, who come to got labour, or to sell their wool and hair cloths : also about 150 Hindu families, tho money-lenders and bankers of the place. Thoy are required to wear tight trousers, instead of loose ones, and a black cap for a turban, and to pay a small tax as infidels. For these concessions thoy rcceivo protection and even consideration, and are allowed to practise their idolatries in secret; their strange dress i.r<\ dirty habits arc very unlike the Hindus of India, but they are ^t U the same quiet, money-making people. Tlie rest of the inhabitants are Tiijiks, as are also the people of 'hu tract bounded on tho north by the Wardaks and on tho south by Ni ^i, and included between tho Ghazni river and Haxara Mountains. Tue origin of tho Tajiks is doubtful, because they are derived from sevei*al sources. Those of Kandahar and Girishk, with flowing beards and large black eyes, are probably of TerBian descent. At Ghazni, the small and sometimes grey eyes, and the beard generally scanty, indicate a Tartar race, and when wo reflect on tho dynasty of Mahmud, and tho Turks and Moguls established hero by Babor, wo must expect to find the remains of tho powerful tribes which once ruled the country. To this day they are often called Moguls ; and tlio proverb of " Turk and Tajik " is common in Asia. Exclusive of those near Ghazni, the villages of Rakmak,* Eobat, Kolalgn, and Gardcz, numbering perhaps 4000 souls, havo been already mentioned. Between them and tho Afghans exists an enmity, perhaps the effect of ancient wars, and tending much to diminish their numbers. Thirty years ago there were seven forts near Nani surrounded by cultivation and gardens, which werte entirely destroyed by the Ghilzis during the troubles ending in the expulsion of Shah Shujah : Nani and Karabaghi escaped with the total destruction of their vineyards and orchards which had been raised by tho labour of generations, and have never been attempted to be replaced. The old men told mo with regret of the days when every man sat under his own vine. This feud has materially influenced their character. Finding that they cannot oppose force to their enemies, they seldom carvy arms, and are inhabitants of cities, because they dare not ventuv'j out into tho country. Seeing also their land circumscribed by constant encroachment, they have made the most of the remainder by skilful cultivation, making irrigation canals and laborious karezes. In the bazaar they are active, energetic workmen in all the usual trades of the city. They effect by fraud or policy what an Afghan would attempt by open forc^ * Or Unlimak.—KD. and having something of the REPORTS ON PARTS OF niK UHILZI COUNTRY, ETC. I '^ Persian wit anil politonoss, tbey vont thoir uploeii in a thouHand jokes on their Afghan oppressors. While I was at Ghazni there were several instances of men killed in their fields within view of their walls. This state of things makes the people of the town ignorant of tho very hills they see from thoir citadel ; they always spoke of their immediate neighbours, the Anders, as a set of murderous villains instead of the quietest Ghilzis I ever saw. During spring they tiro constantly occupied in their fields and gardens, a succession of good crops and fine fruit is the resitlt. In May and June the people almost live on mulberries ; they oven dry them and grind them into flour for winter. Then apricots, peaches, plums, grapes, melons, pears and apples, of good quality, come in by turns. I think that a garden at Ghazni is more useful than a farm, so exceed- ingly cheap is tho fruit ; and for six months bread and fruit is their principal food. Towards autumn every one is busy salting long strips of mutton, and in making cheeso and kurut,* or drying fruit ; largo stacks of brushwood aro collected for firewood, and of lucerne hay for the cattle. These preparations are hardly completed when snow falls and confines every man to his house. They represent this state as miserable, their only amusement sitting in the sun on tho top of tho house, or crawling to the mosque to hear the news. It may be easily conceived that in a country without glass windows, and where tho fuel gives out much smoke and but little heat, the time of frost is unpleasant. To them a coal-mine would bo more valuable than diamonds. In March the thaw sends them back to their gardens and fields. Dost jMuhammad formerly protected the Tajiks well, till of late years pressed by the Sikhs he kept up an army larger than his revenues could bear ; to effect this he exacted to tho utmost from the Tajiks, and tho tribes who obeyed him. On the news of the approach of our army the men of Ghazni had to work at tho fortifications, and without pay ; grain and forage for the country were taken wherever they couT'l Ix) found, and the unhappy 0A%'ners liad to carry them to tho store-rooms on their backs; the tribute of three years was levied at once; and the fruit- trees too near the walls were cut down. Enlightened people repelling a national enemy would grumble at such measures ; but the Tajiks saw nothing but Dost Muhammad's ambition to keep the throne at their expense ; their constant prr.yer was, " Oh God ! make Dost Muhammad poor, for he has ruined us." While tho Ghilzis were arming to oppose us, the Tajiks from Naui to Ghazni wished us God speed. They aro somewhat unfortunate, however, in their now friends, as about 200 of them were unavoidably killed in tho storming, leaving a blank in many a family : at first they grieved bitterly, for their affections aro strong ; bixt in a few days they wiped their eyes, came out of their hiding places, thronged the bazaar, and were as merry as over. * Kurut, dried milk or cunl, sec noto, p. 35C.— En. \0L. I. RKrORTS OX PAKTS OK THK GlllUA COUNTRY, KTC. 355 The Giiii-zis.* The Ghilzis aro divided into seven great tribes : the Ilotakis and Tokhis living in the district from Maru to the north end of Turkani- nawah ; the Tarakkis from Gilan and Lalezai to Karabagh ; the Anders, inhabiting Shilgar, Dihsai, part of Zurmul and Pannah, the Sohaks, in Eharwar, Darra and Faghman, the Ali Khel settled in the north-east of ZurmOl and the surrounding pastures, and lastly the Suliman Ehel possessing half of Zurmul, all EattaAvaz, Mommai and Wazikhwah, while their shepherds are found from Eattawaz to near Ghwalari ; this last tribe is not overrated at even 40,000 families, but the rest may be taken at Mr. Elphinstone's estimate bringing the whole Ghilzi race to about 100,000 houses. They aro first heard of as inhabiting the Suliman range, living more by pasture than agriculture. The Duranis are probably from the Hazara Mountains. In the beginning of the eighteenth century the Ghilzis overran Persia and took the capital ; but not enlightened and combined, they could not keep their conquests, and were driven by Nadir, first out of Persia, and then from Eandahar to near their present scats. Ahmed Shah completed what Nadir had begun, and excepting a tumultuous attempt to wrest the crown from Dost Muhammad, they have been pretty quiet though not obedient. Shahabudin Khan of the Tokhis established twenty-five years ago a kind of rule from Kolat-i-Ghilzi to Eattawaz ; he levied taxes on travellers and merchants, and plundered the tribes who opposed him. He is represented as a tall, stout man, kind and hospitable at home, but liarsh and oppressive abroad. After his death, his son Abdurahman, in connection with Gul Muhammad Khan of the Ilotakis, and heir of the Ghilzi monarch, carried on the same system. The Mama of ^Vazikhwah timidly joined them ; the Khan of the Tarakkis was the qnietest and best of the Ghilzi chiefs. The Suliman Khel have no regular liead, but Mehtar Musa Khan had influence enough to lead formidable parties to a foray. The Anders and Tarakkis generally submitted to Dost Muhammad and seldom plundered. The Ghilzis neither dwell in cities nor practise any handicraft trade, but procure their living by agriculture or as shepherds. Their country, without the heat and rains of India, requires more for a harvest than scratching the soil and scattering the seed. Kecessity has forced them to make irrigation canals from the rivers, and karezes from every spring. They are rewarded for their toil by good crops and neat farms ; uulike the Tajiks, they cultivate no fruit, but occasionally melons ; but the wheat for their own food, and barley, lucerne, and clover for the tattle, arc of (.'xeellout (juality. These arc gruwu only fi)r homo cou- * Or Gliiljin.— Ej). VOL. I. 2 c ''I H I" ■H • t 1)56 liKI'OKlS ON I'AliTS OK TlIK (JIIII.ZI COL'NTItV. KTC. Mimption ; niiulder \h much itrodiiccHl to burtur for olotli to thu trailiii); triboH. Tlio IioUIh linloiig to t\w lioml of tho family, who with mivoii or eight hoiiRCH of rohitioiiH Inhnhits a littlo fort ahovo thin cultivation. Tliii fort is an oiioloHuro of -lO or fiO yanlH Hqimro ; tho mud M'all in throo foot thicik Inflow and ono at top ; at oacli anj^lo Ih a round tnwor witii loop-holea. Tho ]iouh(>h aro gonoraliy nine foot hi};h atid altont 12 foot, Hqiiarc, tho walU of n>ud, and tho roofs of bniHhwuod hurdloH covorod with clay. 'riii> doorH aro vory Hmall, as wood to mako tliom i« sonrtio. Tho liouHos beinj? gonorally built round tho fort, tho roofn Mcrvo as a rampart from whonoo a hwp-holo flro Ih brouj;ht to bear on tho country ; tho Hpaoo in tho qontro sorvoH for cattle, and tho towers for HtorohouHOH of foriino and prain. Those forts aro intended to koop off onomios witliont cannon or Healing; ladders, and they answiM* tho piirposo simply and well. Tho ehiefs already mentioned had thickened their walls ti) H or 10 feet and duj; ditches, among Afghans a sure indication that they meant to rebel. A largo proportion of tho Suliman Khol and some others aro pnstoi-al ; thoy live in rndo tents, made of two roiigh poles supported by hair ropes, on which thoy hang coarso blankets of their own making. In these tho Ahmadzais slowly migmto from near Jalalabad in the winter to Spoga and Allamur in spring and Zurmul in snnuner, always enjoying a temporato climate; others go parallel to tho course of the Gomal as far as Wana and the Prirak. Each familj' possesses its own flock and a few camels, tho tent already described, and two or throe cooking pots and wooden bowls, Mith a few sacks of flour. AN'hon several families move and live in concert, they form a " Khcl." AVhilo the men watch tho flocks with arms bj- their sides, the women make kurfit* ami cheese for winter, butter-milk and bread for the daily consumption. On tho march they liolp to load tho camels and pack tho tents ; they aro decently dressed in a brown petticoat and veil, but seldom cover tlieir face \inless impudently stared at. Their features aro regular but some- what masculine, and thoir figures tall and good ; they marry lato and keep their looks a long time. Tho father of a young man who wants a wife, proposes ibr his son to tho bride's father, previously feeling his way carefully, as a refusal may cause a foud ; then ensues a long scene of bargaining, at Inst ended by an agreement that the bridegroom shall give a feast, and certain presents of clothes, sheep, and cattle ; this is not a bargain for the girl, but to satisfy the neighbours that her friends will not give her to a beggar : tho expense of a marriage is about 100 rupees in the poor classes, henoo men aro often 35 or 40 and generall v 28 or 30 years olJ. before they can afford tho money. Tho obstinacy of tlie custom prevents tho price being lowered, though many fathers • Kurut a sort of ilricil milk or curd : described in Yule's 'Marco Polo,' 2nd edition, vol, i., I). 257.— Ed. own tlirco jovoral moil and On L-y nro their Bomo- to and ants a ng his scene shall this is riends about orally cy of thcrs KKI'OUT.^ ON PAUTS OK THE (flllL/I CoUNTUV, KTC. 357 would 1)0 Imppy to k'vo thoir dauglitom for nothing, wore thoy not uHliainod, The duairu to got married makoH tho Afghan soniotimuH tradu and oftun plunder. Whon all in arranged, hu is admitted to hoo liiii tianc^u oneu or twice (alono and at night) before the uoromony; if the young oonplo forget tliuniHolvoH, it in not inquintd after by her friondH, but the mother ratoB tho giri Houndlyand eallu her a "badziit";'* but uhould tho male relations hear of it, a bloody feud is tho roNult. The fear of death, I believe, makes thorn ehast t in general. ThiH curious cuHtom is not intended to prevent people marrying who did not like each other, as tho bargain is iixod beforo the lover is admitted, but scoms a childish experiment on the strength of virtive under temptation. The Afghans, once married, are vury happy ; the women are rarely beaten and often eouBultod ; they are fond of their husbands, kind to thoir children, and excellent housewives. Their married life is the utost amiublo part of tho Afghan oharactor. Ou the approach of danger tho men hastily gather thoir flocks, take ])ost on tho hills and behind stones, and light well for thoir wives Hiid children. Tho women bring them ammunition, food, and water, a!id fro(]uently fight by their sides. In charging some Khwajicks up a hill, the women and children throw down inof'^i^intshowerHof stouoH, at least «8 formidable as the dropping fire of the luon : when broken into different parties they stick by their husbands under ii close fire, lianding them powder and ball with tho greatest coolness ; one or two woro unfortunately hit. Even when mado prisoners, tho women exhorted the men to die like Afghans, and mado a chief who had promised mo to jioint out Colonel Herring's murderer, ashamed to keep his word. These Khwajioks were chiefly Ahmadzais, men of ruined fortunes and broken clans, without lands or flocks: want mado them plunderors, and rendered them so active and enterprising, that thoy were tho pest of tho country. If tho first Idow bo followed up, thoy will never reunite. The pastoral Ghilzis are all robbers when stimulated by idleness or hunger. Thoy sally out on foot and carry off tho cattle of some weak tribos, or look out for a traveller on a road. There is no calculating on half barbarians ; sometimes they spill his blood like water, at others they only rob him. If he is well dressed, they exchange his fine clothes for thoir filthy rags, and send him away in tho dress of a beggar ; this is thought nothing of. Occasionally they give him a blanket when they find him naked. Unless stimulated by despair or to defend their families, the pastoi'al Ghilzis seldom show much courage, but fight at long sliots and against weaker parties. If thoy return laden with spoil, their wives receive them with now affection, and the children are decked with tho plunder. In the Suliman range I saw several ruffians with their children and their horses decked out with necklaces of the new Company's rupees,which as well as the " Butki " of Bokhara are admired for the image ; ♦ Kascftl. — Ed. 2 c 2 ^%: ■■ -Viil -II nf>8 RKlHtKTS ON TAUTS OK TIIK (IIIILZI rOUNTIiV, ETC. t» there vr&n no inistAking how thoy had got thcin. Thoy soldom cultivate oropH, bnt prootiro flour by bartering their nnrpluH wool and ghoo ; they have no weights or meaanros ; one Hhoplierd Bettlcs with another how many of Iuh hands full ccjual a Kabul seor, or how man}* ofHoino peculiar woollen 1h)w1. If questioned as to the internal government of his tribe, a Qhib.i would perhaps state that each family should obey its own natural head. All the families of a Khol should obey a malik, and all bo obedient to a khan, who loads the Uliisi troops, and is answerable for the revenue, but should not act on important business without the sanction of a",] irga" or convocation of the elders of a tribe. This has been generally considered the counterpart ot our own feudal inRtitutions, and ^Ir. Elphinstone has sketched a pleasing vision by which tlio Afghans might bo civilised by a process like the formation of our own constitution. Looking on this opinion as erroneous and liable to produce bad effects if acted on, I will briefly state what soems the difference. The north of Europe was anciently covered with forests, supporting a set of hunters who must havo been thinly scattered and without civil institutions. CniiHvr and Tacitus describe them whfln the forests had been partially cleared and unruly societies established; but the interchange of lands eveiy ten years and iho frequent migration show how recently they had ceased to be hunters, and how thoy still clung to the roving life. While Rome remained stn vig, the barbarians were unablo to extend southwards. At last, taught k, bo soldiers by many defeats, they overwhelmed the Empire as soon as it was internally convulsed, but not without many struggles, which obliged the hordes to submit to a king, and to inferior leaders armed with consider- able powore. When success was complete, whole kingdoms ,/cro parted among the men who had conquered them, the ancient inhabitants became slaves attached to the soil, and gradually from these, and from the poorer barbarians, the classes of serfs and inferior vassals were formed. The rewards of lands were given with the condition of military service, and were frequently altered in their distribution, but they gradually becamu hereditary, and strong ties were naturally formed between the nolilos and their vassals ; but an enormous distance still separated them. Tliu barons were looked on as superior beings, and sometimes as entitled to the power of life and death: the king had lost much power, but generally was able to control the state. In Central Asia it has been different. The earliest accounts speak of shepherds, sometimes predatory, wandering over wide plains in searcli of pasture, and obeying no fixed government. The Arabs and Tartars are to this day scarcelj' altered, and the Afghans not much so. Like all nomado tribes, they havo long genealogies. They say themselves that they were anciently descended from one man ; at all events there is little doubt that tliey were once two families, not veij large, calleJ lis speak In search I Tartars I Like all Ives that I there is Ic, ealleti BEronrs on i-aiits of tiik ohilzi countuv, ktc. 359 TnrauH iind Burhans, Tho inoreaso of populatiun obliged thorn to Hub- diviilo, tho former iutu llotakis und Tokhia, tlio latter into All Khol, Andora, TurakH, Sohaku, and Suliman Khel. I'liis latter tribo ia now ao largo that it haa aplit into aevoral other triboa, of which tho Ahmadzai ia tho principal. Tho nainoa of Turan and Durban aro now acarccly heard. Tho llotakia aro tho oldest branch of tlio Ghilzia, and tho chief of the eldeat family of llotakia is conaidurcd the king of tho whole. Ilia name ia Qui Muhammad ; ho ia outlawed by the' king and a price in 6ot on hia head. Each of tho tribes ia now divided into 'numerous Khola, and eaoh Khol into a fuw families ; tho natural head of each family is implicitly obeyed ; tho oldest by descent of these heads of families is usually, not always, tho malik of tho Khol, with a power but littlo oboyod. It ia underatood that the head of the aonior " Khol " is chief of tho tribe, and tho king often grants him tho titlo of khan. Ho darea not collect any income from his tribe, but liv( a on tho produce of hia own lands ; and by appropriating by fraud part of the duties on infidels und merchandise, and in tho obedient tribes, part of the royal taxes. Among tho eastern tribes (who are always in rebellion or rather in u state of independence) ho usoa hia infiuenco to head plundering expeditions and procure a good share in tho spoil. Ilia aeniority in birth makca tho Afghans pay him tho reai)ect of an elder brother, but nothing more. If hia character ia d dliked, ho has not even that; the lowest of hia tribo eat, drink, and smoke with him. In urgent danger tho khan is often sot aside, and u " Toolwashtco " or leader is chosen, and whilo tho danger lusts is pretty well obeyed. The senior family of tho Anders ia tho Murjan Khel ; there aro adnlta in it, yet there ia no khan to the tribe. All this is very ditferon ^ from a feudal baron followed implicitly by his vu^uak, and with despotic powers. Tho institutions of tho Afghans are in fact patriarchal. Under feudalism, legislation was only for the good of tlio gentry (Magna Chartu, for instance, to give tho barons safety); among Afghans tho king and khan have littlo infiuenco, and measures will bo good or bad as they act on tho people at large. To the king an adhei-ont of tho court ascribes unlimited power over tho life and property of his subjects. A country Afghan only approves of a king provided ho never raises taxes or interferes with feuds. Tho whole people look on resistance to taxes not as a crime but as a virtue, to be admired and imitated if possible, like the sympathy the lower orders in England have with poachers and highwaymen. Indeed, I suspect that kings aro un innovation among Afghans. Tho Saddozai is tho senior tribe of Popalzai, and therefore of the Abdalis, who themselves are the elder branch of the offspring of Saraban, tho oldest son of Kuis Abdul liashid, descended from Saul, Abraham, and Adam, This genealogy, however absurd, has procured the head of thfi Saddozais great respect, which Ahmad Shah turned into a title to tho throne. His fortunes and abilities brought him followers; his victories abroad en- ij H "fi 1 1 1 ^1 m 1 1 v^, \> ^.^, ^. ? In.Kattawaz, Akhtar Muhammad, diief of the Jalalzais, told me he was afraid to ride across the valley alone. His stoi^ illustrates the subject. Ills father Taj Ehsai headed the whole tribes, and partly by his own hand, partly by plunder, made himself a man of great im- portance. When he died, his son, who is a good-looking young man with rather a good character, attempted to carry omtho system, but his younger brothers claimed their share in the patrimonial estate, and with the land took many of the UlusL Akhtar Muhammad could not then withstand his enemies, and is in great poverty.. Though respected by his tribe, he scarcely gets 800 rupees a year, i *.■ i .,. i^'.riia -H^ht^ j. The people of Eattawaz, with all their discord, have united more than once. Some years ago, a son of Dost Muhammad, Afzal Ehan, tried to reduce Zijrmul; his troops penetrated by Eolalgu along the western line of forts of the Anders. Some he destroyed, others he passed ; but at Nashkel he was met by nearly all Eattawaz,'and was defeated. Again, when our army approached Ghazni the Suliman Ehel, allured by reports of our wealth and efifeminaoy (they said we were Hindustani sheep coming for slaughter) and excited by Dost Muhammad speaking of the Nang - da - Fushtoneh (Afghan honour) and the mullahs promising heaven to those killed by infidels, they came in a tumultuous rush from all quarters ; but the head of the throng being promptly charged, the whole dispersed. Again, when the force with Captain Outram arrived at Mish Khel, many of the tribes burned their grain and forage to prevent us entering Eattawaz, and we had to go round by Pannah and Ashlan. As an instance of a foray, I extract from my journal an account of Mihtar Musa's chapao. Mihtar Musa is the son of Yahia Ehan and head of the Sultan Ehel (of Suliman Ehel). He is a shrewd, plausible man, and has acquired more influence than any other man of the tribe, and as he has an XJlus of his own, he is a formidable enemy. In want of some live stock, a few years ago, he despatched his family drummer to every Ehel in Eattawaz, to announce that on the third day he would head a chapao. The rendezvous was Burlak ; several thousands assembled with every sort of weapon from a rifle to a club, and some horse, some foot, poured in a disorderly torrent over the pass of Sargo and fell upon the lands of th( Th the hil BKPOBTS ON PARTS OF THE GHILZI COUNTRY, ETC. 305 the Waziris, surprising their flocks and camels in great numbers. The Waziris occupied the gorges and crests of their mountains, and saw' their country ravaged. But at night signal fires were lighted on the hills, and the whole tribe came, tolerably armed and eager for vengeance. The Suliman Khel had attained their object; some carried their plunder home, and I believe part, under Mihtar Musa, passed into Daman to collect a little more. The Waziris formed a bold resolution. They crossed the hills by paths known only to themselves, and pounced on Kattawaz while their enemies were absent, guided to the flocks and herds by one of the Suliman Khel, and then returned home richer than before. The Suliman Khel was greatly vexed at being so outwitted, and had no resource but negotiation, as entrapping the Waziris twice was hopeless. After much swearing on Eorans and giving to each other some unfortunate Syads as pledges of their faith, all the cattle were restored on both sides, except those bond fide eatea or over-driven on the march. The Suliman Khel made up for lost time by plundering a weaker tribe, and the Waziris by attacking the Lohanis. These anecdotes have been introduced to illustrate the subject; they are characteristic, and have been confirmed by more than one person, but I do not pledge myself to their exactness except where I personally saw the facts related. -ft' ,^»ii::r -.^H ;'»\ In general, forays are on a smaller scale, sometimes they are mere thefts. They seldom plunder near their own houses, and have an under- standing with other predatory tribes, by which the cattle taken are passed along by secrat paths. When Afghans are robbed and cannot help themselves by force, they negotiate. Ten or fifteen rupees will generally redeem a camel worth 40 or 50. I have been amused by seeing a thief, who had stolen some Lohani camels, come (with a safe conduct) quietly into the camp, and after a great many compliments, sit down to settle the redemption of the camels; he wanted 12 rupees for each, saying they were fine animals (as the owner well knew), and when they oiSered 10, he asked indignantly if they meant to cheat him. Even the Waziri chief, Jangi Ehan, between whom and the Lohanis a war of extermination had for a hundred years been going on, came into their camp about some camels he had stolen. Had the safe conduct been informal, they would have spilled his blood like water. The Afghans are generally praised among Asiatics for love of truth. This must be received with some limitation. They have no abstract love for the moral beauty of truth, but their scattered tsimple life, where every- thing about a man is knovm to all, and where there is little buying or selling, takes away many of the inducements to deceit, which inhabitants of towns possess ; but to a stranger, or where anything may be got by it, I must confess the Afghans make no scruple at falsehood : I heard a similar account of some hill tribes in India when first seen by Europeans. An Afghan swore by uU that was holy he had never hired a young man 366 REPORTS ON PARTS OF THE GHILZI COUXTRV, ETC. as his servant nor owed him a year's wages ; but no sooner did he find that the case was fairly going against him, than he brought a mass of evidence to prove he had paid him. The courage of the Afghans must not bo compared with our own, the result of organisation in one of the finest people of the globe. Judging them by a fairer standard, that of their neighbours, they appear to advantage. They beat off the Persians at Herat, and once conquered their country ; they kept a province across Hindu Kush taken from the Uzbeks; they frequently invaded India and there founded dynasties. The Bohilla Afghans are notoriously the best soldiers in Hindustan, and the general opinion of Asiatics allows bravery to the nation. I am afraid the general opinion of our army is the contrary; and it contains so many men of judgment and experience, that I cannot help stating the grounds of my singular opinion. Our easy success, always objected, was, I think, the result of other causes ; an army conquering a country always thinks lightly of the people. We expected to find the feudalism of Europe in an Asiatic dress, but in a vigorous state, and every one anxiously longed for the day when the Afghans would come charging to the bayonet's point The fruit and climate bad been always praised ; grain scarcely heard of. Unfortunately (for the army, i. e. for its chance of fighting), we had the king with us. The Duranis, disgusted by thirty years of anarchy, and by seeing their frontier recede from Bahawalpur to the Khyber, and by no longer enjoying the best places in the country conquered, were anxiously looking to the king's restoration as the first step to regaining what they had lost. Mehrab Khan was busy in out- witting himself, and Kohandil Ehan was vainly trying to make the Mullahs declare it a " Ghaza " * or war against infidels. This he could not effect, because his bad government had disgusted the people, and his joining the Persians against Herat had roused the indignation of every Sunni. Under these circumstances it was not likely that -we should be seriously opposed. The opponents to this view of this case always asked : If these brave Afghans are partial to us, why do they not join us ? The question is a difficult one, but people after long convulsions seem to sink into apathy. Thus the simple proclamation of the Duke of Brunswick roused all Fmnce to arms and made her mistress of the Continent, till, worn out by her over-exertions, she tamely saw her capital twice entered by foreigners, and her bravest shot like a dog. The Afghans just so, would not oppose us, although they would not join us. Another great help was the strict discipline of the army. They saw with astonishment our cavalry horses die of hunger and the corn stand untouched in rear of the column ; this was often mentioned with wonder by the Afghans. The Ghilzis, on the contrary, detest kings, and especially Durani ones. They see a prospect of paying taxes, and curse " Shujawal " for * Ghaza is the war ond Gbuzi the warrior against infidels. — Ed. REPORTS ON PARTS OF THE QHILZI COUNTRY, ETC. 367 every should [always lot join [ulsioDs Duke of the ivr her The loin us. py saw . stand vonder )urani U" for bringing in infidels. The hill tribe*, Waseirin, Kharotis, See, trust still that their mountains will keep them independent, and, I think, care little who rules at Kabul. The large and civilised body of Tajiks were, when I saw them, much pleased with the new system ; the influx of money and the prospect of protection securing their attachment. The old system of taxation among the Ghilsis was a very bad one* The khan directed the Khels to bring their quota, and presently saw lots of rotten sheep and toothless camels arrive at his gate. These were bought on the king's account at high prices and sold for what they fetched. Blankets, grain, and a little money, made up the remainder. There was always a deficiency in the amount, and the khan usually took half of what he received, and gave the king the rest with an apology ; sometimes the king allowed him to take a certain share. There have been no taxes collected at Eattawaz for a long time, but I give the account as I heard it. The great obstacles to the improvement of the Afghans are the feuds and the difiiculty of internal travelling caused by want of a government. Whatever the form is, if the government is a strong one, it will be useful here ; but to overawe the robbers and clear the road, troops are required. I can say from experience that Afghans can be made to submit to disci- pline, but with di£Sculty ; except the hill tribes, the people have a great dislike to serving on foot. As they are hardy and fond of the service, they might be made useful cavalry. The Kabul ponies also are cheap and hardy. Desertion is not looked on as a crime, but as an indefeasible right to go home. The Durani horse under Muhammad Osman Khan Saddozai, accompanied Captain Outram on the Ghilzi expedition. They complained bitterly that though their pittance of pay was only 10 rupees a month for man and horse (with by-the-byc ^rc^aa given them), that out of five months* arrears given at Kandahar, ^>!6ir leaders had taken two months' pay. I saw that when 700 rnpees prize money Was given to be divided among them, only 400 were spent on the men. They often declared that under officers who were as conscientious as the " Feringi Sahib " they would have made a difierent appearance for the last thirty years. With such a system it is no wonder they plunder the country and frequently disperse. For infantry I think the Tajiks, Moguls, and even Hazaras might be advantageously employed. They are hardy, active and obedient, and have often behaved well. At Herat some, certainly, of the garrison were Moguls (Tajiks). To pay the troops, a better system of taxation is required; this question presents peculiar difficulties. Ignorant people are the last to appreciate measures for their good. The pastoral tribes moving from place to place will fly to the mountains at the sight of a tax-gatherer, and were all money levied on the soil (exempting shepherds), it would bo a premium on pasturage which possibly might cause the country to be 868 RKPORTS ON PARTS OF THE OHILZl COUNTRY, ETC. without agricnlture, became the Bhepherds can easily procure grain cheap in Daman, and have no need to buy from the settled tribes, and thus be taxed indirectly. Again, there ia scarcely any money in the country ; the eastern tribes traffic entirely by barter. If payment were required in specie, the people would bring their produce all into the market at . once, and sell them to Government when the market was glutted, and consequently to their own loss. I think it might be introduced gradually, at first twenty miles round each town, and the oirde extending as money became more plentiful and the traffic of barter less. The rotten sheep and toothless camel system is hopeless, and taking it in grain, even were it advisable, is impracticable from many tribes. A better taxation and a strong government would, I am convinced, alter the country in a generation. The land is not rich, but capable of good crops where water is procured, and the supply might be increased. The people, I think, have the seeds of many virtues, which are only . obstructed by a wretched system. This is the groat crisis in Afghan history. Broufrht for the first time into contact with a civilised nation, they already feel their inferiority in the sterling qualities. Their barbarous virtues of respect for elders, their rude hospitality, and their frank independent manner, will probably disappear; and should their barbarous vices of revenge, treachery, and murder be merely changed in form, but not really altered, then the consequences of our advance will be deplorable indeed. But the course of events in placing our troops so suddenly in Kandahar, and our influence at Herat, have already made all prophesying the future absolutely ludicrous ; and I hope we have seen the first step to raising the Afghans high among the people of Asia. These opinions are given with diffidence, as I am aware how hard it is to come to right conclusions about the feelings of a whole people, especially where those feelings were undergoing a constant change under astonishing events. But even if found to be erroneous, they may serve a useful purpose, by showing the impression produced by considerable intercourse with the people during a stormy period. My opinions were slowly and carefully formed, and have been candidly stated. . ,. ., -;;,,:.; J. S. Broadfoot, , ' ,: KcBRAL, 19(/< /annarr/, 1840. ' • - . , •;! ',; i 2nd Lieutenant, Engincera. . :!t ,:;.•■¥ v- . :a'- 'i- -.:,.).y\ - \\ REI'ORTi OX PAliTS OK THE GIIILZI COUNTBV, ETC. 869 ItEPOKT II. On the Boutefrom Ohazni to Dera Itmail Khan lij the Ghwalart Pa8$. First, my own routo. Tho country from Gbazni to Panniih has 1)cen already described ; the diatanocB are (by tho road) — 1. Ghazni to Nani .. .. " J^ .. 14 miles. 2. 18th October, 1830, Joga .. ., 13]^ „ ■^' 3. 19th „ Pannfih .. ' „ lOj „ •*"■ All thifl day, tho 19th October, I was an object of oiiriosity : women came and lifted up the purdah of the tent and looked at moj novae smiling, others looking with horror, bnt none seeming to imagine the possibility of indelicacy. Whilst dressing, it was all the same : the children some- times stole in, calling mo "Pelingi," with bits of bread for me to eat: there was a crowd the whole day. i: 20th — To Dand, 12 miles. The road at first crosses « few easy hillocks, then a plain ; at the eighth mile, turning round the end of Jarakkana, a road, saving a few hundred yards, goes over the ridge, which is here a few black rocka at the top of a gentle alopje. From this point we went between some low hillocks. Near Dand a dry water- course is crossed, with bank» four feet high ; the whole road is very easy for guns. Near Panpah the villages and forts shown in the plan would supply a brigade with grain and forage, and water is abundant at all of them. At Dand there is no other water nearer than Dihsai or Nannai ; the first a large village of Anders with perhaps 100 houses, the latter a group of four or five forts of Anders and Snliman Ehels. Dand is a fort witli thirty houses of Shakki Suliman Ehels, with about 150 acres of cultivation. Near Nannai is.Sohnakhzie, two forts of a tribe of Suliman Ehels. At Dand the only supplies are water and camel forage. The people here shpw the most undisguised hatred of the Fcringis, and of the Lohanis for introducing them. Theygive false answers to every question, and siy that they will never consent to have their countrj' written down. For the first time in Ehorassan, I judge it necessary never to leave camp alone, even if well armed ; my life now being certainly in danger if met alone. At Dand the caravan halted for a day in order to allow the Mian Ehel Lohanis to join for safety's sake. The strength now was three camps of about 200 men, each with women and children in propor- tion, and camels out of all proportion. A crowd of men and boys attend me whenever I move out, which is but seldom. This and the white tent let out what the native dress would have concealed. The daeaa is 370 UErORTS ON P.VnTS OK THE OHIUI COUNTRY, ETC. » lungi turban, » lung! kamrbanil, a ohapkan or vory loose, long, camol's- hair gown, trouson Btuffed into boots wliioh como above the knee. When I ride, thcao aro put into a pair of green ahoos, which keep the boots and feet warm. A pistol and dagger in tho belt and my sword by my side. In riding, over all a poshtoon. 2Ut, a halt. 23imI. — Sixteen miles to Killa-i-Langar.— Tho first four miles are over a plain, ascending easily to Kattasang, and tho next three through Qasdarra. This is a pass evidently formed by water flowing into Kattawaz, through tho hillocks formed by the Hpurs of Zhora and the end of Kattasang. At first it is 80 foot wide, with a level bottom, bounded on either side by hills easily ascended. In tho middle of the pass is a space of half a mile, where tho width at bottom is only 20 feet, with the hills at the side 200 foot high, and the windings frequent and some- times sharp. After this it widens gradually into the plain. A few small springs issuo from tlie crumbling rook, but are soon lost. Guns could be dragged through the pass in its prcsont state, and a few hours' labour would make it a good road. There is another and similar pass a mile or two to tho north, it is called tho " Littlo Gazdarra " (Qazdarra Khurd). From hero we emerge to the open plain of Eattawaz and pass Zarghun Shahr (green city), a fort, about fifty houses of Ballo Khel — a branch of the Suliman Khel, and about 500 acres of cultivation ; of this, much is fallow. From thenco wo gradually descended to Langar in the centre of the valley, passing the stream near the fort. It was 20 feet wide, ono foot deep, and tho current two feet per second ; the water is slightly brackish. The banks four feet high, but easily passable in many places. In spring this is scarcely fordable. Langar has two forts containing about eighty houses. Tho larger fort is a square of 100 yards ; the mud walls, 20 feet high, are flanked by eight towers. The walls are not above six feet thick, there is no ditch, and tho gate is uncovered ; yet this is one of the strongest forts in Eattawaz. At the bottom of tho Kattasang hills are Mest and Shigana, a few forts of the Suliman Ehel, and the only watering-places between Dand and Mish Ehel. Eattasang, as viewed from near Dand, appears a mass of undulating hills and as bare as a desert ,* it is a resort in summer for some pastoral families of Suliman Ehels. On entering Eattawaz, from every man there was a burst of abuse against me, though the dross prevented them from recognising me till told by the Lohanis which was the Feringi they had come to see. At the halt they crowded round the tent and threw stones. I struck the biggest and foremost a blow under the ear. He grasped his sword. I did the same to mine, and they went away. Nothing but the presence of tho Kaiila prevented my murder. I could not go out all day, but was stewing in a close tent with tho door tied up. REPORTS ON PARTS OK THE OIIILZI COUNTi:V. KTf. 871 •amolV knoe. Qop tho »oTd by lilo* ftto through ng into the end bounded poBS ia a oet, with nd Bome- , A few it. GunB BW houre' lilar paw (Qazdarra B Zarghun branch of s, much is 3 centre of wide, one B slightly iny places. intaining the mud |1b are not ered; yet I a few forts Ipand and I a mass of iimmer for It of abuse lig me till see. At Ltruck the j sword. I presence ll day, hut BeToral chiefs came at last, afraid to venture to Kabul and afraid of the consequences of not going. Among others, the brother of Mohtar Musa Khan. I found out a plot to catch Sarwar Khan and mo as a hostage or perhaps from revenge. The chiefs I could in a few days bring in. Tho people are different. Except tho Mian Khel who trade a little, they are all thieves and good cultivators. The people have never paid tribute, and hate us for making them do so. They hato tho Shah us a Durnni. 23rd. — Shincha, pronounced Shintsa, ISj miles. — The first 2^ miles are through the cultivation and fallow of Langar, and tho deserted fields of Khuni Karez, which give a good supply of water ; then tho ground gently rises towards the hills, which are seen near tho imss in several parallel ridges sprinkled with trees. At 11 miles are two ruined forts, whose waters have now dried up, one of them was called the " Ohio kalla " (thieves' fort) : their feuds dentroyod each other. From this point we enter the Sargo Pass. It is a raviuo rut by water through the Kohnak rango, and winds in easy curves. Its width, never less than 80 yards, is often 100. Tho ascent is scarcely visible, and the hills on either sido easily ascended ; the bottom is sometimes rough and heavy, but two hours' work could mako it an excellent road. At 18 miles is the cultivation of Shintsa; there are no houses, the cultivators being migratory ; but a little watch-tower commands tho field, and shows by its machicoulis defence and its gate, scarcely to be reached, how little certain the owner was of reaping what ho sowed. This seems an example of the method by which the Afghans change from posture to agriculture. The small Khel had eked out tho livelihood gained by their flocks by a little cultivation, irrigated by the water of the spring which runs along the valley. The necessity of levelling the ground for irrigation, and of erecting tho watch-tower, have •i^iven them some ties and a claim to the soil ; but they still leave it at tho approach of snow, to come back in spring, and have not yet relinquished their tents for houses. The coldness of the climate obliged the settled Qhilzis to live in houses ; the Duranis, whose country is warmer, live mostly in tents, of which Afghans are passionately fond. Under a government, these families, with increased means of support, might increase in numbers, dig karozes, and extend into tho plains, becoming firmly attached to the soil ; tho chance at present is, that some feud will drivo them from their little fields and make them again return to their wandering life; I have seen instances of this retrogression. The hills are sprinkled with thorny bushes and low trees, giving fuel in abundance; the spring is plentiful, but grass scanty'. High up the mountains of Kohnak is the fort of Ouna, in which robbers, when pursued, constantly find refuge. On tho road, having little to survey, I entered into conversation with a Sikh, whom the Musalmans were tormenting about the never-failing subject of religion. I asked him why he did not change ; at which he got VOL. I. 2d 872 REPORTS ON PARTS OF THE OHILZI COUNTIIV, ETC. into a rage and said, "Feringis change their religion for a pretty girl, the MuBalmans were no better, while he was of a perfect religion that he would die sooner than give np." This he roared out with much violence, and to ray surprise the Musalmans only laughed, especially when ho accused tbem of filling their bodies with earth by burying their dead, while his people burned them in a clean fire. On being appealed to, I said I hoped good men of all religions would go to heaven. At this there was a general " Shahbash," or expression of approval. The Hindu said we had got the gate of Ghazni opened by money, but that if we tried the Punjab wo should bo beaten. I smiled, and said it was written in the heavens that from China to Damascus must be ours. He was silent, this being the general belief in all these countries. 24iih. — Surghurgai, Bed rocks, 12 miles. The Kafila started at da}*- break, the cold lieing less and delay expected on the road. The road for three miles ascended gradually ; undulating in slopes, passable for guns. There was an ascent of 29 yards, the angle about 11 degrees, with a few stones requiring breaking; nest, for two miles, a level ravine 80 or 40 yards wide, winding among hills, steep on the north side and rounded on the south. From this point we descended at a slope of about S degrees. I1ie hills covered with bushes, and a little rivulet accompanying us to the halt, where the space is wide enough to encamp in ; the road requires a few hours' labour. Fuel, water, and camel forage are abundant. From the Eotal-i-Sarwandi commences a descent con- tinuing without interruption to the Indus. This, and the fact that from Kohnak the Attock is often visible, first decided ray opinion that the Jadriin was the principal range of the Suliman Mountains. I estimate the height of the Eotal-i-Sarwandi (" Eotal " means a pass over a ridge, as " Darra " implies a passage between mountains) at 7500 feet, by referring it to that of Mukkur as determined by Lieutenant Durand and Dr. Griffiths. 25th. — 12 miles to near Othraan. The first six railes are down the pass, now a shingle reach 400 yards wide, and very straight. The i-Dcks bounding it gradually sink to the Eilla-i-Babakar. This is inhabited by Kharotis, who have shown groat skill and perseverance in conducting water to every little spot of soil within miles of their fort. The fort has a little garden and is in good repair. Being the only place of supply for caravans within several marches, there is always a quantity of chopped stmw for sale. A tower of refuge has been built on a rock commanding the fort ; to this they fly on anj' danger, and prevent by their fire any injury being done to the crops or garden below thein. The main stream of the Gomal rises here, several springs join near tlie fort, and flow over o fine small shingle, the stream rapidly increasing till the halt, where it was 12 feet wide, six inches deep, and running four feet per second. The banks, three feet high, and the bed 200 yards 1 REPORTS 6n parts OF THE GHIIJJI COUNTRY, ETC. 378 •wide show that the rivor is oonsidorablo in Maroh. This channel vindH in tortuons curves all down the valley. Near the fort is a place called " Kwaro EatH*' ("Eats" or " Each" in Fashtu means a place, and espe- cially a wider space, in a narrow pass, where the rocks are 1000 yards apart, and whore caravans frequently halt). We bivouacked in a spot of similar character. The road presents no difficulty ; water and camel forage plenty. 26th. — Sirmagha, 13 miles. The valley at first was formed as before, of the level winding channel cut by the Gomal through high cliffs. After a few miles the bases of the Wazin and Maranna ranges approach each other, and confine the river into a narrower space and higher rocks, the curves are also much move frequent. At eight miles the Dwooi Gomal (" second Gomal ") makes its appearance, from a ravine similar to that just described. This stream rises near Sirafza, and flows through the Eharoti countrj', draining the Waziri and Eohnak ranges ; the Eoh-i-Waziri, cut into a thousand channels by rain, looks very different from the smooth hills of Ehorassan, from which they partly intercept the monsoon. They are about 2500 feet above the Gomal, and sprinkled with trees. Whenever I asked their name, the answer was "Wazir da Gharda." Thoy are the hills of the Waziiis; but at different points they have different names, as Sazamkai, Waraki, Chini, and Ehangal Margha. Othman is a widening of the valley to a space largo enough for a camp. The Dwoa Gomal is of the same size as tho other. From this point a reedy grans in frequent patches would give a supply of bad forage for horses. In the ravines, at some distance, is a supply of a better grass, called " Washa." Water and camel forage of course abundant. 27(A.— Ahmadsi Eats, 11 j^ miles. At one mile we passed Sirmagha, a halting place 600 yards wide and a few feet above the river. At 2}i miles, the salt rivulet of Ab-i-talkh enters the stream ; from thence the channel is narrow, and winds to every point of the compass in bends at every 300 yards, yet I never saw it less than 30 yards wide. At seven miles is Mamatsilo, " Mama's tomb," a great white rock in the centre of tho pass, where it again widens and grows straighten The little stream winds so frequently, that it is crossed sometimes seven times in a mile. This is BO annoying to the men on foot, that they often climb the bills tho whole march rather than be constantly pulling off their shoes. The shingle here is composed of larger stones, some of them a foot in diameter ; but there is no serious obstacle to guns.* 28th as hewn stone. As the ridge is 700 or 800 feet high, this has a most strange appearance. We then turn to the right, round the end of one hill, and enter a narrow but smooth ravine, which after a fow hundred yards, is entirely blocked up by a large perpendicular rock 60 feet high ; this place would be of course utterly impracticable had not a road been cut, gradually ascending the side of the ravine till it 878 RKTOKTS ON PARTS OF THE GHILZI COUKTBY, ETC. reached the top of this rock ; a little labour would make it a good gun road. As the Afghan who cut this has shown more public spirit than I have seen in any other man of his nation, I am sorry his name has escaped my memory. This pass of Tsirai may be avoided by a longer route which goes direct from Mishkinai to the Gomal. The Afghans having no regular artisans, must help each other on many occasions. A pei-son who wishes to build a fort, sends to his own tribe, and othti-s friendly to hiin, a notice that ho will entertain any one who will help him in liis design ; a groat many people attend ; they eat mutton and kurut, and drink buttermilk, at the host's expense. In return, some work with spirit, but others are active only at the feast. In the evening they rotum to eat more mutton, and sing songs, and dance the Attan; this is called Ulusi building, and, though pleasant enough, is rather expensive. In this way "Tsirai" was rendered passable. From this the usual stony ravine with a few scattered Falosa trees or tufts of coarse " Simiagha " grass leads on to Ghingankram, a pebbly valley three-quarters of a mile wide. Forage is plentiful, but the water still brackish. This march would require a few hours' labour on the road. 6th. — Zirta, 12 miles. The first mile and a half brought me to Zmarri, where the water is said to be sweet. The everlasting stony ravine widened after turning a ridgo, its hills sunk into mero hillocks, the boulders turned to pebbles, and it came fairly to an end. Mounting a small knoll, wc saw Daman stretched out before us ; to a person fresh from more fertile scenes it would seem a flat plain of clay and sand covered with a monotonous jungle of thin tamarisk ; but to us, who had passed 180 miles of brown rocks, it seemed a picture of beauty. The shingle brought from the hills covers the plain for four miles past the halt, but we soon entered the reedy grass jungle on the banks of the Gomal, where it penetrates the hillocks of Zizhi, under which we encamped. Manjigara, of 100 houses, could afford a little supply of grain. Wood, water, and camel forage are abundant. 7th. — Dera Ismail Khan, 49 miles. This march occupied 23 hours. During the day I kept up my route survey, but suon after passing Eulachi darkness and fatigue rendered it impossible. The distance, however, I still continued to note, and the directions are judged from the stars. In four miles we passed the hillocks of Zizhi and re-entered the thin tamarisk jungle. We saw several villages in the distance on either hand, as, skirting the old bed of the Go^al, we reached Luni ; this is a large village of 400 houses, with a well in the bazaar ; but most of the water seemed to be got by digging holes five or six feet in the bed of the river. At 17 miles was Eulachi, with about 700 houses and an excellent bazaar. It is surrounded by a weak mud wall of three or four miles in extent. Supplies to a large extent might be got here and from the suiTOunding country. The road lay through an open plain. REPORTS ON PARTS OF THE GHILZl COUNTRT, ETC. 87i> Proceeding from this in the dark I could only see that we passed much cultivation and several villages, and that the tree jungle grew less as we approached Dera. One mile west of the town the Sikhs aro huilding a fort with double gates and a good ditch ; but the walls aro exposed from without, the ditches imperfectly flanked by round towers, and the ramparts narrow except in the bastions. It would when finished withstand anything but a regular siege. Dera Ismail Khan is well known, so I do not describe it. To clear these passes, 500 pioneers would be sufficient, a proportion of these (60) should be armed with crowbars and sledge-hammers, a few (4) sets of blasting tools should be always at hand. The rest might be armed as usual with pickaxes, shovels, and a few hatchets. With these means and a little energy the Army might march by this route with only the usual halts. The Pass of Gazdara, four miles beyond Dand towards Kilalangar, is no obstacle. That of Sargo, through the Kohnak ran go near Shintsa, would not oblige the troops to halt, and the bed of the Gomal as far as Ahmadsi Eats requires little clearing ; from ,thence to Gulkats the stones are large and troublesome, but they could be cleared away by 600 pioneers at the rate of 10 miles a day — this would be severe work ; or if the road of Stighai is followed, the army might arrange onu of its halts so as to allow a day for making a road in Gati. Tho Eanzurwalli Pass, between Gulkats and Toradabar, would require twc» days' work, and as it involves a march of 18 miles to get water, it should never be travelled by guns, for which the Gomal road is the only good one. The first pudding-stone rocks of Ghwalari would resist any instru- ments, but luckily they always have a fine road between them. Tho clay slate which succeeds is very rotten on the outside, but such rooks aro sometimes hard beneath. The " Eotal " itself is of slate crumbled into earth and apparently easy to cut. To blast the two fallen rooks of Gatkai, four parties of three men each would be necessary ; by heavy jumpers and large charges these rocks would be shattered in a day. While this was going on, a party of the line, directed by pioneers, could gather every one of the loose stones above in a heap at Gatkai, and when a passage was cleared, roll them down the wide pass out of the way of the road ; at the same time also, 200 men could either prepare the zigzag ascent for guns, or make a steeper and straighter path. Tho remaining pioneers and parties from the line, could form the descent and clear the first mile on the eastern slope. With every allowance for delays, I think the road should be passable for guns on the second day. A track a few yards to the north could be easily widened to a fine oamel road ; and, if necessary, a different column with all its baggage could go over the Manzi Kotal, which is within three miles of Ghwalari to the south. The Ghwalari Pass I conceive to be easier to make practicable than 880 RETORTS ON PARTS OF THE QHILZI COUNTRY, ETC. the Eohjak, and not nearly bo difficult for guns whon completed, an tho horaes here may be kept in nearly to the bottom of tho Btoop slope, and there they had to be replaced by drag-ropoa the whole way. Tho Iwggage also may paea in three columns, instead of being, as at tho Kohjak, jammed for days on one narrow camel track. The water of Ohwalari, though brackish, is abundant on both sides ; that of the Kohjak was sweet, but on the west sadly dofioiont, even in the mouth when there is usually most. As the caravans are large bodies of men, horses, and camels, their method of supplies is like that of an army; grain or flour, from Kattawaz to Luni, should not be expected. The Daotanis of Wana and the |)eople of Zhob bring rice and flour, and the Eharotis bring goats for sale, but in an army thoso small supplies would be scarcely felt. A month's supplies would enable troops to reach Kattawaz, or, if in small bodies, Qhazni ; but it would be most advisable that supplies for two months should start from Kulachi along with the army. Forage for camels is always abundant. In Khorassan tho usual "Tirkha" covers the ground. In the pass it is mixed with tamarisk and other shrubs ; in Daman it is entirely tamarisk, which requires to be noticed. Camels coming from Khorassan immediately they eat tho tamarisk of Daman get looseness of the bowels, and they are usually crossed over the Indus quickly to obviate this. This I saw. Tlio people, however, constantly declared that the camels coming from India find no ill effects from the food. Tho caravan was able to buy chopped straw for tho horses every day till we arrived at Shiutsa ; but for a large army supplies would have to be brought and laid in beforehand. In this country, however, tho grass-cutter could procure some grass in tho usual manner. From Langar to Killa Eharoti the Kafila oanied chopped straw for the horeeB, and again from Killa Kharoti to Stighai. This tract might have a very little wild grass in it, but it is absolutely necessary that for these marches forage be previously collected. I speak of what I saw in the end of October. After the rains of spring, I believe that the country as far west as Killa Kharoti is covered with the " Saba " or " Washa," similar to the long-bladed grass which is given to horses at Simla and Mussoorce, but I think rather sweeter and better. Below Ahmadsi Kats in all seasons this is abundant. The constant march in spring of largo flocks of sheep, camels, and cattle, destroy all that is near tho road, and leave naked brown rooks as far as is seen ; but even in autumn, by proceeding up the ravines abundance will bo found. To assure myself of this fact, I sometimes went among the hills alone, and would havo gone every day had any one agreed to accompany me. Every brigade should have five or six Daotani or Lohani guides, who would show tho grass-cutter where to find it; and of course an escort of fifty or sixty soldiers should accompany the foragers of each regiment. These ! '- REPORTS ON PARTS OF THE GHILZI COUNTRIT, ETC. 881 guides oonld easily bo proonrod either in Damau or KhorasHan, weru thej well paid and neither struck nor abused. In spring I am convinced that (after April begins) there would bo no scarcity of grass on any part of tho route. Water at the dryest season is always abundant, and sweet in every place but Qhwalari, where for two marches the springs are brackish. Out of all the Kafila, I could only hear of one man on whose stomach it had any bad effect. Fuel in Khorassan is the usual brushwood which covers tho ground ; in the pass thero is a slight addition of shrubs and stunted trees ; in Daman there is jungle. An army going from Dora Ismail Khan to Ghami might form the mngazinos at Manjigara or Luni, and have Ghwalari prepared by well-escorted pioneers sent in advance ; from that point they may choose their own marches. Comparison of the Qhwalari with the Bolan Boute. As I have not soon the Ehyber Pass, I will compare this route with that of the Bolan, and it will serve to allow others to form their own judgment on points where my opinion may have biassed me. The route from Shikarpur to Kandahar is very difficult. After two marches of jungle the Mulk-i-Kachi is entered. This is a plain of hard clay, as level as a billiard table, with scarcely a blade of grass or a shrub as far as tho eye can reach. The water is also most precarious ; one march of 28 miles is a total desert, and generally there are only a few hamlets at wide intervals, the mud huts of which are scarcely to be distinguished from the plain. Tho poor inhabitants dig holes in the earth, and watch for hours till a little moisture collects, and the scanty supply is eagerly baled out and stored for use. Sometimes they send a mile for a little water, and I saw it sold in camp for a rupee a gallon. The camels, in poor countries the life of an army, began to &il through starvation, and laid tho foundation of our subsequent losses. Bhag and Dadar, of 500 and 300 houses respectively, allowed us to halt and gave us water. The Bolan Pass was a level shingly ravine, bounded by hillocks, and very similar to the channel of the Gomal, but is totally deficient in camel forage and fuel, and water at parts is scarce. Except when rain fills a puddle in the Dasht-i-Bedaulat (" hopeless or povert}'- strioken plain "), a march of 28 miles is necessary for water ; even then camel forage and water are the only supplies. Quetta, and the fertile valley of Pishin, can support a small body of troops ; but in advance is the same dry, stony plain, which is also out up by ravines. The hills then have to be crossed. There are three passes, — ^the Eohjak, which was crossed by us ; the Boghanai, 10 miles to the south, is difficult for camels ; and the Ghirrigh, easy in itself, is rendered useless by there RKl-OUTS ON i'AKTS OK THE (IHILZI COUNTRIT, ETC. being throo long marches with scarooly water for a regiment. After forcing the guns over the made road, and the camels over one narrow path, we found on the western slope a scarcity of water, and three long marches had to be made under the pains of thirst. At last, when wo reached the cultivation of Kandahar, our horses were starved, our camels were failing, the men had dysentery, and the road behind us was strewed with the bodicH of camels and horses, and of men who had been murdered when thoy lagged from oxhaustion. Much of this might, no doubt, have been avoided by bettor information ; but yet when wo consider that in Katch Qandava filling up about 100 wells would leave 60 miles of march without water, and that the Bolan (easy as its road is) is exposed to floods in winter, and to the fatal simoom in summer, I think it will be allowed that that route is impracticable against well- directed opposition. The Ghwalari ridge is nearly as bad as that of the Eohjak, and tlto constant drag over loose uhingle would batter the feet of the artillery horses. Hindustani camels soon got sore-footed in any stony pass ; they sometimes poison themaolvos on the hills by foolishly eating the wrong shrubs, which no Khorassan camel will ever do ; and the horses generally, unless shod in the* Afghan fashion by plates covering all but the frog, would go lame in great numbers. Yet in spite of these disadvantages, I look on this route tis superior in all essential qualities, — in those of climate, water, fuel, and forage. It opens also in the beat part of the country, and threatens alike Kandahar, Ghazni, and Kabul. Out of the thousands of camels who pass this road twice a year, I only saw two skeletons, while the rear of our army was covered by them ; and during my whole journey I never saw a camel throw a load; these facts show that the difficulties are more apparent than real. This pass has the advantage of many roads leaving and again rejoining it, allowing columns to be divided, or opposition to be turned. Different Boads on this Route. From Fannah to Killa Kharoti are three routes; one has been described ; the second has six marches. 1. From Pannuh to Nanai Ghund. Near a fort of Shakke Ehel, water and camel forage are to be hod. 2. Khinjakak, a ruined fort of Shahtori Suliman Khels. There is a karez. The road crosses Zhera, but is easy. 3. Burlak of the Shakhel Jalalzai. Water and a little supplies (for a small force) to be procured. Boad an easy plain. 4. Ja£far. A spring like Shincha in the entrance of the hiUs. 5. Kargadzala (crow's nest). A spring. ^ ;> ., 6. Eilla Khaixtti. Already described. - \: REPORTS ON PARTS OF THE GHWM COUNTRY, KVC. 888 The third !• the route of Adin Khol, and ia held to be the boat of them all. The marches arc easy, but long. 1. Pannith to Dokai or fort of Sohnakhsi. Already mentioned. 2. Adin Khel in Kattawoz. The road turns the aouthom end of Zhera ; small supplies to be had. Tho Adin Khels who are Kaisers fight the Jalalsais who are Shammals. 3. Masso Khel, a migratory Khol with only one fort. Boad easy. 4. Kargadzala. Described. 6. Killa Kharoti. Described. Besides these three easy roads, another, fit only for infantry, goes under Kohnak to the north of my route. From Killa Kharoti a camel road goes to Wazikhwah and then to Kandahar. Caravans of Nassirs travel this way. The^next road to be noticed is that of Maranna. It loaves the river by a ravine half-way between the Dwoa Gomal and Othman, gradually ascends over the crest of the Koh Kallagai by a road, camels easily pass ; from thonoe it descends among ravines, crosses the Ab-i-talkh, and passing Ghazamanda rejoins tho Gomal opposite to the place where the Stighai road leaves it. The Stighai road, turning part of tho Gomal, I have described. A path goes from Stighai to Khai and thencu by Spest and Shart- bazu, to Killa Mama in Wazikhwah. A similar path also goes from Khair-o-dangar to Wana. In spring these roads are rendered of more importance than they would otherwise possesH, by tho Gomal, swollen with rain and melted snow, frequently filling its whole channel and rendering the great road unsafe. The tribes who come up in March or very early in April do not follow the Gomal, but proceed from Ghwalari to Kachana, where there is a spring ; thence to S^in, which is a mile or two north of Kotkai. This march is long, but said to be pretty level. Then to Kanzurwalli and Khnt-i-kharga-uua. From thence they again diverge from the river to ZarmolSua and to Botsal, or they go from Kharga-una across the lower end of Ursuk, and so by Zawrowan to Stighai, where the Maranna road is followed to near the source of tho Gomal. These roads are stony and long ; they would never bo taken by caravans but for fear of a rise in the river. As an instance of these sudden floods, I relate what happened to the Engineer camp in the Bolan Pass. AVo wore pitched in the dry channel of the rivulet at Abigum ; the clouds had boon gathering round the peaks to the west ; at three o'clock in tho morning a loud roaring noise in the glens was followed by a rush of water through the tents, washing away everything loose, and wetting us in our beds ; every one started out, and the tents were struck by the torrent in a few minutes ; the camp was inclosed on all sides by much deeper water rushing past with great noise. It was pitch, dark, and there was no escape ; marks placed in the flood showed the waters sometimes rising, sometimes falling ; at last n84 RKrORTS ON TARTS OF THE 0HIIJ5I COUNTRY, ETC. they Bubsidod, and the day broke ; but had they risen a little more, the whole camp would have been drowned. In the Gomal Paaa, after the beginning of April, there la no danger of auoh accidents aa these. The river getting leas and loss in summer is n mere rivulet till December, after which it fills with melted snow and rain. The eastern part of Afghanistan is a plateau fh>m 5000 to 7000 feet above the plains of the Indus, and Hupported by its vast buttrosa— the Suliman range. The drainage of large mountains and wide plains flowing down from such a height to the Indus, has in the course of ages cut deep channels in the hills, all evidently made by water, with flat bottoms and bounded by high rooks, but differing in size and convenience for travelling, according to the quantity of water which formed them and the nature of their rooks. South of the Khyber and Momand passes, the first of importance is Kuram. The road commences near Gardez, and generally follows tho channel of the river to the Indus ; at first it passes through tho valleys of the barbarous Jajis and Tuns, and then through the lands of the Bangash and Bannuchis. I have no good information about the marches, but tho general impression of all travellers is, that tho Euram river is the best entrance to Khorassan, whether for supplies or easiness of road. The tribes are verj^ wild, and bnving the protection of one will not serve caravans in tho lands of the others. This is perhaps the reason (otherwise unaccountable) that this pass, if the best, is so little travelled. The next pass is that of Tank ; one roud goes from that place direct to Kaniguram, and another road reaches Eotkai on the Gomal in five marches; they are: — 1. From Tank to Sir-i-ab, entering the hills. 2. Shuhur Narai ; Narai means a " kotul," or pass, over a mountain ; an easy kotul near Shuhur. * 8. Dargai Narai, another ascent. * 4. Spin, already mentioned. 