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[Ok K(|)N(imic AMitiTiuN and THK MKANS EJSSKNTIAL tu ITS Keai.izatiun], It is characteristic of man to proviile foi tlie wants of the future, by the formation of instruments ; anJ liis power to make this provision is nieasureN Tu A1.1. I.VSTKl'MKNTS AM) iiK THOSK l'Ki)l'f:U TO soMK, .... There are three circumstances common to all instruments, (I) They arc formed, or receive a capacity to produce certain event" htted U< siip])ly future wants, by labour [iip])lied to materials,] either direc'ly or imlirectly. (2) Before their cajjacity is exhausteil and they pass from the rank of instruments [hack ai;ain] to that of materials, they yield a return, or produce certain events fitted to supply future wants, which may be estimated in labour. (.'{| iJetween the period of their formation and that of thtir exhaustion, a space of time intervenes. Some instruments can lie easily moved from ])lace to place, others cannot. The former are termed goods or commodities. I'J VI TAMI.K OF rONTKN'ls ( HAiTKi; in. Of Crimain Cihci mman. ks AursiN., kikim tiik In^ti- lITIiiN iiF SiH IK'I V, . St.ili-Iiiciit of -^..me -tri.Tiilly ^i.liiiittrcl pi in. iplrs oc.iir.riiiriL.' til.; nuturi- .,f luiin ;iii,l .,f society, whi. li it is ii..'.vs;,ry to iwsuinf 111 the iii.ijjrc-s nf the siihseinuiu invf>ti.'atir.r,s. CflAI'TKl; IV. A .MkTUOU K..|{ TlIK CuMl'AKISuN OF I Ns TKIMKNTs], Kvcry iiisinimiiit iiiiy U,- iiriiin,i;e.l iti s..i,h- [i.irt of a s,-iifs, ol which tlic ofih-rs are ileterinim-il, \,s tlic proporlioiii existiriK' IrIwcii ihc hihoiir exiK-n.Inl in thf f,.rin;ai..ii of iiistrnnicMt.-, Mie capacity jjiveii to them, ,vii,l the time elapsing from the p.rio.l of formation to that of cxiiaiistion. ;{i (•iiArTKi; V. [Of Ckktain TFLHNirAi.j Ciiu rMsrAN( F.s (;(,vfi:mn.. A.M(iiNT OF Instkimknts F.', tliere is no assignable limit to the capaci'y that may he yivtn to these materials, or to the amount of fcontriveil] events which the instruments that may be foimeil out of them may bring to pass ; but that capacity cannot be indefinitely iiici easeil without carry- ing the stock of instruments owneil by the society to an order of slower return— that is to say, without [eitiieij exteniling the period between their formation and exhaus- tion, or diniiiiishin.^ their return [in prop.u-ti.m to the outlay on their construction!. It so happen^ that, other circum- stances being e.|iial. [that is, principally, in the al,,,ence of increase of knowhdg,-], the wider the circle of events embraced [or, of niateii.ils with wliich ••natural events ■ are assoeiateilj, the returns made by the instruinents coii,tructed take place in a more .listant futurity. [In other words, with mere non-invcntive expan.>ion of iiistruiuental pro.luctioi., the rate of return declines ; liecause the results are achicve.l cither with greater outlay ur more t.anlily.] 42 TAHLK OF (ONTKNTS VIJ cHArTHi; VI. Ok IHK ClHcrMSTANfKS WIIK II ItKTKKMINK IMK SlllKM.TII OF THE KKKKITIVE 1»KMI(K, i tniin.iil.-i furii.i.l ii> my si'ii.ty will Ih- nirrif.l, is tixiMl l.> the lelative i-stiiiuitUiii .if its in.-iiil.trs nf ivtiit-i t.ikiiig |il:icf at i)risfnt. aii.l iit a future [Krii.d, whirl, is .liiioniiiiatf.l 'hr >/.i-tir, ,1, <•,,■■■ n/ ar,„mii/n'lon. Tins is cluetly .letiTiniiinl (I) I'y th'' .lis- tiii.tne.ss of tilt: iiiiu.lV c<.ncf|jti.m of f^tmc i-vtnts, Mhicli iigiiin .lepcnils on Hit- str.nnth of thf inlfUectual [hiwiis ; (•i) on till- desire fiit for tlu- |)ro.lui.ti.)n of prii.-tiLMl.lt- future events. The liitti-r liKunistdn.e is reguliiti-.l liy tin- strcii-th of the moral powers, or what in th.se iMvestigation.s are termed the social and benevolent affectiuns. Aa the exist- ence of the in.lividual is precarious, .iiid his power of euj.iy- iiient .-ontinually .iiu.inishint;, the iiiore the state ..f feeling anil actinii p.T\ailing .my community separates individuals from one another, tlie more limite.'. will he the range of events [or materials) whicli the etVective d.sire of accumulation of the memhers of that ciiiiimunity will eiiibracc. On the con- trary, as, though indivi.luals perish the race reniaiiis, the more the interests of the iudivi.lual ai. i.leiititie.l with those of others, the wider will be the circle of events which the accumulative principle aIU coinprehen.l. Isolation of feeling an.l acli..ii weakens the accumulative principle hy ».-( of urt [invfiition] miil the .-ItL'iigtli of the aecuiiuilative ])iiiRi|)lo, tlicrc arc many extcn.leil trains of [L'ontri\eil; fvi'iits, or arts, K'>''if,' "" in any society, and when, i.'on.se(|ueiitly, tliuie exist many si-tx of tools or in^trumeiit-i |>ro, hieing them, eaeh iiuiiviilual lietakes himself to the ]iro.liicti.iii [eoieliicl] of some iJirlieular train, ami to the formatioii of the instruments ineessary for earry- ini; it on. By this means, no instruments lie idle, wiiieb must he tile ease were every man to practise several arts ; and, eonsecjuoiitly, tliey ,iro more speedily exhausted, and pass to orders of i|Hieker return. This division of einiiloy- inenls introduees the necessity ■)f tile exchange of com- modities. The e\( haiiue of eonuiiodities is re_'ulated liy the labour respect nely expeiide.l on the:n, in conjunction with the hm- at whiidi it was expended, recUonin^' the etlects of the latter liy the orders at which instrument.s actually staml, [wliich last determines the prevailing rate of profit at any tune]. Tlie existence of exchange ' isioiis a choice lieing niadi- of some conimodity, which i- kept liinii|uely made use of] for the purpose of l.eing exchanged with all i>thers, and so conies to name the rates at which they exchange, or to fix [express] their \alucs. The c miiio.lity chosen for this pui- pose is termed mom y, and, amon. immunities possessing the ))recioiis metals, consists of them. Exchanges are also eli'ected by means of cre.lit. . . . The general prevalence of creilit, and of the use of iiioney. has produced the [customary] iiK icantile mode of calculating the returns of instruments, by pr.itits ami interest. [Tliis .system of calculation, while exceed- ingly advantageous in the conduct of allairs, is a serious impedinicnt t.i tlie pliil.sophical underslaiidiiig of capital.] lUL- ciiAiTi:!; IX. [Ok InVKNTION CoNSlIiKIIKI. AN A (;kNEI!AI. SoflOLOiMCAL ritlNCII'l.KJ lit is necessary to invi'stiu ite the causes of progress in any department oi human allairs, ,ind not to take tlieni for granted, iiiiiii liein- css, ntially imitative. Motives excilinii to innovalion and 1 lie opposing forces external to and within the iineiitru'. Though m respect to the individual, mani- festation^ of the inventive faculty imply a superiority in 13: TABLE OF CONTENTS m IX siinif 01 till- intellectual powers, in respect to ii society they imply n preponilerance of the social anrl benevolent allectioiis. One of the tinal an>l contingent rcsultH, however, of intestine commotions, persecutions, wars, and the like, seems to he to ailvance the inventive faculty.] CHAl'TEK X. Of the Caisks of the I'ko(;kf:ss ok Inventimn am> of THE Effects akisin(; fuom rr, [an it Comeuns ITSELF WITH THE MaTEIMAI. WoIU.kJ, Invention, the discovery of )inr |>o<^il'/' ►xm'' i"'' -, hecoiiie^ an active principle l>y exerting a formative power on o// artua/ cxM/encix. By reason of the natine of the world in which man lives, change exposes to his view new snciessions of events, which excite hnn to ohserve tliem, and weaken the retanling influence of tin- piniciple of servile imitation. The etlects on instruments of the pKpgress of inventi are to produce iniprovementa m them, and to carry tlicm on [l>ack] to orders of ipiicker return, [and so for the time being to ailvance the rate oi protit ]. 151 CHAl'TKH XI. Of f^XCHANilES llETWEEN HlFFKliENT C'nMMrMTIFs [i )K CO.M.MODITIES OTHEK THAN Id XIUIEs], KxchanL'es between societies, [tliat is. betw.en the meiiibers of ditl'erent societies,] are not directly regulatid by tlie nuan- tity of labor, [pint the tnue of its outlay], exiien.ied on the conunodities exchanged. Increaseil facility in the exchange of utilities [articles which are not luxuries] opeiates in the same manner as the progress of inventi"n and impKivement, and carries instrunu^nts to the more ijuickly rctuiiiini: orders. [An interru])tion of the exchange of sucli articles may have, however, indirect etlects pre.isely opposite to the direct etlects. ] •204 1 CHAl'TKK XII. Of Waste, [.'e the instruments they possess iov more, aeconling to their estimation of the future anil the jiresent, than they are worth, and therefore iilo] transfer them ; while frugal peisons, or imliviihials in wlmni ine accumulative principle is stronger than theaverau'e, tiuil exercise tor it in accjuiring instruments transferred liy prodigals. [It thus chicHy comes about that there is an economic .stratification of the meml)ers of each society. This last leads to the consileration of some of the interrelations of the piinciphs of accumulation and (jf |.opulation.] .'18 cnAPTEi; XIV. Of Till-: 1'kin( ii'i.i: m- tiik Ihviskin of LAisorit, The division of labi>ur ought to be considered n'.thcr as a result than a cause. [That is, it comes into existence through the aiUecedcnt progress of invention. It is not, as Adam Smith supposed, a prime mover in the course of human allairs. ] 2;?7 APrENDIX. AKTK I,K I. [Of Tin: Xatitu: .vnh Kffix ts] uy Lrxruv, . There is a propensity among men to attain [a factitious) superiority over one another. This may be termed vanity, and is gratified by the evident possession of tilings which others have not the me.ins of iiciiuiring. It calls for the poBsession of coininodities of which the coi sumption is conspicuous, and wiiioh cost much labor, tliougl. not better ipialilied, or Imt little better iiualilicd, to supply real wants. •-•45 •^i^^^ TABLE OF CONTENTS XI than other commo.lities costing little labor. The comparisnn of the physical qualities of such coinmoilities does not atfont, therefore, the meana of measuring them by one another. Hence the assumption, on wliich the preceding iuve.'itiga- tions have proceeded, that all conuiuxlitiea compare with one another by their physical .[Ualities [by the physical "events" they produce], is incorrect. In so far as any commodity, when compared with another, excels it only in tlie gratifica- tion it affords to vanity, it is to be considered a /luitry ; In Bo far as it compares with others in the capacity which its physical qualities give it to gratify real wants, it is to be considered as a ulili!!/. The progress of invention and improve- ment have no effect in carrying instruments, diiectly or indirectly producing luxuries, to more (juickly returning orders ; on the contrary, they carry them to the most slowly returning orders of which the strength of the accumulative principle admits the existence. The labor expended in the formation of luxuries, is sf) much direct loss to the eommunity, one man's superiority being here equivalent to another's inferiority. The amount thus dissipat.d depends on i.re force of tlie social and benevolent affections, and intellectual powers, as compared with th.it of the sellish feelings, an, . The art of the legislator may apply to the purposes of the sUlc, funds nalHi-ally dissipated in luxuries. 28C XII TAHLK OF CONTFATS AKTICLK IV. [<»K TMK Aim ok tiif Hankkk], [I'MiT I.— Ok Hankini. [N (Jknkuai..] 'I'liL- irio.i.rii uit .if luiikiiig cimsist.s in the !.'fiU'iMli/,iti(iM (if :ill riv.lit tTuiisautions [ throiigiiout a coijiinuiiity], aii.i an iiMi»i.iii ..: [Mi.ur money, or nionty of oieait. Its introiluc- lioM into :.ijy cnininunity l.y facilitating tliu i_-\cii,ingu of iii>tiiinicrit.s, i|ni.-k.'n> ! luir ixli.ui.stion [ami f..in].iti..n). an.I earn..- tli. mi to tl,.- ni..re .spe.'.iily retiirnijig or.ier-. [I'akt ir.-ilf 1'u:ti. ii.Ai: Sv>yi;m-< ,,i r.vNKis(;.] I'llie Seot^.'li liiUiUing system .li-.-rilie.l an.l .•..ntrustiii witli that of Knglan.l. Kuitlier .■onsi.i.i-ati.m .if the utilily .if hanks in iiieivising the .liieieiu-y of tjie m.iuey AS .\ liUA.NA || ,,K nn-; I'HII.O- Mii'llV (II iMinilnN. [()!.■ TllK Sl'IKIT \M. MkTIIOD Mem. :h.' .ihjeet ..f « hieli is t.i explain known plu-n.imena. .a. iMPjuilai piineiples, not as an iii.iiictive iii'iniiy. leeliii- i,, the .lisc^overy of the leal l,,ws .lete,-. iiiniit.g the sn,;..ssi..n of those phenomena. ITliis last tonn ot iifeeilnie al.me can claim the rank of inie .,Jen.e. I 329 Ainnij-; vi. [Ok Tin: TiiK.iitv ny I'.uti.atki.n] i'' '"* "" "■'■' '■' .isMmihue man t.i the !,,«,.,■ animals as iv-ar,ls Ih, la«s ,,f Ins prop.uat;.n. We liav.- I., take .-og. ""-' "f "''"-- l.sv,-h..l..^.ieal a.i.l ,.,r,al as «,.I| as .„ thin-s ph.\ M..!.n.'i. ,il an.l in.lni.Uial. an, I ih.^ foi niei set of causes are of pi. .l..minalinj mllueiice liotli in a.Kancing an.l .leclining Mate-. The |.n-,ri|.!e wl,i,.|, i,„.,. eases ami niaintains the nnmli.rs .if iiiankin.l may he teiim-.l /.',. .jntir, ,/,,„>, ,„■ .■i,5t {M^ TARLE OF CONTKNTS XIII aktiulp: VII. [()]■• TiiK Doctrine >>y Lal^st/ Faihh with Si-eciai. KEKEKENfE To] THE Ol'SKATIONS (iF THE LkiUSLATUK IN F.KINi;INi; THE AKTS of FollElCN C'OINTKIES TO His Own, Instead of there being any grounds for a presumption agaiii.-t legislative interference, fr.in tlie assumption that nature ought to 1)6 allowed to pursue her own plans ; the jiresump- tion is, on the contrary, that nature gave man his i)eculiar faculties for the purpose that universally, and as well here as elsewhere, he might ac(|uire the .iirection <.f events, by discovering the Uwf regulating their successions. 3.^'J ARTICLE VIII. [Of THE Sii'i'osED Identity of the C.uses (Jivinc; Kise TO Individual and National Wealth], . . .377 [P.\RT I.— WHKN ASSCMED .AS A SEI.kKvIDKNT TkITH. ] The causes giving rise to individual and national wealth are not precisely the same. Individuals grow rich [generally and characteristically] by the acquisition of wealth previously existing ; nations, by the creation of wealth that did not Vjefore exist, [which last comes about through invention.] [1'abt II.— WiiKN Deuked from an iNGEMors Tiieorv.] The legislator may stimulate invention by the introduction of new arts ; [that is, by the encouragement of the transfer of old arts to a place where they are new, and where they make adaptations to the changed physical and social environment.) AtTHOR's "Notes," Residua, . Reader's Guide, 448 466 484 >1 ,^: EDITOR'S PREFACE. The original work of which this volumo is a rrprint, waB published in Boston in 1834 uniler the unfortunate title, Stiitciiient of Some \cu- Principh.'! on thr Subject of PoUtirnI Economy. Exposing the FoUncics of the System of Free Trade, and of Some other Doctrines Mnintnined in the " Wealth of Xations."^ This title was a misnomer, for the chief part of the undertaking consisted not in strictures on the doctrines of Adam Smith, but in an independent, elaborate, and profound treatment of the general subject of capital. It is this lasv which has recently brought Rae into notice with the present generation of economists in connection with the world-wide discussion of capital, upon new and fruitful lines, inaugurated by Bohni- Bawerk. I may add here that the first article by me upon Bae ("A Forerunner of Bohm-Bawerk," Quarterly .Journal of Eeunoniics. January. 1H97). had a title which was also in great measure a misnomer. Bae is not a mere " anticipator 1 It was ilivideil into tlirce " Books " named rcspcitively — " Indiviilual and National Interests are not Identical" (two chapters, 77 pages): "()f the Nature of Stock and of the Laws governing its Incre.ase anil Diminution" (fifteen chapters ami an "appendix," •JSH pages) ; and "Of the Operations of the Ugislator on National Stock" (three cliapters, '20 ])iges). To this were added twenty-seven pages of "Notes'" at the en.l of the volume. Of the several defects in book making which seriously handicapped the work, the most considerable was the putting first of all of two long-drawn-out chapters, highly controversial in their nature, and by far tlie most difiioult in the whole. It must be that many a reader never got beyond or even through tlieni. XVI KDI'IOR'S rU KFACE ot tlir (lisfovcitT " Ht) use OIK' ol C'aiinairis [iliriisisi. I>iit tlic (liscdVii'i r liiinsclf. hy reason of tlie lack of a tluory ot invention. I'lcilini- P>au crk's iiuartirlij Jiiiiniiil ni l\c reviewing Chapter \1. of tile sfcoiii! I'dition of the (risi-li ic/,fi> und CritiJ: di" Ciipitiilziiis-Tluorifti. In view of the chief interest which now attaches to Rae's work, it has heen ileeiiied advisable, in response to numerous demands, to brin<,' out this re[)uhlication in an entirely new dress. That part of the second " Book " (tlie frreater part) which possesses a unity of its own, and which deals pre- dominantly with the subject of capital, is given precedence, under a more significant title, which attaches to the volume as a whole: and the remainder, considerably rearranged, is reproduced in an appendix. The original work in its entirety is thus made available and, it is thought, more readable. It has not hetri considered advisable in all instances to di&tract the attention of the reader by indicating the minor editorial changes in the text; but care has been taken in every instanct' (with the exception of one passage on pages 8 and 9). to point out all alterations of consequence. Additions Xo the titles of chapters, and some wholly new titles siipplied by the editor, are indicated by brackets in the Table of Contents which are not repeated in the body of the work. These new titles are occasioned by the ai)pearance of new chapters in the editing, and by the fact that in some instances there were formerly no titles proper. As several publications have made extensive page references to the original volume, a lieader's Guide has been placed at the EDITORS TREFACE xvii ,ri(l of the present voluii d. by means oi whieh the location III the reprint of any passage of th.- urijjinal ean readily be traced. A few words having a sp.cial brariiig upon the biograpiiy are not out of place here. When I first became interested in I\ae's theory of capital, under Professor Taussig's direction in the economic -.■niinary at Harvard Tniversity, there existed no printed information i. xcept in his Preface) in respect to Hae himself; and for a long time nothing conld be learned through iiiipiiry in (luarters which j)romised well in Canada and Great Britain. The late Professor Dunbar of Harvard, who always displayed a keen int.nst in th.' undertaking, urged me to persist, and at length a letter printed in the MnniTiiil Star drew forth two replies, one from the Canadian anti. I am also nuich indehted to Mr. Wilmot H. Thompson of the Graduate S( hool of Yak . for revi>ion of the classical quotations. Finally. I wish here to express my ohlipations to Professor Irvin^T Fisher of Yale Fniv. rsity. His interest and enconrat.'ement have Ik ■ n of unfailinp support. The proof sheets of the whole hook havi^ passed his ahle scrutiny, and his direct help in many other ways has heen invaluahle. IJl-ni.IV'iTnN. Vkrmo.nt, .hihi. 19(}.") C. \V. M, BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. Three men of iiotf have borne the name John Rae ; and hetause of fivciiient inisunderstandinj: it is worth while here once for all clearly to distinguish them. There is first, ri'versinfj the chronological order, the John liae now living in I'.ngland. horn at Wick. Caithness, in 1845. educated at the I'niversity of Edinburgh (Hon. LL.P., 1897 > journalist by profession, and author of several well-known works on economic subjects. Then there is John Rae, M.D.. for some years surgeon in the employ of the Hudson Bay Company, autlior of a work on Arctic eiploration, rewarded by the British government as the first discoverer of relics of the Sir John Franklin expedition. His education in medicine (completed in 1833i was obtained at the University of Edinburgh, but '■' degree, an honorary one. came from McGill University. itreal, in 1853. He was born near Stromness, in the (..Kneys, in 1813, and died in London in 1893. Finally, there is the subject of this sketch, who was born at Footdee, "then a small and detached suburb of Aberdeen." June 1st. 1796. -nd died at Clifton. Staten Island. New York. July 14th. 1872. So far as is known these three North of Scotland men were not kinsmen. The two last are often confounded, even by the best informed antiquaries, more especially because each was knovvn as Dr. Rae, and each resided for a part of his life in Hamilton, Ontario. Of Rae's antecedents and early life we know but little. His fathers name was John, a merchant, "an entirely self-made man. the son of a peasant or small farmer." The mother was Margaret Cuthbert. whose family seems to have **M^ kjil^J^^i il XX BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH hetii ratluT urll-t^p-do ' hnt:r tariiit is, ms fiirmiiip ut-nt thru." The son spenks nf his t'iitluT ;is tittetti years older than his niotlitr. and ot the two as niarknily iliffircnt " in toiii 111 K.lmliur^ih. previous t.. takin^^ my .le^iivt' ; its till.' was ■• D. Vita." aii.l I iiit.'ii.le.l to pro|)ouii.l iii it my -, II. ral M.'ws. 1 was prtwiit..! hy l.a.lm-: men in E.lin- r.iiivli who ha.l taken an interest in me. amon^' .ithi-rs Dr. .\l),^nroiiil)ie. a plivsician in extensive practHe. known to voii perhajis as the aiith.-r of some metaphysical w..ritioiis ami imprinleiit. 1 slioul.l at once have vu'l.leil to them with thanks, had they shown I'H- that It was erron.^oiis. But they would not listen to iiiv reasons, thev look.^l only at my conclusions. In this state .)f atVairs I t"h..uflht I would advise with my father. He knew nothing: ..f philosojihy aii.l physiolo^iy. hut he knew the worl.l. His otmiion was that if 1 was to fight I ha.l bett.r defer f.ir a year .)r two till I gathered more strength, nn.l tluii if. as 1 ha.l proposed. 1 wishe.l to go to Paris, where I)liy>io!ogv was then more advanced than in England, he woiil.l .Di'isent. It was perhaps good advici', as I was th.'ii onlv twenty vears of age. T ha.l thus to pass a few years in gaining "knowledge and experience. I turned myself t.> a suhject kin. lied to my previous studies, and thus said to myself : If I am right, 'deep is the pit from which we men have opene.l t.> ours. Ives a passage. The deeper the pit the higher comparatividv the height to which we have ascende.l, and ther.fore still greater the height we may hope to gain. Whence then are the forces which have so elevated us. an.l whence is it that humanity has been continually [lapsing] from the greatest heights to the most profound depths, and that its real substantial progress is to the philosophical eye so uncertain?" In 1818 Eae made a tour through Norway, but in what capacity is not known. Apparently the event which was the great turning puebec in ttie spring of 1S21. vhere there i^ s(in:e evidence tending to show that he found employment for a time " in the lumber trade." At all events, he soon filter set uji a private . vKHUtv of (.)nehc.c and at M.mtival. .l.'Voted hnns.lt to piviMrin- his work tor th. |m-, ss. A ronsid.n.hl,- part ot 1,^:51 h, ~in nt in Boston. uIihv he neeived (ms report.-., l.y 1 ,s -ist.r) ■■ "reat att.'nti..n troni xnne hterary an.l ,lUtin.Miish.d eharaeters.-' N..t l.Mi- after this b- olvtai.ied t,„. i„;„l-!nast.rship ot the (i..r.. Distriet (Manunar S.hool. n, a.ivaiue.l public aea.l.inv. at HatniUon.' Some excerpts t,-,„n lett.-rs written by pui>il^ of tlios.' .lays may n..t !).■ out ot plae.- h.re. , , , • • H,. was an a<-complish,Ml s.li.dar an.l tau-h' tn.- classics. iKiviu" a Mr. Tas-ie as an Kn;:lish a>sistant. He was „lt(,-th.r a remarkald. man. . . . He was ,,mt.> .liiTereiit [n,ni ..rdinarv m.n. or 1 think my y.a.thtul ima<.Miiati.m w.aild not have been s.. impress..! as it was. He was ,i„d..ubt,'.llv a man of .leep learninj: an.l r. s, arch, an.l made , n.,werful impnssion on all wh.. kn.w him. He was ,,nuaid.' and thon-htful of oth.rs." chool broke up, th.' Doctor .houl.i.rin^^ his musket an.l ^oin^ to Toront.) to tipht the r'bels, ■ T ■ r^ 1 •H.' was consi.lereda fine s( h.dar, w. 11 up in Latin, Greek nn.l Math.'inatics, and ^pe.iallv .|uaiili..l in (rr.dopy, an.l ,,1.,, nn.lerstan.lin^' Fivn.-h. His mi. id was. in fact, a vast st.,r,dioiNe of knowl.'.l-.'. tli..ii-li h.' ha.l not a happy facuUy ,,'■ disrensiie' it. But h.' iia.l a \,y\ lovin- .lispositioii that ,.,„l..ind him t., MS ill." -Iii^lt:.- S .1, .bui.-. Ormi>by I' irk. Ontario.) ■ .V ,,.cn,„m.na:.U.in f.^i' tliis ,..,.iti.,„, ^imu:.'. l.y H. Ur.,uluirt, i'. .Ut.-.l N.iviniliti (i, IHIU. .^alT'. XXIV BIOGRAPHICAL SKKTCH ') w " Hr. Jahn Mnr uns ii rriiiii of ert-iif lenrniiijz. ami too little appt-fciatfd in liis lit.tirne. like iiiaiiy otlnTs. He was a frreat \.iit.r. .•ioi.iftiiiies writiii;^ iiij'lit aft. i- injxlit. anil had a lot of iiianiiscript. ... His coiiwrsatioiis with the hoys that made his house their home was even more to them than tl ir .school stiidi. s. He entered into all then- sports and anmsenieiits. often hrinpin- his chemical knouledt:e into play." (J. K. Martin. F.s.j.. Windsor.) \\ ith this last ispecially may he joined the statement made hy Si'- ]{oderick W". Cameron that --llae was a charming companion for yonn-: and old. He ^anjrht me rahhit. mink'', and miiskrat trappinir. and other sports attractive to .voiith. ... He was youn^ in thiMiLrhts and acts to the end.'" .\s already shown. Kne's qniet life as a teacher at Hamilton was hn.kiri at one period hy military service. A letter amoM'^ his effects, written hy \llan X.'MacNah. the conn. lander of the Hanulton Volunteers, states. Hi- was anion;: the lirst who accompanied me to Tore';. > on th.' hreakin^' out of the Rehellion of 1S37. and continued on duty at the "Sh'^nr.i frontier and elsewhere as lon^ as his s.'rvices were r.M|inivuki' ot \Vellin;;toii lefcnvil to tht ii|Mit that [);i|ier. It producrd warm ililjates in ho to their honor ''avc it in our twelve Kngiish jud^is. favor. ■■ At tiic end of 1S17 and the liej.Mnnin^ of INJS. tliere eaiue to IJae. as far as we tciiow without warning:, what was ahiiost a eoin|iietelv cnishing Mow — tlie loss of his school. A nport was sriit hy the I'riistees to the CioVernor-( it-neral . prayiiifi for the removal of the Head Master, on tlie jiroiind of the '■ imsatisfaetory condilioii of the sihool," ami liae's "■ inel'tieieiiey as a teacher." The school then iiiimhered ijetweeii sixty and seventy pupils. The (ioveriior-Geiieral declined to act hy reason of lack ot jurisdiction; and as the Trustees themselves could formally remove the incumhent only ' for misdemeanours and impropriety of conduct." they apiiaieiitly got rid of him by closing the school. The arpunieiits put forward in tin Iiititioii of the Trustees' lack the ring of sincerity, and Tlae always felt tliat ;i cruel wrong was done him. Cherislied among his effi cts is a considerable mass .if letters of testi- monial, written at the time by pupil- and parents of pupils, all (if a most frittering nature. .\ former ac(piaintan(('. writing recently, is of the opinion that undoubtedly the real reason for the action of the Trustees was Itae's nligioiis views. He had become a good deal of a fi'ee thinker, and most of the Board were clergymen. However this may be. Rae was turned adrift. He w*'iit first to Boston, and later to Xew York, where he ol)taiiied a position in sonu scIk>oI. While thus employed he received the news (^f the death of his wife, who had remained at Hamilton. Her death took place .\iigiist 17. bsfO. under particularly distressing circumstances, into the details of which it is not necessary to enter. Letters written by friends and kindred at the time show that this must have been a sad bereavement to the already sorely oppressed man. Rae himself once alludes to it as " a gnat and soul- penetrating sorro\\ ." .Mreadv as earlv as .Lamiarv. 1^10, Rae had been thinkini? Tliia petitiijn, now in my [xjsseaaion, ia dated Dec. 30, 1847 2^^ id XXVI BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH \ o that I waited at Panama five wctks. and not having given myself out for jiractice, spent everv cent 1 had and iiioH' too. Woise than that, someone niide the Captain, who was also mostly ownci- of the vessel, helieve that I was no doctor, hut only an idd s( hofjlinaster ; and I believe if he tould he w work iiiftti" an interval of school kcepinpi on an apritul- tunil enterprise, hoping that the' money pained would some (lay take him to the literary centres \erything else to which he put his hand. He explains the exasperating details in a letter to Willson. hut I pas.: them over.' At least as early as July. L->y3. while residing at Wailuku. I>laiid of Maui. Hae was Medi(al Agt nt of the Hoard of Hi; 'th. a position which he also held in iNtlO. and presum- ilily duriui: the interval. One of the most interesting of his pajiers is entitled, ■■-Journal ot a Tour arountl East Maui."' This was a walking expedition, lasting a month KV two. and made for the })urp(jse of vaccinating the natives. It was evidt Hy entered upon with the keenest zest. He -.aw everything; literally nothing of interest seems to have esraped him. .