5. Eotkai on tho Gomal. The next pass is that of the Gomal at Ghwalari. This has more than one exit. The river has forced its woy through the end of tlio Takht-i-Suliman range, dividing Ghwalari from the Earkanna hill. Its channel, called Adamkak, is said tu be narrow, with the Gomal falling over large rooks, and to be scarcely |las^ablo for cows and sheep, of course not fi>r camels and baggage ; three miles south of Ghwalari is the route of Manzi ; crossing the same ridge in a higher place, this road diverges from the great one at Fostakats : — 1st. Fostakats to China, a brackish spring sometimes called "Munza- quenna " ; * the road a tolerably easy ravine. an but * As I do not recognise this word, I leave it as spelt by Lieutenant Broadfoot. — Ed. REPOrtTS ON PARTS or fHt OHILZI COUNTRY, ETf. 886 2nd. Qati, a 8|- breaks up and ends at the Eundar river. The hills to the west of the Zhob appear little less than the Takht- i-Suliman. The Zhob rises in the Eakar country, and then flows through a long straight valley inhabited by the Mandu Ehel ; this is a large tribe extending from the Gomal to near the Eakar country. They live generally in tents, but have also a few houses, probably built from fear of the Waziris, who occasionally come from their own hills, and sweep the valley of the Zhob. A year or two ago they surprised a fort when there were only two or three people in it ; these were put to death, and the cattle, grain, flour, and clothes carried off. The Mandu Ehels cultivate rice in considerable quantities, as well as joar, wheat, and Indian corn. They all have sheep and camels, and some tribes are entirely pastoral. The women are fond of ornaments, but can afford no better than a brass pin in the nose, and large earrings or necklaces of cowrie shells. The men wear, when it is cold, the "kohsai," a cloak made of Avhite felt, and in the hot weather have nothing but a pair of trousers and shoes. This exposure of the naked breast, and the costume of the women, which is petticoats wthout trousers, is thought very indelicate by the other Afghans. The reason perhaps is, that their climate is hot in summer, and snow rarely falls in winter. They aro a quiet people, who carry arms only in their own defence ; they have no order of course. Being allied to the Eakars, and having the same habits and customs, I have described them at this length; as of tho largo tribe of Eiikars I know little. Here at their northern limit they are said to be a c^uiet people, repelling attacks 2 E 2 390 KKTORTS ON PARTS OF THE GHILZI COUNTRY, ETC. indeed, but nothing more, nover carrying arms, and looked on as nnwar- like. Perhaps this gix)d character is from comparison with the Waziris ; on their boundary the Syads of Feshin represented the Kakars as incarnate demons. Hill Tribi':s. The hill tribes are so much alike in every respect, that a description of the Eharotis and noting a few minor differences in the others may serve for all. The Eharotis inhabit the valley of Dwoa Gomal, the peaks east of Faltu ; the sketch bolow will illustrate the positions of their forts ; of course there is no pretension to a scale in the sketch. Sirafza, a few miles from the source of the Dwoa Gonial, is a fort containing twenty houses, and affording protection to the families around. Sarobya * is a ruined fort with a few houses. Channikhwah has been the constant source of quarrel with the Waziris, who have destroyed it twice, but have never been able to hold it Their method of attack was to come suddenly in great numbers, and before the Eharotis could gather, bring heaps of wood to the gate and bum it down; onco in, they murdered and plundered. The Eliaiotis have now built a large fort, and tilled the Channi Khyrah Birmuji y '.l WctLtr ground again. Durola is a fort of twenty houses, similax to the Babaki Eilla described in my route ; these places are cut out of the hills, or are on little knolls, and all level soil has been carefully cultivated. Yet these cultivators are not the fiftieth part of the tribe : the mountains being covered with trees must have soil, and water is not deficient, so ♦ Or Sarobai,— Ed. REPORTS ON PARTS OF THE GHILZI COUNTRY, ETC. 891 that the hill, if out into terraces as in the Himalayas, might bo muoh bettor cultivated. But tho hill tribos, loss civilised ovon than the other Afghans, scomod to prefer the wandering life. They have seen sheep, cows, asses, and mules, but horses are unknown. Their whole wealth consists of largo flocks of goats, which feed on bare peaks or in ravines covered with' pines. They live in tents of a few blankets, and 49ticks, or in rude huts cut out of tho hill. In spring the people live entirely on milk, which is abundant, as the kids are then bom. Ghee, kurut, and cheese aro mado in large quantities, and sold in Kattawaz or Zurmul for flour. In tho winter they oko out their milk diet by a small portion of bread ; their clothes aro a shirt mado of black blanket, made by their wives, and sandals (called shappli) (ohapli) of goat-skins nearly raw ; sometimes they have a bit of blanket for a cap, or if lucky, exchange some wool for a coarse turban. Their houses have nothing in them but a rug and an iron pot, yet with all this poverty they have fine match- locks and good swords. Their greatest delight is stalking tho deer. The pines on the hills furnish a seed called chilgoza, which is a principal part of their winter food, added to cheese, kurut, and occasionally some broad. Yet with all these hardships and their severe climate, they are a healthy, robust race. Even for Afghans they are very dirty. They have no weights, measures, nor means of estimating time and distance. Bight to soil is only thought of in cultivated spots ; a piece of grazing land, however long occupied by a family, is intruded on by a man even of a different tribe without ceremony ; this shows how thin the population is. The pine seeds, however, are considered to be property, and a stranger must not gather them. Tho Kharotis aro divided into two tribes ; tho Zakke Khel, of which the Mallik of Sirafza, son of Gul Khan, son of Shadi Khan, is tho principal person ; and the Adi Ehel, whose head is Samand, an old man. Those cliiofH have not tho slightest power, but a certain respect is paid to their birth ; when two men have a dispute, they sometimes fight it out, but the neighbours and Mullahs generally interfere and attempt reconciliation ; should one party refuse to abide by the deci- sion, the neighbours give up speaking to him ; and herding goats on a hill, without any one to talk to, or a pipe to smoke, is so unpleasant, that he soon gives in. This rude kind of jury is called a " marrika." When they are threatened with attack, a jirga or marrika is called, and all tho armed men obey its orders. The Kharotis sometimes buy, but generally make, their own powder. The Yia Khel is that which trades with India; they soon acquire some wealth, and with it a taste for fine clothes and good food : when they go to see their hill friends, they cannot help showing dislike to a milk diet and pine seeds, after eating bread and grapes ; indeed, they complain that in a few days it gives them spasms in the stomach; this makes them be thought effeminate coxcombs. The Kharotis are hospitable and kind, they seldom attack tribes unprovoked, and have 392 KKI'ORTS ON PARTS OF THE GHILZI COUNTRY, ETC. fought more BUccessfuUy with tho Waziris than any of thoir neighbours. A traveller is safe in their country, and as far as milk diet will go ho need never want food. The Jadrans inhabit tho east slope of the Jadran range; thoir country is small, and they are seldom heard of, so that they must bo few in numbers; their food, dress, and livelihood are those of the Kharotis, except that thoy are great robbers, and protect all thieves. Tho Khwajaks, a tribe of rob1x>rs, talked of a certain Killa Nakk of the Jadrans, whore they would have defied us. The Jadrans sell their wool and cheese at Gardez ; though I entered their country once, I never saw them. The Waziris possess the whole hill country (with a few exceptionw, noticed hereafter) bounded by Gomal on the south, by the Jadrans and Kharotis on the east, and the Euram on tho north. A branch of tho tribe extends along tho Koh-i-Safed ; thoy aro more peaceable and settled than the rest ; their numbers are less than so extensive a country would seem to indicate, as many of them emigrate every cold season to tho hills overlooking Daman, and in the hot weather return near tho Kharotis. This country is stated to have wood, water, and grass in plenty ; some valloj's are partially cultivated with rice, millet, wheat, and barley. Tho rice crops prove there is plenty of water in some parts. Their successful forays huvo given them a great stock of camels, sheep, and cows, which enables them to add meat and bread to their food. In spring they live principally on milk. Their dress is that of the Kharotis. Tho Waziris are at war with all thoir neighbours, and on every side they have mado conquests. From the Kharotis they have taken Birmiil. Tho Jadrans aro confined to one ridge ; and tho wholo country of Zhob, and the Ghwalari Pass tremble at their very name. The seci"et of this is, that without internal government of any sort, they agree well with each other. They are declared by their enemies, the Lolmnis, to be Shiahs — this is a calumny ; as also that they are descended from some (a few) Hazaras who fled before Nadir Shah, and have increased in these mountains. This is univer- sally believed, but they speak Pashtu, and I have seen so many tribes retain their language for generations, that I cannot imagine these have lost theirs in one hundred years. Tho Tajiks still speak Persian, even when living in Afghan villages. The Firmnllis, who live between the Waziris and Kharotis, are still unable to speak Pashtu. The Waziris go on foot, and are most active in t^c mn.intains; a tevf great men of the tribe have horses, but of course are bad ridert.. They generally attack caravans by night, but sometimes by day. While firing from rocks, they eat sometimes a little raw flour, aftd from this also a story is raised that thoy never cook their meals. To get wonderful stories about them is very easy, but real informa- tion verj' difficult, as no sooner is one of thorn caught by another tribo KKl'ORTS ON PARTS OF THE GHILZI COUNTRY, ETC. 898 than ho u slaughtered. The Waziris are much under the influence of the Syads of "Urmur "(?),♦ and one of the stories is, that a Waziri, tired of going several miles on a pilgrimage to a place where a Syad had been murdered, invited a Syad to his house, and killed him a few yards off, that ho might have a " ziyarat," or place of pilgrimage, without going so far for it. Their ordinary warfare is by long shots, but if really provoked they sometimes make desperate attacks. While passing their country in a caravan, some of the merchants rode to a village of Wazirib from which they heard the men were absent ; they returned with a few camels, and boasted they had speared some little boys in their mothers' arms. The Waziri village sent some Daotanis to redeem the camels; the Lohanis agreed, provided some camels they had formerly lost were given up ; ho sooner was this done by the Waziris, than the merchants told them " their wives were bad, and they should get no camels." On this the Waziris armed and fell on part of the caravan, and totally destroyed the males of every age, carried away the camels and property, leaving the women untouched but disoonsolate in the pass. I was in Daman then with the head of the caravan, but heard it from some men from the rear ; the breach of faith about the camels was only because the Lohanis and Waziris have so many blood feuds that no fresh injury can increase their ill-will, and no good faith could reconcile them. The Waziris never injure females nor take their jewels, but all males they invariably kill. This is not a rule common to all Afghans, but made by the Waziris; and their enemies are so fearful of driving them to ex- tremities, that this rule is observed on both sides. Even by their enemies, the Waziris are allowed to be very hospitable ; a man who has killed the brother of another, need only go to his house to be treated as an honoured guest, and a little girl would serve for escort through their whole country. They stick closely to each other, and their neighbours constantly allow that they are famous for speaking truth and for their courage ; with all this they are habitually robbers and murderers. The daily observation that the Afghan virtues flourished chiefly in the most barbarous tribes, and are compatible with atrocious crimes, flrst convinced me thut rashtxinwali was radically bad, and that the Afghans are in a verj' low state of civilisation. This is difficult at first to conceive ; so many instances constantly occur of individual intelligence and good feeling. These give hopes of their condition for the future, but should not prevent a candid statement of what they are now. The Waziris are divided into three tribes — the Alizai, whose head is Jangi Khan ; the Balolzais of Nisrat Ehan ; and the Alimadzais (these must not be confounded with the Ahmadzais, Suliman Ehel, who are also pastoral robbers) of Khan Muhammad ; the principal are the Balolzais, who cultivate the valley north-west of Kaniguram. Jangi Khan and * " Urmur" or "Umur." The name is written thus in two MS. copies of the report 1 cannot find the name in Sir C. Maogregor's book on Central Asia. — Ed. 894 KEPORTS ON PARTS OF THE QHILZI COUNTRY, ETC. hid tribe are sometimes praiMed for their moderation ; the Ahmadiais are the great robbers, and all migratory.. An idea of their boldness may bo formed by the fact that last year they plundered the fields of Tank within view of the Sikh garrison. The Damtanis, pronounced "Daotani," are a tribe of about 600 families, who inhabit the valley of Wana (a march north of ZarmelSnft), and grow rice, wheat, and barley. They are a quiet tribe ; their small n:mbers oblige them to court both the Waziris and their enemies; they are a useful moans of communication between both parties. The Waziris gave them Toe and Spin, because the Lohanis were always plundering them. Their agriculture makes them a little richer than the Eharotis, but their habits are similar. The FirmuUis are a Tajik tribe, who live in a village at Urghun, cultivate their land, and have artisans. They speak bud Persian. Their employment is chiefly smelting the iron of thoir hills, and sometimes carrying it to Kabul or Kandahar ; but the Kharotis are the principal carriers of this iron by Wazikhwah to Kandahar, and to Ghazni and Kabul. They do not buy the iron, but simply lend thoir camels for hire. TuADiNG Tribes. All the trading tribes arc generally called Lohanis, but more properly those of Daman only. The Lohanis are in fourteen camps or " kilis " ; they aveirage 100 men each, with women, children, and camels in pro- portion. In summer they live in fine large " ghizhdis " tents of felt, near Fannah and Karabagh ; the men are partly away in Bokhara and Samarkand trading, or buying and selling at Kabul; the women and children, with a sufficient guard, live in the tents. In autumn the tents are stowed away in a friendly port, and men, women and children, and animals go down the Gomal pass to Daman, bivouacking all the way ; they then pitch their second set of tents, kept always in Daman. The men go to Lahoro and Benares by long marches, hoping to be back before April ; some men stay of course to guard the families and the camels. In April they go up through the same pass to their old places in Fannah and Karabagh. The Nassirs are a much larger body, probably 5000 families. They trade little, but po^^sess large flocks and herds, the produce of which gives them grain and clothing. They very seldom plunder ; they leave Damon in March when the Gomal is flooded, their reason is that their sheep are with young, and lambs born in Daman are smaller and weaker than those bom in Khorassan ; the flocks go by the Zawa pass, and join the Gomal at Kundar ; the herds go by the Gomal, either waiting till floods run off, or avoiding them by taking the routes I have mentioned. The six camps of Kharotis follow the Nassirs in April, but before the REPORTS ON PARTS OF THE QHILZI COUNTRY, ETC. 895 LohaniB ; their time of marching is the best of all, the river is not in flood, and the heat ia less. The Lohanis make part of their march in very hot weather; the river is then low. Grass is found as high as the Killa Kharoti, green and sweet ; when I saw it, it was dry but still good. Tho Lohanis aru wealthy, and constantly attacked by the Waziris; these skirmishes are generally at long shots, by which one or two men are killed, but sometimes the attacks are more serious, though in a small society of relations, the loss of even one or two is serious. In the evening, camels are often carried off from the hills where they are grazing. The drummer (an important person, and called a "musician") beats a peculiar sharp roll, and all young men are expected to go. The thieves drive the camels up the ravines, pricking the beasts on with their swords; the merchants follow after. The robber is seldom caught even if tho booty is rescued. If caught, and a Waziri, he would be slaughtered. If a Suliman Khol, they would not kill him for fear of another blood feud with a powerful tribe ; but his beard is anointed with ghee and set fire to in the middle of the camp, its crackling and blazing call forth shouts of laughter (hair burned off in this manner is said never to grow) ; his eyebrows are then shaved off, and he is let go; sometimes a rough clyster is administered by setting the robber on his head and pouring water into his body till his stomach is enormously distended. This punishment is held so disgraceful, that a man seldom goes home to be laughed at by the women, but banishes himself for life to Bokhara or India. The Lohanis, who boasted of killing Waziris when at a distance, no sooner entered the dangerous country than they showed a most ludicrous terror. Watchmen were shouting out the whole night tkat they were very determined, and were not to be trifled with, exhorting enemies to keep away, and every man fired his gun (loaded with ball) in any direction, to show he was awake. We saw little of the Waziris, however, as they had already moved to the lower valleys, and had they not been foolishly provoked, no part of the caravan would have suffered. The camels of the caravans are not in strings, but each is separately driven ; good camels (even with heavy loads) go throe miles an hour by this method. The men run after the camels with heavy sticks, driving them by blows, and giving deep bass shouts of " Ila ! ha ! ha ! " The women and children join their shrill voices in the cry. The Lohanis show their wealth by braiding the hair of their children with gold coins, and ornamenting their women with massive earrings, and covering their horses with expensive trappings. Young brides are carried on cushions of silk on the backs of camels most gorgeously hung with tassels, coins, and bells. The older married women (though frequently greater favourites) were balanced against each other in kajawahs ; on arriving at the ground they helped to unload the camels ; 896 REPORTS ON PARTS OF THE GHIUI COUNTRY, ETC. the girla drew water, and the men grazed the camels ; the women seldom ficolded, and the men never, though they aometimea quarrelled and fought. The horses (or rather mares) are peculiarly fine, generally 16 hands high or upwards. Their arched crest, deep chests, and hroad quarters were like those of English horses. Their heads are small and well sot on, but the legs looked slight for the weight, though by all accounts they seldom fail ; the mares are kept for breeding, but the horses are sold for high prices to Hindu Bajus. Order in these camps there is none. Sometimes we intended to make a long march, when half the number changed their minds and halted half way, but when near the Waiiris they all agreed very well ; the baggago kept in a tolerably close body, some horsemen were in front and some in rear ; the young men, well armed, scoured the hills in search of hares and deer, answering also for flanking parties, yet a few robberies happened most vi. accountably. The trade of Ehorassan is but little, about 4000 ctvnel loads of the karbaz or coarse Multan cloth and India chintz or Lahawalpur lungis, with a little sugar and spicos, are all that come through the Gomal Tass, and I suspect this is about half the trade of the whole country'. These imports are nut all used in Ehorassan, part is carried to Bokhara, the return being principally coin ; and as the exports to India are merely fniit and a few horses, which do not equal the imports in value, the coin from Bokhara enables the balance to bn paid in money. This is what I lieard from the merchants, but I must << .ifess they had a wish to deceive rao if possible, as they suspected that inquiries would be followed by a tax. The productions of tho country are few. The pastoral tribes merely make ghee, and sell wool, to procure grain for their own eating ; and the settled Afghans only grow a surplus quantity of grain to barter for ghee, i&c. The Tajiks are the most enlightened and civilised. In Urghun and Eanignram, iron is worked very well. The ore is broken to pieces and burned in a charcoal furnace which is kept heated by bellows made of whole goat-skins. The iron at last runs out in rough pigs. These are heated again and slowly cooled, when they are worked into horse-shoes, gun-barrels, and swords, with which all tho eastern part of tho country is supplied. Iron is abundant enough, but without coal, or much more wood than they have oven in the Huliman range, they never can export it. Lead is found in the Hazara hills near Band-i-Sultan. Antimony in small quantities is procured at Tsirai near Ghwalari. On a plant, called by the Afghans red " tirkha," some- thing very like the cochineal insect is found, and salep misri,'* not su good as the Persian, is spread all over the hills near Eilla-i-Bakshi. This small list includes, I think, all tho principal produce of the country. The late political changes are, I believe, favourable to Afghan trade. The country will perhaps bo quieter, and the passes improved. The large * Sa'Iabi mixri, the root of a kind of orchis nsed as a restorative. — ^Ed. KEPORTS ON PARTS OF THE GIIH;!! COUNTRY, ETC. m Ohina and Thibet trade, which gooB through Tartary to the Volga and Nijni Novgorod (if the pasBes were rendered easier and safe, and a good understanding kept up at Bokhara and Kunduz), might easily be diverted to Kabul. The route being shorter, and our character for justice at Icnst as high as that of the Russians, Kabul would then become the centre of the inland trade of Asia, for Indian goods could be easily sent through the passes. Then the Afghans, possessed of a line brood of camels, and themselves fond of a wandering life, might become the chief carriers of this large trade. But of any extensive traffic with the Afghans themselves I see no prospect for a long period. People to buy must have something to sell, and the Afghans have almost nothing. It will require many years of order and good government, and a total relinquishment of their pastoral habits, before they can enter this field. In a report made by me to the Military Board in April 1888, on a road in the Himalayas near Mussooree, I was led to remark the possibility of our securing this trade with Central Asia, by a good road, like that of the Simplon, made over one of the passes to Thibet ; at that time there seemed no prospect of our commanding so finely situated a mart as Kabul, and I take this opportunity to renew the subject, when our circumstances are so much more favourable. Daman. Daman is inhabited by Afghans and Jats ; the latter are generally called Belochis, tradition stating that they fled from Beloohistan a few hundred years ago ; but their language, manner, and appearance are those of the Jats. I see no reason to give them a different name. Com- pared with the Afghans, they struck mo as a slighter race, with limbs more rounded and voices not so deep. They cultivate the land belonging to the Afghans, who often furnish the seed and everything but the labour. They seldom carry arms, and if not positively oppressed are treated as an inferior race. With the climate of India they have most of its customs. They assemble in villages and towns round which are wide spaces of cultivation ; near the hills many streams are used in irrigating the land. V; hen these are expended, their only trust is in rain cultivation. The climate of Daman is very hot in summer, even more so than Hindustan, but it is colder in winter : snow indeed never falls, but ice is sometimes seen in the morning. Both the rains of India and the winter monsoon of Khorassan fall in Daman, and there are occasional showers during the year ; yet the total rainfall is less than that of India, and very precarious. The rain cultivation, therefore, sometimes makes a man rich, at other times poor. Consequently the Afghans keep large flocks and herds, making themselves independent of the rains. Like Kutch Gandava, the hill streams overflow in spring and cover the country with a thin sheet of water, which slowly running 398 REPORTS ON PAUT8 OF THE GHILZI COUNTRY, ETC. |i ! off, leaves a flat aurfaoe of clay ; this ig aoon covered with a thin tamarisk jungle, and camel shrubs. The soil, a few feet under the surface, hau generally a moist striitum, by digging in which, a small quantity of water oozes out ; but if this is dug through, dry clay mixed with sand extends to a great depth. In some parts of India it seemed probable that water in horizontal sheets extended a lung way beneath the surface. In Daman the few wells aro of different depths, as if the wator was not continuous, but in caverns ; but whatever the cause be, wells are not used for irrigation, and aro seldom dug. The Dowlat Khel aro a largo tribe, of which the chief place is Tank ; they and the Gandehpnrs use the whole Uomal in irrigation. The senior family in the Katte Khel, the head of which, Sarwar Khan, established the power related by Mr. Elphinstone ; but it was not without many skirmishes and many serious attacks, that ho succeeded in levying u tax on the caravans passing Ghwalari. lie died about six years ago, and his son AUadad ruled in his stead ; but the son seems to have had neither abilities nor courage. In two years tlio Sikhs approached tho walls of Tank, and though ho had troops and oven guns, he fled without a blow. The tribute had made him the enemy of tho trading tribes, and his only resource was the Waziris. He lives, I think, at Urghun, and possesses some influence in tho hills, while Tank is garrisoned by a few thousand Sikhs. Tho Gandehpurs aro a Itirge tribo settled from near Manjigara to 10 miles east of Kulaohi. Tho chief places aro Kulachi and Luni ; the first contains about 700 houses, with a good bazaar, and is surrounded by a low mud wall nearly a mile each way ; tho houses are very scattered, they are made with timber roofs covered with clay ; tho walls of mud. Luni is also a straggling place of about 400 houses and a good bazaar. The Gandehpurs have never made a figure in Daman, though always strong enough to defend thomBelves. Their chief, Ali Khan, is an enormously fat man, and very ignorant ; his tribo represent him as harsh and oppressive. The Miyan Khel inhabit the country for about 10 miles round Daraban ; they use the Zirkani stream, which issues from Zawa, and is considerable in spring ; this tribe has many Hamsuyas,* among others the Miyanis and the Bakhtiaris, the richest merchants of the country. The Miyan Khel is about equally divided into settled and migratory families. The Stnrianis to the south of the Miyan Khel, formerly went by the route of Wohwa (Vihova), but from some quari-el with the Kakars of tho road, they now go round by Ghwalari and Kundar or by Zawa. They are similar to the Miyan Khel. Exclusive of these tribes, partly migratory, the Nassirs are wholly so; and the Sarprekara Suliman Khels, a trading tribe, spend the ♦ Hamsaya means neighbour.— En, n REPORTS ON PARTS OV THE GHIUI COUNTRY, ETC. 890 imarisk loe, haH itity of th sand trobablo Burfaoo. was not are not IB Tank ; le aenior ;ablished at many jvying a oars ago, lave had lohod tho I without ribos, and ;hun, and by a few njigara to luni; the irrounded 1 scattered, 1b of mud. bazaar. ;h always |an, is an as harsh nes round Ira, and is Ing others country. ligratory |nt by the ars of tho ^a. They re wholly |pend the winter in Daman. Near tho hills there are always numbers of camps of the i iljes driven by the snow to seek a warmer climate. Indeed, when it iH reooUeoted that the settled Ghilzis have every year to lay in four months' vupplioa for their cattle, or in some instances to send their sheep to the care of a friendly tribo in a warmer district, for which they pay u tax on their flocks, it may bo easily conooivod that many cannot afford to spend to much of tho year in idleness, or have too many feuds to trust their sheep out of their sight. This shifting population has a prejudicial effect on Damati, as they are not reached by tho hiw, and contribute nothing to the general support. When it was so easy under tho Diirani kings to evade tho demands made on them in one country, till tho climates allowed them to go to another, it is much easier still to do ho, when they are subjects of Lahore and Kabul alternately every nix months, and the difference of faitli precludes all concert botwoeu tho Qovemors of Daman and Khorassan. 'jl^he I'lle of tho Sikhs is firm at Denv Ismail Khan ; and around T»nk, where there aro garri»ions ; at a distance from tho Indus it is nominal, and near tho hills openly defied. The Sikhs have allowed idolat?^y, have forbiddcu the call to prayers, and have endeavoured to present the Afghans eating their own beef. Tho Saddozai Kawab of Dera is almost a prisoner. These measures, and tlio difference in religion, have rendered the Sikh rule odious to tho tribes. When oui army marched to Kandahar and Kabul, the Afghans hold tho Punjab to bo virtually subdued, and refused to pay the taxes demanded. Now their oyos aro opened to tho consequences of their error, and they eagerly long for our rule. Every man whom I met asked eagerly when the provinco would bo occupied. Several Miyani chiefs and tho head of the Gandehpurs assured me they wished for it : and so general was tho impression, that even Laki Mall, Governor of Dora Ismail Khan, gavo more than hints that he was our friend. To all this I steadily replied that I know uf no wish to take the country from the Sikhs, who woi'o our firm allies. Yet these dis- claimers only made them give mo credit for caution, without changing their opinion. Old prophecies (probably very lately made) declare that the British shall rule from China to Damascus, and the strango events of last year might easily mislead them. Tho Hindus are the shop- keepers and money-lenders of Dtiman, and among Musalmans have always one character — quiet, respectable, and a money-making race. In my account of tho hill tribes I see no mention is made of taxes. The reason is " they never paid any." Taimur Shah, when ho had a strong force to back him, sent to the Kharotis to claim a tax; they showed a handful of pino nuts (chilgoza), and said that that was their food, and they could only give a tax of what they had; on this tho subject was dropped ; at present they aro too poor to pay even for their own protection. In my routes I had very little opportunity to examine strata or 400 UKPOnTS ON PARTS OK THE QHILZI COUNTRY, ETC, colioot speoimons ; but I may simply state that the principal rook I saw in the Hazara hills was carbonate of lime and other limestones. In the hills near Fannah, clay slate shading into quartzy sandstone. In the Jadran range, olay slate seemed dipping 45° to the east. Down the Gomal Pass olay slate predominated at the bottom of Ghwalari ; on each side was conglomerate and olay slate at the top. From thence to the plains was an impure limestone with many specimens of nummulite, and of a bivalve whose name I do not know. Kabnal 25(A January, 1840. J. S. Broadfoot, 2nd Lieuienant, Engineers. \ V'S ; it: k I saw In the In tho )wn the on each le to the ilite,and JT, gineera. J O TJ H N E Y FROU SHIEAZ TO JASHK, \ll DAKAB, FOBG, AND MINAB. Bx J. E. PREEOE. *r JOURNEY FROM SHIRAZ TO JASHK, VIA DARAB, FORG, AND MINAB. By J. R. Pbeece. ■:,>, (Bead at the Evening Meeting, January 5th, 1885.) Map, p. 438. .^ ' I AM told that some accoimt of a journey which I lately made be- tween Shiraz and Jashk, via Fassa, Darab, Forg, Bandar Abbas, and Minab will be of interest to the Society ; I therefore forward a trans- cript of my journal, together with a route map, trusting that at least something in it may be found worthy of notice. My departure was so extremely hurried that I had no time to collect the instruments necessary to make any accurate survey of the country. I left Bushire on the 13th of January, 1884, arriving at Shiraz on the 20th, immediately setting to work to collect animals and information. I made a start on the 29th. The only instruments I had been able to procure were a prismatic compass and a pair of aneroid barometers. I left Shiraz by the Ispahan gate, and taking a direction south- east, proceeded to the village of Jaflferubud which I left next day and arrived at Tul-i-Fassa, distance five miles. The bridge here crosses a small stream, which runs into the salt lake some few miles further on ; it rises in the marsh of Earabagh, some six miles to the westward. At present its waters are sweet, but as the season progresses they become brackish and undrinkable. The road from Jaflferabad to the bridge ran through a perfectly level plain, marshy in places, with slight salt oflBoroscence here and there. Left Pul-i-Fassa at 11 .20 ; rode along a level plain skirting the out- lying spurs of Maharlu, until a point of the hill projecting into the plain was reached (4]^ miles) ; direction to this point was east, afterwards it took a south-east course ; on the one hand the road ran very close to the hills, and on the other to the salt lake. At 1.38 p.m. (8 miles from the bridge) reached a second point, this is the one seen from Shiraz. The road for some distance continued near to the bills, but afterwards the plain opened out, the road following the line of the lake. About eight miles from the village of Maharlu, passed a place which is known as Dobeneh; there is no habitation, but several disused wells and a couple of trees, known as the heneh, a class of wild pistachio. About five miles before reaching the village passed through ground VOL. I. 2 F 404 JOURNEY FROM SHIRAZ TO JASHK, nnder cultivation which contintied up to the village. Just before entering it there was a small stream of water, clear and sweet. At 3 . 40 P.M. arrived at Maharlu ; the village gives its name both to the lake and to the hills above it. There are fine bold limestone bluffs standing some 4000 feet above the plain of Shiraz. The village is in rather a tumble-down condition, built on each side of a dry water- course. The people seem civil and friendly. It consists of about 80 houses built of mud and stone, inhabited by some 360 people.* Januarif SlsL — ^Left at 8.15 a.m. For the first mile or two the road was somewhat stony ; just outside the village crossed a small stream which seemed to bo strongly impregnated with sulphur. Direction of road south-east. At 9.7 a.m., or after going 3^ miles, passed a village under the hills to the right, about two miles off, called Fosht-i-par, consisting of about 20 houses. Direction of road here somewhat more easterly. 9 . 33 A.M., passed a road on the right hand going to Eharanjan, a village in the plain. Boad now on a smooth plain bearing south-east again. 9.53 A.H., passed a village and garden quite close to the road, called Bnkat, about 100 inhabitants. 10.8 a.m., passed level with end of the salt lake, and shortly came on to ground which much resembled the Bushire Masheelah, but not quite so bad ; followed this until 11.45 A.M., then came on to a smooth plain with some little scrub. At 12.45 P.M., arrived at Ehainibad, the road level and easy the whole way. The people of the village civil and quiet ; the village consists of about twenty houses built of mud bricks, the whole surrounded by a high wall with towers at each comer ; 100 inhabitants. 2.15 p.m., started again. The road led over easy country, covered with short brushwood (butah). 3.11 P.M., passed the small village of Eanao. All about this portion of the road the supply of water is good. 3 . 50 p.m., passed the village of Husein&bad. 4.25 p.m., Eatah Gumbaz, a village of certain pretensions, was reached. There also there was good water. After leaving thi& village, came into country which was well cultivated, chiefly with tobacco ; a small canal of running water ran close beside the road the whole way up to Sarvistan, where we arrived at 5.46 p.m. Distance from Maharlu, 25^ miles. The whole road is perfectly flat and easy going, being part of the Shiraz plain. To this point wheeled carts could be easily brought. Sarvistant is apparently a thriving place, consisting of about 300 houses, with a population of 1000 people. There are some 150 gardens, containing chiefly pomegranate and walnut trees ; there are some few * Malydt (taxes) 11,500 krans. 700 mans (1 man = 8 lbs.) of wheat and bnrley sown yearly ; produce beyond that kept for home consumption is sent into Sbiroz for sale. There are no mules, but about lOQO donkeys ; 40 oxen kept for tillage, and somo 2000 sheep are kept for food and produce. Distanoe from Shiraz 23$ miles. t It is divided into four parishes ; 1500 muns of tvheat and barley sown yearly ; 2500 donkeys, no mules or camels, 52 oscn for tillage ; malyut, 1500 tomans. VIA DARAB, FORG, AND MINAB. 405 date-palms, but these do not bear fruit. The houses are mainly built of sun-dried bricks; gatch (plaster of Paris) is obtainable from the surrounding hills. The water is good. The temperature seems milder than Shiraz. The date-palms appear to grow better, and I noticed myrtle growing freely ; I have never yet succeeded in keeping any in Shiraz through the winter. i y. Feb. Ist. — Left at 10.5 a.m., road bearing south-east, through a level plain, somewhat stony in places ; after going 4^ miles came to a deep gully with a small stream of water at the bottom. The country between the road, which runs almost along the side uf the Euh-i-Siah, and the hill on the left is completely seamed with gullies and water- courses. A little pick and shovel work in places would make this portion of the road available for wheeled carriages. It is, however, the roughest part that we have as yet crossed ; it is on the whole fairly level, and there are no abrupt ascents or descents. The hills are every- where more or less wooded with wild almond and wild pistachio. After crossing the stream, for four miles the road passed through a sort of semi jungle of the above trees until reaching Meydn Jangal. This is but a ruined caravanserai in the middle of the plain, as its name indicates. A Tofanchi tower has been built out of the debris. Facing what was the doorway of the caravanserai, about 20 yards away, is an Imamzadeh. Distance from Sarvistan 16J miles. Feb. 2nd. — Temperature at 8 a.^i. 42°. It froze heavily during the night. Started at 8.3 a.m. The road ran through a level plain, dotted here and thera with a few trees, for about three miles, then it entered some small hills and gradually ascending for IJ mile came on to a sort of plateau, when a small stream was crossed. The country now became more thickly wooded with wild almond and wild pistachio trees ; the road was somewhat stony, winding in and out of small hills. The next 3 J miles was a gentle ascent to the top of a pass. The gradient very easy. The whole ascent was not so steep as that of the Kinar-i- Gird hills from the Teheran side. The whole road practicable for two- wheeled carts. Direction S.S.E. About a mile beyond the top of the pass, came to a deserted and almost ruined caravanserai by the roadside. The aspect of the hills somewhat rounder than those previously seen; they were also more thickly wooded. Just behind the caravanserai was a good spring of ■water. The snow-line seems to be some 500 feet above this point. After leaving the caravanserai the road gradually descended, skirt- ing the bases of a series of low gravel hills, until it came out on the Fassa plain. It had been somewhat stony, but now became less so. Fassa seems to be in a most flourishing condition ; date-palms grow all over the place. The houses are well built and the streets somewhat cleaner than the generality of Persian towns. People all were most civil and obliging. Great quantities of wheat, barley, and opium grown. 2 F 2 m JOURNKY FKOM SIIIRAX TO .lASlIK, Thero nro no Hpuuiul iiuluHtiiua in the pliiuo, tho wltulo of the working population npppur to 1m> rngaKotl in ngrioulturo. * Toniitcratiiro licro iinioli mildor tlian that of Shirasr. ; an oai-ly oh thJH ono ia ablo to sit with windowH opon during tho day. ItoBOB and hyacinths already in full bloom. Distance from McyAn Jangal 17J niiloH. Faaaa in the name of tho diHtrict as well as of tho town. It in nndor tho Kawam-nl-Mulk, who keeps a ««if6 or lioutonant in thu town. Tho population of town about :»000; 1000 houses; that of district from MS.OOO to 40,000.« Feb. ith. — Loft Fassa at 11 a.m. Thu road runs through a level plain of npparontlj' rich alluvial soil, everywhere well uultivatod with barley, wheat, and opium, and in some cases Indian corn. After goiii^:; for half an hour (li| mile) pnssed tho village of NasirabAd, Fedishkuh one mile, and AliaMd three miles away to tho right. 12.25 i>.h., passed 1 Tarun (five miles) ; shortly after leaving this village tho road took a south- easterly direction, and tho dry l)ed of a stream was crossed. Stil' keeping; to the plain and through heavily cultivated ground, paHsed by tho village Ghiyasiibad. Tho road hero getting somewhat more to tlio south, at, 2.80 P.M. arrived at tho village of Nabundagtin. Distance 13 milcN. Xabandiigan is a largo and prosperous walled village, almost worthy of tho name of town ; it contains 700 houses, with a population of 8500 people.f Carts could bo bn)Hght here from Fassa without any difficulty ; tho village, however, is about half a mile from tho main road, whicli runs along tho base of some low hills nearly straight to Jelyan. Water is plentiful along tho whole road. Tho plain has numerous villages dotted over it, and also a number of watch-towers, but tho latter are falling into ruin. Tho plain of Fassa is completely surrounded by hills. It is probably about 20 miles long east to west, and 12 broad north to south. Feb. 6th. — Left at 9.35 a.m. For 3^ miles tho road continued along the plain up to the village of Jelyan, which was passed on tho right hand. After going another mile, rounding somo low hills, the bed of a river about 80 yards across was passed ; there was scarcely any water in • Tho district comprises 31 villages, viz. Rownoz-i-Biilii, Rownoz-i-Pyno, Aliubiiil, Dck-i-NaU, Tcngkcriii, Kutckaya, Aklmnibiiil, Daiiyiin-i-Kiislik, KitHr-i-Koram, Harini, SnrtiruJ, Doshchcli, FcriiziKliimrd, SaMdiitdbiid, Muliuiumcdubdd, Fedishkoh, Zakadiiii, Sonan, Kitngiin, Khiimnjun, Moyaiidcli, Nasiriibiid, Nttbandngun, Oliiydsiibdd, Skesluleli, Akbiirabtid-i-Skcshdeb, Daritny, Uarukuhycb, Daiilutdbtid, Jolydn, Sboikhdbiid. At nil these villagea burloy and wheat uro sown ia quantities of 100 to 1000 mans yearly. Great quantities of opium ore albo sown. Fussa opium is pcrhapa the best of niiy produced in Persia. Lultourem' wages range l)etweon 15 shahicB and 1 krau (4(/. to Sit.) per diem. Provisions of all sorts nre very plentiful ; water is good and in fair quantity, uhietly brought into tho plain by kanata. Tho gardens about the town and villager are filled with fruit trees of all descriptions. Tho date-palm hero bears fkruit. Malyiit 180,000 krans per annum. t SOOO mans of wheat and barley and 500 nifms of poppy seed are sown yearly. Tho village owns 88 oxen fur tillage, 4000 sheep and 4000 donkeys; no mules. VIA IMUAn, FOUU, AND MINAU. 407 workinR ily a» thin RuBOB antl kino of tlio Mulk, who own about. gh a lovul vatod with Lfter goiuK Vodinhknli I'.H., pasHod ook a Boutli- til' koopiiij;' f tUo viUago 10 south, at. 30 13 milcH. st worthy of tion of 86U() ly difBculty ; road, which an. Water •0U8 villages 10 latter aro :, is prohahly h. nucd aloiiK Un tho right the bed of a ,ny water in lu yearly. The it, oven at thiH time of tho year. Shortly aftorwardH (thrco-qnartoni of II mile) wo oanio to a fair ntruam, croNned by a vory primitive Hort of bridge ; three-qiiartorH (»f a mile farther on, and tho village of Mordi was roaehed. Tho Htreani ran by tho wide of tho road tho whole way, and iH known by tlio Hanio name an the village. The village only «!ontains 60 Iiouhob, 150 people; 2000 mans wheat and barley and 70 miinH of poppy Hood are Hown yearly, also Homo Indian corn ; 20 oxeu and COO ahoep aro ownoil by tho village, but no donkeys or mules. • After going another two miles along tho baso of some low hills, wo etiterod a somewhiit narrow long (defile), tlio road here was rather stony ; tiio tang extended for about a mile, the hills on the left side being Homewhat preeipitous for the last half mile, those on the right sloping and broken. Along the sides of tho tang I noticed the remains of an a({Uoduot gonorally built u]) of stone and mortar but in somo places cut out of tho rock. Tills is said to have been built and carried along tho sides of the Itills right down into tho plain of Darab, to supply that place and Hassan&bdd with water. I could not learn about what timo it was supposed to havo been built. Ilaving passed througli tho tang wo came out on tho plain of Shoshdeh ; an easy ride of three miles along a level and good road ])rought us to the village of that name. Distance 12 miles. Shoshdeh* is a largo and prosperous place, but the people appear to bo inclined to bu rude and uncivil, differing from the other villagers wo havo come uoroBB in this respect. Feb. 6 JASIIK, ouuluHuro uf ultuiit u inilo iiMliuuiutor. 'i'hc wulU, whioh uvidon tly woro Himply inoundH dug out of tlio pliiiu unif thrown up, leaving un tho out- sido tt ditoh cf about 40 fvot broud, niiiNt have buun at louat 20 foot high. Within tho onuloHuro, as noar om poHHiblo in tho middle, aro two aniall rooky hillH ; on one, tho highor and wiuthornnioflt, Htandiug about 100 foot nbovo tho plain, thoro aro tho roniainH of Honio bnildingH and alao a well. Tho building Ih, ho to Hpcnk, uiodorn, liuilt of unfauod utono and niorbtr. At ono iraint thoro aro tUo ronmina of i> briok building, but tho brioka uaod aro of tho niodorn aizo. llunning atruight from thia hill tu what undoubtodly waa a gato, aro tho roniaina of un aqumluot ; boyoiKl tho walla aomo of it, aupportod on aruhoa, atill romaina; tho atylo of building and matoriula ia aimilar to that on tho top of tho hill. Around tho baao of tho hill and all alniut inaido tho walla aro numoroua aniall mounds, but none of auflioiont aizo to cover tho ruina of iin Aohiunioniun palaoo of oven minor importanco. Aftor aoarohing tho wholo pluco moat carefully and examining tho rooka all about, not tho alightcHt traoo of a atonemaaon'a handiwork could bo found, the rooka ahow no aign of ever having boon touched. All ulH)ut tho oncloauro woro numoroua pieces of brick, aomo of tl-u aizo now uaod, othoia conaidorably larger. Piccoa of tiling. wore also oooaaionally to be picked up. Thu placo did not give ono tho idea of any groat antiquity. It doubtlcas belonga to tho Saaaanian period and not to tho Achiomonian aa wo aurmiaod and ho)wd. Feb. 11th. — Loft at 10.30 a.m., went round tho hills to the south to 800 what ia known aa tli© Nakah-i-Darub. After riding for an hour and a quarter round the base of tho hills wo reached the place. In a aort of bay of tho hills, above a very fine clear pool of water, a pieco of rock haa been s(][uarod away, measuring some 12 to 14 foot ia length by nine feet in hoight. On thia n fine bas-rolief has been oarvod. In tho centre is a figure, life-sized, seated on a somewhat small horse. It has the largo globular head-drosa and bunch of curly hair, rendered familiar to ua in tho various other bas-roliefs at Shapur, Nakolii Ilustam, Nakahi Bejib, and on tho coina of tho varioua Sasaanian kings. The figure faces to tho right, its left hand ia advanced and reata lightly on the head of a man, ita right hand ia advanced and aeomingly holda a Bort of abort truncheon. A collar of pearls is around tho neck, and tho cloak flowing behind is fastened with a double clasp. The breeches also are very full and flowing. Tho horso is heavily caparisoned, tho large horsehair omam''nt attached to tho saddle cloth is especially conspicuous. As far as tho horse and rider aro concerned, thia bas-reliof resembles very closely that at Nakshi Rejib (vide Porter's Travels, plate 28). In front, just by the horse's head, is a figure of a man in Roman dress, with a Roman sword ; he is holding up his hands pleadingly. Next to this figure is that apparently of a woman, it is slightly to the le III iii^ water, 14 foot las boon at small ly hair, Naktihi I kings, lightly holds a and the ihes also ed, tho icially fl-relief [■ravels, I Soman iingly- to the VIA DARAIl, FORO, AND MIN'AII. 411 loft front of tho liitmo'N hoatl. Noxt to tliiH conicH tlio figuro of a man, upon whoHo huad tho loft hand of tho niountud iiguru roMts. 8ho IooUh lioHovoliingly up into tlio faoo of tho main flgiiro, hohling his right hand up to tlu) hoavunn. Thu fHng the same hills, having many beautiful springs, brought us to the place known as the Caravanserai. In a somewhat larger bay in the hills a place has boon cut out of tho live rook ; tho stono quarried out has been used for building up portions of this place and for part of tho roof. Nothing similar to this building has ever been noticed by mo in Persia. It may have boon used as a mosquo, a house or caravanserai. It is in the shape of a cross, the doorway facing nearly due south, tho whole cross almost coincident with tho four points of the compass. The length 26 yards, and breadth 23 yards ; width of centre aisle 5^ yards, width of cross aisle 4 yards. In tho centre there is therefore a space 5]^ yards by 4 yards, this rises straight up to a height of 22 to 25 feet ; it is now uncovered, but originally was closed by one big stone. From about nine feet above tho ground arches spring up to the height of about six loot, thenco to the opening it is square. On each side of both the aisles there are two small arches, which lead to a small gallery about four feet high, going all around tho place, except at the end of the aisle facing the east. There there is a place which at first looks like an old English lire-place, but it has no outlet for smoke, and does not show signs of having ever been used for fire. Around the top of this is a stone oma- montation with carving, the stone is whiter and softer than that of the building. The carving, which is about 10 inches broad, consists Jof some writing in tho Naksh characters. On half the top and the right- 412 JOURNllY FROM SIIIRAZ 70 .lASHK. hand aido the cai'ving was completely olilitoratud, but on tho romaindur the words Muhaiumud, Hassan, Futma, and Aniir-ul-Mumonin were to be distinguiiihod. On a sort of friezo inside there was similar carving, but this was quito undiscornible. Over tho main doorway and on each side of it, there is also an insorii.<.ion in tho same character, of this only the word Muhammud oonld be road. Tho stone on which this is carved is that of tho rook, a dark stone and apparently very hard. About twenty paces from the entrance of this building is a small archway which leads into an arched room about 15 feet long by 10 broad. This has boon cut vory neatly out of the rook. All the stone of tho main building is clean cut and faced. At the spring of one of the arches there is some slight attempt at ornamentation. Nowhere could I diH- cover writing of any sort other than that referred to above. About 200 yards away in a second bay of the hills, and somewhat behind the caravanserai, is a chamber roughly cut out of the rook, or it may bo a natural cave. This has been used as a mill ; a watercourse has been lod down from the hill immediately above it to two large deep cisterns some 20 feet deep by 8 in diameter. Tho surplus water was led off by a course built along tho hillside ; it could be traced winding away along tho base of the hills for some two miles, ond we wore informed that originally it went as far as Duhkhayr, s.Ton miles distant. Above the entrance to this cave was a Naksh inscription of the same size as that over tho doorway of tho church, but only a letter or two here and thoro could be made out. Tho stylo of tho building, tho stone being properly faced and sot square, points to its being the work of other hands than Arab or Persian. I have had no opportunity of consulting any books on this part of tho country, and I do not oven know if either bas-relief or building have even been described. All about the foot of the hills and for some two or three miles in the plain, there are small mounds and traces of habitations, pointing to the fact that once a large town existed here. Careful search among the hills failed to reveal any inscription which would throw any light on the subject. Dehkhayr is a prosperous place, with many gardens, and also some signs about that once it had boon a big place. Passed in tho plain several remains of tho watercourse above referred to. Tho village contains 200 houses and 600 inhabitants. Distance 10 miles. Feb. 12th. — Left at 7.63 A.M. The road ran through a level plain for about seven miles. When about a quarter of a mile to the left the village of Fathdbud was passed. Almost directly after it entered between some low hills, outside of which numerous low mounds, also evidences of former buildings, were noticed. At the immediate entrance to tho hills there were tho ruins of a large mill. After following for a mile or so the dry bed of a stream, again came out on to the plain. VIA DARAU, FORG, AND MIXAU. 418 ' . Tho Bouthorn hills hero began to oonvorgo rapidly, and tho plain, which boforo was very open, narrowed considerubly. After going seven miles came to some low hills, spurs of the above, and descending by an easy gradient between two of them, camo into a narrow valley, with a small village in its centre, called Chahardang. Leaving this on the loft and following the valley for a mile, crossed over a small hill. After going for another hour got to tho village of Rosak. Distance 28 miles. The village is very picturesquely situated. Tho hills to the north are high and bold ; those to the south, wliikt of inferior height and much brokon up, some with a considorablo amount of Hcrub, have abrupt sides and sharp bold peaks. In the valley itself clumps of myrtle with several largo isolated konar trees aided the picture, whilst a good deal of cultivation, with a fair stream of clear water running through the centre, completed it. In no place was the road impassable to wheeled carts, nor is thero a difficult place about it. The village contained 100 houses and 300 inhabitants. Feb, 13th. — From Kosak to Forg there are two roads, one by a gardeneh, which I was told was four farsakhs, and one by a tang, five farsakhs. I was told that the latter was the easier, and was more or less level the whole way, but that it was full of turns. I travelled by the shorter road, leaving Bosak at 8.7 a.m. For the first five miles tho road ran through the level valley, the country gradually becoming very confined. At 10 o'clock, or after going six miles, began to ascend gradually over a very stony road, and at 10.80 came to tho head of the gardeneh, called the Qardoneh Bozan-i-Forg. The ascent is very gradual, but the road is rocky and bad. Near the top I saw buried in the ground some khumerahs to collect water, similar to those that Chardin describes as having seen between Lar and Bandar Abbas. These are the first that I have ever come across. About 100 yards farther on was a small tank ; here we breakfasted. The tank was in bad repair, and the khumerahs broken, no ono seeming to care to repair them. Tho khumerahs must have been in this place a long time, as they appear to be very old. The guide said that they had only lately been discovered. 11.45. — Started again; road all down-hill, a long but not very steep descent, somewhat stony. At 1 . 5 p.m. reached the plain, and an easy hour's ride took us to Forg. Tho village of Forg is square, sur- rounded by mud walls with flanking towers, a gate, also with flanking towers, at its east and west faces. Tho houses are all built of mud or else sun-dried bricl ^. The place is in anything but a prosperous con- dition. The people, however, were very civil and obliging. Water seems very plentiful, several small but good streams running through the streets. Provisions also wore in abundance and cheap. Distance 14 miles. Forg contains but 100 houses and 500 inhabitants, 40 span of oxen, cows for milk 300, sheep 300, no donkeys or mules. In conversation with the chief, Fath Ali Khan, a powerful man, 4U JOURNEY FROM SHIRAZ TO JASHK, who baa all this district, including Lar, under him (he pays yearly over 1,000,000 krans malyat to Government), I read out to him the names on the map between this and Lar. He did not recognise one of them, and gave me the 'following as being the correct stations between the two places : — , , . GlmkuBlir Feduny Barknm Sbahgheb Tunginuyeli Hahueh Lar 4 farsnlili.'i. 3 „ 5 ,. 3 r> 2 ,. 2 ,. Feb. 16ih. — Left at 7.30 a.m. After going three miles came to a hill on the right, on which were the remains of a ruined castle, and at the foot of it a number of mounds and other signs of a town. The place is known as the Ealah Bahman. The hill is some 180 feet high, and together with the ruins about its foot, covers a considerable amount of ground. All over the hill facing the east are ruins of towers and walls, built of rough unhewn stones and lime. To the left it is quite precipitous, and is only guarded by a wall, which follows the line of the crest from the flanking walls. This wall is terminated at its southern end by a large tower. Just below it is a large and deep chasm ; this was in all probability a well. Near it is an excavation in the rock and hillside, built up with stones and mortar where it was necessary, 18 yards by seven ; this was a large tank. In front of this, again, is a small conical hill, upon which was a small house of four rooms ; the front one looking east being 21 feet long by 10 wide, and the three back ones about 10 feet square. Around the fuot of the hill are the remains of a wall of stone and mortar, similar to that on it ; beyond this wall again, but starting from the same point at the northern end of the hill, is a wall which encircles the whole base of the hill at a distance of some 400 yards ; it rejoins the defences of the hill at a bastion on a spur at the southern end. In this enclosed space are many mounds of various sizes, and one larger than the others apparently has had a wall of its own to protect it. On the hill-top at the southernmost point is a platform with a well beyond, outside of the wall ; near to this is a small tank, with remains of a small room still standing. The place at the foot of the hill, which seemingly has once been surrounded by a wall, is now known as the Humra-am. Bemains of pillars of gatch and brick still exist ; it is built on a slight elevation, and the surrounding wall is built of stone and gatch. In all probability this was the principal building in the place, as immediately in front of it there is a tank, and beyond that the gateway in the outer wall. This outer wall was also built of stone and mortar ; the gateway has cither VIA DARAB, FORO, AXD MINAB. 415 had an advanced fort to protect it, or else the mounds around it are tho remains of the besiegers' works. Some little distance in the plain, about 500 yards from the gateway, are three circular piles of large white stones ; in the centre of each circle is a small round hole. Tradition has it that from this point the besiegers commenced their mining operations, and so worked their way to within the inner fortifications. Near to the hill, and running from the spur to the right, are the remains of an aqueduct; quite close to this is a second one in good condition, with water in it. It crosses the roadway by means of a series of archways, of fair span, and well constnicted. It is as good a piece of work as I have seen in the country. I imagine that the fort and remains belong to the Sassanian period, if not even later ; they are of the same class of work as the Ealah Darab. 10.45 A.M., again started on the road which ran for 2 J miles across a level plain. It then entered some low hills, and soon got into an intricate mass of ravines and gullies, about as ugly a piece of country as I have ever seen, even in this country of excessive ugliness. After going through this for an hour, we got into a naiTow defile between two long low hills. The whole place seemed as if the earth had been placed in a colossal furnace, and then been thrown out anyhow by the spade of a Cyclops. The defile took an hour and three-quai-ters to get through ; it was very narrow, with scarcely room in some places for two horses to pass. The hills on each side were not more than 80 to 100 feet high, with jagged tops. Another half hour's rough going over and around hills, and up and down ravines, and we came out on a small level plain. It took just an hour to cross it ; we then crossed over the slope at the bottom of some hills, this was cut up in every direction by watercourses, and apT)arently, by the number of round stones about, at certain times must be swept by floods. Another hour's ride brought us to Taskat, which is a village some three miles off the main road. The place is very dilapidated, with no good roads ; it has, however, a very fine date- grove. Distance 19J miles. I hear that there is another road from Forg, somewhat to the south of the one I came, the guide having brought me this way, as it was the shorter. The two roads bifurcate at the entrance to the hills. The southern one is level, and not stony. It is, however, about a farsakh longer. By the road I came it would be nearly impossible to take wheeled carts. Feb. 17th, — Left at 7 . 25 a.m. The road was only a track across the plain, which was covered with low scrub; after going two miles we came to some low hills and passing through them for half a mile, came out into the Dasht-i-Tashkurd, a long level plain, about 60 miles in length and some 15 miles broad, I should say. At the far end (N.N.W.) is the Balook-i-Fatrdany. Seven miles off, somewhat more northerly, is the 416 JOURNEY FROM SHIRAZ TO JASHK, village of Dasht-i-Eon ar. Opposite, nearly due south, a long range of hills called Galugah. This range seemed to bound the southern side of the plain for its whole length. We followed the plain along the base of some low hills on the left hand until 2.30 f.h. Distance 19 miles. The plain is covered in nearly every direction with salt efflorescence ; carts could be used without difficulty except during rainy weather. Just before turning to the north of east, around a point of the hills, we came to the direct road to Forg. After passing this point, the plain opened out to the north ; going then for seven miles farther we came to Seyud Jaudar, a poorish village with a good date-grove. There were no provisions of any sort to be got. The water, however, was good, and there seemed plenty of it — a small stream from the hills. Feb, l^tTt. — Left at 7.25 a.m., across the same plain, quite level, with a great deal of salt incrustations about. After riding for an hour, passed the small village of Bafeeabad, with the village of Earkfm about two miles to the north-east ; date topes were to be seen in every direction. At 9 . 10 KM. passed the road from Tarun to Lar. 9 . 54, came on to the direct road from Forg to Bandar Abbas. This, however, has no villages in it, and seems only to be used by Eeliauts. 10.22 a.h., crossed a small stream; at 10.85 passed a larger branch of the same river, both quite salt, the latter about 10 feet wide with a depth of six or seven inches. At 11.48 arrived at village of Sa'adatdbad. Distance 13^ miles. The plain is all more or less salt, very soft, and after heavy rains would be heavy travelling indeed. It is cut up by several watercourses. The people tell me that they have had no rain here for eighteen months. I imagine this must be taken to mean that they have had no heavy prolonged rains, as I noticed signs of somewhat recent showers. The Ealah of Sa'adatab^d is completely in ruins, the people all living in date huts. There is a very fine stream of water running through the place. The latter part of the plain, within some two miles of the village, is covered with a sort of jungle of gez trees. Feb, 19rt. — Left at 6.30 a.m. The road for the first two miles was somewhat up-hill and slightly stony. It then entered the Tang-i-Lamby, winding about for some twenty minutes among low hills, and then came out on a small plain, about six miles long by four wide. The tang in no place was difficult travelling, in some places it was rather stony, but otherwise the road was good. At the end of the plain, the road made a short sharp descent into the dry bed of a river, and then' upon mounting the other side immediately entered the Tang-i-zagh ; this is a difficult place, the windings of the defile are very considerable ; the hills on each side are often nearly perpendicular, exhibiting at times most wonderful colouring and queer shapes ; Nature has used her paint-box with a liberal hand, and formed such a picture as would delight an artist's eye. The sides of the hills were of deepest purple, streaked with, or fading away into tinges of the VIA DARAB, FORG, AND MINAB. 417 9 of hills ) of the base of escenoe ; er. he hills, ihe plain ) came to lere were 50od, and )vel, with or, passed ,bout two direction. 1 on to the 10 viUi^es led a small both quite ven inches, liles. The LB would be irses. The en months. . no heavy s. 8 all living irough the ihQ village, I miles was •-i-Lamby, [then came Itang in no Istony, but at into the ^mediately Ings of the len nearly land queer Ind formed If the hills Iges of the most delicate violet or mauve ; some with sides of rose with deep bold splashes of black or blnish-green ; others 'of a tawny yellow striped with a bronze-brown. It is not one individual hill by itself that is so extra- ordinary, but the way they are grouped, and the contrasts of colour which make up this wonderful picture, unequalled by anything that I have seen either in Persia or the Caucasus. After getting through the defile, the road bent to the south-west and gradually ascended, highest point reached by aneroid 26-80, then gradually descending, it entered the dry bed of a river, and following this for some five miles' passed the village of Abm4h, about a mile to the left. The plain on the right and right front was somewhat curious, broken up into a series of little hills with flat tops and somewhat abrupt sides, as if once tbe whole plain had been a lake, and the waters in sub- siding had cut valleys and gullies in the plain. The sections showed about 10 to 15 feet of gravel above a bluish-grey clay. For some way the road ran between highish hills, and no distant view was to be got. The whole of the latter part of the way was stony nd was by far the worst travelling I had yet experienced. It would be ui£Scult to get vehicles through either pass or over some parts of these river beds, but not by any means an impossibility ; a very little labour would render the whole route quite practicable. 5 . 40 P.M., arrived at Gohrah. Distance 29 miles. The hills hereabouts are more like mud-heaps than hills. Many flourishing date topes about. This place and the last, Sa'adatabdd, seems to be on the high road to Tezd, a great number of camel caravans have been passed going to and coming from that place. Gohrah has no proper village or houses, but opposite to a Tofanchi tower, which is in partial ruins, we put up in a good-sized room made of sun-dried bricks. The houses or huts of date-palm leaves are erected all over the place under the date-trees, which are very numerous. There are 350 such huts, inhabited by 700 people. The water is good all the year round ; there are two good wells on a hill near. This hill is called Musht-i- Euh, here the villagers have built themselves a Kalah, and when occasion arises they take refuge there ; there is only one road up to it. The hill appears to be 1000 to 1200 feet high and has a square flat top. The base is some 12 miles in circumference. The Edlah is never left unguarded. Feh. 20th. — ^Leftat 12.10 p.m., went along a stony road, passing about IJ mile from the end of the date-trees two abambara (water-tanks covered over), which soon dropped down into the usual dry watercouree. Followed this for some four miles ; it is known as the Chin-i-Tul. Then went over something in the shape of a gardeneh or rather a long slope from the hill on the right, Kuh-i-Zuratu, much cut up by watercourses, and then led down to the little village of Zuratu, a small place nestling under the hill. This was about the best camping place we had had : 418 JOURNEY FROM SHIRAZ TO JASHK', nice patches of green turf under fine date-trees, with a guc'd spring of freah wat«r rushing from the 'hillside. This spring continues good all through the year. Although the road now is not available for vehicles owing to the numerous deep watercourses which intersect it, yet a little work would soon make it fairly practicable. Distance seven miles. Zurutu has seven houses and 80 people. Feb. 21«t.— Left at 8. 10 a.m. Followed the Chin-i-Zuratu till 8.45, when the road dropped into a dry river bed, and then came on to the Bir-i-Buland, direction naarly due soutl^. The road fairly open and broad, but here and there somewhat stony, with some slight gradients. At 9 . 32 came to a small open plain called Barak. At 10 . 6 the direction took a westerly bearing, and a small gardeneh called Godar-i-Sowaro was crossf'd ; it then worked in and out of some small hills, and at 10 . 45 again dropped into the river bed ; here there was some water in it, and it is known as the Ab-i-Shireen. At 10 . 55 stopped to breakfast. 11.55, o )rmg of good all vehiolca ; a little a miles. till 8.45, »nto the tpen and rradients. direction twaro vraB .45 again and it is 11.65, off . hills, but Lain called about five Ld almond, a spring now, gets via Finn, a N.N.W. idabout, is [oticed that lup a ■wild and it is It this hill in such a ed of the [two miles ^outh-east, jthe Sahiii- Campecl akhaneh-i- Ithe one on lonkey ami \rly at tho •vly ; 8 oxen, L2OO houses, Wn yearly; entrance to tb ) Sahru-i-Dardam and shortens very considerably the road from Zuratu. As far as I could see, it would not be diflSoult and would decrease the total distance by about ten miles. At this point there was no water in the Ab-i-Shireen but the Budkhaneh-i-Shur has a small rapid stream which flows from the Euh-i-Nimuk. Left again at 12 . 18 p.m., following the same plain as in the morning ; it is called the Dasht-i-Mohdam ; this plain runs parallel to and at the b" \ of the Ganao hills which are immediately behind Bandar Abbas. At 12.29 got nearly due south-east, and at 1.6 p.h. level with tho village of Ganao, about five miles to the right in the hills, with a fine grove of date-trees at the foot of tho ascent. On the plain and near to the road was an abambar with a few date-palm huts, which were inhabited by the Bahdarees. At 2.25 r.M. camped. This is a high table-land, a spur of the Ganao hills on our right. Feb. 24(/t. — Left at 8 a.m. and gradually descending an even slope more or less stony and cut up hero and there by watercourses, at last came to the usual dry bed of a river ; followed this for something over a quarter of an hour, and then got out into a plain with Chah Aly and Issin on our right front. Halted at Hormudar,* where we were met by men from the Governor. Distance eight miles. Leaving Hormudar, immediately dropped into the wide bed of a river with high sandstone cliffs on each side. This wo followed for twenty minutes and then ascending the cliffs to the right by a sharp sbort pass got into a lot of curious sandstone hills cut up in every direction into eccentric forms and peaks, by the effects of running water. Following along a road in the plateau of sandstone, which was really nothing but a series of narrow troughs cut by the innumerable feet of donkeys and assisted by rain, for over an hour, and then descending quickly came on to the sands which suiTound Bandar Abbas. It rained almost the whole time and tho clouds were both thick and low, so no distant view was to be got. Distance IG miles. The people everywhere have been most civil and obliging, all doing their utmost to help one. Their politeness, from Shiraz to here, has been extreme, scarcely a person met on tho road failed to give the salaam. I cannot help saying that I have been most agreeably sur- prised all the way along. March let. — Left Bandar Abbas at 9 . 5 a.m. by the same road as on entering. Arrived at tho Birkeh at 4.15 p.m A number of people • Hormudar, 20 houses, CO people, 3000 date-pahn», no mules or donkeys. lasin, 100 houses, 400 people, COOO date-palms ; malj^ut of both 500 tomons. Bandar Abbas, 500 houses of sun-dried bricks, 0000 people ; 200 date-palm huts, 2000 people ; malyut of Minab, Bhamilat, Kishm, Beyarban, and Tasiun, 24,000 tomaub per annum. Tho customs are let for 45,000 tomans per annum. Gatch is biouglit by sei^ from Bandar Kamir, Labourers' pay, 10 shahis per diem. Sun-dried bricks, 2 knuu per 1000. VOL. I. {l»|t 420 JOURNEY FROM SHIRAZ TO JASHK, I ' I, '! were aent out with us by the Govornor and Foreign Agent. They are a curious set of men, armed with matohlooks, swords, knives, and shields. They might have been of some use fifty years ago, but now, except to put in the foreground of a picture, they are not worth much. One gentleman is very gorgeous with silver mountings to his para- phernalia. They rode on camels, horses, and donkeys, und altogether form a nondescript-looking crowd. The name of the river bed which we pass through between Bandar Abbas and Hormudar is Budkhaneh Ohahohekor. (■ March 2nd.— Left at 6.25 a.m. The road went on the same track as we came by, for something less than a mile, and then bore away to the right N.N.E. It gradually led down into the plain through which we had come from Sarzeh, and continuing through this crossed the Rudkhaneh-i-Shur. At 8 a.m. came level with where the river had cut its way through some low hills. The plain about here is very stony, but here and there are patches of good ground which have been culti- vated ; the crops, owing to the scarcity of rain, are only now beginning to show up. The plain is much cut up by streams, especially by the main branch of the Shurab, which covers a lot of ground when in flood. After going about 7J miles came to the Sahra Eunuk, really a part of the same plain; at 9.32 a.m., or after going 11 miles, descend a deep gully, at the bottom of which was a salt stream, another Shurab. At 10 A.M. the road bore away to the south-east, crossing a sort of plateau, with a gentle descent ; at the foot another river bed was passed, this also covered a fair quantity of ground, which, as far as one could judge, had lately all been under water. With the exception of these streams and the ground affected by their floods, the track— it is impossible to call it a road — is fairly good, although in places stony. At 11 .5 arrived at EtUah-i-Kazi or, as it is more generally known, Ealgazi. This village has a fine grove of date-trees, and there are also numbers of fine grown mimosa dotted about; those among the young growing crops give a park-like look to the surrounding country, and a picturesqueness to the villages. The place seems in a very flourishing condition, and the people are very civiL The villagers do not seem to burden themselves with much clothing in these parts. The men's dress seems to consist of a shirt and a rag ; these they manipulate in a very clever manner, altering them a dozen times in the day to suit the state of the weather : the rag appears to act the part of a turban, a cloak, a cummerband, or a pair of trowsers ; the shirt is also managed in many curious ways. One cannot help asking oneself, if this is their winter dress, what do they wear in summer ? The men are fierce-looking fellows, with long curls and flowing beards. The women happily wear a little more clothing than the men, their faces are concealed by masks, and they seem fond of red as a ; ;i VIA DARAB, FORO, AND MINAD. 421 hey are '68, and at now, ii much. liB para- together i Bandar ) track as ay to the jh -which QSBed the r had out jry Btony, )een culti- beginning lly by the in in flood. r a part of md a deep lurab. At of plateau, tassed, thiti .uld judge, ise streams lible to call arrived at his village fine grown )pB give a kOBB to the and the h clothing ind a rag ; a dozen lears to act trowsers; l,Tinot help wear in Id flowing the men, red as a colour. In most cases probably they are old and ugly, and thus cling to their masks.