\ceording to Connnissions in my possession, Itae was appointed District Justice at Hana, East ?klaui, in }An9. and again in 1863. From all accounts he must have been given this office at other times as well, but there is no documentary proof at hand. The position was one of some importance. .\ correspondent in Honolulu mentions one particularly interesting case of sorcery that came before him. He lived. We learn from the same source, in a solitary place far back tnim the sea: ami when he walked abroad his tall, spare lorm was seen always accompanied by two large dogs. In April. 1871, Cameron wrote his old friend and teacher, ( ■ The rtfer.nco is t., Hugh Uowll)y WilUmi, son of the Hon. John Willson, ••ill one time SpeiiUi r of thj Cana(,(! will ((Mile and spend your reiiiaiiiiiif; years with me. 1 will defray ail y,,iir experi'^es trom .Maui to my home." l;ae aei'epied this invitation, and sailed on the steamer '" -^J''^ " '" -'"Iv. The ehan're ot cliniate all.cted him .seriously, so that he kept his room the following- winter and spnn-. and Imally pasM'd away, as ahvady Mated, in ,„id- siiininer. He uas l.uried in Woodland Cein, terv, Staten ^^'■""1- "I ■' l<" pm-eliased l.y Sir Roderiek. ■•in whieli two otiiers. ,,ne a faithful servant and the otiur a distaut relative. are buried." Thus Far T have piv,.,, m j,,.,,-,, ,,iithi,,. „nlv the chief mile- stones, as it were, alon- the career of the man wliose life is Itofore us. It is ne(essaiy to till in the jjaps with some further account of what he did. and what he thonpht and felt. A sch(dar. not a man of action, what he did is of course to he foim.l chietiv in his studies. Some account ,,f a speeiilation which interested him in • ■arly v., nth has already hee,i -iven. Aiiotlur one. (,f a (hllerent sort, at tliat period of his life, was a scheme " for deteriiiininf:- the rate and setting of ;, ,nrivnt at .sea." The device for this purpose (applicable to hotli surface and under- currents) IS descrii)ed in some detail in one of his papers, hut It is si-arcely fitting to reproduce it heiv.i Of the fate of this project llae says writiii- to WilLson : I was then under a verv eminent professor of mathe- matics in the ^^.rischal Collerrc, Aberdeen, the late Dr Hamilton and showed it hmi. He allowed it Ihou-h not convinced I was .jblicred to yield and let it l'o' as I did not wish to irritate inv father. . . . Dr Hamiltoirs objection to my scheme was that it was verv ?ond on paper l)nt that in so boisterous an element as the ocran it was almost absiin to think it .oiild be of anv practical utility He jwdjied of the ocean from fanciful notions he had pot" sitting m his easy chair. T knew sometlmin „f it then, and have ' The chief principle einploye.l was that of the pressure of the water upon a.r m a cyl,„,ler to ,liseM.a.-e at varying depth., weights attached to hodies of ilitlcrcnt specific gravity. > BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH x\ix -m livid (111 it niiiiiy a long day since, and can sec nothing iili-^iird in ti.<- projcit. In fact, in weather in whicli a wliale lioiit conld live, there would he no dirtieiilty in giving tiie uldln 13 their projur position in the water. In other weather. 'io attempt at deep sounding hy the lead itself could he made with a prospect of success. Once a few fctt lieneat'i the •surface all violent motion ceases. 1 cannot hut think. Iiowcver. that the temper of mind which led him to ohjCct was one with which all inventions lie cntmiioiily. one might almost say nasonahly, nu-t. Nine "lit nl till of all mechanical stheiiits are ahortive. In fact, tiny gi iieially take their rise in this way. Some idea iicw. or conceived to he new, flits by cliance across the brain of a man unaccustomed to lunv ideas. The novelty of the thing. iiiid still more Ml the iiov( Ity of its occurring to hims(df. sets it on a [loiiit of view tliat puts all other conceptions out of >i^'lii and magnifies itsidf prodigiously. It becomes therefore Ins hobby, and he rides it, or more frecpiontly it rides him. ISut the man who is KJiisulted in such a ease, I -^prcially if he has been in the habit of being so consulted. >ees the thing in a very ditbreiit light. He knows that these projects are almost all vanity, that some flaw in their e(jn- eeption makes them impracticable, or that a search would prove them not original. In sh(jrt. that it is ten to one if this particular one succeed. Besides, if he be a man of ivpiitation in science, he is annoyed at being obliged to give ip time that is valuable to the talsk of linding out tiaws.Tind .ie((jriiiiig|y takes hold of the first that presents itself. This shortens his labour, keeps iiis reputation safe, and is probably .1 charity to th<' inventor. In this way it perhaps is that the greater number of new inventions have not had the Niiiction of the learned, and that, if given at all, it has been m a mighty cautious manner. I know therefore tliat I should myself have great difficulty at present to get anyone to take hold of a single one of my scheiiu s. and am aware that I am putting your frieiidship'to a .somewhat severe test in asking you to attempt it." One of the "schemes" here alluded to was a device for a b athering paddle wheel for steamboats. There are diagrams and descriptions among his papers. The featln'ring was to take place in a vertical [daiie (larallel with the keel, instead of at 'ight angles with it. as is the case with feathering invintions now in use. The plan was probably therefore l(» XXX BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH \, ^V ()• little piacticiil viilii( . I)iit it is (il iiiti-rr^r tu note that l;;if IkiiI till- 111. Il ut tin- iiii|Hirtaii(o and fiossihility ut ft-athiriii^' paildif wlinls. pmhahly hclorf iiny one elsf. AnmiiL.' his pap. r<. also, i- consiclcrahlc in tht wav ot inventive speculation on the art of shiphiiililiiifr in frfnernl, and sevri-al e>say> on aei'onantirs.' Milt what interest- ll^, !iio>t a'v llae's so( iolo^^ieal (in the hmad Sense ot tli.' teiiiii rathi r than his nieclianical studies. In the l^rel'aee to thi Pulitiial Iltiiinninj he sfieaks of ' a Work on the pn sent state of Canada, ami on its relations with the rest of the I'.ritish Kniiiire." oi, which he had hecoiiie enj:ai:ei] after taking' up his n-ideiice in Canada, 111 \oth its natural and moral aspects, ami could hav.' told l-"n<;land what it really was and \sjiat it wanted. Had I ha.l the least aid 'tlOii would have done itt. T shouM have iHcoinplishe.l this: and lookinif .soherly on the matter as a thinj; [last. it is now niv linn conviction that 1 should thus have averted all the disasters of the Rehellion and hroupht on a dozen years earlier that period of prosperity which the province" now enjoys. I will not inflict you with my reasons for this ' In ;i letter (uii.Iate.l) writton to Willson we read : — " After a little re- fleutior I have .leoiile.l on sen.linu- ymi a siuiimary of tliat whole i>art of my cent ..ry which relates to pingre-xsion thromih water. I am partly led to this from having the ohaiico of seii.lini; a heavy packet with safety by my friend J. W. .Austin. Ks.|., of Hostnn, who has resi.Ie.l for some years in these ialan.ls in a jiosition somewhat analogous to our Attorneydeiieral, ami who now is returning t.) his native soil. He will write you and receive voui inatruoti.)ns as to transmitting this an.i the other papeis he >ake3 charge of.' BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH XXXI convictidii. Had tliis httri so 1 cDiild have hnmjilif out my iili-a.-- collet Tiun;: boinr points on Political lOcoiiomy with the |iro.s|iert nt a fair lu'aiiii;.f." And a;.'ain in a letter to John Stuart Mill hr writis appareiitiy of this same literary undertaking as follows : ■ I camiut goon with my account of the Sandwich Islands till I see and examine them all. ... 1 have therefor^ thought of inditing a small uork on Ci.nada — liecollections of ( anada. Many yiais ago 1 had formed the project of writing an exti iided work on the I'rovince. had visited nil parts of it. collected intoiniatiiiu of all sorts eoneerning it, and had writtcti a large part. 1 had intended to pnlilish this hefore my I'liliticnl l-'viiimini. Unfoi'tunately I was induced to put forth the lattei- in Hn>ton. nnder the !issu!'.!nce from Mr. .\. I-'.\erett' that it uduld he appreciated then-, lie was. howevtr. 1 helieve scared at it. Could not make up his mind, noi' could any oni' there, if I was right or wrong, and so passed it hy with praist' of its style, etc. This daimieil it. My had suci-ess here was a har to my work on Canada, for as this was long and went to the hotlom of things, my friends and the hooksellers prognosticated that it would, like the f(jrmer. he too heavy a work to lie read. 1 kept the manuscript hy me. adding to my stock of infoinia- iion as occasion olTered. still thinking of one day hringing it forth. Among other mischances that have hefallen. these manuscripts, sent to New York, seem to have been strangelv lost. So there is an end of that. ■' However. I think 1 could write a small hook that would have a certain currency. I am more inclined to think this from the following circumstance. Some time hefore leaving Canada, a young friend came to reside with me, and having something of a turn for politics was very free in his irKpiiries as to my opinions and views of matters, which 1 gave him in full. On this foundation, for he knew nothing of these matters himself, he goes and writes an iirticle for Blackwood, I just saw it hefore leaving .America, and found it a reflection of my own thoughts, though sonietinus din' or distorted. Since landing on these shores I have had letters from Canada asking if I were the author and stating that the article had had ctjiisiderahK' success." ' Thia was Alexander H. Kverett, hrotlier of Eilwanl Kverett, diploniat, editor of the Sorth Ani'^riro ' Un-ifii\ writer to some extent on econotuic subjects. His review of Hae'a .'o/i'irni Kruiinmy is in Vol. XL. of the Xnrih Aiiiffiran Hfiinr. xxxii HKHiKArmCAL SKETCH l-'iirtluT tlian this, iintliiii;,' is ktiduii of flu iiatiirc or I'litr (if this |iri'siiinal)ly |ii(itciimi! trcatisf/" 'I'iif iTCf|iti<)ii accdfilf'l his I'lflitii'il Kiiiti'iiinj was always a A' III 'iisa|i|i(iiiitiiiiiit 1(1 llac. H( (((livtd ])ra(ti(ally iidthiii;^ Ini' it |i((iiniarily . as lie inlnriiiid (aiiierdii: and it was not until iifarly tiiirty years alt( i' it was [Mililishc(l riiat he l( ariK (I .Mill had n(iti(cd it. .Xiipaitiitly he never ki:e\v that it was Iraiislated in l^oti. in \'(ihiiiic \].. first .-eries, ot Fcrvara's lUhJini'Cd il> II' I-'./niiniinstii . This is nut the [ilacc to ;^ivc ;iny ( xtiaidi d cnt icisni of this work. iHdiKiunced hy Professor Irving- FIsIrt ( l'///- Hiinir. \"(j|. \'.. |). ■(•")7i to he "truly a niasterpiccc. a iiook (if a t.'(neiati(in or a century."- ] wish lure merely to iidiiit out that Its iiitl'a nc. . .vcn from the first, has hceii ::r(aier tiian is cdnniKinly >ii|ijiosed. .\ carefii! stiidv of ■ hihii Stuart Mill's TV; //(!/, an es.say on Can.ada which was awarded tlie tirst prize by "the I'aris Kvliibition Committee of Canada. " - Compare the opinion of I'rofessor Kdgeworth in Palgrave's Diriinuari/ of Poliliral EroHomy. and of I'rofessor Sydney Slierwood in Johm HopLiii.t i'lii- i-i-r^itH Stmlits in Hi^torii-dl nnd Pn'Hifiil Sritnct, fifteenth series, pp. 582-.")S4, and n!IO-.">91. m if .^ 'i^s^^^ BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH XXXlll able iiSL> of Hac d in great purity, by reason of its isolation, an exceedingly primitive culture ; just as the old Norse culture is at (iresent most purely represented in Iceland. He believed he was studying in the Hawaiian language a survival of a pre-Sanskrit language— the original tongue of a universal stone age. Apparently bold generalizations as to language-building, the relations between sounds and ' Liitcr culled Thf A m> i-irnn Journal of Srknre ami Art'<. 2 This was done, it appears, on two occasions, in 185'i and ten or twelve M^ (I XXXIV BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH iutions. were carrying.' him far into a most profound philolof,'ical and anthropological sptculation. I say apparently here, because of my ipnoranee of such matters, an.! hecause this part of his manuscript is the most frag- mentary and chaotic of all. Some of the results of his studies along these Imes. and also on some other matters p.Ttaming to the existing condition of the Hawaiians. we know to have been printed in a Honolulu newspaper. The Pohjnr.tinti . (hiring the earlv sixties.! A few excerpts from these articles being sent by an acrjunintance. R. C. Wyllie.^ to .John Stuart Mill, led Mdl to write Kae at least once: a coiiiniuni.ation which, h()wevcr. was never received. A copy of a letter bv Mill to Wylhe respecting I!ae, foun.l among the latter's etiects, runs us follows : BL.ACKiiE.ATn Park. Kent. Fth. 3. 1SG3. Sir. -I ha\e hail the honour of receiving vour letter and tti.. printed slips which you have bmi kind enough to send ihese 1 have read with the attention due to anv work of Dr l.ae. and they appear to me quite worthy of his intellect an,l acquirements. The picture which he draws of the dangers that menace the interesting communitv of which you are one of the rulers is most formidablV. Of the remedies which he proposes. I cannot be a competent judfre but. as tar as niy m.ans of judgnunt extend, he seems to' be right 111 much, perhaps even in all. that he proposes J he otlirr paper will. I think. -.1;k.,. | .,.. j^..^,! ^.^Vv hi'.di among ethnologists and , .i;..l„gists. After hav,ng r^achrd b3 independent investigation the highest genenili/ation previously made, naiuely. that all languages hav.. grown bv development from a few hundred words. Dr. Rae seems to > So far as the e.lhor l.a. l,....n able to ascertain, the o„lv copies of The lo.!n,..n„ wh,ch are availaMe for the ,...rio,l when Rae' contril,„te,l to 'ii::t::zz^ """" ^'■-'■■"-^•^'^- '^-'^•- --^-^ ^-.. May, ^ Mr. \\yllie. as he states n, one of h,s letters to Rae, was forn>erly "an K.S In, 1, a merch..nt. railway director, an,l .lirector un fact, the star er, of lei ache Mean, Nay.gaoon Con,pa„y.-' V ■ was soon after .lecease.l ,aoout IM... or l..b,, holding at ,he tin>e a high position under the Hawauaa Oovernnient. »>"auau :■ k U & l=^5^g;^pP5?".'-':.. BIOGRAIMIICAI. SKETCH xxxv h;iv( siii'i'licd tlx Hr^t j)r()l)iil)lf fXi)laii;iti(.n fif thf niaiint r HI uliith tli.i,.' priiiiitiv. words iimy tlunisclvts have is is iiiaih' out. it is the keystone ot Thr sci.Muv ot jihiiolo^'V. It IS a pTii>n . xtrtiiiely probabK-. and thf fads lie l)ri-lish a strong: (asr of v.rifKation ii of thib iiujKirtaiit spt( ulation. It must t> of frrtat value to your coutitry to have such a tnati as I>r. Rae settle.I aiiioiit: you. It is Very firatifyin^' to lu. that you are dispised to carry the firinriple of luinorities into practical operation. That Eiirh should be (pi. stions apitatcd in a country which three- (piartrrs of n imtury at.'o was in the savage state is surely one of the most remarkable sifrn^ of the v. ry hopeful tiin. s in which w( live.— 1 am. Sir, your most obedient servant. J. S, Mill. His I'.xcell. ncy. W. (.'. Wyllie, Ksqiiire. .\fter an interval Tiae wrote Mill ihe following : " Sir.— r.rmit nie to render yon my thanks for having taken the tnmide some two or thn e years since to write my lale friend Mr. Wyllie coiiceriiinp some pafiers of mine that liad appeared in "the Polynesian newspaper of Honolulu. and of whi( h he had sent yon copies. You may well Siippose ] was much matified by the favourable opinion nf one wiiose jud;:nient deservedly carries so much weifrht with it as yours in all philos.jphical questions. I address you at present to re(]uest a favour. ] des're to dedicate to you a work on the Polynesian lantruajie and its connections with the history of spetch. and consecpiently of humanity. You (duld have formed but a very imperfect idea of my views from my letter to M^-. W'Uie. which was not intended for publication, and in which, from its ^.'rowing too voluminous on my hands. I often dropped the Thread of my arpument without pursuing: stati nients I had made to their legitimate consequences. I cannot of course attempt to niend the matter here, or to give even a sumniary of my argument, but I may state the conclusions .■t which I havt arrived, as well as those at which 1 might hope to arrive, and thus explain to you the reasons which urge nie to make the retpiest 1 have prefirred. " I btdieve it may be shown that the rai c from which the Polynesians >pring was at the head of civilization of the age « (t stone, '^nd \v t.Tc' settlc'd. iri Huidustiiu and alonir the XXXVI BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH southftii and more f.rtilp shores of Asia. It sei'nis, too, tliat. the facts on which my reasons rest are mdispiitable. thi> • lediKtion perfectly lofxical. and the cunchision therefore irrefragahle. This forms tlie first part of n>y book. The second [)ertains to the lan<:iiape. As to it. there have come into it two sounds, sij^mficant of themselves, which have a, (dose anal()<,'y to the cries of the hi;,'her order of ammals, and have S(jrn( liow been modified by and incorporated into the articulate speech. The one is a (the l)r()ad Scotch or Italian a) and it may be translated acti(jn. The other is o which denotes distance ami connection. This may seem a contradiction, but m reality if a thinp be distant it must be distant from sonietliiiifj els.', and that .somethin denotes." Here the letter breaks off. Kae's manuscript in epistolary form ad.Iressed to Mill is rather voluminous.' Those parts whi(di ndate to political economy hav.^ been printed in the luonoiinc Journal for March, 1002 .Vol. XU., No. 45) and m the Quartrrly .lounutl of Economic!^ for Novemiier, 1901 (Vol. XVI., No, 1), A small additional frnement appears as Article VI. in the Appendix to this volimie.- Among the friends of Ha.^'s later life was Abraham Fornander, editor (jf The Pohjnrsnan at the time when Rae's articles apjuared m that journal. In the years 1878- \?m, Fornander published a three volume work, which attained some celebrity, entitled An Arrount of the ' It i^ not known whether a fair copy of any of this was ever sent to Mill, but it \f not unlikely, Rae seems also to have corresponded with Dr. William Beattie in Kngland ^ Some exoerpts from Rue's migceilaneous manuscript arc also introduced at ilitfereut points indicated in the text. j^l BIOGKAPHICAL SKETCH XXXVll PdUjntsiiin lliicf. j/.f Origin mul MitiratioTis. In the I'rt'facc to the first voliiniL'. niiionji other fjencnil ackiiuw- kil^'iiiciits of litrniry ohligatioti, we roiid, — " The hite Hr. • loliii Kae lit' Haiia. Mai:' wlio. in .i series of articles piiblisheil in 'ihi' I'dliini.^uin Tlonohilii. l.^(V2). hrst called attention to the extnine antiquity of the Polynesian l;ui;,niaj,'c." This is the only reference I'"ornaniler makes to Hae. The present writer is of the opinion that Hue ori^'inated most of the ideas which were followed out m this work hy hi> < onteiiqiorary. 1 may add m this connection that a transcription of one of the ancient legends (jf the Huwaiians with Rae'a explanatory notes, fonnd ainonij his effects, has heen printed in Volume XI] I., No. 51. '19lu:Mld a| pear till after my death. Thus T eould aemnii)otent for not iiidin^' wliat He had allowed me to sec of what at least appeared to me lighi . and avoid the >ii-pi(iiin of hein^' actuated hy personal niotixes. . . . What now ] may do i^ uncertain. I know not even if my niamiscri|)ts are safe. Certainly a new spirit is awakened within me. and may lead to a new course of a(tion. if I he ndt ( ut ddWii hy some of the chances which 1 see tail to so many around me. . . . Now as eonii rns ('anaclian independence, or atuiexa- tloii ; that 'lis 1 as a thiiii: interesting in itstdf. and more especially as 'Hie to he taken as a sij,'n of other thiiit.'s of ;.'reater interest with wlii( h the present era seems pref.'nant, had occupied at least some little of my attention ; hut 1 had li' come acciislonied to view it from a point and in a lipht ilillereiit from that in wlii( h [loliticians of th( hour necessarily rejrard it. Let me explain myself. When one ((iiiunences the study ol history, it is c.-n,. rally under the apprehension that this study will serve a^ a master key to th. prohl. nis of the day. and will enahle him n(>t niily to form pist conclusions concermmi them, hut. if S(. promjited. to address In's con- temporaries with authority and power. But as he advances farther and farth.er in llie pursuit, and if he has seized the philosophical spirit of inv. sti;.'atiim it which has hei^un to ^'ive Its proper life to the itKpiiries of the aj:e. he finds the eye of his mind (()tidii(t( d hy it to a far hi^'her elevation whence It takes ill a L.'reat" reach of the whide tide of humanity lyin<,' henealh, tlowin;,' on with iiiK.asiiifr ciiriciit from the dim and c loudy mountains of the past in lenjzthened course to tiie immense and measureless future. Not onlv is .1 ■ l:^ 4^ •n if t is 1. .)f huh < BIOGRArHICAL SKETCH XXXIX l„s suiil absorhed 1)V the contemplation of the vast prosp.'it. tVeU b.)th" tlu- (oMiparative msi-nituancf ot the „V6ent anJ Ins <.un want of iiower to control ht turnin;,' in the course or a little ripple but he annieiliate pr* It What IS a sii;. r- - , ,i i .,„ ,1„. surfac. of the hu-c stream ulnch. una.'r the -u. •To one having learned to view things m this hght, it must be difficult, and I found it impossible m New ^ork. to write a popular article such as the interests ot your .l,„„nal require on a (piestion wh.eh if not m the temp.'r m which it IS agitated at least in the thing itseli is protoundl;- signit'K'ant." In another letter addressed to WiUson. undated, but apparently written from the Isthmus or falifornia. we reail . ■'A change has come o'er the thread of y lite. You have i>erhaps seen a horse of a sort of siuggisn temper, not deficient in any of the externals that denote some degree of power, but vet who seemed incapable of anvthing but a stubborn, shambling gait which whip or sp ma.l(> only more uncomfortable. Well, gather your reins, feel that you are w. 11 in vour sa.hlle, and spare noi but dig the iron well into his side's. You will rouse him : and if you keep your s.at through his first plungings and boundings it may be that you will be astonished how well and fast and far he will bear voii. Such is the change that has come over the temper of inv mind. The iron has pierced deep into me. it rankles in mv very vitals, and for aught 1 see will do so till the grave cover I'ne. 1 must be doing sonu'thing. 1 have relief in action. . . . London. Paris, with a little capital in money and literary reputation have been my aim for years. There, with the "assistance of libraries, imisenms. friends who could and might be induced to assist me. T have con- ceived I should have the fairest field for my literary and ft xl BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH pliilf)SO|)hi(al speculations, niul for my nucha nitai schenus. 'I'lic one would assist tlif otlicr. Hail it not hvtu lor those c'onfonndiil Trustees, my plans were so laid that I f "1 pretty (ontident I should hcforc this have been there, an it was this overthrow of my pi nore tlian the mere ejection from the school that so i oversrt me, and but for you, I believe, would have gi' iiu my linal quietus." fSS Writin;.' still apain to this faithful friend, from Hana under date of llecmnber. 1N.'(;, I!nc savs : " If yon would really lirlj) a man you nmst know how to help him. Vou nnist know in what his well-being and happniess consist, what ther.fore ;:rc his objects and aims. My earlier friends in (';inada could not conceive or at least unuerstand what were mine. They thought nie foolish in burying the attainments and altility they were pleased to give me credit for in the subordinatr jto'sition of a village surgeon, or still worse in that of a country schoolmaster. They (oiild not conceive that my main n. id was quiet . to think nut my thoughts. When after ten years of this sort of life ] had siitticiently inastircd my subjects and digested my problems diid wished to jiut some" of them before the world, they had changed their notion of me. and viewing me now a.s a mere schoolmaster stood aloof from me and my projects, and would give me neither elfective countenance nor support.' Some hinted that had 1 taken their advice I might have been in ii very different nosition. while the prudent said. 'What are your chances of gaining by this.' How much will It put in your pocket? Sit qinet." Others again, lo(.king on me as a mere adventurer, and measuring me from' my humble pla<-e and comparing it with the magnitude of my enterprises, sren.ed to say, ' What, yon a village teacher think you can master such high themes'.' The man is mad ' we will have nothing to do with him.' . . . T have found all men. even my most intimate friends, nnasuring the probable success of my schnnrs not from what thev inherentlv were hut from the posititui of mvs.df. the one bringing them' forward. Thus 1 le.ollect well when 1 projected publishing my uork on political eronomy, niv friends were quite incredulous of my ability to controvert th<' doctrines of Adam Smith in any particular, and smil..,! part in pity, part in wrmd.rmeiit, at the presumption of one who' had not In.n able to raise himself from the position of a conntrv schoolmaster embarking on so hopeless an enterprise BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH xli \-(,w had they k.u.wn my motivts for contenting niys.lf w h what sec-n.c.d to them bo mfenor a station, they mi.'ht or at least they ought to have come to another con- d ,": n. It was m tnith hecaiisr 1 vas engjiged m importan sneeulat.ons for which school life though a drudgery yet S" m nauv hours of qu.et 1, ,su,e, that 1 contented myself wHh It. 1 feared that if J then pushed really into the h-ittle of life these speculations would be likely to dim before me. and pn.hably at last fade in the distance. I now thmk 1 was wrong m this-events at least would seem to p o e my having been so. At any rate, had I to run the same course over again. I would act diflerently I l^hmk 1 ought to have studied law. for which through Judge Maclean the way would have been open to me. and secured to myself ', certain social i)osition that would have enabled me in no Ion" time to have given myself to pursuits more congenial ,0 mv ie.lmgs. 1 do nr- believe that either great suc'-ess or coinparative failure m a legal •■."reer would hav been able to turn me from the occasional contemplation and ultimate pursuit s. A tram out the p.lanand partly written some ess.ays on subjects having BIOGKArillCAL SKETCH xliir a beariiip oii wli^it is shiidow.d out in my miiul as a real philosophir history of our ract". K was thus tl...t some months suue 1 wrote the essay which 1 s. iid. I had not, however, tlion'.dit of puhUslung" it for perhaps a year or two, norev.n th.Mi until it limi h.en submitted to the judgment of some scientific friend who might he competent to tletect any mistake in the mechanical part, if any theri^ were."' And now to lonchidc- this series of excerpts, we may set ilown the following: standing on a hit of paper by itself, and in bO wavering a hand that it may well have been written iluring Itae's last illness. ■■ If We regard the genei'ous iiupulses. 