* Distance 18 miles. March 3rd, — Left at 6.35 a.m. The road ran through a level plain with a fairish quantity of stones on it, clumps of acacia and oleander also aU over it. At 8.40 arrived at the village of Takht, a flourishing placet ^^^ another village (Jahun) away in the hills about four miles off to the north-west. PaBsed around Takht and went along a big grove of date-palms on the right hand ; on the left were some high hills with very steep sides ; among the crops, which here seemed in a some- what more forward condition, were numbers of well-grown mimosa trees ; about the road I noticed a dwarf sort of oleander, with a star-shaped flower, small, and nearly white, not unlike a white forget-me-not — have not seen anything similar to this elsewhere. At 10.5 a.k. came to the village of Chahistan,} 11 j^ miles, breakfasted, and left at 11.25 a.u. Sun very hot. Still keeping along the road went to the north-east, through country still more park-like in appearance. 12.20 p.m. came to the village of Ehushkuh,§ at the foot of the hills of the same name. Ten minutes after leaving this came to a river bed, or rather to the com- mencement of what turned out to be a largo expanse of ground, at times swept by floods; crossing over this, 1.5 p.m. came to the main stream; still carrying on over ground which was but a mass of stones, and every yard of it apparently having only recently been subjected to a severe flood, got out of it at 2 p.m. This was about the roughest piece of riding that I have ever had in this country ; it was di£Scult to keep the horses on their legs. The camels went by a road along the base of the hills, crossing the stream nearly at tho point where it emerges from the gorge. This road is the main one from Bandar Abbas to Eirman. Arrived at Shamil || at 2 . 30 p.m. Distance 22 miles. March 4<7i. — Halted the day. In the morning I rode up to the point where the river debouches into tho plain. It appears to make its way for some distance through a narrow gorge, with hills of some size either side of it. The Eirman road follows this gorge, and must at times be blocked for days together when the river is in full flood. \ I could not see any road over the hills obviating such a contingency. After breakfast I went back on the direct road to Takht, and also on that to Ziaret. I had been told that these were bad roads, and quite * Ealab-i-Kazi, 100 houses, 300 people ; 70 oxen, 100 cows; 2500 mans of wheat nnd barley sown yearly. Sun-dried bricks, 35 shahis to 2 krans per 1000. t Takht, 400 houses, 1200 people ; 100 oxen, 250 cows, 300 sheep ; 2500 mans of wheat nnd barley sown yearly ; malyat, 1000 tomans. X Chahistan, 40 houses, 100 people ; 10 oxen, 50 cows ; 250 mans of wheat and barley sown yearly. Total number of date-trees owned by both villages, 40,000. § Khushkuh, 200 houses, 800 people ; 68 oxen, 20 cows ; 3500 mans of wheat and barley sown yearly ; 15,000 date-trees ; maly'ut, 450 tomans. U Shamil, 170 houses, 500 people; 100 oxen, 100 cows; 5000 mans of wheat and barley sown yearly ; 16,000 date-trees ; malytit, 600 tomans. 2 2 422 JOURNEY FROM SHIRAZ TO JASHK, impaasable after hoavy rains, and that also near to Ziaret the river was oonfined to its bed, and did not overflow. The first half mile of this road passed through a dense dato-grove, thence for about five miles the groand was covered by what one might call a mimosa junglo, thence on to some salt ground covered with low scrub. At Bandar Abbas, Ealgazi, and Shamil I had been told that the sea road and the rah-i-meyan (thu middle road), as that -Which I was on is called, were impracticable after rains, especially for camels. Having gone some 12 miles, and finding that the information given was substantially correct, I returned to Shamil. At Bandar Abbas and about here the current coin is the rupee. At the former place they would only take the krans at 27 pul instead of 40, and here they would not take them at all. March 6th. — Started at 7 a.m. Road bearing south-east. It passed between the date-grove and some low gravel hills on the left hand. After going for half a mile, crossed a stream issuing from a deep gorge in the hills ; on the summit of the one nearest to Shamil were the ruins df the Eulah-i-Shamil, they seemed to cover a lot of ground ; I had not been told of these ruins, and so did not examine them. I took an ordinary Tofanohi tower on the hill immediately behind the village to be the much-vaunted Kdlah. Up the gorge is the road into the Budbar district. This stream I was told ultimately joins the one of the day before, and is also a branch of it. ' > After passing the stream the road still bore to the south-east, but both hills and date-grove diverged. The plain, which as far as I could judge was of rich alluvial soil, was covered with sprouting crops in every direction, amidst them were well-grown mimosa trees and some camel thorn, also some of the small oleander-like shrub. After going two miles farther passed another small stream. Two and a half miles beyond this came to the village of Chahkhark.* Three and three-quarter miles further on, and a third stream was passed ; the bed of this was some 200 yards across. This part of the country is open, and is known as the Sahra Chahkhark. The whole way each side of the road, as far as the eye could reach, seemed to bo under cultivation. The road was much cut up by watercourses; the ground everywhere along the march has been very soft, the going being generally easy. Five miles further on, and again a stream was passed, its bed wns about 120 yards across; this stream, they tell me, joins its waters to the Minab near to the sea. 11.6 a.m., arrived at 6urband,t a thriving village, with a large square E41ah, which is gradually falling into ruin. Distance 15 miles. * Chahkhark, 80 houses, 350 people ; 20 oxen, 50 cows ; 1000 mans of wheat and barley sown yearly. As malydt, 10 per cent, of grain is given in lieu of money. t Gurband, 200 houses, 700 people ; 80 oxen, ISO cows, 20 camels ; 4000 m&us o^ wheat and barley sown yearly ; maly^t, 250 krans. VIA DARAB. FORO, AMD MINAB. 428 iver was lo of this miles the bhenoe on , Ealgazi, teyan (the »ble after id finding itumed to nipee. At tead of 40, It passed left hand, deep gorge re the ruins ; I had not I took an 16 village to , the Rudbar 8 of the day ith-east, but [ar as I could ing crops in [es and some beam. Two [rk.* Three the Intry is open, ^each side of cultivation. everywhere [illy easy. its bed -was Its waters to U a thriving |ng into ruin. of wheat anil Imoney. 4000 mins of March 6ik. — Left at 6.26 a.h. ; morning again cloudy. The road ran through the se^me plain, with the lower spurs of the Budbar hills close on the left hand. The plain under cultivation right up to them, and on the right hand as far as the eye could see. The main range of the Bndbar appears to be about six miles ott. Both lines with extremely serrated tops rising here and there to very abrupt peaks ; the sides of the distant hills appear to be almost perpendicular. At 7.20 a.m. passed across the bed of a small stream; 7.47 A.tf., passed on the left hand a good-sized village called Dam-i-shahr ;* and at 8.5 A.M. a second called Moband.f At 8.30 passed on the left a large date-grove; some of the trees were very hn? irdeed. At 9 o'clock entered a large date-grove with the village of Shauvar % iu the centre of it. The village seems very fairly prosperous ; got out of the grove at 10.5, and on the 6th March came on to the bed of Minab river, with the town of Minab § on the far side, where we arrived at 10.15 a.m. There is not much water in the river at the present time ; depth about two feet, and breadth about 100 yards. The town consists of numbers of well-built houses, and is sur- rounded by a mass of dato-groves and fine gardens. It is quite the most prosperous place that I have seen on the journey. Distance 16 miles. The road which I have been following theso last two days must be nearly identical with that which Marco Polo took when he visited Hormuz ; the plain evidently is that which ho calls Formosa. There is no necessity for me to point out that the river Minab is the ancient Anamis, mentioned by Strabo as the spot where Ncarchus beached and repaired his fleet. I have tried to identify some of the names used by Marco Polo, but have not succeeded. With regard to the wine made from dates men- tioned by him, the people tell me that in days gone by they used to make such wine, but that it is never done now. The chief fruits of the place appear to be dates. The number of date-trees is something enormous, and the people claim that the grove is second in size only to that of Basrah. It runs down each side of the river to the point where tidal effects interfere with the irrigation, about two miles from the sea. The average breadth is about six miles. * Dam-i-shabr, 70 houses, 250 people ; 50 oxen, 50 cowa, 30 donkejs : 2300 mana of wheat and barley sown yearly ; 2000 date- trees; malyat, 50 tomans. t Noband, 20 houses, 110 people; 12 oxen, 15 cows, 100 sheep; 300 mans of wheat and barley sown yearly ; malyiit, 250 krans. X Shahvar, 200 houses, 520 people ; 40 oxen, 100 cows ; 2000 mans of wheat and barley sown yearly ; 4000 date-trees ; malyiit, 100 tomans. § Minab, 700 houses, C500 people ; 200 camels, 200 oxen, 100 donkeys; 12,000 mans of wheat and barley sown yearly ; malydt, 13,000 tomans. Building materials such as gutoh and rafters, arc generally brought from Bandar Abbas by boat. Rafters of Zanzibar woodcost 3 to 4 krans caoli, and gatoh about 7 to 10 krana the 100 mans. Gatoh is alao to be fuund in the hills. Sun-dried bricks cost 2 krans per lOOO. Labourers' pay about 15 shahis per diem ; masons, 2} krans per diem. ' 424 JOURNEY FROM SHIRAZ TO JASHK, Secondly como mangoes, thon oranges of sorts, citrons, shnddooks, and lemons ; no stone fruit or nuts are tu bo found. Daring the winter and spring there is always plenty of water to bo found in the river, but in summer it is all used up for irrigation, and only near the mouth is there any flow. The people of the place are most civil and obliging; " ,* seem happy, well conducted, and prosperous. They are all mo jt less employed in agriculture, and do not appear to have any industry peculiar to the place. There is a small colony of Shikaqiur merchants, who seem to thrive, and appear, as far as J could learn, to bo well treated. March 1th. — Wont up to the Kdlah this morning, and had a good look round. It is built of kiln-burnt brick, and partly of sun-dried ; in former days it must have been a fairly strong place. The hillside is covered with bastions, towers, and connecting walls ; at the foot of the hills is a large square enclosure, with high walls and flanking towers, inside these is a space of at least live acres in extent containing many good and substantial houses. The walls are about 20 feet high, and built of sun- dried bricks. From the top I notice a sort of valley between somo low hills at the back of the date-grove from Shahvar and the main range. After breakfast I rode across to a point opposite the K&lah, the water in the river had much increased in volume and was very muddy, at two points where I tried to cross I was nearly carried away. I at last managed to get across with some little difficulty and a good wetting. Opposite the E&lah on this side of the river are somo small sandstone hills, date groves and gardens, then a small bridle path leads through a narrow valley and comes out nearly opposite to Shahvar. The hills are about 100 feet high, very curiously formed with jagged edges. March 8<&. — Bound about Minnb and also in the fields along the road wherever there are ripening crops, boys are usefully employed in keep- ing the clouds of sparrows and other small birds from destroying them. This they accomplish by means of shouting and throwing stones with slings ; their slings are precisely similar to those we are familiar with at home. They are very good shots and the birds seem to have but a bad time of it. The noise the slingcrs muko with their slings is as continuous as a company of soldiers (Persians) file firing. March 9th, — Left at 6.25 a.m. For some little distance the road passed between some low sandstone hills on the loft, and the date-grovo on the right; it then cut into the plain, bearing nearly due south; about here there was not much cultivation, the plain was however covered with camel thorn and low scrub. At 7 . 53 passed through the bed of a small stream without any water in it, in spite of the heavy rain of yesterday. Country very flat. At 10 a.m., halted close to a river and near to a small village called Chah Eambar.* 12 p.m., off again. At * Ghah Kambar, 15 houses, CO people ; 10 oxen, 50 cows, 10 camels, 150 sheep ; 500 mans of wheat and barley sown yearly ; no malyut. VIA DARAB, FORO, AND MINAB. 495 looks, and rater to bo cation, and ■' ,- «eem I ji less ry peculiar i, who Boem ed. a good look ; in former ( is covered be hills is a inside those Y good and (uilt of sun- jn some low in range, h, the -water iddy, at two '. I at last jod wotting, ill sandstone Is through a !he hills are IS. >ng the road 'ed in keep- roying them, stones with imiliar with have but a slings is as Ice the road I date-grove I due south; las however through the I heavy rain » a river and again. At lis, 150 sheep; 13.18 crossed the river [at a place called Jn Maballah. This is but a ■mall village of three or four houses. On the hill-top nearest to the ford is a small round tower in ruins. The stream is broad but not deep. I am told that this stream rises in the Bashakird hill, and winds out of the plain to the sea. It appeared to me to join the Minab near to tho sea. It certainly has no connection with it this side of the sandhills. All about here and right up to Kalavy * tho ground is very soft ; there is a good deal of salt incrustation about and near to Kalavy ; it is a regular marsh, very trying to the horses. Distance 22 miles. There have been many conjectures regarding the plain between the two deserts in Marco Polo's journey to Hormuz which he has called " Boobarlos." It seems to mo to be set at rest by reason that the correct name of the hills behind Minab is " Rudbal," not Budkan as set down in our maps. The chances are that if the plain or district behind these hills is now really called " Rudbar " that the original name has been retained in that of the hills by tho Minabees. In Persia, hills as a rule derive their names either from the district in which they are or else from a certain town or village near to them. It is rare to find them with distinctive names. I should not be surprised if proper investigation proved that " Budbal " was also the name of the district. Names cannot be trusted tvhich are given you in talk by the people about. In this case I had heard the hills spoken of and had spoken of them a dozen times at least as " Budbar " and " Budkdn " ; I had also heard them called " Budddn " ; it was only when I was writing it down from the Persians that I saw it was *' Budbal " ; even then tho coincidence did not strike me. Only next day when on the marsh cogitating over various things, did it dawn on mo that here was the solution to tho mystery of Marco Polo's " Plain of Beobarles." Although it is two long days' march from the gorge of the Zindan river to Bandar Abbas, yet from that point to Hormuz can only be some 40 to 42 miles. The road would i-un through cultivation the whole way. With reference to the hot winds mentioned by him. I made close inquiries at Bandar Abbas and elsewhere regarding them. It was very generally stated that there had been some change in the climate of these parts, and that now they are not visited by such winds as would kill people. Still those who can leave Bandar Abbas during the great heats do so, and take refuge either in the shady gardens at the top of Ganao or go to Minab. The hot springs still exist at the foot of Ganao and still have the supposed effects ascribed to them by Marco Polo. March IQth. — In the plain passed the two villages of Bamohan and Dodar. The plain extends for many miles to the south, between the * Knlavy, 44 houses, 120 people ; 20 oxen, 10 cows, 150 sheep, 30 camels ; 1000 date- trees ; 1100 muns of wheat and barley sown yearly. I 436 JOURNEY FKOM SHIRAZ TO JA8HK, outlying Hpuri of the Bnshakird and the hills Itordoring tho aea. All the hilU in tho foreground wore mndatono, whiUt thoio of the main range appeared to Lo limefllono. The plain Ib much cut up by wator- oounoB and in some placoB fair atreaina. Mari^h lUh. — Rained heavily all night. During tho night one of tho liuts came down, and a beam amashotl my prismatio compass. From this point I had only a small pookot compass to take bearings with. Loft at 8 A.M. Road across a vory kid bit of ground, it was generally soft and in places deep ; wo ofton had to diverge a great deal before being able to pass a bad bit of ground. In one placo I gut well in, my horno sinking to the shoulders, then all the servants, one after tho other, did tho same. This was about the only real bit of fun that we have had during the whole journey. At last got out of tlie bad ground on to some good hard going at the back of a date>grove and along tho base of some small hills, it having taken us an hour and a half to do three short miles. At 10 A.M. got to Kuhistak ;* waited until tlie mules camo up, they only arrived at 12.30 p.m., every mule showing by the mud on tho baggage that it had boon down. Wo then started again, crossing at its mouth a small stream — Chahlak it is called. After leaving this tho road went alung tho sands quite oloso to the sea. (^ouvho duo soutli. Tho Arab coast to bo seen to the west and south-west. 1.40 p.m., crossed another stream. At 3 p.m. passed a village in tho sandhills to the left, about a mile off, called Ziaret. The road still on tho sands with the sea about 100 yards off. At 4.35 i>.m. reached the village of Geru.'f During the march had a groat deal of heavy rain. Geru is something like a mile inland among a group of uaudhills. Just on entering the village crossed a small stream. Distance 20 miles. March 12rt.— During the night it rained very heavily, there were also tremendous storms of thunder and lightning. Leaving was quite out of the question. March 13th. — Rain, thunder, and lightning again the whole night, and raining heavily now, but as I could not afford to waste any more time, mado a start at 8 . 30 ; for about two miles followed the lino of some sandhills, then it came on to rain harder than ever. From this point road went out into an open plain with lots of camel thorn and low scrub all about. At 9.20 passed tho village of Tohruy; at 10.30 passed another village called Surik. On the left were a lot of hills of fairish height about thrco miles off. * Kuhiatak, 110 houHcs, 300 people; 20 oxen. IGO cows, 20 camels, 250 sheep; 10 donkeys; 1700 date-trees ; 1000 mans of wheat and barley rown yearly; malyat uf Kalavy and Kuhistak, 100 tomans. t Kohsiah, 25 houses, 120 people ; 10 oxen, 20 cows ; 500 muns of wheat and hurley sown yearly ; 1000 duto-trees ; inalyut, 85 tomans. Gem, l.'iO houses, 440 people; 24 oxen, 100 cows, 170 sheep, 20 camels ; 3000 muns of wheat and barley sown yearly ; 2U0O date-trees; malydt, 100 tomans. VIA DARAD, FORO, AND MIN'AK. 437 On tho right a •ucoowion of dato-groves, and the sea in tho far diatanoo. Tho ground all about waa aoft going. A number of amall atreams wore full of muddy water. Thoao atroaraa are evidently tho draining of tho hilla to the loft, which muat bo clayey aa the water ia very white. None of them of any importance. 11 .60 came to the villago of Kardir* and atoppod alongaide tobreakfaat. 1.6, atartod ngain, and in an hour came to the Qes5 river ; a deep awift flowing stream about 60 yarda ocroRB, and running alxiut aix milca an hour. Tried it and found it would 1)0 impovaiblo for laden mulea to croaa, ao p-^rforco had to camp. I am told by aomo people who wore vboul that they liave been ritoppod hero for aix days, waiting for it ii fall sufflcio itly to enable them to croaa; rain, howovor, haa fallen daily rnd provontod them. The water ia evidently docrenaing, and wo may be abie to cross to- moiTow Buppoaing no heavy raina fall durinj/; tho nigl t. Diatii hjo 14 niilea. March 14/A. — Tho river fell at least three feet during the i "git, but it ia atill too deep for muIca to croaa without getting t^ '■ir loads wettod. The plain ia aimilar to that which we have hitherto tiyi lowed, but in addition to the mimoaa there are numoroua gez tre( ., some very fine. At 1 . 30 P.M. started and succeeded in getting tho whole camp across the river by 3.30. All damageable articles hod to be put on camels. The water muat have been at deepest part about three feet deep. Went on to Gez f and camped there for tho night. Distance two miles. March 15th. — Loft at 6.18 a.m. At 7.25 passed the /iUage of Gawan on the loft and Namordi X on. the right, about two miles off. 8.25 a.m., crossed a river, not much water in it, but the banks high and steep, about 160 yards across. 8 . 53, passed tho villago of Zerabad on the left. i).45, passed through tho villago of Sekui, and at 10. 45 arrived at Earat.§ Distance 16 miles. The Beloochis here are very close and refuse to give any particulars about their villages. March iQth. — Travelled to tho south-" isf for about a mile until wo got under the hills. At 6 .12 passed a narrow but deep bed of a stream with but little water in it. A day or two ago it was full and impassable ; this was a really nasty spot. I am sura any one trying to cross it when in flood would certainly be lost. T ob, passed by the village of Brizg, on the right hand about a miL ou. On the far right were some dato- , * Kardir, 20 houses, 100 people; 14 oxen, 200 sheep; 500 niuns of wheat and barley sown yearly ; 1000 date-trees. t Gez, 20 houses, 100 people; 14 oxen, 8 camels, 70 cows, 12 donkeys, 150 sheep ; 500 mans of wheat and barley sown yearly ; 500 date-trees ; malyiit, 30 tomans. t Namordi, 150 houses, 450 people; 24 oxen, 70 cows, 15 camels, Iti donkey.", '200 aheep ; 1200 mans of wheat and barley sown yearly ; 1000 date-trees ; malyut, iO tomans. § Karat, 20 houses, 110 people ; IG oxen, 40 vows, 100 sheep ; 400 mans] of. wheat :iiid barley sown yearly ; 300 date-tree?. 428, JOURNEV FROM SHIRAZ TO JASHK, grovos, aud boyond thorn oooasional glimpses of the sea oould be got. Sandstoue hills on the left hand about half a mile off. Sharp pointed peaks, and with that brokeu-off aspect oommon to up country. 8.5, low hills now to the right as well as on the left. At 8.25 got in among them, thoy are of sandstone, cut into curious and at times fantastic shapes, some resembling statues of colossal size. The whole place appears as if it had been subject to the effects of either the sea or else of running water within recent times. At 9.6 passed the village of Gawan, and 9 . 36 came to the village of Mukhjangan, where wo break- fasted. There wo were interviewed by a Beloooh chief, a fine-looking fellow got up in very gorgeous attire, covered with arms of all sorts, including tho ever-present hide shield. Ho commenced to talk very big, but after a time quieted down and ended by bogging for krans and powder. 11.20 A.H., off again. Plain sandy, crossed another stream with ver}' deep sides, about 18 yards across. This would also be a bad spot in heavy rains. Followed the plain until wo arrived at Gatan * at 1 . 6 P.M. Distance 20J^ miles. Low sandstone rocks in every direction. Kuh Mubarrek in the distance, nearly duo south. March 17 th. — Left at 6.48 a.m., fine clear morning. Wont away across the plain to the S.S.E. to get out of a lino of bad ground. Wo have been threatened all along the march since leaving Bandar Abbas with what tho natives call mcens, A meen appears to be a piece of treacherous ground, it has a fair faco but no secure bottom. I mado tho acquaintance of one to-day and did not find it pleasant. The guides walking along quietly in front passed over the ground easily, it looked all good hard land. All at once my horse plunged and sank to the girths. Thinking that^it was only a small bit of bad ground, I sent him along for sonle yards ; finding ho could get no further I got off. The poor beast had sunk up to tho shoulders in the ground, and looked wofuily distressed ; wo only managed to get him out with difficulty, and after good hard work. I almost thought that I should lose him. After heavy rains the whole of this part of the country gets covered with these mecns. I suppose that they are due in some way to imperfect drainage, the countiy being so flat, or perhaps some peculiarity in tho strata not allowing the water to drain off. The sun dries the top, leaving these treacherous spots below. Tho plain near the hills on tlie left was dotted with scrub and proved better for travelling. At 9.5 came to the village of Kuh Mubarek in among some small hills, and at 9.46 halted to breakfast, Kuh Mubarek bearing W.N.W. 11.16, off again. The plain here- about was entirely sand, and wo were caught in about as bad a * Gatan, 100 houseg, 450 people; 30 oxen, 120 cows, 250 sheep, 5 donkeys; 400 milns of wheat and barley, also ludliin com, sown yearly ; 2000 date-trees, malyut, 80 tomans. VIA DARAB, FORO, AND MINAa 429 d be got. p pointed 8.5, low in among fantastic lole place , or else of village of •wo break- ing fellow , including r, but after rdor. .ream with a bad spot Gatan* at y direction. Wont away round. Wo ndar Abbas ) a piece of I made tho The guides ly, it looked the girths. |t him along The poor Led wofuily and after lim. After ivered with ;o imperfect trity in tho [es the top, scrub and ite of Kuh I breakfast, plain heio- as bad a [donkeyi; 400 storm of wind as I have rarely experienced ; in spite of the late rains having beaten the sand down, yet it blows about in such clouds that at times one could not see a yard beyond tho horse's ears ; there was not a tree or a shrub to break the force, the sand and small stones were blown into our faoe with such force as to be absolutely painful. Happily tho direction of tho storm was so as to strike one on the beam ; to havo faced it would have been impossible. At 11.55 passed a small river bod with deep steep sides, at 12.45 came to another of tho sarao description, and at 1.15 p.m. arrived at the village of Oangin where we camped ; it was but a bad spot, but going on in such weather was not to be thought of. Distance 20 miles. March 18th. — Loft at 5.U5 a.m. The road over the same sandy plain with but little scrub about, bore for a hill E.N.E., which wo fetched in about an hour ; wont round it and carried on in the same direction ; passing some dutc-groves, and through a more wooded country, chiefly gez-trees. At 7.12 passed a river called Taborkan about 100 yards across. Wo came this way as we wore told that this river on tho direct road would be very difiBcult to cross. It would stop one even hero I imagine, after a continuance of wot weather. Bearing now E.S.E. At 8.25 came to a small river bed with steep sides, another nasty spot in the rains. Ground all along sandy with slight dark incrustation. Passed several fine date-groves, and at 9.45 camped under one for breakfast. At 11 . 15 off again ; country as before for nearly eight miles when wo came to the village of Jashk. Distance 23 miles. From the sandhills close by the telegraph buildings are visible about 10 miles away. March 19th. — ^Marched into Jashk telegraph office, the first mile across tho plain, then through and over some sandhills on to a masheelah for about threo miles, then across the peninsula to tho office. Distance oiglit miles. Here terminated a journey which I hud longed to undertake for many years, thinking that in a country so little known as this part of Persia, I should be sure to see something worthy of note and not previously described. But my hopes were not realised; tho whole road was traversed without anything now or of interest to the anti- quarian being discovered. Between Shiraz and Bandar Abbas, by reference to the route map which accompanies thi« report, it will be noticed that the road follows a series of small plains between two ranges of hills ; these ranges differ in no way from others moro to the north or south of the main road in Persia; they havo a uniform direction from north-west to south-east, and present the usual characterless appearance to the traveller's eye, which makes the Persian landscape so spiritless and uninteresting. As a rule the ranges arc of nearly a uniform height, with a bold bluff on the one side and a shelving slope on the reverse. There are some, how- 430 JOURNEY FROM SIIIRAZ TO JASHK, over, which in places develope into peaks, and have a certain individuality, such as Kuh Darakty, Jain Ealatu, and Farkun. The average height of the prominent hills in the northern range I judge to vary between 8000 to 10,000 feet, whilst to the south I imagine that after leaving Maharlu there was nothing exceeding 7000 feet in height. Farkun is however a very fine bold hill with two very prominent peaks, the southera one being the highest. By the amount of snow on it, and the lownoss of the lino, I think that it must be 12,000 to 13,000 feet high at the very least. It is curious that this was the only hill that was invariably called by the same name at all points of the road from Tarkat to Minab. These hills all are, as far as I could judge, of limestone, with slopes of gravel at their foet. Above Bandar Abbas, from the Garm Hills until the sandstone rocks are reached, in one large gravel slope. The hills behind Shamil and Minab, the Budbal, are also limestone, with gravel lilopes and hillocks in front ; beyond this the hills are all of sandstone interspersed with a pale grey clay. The rivers parsed throughout the journey were utterly insignificant. Tho salt one in the plain of Tashkird, near its western extremity, was only a few inches deep. Tho two salt rivers in the Sahra-i-Eunuk behind Bandar Abbas apparently are only perennial, as also are those of Zindan and Shamil. In the Minab stream there is water all tho year round, but it is absorbed in cultivation. The Ghahlak and Gez, although they are supposed to drain the western slopes of the Bashakird country, are in ordinary times of little or no importance. Now and again some talk of a railway through Persia crops up. Should at any time the question of a railway to tho Persian Gulf take tangible form, a careful survey of this route, I am convinced, will repay the projectors. As against the Shiraz-Bushire route there can be nu doubt of its greater adaptability. It is true it is nearly double tho distance, but against this it has several advantages ; in the first place, the engineering difficulties are nearly nil, whereas those on the Shiraz- Bushire are innumerable. Secondly, it would decrease the sea journey by soiae 450 miles; thirdly, at or near to Bandar Abbas a convenient and sheltered roadstead could bo found, in place of the extremely inconvenient and open one at Bushiro ; fourthly, a railway along this route would tap a large grain-growing country and would be easy of access to the merchants of Yezd and Kirman. It was lately stated in a book on Persia that there is little change but much decay in Persia. At the time I lead this I thought tho author was a little severe on the country. Since I have made this journey, 1 am more than ever of opinion that, as far as the south it- concerned, he is wrong ; there is not only change, but what decay there is is in the right direction. Some few weeks before I started on my VIA DARAB, FORO, AND MINAB. 431 iduolity, e height to vary bat after 1 height, romineut snow on to 13,000 only hill ' the road 1 BlopeB of lillB until The hills 'ith gravel BandBtone rignificant. emity, was ri-i-Kunuk ire thoBe of ,11 the year drain tho kCB of little crops np. Gulf take ■will repay can bo no double tho first place, tho Shiraz- ea journey convenient extremely along this be easy of Itle change lought tho Imado this lo Bouth iu lecay there led on my trip, ono of the chief men of tho province, the MuBliir-ul-Mulk, died. Within a fortnight of this ovent his great rival, the Kawara-ul-Mulk, also died. These two men with their intrigues had for years kept tho provinco in a state of ferment. Whenever the one was in powor, the other did what ho could to oust him, a favourite dodgo to this end being tho investigation of robberies. Some ten years ago a party of six of us travelled up to Teheran and had to take an escort of somo twenty men for our caravan, owing to the numbers of robbers who infested tho roads ; thon the Mushir was in powor. In 1877 some friends of mine wore travelling in tho Darab country, and they could only get on by moans of strong escorts. The rival partisans were out, and robberies and murders wore of daily occurrence. After the death of those two men, I naturally anticipated that although the provinco had boon exceptionally peaceful for years, yet now tho tribes would bo sure to be looting and fighting. But it was quite tho contrary; nothing oould havo been more peaceful and q\iiet than the demeanour of all I camo across. These two men wore tho two chiefs of tho looteo sects of Shiraz^ but their several deaths caused no excitement or rows in tho placc^ whereas some few years ago these two sects of looters met nearly daily for free fights which generally ended in some disastrous way. Below Bandar Abbas, the castles of Shamil and Minab and the strons: protecting towers and walls of the various villages which I passed through, were all visibly falling into decay. This all tends to prove change, and change of the right sort. It shows incontrovorlibly, I think, that the Persian tribesman and Bclooch marauder are becoming amenable to the law, and that now there is somo regard paid to life and property. About Teheran the Shah is continually causing improvements to be made, and is gradually making his capital town something better than the collection of mud huts that it was some twenty years ago. In Ispahan, his son has to a small extent followed his example. In Shiraz the Governor has repaired various ancient buildings and rescued them from destruction. In Bandar Abbas tho Acting Governor has repaired the factory of tho old Dutch Company and made it into one of the finest houses in Persia, but he is also now building a small stone pier opposite to it, to facilitate the landing of cargo from tho ships. All this shows change and not decay, and I can only hope that it may go on increasing year by year. Persia has great capabilities and resources, and if these are only directed into the right channels, there is every chance of her future being a prosperous one. 432 JOURNEY FROM SHIRAZ TO JASHK, Lift ofSUUions and Dittanc 'n/rom Shiraz to Jaahk. From To Shimz Maharla .. Maborlu SarviBtiin .. Sarvistdn MeyanJangal MeyanJangal Kabandagan Xabandagan Sheshdeh .. Sheshdeh Dsnkhuyeh Dankhuyeh Darabjiid .. Darabjird Deh Khayx DebKhayr Rosak Bosak Forg .. .. Forg Taskat Taskat SoyudJomlar .. .. Sa'adatabiid .. Gohrah .. Zuratu .. Sarzeh .. Barker . . Bandar Abbas IMsUncMln EngUib miles. 23| 25} • 161 18 12 13 24 Seyud Jowdar Sa'adatdbad Gobrah Znrotu Sarzeb Berkeh Bandar Abbas Berkeh Berkeh Ealgazi Knlgazi Shamil Shamil Gurband Ourband Miniib Minab Kalavy Kalavy Geru Qera Gez Qez Kardt Kardt Galiin Galan Gdngan Gangdn Jasbk village .. Jashk village Jashk telegraph o£Bce 10 28 14 191 26 13} 29 7 17 16} 16 16 18 22 15 16 22 20 17 16 20} 20 23 8 Total (127}) 341} 233} .. 574i Shiraz, August 16M, 1884. Previous to the reading of the paper, The Gbaishan (Sir J. H. Lefroy) v 4 to express his great regret that Sir Henry Rawlinson was prevented by indisposition from occupying the chair. No one else could throw sued a fiood of light upon any question relating to the Empire of Persia, and it was much to his own regret that ho was debarred from being present. The paper to be read was an account of an ex- pedition made under the auspices of the Indo-European Telegraph Department from Shiraz to Jashk, a great part of the route having never before been described by any European traveller. It was a route which was of considerable interest at the present time, because from the peculiar embarrassments and difficulties attending the management of submarine cables, it was not impossible that sooner or later it would be necessary to have a land line through Persia. About sixty or seventy miles of the ground which Mr. Frecce went over was described in considerable VIA DARAB, FORQ, AND MINAB.— DISCUSSION. 483 27J) ■:■■ -ri, {■ :>v.,. .: «l at regret occupying ky question ^et that ho at of an ex- ttment from libed by any Irest at the Is attending ^r or later it or seventy LonBiderable detail some years ago by Sir William Ouseley, but from Shlraz to Bandar Abbas was new ground, and it was very gratifying to find that the inhabitants received a European in a friendly spirit, and treated him with kindness and hospitality. After the paper. Colonel Chahpaih said that telegraph lines ran, by means of a double cable in the Persian Gulf, from Karachi to Bushire, and so on by land to Teheran, and to England. One cable joined on to Turkish territory. These cables were not so young as they were, and gave more trouble between Bushire and Jashk than they did formerly. It therefore became necessary to look forward to either repairing them, laying new ones, or running an alternative land line. If a land line were laid from Shiraz to Jashk, there would be an aerial wire all the way from Calcutta to opposite Lowestoft Being at Bushire last year, he was fortunate enough to meet Mr. Preece, a brother of the distinguished electrician at the General Post OfiQce, and asked him to go over the ground and see if there were any physical obstacles to be encountered. A better man for the work could not have been found. He had been in Persia sixteen years, spoke the language exceedingly well, and was an admirable traveller. A great part of the country was absolutely unknown to Europeans, being marked " unexplored " on the maps, and he could find no one who had heard of any traveller who had gone from Bandar Abbas to Darabjird, or from Minab to Jashk. Mr. Preece made the journey very successfully, but although there were no physical obstacles, Colonel Champain was hardly inclined to think that the land line would be made yet a while. From economical reasons it would probably be advisable to stick to the sea at present. Sir Fbedebio Goldshid said he could not speak from personal experience of the road between Shiraz and Jashk, but he knew the terminal points tolerably well. He was at Shiraz during the famine of 1871, and was one of the few visitors to Jashk before it had become the residence of Englishmen. He had also been to Bandar Abbas, having on one occasion entered Persia from that port, and gone up to the north. From Shiraz to Darabjird the road had been previously traversed by Europeans. Mr. Consul-General Abbott went over it in 1850, and passed back by a dififerent route to K&zanin. His journey was described in very minute detail in the records of the Royal Geographical Society, and the record was very useful for geographical purposes. This traveller had also given a clear account of the ruins mentioned in the paper just read, but he called them " Naksh-i-Riistam," the name applied to the better known rock inscriptions near Persepolis. He w;i3 not awxre that the journey through Forg to Bandar Abbas had ever before been done by any European,* but the district to the immediate south had been frequently visited. It is spoken of by the old Arabian geographer, Ibn Batuta,t in the 14th century, who crossed over from Ormuz to the mainland, and passing up to LAr, came down from that place to the sea. There was a very good French translation of bis work in four * Since making this remark, I have found in my note-book that Mr. Dupre left Shiraz on the 17th of January, 1808, and passing through Darab and Forg, reached Bandar Abbas on the 5th of February. He returned from the latter port on the 14th of the same month, and arrived ot Shiraz, by Liir, on or about the 2nd of March. Tlie journey is narrated in his ' Voyage en Perse,' published by Dentu, 1819.— F. J. G. t Ibn Batuts, 14th century (middle), crossed from the island of Hormuz to the main- land to visit a holy man at Ehondjopul. He marched under escort of Turkmans over a desert of four days* journey, filled with limbs of men killed by the Simiim, through Kavristan ; then across a second desert to Liir. Thenco he appears to have gone down to the coast near Kdis. — F. J. G. 431 JOURNEY FROM SHIRAZ TO JASHK, volumes. Lilr was also visited by M. do liochechouart, the French Charge d'affaires at Tehran, when that gentleman prix;eeded from the Shah's capital to Karmdn, some months after he himself (Sir F. Goldsmid) and Major Murdoch Smith, r.b., had passed through the latter province. A narrative of his journey was published at Paris in 1867. Ity this it appears that ho had returned by Bandar Abbas, Ldr, and Shiraz, his route being a little to the south of that followed by Mr. I'rocce. He reckoned the whole distance from Dandar Abbas to Shira?! 3U0 miles, being 181 miles more than that now computed for the upper route. M. de Rochechouart mentioned that there were two roads, and probably he referred to that traversed by Mr. Preece, as the alternative to his own.* If so, he said it was a very difficult one, and that was the general opinion of the country people in the time of Ibn Batuta. He (the 8])eaker) was glad to find that Mr. Prccco bore such favourable testimony to the hospitality of the Persian governors and people, for he himself had experienced it more than once. When he first reached Karmdn as a simple traveller he wm received with extraordinary kindness; more so indeed, if distinction could be drawn, than when, years afterwards, he had appeared at the same city in charge of an important mission. Mr. Precco had said that the mountains near Mindb were called " Rudbal " and not " KulbAr." He believed this apparent difference to be of little im^xirt. The I and the r continually change places, and Rudbdl and Rudbar may be practically reganled as the same word. There was a well-known town on ihe Indus called Rohri, which in old books was written Lohri. Many similar instances might bo added. Ho had one remark to submit|in conclusion. Mr. Prcece':< journey showed that it would be cosy to make a railway between Shiraz and Jashk. That was noteworthy, liecausc from Jashk to Kardchi the rails could be laid along the coast, nearly in accordance with the telegraph line. The question was how to get to Shiraz, but he felt sure that there would ultimately be a railway from Con- stantinople to Baghd.ad, and when this was completed no doubt a way would be found from Baghdad to Shiraz. The advantage of such a line was that it would pass through what was now shown to be a considerable tract of fertile country, and lender the route to India entirely independent of any railways which might be made in the north of Persia or Afghanistan. The Chairman said that Sir William Ouseley had stated that the watercourse at Fossa abounded with otters. That might jwrhaps be an inducement to some gentle- men to make their way there. Tlte sculpture at Fassa, mentioned in the paper, com- memorated the defeat of the Romans under Valerian by Sharpur. It appeared to have undergone little change for the worse since it was seen seventy or eighty years ago by the traveller he had just named, who gave a drawing of it. Mr. Preece had not referred to the very interesting s]X!Culation as to whether or not the tomb of Cyrus was still to bo found at Fassa. Colonel Champain had seen a monument which from time iramcmorinl had been supposeortant ])laco, surrounding country very fertile in cereals, cotton, and tobacco. Of latter 4,000,000 kilogrammes exported for apices and cotton stuffs. Between Liir and Sliirnz fine fertile plains as in Europe. Jiium {AU)otl's Jehruin) a town of lO.OUO suuls; less advantagsously situated tlmn Liir ; traffic of siuiiliir kind, but distance from seu great. situated tlinn r-' •» <1» c»„da,l». ft., ,. "'sci'ssio.v. ^ 'He p-SeptTrHrtd't/ ^r*^ *"" '^^^-^ ssr^nr »•"■« Oaso ey himself ««„ '*'"* ^ntiwly forootf^, j .' ^"*' «''°wed that thoroforenot whollvH{« *^ '""^ «f the liquid Th!* ..° ^''^ P"'* of hia expediency, on 2^' SHS^ "f - Moslem rS„ S^^"''* f -"^-iality had through tho aouthem T,r ^T'^'' °^ ft>nning an inr^^ '° 'l"'"'"°'» of the which was beCrir " °' ^*'™'"'' "> 'onder ta T"^'"* "°° ^^ »ilway Allmustho^thatSir P o i * "^"^ «°''"ned wSi mZf^*? ° °°'"*^«™ frontier, long there wSldlf;i;^°?™''J'« Pr« ' '' ^'""^ ^"''«^ f'«o -arches wW^r' 'fl'"' '""«^-' ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ """^ 'ong march of 35 n,ii t ™"^^° *^o into Ddrflh ly Y ^^''^ ™'n8, made *enamesarfnofar:;;.St'"?^*'° ^'^-^ - ItnT^thef^'* ""^^^ -« Selvissoun and SarTfSn'^^L* '^f' ^'hus we find Mallv M„J . '■'"■'''°'^«' »>«* »^ribjird. DuPvfl ..' ^hist^ Shish Deh anT«f . ^''"""' ^'^d Mabdriu ; ''ouJa«buiI o?tarrm^„«,?^-'>-uch„s'^^^^^^^^ ^'^^'^bjerd and '"ch as palm an^ „ ^^"'^>' ^''h fine gardens rZ-- '"^ P'^^^'^t day. Its '"akes mSn e °™r' f,"' " ^"^ ^ ^^ S a dot''°°" ^''"^ ^^^d fruif-tre^^ »"'«; and r;Z?L ^'."^ ^'" '"''^l""^. twocarlrn "r"-''^^"* «^°P«- He detail is furnished hvT^' ^.^ " '"«nt on the ruin?;f uV?""'' ^'^'''dJess than voi. , ''^ ^^*^- ^hbott and Preece. ' "[''^''^ «° »"ch valuable 486 JOURNEY FROM SHIKAZ TO JASHK, II. From D&rAb to Bandar Abbas M. Da Pr^ makes his distance within a iiirsalch that of Mr. Freece, and the alight discrepancy apparent is explained by a divergence in the two routes adopted. This is notably illustrated in a visit to T&nin, which the more modem traveller seems to have avoided, though he mentions the place incidentally. The accordance in the general lino of direction may be seen by a comparison of the following summary with the latest maps of Persia :^ Du Pkk. rartahli». Dirab to Deh Khair .. .. 2} Dell Khair to Iloatak .. .. 8 BostaktoForg 4 Forg to ToalikUh C Tashktth to Tdnin Tiirtin to Falingiiii 3 Falingiin to Gora 10 Gora to Finn 5 Finn to Kiswant ) g Biswont to Issin i Issin to Bandar Abbas .. .. 5 ■ -..vi: .• ,'■,. 55J • , ' or 194 miles. Prxkb. Danib to Deh Khair .. . Dt'h Khair to Bosak .. . Bosak to Forg ForgtoTaskat Tnskat to Seyud Jaud^ .. Scyud Jauddr to SaadatalXid SaadatabtUl to Gohra Golira to Zuratu Zuratu to Sarzeh .. .. SarzoU to Berker Berkcr to Bandar Abbas nUei. 10 28 14 191 26 13} 29 7 17 16} 16 Despite of discordance of spelling, there can be no doubt that five of the eleven sti^s here noted — viz. Deh Khair, Kostak, Forg, Tashkilh, and Oora — are common to both records, while Preece hia'self identifies Riswant (Rezwan) with one of the three villages of Sarzeh, and makes special mention of the road from Oora to Finn, as being N.N.W. c' Sarzeh. There is no difference in the number of marches ; but Du Prd baited one day at Forg, and one at Tariin ; Preece, two days at Forg and one day at Sarzeh. The earlier explorer did not find Deh Khair so prosperous a place as in days of yore, or aa it appears to have now become ; and stated his impression that the name itself signified " no village at all," because deh is a village, and Utair commonly used as a negative ; but opinions may differ in this interpretation of Persian idiom. He alludes to the watercourse noticed by the writer of the foregoing paper on the march from Ddrdb, and both he and Mr. Preece took the shorter of tho two roads between Rostak (Rosak) and Forg. Entering the latter place by a ruined bridge, he remarked that the town was partly walled in, but that the outside ditches had been badly dug. In reckoning the inhabitants at not quite 2000, he made use of a figure four times in excess of that recorded by Preece. Both writers mention the " remains of a ruined castle . . . known as the Kalah Bahman," a spot indicated on D'Aftville's map as " le chateau du roi Bahmen," III. From Bandar Abbas wo take leave of M. Du Prd who, after visiting Ormuz, Kishm, and the neighbouring islands, returned to Shiraz by L&r and Jdrum. But we need not go far back to find a traveller to Mindb. In the autumn of 1876, Mr. Ernest Floyer, of the Telegraph Department, went across the " same fifty-four miles " of " fiery desert " which separate it, as he tells us, from the " Bandar," and practically reached it within four-and-twenty hours. " My host and I," he writes, " got camels at ten o'clock one night, and at seven next evening arrived among the date-trees three or four miles below the fort." * The break-down of his donkeys, which had been substituted for the larger animals, caused him to undertake "one of ' Unexplored Baluchistan,' p. 140. ViXDAiUB.FORO,ANDMINAB.-DlSCC;ssiON. *»>• longest foot „arohe,- U h d ' '"" "'"^^"-"^'^^«'°^- *87 than Captain Gmni>b i.. J"* '" "^"^'^y *^at of Mr S V ''"* ^q«^^^t«l, at thesamet pw,*^,^^^^^^^^^^ *he distance "i^V^"* 30«iJ« longer from ihVmU^J'^'' °° *^° '°^ • • • a'x.ut two mL fl ' .?' ^«'«''''«« it a? almost deS'd 2\tT "°"^'^*« ^^^ *»««» 250 hutrilT ^^Z "^""^ «««tt On the 2rsrin?rP *?»P««t"«««al fever havin," rlJIi v "l"^ '^'* ' ' ' "ow minamed halting „/' "'''^' *° Serilc; on the ^ath " *®"®"y direction to he has fairly reached hi« a .• "^'"^^^^ '"'<^ ^rt of Min&hir^ r, * ^^^ P^™* short of that Sli^^ destination; but the distancrAl n^T'l'* ^'^*'"^ ««»» calcnlated h is ^rrcM f.^p' ^'''^' I* » ^CpXlt ?w ^ ^ *^*^^« »>««« Gn.nt took L^^tTt^'T'' *''^«"P^ «tatio'Tv^i^£,^^° *'''' '**'« inland. In this Z«T ^''^ ^"'^ or vilWe of Tiliv ,F. J^* '^ Captain .owever.Ge,gan.« certainly Mr. Preece'sGang^n. Kde. "illi.*iwrtfni..,-. — , tm/tmarnkmrnmimmmria 1^ 4 I N-... /^ivjv ■■-■:-::y^i^' E.Wdlar.litlL. I < l| ■> IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // %^/ ''^*-^ 1.0 1.1 1^ UitTA |25 ^ ^ 12.2 S^ 1^ 12.0 1.4 z Photographic Sciences Corporation \ <^ V ;\ 23 WIST MAIN STRICT Vk»STIR,N.Y. USaO (716)872-4503 67* 30' 68* 30* H S 34* 30' U N N A W 33* ii A L U D A N I \N A R D - ^'f^" ■/ SOT-' <^' ; ;:tJi I- AB GuJbariP.i ITJ^Y Wr 1^. *:'jB[''IJte; _^ 30- 71' Map of the SOUTH EASTERN PART OF AFGHANISTAN illustratiii.g LIEUT. BROADFOOT'S JOURNEY from Ghazni to Dera Ismail Khan Compiled from his Original Siirvey ajid adapted to the fixed positions of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India- Statute Miles 10 20 30 Scale -1 Inch - 14 Miles • 40 Note. EotaL orNarai means aPass over oumoxaxtain^rid^e . Darrob rrveans a, BefiJLe or Fass letM/een^TTwwntains . Lieut .Brocud/bot's renite from, GhaznL to I)era,Is/ruxiLEtum^,7Tua'kecired, . Baonu or Edwacdesabad 130' 34' 50 30' «?'- *•-' » 33* . Tomd,'' • t..^^^jm^ J{, \i ^ rpuuar^iflLtl^UL i^ 30- i:. Q ^KUcbMeana, "V. XBULa-McLsKtuai^---'' 30- ee- E.SbaTbas), del 4 l^/,f ,ilii#^*» JrP^^W^ ^fart K H C L \ 'Etui V iflangar LiDnou.2ar«s . ^-A^. »w»»^ - *« \SanAtul A- ftaw :i!. V J»i2a, ^fhSarwandL \oDurtJja. S<^ P^ I ^ MOM MAI ChamuAwalo oMoyftuJL 'ifZifumx Tonoiir 0,?.- :>^/ I ^oionoofhoL Eauhn,^ hTiawnn^ MbfuananJLi i'^*! F — — ^— "■" ^||fi>' m hi ^ ^®"^ '% ^^!^ ^ ^SkbH^'' ^, ^K6s B^,, Matacir\ \ 'i- ^-oiic- W&liMMrd^i / ^<^iv^/i^^ .Qvaut>, s u I \.\ \^Somdil V. ■■:^VhaddaL BfuuontM,' #51^ ■.•%>^ ^jpwt/^ \ !*ahsiilr Fla^vrv M A N D U K H E L ^ * ^^ / U.300v Taicht-i-5uJiini 30' Long,itade Eeist 69° from Greenwi ch . SuppZementary Papers , BxjydL GeographicdL Sode^ , 30" Do/n .'1^, %X -■^^'WMPniKBL-* E.Wdler.idi. iifk' PART OF SOUT SHIRAZ FROM A SURVEY HY Scale of KiiifliH lo^ 20 Mile^, ■ I /I n A KGIne K G S del ■.V -^..;J 'iiriTnagiiMi r or SOUTHERN PERSIA FROM SHIRAZ TO JASHK [ A SrRVEY BY .1. R. rUKKCE ISS^. Suale. of Kiiiflinh Mil«-K * o H" TO ao 40 20 MUe/i ■ //nWi Suftplctnentary Fapetv . Royn I Oco^qraphieaJ Sodety ISSo. warn S7' '$ A>*-^^; rad« 55* East of Grecttwich yfUcal Society 1885. MkAX Jobitum, Edmlnufi fclondon. ■■ '^'•^S? ' <• r i % GE BE m. I. GEOGEAPHICAL EDUCATION. REPORT TO THE COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. By J. SCOTT KELTIE, TBI Monrr's rasrEcroR or oEooRArnioAL kduoatiok. VOL. I. I t \ .. f I ' TO THE COCNOII, OP THE nnv. r G.™.«,. ,"'^'^''''^^0^ sooner. I BEG herewith to snhmif ♦ I have the honour to be, Gentlemen, Your obedient servant. 1. Savae Ko^o, I^^,,^ ^' ^^^^T KELTIE. ■S^ay 17, 1885. %t ■ i f JA Introdi Great ] /* Pi Pi m Gt "1 Oe Oe Pn Me> Ma Tex The Gea The The Geoi The Cone The CoNTii Gene Gbbmanv Genet Heim Map-i Geogr, Exam^ Conch The a Geogrc TheFc Pro/est Profess The Ge Pmfessi ProfesH Profmi Breelau Commen ■ Oeojfrap CONTENTS. i PAOC Introduction 447 Great Bbitain. Inrtituliotu deuU with 449 Previoiu Efforts 0/ the Council ........ 450 Primary Schools . . 451 High and Middle-Class Schools.— Oeneral Position 452 Oeography does not "pay" 454 " Physical Geography " 455 Oeography should not be hrolcen up 456 Oeography and History ......... 457 Prizes 458 Methods and Apparattts 458 Maps , 459 Text-lioohs 461 The Universities' Local Examinations 462 Oeography as a School Suhject 463 The Universities 464 The Field of Oeography as a University Subject 469 Oeography in the Public Services 471 The Science and Art Department 474 Conclusion as to Oreat Britain 474 The Continent. Oeneral Position 474 Germany. Oeneral Position 475 Heimatshunde 477 Map-reading . 479 Oeography in the Higher Oerman Scltoola 481 Examples of Lessons in Geography 483 Conclusions as to Higher Schools ........ 486 T/ie German Universities 486 Oeography in the Degree of Ph.D 487 The Facultas Docendi in Geography 487 Professor Rein's Course 488 Professor Wagner's Course ......... 490 The German Conception of the Field of Geography 492 Professor BichtJiofen's Course 493 Professor Kirohhoff's Course 495 Professor H. Kiepert's Course 495 Sreslau University 496 Commercial Geography in Germany 496 • Oeography in the Military Academy J 496 44i CONTENTS. AcaTRIA. Geography in Auitrian Universities . 497 Oeography in Austrian Sehooh 497 The Vienna Commercial Academy ........ 498 The Austrian Cadet School 499 Fbance. I Becent Progress in France 499 Geography in French Higher Sehooh 500 French Universities 501 Geography in French Military Schools ....... 501 French Normal Schools 502 The Mttt^e Pidagogiquc 502 Italy. General Position ........... 503 Italian Universities 504 Switzerland. ^■ General Position ........ ... 504 Heimatskunde at Ziirich 004 Zurich Higher Schools 505 Swiss Cartography 506 Industrial Schools . . 506 Cfeneva 506 Belgium. Belgian Universities 506 General Begulations 507 Higher Schools 507 Holland. Dutch Universities 507 Dutch Schools 508 Sweden. National Schools 510 Higher Puhlie Schools 511 The Universities ........... 511 Spain 511 Genebal Conclusions as to the Continent 512 NosTR Amebioa. United States 512 Canada ....... 512 COKCLCSIONS AND SCGOESTIONS AS TO THE POSITION OF GeOQBAPHICAL TEACHING IN England 513 The Exhibition op GEOGitArHiCAL Appliances . .... .'ilG APrENDlCES. A. — ^LisT OF Bbitisii Schools dealt WITH BY THE Inspector 517 B. — 1. Extract from a Letter sent to the Vice-Chancellors of the Univeb- 8ITIE8 OF OsFOBD AND CAMBRIDGE, FROM THE PRESIDENT AND COUNCIL OF THE Royal Geographical Society.). . . . ^ . . 517 2. Draft of a Memorial to be sent, with separate covering Lettebs, to H.M. COMMISSIONEBS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF OxFORD, TO THOSE OF Cambridge, and to the governing Bodies of either University . . 519 Subjects fob Historical Prize Essays proposed from time to time at the University of Oxford, more ok less Geographical . . ,621 COiVTENTS. 445 PAOB B*.— Elemesttabt Schools Pnn 2 p„„ — ;, '"^'' 'N Sixth 2-Dc.wxo„Co..Er-?CBT„^^''r- • • . - o^^nZ'':^r::zZ'':': "™ «~ - ™..e U^IVKHSITIES . . °;'™^ " O.0HT TO HAVE IK SOHOO J ^^ ^- Habhow SoHOOL—GEVEIUr P *''■••• . ^.^-ton.-Natdbai, Science Pbize J ssired. With scarcely an exception, I have got fairly full replies to my inquiries. At the same time I sel'wted a certain number of schools, which seemed to me representative, for the purpose of inspection ; these are marked with an asterisk in the Appendix (A). In nearly all cases, indeed, I asked permission to visit the schools should I deem it advisable ; and invariably I was made welcome to do so. True, in not a few instances, the head-masters confessed that I should learn nothing by actual in- spection, either because they considered it a fallacious method of obtaining inj'o>-ination, or because they had told me in writing all that was to be learned, or because the subject had admittedly only a pariah's place on their programmes. In most cases I not only had instructive interviews with the masters, but actually saw the classes at work, and inspected the stock of apparatus in use. medals Univer ties in Append graphy Tliia manyyc cation, certainly Schools r position L least, the Previous Efforts of the Council. — The Council did not require to insti- tute this inquiry in order to discover that the position of geography in most of our public schools and in the Universities is unsatisfactory. That fact has been known for years, and the Council have taken various steps to obtain such recognition for geography in English education as it deserves. In 1869 the Public Schools Medals were instituted, and were continued for sixteen years, until in 1884 the Society was induced to discontinue thera by the unsatisfactory nature of the results. As a matter of fact, tho sixty -two medals offered by the Society in sixteen years were awarded among only sixteen schools; and of these sixteen schools two (Dulwich College and Liverpool College) carried off thirty. I need only refer to the series of lectures which were given, under tho auspices of the Society for three successive years, by eminent specialists in various departments of science related to geography ; to tho letter addressed to the Vice-Chancellors of Oxford and Cambridge by tho Pre- sident and Council in 1871, with reference to the Universities Schools Examinations, in connection with which the Society continues to award REPORT, certainly haBT^i*? °«* been •ItogeSTr?" °^K«°«"'Phioaledu. and appanitiis +),„* . , '^eniselves to some frm,!.! " ,"eent^ interest ««m>nndin« Sw ^ T' ''^'''^ ^e find J^-^"" ?"* *^" ^*«M'- f^^^'^'y^alc^r^'^^^^^^^P^ofvarionsrindl f;f ' "'''P'' «^ «»« 459 RKPORT. in the Keviiod Iniiruutiona to H.M.'i Inapootora, 1885, direotiotii whioh might be ttudiod with advantage by toaohera of all grades : — " 0«HiK>rA|>l>>*^nl toaolting U Momotimvi too much ruatriutod to tho pointing out m' placoB on tlie mnp, and to tliu onuntoratiou of hucIi ilvtaiU uh tlio nnniuH of riverH, towns, cn|)CH, and political diviHioni. It Ih liartUy nocuHwiry to nay tliat goograpliy, if taught to gooA puriioRo, incliidoi alw) a liuHcription uf tho pliysical aNjwotH of tlio countrie*, and seokn to CHtaltllKli hoiuo aHHoclation lietwottn tho namcR of pliicoH and tiiomi hiRtorical, Hooial, or industrial fucth which alonu niakcH tho nnmos of piaci'H wortli roniumberiiiK' It i>* oHiwcially dunirablo in your oxaniination of tho fourth and highur Htaudarda tiiat attontiun uhouid he called to tho Kuglitih cohmiuH, and their productions, govornmont, and roMOurcus, and to those climatic and otimr con- ditions which render our distant iwRMOHsions suitable fields for endgration and for honourable enterprise. In onler that tho conditions laid for the geographical toacli- ing of the lower classes may Ix) fultillcd, good maps, lK>th of tlio co«mty and of tint ))arish or immediate noighlxiurhood in which tho school is sitiiatcil, should Ihi aflixol to tho walla, and tho exact distaucvs of a few near and familiar places should 1h< known. It is useful to mark on the floor of tlie schoolroom tho meridian line, in order that tho ])oints of tho comitoss should bo known in relation to tho school iiHcit OR well 08 on a map." But, as tho Society's inquiry is concerned mainly with our groat public schools and universities, it is unnecessary to dwell upon tho position in our primary schools. High and Middle-CUus SohooU, — Oeneral Pontion. — In all the sohoolH concerning which I have obtained information, either by correspondence or by direct observation, and which may be taken as representative of tho mass of English public middle-class and higher schools, geography, or what passes under that name, has at least a nominal place. The general reply given to my inquiry as to whether the subject was compulsory, and, if so, up to what form, has been that it is, and up to about the third or fourth form, or in the lower half of the school. The time nominally allotted to it may be taken as on an average IJ^ hour per week, varying in di£ferent classes and di£ferent sections from 1 to 2i^ hours, as contrasted with an average of 8 to 16 hours to classics, and 4 to 8 to mathematics. This, it should be remembered, is what is usually known as political geography, with which there seems to be sometimes mingled what is popularly regarded as special physical geography — names and situations of mountain ranges, river courses, coast features, and such-like. The teachers of this kind of geography are invariably the ordinary class-masters — men who, as a rule, have had only a classical training. It sometimes happens that a class-master has a particular liking for the subject, and takes some pains to master it, and to devise effective methods of teaching it. When this is the case tho subject under his hands assumes considerable importance. Probably in about eight of the schools in the list in the Appendix, the subject, in all its phases, is fairly well taught throughout the school, and, in four or five of one of to give even a ooAchin MiMlorn Witi secured «oh(»oI, t tho oloir goojrrapl that of t that (1 1« ""•glo lo would lie lower mi( attomptN othor (liH( plttco, and oxhdustivc "10 comes •'« (D), w urse may be considered ns partly scientific, jmrtly gcograiihicnl. In the two lowest forms of tho school, two short lessons a week are given in geography by tho ordinary form master. Wo also require a certain amount of knowledge of geography at an entrance examination, and set a pajier on geography for our scholarships, with a view to encouraging the teaching of geography at tlio preparatory schools. "No regular text-book is used; but the boys are instructed to study some particular country or part of a country in whatever way they can, and a catechetical lecture is given on tho district by the master. The various countries of Europe alone are ordinarily taken. The Iwys arc required from time to time, say once a fortnight, to draw maps of tho countries they are studying; and considerable credit and marks arc given for these maps. " I ought to add that occasionally we set a subject of geography as a holiday task, to be studieeon anxiona to remedy the doflcionoy which wo know to oxiHt." ProfoHsor Newton'H viowH will bo further soon in hia lottors given in Appendix (P**). Nono of tho al)ovo proposed teachers havo yet boon appointed, mainly, I believe, from want of funds. Mr. Trotter informs rae that in tho oxaniinations in certain subjects the geographical aspects aro very often dwelt upon ; and ho HeuiiiM to think that if this wore done nioro regularly and more thoroughly it, would bo one effective way of encourag- ing geography at Caii)l)ridgo. I'rofcssor McKenny Ilughos also informs mo that certain sectious of physical geography and physiography form a regular part of his geological programme ; and as a good example of tho amount of geography generally attaching to geology in tho Uni\'orsitios, I give an extract from his programme in tho Appendix (F**). Professor Hughes has also kindly offered to bring tho matter of tho Society's in- vestigation before the Special Board of Studies who are now considering tho addition of new subjects to those already recognised in tho Natural Science Tripos. Tho Council will be pleased to learn, moreover, that it is intended to supply the University Library with a complete set of tho best maps obtainable, not only in 1<]ngland but on the Continent, so that no member of tho University may bo at a loss should ho want to pursue tho cartographical aspects of his subject to its limits. These seem to mo hopeful signs, and I believe wore any precise and definite proposals brought before tho University authorities by tho Council, they would be seriously considered. I say "definite and precise," because no mere general representation of tho value of geography as a University subject could bo of avail to a body whoso functions aro of tho most practical kind. They would require to havo before them an approximately precise definition of the field which the Council would propose to allot to any professor or reader in geography. With such a definite basis to start from, tho University authorities could consider the bearings of tho subject on other already established subjects ; bo able to make xip their minds whether any further recognition of geography than already exists were advisable ; and if so what modifications of tho Council's proposals wore necessary in order to co-ordinato the subject with those depart- ments to which it is related. At the best, however, I am assur'^d there are no funds at present for tho establishment of chair or lectureship ; though if effective representations were made by the Council, tho geographical aspects of such subjects as are capable of it, might be more prominently brought out than they are at present. May I suggest the possibility of the liedo Lectureship being made the medium of enlighten- ing tho University as to tho field of geography and its value as a University subject ? Should any such proposal be entertained by those ■I I pt 468 REPORT. ■whose duty it is to appoint the lecturer, it would not be di£Sonlt for the Council to indicate a geographer capable of effectively diaoharging the function. From the communications in the Appendix (F**) from Owens College, Manchester (Victoria University), it will be seen that there also geo- graphy is not entirely neglected either on the geological or historical sides. Indeed, a joint series of geographical lectures has actually been organised, and if steps were taken somewhat similar to these which have been suggested as to Cambridge, more definite recognition of the subject might be obtained. Surely it is the function of a University to encourage every branch of research that will really advance knowledge, and there is certainly no branch so universal, so wide in its bearings, as geography. What may be done with it as an adjunct to history may be seen in such recent German works as Partsch and Neumann's ' Geographic von Griechen- land, mit besonderer Eiicksicht auf das Alterthum,' and Batzel's ♦ Anthropo-Geographie.' Hero such works are impossible ; there is no encouragement for research of this character ; it is no one's function to pursue it. The Universities have, indeed, recognised the value of the subject to some extent by introducing it into their Local School Exami- nations ; but, strangely, it is the only one of those subjects which is not recognised distinctively in the University professoriate. To quote the language of the letter sent to the Vico-Chancellors of Oxford and Cambridge, dated July 3rd, 1871, " We look to the Uni- versities, not only to rescue geography from being badly taught in the schools of England, but to raise it to an oven higher standard than it has yet attained." In his report of the last examination for the Society's Medals (1884), Professor Mosely concludes, — " The more I gain experience as an examiner in physical geography, the more I am convinced of its value as a subject of general education, and the more I regret that it ' ; not represented in British as it is in German Universities. It is almost hopeless to expect that schools will do it justice until it is recognised at the Universities, and scholarships, and other inducements are open to those proficient in it." In a previous report he referred to this countiy as one which has " no representative professors of any branch of geo- graphy in any one of its Universities, and in most of the schools of which the subject is practically neglected. . . . The neglect of geo- graphy at the Universities naturally leads to its neglect in most of the principal schools ; there are no scholarships or fellowships to bo won by it, and thus, instead of ousting from the time-worn curricula subjects far less fitting, both as means of mental training and as useful acquisi- tions, geography has allotted to it in the weekly routine in these schools probably only a meagre couple of hours." These statements are aiu])ly confirmed by my own experience as the Society's Inspector. It is surely a serious matter for the Univeraity authorities to consider that th( schools branch every ot It hi Universi elementa the subj specialisi in geogra I give in geograph; school wo fiities wou genius of in the pro hofen, Wa even on tl REPORT, branch of knowledge, recognised as of ! T^ ""^^ "'^'nent, of a every other country. ° '"'* ^' «^ «« "»"ch importance in ne^rfv It has been obiectorl +« *i. Universities that i^s not a ^marf ^"^ ""' ^^^^^P^^ V the €jementai7 classes. In ^eply to tht '"''' ''"* °»« «' onhr for the subject has become undTr th« 1^ 7' "'"'^ •^'^^^ P^'^^t to whal specialists in geography; and to the ../I' '' "^''"^^^ Professors ^d m geography for t^Z ir • . ® Instruction » as fn fV.^ • I Jiv« in +7' ; ^"egs-Akademie rStaff Pnii ^ , ® «"mQulum ■I give m the Appendix (G) j „„•/ ^ College) of Berlin whinl, geogmphy theideaof asking the Enll'Tr"^ *^^* '^ *te itet of school work done by the geogr^hifafpl'^'^T*'" '^ ^« '^^^^^ «ties would never be eLrtainerindf 7.™.''"^°'* ^«'™''» Um^^^^ gemus of these institutions. But 12 7"^** ^ ^«^«'^ *« the Xe m the programmes of the German 1^1 ^h"? ""'^' *^- « --S hofen. Wagner, and Bein, to show ^ oouM^T "' *^°«« ^'^^oSt even on the hnes along .hich our own^Unlts^^^tTorr *^ ''' ^'^^^ that'JiSoXtor ^"7Y«^^^^^^^ can be no do b. be strictly defined; for'^pu ^V^ ^^^^^^^ vague as the limits of other dCrLTT''' ^*^ "»'*« may be left University men who k:::tr:ra:l:^r^^^^ are those who most strontri^ / subject is in all it« ».«« • fo^ ^tori.1 a^ ::s ":;::s;f L^t '^ ^^ -^^^^^^ the subject from their own points of vj! I ^''** importance of geography as a branch of their own L2^' ^^h. however, clainl ' especially, is unwilling to admit W IT^XX ^'^ ^""^ ««°^S from geology, which simply shows h sf cnf ^^ ^ ^^^ ^^^^^nee apart quite beyond the function of the JoSf ' ''"'^ '^^^"'^ ^««ld be such, to touch. Geoffranhv rl!iT ^^"'""^ist or any other specialist 7 ;Hle for the histor^wth^rf r^^^^^^^ ^eology^C^,- developmont of a people, it ou.ht to ^ ke'p 1 /'?'' " '"•^««*"« field and background of all hi. researthe« n ' °*'^ ^° ^''^^ «« the Ike opmioa of a geologirt whom all mZ,A t ^ ^^- ' ''"» «nght ft« Geological SurTCv. Mr Geiti. T i ■ , ' '''"'"'"'•-Genenil „f »*o the geogmphioaf « ,S '1^' „f"-f «"ried hu g,o, ^f 470 REPORT. and to his recent lectures at the Royal Institution on the general subject of scenery in its geological aspects. The following is the communica- tion which Mr. Geikie has been good enough to send mo :— " In reply to your question I glndly state my opinion regarding the position of geography as a University subject. " Geography, looked at from the scientific side, is not itself a science, but rather a department in which various sciences arc co-ordinated in such a way as to present a vivid picture of the different regions of the world, and a clear statement of tl\e causes that determine the resemblances and contrasts of these regions. The forms of the land and their origin, the climates of the globe, the distribution of plants and animals, and the causes that have regulated it, the influence of the variations of climate, soil, and topography upon the history of man, the reaction of man upon nature these, and a thousand other connected problems, form the subject of the hinhest kind of geography. Such a theme, invested with so much deep human interest, possesses a x«culiar value in education. Indeed, 1 know of no other that lends itself so effectively to the teacher who wishes to inspire his pupils with some appreciation of the nature and value of scientific observation and reasoning. The illustrations are familiar, and the problems suggested by them are often of the most liiscinating kind. " I have long been of opinion that geography in this seuG.' or ' ^orm ought to form an essential part of education. It ought as a matter o: 1 occupy a distinct and important place in the curriculum of every High Sc. ^l ( .rried into its higher departments, it should certainly be recognised as also a University subject. In its true sense geography is a branch of geology ; and where there is already a I'rofessor of Geology, I would not, for the present at least, advocate the establishment of a separate Chair of Geography. From my own experience in teaching, I can testify that in a geological course, a Professor of Geology can with much advantage find a place for the exposition of this higher geography. But geology is every day increasing its scope, which already is too vast for the physical powers of even tlie most indefatigable teacher. Geography at a University might fittingly form tlie subject of a special Lectureship ; the lectures and general teaching being arranged in concert with the Professor of Geology. If the salary and position were such as to secure the services of competent men, the iiost might be filled by a succession of enthusiastic young lecturers. It would be no disadvantage either to the subject itself, or to the University, even if the post were only held temporarily for a given number of years. Every side of this many-sided subject might thus in turn be presented — the more strictly geological, the climatological, the biological, the ethnological, the historical. " I sincerely hope that before long a scientific geography will be recognised as one of the most useful parts of the science curriculum of our Universities." Geographers would no doubt be content at present to obtain even the recognition at the Universities which Mr. Geikie would advocate, hoping that in time a school of geographers would grow up capable of cultivating the many-sided subject as eflfectively as is now being done in certain of the German Universities. It is a fact, as I point out in speaking of German Universities, that all the best geographers have approached the subject from the side of science ; not necessarily from that of geology, from which such men as Eichthofen and Rein have approached it. Wagner's starting-point was mathematics and physics. while tl »*8 wide£ pure and seldom I «uoh a ge one who, incursioni from the ^ made. known «8 in the Eng ofgeograp f>ir den U; in which f< tion. ««Ge things on i in their rel that to and anything lij enough con Darwin (Aj attached to i around the entirely lost the data of n no need for atmosphere « ^ without 1 zoology, and he worked oc Professor Rio graphy,' and : subject to be Galton in the be admitted, i »inch for their to do for geog referred to fm Geography, p. interesting comi of this section, •? Geography in position of geogr that it has a ph m. I. REPORT. 471 while that of Bates and Wallace was biology. While it is history in its widest sense that profits most by geographical research, the historian pure and simple has seldom done much effective work in geography, has seldom been able, indeed, to use it effectively for his own purpose. If «uch a geologist could be found as is indicated in Mr. Geikie's letter, one who, making geology his starting-point, was prepared to make incursions into all the other fields of research, and co-ordinate the results from the geographical standpoint, probably no better beginning could be made. If, however, he confined himself solely to what is usually known as physical geography, the result would be as unsatisfactory as in the English public schools. One of the most comprehensive definitions of geography I have seen is that contained in the official ' Instructionen fur den Unterricht an der Gymnasium in Osterreich,' a large volume, in which forty pages are devoted to directions for geographical instruc- tion. " Geography," we are told, " studies the earth as a whole and the things on its surface as such, in their arrangement on that surface, and in their relations to it and to each other." This, it seems to me, shows that to anchor one's self to any one department of science would make anything like thorough progress in geography impossible. It is rightly enough contended, as is done by Mr. Coutts Trotter and Mr. G. H. Darwin (Appendix F**), that many of the data of geography are found attached to various sciences ; but as a matter of fact unless co-ordinated around the geographical standpoint, their geographical bearings are entirely lost sight of. It might as well be contended that as nearly all the data of meteorology are furnished by chemistry and physics, there is no need for any special department of research to deal with the atmosphere and atmospheric phenomena. What would geology itself be without the aid it derives from physics, chemistry, astronomy, zoology, and botany? How the definition I have given above may be worked out is well illustrated in the extracts (Appendix M) from Professor Bichthofen's 'Address on the Field and Methods of Geo- graphy,' and in the programmes of several German professors of the subject to be found in the Appendix, as also in the paper by Mr. F. Galton in the Cambridge Essays (1855). At the same time it must be admitted, that some German geographers seem to claim far too much for their subject, and some clear-headed Englishman is wanted to do for geography what Lyell did for geology. This subject is referred to further in connection with the German conception of Geography, p. 470. Just before going to press I have received an interesting communication from Dr. James Bryce, M.P., on the subject of this section, which will be found in Appendix Z. Geographj in the Public Services. — With rfegard to the comparative position of geography in the examinations for our public services, I find that it has a place in most of them. For the lower departments of VOL. I. 2 h ■^ 472 REPORT. these aervices, and for the preliminary examinations of some of the higher departments, it is compulsory, the papers set being of the most olementaiy character, even for cadetships in the Royal Navy. For tho " Further Examinations " for the Military Service, papers on geography of a more advanced kind are set as optional subjocta. For admission to Sandhurst, for example, physical geography and geology, as one subjoot, is on a par with Greek, higher mathematics, English history, and oxpori- niental science, the marks attainable for each being 2,000, as comparoil with 3,000 for Latin, mathematics, French, and Oerman. ^ 30111- parativdly small percentage of candidates seem to take this subject, as small as that for the experimental sciences, and smaller than that for German. I give a specimen of the Further Examination paper, set for entrance into Sandhurst, in the Appendix (H). In any European country of importance, except England, the papers set would be con- sidered extremely elementary, and yet, except in tho case of the very few schools which have a special army closs, it is almost certain that the ordinary course of instruction in any of our great public schools would not qualify a candidate to pass the examinations ; the result is that the subject is left to crammers. I find that iu none of the schools fo^ the education of our military aiul naval officers does geography find a place of any importance, exhibiting a marked contrast in this respect to most of tho corresponding institutes on the Continent. With reference to H.M. ship Britannia, for instance, I have the following statement : — 1 " It is felt that, if anything can bo left to be acquired in tho future, goograi)liy can be so left to naval officers ; their training and career naturally leading them to acquire geographical i nowleilge in the best possible way by visiting foreign jxirts. In the early part of ti^e course here, the cadets read and are instructed in a small Manual of Physical Geography written by one of the naval instructors. They have lectures on this twice a week, and are examined in it at the end of their first term. I enclose a copy of an Examination Paper that you may see the simple character of tho teaching. (See Appendix I.) There is an English class of an hour once a week, and as historical subjects are read, the teacher naturally refers to geographical knowledge, but beyond these two forms tho teaching of geography may bo said to be relegated to tho experience of after-life." In the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, the only geography taught is such physical geography as may be incidental to the subject of Winds and Currents. From the Military History Notes sent me by Major Pratt of the Royal Military Academy, it would seem that in connection with such history. a good deal of special physical geography is introduced. Major Pratt wi'ites as follows : — . " At tho commencement of my lectures on any campaign, I usually describe the general aspect of the country, chiefly with reference to the higli and low lands, tlic REPORT. 473 watorshcck, riven, roads, main towns, &c. Tlio geography of a tlientro of war lian to be studied to a certain extent in order to understand military operations, but it ia only possible to touch slightly on it in the course of military history at the Academy on account of the difliculty in supplying cadets with suitable maps. Mai)s which show accurately the physical features which are of importanco in military operations are far too expensive to bo issued individually to cadets, and there are no means available of a large class having access to a few copies. I strive to give a general knowledge of the features'of the country or particular battle-field by referring to the few large skeleton diagrams I possess. The time allotted to the study of military history at the Academy is besides but little, and I am therefore only able to touch slightly on the geographical nsiwct of the study." , , . , ,, ._.-,_ The place givou to the subject in the Kriegs- Akademie of Berlin, and the sense of the importance to officers of a thorough knowledge of geography in its widest sense, will he seen from the " Instruotion " in the Appendix (G) already referred to. In the French Superior School of War, corresponding to our StaflE" College, as well as at St. Cyr, geography is the most important subject of education, as will be seen later on. In our Staif College, frontier geography and military surveying are most effectively taught. But there is no guarantee that our military and naval officers enter on their career with more than the most elementary knowledge of general geography. Sir Charles (then Major) Wilson, R.E., drew attention in his Address, as President of Section E at the Dublin Meeting of the British Asso- ciation, to the vast importanco of a knowledge of geography to military men. " Sufficient importance," ho stated, " is not attached to a know- ledge of geography in military sciences." He then goes on to point out how greatly a knowledge of the physical geography of any theatre of war may influence a campaign. " Queen Elizabeth's minister was right when ho said that 'knowledge is power;' and a knowledge of the physical features of a country, combined with a just appreciation of their influence on military operations, is a very great power in war. A commander entering upon a campaign without such knowledge may bo likened to a man groping in the dark ; with it he may act with a boldness and decision that will often ensure success. It was this class of knowledge, possessed in the highest degree by all great commanders, that enabled Jomini to foretell the collision of the French and Prussian armies at Jena in 1807, and in later years enabled a Prussian officer, when told that MacMahon had marched northwards from Chalons, to point unerringly to Sedan ,u the place where the decisive battle would be fought. Chief Justice Daly, in his address to the American Geo- graphical Society, draws attention to the Franco-German War as ' a war fought as much by maps as by weapons,' and attributes the result to 'skilful military movements, performed by an army thoroughly acquainted with all the geographical features of the country over which 2 L 2 ! 1 1 ■:m\ 474 REPORT. it was movoil ;' nm\, ho mVls, 'It tcachos us tlint if tlio fiito of a nalioii may ilojrand tipon a luittlo, a battlo may (1oik>ii(1 on a knowledge of geography.' As, thon, all military operations must bo based on a Icnowledge of tho country in which thoy ore to bo carried on, it should uovor bo forgotten thut overy country contiguous to our own (and tho ocean brings us into contact with almost overy country in tho world) may be a possiblo theatre of war." The Scirnrc and Art Dt'partnwnt. — It should bo stated that tho Soutli Kensington Science and Art Department examine in Physiography in three stages, — elementary, advanced, and honours, — and this has, no doubt, done much to advance among tho classes reached by these examinations really sciontitic, phytical, and astronomical geography. In 1883, the total numbur of candidates for the Science and Art Examination was 54,0fl;J, and of these T)"*?.') took physiography as one subject. The general results of tho examination for that year will bo seen from the extract from tho Koport of the examinora, Professor Jiuld and Mr. Norman Lockyer, in the Appendix (I*). Coneluaum a» to Grrat lirilain. — Except, then, in our elementary fichools, in the high schools for girls and in isolated middle-class schools, Piofessor Moseley's statement still holds good, geography in this country is almost entirely neglected as a subject of education. An educational authority, in writing to mo, puts the situation very tersely, thus : — "(1) In Universities it is nil. (2) In I'libiic Schools very nearly nil, as tlio i^ocicty's examinations for tlicir meJals liavo {>rovcil. And when it is attempted, it is given to tho most incompetent master, and he has a wretched set of majis. (.'0 It is required for tho Public Services, and taught, I do not know how, by cramniors. (4) The only places where geography is systematically taught in England, are the Training Colleges, male and fenialo, and tlio National IVxinl Schools ; with now, and of tho last few years, some few good High and Middle- Class Schools." Even with tho time now allotted to it in our higher grade schools, much more could be made of tho subject if the teachers themselves had any real knowledge of it, had some training in the best methods of teaching it, and worked on a common programme intelligently con- structed 80 as to cover the whole field systematically, and had at their disposal such text-books, maps, and other aj^paratus as are almost universal on the Continent. THE CONTINENT. Oeneral Positlcn. — Turning to tho Continent, a diflferent condition of things presents itself, — at least in those countries, concerning - refers „ .J orZl^tZ^TT «<"" 'n .he a;!^'^ " »»' to them methematil ^" '" "''' "<' '"°" P«"»»ent pla» i° ofgeogmphy„o„ld.e„fc "l,,''^' "« ".r ""> "os. eealoJ^oTte «th the mbjcoto referred to SIT ^•!. ^'"" " »f O)™! vlu! Germanv. General Position p«,^ •II the other ^i^S,^Z.^Z '" ♦"J? " "« ""^.I which 3^^-1.1 cire.„„.„„^ wm7e2r •;:'*"-«. - far „7hSr 476 REPORT. Germany, and tho ^orst that can lo aaid of it will bo found in tho aerioB of iustraotivo papors by Profossor H. Wagner in the * GoographiBchoH Jahrbuch.' Of tho twenty-ono Gomiau Universities, ho toUfl UB, thore are still nine without olasBOB of geography, while in the higher schools the teachers of geograj^hy are still far from being instructed and tested up to the standard of other teachers; even in Prussia geography is still sometimes yoked with history. One lesson a week in gcogruphy in Tortia is altogether too little. This simply shows the high standard of German geographers — a standard which, so far as education is concoiiied, we are not within sight of. Nearly all of the existing twelve professorships of geography in Germany have been founded during the lust twelve years. Already they havo had the most marked influence, not only on the improvement of geographical education in schools, but in opening up a field of research previously untouched by any department of scionco. As might be expected, there are differences in the different provinces of Germany. In some cases geography and history are prescribed for on one basis of time, while in others thoy aro quite separate, and each allotted its separate time. Tho tendency everywhere is to separate the two subjects, and in a circular from tho Minister of Fublio Instruction, dated March 31, 1882, directors of the higher schools are enjoined to avoid, as far as possible, leaving geography and history to the hands of the same teaohor. Naturally German geographers would insist ou having geography taught by masters exclusively devoted to the subject ; bitt this is not necessary. So long as the master has had a special training for the purpose there is no reason why ho should not combine geography either with a science or a language. In some schools in Germany, and more so, I believe in France, Holland, and Belgium, teachers or " professors " are found who devote themselves entirely to geography. They may teach the whole of tho geography in one school, or be. attached to raoit) than one institution. Dr. Lehmann, of Halle (now Professor of Geography at Miinster), is regarded in Germany as one of the first authorities on geo- graphical education, and his standard is naturally very high. He told mo he was not satisfied with the position of the subject iu Germany. While well taught in some schools, on tho whole it is unsystematic and unintelligent. He is of oi)iniou that iu Gemxany its importance as a subject of education is not yet sufficiently recognised. Many of the teachers are comparatively untrained, and have no special knowledge of the subject. The establishment of Chairs in the Universities, ho admits, has helped greatly to improve matters, but at present there is much to bo desired both in the teachers, in the mothocis employed, and in the Lehvmittel. In olomentaiy schools and Biirger- schulen, the subject is more methodically and intelligently taught tlian in higher schools, because the teachers have been properly trained at normal schools. There is still much needed to be done to improve maps. !?• Kioper oven thes( thoy have best ])lan, country pi than one i visited), I ; This is Germany \« practice, ti schools, Goi that after practice in ( Tho idea one continui school-year i in practicalh classes of the into the corre IBEPORT. R. Kioporfa maps of Euronna« . **" ovon thoBo could be il ^f oountrios are the best wa i. thnv >.a„ X improved upon Th^,, ^® ^avo, but rraotlce, the method, and «, ^'^ ^"fi"«f'«»«n. familia; ^^^^f^ The ideal aimed at and iTi a I ^'^ ""Proved. °'^*' ' " one continuous course nf ' ^^'^^ '"'^Pi'Jly carried o„f ,• . ,. 5"e»MjateiMnrfe.—ThiseI«m * *** geo^aphy of their prov^rdV '"?r"'«^«« «^ ^^^^ «le-eX schule inLeinziff T wo= ®° **^ *^eir countrv Tn « u- ^ ^,J»««<«. Bt«ete and otlTSn™ "'•'^"''>°"rf"'«fe«.« " 478 REPORT. was treated in tlie saiuo way. The boys were then sent to the map to point in reply to the teacher's questions ; and they were made to put questions to each other. A boy was at>ked where he lived; he would give the suburb and street. He had then to t^U the streets he traversed in going home ; the monuments, churches, pav^**, &o., he passed. Next he had to point out on tho map his routt ■ id from school, naming the directions he took. Then the boyp ' . o examined on tlieir atlHsoH in the same way as on the large map. In all cases the boys were intensely iutereated. The method of Hvimatekunde proceeds from the town or immediate neighbourhood to the district, then to the province, and bo outwards to Qeimany, Europe, and the other parts of tho world, in five classes. In the fifth class of the samo BUrgersohulo, fur example, I was present at a lesson on the Hematuhinde of Saxony. The boys have a very small te- t-book — * Hugo's Heimafekunde von Sachsen,' along with a gocid largo map of the province. There was a good physical map, without names, on the wall along with a large map of Germany. A boy would read a sentence from the book, relating it might be to the nature of the surface, the rivers, the mineral products. Hereon tho teacher, partly by (questioning the boys as to their own knowledge, and partly by giving them information, expanded the subject considerably. Thus in relation to metals and minerals — iron, coal, lead, tin, &o. — much useful informa- tion was brought out as to their nature, uses, places where found, methods of mining, working, and so on. Specimens of various substances which had been collected by the boys themselves, were shown to the class. Boys were sent to tho scuttle to bring a piece of coal, point out any iron, brass, &c., to the room. The boys were altio made to elicit from the small maps before them whatever information they could be made to yield. The information thus conveyed is of the most varied kind; nut merely as to topography, but the products, industries, manufactures, historical associations, &c., of the region, while the pupils are trained to observe and think for themselves. In Germany, Switzerland, and, to some extent, in the other countries I visited, there aro many special ]naps published for Heimatskunde, and many text-books for tho uso of the teachers. It is a most effective method of impressing upon the pupil a real and lasting idea of the elements of geography and carto- graphy ; and when, as in many districts, reliefs and pictures are utilised, it is evident that under good teachers the pupil will ^iroceed to a higher stage with a very real notion of what a map is meant to represent, and prepared to begin the serious study of more advanced geography. This system is finding its way into English Board Schools, many of which are provided with large-scale Ordnance Survey maps of the school district. In many German Bealschulen there is an elementary or preparatory school in which Heimatskunde finds a place. Both in the Bnissoi only of pioturoi mineral as real i An may be intorvioi districts what dis leading f 'iistricts, sometiriio in Gorma tho same tunity is principles and expet difficulty, the • Procei p. 674, in the British given in tt this will be Map-reai geography ii **• It is n< conditions w! find that muc stages, in en( constantly in most successf the Bealgymn devotes a larg He constant!! drawing after makes them t used to repress contour lines ai all this is possi executed with After his three more with maj attained by the REPORT. 479 BrusBols school and the Leipzig school, there was a large stock, not only of 11)112)8 (probably 100 in Leipzig), but of excellent geographical pictures, such as those found in the Exhibition, globes, telluria, luineralogioal, and botanical specimens, and other aids to make the lessons us real and attractive and instructive as possible. An essential part of HeimaUkunde, as planned by Dr. Finger, who may be regarded as its inventor, and with whom I had an interesting interview at Frankfort, is the taking of the pupils on excursions to tho districts around the school, and, if practicable during holidays, on some- what distant tours. With their maps in their hands they identify the leading features, become personally acquainted with cities, rivers, mining •Hstricts, and minerals manufactories. This plan of making excursions, sometimes to a considerable distance, auH lasting for days, is ca^'-ied out in Germany and France, and even in Spain. (See Appendix Y.) At tho same time, both in the school neighbourhood and elsewhere, oppor- tunity is taken of practically illustrating the elementary facts and principles of geographical knowledge, and of making such observations and experiments in connection therewith as will be understood without difficulty. A very satisfactory account of the matter will be found in the ♦ Proceedings ' of the Royal Geographical Society for November, 1884, p. 674, in the paper by Mr. itavenstein read at the Montreal meeting of the British Association. One of the best expositions of the method is given in the " Instructions " for educat'lon in Austrian Gymnasia, and this will be found in the Appendix (K). Map-reading. — One of the most difficult tasks to accomplish in teaching geography is to get the pupils to realise what a map means, and to read it. It is no easy matter even for adults to realise to themselves the- conditions which certain markings on a flat surface indicate. I therefore find that much time is as a rule spent in German schools, iu the elementary stages, in endeavouring to accomplish this desirable end, — an end kept constantly in view throughout the method of Heimatskunde. One of tho most successful geographical teachers in Germany, Dr. Lehmann, late of the Bealgymnasium in the Franksche Stiftungen of Halle,nowof Muiisterr devotes a large part of the first three years of his course to this purpose. He constantly exercises his pupils during that time in precise map- drawing after himself on the black-board or from the Zeichen-Atlas ; makes them thoroughly understand the significance of all the symbols used to represent graphical features ; trains them carefully iu the use of contour lines and graduated mountain shading, scales, and so on. Of course all this is possible only in a country in which school maps and atlases are executed with scientific precision, which is rarely the case in England. After his three years' training; Dr. Lehmann does not trouble his pupils more with map-drawing, unless for special purposes; the end to be attained by the practice has in his estimation been served. At his request I M i I 480 REPORT. I soloutod ftnir l)oyB from ono of his younger olaMMOB, which was having a loH8on ill tho K^^ogrupliy of AuBtruluaiu. Two of thorn sat beside mo and drew from memory on blank ehootg a map of Australia ; putting in tho linos of latitude and longitudo with prooision, and all the features of tho continent with intoUigonco and corrootnoM. Tho other two M-oiit to the black-board, and oopiod to a scale at least four timos tho ai'io, tho map of Australia in their atlas, filling in the physical foaturuH with coloured chalk, uarofully graduating tho mountain shading, and utherwiso showing that thoy had an intelligent conception of what a map is. Dr. Lohniann ivlso makoH use of small roliuf maps by pii ng tliuni iu a glass casu lixod in tho wall noor tho door in such u pusition that any ono may examine thorn after tho losson. This oaso he usch also for other objects bearing on his lessons. Ho insists that tho carto- graphical symbols be aa purfeotly and completely learned as tho letters of the alphabet by a child learning to road. The pupils are encouraged to elicit all the information which tho map is intended to convey, supplemontod by the toxt-book and the information conveyed by tho teacher. Tho toxt-book, Kirohhoff's, is used mainly as a guide, and this I found to be the case iu most Gorman schools. While on the subject of map-reading, I may say that throughcit Germany the use of sand to build up tho features of a district is greatly in vogue ; but after a much more precise method than I ^ave seen in tlio schools iu which I found tho method in use in this country. In tlio first Koalsohule of Leipzig for example, the staff map of the district is used, and the pupils made to build up a same relief with careful regard to the contour lines. Auuthor method of teaching the signifi- cance of cartographic symbols I found, in a secondary school in Zurich, in a class tho pupils of which were about twelve years of ^^-e. Taking the oarefully*drawQ maps for the purpose in the beginning of Wettstein's fine school atlas, .the pupils are made to cutout pieces of cardboard for the different levels, and so build up a relief, which enables them to realise what the symbols signify. As the contour lines are combined with carefully graduated mountain-shading, the pupils thus come to learn the significance of tho customary map-symbols. Specimens of these reliefs will be found in the Exhibition. There is no doubt that the judicious use of good reliefs along with corresponding maps, is a very effective method of teaching the pupil to interpret maps. Tho method used at the Austrian Cadet-school, above referred to, is an admirable one. On a table is a relief of a particular region, limited enough to avoid exaggeration of altitudes ; and above this are corre- sponding maps on various scales, and with various methods of repre- senting altitudes. In my opinion it is mischievous, unless for exceptional purposes, to make use of maps in schools, either wall-maps or atlases, which differ greatly in their cartographic methods from those in ordinary use. KKPORT. ^W For oxamplu, tho ubo of black line* for mountain BystomB Ib not (li'Micablo ; pupiU aouuBtuined to tho oxoIuhivo use of Buoh luapB will, vrhon they Ioato buUooI, havo to forgot nearly all tho cartography thoy haye learned, in order to teaoh thetasolves to read the mapa in oommon vm. Such methods are rarely met with on the Continent. Tho aim in Germany, at least, among good Hohool oartographera, with tho approval of the boat geugraphora, is to produoe aoourately and oloarly-drawn maps on tho baaia of the moat effective cartographio methods. Geography in the B-jher German Schook. — What is actually taught in tho higher schools of 'Jermauy, tbo Gymnasia and Bealsohulen, under thu name of geography, mrky bo muou from the programme of the Boulsohule of tho First Order, r^ Leipzig. This ;tiay be taken as a fairly representative German supoiior sohou' ■ for although Saxony may bo better off in the matter of goography t^r u i'russia, that soems mainly duo to the fact that in the former there aia more spo' ially trained geo- graphical teachers than in the 'it or; and the cc^.aration between geography and history is more disti ot. The following programme ia titat which was actually oar nod out in the school year 18'-.: "> In Germany the lowest class is soxta, tlio highest prima : — Sexta. — Two hours per week. Fundamental positions of mathematical geography and the leading principles of physical geography. General view of (iie division of land un < water on the surface of the earth. Geography of Saxony. Exorcises in reading and drawing maps. Quinta. — Two hours per week. Further instruction in the funda- mental conceptions of geography. General description of Europe, especially of Germany. Exercises in map drawing. Quarta. — Two hours per week. Uevision of the leading principles of physical and mathematical geography. Extra European Continents. Map drawing. Tertia. — Two hoi;ru per week. Germany, physical and political. Map drawing. Unter-Sekunda. — Two hours per week. Geography of foreign Euro- pean countries und their colonies. Ober-Sfkv'tdii. — Two hours per week. Extra-European continents, with special reference to their physical conditions. Unter-Prima. — Two hours per week. Bevision of the whole field of geography. Astronomical geography; oontinuous observation of the apparent course of the sun by means of a gnomon. Observations of stars. True and mean solar time and stellar time ; the ecliptic. Ober-Prima. — Two hours per week. Bevision of the whole field of geography. Astronomical geography. Proofs of the globular form of the earth, of its rotation, of its revolution round the sun, the orbits of the planets. 482 REPORT. As this course extends over nine years ; as geography has a rca! place in the leaving-certifioate of all German schools, and is thoroforo obligatory; and as the field gono over and the methods in use in most German schools are the same, there is a guarantee that a pupil, even if he change his school, shall leave it with a full and sound knowledge of elementary geography in all its sections and divisions. At certain schools in England if a boy goes through the ontiro curriculum, he may come out with such a knowledge; in very few of the great public schools is it likely. Such a course would lead up to no examination, and would therefore bo regarded as a waste of time. The apparatus in use at this school, and which is under the care of Dr. Giitze, one of the ablest and most intelligent teachers of geography in Germany, I have given a list of in the appendix. And to ehow that it is nothing unusual I have also given the list of geographical apparatus in use at the Wiihler Bealschule of Frankfurt-on-the-Main, under Dr. Kortigarn (Appendix L). Either at the preparatory school or elsewhere the pupils will have been rounded in Anschauungslehre and Hcimatskunde before beginning the above course. I found in one or two schools that Hcimatskunde was not begun till the third form at the Yorsohule, formally at least ; for in Germany I found much complaint among teachers as to overpressure and overcrowding of the programme in the higher schools. The above programme is simply the official programme prescribed for geography by the Education Department, given in a little more detail ; and it is essentially that of all Realschulen and Gymnasia in Germany. In the latter, which are classical schools, it is admitted that geography is apt to be snubbed in the last two years of the course ; and it seemed to me that the apparatus in Ihe Gymnasia I visited was neither so plentiful nor ho good as in the Healschulen. As to method, it strikes me that teaching fcenerally is a much more lively and active operation on the Continent than in England. So far as geography is concerned, the teacher counts for a great deal, and the text-book is proportionately of less importance than in England. I saw very little of mere lesson- hearing on the Continent. The text-book, as I have said already, is really what its name implies. A very moderate portion is taken as the text of a lesson, or a sentence or two is read out in the class ; this is expanded by the teacher from information obtained by him from works published expressly for the use of teachers. Jle is constantly encouraging the pupils to think for themselves, constantly endeavouring to draw out from them what they themselves know, or what they may be able to read in the maps, pictures, diagrams, ethnological pictures, reliefs, and specimens before them. Every teacher whom I saw at work had a supply of coloured chalk beside him, and made constant and effective use of the black-board, the slate maps, or slate globe. In this way it will be seen very excellent use can be made of the two hours REPORT. 483 a week allotted to the subject for eight years or so. Of course, with the best German teachei-s, there is no attempt to crowd the lessons with minute details, no long lists of names or tables of statistics, populations of cities, length of rivers, heights of mountains down to the final unit. While there is certainly a fair amount of memory work, only leading features, facts, and principles are insisted on. Examples of Lessons in Geography. — Perhaps a few of the notes which I took of the lessons at which I was present, may bo of service in showing the general method of teaching in German schools. At Halle I was present at a lesson on Australia in the Quarta class of the Realgymnasium, given by a candidate for the degree of FacuUas Doeendi in geography. It may bo regarded as typical of the method generally followed in such schools. Bamberg's wall-mup of Australasia was used. The teacher himself rapidly drew a large scale map of Aus- tralia on a sheet of paper on the wall ; he made one or two mistakes in the outline of the coast, which ho asked his boys to point out ; several did so correctly. The pupils were questioned as to the number of conti- nents and oceans ; their comparative sizes, which were illustrated by a sheet of parallelograms. Australia was compared as to its prominent features with other continents ; with llussia, Germany, England ; peculiarities of coast, gulfs, bays, islands, reefs; regions around Australia ; general con- iiguration of the land ; mountain systems, table-land of interior. A boy was set to draw on black-board a section across the continent from east to w^est, giving general heights of table-land and of coast ranges. Rivers — their sources, courses, fall, general characteristics, navigability treated. Then came the prevailing winds, and the characteristics of the regions from which they come ; their effects on the climate, first, on the east coast, second, on the interior ; mountains ; general features of climate and results on vegetation. Leaves of Eucalyptus were shown as illustrative of the peculiar vegetation of Australia. A life-sized picture of the head of an Australian native was shown. The boys were examined as to what they learned from the picture, and much intelligence was shown by them in reading it. Australians •compared with other races, their hair, nose (illustrated by diagram on black-board), habits, dwellings, food, weapons, &o. Boomerangs and spears were exhibited. The division of Australia among the various Colonies was next gone into ; the situation and size of the chief towns as compared with Halle and Dresden, illustrated diagrammatically. Diagrams, with vari-coloured •chalks, were, indeed, much used throughout. In referring to the tele- graphic connections of Australia, specimens of deep-sea cable were shown, in referring to products, specimens of wool shown. The history of discovery in Australia briefly touched upon. Boys encouraged to give reasons for the leading fac.s of Australian geography. Lastly, they were 484 REPORT. ordered to take ont their pnpora and draw a map of Australia, using the large wall-mnp aa copy ; this they did rapidly and well. Much of this information was given for the first time. The boys wore evidently accustomed to the method ; on being afterwards quostionod, the answers given were astonishingly full and intelligent. There was seldom any reference to books or notes ; the teacher in constant activity, and piipils on the alert, and generally interested. Altogether the method is one which not only keeps alive the interest of the boys, but succeeds in conveying much solid'information not otherwise obtainable, and in teaching the pupils to think and draw inferences for themselves. In a lower class in the same school I was present while Dr. Lehmnnn gave a lesson also on Australia; the method followed being much the same. The boys were questioned as to the signiiicance of the various cartographic features, the information conveyed by the various contours and shades of colour, to indicate plains, table-lands, hills, mountains, d'c. The peculiar character of the fauna insisted on ; absence of the large camivora ; a largo picture of kangaroo and young shown. I was also present at a lesson in the Ober-Seounda Class on Central America and the West Indies, in which the subject was gone into witli a depth proportionate to the advanced stage of the class. Not merely the geographical data in the most comprehensive sense were dwelt upon, but the causes elicited for the phenomena dealt with. The text-book was Kirchhoflfs, in use throughout the school, and, as usual, was used merely as a text-book. As usual ulso the pupils were made to interpret the map, the master giving comments and conveying further information. The influence of the meteorology of Central America on its climate and products brought out. The peculiar vegetation dwelt on ; the special character of the leaves of certain plants shown to bo the resuH of the peculiar rainfall conditions. The inhabitants at the time of ihe Spanisli Conquest, their characteristics, civilisation, and relations to the popula- tions ; North and South American Indians in general referred to ; the prevailing Indian populations over the continent at the present time, ami their influence on the political and social conditions. Central America and Mexico, with their proportionately large Indian population contrasted with the United States, in which the Indian element is comparatively small. Diflference between the civilisation and political condition of an agricultural and a hunting people dwelt upon. The West Indies were then treated of; the diflFerent groups and their physical characters; coral and volcanic islands contrasted with continental islands. Forma- tion of coral reefs explained and illustrated. Besides a physical map and small relief map, Mohn's Isobars for July were shown. I might give similar notes for many other schools. In Leipzig I was present at a lesson on the geography of Italy iu the First Eealschule, by Dr. Giitze, iu which the method and the fulness of the teaching were the REPORT, mth tho consoquent results in the coun ' '*°^"«*'^« «»d directions The loading heights wore well Tih ^ ""^ **°^ "^^^ of their conrL mo„n ams. Why are the rivo^^f^^^;,"! *''"" ^°""««««" w^h the from the Apennines? Whv h? .7 «^ ^^^^ '""«h larger than f J than on the «o„th? The trH . '" ^" "^^^'^ tributaries on fh ? tJo^«ource. Tho rive^':;^ ^l l^^*' "'^« ^^^ ^«^o "al'VC their commercial val„« ,.. i ^^ ^«''« treated in th^ «. In tho First Gymnasium of T • ^"^ '^^''^ extremely crodi S particular nart nftJ,„ i.- ^^P^nmental Phvo.-t • i_ "^'^ ^ae "'•I'.-.™, the action i L , "" 'I**' ™lject w„ !"! f '"'° : , ' ■"'• Kortigarn informed me fW • . Wohlerschulo of Prant botany, and geolo-v ihT ' *** '" teaching chemisfr,. "I constantly poin'Tedot toT;^' ''-""^^ 'f the t^,^^^^^^^^^ climatology, asfronom/cal g':; '^^^^^ V !"'"*^^" «^P^-ts andC :,r le%e IS acquired. ^"»"^*^' ^-^orical geography, much'not* «ehoow4"xfnTl rf ""^ ^'^^ ™ -ethod is foUo.., • *le the Congo CoSr „. ".r^" f «"'«'y ^-ool ."^ ^. „'^ '" "«•' «" the w„, whioh" " .7' T'^ !«■• "»«" ™p of if™; --'--,„. Of ae„----h::t~,5 486 REPORT. programme of tho suhools, and in two of the higher schools which I visited, ut least, tlxe teaching was nearly as good, and the method much thu same as ii. Leipzig, Frankfurt, Halle, and Qottingen. Conclmlona at to Higher Schools. — In deciding tho status of the pupil, the value of his geography is estimated just as that of other subjects, in this as in other Gorman schools. Tho pupil's permanent place is decided by his position, — by tho certificate which he receives in passing from Upper Secunda to Prima, and this certificate is included in hi.s Leaving Certificate. In this particular, geography is exactly in tho same position as Latin and Greek prose. Tho general conclusion I camo to was, that in the average Gorman Koalschulo and Gymnasium, the pupils leave school with a sound working knowledge of geography. Tho teaching in English, for example, is generally so good that tho average boy can both write and «peak it intelligibly after his school course ; and from what I obsei'vod geography is quite as really and thoroughly taught. I should say, for example, that the average boy from the Bealschulen and Gymnasia which I visited in Frankfurt, Leipzig, Halle, Guttingen, Berlin, and other places, would bo able, without special preparation, to answer a considerable percentage of the questions in the Koyal Geographical Society's medal examinations. In short, while the situation is not what German geographers would wish it, it is evident that there is a striking contrast between German and English schools in tho treatment of geography. It is a serious subject of education, legislated for by the Government, and taught to a large extent by trained teachers for two hours a week in schools of all grades, with a wealth of apparatus not to be met with in this country. There is a journal, the ' Zeitschrift fiir Schnlgeographie,' entirely devoted to the subject ; frequent papers on improved methods and apparatus appear in other geographical journals ; at national and international geographical congresses a section is devoted to it ; it pays publishers And manufacturers of apparatus to devise constant additions to their stock, constant improvoments in maps, reliefs, pictures, atlases, text-books. For such enterprise in this country, there is little or no encouragement except in the Bos r^ Schools. The Gervtan Universities. — Turning to tho position of the subject in German Universities, tho fact is, that until about twelve years ago, almost the only Chair of Geography was that of Berlin, originally held by Bitter. Now there are twelve professorships of geography, and a new one has been established at Miinster, in Westphalia, this year, while it is intended to establish a professorship of physiography at Berlin. Professors of geography are in all respects on a footing of perfect equality with other professors, and may aspire to the same honorary offices, 81 the same to the nu Itis] but for < goograph; subject ai regular Ie( to tho go suhjoct, ai additional REPORT, ^co8, Buc], as doan and roetor Th • «, ^^^ «"bjoct attended by « *' ''" ^"'^ «'« regular w^" ^" regular lectures mav?.' ''"'"^'"S ^''"m twenfv to 1 , T ''"""'« to the gone^^ ^/^ ^'i- ^^ fo"r a week, with tthL taf' '''^'^ /3 , ^ " ovening, twice a woelr geography ,« the principal 8,ihio .f ^v ^7.' .^""'"S^' botany, &« ft ob^u. hi. doctorate, he'fs Th '^^^ '^ ^^if the candidate' 'wS;,, to yhich ,8 prmted, and which muri • J ^ * '"'"'^"tific di.sertaHn A compilation alone or a ,1/ T • ""'"^^t the proffrees ,.F " ''''^*f ^'O". or three branches of g:.,';"/-^';":"" '^^ -^^thodl tlof Tf '" ^ ^rapny is niimoious. ''"ondanco at tho Tfie Facultas D v • 2 M 4fl8 IlKI'ORT. required to obtain swch a degroe : — " The examination for the right or faculty of teaching geography iu our Qymnaaia and Bealsohulen, oonfiiats of two degrees or stiiges. (o) That qualifying for teaching it in the lower classes. Candidates must show a good knowledge of tho facts and laws of physical geography, including tho elements of astronomical geography, of the orography and hydrography of the earth's surface, u (.•ertain number of geographical numerical data, — heights, depths, latitudes, and longitudes, mean temperatures, rainfall, areas, population, density, &o. Thoy must know the various projections used in school maps ; must be familiar with the political geography of foreign countries ; and tho leading facts in the history of discovery, (b) Tlio faculty qualifying for teaching the subject in tho higher classes. This examination is more extensive in respect of the various phenomena and their laws, and the candidate must show a more thorough knowledge of the history of geography and of geographical literature." The course for tho ■''ull FacuUaa Docendt generally extends over two years, and in most of the Universities, consists of a systematic series of lectures on the facts and principles of geography in its most compre- hensive sense, and as a rule of considerable profundity in each depart- ment. These are illustrated by tho best attainable maps, published in Germany and abroad, geographical pictures, ethnological pictures and casts, and objects of ethnological interest, geological specimens, reliefs of varioiis kinds, diagrams, &c.. At the Vbungun, or exercises for special students, thoy are ti'ained often in the best methods of teaching the subject. Some professors aim at training at least a few of their students to undertake geographical research. This is especially the case, I find, with Professors Rein and Eichthofen. Professor Behi's Course, — Professor Rein, for example, gives his students geographical subjects and problems to work out, with a view to their Facultas Docendt. One student I found was working out the present and past distribution of Viticulture in Germany, constructing maps to illustnito his research. This involved a minute research into the present and past physical geography as well as history of Germany, such jjoints being brought out as that in former times, when common- wealths were isolated, coinmxinications difficult, warn frequent, and trade- routes few, tlio monasteries grow their own vines for communion wine, and consequently tho culture of the vino extended much further north than at present. Such a research is surely an admirable discipline. Another student was Avorking out tho routes that in past and present times led to Imiia ; anotlier tho origin and history of the salt-deposits of Prussia. Other subjects fur such researches referred to by Professor Rein were the effects of tho Gulf Stream ; the inferences to bo drawn from Nordenskjold's observations at the mouth of the Obi, as to the differouco between salt and compurativcly fresh water. A student who had been REPORT. working at the geocrauhv „f i.- , '^^^ wi. J. ^ainese Asia and : ^y^"* ^«r« the physical fl.ffl u- ^' had been f^t ^'''^''°° Bawson's Danlr^ fu %i^" discussed and J- give here a note from P.v.f. -r> «» ^ / "SubiectsofProfessorRein'sWh °^ P*'^^ «* Bonn. ,.,:,.,^>^ explorations a„S' 1 t''M ^'°^™''' "^ ^^trl 0^^^^" ^°"°"-'^«. "^ ' Indian waters • n? f . ^°''*"g»ese colonies • the n If ?'l'^°'f *'°ns ; on the deve- semester Th„ i ' '""''^'**or Keinadds "TJ,„^ i Mercator'snroWf;-. ;k ^"'"'^ ^P'^cial case- for incf '. ° *^« students ^-^-emplifyandapplvrfl r »• °'" '^"J' ^^°"W draw a ml „f Tr.'* "^''P °'^ '^ given ii and abundant character. At Leipzig and Berlin, the accommodation, owing to local circumstances, was not quite so good, but other professors were in similar case. The maps of these university classes are, as a rule, of a much more advanced character than those for schools. All the best foreign maps will be found, including the staff maps of the various countries. The professors themselves with the help of their students construct many special maps ; and Professor Wagner has issued a series of outline maps of the world and its divisions, which are of the greatest utility in constructing maps to illustrate any special point in geography. Professor Eein had a very fine collection of photographs and other illustrations from all parts of the world, not to mention diagrams in courcction with such subjects as the distribution of forests, the relative size of continents and oceans. Professor Wagner's Course. — Professor Wagner's class, as I Lave indicated, is, to a considerable extent, a school of cartography; but partly by this method and partly by the ordinary system of lectures ho goes over the whole field of geography in about two years. He has 4hirty-eight special students of cartography ; four years ago there were -only thirteen. He has generally one or two men who study geography for the express purpose of qualifying themselves, to become practical geographers and explorers ; one such he mentioned to me who had recently gone out to Venezuela and other regions in South America for scienliiic exploration. Professor Wagner has himself examined more than two hundred students for the Facultas Docendt, and if qualified men go out in similar proportions from the other Universities, it is evident that their influence in raising the standard of geographical teaching in schools must be very great. The following is Professor Wagner's programme as forwarded to mo by himself : — " My full curriculum extends only about five semesters, and is, of course, not frequented by all the students during all the semesters, who study geography. But my purixjse is to give every one a selection of diflerent sections. REPOKT. 401 Ltidrcd liniilar luenco taut be tome |:sc, not But I. Semester. 1. Ooneral Physical Geography, Fart I. — Form and dimensions ; density, &c., of the cartli. The movements of the earth. Tlic surface — morpliology of tl»o dry surface. Oceanography. 2. Cartograpliical ei^erciscs tor beginners. Theory md practice ot the projections of maps. Elements of cartography. 3. A public lecture once a week, on any interesting subject, for students of every kind, e.g. on England and her Colonics; the moilern history of African discovery ; the development of the commerce of the world for fifty years, &c. II. Semester. 1. General Physical Geography. Part II. Climatology. Distribution of plants and aniiiials. ■ . '' ; 2. Special geography of the Alps. 3. Geographical exercises. Every pupil studies one or more geographical question for himself under my direction, to learn the use of instruments or to become familiar with geographical literature. III. Semester. 1. Chorography of Europe, a physical descriptioa of Europe with respect to climate and vegetation, and a selection of historical and statistical facts, but no systematical political gcograpliy. 2. Geographical discussions. Headings and discussions of some ancient or modern geographical authors — Ptolemy, Marco Polo, Humboldt (Central Asia), &c. Sometimes lectures are given by tlie students. 3. A public lecture once a week, but not every winter. IV. Semester. 1. Chorography.of Germany (Central Europe) (see III.). 2. The methods (theory and practice) of teaching geography in middle schools and the apjiaratus for it. Specially for future teachers of geography, who are the mnjority of my pupils. 3. Geographical exercises for the more advanced students. . v. Semester. <. (a.) Geography of America ; ; (6.) or of Asia. Both with special respect to the history of discover)'. ^ ■ ' . (c.) General ethnography. i I select the subject which may liavc the most interest for those present, and give, e.g. a lecture in etluiograpliy in a semester in which lectures on anthropo- logy are not given by our professors of that subject. The majority of my jwople are, as you know, not geographers alone ; they will have to teach afterwards, together with geography, either (a.) Classics. or (6.) Modern languages ; or (c.) History; ' or (d.) Natural history or mathematics." Professor Wagner aims at elevating geography in its scientific position and making it a real university discipline. He doubts whether, as a school subject, it can here be made a real discipline, without doing injustice to other subjects. At school he thinks the ground-work of general education should be laid ; at the University geography can be made a special subject, a real discijdine. His notion of the field 402 liKPoUT. wliidli guogi'ii})liy hIiouM covor ih Hoinovvhitt, Niinilur to that of l^rofeBHor ▼on Uiohthofcn and Profiwaor Koln ; nnd in iiidood that which prtsvAilH j{«uorally in (lonnuny nnioiig j^cographors, soiuo of wliom would, how- ovor, oiiibi'uuo too nuioh of ttpvuitil BubjuetH. Thr Qertnan Cmetftion of ihv Field of Qeogrnjthj, — It Hhonid not bo U)iit Hight of tiiut tlio Burfac-o of tho oailh including ull that in thoroon, is tho ono Hubjoot of gcogniphical Htndy. This involvoH a study not only i.f tho configuration of that niiiTuoo, but of all thoHo influonooH which Hhapo and modify it, OHptHMully wlion regarded as man's habita- tion, and tho theatre of his dove1o|inieiit. Homo ^oographorM would make man him8(^lf the oentro of geographical research, and got)graphy a study of tho oarth'H Nnrfie(<, as acting on, and acted upon, by tho most important faetor to bo found on thut surface. In any view of it, it is evident that (here is no ono science, and no collootion of scioncos, whou they keep strictly to their own sphoroH, that are called upon to work out the problems with which gooj^raphy has to deal, and with which, for many years, it has been made o given, tliat are po8.>*iblo only in a country in which special goographical research is cnconiagod as it is in Germany Some of these I have alroudy referred to; and tho number of high-class geographical journals in Germany is well known. In the Appendix (M), I havo t, von the conclusions of Professor von Itiohthofun's introductory address when entering on his Leipzig chair in October, 1883, and in which ho surveyed tho Field and Methods of Geography, and also a few extracts from IVofossor Wagner's paper on tho I'rosont Standpoint of (»eography. Perhaps Professor Bichthofen claims too much for tho seieuco, and it may bo admitted that itH bounds have need of more precise definition ; though the same could be said of almost any department of research at the present day. The most ambitious Gorman geographer now living, however, claims no more for geography than Kant did more than a century ago; he, and not Hitter, might well bo regarded as the father of modem geographical research. Both tho advocates and tho opponents of geo- graphy as a distinct field. of manly study would do well to read his writings on physical geography — ' Immanuel Kant's Schriften zur Physisohen Geographic,' edited by F. W. Schubert, Leipzig, 1839. While everyone must acknowledge tho vast service which Ritter did to geography, it is held by some, without much justification, that lie also to some extent retarded its progress by insisting too emphatically ou its intimate connection with history. Both in Germany and Franco, it IIKI'OKI'. 49.re8ent. Tho two subjects for the evening wero the geogrophy of tho south-west border of the Iranian Tlatcau, and the ethnology of the Ural Itogion. Tho former subject occupied two hours, so that there was no time for tlio 'second paper. The student who had made a special Htudy of the Iranian plateau was, I believe, a historical student, who dcHired to qualify himself through geography, to undertake original histoiioal research. lie had evidently made a very complete Htudy of tho subject — geographical, historical, commercial, biological, ethnological, archaeological. ItcHides Kiepert'H physical map of Asia, ho illustrated his monograph with a niunber uf special maps, plaqs, diagrams, books, &o. The geography included physical, political, statistical, ancient, and modern. Ancient and modern trade-routes wero followed ; the special physical character of each dis- trict, and its special ethnology ; the rivers wero minutely traced, and their commercial importance considered ; the associations connected with Porsepolis and other towns ; tho various industries of the region, and so on. Riohthofcn is only beginning his collection of apparatus, but it is already comprehensive though select, and determined by his own special aimf. He has several hundreds of maps already, of all sizes and from all countries ; maps illustrating special phenomena constructed on Wogner's " Umrisskarte ; " a library of tho best general and special authorities in the various departments of geographj', &c. Baron von Richthofen's chair appears to me to approach more nearly than other chairs in its methods and subjects to the ideal of an English University chair. RETORT. 40S of uded odern dis- , and . with I, and it is pecial bmall rnei's licB in I more lof an Pro/imor Kirchhoff'a Couim.— At Hallo I found Proft-HHor Kirclihoffwith a very largo cIuhh of Htudonf s, inont of whom woro proparinn for the tWnUnt Doeendi. IIih aim in therefore, liko that of most oilier (Jerman UnivcrBiticB, mainly to givo tho Htiulontti n comprehonHivo and tlionmgli gronnduig in tho groat fact** ond prinuiph'H of gc 'raiihy, and ut IiIh spocial clanH or tJbungon, in training them proctic. in tho bcHt methods of teaching tho Hulyect. Tho couruo oxtondH over lour HciuostorB. Tho flrHt somcHtor iu devoted to General Geography, and tlio other three to Bpocial geogrophy, (1) Australia, Amorioa, Africa, (2) Ahia, (3) Europe. IIow wido a field is covered by rrofoHsor Kirchhoft'H looturoH may bo learned from tlio fact that tho printed abHtract or heads of the General (Jeogrnphy ocoupioH Tja pagcH, wmall typo, while thoHo of Europe occupy !)0 pages. For tho (Jeneriil Geography a list of about fifty sjKJoial works is given, under the various lieadings, for consultation by the students. In tho Appendix (N) I givo tho leading sections of the (jenernl Geography, with the books to be conMulted in each Hcction, which will givo somo idea of tho extent and depth of tho subject as treated at a German University. I was present wlicn Professor Kirchlioff was lecturing on New Zealand. lie spoke of tho Maoris, their origin, relations, implements and weapons ; tho discovery of the country, English colonisation, effect of contact of whites with natives, Christianity, language ; tho special development of English methods of colonisation ; New Zealand a typical example of tho English " Culture Colony ; " climate and exceptional healthiness of Now Zealand referred to ; compared statistically with Germany ; trade, railways, towns. Professtir Kirchhoft" then went on to Polynesia, and in connection therewith noticed tlie formation of Coral Islands, referring to Darwin, Semper, J. Jlurray, — tho Challenger and Gazelle expeditions. In tho Exercise Class which 1 attended, a student gave a lesson on Moravia and Bohemia to his foUow-studcnts as if to a class ; developed tho region on tho blackboard from its boundaries inwards, giving details us ho went along in all sections of geography. The student was criticised very freely both by his foUow-students and by the Professor. There woro thirty-one students at this special class. Professor Kirchhoff" has a large stock of apparatus for all purposes, including a sot of apparatus for projections, various models, as of a glacier, a volcanic island, &g. ; abundance of ethnological pictures, landscapes, niineralogical specimens, about three hundred maps, several made under the Professor's direction for special purposes ; a large stereoscope, &c. 1 found in Halle, that besides tho general subject taught by the professor of geography, special mathematical and astronomical geography is taught by tho professor of mathematics and astronomy. Professor H, Kiepert'a Course. — In Berlin, under tho eminent carto- grapher. Professor Kiepert, geography is treated more from tho historical li REPORT. and ethnological side perhaps than in other Universities under younger professors. Besides Dr. Eiepert, there is in Berlin University an extra'' ordinary professor of ge(^aphy, Dr. F. MUller. Dr. Kiepert informs me that he does not have special exeroises in oonneotion with his class ; he considers himself too old to begin an innovation which is com- paratively recent In the Appendix (0) I have given the notes with which Professor Kiepert furnished me as to the course of geography at Berlin University. " • i»v =•-,,■• • .•-.«■•• w* -»^».-.^.. v.. • Breslau University. — I give also in the Appendix (P) an interesting and useful communication which has been sent me by Professor Partsoh of Breslau. From this, and from what precedes, I hope a satisfactory idea will be conveyed of the position of geography at German Uni- versities. The progress made in twelve years has been great, and in the next twelve years it is bound to be yet greater. - ... *- Commercial Geography in Oermany. — In Germany geography has its place not only in schools and universities, but in such special institu- tions as commercial schools and war academies. At the Commercial School of Leipzig, ^.'Idch I visited, it has an important place under Dr. 0. Ilahn. The students here are expected to be grounded in physical and political geography before they enter, though the professor begins with a preliminary course in physical geography. In each of the three years of the school curriculum, geography, with special reference to industry and commerce, has its place two hours each week. Geography in the Military Academy. — By the courteous permission of the Minister of War, I was able to attend the lectures of Dr. Marthe, Professor of Geography at the Kriegs-Akademie iii Berlin. This, I believe, is equivalent to our Staif College, and is attended by picked officers, mostly lieutenants. In the "Instruction" for the conduct of the Kriegs-Akademie, the importance of a sound know- ledge of political and physical geography, far beyond that with which a youth leaves school to enter the army, is insisted on. (See Appendix G.) Political geography has four hours per week at the Academy, and physical geography two. There is, besides, of course, a class in military geography, which is compulsory. I found over thirty officers attending Professor Marthe's class, and taking notes on the general geography of China, as diligently as if their career depended on the result. The results of my visits to the various geographical establishments or publishers in Germany, in Leipzig, in Gotha, in Berlin, will be seen in the Exhibition which will bo opened in the autumn, and in the catalogue in connection therewith. REPORT. 497 I have dwelt thus long on the position of geography in German education becuuse that country has taken the lead in the subject, becausd it is still considerably ahead of other continental countries, and beoausd these other countries are to a greater or less eittent shaping their pro- gramme after that of Germany. It will only be necessary, therefore, to refer briefly to what I have learned in Austria, France, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, Belgium, and Scandinavia. - > .1 ■ > - ■ . , •- . < ■ i • , . ,1 • • • - I -.- •■■'■.- ••■M , r ■ ■'_ ■--■■. ■■,■'■■ V ' ''■ '•'* , . ,• Austria. ..•„,..„„ ,.',„ < ,,^ Oeography in Austrian Universitiea. — Austria is following fast on the heels of Germany in the extent to which geography is taking its place in all grades of education, and as to the methods adopted in teaching it. There are professorships of geography at Vienna, Czemowitz, Graz, Innsbruck, Prag ; as also at Budapest, Klausenburg, and Krakau. The methods are essentially the same as in German universities, and the ground gone over naturally varies with the predilections of the pro- fessors. Professor Simony, with whom I had a long interview, devotes much attention to physical geography. He himself has for years explored the Uachstein mountains, and generally makes them his text for general physical geography. He does not deal much with historical and political geography, which he says his students can obtain from his colleagues. He has a great stock of apparatus, including reliefs and pictures by himself of those parts of the Alps with which he is familiar. He makes distinction between pictures of a geographical and those from an artistic standpoint, and the distinction is well illustrated by his own prot; ictions. In Austria, as a whole, however, the field of geography in the universities does not appear to be so extensive as in Germany ; it seems, to a considerable extent, confined to Europe, and largely to Austria; physical geography, with special aspects of geographical research, is more dwelt upon than political and historical geography. The tendency undoubtedly is, however, to widen the field in all direc- tions, and treat the subject essentially as it is in German universities. Oeography in Amtrian Svhooh. — With regard to Austrian schools, geography has its place in the official programme, from the lowest to the highest, just as in those of Germany. It is still, however, asso- ciated to too large an extent with history, and in the Gymnasia seems to be taught as a separate subject only in the lower school. In the Bealschulen it has a more pi eminent place, its actual position here as elsewhere depending partly on the masters. There does not seem to be in Austria anything like the number of trained teuchers in geography that is found in Germany. In these as in other respects, however, great progress is being made. In tlie official * Instructionen fiir den Unterricht an den Gymnasien in Osterreich,' forty pages i mu rJI 498 REPORT. are devoted to minute directions for teaching the subject in all its stages. The directions relative to tlie elementary stage 1 have already referred to as given in the Appendix (K). Some of the best text-books, school wall-maps, atlases, and goo- graphical pictures, come from Austria. The finest series of Goo- graphische Charakterbilder is that published by Hiilzel of Vienna, whose wall-maps and atlases, edited by Von Ilaardt and other carto- graphers, will bear comparison with the best in Germany. In Austria, as in Germany, geographical education begins with Ileimatskundo, and goes outwards and upwards in the higher schools, so as to embrace the whole field. In the Mariahilf Real-Gymnasium, which is in fact a Rcalschule and a Gymnasium combined, geography is as well taught under the Director, Dr. Schwab, and Dr. Umlnuft, editor of the Geographtschc Bundschau, as in the best schools in Germany. In the classes at which I was present the methods were the same as in Germany, and the apparatus abundant. Indeed, this school has one of the best furnished geographical museums I have seen, while its collections in other departments, filling several rooms, are probably unsiirpasscd for real utility and abundance. For geographical apparatus above 151, yearly are allowed. Besides the Geographische Charakter- bilder there are some 500 photographs from all parts of the world, witli life-size casts of heads for ethnological teaching ; many specimens of the products of difl'erent countries ; weapons ; clothing ; minerals ; specimens of guano, with photographs of guano beds ; ideal section of tropical Atlantic, &c., not to mention a stock of about 100 maps. Dr. Umlauft has drawn up a list of the various objects which he thinks it desirable to add to his geographical collection. This I give in the Appendix (Q), as it may be useful to those who contemplate forming a similar collection. Here, as in the best German schools, the significance of cartographic signs is carefully taught, and for the purpose Dr. Umlauft has issued a special Atlas, which will be found in the Exhibition. The Vienna Commrrnul Academy. — Vienna possesses what is probably the leading Commercial Academy in the world, attended by about 900 students, many of them from foreign countries. Under Profof<8or Zehden, geography forms one of the most important branches of instruction in the school, the course extending over three years. As in all the best schools in Germany and Austria, there is a special room for geographical apparatus. Here I found about 150 maps, all of the best class, including special maps fiora various foreign countries. From ten to twenty new maps are purchased yearly. There are two sets of Holzel's ' Charakterbilder,' both geographical and historical ; Kirchhofi's ' Rassenbilder,' besides hundreds of photos and engravings of cities, seaports, Ac., Pick's ' Tellurium,' and other specialities. i1 REPORT, 499 There are in this school a one-year's course for students who have taken their leaving certificate at the Gymnasium and Bealsohule ; and a three-years' course for those who wish to have a more thorough training in the subject. In the Appendix (R) I give the programme of the three-years' course, to afford some idea of what is included in Commercial Geography. Dr. Zehden is the author of a large text- book of Commercial Geography, which will be found in the collection for exhibition. The Austrian Cadet School. — One of the most interesting visits I made on the Continent was to the Cadet School at Wiener-Noustadt, which is under the able direction of General Crusiu. I was much interested in the methods adopted to train the cadets to have a practical knowledge of surveying, and to bo able to read maps accurately and swiftly. General Crusic has been good enough to send to the Exhibition a collection of the models and other apparatus used in the course, which occupies three hours a week for three yeari'. It seems to me that the method (which will be described in the catalogue) used, is an admirable one for training the pupil to have a realistic idea of what a map is meant to teach, and might, in an elementary form at least, bo introduced into such schools as aim at making geographical teaching more than the learning of a number of names. The school possesses many beautiful reliefs, and as the corresponding maps are often suspended above them, the students are constantly familiarised with the relation of the map to that which it is intended to represent. Further details concerning this method will probably be given in the Catalogue of the Exhibition collection. In Vienna, I was permitted to visit the department of the General Staff, the maps produced by which are celebrated all the world over. France. Recent Progress in France. — In no country has the progress in geo- graphical education been greater than in Franco diiring tho last fourteen years. In 1871 Professor Levasseur of the College de France, and Pro- fessor Himly of the Sorbonne, made an official report to the Minister of Education, the result of personal inspection of the position of geography in French schools and universities. The conclusion was that geography was scarcely taught at all. At the time of the first Republic it had an important place in education, but after that it was subject to great vicissitudes, ending, as the report alluded to stated, in oblivion. As a result a commission was appointed to consider the whole situation of history and geography, in French education, for the two Avcre bracketed. These two reports, with copies of whicli Professor Levasseur was good enough to present me, are of the greatest interest. But the whole situation V 500 lUlPORT. with reference to geography in education in France since the beginning of the century, is well eummariscd in a brochure of Dr. J. B. Paquier, Professor of Geography at the Lyc^e St. Louis : ' !^tude et Enseigne* ment de la Geographic en France ' (Paris, Delagrave, 1884). There also will be found a very useful discussion of the various methods to be followed in teaching the subject. Since the report of MM. Levasseur and Himly, the subject of geographical education has frequently en- gaged the serious attention of the French Education Department, so that now it finds a substantial place in the programmes of every school. There has always in France been a strong tendency to regard geo- graphy as a mere handmaid to history ; but the best teachers and best geographers insist now that physical geography should be made the basis of the whole subject. While the official programmes for the various classes of schools are comprehensive enough, the economic and the military aspects of the subject dominate, for reasons obvious enough to those acquainted with the history and social condition of France. Oeographj in French Higher Schools. — By official prescription An- schauungslehre and Heimatskunde must be taught in primary schools, and for the higher schools the programme is also much the same as tbat of GeiH an schools of a similar class. Both in the earlier and the more advanced stages, however, there, seems to me to be a lack of the variety and thoroughness which mark the teaching of geograp'ay in German schools. The Heimatskunde, for example, is too often mere topography. In the Appendix (S) will be found the official pro- gramme of geography for the French Lyc^es, which may be held to correspond to our great public schools. There are iu France not a few private schools of a high class, but these are compelled to shape their programmes essentially after that prescribed for the Lycces. Such are in Paris the Ecole Alsacienne and the ijcolf* St. Barbe, the latter one of the most select schools in France. At the !l6cole St. Barbe and the Lycee St. Louip I was present at lessons given to the army classes, the pupils who are being prepared for entry to St. Cyr. Hera the black-board ia everything, the principal features of a country being developed thereon by the professor, similar exercises being imposed upovi the pupils. Certain Lycees are more given over to ciaspics than others, and in them the masters are apt to give geography a less important place than it ought t'- have. Such is, I was informed, the Lycee Loriis-.le-Grand, where, however, I found a very excellent stock of maps. But the French schools, as a rule, are not so plentifully supplied with maps as (Jerman schools; while recently French school cartography has greatly improved, as will be seen from the maps to be shown at the exhibition, there is still a tendency to sacrifice accuracy to artistic effect. Those, however, recently issued by Hachette and Delagrave leave little to be desired. Mile. Kleinhans' REPORT. 