'he ennobling hnp( s. the lofty aspirations, that swell the breast of youth, we should say that the human heart was a soil in which the heaven-wafted seeds of every virtue might germinate ami grow and tlourish. and spread a paradi.se (jver the earth, lint alas, when the time ct)mes when each has to cast himself into the stream of actual life, the movements of wIkjsc impetuous current have come dcnvn from places and times far remote, the first plunge awakens him to the abs 'ing necessity of putting forth all his energies to maintain l..mself in the whirling tide. He loses sight of those landmarks whith were to have guided his course. Progress. Progress. is his cry; and on he dashes, pushing aside and thrusting down." lUit in all this one gets rather a distorted picture of the sort of man Rae really was. The reader must consider iliat these things were written late in life, and make allowances. He shoidd. especially. grou[) with them the impressions derived from the work put forth by Rae in his prime. Those who knew him in the tlesh. not primarily as a man of science hut as a teacher and friend, represent him as athletic in mind and in body: as (lieeiful. ((jurugeoiis, singularly devcjid ( :' : .1 petty ambitions and meanruss. He wa3 built on a large plan. One fault he had of an intellectual sort which st.ood seriously in his way as a successful writer, and that was a niiirked teiideiuy to take in all the length and bicadth of ' This may Imve tieen written to I)r. W. Hoattie, for in a scrap of a letter aildressed to him is discussed t'uc Siiine literary project. ( I xliv BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ;iny subject, and i,, .oinni its dopths. (on.seqm.ntlv he I'lu.ys u.-nt on u,to ,U^r^,su,UH. fnqu.ntlv <.f excessive .•..t;t i-a r.iba wh,, li -rew up,,,, h,,,,. B,,, n. take in the .•.if-'fh ;„,,! hreadth of a suhject and f. sonnd its depths is tf'e -n,pk nf ,..,nus. If l.-ae ...ukl have had sn.taf.le cond,t...ns (,„• s. ,e„t,tie w„rk .s..eh as seemed open to hin. M. h,s early y.„„h, h,. would undoubtedly have been steadied as well as stimulated --he wouM have shou,, ,roper eon<-n- tration -and th-n with lus pouers of ima-'ina ion and ran^e ot ndorn,at,on. what .vsults niight the world not have had fromhnn" Or ,f when h.. eame to An.enea he had settled ;""i 1 u "■^"■'" '"'"'• "'^^ '"■''■'' '" "■''^"'•ies and contact w.th other uel!-t,a,ned ,„i„ds.. how diflerent would h.s hie have been" H„t nevertheless he did not altogeth.T rn.ss h,s mark. H,s work, not w.thout .nfluence when first I Mbh..hed. thuu^h later ne-derted. did not die. The revival ot ,nt..rest eanie when othcs bepan to exploit the same field, and uhen the se.enee as a whole had made a preat advance Ihere no.. sc.,.ms eve,-y pn,speet that this interest will widen' and mten.sify. and endure. "intn. rjie'il.-v '',^ AUTHUR'S PREFACE. (The work here presented to tlie American reader, was romp'jBed with ttu- intention cf l)eing published in (inat Britain; under this idea the fulldwinK Preface was written. As it explains the design of the original undertaking, it has lieen thought proper tliat it should retain the place it was at first intended to occujiy.) 'I'll (>r()mott.' prosperity within, to guard against danger from without, hiivi' ever been esteemed the two great branches of the duty of the Statesman. But of all the sources of internal prosperity, or means of repelling esternal aggressions, no one, in modern times, is of greater efficacy than wealth. We have, therefore, no reason to be surprised, that states- men should have endeavored to j)rocurc for their respective eoimtries the greatest possible amount of it. If the laws they have ,^nacted, and the regulations they have for this {)urpose established, have really answered the ends they were intended to promote, they are certainly praiseworthy. Of the efficacy of such laws, for those purposes, politicians for a long time did not doubt ; but a great revolution in public opinion has taken pliue. and almost all men who now pretend to understand the principles that should govern thi policy of nations, agrer in condemning them. his revolution in the opinions of men. had its rise in I'raiicr. It might have died there, however, with the sect from which it had birth, had not a man of surprising genius, placing himself at the head of the feeble party then supporting it, enabled them to give their principles currency tlirougliout the nations of Europe. Adam Smith will be re((ir(ied among remote generations, as one having power- fully influenced the opinions and policy of the civilized world, xlvi AITHOK'S PREFACE 'liirin;: thr ci-ht.'. :ii ati.l iiiiicti-, ntli rentiirics. His ^rrear v\nrk IK. s(,.,ii,i- ,i|,|), aiv.l hi Britain tliini it was ivad. and the "I'HiK.iis it maintain, ,1 a,l..[,t,-,l . |,y .very one ui.,, pn'tt-iule.i t'< :iny kn..\v|,.,|ne ,,f tii,- iinpni-tant siil.jecls of which it mat.',!. It ,s.-,s more strikin-ly manile.>t,d. 'J',, illustrate his >pe,iilatmns. t,, cast th,ni into new forms Miitci to the vari,.,| tast.s of vari,ais nati,,ns. he.aiue an cmplovinei.t by which ni,'ii of nn,|oiiht,,l -,i,ius thought th.^mselves honored His r,a>,,iiin-s are tlie l.asis of mimerous systems and '"'"■""•'■•'i'l" '-says. A \,,|„niiii,,iis lihrarv nujiht he f,)riiied ot the w,,rks „f men who ,all him mast.-r. N<.r were the |lin thr p,.|icy of nations. Vuainst ,lo,tnn... M,pp.„i,.d |,y',,, ^,,^..,r ;, .v.-ipht of nutli,.nty. what, it may h.- ,i, nian.le.l. can possil.lv h.. iir-,.]' ...d how c„uies ,r. that s,, ,,l,scure an in,l,vi,lual a; th,. a,uh..r ■'t th.' foll,,wnK' pa;:es, plac, s himself in oj.position to them ' ( Mstoni aiithoris,s n„.-m a measure calls on nu— i„ an>wer t,) tlus, ,,„e>ti,,ns. t,. state to the rea,lcr how I was '•'I to t,,rni ,, pinions ,,|,(,o.s.mI to this svstem. and wliv I hrin^' thos, opinions l..-l,,re him. Many years a-o. ] hcame en-afre,l i„ a s,.ries of inqniri-s mio th,. .inMim.^tanc, s whi.h have h>s.olog>. and what is t.rme,! nietaphysies, an,l imaginin-r -j^.'r-''' ^. \ ^W.^m^^""^^1 Al'THOR'S PREFACE xlvii I'S t. that T s;i\v a rnv of lif-'lit struppling thronph the obsourity nf th,. nl)jfcts. ainiilst whK'h tliesf inv. sti^'ations placed iiif. I l).f:ari to .onc.ivf hojus of Ix-infi able to dispfl some of tlie "^larkiir-s. in which an> involved causes that have produced, and are prodncin-. results of the highest inip.rt- ;in(e to ns. To this piirsnii 1 determined to devote mys. If. Such a resolution would scarcely have been taken by any niie unless prompted by the entbusia>m natural to youth, and wnuid not have been adojtted by me. had I not had the pn.^pect of enjoying-' every facility in following out the objects I had m view; but a sudden and nncxpected change took place ill my circumstances, and I exchanged the litt rary 1, isiirc of Kuropc for the solitude and labors of the Canadian backwoods. I found, notwithstanding, that this accident <(.uld not altogether put a stop to my inquiries, though it retarded them ard altered their form. I had early turned for assistance to the Inqmrij win the yru>. I,.,njr mi.rh . onf,-;,cte.l. I ;,p;nn rrmrn..! to th.- .i.s.,M,s,n,.n. nf A.l.m S„„t),. ami „f oth.r Knn,,H ;,„ uritrrs ot th,- ...lUM.- .,|,o„|. |„ onlt-r to tia.v out niorr fully than I ha.l hith.T',, ,|,„R.. th,. ,o„„,.x,on l,etw..,.„ th,- ph,"„,.,n.-na att,.,„lnip the „„ r.ase an,l .liniinntion of uralth. an.l those «.M..ral pruicphs of th,- uatun- of ma.i. au.i of th,- worl.l ^ff^i!- '""'rr ^'! \ """■'■'"•• ^^'- "^■''" ^"■"^''■'^ "f hnnian .ff.i:... 1 .ouul. I ua.s l.,i to tins stu.iv. sunpiv frota n.y '(.•s|.v to a,|vat,.,.. as far a. my situation p,.nn,tt,".,| „„■ ,„ a p:ith of investi.Mtinn uhi.h ha,l. to n,.-. a vvrv iiv. Iv mtrresfc •ny p,os.nit,,>n of It 1.1,1 th.. ,.fl-..ct ..f imp.;^ ^.•.■ply u-.th a .onvi.tion .f th.- imsoun,ine«s of th,- .v.st.n, maiiita!n,.(l in the ll', ,;///, „/ X„t,„„, In this sta.e of n.y progress I l,..,.an,e enpa.^e.i .n a work '>" tl.' present stat,- of C.na.la. an,l on its relations ;;; t..n..stofth.. Fjn.ishKnipir,.. Tl.se relations sZ an.l the empire from th-ir eonnexion. The s,-,'t of ,K,li — ns, to whom F allu.l,.. .,eny that any sueh benefi a « I either party. U .... th,.,r reasonings eorn-,. .t uouUi ">,lou as a nee,.ssary ,onse,,uenee. that Canada is ,n this -.s,....t, of ,,o „,vanta,e to (ir-.t P.ntain, an,i wo.iM go f .' prove, what. in,l,.e.l, .■,„. I.y many to he bel.eve.K tha ff- -'oner th,- ,.on„,.x,„n between them is .lissolve.l th.. it .Ipp^r I't " ^ ':■ 'r' '''" "'""'"'^ "f ^'^-" theorists, t^.p eu..,l t., m... ha th.. work I ha.l un,lertak..n re.,uin.,i me to state som,. ,,1 the reasons on whieh I frroun,!.. th,« .-n. ami t:m. w,th..,t..ntenn, atl,.n,tff,ntoa V u. x,rant.pK.sti.>ns,nv..lve.I,,.the.i. " abl.. at least t.. east a sha.l,. of doubt over .loetriiies c.)..h.ie.>ee. In en.l..avorm., however, for this purpose to arra^e a senes of arguments ,irawn from a .Ll t^ tion n p.. u.,ple.s that ori.nnally s„.,.este.l themselves to n.e wben en^.a,^e,l m ,nore enlarj^ed in.,„irie,s, my work .^raduallv -sum.1 a far more ..xten.led and syston.atie'form. t/^m I S '-t me,,,tat..,l .n,l I be.^.ne en,a,..,l ,„ the pr s n attetnpt. to sh.,w that th..re exist ,reat and radical e r" , ATTHORS PREFACE xlix thr ulu.l.' system, siifti.uiit to v!ti;.t.' %-ery many of th.- ,„ruluHi(.iis ilrawn from it. aii.l from the fallacies mtro- diKcd by whuh. the (1(.( trmes of free traite alone derive their [liausihiiity 111 th.' prosecution of the argument. T have almost entirely contined myself to the eoiisid. ration of the doctrines to wliK h I am opi>osed, as they are developed in the U xilth ,,i Sations. I could not hav.- done otherwise, without hecominK involved in the discussion of contradicto'-y and conHictiiij: opinions. Neitht r. ;is 1 conceive, is this limita- tion of t^ssnitial importanc.' to the determination of the points in dchiite. If A.lam Smith he essentially wrong, none of his followirs can be riizht. The system established by him staiKts. or falls, with him. I am not ignorant of the dangers to which this attempt siihjrcts me. Whoever ventures to attack a system received so generally, and siipjxirted by so great a weight of authority, is exposed" to various evils. They who haw enibraced its principles are apt to slight and neglect, or. if that may not be. to conceive it their business to ov.rthrow the heterodox doctrines. What of error they may contain is eauerly seized on. wliat of truth, is overlooked. "' Who." asks Mr. Lock.', ■• is there, hardy enough to contend with the reproach which is ever prepared for him, who dares venture to diss;'nt from the received opinions of his country and party' And where is the man to be found, that can patiently prepare hims. If to bear the names, that he is sure to rntet with, who doth in the least scruple any of the common opini■ ™""""' 'NTllKAl., |s:j;i AUTHOR'S PREFACE POSTSCRIPT. In the preceding pages, the reader has an explanation of till- origiiKil design of the work which I venture to place before him; but, in preparing it for publication in this country. I have made some alterations in it, the nature of winch it is proper I should here state. The doctrines which Adam Smith maintained with so nuich ability, never took so dei p hold in this country as in Enj:land. and thi.\' have been more strongly op|K)sed. There is hence, a very considerable difference between the state of puiilic sentiment in Great Britain and .America, concerning the most interesting practical questions of political economy. This is ispecially the case with regard to the policy of the protective system. The practical bearings of that system nn the condition of things in this repui)lic, have been dis- cussed so often, and with so much ability, that probably few new arguments or facts concerning it can be brought forward by any one. least of all can they be expected from a foreigner. .\itiiough. therefore, I look on the effects of the policy jHirsued by the legislature of the I'liited States, as affording the t)est [iractical illustration hitherto existing of the correct- ness of some of the principles I maintain, I have scarcely ;it ail referred to them for that purpose, but have contented niy-elf with siiowing bow the f)enetits resultitig from the operiitions of the legislature, in this and in other sinnlar ciises. ;ire to be accounted for. 1 have thus omitted much niiitter that would have appeand. had the work been piiliiished m Kngland.but which it seemed to me. would l)e at lea^t superfluous here. These omissions occur in the third iiuiik. which ib (■()nse(|uently uukIi abridged. I'o tile second book 1 have made some additions, having i^iveii tuller development to the [)rinci|iles there explnined, and traced their conne,\ion with events at greater length, than is necessary for the mere purpose of exposing the fallacies of the theoretical views, the refutation of which N Hi AUTHOR'S PREFACE -H I i was originally my sole design. As the iidfiitions were made in the prcfjress of the work '"iroiigh tiie press, in one or two instances 1 have been led to refer to subjects to be afterwards treated of, v.hich I found it impossilile to comprise within such limits as would admit of their insertion. These omissions, however, do not occasioii any break in the chain of reasoning. Tliere are. also, some tojiies. which tliough I have introduced. I have but partially diseusseil. and merely so far as may serve to show some of their connexions with principles expounded. The most importajit t)f these is the subject of banking. fi", Ro.sTos, 1834. INTRODUCTION. Wealth of Nauons. 'Yl^ovleZsu.in.XonU what he him- ,.t, that as ^^^^^^^^X^^^,, nature and causes of self undersunus h) that ^"^ ^^, investigate. His which it is the object of his nui O ^^.^ ^^^ j^^^ Ulowers have scarce been more ^^ ^^^^^^^^ ,,,,, have l,v aetinitions. to remedy the f^^'^^^"^^''':^^ .^hool is ,.en unable to a,r^ m th^rm^ o^^tl.m. ^I^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ thus split into man) Uttie seots at ,,,„.,U,.., t„e v..,v olemc* ^ *;■—„,,„ ,,„„, ,„„, ..,, It s«-...» to mc that ""'""='"'„ , ,„„,i,„„cntal MM ., ,, „„„.» t^ -t°e , u ■ rwLl. A,..„. ....iU, a„.i ,„ the principles ot invtsu^ai uniform tendency to U,e school he founded P-^'f ^^ 7;,; things, which, in hold that up as an explaimti.m o oti.u tnin,., ;:i,,,, , „,';. ...,,- *.„« ..„. ... ««>-;';„,, ,„ „,„. ,„„„„o,. ,„ »1'«" l" " ^^;^ , ,„„ „, v„.IU,. K.H, tl,..«gl. "■'^;;;;:r:':":i:r';::,M::";::"r':...» .. -. l.ctoie mill "i^iu 1 1 . ,,,,v system witli -hey are iheivfoie tirst led, m le-aid to .in> .) .,H.e here vefe. to a quotation fr-.n ..u..er,lale wOich is repr..d«cea as " Ni>te A " in the Appendix. ] ^ ii^* . :'Xrv*v% V : j-'i;? 'l-x-. Si.^j£a£J>'i ■ffilJr'JSJfa. - •-.^^ m^^m^.m%Jmmm a m , • !i •2 INTRODrCTION which they have Id du, to tix their iitleiitieen cil.served ami noted, that to trace tlu'ii ca'ises iieconies the euiployiiient of jihilosojiliers. The mere sailor, for example, re;^ards the winds simply as con nected with the diHereut seasons, the various re,L.'i that system endures as it is, his knowled^^e will serve to direct his nractice, ami this is all ahout which he concerns himself. An extensive ])ractical knowledi^e of this sort here louLT i)receded a philosophical knowledge of tlie suhject it has heen the business of tiie latter, as it lias at last had place, to ascertain the nature of winil itself, and the causes jjroducinj,' all the ditlerent winds, and actini,' on them For this jjurpo.se the philoso]iher has turiieil himself to the investiization of wliatever, in the ^'eni'ial system of thin;_'s, is connected with lliat concernin;,' which lie iiKpiires: — to the constitution and projiertics of the atmosphere: — the etlects of < !iani,'es of tem- peratun on aerifoiin fluids ; — the motions induced hy these, hy the rotatoiy luovement of the i^lolie, and hy other circum- stances. i'"rom them he dciuc the tiiie tiieory of wind, and shows that it is in accoidauce with the ohseivations and rules of him, wlio has heen accustonieij to view the suhject in its ])racti- cal hearings alone, ami iruds to elucidate and simiilify them. in a som.'what siiuilar uianner wealth was felt and noted in its ellects hnvji liefore. as a circumstance larijely allertin,:,' societies, it was pioposi'd ])iiiloso|ihical!y to invesli'^ate its natnie and rauses. To mark those etlWcts, " riches " and a serifs of othei terms of the sort, weiv invented. Like all e\eiy-day uoids ami phrases they apply to the ohvious asjiects ( so INTRODUCTION 3 ,„- particular fact., and occurrences, an.l have no necessary ,V,.nce to the causes of those facts an.l occurrences. A ;:,. si,eculat,ons are foreign to n.ere practice, an.1 never ev^n .M.ter into the explanations an.l reasomn;.s ,f ihenurel) leal n.an. However complicated the social system ot h e lanv person en,a,ed in the uc.pusition of wealth n.akes p t !>; has no dithculty m tracm, the manner in winch 'that portion of it which he possesses has been '-^l--d -r m x-ph inin. how it f.a-ms t.. him a certain amount of what he • l' capital. I'.ut in givin, this explanation, it will be ob- 'vve.l ttiat for the elements of his statements, he has always ,.e onse t.. the existence an.l continuance .>f certain circum- n es and re,ular trains ..f events in the general system of urn , societv; What the things may be which give origin ; lular succession to these events is a speculation lying .t ot" his road, and on which he pn.bably never en ers T 1.:^., therefore, he can easily tell how he g.,t that which ..onstitntes his wealth, and ho-, t., hnn it comes t., be w.,^1 h l,e will v,.t probablv confess that he is unable to say what ,.„„stitut:.s width in general, fr.>m whence it - '1--- . '; .hat are the exact laws regulating its increase or diminutio ■He are .p..-sti..ns of which the solution is very clearly sho.n ,1 be of ,rJat .litliculty from the mass of d.scor.iant opinions "T;;;;:^,:!;^ Ill tms ..1 m other instances, by transferring without h.-sitation, terms ma.le use of to mark and explain he atVaus of connu..i life, to d..i..te the great phenomena which . ,naivs of s.,ci.ties present, falls, as it seen.s t.. me, into ,;, ,.,.ro,.. In the tirst place, he m a great measure misses U.,a whul. IS the real ..b.ject at which his u„iu.ry aims the .,ves,i.ation ..f the true nature an.l causes .,t -t.ona wea . „„l .hows, bv h.d.Ung ..ul s..metuues -me n.)t,..n .)t it anl ^„.,„,,,.,, ,„;,Uu.,, acconling to the .liilercnt hghts ni w ueh ,, ,Hne,eMt tunes the subject presents itselt .. h.ni. t u has no s..rv .le.inite i.leas .:onc.Muing it. In the s..c.m.l plac. , he natuvallv, and in v..ry many iustan.:es tails nuo the... m „,• ,,.,,.„..■ what u. truth are the n-sults of general la s ,o.e,,unu th.. .ours., of this .-lass of ."VMits t..r the laws them- 1 [See " Not'' H ' ■it the Appemlix. I I ,i n .' i i\ Wl M ♦ INTRODUCl'ION selves, and so of elevating eHocts into causes. His procedure is not very dissimilar to what that of a philosopher would have heen, who, desiring to investigate the nature of wind, should have assumed it as already known, not as an event, but as a thing, and should have conceived it his business merely to con- nect and arrange the vari(nis phenomena in relation to it, with which practice had previously made mankind familiar. Such a system could not have failed to have emlwdied great rao/itiqut. Sfe> B\ -L JJ » kJ »..-. INTRODUCTION 5 to rest my demonstration of the reality of those errors, the conviction of the existence of which has been my motive for engaging in the present undertaking. Du.'aia Stewart' prefaces the observations he makes on Adam^mith's great work, with the following remarks: An historical review of the different forms under which human affairs have appeared in .litferent ages and nations, naturally „u.-ests the question, whether the experience of former times may not now furnish some general principles to enlighten and direct the policy of future legislators ^ The .Uscussion, how- ever to which this question leads, is of singular dilhcult) . as it requires an accurate analysis of by far the most com- plicated class of phenomena that can possibly engage our attention, those which result from the intricate and often the imperceptible mechanism of political society ;-a subject of observation which seems, at Hrst view, so little commensurate to our faculties, that it has been generally regarded with the same passive emotions of wonder and submission with which, in the material world, we survey the effects produced bv the mvsteri.nis and uncontrollable operation of physical causes." ' ^ The science of Political Economy he considers as a part of this great subject. , •., i .„ T If the accuracy of these observations be admitted, as I think it must, the inquiries in which Political Kconomy on..a.res, lead to the investigati.a, of the general principles ./human action, and it is to be considered but as a l^rauch of a Uu-er science, having for its object, to trace the laws to which man is subject as a moral and intellectual aniina , acted nn ov the system of things existing in the world, and acting iu tu'ni on tiiem: tu explain from thuse laws the events which bis past histrnv, as far as known, exhibits; and to collect the means of ascertaining what will be the future course of it While to be able clearly to unfold the laws regulatnig the events with which it deals would imply the capacity of tracing those regulating the whole system of phenomena of whioli man is the centre, just as to explam with a.ruracy the laws regulating the motions of one of the heavenly l">dies. ^Life o/Smiih. .^^m^mm^mm ft ) • 6 INTRODUCTION implies the knowledge of itrinciples capable of disclosing the jiri'scribed movements of them all. I have already (jbserved, that the subject first met me when engaged in the investigation of some principles which I con- ceived might in time assume a form capable of a general application of the sort. To attempt here an extensive generalization of this kind would be out of jilace, and is impracticable, because of necessity only a small portion of the phenomena are liet\)re us. Political Economy itself makes but a part of the subject to which such generalizations belong, and it is only one division of ])oliti(al economy of which we are to treat. It lias u.sually been discussed under the heads of stock, wages :)f lalxir, and rent, and it is to the first of these that our investigations are to be altogether cimfined. It is only therefore in such parts of the subject as present a sutlicient mass of phenomena, to warrant the procedure, that I shall attemjit to introduce any very general principles. In other cases I will confine myself to tlie simjile statement of facts admitted by all parties. I . i OF EO)N ^J^ "° ^^; ,^ seek to ,Mati.y pressums of sense, and a> ^^^ "^P;^^; ^^.!^^,,,,„,. U.e future, then. fron. the objects ^^^^^^^^^'^ ^^ p^," to ,rov.de .,r end.avoruv. Iron, the '^V^'^''^ ^^^ ,^^ ^^, ,^aowed with ...unst what ,s to coin. ^ >;;---- ^^^^^ ,,,, ,,,, eauses, rea.-oii. i'\ v^im-n >>!-■ i= ^L-it < (» I : ! H ' f 1 1 1- i f i H OF KCONO.MIC AMIUTION {(' [M'licive the principle.s which jjui'le the jiri'press of afl'airs, .iikI In jcin t'"_'eiher ilie jircseiit and the fniiiie, easily liisceriis the (oiir>e (if his while lite aiiii jiiejia'es whatever may be ?ieiesHary for [.a>siii'^' it in emiifort. Tlie «ai' • iiiteneetual jKiwi'is also, whii h nature has lifstnweil nn hini. i.nve scoji'j to his atliM'iiuns, ami jnin him tn his fellows hy the ties that spring fimn laiiunaje .iml the luntiexinns of sncial life. It is ir'im this sonici- tli.it we must traie his peculiar provident lov.' fur his (jlt^prim:. his i onceni fur tlie iiiierrsts uf society, and his lifsire t" iniiiirie in its i'lisiness and pleasures. l-'inni tliese prini-iples it is that man is incited and enahled to p'.iividf lii-fi'rehand whatever may he reijuisite Imth for utililv iiiul iirnament. imt '.nly to himself hut to his wife, his 1 hildii'u, and all ntlieis who may lie dear to him. or whum it m.iy he his duty tn prnlect." It is uniiuestimialily the rapacity for perceivinj;, and retain- ing' in his mind, the cniiiM' of events and the connexion of one Aiih anotiiiT, that leads man to perceive what advancing futurity is to hiiiiu' forth, and enahles him to provide for its wants. This provident foielliouuht di.-iinuuishes him from the mfriior atiimals. and the ilejice in which lie possesses it marks his rank in the scale of i:i\ ilixution.' When he has ;jained any kiiowledeo of the nature of thin<4S [ih.' operations of nature] around him. he linds manv that -.itisfv more or less peii'e tly his present wants. He knows, d^o. th.it if he live to sre tlu- future he will ilien have similar uanis and desires, .■^liiue of the occurrences satisf\ini; his ilesires and wants cxi.-i ahuinLintly ; others, sjiarin^ly or im- peifc'tly. If )i,. iv.Mrd the future, he must wish that those occurrences of whii h he now can only obtain enou<;h to sati.-fy hi- wants sjiariiiu'ly and imjierfectly, should exist then, >o as th.at he mi.'ht he able to obtain them to satisfy those wants abundantiy .iiiil ]ierfectlv. His ta:ulties of observation and reason LTcnerallv ijive him [In omit! ist to tlie .iniiiMh ••man has thniii;iit..- farre.iching, he lia.s con- i-iTt.-l ami Inmj.i.xi, ii,U.,i jilans." i Fruirnu-iit ct Kut-'s MS./ The animals, m.i- 1 iintalily ants, bee-. ,iiui tlie lilvi ,, exliiliit a (■■•rtaiu degree of " provi- liii.t r. 'II ill. u.hi :" hut it ii mill |iroL.'r'--ive. Man is characterized spei'ilically .it;-;y tiiiii,.] ■ifWS ■g liii'Wrt.i OF ECONOMIC AMBITION « ,ho power of enoct.n, th.s. F.. the .,l,ects for^n^.J^- \,Jn of his desne are m.ve arraT.-.vment. ot mat r. L ies of observafon .h-.w hnn ih... nature, and the „ „ which the trau> -f events ,ou., on amongst : lucceed each other. He .erc.ves that the occ..rrence^ ;;„.h are tl>e ni.ans uf .satisfacn.u ot his present want.. wh,.h were ot those he felt a little tune Mnce. and :,: wni pro,,al,ly be ot tho.e he will feel n. ruture are ..„„er dH. innnediate result of the nature^ and torn, of s,„ne ,u-nund liini. or of the tram me of events whirh. in :iiii. ler.ce of that form and nature, are takin- place anio„f bv do.n. th.s, he ca so Uter ,he tra.ns of events proc-eodin, fro.a ,h..,u or depend.n. :„ :h.m, that tlK.y nuy either form, or cau-e ^. be .orm. o ,„ H,, ,„.,.....ion, objects titl-d to supply more perleetly oi ,:,.„K,,av .b,. prob.bly wdl be i.s future war.t. han ,,, ,;, ...as that would otherwise ex,.t. he then is able to j,„.,iefor the future. This h. n.auv cases he can do, and ''"\ Wh^Amencan Indian m Ins .anoe comes to an island .n 'so.ue lake -.r river, and finds near it a ^ood station or ..=hin<' He therefore determines to ren>a.n there lor the t.-="^ches and : iu k he makes something like one hail ot l::e ,.t ,.f (i 10 OK KCO.NO.MK AMIUnoN i \ u:''?! only much smalliT. tin; (ijii'ii si.'i.- licin.' t'lwu l.-; ilip south iriil th'- Hvr, tilt; sl.i[)iu.r si'li- towai'iU the ii'Uth li^ia whctiLX" oiues c"l'\ aii'l iMiii, Tim-. i!inu_rh In- (inii"t in-rvcnt tlie wiml iiuui lil(i\viii'_'. or ilti' :Miii ti'Diii ('.illiuj, his kiinwlfiiui' "i tht^ lu.uiiu'r ill whii'ii the triiius (if e\t.-iils li)riiiiii_' ihr-t; jiiieiiuiiieiiii suece»Mi • •ach "thiT, or it vnu will, his kiinwle'L'e "f t!ie laws \vhi<;h re.'uliUe their lunii.ins, iii-'rnct lii'ii sn to liiiect iheiu. th.it the otie shall not hlow. or liie otiier t'.iU. on a particular spot, v-h'.ch he kii"\vs he uiiy at s^ine future tiiuo wi>h to remain ( ilni aiiM ilrv. This time luay he distant, for it may not rain or hlow so as to inconv- nieme him f'.r ;i week or two. never- thi'l^'ss to provi'le aga nsl it he '.^ves a 'JhmI many hours present lahor. N'l'Xt evenitij. hi-fore u'oincj to retiose. he (iu'ls the curt' ilamp froiu the rain of the lornirr ni_'ht. He looks foi ,m elm tree, cuts oil' a piei of its stron,' llii'-k I'.irk lar_'e enou-^'h for hitn to sleeji on. covers it witii tho soft hranclies and leaves of the white pine, ami forms a dry and soft lied for himself. Thus his kuowled,.'!' of the matoiials aroinid him enables him to form wliat ho wan*-;, a ilry and soft place of repose. In this island he discovers a sm.iU wild plumh tree, he relishes the truit, imt there is little of it. Kesolvinu' to return in Kuceeedin'_' seasons he lops the iuaiiches of the surroundiu'.^ trees to <.^ive this room to spread, and expects thus to Hnd ne.xt year a more almndant ctop.' Here his knowled„'e of the niaiiiier in which trees and fruit ijrow anil thrive, or his knowledj.' of the order of the trains of events which ternu- iiate in the fuil dev.JMpTnent of the tree and ahundance !f he wouM rejleet it, perluips cut it li 'wn for tiie sake of reavjiiiug more ensiiy the fruit it carried. I ■■I OF ECONOMIC AMBITION 11 ,„,, ,.,ver it Nvith ^.ranches so as lo keep co<.l a quantity T .Uee.Uu.s of n.an are everywhere snmlar. He ha. , . e^. in view he en-plovs n>eans lo etl'ect this end, :;:r hei: i .I-ner t^nou.h ll.ch he e»^t. U. The en-. , u Plv for future wants: the nu-ans. the br.npn, ahout :,■ h ev.n.s as n.av serve to supply them the n.auner ku w el... nf .1- ..ualit.es with winch nature has endowed ,' n" ruls witlnn lis reach, of the series of events ,n ..nse- :.ear.sin,anK,n.then.,andanapplicat.ono th.kn^^^ l.,l.