601 relief-maps (Delagrave) are found in some schools, and occasionally a series of geographical pictures of French origin, but such luxuries I found to be rare. In tcxt^books also there has been considerable improvement, though there remains much to be done before France comes up to Germany and Austria. The ifecole Turgot, a well-known municipal school, I found to be somewhat like the German BUrgersohule, well equipped both for geographical end science teaching. Paris has also its commercial college, not far behind that of Vienna, in which geography holds an all-important place. Even in the Conservatoire des Arts et M6tiers, under Professor Levasseur, it finds its place in the programme. French VniversUiea. — lu short, in France, geography is everywhere regarded as a serious study, and is gradually obtaining the place it ought to have in the Facultes de I'l&tat. Professor Himly, who is professor of geography at as well as Dean of the Sorbonne, has a course which, while closely associated with historical development, gives due place to the physical aspects of geography. At the time of my visit he was lecturing twice a week on the physical, historical, and political geography of Southern Europe. At the College de France, although M. Levasseiir is professor of economical geography and history, he knows how to avail himself of the whole field of his subject. His brochure on ' L'^fitude et L'Enseignement de la Gcographie ' (Paris, Delagrave, 1872) deserves the study of all interested in the subject. In the Appendix (T) will bo found the heads of his course for 1884-5, which he was good enough to write out for me. M. Ludovic Drapeyron has also done much in the Bevuc de Geographic to obtain for geography a worthy place iu France, though his efibrts to establish a Geographical University must be regarded as Quixotic. In the provinces wo find chairs of geography at Bordeaux (founded 1876), Caen (1873), Lyon (1876) ; of history and geography at Clermont, Dijon, Nancy ard Toulouse. The tendency is rightly, in T'l^niversities at least, to separate history and geography; and doubtless when the Chairs iu these latter Universities have again to be filled up, geography will havft in each a professor to itself. For the Baccalaureat-6s-Lettres, geography of a fairly advanced character forms an obligatory part of the examination, and in addition to Cosmography enters into that for the Bacculaureat-6s Science. J '' Geo'jraphy in French Military Schools. — Both for admission to the special military school at St. Cyr and to the naval school, the exami- nation is severe, far more severe than we have at any stage in this country. Both at St. Cyr, and at the Ecole Superieure de Guerre at Paris, geography forms one of the most important subjects of education. In the Appendix (U) will be found the subjects prescribed for the 602 REPORT. entrance examination to St. Cyr, which is sovero enough ; und for the school of war the examination is still more Bovero. Tlio latter corre- sponds to our Staflf College, and under Colonel Niox, who has charge of the geography, the subject has assumed the first importance, and it is greatly owing to his influence that it is gradually hcing placed on a sound basis in the higher schools. Colonel Niox was good enough to conduct nio all over his class-rooms, whi(;h are many. The walls are covered with maps of linge dimensions of all European countries, executed by himself and liis students on cheap black jnipor with chalks, and exliibiting all the feat)>res of the countries in minute detail. The map of Belgiuni., for example, must bo about fifteen feet square. Hero it is not meitily military geography that forms the subject of education. Colonel Niox is the aatbor nf a geographical treatise in five volumes, which will be found in the Exhibition Collection; this is the text-bonk which is used in the school of war. No doubt its ultimate object is military geograpliy, but an examination of the work will show that sucli special geography is based on a wide and profound studj' of physical and general geography. At St. Cyr, I am informed, the course is similar, though not quite so far advanced ; general geography occupying a place of equal importance with other subjects. In Appendix U* will be found various papers relating to geography in the 6colo Suporieure do Guerre, which have been kindly placed at my service by Colonel Niox. French Normal Schools. — Ir. France there aio Normal Schools, not only for elementary teachers, but also for those aspiring to bo teachers in the higher schools. These, to some extent, fulfil the functions of the geographical chairs in German Universities, though I could not find that all teachers of geography have necessarily had a special training in the subject and its methods. At the Superior Normal School in Paris, I f(jund that geography occupied one hour per week, under Professor Yidal de Lablacho. It is still, however, combined with history, though Professor de Lablache is strongly impressed with the value of physical geography as the substratum of all utUcv sections of the subject. Tliero is a good stock of maps, physical and political ; tho black-board has im])ortaut functions, and there are exercises in method as in tho Gorman Universities. M. do Tjabluohe has edited for Colin a series of special wall-maps, which will bo found in tho Exhibition Collection. Ho admits, however, that both French text-books and French iitlases, especially tho latter, leave much to be desired. There are really no first-rate school atlases of French origin. The Muace Pedagogiqne. — The beginnings of a Musc'o Pedagogi(pie have boon made in Paris, in the Kue Louis Thuillicr ; and I found, v.'hen 1 visited it, that the most prominent exhibits aro in geograpliy. A collection of maps, models, pictures, ethnological figures, reliefs, ami KKPORT. other geographical apparotii« hn u 503 found, among S H^" "^^ *™*"« «P to Zll'T' *° *^'*°^«« *^o pupils of ;tLtrr:r, ^^^ «-^ 4f 1^^^^^^^ ,^ or department in which tl^- . °^^"' °^ *he district !„ v ^^ ^^ There can be Zaonh^Z"'"''^' ""« situated ' ^"•""^"^ement. years, rapidly taken its nl ^^S^Phy has, durine- tJ,„ t . establishments tI ^ ^ ^ * ««"««« studvinlnl "^ ^"«* f««rteen B»t these dofectf are V?'" ''^''^^ «« on^ar^J *« "»«thods. and tl^- respect. S Con"' *" '^ ^«»^ediedfand in'r'* *^ ^^«*«^- " ^ ^^^ "-''' *^« -t ;og;:«rco:::j';; Italy. General Po«7ioM.-_Whaf !.„ i, A., idea of »; „!t , °°°™"»l«'"re.Webe»r^''''"'»'«I«><>f co.of x„L,sr SSriX^*™.^wSatE «£>■ 504 REPORT. IlnUtin Uiit'iA, UoloKnn, Milan, Padnu, Palornio, Pavia, Pihu, Vouioo, and Turin. I found that at Turin ProfosHor Guido Oora hoN li ouureo Honiowhat Hiniilar to that which I found in most Gorman UuivorsitiuH. Tho Chair is rooontly founded, and ho in thoroforo only Iwginnin); to aoouniulato a ntook of apparatun. For tho general looturcN lio liaH sixty studonts, and for hia Hpeoinl looiuroH fourteen. In Italy geography forms a nooossary part of tho oxnuiination for tho dogroo of Doctor in PhiU)Bophy. Tho profoHsors of geography' are on exactly tho same footing im otlior profoHSors. SWITZKULANI). Griieral Poaltlon. — In Switzerland each canton has to a largo extent the regulation of its own educational inHtitutions ; hence it ImpponH that wo find ciinsiderablo difforoncoH in tho progress of education In ditiorent cantons. In the more advanced cantons, notably in ZUrieli, l?orn, and Baa-^i, wo find geography occupying an important place in the school programmes. Except at Ziirich, I believe thoro are no professors of geography in Swiss Universities. Dr. Kappeler, tho President of the famous Poly- tcchnio of Ziirich, informed mo that thoro they wished to have a professor of geography, but found it difficult to got a gowl man. It is by Prof. IleJm, of tho I'olytochnio, and also by his former pupil, Dr. Imfold, that those beautiful reliefs are made, some of which will bo luuud in the Exhibition. In tho canton of Ziirich, which may bo taken us reiirosontativo of tho most advanced cantons in Switzerland, education of all grades in minutely provided for by tho central authorities, and in all schools- primary, secondary, Kealschulen and (gymnasia, as well as normal schools — geography has its place, though in tho higher schools, Oymnnsifv especially, it has not tho important place it has in the lower schools. Tho method is that of Genuany with improvements in several points. HcimatiikuHde at Hiirkh. — Tho Ileimatskundo of Ziirich is of tho most comprehensive and instructive charac;er, and, in tho hands of good teachers, cannot fail to bo an excellent tniining both for tho observing and thinking powers, and as a solid bas's for further progress in natural knowledge. Tho text-book in use, — ' I^iirich und Umgobnng : Heimatskundo horausgegeben von Lohrervorein Zurich,' is the work of several specialists. The topography is by J. J. Miiller; geology, Professor Heim ; climatic conditions, Eector St. Wanner ; flora, Con- servator J. Jiiggi ; fauna. Dr. C. Keller ; historic development. Dr. 0. Hunzikcr ; historical aad artistic monuments of Ziirich town, Prof. Vogelin; Zurich's intellectual position since the Reformation, Dr. U. UKi'our. 50.'» KrnHt ; oiiHtoiiiH uiid publiu fOtoH, Dr. Rud. Bohuch ; BtorioH and lugonda, II. Wogniiitiii ; BpoparatuR of all kinds. In a combined primary and secondary school which I visited, and where I waB present at a lesson in Iloimatskundo (subject, tho Canton, oauh pupil having his linen map), there is probably one of the finest noiubined museums and laboratories to be found in any school. I found a cdlluution of all the plants and animals of Swi'„xorland ; a largo stock of excellent maps, reliefs, geographical pictures of various Gorman imblishers, geological spocimonH, &o. Zurie]i Hlijlter ScliooU. — In tho ludustrie-Schulon (corresponding to tho Kealschulen of (Jormany) tlio subject is still more detailed and complete than in the primary school. Tho reading of maps is enjoined in tho official directions to bo carefully taught, and the method which [ Haw at work in a secondary school Hconiod to mo particularly effec- tive. In the beginning of Wottstoin's beautiful atlas (about 30 of Handeggor's fine maps for 2«. 6, notably those of Beimer of Berlin. The method of building up reliefs with sand is also in general use, and in a secondary girls' school I saw tho pupils build up a relief of the mountain systems of Great Britain. I found in the Zurich schools that the magic-lanteru is used very effectively for geographical, as for other purposes. 8uii$B Cartography. — At Winterthur I visited the cartographi i estab- lishment of Bandeggor, and inspected some of his beautiful sr )oimens uf cartography. I found him engaged on a fine map of Cancoa Basel, ordered by tho Education Council for Basel Schools. It measures riO metre by 1-30 metre, and is intended to imitate relief. It gives the contour curves with mountain shading, the light coming from the north. He was also engaged on a very beautiful relief of Switzerlaud, with tho two scales identical, and built up with paper. It is about two feet square. He has also several other fine reliefs, all of true scales. Several of Bandegger's best productions will be found in the Exhibition. Industrial Schools. — I also visited the Technicum (Cantonal Technical School) at Winterthur. For students intending to devote themselves to commercial pursuits, both general and commercial geography is obligatory, and is taught by means of the professor's lectures. There is a large collection of maps, goographical pictures, photographs, mineralogical, botanical, and other collections. Oeneva. — Through the kindness of Colonel Gautier, of Geneva, I have received a statement of the practice of tho subject in that city from M. P, Chaix, late professor at the Gymnasium ; this will be found in the Appendix (W). Oeneral Hec^ Heiraatskunde countries on tli Hiifflciont nation official programi provided for. I uro given for in coeding outward final oxaminatio marks given for For superior examination lu ^ diploma in these i Belgium. Belgian Universities. — In Belgium, geography as such has no place in the Universities. In Liege there is a professor of Industrial Geography ; but Professor Du Fief of Brussels believes that professorships of the general subject will shortly bo established in all the Universities. RKPORT. 607 Otneral Beguiatlbna, — I havo already given an example of how ITeimatskunclo is taught in Belgium. In that country — as in other countries on the Continent — education of all grades is considorod of sufficient national importance to be oared for by the State, and in the official programme of all schools the teaching of geography is especially provided for. In the regulations for primary schools, minute directions uro given for instruction in Anschauungalohro and Heimatskunde, pro- ceeding outwards to elementary notions of general geography. In tho final examination of students at primary' normal schools, out of 600 marks given for thirteen subjects, thirty-five are allotted to geography. For superior la tho teachers liave to Uudergo a written and oral examination u. geography and history in order to obtain their teaohiog diploma in those subjects. Higher Schoob. — For tho Athunces Royaux tho course prescribed is exceedingly complete. The curriculum at the Athunces lasts three years, and geography is taught throughout, although only for one hour per week. What that course is will be seen from tho programme given in tho Appendix (X). In tho middle-class schools, in which the course is three years, geography is taught each year, the programme being a modification of that of the Ath6nue8. It is enjoined in the official regulations that history and geography be taught in a special room, provided^'with illustrative objects of all kinds, photographs, engravings, reliefs, atlases, maps, globes, &c. In Brussels, as in Paris and ZUrich, there is a State Mus6e Scolaire, under M. Andre Devos, with a very large collection of maps, globes, reliefs, and other apparatus, including some very large scale maps of Belgium, and a series of fourteen maps for Heimatskunde, and for teaching the pupils to interpret maps. The method in the higher schools is much the same as in Germany, tho text-books in use being mainly those of Prof. Du Fief. HOLLANP. Dutch Universities. — With regard to the position of geography in the nniversities of Holland, I have received the following statement from Prof. Kan, of Amsterdam : — " In the State Universities there are no special professors of geography. Physical geography is taught in the faculty of matliematics and phyHics by the professor ffpliysics; jwlitical geograpliy in the faculty of literature and philosophy by the professiir of history. Tlie comparative value of geography on examinations is very little. Students in classical literature to acquire the degree of doctor, are submitted to an examination in the Universal History of Antiquity, and in con- wction with this, geography. Students in Dutch literature to acquire the degree of candidate, preceding that of doctor, havo to submit themselves to an examination in the Universal History of the Mid 'i Ages and Modern Tunes, and in connection IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) <>>^i^ 1.0 I.I 11.25 kSilU 125 lio 12.0 lU :./■ Photographic Sciences Cbrporalion ^>" 23 WEST MAIN STREET WBSSTER.N.Y. t4SS0 (716) •72-4503 '4^ A ^ '^ 608 ! REPORT. vrith tki$ political geography. Students ia inathemAtl& and phyaici, geology, miiMralogy, botany, and Eoology, have not to Bubmit to an examination in geograpby. "Tet the doctors in mathematics and physios, and the doctors in Dutch litera- ture, by their degree have the right of teaching geography in Gymnasia and Higher Schools — the same right as they who acquire the Diploma named in the Law of Secondary Education. " The demands of the examination to acquire this Diploma are described in a spedal programme of examination, and are these : — ' Knowledge of mathematical, pkytieal, and ptiitieal geographfft including the knowledge of the parts of the solar systems, their motions and phenomena; of positions on earth and on the heaven; of the motion of the earth and the consequences of this motion ; a clear idea of the geological history of earth and of the principal geological phenomena on the sarfiwe; of the phenomma in the atmosphere and on the ocean ; of the distribu- tion of temperature and rainfall on the surface of the earth ; of the geographical distribution of the principal species of plants and animals; knowledge of the geography, the ethnography, and th» political division of States.' "SpeaUng of the position allotted to geography in the Universities of Holland, we must remark that geograpby in the Oymnasia, the preparatory schools for the Univendties, is taught in the first (lowest) class three hours, in the second two, iu the thbd twa In the fourth class one hour is given to the geograpby of antiquity; in the sitth one hour to the main points of mathematical and physical geography. "In the examination at the end of the gymnasial course geography is not examined in. "In the Municipal Uni\tuined the co-operation of the Universities Schools Examination Bo< i-;^ and of practical teachers interested in geography. Moreover, it n-v^ht be combined with a revival of the Medal Awards, in a modified form — ^in a form that would encourage more competitors to come forward, the examinations to be based on the programme I suggest. To carry out such a programme would require trained teachers, and text-books, maps, and other apparatus of a character superior to those at present obtainable in this country. As to what the Society might do to induce teachers to qualify them- selves to teach the subject effectively, that is a difiSoult question. Except for our prifnary schools, there are no means whatever in this country of training teachers for their work. On the Continent, either at the Universities, or at Superior Normal Schools, those desirous of qualifying themselves for the teaching of geography, have ample opportunity for doing so. No such facilities exist in this country. Meantime, if a sufficient audience of the right kind could be assured, short courses of special lectures on the educational field and methods of geography might arouse a desire for improvement among teachers themselves. Aa 610 REPORT. experimental ooane of this character might be held iu connection with the Exhibition. The Council might encourage the production of text-booki and atlases, framed in accordance with their scheme, by offering to alBx their imprimatur on any which seemed to satisfy their requirements. Such an approval would involve no commercial responsibility, and at the same time the prospect of it might induce publishers the more readily to imdertake the production of works such as are indispensable to any real progress in geographical education. Finally, I hope that the work I have done under the Society's guidance, resulting in the present report and the forthcoming Exhi- bition, may not be entirely without fruit. Ths Exhibition of Geooraphioal Afpuakcbs. As it has been decided to postpone the opening of the Exhibition of the collections I have formed until November next, I reserve any details con- cerning the various cl a ss e s of objects for the Catalogue, which will be issued in connection therewith. I may only say now, that the collection has grown far beyond what was originally expected. I found such an abundance of maUriel of various kinds in use on the Continent, that I felt compelled to make the collection somewhat large in order that it might be representative. I have sought to obtain specimens of the best apparatus in use in the various countries ; text-books, atlases, wall-maps, diagrams, geographical pictures, globes, telluria, reliefs, &o. Among foreign houses who have kindly either lent or presented their produc- tions for exhibition, I may mention those of Haohette, Delagrave, and Colin of Paris; Beimer and Schotte of Berlin; Perthes of Gotha; Artaria and Hdlzel of Vienna; Felkl and Sons of Frag; Sacchi of Milan, and Boux and Favale of Turin ; Wiirster and Bandegger of Zurich ; Fischer of Cassel ; Hirt of Leipzig and Breslau ; Brinkman of Amsterdam ; Professor du Fief of Brussels ; Norstedt, Flodin, Seligman, Carlssen, Fritze, and Breijer of Sweden, as well as the Swedish Society of Anthropology and Geography. Also I must acknowledge the contributions of the Austrian War Department, sent through General Crusi5, and those of the leading geographical publishers in our own country. These collections will probably take up considerable space ; but if, as is expected, accommodation be obtained in the Albert Hall, or one of the adjoining Galleries, there will be no difficulty in displaying the objects satisfactorily. It is hoped that by having the Exhibition open from November till January, those for whose benefit it is specially intended may be able to visit it, and so obtain a knowledge of the varied ap- paratus at the command of those desirous of improving geographical teaching up to the Continental level. <.unless it is very ill taught, it is everywhere apt to become a popular subject with both masters and boys. We also find that examinations in geography are capable of testing much more than the memory ; they give evidence of clearness of apprehension and of power of statement, of breadth of view, and of style in comjiosition. It may bo worth mentioning that, having assigned extra marks for maps and sketches, thougli only so far as they are effective illustrations of what cannot otherwise .be easily expressed, we have observed in some cases, that this indirect encouragement to drawing has borne most satisfactory fruit. We look to the Universities, not only to rescue geography from being badly taught in the schools of England, but to raise it to an even higher standard than it has yet attained. It appears to be directly within the powers given to them by Iho proposed Examination Scheme to do so. They can improve the quality of tho examinations, they can report on efiicient and inefficient teaching, and, in this way, steadily develop geographical science into the form most suitable for the education of boys. Then, in a school well furnished with appliances for geographical teaching, the mere elements, which all ought to know, would be Inarnt in early boyhood with trifling difficulty, while the more advanced knowledge which older boys would require, who elected geography, either physical or political, as ono of the subjects of their examination, would be obtained without waste of effort, and without burdening the memory with names to which no corresponding imago existed in the mind. Geography so taught would appeal strongly to the imagination; it would be found to abound in instructive generalizations, and it would vastly increase the range of a schoolboy's interests and his materials for after reflection. (Signed) H. C. RAWLINSON, Pbesidekt. .#■ July 3, 1871. On Ichal/o/tJie Council of the Boyal Geographical focieitj. AmwDicia. 519 DRAFT OF A MEIIORUL TO BE SENT, WITH SEPARATE GOVERIKO LETTERS, TO H.ll. OOMMISSIOKERS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD, TO THOSE OF CAMBRIDGE, AND TO THE. GOVBRNINO BODIES OF EITHER UNIVERSITY. [1874.] The Council of the Royml Ocograiihlcal Soetety detira to take adTuitage (A the opportunity afforded while the icheme of teaching in Oxford and Gamhridge is under conaideration, to urge on the proper authoritlea the eetabliahment of Geographical Profeamnhipa at hoth UnlTeraitiea. The cl^nu of geografdiy to he thua repre- tented appear to the Council to be both weighty and numeroua. They are briefly set forth in the following numorandum. In speaking of geography the Council uae the word in its moat liberal aenae, and not aa an equivalent to topography. The word Geography, they deaire it to be under- stood, implies a compendious description of all the prominent conditions of a country, such as its climate, configuration, minerala, phmta, and animala, aa well as its human inhabitants ; the latter in respect not only to their race, but also to their present and past history, so far as it ii> intimately connected with the peculiarities of the land they inhabit Each locality has its charactCTiatic features, which it is the province of the geographer to deecribe with the utmoet possible clearness. He should convey to others the salient ideas that could not otherwise be aoquired ezoept by a highly- skilled observer in all branches of knowledge, alter a long ivsidence. Scientific geography doea not confine itself to such a description of separate localities as may be found in gaaetteers. Having collected similar cases, it proceeds to group them together. It studies antecedent conditioM, and concerns itself with the actions of concurrent phenomena upon one another in the same locality, showing why they tend to stability, and to (^ve to each country its characteristic aspect. Thus the geographical distribution of plants and animals, and the light it throws on the early configuration of the surbce of the earth, is one of the very many problems with which scientific geograi^rs are accustomed to deaL Another of the problems is concenfed with the reciprocal influence of man and his surroundings ; showing on the one hand the influence of external nature on race, commercial development and sociology, and on the other, the influence of man on nature, in forest destruction, cultivation of tlw soil, introduction of new planta and domestic animals, extirpation of useless vegetation, and the like. This mutual relation of the objects of the difierent sciences is the subject of a science in itself, so that scientific geography may be defined as the study of local correlations. Geography, thus defined, does not tend in any degree to supersede the special cultivation of independent sciences, but rather to establish connections which would otherwise be imobserved, and to intensify the interest already felt in each of them, by showing their general value in a liberal education. It is through geography alone that the links can be seen that connect physical, historical, and political con- ditions ; and it is thus that geography claims the position of a science distinct from the rest, and of singular practical importance. It may perhaps be objected that geography in this sense is too wide a subject, that its limits are too uncertain, and its science as yet not sufiiciently rigorous to justify its recognition at the Universities by a special Professorship. Precisely the same objections might however be urged against a Professorship of History, yeL no one seriously entertains them. A practical answer to any objection against founding a University Chair of Geography is that Professorships have already been established with excellent results in many places on the Continent. A Professor of Geography has existed in the University of Berlin since the days of Carl Bitter ; VOL. I. 2 52U APPENDICES. similar Professorships are established at the Universities of Hall'j, Marbuig, Strasburg, Bonn, GKittingcn, and Breslau. In Switzerland they are established at Qeneva, Neuchfttel, and Zttrich. In France, Geographical Chairs, under the control of the UniTersity of France, are attached to the Faculty des Lettres at the following towns — ^Piiris (Sbrbonne), Bordeaux, Caen, and Lyons; at Clennont-FeiTand and Nanoy the Chain of History and Geography are united ; at Marseilles a Professor- ship of History and Commercial Geography is attached to the Faculty des Sciences. There are, therefore, in all seven Chairs of Geography in France endowed by the State. This provision is of course supplementary to the instruction given in the Lyc^es, which is of a high class and corresponds to that which the Boyal Geo- graphical Society has during the last ten years endeavoured to encourage m our leading public schools by their annual examinations and prize medals. The duties of such a Professor as the Council desire to see appointed would be, first, to promote the study of scientifio geography as defined above ; and, secondly, to apply geographical knowledge in illustrating and completing such of the recog- nised University studies as require its aid. The claims of geography to occupy a central place among the physical sciences, which already form an important part in University studies, can hardly be questioned, but, according to the modem and more liberal method of teaching in the classical and historical schools, its position in respect to these is little less essential. It may be broadly affirmed that questions are set in every examination in these schools which cannot be adequately answered without considerable knowledge of the higher geography. It has been pointed out to us that no better proof can be given of the intimate connection between the present University studies and geography, than the list of subjects for prize essays proposed at Oxford, which is appended below. It should be further remarked that while the facilities for travelling have widely extended, and in consequence the number of young men who travel after leaving the Universities, for the sake of supplementing their education, is increasing every year, very few of them are qualified to make an intelligent use of the information which they may or might obtain, and still fewer are qualified to imake obseiTations of the least scientific value. The same may be said, with little qualification, of the much smaller number who go out as missionaries, and who often enjoy precious opportunities of collecting new evidence, not merely on geographical questions but on questions of ethnological and philological interest. Such persons, if previously trained under an able professor at a University, would form a most valuable corps of scientific observers. An impartial comparison of the literary results of English and German travel at the present day seems to show that the educational advantages which we ask for in England, and which are attainable in Germany, have there borne their actual fruit in developing and directing the powers of observation in German travellers. A University professor would probably so arrange his lectures as to fall in with the general course of studies at the Universities, adapting one part of them to students of history, and another to students of physical science. He would also perhaps deliver at least ono annual discourse on some subject of original geo- graphical research. The establishment of a Professorial C!iair, and the example and scholarly writings of a University professor, would give a much needed impetus to the progress of the art of teaching geography in schools, which is at present imperfccily developed, and for which the existing text-books are avowedly iuadequate. It appears that of all the stibjects handled by those graduates of Cambridge who hold the o£Sce of lecturers in the groat provincial towns, in connection with the Cam- APPENDICES. S21 bridge UniTenity Extension scheme, none has been so popular as physical geography. A supply of such lecturers, who had been well instructed by a University Professor of Geography, would therefore confer a real benefit on the education of the country, and one that would be widely appreciated. The copieus collection of maps, models, pictures, and ethnological illustrations of the various lands which are the theatres of historical study, which would gradually accumulate under the charge of a Professor of Geography, would enable him to illustrate their configuration and scenery as well as the socinl character of their inhabitants, with a fulness that no ordinary teacher could hope to rival. Such illustrations, it may be remarked, are consistent with the general tendency of modem instruction. It might be thought lulvisable to entrust the proposed professors with some special duties in respect to the collection of geographical publications in the University libraries, so as to ensure th^c these stores of knowledge should be easily available in any emergency, when facts relating to some half-forgotten country are earnestly desired by the public. We may be sure that imder such circumstances their comments would be awaited with interest and listened to with respect. In conclusion, the Council would strongly urge that there is no country that can less afford to dispense with geographical knowledge than England, and that, while there is no people who have a greater natural interest in it (as shown by the large support received by the Royal Geographical Society), there are few countries in which a high order of geographical teaching is so little encouraged. The interests of England are as wide as the world. Her colonies, her commerce, her emigrations, her wars, her missionaries, and her scientific explorers bring her iuto contact with all parts of the globe, and it is therefore a matter of imperial importance that no reasonable means should be neglected of training her youth in sound geographical knowledge. - . ^ ., . StJBjECTS FOB Historical Prize Essays proposed fbou time to tiue at thb Ukiversitt of Oxford, more or less Geographical. Subjects/or the Marquis of Lothiati's Historical Prize Essay (founded in 1870). In 1872. The importance throughout modern history of the frontiers of France, Germany, and Italy. [No prize awarded.] In 1877. The place of Iceland in the history of European institutions. Subjects/or the Arnold Historical Eisay (founded in 1851, in memory of " Dr. Arnold). In 1851. Whence arose the greatness and the decay of the power of Carthage. In 1863. What effects of Alexander's conquests in India are discoverable in the subsequent history of that country. In 1855. The Roman colonias under the Empire. ! • In 1856. The Jews in Europe in the Middle Ages. x ' • In 1859. Delphi considered locally, morally, and politically. In 1862. The Danube, as connected with the civilization of Central Europe. In 1867. The Mahometan jiower in India. In 1869. The English colonies in America before the Declaration of Inde- pendence. In 1870. The Scythio races of Europe and Asia, from the earliest times to the fall of the Western Empire. In 1872. The influence of tlie Roman conquests on Roman literature. 2 2 rl'i I 522 APPENDICE8. Hit Stanhope Hittorieai Esiay (founded in 1866). In 1869. The causes of the successes of the Ottoman Turks. In 1860. The fall of the Republic of Florence. In 1861. The rise of the Swiss CJonfederation. In 1865. The rise of Russia. In 1867. The causea of the decline of Spain. In 1874. The Portuguese in the East. B*. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.— PROGRAMME PRESCRIBED BY EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, 1885, FOR INSTRUCTION IN GEOGRAPHY. Standard I. — ^To explain a plan of the school and playground. The four cardinal points. The meaning and use of a map. Standard II, — ^The mze and shape of the world. Geographical terms simply explained, and illustrated by reference to the map of England. Physical geography of hills and rivers. Standard III. — ^Physical and political geography of England, with special knowledge of the district in which the school is situated. Standard IV. — Physical and political geography of the British Isles, and of British North America or Australasia, with knowledge of their productions. Standard V. — Geography of Europe, physical and political. Latitude and longitude. Day and night. The seasons. Standard VI. — Geography of the world generally, and especially of the British colonies and dependencies. Interchange of productions. Circumstances which determine climate. Standard VII. — ^The ocean. Currents and tides. (General arrangement of the planetary system. The phases of the moon. c. :- , 1. EXAMINATION PAPER IN SIXTH FORM, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE SCHOOL, LONDON. 1. Give detailed descriptions and maps of the course of two important rivers, one in the Old World, and the other in the New (source, boundaries and area of basin, length, tributaries, scenery and physical peculiarities, towns on bonks). 2. The mouth of the Danube, Lyons, Trieste, and the mouth of the Gironde are about on tho same parallel of latitude (461). Give the distances and draw a section of the country between. Name two places in Asia and two in America on the same parallel, acd give their approximate distances from the mouth of the Danube. S. Kcw» is telegraphed from London at midday; supposing it transmitted instantaneously, at what time will it reach Cairo, Sydney, Bombay, Ban Francisco (California) ? Why does the time of day differ at these places? APPENDICES. 4. Explain fully, why, within the Arctic Circle, there is at one time perpetual day, and at another perpetual night. B. Describe tho position of the following places, and say for what they are remarkable: Cronstadt, Syracuse, Angora, Zermatt, Bavenna, Verona, Melbourne, Jerez, Granada, Nismes, Cherbourg, 8pezzia, Tangier, Ascension Island, Juan Fernandez, Ulundi, Timbuctoo, Mobile, Val- paraiso, St. Louis, Servia, Cincinnati, Valentio, Qweedore, Brudford, Merr, 'f iflis, Pariaput, Peshawur. 6. Describe the position of three important coalfields in the British Isles, and of three in other parts of the world. 7. Give a full account of Manitoba cr British Columbia. 8. Describe one of the following islands : Madagascar, New Guinea, Borneo, or Jamaica. 9. What different land and water routes are there from Chicago to the sea ? 10. Describe the Suez Canal, and any alternative routes that have been suggested from the Mediterranean to India. 2. ETON.— UPPER SCHOOL; BOYS ABOUT 17 YEARS OP AGE. TbIALS fob FlBST HUKDBED— JttZy, 1879. Phytical Geography. 1. What is wind ? How are the Trade Winds caused ? Explain the occurrence of certain belts of Calms. 2. How are laud and sea breezes caused? Where are they mostly met with ? 3. Describe fully the Harmattan, Puna, and Mistral, giving their causes and the places where they are met with. 4. What are waterspouts ? How are they formed ? What are the characteristics of typhoons? 5. What are the principal causes of oceanic currents? What do we know of the temperature of the sea at great depths ? -€. Describe fully the Gulf Stream. What analogy exists between aerial and oceanic currents ? 7. To what causes are the tides due ? What infiuences modify the normal move- ments of the tidal wave ? 8. What are co-tidal lines ? What are bores and how are they caused ? Is it correct to say that the Mediterrauean is a tideless sea ? 9. What is meant by isothermal liues? Explain isothermal lines. Trace the course ofthe isothermal line of 50° Fahr. 10. Explain the term isobars. When do we meet with maximum barometric pressure ? Tbials fob Fibst Hundbed — July, 1880. Physiography. '•••- ■ 1. Explain fully what is meant by magnetic declination. What is the declina- tion at present in England ? 2. What is meant by contour lines ? Show how a hill may be drawn in contour. In a map drawn on the scale of 3 inches to the mile, what is the repre- sentative fraction ? 624 APPENDICES. 3. 4. 6. 6. 8. ^ 9. 10. 11. 12. A,. 13. tiirt hi!- What is meant by a river-basin ? What is a catchment basin ? Draw a section across the Thames basin from Aylesbury to Ouildford. Explain the term water-parting. How does it differ from water-shed ? Give instances of each. Explain fully the formation of springs. What is meant by the term " dip ? " How does the dip facilitate the flow of springs ? What geological formations are the chief sources of the water supply of the Thames basin ? How is it that water is sometimes met with at the top of a hill and not at the bottom ? Give instances. What are artesian wells, and why are they so called ? What is meant by a " fault ? " What is the effect of a fault in determining the position of a well? Explain the formation of a clond. In what condition is water supposed to exist in clouds ? How are the different forms of clouds classified ? Explain why fogs are generally met with on the banks of Newfoundland. Why are the fogs of London so dense ? How is a river fog caused? Compare the rainfall of Cornwall with that of Berkshire. Give reasons for the difference. How is the rainfall measured ? Why are some districts rainless ? Name the chief rainless districts of the earth. "Where the rainy days are fewest, the amount of rain is greatest." Explain this apparent paradox. Where is the Region of Calms? Describe fully and explain the physical peculiarities of this region. How is dew formed ? Explain the term " dew-point," Why is dew less plentiful on a cloudy night? t, i-,JKj ot> Ufpeb Division Tbials — July, 1881. fcfei tirii,4ii' 'iif^i i'i'-t vw :«» r: y f ABHT CLASS. Physical Geography. :, i t 1. Give an account of the principal mountain chains of Asia. 2. Explain fully the following terms, specifying the districts for which the name was originally employed : — selvas, steppes, karoo, delta, kloof, ghaut. 3. Explain the difference between a plain and a plateau. Name the chief plateaux of Africa. > v 4. Give a full account of the Mediterranean Sea. 5. What does the barometer indicate, and how is it therefore applied to show the height of mountains ? 6. What is the " Telegraphic Plateau ? " Explain the term " maximum density." What is the maximum density of salt water? 7 Explain how the tides arc caused. Is the assertion that the Mediterraneaa is a tideless sea correct ? Give a reason for your answer. What influence have winds over oceanic currents? Distinguish between constant and periodical currents. Why are there constant fogs off Newfoundland ? What do you know about the following — Agulhas, Sargosso Sea, Dead Sea, Shamo, Turan? 10. What is the highest mountain in the world ? Give the height of the snow-line in the Sierra Nevada. What is the height of Etna ? '•■ • What is the distance in miles from Sierra Leone to Brazil? What is the breadth of Behring's Straits ? 8. 9. APPENDICES. 525 BOYS 13-15 ¥BAR8/:PAPERS SET TO BOYS WHO HAVE BEGUN ,s ..1 ;. ,(„. !■:■. SCIENCE. ' " Trials— March, 1885. i. For thoK who have been at Science one term. 1. The orbit of the' earth round the sun is an dlipae. Explain the meaning of the words in italics. 2. The earth is a spheroid. Explain the meaning of the term, and give various reasons for believing the earth is of this shape. 3. What is a planet ? Give the names of as many as you can in order of distance from the sun. 4. State all that you know about the moon. 6. What is the circumference of the earth ? Compare its size with that of the sun and moon. , 6. What is the meaning of axis, zenith, antipodes, tropics, hemisphere 1 7. Explun the inequalities in the length of the days and nights at various seasons of the year. 8. How do you account for the changes from winter to summer in the Northern Hemisphere? - < - > ■ ••; ,v>, .--.■ .-. v* ,v* 9. What is meant by Paro^^e^s of Latitude? ' •^^ Iceland is 65° N. Latitude, Ascension lies nearly due south in 8° S. Lati- tude : how many miles apart are they ? ^■• 10. What is meant by Jlferid/ana ? ■"'■■■' <'"■'> CharlestGwu is 80° W. Longitude : what o'clock is it there when it is noon at Londoa ? 11. When does an eclip'ie of the sun occur? 12. What are the tides, and how are they caused ? ' ii. For those who have been at Science two terms, 1. Give fully the various proofs of the earth being hot below the surface ; espe- cially give in detail the information derived from mines. 2. Describe and name the instrument used for measuring temperature, explaining the arrangement of the degrees. 3. Explain the construction of a Mercurial Barometer, showing what it measures^ and state what special use it can be put to on moving from place to place. 4. What are the components of sea-water ; how may the liquid part be separated from the solid ? 5. State what facts you know respecting the depth of the ocean. :t 6. What part of the air is most necessary to our life ? How do our bodies use it and with what results ? 7. How is it that tbe world is not gradually poisoned by carbonic acid gas being given out by animals ? 8. What is condensation of aqueous vapour ? What causes it ? • iJ *w t-i 9. Explain separately the particular cause of the formation of hoar-frost and of fog. 10. (Do a or b, not Iwth). a. Describe the arrangement of land and sea on the surfiEura of the Globef. ...^:i.,. Has ilv always been the same as it is now? Give reasons for your ■ : ., answer. >t. .1 h. What degree in the Fahrenheit thermometer corresponds to 25° C? What degree in the Centigrade thermometer corresponds to 50° F. ? . m APPENDICES. 2. 3. 4. w o. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. iii. For thcu who have been at Seienee nearly a year. EzpUia olMrly what is meant by the anow-line. Why is the snow-liae often higher on some parta^of a mountain chidn than on others? Give examples. Explain the expreflsions— N^rtf, Begelation, Bergschrond, Mondne, Roche Moutonntfe. How are crevasses formed and then closed up again ? Compare a glacier and a river — a. As regards their movement. h. As denuding agents. e. As carriers of material from higher to lower levels. What are ice-bergs and ice-floes, and bow are they formed ? What do yon know about the glacial period ? What is a delta, and how is it formed ? Why do some rivers form no deltas ? Give examples. Explain the terms solution, suepeTuion, lediment. What do you know about the formation of alluvial plains, and river terraces ? Give instances of both in the neighbourhood of Windsor. Do A or B, not both : — A. In what rocks do you find inland caverns? Explain their formation, and also that of the stalactites sometimes found in them. B. Distinguish between wind-waves, tidai-waves, and ocean currents ; and explain what is meant by a plain of marine denudation. •1. PROGRAMME OF THE GLASGOW ACADEMY. Geography has always held such a high place among subjects of school study in Scotland that it is taught in the Glasgow Academy neither as compuhory nor cptiotuU, but as a matter of course. Up to the 4th Class in the Advanced Course each pupil receives from his earliest entrance in school one and a half hour's instruc- tion per week. This instruction is conveyed by the staff of English masters, whose training has virtually constituted them Science Masters, as this term is technically understood by the Science and Art Department, South Kensington. The classical masters confine themselves to classical geography, as suggested by the authors read, and the historical course under study. A complete course of geography up to the 4th Class, Advanced Division, is virtually a caaiao of seven years. It consists of three broadly-marked divisions. I. A course of Reading Lessons on geography from books copiously illustrated, so as to show pictoriaily the meaning of geographical terms, with interesting chapters on the geography of the Brituh Isles and Ireland. This course is taken up by Classes I., II. and III. Preparatory course as in the accompanying prospectus. II. The general geography of the great division of the globe, with map-drawing. Classes I. and II. Advanced course. III. Detailed geography of the British Isles and Ireland, with the detailed geography of the Colonies, with map-drawing. In this course the connection between the historical and geographical curricula, always kept in view, becomes prominent. Clmoi III> end IV. Advanced course. APPENDICES. 927 After this itage classical stadents devote their attention to olassical geography as mentioned above, but the V. and VI. Modem continue their geographical studies according to the following course :— y. Modem. A very detailed study ot £uropewith special reference t(h— (1.) The physical features and climate. (2.) The commercial geography resulting. (3.) The present political and social condition viewed as a result of its entire previous history. The connection between this course and the parallel historical one is evident at every step. TI. Modem. The great migraUons of the European peoples, with historical map of Europe and the British Isles, or, as it were, the fossil geography of these countries. 'llie text-books used by the pupils may be gathered from the prospectus, but it may be said of all professed geographies purchasable that, while the worst of them are simply rival catalogues to the Post OfiBoe Directory, the best of them still approach tqo near to this traditional standard. As to the apparatus used, that is only of the ordinary kind — maps, globes, Ac, OS there is nothing else purchasable. Even in the domain of maps, the Y. and VI. classes suffer greatly, as tliere are absolutely no maps published for such studies, and they have to be gathered from, now this historictd manual, now that, or compiled laboriously by the teacher for black-board or chart. The seventh question as asked betrays a most despondent conception on the part of the interrogant as to the state of the geographical teaching in Britain. So much does the question fall below the level of the actual facts to be elicited that, but for its earnest and natve sincerity, a Scotch teacher — any intelligent teacher, indeed, for such may be found in England also — would be inclined to resent it. The position, however, in the Glasgow Academy is this : Geography as taught anywhere, and when taught at the best, must always entail a very considerable effort of memory — indeed, unless, perhaps, systematic botany, there is no science entails an effort so consider- able. But it is never forgotten in the academy that geography is a science, though one of imperfect data; and so far as geological and cosmical laws determine physical feature and climate, and these again uetermine natural productions, mineral, vegetable and animal, to give rise in turn to certain liues of commerce, social life and political circumstance, when taken into conjunction with the fact of humanity —so far, indeed, as geography betrays a logical connection, and is subject to reason and prediction — such connection is kept in view. It is never allowed to become a mere effort of memory. So far from its rising once in a while, and by chance as it were to the stage of a discipline, the ability of the teacher never allows it to fall below that stage. ■ ■ ■'--■■--'■■' 1 -^ - ■' '-•"••» ^ -^--' ^ -'^-^■ DULWICH COLLEGK— PROGRAMME IN GEOGRAPHY. '>"'■*. The JuNiOB School (Form Masters). All are taught about the form and motions of the earth, meaning of latitude aod longitude, &c., and in addition,— 1st Form Outlines of World. 2nd Form 1st Term — Asia and Australasia. 2nd Term — Africa and America. 3rd Term — ^Europe. 3rd Form 1st Term — England and Wales. 2nd Term — Scotland and Ireland. 3rd Term-rBritish Possessions. A38 APPENDICES. In Senior Sobool boyi are not oompelled to learn geography. A few take it as a Special from choice, and not many of these beyond two yean ; in fact, only a few remain more than one year. lit year .. Mr. Robinson goes over Geikie's 'Outlines.' 2nd year .. .. Mr. Robinson specialises, using as his programme that of Royal Geographical Society for Medals. E. OPINIONS OF HEAD-MASTERS OF ENGLISH PUBLIC SCHOOLS AS TO THE VALUE OP GEOGRAPHY AND THE POSITION IT OUGHT TO ^j, HAVE IN SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES. ** Not sufficiently important as an educational instrument, except in very skilful hands, to claim much time in the limited time-table. Consequently, cut out by the pressure of other subjects. Occasional leclurtt at public schools by thoroughly qualified lecturers would do much good in stimulating interest in the subject, and suoh lectures would be warmly welcomed by head-masters." " Adds considerably to the interest of the work generally, but can hardly say it is a discipline." "Much more could be done if boys were well grounded before they come to ui." ' So great deficiency of good material that all teaching must suffer." **I regard geography as an important subject, both as an instrument of culture and as a preparation for commercial life." ** Every efibrt to make the subject an intellectual discipline, and it is so made, but in different degrees by different masters. Problems are set arising out of the geography or history lesson ; e.g. (1) Given a place in the tropics and the relative positions of mountains and ocean, investigate the climate. (2) Why are Bordeaux or Cairo where they are ? (3) Why does Namur figure so constantly in certain wars? (4) The Spanish Peninsula as a battle-ground. Where, d priori, would you expect the battle-fields in a particular campaign to be? "I think that geography can be made an extremely valuable and interesting educational instrument; and there is scope for it in 'Modern' schools; but it is not made the most of at present, even there ; and Examining Bodies might do much more than they do at present to ensure that the subject shall be used as an intellectual discipline. University Examiners are quite in the dark as to the capabilities of this subject ; e.g. Oxford Local Examinations (Juniors), July, 1884, Q. 8 : ' What are the chief religions of the world, and how are they distributed ? " This is not ' geography,' but pure unmitigated ' cram.' " " Geography (as taught) is little more than effort of memory ; I regard it as quite worthless educationally (till it becomes a, branch of history). I have no doubt that if taught by thoroughly instructed masters, with sufficient time allowed, physical geography at least might be made interesting and educationally valuable, APPENDICES. 529 like any other branch of haman knowledge ; but the one thing that ia quite clear about Bchook at present, is that the curriculum is monstrously oyernsrowded with ■ubjects already, and I look with horror on any possible increase." " Political geography is so far a matter of memory. Our only problems in it are time problems for longitude, and tracing lines from place to place as described above. The ma{)-drawing is very valuable training for tlie eye and hand. They learn how to look at an object so as to recollect distinctly the form, instead of getting a hazy impre-^sion of it. So also with regard lo rivers and mountains, boya are usually satisfied with a general impression that the course is say N.W. or thereabouts, and it is only when they come to put their impressions on paper that they find out how exceedingly inaccurate they were. " The reoult of my experience is that what we suffer from most is the entire absence of suitable mnpa and text-books. The one object of almost all maps and books is to get as many facts as possible into tho space. The object should be to put in tho minimum. Topography, which is the foundation of geography, ia simply a matter for the eye. At present a map of England in our school atlases is a bewildering mass of detail which no reasonable being would attempt to master. There should be nothing there which an intelligent buy might not be expected to reproduce with accuracy. After our younger boys had become thoroughly familiar with the great features by frequently copying these from properly prepared maps, I should proceed to make them, in the higher forms, reproduce these from memory on a blank sheet of paper. This would be quite easy work, as I know by experience from what we can do when our boys come to the subject quite fresh. Here we should require text-books. Nearly all our present ones ore quite useless ; they are miniature gazetteers. We want full descriptions of the countries, productions, animsis, plants, with as many illustrations as possible ; and, as before, just a few big towns, and a good account of the natives and government and trade. I think these would be best issued in separate small volumes. For the highest forms still more elaborate text-books might Iw issued, including a fairly elaborate sketch of the history of each country— a subject of which our English boys grow up in hopeless ignorance. The main point is that there should be nothing in the maps or books which the boys should not be expected to remember for life. In the highest form boys could learn to draw from memory some rather larger maps— as that of central Europe in Faunthorpe. " One very great difficulty in teaching geography is the presence of new boys or promoted boys in a form. We cannot assume any knowledge on the part of the whole form, and have to begin afresh every term. It is hard to see how this difficulty is to be met, for if the boys were arranged in sets according to their geographical knowledge, a new boy high up would be working with quite little boys, and tlie work would be too easy for hira, unless indeed all preparatory schools adopted the same system, which I think the public schools might force them to do. For the highest forms physical geology would come in admirably, alternating with other special subjects. " I should like to make the geology of the district a part of the regular course, but form masters can't all be expected to teach it ; with sets it would be easy and extremely valuable." " The usefulness of jmlitical geography for many careers is indisputable ; but the subject is of enormous extent, and demands minute knowledge of innumerable facts, so that in practical life men are content to learn such parts of it as directly concern their business or profession. My experience shows me that such knowledge can be MO APPENDICES. very rapidly and eaiUy aoqulrad by thoao wboM faculties Itave been trained by tbe ordinary method of a liberal education. " I should consider it a grave mistalie to occupy much of a boy's time in cramming bis memory with geographical facts at a stage of his education when his faculties can be much better trained and developed by other processes. " We have now and then had boys who, from special circumstances or aptitudes, have turned to geography with special interest. In such cases we have thought it right to give them special facilities ; and in a few cases they have presented them- selves with success at the examination of the Boyal Geographical Society." " The subject is merely an eifort of memory. We cannot make a discipline of it, nor set problems in it. Geography is, more than any subject, even than any other tpeekU subject, the business of none but a specialist, who should be a travelled enthusiast. Even if he has not travelled much, a man who has the subject thoroughly at heart may do a great deal with it. But even then there will be only few boys who will respond to his teaching. The successes of Liverpool and Dulwich CSollegcs show how eCBcient the worlc of an individual enthusiast — I use the word in admiration — can be. As a eomputsory subject in public schools, and taught — as it must be imder those conditions — ^by a number of assistants who have no special intervst in the work, and cannot clothe the dry bones, it must fail. As an optUmal subject, with a competent teacher, good results might be obtained ; but a great portion of time would have to be deducted from other work. " I believe that at the colleges above mentioned the geography class give up a great deal. In fact, now that it is not a subject favoured by competitive examica- tions, it becomes almost a study lie luxe — few can spare from subjects mora necessary the time required." " The general weakness of geography in public schools may, in my opinion, be attributed to three causes : " 1. The general apathy of the public on the subject. " 2. The dreariness of the subject as at present taught. " 3. The incompetence of ordinary teachers, who have derived thoir knowledge from text-books, and therefore fail to make the subject interesting to their pupils, " E.g. The description of a country by a traveller who has been there, supple- mented with the exhibition of specimens, photographs, anecdotes, would do much to relieve the dulness of an ordinary lesson. This is quite beyond the reach of ordinary masters. " Could travelling professors or lecturers visit schools, each lecturing only on what he has seen ? " " Physical Geography properly taught I take to be an excellent discipline, and one which may be made to yield the same kind of benefit as is derivable from intelligent study of the other subjects more commonly regarded as sciences, to which it frequently serves as an introduction ; and for further acquaintance with which it commonly begets a desire — subsidiary results, which in the case of boys on the modern side, wliose school days are limited, cannot but be regarded as highly valuable. " I have a belief that the importance of the subject ia very generally under- estimated, and that even when the subject api>ears on the time-tables it not un- frequently has to give place to other subjects in which masters take greater interest or which they are better qualified to teach — a state of things University recognition would go far t* do awoy with." 'APPIMDICia 681 " For ounelTM I can ay that our ec*! doM not need to be itimnUted, though I «m lure we h«ve much to leem m to the beet methode of teeching. But our greet diflBoulty ie the competition of other eubjeots to which the public •■ yet ettach greater importanoe." " I think it would be more helpM if the Geographical Society gave ua some in* formation. If the loapeotonhip of education were organiaed more like an Educational Department, and arrangementa made for good lecturere being lentdown, and loana of apecial apparatua made for purpoaes of geographical teaching, I believe a good deal of good might be done in this way. We have nearly enough inipecting and ' pulling up the roota • in theae days.** " I should say that geography is rather a stimulus than a discipline, as it is taught here — i'a it excites intellectual curiosity rather than trains the reasoning tsculty. But this does not seem to me necessarily disparagement of the subject. " I use several German atlases, and have an impression that the condition of our English atlaaee, as also of our school maps, is enough to show that the subject of geography requires further support and stimulus from the leaders of the nation. So far as I know, there is no really satisfactory school map of our own Empire or of India. The former I have had done by means of German atlases for our use." "Geography should be taught by a specialist; that is, either by an English or by a science master tndned for the purpose at a seminary for high-school mastera after he has taken his degree at some University. Geography should be recognised as a science in the Universities, but this will not be done so long as they are allowed to exist solely as an ezploiting-ground for a few fortunate private individuals." § "It deserves a great deal more attention than it is understood to receive in English schools; and a geographical lectureship might very advantageously be established in every British University." . i' ■ " My personal views are that after a fair knowledge of the more important points in political geography, and a reasonable grasp of physical geography, the subject is best not pushed into minutin. The thing to be aimed at is not to become a walking atlas, but to know how to use maps and atlases when required." "I think the subject of geography is. much neglected. There is also a gr^t want of text-books suitable to the teaching of geography. Some are a mere mass of names; others are too comprehensive for the early stages they profess to deal with. I should like to see more books, at say one shilling, giving full account of a single country or continent. Some encouragement might be given by grants from societies to schools. But care should be taken not to encourage cram. There is need too of a systematic code, so to speak, drawn up by practical men, showing what should be learned in geography from say five years of age to eighteen. A lectureship on geography in University would be desirable. " Local natural history and natural products museums might be more common. These show what products are found in foreign countries. They generally require great improvement in the way of classification." ...,,; "As far as my own experience goes'boys at public schools in England are, generally speaking, lamentably ignorant of geography. I regret this extremely, and &32 APPENDICES. wish it ««re pOMible to give more time to the subjeot among the many which nowndayi claim a portion of our boys' time. A great deal more, I am conrinoed, ought to bo and might well be done to give boya a taite for geography and a fair knowledge of geographical fact* before they oome to a public tchool at all. ** I think we should do well to set apart a special time in each year, or each term, far the atudy of geography. It would be in my Judgment a more economical and a far mora affective way of teaching the subject than by trying to get one or two gaographical hours sideways, week by week, into our overburdened curriculum." ^ r-.ncea of local excess or defect as com- j)ared with the average for the whole country. A 4. Describe brieliy tlie Laudes of France, tho Geysers of Iceland, the Dunu.s of Holland, tho Glaciers of Switzerland, and the Steppes of Russia. A 5. Mention in order from source to mouth tho principal towns on the hanks of tho Elbe, and any circumstances of interest connected witli eiiclu Illustrate your answer by a map. APPENDICES. B. r>4i Vt 1. What iH incliulcil in tlio Icrm "BritiBh North America"? Draw a Mkuti'li ; map indicating tlio cliicf rivers, lakes, and mutintnins of tlint cotintry, and mention fiv« sources of its natural wealth, li 2. " The sea nnd tho lond wage periiotiuil wnrfnro'whcrcvcr they comu into contact with each other." In what parts of England in historic times has each acliioved remarkable results ? r> •). Hi)eciry tho principal winds and currents which a shij) would encounter in making a voyage from Ijondon to Ci^ylon round tho Capo of (Sood Doje; oxplaia tho cause of eacli. 11 !. The routes to tho greater deiiondeneits'of Oreat Britain arc guarded by chains of lesser dependencies. Show this to bo tho cane with respect to India, and state sliortly when and under what circumstnnces each lesser dependency you mention was acquired. IS ."), Enumerate the Britisii Colonies and settlements in Oceania; and state tho chief articles ex]i(>rted and imported by each. Give some account of tho native races and indigenous animals of these countries. 8. CAMBJIIJKIE. — I'ai'Eu on ruYSicAi, GEooiurnY as a Sciknie Suiuixt kou Seniou Students. Physical Gkourai'HY. I. Explain the mode of formation of Bain, Mist, and Dew. LI. Draw roughly a map with contour-lines of an island ,with two mountain peaks, one near the nortlieni, the other near the soutliern extremity; and having one river running Into tho sea on the east, and two ou the west side ; also draw a suction across the island from north to south. ". Discuss the explanations which have been given to account for the circulation of oceanic waters. •!. Describe the characters of the principal deposits now being formed by diatoms, foraminifers, and corals. .1. What important phybiographical events have oc-urred at tho following placis since Itomnn times: Bossbcrg, Krakatoa, Reculvers, Adria, the west coast of tho Baltic? (i. Write a short description of tho mode of origin of mountain chains. 7. Give some account of tho phenomena attendant uiwn a severe earthquake, and describe the method used for fixing its point of origin. 8. Distinguish clearly between the habitat of an organism, and its ramje. Mention the habitats of some common English plants and animals. 9. OXFOBD AND CAMBRIDGE SCHOOL EXAJIJNATIONS, 1881. PlIYSICAIi GeoCiUAPIIY AND GeOLOGY. One bank or valley slope of a winding river is usu.-i'.y steeper than the other. Draw a diagram illustrating this jioint, and explain how the dilTerencc in tho slcpes is caused. What arrangement of strata is necessary for the pro- duction of a waterfall in a river's course? Write a short account of the action of the sea as a dcstructivo agent, and state what physical features result from a continuance of marine denudation. 542 APPENDICES. 3. In wliat rcHiMicts does wvndatone differ from quarlzite, shale from scliiat, and gronito from gneiss? Giro somo cxplouatioa of the difforencu ia each cnsc. 4. Wliat reoHona are there for believing that a source of heat exists in the interior of the earth ? .'). Mention the cliaractcrs which would satisfy you that a dci^osit had been foimcd (1) in shallow water, (2) in fresh water, (3) in a lake. i\ Describe briefly tlio succession of deposits in the Jurassic Series of the West of England. Arc any ^wculiarities in the character of theso beds exhibited in Yorkshire ? iMontion any substances of economic value derived from theso deposits. 7. What was the condition of En me that it is one which demands, more than most others, a man of first-class ability. lu the hands of a mediocre man it would almost certainly degenerate into a descrip- tive catalogue, and would be of no educational value. On the other hand, a really accomplished man might make it an important branch of one of the several categories enumerated in B. (Mcnioraudum of Instructions, II. 15., p. 5 of Report.) Ill 044 AJ'l'KNDICBS. If suck a man wora to prosont himself in any of tlieso bmncheH, I think it ])088il)lo or oven prubablo thtt tho University would find a pent for hini. " I cannot see how geography pure and simplo can be mode a Hubjcct of intdluo- tunl training, and I think the University will hesitate to give it a prominent part in their degree examinations. "As I havo already said, in other words, geography apjiears to mo at once wide and narrow. A dopurtraont of geograiihy occupies part of tlie same field as motcoi o- lo;j;y, but it is likely that a knowledge of tho actual distribution of water on tlio earth's surface wo^jld follow tho study of physics ratiier than precede it. However, meteorology ia still so much iu its beginnings that it is no use discussing it witik regard to University teaching. " Again, terrestrial magnetism is attached to tho theory ma'^netism and follows tiiu study of that theory. Geodesy follows this theory of tho earth's figure and astronomy, and surveying is a branch of the art of the Civil Engineer, — and so on through othtr branches of physics. "Similarly there aro other categories atff>c]ied to Natural History, Goologj-, Politics, History, and Political Economy. " It is impossible fur me to say how far tlij h^veral teachers in thcso brandies touch on geography. " In expressing these opinions it must bo borne in mind that I havo not paid attention to tho subject myself, excepting incidentally to other studies.". 8a. I reproduce tho following letter from Professor Alfbed Nkwton, F.R.S., to the lato Mr. Rye, taken from >lr. D. Freshfield's 'Memorandum on tho Proposals in Substitution for the " Publ: •- Schools Prizes." ' Tlie motion referred to was the following : — " It is desirable to apiwint lecturers in geography from time to time to dclivei' courses, wherever the Council may direct, and on the appointment of tho first sucli lecturers, to communicate with tho Vice-Chancellors of Oxford and Cambridge, witli tho object of entering into arrangements for tho delivery of lectures by tho Society's lecturers, or other qualified persons, at and under tho authority of the Universities, and in connection with their studies." February 'list, 1884. " My deab Rye, — I have shown the copy of Mr. Freshfield's motion to several influential men here, including some members of tho Council of the Senate, .ind they agree with mo in thinking that any proposal based on such terms, made to tlie University by the Royal Geographical Society, would bo sure to receive the most respectful attention, and would probably be, after duo consideration, favourably accepted — i.e. tho University would most likely afford a geographical professoi' appointed by tho Society every facility for delivering a course or courses of lectures in one of the University buildings. " I may here mention that on the Gth of February last year the Special Board for Biology and Geology suggested that ' Geography ' was one of the subjects in which 'University teachers should be eventually appointed' ('Cambridge University Reporter,' 13th June, 1883, p. 885), and I havo good reason to think that tlie same Board would support any well-considered scheme for giving effect to this suggestion. "Whether the pro^josed lectures, if given, would be successful or not is imire than I can predict. So much would depend on the lecturer himself; but for ray own part I should be very glad to sec the experiment tried. APPENDICES. 045 " I may hero remark that the • QcoRrnphy ' contcmplnteil in the suggestion (above quoted) of the Special Board for Biology and Geology was, of course, phyttical geography. If the suhjcct of the proposed lectures were jmlitkal geogruphy, it would rather seem to come under the cogniHanco of the Siicclal Ik)ard for History and I am quite unable to say what view might bo taken of it. " It would therefore bo well tlmt in cose any communication bo made by the Society to the Vice-Chancellor, the subjects to be dealt with by the Iccttuer should be precisely stated, in order to preclude the possibility of the proposal being referred to the wrong Sjiccial Board ; for I presume that the Vice-Cliancellor and Council of the Senate would not conio to any conclusion witiiout such a special reference. " You will, of course, understand tliat in this letter I do not pretend to pledge the University or anybody in it to what I have said or to any course of action. 1 only propose to give the impression left on me after sjieaking to men of more or loss weight in University matters as to probabilities. " Believe me to be, yours very t ruly, " Alfbkd Newtok." CAMBRIDGE.— Letteb fiiom Trof. A. Xewtox, F.li.S., to ilo. Kei.tie. « "MagJalouoCollego, J^Kiitfacc/, 1885. - " Wo arc neither better nor worse than others in regard to the prevailing ignor- ance of geography that characterises most Englishmen who aro supposed to be highly educated ; but iierliops there is manifested in Cambridge a greater indiiTerenco to the value of the study tlian elsewhere, which may partly be accounted for by the zeal with which other branches of learning aro iirosecutcd, and tlio fact that so many students of Natural Science are careless of the encouragement of any but the particular subject in which they aro personally interested. Moreover, I liave met with not a few people who are unable to understand that geography is a study to bo followed for its own sake. " You aro of course aware that there is no instruction in geography worthy of the name given in the University, and I may add that I find some difficulty in rendering my lectures on tlie Geographical Distribution of Animals intelligible owing to the great ignorance of general geography displaycl by many of my hearers." J 4. CAMBRIDGE.— Communication from Troff^spr JIcKesny Hughes, F.R.S. " I have received your letter and enclosure respecting the teaching of geography in this University, and shall be glad to bring the matter before tlie speoial Board of Studies which aro now considering the addition of new subjects to those already recognised in the Natural Science Tripos. It seems to mo tlmt geography must be taught in several departments, but especially in that of geology, where we now give much time to the parts included under the terms Physical Geography, Physiography, Dynamical Geology, &c., &c. " When wo have got our Economical Geology museums and classes into working order, another large branch, viz.. Commercial Geography, will bo included. " Political and Historical geography should be taught under the tuition of the Board of Historical Studies, before which I will take an opportunity of laying your proiKJsals." . 540 APPENDICKS. C. CAMBRIDGE.— KXTRACT FROM SYLLAIUJ8 OF TIIK GKOLOOICAL CUAIR.— PnoK. McKknny Uuoiikh, F.H.8. OeOLOOICAI. PnYBICR. \.—Phy»io(fraphj. (i) The AlinmpheiT, ConipoHition : proBcnco of nqucuus vapuur : condltionx which determiDo the cuiulonmition uf tliis nquuouH vapuitr into (low, mist, cloiul, rain, or snow. Distributiun of raiufitll. I'hyHical iiroiwrticH uf air ; wuigiit, tliu barometer. Origin of wimlR. Cyolonio chiiracter of Btorin*. Laws of direction and force of tlie wind in cyclones and iintiuyclunvs. Weather cliartH, Hiyiiteniii of windM over tliu earth'8 surface. (ii) The Ocean. Recent Houndings. Configuration of «ea-b«l. Mean do|itli of ocean and mean liciglit of land, ('oiiclusion indicated by this, of greater ])ermanenco and antiquity uf oceanic features. Deix)8it8 of sea-bed. Olobigcrintt ooze, diatom ooze, red clay and radiolariiu twze. Origin of encli. Coral reefs and islands. Theories of their formation. Sea water; its composition. The wean as the great reeeiitaelc of the calts dissulvcd liy terrestrial waters from the rocks. Movements of the oceanic waters. Surface currents and Itottom "creeii." Temperature observations and bearing on oceanic circulation, Discunsion of cjuses vf these phenomena. (lii) The Atmos/ihere and the Ocean in nJiiHon to Tfuijieniture, i.e. Climnlc Mode of propagation of heat. Pure dry air dintliermanous. Aqueous vni>mu' athermanous, hence imixirtance of aqueous vapour in tlie atmosphere from elinuitic point of view. Latent heat and specific heat, and their bearing on ciimate. Heating effect of sun's rays deiiendent on latitude and altitude. Meehanicnl equivalent of heat and eKtimatiun in its mechanical eipiivalent of the lieat conveyed by aerial and oceanic currents from tropical to temperate and jiolar regions, and the modification of climate thus produced by geograiihicnl cautes. C. — Structural Oeology, I. Stratification, joints, inclination of rocks, curvature, cleavage, dislocation, unconformability. Petrological features of igneous rocks, i.e. mode of occurrence in crust of eartli. Contact alteration. ^letamorphism of rocks. II. Oriff in fif Scenic features. (i) Valleys. Caves. I'roofs that they are in the main due to dcnudntiiii. Variation in shape of valleys dependent uikiu relative importance of wcatluMin,;,', erosion, and transportation. Longitudinal and transverKc valleys. IJrcaching ul hill ranges by valleys. (ii) Fjords. (iii) Lakes. Two groups (o) those formed by barriers, (6) those in true rock basins. Discussion of theories of origin of rock basins. Faunas of certain lakes and their bearing upon theories of origin. (iv) Plains. (v) Escarpments, (vi) Mountains. Those duo to («) accumulation, volcanoes. Old deuuilcd volcanoes, Arthur's Scat, Mull, »S:c. (b) Circumdenudution. (e) Disturbance. Distinction between the forces tliat gave position to the mugca, and tiiose whicli have imparted external form. 'Jhickncss of strata in great mountain ranges. Crushing and folding of the rocks, 'i'ypes of flexure. Overfolds and overfaults. APPENDICES. 647 P. — Paliroiiloloffical Oeulogtf. Distribution of |>lanta ami aiiimala over earthV Hurface. Cflntlilions of ontomb- mont uf orgnniu remains. Their pn-servntion. I^wa uf distribution applicablo to jMUt " successiuu uf ty|ic!«." Ductrino of iiilunieii. 0. ■ OWENS COLI.KGE.— (ojisif suATioN »bom Prok. Bovd Dawkixh, P.R.S. " Tho (lepU>rablo ii;iioranc« of geography among all claKHcs in this country, in my opinion, is largely tluv to the bud teaching in the elementary and secondary Kchuols. At prc8cnt geogniphy is taught either (Vom the physical side, i.e. n)ountains, rivers, glaciers, scan, &c., without any relation to tho ancient hiHtory of the earth, or from tho historical vide as a |iart of history. These two ]x>intB uf view aru kept as fur as {xMiaiblo niliticn1, commercial iind descriptive, ii la Humboldt, might bo dcwlupcd us may be wished. " We are stirring in llancliestcr iu our new geograpiiici! society, and had organised a committee very nmcli on your lines. Wo shall now Await the result of your inquiry. " In Owens College we have just organised a jv>int set of :?'< igraphical lectures, beginning with tho physical history of Britain, and ending wit. the development of British commerce, and of the colonics. " Geography is taught in our regular course, in Owens Colligo and in tho Victoria University by me, under the head of phj !>iography (sec enclosed syllabus), and by Professor Wanl from the historicnl end of the stick. Our courses, however, are not connected or continuous, as they should be. We are feeling our way towards a more systematic teaching. " With regard to Professorships in Geography the practical diflficulty will be to find men who can grasp all the sides of tho subject — physical, historical, commercial, descriptive. I, for instance, could take the first, but my knowlcilgo of the spread of British commerce in Eastern Asia or of the development of tho colonies of Greece would bo bookish and iierfunctory. The only way of meeting this diflicuUy seems to mo to organise joint coui-scs of lectures by diOcrcnt Profissors, each master of his subject. " I enclose a letter (see below), from Professor Ward (History). If I con do anything to help the movement, I will Jo it." EXTRACT FROM SYLLABUS OF LECTURES IN PHYSIOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY, AT OWENS COLLEGE, MAN- CHESTER— Prof. Boyd D.vwkins, F.R.S. Physiographi/, — 1. Tho Agents at work on and l^cneath the Surface of the Earth. («) Tho action of water. — Rain and its work. — Torrents and rivers and their work. — The sea and its work ; its temj«rature and its currents, (ft) Frost, snow, and ice. — Glaciers and icebergs and their work, (c) Tho atmosphere ; its temiierature and its currents. {(l) Chemiad action in building up and destroying. — ^Tlie work of carbonic acid. — Tho formation of caves and ravines iu cilcareous strata, (c) Organic action. — The work done by plants and animals. — The secretion of carbonate of lime, silic.i, and carbon iu their tissues. mi 548 APPENDICES. (/) Tho phonomcua rosultinj; I'roin earth-hoat, — Volcanoes and thoir worlc— Earthquakes and their work. — Elevation and depression of land without tho intervention of earthquakes. — Folds and contortions. . , (g) Mountain-making and valley carving. (h) Hot-springs and their work. U. The distribution of land. 3. The distribution of the Mammalia and thoir evidences as to changes in Geography. 4. The distribution of Man, and his advance in culture. 5. The Earth in relation to the heavenly bodies. 6. The Ancient History of the Earth. Text-books. — Huxley, 'Physiography'; Geikio, 'Physical Geography'; Lyell, ' Principles of Geology.' Books of reference. — Angus Smith, ' Air and Rain ' ; Tyndall, ' Lectures on Hoat '; Somerville, 'Physical Geography'; Wallace, 'Geographical Distribution'; Wallace, '.Island Life'; Murray, 'Geographical Distribution of the Mammalia'; Wyville Thompson, ' Depths of tho Sea ' : Tyler, ' Anthropology ' ; Lockyer, ' Astronomy * ; Dawkins, ' Early Man in Britain.' 8. LetTKH I'liOJI PUOKESSOB W \RD (HlSTOKV) TO PllOl'ESSOK BoYD DaWKINS. " Deau Dawkixs. — In reply to your query I may say that all our history examina- tions (in both University and College) take into account tho iwlitical geograpliy of tho periods to which they relate ; aud in our junior examinations, as again in our highest or Honours examinations, wo make a special point of it. Professtu' Bryce, who has hitherto acted as our external examiner for the University, is entirely agreed as to the expediency of this. " As to the teaching, we try to give a fair amount of historical geography in a larj^e junior English History class, and in our Ancient History classes. How niucli of ii, enters into our more special courses depends on their subjects, which vary. F. What races make up the population of motlern France, and how far do these races still occupy distinct districts ? I. State the territories contained in the Prussian kingdom under Frederick I., and show how they had been brought together, ij. Illustrate, from any one district of England, the help of a physical map in determining the time and place of the Anglian or the Saxon settlements. G. How far are the physical divisions of Italy brought out in either of these two : (1) the division of states at the entry of Charles VITI., or (2) the recon- struction by Napoleon ? 7. Illustrate briefly these statements: (1) "Africa begins at the Pyrenees;" (2) " Spain is made for defensive warfare ; " (.')) " The greatness of Spain, being factitious, was her ruin." 8. Where are any of the following places, and what is their geographical and historical importance: Bremen, Groslar, Guesen, Xocera, Estc, Citeaux, Manzikert, Edessa, Ascalon, Montenegro, Belgrade, Pultowa, Taxben, Kainardji, Areola ? 9. "In the I'astem Empire hardly a province was lost till it had been once or twice won back." Exemplify this from any cases within your period. 10. Explain the geographical obstacles to an invasion of India from the north- west. How has the advance of the British power during the present century altered the conditions of the problem ? II. The region from the Scheldt to the Sambre is the arena which nature seems to have prepared for France and its foes to settle their quarrels there. Justify this from the history of some one campaign. I2.H0W far do purely geographical considerations account for (1) the migration of the ship-building trade from London about 1860 ; (2) the importance of the Manchester Ship Canal ? 13. In what respects have the geographical characteristics and environment of Persia caused it to play in Asia a part analogous to that of Poland iii Europe ? Trinity Term, 1884. (Three hours allowed.) 2. OXFORD. — Second Public Examination. Pass Scuool. Group B. — GEoaRAPHY. 1. What do you know of the Panama Canal, San Francisco, Novgorod, Rangoon, Strasburg, Turin, Lisbon, Smyrna, Delhi V 2. Describe the situation and capabilities of either Manitoba, or Natal, o Queensland. 0. Over what parts of the earth is Englibh now the dominant language ? APPENDICES. A 551 4. Describe the physical features and the chief towns of eitlier Spain or the Austrian Empire. 5. What light does the history of your period throw on the relative strength of mountain-chains and rivers as frontiers? 0. What districts have been won or lost in the last fifty years by France, Russia, Turkey ; and what has been in each case the excuse for the change? 7. What portions of modem France were not included in it in the 11th and 12th centuries ? 8. Explain the meaning of Pentapolis, Palatinate, Two Sicilies, Castile, Prankish Kingdom of Jerusalem ; and name the chief towns in each. 0. What is the importance in your period of (1) Nocera, Este, Parma, Benevento, Citeaux, Bouvines, Ztnra, Meloria, Clarendon, Rockingham ; (2) the Valtelline, Belgrade, Yuste, Zutphen, Utrecht, Donau worth ? 10. In what respects do political fail to correspond with physical boundaries in the case of either of Hindostan or the Turkish Empire? 11. Show how geographical conditions help to explain the Norman conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily. 12. Show how geographical conditions help to explain the formation of the United Provinces of the Netherlands in the 16th and 17th centuries. Michaelmas Term, 1883. , H. ROYAL MILITARY COLLEGE, SANDHURST. Further Examination. rration mce ot lent of and ill ligoon, O.NERAL AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. Extra marks will be given for neatly-drawn maps and diagrams, hut only so far a« they are accurate. 1. Mark on the accompanying map of New Zealand the provinces, principal rivers, mountains, and chief towns. 2. Draw a map of Ireland. Indicate upon it the principal lines of water-parting and the coiu^es of the main rivers. Mark also the positions of eight of the chief towns. 3. Describe the boundaries of the Austrian Empire, pointing out especially the places of greatest importance in the event of war with Italy, Germany, or Russia. . What races are under the dominion of Austria? 4. Enumerate the more important islands of the East Indian Archipelago, and give some account of their climate, physical features, and natural pro- ductions. 5. vVrite a brief account of oceanic currents and their causes. 6. Explain the construction of an ordinary barometer. Why does a falling barometer usually indicate the approach of stormy weather? 7. Give an account of the distribution of active volcanoes over the earth's surface. Are there any traces of extinct volcanoes in Britain ? What are the rocks of which the central portions of great mountain ranges are composed ? At what period or periods were the Alps upheaved, and what was the nature of the force which produced the upheaval ? 8. \n m M VOL. 1. £52 APPENDICES. . 0. GiveBome account of a river an a denuding agent. How does a river widen its valley ? < , 10. Draw diagrams illustrating an escarpment, a volcanic cone, a fault, an outlier, and an unconfonnability. .,' 11. Write out a table of British Jurassic deposits. Place opposite each sub- division the names of one or two characteristic fossils. 1 . 12. Describe the geological features of some district with which you are personally familiar. ••^03 . )i«i.i.ii.) , ji; t. •;.,;; ..,)'*• i;i'.;.A I. .J U:> '.At.; H.M.S. 'BRITANNIA.' ;j#^ ,^'1; f.;l;// Decembt ; 1884. , ■ : ■' I. 1. 2. ' 6. •,>- a 7. ■^''- 8. 9. 10, PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.— First Term. , n- V: '■"'*'' Time allowed, two hours. ' " What are the generally accepted proofs of the earth's sphericity ? What reason can you advance for assuming that the apparent rotation of the sun and stars round the earth is due to the actual revolution of the earth round its axis? What angle does the earth's axis make with the plane of its orbit? Explain, with diagrams, the meaning of the words : — Equinox, Solstice, and Tropic. What do you understand by the term " Oblate Spheroid"? How much greater is the earth's mean equatorial diameter than its polar diameter ? •Into how many Zones i» the earth divided, what are the names of them, and over how many degrees of latitude do they respectively extend ? Explain why it is colder at the top of a mountain that at its base. Give a description of the bed of the ocean, and state roughly the average and greatest depths of the different oceans. With the assistance of a diagram, explain the causes of the tides. Give a description of the Antarctic current, and point out its effect on the climate of South America. What do you mean by land and sea breezes, and to what are they due? ,i.i V- ''■■]■■ ui( I*. ■■"> Science and Art Examinations; Physioorapbt. — Extract from the Report OF Professor Jddd and Mr. Norman Lockteb fob 1883. "There has been a marked increase in the number of candidate* who have presented themselves in this subject at the examination of the present year. The total number of worked papers was 5,687, while kuat year it only amounted to 4,871. This increase is exhibited in each stage of the'examinatioD, the Elementary papers having risen from 4,252 to 4,922, the Adranotd from 561 to 653, and the Honoun'from 68 to 112. APPENDICES. m: " Uafortunately thie increase in numbers is no^ attended with anlituprQTement in the results. It is true that the proportion of passes in the Advanced stage has increased by 1 per cent, and of first classes by 10 per cent, of the whole number ; out against this we must set the fact that in the Elementary stage the proportion of failures has risen from 41 to 45 per cent., while the proportion of first classes has declined by abpu^ 6 per cent, of the whole number of lepers. The Honours pi^pers are neither bettor nor worse than those of last year. " In 1878 and 1880 a similar, sudden increase in the number of papers was attended with a like decline in the quality of the work done, as illustrated by the results of the examination, and it is probable that in all cases the explanation is the same, namely, that a number of inexperienced teachers have token up the teaching of the subject for the first time, and the low standard of their results has had a marked effect in bringing down the average of the whole examination. "The percentage of candidates whoso papers have been cancelled for want of attention to the rules printed conspicuously at the head of the examination paper is still very large. Many candidates do not attempt the compulsory questions, and some select their questions from those set for different stages. More than 5 per cent, of the Elementary papers and nearly 4} per cent of the Advanced had to be cancelled on these grounds. . . . " But to teach by rote cut-and-dried answers to questions set in previous years is perfectly childish and worse than useless. It is not in the least likely (thongh at the same time it is not absolutely impossible) that the same question will be repeated in identical terms, and the chance of such a thing occurring is surely not worth the risk involved in such a proceeding as we describe. L^iving out of account the dishonesty of this mode of teaching, it may be condemned because it does not and never can answer. *< The extent to which this attempted circumventing of examiners is carried may bo judged by the fact that some candidates write out a number of answers, which have evidently l^een learnt by fote, to questions set in former years, these answers having no relation whatever to the questions actually standing upon the paper. . . . " ITie most glaring defect in the teaching of Physiography at the present time appears to be in the failure of the teachers to ground their pupils in the gi^at fundamental principles which underlie the whole subject. In many cases it is too evident that the teachers have not fully grasped these principles themselves, and in others it is plain that they have actually made false and misleading statements to their pupils. *' The^e is proof of a complete reliance ujwn and slavish adherence to the state- ments of text-books, which would seem in many cases to be simply read to the pupils without explanation or illustration. Even the precaution of writing technical terms upon the blackboard seems to be frequently omitted, in many schools all such terms being written phonetically. " The best and most reliable text-books i»re of course of little value in the hands of a careless or incompetent teacher, but in some cases teachers have unnecessarily handicapped themselves by employing very bad or altc^ether obsolete sources of information. " The want of proper instruction in the great fundamental truths of Physiography is illustrated this year by the fact that more than 23 per cent, of the candidates m the Elementary stage and 15 in the Advanced stage have had their papers cancelled for gross ignorance of the subjects referred to in the compulsory questions. When it is Sidded that no paper has beep thus cancelled unless absolute ignorance was shown on ^^^ subject treated in at least two of these comjpulspty questions, the low standard of the teaching will become suflSciently apparent." , . , 2 Q 2 ' iNWi' in-m 564 APPENDICES. With regnrd to t]ie Training College oxaminations iu Physiography, Prof. Judd and Mr. Norman Loclcyer report as follows : — " The number of candidates in this subject lins increased from 872, the number in 1882, to 1,054, the number in the present year. Up to the year 1881 every increase in the number of candidates was attended by a falling off in the character of the results. Last year the results, in spite of a considerable increase of numbers, were quite on a par with those of the preceding year. This year a still greater increase in numbers has been attended with a positive and very marked improvemeni, in the results. The percentage of failures has fallen from 81*5 to 25 '5. The Iiercentage of Seoond-class passes has risen from 66 to 62, while that of First-class passes is almost stationary." " Q'here is still abundant evidence that the whole of the scientific teaching in some of the Colleges is carried on by means of text-books, and that the pupils are never allowed to see, and much less to perform, experiments for themselves." K. HEIMATSKUNDE.— EXTRACT FROM THE DIRECTIONS AS TO GEO- GRAPHICAL TEACHING FROM THE • INSTRUCTIONEN Ft)R DEN UNTERRICHT AN DEN GYMNASIEN IN OESTERREICH.' VIENNA, 1884. IsTBODUcnoN. — The Elements of Oeography. ,•;,,'- Geography views the earth as a whole and the things on the earth's surface as such, in their topographical arrangements and in the relations connected with topography. The wealth, however, of matter included within this compass renders it no easy task on the part of the geographical instructor to communicate an adequate conception of it, and all the more that but a small portion, the immediate neighbourhood, lies open to the observation and personal experience of the pupils. The neighbourhood, theif, must serve as a measure and standard of comparison for the distant, offering as^it does an image of the same arrangement and the same relations. Geographical study and teaching, on the other hand, by comparing the neighbourhood with, and showing its relations to, other terrestrial regions, throws n new light on and imparts a new conception of the neighbourhood. For these reasdns it seems proper to begin geographical teaching with the elements composing the immediate landscape and forming the elements likewise of geography. The distinguishing and arranging of them will be a type of the business of the whole course of geographical instruction, and will so far determine tlie character of the whole. Let the pupils as far as possible set asimder and group for themselves in their own way the objects lying within the view presented to them from the top of the near hill or mountain ; the first' group will be formed by moun- tains, bills, valleys, plains : consequently level and unlevel land. Another group will comprise spring (source), river-channel, brook, stream, river, pool, pond (or, as may be, lake, sea), marsh, canal : consequently running and standing waters. A third group would cover the vegetation of the neighbourhood, — ^pasture-land, bush, forest (of pine and green wood), then the different cultivated species of plants, A fourth group would take in the inhabited places, and a fifth the ways of communica- tion. Another great division would embrace the firmament, the heavenly luminaries ; another the air and wind with the different sorts of precipitations. Next would come the periods of the day, and seasons of the year. This work of singling out and APPENDICES. 555 onumerating would likewise give occagion to the pupils for recollecting what they had previoiuly learned in the primary school. OrientcUion. — Qeography arranges the objects of its contemplation not only after their kind, but views them primarily and specially after their topographical arrange- ment, and its first task in that resiwct is orientation. We arrange the features of the neighbourhood we survey, say, from a mountain, according to their succession around the horizon, according to their greater or less distance, according to their situation on this or that side, to the right or to the left of the river, and so on. In the course of this process the teacher will find reiwatetl occasion to demonstrate to the pupils the necessity of a universally valid orientation, according to the sun and its daily course, whence the cardinal points of the world are taken. The dear representation of this daily course of the sun over our horizon must by practice be firmly fixed in the minds of the pupils, seeing it is the basis not only of all orientation and toi)Ographical arrangement, but likewise of mathematical geography (meridians and parallels). From the very beginning, therefore, the solar illKinination of the different sides of a house, a street, a square, at different hours of the day, may be observed and fixed in the mind. In viewing a range of mountains their directions will give occasion to comx>aro the illumination of the slopes on the two sides in the different iteriods of the day. The pupil, while arranging according to the cardinal points the objects lying within his view, will also learn to arrange in this order the places remote from him, stretching out his hand in the direction in which they lie. Measuring.— XwoihsiT means by which the pupil learns to dispose of things and their relations is that of measurement. Exercises for this end are best fitted to awaken and sustain the interest of the pupils, and train them in niuiking comparisons and representations of what they see. After they have determined the places accord- ing to their cardinal points, let the pupils at once proceed to measure by steps the schoolroom, the street, the market-place, in order to lay down a plan of it. The units of measure formerly in use, taken from the human body, the foot, nail, fathom, &c., with their multiples, have had to give place to measures taken from the earth itself, the meter and its thousand multiple, the kilometer. Another terrestrial unit of measure, the application of which for all larger terrestrial areas cannot be too much commended, is formed by the degree of a great circle of the terrestrial globe, the degree of the earth. This unit may be immediately taken from the middle meridian of any map. Its small numbers are easily kep v in the memory ; they show the relation to the magnitude of the whole earth, and are readily converted into kilometers. The magnitudes of the visible neighbourhood will be made the unit or basis for the representation of magnitudes in the distance ; the extent of the town in length And breadth, the breadth of the valley, of the plain, the length and breadth of the river, the area of the surface of a lake, the heights of mountains, the altitudes of particular points. Distances according to the visibility of tb'^ objects (such a place in the horizon is visible ; such a place in a remote country is so many times that distance). Another unit of measure within the personal experience of the pupils, and which is therefore all the more intelligible, is time-measurement. The reduction of distances (as given according to the standards of the map, for example) into so many days' journey of a pedestrian, of a caravan, or so many days' course of a river, so many days' transit oi a railway train, so many steamboat passages by lakes and seas ; the measurement of the course of a river by the time it takes to complete that course — by such familiar standards are distances most easily and vividly measured by the pupils. \4 556 APPENDICES. Above all, however, tho practice of 6pupils to a closer study of a smaller number, and teaoh thent to recognise in them the conceptions and views develbped in the lessons and so stilnulat* them to comparison. For more searching observiatious photographs, with their fisithful reproduction of minute but often important details, are especially well qualiiiod. Where it is more a question regarding ttie characteristic features of landscapes or the situation of towns pictures may be more copioiuly employed. 3. Mapi. — (a) Collective Exercises of the Class. — If all that has been stated in tha foregoing is to qualify the pupil to draw pictures of actual things from the map, it is plain that he must himself appropriate the map, which, to be sure, remains the most important means of representation in geography. Seeing the map presents to the eye the picture of a district of the earth with all its multiplicity of forms and other details, it will be necesdary to put the whole etass through a number of exercises having for their object the more distinct oomprehon- sion of the map, and a more lasting ihipresslon of it on the minds of the pupUa* Such exercises are : — a. The teachers (perhaps, later on, a pupil) will name mountains, rivers^ islands, towns ; the pupils will then look them up rapidly in their map or point them ont on the wall-map. ^. That which is indicated on the wall-map or black-board will be at once named by the pupil who is asked to do so. y. The question will be put, which of two objects is the more remote from ii8,or from some other point ; or, d. Which of two towns lies more to the N. or £. ; what mountain chain^' river, lake, sea, other large towns or town lies nearest; what mountain ranges, rivers belong to a single or several States ; which of them bound (border) States ; which States border on one or two seas ? or other such questions. These exercises may be pursued with open and, later on, with closed maps. With questions and answers of this kind each lesson — from the oommenoe* ment, in cases where enough has been learned in the primary Sohule to give opportunity for such questions, and on to the stage of the higher classes — may most advantageously be opened, seeing this exercise with the whole class of pupila arouses the interest and emulation even of the more backward children. This is the course of procedure meant, when in Avhat follows reference is pretty often made to the exercises accompanying the systematic instruction, and it is dear that this form of instruction is very well applicable, in the case of repetition as well, in which many a mor^ tesiinig question maybe put regarding what has been learnt. Geography requires so much in order that the totality of the instruction conveyed shall form a coherent picture in the mind, that constant repetition ia a principal requirement in its course of instruction. Questions such ns those above stated are intended to sustain the interest of the pupil in simple topography, without which all other instruction and knowledge remains confused atid more or less supei-ficial. Another task is the comprehension of the inner order and sequence ("Ordnung und Regel " ) in the map. (&)' Drawing. — ^The transference of the forms and magnitudes in the map to the minds of' the pupils is effected first' and foremost by the medium of dirawing. Let the instruction conveyed in the class go hand in hand with rawing on the black- board, so that the form which has been described to the pupils audibly may be reproduced simply and characteristically to their eye. It is not however advisable iifitf ?i ill > m m 5M APPENDICES. to ipend too much time iu the ichool on fuUy exeeuttd Jnwings or diagrami, or on drawing in any caw. Even when ocoaiionally more difficult contour* or river liuet have to be reproduced the drawing ihould bring out only the tjffieal/orm. Simple straight-lined iigureaor curves, which indicate clearly the form, may very well serve u a basis (or framework) for the tracing of the principal features, as is also done iu other freehand drawing, when the meridian and parallel are not sufficient guide to the direction to be observed. The drawing is not for the sake of drawing, but only a means by which the pupils may the better realise the leading forms and retain them in memory. Let the pupils therefore, under the guidance of the teacher, habituate themselves to firm and decided stroke* directed by clear and definite conceptions. The pupil who points out any fault in the drawing of his fellow-pupil, let him step up to the board and trace out another drawing alongside of it. The comparison of the drawings with the map and, most effectually, a few corrections by the teacher, will serve to bring out and impress the true features on the pupiU. The exercises with the whole class above indicated may often, too, be extended into the reproduction of lines (courses), directions, fee, by drawing. The drawings done by the pupil may be kept by him at homo in a book, in which brief observations, leading indications or questions given by tlie teacher may aliio be preserved. At a later stage independent drawings may be prescribeil the pupil, for the most part a small simple object, and always closely connected with the exercises and material subject of instruction. These books will thus present to the eyes of the pupil, even in later years, the course of instruction he has passed through. (c) Linguistic L'xpresiimt. — The reproduction in words of what in viewed on tlie map trains the pupils to the understanding of the forms and ttioir relations. The schooling in this branch is of essvutial importance, if the superabundance of material is not to confuse rather tlinn eduontc. Each new accession of material will, on the other hand, be to the pupil a real accession of knowledge and an increase of property if he is duly practised in reproducing in fit words all that he Las perceived by the eye and comprehended by the uiiud. In this connection it will be of importance how tlie teacher brings out the features of the map or accompanies with words tLo sketch ho draws on the board, follows up that exercise, perhaps, with passages ot' landscape description, and gathers up in pregnant memorable sayings what has been gone through; or how, in common with the pupils, he frames by process of comparison and summing-up the definitions which the visual views may seem to require. The instruction ought also, however, to qualify the pupil to take up independently the forms of the map, especially what is essential for him, and afterwards to depict it all in words. The order and law ("Ordnung und Begel") imderlying the apparent imbroglio of a map will in this way grow ever clearer to the pupil. In the disijosal itself of the difiierent features lies something plastic (ur formative — "etwas Bildondcs"); constant comparison educates the intellectual eye; the treatment of the map thus carries in it in large part the formative energy, as it does the chief difficulty, of geography. Geograpliy, when truly vital, holds uo merely |)assive, but also a kind of creative or formative attitude to the features of the earth's surface, just as painting or the plastic art is in part creation and nut mere copying. In accordance with the purpose thus indicated, instruction ought to be so laid down as to conduct naturally without interruption or sudden spring from one step to another, so that the pupil receive not merely the map into his mind, but be able to have a correct iden of even larger and richer areas, such as they are in reality, of which the map is but a drawing, often only a mere sign. The teacher will bear in mind that the main business of the first course is to introduce the pupil into an understanding of the map, and that the proper acquisi- APPENDICKS. 559 tion and dianoterUtio description of the representations of tlio eartli'a divlsiuna ia tlie taslc only of tlie next courite. So far, moreover, aH the understanding of tliu map is concerned, tlie pupil haa less to do with finding in the map what iM printed in the linea of the book, tliaa that he may find in the arranjKemont uf the book nothing which he did not gather beforehand from the map. The home tasks of the pupil will therefore, perhaps, better consist in questions ho has to answer out of the map than in parts of the text-book to be couimittud to memory. Uf course, so far as the Utter it employed by wny of fixing the lestson, tlic teacher will give th« pupils what guidance mny be reqidrod. 1. BOOKS AND APPARATUS USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY AT THE REALGYMNASIUM, LEIPZIG. Iliatorical Qtography, Kiepert Biblical Geography. „ Palestine. „ Orbis terrarum antiqui tabula Geographica. , „ Inipetium Homanum. „ Itulia antiqua ; Groicia outiqua. Bretschneider Europe, 350 b.c. „ . Europe, 600 B.ti. „ Europe, ill the time of Charles the Great. „ „ in the second half of the 10th century. ^ „ in the time of the Crusades. I, „ in the time of the Reformation. ^ , from the Thirty Years' War to 1700. „ „ from 1700 to 1789. „ from 1789 to 1813. All the above works of Bretschneider according to Spruner-Menke. Mathtmatical Geography. Adami-Kiepert .. .. Terrestrial Globe. Wetzel Wall-map of Mathematical Geography. Ziemann .. > Tlie Northern Constellations. Physical Geography, Gerster Diagram for Anschauungslehre. de May Map of the World. Kiepert Eastern Planisphere. „ Weatern Planisphere. Delitsch Projection of Europe. Kiepert Europe ; also by Sydow-Vogel. „ .. .. ,. .. Asia ; also by Chavanno. „ Africa ; also by Chavauuo. „ North and South America. . Delitsch .. .. . Middle Europe. ff.J •tM I ii Li *60 APPENDICES. Steinhauaer .. .; ■\. Hy[il|pgrophical Kap of Middk Eoiopt. f.i-'noi? Delitfoh Projection of Germany,-: > .i- » i'.-i 3ii/i' vJf t! MUllerandRulf .. .. QomAuiy. I;: r "'''•■•: fi ii^i^i f „ .. .. Tri^gleof MouutAiDiin.UpperOarmaay oiU iii ^ Steinhauaor Tl»»Ali». ^ 'f'oi; '' (Aooording toSe}jlit3s) .. Eaat Alpi, Swedon», Norvkjr, Dtmnokk. •/(><; rii) «' Kiepert Fnuicoi lOu ii.(j -i' # m') 'W.i Delitsch Saxony. "'■ Ziegler Swltaorland, , Arendts Spain and Portugal. HchiaiMrt'lli ItMy. • ii>i[9m Baur Austria. ' ' / , " Kiepert Franco. • i, Scbadi' South Ociiuany. .1 Leetler Prussia. <» Tills Tim Netherlands. ^,i'■.i.^'^•^ " ArcndtH Turkey in Euro^ie and Greece. t> Kiepert The Biallcan Pcuiusula. ■- Graef Thuringian Lands. Kiepurt The British Islands. ■■ •- it A. Kirchholl" ,. ' .. .. Tyijes of Uacos (Fischer, Cassel). Lehmann Ethnological Types (Utitinann, Leipzig). HSlzel i, „ (Holzel, Vienna). !;••. Lchmann's Goograpliical Types are uucoinmoidy good, and therefore largely in use in the Vollisschule as well. .,.w,w i.A:4 . (Signed) Db. GOtck, Oberlehrer. ..:.. i'i'...t{. . .ti. ■ i;-'J/2':,i" j o 1' .. . ,. ii::l„.:l\ APPARATUS USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY IN THE WOHLER- SCHULE, FRANKFURT.— Db. Koutioarn. , • I. — For Sexta (Boys of 9 years of ago; Latin commenced, 2 hours weekly Geography, 1 History). 1. Ravenstein, special plan of Frankfurt, Bockenheim, Bornheira. k 2. Ravenstein, relief of tlio environs of Frankfurt. ■•■•■''''' 1 3. Diefenbacli, map of the district of the main, mounted, 10 m. .. ■ 1. ^ i'- 4. G^isel and Diefenbach, wall-map of Wiesbaden district. • • . -.< 5. Ravenstein, wall-mop of Wiesbaden district. C, Adami-Kiepert, Terrestrial Globe with horizon, meridian, compass, &c 7. Adami-Kiepert, Celestial Globe with complete armature. 8. R. 0. Oei la HU 11. Uir 1 12. y. 8 APP'elNDICK^ 5«1 8. K. ^yotsel, Tellurium Liinarium. ' 0. Qorator, walUiimp fur tmiiiing geoj^raphicnl obMrrationi guide to the lue of It. -* '**■ ^ 10. Hirt, the (irincipal foniu of tlio earth's Hurfoce, wall-map. 11. Uirt, Tabular Oeographical Viewa, Part I., General Oeography ; Fart II. Typical Tjandacapeii. 12. ▼. Sydow, map of the Earth in 2 plania<>here«, 6 m. ■•""■-j!* ,«<«'>''^ ./»^ .f 13. Kieport, eastern and weetem planispherea. ' "W^vrtj iK'OW ,««> U. .A .ii 14. BorghaUB, Europe, physical wall-map. .iWvoD (.ilj livsjHiMlW'i ," .> 15. Klepert.pliysicai wall-map of Euir>p«. -•••'•'"''' n"««*^ un- ,i. ilnoW .^ 16. V. Sydow, Europe, physical wall-map^ ;."^ni.:i.> » no.iv;; .nrifc.'H .a " 17. Petenuann, Germany, phyrical wall-map. v ».:#fa » iU» ,«.;«;.•/'* t .0 la Kieiiert, waU-map of Palestine. •' '" .'"»■♦■•*>< ■'•> X;" « W>'« tl^'^'l^' -^ 20. Debes, school atlas (for the hand ofthapupih). *'"•'» "'»''*''«J '<«•>'* •*' II.— For Quinta (Boys of 10 to 11 ytara of age ; Frencll CoDOWicad, 2. hour» woelily Geography, 1 History). tft-l «w ]^v3,k^i!>'\ ,ff/«. ' "' '• -"ii ' l-"' '^ » 2. V. StUlpnagel, £un>pe, political wall-map. ** " . 3 and 4. v. Haardt, wall-map of Europe physical and political. 5. V. Sydow, Asia, physical wall-ma|i. (5. V. Sydow, Africa, phjiical wall- map. ■' « 7 and 8. v. Sydow, North and South America, physical wall-maps. 0. V. Sydow, Australia da Mercator's projection. 10. Kiepert, wall-map of the Old World. 11. Lehmann, ethnographic pictures. < In addition, from Sexta to 20. 1/4, 1.)" ,Vr;\ii I. .-ji i; rtJii*-' ini»i( «. ^ w .«. vi .« Chavanne, physical wall-map of Africa, .'"•'•*1' « f - ^V^ < if^n*^'^^ ^'^ Berghaus, physical wall-map of Africa. '»"' •' '*""•*" 1 • "1^**' -'^ Kiepert, physical wall-map of North America. ''"'**;''^ '''''"'' .•.'limiA S Kiepert, physical wall-map of South America. '"" ''">•••'<.( ,«ii'it>i^i .T Kieiiert, physical wall-map of Australia. ''"'" •**•"•'! «"*if)'^^ •"'' 8. Kiepert, Orbis torrarum antiquus. ^ ' ' n«''-f.-- • ««'- "••"« -^ ..rMtai/i M 9. Kiepert, Grax '' ^« -Vi .^i.h^ia .i-M 12. Gallia in the time of Ccvsar. * ' ' " ^ ' ' .' ''«• • 13. van Kampen, Dcscriptioncs nobilissimorum'apud classicos looorum.' Series L- XV. ad Ca>saris do bcllo Galileo commentarios tabulie. 14. Kieii^rt, wall-map illustrating Biblical Geography. • "'* 15. Ohnj nn, wall-map of Biblical History. IC. Sclineider, Type-atlas (drawings, illustrative of botanical and zoological geography and of ethnography). 17. Holzel, geographical character-pictures. '"' ,."• " - 18. Wallace, geographical distribution of animals. '""' ••"^'" ♦""^^*^^= '-^ 19. Kirchhof, pictures of races, designed to be used in teaching geography. fl 692 APPENDICES. 20. Berghaus, Ethnological atlas, comprising all tbe races of men, 25 tables. 21. Kiepert, Atlas antiquus, 12 maps. In addition, from Scxta 6 to 8, 18 to 20 ; from Ouinta 5 to 11. IV.— For Under Tertia (Boys of 12 to 13 ; English in the Realgymnasium, Greek in the Gymnasium commenced, 2 hours weekly Geography, 2 History). 1. A. Mang, decomposable universal apparatus (Celestial Globe). 2. A. Mang, decomposable Tellurium Lunarium. 3. V. Stiilpnagel, the German Empire and adjoining lands, polit'cal wall-map. 4. Wagner, the German Empire and adjoining lands, political wall-map. 5. Kiepert, general map of Germany and neighbouring lands. 6. Bavenstein, relief map of the Grand Duchy and Electorate, of Hesse, the Duchy of Nassau, &c. 7. Dickert, relief map of Central Europe. 8. M5hl, orohydrographic and railway wall-map of Germany and Middle Europe, edited by Koil. 9. Dolezal, Austria-Hungary, physical wall-map. , - 10. Baur, political wall-map of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. 11. V. Spruner-Bretschneider, Europe in 350 a.d. 12. „ „ „ in the beginning of the 6th century. 18. „ „ „ in the time of Charlemagne. 14. „ „ „ in latter half of the 10th century. 16. „ „ „ in the time of the Crusades. 16. Wolff, historical atlas, 19 maps. 17. Ruprecht, geological wall-map. • 18. Winter, school atlas, completely revised by Berghaus, 33 maps. In addition from tjexta 17 to 19 ; from Quarta 12 to 15, 17. v.— For Upper Tertia (Boys of 13 to 14 ; 2 hours weekly Geography; 2 History). 1. Leuder, special wall-map of the Al^is. 2. Ahrendts, wall-map of the Netherlands and Belgium. The above two also used in Under Tertia. 3. Schilling, France, photolithographic wall-map. 4. Kiepert, physical wall-map of France, without names. 6. Kiepert, political wall-map of France. 6. Murby, Great Britain and Ireland, political wall-map. 7. Kiepert, physical wall-map of the British Islands, without names. 8. Kiepert, political wall-map of the British Islands. 9. Kiepert, physical wall-map of Italy. 10. Kiepert, political wall-map of Italy. 11. Mayr, wall-map of the Balkan Peninsula. 12. Kiepert, general map of the Russian Empire in Europe. 13. Ahrendts, wall-map of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. 14. Ahrendts, wall-map of Spain and Portugal (Halbig, Miltenberg). 15. v. Spruner-Bretschneider, Europe in the 14th century. 16. „ „ „ iu the time of the Reformation. 17. „ „ „ in the time of the Thirty Years' War. I8v „ „ „ in 1700-1789. 19. „ „ „ in 1789-1815. 20. Brecher, historical wall-map of Prussia from 1415 to the present time. In addition, from Sexta, 18, 19; from Quinta, 12 to 15 ; from Under Tertia, 1 to 5, 7, 8 ; 16 to 18. APPENDICES. 663 YT. — ^Fw Under Seounda (Boys 15 years of age ; 1 hour weekly Geography ; 2 Hiatoiy). 1. Kiepert, political wall-map of Asia. 2. Kiepert, political wall-map of Afnca. *;' ; S and 4. Kiepert, political wftll-map of North and South America. 6. Ghavanne, map of Central America and the West Indie«. 6. V. Sydow, wall-map of Australia and Poljmesia. 7. Berghaus, chart of the World (general view of lines of steamers, of land and suhmarine telegraphs, sea-currents, &c.). 8. Berghaus, general map of the World, on Mercator's projection (German con> Bulates, sea-routes, and postal union of the world). 9. Gnrtius and Kaupert, atlas of Athens and environs. 10. Kiepert, map of the environs of Rome, mounted. In addition from Sexta 11, 18 to 19 ; from Quinta, 5 to 11 ; from Quarta, 1 to 11, 14, 15, 16 to 21 ; from Under Tertia, 18. VII. — For Upper Secnnda (Boys of 16 years of age ; 1 hour weekly Geography ; 2 hours History. With the end of this form geographical instruction also ends, when the certificate in geography obtained by the pupil is inscribed < with the " Abiturienten Zeugniss," the document, namely, entitling the < pupil to enter the Polytechnic Institute, have two years deducted from his period of military service, &c. For Bepetitions : From the numbers of the foregoing classes as may be required, especially from Under Secunda, 7 and 8 ; in addition — 1. Andree-Feschel, physico-statistical atlas of the German Empire. ,- • 2. Kuab-Miiller, railway map of middle Europe. VIII. — ^For Prima (Under Prima 1 year ; Upper Prima 1 year. Boys of 17 to 19 years of age ; 3 hours weekly History, in which Geography is referred to only as illustrative of History). 1. £. Wetzel, wall-map for instruction in Mathematical Geography, 4th edition, 1884, mounted. 2. Renter, the Northern Heavens, wall-map. ^, In addition from Under Tertia 1 and 2. For diiferent classes and for more special questions. 1. Stieler, hand atlas, 95 maps and 170 exercise maps, bouud. 2. Berghaus, physical hand atlas, 93 maps, .i 3. T. Spruner-Menke, historical hand atlas, 3 ^larts, 139 maps. , 4. Menkc, Bible atlas, 8 maps, bound. M. TASKS AND METHODS OP THE GEOGRAPHY^OF OUR DAY. Bt Pbofessob ton Bicbthofen. According to Professor Richthofen, the points in which geography comes into contact with the sciences already organised are so many, and in a large number of points the connection is so intimate, as to make it appear often impossible to draw a line of demarcation between them. It has therefore become^a question whether geography can maintain itself as an independent science. - :•■: 664 APPENDICES. The province of geography is first and sixcially tho Sntfaoe / these processes go on in the land, the water, and the atmosphere of the oarti surface, the reciprocal causal relations of the three kingdoms — land, water, and atmosphere. 6th, Plants and Animals. It is not the business of the geographer to study the different species in their distinctions (the task of the botanist and zoologist) ; but only the diatrihution of the different species, genera, families, orders. 6th. The summit of the geographer's task is the investigation of the relations of man to all the foregoing factors, wholly and severally. Geography presents itself, therefore, as the science of the surface of the earth, and of the things and phenomena in causal connection therewith ; not Erdkunde, but Erdoherfldchen Kunde. " To sum up : Scientific Oleography has, as its first task, the investigation of tlie surface of the dry land of our globe, together with its hydrosphere and atmosphere, in respect of the four heads of Figure, Material Composition, Continuous Transfor- mation, and Creation ; all under the leading consideration of tho reciprocal relations of the three kingdoms of Nature to one another and to the surface of the earth. " Its second task is tho investigation of the Botany and Zoology of the earth in their reciprocal relations, in the four difl'crent respects above specified, to the earth's eiurface. "Its third task has reference to man and particular eiiochs of his material and mental culture under the same leading consideration, and in respect of the same four heads. " There are two methods that may be followed in the execution of these tasks. " Tho concretely descriptive method is employed by that geography which in it» purest form, chorography, registers the treasury of facts according to a funda- mental topographical principle of classificatipn. " Th^ s^igoitd piethodi which prpoeeds analytically, Is the one that characterises geacral or analytical geography. It binds together in categories the objects and phenomena of all the six kingdoms of Nature presented in descriptive geography> And conteia; ibiv heads a the causal n "Promt of treatmen constitution ''peration. general geo£ geography. locality or af the considers olimate and I duction of a lectualised by *It may' material and i from tho forej Btibstancois a just ofl from *oJogy, stratig; oceanography, geography, mc geography. T oneness of tb reciprocal relat intermediate lii the earth's surf ever been regar drop one of the whole. "We need 1 The work, how pursue his inqu himself earnesti and he who, by part of it, to th, should ever at tl the whole, and i In oppositio; and that hasty compilations ent emphasizes the r could be achiev studies. The s whole compass, a To do any work ( knowledge of ph *»tany, zoology, i hiological geograj original investigai • The enrlh' APPENDICES. 666 and oontemplAteB them, independoatly of the terrestrial localities, in respect of the foiv heads above specified, with continual reference to the leading consideration of the causal recipro<^ relations to the earth's surface. " From the combination of both those methods proceeds the chorologioal method of treatment, which consists essentially in observing all factors going to the constitution of a division of the planet, or a part of these factors, in their causal no-operation. By the analytical method of investigation it is connected with general geography, by the synthetic method of presentation with descriptive geography. In its special application it appears either as chorology of a terrestrial locality or as representative of several or all the separate terrestrial localities under the consideration of a group of causal connections, such as of climatic alone, or of olimate and botany, or of the influence of mountains on man. Through the intro- duction of a general chorologioal method of treatment chorography becomes intel- lectualiscd by philosophic permeation. ' '^tt may appear prcsumptttous to impose on a science so vast ati abundance of material and so comprehensive and many-sided tasks as would accrue to geogmphy from the foregoing discussions. It might also readily be {winted out that excess of substance is a symptom of impending disintegration on the part of a science. For jiut 08 from mineralogy in Its former state crystollography, petrography, palason- tology, stratigraphy, and general geology have developed, so are already meteorology, oceanography, the geography of animals and plants, ethnography and political geography, more or less independent departments of study within the compass of geography. This multiplicity, however, becomes compacted into a unity by the oneness of the leading considnration, the consideration, namely, of the causal reciprocal relations with respect to the earth's surface. This consideration binds thQ intermediate links just as closely together as the terminal links,* and, seeing that the earth's surface and man have from the remotest times down to the present day over been regarded as the most integrant parts of geography, so is it not possible to drop one of the numerous intermediate links without breaking the connection of the whole. " We need not shrink before the fulness and scojw of the task. The field is vast. The work, however, is divided among many. No man is able at this day to pursue his inquiries into all departments of geography. He, however, who devotes himself earnestly to it can appropriate enough to follow its progress in all branches, and he who, by modestly limiting his labours, has the happiness of working on one part; of it, to the deepening and furthering of that section specially under his care, should ever at the same time endeavour to comprehend the relation of that part to the whole, and never lose sight of the connection of the whole." In opposition to the general impression that geography was an easy study, and that hasty sketches of lands met with in travels or uncritical geographical compilations entitled one to the name of an expert in this field. Prof. Richthofec emphasizes the necessity of thorough preparatory culture before any valuable results could be achieved either through immediate observation of Nature or by home studies. The surest foundations for the study of geography is geology in its whole compass, as being the only means to an understanding of the earth's surface. To do any work that would add to the sum of human conquests in meteorology a knowledge of physics and mathematics is indispensable, just as a knowledge of botany, zoology, and palajontology was needed, in order to engage to any purpose in biological geography, and a study of history and statistics is of importance to original investigation in the dynamic and genetic parts of anthropological geography. 1 f 'I 4 m .J '\! * The carth'a rarfaco and man ore the krminal links ; all else is inttrmediat*. W'i 066 APPENDICES. The particular kind of preliminar}' study required is, tlierefore, dependent on the particular object in view. A knowledge of the general results must, however, be poBsc-ssed by all students of geography of whatever departraent. The methods of measurement and observation would have to be practically acquired by whoever would gather valuable material in lands that were still but little known. To work up the observations of Naturn into scientific results, and so add to the fund of scientific geography, the studeut must concentrate his studies on one part of geography, and on the aaxiiiar}' sciences, which offer a basis to it, at the same time that he does not neglect the other parts. Extract fr m Prof. H. Wagner's Paper on the Present Standpoint op Oeooraphy in the ' Geooraphisches Jahrduoh' : — "The ultimate and highest goal of geography is the contemplation of the terrestrial spaces with their configurations, materials and forces as the dwelling-place of man and the amna of his history." " Geography is not merely a physical but like- wise a historical science, and this latter aspect, namely its historical half, was brilliantly represented in Humboldt's time by K. Bitter. The aim of geography is nothing else than to demonstrate the depeudeuce of human society on the physical constitutions of their dwelling-place and the operations of natural laws in the great historical events of our race." — Peschel, ' Geography and History.' " The former science (Geography) has to ascertain on what terrestrial spaces nature allows the greatest concentration of political (" biirgerlichen "=burgh or town or polls-like) society and where she has collected the greatest abundance of incentives to the education of man. Tlie latter (History), on the other hand, has to elucidato from the morals, habits and conceptions of right, as primary data, the difierent capacities of the difiierent nations for higher social forms." — PescheU In scholastic circles Professer Wagner states Geography is still accounted down to the present day as an auxiliary discipline of history ; a fact for which the host of geography manuals and text-books in use in schools are to blame. Guthe (author of an elaborate tert-book edited by Wagner) says : " Geography toaches a knowledge of the earth as th < dwelling-place of man. It is by no means a bare description of tlie eartli, with its seas, &c., but in describing the earth's surface it places man in the midst of the creation, shows how, on one hand, he is dependent on the nature surrounding him, and on the other side has endeavoured to emancipate himself from this dependence. Geography, accordingly, forms the connecting link between the science of nature and history." Guthe regards historical as the proi>er, mathematical and pliysical as only auxiliary, geography. This view is supported by Kirchhoff, Marthe and Ruge. Supan, on the other hand considers geography as a purely natural science. *' Geography, as its name shows, is a science of the earth ; a natural, therefore, and not a historical science." Professor Wagner sums up the results of his review thus : — 1. The majority of geographical text-books and manuals lay the preiwnderating emphasis on the historical element of geography. 2. In the wide ccholastic circles the prevailing opinion is, that geography is essentially a historical science. 3. Almost all the more recent "Methodiker" lay stress on the necessity of bringing the natural-scientific basis of geography into greater prominence. 4. Not one of them pleads for geography as a pure natural science. 5. Many of the modem theorista do not recognise the dualistic character of APPENDICES. 567 geography, in so far as they present historical geography as but one of the kindred branches of geography. 6. The demand of the natural scientists among the geographers reaches its apex in the closer conjunction of geography with geology. N. GUIDE TO LECTURES IN GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. Bt Professor A. Eirchhoff, Halle. (Halle, 188-1.) I.— General. Position of the earth in the universe ; motion of the earth and the moon ; furni and magnitude of the earth. Literature: — Guthe-Wagner, Lehrbuch der (Jeographie. 5. Aufl. 2 Bde., 1882 u. 83. A. V. Humboldt, Kosmos, Entwurf einer physischen Weltbeschreibung. Fr. Hoffmann, Hinterlassene Werke. 1 Bd., Physikalische Geographic, 1837. 2 Bd., Geschichte der Geognosie und Schilderung der vulka- nischen Erscheinungen, 1838. Studer, Lehrbuch der physikalischen Geographic. 2 Bde., 1844 u. 47. Reclus, La Terre. 2 Bde., 5 Edition, 1883. Muller, Kosmischo Physik. 4 Aufl., 1875. Peschel-Leipoldt, Physische Erdkunde. 2 Bde., 2 Aufl., 1883, f. Hann, v. Hochstetter, Pokorny, Allgemeine Erdkunde. (In 4 Aufl. erscheinend als 1 Bd. von " Unser Wissen von der Erde," 1884.) Hann, Die Erde als Weltkiirper, ihre Atmosphiire und Hydrospliarc, 1884. (Separate impressions of the first part of the foregoing work.) Supan, Grundziige der physischen Erdkunde, 1884. Giinther, Lehrbuch der Geophysik und physikalischen Geographic. 1884 . Heinr. Berghaus, Physikalischer Atlas. 2 Bde., 2 Aufl., 1852. (Xew edition being prepared.) Cartography and Projection. Literature : — Gretschel, Lehrbuch der Landkartenprojektion, 1873. Steinhauser, Grundziige der mathematischen Geographic und der Land- kartenprojektion. 2 Aufl., 1880. Zoppritz, Leitfiulen der Kartenentwurfslehre, 1884. Gravity, temi^rature, and aggregate state of the earth. Terrestrial magnetism. II. — Atmosphere. General constitution. Literature : — Hann, Handbuch der Klimatologic, 18b3. Mohn, Grundziige der Meteorologie. 3 Aufl.. 1883. Temperature. Atmospheric pressure and winds. Literature : — Supan, Statistik des untercn Luftstromungen, 1881. Precipitation. VOL. I. 2 R I -I 568 APPENDICES. III. — OOBAKS. Gonoral constitution. Llteraturo: — Kriimniol, Yorsuch oiner Morphologic der Meoronllnme, 1870. V. ItoKusluwsld, IIandl)uoh dor Ozoanograpiiio. 1 M., 1884. Atlas do8 Atlantisohon Ozonns. (Publ islied , by ttie Qerman Marim Obsorvntory, 1082.) Movement of the Sea. Literature : — Hoifmnnn, Zur Moohanitc der Moorostramnngon, 1884. IV.— Land-Mass. Litoratttre : — ^ Ilcrm. Civiluor, Elcnionto der Oeologio. n Aufl., 1883. Suess, Dns Antlitz dor Erdo. 1 Abtlieiluug, 1883. Form of contour, concatenation. Literature: — ;i < Hahn, lusolstudien^ 1883. ,, Qooplastic. [' Literature: — 8oul(Iar, Allgomoino Orograpliie, 1873. -■ LeiiK)l(lt, Mlttloro Hiilio Europas, 1874. Fuchs, Die vulkanlschen Erscheinungen der Erdc, 1865. Sttperficlal changes in the Lithosphore. Rivers. Literature : — QreWnur, Thoorlo dor Bcwegung dcs Wassers in FlUssen und Eaniilen. Qerman edition of Humphrey & Abbot, 1867. Crcdncr, Die Deltas, 66. Erg. Heft der Fetermannschen Mittheilungen, 1878. Lowe, uber Thalbildung, 1884. . ^ Lakes. Literature :— II. Credner, Die Itcliktensccn in Erg. Heft der Peterm. Mittheilungen. V. — Oboanisms. ■,,:..,, r.- ■ < r. ,>■>;,*•/,,.-> Literature: — Griscbach, Die Vegetation der Erde. 2 Bde., 1872. Englcr, Vcrsuch einer Eutwickeluugsgeschlchto des Pflanzenwelt. 2 Bde., 1879 n. 82. Drude, Die Florenreicho der Erde. Erg. Heft 74 der. Pctermann. Mittheil, 1884. Wallace, Geographical Distribution of Animals. 2 vols., 1876. Wallace, Island Life, 1880. .-!,.«.!•, Purely geographical conditions of distribution. ' "' ''''■' Other conditions of tlistribution. ,'i' ' . 'i ' '*' ■■••'' i-^i •< •". Liter Mi Hii Aggrogd Litorj Koi k Depondei Literal Bat« VI. — Makkikp. Literature : — Peschel, Viilkcrkunde. 6 Auflage, 1884. General. Physical dependence on natural environs. APPENDICES. 66» Litcraturo ; — MUhry, Dio goograpliiHohon Vorhiiltnisso dor Krankhoiton, 1850. Hiraoh, Histor. googr. Pathologic. 2 Ode., 2 Aufl., 1881 u. 88. Aggregation and sottlomcnt. Literature : — Kohl, Dor Verkehr und dio AnRiodolungou dor Mcnichon in ihror Abhiingrg* kuit von dor OoHtaltung dor Erdoborfliicho, 1841. Depondenco of tho developmont of culture on geographical conditions. Literature : — Batzol, Anthropo-Qeographie, 1882. V 0. BKIILIN UNIVERSITY. Ordinary series of lectures are delivered by Professor H. Kieitert at Derlin University during the course of two years (four University terras). A private serioB, four hours every week (i.e. paid by tho students) :— • 1. History of Geoj^raphy and of Discoveries. , •: , 2. Universal Physical Geography. 3. Geography of Europol , . . , ... ... . . 4. Geography of Asja ) combining the physical and historical point of view. ; — -As Puhlic Lectures, two hours per week : — 1. Italy. .- r-.v 2. Greece. ' " ■ . • ' .... 3. Asia Minor. 4. Palestine, formerly, now ceded to a younger doocnt of the theological faculty. Tho geography of Africa and America, also sometimes the special chorography of Germany, baa been taught during a long succession of years by Professor Mtiller. Lectures on tho Historical Geography of Germany during the Middle Ages are delivered once every two years by Dr. H. Brosslau, Professor of History. Some geographical specialties, particularly on Oriental countries (Egypt, Assyria, India, &c.), are also councctcd with tho subjects treated in various lectures of Professors of Oriental Literatures. -"■■ .. : ,,. • V J if.. P. COMMUNICATION ON GEOGRAPHY IN BRESLAU UNIVERSITY. By Professor Partsch. Breslau is one of tho Universities in which geography has now for more than twenty years been practically recognised as an independent subject of study. From tho autumn of 1863 to Easter 1880 my teacher, Carl Neumann, Professor of Geography and of Ancient History, gave one lecture per week on geography each session. In the autumn of 1875 I was appointed Decent ; the following year I was constituted Extraordinary Professor of Geography, and in July 1881 the newly established ordinary Chair of Geography was assigned me. Till tho Easter of 188(> 2 E 2 I 570 APPENDICES. I hiul nlno to ((ivo Iccturos on Ancient Iliiitory, but Bince tlint dnto I havo taught Geography cxcluBively. In (Uncharging tho functions of my office I MIow in the mniu tlie lines o( my tonchor Neumann, wlioso Inliours I liave delincatod more particularly In an Article in the ProcreillugH of tho Dorllu Googrnphlcal Swioty, XVII., 1882, pp. 81-111. Tho firHt and forommt place Is occupied l)y })hy»iecd geography, and ethnography il studied only in so far as it is indiHiNjnsably included under that heading. A special, methodic, thorough course of ethnogrnphical science, the basis of which In not a knowledge of the earth, but of the human biMly and of langiiago, is not coni- prisctl in our plan of teaching geography. My lectures do not nim at crushing into narrow compass wide and general views, but at satisfying tho dofluite wants of tho students, and bringing homo to them an exact conception of tho results which havo l)oun achiovud in the science up to present date, and of the problems in tho science now seeking solution. My rdpor- toiro of lectures is composed, as you will have found to bo also the case elsewhere, of eonegia privata and collegia publica. The former, generally four iwr week, for which tho students iMy fees, form the principal course. Tho latter, two to three iwr week, are given gratis, and are occasionally alternated by exercises occurring but once a week, and lasting two hours each time. • The attendance at the collegia privata varies, ai^cording to the particular subject of the lecturer — from 45 to 75. The attendance at tho collegia publica is noMindlhj greater — from 80 to 100 ; but in reality the attendance hero has not tl)c same importance, seeing that among tho hearers are to be found theological, law, nuil philosophical students who have no 8])ecial scientific interest in geography, whose object is only to include a general knowledge of this doiNirtmeut within their general culture, and who do not, therefore, attend tho whole course of lectures regularly throughout the session. At the exercises, at which the knowledge of the students is definitely tested, there aio to bo found only from ten to fifteen students, and that is about the proper number, fi>r if there were more present it would be a difficult task to engage them all iu appropriate common exercises. I here insert a list of my lectures, marking with a * such as are collegia fuKica: — 1. General Physical Geography. Fart I. — ^The earth as a body in the universe (form and magnitude, thickness, motion, heat of tho surface and the inner magnetism). 2. General Physical Geography. Fart II. — Constituents, structure, and forms of the solid crust of the earth (including the chemistry, geology and morphology of the dry land). 3.* 4. 5.* 6. 7. 8. 9.* 10. 11. 12. 18.* General Hydrography (Oceanography). General Climatology. Glaciers and Ice Perioil. Geography of Europe (horizontal and vertical formation, climatology and botanicid geography of the whole Continent; and in addition sfiecial geography of Scandinavia and the British Islands). Gcc^rophy of tho Mediterranean lands of Europe. Geography of the Alps. Geography of France. Geography of Germany. Geography of Silesia. Geography of Asia. Geography of Interior Asia (special). 14.» a 15.* Q ■ IC. 01 17.' Hi K 18.' Ili, i» all till statistics and in which it ii '» just boiu' *'. I'artscl.. ' •JO'it iu the d; state and coi wnpiiosis wiii vu vnunioratod tliu pliyMical features are tho chief element, statiHtica and ethnography being only aubordiuutu. Of our gunoral plan, and tho degree in which it Ih sought to carry it out in detail, an example is given in tho work which in just being publishuil: Thysioal Ooogrnphy of Greece,' by C. Neumann and F. Partsch. In tliis work there comes into vwre than uiiuU prominonce, Itittor*! bent in the direction of Choroiiojjhy, tho appreciation of the intlucnce exercised on the state and conditions of culture in a country by its physical character. With tho emphasis whiuli wo lay on i)iiysical geography wo do not accord with the tone of depreciation dominant in Ucrmnny relative to the application of geography towards the explanation of the history of culture. At the same time wo iwrfectly rocoguiso that this application of geography must not be conflnud to vague surmises about the concatenation of coasts, but must take account of all aspects of tho nature of the country under review, and present sjtecial proof of its significance relative to the population. A particularly difficult branch of Academic teaching is the organisation of exercma to train tho students to scientific soif-activity. 1 have made inquiry on this ])oint of many Colleges at other Universities, but have never boon able to resolve on following tho example of Giittingcn and Kiinigsberg, and turninj^ my little academic geographical expositions into a drawing school. If tho teacher, (Missing from one student to another, revises each scn».riite drawing, and directs each how to improve his work, tho main element in the seminary activity of an Academy, and in which consists a largo part of its siKxsial value, the emulous co-operation, namely, of the students on a common field, is all lost. All fellow-students of the same grade in one department ought, on the contrary, to have a common object for their rival energies set befora them. That is, indued, a difficult, but by no means impossible task. When 1 ^avo out exercises for tho first time, I also followed tho principle, which was elsewhere in the ascendant, that self-activity is best aroused in academic youth when no restrictions are imiwsed on tliem, and when the choice of the subject on which they are to exercise tliemsclves is left open as much as possible. I allowed the students to choose their own themes, and to deliver addresses on them resiicctively, each address being also made a subject for discussion. In that way some very successful performamtis were elicited. The discussion, however, confined itself often to a mere dialogue Lutwoen myself and tho speaker, the other students not being suiTiciently instructed in the subject to take part in its discussion. I have now completely abandoned this practice. Tho concentration of all forces on on» subject is now become my maiu law. This succeeds most simply when a common subject of reading is chosen and a many-sidedly interesting text is adopted as the basis of the students' treatise. This session, for example, I am reading with my students Humboldt's travels into the equinoctial lands of the New World, and am very well satisfied with this choice. A large number of highly-interesting physico- geographical questions is there suggested, and a tract of inquiry opened up, but not yet disposed of in the manner that is now possible to our age. In the very first chapters there arise a host of subjects offering abundance of material for inquiry and discussion : tho method of barometrical measurement of heights and the limits of its applicability, the structure of tho Iberian Peninsula, tho formation of the Mediter* ■8T9 APPENDICKS. rancan tmsiu, the windi) and ciirrontx of tlio Atlantic Ocean, atmoiipherlo rofVactioHi climatic imsitiou of the Canary iHlandH, dctlnitiun and altitudo of the hdow limit, structure of volcanooR, and a whole crowd of details calling fur consideration. Each point is presented by tlie students, wlio come prepared for its diNcussion, in accord- ance with Humboldt's view, which is next niodilled as far os may be required, and in tlie disoussion which then arises the students mutuall;, correct each other, and bring divergent theories to n decision. Here, too, the iHih* ' greatest difficulty devolves on the header of the discussion,* who has to • '- .11 wandering and irrelevant delutte, supply omissions out of his own fulle)* .uwledge, and correct as far as necessary what is advanced by the students. All along, moreover, strict observation is kept regarding accuracy and precision of expression, a ixiint on which many require long and sharp training, and a point, as seems to mo, of urgent imix>rtaiice in the culture of future tearhera of geography. Some other time I shall perhaps select Darwin's ' Voyage.' For those of adequate philological culture the second book of Herodotus would also prove very suitable. If the Professor dispenses with a common reading material it becomes more difficult to give a basis for discussion. In such a case I have endeavoured to supply this defect in different ways. I once selected the Western Alps as the subject ol' treatise. I t.stributed among the difl'urent students the full cartographic and literary material for tlie dilforont sections of these mountains, and set each the task of describing his rcxpectivo part in such a manner that in the end a collective picture of this mountain system was attained. In a concluding lecture, taking account also of the geological structure, I grasped together all that had been separately advanced. Care of course was taken ou the occasion of each address bearing on such abundant cartographic material, that all the students were in a position to follow exactly the description of each particular speaker, as also to understand my concluding, concatenating, supplementary, and critical observations. 