-. to produce, throujrh his corporeal posNers sv.ch an : ,.en,ent of these materials, as n.ay so change the issues o V : that wouM otherwise have place, as to hrn., ahout :' Jhich he desires. It .s true, that, in n.ost u.tances^ nen '^hnplv copy the proceedings of others, and think not ',.; ^.iLiples ..n which they conduct the.r operations , ., .,f \he ohservations from which these must or.,.nall> ;,. ,een deduced. lU.t. tho„,h the knowledge thus aco. ,red ,,. ,,,s storinu of observations, and deduction of pnuciide ;„„ ,,„,, i, „ot the tuode ;n which individual men ope at^ i, is the m.Kle in which the operatuuis they curry on must have heen first brought into practice, and on which the> ^^'\ve 'r'^asily satisfy ourselves of this, by turn.n. our .Uent,.m U- the manner in which .ny of iW -^^^^^^^^ use for the supply of our wants has been formed, l.icad ,..av be an ex.Jmple. A farmer, some two years ago, mad. ,,,,•,, .,f a particular held for the cultivation of w ea t Ihul he b,.en asked why he art, the interior of the grain called tlour, being packed in sacks or barrels, was picserved for use. A certain portion of tiiis, mixed with a ])articular ferment, wrought with the liand and exposed to the action of fire, became bread. It is very evident, that all the steps of those various pro- cesses dejiend mi a knowledge of the course of natural events, and aie regulated by that knowledge. A long series of observations of this .^ort, and of reasonings deduced from them, could alone have enabled the farmer to prepare the ground properly for the .seed, or, after the grain had come to maturity, to preser\e it. to separate it from the straw, and fit it for being eonvert^'d nito flour. Tin- observations on tlie trains of events coiuiected with the production of this grain that have been committed to writing, liil many large volumes, anil ln'sides tiie.>e ma proper sUte to cut clown. If he make any error in this, he will either have unripe, and therefore shrivelled and light .rain or he will lose great part ..f it by its l.eing shaken ott ^he stem in harvesting it. Next, before he determine on commencing the operation, he regards the aspect of the sky, svatches the rising and setting sun, notes the color of the air the appearance of the clouds, the direction o the wind, 11,; dew on the grass, and perhaps has recourse to that .lelicate instrument, the fruit of so many ingenious observations, the l^rometer. By means of all these, he is enabled to draw tolerablv correct conclusions, in regar.l to the probable state „f the weather for some succeeding days. This knowledge iutlueuces greatly his farther operations; f.)r experience has tau.dit him that the injury which severe rains, coming on the -rrahi when newly reaped, would .K^casion, is very great. It, therefore, the weather promise to be tine, he will commence eufii..' it .lown a few days sooner than he otherwise would: if rain tlireaten he will wait a few days long.;r. A\ hen he has it ivaped he gels it tied into bmidles, winch are put up in small parcels, and so disposed, that the wind may penetrate through ihem, and the rain be as much thrown oti trom tlu-m as possible, and thus the plant ruiy have the l)est (hauce ■ being securely and .luickly diie.l. Tliis chying is watched with Ci-re, and, wlien it is jndge.l to l,e sutlici.Millv advanced, tlie crop is transi-orted to the barn, thtie to wait till the proper period of threshing it out arrives. .VU these processes are, it is evident, governed by rules drawn from assiduous and long continued observation, and their success depends on its extent anil accuracy. Were we to examine the manner in which all the articles llial we provide for the supply of future wants are pro.luced, we shouM tiiul that they depend, in this way, on ol>servations „n tlie course of events, ami on rea.sonings foumled >m tli.-se .ibservalions. Were proof wanting uf this, we might turn at liazavd to any complete treatise on any art. On examining it, we would "invariably find it to c -am a set of observations, I* 14 OF ECONOMIC AMBITION \ II I, ; 1 m ■i' the result of experience, and of reasonings, and rules, drawn from these ol)servutions. Since then luau provides a supply for his future wants hy his reason directinj^' his industry, tlirou;,fh means of his know- ledge of tlie course of events, to etl'ect such changes in the form or arrangement of the parts of material objects, that these may produce articles fittetl to att'ord this s\ipply, it were desirable to have some common name to denote all the changes, which, for this puipose, he so makes. On this account I propose to give the denomination of instruments to all those changes that, for this purpose are made in the form or arrangement of the parts of material objects.^ The term instrument is, in general, properly enough em- ployed, to den(»le any lueans for the attainiuent of some end. In common use, however, and as applied to material things, it seems to be restiicted to such arrangements of matter as owe their chief ellicacy to what are caUeised, and these make the ditliculty in the proper application of siudi an instrument, A wedge 0[)erates in many ways, besides those that may be considered to be derived simiily from malheiiiatical })iiiiciiiles ; as for instance in the jtercussion, which it receives and communicates, and through '[Our .lutluir (loes iKJt I'xpresa liimsflf well litrr. line's idea is that he l>iopo8ca to givu tliL' (liimmiiiation of iiiMriimrnla/ iirml union to all those cliiingis ill nuiloriiils w liioh man iiiakis iu tlif pmsiiit of Ills ccoiiotiiic ends. Tlir iiistiuiiituU ihiiiiBi'lvis nie not the "changes," but the imnieiliate result ,.i .1 1 OF ECONOMIC AMBITION- IS ,„,ans of Nvhich, if skilfully applie,!, the most solul r.K.ks may l,e rent The farther we recede from .uch simple instruiuenl^. the more extensive do we find the action of properties, whie i could onlv 1." ascertained hy a \ou^A -'"es ot ohservations. it ,.,„1,1 1,; impossil.le, for instance, to .ive any a ;>mn rules Un- the construction of that most useful instrument the plough. It is no doul.t, a wedge, hut the particular torm giving the .realist ethcacv to it, is a point of very diilicult determination. :,ol vet, perhaps, fully ixscertaine.l. It is accurate ol«ervation that lias guided tlie construction of it, to its present etticiency. a„.l which mav k^ expected to render it still more perfect. Were we to enter into an examinati.m of more complicated ...achines or in..truments. such as the steam engine or the ,„U„„ ndU, the ohservation would apply with double fo ce these generallv deriving their etticiency from principles, that have heen the" result of very extensive ami accurate investiga- tions of manv series of events. In tlius using the term, there- fore we shall rather deviate s.n.ewhat from common usag,e. thai', he .mi-osed to it; and in .loiiig so, our reasonings will oi.h l,e suhjeet to an inconvenience, to which all general reasonings must he subject, and whicli may he the more readily excused, as this use of the t^-rm may he .iefended from its derivation its c<.casional acceptation, and the authority of authoi-s of respectability.^ • ,i , I„ ...neral then, all those changes which man makes, m the form or arningemeirs ..f the parts of material objects, tor the .0,.„7sou i,..n-umn,.,U m.r.er. Jamais mot n'a revu uuc accept ion phm ■ tenauc ,,uc ccllc .,uc je vu.ulrais .lonner ici au termc .I'out.U, car jc .IcsTera « v:;:,J„arc .K,.uJla fromle ..ont «e .ert le cha.eur --age ju^.u a a nachi.e la plu« va.stc. ju.qu'au n.eca.u.nu. le plus complujuc, J-.--;^*'- .nin...s m.-.meB .,u- facil.tent le travail de I hon.n.e. L cnc an.e .lu f'-K' -- K. nu.fer pour a.r.- .les l-as, les aigu>ll.. -le la ling... .1 les pon.,H..» .> fcu 1 .vires cues hOtes ..c somn,e et ,le tra.t ; en nn nu.t. tout pro. u.t m«t,.r,e , 1. nature e. .In travail, tout ol.jet vivant ou inanmu. .,ue 1 ho nn.e omplcc 'or «ai,lcr ,lans son travail .n.lnstricl, voila ce .,ue j-appelle out.U .n.trnmens lie n.ctier. Ce n,«,, .lans son sens le plus cten.lu, n exclut .,ue le. construe tion."* .SVonTi, Vol. I. p. I'M- * .. l..,un,u„i IcH exclureV L.-. constnutions sont .1... }""'l»||-'« \'^^^, lui ni.mcexl un outil .[Ui nc .lill.rc .l>h auirix M'"^" 1 . ■,' ^ pr.uluit .Ic rm.lu^trie, mai« un .Ion .le la nature. J- ' • 3 f» ,1 ^ \ y the plough, the liarn.w, and the roller, and the incorporating with it various matters termed manures, whicli render it more fit for the supjioit of vegelahle life. The future wall's, towards the sui)iilv of wliich it is an instrument, are f and clothing. The i)ower which has made it an instrument, is the agri- cultiirist's lahor, .Ureeted hy his knowledge of the nature of plants and soils. The change made in the consequent issue of events, is liie ahundant growth of species of plants ditl'erent from liiose originally jiroihiced hy it, and conducing to the supply of food and clolliing ; or, more generally, the conversion of various \egetaMe matters of the soil, and gfiseous nr tters in tlic air, into tiie suhstanee of particular plants. The wlieat urown on this tield is an instrument. The clianges ellected in it, are its having heen sejiaiated from tlie straw hy tiie process nds to siipply is nourishment, hy afford- iuL,' hran t'oi' the sujiporl of some of the inferior animals, as liogs o. cattle, afterwards to he slaughtered, and tlour for the use of man. Tli' i>ower is also the art and industry of the agriculturist. The change in the issue of events consists in the uraia lieing ready i<ru[tvrl>, iii.iv l^*-- l< niieti I'hv forin,';iir-'™'f '° ," ,,„i„„ » i. rather on- „.at of in».rn,ne,>t., -J" '''*»*;, 'Jj^^^.l. the atUin- """,' ";""n"Z'r„d ,Ir he atS,;,a.ut of th>» en.l. that ,., r >: it^^ r^ he gre«n,l, i, a„ n.tn,n,e„t ; when ,t .. :u ,.t !,. BheUered from the weather, a » »t,ll an m^ :;';,::„„v \ ,.. .™..;He,. ...ara,.^ ':r.';.ra;r"t :;™s;;:;;;:i;:::;:.::".e::i::ar.ve,«henit.,e,,— 1, ,s inmos'ible if we call it at first an instrument to point !;.; :;r It ;eases to I. so, until the .noniont when It . "'u?i:r™::Schines are instruments. Thusa carpenter s .,wn instrument. The changes ettected in the ma U.s of w uch it is composed, for the purpose of rendering it an rlunient, are, thU having been given a tit form ami ^mpe t., the steel plate of which it is made, and a handle 1 aving ; . U isted to it. The wants which it te.d. to su,ply^ ,„Uifaiiou8, according to the uses to which it s put^ The power that renders it a instrument is the art '""^ "^'^^^^J^ ,i.n who makes, and .f him who uses it. The ^^ango etfected ,n the issue of events by its fabrication and use, are the d vid Z. „,to regular parts suited to diflereut purposes, a great (if pieces of timber. B ..,)„ :u 18 ')! i,i f' ti: OF ECONOMIC AMBITION In a .similar maiiiicr it ini;,'lit bo shown, that iiouses, ships, cattle, yardens, household fmiiiture, nianufactoiies, manufactured goods, and st.jies of all sorts are in this sense, instruments. But it is, I apprehend, unnec.ssary further to multiply in- stances ; every thinj,' that man, for the jiurpose of gainin„' an end, inings ti» exist, or alters in its form, its position, or in the arrangement of its parts, is an instrument. As man is thus enahled to provide for the wants of futurity, by his knowledge of the c:ourse of events, it naturally follows, that in any particular situation, his power to j.rovidefor them, is measured by the extent and accuracy of his knowledge. If that knowledge be diniinislied, his power will lie diminished. Thus a deficiency of skill in the art of agriculture, or of bakmg, will alike occasion a diminution of the quantity of food to be got from a field ajiplied to the cultivation of wheat. Neither can his power 1k3 increased, but l>y an increase of his knowledge. It is impossiiile to point out any improvement in iiny art, which does not dei)eiid on some new observations, or reasonings, on the course of events connected with that art. The generally admitted axiom, that knowledge is power, may not be strictly true. Many facts have been observed which have not yet been applied to any useful purpose, though it is probable they will, in time, be so applied. ]!ut, though it may not !«> strictly true, that all knowledge imme.liately gives power, it is .sc, thai all power .springs from knowledge, and is measured by its extent and accuracy. Neither can it ]>e dis- puted, that it operates by enabling man's reasoning faculties, so to direct his iiKhistry, a,-, to induce certain changes in the form and arrangement of the parts of material objects con- verting them into iiistinment.s. " A.l opera nil aliud potest homo, .|uam ut corpora naturalia adniuwat el anioveat ; relitjua natuia intus transigit." lKuo'3 language in l\w last few page.s is not wholly cdnsisteut with his genen.l teaching. The " want " which l.rea.I supplies is not proi«.rly speaking f-"iaratus which Rae calls instruments, and W..IJ.1 Mf HasjsUy kuuw:i as economic ^uu.1b.j i\ CHAPTER II. OV TUE CIRCUMSTANCES COMMON TO ALL INSTRUMENTS, AND OF THOSE PROPER To SOME. VI I. i.istruiuents a-ree in the followin-: three inirt ieulars : I Tliey are all either dirertly formed by human lal)or, or ,«e '' „ , ,1 ,. the form..., w.U have .lonhle the cap^Uy ::;;':;:; :Vt.;iatt..r,an,l, if the onel. equivalent^ to f..^^^^ ,,^U; W .„nsi,lere.l us „f e.,.al -a.-acity to it ami s-.ot , , .,ther instiuin...its. W.- shall .••« afterwar.ls huNve ei, •t, n M.. of .U.einuniii, the ca, .city c^ similar mstru- . IS in nu cases lucrrect, an.l that the .ustances aie V ,iuM.er.>, where the relative eai-acities of instruments o .\ ...t,.lepen.l on ..ther causes than their mere physical ,„,,,ies The assuiui-ti.-n, theref..re. that they may lu. so ' ea, is t„ he c:,nsi.leie.l as hypothetical, ami to he ;, ., I-l fi'on. the .liHiculty .,f otherwise treatm, the su^c „ ,he same manner as the hypothetic existence "f^^ -;J> ,U.ematical lines, an.l the ahsence of ^r-'t-" -" ^, f^ ,,..,stan.-.> of the air, is excused, in reasoning's conceinm,' the ■a luumal properties .,f matter. As in these reasonings, an Ipt will he ma.le to aacertain the extent, ami mode of ; ".a.on of those ..ther causes; and, having trace.l what seem t W tin. ,rcat movin, p..wers, and the laws .overnin, them we shall emleavor to .l.sc.ver the circumstance .Inch retard or ileran^e their motions. . . , It maj- he proper here to notice the ac.-.>ptat.on. m whi h two othcn- terms ..f frciuent sul.se.p,ent .- .nx'nce, are to be „.,.eive.l Some instruments are easily m-.-ed from place to ,,!ace, and, on this account, there are peculiar '^-'Ij^ies m exchan.Mn, them with others. This seems to Ik. the charactei l .tmguishin, what an- called ,..o.ls, or commodities, from ',u!er instruraents, an.l it is in this sense, that these terms will, in the suhsequent pages, l« employed. [It :: i:0* ■ rhrr.r.iTh ir.!id%'ertencp that several times .luriDg this chapter Rae speaks of events which instruments "prwluce.^ His notion ot production, h 24 GENKRAL PUOrERTIKS OF INSTRFMENTS ininlc abuii'lantly clear elsewhere, excludes the part man plaVK. »n. If separated hum infancy from his fellows, his peculiar faculties scarcely at all .l.nelop themselves. His mental and Ixtdily capacities and energies seem, also, to be moulde.l by the condition of the ...ciiHy of which he is a member. We may venture to pre kiinwlcd^'c. tlie liiU>its ainl ilispdsitions nf tlie iiu'ii coiiijmsiiig every separate ri)iiitininity, siicicty, nation, state, nr iMM)|»le (terms which, as fir as (iiir sulpje«> ((insidcred synnnyni(.us), are such as to '^ive it a ]M-ciihar ciiiira(.'ti-r distin^nishin;^ it from other conimnnitics. It is also assumed, tliat the average character of the meiuliers of diU'eit'nt portions of the same community is similai-, so that, wee a eonsiderahle nunil)er of the iidialiitants of any particular slate, taken from one jiart of its terriloi'ies, thi'y \voul to the quantity of materials tit for liieir snhsistonce which it affords them Tilt' increase and detrease of the human sjiecies, follows the u'eneial law. This seems to he the foundation of what has OF SOCIAL SOLIDARITY 27 l„...n termed the doctrine uf poimhition. In the hul.sequent l,a^'.s il is received, simply as ii statement nf tlie fact, that the numbers cf every society increase, as wliat its meniheis ,. iicHned tn esteem a suthcient subsistence, is vi<'vided for . ;,e -ireat ma,j..rity of the members of every connuumty, ,,. are "their subsistence by hibor, and, accordin<^ to this l,n'.( ii'le, the nund.er of hiborers in every community must liiMJlv .lepend on the amount of those thin<,'s esteemed by them sutlicient for their subsistence, which is annually dis- tributed anions; tliem. It has Ix-en supposed, however, that there is a c(mstant oscillation above and below this hmit, and that sometimes thereb.re the supply havin- t.. be divided amoni,' a -reater nund.er, the amount that each receives is less, sximethnes, haviiv^ to be divi.led amon>; a smaller number, is greater, and thus that the wa.izes of labor, though tney alwTtys lend towards a fixed standard, never remain at it. Admitting that this continual vibration may take place, I (Miiceive "l may l>e permitted nevertheless to disregard it, and to assume that the remuneration awardcv^ the laborer, is. in the same societv, always a fixed (piaiitity. As it is not intended to enter into any investigation of the , principles .leterminin- tlie amount nf the wages of labor in all societies, and at all times, nor to discuss the somewhat contradictory doctrines that have been maintained on this subject, the most -imiile assumption, and that, the errors arising from which may lie supiK.sed to balance each other, seems the best. KuMi considering the subject however nmler the most Miiiple conditions possible, there are still some dithculties attending it. Tiie articles which the laborer nses, for food, ( loihing, etc., and which constitute his real wages, are coii- tmually varying. Thus, aimmg the working classes in (Ireat r.ritaiii, fabrics of cotton have, in a great measure, taken llie j.lace of those of linen, and wool for clothing; aH coal has taken the i.lac.> of wood for fuel. Seeing there is this change 111 what constitute the wages of labor, how then, it may ' [This is an uiicriliciil fnllowii.t; of the teaching of NUlthuB upon %vliicli Uae nia.le a great advance in his laU-r years. (Compare the last piiit of Chaptors VI. .^n.l XIII., and the Article on I'opulation in the Appendix.)] (t 2S OF SOCIAL SOLIDARITY 1' !■ i! 'I k t ' lie demanded, can wages al any two times be considered etjual ! In answer to siu'h a i[uestion, it may lj«' observed in general, that all articles sujiplying the wants of the laborer, and form- ing his r(>al wages, are fitted for this purpose by some physical qualities they imsscss, producing certain effects (m his bodily organs, and through tneni, (K/casionally, on the perceptions find thoughts of his mind. One article, therefore, may \>e esteemed equal to another and dillerent article, if the effects produced by both arc equal. Thus a certain (piantity of coal, may be considered eiiual to another i>i wood, if each gives out the same degree of heal. In many cases it is indeed very ditticult to make this conqiari.son with accuracy. This however is not at)solutely nece.s.sary for our pur]»ose, it being suHicient to con- ceive, that, what are termed tne wages of labor, in the same society at diH'erent petioil.s, are really ecjual (pnintities, whether we have, or iiave not, the means of measuring them, and a.scertaining that they actually are .so. This may evidently be assumed, if -ve suppose that the laborer is equally well nourisiieii, clothed, lodged, and instructed, and has e(iual leisure, at the one i)eriod and at the other; whether lie Im- fed, clothed, and lodged, in the same way oi- Unt. .\s the vigor ut' mind and body, as well as the skill, of dillerent individuals in the same society, are unequal, the rate of the wages of lubor, even in the same society, is far from unifone. It is however ditlicnlt and in general re.isonings un- neces.sary, continually to refer to this variety; and as it has, in consecpience, been usually neglected, we shall mil farther advert to it. According to the preceding a.s.sumptions, lalioi, in the same society, is to l)e considered as an invarialile tpiantity, ami a day's lalior as the unit, .serving as the ba.M' for calculations, concerning the formation aiu! exhaustion ol the capacity of instruments, il is to be observed, however, that when so enqiloyed, it finally refeis, not to ihe mental and corporeal ellort exerted ibniugliout tli(> day liy the laborer, but to the wages received liy him. The laborer is, usually, merely the agent of some other person, and that oihei person is, in OF SOCIAL SOLIDAUITY 29 ivality, ill'' one f.-nnin^' the instnnuent constructed, as the w,i"ps Of th. liiljoreis eiuployeil l^y him are the causes of u^'lK-iu" constructed.' In cases, too, where the lalK)rer works l„r limiself, ho rates his .iaily h.hnr cjual to a certain atnount ,.f some of the thing's he is in tlie habit of consuming, ami this anount mav he considered, as what he really gives to the rnnstructioii of the instrument, in the formation of which he .■iii]ilovs himself. The rates of wages vary, very much, in .iilferent societies. \ Ciiiucsc lal.<.rer, f<.r examiile, suhsisls on very much less ihau an Kuglish laborer. On the ./inciples of wilculation Nvliich we have adopted, there is, therefore, a ditierence, in il„. .(uantitv eud.raced by a day's labor in one cuntry and in aimtlu-r, and we cannot immediately compare, by this racaus, instrements formed in one s.H^iety, with those formed j,i another. • >ur system has, in this resj-ect, an analogy In til,, ditleivnt systems ..f numeration, with regard t-. weights, nuM.Miies, and coins, adopt cus minerals lying b.'low tl;e sin fa. e, lis natural foicsts its waters, tiie commaml it may have of • I van, ii"d its couseijueut property in the minerals and .niinials contained in it, the rain that waters its sod, the .■lenientarv piinci].les that may be extracte.l from llu- atiii..- >plieie, .-veil, perhaps, the light and heat of the sun, are ..11 In l,e regarded as materials, wliich, through the agency ,,l ihe labor'of its iiiemU-rs, may be converted into instrn- ineiils. The extent of the power, which the iidiabhants of any state may possess, to convert into instruments the ina.rimN of whicii lliey have tii. c..iiiinand is however in.M IS .,ne of till, c-.m.ivirativ.ly f.w i.tacen « lure Rae npoak!. «pecih.mlly of ■ hilM.r.is ■ lui.l touolies upon the funotio.i ..f the fulrfpewur. ll is n..t • ,„aM ■ iM «rmral I)ut the . H'r./».«^Hr, in our nUtv of civilization, who forn.a ,.i»truiM.nt« from mat.rialH with the ai.l of hired "labor,' which last thiw !.ecoiiu» eco.. imically an analoKue of " materials."] T ■ 1 3(» OF SOCIAL SOLIDAUITV Li'' «i Viui.iMt' ; ;mil inciciiscs, as we liavc scon, us tlioir kimwlt'tl^e <>i the ]irn])i'iiics nf ilifsc iiiiUcrials and nf the t-vcnts, wliich in cnnsciiiKMicf nf tlit'ni, tlicv arc cajial'lc of luinninii to paws, incicascs. Thus the laiLT'' extent of the knowlcdj^e of the civilized man, Kiniiiaicil with that of the savaj^e or harl)arian, ^iives him the ])ower of lonstructinj^ a niucli greater nuniher of instruments out of tlie same materials, and enahlcs the Euro- pean emi;,nant lo conveit the soil ami forests of America or New Holland, into means of piodiiciii:^' a ;4reat mass of desirahlc events, which it was heyond the technical cajiacity of the innorant native to ell'eci. ill 1 i! I CHAPTER IV A MKTIIOl) FOR THE COMPAHISON OF INSTIUMKXTS. As liv ll.c caimcity of instniuifiils i.s t-. be uii.U'I^K'.mI tlu-ii j„Aver tn pio.luct',"..r hring lo an isMU-, events eiiuivalout to n w.lain amount of lal.or.aml ii« they are also formed l..- lul.or, it IS evident that the capacity given to any of tlieni, ami the lahnr exprmled in its formati<.n, liave ileterminaMe numeric-al relations to eat t. other. The length of time likewise, elapsing 1m iw.rn their forniation ami exluuistion, may \>e expresse.1 in iiuiulieis. If a series then were devised, of such a nature, that any relation that can exist among these three (inantities. in i-ouseiiuence of their varying proportions U> each other, might ije end)race.l iu it, ever\ possilile instiument would Hnd a place there. It is to he oliserved th.it, in conseciuence of a princii)le soon to lie explained, no instruments will he designedly forme(l, hut such as have a greater caj.acity, ov issue in events e.piivalent t,. niov... than the labor expended in their construction. This ( ircumstance renders the formation of such a series more easy, as It renders it umiecessary to take account of any other in- .strumcis than such as issue in events e.iuivalent to more than theial".! expemlef a s.-ries, of which the oruers ucti' detenuine.1 by the period of time at which ft 32 THE COMPARISON OF INSTRUMENTS u ii: iiiHlniiiK'iit> iiliiicil in llieiii. issiu', or woiiltl issue, if not before e,\liii\isteil, in events eiiuivalent to (loul)le tlie hilior expended in foiiiiiiii,' them. These onleis iniiy lie lepresented hy the letters A. I'., (', * * Z II. Ii. i\ ete. The relaiinn to each other of the cost i ex])n'ssiiin, iiisiruments in tlni order A, or in the orders near it, will lie said to belong to the more (juickly returning orders: instruments in the order Z, or in the orders near it, or beyond it. will be said to belong to the more slowly returning orders.' To imagine, in the first |)lace, as simple a case as possible. An individual, say an Indian trader, is obliged to reside on a particidar sj)ot in the interior of North America, for somewhat more than a year. He arrives in autumn, ami immediately sets about eiudosing and ration twenty days' labour. Owing however to the s..il heiii- overrun with small roots, and it beiug necessary to wait tilfthey partially rot before a crop can be put on it. he i. aware tliat it cannot be planted until the second year. It is then planted as before, and, as it happens, with the same event as in the former Held, yielding him net twenty bushels of maize. Tliis field then was an instrument of the order B. In the same way it is possible to conceive the formation and exhaustion of MtluT instruments of this sort, answering to the orders C, D, E, .tc, the capacity of llicm all being double the cost of formation, ,111.1 the times intervening iKjtween the pjriods of formation and .-xhaustion, U'ing respectively three, four, five, ete. yeiirs. Al- thoii'^h, liowever, instruments exactly corresponding to the coiKhiions assumed, may occasionally exist, and although it is possible at least to conteive their existence throughout a l,.nglhened series, yet, in fact, they seldom do exist so as ,.xaHlv to answer the suppositions. In by far tlie greater ,um:K.T of instances, neither are the times elapsing iHjtween tlu- pfii(.ds of formation and exhau.stion, any exact niiml^r nf vi-ars, nor are the capacities exactly double the cost of i„ii>,atioii. But, in all variations of the.se three (luantitiea ivnni an exact correspimdence with any of the orders, the proportions existing between them, will, nevertheless, always 1h> such, as to make it possible to reduce the instruments in which Ibev (K.cur, to some order or anotlier in our series, or to an onier that may be interjiosed l)etween two i)ioxi- luatc omIcis. Sueh variations may l>e reduced to three sorts. The fii-st . on.-isis of instances vvhere tlie capacity is double the cost of pr.Mliuttioii, but the time, no exact number of years. In this ti.se, th(> instiument does not exactly belong to any of the euiMiierat.Ml orders, but falls between two proximate orders: it iiiMV liierefon' be said to belong to an orfi)!t> it atiivt' at an aiuDiiiit equal to (iuiilile ilic cost of t'oiiiiatioii, or, it may not l>e oxhaiisteil unlil it lias come to an amount ;,'n'att'r than double the cost of formation. In the fornici case it is necessary to sujjpose the period of exhaustion proloni^ed, tht> excess of the capacity of the instrument over the cost of formation increasiiij^ at the siinie ratio, until the capacity ilouMe the cost. It will then l»e shown to helonj; to some particular order, or to lie In'tween two proxiuiate onlers. Thus, let an iiulividual have it in his power to make use of a small plot of ground for six months, and let him expeml an ecjuivalent to two days' lalM)r in prepar- ing it for receivin'j, the seeds of some plant, sowinj^ them, and cultivating^ the ciop, and let it return him, at the end of six months, an amount, which, reduced to the value of days lalwr, would he I'SlJ.'