'ITie very ■erroneous map of the Piedmontese staff likewise ofl'ered occasion for a critical review of maps and for an appreciation of the work, more particularly of English travellem, in settling the topograpliy of the Graian Alps. After the heights of the Western Alps had been studied, the more minute investigation into the history of their ^xisscs was entered into. The arduous controversies regarding the history of the passes of the Western Alps in the time of the llomans were gone through with reference to the sources of the history, and especially the question of Hannibal's "crossing the Alps." A comparative valuation of the difl'ercnt passes for the present time naturally followed that question. For the present I have selected a district nearer home as a field for our academio exercises, the Waldenburg Highlands, a territory particularly important for its roads of communications and for its wealth in coal, for which it has now been noted for a century. Wo here find a remarkable example of the tlependence of the habitation of a district, and of tho density and social con- ditions of its population, on its geological character. Old slate mountains, cual formations, red-lying land, porphyry outcroppings are here ranged so as to constitute a territory, which in each part receives a different character according to its peculiar geological foundation. The scientific valuation of this district is, accordingly, divided systematically among the students taking part in tho exercises. One has assigned him the drawing of an isohypsometric chart in the proportion of 1:100,000, based on the hypsometric material already to hand, which, however, on critical scrutiny, is found to be defective ; a second undertakes the literation of the coal formation of the Waldenburg basin ; a third has committed to him the presentation * The Professor himself. APPENDICES. 573 of the romnining Rouloglcal formatiuDi; a fourth lets forth tho lUstory of tho population of tho diMtrict; a fifth trauoa tho hiitury of how itH roods woiv Inid out; a sixth portrays tho woll-l(iiown Htalus of culturo obtaininiK in tlie district in tho iniddio of laHt cuntury ; a soventh, the present statu of tlio district relative to pro- duction of trade; nn oiglith, the statistics of population. Aftor all are dono with their preparations the results will bo tested. Tho hypsumetrical chart will bo critically examined, and aftor tlie necessary corrections, multiplied autographlcally, it forms tho basis for tlio succeeding separate tasks. Ah concluding results the motlkodwill then be laid down, according to which tlio different aB()ects of tho nature of a c«)untry are brought into relation with the distribution and employment of its population. In general the porphyritio mountains compose forest land ; tho red- lying g^und arable land ; the productive coal mountains and their neighbourhood — a pretty narrow zone — is tho industrial section, a creation of tho lant century. Tho change in the distribution of tho population during the last hundred years presents also a type of the influence exorcised on the culturo of a county by tho opening of coal mines. The next task to be taken up — as appropriate exorcises in the use of the polar- planimeter — will be calculations of the areas uf the separate g( logical formations, as also of tho high regions of the VValdenburg district. From these data values may then be inferred for the distribution of the population and its princiiml occupation, throughout the separate and physically different zones of the district ; the facts of the different human conditions of tho diH'urent sections aro to be referred to their re- lative communicableness, fertility, and mineral resources. Tho history of population and the history of the development of intercourse must also bo brought into relation with the relief of tho land. It is not impossible but that the result of all these various studies will be a work worthy of publication. In that case I should have «.ho pleasure of forwarding you a copy of the work as a sample of tho labours of my students. Bo that as it may, I promise myself from this scientific utilisation of a distiiot, wUliin half an hour of Breslau by railway, far more profit for tiie vitality of geographical study, and for the comprehension of geographical fact, than could be hoped for from the discussion of far-distant places, which can be grasped only by tho imagination and with tho help of foreign description. It is no doubt true that the remote exercises a certain charm of its own, and for this reason I once adopted, as the subject of academic exercises, the Itistory of the discovery of the Lake district of Central Africa. The main point here was the discussion of the different ways in which travellers viewed foreign landa (astronomical determination of latitude and longitude, barometrical measurement of heights, routes, construction, &c.). The way in which the progress of knowledge was effected was an as^Kct in the business which wo also took home to us ; tho students were in a certain measure made to live through anew in one session the jieriod of discovery here under review, taking parts, not only in the fates and fortunes of the travellers themselves, but likewise in tho critical discussions attaching to their experiences and communications. The protocols of sittings in the Proceedings of the English Geographical Society have ofl'ered us the most interesting material, of which the historians of discoveries too little avail themselves. All historical discussions on these matters, which proved of tlie utmost consequence for subsequent successes, though also marred, it is true, by misconceptions, were followed and anew weighed and deliberated upon by us. In the manner above indicatod there gradually developed before the eyes of the students, who themselves undertook respectively reports of the different travels, an over clearer picture of the great lake region. From the above communication you will already have gathered the sense in which we conceive and cultivate geography at this University. A word now as to m APPENDICES. our tenching appamtua. With thu very limited means at our (liitiioaal (730 marki a year for purolioao of new matorini), we have to avoid Mattering our diabur«ementa over a too wide field. I Imvo no great enthusiasm for tolluriuins, and do not, thero- fon>, feel any loronesi at Imving to do without them. The main requirement with mo is good maps, and of these wo have indeed a very fair collection. The older and newer Government Survey maps of all European countries are represented in our collection, and are placed before the eyes of the students as much as povslble, that they may bo able to appreciate and properly interpret them. In my course of lectures on the Alps, for example, which I again give this winter, I have devoted about six lectures to a minute discussion and criticism of the Alpine cartography, and more porticu* ]arly of tho methods for reprcHenting relief by means of shading under Bup|x«ition of vertical and oblique illumination, iBohyiisometric lines, altitudes, &c. It is only by much neeing that the ]iowor of readily reading ma]m becomes develoited. Care las of course been likewise token to procure an abundnnce of geological ninia; comprchonsivu maps of all, special maps of separate countries of Euroiw. Ah regards foreign continents I am but scantily furnished ; but in a few years, by judicious exiiendituru of our means, wo hope gradually to supply this onilHsiuu. JReli^a cost too much money, and are only in exceptional cases indisiKinsable. I liavo but two at my disposal for my course of lectures on glaciers ; a relief of the Glockner group with tho Pastcrze, and a relief of the Glacier Garden in Lucorno. I am noviT engaged in collecting si)ccimen8 of the most important stones to illustrate my course of lectures on Silesia. Of instruments wo have only a good Anislcr \n\a.x plnuimeter ; a few barometers belong to mo personally. For the purchase of books, seeing wo have only tlio grant of tho University for the purchaHo of api»arotus above sjwcificd, we have but very spare means. What ia necessary I procure frqm the Royal University Librory. For my institute I have managed to acquire only the Proceedings of tho Itoyal Geographical Society, which, strange to say, were wanting to it. Q. PROGRAMME 1>Y Dr. FRIEDRICH UMLAUFT {Keeper of the Geographical Colledion) OF OBJECTS DESIRED FOR PROPOSED GEOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM AT MARIAHILFER GYMNASIUM, VIENNA. 1. Views of landscapes, towns and eminent buildings ; pictures of types of races and peoples, national costumes, &c. ; photographs or coloured drawings. 2. Models of dwelling-houses, tents, sliips and other apparatus of transport; technical apparatus. 3. Weapons: household, agricultural, fishing and hunting gear; implements. Originals or models. 4. Coins and other articles of exchange (Kauri mussels, gloss, pearls, pieces of salt). 5. Characteristic industrial protlucts, webs, basketwork, carved works, lacquered wares, paintings, idols, amulets, &c. 6. Specimens of difierent kinds of stone : from the Alps — gneiss, granite, dolo- mite, porphyry, limestone ; from tho Carjathions — sandstone, trachyte, basalt ; also tuff, lava, desert sand, &c., with label of place whence brought. 7. From the animal kingdom : musk-bag, castoreum, turtle, itinglass, wliale- APPi^NOICeS. 676 bone,guano,locuitii,termitot,oucliiii«.il,MoriiioD, tarantulm, iwarl muuala and pearl«, triii«n, &c. 8. YegeUbloH uaetl m food : rioe-plnnt, maiKc, millet, Indian corn, diirra, oartif nut, tuborclea of manioc, yams and Intiite, olivwi, cucuanut, brcnd-fruU, arrowixxst, ■wgo, dates, diflurunt kinds of tea, ciwati, su^^ar-canc. 'J. Bpicos and muUcincs : niitmegM, b«t«l leaf, I'eruvian bark, &c. 10. Dyeing and taiming maturiairs roxins: galls, dragon's blood, mnddor-root, indigo, catechu, maatich, frankincense, guita-percha, caoutchouc. 11. Materials for weaving : cotton, jute, maniUa hemp, Indian palm-fibre.-t, &c. 12. Useful woods : bcoch-tree, anibolnn, guiava, ebony, JHcaranda, mahogany, cork-bark, (Sicc, it. OP GKOQBAPHICAL PROGRAMME OP TilllEE iEARS' COURSE! VIENNA COMMERCIAL ACAD .lY, 188t, Firtt Year. — Ucucral appropriation of the most imi)ortant m< u^ tions of^mathe- luatical and phyxical geography, csiiecially of such aa bav i\ more immediate l)earingon the mcrcimtilu deiMrtnients. Commercial freogmphj of Au.'ttria-F •' gary, Qermany, and Switzerland; more i>articulnrly th< (x 'iion in the world, topo- graphical situation and configuration of these count r-'M, cli .ate, agricultural fertility, and commercial products of the three realms, where and how produced, population, commercial ca^wcity, commercial languages emigration and immigration, agricul- tural, industrial, conuuercial and financial organisations, also means of communica- tion in each country. Consideratinn of the mt>st im^'urtaut commercial places, harbours and industrial centrus. Marine councctious. Imports and exports. Two hours per week. Second Year. — Commercial geography of Holland, the three Scandinavian kingdoms, Kugland, Belgium, France, S(xun, Portugal, Italy (including present colonies). Details as in iirst year. Two hours per week. Third Year. — Commercial geography of Turkey and the Levant, Russia, the United States of Korth America, Mexico, Brazil, States of La Plata, Chili, China and Japan. Details as in first year. Geographical statistical sur\ey of tho commercial world at the present time and its princiixtl routes. Two hours iwr ..jiU. s. GEOGRAPHICAL PF.Oi'RAMME OP THE LYCfiES OP PRANCE ACCORDIlsa TO DECREE OP 22nd JANUARY, 1885. Preparatory Class (IJ hours jicr week). Elementary notions of general geography to define and communicate by descrip- tions and examples taken as much as jK>s8iblc from the commune, canton, and department in which the pupils reside, the lueaniug of the principal terms in physical geography ; to indicate on the globe and blackboard the position of the continents, and more jmrticularly tho positions of Eurojte and France. Notions on the physical geography of Prance, again laying stress on tho geography of the commune and de^iartment. 3 m 576 APPEXDICES. Simple definitions and descriptions; elements of geographical representations with the aid of the terrestrial globe, map and blackboard. The object of the first year's course should be not to impart to the pupil a long list of names and places, but to accustom him to the use of geographical terms and instruments, such as globes, maps, and plans, to read which should be the principal task of the class. Eighth Class (IJ hours per week). Elementary geography of the five divisions of the earth. Principal voyages of discovery. The sea and the continents; the oceans; the five divisions of the earth; the Polar Regions. Europe, Asia, Africa, America, Oceania ; their several configurations and limits ; seas, principal gulfs and straits, capes, islands, peninsulas ; chief mountain chains, rivers and lakes; remarkable animals and plants; principal states, with their capitals ; chief commercial ports and important towns. Principal voyages of discovery from the fifteenth century to the present. ■'''-■ ■" Se«en<^ CTas« (1} hours per week). '' ' Elementary geography of France. (The teachers carefully to avoid entering into minute details.) „ . Configuration. ' . • j.;- . ' , i-.v . .Mi... i.. .: . , .. ., Coasts: seas, gulfs, straits, capes, islands; principal ports (military and commercial). Frontiers by land : eastern frontier before and since 1871. Mountains: Alps, Jura, Vosges, C^vennes and central group, Pyrenees; chains, (summits and cols), plateaux, great plains. Principal basins : Rhone, Garonne, Loire, Seine, Somme. Ancient provinces and departments : principal places. Principal colonies of France. • (Elements of geographical drawing with the aid of map and blackboard.) . ""' Sixth Class (1 hour pe: week). General geography of Europe and the Mediterranean basin. Configuration, limits, and dimensions of Europe; seas washing it. The Mediterranean : chief divisions, gulfs, straits, islands, archipelagoes, peninsulas, capes. Relief of the surface of Europe : chains of mountains ; description of the principal chains (height, limit of pcr|ietual snow, glaciers, necks, valleys, characteristic plants and animals), volcanoes, plateaux, great plains. Waters : discharging into the Caspian and Mediterranean ; discharging into the Atlantic and Arctic Ocean ; description of the most important rivers ; lakes and marshy lands. States of Europe (excepting France) ; capitals, principal divisions and principal towns. Maritime countries of the Mediterranean, outside of Europe ; summary description of Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Tripolis, the Atlas region (Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco). Fifth Class (1 hont Tpet meek). .„ . „, ;.„ .^ l . Geography of Africa, Asia, Oceania, and America. .., n: .s The sea ; surface and depth ; tides ; describe the five oceans. Africa, Asia, Oceania, and America ; physical geography ; configurations and dimensions ; rivers, lakei commercial . Europeai Geograpl Configure Seas and coasts, salt m Frontiers 'Belief of 8 perpetual snoi •Waters, n Climate a] Political J towns. Canals. P Algeria. ( Physical, p Boundaries Configuratic Seas; descri Relief of 8ur| Bivers; prft thermal lines, between vegetal Climatic limits i The characti the most import economical gi commerce), popu Comparative merce; density c Oeneral Oeoi monsoons; cycloi sea : marshes ; cu comparison of the oftheglobe^moi Elementary nc Africa, Asia, regions. Populat European colonies, APPENDICES. 577 dimensions ; seas, islands, capes, straits, mountidn chains, plateaux and great plains, rivers, lakes. Enumeration of the principal states, capitals, important towns, and commercial ports. , European possessions. ■ ' JbuW/t CTass (1 hour per week). Geography of France. • • ' ,, , ^,,^,;( Configurations and dimensions of France ; superficies. Seas and coasts, gulfs, islands, peninsulas, capes, dunes, cliffs, seashores, rocky coasts, salt marshes, lagoons, principal ports. Frontiers by land and sea ; territories lost to France in 1871. ' ' '^'* "^ * ' Belief of surface ; mountain chains, groups, plateaux and plains (altitude, line of perpetual snow, glaciers). Waters, running and standing ; rivers and affluents, lakes, pools, marshes. Climate and principal productions. Political geography; ancient provinces, departments, chief places, important towns. Canals. Principal railway lines. Algeria. Colonial possessions of France. ' , t- ' "■, ' ' Third Clms (1 hour per week). Physical, political, and economical geography of Euroi^e. :-.' '\'- •-■< fi,., ... - . 1st. General Study. . f ,, ,'• ! Boundaries and superficies of Europe. 'v - -^ Configuration of Euroiw. . . ■ .: :.v--t Seas; description of coasts. ■ '' 'v. ; /i;'i Belief of surface ; orographic systems ; plateaux and plains. Bivers ; principal centres of water distribution ; principal groups of lakes. Iso- thermal lines, winds and rains; maritime and Continental climates. Relations between vegetation and climate ; Mediterranean flora ; steppes, forests of the North. Climatic limits of the olive, vine, cereals, trees. ,1 I .1 2nd. Particular Descriptions of States. i. . tt The characteristic features of the physical geography, the political geography, the most important administrative or historical divisions, the principal towns, the economical geography (i^riculture, minerals, industry, ways of communication, commerce), population, language, religion — of each State. Comparative Summation. — Comparative area of states ; productions and com- merce ; density of population ; races ; languages ; religions ; military forces. " ■ ■ "' " ■' Second Class (1 hour per week). Geography of Africa, Asia, Oceania and America. General Geography. — The atmosphere: trade winds and variable winds; monsoons ; cycloi es ; rain distribution ; isothermal lines : climates ; floras. The sea : marshes ; currents. The depth of the seas. Polar regions. The continents : comparison of the principal featiu-es of the physical geography of the five divisions of the globe — mountains, plateaux and plains, rivers. Elementary notions regarding the division of the human races. Africa, Asia, Oceania, America. — Belief of surface, rivers, lakes. Natural regions. Populations, emigrations, languages, and religions. Princiiml states. European colonies, excepting those of France. m 578 APPENDICES. Economical Geography. — The most important productions of agriculture, mines, industry. Commerce : principal porta. Ways of communication by land and sea, more particularly Egypt, the Indian Empire, Indo-China, China and Japan, Bussian Asia, the United States, Brazil, the British and Dutch Colonies. Commercial relations of the five divisions of the globe. Great steamship and telegraph lines. Summary history of geographical discoveries. ' ' / First Class (Classe de Bla'torique. 1 hour per week). Physical, {wlitical, administrative, and economical Geography of France and its Colonial Possessions. Position of France. — Detailed description of French territory. Coasts. — Comprehensive view of the geological constitution of French territory. Orographical system: mountains, plateaux and plains. Mean elevation of the principal regions. \ Water System. — Climate ; temperature ; prevailing winds ; rain. Frontiers. — Natural defences and fortified places of France and the neighbouring countries. Military farts. French language and nationality. Territorial formations of France. The Ancient Provinces. — ^Actual organisation: commune, canton, arrondiase* mcnt, ddpartement. Public Powers. — Central administration: the ministries. Organisation of the princi[jal services of State. Agricultural. — Zones of cultivation : agricultural regions. Products ; fish. Quarries and Mines. — Industry. Principal industrial centres. Boutes, canals, railways, posts, telegraphs, river and maritime navigation. Commerce : imix>rtation, exportation, transit. Principal centres of commerce and largo towns. Population: density, movement of population. Influence of the physical or economical state of the difl'erent regions on the distribution of the population. Algeria. — Physical description, products, ways of communication, commerce. Population, colonisation, administration. Colonial Possessions of France. — Physical description, productiona, navigation, fish, commerce, penitentiary establishments. Protected countries. Administration. T. GEOGBAPHICAL PBOGBAMME OF COLL^^GE DE FBANCE FOB THE YEAB 1884-85. The BiirnsH Colonics of Australia. 1st (opening) Lecture .. The history of European colonisation and emigra- tions, down to the 19th century. 2nd Lecture EuroiKum discoveries in Australia. 3rd „ Do. (continuation). 4th „ Orohj-drography of Australia. 5th „ Climate, fauna, and flora of AuKtirtlla. (Jth „ General history of Australasian colonisation. • th „ Do. (continuation). APPENDICES. 579 8th Lecture Population of Australia and life of the colonists. tith „ Do. (continuation). 10th „ Government, finance and instructions in Australia. 11th „ Births and deaths; immigration. 12th I jConditions of vitality of Australian population 13th) " 1 (continued). 14th) j Policy of immigrations ; companies of colonisation ; 15th) ' ( sale of puhlic lands. 16th , History of the gold mines ; the production of gold in Australia. 17th „ Do. (continuation). 18th „ Gomjiarison of the production of gold in Australia and other countries of the world. The economi- cal efifects of the increased field of gold during the last 40 (?) years on gold and silver. , 10th „ General conditions of agriculture in Australia. 20th „ Do. (continued). 21st „ Cereal productions and commerce in Australia. Comparison of the general commerce of cereals in the world, and how that commerce affects Europe economically. 22nd „ Do. (continued). ^, 23rd „ Sheep reaving in Australia. ;; '' 24 th „ Do. (continued). 2&th „ Production and commerce of wool in Australia and the world. 2Gth „ Waysof communication in Australia: roads, rail' ways, telegraphic lines. 27th „ Influence of ways of communication on colonial progress. 28th „ Commerce of the Australasian colonies. 29th „ Do. (continued). The special advantages ac* cruing to England from her commerce with the Australasian colonies. In the second session the Professor will deal with Tasmania, New Zealand, the projected confederation of the Australian colonies. New Guinea, Dutch East Indies, and the Phillipines. ir 1 i 4 u. SYLLABUS OP GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED BY CANDI- DATES IN ORDER TO OBTAIN ADMISSION TO THE ilCOLE SPfiCIALE MILITAIRE OF FRANCE (ST. CYR), 1885. The Earth. — Its different movements ; poles ; great circles ; longitude ; latitude ; itinerary measures. Division of the earth into two masses; ocean and land. Ocean. — Its division into five (mrts ; ocean currents. Land. — Its division into five parts ; populations ; races ; religions. Europe.— The six great European States ; the secondary states. The seas of Europe ; coasts ; islands ; straits, &c. 'J I 680 APPENDICES. Division of Europe into mountain groups — height and character of these groups (in particular the Alps and the Heroynian system) ; principal railway lines. France. — (Geographical situu'.on ; extreme longitude and latitude ; limits. Physical geography. — Seas ; their description ; coasts and islands. Orography. — Pyrenees ; Alps ; Jura ; Vosges ; Central Plateau ; C^vennes and secondary groups — principal crests. Hydrography. — Detailed descriptions of the regions traversed by the Rhine, the Meuse, the Escaut, the Somme, the Seine, the Ome, the Vilaine, the Loire, the Charente, the Garonne, the Adour, the Bhdne, and their principal aiHuents. Description of the littoral basins of the North Sea, the English Channel, the Gulf of Gascony, and the Mediterranean. Political geography. — Frontiers, their outline ; ancient provinces ; departments formed out of them. Administrative Divisions. Bailways. — Great lines ; their mutual relations and relations with the principal foreign networks. Internal navigation ; navigable rivers and canals. ^ ' Canals. — ^Their relation to the main foreign routes of navigation. Colonies of Asia, Africa, America, and Oceania. " Algeria. — ^Physical and political description ; extent and limits. Coasts. — Orography and hydrography ; high plateaux. Sahara. — Political divisions ; principal railways. A more profound study of the regions watered by the Scheldt, the Mense, tho Bhine, the Weser, the Elbe, tho Vistula, and the Niemen. Succinct study of the other rivers of the northern watershed of Europe. A more profound study of the regions traversed by the Ebro, the Po, and the Danube. Succinct study of the other watercourses in the regicn sloping to the Mediterranean. Boundaries. — Population ; races ; religions ; government ; political divisions ; commercial and industrial sources of wealth in the di£ferent European states. Asia. — Descriptions of its seas, coasts, islands, capes, &c. Orography ; hydrography ; political divisions. European Colonies; the Indian Empire; Cochin China; Tonkin; Annam (summary notions). Africa. — Descriptions of its seas, coasts, islands, capes, &c. Orography and hydrography; political divisions; European Colonies; detailed study of Algeria, Tunisia, Tripoli, Madagascar (summary notions). America, — Description of its sens, coasts, islands, ca])es, &c. Orography and hydrography ; jiolitical divisions ; European Colonies ; detailed study of the United States. Oceanip. — Archii^elagoes and islands ; European Colonies. Note. — ^The Examiners wi)' >• Tecial stress on France and Central Europe. Out of three questions, for exan.pie, put to a candidate one should have reference to France, a second to central IJiirope, the third to the rest of the programme. Candidates must also be able to draw on the blackboard sketches of all the geography in the programme relating to France and conterminous countries. .1.^-' ■11 "J. APPENDICES. 801 FRANCE.— ECOLE SUPERIEURE DE GUERRE. ,>,i. „ i. 1" Division. 1884. — ^Travail d'^tudb de G£oorafhie. MMrs. les OfiBcicrs de la 1°'* Division traiteront uno dcs questions suivantes, a leur choix, comme application du cours de Geograpliie ; Discussion des propriutcs offensives et ddfensives : , 1* „ do la frontibie allemande de I'ouest, 2° „ de la frontiSre allemande de Test, 3° „ des frontibres occidentales de la Russie, . ' .. " 4° „ do la fronti^re autrichienne vers I'ltalic, 5° „ de la fronti^re autrichienne vers la Russie, 6°. Discussion du systfimo de ddfense do I'ltalie du Nord. 7° „ de ritalie centrale. 8°.. Discussion des conditions slrattSgiques du th^dtre de guerre de la Bulgarie et de la Roum^lie. 9°. Stratdgie maritime du bassin de la M^diterranee. Positions strat^giques, leur importance et leur r6le. 10°. Discussion de la situation strategique respective des Russes et des Anglais dans I'Asie centrale. 11°. Etude comparative de la politique coloniale de la France et de I'Angleterre dans I'Indo-Chine. Importance du Tonkin. Toutes les parties do ces differents programmes peuvent ne pas Stre trait^es avec le m§me developpement. Les questions sont posdes en termes gdndraux dans le but de laisser aux officiers la plus grande initiative. lis devront s'abstenir de touto nomenclature inutile et s'efforcer d'exposer avec independance les iddes porsonnelles e leur aura suggdrees unc dtude rdfldchie du sujct choisi. 2* Division.— Tkavail d'^tcde de G^ogbaphie. Comme application de la premifere partie du cours de Gdographie (Gdographie de la France) les officiers de la 2° Division traiteront une des questions suivantes 4 leur cboix : 1°. Frontifire du Nord entre Valenciennes et Mdziferes, lignes d'invasion; lignesde ddfense ; lignes de retraite. Recherche d'une position do concentration et d'un front de ddploiement dans I'hypothfese d'une invasion par la troude de la Sambre. 2°. Etude du massif de Saint-Gobain et des flancs do cette position, de Pdronne i\ Reims par Laf&re et Laon. 3°. iltude de la region comprise cntrc Paris et les collines de la Brie Champenoiso au point do vue des obstacles qu'elle offre pour protdgcr Paris dans le secteur compris entre I'Aisne et la Seine. i'. Discussion des propridtes ddfcnsives de la rdgion comprise entre Mdzi^res, Verdun, Villers-en-Argonne et Reims. 5°. Etude de la ZSnc frontiere entre Pont-iVMonsson, Lundville et Neufchftteau. Discussion des proprietds defensives du terrain. Recherche d'une position de concentration. G°. Discussion des propridtes ddfensives de la rdgion comprise entre la Sane (de Treves tl Deux-ponts), la Moselle, les Vosges et le Canal de la Marne au Rhin, dans I'hyiwthfese d'une offensive fran^aise dirigee du Sud au Nord. Ki 582 APPENDICES. 7*. £tude de la region compriso cntre le Donau, le Ballon d'Alsaoe ct Itlpinal. Lea propridt^s ddfenaives. 8* Itltude du Morvan. Son rdio dans lo gystdme gdndral do la defense de la France. 9*. £tude do la frontUre du Jura cntre Belfort ot Pontarlier au point de vue de In ddfense et de I'attaque. 10*. DisouBsion du systdme de ddfonse de la frontibre dea Alpes, depuis lo Mont Blanc, jusqu*& VEnchastrayo. 11* Discussion du syst^me do ddfonse dcs Alpes depuis lo Mont Yiso jusqu'A In Boya. ^ 12* Algdric. Considdrations sur lo syst&me d'occupation militaire du Sahara. ' II est recommondd aux officiers d'indiqucr les rnrtrs dont ils se sont servis et, lors-qu' il y a lieu, d'en ]oindre des fragments h Icur travnil, pour I'intelligence du sujet. LesXqHestions qui sont proiwsdcs doivent Stre considdrecs comme un cadre d'ensemble dans lequel il n'cst pas ndcessairo do so rcstrtindre, et qu'll n'est pns ndcessfure non phis do remplir complitetnent lorsque coin ontratnerait k de trop longs ddveloppements. II est laissd uno grando latitude & I'initiative personnelle des ofiBciers, autant dans le cboix du sujet, que dans la ninni6re do le traitor. II leur est lecomniandd d'dvitcr les nomenclatures et les ddtails oiseux, d'apportor un grand soin &'la discussion, et de rcndre lour style nussi concis quo possible. pr. 1"* lefon 2 n 3 II 4 II 5 II 6 II 7 II 8 II 9 II 10. lU It 12 n 13 n 14 II 15 II 16) 17 J Division. — Cours de G^oonApnie, 1884-5. . Cochinchino ct Tonkin. . Europe centrale, Exposd d'ensemble. . Allemagne, Fronti^re fran9ai8e. . Hollande, Cutes do la mer du nord. . Allemagne, FrontiSrc russe. ' . Autriche, Hongrie, llaces en frontidre lusse. . Autriche, Hongrie, Frontibre italienne. . Italie du nord. . Italie centrale. . Fdninsule du Balkans. . Caucase ou Asie miucurc. . Asie russe. . Bassin de la Mdditerranee. . Angleterre, Routes de navigation du globe. . Algdrie, Sdndgal, ou Congo. 2« DIVISION, 1884-1885.— Pbooramme d'Exames de pabsaob de 1"« e» 2fi Division. Division de la France en massifs et en bassins gdologiques. — Limites et description sommaire du bassin de Paris ;— du bassin du Sud-Ouest et des Pyrdndes ; — du bassin du Sud-Est et du massif central. Description de la Belgique. Son systdme de defense. Anvers, la ligne Demer- Bupel. — ^La Mouse, Namur et Lidge. Discussion des conditions de la ueutralitd Beige. — Organisation ddfensive de la frontibre dn Nord — Ddtails du front Valenciennes, Maubeuge, Mdzibres. — Le massif de St. Gobaia— La ligne de la Somme — Le pays de Bray ct la position de Creil. APPENDICES. 583 La froiiti6re ontro Meziiros ct Verdun, 4* et 5* crfitcs. • La frontifcro ontro Venhm et Toul — L'Argonno et Ics iwsitions do la 2* crflte. Les Vosgcs — Lo trianslo : Toul, Donon, Ballon d' Alsace. La riSgion : Toul, Ncuf- chftteau — l. ace roumaiuc La Haute Mouse et la rt^gion comprise entre Neufchfttetm, Spinal ot Langics, au point de vue de la concentration et h celui de la defense. 23. AUemagne da centre cntro le Rhin ct I'Elbe — Bassin du Main — Esquisse de la campagne de 1866. Le Morvan — Description gdographique et rdlo stratdgique. 24. Divisions naturelles de TAllemagno au point de vue des races et des laugues — AUemagne du Sud — Bassin supdricur du Danube — Ulm, Ingolstadt, Ratisbonnc. La Folaise de Champagne, son rOlo stratdgique — Massifs forestiers do la region entre la Seine et la Marne. Ligne de I'Ourcq. 25. Le Rhin de Coblenz b. Wcsel — Lignes ferrdes de concentration des AUemnnds sur la fronti^re beige. 'llidiltre d'opdrations compris cntro la rive droito de la Loire, la rive gauche du la Seine et le Bocage normand — Orleans, le Mans, Alenfon — Esquisse de la campagne du Gdndral Chanzy en 1870. 26. Organisation politique do I'Empire austro-hongrois — Rivalitds des Alle- mands, des Magyars et des Slaves — Description gdolaco8, aiul of towns ospeciallf, show objects, pliotonraplis, or drawiDgs refurriug to thoiii. Dmw tho ftinturos occattionally on tho blackbonni, tlio pupil to reproduce tlio drawing in Ida cupy-book, with oxpliinatury nanus. BtatiHtioH to be repret*cntod by small comparativo squareH. the teaching of geo$;;rnphy \vill bu conducted in the elementary school, nccordin!; to the same methotl as in tho Normal School ; jirocooding always from tho paitlculnr to tho funeral : tchoul, commttne, irrovince, at ite, Europe, the earth, the solar system, the universf. 2nd. Preparatory Cotircc, . \st Class. — Oiienti'Mon : the school, commune, province. Oi-ohydrographio configuration. Ways of communication between tho commune and surroundin<; communes. Short description, with illustrations, of monuments, public edifices, historical localities, celebrated men. Administrations of tho province. (Jovernment presiding over it. 2}id Class,— Vasa from the province to the State. Italy: physical geography; agricultural and industrial products ; ways of com- munication. Commerce. Very summary notions on the iK>litical and administra- tive geography of tho kingdom. 3rd. Normal Course. ls< Class. — Hie earth, its form. Longitude and latitude. Particular descri[>- tion of Italy. Brief elementary notions on the other states of Eiu-ope. Cartoj;raphical exercises. 2nd Class. — Particular description of each of tho states of Euroiie. General summary notions regarding the otlier divisions of tho globe. Cutographical exercises. Elementary notions of cosmography and of terrestrial physics. Hie earth coii- sidereil as a planet. The solar system. Diurnal and annual movement. Didactic metliod for teaching geography in the elementary schools. 3rd Class. — Particular study of tho ]>rincipal sto -s of Asia, Africa, the two Americas, and Oceania. Ethnograpiiic notions ; races, languages, religions, habits, and morals. Much more detailed study of the earth. The solar system and co8mograi)liic notions. The universe. Didactic method for teaching geography in the elementary classes. w. THE POSITION OP GEOGRAPHY IN THE CAKTON OP GENEVA. . Br PiioFEssoR p. ClIAIX. Geography is taught in all our schools, and is compulsory in all the forms wlicrc it is taught. Two hours every week in the four lower forms of the classical college ; stopped in the next (middle) one and in the two upper forms. The subject has been reduced of late to very meagre notions of ancient geography, connected with tho historical ami classical fields, involving neither examinations nor any trial at the end of the year. About twenty years ago I was entrusted with a course of lectures on Ancient Al'I'KNDICKS. 687 Geography, covoriug tho wliolo field, during thn two ycarx, two hours n week, nnd ^ave very Mtigfiuitory rcsultH. That courae was first (aftnr tho rcvclution) trnnsrern il t'rum myaoir to the head cloHgical master, who gave to the branch any time ho pleased, mill it is now altogether put aside. In tho non-clnssical college tho study of geography Is kopt up two hours a week •luring thesis forms, and is, since my retirement from the two upper forms, given by my successor iu a very complete manner on commercial ami physical geography, followed by cosmography, limited to tho earth, its motions, nnd tho solar system. In the secondary school for girls, geography is taught iu all the forms. In tho uppermost there was a very limited lesson, of but one hour a week, which I wns < ompelletl to alter every year, alternating one year with cosmography, and another with physical geography, which was attended to by the pupils in a way that allowed mo to treat it in a sui^rior manner. But sinco my retirement, cosmography is the only branch studied, and physical geography altogether set aHido. In tho Gymnasium I was entrusted for one hour a week with a course of lectures on Physicol Geography, which I was compelled to give on a much lower scale than with the young ladies, the pupils being far worse prepared by their masters in the two upper forms of tho college than tho young ladies are by their mistresses at tho secondary school above named. That lecture is no longer given since my retirement I'rom tho Gymnasium. In tho commercial branch of the Gymnasium I used to give two hours a week, a course of lectures on Commercial Geography, to wliich I was at liberty to give considerable detail, and which has been kept up in a very able manner by my young successor, M. W. Roster, physical geography remaining suppressetl. The direction of tho University have thought it proper to exiliide both history anr univcnutl (;co-^in|)liy Ih but tho tihume nnd inothodio dovu1op« roont of tho Mhort (loxcriptivo cmine of tlio Scvontli Clnsfi. ThiB couriio will concltulo witli n Ntuily of Ik'igiuni more comploto nnd detailed than in tlio |>lnn of tlic Slxtli (2\w*. Tliiifl CliiM. ,' ■ li,. '.I/.' '^tJ', Proliminnrica nnd ^cncnil fuels. Detailed geogrnpliy of Kuro|ie. TliiH ))rogrammo (1) roHuntes and comidctes tlio preliminary theoretical concop- tions commimicnted in tho sixth coufHc. It also rcciillH somo of tho general fnctfl imparted in tho fourth courgo (diittribution of landn nnd orcuns, currents, trade-winds, Ac). (U) It gives a dotailwl roprescnt.ition of Europe physically nnd politically. Tho relative importance of tho two jarts of this programme may bo inforreil from tho comparative limits of timo to bo given them. Ton lessons for thu preliminaries ; thirty lessons for Iluropc. Seronil CToM. Rapid ropotitioQ of the priocipnl parts of tho programmo in the preceding class. Detailed geography of Asin, Africa, America, and Oceania. Each of these parts of tho wt.rld will comprise (1) n complete physical descrip- tion ; (2) a particular description of each country, but less fully than in tlio case of the European countries. . , ^ , Forty lessoDS (L hour weekly). ,, . Jihetoric Class. The earth considered as a whole (nstrononiical, physical, political, and economical). Very detailed goography of Itelgiiun. This programme is the scientilic doveloiiment of that of tho fourth class. 1st. Under tho general title " tho Ejxrth " arc comprised the prescriptions in tho present programme of rhetoric. (o) Astronomicu), including the elements of tcrivstrial astronomy, which are to be taught by tho pmlcssor of geography, seeing thnt these elements often serve to cxplnin thu physical order of the earth, and that they logically form tho scientific crown of a knowledge of the earth. . ; "■ (b) Ph/sical, including a rccapituUition of the general facts, {c) Political, setting forth the tlu-orctical elements of tho power of a state; recalling tho great states of the world, in particular those of Eurojio and tho Euro|)ean Colonies, iVc. 2. Tho geography of nclgium closes tho study of the earth. It should bo as <1etailed a study of. tho country as possible, in its historical, physical, topographical, industrial, and commercial asix-cts, with a comprehension of its political and ndminis- trativo institutions. Tho lessons will bo distributed pretty cf[unlly between these two parts of the programme, from forty to eighty, I hour jier week. 600 AT'PENDICES. T. THE METHODS AND IMPORTANCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLS OF SPAIN. Under tlio influence of the French legislation, which is imitated in Spain in many points, the teaching of geography is widely diffused in Spain. By virtue of the Law of Public Instruction of 1857 gcograiihy was taught from a, historical point of view in the faculties of letters. In 1880 the programme of 1857 was abolished, and a course of universal history was enlarged so as to give prominence to both history and geography, which are really inseparable. In the school speciiiUy designed for the training of kec^xirs of archives, public libr.rics and antiquities, tlie course of instruction in which lasts three years, one lesson daily is given in historical geography. In the faculties of sciences geography is stuilied in so fur as it is related lo cosmography and geology. In the commercial course, lasting three years, in connection with secondary instruction, a single course of two lessons a week arc given in geography and statistics. Commercial geography is one of the subjects of the examination which has to be passed by candidates in order to obtain admission to the body of Custom-house ofllcers. Aspirants to the diplomatic career require to show a knowledge of geography (how much is not stated). The entrance examination to the General Military Academy, which imparts tha instruction necessary before a candidate can become an officer, includes the elements of geography ; and the programme of the Academy, which extends over three years, comprises a course of studies in the military geography of Spain. In the special academy of the general's stafT. where the officers remain three j-ears, 88 lectures are given in the military geography of Spain, and 60 in universal geography. In the special academy for military engineers, the course of instruction in which lasts five years, 15 lessons arc given in the fourth course on the military geography of Spain and Europe. In the Academy of Military Administration (of the same character as the academy above mentioned), and where the curriculum of studj' extends over two and a-half years, there is an alternative course called " Economico-Military Geo- graphy of Spain." In the aoa IMAOI IVAIUATION TIST TAROIT (MT-3) .<' >% IL25U4IJ4 ffDIUKnqihk: CoponitkHi tllMt 602 THE CADASTRAL SURVEY OF INDIA. flhowing the numbers given to the fields, and as an index to the record of areas, but at first no attempt was made to plot the fields in their proper place and shape. The map was made up by hanging these imaginary fields one on the other, and the shape of the village boundary was left to take care of itself. In some parts of Bengal at the present day this is the only sort of village map that exists. A great improvement was made by more accurately surveying the fields, by ascertaining the general direction of a side by magnetic bearings, and plotting the fields by scale and compass from these elements. The fields were now as far as possible put into their places, but as they were built up one on another, some got crowded out, and the village boundary was inaccurate. Another improvement was the introduction of a sort of survey based on triangles and by subdivision of the area of the village, so as to attain a greater standard of accuracy ; but all these methods left a great deal to be desired, and as they were carried out by a staff of native measurers working under a settlement officer, who was not a professional surveyor and who had very little time, on account of his other duties, to super- intend the measui-ements, the result was not up to the requirements of the times. During all this time the professional surveys were used as checks on the settlement measurements. At fii-st the surveyors were employed in making an accurate survey of the boundaries only of villages, calculating the gross area within these boundaries, and preparing skeleton maps of the villages and district showing boundaries only. The survey areas of the villages were made over to the settlement officers as a check on the areas produced by their measurements. The old professional maps of Bengal and the North-West Provinces therefore consist of boundaries only, with perhaps the village site marked, and in many parts the district maps at the present day are such skeletons. They wore prepared on the scale of four inches to a mile. Subsequently the professional surveyors surveyed the interior lands of the villages, giving the cultivation and waste in block without distinguishing fields, but surveying the village sites, streams, roads, and all other topographical features. The areas of all these items were separately abstracted and made over to the settlement officer to check his areas. But really this was of little use, and there was the spectacle of a non-professional survey measuring inaccurately, while a department of professional surveyors was kept at work to show how far the other was in error, and also to resurvey the district under settlement for the purpose of preparing village and district maps, which could not be compiled from the settlement surveys. It had long been considered by several officers engaged in these Revenue surveys that a great deal of survey power and money was being THE CADASTRAL SURVET OF INDIA. ' -wasted, and that the full benefit was not derived from the existence of the professional f>urvey staff, and the question had been often mooted of the survey department making the field by field measurements instead of the settlement keeping a staff for that purpose. At length, in 1870-71, when several districts of the North-West Provinces were about to come under resettlement at the thirty years' period, a conference of settlement and survey officers assembled at Naini Tal,ttnder the orders of Sir William Muir, then Lieutenant-Governor of the North- West Provinces, and it was resolved that the survey staff of the settle- ment department should be made over to the professional survey, that the latter should be responsible for the survey of the fields, and should render to the settlement village maps on the scale of 16 inches to a mile, showing correct boundaries of each village and of each field, the latter being numbered, and the correct area of each entered under its proper number and heading in the several columns of the village record-of- rights, for which the survey was to be responsible as regards the areas only. This was the introduction of the cadastral survey, as it is called, into India, and that country is indebted to the enlightened policy of the Government of the North- West Provinces for inaugurating and suppoi't- ing a system whereby correct village maps and field areas are now produced, and the survey department is fully utilized, while the settle- ment officer is relieved of his measuring establishment and work, which he was unable properly to superintend in the midst of the many other harassing duties connected with his settlement operations, and is able to devote his time to directing and supervising the work that properly belongs to his department. When the professional survey began the field measurements, the native measurers called "Amins," who had been employed by the settlement department, were taken over and trained to produce more accurate work, and several modifications were introduced in the records and mode of surveying to ensure both accuracy and speed. In the village record book called the " Khasra '' there were three or four columns relating to the names of landlords and tenants, the nature of their tenures, and the kinds of soil, which were not at first filled in by the survey, as it was considered by settlement officers to be the peculiar duty of their department to find out and record the entries in these columns. This necessitated a settlement staff going again over every field mapped by the survey — and often after the lapse of a year or two, when the nature of the cultivation had changed — to fill in information which some survey officers considered they could easily obtain and register at the time of survey, and that by so doing they would much cheapen the cost of the settlement, and prevent the villagers from having to waste time in going twice over the same ground. The plan of the survey filling in these coluwnns, and also preparing •^ 604 THE CADASTRAL SURVEY OF INDIA. the rent-iolls, was begun experimenidly in the year 1881-82 by the sarrey and settlement ofBcera in Mirzaptir, one of the permanently settled districts of the North- West Provinces, where a new record-of- rights was being prepared. Next year it was introduced by the survey and settlement officers in the Benares district, with some modifications ensuring closer and quicker working between the two departments, and thereby shortening very materially the time taken up in survey and settlement operations. After a few months' experience it was found that the survey could collect and record the information required by the settlement, and a conference was oalkd at Benares in January, 1883, by Sir Alfred Lyall, Lieutenant-Governor of theNorth-WeatProvinces,atwhichthe opinions of the settlement and survey officers engaged in these operations were heard, and it was determined that for the future the work of collecting the information for the record-of-rights should devolve on the survey, but all disputes that might arise between landlords and tenants should be decided by the settlement officer. Hitherto the combined operations had been carried on in ' the per- manently settled districts of Mirzapur and Benares, two of the four districts of the North- West Provinces which were before mentioned as under settlement at the deddi of Lord Comwallis ; but there were two large districts, Gorakhpur and Basti, about to come under the tlyrty years' settlement, and these had improved so miuih in cultivation during the term about to expire, and were likely to be so much more valuable still owing to the opening out of a railway through them, that it was determined to bring them under resurvey and settlement. These operations are now in progress, and the survey has been able still further to assist the settlement by recording the nature of the soils, by preparing maps showing their distribution, and by abstracting and tabulating regarding the cultivators, the tenures, the crops, the castes, the rents, &o., statistical papers which greatly facilitate the labours of the settlement officer, and reduce the cost of his operations, without adding much to the coat of the survey, but of course increasing greatly the labour and responsibility of the survey staif. For administrative and levenue purposes India is divided off into districts. In the >torth-West Provinces there are 37 of these, each containing an average area of about 2340 square miles, and a population of over one million, and each is under the control of an officer called a collector, a name derived from his duties in collet-ting the land revenue. Assistant collectors, both European and native, assist him in admini- strating the law, collecting the revenue, and deciding all cases that arise in connection therewith. The districts are subdivided into portions called tahsils, which are under native revenue officials called tahsildars. The tahsils are sub- divided into portions called parganas, two or more of which fonu tho THE CAD^TBAL SURVEY OF INDIA. tahsiL The parganas are again sabdmded into portions called "manzas " or Tillages. Ab compared with this country, a district would correspond to a county, a pai^na to a district lying within that county, and a village would be the same as a parish. The term " mauza," or village, includes both the village site and the land cultivated by the community living in that village, and it is a portion of the surface of the country per* manently divided off and defined by boundary marks. The lands of the village are subdivided into " fields," which are the portions of land separately held by one or more cultivators on the same oultivating tenure, and owned by one or more proprietors under the same proprietary tenure. The total area of the fields belonging to a tenant makes up his holding or farm, and these fields may be either adjacent to each other, or they are most commonly scattered all over the village, so that he may have his share of the good and bad land. The ** field " is the unit of survey, and the object is to ascertain the individual area of each field, its crop, its soil, its ownership and tenant- ship, and to record the information in a permanent form, which then' becomes the village record-of-rights. ' The system pursued by the survey to work down to the field, to map it in its proper position on the village map, and to fix these village in their true places on the map of India, is as follows : — The great trigonometrical survey has covered the plains and moun- tains of India with a network of triangulation. The stations of this survey are fixed to the 100th part of a second of latitude and longitude, or to the decimal part of a foot. On these stations is based the work of' all the other professioual surveys in India, and each piece is fitted into its place and kept there by rigid calculations derived from the latitudes and longitudes of the great trigonometrical survey. • la^HV' When a district is made over for survey to a revenue or cadastral : surveyor, he selects the point of intersectitm of some degtee w quarter degree of latitude and longitude, which falls nearest the middle of the - district. This point he calls the •" origin of survey," and to it he refers all his measurements. From this point the distances to the great trigonometrical stations lying in his work are calculated. He commences his survey operations by measuring, by chain and theodolite, a series of lines and angles round a block of villages, which he calls a main oireuit. This varies in area from 100 to 300 square miles, and includes one or more parganas or other divisions. The direction of each measured line is referred to the north, by bearings deduced from star observations at certain intervals. As every line that does not lie either due north, south, east, or west, must lie in two directions between these points, «.«. N.E., S.E., S.W., or N.W., it is evident that the direction of eadi line, • with four exceptions, can be resolved into two at light angles to each other, and it is also evident that if the surveyor measures round his 606 THE CADASTRAL SURVET OF INDIA. circuit, when ho retunis to his starting point, he will have gone as far north as he has gone sonth, and as far east as he has gone west. All the measured lines of the circuit are resolved by means of the cosines and sines of the bearings into four directions, north, south, east, and west; their lengths as so obtained are tabulated under these four head- ings, and if the work is correct the sum of the northing is equal to the sum of the southing, and that of the easting to the westing. The observed angles are checked by the theorem that the sum of all the interior angles of a polygon, together with four right angles, are equal to twice as many right angles as the figure has sides. Any error found in the angles or lines is at once remedied by re>'measurement, and in the case of main circuits the lines are double chained in the first instance to prevent mistakes. Some of the stations of the main circuit are con- nected by observations to the stations of the trigonometrical survey, whose distances from the origin of survey have been calculated, and hence, by simple addition and subtraction of the resolved distances of the measured lines, the co-ordinate distances from the origin of all the stations on the main circuit are deduced. Within the main circuit, smaller circuits are made, and again within these a series of lines and angles is surveyed round the boun^ry of each village. These are all prov^ and treated in the same way as the main circuit, and every station is marked by a stone set in the ground. We have at last a number of stations permanently marked on the boundary of each village, and fixed by a record of their distances from knoMm points, hence their positions can be plotted on paper to any scale. This is done by drawing rectangular co-ordinate lines at certain distances apart, and plotting the stations by scale and compass. On the same rectangular co-ordinate lines, the stations of the great trigonometrical survey, and the intersections of the degrees of latitude and longitude, can be plotted from their calculated co-ordinate distances from the origin of survey, and hence the survey stations are fixed in their true positions, not only as regards each other, but also as regards their positions on the earth's surface. By simple calculations during these processes the areas of the circuits and of each village are obtained. The sum of the areas of the villages within a small circuit must agree with its area, and the sum of the areas of the smaller circuits within a main circuit must agree with that area. Having so many checks on his work, the surveyor proceeds with confi- dence, and knows that his subsequent work is based on correctly fixed points and true areas. When one portion of a district has been thus treated, another block of country adjacent to the last is enclosed by a circuit, and the process is repeated till the boundary of every village in the district is enclosed by a series of stations and lines. Tlie stations and lines round a village block are plotted on a sheet of TffE CADASTRAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 6or paper to the scale of survey. The sheet is made over to a native sur- veyor, together with a duplicate copy on rough paper, on which he records certain measurements. He proceeds to the village with his ohainmon, and, accompanied by the headmen of the village,, goes round the boundary measuring by off-sets every turn and bend of it, recording the distances in a field-book, and plotting them on his sheet. While measuring along the plotted lines, he makes extra stations for his subse- quent work, at every ten or twelve chains apart, and thus the village is surrounded at short intervals by fixed stations on which the field survey is based. The surveyor then proceeds to divide the village lands into small blocks of ten to fifteen acres each by running lines across the village from and to fixed stations. He marks on the field boundaries the places where his chain crosses them, and these points being all plotted on his map, he has at last, distributed over the fields, a great number of stations from which the field boundaries are surveyed and plotted by short off-set measurements to their comers and bends. This system of survey has great advantages over the old method of building up a village field by field, for it proceeds on the reverse principle, and works down to the field from accurately plotted boundaries and fixed points. When a field has been surveyed and plotted, the surveyor numbers it, and proceeds to write the record-of-rights, or the village " Khasra," regarding it, and enters its number in its proper rent-roll called " Jamabandi." To be able to appreciate the amount of labour that is entailed in writing up these two records, it is necessary here to glance at the com- plicated system of proprietary and cultivating tenures that obtain in India. The landlords, as I suid before, are the resultant of numerous forces under different Governments and conquerors who have held the country. They may be descendants of men who took the land and held it with a strong hand during great social disturbances, or of successful generals and court favourites to whom tracts of land in newly-conquered territories were given, or of farmers of revenue to whom the Government has made over the land, or of servants of the State who have received grants of land for good service, or of headmen of villages whose claims to here- ditary rights in the village lands have come down from the mists of antiquity, or they may be the more recent class of proprietors rapidly springing up who buy up land from impoverished landlords, and who under our settled rule find land investments profitable. All, however, except those who have been elevated into the rank of independent princes, and those who hold their lands rent free, pay revenue to Government, and Government is the superior landlord. The divisions of the shares in the land are numerous and very com- plicated. There are two principal modes of division. One is by the 608 THE CADASTRAL SURVEY OF INDIA, factors of sixteen, corresponding to the sub-division of a mpee into sixteen annas and lower fractions ; the other is by the factors of twenty, corres- ponding to the division of the measure of land called a " bigha " and ^ts fractions. Thus, if a proprietor holds an anna or a biswa share in an estato he has a one-sixteenth or a one-twentieth share in it. A single owner may possess absolute proprietary rights in an estate, or several persons may possess heritable and transferable properties in the same estato, and these may be in the shape of coparcenary rights, or of those of superior and inferior landlord. Owing to the division of estates among members of a family oo- paroenary tenures are the most common, and embrace all cases where the lands are held by village communities. These tenures are of several varieties, but the most common are reducible to three heads. First.— Those in which the whole land is held and managed in, common. The rente paid by the cultivators, whether these cultivators be the proprietors themselves or not, are thrown into a common stock, with all other profits from the estete, and after deduction of expenses the balance is divided among the proprietors according to their shares. Second. — Those in which the village lands are divided off and held in severalty by the different proprietors, each person managing his own land, and paying his fixed share of the Government revenue, the whole being jointly responsible in the event of any one sharer being unable to fulfil his engagemente. Third. — Those in which part of the land is held in common and part in severalty, the profits from the land held in common being first appropriated to the payment of the Government revenue and the village expenses, the surplus being distributed, or the deficiency made up according to a rate on the several holdings. Many villages contain within their limits spflcimeDS of all these tenures in the several shares into which they are divided among several proprietors. Before the village record-of-righto and rent-rolls are begun, a share list of proprietors is prepared by the settlement officer and made over to the surveyor. In this the shares of the proprietors are steted in fractions of a rupee or bigha, the nature of their tenures, the sub-divisions into which the village lands are divided and how they are held, together with a record of any person who may hold land rent free. There being no law of primogeniture, and the land being divided according to the ancient custom among the children of a family, it has come to pass that the divisions of estates have been cai-ried so far that in some cases a share is so small as to be hardly recognisable, and the trouble of collecting the revenue from such petty proprietors, whose shares payable to Government may be no more than a penny or less, is so great, that it is time further sub-division were stopped. The occupancy or cultivating tenures are divided into three distinct THE CADASTBAL SUBTET OF INDIA. •M Fint— Tenants at fixed rente. These ocoyr in permanently settled districts only, that is, in Bengal Proper and in four districte of the North- West Provinoes. They may be defined in general terms aa tenanto who have held by themselves and their predecessors from the time of the perman«at settlement land at the same rate of rent. Such tenante have a right to hold their fields, and cannot be ejected from them so long as they pay the fixed rents. Their rights devolve by succession or can be transferred. Second.— Occupancy tenants. Every tenant who has actually occupied or cultivated land continuously for twelve years has a right of occupancy in that land, and the occupancy or cnltivation of his father or the person from whom he inherits counto as his occupancy in establishing his rights. His occupancy of land belonging to another tenant under a lease does nut confer an occupancy right. Among this class of tenanto come proprietors who have sold their proprietary rights. They can retain the occupancy of their home farms at a rent 25 per cent, below the value of the land. Thii'd.— Tenants-at-will. These hold under a yearly lease, and have no righto extending beyond their year of cultivation. There is also a class of sub-tenants whose names are entered in the record. These are non-proprietary cultivators who rent land belonging to proprietors or to tenanto having occupancy righto. The record-of-righte, therefore, for each estate contains a list of all the co-sharers, and of all other persons occupying any portion of the land therein, or who have any heritoble or transferable interest in such land, or receive rent from it« It defines the nature and extent of the interest held by each co-sharer and other persons, and it gives the names of all persons holding land rent free. It also specifies all persons holding land at a rent fixed by grant or by contract, or on condition of service, and all other tenanto on the estoto, their names, their castes, the areas of their holdings, and all conditions of their tenure, whether they be tenanto at fixed rates, occupancy tenante, ex-proprietory tenants, or tenante without the righte of occupancy — if the latter, the number of years during whiph they have held tiie land is entered, because they may acquire the righte of occupancy if they hold their fields for twelve years — and all other condi- tions of tenure whether on lease or otherwise are recorded. We now return to the surveyor. When he makes the entries in the records he is accompanied by the landlords and tenante, or their representetives, and by the village accuuntont, a native official called " patwari," who keeps the accounte, the rent-rolls, and the recordH of the village, in other words he is the " factor." While the surveyor writes up the record in the Persian character, the accountont at the same time prepares a duplicate copy in the Hindi character, and also writes the entries in the rent-rolls in Hindi. He supplies information 610 THE CADASTRAL SURVEY OF INDIA. regarding the landlords and tenants from the village papers which ho has with him. All the entries are road out, that those interested may raise any objection they see fit. Each tenant is supplied with rent-roll slips, on which the numbers of his fields are entered when surveyed and numbered, and he has a separate slip for each landlord, and for each tenure under each landlord. All the men being in attendance with their rent-roll sliiM, the surveyor when he has numbered a field asks whose it is. The tenant steps forward with his slip ready while the others stand round to hear, and the entries in the record-of-rights or Ichasra are proceeded with. In column 1 are entered the number of the field, and, below this, its name if it has one. In column 2 is entered the name of the division of the village in which the field lies, if the village is divided off among the landlords. In the third column are entered the names of the proprietors, their fathers' names, their castes, their places of residence, and the amounts they own in the village, in parts of a rupee or bigha as the case may be. If the proprietor has mortgaged his property in the field, the name of the mortgagee is entered, with his description, the same as for the landlord. In column 4 is written the name of the tenant, with his father's name, caste or race, place of residence, and the nature of his tenure of nultivation. If he is a tenant at fixed rates, who has transferable rights in the field, it must be ascertained if the field is mortgaged, and if so to whom, the mortgagee's name and description being entered ; also if there are any sub-tenants, their names will be entered. If there are co-tenants in the field their shares are entered. In the case of tenants not at fixed rates, the time they have cultivated, the nature of their leases, and the changes therein, are all ascertained and written down. The next two columns, 5 and 6, contain the area of the field in acres, OS ascertained by survey, and in bighas, when converted into the native measurement. These are filled up in office. ,In column 7 is entered a detail of how the field is irrigated. If irrigated from a canal it must bo stated if it is by flush or lift, if from a pond or well the situation is stated. If the field depends on rain alone no entry is made ; but if, from the lie of the ground, or the position of the field near probable sources of irrigation, it can be irrigated, this fact is to be stated. Columns 8 and 9 relate to the autumn harvest called " Kharif." In the first of these the surveyor enters the name of the crop that was last grown, and, in case of more than one crop being grown in separate parts of a field, he states the proportions occupied by each. In the second of these columns the area of each crop is entered. Columns 10 and 11 relate to the spring harvest called " Babi," and the same information is given as was entered for the autumn harvest. THE CADASTRAL SURVET Of IKDIA. 611 lu oolnmn 12 the area that ia twice cropped in the year is entered, iu office, from the information contained in the four previous oolnmns. In columns 13 and 14 are entered the description and area of all nnoroppod land, under the headings of new or old fallow, tree land, fpraas, covered with water, village sites, rivers, ravines, roads, and so on. In column 15 is entered a description of the natural soil, whether clay, sand, or loam, and its conventional olassiflcation, .vhethor the field lies in the home-land — that is in the well-cultivated circle round the village — in the middle tract, or in the outlying and worst cultivated parts of the village lands. Column 10 is for general remarks, and contains all the information regarding the field, that could not find a place in the other columns. For instance, in the case of the death of a landlord or tenant, if no change has been made in the official papers, the names of the heirs are entered in this column. The number and difierent kinds of trees in gardens and groves are here entered. A description of all wells is given, whether they are lined with masonry sot in lime, or in clay, or are unlined, also the depth to the water, and of the water, the cost of making them and the date, the manner of working them, whether by bullocks or men, and how many buckets can be used to lift water at one time. Bemarks also regarding the ownership of the wells, of portions of the village site and of trees in fields are made in this column, in which everything uecessary to complete the history of the field is entered. When this book is completed, attested, and agreed to by all concerned, and passed by the settlement officer, it becomes for the future the record- of-righta of the village community. When the information regarding the field has been recorded in the Persian and Hindi Khasras, by the surveyor and the village accountant, the latter enters the number of the field in the rent-roll slip of the tenant. These slips are divided into eleven columns : — The Ist contains the name of the division of the village in which the field lies, with the names of the proprietors, their descriptions and shares, and the name and description of the mortgagee, if any. The 2nd column contains the serial number of the tenant, which is given after all the tenants are arranged according to their tenures. The .^rd column contains the name of the tenant, with his parentage, caste, and residence, and the name of the mortgagee, if any. Column 4 contains the name of the sub-tenant, with his parentage, oasto, and residence. Column 5 gives a detail of the nature of the tenure or lease under which the field is held, and the length of occupancy of the tenant. Column 6 oontAins the numbers of all the fields held by the tenant from the same landlord under the same tenure. These numbers are iPWi eit THE CADASTRAL SURVKT OF INDIA. entered by the aoconntant on the alipe when in the field, and the tenrat intereeted bringi forward his iiUp for the purpoee of having the entry made. He thus knowa that he haa the numbera of all his fields en'tered on the proper slips. Oolntnna 7 and 8 give the area of tho field in local and in Govern- ment bighaa. The latter are fivo-oighths of an acre, but the local bigha may vary in each diatriot and in different sub-divisions of a district. Theae areas are entered after the fields are calculated in ofSoe. Columns and 10 contain the amount of rent paid by the tenant to the landlord. Kenta arc paid either in cash or by a share of the crop. Column contains the cash rents, column 10 the crop rents. Cash rents are generally paid at so much per bigha, and they vary according to the soil and the crop grown. When rents are paid in kind, the grain is cut, carried to the threshing-floor, and threshed out by the tenant. It is then divided in whatever proportions may have been agreed upon between him and the landlord. The village servants, such as the watchman, the measenger, the carpenter, the blacksmith, the barber, the sweeper, and others, then get their shares, if entitled to any, and the remainder belongs to the tenant. The village servants are often paid by holding certain fields rent-free in lieu of service. Column 11 contains any remarks that it may be necessary to record regarding the field or the rent. Separate Jamabandi slips are prepared for each separate cultivator, and for each separate landlord, and separate tenure under which he holds. Separate slips are also prepared for groves, old fallow, new fallow, village sites, waste, rivers, roadH, and other items. In a specimen village (which I have here) there are 193 fields in an area of 94*11 acres, and for these here have been prepared forty-eight Jamabandi or rent-roll slips. While these papers are being written, if any dispute arises between landlord and tenant, or regarding the landlord's rights in the village, the entry is made in the papers in red ink, and the claims of the plaintiff and defendant, under their signatures, are recorded in a dispute list, which the surveyor files with his map and papers. These disputes are afterwards disposed of by the settlement department, and the correct entry is recorded. Many points of difference are settled at the time of survey by a reference to the village papers of former years. When the surveyor has completed his map, record, rent-rolls, and dispute list, he sends them into office, where the map is inked up for reproduction by photography, and the areas of the fields are calculated and entered in the different papers in acres, in Government and local bighas. The areas are calculated by means of an instrument called a " talc square." A very thin sheet of talc or mica is divided by fine scratches into small squares, each representing the hundredth part of an acre on the THE CADASTRAL SURVET OF INDIA. M8 16-inob aoalo. This itheet, which is tranaparent, is laid over the field, and, with a pair of compasses and a scale, the estimators quickly and accurately calculate the number of squares in the field, recording its area to the hundredth part of an acre. The conversion into bighas is done by means of tables of equivalents. * After the areas are entered in the records and rent-roll slips, several abstracts and comparative statements are drawn up for the settlement o£Bcer to aid him in his assessments. Ist, An area statement, giving the non-assessable area, such as rent> free village sites, covered with water and barren. The assessable area distinguished as culturable waste, fallow, and cultivated, the latter divided into irrigated and dry cultivation. 