^. If then we suppose the period of exhaustion prolonged, the excess of the capacity over the cost increa.sin<,' at the same latio, in twelve months time the capacity will lie 4 : for, 2K1'8 is a mean proportional l>etween 2 ami 4. The instiument formed hy the plants so cidtivated, would theiefore lielong to the order A, that order douliling in one year. In the case where the capacity comes to more than douhle the cost of foiniatiou, the order in which the instrument shoulii he i)Iaced, is to lie found, hy retiacing the progress of its capacity, under the suiipositimi that it advanced at the same rate, until we arrive at a periotl wiien it was oidy double the cost. The inteiAal between that and the period of formation, will then indicate the order to wlii( b it really belongs. Tlie bread fruit tree is perhaps twenty yeais old Iw'fore it will bear: but ten of these trees, when in l)earing, will, it is .Slid, nearly supply a fandly of South Sea islanders with a sntiiciency of this sort of food for eight months in the year. This sort of fruit tree reijuires, too, no other lal»or or attention than that bestowed in planting it. Suppo.se, then, that an inhabitant of one of tho.se islaiuls were to sjHind an hour in planting a few of these trees, and that, according to THE COMPARISON OF INSTRUMENTS 35 thr li.vi>olhe«i.s of sudden exhaustion, on which we are proceed- in;.', iit tlie termination of the twenty-two years they an- .■xhausled, yiehUn-: at lliat j.erio.1 an equivalent to two tliunsind and forty-eif,'ht houi-s' labor. If then we retrace thf i-rogress. at which the capacity of this instrument has ad- van.ed,"we will find that it lK'lon>,'s to the order B. For iiisii-miifiits in that order douhling in two yeai-s, one hour's Lilior, if employed in forming an instrument of that order, (,u'.;lit to yield an equivalent to two hours, at the end of the snmd year ; and l)eing then employed in constructing other likf instruments, at the end of llie fourth year should yield an (•(luiviilent to four hours, at the end of the sixth to eight, and ,.., tlie geometrical series, 2, 4, 8, IG, etc. would arise, which, carried out to the eleventh term, at the end of the twenty- wMciid year, is 2048. It may perhaps serve somewhat to ilhistrat'e tiie matter, to suppose, that the individual wlio ai.plied an hour's lahor to planting the bread fruit tree, gave the same portion of time to the cultivation of another sort of plant, yielding its produce and perishing, at the termination of th.' s.'cond year from the time of its l)eing placed in the soil, and the returns made from which are equal to double the labor expended on its culture. Instead of consuming the crop at the termination of the second year, he gives it to some i.ther person or persona, on condition of their applying for hi.s benefit two hours' labor, its equivalent, to the culture of a second crop; at the end of the fourth year, he proceeds in the same manner, and, continuing the process, at the termination ot' the twenty -second year, the produce of the labor of both hours, the one applied to the cultivation of the fonner plant, and the other to that of the latter, would lie equal. The only ditlerence in the cases would te, that the pei-son in ciuestion would, in the latter case, have the trouble of making a baigain with one or more individuals every second year, and >.juld then also have the power to apply, if he so chose, to the supply of his wants, the events, in this instance brought alwut by his previous expenditure ; and that, in the latter case, he would have neither the power nor the trouble. We have assumeil, that all instruments are formed at one point of time, and tsxhausted at another. This is the case with (< 36 THi: COMPARISON OF INSTHrMENTS K 1 , I 1 11 h : II liiit very lew. The itt'iind of fonniilinii almost always spit'ads over a lar^e space 'ticieiicy will then he made uji. I,et us sujipose lliat it is so, and that the lield is at that time totally exhausted and useles.s. It is evident, that sucii a lield, thouu'h not producini,' or injing exhausted as hy the supposition, yet produciiiLC and heing exhausted, in a imiuuer eijuivalent to the sujiposition, might, witli |iinpiiely. lie saiij to iielong to tiie order A. lint, it is fartliei prohahh', liiat such a lield niiglit not pro- tlnce ipiite so muili grain, or hay, as we have even hy the last hypothesis --iippoxMl, ,ind woulil not even at the end of the third year, ir for a iinu h longer peiiod, he exhausted: still, if the deticiency in tlie one were equivalent to the farther sujiply THE COMPARISON OF INSTRUMENTS 37 i„ the othiT, it would evidently properly belong also to the siniif order. A^-aiii, l>v the suppositions we have made, the latjor, or its ,.,|uivalent, was expended exactly at the commencement of the ,,..nnd of one year. It might however have l)een, that some jurt of the expi'iuliture, going to the formation of thi.s instru- lu.iii was made several months lK>fore the commencement of tl„. y'.Nir, and some several months after. Hut, had what wa.s .■xp.iuled lK.'fore, l-een proportionahly less, and what was cxi^ended after, proi)ortionably greater, the change would not nuike any alteration to the relation existing between the tmie and the expenditure, or, consequently, to the place of the iiistruiiient. The spaces over which the several points of time, at which the formation of any instrument is effected, extend, and thwe oM'v which the several points of time at which its capacity is exhausted also extend, frequently run into each other. Thus ai (ording to our system a riding-horse is an instrument. The Sluice of time over which the whole period of his fomiati.m .xtends, commences when his dam is put apart for breeding, ,„ntinues as long as any thing is laid out for the purpose oi giving etHciency and ilurability to him as an instrument, an.r probably therefore only terminates a few days before the •Irath of the animal. There would be a numlx?r of points all alnng that space, at each of which something had lieen ex- IHiuleil on his account, and from the date of which, and the amount expended at each, daU would l)e furnished, to ascertain tlie whole expense of his formation, and the precise point from whence it might be dated. The whole period of his exhaustion w.mld also extend <.ver a large space. It would commence when he was first ridden for pleasure, or business, and would terminate shortly after his death, when his hide went to the tanner, and his flesh to the dogs. An account of the several items expended, and the times when they vere expended, and of the several items yielded, and the times at which they were yielded, would furnish data for determining the total cost of formation and capacity and the points to be fixed on as the IH'iiods of formation and exhaustion, and thus the place of the instrument could be determined. ■■-■^' n . MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART ANSI a-d ISO TEST CHAR' No 2 1.0 I.I 1.25 f II ijllil - IIIM '' 111= 1.8 1-4 IIIIII.6 ^ -APPLIED l^A^GE fs^:^; r-,^li^'r^ ^gr>'i^ i» [. V' i ■\\ t h 38 THE COMPARISON OF INSTIirMENTS (alciiliitidiis of tliis sort would lie intiicate, and could not he well oHocted without, having recourse to methods, not usually employed in investigations like the j.resent. In point of fact, there is in ])ractice, as we will afterwards see, a system of notation of instiiinie'its, which enahlcs us j)retty accurately, and very easily, to delerniine tliei; plact^ in smji a series as we have supiMjsed. It is sufhcic'i.' ir ihe entl here aimed at, to pereeive that when all iiarticuiai-s are known, concerning the formation and exhaustion of any instrument, and the periods intervening hetween these, data are '.hen furnished for niacin" It Ml some jiart of such a series as we have descrilnvl ; and that it may consequently he assumeii that eveiy instrument does, in reality, helong to some one order in the series A, I!, (', 1), etc., oi to an order that may lie interjiosed lieiween some two jiroximate orders of that series. It may jterhajis aiijjear, that though, could instruments Ik3 Considered ajiait, tin- foregoing ex]ili(ations might si-rve to show, that they miglit all he reduce(| to a j.lace in our .series, yet, as they very cnnimoidy act in i cmihination, and as, in .such instaiices, the events in which two or more of them issue are the .sime, it must he imjMi.ssiMe to tix v.ith accuracy the order to which eacli lielongs. Thns, a horse and a cart form together an instrument U>r tin- transport of goods. The events, there- fore, in which lioth issue, heing the same, we cannot measure the ]iart that may helong to each, in any other manner, than hy appropriating to each tin; jirojiortion indicated hy their resjiective costs of fotmation, and hence they will hoth appear to helong to the .sinie order, though perhai>s they do in fact helong to ditfeicnl orders. l!ut our suhseipient incpiiiics will show, that the great mass of the instruments existing in the .same society aie, in reality, at ahout the same ordeis; and, that instruments acting in comhinution with other instrunit^ntH, are almost alu.iys at the same orders. This ohj(»ction is there- fore removed, as all instruments acting in condiination may thus he considi'red as one. Instruments are freipiently repain>(i, The lahor or its e([uivali'iit, so expended, may he considered, either as a partial reformation of the old instrument, or as the addition of a new instnnnent to lie condiined in action with the old one. Tiie THE COMPARISON OF INSTRrMEN'l^ 39 sun.' ruloH Ihert-fore, apply In repairs .'nVct^d on iiistrumonts, ;is 1<> their (iri^'iiial formation. We luive assumed, hitherto, that bolJi formalicessaiy that he who renders it fit for culture, ^hnidd also cultivate it, though it commonly hapjx'ns that 1-oth operations are j.erformed hy tiie same individual. I'.ut hy whomsoever the operation of converting waste land, iiiln laud l.rariii" crops, he performed, two ends are always gained hy it, the y.,.wer of cultivation, aii.l the actual culture. There is this uivat .litteivnce U-tween them, that whih' the changes pro- duced in a pi.'ee of land to tit it for cultivation arc lasting (iviiiaining niiless some means he taken to do away with them), those that are etlected <.ii it hy the actual process of ( nltivation are of short, or at all events, of limited duration. When an individual has converted a portion of mora.ss or forest, into a ti.dd tit for the oju'iaticms of tillag.-, it does not return again to the state of morass or fore.st. He has lilted it for heing made an instrument of agriculture, or i.itli.'r a succession of instruments of agriculture. The iinner, hy manuring it, sowing certain seeds in it, and ;;lUiig it, forms it into such an instrument. The changes ho thus ehects, however, pass awav. The .^ee.ls he sows, oi,,wing into plants of dillerent kinds, are carried otl'; the manure yields part of its sulistance to them, and is in part dissipated: the s(.il that had U'eu iM.setied and pulverized hy the plough and harrow, is gradually again compacted iiid hardened, hy the eitects of the action of the sun .lud rain. A; far, then, as it was actually an iiiatrument of 40 THK COMPARISON OF INSTRUMENTS '; aKiioulturc it is oxhau.stcil. I'.ut its power of \mn any instrument will txicuiiy, is iletermincd 1)y the following circumstances. 1. The shorter the space of time between the jnuiod of its formation, and that of its exhaustion, the nearer will any instrument I)e placed to the order A, that is, towards the more quickly returning orders. 1 [Possibly the novel ideas set forth alwve will advantageously bear restate- ment. Land made fit for cultivation, but not in process of cultivation, is an instru- ment toward the atUinnient of crops. It is formed from materials, that is, from mere land surface. The farmer, when he manures, plants and tills, makes an ephemeral superiniposed instrument. Rent is paid, in Kicardian phrase, for the "indestructible powers of the soil'; but these powers are not "original," but were produced or rendered available by him who first brought a certain area of land surface into a .state fit for culti ition. 1 '<.-^ THE COMPARISON OF INSTRl'MENl'S 41 2 The greater the capacity, aii.l the less the cost ..f its funnation, the nearer will any instrument Ik? f. the onier A ; the less the capacity, and the -reater the cost of formation, the farther will it \ Pt^^^^^':; - ^'XM^y^m^ u I , i (IIAPTKR V. <'K (KRTAIN TKCHNKAL (IIKCMSTANCKS (;(.VKI{.\IN(J TUI-; AMOI NTOK INSTRIMKNTS FORMED. Havin,; tiacMl U,.. ^,.,„.,al M.it.nv „f instnn.H.nts, an.l shnwn t ml •!..■ n'lalM.Ms ...Nistii.^r a.nwn^r i|„. ei.cuni.iancrs l,y which th.'V an> allkto,!, niak,- it ,.nu:licahl,. to arranue th.-n. in a '■'-"''"• ^•'"''■'^- I' '•>"■' "<'xt claiiMi..-: our allenti.m. is to as.vitain th,. ,,uis..s cl.tcnniMi...:; th." aiuu.int of them which .-ach .oc-ty iM,ssrss,.s, a.„l tu „„t,. the i„o,c ivtiiai kal.Io I'liononicna which the -peratin,. of th„se causes ,„ud.ices ilie causes .letmninii.- the aiununt „f instnnnei.ts iV.nne.l Uy any s<.ciely, will, I hdieve. U- found to he four. 1. The .,uantily an.l ,,uality of tlu- materials owne-l hy it -. Ihe slren-th of the r/ircfur ,/rsirr of nrcumvlation. ' ■'■ Ihe lale of wa^es. 4. The pro;,'ress of tiie inventive faculty. The nature of the second of ,hcse. an.! "the circumstances o„ which us strenu'th .legends, will form the suhject of the ne.xt ,' n"; 'r ''::"'""^'>' '" ^'"'''i"^ ">' il, it is necessary i„ establish the hillowin- ju-oposition. Thr rapacitu "■h''-h an;, pujpl,- nni cnnniniwal, to th' mat,'- '■iustluy possess,},;, f,,nnin:, 'hnn nito instruments, cannot be nulejiniteh, tnere„snl, u-hile their UoHuhje of tluir pourrs and '/nahtus remain stationar,,, vUhont n,oein., the instruments Jormuf eontnuiallu unward in the series A, /!. V, etc.: hut th. re 'v no assu,nnhle Unut to the ert.nt ,f the capaeit,,, which a people harin;, e,ttan,ed eonsidcrahle / ; -I,,!,,, ,f the .qualities and powers "J tl,e mat.ruxls thnj possess, enn communicate to them, without ^*^.^ ^mprmm OF TECHNICAL LIMITATIONS 43 atrryinrj thm [icholh/] out of tJu scries A, B, C,etc., rirn if that /.itoidirf;/r rrvmin Mntioiutry} Tho capacity of instniiiicnls may W> incriuised, l>y ad'ling U) tticir (liirabiiity, or to their efficiency; that is, by prolon^'ing the time (huiii;,' which they Inin-,' to pass the events, for the p\iip()se of efl'ectin^' which they are formeii, or, hy increjisinfr the amount of them wliich they hrint: to jiuss witliin the same time. A ilw.'llin'i-house is an iiislr\U'ient, aicHn-,' to hrin^' to an issue events of various classes. It more or less completely prevents rain, ilamj", and the extremes of cohl ami heat, from pcnetratini; to the space inchule.l within its area. It preserves all other instruments contained within it, in comparative .sifety. It Olives those who inhahit it the power of carrying (III >nnuolest(Ml, various domestic occupatinus, and of enjoying, undisiurl-ed hy tht> gaze of strangers, any of the gi-atiticationa ni amu.sements of life, of which they may l>e ahle ami desirous \n partake. Events of these sorts, it may bring to pass, for a l.inu'cr or shorter time, or to a greater or less extent, within the same time. In the former case, the durability is increased, Ml the latter, the efficiency ; in both, the capacity is augmented. Dwelling-houses are built of ilitlerent materials, and those materials are wrought uji with more or less care. A dwelling might 1r' slightly run up of wood, lath, nnul, plaster, and paper, which would be habitable oidy for a few months or years, like (lie unsubstantial villages that Catherine of IJussia siiw in her pKi^ress through some ])arts of her dominions. Another of ilie same si/e, accommodation, ami ap|M,'arance, that might last tor two or three centuries, might U> constructed, by (>mploying stone, iron, and the most durable woods, an8fncc of the atlvance of the arts, extension of iniliistriiil operations meets with a resistance, but tliat resistance is never absolute. 1 () f 1 j i I ! ^ t ; ; I - I i' 44 OF TKCHMCAL LIMITATIONS If th.' incioasi-il .lunil.iliiy thai may !«> -ivcn an iiistruiiicnt W- (oi.M,!,.,,.,! apait fn.iii lli.- ii.crcas.Ml ,.tti(i<.iicy that will also proLaMy Ik- cuiMininiicat.'d tu it. it ,„„st l,.- n-anled simply as an ."xtcnsiun ..f its .■xisicnc,-, ami cuns.Mjiu'ntlv as a like cxU'n- si.m ..f its rapacity. A .lw(.Iiin--liMi,s,. lasts, wo shall say, sixty yrais, hut in r.thci ivs,H.fts is perfectly similar to one laslin- n„ly thirty years. Cunsi,lere.i as an instrument, the t .letermine.l liy the relations suhsistiiiK iKitween the letuins made hy the ad.lition, its c.,st, ami the time elapsin- U'tween the expemli- ture aii.l return. If we supp..se the present .■xpen.iiture neces.sary to pro.luc.> the durahility, to he always e.pial t.. the e of an order U'twecK X iiiul V. ddiililiii'^' in l,ft\vei-n twt'iity-f«nir aiul Iweiily-live yiMrs. Tlif [inKjedun' i)f addin'^' tn the (hiral>ilily, \ durahihly of an instrumetit, it cannot he jireserved at an order of oiiiially ([uick return, unless the several au:,nnentations he communi- c.ited to it, hy an exjienditure diminishii..; in a ;;eoiii.-trical iitio; that is, in a ratio hci ominu' indetinitely less, as it is rontinued. This, however, cannot happen, for it would imply .III al.surdity. While instrunn-nts are in existence, they are ,ilher producin;.' events or yiviiiL; a new direction to their inuise. l)Ul mere matter, unless in .some very rare instan(;es, IS never actin.:, of a' time tlierel'oiv, I'or the expiration of which it iiUMt wail, the jess the chaiK-e ol' iis heiicj; ou an eipialiiy with iival-^, wiiose powers are cuniuiuallv .iiid r.ipidlv multiplying; .■Hher events, or eiijoymeiils, wiieiiever they have a lield on ivhieti to exert their ener;j;ies. While the kiiowlednts m..re sparin^dy or tardily. The ethciency of the instruments proiluced must therefore Ik- generated hy .t^reater (.., !,_,,. jK.ssossed is small, or gical. When art is in its infancy, aii'l men know hut a few of the j)i'oi)erties tittin;,' them for liecomin;^ uistniments thai are inherent in tlie materials in their possession, liiey cannot much vary their mo'( materials are known, and where consequently their (.j>erations on each other may 1m' comliined, and multiplied to a great extent, tlie means by which the same end may lie attained are very ninnerous. Some of them are more easy (jr exi)editious than otheis hut they ditl'er liy very slight degrees, and the instru- ments fonued hy successively adopting them, would occupy positions in our series not widely ilistant from one another. If we then consider the capacity that may lie given any amount of materials, hy a society among whom the progress of art is stationary, as separated into the durahility, ami etliciency, of tlie instrument.- its meniU-rs form, it would appear, that they are Ixtth suhject to similar laws, and that neither can 1k> indefinitely increased, without carrying the instruments constructed continually on, to orders of slower let urn. The same general conclusions must ohviously hold good, concerning the capacity considered as combined of lM)th. There is, however, a circumstance tinwing from the considera- tion of this union, which is deserving of notice, as it has considerable efl'ect in the relations between the cost and capacity of instruments, and, conse(iuently, on the position to lie assigned them. It often liapi)ens, that additi(jnal laixjr bestowed on an instrument, to give it greater ethciency, gives it also greater durability. Thus the siime choice of materials, and the same careful and lal)orious furmalion of them, that render the walls of a dwelling-house etl'ective in excluding the inclemency of the weather, give it also solidity and stienglh, and consequently prolong its duration. A tool, in the fabrica- tion of which gf»>*l steel has lieen employed, not only cuts l>etter, but lasts longer, than one formeil of inferior stutt'. In such cases, and they are very numerous, the capacity U'ing ;.jf...j.;j.^.i! hnth :'.s conrerns durability and etliciencv, by the iiH I (> 48 OF TK( HNICAI. LIMITATIONS ' t I : *\ siiiiic (iiitl.iy, its ])ii)|)()iii(iii Id till- cost is likmUt, and ii luiMror cxjifiiililuic may Im- niiidt' mi tlic t'liiiiialinn of \}u' insliuini'nt witliniii iiin\iii^ it III all, 111 iiinviii;^' ii Imt a sIkhI disUiiice, t,i, airan;_'cd in a t'oini adaj(t<'il to the }iiii|)i)s<'. Siicli mads, iinlrss in the U-st ol' wcallu-i', are very inclticicnt iiist i uiufius in liu ilitatiii;,' liansjioit, and tht-ir dmal.ility is so small, thai they an- jimlMlily niunslructnl, hy irjiair, cvciy foui or ti\c years. A road t'orincd of small t'ra;_'mrnts ol' stone, in the maniiir that is termed mdcnthnniza- titiii, costs ]ierha|is twenty times a^ much, Init is liolh a far nioie ellicieiit, .uid a far more duialile inslruiueiit. iiesides, lioWe\fi, lieiim nioie duialile, and ellicieiit, the facility it ;,'ives to li,ins])oit o((a-ions an inciea.se of traiisjMut, and its exhaus- tion is thus i|ui( kiMied. For exam]'le, the ca]iacity of a mad of this soil, may \»- ade,|uaie to the liaii>]iorl of two hundred thousand carria-vs; if this he spread o\er twenty years, it will he an instrument of niuiji slower return, than if, in coiise- (|Uence of (he annual tiaii-]ioil I'eiii;,' ilouMed, that numU'r jiass o\('r it in ten years. As etlicieniv and duiahiiil\' are fieijuentlv picxhiceil liy tlie same means, so, it >ometimes lia|i|MMis, that the means which Would adil to ilje one, caiiuol 'le emploved, without diminishing: tl iliei. Thus iheie are many tools and ultjii- sils, that caniioi Ke made very stioic.:, and therefore duralile, without lieiiiu' at the same time clum>y. and iiielllcienl ; and they cannot he made \er\- iiudit, and easy to work with, with- out heii;'4 also of liiil,. duraliility. The ditliculty in thu coiulpiiiation of the i|ualities <>f duraliiliiy and etiicieney in the same materials, i-.m only, howe\-er, I'c considered .is ahsoluttdy limiting; the i.qiacilv of those iiislrumeiiis, to support the wci^dil of wliich, ,i ( (.r|ioii-,d exertion is ii-ipiiied . and is coii- seijuently contiiieil to weariirj; aj)parel, and to those tools, and iiti'iisils, which an- alto-ether iiioveil hy the hand. When the wei^iil rests oji >:.,i!!.. tinii hasis it can !:e -loki'd • -.{mA !:•• th-i *k _. iRj=K\m>^;>Xv --<^5". OF TECHNICAL LIMITATIONS 49 alii'liiatiipii (if siitliciL'ut fXiM-iuIitun', friction can If rciiidvcd. The circunistanct' of the (lualities of duriiliility aii'l i-IIk irrn. ili|n'iiiliii;,' (in tlic KiiiiH' niaU'iials, luis tliiTcfuic, jnoliaMy, na the whole, tht? ftl'fcl of rt'taidin^: wunu'wliat, lli()U),'h nol verj- ■_:icatly, till' j)rci;.'ii'HS of iiistruiii''iit^< as i,'rt\ator capacity is t,'iver. {•' tlit-ni, towards the more .slowly relnnuii^ orlll•^^^. Tlif vaiious jMiwers of the material world, seem to lie con- in'cted at .some common centre, and itn several jiarls to e.xercist; i-'ciprocal inthiences on each other. Hence, a discovery (.f new jirojierlies in any one material, or more easy modes of 1'rinj.Mni^ the old into play, generally extends the power of man over a (.'real ran;,'e of the other maii-rials, which he had heen ill the haliil of hefore apj/lyini; to his purpose. When art, llierefoie, has made considetahle piii:4iess, and comprehends uithin its dominion a multiplicity of materials, the variety of ctfects that may he ;_'eneiateil, fn ni the action, and reaction, on ..nil other, of the nunieidus powers at it.s disposal, hecomes illimilahle. As in iHiniheis. every addition multi]ilies amaz- iiiL'ly the jiossilile antecedent coniliinat ions, until at len^'th the .lUiount lieconies too j^icat to lie a.scertained. Hence it is, iliat, thou;,di anion;^ harliarous nations the ahility of man to increase thi' anio\nil of instruments he possesses may \>v j narrowly] Itounded, aniouLT nations havini; made consideral)le nUance in ait, tliere seems no assi;_'nin^ any limit to it, other ilian that indicated in the second pari of the proposition, ;lie necessary ^aihial jiassji^'e of the instruments constructed to onlers of slowei- and slower return. It is hence, that, if we turn to any community where art 111-; advanced, we invariahly see, that however much industry may have already exerted itself on the materials within its ir.icli, the field for its ])ossilile future action seems rather uu ri'ased than dinunisheil, and that the farther we stretch our view over it, to the greater distance its extre'-ie circumference ifcciles from >is. The industry of the people of (Jreat llritain, has proliahly heen as largely ai)plied to the materials which its liiiiiliMl tenitory possesses, as that of any other community presently existing,' ; yet certainly there is no lack of matters «iu which it mij^'ht he farther exercised. A lart;e j)ortion of il.-- .'Uliuce, and uliicli vvaiit.i :iol aii liie loj^uisilco ful lliu (' 50 or TECHNICAL LIMITATIONS ! II i siistciiancr ni \cnctalilc litV, lii's, lu'MTthi'lcss, yd niiciiltivateil. Willi till' rX(CJptiliII "i till' lllnlltllaillnllS ami Mlfkv Il'l^illllS, heat, li;ilit, air ami watci. in sntlicit'iil aluimlaiui' irst mi L-vcry part 111' it, nor is the |iii'st'mi' nf many nf the rartlis, tlii' niixtmi' 111' wliicli I'mnis a ]iiiiin'r sIicIiit fm- tin' tcmli'f lailiclc tiliii's, ami a ciiniiiiiiiliiiiis stHii'linusi' lur an iii'|iiiitanl j»art nf tlirif nmiiislinicnt, any wln-n' wantniu''. Tlirii' is also in u'l-ni-ial a i.onsiiloalili' siijijily ilitliisi'il unit tlir sint'ai'i' of th^' ilcciiniiiosini,' iiMiiains of foiinri' NcLirtaiilcs ami animals, tlii> material whicli coiistilnti's ni-aily tin- wlioli- .-ojiil fund that, the oi-;:aniL' lift' of plants ri'ijiiiics; ami, cvi'ii wlifii this is licficienl at mii' imint, iIuti' an' lai^ri'i' roHi-ii i.,ns of it al some othiT. Thr outlay H'i|uisitc, in many instanci's, to ;,nvc such fiiini to thi'sr niatriials, as to tit them for the |inr]insfs of tin' aj^rioulturisl, wouM, im lioiilit, lif vimt j^qt-at ; still, wliatovcr it nu;:lit he, as tin' instiiinn'iit foinn'il wonlil he of nnliniitt'il "linatioii, till' annual rctiiins finni it wonjcl, in timt', exufcil the cost of forniatioii, an ' luini,; it within the limits of our scrii's. \\ I'M' \vc to |_'o n\('r the vaiious other instiumenls, the retuiiis from which siiji]' the wants of this comniunity, we should iH'iceive, that I'very where their cajiacities are capaMe of heinji ;.'ieatly increased. One would not find it very easy tu say, how much niiulit he added to the luialiility and etli- cieiicy of d\vellini,'-liousc lone. The ainount of ilie cajiacity for the facilitation of lutiire traiisiMut, which ini;^lit he enihodied in railioads, returniii'^' ultimately ninch more than the cost of their foiniation, is incalculahle ; as is also, the de^'roo to which ininiiiL' opeialions nii^rht he extended. Even sujijMisin;^ all these, and many other instruments, to have acijuired a vastly increased extent. Imth as concerns durability and etHciency : instead of limiting; their farther increase, it would seem likely, ratlier to o]ien up a still wider s|iace, for the exertion of future industry in the foiniation of others. Were the soil universally cultivated, were railroads extended and ramiiied throuudiout the couiitiy, and were the riches of the mineral kiii;4dom more fully hrou^ht nut, the additional facility ^iM'ii to till' formation of instruments, hy the coniniand allorded oi the materials iieees.sary for their construction, and K._ OF TKCHMCAL LIMITATIONS 51 ihr iM'^*' witli wliiili tlicy iiiiu'lit In- traiisiMHttMl frnm j.uiiii t-- iM.int, wiiuld, it iii.iy well lie sujijmisimI, In- siitlicit'iit to <,'ivt' tlif uicaiis (<\ :i still ;jrciitt"i- iiicrciisi'il (.■oiistruitinii of thi'iii, ami a .-till I'arlhtT aihamt' of tli.- am unit of the capacities fov tin- siijiplv of fuluiity, ('iiiliiHlit'lia]l we perceive the iiiip-issiliility of tixin^' any [alisolute] limit t'l the amount of the lahor which may he expemleil in tiie furmation of instruments, in this, or any other community, where art lias ma CHAPTER V[. OF TIfK ('IHcr.MSTANCKS WHICH DKTEIi.MlNE THK STRENGTH OF THK EFFHC-IIVK DE.SlltE OF A( CI.M ILATiON. It lias hocn shown, in tlic ])i('irilinj,' cliaiitci', tliat, in CMmi- niunilics whciv an fxtcnsivc kiidwlcdi;!' i,|' ihc materials witliiii reach ot' the iniiustrv of their nienjlieis has i;enerate(l nmiieroiis arts, we can assi-ii nn limit, in the naliiie of the materials themselves, tctlie lapacity tnr the su]p|.ly n|' I'liiiiie wants that nii<;hL lie <,'iven tn them: Imt. that the instruments so fninied, jiass, hy a j^nadiial and nninlerrii|iteii ].riiL;ress, in unlers of slower and slower return. It is .sraicely necessary to ohservo, that the increase to the cajiacity wliicii may he Lriven to in- stninionts, cannot he restricted hy i-iahilily to devote ad(hti(.nal lahor 1.) their construction; foi , as all instiuments at the IM'riod of their exhaustion return moic ijian the cost of tlieir foiiuation, they -ive the means of icconstructin^' others, leturn- in^' also somewhat more largely than themselves. There are, nevertheless, in every society c.iuses [not physical or technical] etlectually lioundiii'^ the adxance of insti iimiMits to orders capaMe of endiracin^r a lar;_'er and larger circle of niaterials, iujid the deteiniinatitin of those laiises is the suliject now claimiiiLT our allcniion. Instruments are ail formed l,y im,. amount of lahor. or .some L'liuivalent to it, tliat is, hv something; either capalile of yield- in.LT. or itself constitiitini,' some . ! tjie necessaries, conveniences, or amnscniciits of life, ami they iciurn another Li'reater amount of lahor or its e.|uivalents. The formation of e\ery instruip.e'it thcrclore, implies the .sacrilice of some smaller present u'O'mI, THE EFFECTIVE DESIRE OF ACCrMULATION 5.S fur ttie production of soiik> greater future t^ood. If, then, the Iiroiluction of that future ^'reater .jood, he coiueived to deserve the sacrifice nf this {.resent smaller i^ood, the instrument will he formed, if not, it will not he formed. Aceordini; to the series in which we have arnm^'ed instruments, they iloiihle the cost of their formation in one, two, three, etc., yeai-s. Conse- ([uently, the order to whieii in any society tlie formation of instruments will advance, will l>e determined hy the lenj^'th ot the period, to which tlie inilination of its niendiers to yiidd up a ]ire.sent ^'ond, fcir the jiurpose of producing; the douhle of it at the ex]iiratiiin of that jierind, will extend: according' as it strelclies to une, two, three, twenty, forty, etc., years will the fiirmation nf instruincnts i.e caiiied, to the orders, A. 15, (", 1. /), etc., and, at the point where the willin^mess to make the sicrilice ceases, there the formation of instruments nnist stop. The circumstances, therefore, on s\ich diir disirr of nccumulation. All men may lie said to have a desire of this sort, for all men prefer a j,'reater to a le.ss : luit to he etlective it nuist prompt to action. Were life to endure for ever, were the cajiacity to enjoy in perfection all its ^'oods, hoth mental and corporeal, to Ik' pro- lonp'd with it, and were we guided soltdy hy the dictates of reason, there could he no limit to the formation of means for future >,Tatitication, till our utmo.st wishes were supplied. A jileasure to he enjoyed, or a pain to lie endured, fifty or a hundred years hence, would he considered deservini; the same attention as if it were to hefall us fifty or a hundre 54 THE EFFECTIVE DESIRE OF ACCrMULATION h in a few years. Wliy then Ikj jirovidini,' j.'i)0(1h tliat cannf)l l>e enjoyed until times, wliicli, tli.iiit,'li nut very renidte, may never come lu ns, nr until times still more remote, ami whieli we are (.unvinced we sliall never see ' If life, too, is of uneertain duration and the time that death comes helween lis and all our jiossessions unknown, the ap- proaches of old a;:e are at least certain, and are dullinj,', day l>y day, the relish of every pleasuie. A nKT(> reasonahle re^'ard to their nwii interest, would, therefore, jdace tii-' present very far aliove the future, in the estimation of mosi men. Hut, it is liesides to l.e remarked, that such jileastires as may now he enjnved, ;,'enerally awaken a passion strongly inumptiiiif to the jiartakin^^ of them. The iicttial j)resen(e of the immeiliate uliject of desire in the nul, hy excitinj,' the attention, seems to rouse all the faiultiei as it were, to fix their view on it, and leads tlieni to a very lively conce])tioii df the I'lijuymenls wliich it oilers to their instant [lossession. The jiiospects of future j,'oiid, which future years may hold out to us. seem at such a moment dull and duhious, and are a])t to he sliLrhted, for oojects on which the dayli<,dit is falling,' stronj,dy, and sliowin<^f us in ail their freshness just within our ;:rasp. There is no man jierliaps, to whom a yolid to he enjcived to diiy, would not seem of veiy ditl'erent importance, from one exactly sinnlai to he enjoyed twelve years hence, even though the arrival of Koth were e(|ual!y certain. Nor, wliile we retain any taste for iileasinvs, is it easy to lu'escrihe limits to the extent to which we may indiil;,^' in them, or to the amount of the funds they may ahsorh. Every wheie we see that to spend is easy, to sjiare, hanl. Every one indeed Inoks u])on tlmse in tin; rank immeiliately aliove him, as rollin;,' in suiieitiuoiis extravagance. Hut, in every rank, from the juiiice to the peasant, tlieie are \erv many indi- viduals, who have difhculty in jirociirin^' funds to defray the cost of articles, tlie exjienditure of wliich they look upon as necessary to their condition, and, for the remainder, in the difFerent classes, who have more than their utmost real desires would call for, pleasure is so entwined with extrava^'ance, in the forms in which she presents herself to each, that it is M ■ ''^-.-, THE EFFECTIVE DESIRE OF ACCL MULATION 55 .limcull fully to embrace the one, witliout coium- within ihu ( iicle of ihe other. It wouM then appear, that merely iHMsonal coiisi.lerations, , Lu never ^'ive ^reat stren,i,'th to the etl'ective desire of uccinuu- lalion. A future p)od, as concerns the iii-livi.lual, when halanced a>;ainst a present ^joud, is Ix.th exc.v.lin-ly uncertam ill its arrival, and in the amount of enjoyment it may yield, is ,„ohal.lvfar inferior. Such considerations would nmlouhtedly rrpresent it, ;is a ^'reat folly to deny youth or manhoo.l plea- .Mire, thai s not to he enjoyed l.y it, l.iit 'whi_h, like the fahled monster in the garden of the Hesperides, it must employ itself with restless care to j,mard .''or others, "C'onser' aiis alii», qune periere aibi Si-Mit ill auricoiuis ptMidentia pliirimus lidrtis IVrvi^il oliservat iioii ^ua potiia ilraco.''' A lu-udent calculation of mere ].ersonal enjoyment, could pnimiil to nothing' more than a piovisimi for .self, and would nulv L-ad to the makhi>;, as it is said, the day and the journey alike, and taking care that youth should not want pleasure, nni oVl age comfort. l'.ut, as passion is ever getting the Lrlter if mere prudence, this limit would every now and then he exceeJed, and in numerous instances, the satiety of not would he succeeded hy the miseries of want. Wherever a !arg(> amoi,it of means for the gratification of the i-iesent existed, the\ would !»• scpiandered, and no ^'ue, on the other liand, would he inclined to make any great sacritice of the picsent, for tie jmrpose of luoviding for the future. The strength of tlh etteetive desire of accumulation would he l(,w, an.l only Ustruments would he formed as were of the .(uickly returningnrders. r>ut man's pleaMres are not altogether selfish. He receives l.leasure from giviiir pleasure, and is far from th.- perl, riimi of liis existence when he does not dniw his enjoyments, rather Irom the gootl he c.nimunicates, than from thai which he H). ('. Galli, Khl. I. Th whole .'legy is iUu?trativc of that isolation of ftfling ami action, and conscuent imliviilual misery anil general wcakncM, tiiat jMTvaiU'd the Kmpire at 'le time. \ \ m 1 5G THE EFFECTIVE DESIRE OF ACCT^MULATION reserves. Wilhont the tics which hiiul hi,„ t,, others through the c.iiju^ral and parental relations, tlie claims of his kin.lred his friends, his country, or his nice, life would U-, to riost men' a burden. These are its great stimulants, an.l sweeteners, giving an anu to every possible exertion, and an interest to every moment. If, .sometimes, they sha.low our leing with cares and fears, those passing aha.lows hut prove uon- i.s a sunshine. The light of life only disapiK.ars, and its dreary night then commences, when we liave none for whom co liv,> Then the whole creatirui is a vid. Jlcally to live is to live with, and through others, more than in oureelves To do Ko we must do so truly. " I^>v(', and love only, i.s the loan for lovp." If the mere pretence deceive others, it mocks and tantal/zes nur.sehes, encircling us with a joy as unreal, as that wiiicl. th.- looks an.l tones of afiection shed round him, who receives tli.-m disguised in a borrowed garment. We cannot enjoy tliwii, be- cau.se we feel that they are not our.^ Imt .some other's whose dress we wear. In so far as to procure goo.l for oth(>rs, gives a real pleasure to tiie individual, he is released from that narrow anc.' imper- fect sphere of action, to which his mere ju'isonal interests would confine him, au.i the future g.,o.Is which the .sacrifice of present eas.. or enjoyment may produce, lose the jfieater part of their uiKvrtainty and worthle.ssness. Though Lfe mav jia.ss from him, he reckons not that his toils, his caies, his priva- tions, will be lost, if they .-erv.. as the means .,.' enjoyment to some whom he may leave b.-hin.!. Th.vse fe.iings, therefore, investing the concerns of futurity with a livel^" interest to the individual, and giving a continuity to the e.dstence and pro- .jects of the race, must tend to strtMigth.'L verv greatly tiie efiwtive desire of accumulation. There woiil.f .s.-cin to be no limit to tlie possible extent of their npcrati.m. The more pow.-rful and predominating they l>ecome, the greater must be ••"■" intlu.-nce. It is true they are oftei, feeble, ami oppressed by other principles, and it is .just as tru- that the world is full of deceit, hollowness, an.l unhai.piness As far as they exist, however, they form a real element .f great power 'in the K_ THE EFFECTIVE DESIRE OF ACCl MI'LATION 57 ,l,.UTiiiiuati.)u of tlie course of human ufli..n, and "iif the nature of which would seoin to indicate, and experieiu ,■ to prow, to U' of ^'reat influence on the particular part of it that forms „ur present subject. In the succeeding pa^es, the terms, the social and bnuvolcnt nffcdiom, will Ik- employe.l to denote them. The strenj^'th of the intellectual j.owers. wiving' rise to reasoidnu' and reflective habits, forms another important ..lenient in the determination of the course of human action. Lhese habits in opposition to the jiassion-s of the present hour, Kriiit; before us the future, botli as concerns ourselves, and nlhers, in its legitimate force, and urge the propriety of providing for it. Alth<.ugh theicfore, were our cares limited ;dto.jether to ourselves, the greatest strength of the reas.mmg tacultv could i)romi)t to but a very limited oiieration on the (>vents of futurity, yet. the farther they extend to others. the wider is the circle of operations that we are le.l to niibiace. These two ])rinciples of our nature, the s.^ial and benevolent affections, anening up a channel to the atlections by giving the jMiwer to do good. .\11 circumstances increasing the probability of the provision we make for futurity being enjoyed by ourselves or others, also tend to give strength to the etlectlve desire of accumulation. Tl,;is a h.'althy climate, or .x;cu].ation. by increasing the pro- iabUity nf life", has a tendency to add to this .lesire. When tiigu^ed in safe occuiiations, ami living in healthy countries, ;,i.Mi"are much more ai>t to be frugal, than in unhealthy, oi ha/ardnus occupations, aii.l in climates pernicious to human life. Sailors and soldiers are prodigals. In the West Indies. New Orleans, tlie Rist Indies, the expenditure nf the inhabi- t.mls is profuse. The same jieoi)le, coming to reside m the lieahliy parts of Kuroi.e. and imt getting into the vortex of extravagant fashion, live economically. War. and i)estilence, have always wa.ste, and luxury, among the other evils that I'olj.isv in their train. Tor similar reasons, whatever gives security to the affairs of the ((mmiunity, is favoral)le to the strength of this pvinciph'. (i -)S THE Ell KCTIVE DESIRE OF ACCTMrLATION ) I 111 this r('>|)cil ill)' ;_fiirMl jiri'V.ili'inf nf liiw ami orilci'. ami tiic ]ir()S]M-c-l uf liif rniitiiiuaiui' of jieaic ami ti'amiuilily, liave coiisidrraMf iiilliifiKc. 'riicsc XTlil ti> 111- I he ciiirt' ciicuiiistatici's, ilctrrillillillj,' tilt' rciatiiiiis lictwrcii prcsriit ami fuliuf '_'i"m|. in ihr inimls of limsf in any sdiirty, wlni lia\<' a niiii'l anil a will, at tlit' lime they arc loiiiiiiiL,' lialiits. When lial'its ar<' nmc t'lunictl, they rc'^nilalr the Ii'iior df the t'litiiic lil'c, anW make slaves uf their Iniiiicr niustfis. 'I'hcie are, Imwcwr. in cmtv society, verj- many who t'niiii liaKits, and pnrsuo a (iTtain line uf cnniluct thriiiiLrli lit'r. nnt t'liini any icasdnini: dr clioicr dl' thrir own, Init hurrieij (Jii ] ceiise- <|uent ]>revaleiice df lialiits ni n tl-ctidu, ami jirudence, in the minds df the memliers of the suciely. 0. The stahility df the ccinditidU nf the atliiirs df the society, am. the reign df law and order througln'Ut it. It is vveakciied, and strength given to the desirt' of immedi- ate enjoyment, hy three djijiosiiig (iri'unistances. 1. The deli( iciicy (if strength in the social and lienevolent alleclidUS, and the [iievalence of the djijiosile Jirinciple, u desire of niei'e selrish gvatiticatidn. '2. A ileficieucy in the intellectual ]iowers, and the eonse- t .■•,,..< ,.( i|.,i.;t.- .,t' >'..)), „.ti..., .....I t',...,,ii.. ,,...),) *v-^ THE EFFECT! VK DESIHE OF ACCrMrLATTON 59 the im- Th.' ii.sul.ility uf thf atlkiis nf th.' s.^ii'ty aiM inliT tlimu^ih-'Ul it. ]„.if.'(.l (lillusiuii .|- 1 aw ;iii Tlir n-ailcr may iwrhaps i ■oiiccivc that, in t'luiiiu'iatin M the 'Se itVcieiit (inuiustance am I .leihliill^' 'he stieli;:! h cif the ■tive desire nf ai( iiiau I'll.r ..ue (■la^ iftim-iiient. an lilt ion fn.m the j.iel>UTan(e <>i lli over th ilher, am tttennitin;. an (innecessary ;1 I hat the ,,rin.ii,le uf a re-anl t- s.'lf interest iloiu', tli'iu^h it may n<> it, uf itself, <.'ive LTI at stren''lh to this i'>ire vet, from its et iinhiiiatiun wi iii\ist feller allv III iniiirecliv am th uther sprinsis uf action, 1 nltimatelv ami niuy, ihcrrfure I.hennlllt «' assumet 1 as a canse siithcient tu aceunii I fur the ■na. If we cuntine uur attention '-( the jireseiil times, mil tu partieiilar l>ar ts of tlie ',iluhe, tliis m av h rea( ililv Nuw, 1,1 (luul.tless proiiij.l many individuals tu cooper .dmitt« interest won .Itectively Ml the iiu r,ut there is nothing' im :ind in ihuse places, a prm lent re^'anl tu self ate .rease of the izeiu ral means of enjuyi''<'nt. itin<' the causes dclermininj wiien investi- tlie mutiuns uf any j^'ieat .system, ire aiit to inislrail u^ than lu take uur statiuii at .some ] lai ticuUir point in it, and. ..aminin^r the appearances there presented to ns, to suppose Iv similar tliruui^h the whole sphere hat thev must he precise i.f actiun. liecause, in (Ireal r.ritaiii, a re;,'."rd to mere self interest, may nuw jnompt iiiakin;,' a lar^e provision lealitv. to a course < if action leaiUng to for the wants uf others, we are. in iiu mure warranted tu ci UK •luile that it will do so alw avs, and in every i)lace, than wt ■ro tiie ancients warr an ted elude, Itecause in their jiar .■-uit uf wealth commun ilv iieneratei tiiular communities, the pur- l evil, that it must tlierefore ■riier 1 1 ways ai e seem lid in every l to he, in modern tin les, and in ]iarticular ci )m- inunilies, two circumslallce^ a mere rejzard to his person .-^(iher i;Hlu:;try extended provision .hat may lead an individual, from d interest, tu pursue the paths of llv, tu make an These seem to lie and frutiality, and, cuuse.pieii fur the wants of otliers tlie < lesii e o if per sona I, an d f; imilv ai'-'ram li/emeiil, and a wish. ( iiniciinec estim 1 with the pursu It of hoth. t , to the amhition of all men, an the f fortune, is a road IS 1, in the present days. nlv road open to that of must men. The mere desire to I / (( GO THE EFracn^IVE DESIRE OF ACCUMITLATION ' I. 1 1 risf in the world, and envy of the superiority of other men, may excite niiiny to enter on this piith, aTid ])reserve them stoailily in it. Tliis sort of spirit, however, must \ie kept in strict clieck, l>y a Iar;;e snrrnunihn^ mass of (genuine prohity, and tenderness of tlie liajipiiiess of others, or it certainly lireaks out into disorders.' There is nrme more easily temjited to evil, or more dangerous. It is the fii-st to diminish tlie security of all compacts, and transactions of husiness, hy fraud and ex- actions; it is the first to disturh the jiuhlic tran(iuillity, hy seditions ami consjtiracies. It is such a sjiirit, jiredominatinj^ over a character otherwise ^'ood, that Sliakspeare paints in C'assius. Caesar thinks him to U; feared, Ux^ause, ".Surli men as hf l>c never at heait'n case, W)iilc they heliold a greater than thenmelves ; And therefiire are they veiy (lanirermirt." It is this temper that spurs him on, " in envy of great Cicsar," to ■■ humour, and win, the nohle lirutus," to the a,s.sassination. It is the same spirit, that renders him un- scrupulous, "To sell and mart his uffiees fur K"l'li To nndeserver.-< ;" and, to wriii)^ " t n)in the hard hand of peasants, their vile trash, By any indireL-tion." Whenever, therefore, the mere desire of distinction is the oliject for which wealth is i,'enerally pursued, tliere, the pursuit infallilily, at len.'th, with(haws from the path of virtue, and e.xcites those ent^M^ed in it, to a disre.LTard of their own honor, and the suti'eiin^ of others. "Mafxiiuni [jaujieries opjnuliriinn juln-t (^nidvis et faiere et pati, Virtutis(ine viini deseiit arduie." When such is tiie character of only a small minority of those who pursue wealth, it is not injuriously felt. The i '[.Are we not expeniiRing just such an outhitak of "disorders" in the phenoineiia of Trusts and get-rioh((uick sclienics, and " graft " of all gorts, at the prcsciil day ?j THE EFFECTIVE DESIRE OF ACCUMl'LATION 61 -iKiK'y of their motion, rather (luiokens the progrea-s of the whole, thiin retards it. It is very MiHerent, when such ,hiiracters compose the majority of those en^a^'ed in such pursuits. A chaos of deceit, treachery, knavery, is then enenited, in which truth, generosity, good faith, compa-ssion. nerish. Hence it was, that the pursuit of wealth, in ancient nines, was held aa absolutely incoinpatilile with the lowest ,l,.^ree of lit)eral sentiment, virtuous spirit, or common honesty. ri.ito expressly says, that in commerce and tratlic there is no Mich thing as an honest man, and num.>rous pa.s.Hages from the lireek and Homan writers might l-e cited in i)roof, that, in I hose days, it was admitted on all hands, that the character of •l,c money-making man was uniformly vicious. The following IS one of the most striking I can j.resently tind. • It is impossil.le for the same man to U- given to sensual j.lciisures, and to the love of money, and to W religious. For !„. who is a lover of pleasure will l.o a lover of money, and he wlio loves money, must of necessity U; unjust, and a violator .,f the laws of' Cod and man."' It is here n.-t thought ncrssary to give any proof of tlie as.sertioii ; on the contrary, it i-^ tak.'u'as an admitted fact, from which a consequence may '11' deduced. hi those times, thereff.re, the pursuit of wealth was disre- putal.le, and the self-love of nr. .• ould he gratified l-y the .haiacler it procured him. We ;.. -t to conceive the oh.ser- valion of St. I'aul, that "the love i money is tiie root of all evil, ane held as a mere tatement of what was then an ol)vious fact. Thus Horace calls it the satue thing, " summi materiam mali," and the voice of the whf.le age agrees with him. An assiduous care to the increase .,i fortune was then esteemed evil, and the source of evil, and was repnjbated accordingly. It was evil, l)ecause generally ' 'O ^i\vSo»o,> Kal 0<\ocruMOTO^ xal ^iXoxpriMOTO^ «ai rbf airby aHvyarw arai 6 lip ^iXriSovot icai ^i\MJl^iaT si)iii( r III' (•\il, licraiisc tlii' '.'HMt rxi itci nf t'l.inil. kiiasciv. aii'l viiilfiii !• It is ill iiiiiic tiinial iiiiiiiiiuiiitirs almn', whfii' tin- teal .-]iriii_'s III' aiti'iii air iml scltisli. ami wlicir a lirsiic fur till- •_'iiiii| iif iitlii'is is niii- III' till- rliii-t' iiiiivi-r-, aiiiiiiatinu' tfii' t'M'i'tiiiiis, ainl ■_'i\iii.: a tniir to ttii' ti'cliii_'.> aiul actiiiiis ui the wtiiilr liiiiiv, tliat llif viiliiiius aiiil litn'ial iiiiml. sviii|iatliiz»'.s witli aiiil ,i]i|iiii\r> llir ciiiiiiiicl lit' the man. wlii L;i\r- hi-- ilays to laliiii', ami liis iii'_'hts tn I'li'.'r'issiii;: cair, I'nr tin- |iui[iiisf uf iinriMsiii'.' his '_Miiis. Thcri-. such a liff is nut ilt't'nu'il si-ltish. siirdiil, nr uiiha|iiiy. liccmsc llirir. it is kniiwii ;_'t'iic!ally ti> jjroccnl irmii a lulaliy niipnsiti' sjiiiit, and tu have I'nr its siis- tiiiiiin'_' pi inii|ili'. tin.- wclfart,' nt' oiIh-is, rathit than i it, which drives it value in their eyes. li\it, it is (inly wheie such cnnducl piiicuics cunsideralinii, and respect, thai we can e.xjiect it will he steadily jnirsued hy such persons. Where patient and assiduous industry, and iin- deviatiiij^ iiitei.'rity. procure the hiu'liesl name, and fame, they will he followed hy many who \alue them iml in them.sclves. Hut this ohservatinii only proves, that we have to seek for the i;eiienil course of action of the imlividual. in the circumstances determiniii'^ that of the society. In modern times, a^aiii, and in iiar'iiular communities, mar- ria.L'e and nllsjn iiiu'. and the conseijuenl di'siie of family a^uiandi/emeiit. may often succeed in imposiii'_' on those, to whom the welf.ire of others is naturally of little moment, tlie necessity of iniividiii'^ for that welfare, and theiefoic may often •^'eiierate and keep up a much sti'nn;^er alleiilion to the cares of futurity, than cnuld he excited hy a mere ie'_'aid to self interest. Hut. it is to he nhseived, that the mode in which the passions promiiliiiu' to iiiarriaLTe will i perate, must depend on the feelings, and conseipieiit ly, manners, jieivadiii;^' the .^•bifii:,^^;t-Jli ■m:^ Tin: KlIKCTIVK DKSIUK OF A(( IMri.ATION M -,.,:, tv. Wti.n tlw ^.'.-Il'Tal tV.'llll--^ alwl lu-r.ll-' \x'<»mr roi - ,„,,,. Mian u_'.- will n.'s.i U- suu.-ht .Ufr, l.y m.-mi im .m.v , „, imi-taiirrs, f.>i- til.' ni.'iv iiLmmiivs of -.-lis.'. S...rat.-s :v- „,„k~ ll,:> In Lis SMM, Nvh.M, liomliir.' -ul ih-' ol.li'_'at,o,is lu- .,w,i him fur ..'i^il..' l.in, I«'1m- ' aiul ■•v.t.v i.mv Nnluptuaiv ih ,,..„|v t.> (ursr. with Kliii>ii. -all huniaii li<'>." •n„. in.iul'-.Mirrs In whi-h thr>.' l.as.-l..U-. YV''Uq<\. whrii thi" :,.,.Un.j< h.T.,,u.- i.m.-ly s.-ltish. will, iiM.--,!. I Mispr.-t, U> f-uii.l ,,, 1,.. th.' u'l.Mt wrakni.Ts ot Ihi- vriv i.iiii.il'l.'. Out nf th.^ |„,„, an- thr issu.-s ,.f lit,-, an. I tl s ils to whi-h ihrv -iv.. ,,-,■ ai.' ihf worst ..!■ any, h.-raiisr th.-y cutamiiiat.' llu- soiiuvs .,1 ,ill hralthv .•nn-v and activity, at th.- v.-iy fountain h.-ad. It 1. to tl-rn., that Moia.v. in my oj.inion, tiulv tiat-.'s, iIm- !,,,i,l of niis(hi.-f whi.h m his tiiii.' piv^s.'.! on Iloiu.-. and whi< h !i!i ill\' ovi'iwhclnu'ii hi-f : ■• Ki>-'iiniia ciil|)ii- .-.villa iiu]itias I'riiiuiiii iriiiiiinavfic ft (Icnnn-; Hue fdiite (iflivatii ilailfs IiKlMf jKilC's |)o|mliiiiiiiiif tlu.xit.' Kvfii on the supiposition of l.-itiniat.- olVspiin-, it is only in ,,,untiirs whnv th.' j^oiieral .s..ntiniriit applauds th" .oiirsr of ,,rtion. that th.> man aituat.-d l-y iih'iv srlf int.T.'st. ..mu hr suj.- ,.,M.,1 to pii.l.- hims.'lf on ivariii;.' up and i>:ovidiii..' for a t.miUv, in prcfenMur to iM,j..yinL', without ivstraint, all th.- j.lrasurrs ho mav he ahle t<. pr.K:un". ( 'ool. cahulatm- sell nifivst would thus speak. " Who knowvth whotlu-r his sun .hall he a wise man or a fool ' Vet shall he have rule over ,.11 his lahor, wherein he hath lahored. and wherein he hath diowed himself wise under the sun. This is als(, vanity. Whrieof 1 perceive that there is nothin-. Letter than that a man should rejoice in his own works: for that is his portion: f,,r who sliall l.iiii- him to see what shall he after him: it is .•oud aii.l comelv for one to eat and to drink, and to enjoy the ,1 ,,f all his lahor that he taketli under the sun, all tlie days 'f hi. hfe, which (;<.d ._'iv,.th him. tor it is his portion." We .1/. mor./fii/l'I. "m: '^'^.'./^'^■'■■■i- i^, •4">,**; ') ■ 1 4 R* 1 €4 THE EirECTIVE DErfIHE OF ACCl'MULATION find accnnliiigly tluil in staU's where luero selfish enjoyment is ihe chief jiiineijile >>( iietiun, that the inteiest.s of posterity are ne^'ieeleil. Thus, anion'^ the Ilonian writers, the heir is always rejiresenteil in an inviilious li^'lu, and to save for him is re- jiresented as a folly. Thi; writing's of Horace, and llie con- lemjioiary ]iocts, tliiou^fhout, exemiilify the prevalence of this fei'liuLT. " Piinus (ih hiiiidis cuiaiii — Assiilft iiisaiiii. — " For a fri:jhtful jiii-ture of causes and eMecis, in this pai'ticular, I lie epigram of Martial lo Tit alius lie^iiniin^, " liapl', i<.IlJ,'fM-, UllftT, Ctr." unL'ht lie (|\iotfd. i')Ul, it is linn' to eonelude a dijiression, on which jiriliaps i ha\t' snnu-what ]ireniaturely enteicd. We shall then assume tiial there are motives, as ahove enu- meiated, deii\ed finni the ]iiin(iples ^f human nature, acting on all men, and exciting' ihrm to exj'rnd what they jacsently possess in pro\idin'4' foi futuie wants, is there are others, • ierived fiiiiu iho siinie siJiirce, tempting them to lay it out in till' gratitiiation "f their immediate wants. The strength of tlie etliTti\i' desire of aceumulation, in any man (jr society of men. or tiiisdosiie ni.inifesti'd in action, is dete, mined liy tlie preponderance nf tiie one (dass of moti\i'S, ovei' the other. It is manil'ested. and may he measured, hy the willingness of the individual, or individu.vls, to lay out a certain anionnl to-day, in ordei' to jiroduce the douMe of that amount at a period more or less remote, tiiat is, at the expiration of one, two, three, ot( . years. [In tlii.s I'liiiptir KiH' ilms not in:iki' »\itikieiilly clear thiit it is a certain piirtiriilar mhI nl rrnml for otlurH— the lie'^iro "to endow the future" for tlii'tM— vWiicli chiclly supports tlie .iccunnilative principle. It is to lie noteil also that tlic plirasc " .xooial ami licncvolont atrection.s " has no sjiecific applicaliilit y a.s a le. iiical term in tliis ci^iinection. This very form of words lias lieen cm])liiyed liy one writer on economicn to denote those traits of character which lead oni' to spend all in the present, entertainiii(,' one's friends, .ind the like. 'I'lie p.i.ire.sl people in any cornniunity are as a rule gcHid hearlc.l .'ind (.'ixe freely lo any one in need. This is one of the chief thin>;s winch keep tin ni poor. Individual selti.shness enligliteneii hy the reason nlays a larj;i'r r^le in c-onomic life than Kae gives it credit for. Hut hi.s intircst here lieii^' .sociological rather than indiviilualistic, he could hardly ilistiihute his emphasis otherwise.] dfe ^Sm CHAPTER VU. OF SOME OF THK PHENOMENA ARISING FROM THE 1>IF- FFUENT DE(;REES OF STRENOTH OV the EFFFATIVE l.ESIRE OF ACCUMULATION IN DIFFERENT SOCIETIES. TilK -tlrctive (i»"sin- uf aeouiiiulati.m is of -liHevent dej^ivos of M,vi."lh unt onlv ill .litnM-ent sn,ieti.-s. as con i-aird with c.vcli „,h,.riml also in tl>e s.-veial iiul,vi,l.Kils .•ouiposm- tlu- sairo .„.iet'v as ,„n,i,anMl lo-othci-. l)lSIV-al■ainL^ hn\v.-vor, tor llu; ,,n....nl, li.c .■tfe.ls pioduc.a on tlu' fo„.aUon of .nslru.nenls, ;,oui diversilifs i,. llu- sUvn;_ah of ihis i.rnuii.lo a.uon:.: nuiivid- ,i,ds in llu> same society, w. are. in this .halter, to .■nd.avor ,„ ,,-acv soUdv some of those resullin- fro,,, the oi,e,.a,o>, ot , .„.e- vaiyi.i- its stien-th i„ different s.Kieties. As l,as hee„ ,,headv stated, there are three other .auses ope.aU,,- m the ,„r,„aUon of i.,stru,..e„ls : the quantity and qnahty o, the n.atonals owned hy any partKuiar s-cety ; the progress vvl,,eh ;he inventive faculty has n.ade in it: and the ,ate ot the wa.'es paid the lihorer. The tirst of these .lepend,,,- on the ,„i'",nal ,-onsl,tution uf the whole -lobe, and its d,t1..rent ,..,:l,„. an.l the eorres,)on deuce between these and the cor- ,„M..al -^vslcu uf „,a„,is determined l>y circu„,.stan. cs. the con- Mde.ationof whici, would W forei-n to the present lunuiry. With ve-rard t., our subjec' it is to b.