2nd, A soil statement, giving the acreage under five different natural soils, and the amount irrigated and dry. 3rd, A statement of holdings, showing the number of fields and area in acres of the land held by proprietors, ex-proprietors, rent free, by ' occupancy tenants, and by tenants-at-will. 4th, A crop statement, showing for the autumn and spring harvests the areas under the different kinds of crops, distinguishing the food and non-food crops, and giving the area of the land producing two crops a year. The statistics regarding the food and non-food crops are ab- stracted, that the information may be available in cases of threatened famine. 5th, A statement of cultivators, giving their different races and castes, such as Muhammadans, Brahmins, Chhatris, Ahirs, Koeris, and others, together with the number of fields and area cultivated by each caste. 6th, A detail of the soils under five heads of natural soil, such as clay, loam, sand, or alluvial deposit, with the conventional classification into home, middle, or outlying lands, and distinguishing the amounts of the different kinds cultivated by proprietors and by tenants. 7th, Statistics regarding the wells, the area imgated, the depth to the water, the number of ploughs, cattle, sheep, goats, and horses. There is also prepared for the settlement department a trace of the village map, with the fields numbered as in the original, and it is coloured to show the natural soils and the conventional tracts of home, middle, and outlying lands. Also, when required, there are prepared coloured traces of the village map, showing, first, the occupancy tenures ; second, the principal crops grown, and the fields that are double cropped ; and, third, the principal castes of the cultivators. The method of preparing these maps and papers has been described with perhaps tedious minuteness, but it has been shown that the process of inquiry is very searching, and when the results have been recorded, wo have, regarding each individual and each field, a mass of information which enables the settlement officer to adjust the Qovomment demand 014 THE CADASTRAL SURVEY OK INDIA. U> »11 tlio vitrioil circninstanccH of tho cnltivaton, and places in the lianila of tlio «Hstrict aiitlioritioH, regarding the land and the crops, •t«tistiout four miles to an inch, and eugravoil fur tho atlas of India. Tho original village ]uaps an^ sent as soon after survey as possible to tho hi^ad office in Calcutta, where they are reprwluoed by photozinco- graphy on tho scale of stirvcy, and ten or twenty copies of each are printtHi off for the settlement and district officers, and also for sale to the landlords who may denire maps of their estates. All the calculations in the Survey Office are performed at least twice over by indo|iendent sets of estimators, and as the fields are very small, amounting sometimes to a million or more in a season's work, it can bo imagined that the mapping, calculating, and tabulating such a mass of flgun's entails a large amount of work on the survey establishment. The tMitablinliment of a cadastral survey consists of a deputy nu|wrinU«ndent in charge, an assistant sui>erintondont, five to seven KuM|N chain and (lagmen. This largo t draftsmen Mid CMlculntoin sufficient for completing the maps and records of the work of tho field seastni. A general idea of the work of one cadastral survey ])arty for a season may bo given by stating that the outturn in alMUit 2(M)i) villages avcraf:;- Ing alsiut TU) acres each, and containing a million of fields or more of a site of •;! to '4 of an acre eiM>h. The amount of country surveyed in a vrar varira from «irii> to Roo mpntre miles. The cost of survey and pro- itaring the rrconls isalNiut six|N>nco an acre. When tho amount of work in the survey and preparation of tin* rtt'onia of one village is taken into consideration, and tlicii niultiiiliod l>y THG CADASTRAL SCJRVEr OF IKDIA. 615 in the crops, distur- ie areas ^ •which fixed on minntcB red rnup. le latter, called a it should »Uy huilt by photo- d. They inch, and ,H poBsihlo ,hoto7,inco- ,f each are for sale to least twice very email, c, it can bo I a mass of ment. a deputy to seven I surveyors with about •int; season. Iio year the draftsmen ;ordB of tlio or a season (gcH avcmS" or more of » nrvoycd in ^ voy and pto- ■lit ion of tU" nuUiplio*! by the number of villages in a season's operations, it will be seen that the survey staff is fully employed, and it is only by subdivision of labour, and exacting a sufficient tale of work from each man, that the area of the season can be disposed of. Up to this time cadastral surveys have been made of ten districts in the North- West Provinces, containing an area of about 20,000 square miles, and a population of about nine millions, giving an average of about 450 souls to a square mile. But the density of the population varies in different districts, being highest in Benares, where there are about 900 souls to the square mile, or nearly one and a half to each acre. Belgium, the most densely populated country in Europe, has 485 to a square mile, and in the British Isles there are 287. As the natives of India depend almost entirely on agriculture for their livelihood, the struggle for existence in these overcrowded tracts is very great. Besides the cadastral surveys carried on in the North-West Provinces there have been others employed in British Burmah, where the condi- tions of survey were somewhat different. In Burmah the cultivation is mostly rice, and lies in low, swampy tracts. The extent of the cultivation varies from year to year, and the limits of fields are liable to change. To ensure permanent advantages from the survey, the rice land has been . demarcated into blocks, and the areas of each of these have been cal- culated. The Revenue officers can thus readily ascertain how much land is under cultivation. In Burmah, where the lands are leased from year to year, and revenue is paid on the amount of cultivation, the application of a cadastral survey has resulted in a large increase of revenue to Government, not from extra assessments, but from the facility with which the true amount of land under cultivation can now be ascertained. Cadastral surveys have also lately been introduced into Assam, where the conditions of cultivation are very like those in Burmah. The result will be an increase to the Government revenue, and a development of the country which has attained prominence as a tea producer, and which in its extensive jungle tracts of fertile land, about to be opened up by a railway, seems destined to afford an outlet for the surplus population of over-crowded districts in Bengal. A few words may now be said regarding the advantages derived from this elaborate survey, record-of-rights, and statistics. One great source of litigation and ruin to many who engage in it arises from disputes regarding the boundaries of villages and estates. Where no maps exist, or where eye sketches merely were made, or even where in better attempts at map-making the village map was built up field by field, there has always been great uncertainty about the boun- daries. Where there are no maps of course there is no guide to correct boundaries, and in imperfect maps the land has been sometimes shown as belonging to two villages, while in the case of a dispute and litigation surveys were made by native surveyors, but often the case has been VOL. 1. 2 u 61S THE CADASTRAL SURVEY OF INUIA. decided on maps made to suit the party who had the longest puroe^ Many of these disputeB have found their way home to the Privy .Council, after all courts of appeal and re-appeal in India have been exhausted. Where a cadastnd survey is made, these disputes are all inqnired into and settled at the time, of course subject to appeal, and being once correctly marked oS and mapped can never be opened out ag^n. Another class of disputes regarding the internal divisions of fields will be stopped. The fields of a tenant's holding do not all lie contiguous to each other, but are scattered all over the village lands in small portions, arising from continued subdivision. Fields are generally divided from each other by a narrow strip of land left uncultivated, and this strip varies from two or three inches to a few feet wide, the latter mostly in places where it is necessary to leave pathways and roads for communication during the rainy seascm. In many cases, however, where land, is valuable and where the population is dense, there are no divisions left between the fields, or the marks are merely tufts of grass here and there, or small trees planted at the comers of some of the ^elds, to serve as the landmarks of the different holdings. In alluvial tracts subject to liver action the annual inundation destroys the field .boundaries. In all these cases the relaying and restoring of the field boundaries often lead to disputes and litigation, and even to bloodshed. But now it will be easy from the survey map to relay any field, as its distance from any others that remain intact, or from permanent marks which are left on the village boundaries, can be found from the map, and the field can be restored to its original position on the ground. This will stop many disputes and much litigation. By &r the greatest advantages, however, will be derived from having a correct record of the rights of landlords and tenants. These give rise to endless disputes, and in many cases an attempt is made to deprive the tenants of their rights. There will now be an authenticated record for each village, showing the rights and interests of every proprietor and tenant in it, the tenures under which they hold, the number of years they have occupied, and the rents they pay; and as Qovemment has devised a machinery, consisting of the Revenue officers, the village accountants and supervisors, to keep the papers up to date, it is to be hoped that the advantages of this survey will last for many years. The application of the provisions of the Bengal Bent Bill, lately passed, wUl depend on having correct maps, areas, and records of each village and each field, and in the Bill provision is made for having a cadastral survey of Bengal Proper, which is all under the permaneot settlement. During next field season this work will be begun, and it is hoped it may be successful. The survey of the whole province will take many years, but when it is completed it will give to the Govern- ment, regarding Bengal, a mass of information which will facilitate the administration of the law, will fix and regulate the relations between THE CADASTRAL SURVET OF INDIA. 617 >uncU, 3d into J once IdavriU iiguous u small anerally ted, and be latter roads for er, -where 3 are no B of grass iijx« £eld8| rial tracts the field f the field Hoodshed. field, as its aent marks u the map, le ground. Hixlxavinga give jise to deprive the jord for each f and tenant cs they have ts devised a accountants -iped that the Bill, lately ords of each I for having » n, and it is „ovince vill o the Govein- facilitate the Itioni hetweea landlords and tenantsi and ydll remain a lasting monnment to the fsagacity and foresight of the present Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, Sir Bivers Thompson, to whom that country is indebted for the' Bent Bill. In temporarily settled districts these maps and records are necessary to enable the settlement officer to fix the Qovemment demand for the next thirty years. With all the information regarding areas, seals, orops^ irrigation and castes of tenants, he is able to fix the proper rents with almost mathematical accuracy, and it is well that this should be so, since the prosperity and happiness of so many beings depend on the proper adjustment of the rents. Again, in any one year the Government can ascertain the amount of land sown with the diffisrent crops, whether food or non-food producing, can tell in years of drought how much land is protected by irrigation, and can forecast with some approach to accuracy the probable extent and pressure of scarcity. Moreover, since India has become a great grain-exporting country, it is of immense benefit to its trade to be able to gauge the probable amount of crops of different sorts available for export. But from knowing the exact resources of the country another great advantage will accrue to the administrators who in the near fdture will have to deal with some complicated social problems. One of these is how far the process of subdivision of the land can be allowed to go on ; and another is what is to be done with the rapidly increasing popula- tion, which in some districts is so great as barely to leave a margin between subsistence and starvation when any slight failure of the crops occurs. Before our Government gave settled rule to India and improved the sanatory condition of the people, there wei-e several causes that acted as safety valves to prevent overpressure of population. These were — wars, famines, pestilences, and female infanticide. No one could wish a return to the first. Every effort is made to prevent the loss of a single life by famine. The sanatory condition of villages is inspected to guard against cholera. Vaccinators are appointed everywhere to fight against the scourge of small-pox, and female infanticide is a thing of the past. The result of all this, joined to the effects of infant marriage, is that the population is increasing at a rapid rate. The country has Very little manufacturing industries, and the whole mass of the people depends on what the earth will produce. The amount of production has a limit, and when that is reached scarcity must either set in, or the surplus population will have to be drafted off to other parts of the country, where there are still uncultivated lands and room for the extension of agriculture. Questions such as these regarding the future of the country and the cultivators cannot but arise in the mind of the surveyor, who has to live among the people, often for months far away from any of his own countrymen. Such considerations make his work very interesting, 2 2 618 THE CADASTRAL SURVET OF INDIA. while he is encouraged in his task by knowing that it is uaeM for ameliorating the condition of the people in India, where land and all relating to it are questions of the first importance, involving life and death to so many struggling millions. He is cheered by the thought that he is assisting the Gk>vemment to regulate wisely its relations with its tenants, and to forward — as it is its greatest wish to do — the material prosperity and happiness of the vast countries and populations committed to its charge. SPIRIT-LEVELLING OPERATIONS OF THE 6EEAT TRIGONOMETKICAL SUEVEY OF INDIA. Br MAJOR A. W. BAIRD, E.E., F.RS., &0, PEPCTX-ECTEBlNTENfiENT, SCKTET OF INDIA. 1 ^ •i\tf!:»/^fi It ''*. '*■ >«? SPIRIT-LEVELLING OPERATIONS OF THE GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. By Major A. W. Baird, B.E., F.R.S., etc. ' (Deputy Superintendent, Survey of India.) These opetatious have for their object the connection of the aeveral Tidal Stations by Lines of Spirit-Levels running along the Coast, and across the continent of India from sea to sea : also the connection of the principal stations of the Great Triangulation which fall in the neighbonr''- Lood of the lines of levels, with a view to the rectification of the differ- ences of height, which have already been determined by the less accurate trigonometrical method. Collaterally with theise operations a great number of the bench marks of the Irrigation, Bailway, and other branches of the Department of Public Works have been connected, with a view to their general combination and reduction to a common datum. From the origin of the Trigonometrical Survey in Indiaup to the year 1858 all heights were invariably determined by the method of reciprocal vertical angles, between the principal stations of thd triangula- tion. This method is based on the supposition that the back and forward angles are equally refracted, and that the refraction is consequently eliminated in deducing the angle subtended by the excess of the higher station over the lower. But the anomalies and irregularities of the trajectories of light in the lower strata of the atmosphere render it highly improbable that the refraction can be equal in the back and forward observations. In 1858 the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India commenced a series of Spirit-levels, which up to May, 1862, had been so far extended that the Chach Base line near Attock, the Dehra Dun, and the Sironj, base lines, had all been connected with the Mean Sea Level at Kurrachee; making a total of 1998 miles of double levelling, executed by two and sometimes three independent observers working with different instru- ments and staves on the same points. The following is a brief description of the rigorous method of procedure which was laid down by General Walker, and has been adopted in carrying out the levelling. jj-i-p^;; The instruments employed are Standard Lev6ls, by Messrs. Trou^htoii And Simms, of 22 inch focal length, and power averaging 42— very superior to ordinary levelling instruments. The levels are fitted with finely graduated scales, and have their runs determined by a series of observa- 622 SPIRIT-LEVELUNa OPERATIONS OF THE tions on the vortical circle of a large theodolite, and Hometimei by a groat number of obsorvations to a graduated Htaff generally set up at exactly 10 chains distant from the instrument. From the mean value of the subtense tables are constructed for use in the field, showing the 'run corrections for dislovelment tvhich are applied to every observation. As this necessitates a certain amount of computation on the ground, a trained native recorder accompanies each observer, thus dividing the labour, and enabling the surveyor to concentrate his attention on the actual manipulation of, and observations with, the instrument. To guide in obtaining a true perpendicular the staves are supplied with plummets let into the sides, and visible through glass doors. Swivels are fixed to the tops of the stavos for four guy ropes, by means of which they are adjusted and kept steady when once properly fixed. Whenever the staff is set up a wooden peg is previously driven well into the ground, and into the head of the peg is fixed a hemispherical brass brad — which presents a smooth surface, or point on which the brass shoe of the staff rests, and can rotate freely. If the staff is to be sot up on a permanent bench mark cut on a stone, the head of a brad from which tho spike has been removed is placed on the bench mark, so that the staff may always have a point to rest on. Starting from a bench mark a brad is used, and also the same precau- tion is taken when closing on a bench mark. Thus as the levelling opera- tions merely determine differences of height, the levels of tho two bench marks " intense" are obtained. To prevent the possibility of errors in reading the staves escaping detection, the stavos are graduated on both sides, one side having a white ground and black divisions (feet, tenths, and hundredths), numbered from O'OO foot to 10-00 feet; the reverse side having a black ground with white divisions, numbered from 5*55 to 15*55 feet. Both faces of each staff are observed : thus, two independent values of difference of level are obtained at each station when the instrument is set up, and this forms one set of observations. The staves are read off to the third place of decimals of a foot, and if the difference between the two values obtained, after the correction for dislevelment has been applied, amounts to * 006, i.e. i^jsxs of a foot, the invariable rule is to repeat the observations. . Should the day be unfavourable, sometimes four or five sets of observations have to be taken at a station, and tho mean of all the sets taken as the true value. The instrument is invariably put midway between, or at equal distances from, the back and forward staves, the distance to each staff — which is always carefully measured with a chain — varying from 10 or 12 chains in a clear morning and over fairly level ground, to 3 or 4 chains between 10 and 11 o'clock in the forenoon, when it begins to warm up. The rate of progress is not as rapid as in ordinaiy levelling operations, but four miles a day may generally be reckoned on. GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. groat «aotly of the ig the 1. round, Qg the on the applied , doors, r means y filed, en well phericsd he brass 3 sot up ad from , BO that ) precau- ig opera- fro bench escaping a white ered from and with )ot, and if eotion for foot, the day be obe taken A second observer with a separate instrument, recorder, staves and Ichalassies (the men who carry the instrumental equipment of the party) follows the first obeorver, over the same ground, resting his staves on the same pegs and bra* -« that were used by his predecessor, and carefully comparing the results. Whenever a difference exceeding 0*006 of a foot appears between the results of the two observers the observations are repeated, and should the discrepancy still remain, the prior observer is called back to re-observe, and the second leveller takes the load. But as a matter of fact this is a rare occurrence. The rule of equal distances between instrument and each staff elimi- nates all coUimation error in the level, and it also eliminates the effects of the curvature of the earth and all constant refraction. The line of levels is divided as nearly as possible into equal sections, and adjacent sections are levelled over in opposite directions. Thus, sup- posing the general direction of the work is from east to west, four miles will be carried out from east to west ; the next day four miles from west to east will be levelled over, and so on. Of course the distance one day may bo a little more or less than the distance the next day, but it is arranged that the total of all the sections in one direction will be as nearly as possible equal to the total distance of the sections in the oppo- site direction. Not only is this system carried out in sections, but it is followed to a certain extent at each alternate station throughout the section. Thus in commencing it is usual to observe the back staff first ; at the next station the forward staff is observed first; at the third station the back staff is again first observed, and so on. This system was devised to guard against the accumulation of small constant errors, as it has been found that levelling steadily in one direction is liable to give a different result from what is obtained when levelling in the opposite direction. It involves a great deal of extra marching (as the whole ground has to bo twice gone over), but this is deemed essential for the acquisition of really trustworthy results. It has been already stated that 1998 miles of levelling had been carried out from the commencement in 1858 up to May, 1862. Between 1862 and 1865 the line of levels had been extended from Agra via Patka Gerouli and Tilliagarhi (near Sahibgunge) to Calcutta, thus adding another 931 miles of levelling to the main line, besides connecting various stations of the Great Triangulation by means of branch lines. The termi- nal station at Calcutta was the sill of the Eidderpore Dock ; but the mean level of the water at Eidderpore is of course very much higher than the mean level of the sea, as although the Hooghly is a river, in which the influence of the tide is felt much beyond Calcutta, yet from the sea proper at the head of the Gulf of Bengal to Calcutta is over 100 miles. Thus no very reliable test of the accuracy of the work could yet be obtained. ..., ^- , .. . . . „.. . v 624 SPIRIT-LEVELLIMO OPERATIONS OF THE Between 1865 »nd 1872, the levelling operations were for the moat part carried out in the North of India. Thua linee of levels ftom Ferozepore to Lahore and Mean Meer, from Mooltan to Dehra Gari Khan, and also from Delhi to Meemt, and Saharunpore to TJmballa were carried out in one aeaaon. Next year ftt>m Meerut to Moradabad, Ba- reilly and Pilibheot was completed, and the following year from Bareilly to Cawnpore via Shajehanpore, Sectapore and Luoknow was finished ; the last-named line was continued the next season to Fynbad and Goruokpore, and on to Dildamugg^r. Afterwards the levelling was carried firom Goruokpore to Bettia and Mozufferpore to Darbhanga : and next year this was continued to Sahibganj, Pumiah and Karagolaghat to Firpanti, on the main line of levels from Kurraohee to Calcutta. This completed the levelling in the North of India, and if we include the short line of 71 miles which was carried out in the South of India from Tutioorin to the Cape Comorin Base Line, during the season 1860-70, we have 1705 miles to add to the total of the levelling done up to 1872. Before discussing the further progress of the levelling, it should be mentioned that the heights in the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India up to 1 874 were dependent on determinations of sea-level which were obtained from personal observations on a graduated pole, taken generally at every quarter of an hour day and night for a few days, or at most for one semi-lunation. These observations were carried out at several places on the coast line, viz.: Diu Harbour (in Kattyawar), Karwar, and Mangalore, all on the West Coast ; at Yizagapatam on the East Coast, and at Tuticorin near the extreme South of India. At only one place (Eurrachee) had observations been taken with a Self-Registering Tide Gktuge previous to 1869 ; the value of Mean Sea Level which had been deduced from the Eurrachee work was obtained from observations taken over two semi-lunations with that gauge ; and on this value depend all the heights in Sind, Fanjab, &c. Systematic Tidal observations by means of Self-Begistering Tide Gauges were commenced by the Great Trigonometrical Survey in 1873, when gauges were set up at three places in the Gulf of Cutch. An account of these operations, which were carried out for a special purpose, was given in a paper which the writer read before the Physical Section of the British Association at Glasgow in 1876. It may be said that at Okha, the station at the mouth of the Gulf of Cutch, the first very accurate determination of mean level of the sea was obtained. Subsequently, in 1877, the Government of India ordered that a systematic record of Tidal observations at selected places all round the coasts of India and Burmah should be carried out. It is unnecessary to refer here to these operations, except in so &r as they are considered with regard to determining the exact value of mean sea level at certain places ; but it may be stated that Tidal observations are being carried GREAT TRiaONOHETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 625 out BimnltaneotiBly at 20 atationa on the oooata of India, Ceylon, and Bonnah, including Aden and Port Blair in the Andaman Islanda. Beaidea theae,obaervationa have been completed at four other atationa, in addition to the three plocea in the Qulf of Cutoh. Aa a rule the minimum time of observation ia taken to be five yean, for the mean level of the aea can be very accurately determined during this period. The mean level as derived from Tidal observations for one year differs slightly from that obtained from observations from the preceding or succeeding year, but the fluctuation in the value is very alight. Thus at Kurrachee, where observationa were made during 16 years, the highest level in any year only differed to the extent of 0*148 foot from the mean of all the years, and the lowest differed 0*132 foot; the fluctuations thus amounting to 0*280 foot. It ia a happy coincidence that the hitherto provisionally accepted value of the Kurrachee mean sea level as derived from two semi-lunations agrees closely with the accurate determination from 16 years' obsei'vations, and thus all the heights given in the published pamphlets of the levelling operations in Sind, Fanjab, North-West Provinces, and Bengal are practically correct. Between 1873 and 1875 over 600 miles of levelling had been done in Madras, viz. : from Gooty to Bellary, Dharwar and on to Karwar, and also from the Bangalore Base Line via Tumkur and Honore to Bellary, and thence via Adoni to Baiohore. During this time also the line of levels round the Gulf of Cutch had been carried out, which extended to 304 miles, making with the Madras levelling 905 miles to be added to the total of levelling up to 1872. The line of levels during the next two seasons had been carried from Torya on the Gulf of Outch through Eattyawar and on nearly to Bombay, and besides this a large loop line from Shikarpur on the Bunn of Cutch to Patri and Yiramgam, thus adding 778 miles to the work already executed. During the next four seasons which ended in 1880-81 the work had been extended to Bombay, and from Bombay to Madras, with a branch line from Foona via Sattara and Belgaum to Dharwar, to join the line of levels from Bellary to Bangalore ; and also branch lines from Sholapur to Bijapur, and from Gulbarga to the Bider Base Line had been carried out: and the main line was extended from Ealyan near Bombay to Chikalvohol near Malegam in Khandesh, making in all 1706 miles of levelling for the four seasons. From 1881 up to the season which has just closed (1884-85), the levelling has been carried from Chikalvohol near Malegam to Mhow and Indore, and on to join the Sironj Base Line in Central India, where the levels from Agra terminated. Also False Point Tidal Station had been connected with Eidderpore, 626 SPIRIT-LEVELLINQ OPERATIONS OF THE 80 as to make the line of levels from Kurrachce to Calcutta end at a tidal station at the sea coast on the east side of India. Lines of levels were carried to Dnblat and Diamond Harbour Tidal Stations, and also along both banks of the Hooghly, so as to give bench marks for the river surveyors. , During the last field season Madras and Beypore have been connected, and a branch line was taken from JoUarpet to Bangalore, thus connecting Karwar with Madras and Beypore. This has added 1567 miles to the levelling operations, making in all the magnificent total of 9680 miles of double levelling executed by the Trigonometrical Survey between 1858 and the present year. Besides this some 300 miles of single levelling by branch lines to trigonometrical stations have been- levelled over. During this period, there were only two seasons in which levelling operations were not prosecuted. Thus the time occupied in carrying out this vast amount of work has been exactly a quarter of a century. To give a practical and familiar illustration of the magnitude of these operations, taking the line which runs from Kurraohee up the Indus to Mithankote, and onwards via Forozpore, Agra, Allahabad, Monghyr and Calcutta to False Point is 2300 miles in length. If this distance be converted into longitudinal degrees for the latitude of London, it represents, say, 53^ of longitude ; and if stretched out eastwards, would reach from London straight across the Channel through Germany and all Russia to Astrakan. It is most probably the longest lino ever run between two seas, and the error in levelling does not exceed 1 foot 8 inches, or under one inch per one hundred miles. Again, the line of levels taken from the Chach Base near Peshawar, in the extreme North, and extending to Beypore in the South, represents over 22° of latitude, a distance greater than that embraced between the most northerly point of Scotland and the most southerly p«iiut of S|>ain. The difficulties experienced in carrying out this enormous pioc4t of work have at times been very considerable. Bad roads or want of roads, and having to carry the levels through long graHS, and crosaing large rivers, such as the Kosi, and more esiK>cially the Qangos ; and t)i« Hooghly occasioned great trouble. In taking the obHcrvntinns uctokm these large rivers special arrangements had to lie nia«lv, by |>aiitiiig tui the staves slips of paper divided only into feet and t<>nttis, us of conrwi the smaller divisions on the staves could not Im) rocogniM> Ini iiiimIo at each long crossing. In going from False ]V>int to Calcutta, and down the lianks of the Hooghly t<> Dublat in Kaiigor Island, the work w'h» exceptionally troublesome. First of all a very difflctilt network of rrwki at the mouth of the Mahanadi had to lie cr«iNM.>«l, until " t4'm» Anna " was reached on the banks of the Kon*lra|)«ni Canal. This ni>4il wailmK for about eighteen miles through un oxtonsivn jungly swamp, wliU-h i$ wholly oovored with water at spring tidv«i, and is nevvr vutirvljr tn» GREAT TRIOONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 627 from it. The stands of the instruments had frequently to be sot up in 'water about two feet deep ; and as the soil below was loose and slushy, so that any movement on the part of the observer disturbed the level of the telescope, the first observer had to summon his coadjutor from a station in rear, to read the level at the moment ho was reading the staves with the telescope, and then he had to return and perform the sam* duty for his coadjutor. . Various creeks and rivers, ranging from a i|uart«r to three-quarters of a mile in breadth, had to be orosaod before Kakrahati was reached, but in all cases the crossing was aooomplishod by direct spirit* levelling, though occasionally staves with the broad graduation alift had to be used. To cross the Hooghly in this manner was found impracticable, aa the river was considerably over one mile in widtii »l its narrowoat |iaii. Temporary tide gauges wore sot up on lioth banks, at a |Nirt wh(>rt> tha main channel and the banks wore ]>arallol to ttacli iith«>r. Ntiiiii1t*htH>ua readings of the level of tho water on both gauges ware taken l>y tltu twn levellers at high water, and also during ri»iii|{ and faUiug liiWi. Tbe surface of the water was very tmouth, and upwuriia nf ,')(H) oiiaervatiuna, extending over four days, were taken. A diflurvnua nf lov^l „f n««rly two inches was found between rising and falling Udm, but Itu; inmn of \m>%h differed by only two-thinls of an inch fVoni the level at t)it> tt>p of tl»» li<|«> when the surface of tho river was neither rising nor falling ; ami th* general moan may be aoooptod as within half an inch of tli«< tnith, «it«l la |•^• bably much more exact than any rvault whioh might Im»v«i lawn uMAiuM by measuring tho vortical angle* acroM t)w riv»r \>y *iiy otlirr |>nwMiL The following aoaaun similar (Ufll<-«iliit« wrm «>i|i«>ri«>iM^ al<4if both banks of the 1I(x>ghly. Hut flum wltat Ihm alrvaily I»*«iaal4 il will be seen that onnaidvrablo skill in fr«M|tt«htly nmtmmty U» >i»»fni«>ia ||m obstacles that nttnir : andiiidwulNl limralt WMonly fh>tn llioMial.aHivlijr, and gwMl mauag«f i\w 'UimUmt»mi llhai tho diffloultios wcn> i>%< tur^fyf^* ««f» IssfwaMl and ex|HiWMl t4ian ritii|it wliirh ImliMvil \mt\ I>m»IiIi, |«Nk, aimI .ImmIm*, and it waa with vrry gn^t tnniUln ituii iImi •nMo«i'» «»»ik «aa tuas^lsli^ Now with r9gar«l to sumo uf the r»nlt« »f itw «nUy. lUt* M ••• an****! Hm «| PM «l a fuit, I.'. 4 inclHw in a Unnlh of Ihw of &>> mtW* From tho nimn am l*v*l |WMnl«y l» iImI <>I K«*««« ttmtm II M ap|«niiil riMt of o \k\ ,.f • t,m^. i« 1 1 Iim Iim la • kagik ..f Um U kw wilws. Fn>m Kurrat Imh> w lake l\4«t llM* la Mi aifMiat fl» wi I Itai • inobaa in 2300 miUm, F^•nl llmnUy lo Mailrsa iDw A urtm ^mmr y mm 9^ | mtW* . •>«" ••< afi^fviil ttm FloM Karwaf «M iWIUft. tUttgak.*^ a*4 J«4W^ I* la a risa *4. m mmiif T l*»%s» m »I9 I 628 8PIRIT-LEVELUNG OPERATIONS OF THE It mast bd here mentioned that in all these cases it is the saittherti stations which appear raided above the northern stations. On the other hand the following oases show a reverse result, that is, the BOuthern'Stationa are lower than the northern. f ,{:i,i:w;*lfti fertf From Kiirrachee via Mithankot, Ferozpore, and Agra to Sironji and Bombay there is a fall of 0-62 foot, or 7i^ inches in 2030 miles. From Madras to Beypore a fall of 0-658 fopt, or 8 inches in 407 miles. From Karwar via Bellaty, Bangalore, JoUarpet and on to Beypore there is only a fell of 0"1 of a foot, that is, a little more than one inch in 663 miles ; or the mean soa level at Karwar and Beypore are almost identical as determined by spirit-levelling. The first five lines, in each of which the mean sea at the southern station appears to be higher than at the northern, were those first completed. General Walker commented on them in his Annual Beport to the GoVemmetit of India for 1880-81, and suggested that the dis- crepancy was chiefly duo to errors in the levelling operations, cansed from a liability to personal misapprehension in reading the bubble of the spirit-level, which may tend to produce a considerable accumulation of error on lines of which the general direction is either towards the sun or opposite to the sun. Owing to the spirit-level being placed above the telescope, the observer gets a side view of the bubble refracted obliquely through the thickness of the ^lass tube, which is not so sharply defined as the look down view from above. The rim round the bubble, causeA by the adhesion of the liquid to the sides of the tube, becomes 6o prominent that its extremities may be observed instead of those of the bubble. When light falls obliquely on the instrument And either end of the instrument is pointed towards the light, the outer edge of the rim at the end of the bubble towards the light is more clearly defined than the inner, while at the opposite end of the bubdle the inner edge of the rim is the more clearly defined. Consequently there is a tendency to assume the instrument to be level when in reality the end towards the light is depressed, and, thongli the tendency would probably vary in magnitude with different persons, it is likely to affect all persons more or less. Obviously it is uninfluenced by reversing the direction of the operations, though it disappears when the direction of levelling is at right angles to that of the light. This illumination error is a maximum on the meridian, and vanishes on tho prime vertical. However great its magnitude it is non-apparent in a circuit (»f levels, and is only apparent on lines starting from and dosing on tho mean Hoa, which affords an independent check on tho levelling operations. When tho operations are carried on between sun- rise and mid-day, as is usually the case in India, the direction of the lino of average effect would bo south-oast and north-west ; and the result would bo to apparently rniso the southern stations relatively to tho GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDU. 629 northern ones, though not to the same extent as if operations were carried on throughout the entire daj. It is to be noted, howerer, that so small an error of level adjustment as 1 "'2 of arc recurring with the same sign at only one-fourth of the stations at which the instruments were set up, would produce a discrepancy such as had been met with in the line between Bombay and Madras. When General Walker made this suggestion, the raising of the southern stations had been found to occur in a greater or less degree on all the lines of levels connecting the tidal stations. Since then, however, the Eurrachee-Bombay line, the Madras-Beypore line, and the line from Karwar to Beypore via Bellary, Bangalore, and JoUarpet have been executed. In the' first two of these lines the southern stations are lowered relatively to the northern stations, and in the last line the northern and southern stations are practically identical. Thus the operations since 1881 throw a doubt on the southern stations being apparently raised relatively to the northern, and the explanation of the Bombay-Madras discrepancy of sea level must be sought for other- wise. Quoting from General Walker's note already referred to, he says : — " That there are variations in the general level of the surface of the ocean at diflferent places, so that if compared with the surface of the spheroid or other geometrical figure which most closely corresponds with the figure of the earth the surface of the ocean will in some places be above and in other places be below that of the figure, is probable enough : and indeed this must certainly happen whenever the attracting influences of mountains and other irregularities of the earth's surface on the water of the ocean are not counteracted by deficiencies of density in the strata be- low the elevated masses. But as the surface of the ocean is everywhere maintained in equilibrium — excepting, of course, the oscillations of the tide — there can be no flow of water from one point to another : thus there can be no sensible differences of level, though some points on the surface may be materially higher than other points as referred to a hypothetical geometrical surface, or, say, the earth's centre. The differences of height^ however cmeiderahle, must he insensible, because they cannot be measured by instrumental means ; for the causes by which they would be produced must equally affect both the spirit-levels of the instrtments and the water-levels of the ocean, whenever both are subjected to the same influences. Thus if the spirit levels had been carried without error along the coast from Bombay via Cape Comorin to Madras, they must have shown identity of mean sea level at Bombay and Madras, just as has been met with in the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, on opposite sides of the Jsthmus of Suez ; and in the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, on opposite sides of the Isthmus of Panama. And this identity would be obtained even if there were actually a considerable difference of height, as is very possible : for the Western Ghats (or Mountains) and the general greater elevation of the 630 SPIRIT-LEVELUMO OPERATIONS OF THE western as compared to the eastern half of the Peninsula are sources of attraction which if not counteracted must raise the mean soa at Bombay more than 31 feet (as calculated by Mr. Hennessey) above mean sea level Madras." There seems to remain only two possible explanations of the discrepancy between Bombay and Madras. Firat, that it is due to the proximate and local attractions of the hills and table-lands over which the line of levels was carried, and which must exercise some influence on the instrumental levels over and beyond the general influence that is exerted alike on both the instrumental and ocean levels. Or (second) that the error is due to some accidental' gross error in the levelling. Begturding the former of these two explanations, the spirit levels were carried from Bombay up the short and abrupt ascent to the crest of the Western Ghats near Foona, and then down the long and gentle decline to the east coast at Madras. Thus, while subject to the same general attractive influence of the continental masses as the ocean levels, they are subject also to the more immediate influence of local inequalities in the configuration of the ground passed over. With regard to the second explanation, it seems improbable that the discrepancy can be due to i^n accidental gross error, seeing the special precautions which are taken, by the employment of two independent operators and instruments, and the use of double-faced staves, to guard against such errors. Moreover the most probable locus of such an error was believed to bo in the section over the Ghats, and this was re-levelled, with the result that the two measurements were identical. Quite lately, too, the last portion of the line (about 50 miles) near Madras was le-levelled, the results of the first and second levelling being identical. The levelling which has yet to be done to complete the whole schemo is as follows : — From False Point Tidal Station via Yizagapatam and Coconada Tidal Stations to Madras (see broken lines on the map). Then Erode via Trichinopoly to Negapatam, thus connecting Madras and Negapatam Tidal Stations, and also Beypore and Negapatam. From Trichinopoly via Madura to Paumben Tidal Station, and from Madura to Tuticorin, where a Tidal Observatory is to be set up. Also from Nowanar Tidal Station through Cutch via Lakpat to Tatta, to join the line of levels in Sind from Kurrachee to Mithankot, &c. And a branch line from Marmag&o (near Goa) Tidal Station to Dhar- war, to join the line from Bombay to Earwar : and at the same time Marmagao and Karwar will be directly connected. If besides these lines the levels are carried across country from the Bider Base line to Yizagapatam, the whole system will be most complete and tied together in a most thorough manner. GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 631 Four, or at most five seasons should be sufficient to finish the whole of this work, and when completed it is likely that the portion of the line between Bombay and Madras, where the discrepancy is generated, may be sufficiently localized as to make it worth while having it further exa- mined ; and if with the result of no gross error being found, then it seems to me the only conclusion which can be come to is, that the local attrac- tions on the line operated over has been sufficient to disturb the spirit levels to a very sensible extent.* * The identity of the mean sea level on opposite sides of the IsthmuB of Suez and that of Panama having been questioned during the diaoasaion which fbllowed the reading of this paper at the meeting of the British Association, Qeneial Walker has obtained the following information on the subject from the Engineer of the Suez Canal, through Major-Qeneral Bir John Stokes, K.G.B., B.E. 1° Le niveau moyen annuel de la mer Mediterran^ It Port Said, est le mcme que le niveau moyen annuel de la mer Rouge, k Suez. 2° D'apres les etudes de la.Gompagnie du Canal de 'Panama, il n'y a pas de difference de niveau sensible entre I'oc^an Atlantique, k Colon, et I'oc^an Paoiflque, k Panama. • I VOL. I. 2 X CL] M «*i: SOME REMARKS ox CLINOMETRICAL, OR APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS. By ma joe J, HILL, E.E., DEPCTT SUPEBINTBNDENT SUBVET OP INDIA, IN CHARGE OF THB KONKAN TOPOGBAPHIOAL SUBVET. 2x2 (Dei II The by n heig surv ofli 1 to til and meni othei Surv of he that Ii Ught projK been the g Ii or lii made Vi far aj prodv vertic on thi When be ex them thick lines ] actual and tl In SOME REMARKS ON CLINOMETRICAL .OR 5 V APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS. By Major J. Hill, B.E., (Dtpnty Saperintendent Survey of India, in charge of the Konkan Topographical Survey.) The problem, how to increaBe the utility of their topographical map» by more clearly indicating upon them the various slopes and relative heights of all parts of the ground, without unduly increasing the cost of survey, has long engaged the attention of the officers of the Survey of India. Three methods of portraying the ground have been in use from time to time ; the graduations of slope having been shown by brush work, and by either vertical or horizontal hachuring with the pen. The lastr mentioned method is the one which is chiefly in use now, although the others are occasionally employed for special work ; and the e£forts of the Survey officers have been directed chiefly towards improving the system of horizontal hachuring, so that the full amount of information which that method is capable of giving may be found upon the maps. In delineating ground, it is customary to indicate gentle slopes by light shades, and steep slopes by heavy shades, the depth of shade being proportional to the steepness of slope ; and various scales of shade have been devised, with the double object of giving the truest representation of the ground, and of securing uniformity in the drawing of the surveyors. In the system in use in the Indian Survey, the horizontal hachures^ or lines of shading, although not professing to be true contours, are made to represent equal vertical intervals as nearly as is practicable. When a slope is gentle, equal vertical intervals on the ground are far apart, and the lines representing them on the paper being far apart, produce the effect of a light shade. When a slope is steeper, the equal vertical intervals come closer together, and the lines representing them on the paper being closer together, produce the effect of a deeper shade. When the slopes are so steep that the equal vertical intervals could not be expressed without confusion, or danger of the lines representing them coming together and causing a blot, the procedure is modified, and thick lines are used which indicate greater vertical intervals than the lines representing the more ordinary slopes. When the ground becomes actually precipitous, the horizontal system of hachuring is relinquished, and the escarpment is expressed by bold vertical strokes. In order to use a scale of shade effectively, so as to depict the 636 SOME REMARKS ON CLINOMETRICAL OR AFPROXiMaTL HhlOHTS. «haractori8ticB of the ground with a fidelity and accuracy appropriate to the scale of survey, the various slopes of the ground must of course be known pretty accurately. In the Indian Survey the most accurate method of obtaining those slopes, namely by means of spirit-level or water-level contours, cannot generally bo employed, on account of its slowness and costliness. Some cheaper and readier method had to be adopted. The method generally employed at present, seems to be well suited to the scales of survey now in use in the Topographical Survey of India. It consists in determining the heights of numerous points all over the Survey, by means of observing vertical angles to them. The heights so determined are of three classes. 1st. Trigonmnetrical lieigJUa; which are the heights of the Trigono- metrical Stations and intersected points of the triangulation, deduced from vertical observations with the theodolite : these are entered on the plane tables before the topographical part of the Survey is commenced. 2nd. Traverse heights; which are the heights of traverse stations deduced from vertical observations with the theodolite*; these also are entered on the plane tables before the topographical part of the Survey is commenced. 3rd. Approximate heights ; determined by the topographers at the time of their survey by means of observations with clinometers. "" i With the help of these numerous heights the topographers can judge very closely the correct intervals, and the proper directions of what they term their "eye-contour lines," which are merely the horizontal hachures, or lines of shading, of which mention has been made already. The trigonometrical heights being generally those of the most prominent objects noticeable from the stations of the triangulation, are seldom so evenly distributed and so close together, even when supple- mented by the transverse heights, as to suffice for all the requirements of the topographers. It is important, therefore, that the topographers, with the help of those heights, should be able to determine at once their approximate heights wherever they may station themselves ; such sub- sidiary heights may sometimes be sufficiently important to require ^recording on the maps ; at other times they merely serve the purpose of enabling a surveyor to estimate the correct number of eye-contours he ought to insert in a particular place. The late Surveyor-General of India, General Walker, in a Circular Order issued by him in 1880, remarked that : " Determinations of height may be of much value even when they are not exact but only approximate ; if the errors are not more than one or two per cent, of the range between the highest and lowest points ou the map, the determinations will give a fairly exact idea of the actual tx)nfiguration of the ground, which may be of much service for engineer- ing and military puri^oses, provided that the precaution is taken of indicating that they are approximate only, by so printing them on the SOME REMARKS OX CLINOMETRICAL OR APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS. $37 lateto irsel)® curate (vel or of its I to be be well rvey of ints all 1. The Crigono- deduced d on the iinenced. stations also are lo Survey t the time can judge vrhat they horizontal already, the most lation, are Bupple- uirements (Ographers, once their such sub- to require rarpose of ontours he ■when they re than one t points on the actual or engineor- Ib taken of hem on the on map as to distinguish them from the more exact values." • . • * " Plane tables should calculate their heights on the spot, as the value may frequently be serviceable, aiding them to delineate the features of the ground with due attention to the relief." .... " The stations whose heights are thus determined, should be shown on the maps by a dot only, and the heights should be given in smaller figures than usual, with the fetters ap written after them, to indicate that they are approximate." .... " The points for which subsidiary heights are desirable are the following: " (1) Junctions of rivers and streams, (2) junctions of roads, (3) crests of passes through hills and mountains, (4) ferries, (5) open and level or cultivated plateaux in hill tracts, (6) dd,k bungalows. For all these, clinometrio determinations may be made. When the theodolite can be employed, and greater accuracy be thus obtained, thej heights of the following shoidd also be determined, whenever it is possible to do so without much inconvenience : (7) bridges, (8) milestones, (9) temples, (10) tanks, (11) boundary pillars." Many patterns of clinometei-s have been suggested and experimented with, but the pattern which has obtained general preference, and which is now issued to all Topographical Survey parties, is the " tangent scale clinometer," of the kind mentioned in the Surveyor-General's Circular Order Xo. 100, dated 8th February, 1883. It is placed for use on the surface of the surveyor's plane table, over which it can be shifted at pleasure. It is constructed of metal, and consists of a horizontal adjustable bar (carrying a level), at the object-end of which is an upright arm or vane carrying a tangent scale, while the eye-end carries an upright sight vane, through an eye-hole in which the elevation of an object can be read off on the tangent scale. The sight vanb and the upright arm carrying the tangent scale, when not in use, can shut down by hinges which connect them with the horizontal bar, and the whole instrument then fits into a neat box which is very portable and convenient. In introducing this little instrument to the Department, the Surveyor-General remarked : " It must be clearly understood that the object of employing this instrument is to obtain fairly accurate differential heights of objects at short distances. When in proper adjustment, the uncertainty of the reading of an object through the sight-vane may be taken as about '002 on the tangent scale ; this is equivalent to an error of 20 feet in the height of an object at a distance of 10,000 feet, or in that of the observer as determined by observation of a known point at the same distance : thus, as a rule, objects should not be observed at a greater distance than 2 miles unless several known points are visible, when a mean of several indepen- dent determinations may give a fairly trustworthy result. In some instances the first clinometers were employed to observe points which were 10 or more miles distant; this is what they were not intended 638 ^ME REBfARKS ON CLINOMETRICAL OR APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS. for.-and what should only be done with a theodolite reading to about a ! minute of arc ; naturally, therefore, they gare results which showed large discrepancies, and were pronounced unsatisfactory. But if the instruments are employed in running a series of heights from point to point at which the plane table is set up — ^by mutual observations between the points and not by observations to far distant stations — they cannot but yield results which will go far to increase the value of the work, and will give a better indication of the magnitudes of the successive rises and falls in the ground than is probably to be obtained firom any hill shading, other than what is executed by instrumental contouring." In order to use the tangent scale clinometer without extraneous help, some koowledgo of arithmetic, including decimals, is requisite ; . but the agency employed in producing the topographical maps of thei V Survey of India includes men of the most varied training, from the highly-trained European surveyor down to the native pupil. Many native surveyors, who are excellent topographers, could not write down in decimals a reading from the tangent scale of the clinometer, unless it happened to be tine of the numbered readings ; and if any one else were to write it down for them, they would not be able, after measuring off their distance on the plane table, to work out the resulting relative height. It seemed a pity that the use of so convenient an instrument should be confined to a section of the topographers, and in order to extend its usefulness to all. Major Hill, the Deputy-Superintendent in charge of the Koukan Topographical Survey, applied himself to devise some means by which any one who can read a scale of feet on a pro- tractor (and of course all the topographers, however inexperienced, can do this) might be able, with the help of the tangent scale clinometer, to obtain his relative height at once, while sketching his ground. The following is the plan, which occurred to him on the 15th of February, 1884, by which any one, after measuring with his compasses the distance on his plane table between his position and that of a distant point, whose height is known, and after noticing where that distant point falls on the tangent scale when he observes to it with his clinometer, oven though he may not comprehend the nnmboring of the srale, can obtain his relative height with reference to the distant point in i few seconds. At one corner, say the south-east comer of the plano-tablo graticule, and slightly outside it, a vortical and horizontal lino are drawn at right angles to each other, meeting at the ]M)int P, marked on the accom- panying diagram ; tho vertical lino is graduated by means of any convenient scale of cqtml parts, so as to give a seale of relative hoightN ; tho horizontal lino is loft ungraduated. From thoHO two linos rolative heights can l»o obtained with tho help of cither a parallel ruler, or i>f » detached right-angled triangle carrying a sonic of tangents carefully copied fVom that on tho elinoniotor. SOME REMARKS ON CLINOMETRICAL OR APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS. 63» )OUt a tiowed if the »int to rations — they of the of the btained imental raneous c[uisite ; J of the roin the , Many ite down nnloss it jlso were nring off r relative iBtrument . order to endent in to devise on a pro- meed, can ometer, ti> ind. The iiary,1884, istauce on »int, whose it falls on letor, even can obtain yr Boconds. graticnle, nm at right the acoom- iXM of any vo hcightM ; lOH rolfttivf ilor, or tif » til carefwHy To enable a parallel ruler to be employed, a decimal scale of tangent» must be indicated along the adopted scale of relative heights, on the opposite side of the vertical line ; the decimal notation is employed here, because employed on the actual clinometer. To obtain relative heights with the help of the parallel ruler, a certain convenient distance is selected, and its equivalent, on the same scale as that on which the survey is being made, is laid off along the ungraduated horizontal line from P, the point of its intersection with the vertical line. This distance is called the " setting-point distance,"' and its extremity furthest from P is called the " setting point " (S.P.) In the diagram the setting-point distance is equal to 10,000 feet. The convenience of this particular value is that, when it is employed, the divisions of the scale of tangents agree with those of the scale of relative heights, so that one scale can be readily constructed from tho other. The setting-point distance multiplied by any particular tangent will equal the relative height at tho same spot as that tangent on tho vertical line. Thus 10,000 x '06 = 600. Bolative heights depending on distances longer or shorter than the setting-point distance are found as follows on the principle of similar triangles : — Mark off with the compasses a distance from P along tho horizontal line equal to the distance on the plane table between the observer's position and the distant jioint whoso height is known, and which has been observed too with the clinometer. Place tho edge of the parallel ruler through the setting point, and through the point on tho scale of tangents corresponding to tho reading of tho clinometer. Slide the parallel ruler until its edge passes through the point marked off with the compasses. Its intersection with the scale of relative heights will then give tho height required. Thus if tho distance on the plane table were one mile, or 80 Qunter's chains, and the clinometer reading were *04, the relative height would at once bo found to l>o 211 foet. It will bo noticed that no knowledge of arithniotic is involve«1 in this proceduro : tho observer has only to innko with his coni]HiHsos a measurement, the value of which ho ncod nut know, and romenil)er tho position of tho distant {>oiiit on the scale of tuiigontM, which nunlo might Im) lettered instead of niniit)orud, so far uh this pruccRS of flnding th» relative height is concoriiod. If instead of a jtarallol ruler, a dotat^hinl right-aiigliMl triangle carry- ing thedociinal scalo of tiingtMitH which {h shown opposite to tho aoalo of heights, tho procccMliiig ih oven Hini|)lor. Apply tho m>ttiiig jMiint, which in this caso is niarkcil on thv Imino of tho trinnglo, to tho N|Nit on tho horizontal lino obtaiiiod by incnNtiroint'iit fVoiii tho piano tablo tho Inim of tho triangloand thohorixontnl lino b«nintii will intvrHv«l fnnii llii* |)liiiin tablo, oxoootlM tlio Hetting-|Hiint «liiiUiioti ; fur Ihoii tho |M>hit on lh« hurisontal lino anurt«itKt'Utii will U4h fall tu tho lt>ft «)f tho mitlu of rvUtivv licight*. It U not nn«i«>MMiry ttotaally t4) draw a liiiu in |toiioil through thisM* |ioint« : m •imig\\\ri\$t-, Muoh an a iiiilo of tlio ilwtarhtNl trianglo or Ihv «mIki< of lli«i pUn* i«)>l«<, night rnlo ia piau««l mi aa to \>tutm through tlHI«I •-« ing of two ariua, ono tarrying « wait* of laugvnl*, an o|Im>* with tbo Mttiug }«iut, htugwl togvlhor at th« a(>^> riMl of lk» l«iig*»l Mslts atMl Ummimg a 'lgl>l •Agio wl»«li in iMr.*«*lMH»M in llio AgMf*. aiwl mtm>k gn ||ia(tMNM<*il iuigtil !• gf«4B* •ImI ao •• Iw avf «• (m acMt tkm im a |«i4m'I<4, l^ai |«|»f lrM»»gl« m^ fm th mfim !• *ll IImI la g » aa»>My I laty. f>« M sMk I* «Mt wHlk «m»mmI ftay^lNf . I l>^ in— • ft • »«liat fMit, aiHttlMf ran Iw r««M(farl«i4 ia • Ikw «•(•»•!«• t^ *ff4Ti*g lit* a^ga iif a alMwt of iM>l* |«|*t %•• Ik* as^la iil »«lali«» kaiglkliK aaU aMa*fttoig «# Ih* nwtmuiy •lUtatiaM r»«4n tl wild • |«« «» lU wA^ -4 Ilk* •*••* »«f«ti lK« avlltug |-4al Wikg •>l>««itM*l ik • •JNkllM •«* f*"** * ■Mi'kwJ 0ft-$ m iW kofit.XllAl lilMI HUk ll*# ••«)» uf aii o ay b a«k«ll. *a4 |W ai < lla^| fa«a« 4Mhh» |^ lA.miO tkm% I— «i— a «■ •it'-al •«> r*f**< oi^^ * ^*<** aMIll^ |a«»l aaJ a fwatl'Mg •« %h» l*a^g»*l o a b ai^il al l*lali*« Mgkto al Ho* a»««a «a aa^ l» gH» • faiM i4 • IwgM »«l» aaay U aNa4 ••••» < at>ltti»i t»4i.t fc« IIm w«I» -4 t eaeWa fe' • a»^ a««f »«U*««* iwtgbla wIm* I4a «»*A* •! «ia«*»f «• I mm* a> « «il>) Ik ||i| <—tlte4fci—» * •«■ — *>» laaai n ai |i4*l i* laba* -^ llu ribaa* t*iA» •.£•1 «W M« aaali !*• «a*f i •«»■« l»*aa»«ti aA»« * iMk^ilk .^ iW Al»i»4 «MaA» «^p#lilMi tl « If IW inn inuMui «■ ninnRWU m Ui^Mk 111 llkii MM» IW |«>fiil ■iii^ll Wi ».» »» « f«M*» kivlit mhIi • M^ «Ih« IW «mI )i««4«>i«.l«l lift* 4*«*» !»>•«» #" W *"^ wnfc hf aHMltifr 4Hiii^ • vf l*Ult»4* •!••«•« Ill* ««M«» ■! 1^ liii w i iMi |i» «««M U giw4wil«< i^ Mfc t 1700 ^=-K)0Ob ^-900 l-aoo*^ ^700 ^-600 -500 =-400 ^-300 =- 200 =-100 i_ I I— I 'S i Si s Jl s 1 3 9 Si ^ o 00 00 «9 4< »l INDEX. 643 Chnix, Prof. P., tho Position of Geography in the Canton of Geneva, 586 Chalmers, Rev. Jamea, work of, in New Guinea, 250 Charapain, Colonel, remarks on a Journey from Shiraz to Jashk, 433 Ohannikhwah, 890 Channing, Dr., 512 Chao-t'ucg plateau, 114, 115 Cheh-to range, 78 Ch'eng-tu plain and city, population, trade, and monuments of, 26, 27 Ghd-po, village of, 105 Chia-chiang,town of, 31 Chiang-k'ou landing-place, 29 €h'iao-ohia-T'ing, loam at. 108, 109 €hia>ting Fu, City of, Population and trade. Exports of, 30 Ch'i-ohiang Hsien, cave near, 140 Ohieh-yin-tien, temples of, 36 Chien-ch'ang Valley, The, Water-mills in. Commerce and exports, 58 etieq. 80, 89 €hien Chou, City of. Pagoda in, 21 Ch'ien-wei Hsien on the Min, sandstone excavation near, 131 Chien-yen, Emperor, 24 €hin-oh'uan, another name for T'ung river. 51 Ohin-ch'ftan torrent, 89 Ch'ing-ch'i Hsien, city of, 44 Ch'Aan-chiao River, 162 Ch'ung-ch'ing, Corrected Readings of Temperature and Atmospheric Pressure at, 145 , situation of, 2, 3 , tombs in, 20 •Ch'ii-tung, large village of, 167 Clinometrivul or Approximate heighte. Some remarks on, by Major J. Hill, 635 Masters of, as to the value of Geogiapby, 528 Eton, Geographical Examination Papers of, 523 et uq. , Natural Science Prize Examination Paper, 535 F. Falconeb, Dr., 259 Fan defile, the, and tribe, 215, 261 Fa-ni-wo, high upright bluffs at, 111 Fassa, 405, 406 Fedohenko, M., 205, 223, 261 Floyer, Mr. E., 436 Fo-kuaug or Glory of Buddha, 42 Forg, village of, 413 Forrest, Capt., English Expedition to New Guinea, 272 Forsyth, Sir Douglas, remarks on Notes on the Recent Geiography of Central Asia, 2^8 France, I'ksole Spdciale Militaire do (St. Cyr) Syllabus of Geographical know- ledge i;ehu-ssti, monastery of, 31 Fu river, 30 Oanao Haul, 419 Gandelipur tribe, 398 Garm, 227, 237 Gamier, Mr., 103, 156, 187 Gatar, 428 Gatkai, 376 Gazdarta Pass, 370 Geikie, Dr. A., 469, 470 Geneva, the Position of Geography in the Canton of. By Prof. P. Chaix, 586 Geographical Appliances, the Exhibition of, 516 Education, Mr. Keltie's re- port on, 447 et »eq. — — — , object of the Council of the B. G. S. in appointing an Inspector of, 447 MusenmatMariahilfer Gym- nasium, Vienna, Programme by Dr. F. Umlanft of objects desired for, 574 Geography and History, relative positions of, in Geogmphical Education, 457 as a School Subject, 463 .-, Guide to Lectures in General, by Prof. A. Kirchhoff, 567 — in the Military Academy at Berlin, 496 in the Public Services, 471 of our day, tasks and methods of the, by Prof. Von Biohthofen, 563 opinions of Head-Masters of English Public Schools as to the value of, etc., 528 the field of, as a University Subject, 469 George, Bev. H. B., 465 Gkiman Conception of the Field of Geo- graphy, 492 tj' nivcrsities, the, 486 Germany, examples of lessons in Geo- graphy in, 483 -, Geographical Education in, 475 el »eq. -, map-rending in, 479 Geru, 426 Gez, village, 427 ■ ' ■ cCh'ang, town of, 81 Lu-olion, river, 14, 16 Lui-jx) T'ing, city of, 128 Lu-ku or Lo-ku, im|>ort«nt town of, trade of, 79 l.ung-ch'ang, city of, 12 liUng-t'ou (Dnigiin's Head) Proolpicot, 128 Lu-ting Bridge, gold washings al>ovi>, 51 , width of rivur kt, 45 Lyall, Hir Alfroil, 604 M. Maohian DsriLR, tlto, 215 Mahnriu, 4(H Malef, M., 2 Manttfl or I>,i<-n Iribti, attack of, on Krruch nilaalnnnry, lit) it trif.. VM Msii ^^'aiitf Tung or Klog'a .Munuiucnl, «Ii-l'ien-pa, village of, 127 Miyan Kliel, 398 Modera, Lieut. J., Expedition to New Guinea, 275 Moresby, Admiral, remarks on the Pro- gress of Discovery on tho Coasts of New Guinea, 281 , 270, 278 Morgan, E. Delmar, Notes on (he Recent ( ieogmphy of Central Asia, from Bus- siiin Sources, 203 et ttq. Mosely, Prof., 468 lMo.«i-inien Viilley or Plateau, 48 Moao, the. Invasion of Tibet by, account uf, 88 Mo-ao-ying, village of, Imdo of, (M) >tng<^vity dosoribud, 2}l .Aliiir, Sir Williiun, 603 Aluk-au river, description of, 234, 2!I5 , tributariea luid glaciers, 236 Mualiir-ul-Mulk, 481 Muahkutof, M., 20.\ 246 , Kx|ilonition of tlie 7ju»f- ahan Glacier by. 2U9. V46 ri mi. Mualiti-Kuh hill. 417 Klu-ti'lung, Valley, Rnnge nnd Village of, 106 NarahkXiiXn. 400 N'MH|«wllr, Al, 51 Nak-bl-DuslH tarn mrwd liM-r«>U«f at, 410 Namonll. 427 N'an-rhingl, 20 Nan rtvpf, 29 Naaatr trilts »IM, tIMl , N»«Hr. diatrlrlor, ni.1 Nwl-rbtaiii. rliy of, H — ■ . mil |«i«alnrtl«n of, 14 M«W rocrr«a i>f lhar ■ School Examina- tion Paper* in Goography, 511 -, Communication from Bov. II. F. Toaor on Qeography, 542 -, Honour school of Modem Iliatory, Kxaminalion Paprn, 550 -, Local Kxamlnationa, (jleographioal Paper, 587, 588 University of, SubJacU for Ilia- M7 M mm- torioal Friae EaMya at the, 521 P. PAi-rA-cH'i, hamlet of, (pecimon of a poor enmmnntty, 114 Pal r<) Hstt, Khrlne and Pillar* of, ancient tombaof, IH. «> Paltii Vtm, 851 Pan-«hiao, vlllaiie of. 172 PannAh, H0» Paqnlar, Dr. J. H., Aou IVrlarfa, Prof. ciMiimuiilnill«in mi Gmv Kmpby ill Hfivlau I'liivrnlty. .VHt I'aidilunwnll, AfK>mn hwlllutluu. 300 IV( M^N'Mi, vIIIhuo iif. itti P*i-iuN.4(tr«sil liitif, tW, Pmlia. Uirrt*. fn^^, W. nt Vittd m. vlliago oiwl f l atiaw »f, t)U P«l«, HaMt, il. m. 107. IM, 171. IMI . Uw " riata .4 H**Amik»' vt, 4m ISmMI. Mr WilrrMi. iMaatlu vm TW VOL. L Powell, Mr. Wilfired, Journey of, in New Guinea, 280 Pratt, Major, 472 Preece, J. B., Journey from Shirax to Jasl^, Did Darab, Forg, and Minab, 403 et leq, Prirak and Maranna range, 380 Prizea at Pablio Schools in Geographical Education, 458 P'u, Patriarch. 85 P'u-hsien Fu-sa, wonderftil imago of, and bronxe elephant, 32, 33 Pun-ro-pa, story of, 98-100 P'u-p'iao, village of, 174, 175 QvuN Btonk, 27 <4. B. Rama OLAOUtii, 250 Ravonitein, Mr., 612 Kawlinson, Sir Henrv, remarks on Notes on the Beoent Cfeography of Central Asia, 261 Rawion, Sir Bawion, remarks on The Progress of Diitoovery on the Coasts of New Guinea, 283 Rein, Professor, oonno of Geographical teaching, 488 Reles. YntgD Ortis de, 8p«niili Voyage to New Guinea, 208, 285 Riohthofen, Baron von, 0, 18. 15, 29, 180 — ,Prof. von,Tssks and Methods of the Geography of our day, 503 — — — , course (»f (leoffrapbteal tuucliiug. 403 Roohrchouart, M. de, Journey through H> K I'ersta. 484 Koil-t Ohasnl, pawes uf the vall<7 of the, 844 liofm'vsen, JacolN Dutrli Kipedltion to New Guln<«, STi, 2WI Riighiiiml PitM, »HI Royal ()ni((ra|>bkwl thwlcty, l.*U*r tnm rreatdMit and Council of tha, lo tke Vlc<».(?hanr«lh«« of the rnivMsitka tt ()|lbr«l .r Itwltmr Hanio, 4KI, 425, 4»« Hii>lkhan«li t Mhur rWM. tHU Rimby, Hnl>)«M Jt^ W|MI Isll VafCfl M MolvM MlvM aH4 4M««r4 saw— a4> M . tmL, Si 648 INDKX. Hwdhunt, Royal Militwjr CoUeM, Ueo> gnpliical ExMninatloii |wpen, 591 Bwrgo Tuw, !t7i HorviiUn village. 404 Hiuneb, TillaReoT. 418 Holilagiotweit, Adulpli, SAO Holioutun,Willlam (3om«li«a,Dutoh Voyago toNowUuiDoa,!l7l,!eiiO MoDoe and Art Di>|iartmoiit In Uto- Rrapliioal KJucatiim, 474 KxHiuliiatlcHM : I'liyaio- graphjr, lt<<|iorl of Prof. Jtidd and Mr. Norman l.uokTer, Mil H«a of Kolloity «, 100 tttiaiMiltlu-rnnf , vllUm i4, I'i Hba-yaotf. valhy awT village uf, lOV, 17u HbMlHleb. «l«a, raagM of billa M«««n. t'iV — -- lo Jaidili. >o«iiiwy fhfla, n4 UMals Bta-«h'uau, W«rt«ru, anoioui «lono moun- menu in, 120 -, ealottlatiuu of alii- tudea in, 146 in, 140 ■Itlona, lOa in, IM -, LaUludMor|K«iUuiui -, lioogiludoo of !»• -, Magnetle Variatiuiia — , Mr. Ualier'B JiiunH>y in, 1 M,mq. Ht. ( vr, Ka>I«. H|n . iulf Milllairade rmwc, HyllaliiM of U<«y IIm , A7U HUglml, lull or KoUl of, 874 Mux-h i, vIIUmo uf. W Mwi-fu, oieavatitaia near, lU Ktillman Klirl Irilv, »a«l, »U, IMg - nMuw, iW7 Hu-ma-Vmi, 80 KMrklMh H.. KUilM. or VulilMlt. aliiMte ■««>ltn, U«aigr«^l<«l Kd«mil««M la. ftIO MwttMrlaiMl. (»wigrB|4il«il KdttraltMi !•, f>««.i I iTVi TA'tmeaii. ■! {a4y irmiM<«<, I.VDKX. «49 •llMMlU ImMtt .4 !!•»«*« TnrTM, I.Im Vhui iIp, fl|)MUh vovdrv I«i Nuw iaiiiunlc<«iUan from, im 44«i|mjDh)r, MV Tnu»-AI«l R«M«e, (l««rri|>tion ef, 1M TrUnik MiMrinU fur, «Uh t«« mim, mmI currying • amlv of UmkmiU. rir , »4U Trl|«inlrir; u* |||« nwMa »f Aw . lUt. (a«««^ (t«lc« I i>i?*f«Mt. Mt TMl-)r«M>-«4t't, fM^i^tMil ».rwl>ii> «<4. II Ta»lM<*ll'|>'il, ilii |f laa n n4 tiller* ,4. llSit Tmmi nxk, •«»•«• •»! k<4>-* •4. in 1>lHk Im«M «I. . w»«M«*« Will -til il MN lkW% w y»B« •!. lit . fm»l Uyi M. IMI Man Mmnc, « U* it n ■>, |MMi^ aM ■ U.4M% *»•. 111. ttik IM Vlgiir, Mr , 8.V) Vimk. Ntrtf^M. Dvleli Vomm to Mmr Uuliim. V7I. ItMl Vlarnt, rmkor, W W *, M'lVKT, (bNM am W, iH WmI*. Nr T . 7« iMiafciM. «iW Wagwor. r».4M.q II . (7«. M7. M« ^««*r^f . MM W«UiM. A«»«. I.«ta ftaaft. «• ittm 4 lMta««j4l • •t ^' ; «: *• X. sx»