- taken as an unportant !,ut ulti.nate fact. The causes on wind, the pn.^n-ess ot the u.vcntive faculty seems ch,ctiy to depend. w,ll fona the subject „f a subsequent chapte,'. At present, the extent ot that j,,,.,^jvss is to be ,e.e,ved s„.,ply as a crcumstance ot a.l- mitled impo,ta,ue. hi I 66 INTKRN.VriONAL DiriKKKNCKS Till' I.Uc n\' the W.i-r- ill' l.lliiir, tl]i' 1,1-t 1 1|' tlic laUSO iitlecl- iir_' llif I'm Hint inn ni insl i inui'iit>, tlinnu'li a ^uliji'it ni' iiivesli;^a- tii'ii in ii-i'll' lii'^'lily inIc'if>tiiiL', anil i-ln-i'ly rnnm-iti'il with this uliulr ii;i|niry, is nut, as has hern alrcaily statcil, tn he iichi'i w i~r ciinsiili'iril in tlicsi- in\i'.--li'_'al inns, lliaii as an cxistiiiu' ciiciini.-Ianii'. the njiri-ation ni' whuh is alsunl' ini|iiiitanc(' in tlir ilrii-r iinatimi ni' ihi' cxtcnl tDwiiidi liic -tm-k nl' njalfiials, ill ]iiis>(T>-iiiii (if any sm-ii'ty, will hf wrunu'lit n]i Ky it, Imt Uu' laws if;^iil:i!in'_' whirh lie Iii'MuhI mir lucscnlii'ii iiniits, Su ciilisidcicil, a liiw rate nt' waives ma}' he rstfcincil, in its diiccl cH'crts, as |irniiuiiii',^' thi' saint- icsiilts as an iiniiiuM-inciit in llic i|ii.ility lit' thi' inatrri.iis upiTatiMl mi, nr an cxtfiisimi nf the jiiiUfr til iiiimalf mi thi'iii, thiuiiu'h an aihamr in ttir \>V'i- u'lcss 111' iiiNi'iitiiiii. All ihi'sc raiisc the saiiu' icIiimi> In he |)ii"liici'il I'liiiii ,1 less cxjifnilitiiic, 111' [jrcati'i iftiuiis finiii thi> saint' cNiit'iiilit nil'. Tlii'y all. thi'ii-l'mf, ]il,tii- a ;_'iiMtfr laiiLTt' (if inatt'i i;ils within (■(iiiijiass nf the accniniilati\f ]iiiniii)li', ami iiccii-idii the (■iinsU'iicliuii iif a laiL;i'r ainminl ni in--tiiiniciils. ■j'lic aihaiiic (if invcntiiin. hnwcvt'i. diltcis fidin i Inwciiiiij in the late (if wa^i's. in li('in;j; a (|iiantity td the ' ic.is.- i if which Wf can set i!u liiiiiiuls, wlicifas, wi- sumi aiii\t' at a limit to till' ]iiis>ililc (liiiiihiil lull 111' the latciif waulcs. In tiic iiriiici]ilcs nil which thfy ilt'iiciid. anil in their iiltfiinr ciiiisfi|in'iicfs they ilitlcr, I liclicM/ it will In- fiiniid, still nidrc widely. 'I'hc liist fNain|il(' I shall take, nf llic clti'ct (if ( iiciini- ^laiiccs in inmili!iii_' the chaiaclcis i if ciinininnil ics, and nf ihc-c aLTain, in dclci niiniim the extent In which ihey cany the I'miiMt inn n\ ins] I uiiii'iils, will he that <>i the American Indian. The life n|' ih,. hnnler seeln> Illlt'aV ( ilal ile In the |ierfeeL deNelniienieii! nf I he aiiiimnlatne ]ii iiici|ile. in this state m.in may he s.iid in he iieee-saiily ini|i|n\ iili'iii. and i v.:.! id less (if fu!lllil\, liei,ili-c in it, the flllllle ]i|e--ents liiilhin'_', wlliell can lie with (liiainlN ellhel fnreseeli, nr unVt'ined. 'I'lie lliilil inu uldiuiiN all' the Miiiivc- finm whicli. alnnlrj hunters, ihe me, in-- n\ -iili-i^lence arc dl.l\MI. i'lllt I he ■• Kelmcj III the ll.lllnii nf ihe Inlie, which idnlle I lieicfnlc, c.in lll.ike llimt' .ihund.ini |iiii\i-inn fnr fiiiiiiily hy >ecuiiiij in ii-elf ,i dniii.iin lllnrc e\teli>l\c, III lifltel >ll|'|illed wilh Wild aiillii.il-; nr liieeL IN ACCrMll-ATIVE STRENGTH 67 ii in „„,,tv l.v l.rin- n.^t.Mtr.l tu un.- n,...v narrow, nr l.arnM,. \. n-a'ni:i,istnt.nvn,.Mns nf livin-. rvrrv nH.nii.'r n, surh ; ...nmnnniv thu.ks „f u-tlun. 1ml uh.tl,..- th- sa,,,.lv ,.t „,„. will U- i-l.-i.tifnl or srantv: in ihr n,„. *-a<.-, li- knuu. :i,., h,.will..n,ovalmn.lan.-.,inli,rn,h,.rll,at h. mu^t .M.lun. ,,.,„ |„ suri,' sum-li.s tlunvlo,,., (!„■ virw .an nrv-r 1.- ,i;,„,,.„l t„ ,„v distant futur,. ^u,„l, xvln.h pn-sml .■xrrt,n„ „,v...r,uvtnlh.. UHlivi.lual, iHU ^sr,,u\u^r^ to what, l.y that :.;,:,,.o„n.avh,. a,l,U.,l to th. ,.ow,.r. or th. t-rnlory ot tlw „i!„. What airl-stoth. u.l.vi.hu.l Imnt.r, aprh.'s to h,s .,„„:,i,ano„rinun,stanr..satV..,t;H,Mh.. who!.. han.l,o. lit h ,i„u to wind, h.' l.'lon-. It is only in infancy thai th.j .,„s of th.- voun, sava.,. ar.. to anv ^r-a, .xtcnt vrov.,l..,l |,v his parrnts. AftMAsani> h- feasts, or fasts, likr ..v.-ry „.lH.r UHMulK.r of th- .■o.nnn.nity, a. ahun-lanr,-, or >.arnt> ,„„„s in th,. .an,,.. That .aa,p, in.l.-^l. -nav h- sa>,l to ,orn> ,i,.. ,an,nv of ,h.-lna.an. Il,> whol. thoughts, anaalt...t.o„> ,„,,,,„^,,,,,, „„, l,a, h,. anv,-an.sfora.l,s,ant futunlv, ..nh..r ,„, ,,„„,.!,■, „, hi> otl^inn.-. sri-arat-.l fron. 'h- coum.on sntl-r- M, >. ,,f I'niovnu'nts of hi> tnh<". V,.,.. ,!,;■ caus-s ,i..t..,nnnin:i th,. fntu.v ._.,o,l ,.r .y\ tlow- ,„.„,„,,.,, „f ih..s,. ,n.al fannH..s, t,. 1„. u>lh>n r-a, . ol th.. ,,;,„„.s of th,. unlivi.luals c.o,n,,oMn^ th,.n,, th,.v woul.li,av.. a ,,.,,U.ain, for UH.>r ..x..rtio„s, an.l havu,. th,. n.,.ans, nn.h. „.,uir,. th,. hahil,>fl.nr,.haMnufutur,. i,l,.ntvan,l s,..M,nty, ■> ,„,!..„, ,o,l an,l ,,nvatio..,an,lof tra.an. out w.th ,vrtan,tv, ;„,„„,.. ,„„.,„,u,.u,-..s to nun,..,liat.. a,t. Hut thi. >s a ,uo.l.■ :,Mh„u..ht an,l a,...on. to vNhi.h th,- -nv.unMan.vs ol tlw.r con- ,iiM.n an. ,-,,l,o..l. As th,. utn.oM ,,ru,l,.n,.,., lon^Muht ul ,,„ntu,i,., .an hu, Ihth. an,.,.t tl,,. futur.. sN,.ltar,. ol h. ,,„|„„,,„1, „,,]„.„. i,o.,.r to p,o,not.. ,h,. ,„.-l-n'y "t "- .o, 1,-tv. is liuiil--,! and ),r,.,ariou>.' i, :, ,nl... of h,m.,.:— M,v a h-althv h.rrUorv and o„. ,,V,u„-ullvM,i,,.li,.dunhuan„.. th,.var,. i.r,^~M..l on hy o,l„.,> i|i' f •■ f iiiiily ,,-L:i.iii.li/.i-iii.Mit," aii.l . , ,iiii^ . h i|>t,T. I ,,,1,11. .,o-.l "i'i' '-'"'^ I"-'""" i'l'l'vi.lutU-.M. • < / i\ ■ \ ^ ; i 1 • . i '• i ' ' if 68 INTERNATIONAL DII-TERENCES cagfi- tf» seize on tliose aJvantages, ami sf> are continually <'nga|,'t'il in eriority ; otheiwise, they would retire, and, if acli ig ]prudenlly ami -kilfuUy, ne\ei' sullVr tli(Miisel\cs to he seen, unless to strike their fi.i's, tlieniselvcs lieing safe, in some well- condticleil aiuhush. l>ut where success depends ujMin conceal- iuei\t, and surjirisc, it also dejiends on chance. No jirecautions (an succeed in always guardin;'' :• ■ mall liand, encam])eil in the midst of a great forest, from In nexpectedly assailed. No precautiiMis can prevent the .^aik of a ]iarty advancing tlirough an enemy's cnuntry, from heing occasiunally dis- I uNcred. Viilory, or defeat, ami all that follow them, ilejieml iin the sligiitest accident. Fiutune is a goddess, on whose intiuence the schemes of the most skilful and greatest captains an> always in sume measure dependent, hut heie she reigns supreme. The etl'ects (if thes(> circumstances are increased hy the ( haracter of the l.iws nf war nf the savage. His wars ai'e wars (if externiiualion. Tliey cannot well he ■ therwise. Were he pressed to defen(l what he thinks reijuires no defence, hut is pre]iared alike tn execute nil others or suffer himself, he might --o do from the necessity of the case,— the plea which man always urges for every evil he intiicts on his fellow.s. He can neither safely le! ids enemies gn, nor ]i(issililv retain them captiv(>. In the former case they would lie as niu(h to he dreade(l as ever, for in the woods half a dozen men mav make hi mm IN ACCUMULATIVE STRENGTH 69 wai upnii a nation, as wars are there con.lucte.l. Ihat is. ,l„n- uiay wavlav, surprise, an.l slaughter .letache.l parts. Nov can he retain captives, for they would Loth he use- .... an.l also must escape. A plun-e into the surrounding; „.,vsl sets them free. Hence it is not con.iuest, as with other warriors, l.ut aestruclion, tliat is his aim. and what he execuU^s ,.„ others, when he has the power, he sees continually iin- ,„.„ding over him, fnmi tliem, when fortune -ives them tiie '"tIuis the whole existence <.f the liunter is cheMnereoweis. All the 1 th.at hapi^ens to him. is fn.m their havmt: heen propitious „. liis desi -. and from his havin- ri-ldly mleri.reted tlieir" ..mens- all the evil that hefalls him, arises, in his conception, ivuu, their hostilitv, or from his havin- mistaken, or iH-lected, ...me vision or token thev sent him. The warrior turns hack, m the middle of an expedition, if his sleep he disturU-d hy a .hvam hetokenin- evil: the Mnsuccessful hunter accuses neither h,s unsteadv hand, nor imperfect si^-ht, hut s,,me magical intluence han-in- on his weajMai, which only the priest or sor- ...rcr can therefore remove. The direction of ,ill .-vents whoso .uiival is distant, seems tt.us to the hunter nf the woods ,,, li,. entiu'lv hevond his control, and, ins.ead of endeavoring lo make the eas.'. or ahundanc' -f the present, provide h.r ■he evils of tlie future-, he prides himseli in .-n.joying the I of to-dav undisturhed hy a single care, and in teeling .,nd knowii.L', that lie can h.-ar the ill of lomoin.w without a iiiiiiumr. Hence the Indian has a cluuact.-r altogellier his own. VMuv^ himself hurried on hy the course of events, not direct- ii,.' it, he thinks as little of refraining from the pleasun-> that . ,,urse mav oiler Inm, as of siirinkinu from iIm- i-ains to winch ,■ mav expose him, and indulges, t herefore, with-mt restraint, ,„ tl>e enjovments of tiie hour. His intellectual faculties^ (I ro INTKUNATIONAI, 1)11 TKUKNCKS un.K'CUst(pliH'(l 111 iIimIuci' iciiiiitr r(iH>t'i|iiciM'fS I'lDlil iliillirdiatt' caiiM's, ali'l >lill !f>s arciiv|iPiiitMl ti. a'lujit as a Lrinuinl for ai-tinii, airl 'IP watcli carct'iill y, aii'l aii.xiipiisly, any (>ipiical<'iia- liiill ipf llic sipll. all' fi'clplc: citlici in tlirlii,-c!\cs, (pf t'liilll iiiaitippii. His iias.-iiiii>, ipii ihc cpphi raiy, an' stimi^'. I'n- arcustuiiicil til ivlli'cl iiill, llir wailil alul ■_;rilrl'i\is t'rcliiiu'S of alti'ctimi ami ;_'ral il mlr. as well a> tlir ilaik'T mn-s nl' liatifil aliil li-\rli;jr, aiv ipt'lrli I'lPlinnl lia>lily, aihl nil iliailrijtuitf i:riiiiiiils, Kut Ahilr tliry lasl tliry all' r\'-i-filii|Mly \fhi'iiit'iit. His llilpf Ippllli^ llii' pipiiii ill wllirll all llir~i' frflill.rs iciitlt>; it i.-- ill larl his I'.iiiiils. witli winch all his jppys ,iiii| sniruws ari' III cipIIIIUppM. .'vii atti'iilinii 111 till' cHimIs iiatuially llnwiim lippin this I'liai.irti'l , will cNlilaili many rilriiiii.--taiiii'S in thr ]ilr>riit ciiii- ililiipii, anil ]pa-! hi^ippiy nt' tlir^.' Irihi's, whirji an' in ihi'ni- s>'l\rs intr|v--lill'_'. all'l whiih air rh-rly n 'liniMtri 1 with uiir snipji-rt. ()!' all thiPM' rinum.-tancrs, iiipiif is ninir iriiiai kaMf, than llii'ir iirulriimu'. nr ii-l'ii\' sncicty,— the aiixiniis jirn- --]pi'cti\c c.iic nf the iiarent. aiiil the exerlinns, the iileasurcs, IN ACCUMULATIVE STRENGTH 71 ■nin.n 'iS a.a his fun-tat l.cvs, -ifts to W i,.a.l.> tlu' n..>t ;,.::t;^s,,is,.sn... u'si^n wlu'U .alleu u,, M. ll :;. .tl.- in tlu-tniast of th.. i.K.-ssa>.. a.Uv.ty n.\ u- •''--tl.at;un-..nnah,,.,i-u.a,al,lo,,faisc.v.n,..a,.^ ..x.itf th.' %vhit,- man, ihnn-h 1"»>.'>-<.1 ..t lu.a. ,,„. ,„,.s.M>t tn a.Vnf hin.S.lt, U.slraa, tn lahn.s tn uhui n- J l,nn:. au.vit.u>nva,.rtnl.m, ahn.a...Mt. hat " , „„1 ,. its.H.n>stnhin,,s.4tishspi.it,Nvlnrh,.v.m.i.t>.l. •■'';,. ;.ia,. a want nf th.. n.ntiv.s .x..itin, in ,.^^ „„ „ .,1s nf futuntv, th,nn,h n,..ans .,f the ah,ht..'s ..t la .s ,h..n- .s a want nf th.- hah>ts .,t p.-vop urn ,, ;,nn loa.Hnu t.. a .nn.tant .■..nn.xinn m the n.n.a nf J^ ,,,,,, ,,,i,,ls, ana .,f th.. s.-n.-s ..f ..v..n,s s.-ntn, ■> ,; J , „ iv..n th..-..f...v, K ....,tiv..s 1,.. awak..no.l .apahle .,!: n. tl xeni.,un.....ssavyt,,otn.cat^us....u..x.nn, ,,,,1, ,™,s th.. task .>f training th.-. .um.l tn thu.k, ana aa, „, iis tn i.stahlisli it. . . , Th,.s.. .l..|ici..n.ies in th.. tuntiv..s t.. .■xert,..n, ami .n ,,,,Us nf actmn ..f tho hulian. s.-rv.- tn a.:.-nunt i Ht.nn nf th.. ...n.nants ..f th.. tnl.s ^a'^"- ;•, ^ X„„h An...vuan ....1^..,^, in s.tnatmns wh.T.- th..> a . u ;„.. ..t ..th tlK. whit.. >nan. Th.-v.. js a ...tu.na sun, .n U„.„n.hnut. that will, I U-Vn... u..U'^ at. ..xa,,,,.!.. uku^ ,„„„:.,.. van nf th.. .nntuu.nt.suthn..ntlyaiustratn....f the >\.i\r nf thn whnlt... , ,. ,, , ,„,„ ^,,, ,,a,>ks nf th.. St. l,aw,..,uv, th...v a.v seyial l.ttk ,„ , ,;',,„a.,.s. Th..v a... snnnnn.l..a, in ...n.-al, ,' a ,..>a : n .r fvnm wliieh th.. w I ....n.s t,. ha... l...n 1.^, ; ,a,..l, ami havo, l-^ules, atUmh..a t^'/'-"; -^-;;^ naets nf Inrest. The .a.-aroa laml .s nuvly, 1 n.a> ahm.st ^ — ,^ ^ , ,_,,_ IL tti 72 INTERNATIONAL DIFFKRENCES 1 1 I .71 I , li ^ay never, ciiltivatei!, imr are any inroads niaile in the forest for swell a iMn]ic)-e. The soil is, nevertheless, fertile, and vveie it not, manure ii(>s in heaps iiy t!ieir houses. Were every family ltran:4e ajiathy profieeds not, in any ^'reat de;4ree. from repuj,'- nance to lahor; on the contrary, they ajiply very diliu'eiitlv tu it, when its icward i> immeiliate. Thus, liesjdes their peculiar o(:cu]pations ef hunting and tishiii'.', in which they are ever ready to enijau'e, they are much ein]doyed in the navigation of the St. Lawiencc. and may he seen lahoiinir at tlie nar, or setting with the jiole, in the lai>;e hoats used for the purjiose, and always fuinish tlie j^reater part of the additional hands, necessary to conduct lafts through some of the ra]iids. Xor is the olista(le aversiim to agricultural lahor. This is no doul.t a prejudice nf theirs: hut mere prejudices .always yield, inincijiles of act inn cannot he created. Where the returns frotn auricultural lahor are speedy, and ureal, they .ire also afrii-iuc ,1,mI 1111(1 hn»Ml. A littl. wiiuld, iiiucfd, ic.luci- tilt' cioj) viTV much lias iiiailc tli.-m pcit't'ctly awaic. and tlicy iM ,i I rclu liii<;lv. It is I'viilfiilly imt tlu' lu'Cft hf iihstaclo tn iiiiidi iiiniv oxtt'iitU'd ciiltiin' III friiiu tliat lahii I •nil' <'f the lunii" it'iunic tiil ilia assiiifi ;iirv lalmr, tliat hut the distant iiidct'd, that, anion ill.- lah.T tlius rxpflidiMJ, luilcli fi'ds that :_'ivcn hy tlif wliitrs. Tlir sani.' jHTtiniis (.f iind ht'iiii.' en.inifd without n-inissi-ii. and inanuiv \\d that others, re<|uinii<,' ..'reater slreicjth if the acciuuiilative iirinciple to form them into instriimeii ts. he jiut to use. None, therefore, even of the most t oiinnon li.indicrafts, which they st^e the while man continually exercis- 111.', are to 1k" fouu. anion;; them. The a.\(> and the knife, are almost th.eir only tools. Their houses, their furniture, their '■ \ii 74 INTEHN ATK )NAI. DIFl'F.KENCES ') . r il' ils ,■11.' all similar. mimI "f a smt ti^ si'i \ •' only llif Wi-fU <4 liif iii'Unrii!. \i.lliiir_' is cillirr rcs.Tv.Ml <>v pro- vi.|i'(l tor a t'niniily in any ways ijistaiii. Their siuck of in-tiuniriils Itfinu' llms CMntiiitMl t.i sndi as an-oi' i|i.> iiin;-,i 'luicklv iflnininu' 'iriiris, a \asl mass (if matnials is ih-jIim/IciI, wliicii hv aimtlin rail', l'iiM'Iiu'iI l>y uthrr jiiinfi|ili's nf arlimi, ,111- I'liiMMti'il, iir I'liiivi'itiiiLr, iiitii the means uf aliiinilantly MijiplsiiiL' till' iii'i'i'ssiiii's anil t'lijnymi'iits ><{ a nunirnius jinpn- lalimi. 'riii'y tliiis allMMJ a slnkiii'i inslaiirr. of llii' etVivts ri'-nltiiiu' fniiii a L-ival iletiiirnry nf sMi'iiulli in the .leeiiniiila- tive iirinripli'. Tliev liaM' skill. aili-'jiLite tn the furmatiun nf instlimiellts i-.ilialile nf niillistelill.: In the lieressilies ;iiiil <,-'pmfnits nf a iiiimeiniis ]in|iulalinii. fni- wiih the jinweis of tire, the a.\e. ami the I , the i^'icat au'enls in I'onxeitiii:^ the foiesl to the tii'M, they ate well aii[iiaiiiteil ; they have imhislfy, (finteiit with a veiy nioileiate. if immeiliate leWiinl; yet. tmrn iiiaileiiuate stieii'ith in this juiiieiiile, these all lie inert, ami useless, in the niidst of the ■_'re,-.'test ahiiinlaiiee of materials; ami, the means for e.xislemc in the time to enme nnt heiiii,' inoviileil.as what was fiituie lieijomes present, want ami misery iirrive with it. an. I these trihes .are ilisaiijieariir^' liefore them. The while man lohs their wooils ami waters of the stores witli which nature linl ie|ileiiisheil them, ami the art.s, hy the coin- mmiicatioii i,\ whii-li he woiiM fotniiensate for the sjioliation, are ilespiseil. Thnuu'li the livilizeil man may In' truly said to have Iteen the Lireatest enemy nf the iniliaii, yet he has imt always heeii so wilfully, ami. in many iiisianees. he has emlea\oreil to he his heiiefaetor. i'.ut. thoU;_'h his emieavnrs may nrcasioii- allv, for a time, have .irresteil the inou'ress of the evil, tliey have never altn.;ctlier remnveil it, or heeii of iiermaneiit ail- vaiita'.;e. < >f ,ill atteni]its of the kiiul, that of the .lesuits, in I'aramiav. seems to liase heeii iirmlui-tive of most ;4ooil, ami to have '_'iven the fairest jnomise of ultimate sueeess. This jiarlial suiiess is evidently to lie traced, to the usual talent of those fathers, in elearly iiereeivini: the actual circumstances of the condition, and disposition of the men with wlmin they had to deal, and tn their usual ahility in converting' these circum- stances into means ot aicnmiiiishin;4 tiie ends they had in view. ^«'^^- IN ACCrMlLATIVK STUKMi'lH ""' Tl.rir ],lan i.n-s.Mits twu.jnMt l.atmvs. Tlirv wnui^'lit u]m,i, ill,. Imliaiis tlir.iU-li tliat wliirli was alniir m lli.-iii capaLli' of ,A. ilii.u' to .■xlnidr.l acti-M, tlirir l(-v.. of ihrii H'Vcial nations, ,,„1 ,l,"v,,liuH iM thrii int.'ivsls. riiry I.H.k .■vny nirans to -Imw tliriu thai tli.'v coiiM.an.l wmiM, i-ioiiiotr lli^sf int.T.'sts; ,,,,1 tlius idi-utifvin;.' th.'iiis.'lvcs with tli.- nali<.iial .■xist.'iicc .,,1.1 lilnslKM-itV. trailslVrnMl in thril nni.T a iai-r iM.iti-n of l!i,. sli-nnu' l<'<'liii:-'^ arising' li"iii hnn'tils itrri\,'.l fmin, an. I ,, Mirations an.l .hitirs nwiim t- his tiih.'. which air th.' .u'lvat inuwis, ami ruliTS, (.1 llir l»'iii'_' "f ihr lii.lian. Thf .•ilorls i,\ tlu- lnlliali.'s s.vin tiisl t" liaw \ thf ni.->.~rii:_'ris of a ivli-ion, , iMuiisinu ipracc on .•artli. an,l munortai hapjunrss aft.T .Iratli, ii,rv had .lainis on thrir attfnti..ii whirh aiv foivi-n to, air - ll.'l.Tt. r.fsid.-S tll.^o h'.WrX.T, as th.- |.MSSCs,~nls of ill,' aits .,,id pow.Ts of civili/atinn, thov iiad oihors, which wviv iiioiv IMlpalilc to the couiinvhcnsion "i the sava.'c KuioImmiis wciv known hv this unfortunate race, as iH,>sessoi-s .>f powers so -veal, as t., api.ear suiMTiiatural ; hul ihey had hilhetto heen ku.iwn oidv as enemies and ..ppressois. the hearers ..f unsjieak- ;,i.|e calannlies or utter ruin. < »nt ]M,\\erful proU'clor.s. The i; ual intellij^ence, ]irudence. and fortitude of the fath.'rs did n .t d..serl ihem on this uccasinn, and, tliou-h not willmut the expense of the martyrdom ..f several of tlu- order, they sue- ,.,.ded in impressin;.' ihe Indians with the helief. that ihey \sere reallv their friends. The rest of the task was compara- tively easv. C.Mivinced on ihis head, the sava;^"^ %villin;_'ly. and 'immcMliately, hecanie d-cile diM-iples. Fully satisfied of t'le advanta:,'es which Kuropean arts -ise to a pei.ple, th.^y sel ihemsehes with zeal lo acpiire and Israelis,' them, for llie henelit of their sevral trihos. Tliou-h nui fnr his individual llle' a' 'I t ii 76 INTEHNATIONAL DIFFKUKNCKS prf'^ciil jilcisiuc or .•iiiln.uc iircscnt tuil ; for tin- .''mmI of lii-< ii:itinii 111- h.iii Im'i'M tiii'jlil. ainl w:is rcaily, t" 1"mi nr foili.-ar ;iiiv ll\iii^'. The Ji'suits liail, tlii'ii-furi', mily t" t._rrfss, aii' u'l-iifially inU'ivsliim, si'iii>'liiii«- aiiiu-in'_'. lint milii'i|iifiitly, in lliMSf uiiac'iuaiiiltMl with lii'- iMTuliai ili<'s of till' Imliaii cliaiiiitci. aliimsl iiiciflil'li-. Tli.-y ihcriist'lvcs, in llif tii>t iiislain-c, Uii.'l.'l llifii pinsflvti's how au'iii-ulliiial o|MTatiuiis wfiv to he iirtl'diiiir.l. hy taking tli<' siiailc, uiid olhiT iiisiruiiii-nts, in ihcir uwn han'ls. I'.ul, when thus, hy pivci'iit and i-xainidc, lliry had hr.niu'hl lln'ia to hi' alili' to cxfculi' thf sc\i-ial opiTations of ]iloii'^hin'_'. sowin'^', riMiiinu'. I'ti-., thi' iliHiiiilty was lnit half ovrr. Witlioul thii fon^tant sii]ii'riiilrniliMiry ami vi'^ilami- of tln'ir instiui-tots, ihrv ni'Vi-i w.uiM liavt' inartisci! Un'iii. Thus, at tiist, if tlu-si* ■4avr up to them tin- calf of tht> oxi-n willi whicli tln'y lijoir.'licil. thrir iniliili'Ut thon^'htlt'ssin'ss wouM inohahly Umm' Ihrni at fvrninu still yoki'il to tin' iniiplfnu-nt. Worse than this, instances occiiireil where they cut them up foi- sujiper, thinking;, when icpiehenilcil. that they sulH'ienlly excusci themselves hy sayi^;_^ they were hunu'iy. ]'>v the iuilefatii;ahle juTseverance, ami dexterous niana',.'e- iiiout of the niissionarios, they wore, however, al last, lirou'.;li'. .so to lalior the earth, as, in that fertile soil ami wanu climate, to proiluce ahumlant returns. They were also at iieacc with one another, ami fe.ueil hy their eiiemie.s. The tranquillity, the security ;■■ ' Mi;' plc.tv thev thus enjoyed, ^ave the desnits additional (hums on their (untiilence and i,'rar',tiide, which the 'j. I fatiiers seem to have taken can; should he made sutiiciently apjiarent to them. Hence it was, as Chaile- voix tells us, tliat they thought they could never sutiiciently testify their atVection and uratitude for those, who had rescued them from hariiaiism and idolatrv, and who, in spite of the most severe ]iersciution, and the i;reatt^sl toil, had procured them all t!ic advantaues they enjoyed. They continually recalled to mind the miserahle state from which they had heen hrou^ht ; the jiarents instructed their children, and they saw with their own eves the condition of the ueiuhKorini: nations, who had not p.irticipated in their happiness. It was hy no IN ACCIMULATIVK STRKNGTH 77 i.i.iins wonilcrfiil, a.s he continues, that those thing's pnMliiccil ail iittachiiifnt tor the niissionarit's. that was without JhuuuI-*. The additional authority and influence thus ac(iuired, they .Miii.loycd in enforcing stricter olKjdience, and increiisetl in- .histry, and . A.imine what is really wanted; loi, witliout this care, th< Indi.ins would never look after any thiii-^. They must he j. resent loo, when animals are slau'^htered. not I'lily that the in, ■at may he eiiually divided, hut that iiolhini: may he lost." It has i)een Jiece.ssary," says Charlevoix, 'to apj.oint superin- leiidents, who inspeet every thin;^' accurately, and .m'c if they ,ire husy, if their cattle are in good condition, etc The lal ors "I the W(jmen are regulated, as well as those of the men. At lie heu'inning of the week, there is distrihute.l among them, a cci,ain ijuantiiy of wool, and cotton, which they are ohliged to i.iiirn, on .'^alurday evening, ready for the loom. Ihit. not- ui!hstan1 M'-rlAr 1 1 ic -lll-c'l \ .- a SI I Ihrirl l.-V ol ■.'laill. •■Veil |,,, .,.ril. A- I'l tli'-il Mtlirl ]i|M\ i>lii.|>, wnr |!m'^ ll"! \\i-l! 1,„,1.,„1 ,||,,., ,!„., WMiiM sMMii !„■ williniii whfirwillial tu . "l' ill,. Iiiiiiaii. \\v \\a~ lliiw ili'luriMl williii-lv, ainl t hrivfui .• /.•alMii-lv alpl -iHci-~Iilll\ . I" apjilv liis i".\\ri> lo tli«' ar,|uisi- ,i,„, ,,,„! ],iai lire ..I l-;mM]i(aii alt-, ainl. wliilr ill.- iiii"ii.li.irif< inaiiitaiii. .1 \\n'\v j.-wrr. ami \'<\)^^r^ a j.ail -! tli'' l'"li'v \Oiii-l! tlic-ii -a-ai-itv ami jTi-fX cralici' lia^l i-IaMi.-ln"l. il '-'avi- .■verv Ink, -11 .if ]ini-|.rrii\ aii.l \vi<>\. 'I'lH'ii pni.l.'iic.' and jn .>\ iilciirr 1,.,1 mil, rllici.-lll arlinii ill.' ,|r>;ic. wIihIi r\>-\\ ilhlivi'lilal iVlt )■,„. ill,, fiiini.' |i|i.-|ifii!N i.r liis Iiili.'. 'I'll.' iiiAviTs (.1 the <,,,.ial and iManv •■l.'iil all.'.-l mn- .,1 tlir liia-> liad liv.' ."Ulsc. an. I wli.it ua- u.iiiiiiii; in iiil.'ll'''t ual fii. i-\- I'.'iiiu' -ui'iili.'.! l.y ll„. fill,,. is. 111., .l.-iiv '.f a.-.illiiulali..li .'I 111.' \vli..l.' l..i.ly li...aiii.. -u'li.i.'iiilv .■!l.'.li\.' an.l Ml.nri, t.. t'..lin a lal-vi st..i'k .,f iiistiiiiii.-ni-. Wli.il. tliri.'i..!.'. nii-l'.t. at tii>! si-lit. ,-tiik.' IIS as til.. 111. ..-I .lull. 111! liait i.f til.' i.i.'i".i. til.' .■>!al.lisliin-- a ,.,,i,iiiiiinitv ..I ......I- aii.l iiit.'i.-l-. W.1-. in i.-alitv. that whii-li |.|.ii.||.!,.,| It ..I .M-N- .A. .■iiti..ti. Willi all ill.' a.halila'^vs atl.'n.liii- sill II a l'.>rin ..l' s..ii.'t v. - 1 lir t'MMMl..iii li.piii sliitV, JimIi'II-v. .•..iii.'iili..n. an.l . ai.'. .•nj..\.'.l l.v lli.' -u'at iii.i j..i it v.— il ha.l al-.i ih.. .li-a.hani.iu.' .'l' i.'.|i;iriirj .in.l tli.'i.'f. 'if .'M-iliii.. 1,1 til.' iiiiilti;ii.li'. liMl.' ..r n.. .'N.'iii.'n ..l' tli.' int.'ll.'i l ual t'a.-iil- li,..,. Til.' ...in. It- lia.l l..'i"iii.'. .'!■ w.'ic I..'.-. '111111.:, ni.'i.' iiia. Iiin.'s in till' li.in.ls ..f tli.' iiii--i..iiari.'-. Tli.' u li.'l.' sti..'k ,,1' iii-liiKii.'iii- I'.. Mil. "I l'\ th.' .-.1111111. '11 lal..'i. was in tli. I„,ss,-s-i.iii .'I ill.' laili.'i-, and lli.' -Iiai.' \.lii.li tin' In.liali-- |.,.,.,.i\,.,| ,,f til.- 1,111111-, (l.'|.in.l.'.l ..n tli.'ii j.l.'.iMii.', Th.-v u,'i,' 111 1.1.1 1. n.i.'l a- l..-.|.^~ ,i| a -iiii.'ii.'i ..i.l.T, wli..-.' aiii.in- \\i.|,' .'1 n.'..'-ilv li-iil, .iilI wli.i-r -li-litr-t wi-li.- W.'l.' l.l\\-, 11' u,. jn.lj.. t'l'iiii wli.ii i- kii.'wn ..I' ill.' si.ii.' ..f til.' Aliii'll. .Ill .■.ilillll.'lll al it- .ll-r..\,'l\, ll \\..'lM -.'.'111 tll.ll tlii.., iMini .'I -.. i.'iv. i- lliil wli:.|i til.' liMiil.T, I li.in',:iirj ,!n,'iri\ |.. th.' auii.'ul:iiii-l ii.il uLilh' a-nim.-. lli- .l."..'ii.'n III th.' mlfii'st,- .'!' ill.' till..', l'a,-.'s tli.-i.' iiit" attr.ti.ni tm tli>' ■■*;•'. IN A(( r.Mri.A'iivK sii{i:N(;TH 7D ]"TMiii, ami l.Iiiiil nlirdioiirc U> llic will lA tlif iliii'f. Tli(> iiidiints \Vf lia\r 1. 1 till' {oiiiliticii iif tlir kiii.:iliiiiiv that llir >liiiiiai.ls fiiuiicl o-iaMi^lic'l in tlir innr-t t'citilo ifu'inns .if lln' CMlililifiit , ilc~(lil't ihr ]Mi\\rl \vl;i(|| tile lulcl-s ]i<<>- -o-nl, ami tlif n'MTciicc paiii llnMil, as t'X(rs.-i\c. Tlit' ]..M],lc sfflii til lla\ ' in LTiMii'lal, ali|ili'ailiril tlic (•(iniliticili I'l' >la\i'S. ami b< have hail a lar_'c shaif "l' thf ilcl'i'its it" lli.tt inmliliiin, a uani nf intdliLivm-r aii'l i-m-i^'v. < iiP' iiwn haihai ian ani'('>iiii .-. -uch as tt.i'V aic i|i'-ri ihci! li\- T.nitiis, have liccii often lilirm-il tn ihf saxa.'c aim! i'_'i lies nt' Ni'ilh Aint'iii-a. I'.iit. tlmu^h thnt; niay he sumc ]iiiints nt" I1---1 •■■hlaiicc, till' iiaiallcl will l.r fniimi tu tail, in sevcial iiiipi.i lani ]Mitiriilals, whirli. as ih;". si'cin tu ha\i' uprrati'ii !liii)ii;_'li the intluciiri' tln'V ha\r rNciinl i>n that ]ii iiici|il(', ihr ■ tii'iis nf whii-li we arc at pivscnl riin>iilfi ii,^, may he allnwril Ml rlaiin I'Ur at ti'iitinii fnf a lii;li'. Till' rai-i', wliiisi' 111 riijiat inn nf ihi' fi ii i'>is aii'i w iMn nessrs •ii till' nmthwaiil cif till' iinmin Kinpirr, ma.li' thrsr. m ■111' ilays nf Kniiif's sticiiLTth. In ! >. • ri'^anli"! a.~ tin' rru'lmis n] :ii\.-;i'i'y anil wnmler, in tlinse nf its wi'aknrss. n\ wcil-fnuinlrii iii'l inrM'as-ii',^- anxicly atnl ilriMil, wcic |iici]Mily -.hi']ilii'ril ^'■alllnls. 'riinllLlh I hr fNiilrllirnl n\ ihr ihasr fli'ipli'Ilt Iv -i\H ti! I'liililnymnit In their anient s|iiiils. aliil il-- tnils In iluif liaiily I'lame.-, aiiil thniiL;li its ]irniliiii- mini-h reil tn many nf iheif wants, their cattle weie yet tlieii' main sn|ij.iiit. .ili'l tn ]iln\iile t'nl the Slisteliallie nf ihe.-e, llieif uTleat husi- II'--. Hut the ]in--es-lnn u\ tlniks ami lie]. Is, implies a 1 "ll-lilerali|e ileu'lee nf laie alhl fnlc-iuhl. Imlh in lanteet in.;- all'! makiiii: ]iin\isinn Ini tliem, ami in aNniiliii.: tn ennsume '" '^leat a niimhei nf ihelii. Il al-n ii!i|ilies the e\i.-teliee n( I'll'-ate |i|'n|ielty tn a lal'je aninlllil, alnl, in:isei|i|i'lil !\ , nf -'leli^lh in the lies liillilllrj f.imilli - l ''_e|her. 1 he JMl'iit, if 111 ill -ill's tn -ee 111- n||>j,l|||_; elllny l'|e|lt\. Illli-I e\eH llllll-i'lf '•' I'lnenie 11 |nl tlielll. Tile ] ie| fnl 1 1 la 1 lee nf I h i - i 1 1 1 1 \' ilM'S lillii elainis nn lliejr ',^1 al il liile, aliij 1 1 1 a w - i In-el the enlilieNinn '■■IWeel, ihi-m. The -n|l nf life |l|e\ le|.| Inn, ilemaml- h— nf ,-i'\ere .■sillinii. ami allnl'l- Inirjii llilelXal- nf ea-e, |: 1 llli-- ill. ill Injelher 111 lal.;er l.ainl- aiil -. .. !.■; ir-, ..f wlu.'li ea.'li !iiiiiiliei has li'^^hts In .li'f|.||,i an.l iiile|,.,i-. |.> ]i|.i\i.l.. f..i, an! 80 IMKHNATIONAL DIFl'KUHNCES f tlius pro.lufes tin- riiaiinmts uf law. just:r,., ami th.- jiolicy of 'ivilizcil siicic'iy. War may \h- hikI U< I'C iialural In thuiii, as well as to tniiilcrs, liut. it is always d]..'!! ; oinwalnienl is cail ..f tin- .|uestinii; th.-ir -ivaUT iiuinlin-. and tli<- necessity of haviim iilwavs witli thcui a iar^e train uf dnniestio animals, render it iiiil)raeli<;aMe. They liave n<,t tlierefore to fear l.ein-,' r- pris.'d and oven-nni.'. liefore tliey can liavp time to dei.nd iheuisel'.es. Henee, the mend.ers of a numerons and warlike lastnra! nation, livi- in comiarative seeunty. Tliey see that .hanee has less inlluen tend strou-ly to excite tlie social and heiievo- leiit allections, and llie jiowers of reason and retlectioii, and to -ivv scope to their action anion- them. Tlie pastoral ancestors .,f tlie present KuroiMMii race were lieree, cruel, and vindictive harhaiian.-. \ct. sj.ite of tiioe forliiddiiiLT features of their character, wc can as distinctly trace to them tiie sources .if all the more -eiieioiis -lid .'-ofter virtues, tliat udM- liappiness to their descendants, as we can llie free and independent spirit tiiat hestows on them liliei'.y and security. Such nations l,,ive, theivlore, iiatuially a much iiiuiier etteclive desire of accumulation than nations of mere hnnteis. Tlie strength of \\n< principle, in fad. seems witii tlieni in -eneral, so -leat, as to ill. lin.' them to foim iiisiiumeiits iviuiiiicj: a mucli superior ,lc-ree of j.iovidcnce and s.df-denial, to that indicated hy the 1„ jiim of c.atle. They are prevented from doin- s.., hy tiicu wandciin- life, and hy tiie wars in which they are neees- s.iiilv const. iiillv eii-a-ed. When, for instance, they an; settled in a coiiutrv suited to .lurindture. and to which the knowled:.,'e of the art h.is peiieliated, they h.ive a tendency to hecoiiio IN ACCTMrLATIVK STRENGTH 81 \ ■ \ i_:icu ltnii-ti>: tlial is, tcp clutiije the lainl. t'lrm which ihcy thfir siilisistriicc. t'loni an iiistniiiHMi t vifliliii'^ a 'av'^e ■. niTi. in ]>ii'ji,.itiiii) U< ttif hilior l.estnwi '! nil it, t (I iini' vif ij, a still laiu't'i- retiini, lh(Hi:^h n-cpiiiiii.; }a-iiaMMl trom lalior, .1, conseonently, I'ewer soMjei-. In ].astoi,il nations, almost th^' nii'ii aie waiiiois; in au'vieu Ituial, only a few ean withiiiawn from the lahois of the tiehl. The latter are ■irfoic, naturally inferior to the former in military jnowess, •I to !ie coni|Ui'reil and deslroyeil hy fate im{ienilin.j over III'! are eonsei|UiMiily suiijec IliiU. Sueh sei-nis to liave •n ttie (i.iul, from the side of (leriuany, whe.i ihc aji] learance o f ( ■ -ar :ave another turn to atfaii The (liuls, we learn from liiii, thoH'jh then inferior, I'li'iwn, to the ( Germans. ; "11 hail heen occaiiioneil l>ali'. whieli llii-y. in a meal mea; ure, were, in his time, Th • ..■imans, a-ain, I'leserveii themselves from the fatal etlects of -'h a ihanLTe, hy the sinirular national custom, or eonstitutinii, ■ii.i; oMiu'eil tliem all, every year, t hair.'e the lands tliey •lively ijiied. r.y this cons tiansler ut iiistrn- d of the materials of which tj. y mi^ihl lie formed, hcv took awav every indueemeui t< ik them nii into ■nlers oi low return. and iiitinei he memhers ci if th iiiimuni ty to the pastoral condition, % ' .ch experienci' had itless instructed them, was n .St U ivoral'le ti ilitai"' iluWc; In the times of the Casar<, Kuio],e was thus ilivided, liy an Mejular line runniuu east and west, into two .'real jiarts, the ■ lie oceupieil hy the harharians, tlie other hy the Empire, To III- northward of this line, were many ni th.- h.-sl : a..e..r-lni- to tiieir cree.l. the hrav.-sl. Their most p..weiful ami warlik.- trihes. ih.-refore. iM,.-M->sin- ih.-ms.-lv.-s of th.- mon- fertile regions, th..s.- l..,r.ieiin- on th.- line .livi.liir^ th.-ni from the empire, laess.-.l viol.-ntly auainsl it. anM, oppo-e.l l.y a force cntiuually .liminishinu, at length hurst ihion.h it. Tliree ur.-at .-vents, each l.-a.lin;,' .m the ..iher, wouM seem t.i have he.-n th.- iM-.-cssary eons.-.iuence .-f this rev..lution. < >f th.-se. the lir-t was the ..ceupatiou of the wh-ile eontinent hy Uu- harbariaiis, an.l th.- .hivin- hack the still onw,n.l-f hein- in turn <.verp..were.l hv the n-irlhern warrL.rs, the thir.l. I'lilil the arrival of tlie tir.sl peri.i.l, wiien, th.- continent havinu' heeu cmpl.-l.-ly ..v.-rrun aii.l rava-ed hy the l)arharian mullilu.le, lia.l as.sume.l a form closely approximating; t.j Ihat of lh-3 territ..ri.-s they ha.l f.irmerly ..ccupie.l, there could he no ai']'r.>ach to rest, hut the ti.le must still a.lvanee. When the r.-c.-plac!.- vacant foi its re.epti.m was .^nce com- pletely tille.l. the mi-hty nia.ss had to recil on itself. The hiittle of Chal.ius fixes this period. Europe, with the exception IN \CCrMrLATIVK STRKNGTH S3 ,,f the I'onu'r occupied I'V llie Kiisteiu Eini'iie. aii.l whidi l,el(iiip'd rather l« Asia than to it, seems then tn have heeii i..ive of accunndalion, liad heen s\ich as to produce a tendency ,,mon^ them to ;jive ^'reater capacity evi-n to the maU'rials ot utiicli they had tli.' command in the northern rei^i.jns, thouuli a the expensi'of clianu'in;^' them into instruments uf somewhat sl(,wcr return, hy convertin- their lands from pasture to tiila-e. Thi- tendency hecame inevitaMy stron-er. as they advanced into more fertile soils ami milder climaU'S. The revolution • -^elf took place .gradually. The exact -late of the pre- ponderance of the one condition over the other, cannot, perliaps, U' determined hut hy the etlect.-- pro.hiced hy its arrival. It is only in the slate of hunters, or shepherds, that nation can literally ;j;o to war with nation. In the agricultural >tate, it is not the men of the nation, hut a small part of tliem, the soldiery, that H:_'ht. Takini,' this as the criterion, we uii;4lit tix the rei'gn of Lharlema-ne as tliat. in which war, as the husiness of European nations, properly ceased. The con- lusion of that monarch's rei'jn, has sometimes heen reckoned the I I r M 84 INTERN ATIONAL 1)11 TEKKNt ES I '1 r.„nincn(Ciiifi.t «i a \>i'U. suthcient cause for the IN ACCrMl'LATIVK STRENGTH .s.> .livLTsity of etl'ects tlowiii',' ivm l\i>- twn events, ami sliuw, that, instead <>( there Keiuiz any leasun tor suipiise at the hunter nf ihe wimhIs disdainin',' the iahms and rewards ot civili/atinii, it is rather nur Imsiness t" imiuire huw tie eould ever have heen led to adoj.l them. Had the nations wliom the north poured forth on the south le, that that continent would, even at tlie j.resent day, have K.'en niie widi forest from side to side. The third of tlie :^reat events referred to, the evils and danu'ers arising' to the ancestors of the present inhahitants of Kiiiope, from th-ir for-iier ineltireii ni the north and east, wlien the stren:_'th of their accumulative principle led them to put otV the liarharian, and emiiloy themselves in ^iviiii,' to tlie m.Ltirials witldn their reach llie cai)aliilities for the supply of ill.- wants of futurity which art showed that they ].o.s.>jessed. were felt for many centuries. The change tliey were tli.ni under:4oin.i,', though it added very greatly to the total uumlx-rs of the .several nations, lessened the iiumU'ra of the warriors. The instruments they formed U-ing of the more slowly relurn- ni'i orders, thougli tlie whole income from them was much greater, the laKor necessary to produce it was more than proportionally greater, and the portion of the population left ivfe for the purjioses of warfare was conseiiuently less. It were foreign to our purpose farther to allude to this cau.se of commotion and revolution, than to oh.serve, that ihe mischiefs and dangers arising from it, seem to have heen moderated hy ihe very gradual manner in which the change took place, and lo have heen counteractetl, and finally overcome l>y the • idditional power acipiired throuL;h the progress of invention in the arts of civilizeil life. The next example I shall addiu .-, of the uitluence of the accumulati' i> piinciple, will !« tlial of the Chinese Empire. .\11 accounts agree in ascriliing to the jieople of this Empire, a peculiarity running through the whole structure of their social and domestic life, liy which alone perhaps its mechanism can he well explained, and which seems to form its great governing and susUining principle. Their moralista and legislators appear Lo have s'lcceBoiuliy endeavurcd lu give lu the feelings. y s« INTEKNATIONAL DIFFEKENCES iialuiallv >].iiii'-'ini: i\«m the parental .iii'l family u'latioiis, an iiilliifncf aii.l aiUliMiity, far siipeiiur t" wlial these possess anicnu "th.-r nations.— the powei and unity of a re'_nilar syMeiu oi .luties and ol.li-ations. A father, as the inune.liate ihoii-h secondary cause of existence, is r.-^aided with ujuch of the feelin«:s that are elsewhere reserved for the intinite and .-li-rnal fountain of all e.xistence power, and jierfection, and, cnscpiently. claims, as a sacred ri-iit. a measure ..f love, reverence, and oh.Mlieiice. thai to iis >eenis jierfectly (innalurul. i'.oth while alive, and after his death, he i^ reverenced, we uii.dit sav adored. His descendants form a little .lisiinct soiieiv l...und I. .-ether hy the >-!ronL:e>t ties, a system ai^urt fiom all others, haviirj a common centre of action of its own. What is conceivetl to h.' a realitv in families, is melaplioric dly applied 1,, the vlmle empire, and its several part.s. The emperor i> the father of his people, his atlection for them as his children is held to l.e the animatin:,' i>rinciple of his actions, implicit olieilicnce t.p him as then' jMreiit. who i-an only com- mand what is L'o,„l. i> the first duty of liis suhjects. Each inferior ma-islrale is also ie;jarde(l as the father of tliose over whom he r\dcs. The result has heeii so far happy, tliat the harshness of despotism is si^niewhat tempered hy the nuldness of the pater- nal character. We are so constitiUed. that no part can he assumed, and hahitually acted, without in some .Ic^ree nioiild- in;^ our nature to its form, and makiiiu' that a reality, which may at first have lieeii only a fiction. It has also heen happy in the strength it has ;_dven to the connexions and ail'ections of those helonu'in;,' to the same family, or sjmngin^,' from the same stock. A man must he stroni^ly excited to >_'ood, and deterred from evil, iiy hein;_' aware that his actions and fortunes are the olijects of solicitude to every memher of the little community to whom he is Unind hy the ties of l»lood and kindredship ; that they rejoice at whatever lie accomplishes that is honorahle and haiipy ; and are alllicted and di.s.L'iaced hy his imprudeneies and errors. liut, viowinu the system on another side we may perceive ,!,., ...;i 1, ..^ ,^. .,.,,,,,, ,.,,. .,f i! xiie MeiidinL' of tliQ characters of parent and lord, and ilius making; of each head of a family IN ACdMlLATIVK STRKNCiTH s7 .„.l.solutoinaM,.r. thejn liini I lalitv withiiiit tear, wluiU-vfi- vi.v !a hu-ni.i"aluv"is'nnt ncressanly n|,en ..,• ,U.(laiv.U.ul nuiy |,.v,. a veil h.^wever thin, -f uuuvanl .leroiuni ihmwn over it. l;,.~,(les thi^ Ihc al.M.l.it.->nl..ui-innan.l unirlleet.n:.' oheaience ..|,„h .1 ineuleates are nn.eh .tl'— '1 ^• ^l.e exi>ans,„n ot the naeUeetual an.l u.-ral v-wei. When all in.puls^ are In.ni .,uth.,ut, it 1^ u,q,n-MMe that the n.ental eye >huuUl turn -re.elily on the .livinity wuhm. u, ja..n.i.tly an.l rcs-Jntdy ,-\e(ute wiiat it .lietates. . We vereeiv a -reat attenq.t t.. ..r-ani.e a ...eiety, annuated l,v the ,,rineii,le- ■.! h.ve an.l a.lV.ti..n, re.iulate.l hy those el ^i,tue. The torn. m,lee,l exi.-l>, hut un.le, it there is little .ulKtance. Hence i^ ^ene.ate.l ,. .nas> of awarent eontra-lic- :;,„,.■ v,.-we.l in one li-ht, we see a ^ivat tamily, wisely aii-l ;,..ueticentlv ...ve.ne.l ; in the other, a >.-rv,le he..l, crou.iun^j ...„..„1, the -haq. la>h of n the one hand . ,,n-rnte.l to us ,1 peopl... an.on- wh..in .l.K.innes ul a very ,,„;, „i..ralitv, ..f universal henevolenee. of .levotion t.. the ' l,lie ..,o,i; are ineuleated hoth hy ivwar.l an.l viveept ; „u,.n.' whon, learuinu is heM in such esteem as to he the sure^ ,„.l in theorv at least, almost the ..nly roa.l to hon....r an. ,Mth..ritv anion- wh..ni the frceaom of the i.ress may h.- said •. l,ave heen estahlished a thousand yoars :> amon- wh..m ..ut- war.l decency and .hM-orum prevail, and security ami (.r.ler are .trictlv maintaine.1, uoi hy military authority. Imt hy their ,,wn .'ood sense quietly suhmiltin;.' t.. the rule of the civil .na.'isu'atc. <»n the other hand we see this same pool- e.m private, ahamloned to -russ sensuality, to drunkenness and de- .ra.lin" licentiousness : in puhlic. in affairs of tra.le and tratl.c, ■ ■ ..s and divh.macv of the state, making their m the iii.livi( vvroiiu. Ijusin iil> liial ae ty,K.. .re Llocks .,f o , .,.,,1. . .on„nn,; w.,rkn,an c.rve, .mt f.r .. f.-w ,.e.Ke. >t nu,n of ne,-eH8.,> be , -s..,..,allv n-ce. The ...s, pnu.f of .h„ i. that Looks for whuh there ,. a ae- ,nan,l. lic'entious ,n.l.licat,ons f..r .nstance. are exten-.vely c.reulalea, uot« ah- >;:ui'liug all the ttioru of t'm- m itiii^tratt. I I r"\ i 1 1 ' 88 INTKIINATIONAI. 1)I11KRKNCK< Siicli I'f-- ■_ I Ik- cliaiactLn I'f this siiiuul.ii iieopli-. i.ur |iiiii- ciplo wiiiil'l uiv In llii'iii a li'>- .-tit'ii'.'th "f thf cli't'ctive ilc-iit' of aicuiiiuliili'iii lliaii tin- '^I'lii'ialit.v of Knit.i,faii iialiMiis, lait a ;,'ifaUT tliaii tliat nt' •■lliiT A.-ialif-. Tlii- ili-iif is If->.'iif'! i'V a |ii'ci]icii~it V l<> scii^nal Liiatitiijal inii- aii'i >citi^!i tV'fliiiu~. ain! liy a sta'.f of Miciriy wlicic iIhti' i> any lliiii_' In niilaiiuiM ihe M'C-mity iif fiUiiit' ]iMS>c>~iiiii. All tln-r ]iiM.iucf a teiiilt'ii'-y ti> seek the eiijnyiiii'iin of lo-'lay. at llir li-k of Icaviiu' tlir wants of ti)-niono\v uii|iio\ iilfii toi. As lomiiaieil with otlic! than KuiojiiMn nation-. !io\sr\ci, wr nii-ht f\]ici t liirm to ].(i-.-rs> no iMi-on>i'lf!alili' jioUion of ijir viitiifs of pimiiMKi- and of sflf-contiol. Tin' '^cni'ial ilillu.-ion of a tinetuic oi It'ainin'^. ainl ]ii'iif]ition of soiuL-thinL: ot ihi- hcauty ami olili;_Mtions of nioial hm litmii'. ihi- consciiucnt suliici'lion at all o\OMts of till' iiioii' \iMlcnt jias.-ions, an^l tho '.'ical (li'sin- to liio\ii!t,' tVii the want- of llicii laniilics. w hiih the slu-nulh ot the connexion tint- siilisisiin.i helween |iaient ami eliiM eii- uemleis, lai-e theiii. in these lesjiects, muih aho\e Asiatir- in i:cneial. We shouM. tlifieloie, a juiori, -iiiUML-e. liiai the instnniients fomn-.l l.y them must he of oi.lers oi iiuicki'i leliiiii, ami eml>iaein;j a less coiujiass of niateiials, than tho>e const Mieleil hy Kiuojicau nations; hut of sloutT retiiin. ami enihiaeiii:^ a 'ureater i-onqiass of materials, than tho.se to whici! the .-tieiiu'th of the airuniulatixe juineil'le tallies the othei nations of Asia. All who ha\e written coneeiiiiiiL' this ;_'n-at eiiil>ire aLiree in the staleiueiit, that the iie(essaiy cost ot siih- sistenco is tiiere small, ami the waps of lahov low. To the.-e two eireunistaiH'e-, deterniiniiiu' their state, is to he aiMed a tliinl. The in\enti\i- faculty wouM a|iiiear tu have heen once very active anioiiu' them; theii knowleilue of the arts suited to their country is \t'iy e.xteuiled. Uuraiiility is one of the ciiief (jualities. marking; a hijh dcLrree of the etl'eiti\e stren:_'th of accuniulalion. The testi- mony of tra\elleis ascrihes to the instruments formed hy the Chinese, a duralnlity very inferior to similai instruments, con- stviicted hy Eiroiieaiis. The walls of housi's, we are told, unless of tlie higher ranks, are in general of unlmrnl liricks of clay, or of hurdles jilastered with earth; the roofs, of reeds fa.slened to laths. We can scarcely conceive more uiisuhstantial, or IN ACClMrLATIVK STRENGTH 80 ii'iii|i luirv t'al'iitf Tlit'ir paititiiiii- an- i>\ \i.i\n-\ . iv'iuii 111'. leiit'Wt'i 1 CVCl V VtMl. lilar (ilisi-ivaliDii iiuiv Ih' iiiaik' i -k iiicfi iiiiij tiifir ii:i]'li'- •i;ls i)i Imsliuinliy, and Dtlii'i utfiisib. Thi'V aiv aliiiMsl tii.'lv of wu.nl, till- iiii'tal.s fiitfiiirj I'Hl vciy si.aiiu.'ly int" c.)iis('i[Ufiitly llii'V .tieir_'tli in if arciiiuiilalioii. u.iuM ( aust- ihi-iii I" I'l' ctlfctivi' ilc.^iri' I stiiictcd of iiiatciials rci|uiriii'^ a .'n-.ilt'r i>h'm'iiI c nuf Imt 1..' liml. llial i All tiavfUi !ar molt ilt:i.il»l('. Kioiu llic saiiif cause, luiirti di- ll iliicr take (oUlllllcS WoUl imp: .liicli llotlCt' Jiilinuc ill -wain \i into tilla:it' is p-iiurally a ])io(('ss. lo .•miiiili'tc whuli !»• iiiltisatcd, lies waste, trails of land, cluetlv To liiiii'.' ii •h. lame -late (pf nature leiiiiires seM'ial veais It lliUSl .levioii. dv iliain th- -uil'aee loiii;- exjiosed to the sun, and many o].eralioii> [m iMinied, liefoir it can lie made cajiaMe of lieariiii a ci' TlioiiL'li yieliliiiL', jnoliaMy a very consideralde ivluin for the l,d.or heslowed on it, that reluiii is not ma'le until a loip_' time li.is elapsed. Tlie cultivation »i siicli land implies a '.'reater >tieiiutli of the eltective desiie of aceumul.itioii than exists in tl. e eiii[iue, Tl le pM .di >{ the iiaivest is, ,is we have remarked, alway.- all 1 nslrnnieiit of .some order or amithei. it is a ]irovision tor nil lire want, and re:_ni I 'titer meaii.H of atlainin dated liy the same laws as those to which ' a similar end conform. It is there h\> Hv rice, o !h. f wiiicli there are two harvests, the one in .hun iitli.- ilher ill Octolier. The jieriod then of eiudit hich 'tween Octoher and dune, is that, for which provision is madt jh year, and the i lillerent estimate thev make of to-day .ind this day ei'.;ht nn )ntli .ill ajipear in the self-ilenial they practise now, in order to u'»ii>'d a'_'aiiist want ih Th ■ Ulio' unt of this self-denial, would seem to lie small. The fatt icl I'aieiinin, indeed, asserts, that it is their ;.^reat deticieiicy in f"iethoii'_'lit and frujrality in this resi)ect, which is the tau.se of L.i H^irp, Vol. VIII. p. -2^9. L'llrei (dinanU^, Vol. X. p. 107 It. .11, Chiiin, Vol. II. p. -244. Klli.s, L'ml-i.-tj t,, Chi W •Jti-s ,11,. I .■;i(i. Tli.1 lic.'it proof wriiapa is in the preniiuiii9 orttrt-.l fr.i tiiiir cultivation .Vu Lttlrf fiUnatiHs, Vol. XL p. aij. '•0 INTEKN.\TK)NAI. DIFFKUFACKS til.' >i-,in itirs ,i!nl fiiininr- tli.'it tr.'.inciitly "rciir. ' I Im-Ijuvc," lir -.iy~, ■ thai. ii..twilli>t,iii'liii:_' it-'_'iv,it iiiiiuIti ..f iiilnMlaiils, ( luiia w-iiM luini-h .•n..ii'_'li "f '-'laiii Pt .ill, Iml lliul llu-re is ii"l .Mill;! i''iil .■(■(iTp.iuy ..I.m'iv.mI in its i;Mii-iiin|.ti'iii. ainl thai thrv .■iiii.l..y an ast..iii>hin_' .(Uantity <>f it iti ih<- niaiiutartmv i,f ihi' www I'f till' i"niiiiy, ami "f iai(Ui'." A- loiitiiniativi- >>i 111- ..l,>rl\ali"Il>. ]\i- Ifliialks llir MliniL.T '.I tilvs u<-ra-i I 1 'J \\tv hal.il nf .liiukin- tu rxcf" l..-tuiv •."■in.' |., l.r.l, an.l the ].icv,ilc!ic(', aln..nj the InWiT 'inliT-, nf a liiala.ly e.lllfJ yo-chr. ]ir''ihlri'il I'V ihr >anif vjit,'. A .l..cmia-ni _'i\.Mi in ihr .Fr-nii's I..-ii.t~, a tran.-:liiti.>ii fruin thf (la/riti .'f ihi' .•niiiiio in ITl'"'. jtrnlMMy -h..\vs nearly what "id.T iii-t!'mnfiit> ni ihi? -mt, and thcrclMir ..f all s'irts. rcallv l.fl..n.; t": that is, thf iliric'iviic' li,'t\Vffn a .|nanliiy of riif. ■•!■ "t any lhiii_' flyc. in iM>~>(--iMn at the ••\i>\ nf hafvesl. aii.l a i|U,iiitiiv I" 1m- liail in sjirin'.'. It I'lncrril- mi tli.' sup- l...>iti.'ii thai tliirr lai-hcls ,it thf i^iniff ]M'ii...l an' fiiiiiNali'iit. iii.l, in .iidinary yi-av^. whru there is neither laniiiie iiur M-aicit>. will i.rnduce tour at the latter. I'.y i>urcliasin'^ at the loinier i.eri'"l, an.l -ejlin- al tin- latter, the writer therefore e-tiinates, ihal ihiity htishels will, at ih.- end of tiv.- years, priHlnee lunie than one hiin.lred. The estimate is j.erhaps a little hi-h. hut from the nalinv ..f it, of the imlividual from whi'iii it (nine-;, and tli..H' to whom il is addressed, it is unreasonahle tu snjrpnse that il is much to.i hii.'h. Taken in ri.njunction with a descrijition of a scheme for raisin'_' funds, of which an account is .Mihjoined,- il iudicales that instruments in China are ahdut the order 1). The deticiency of the -treii-th of the etiective desire of accimuilation, is halanced 'i.\ the smallness . KW. Tlu' fathrr ['.inimiii st-.-m." to have bi-fii one of till' most intflliKrnt of tlic .lesuits, mA lia.l tliu viry lii-st oppor- tuiiitiis for ol.Miwition, havin.i; spent ii loiii; life .luiong tlu- L'liinosi.- of all classes. His testimony is miK-li more to Ix," .lepen.leil on, ooncerning such a fact, tluui that ..f passing travellers, whose cursory observations exteml only t.. what may lie seen on the exterior itf the habitations. . . , . . I .1 I. ; u -[Here Rae refeis ui a ioo;; "iioie appcnaca to ;.".e ;;rip.::a! v.:,-:r., (. :::■ .1 is repro.iuceil as " Note V " in tlie Appendix to this volume.] IN A(( rMlI.ATIVK S'lliKNCiTH 91 I, -. wliidi lus \.rvu lua.l.' in tlir kh.Avl.vl.... .,t ;li.- .lit-* suil.-.l ■ , ;!,.• iiatuiv -1 th.- r..untrv .iii.l th.' ^v.tnl- ..f M- inhaLitaiils. Wh.-if the ivluni- air .[ULk. ulinv tli- iii-ti uiu.-nl> I-iin-.l ,„,|„i,,. l,ut litilf til., t.. 'hrin- il,.'..\,.n!- l-i wliwl. th-y ai.- i.riiKMl to an i.-.u-, .-x.-n th- .l.-ir, tivc i.ruicii.!- ■■! a.cnniulalK.ii ,1 :h.. Chinoo i> .il.le l- -ia~i. a vnv lai.v ily In 'in tin- soil, even ,., these situations, bein.' very dee], and e.-veie-l with niueh v._vtahle ni'iuhl. I'.nt wh.il yet nmre than this niarks the M-a.liiiess with which lahnr is f.amd tu funn the niosl (iillicult materials into mstninieiils, where these instruments soon hriii;^' :,. an issue the events for which tliey are formed, is the iie.tuent oecurrence on many of their lakes and waters of .-iructures re.seml.lin- the Uoatin- -aniens of the IVruvian.s, lails covered with ve-etahle soil and cultivate solid earth, whfif its fruits iiUL'hl I'nihuv, liian ■■u stnicturcs that must dt'*ay anil ]icrish in a trw years. TIil' jii'nplc thry are anions think iKit .'■o much i<\ futun- year.-^ :i- of the j)r('sent time. Thr eft'ective ilesire of accumulation is of very ilih'crent strcn'^itli in the one, from what it i.- in the other. 'I'lie view.s of t!ie Euro- pean extern! to a ilistanl futurity, and he is surprised at tin' Chinesi', condemned, tiiiou-li improx ideu'i' ,md want of sutli- lietil jirosjiective can', to incessant toil, and. as lie think.<. insutlerahle wretchedness. Tlie views of llie Chinese are con- tilled to narrower houni s, lie is cunlent, as we say, to live fn>m day to day, and lias learnt to conceive even a life of toil u lilessinu'. Tlic power which tiie sin;_'ul:ir skill and dexterity of this peojile. r.otwithstandiii;^ tlieiv deticiency in the stien;_fth of that principle tliat foinis the suhject (^f tids chapter, :_dves them, to Work up into in.struments suj>plyin_' a larger circle of wants, numy materials that would otherwi.se lie doiniant, is seen in \arious instances lesides those referred to. It may he suilicieiit to mention the manufacture of silk, and tlu' culti- vation and maiuifacture of tea. They are holh instances of the power of the inventive faculty to form instruments, soon lirinu'ini; to an issue events, that repay, aetoniin^' to the rale at winch lahor is tliere repaid, consideralily more than the tost of their formation. However we explain it. it will 1 tliiid< he admitted as a fact, that Enrojieans in '.'eneral far exc','ero:_Tess tlian in Asia. T'^rhaps in tlieir knowledjge of ai;riculture and horticulture the Chinese .■.|ual most Euroi)ean nations, luit in other arts they are lai inferior, and, with the oxcejition of them, no Asiatics, 111 the knowlcdsze of these or of other arts, can compete with Europeans. On the other hand, the wages of lahor III Kiirope, are far higher than in Asia. This circumstance, .uiiutervailing the otlier, would prohaMy, in many cases, I'riiiL: the durahility and elhciency of the instruments con- -tructed in hoth continents nearly to an etiuality. were it not iMi the existing difference in the strength of the acctuutilative I'riiiciple. Tlie exam]iles we have hitherto consiilered have hi'en of -iKJeties, where the priiicijile of accumulation lias lieeu either idvancing, or, at least, not .-^ensihly retrograding. It may if wtdl to turn our attention to the elleits priiduced l>y a sensihle decrease in its strength. The history of the ilcf-lining ages of the IIinL; and HulMluin- every ttiiuL'. -enfiatinu iinthiim ; like tlaiue spuM.linii far and wide, iiiv. >ni"_' v.liaU'V.T ; catch.- with iiiuiiicntaiy s],lci>dor, hut. like it, dcstrnvinu tlial whidi tei'ds it. and uoiii;.' ■'ul at leiiu'tli h-aviii- (U'snlalioii hciiiud it. The ].iui,er trade cif tlie K->inans wa> war. r.ul wlicn in aLiricullural c-muilries war hecuuies the (,c( u]»ati(iii of a cnnuiiuiiity. .aid coiKjuesl the means hv which it se<-k.s In ac'iune weaUh and :_'rcatne>.-. evils arise which luu.-. instead of miti-alin-. increases When iiunlers -o to war with huiuers, or lienlsnicn with iicnlsiuen, the ohjecl in vi(;w. lii'sides u\crconiin:4 their enenaes, is to ohtain j.osscssion of a porti.n of tiie surf.ice of tlie earth, and the animals wild, ur tanit, n.inrished hy it. Over such CMnunnnities therefore. liiou:_'h war, i.as>in- like a destroyin:-; tempest, leaves ruin liehin.l, yet lime ohlilerates all tiaces of the devastation ]- turiied jirosecutioii of industry, th.it they fmr.'ht or compiered. These mi:j;hl occasionally ser\e for luete.xts, and were some- times iieriiai)s the exciliiiL' causes .if war, hut f.ir the real fruits uf victorv tlu'y alw.iys !,M,k.>d to the .si.oliation of the van.iuisli.'.l, and trihute, in .mi.> sii.i] r .ither, imposed on them. Every pe.iple witli wli..m tliey came in contact wa.s regarded hy them first as an enemy to he suhdue.l. after- ward.-i as a j.rovince fr.mi whicli they were to he enriched. They were in trutii a I'aiid of v.-.-ll .li.-ciplined rol.hers, whose virtue, law, reli'^ion, penteiv.l in their swor.,s; c.)ura..?eous indeed, ami k.'.'pin_' to their p.Ksitive engai^ement.s with a I IN ACCUMrLATIVE STRENGTH 95 ti.lelily (Miinnwin to luave nifii (ainl whicli, as ii is for llioii intert'st, evfU scattered liamlitli oliscrv.-), I'Ut whus.- cmrs.- .,f lapinc was still uiiwanl, rel.'utl.'ss, luficiless, uiicheikeaie fathers, scarcely did the women wish to lie uiotliers. Tlie joys of the relation were to them too small, to lie a compensation for the sacrifices it demanded. The 'orin-- in,' uj) of children cost the one parent too nuich money, an.l took from the other too nmch pleasure. If families weie raised up, it was not from the natural intlueuce of the jiarental atlections, hut in ohedience to the laws, that the man nu'_da have the ai)prohation of the ma'jistrate, and that there nd;iht lie citizens to the state. They lived, not in others, or for others, hut for tliemselves, and sou;4ht tiieir ^'ood in eii.joy- luents altoijelher selfish. It was their aim to expend on ih.dr own personal pleasures whatever they pos,sibly could. It would I? I: P li : ' 96 INTERNATIONAL DIFFERENCES Stern as if Uic iiiajonty, ciniM they have fdiekiidwii the exact limits iif their lives, winild have made their Inrtunes and them terminate t>i'_'etlier. As they conld not do so, the fortunes of many ended lpef(jre their lives, as the foiinnes of otliers held out heyond their lives. To reaji, however, themselves, while alive, all jiossihle heiietit from what they mi>;ht chance to leave others to enjoy after their death, they eucoiira;,^ed some of the memhei-s of a despicaMe cla.'^s who .swm to have coiisti- liited no inconsiderahle jpart of Koman society. Parasites ready to minister to every jile/isiire, and to jierform every possiMe seivice, waited on the man of wealth, in the hoj)e and ex|)ectation of enjoyin'_' a portion of it after his death. They were more desirahle than children, hoth Ifccause they were ahle to u'ive somethin;.,' more than mere nnsiilist^mtial atVection .uid esteem, ami hecatisie they were willin'_' to ^ive it, while a .son or daiiLrhter mi;,'lit ima'_'ine they had claims to receive wiiat they couhl not he .said to have lahored for. The jioets and satirists of the Aiii,Misiine ivj,c, and of suhseipient times, •_'ive sullicient evidence of the existence of a state, evil in itself, and the forerunner of many evils.' It '_'ave (x;casion to the law comii(dliiiu ]iarents to leave their childi,;: a certain part, a fourth, of their projierty. Its jirevalence may he iudi;ed of liy the woidin^,' of the enactments increasing the I hihhen's share. It is stated, as a fact well known, that jiarents LTcnerally either disiidierit. or omit their children in ihiMr wills, leavin<4 the Imlk of their projieity to distant rela- tions, to stian'4ers, or to slaves, to whom they iiive freedom; ■I i ' Hcraoe, V. .Satire, II. Kook. It is worth uliilo (il)Sfr\ mg, th.it, according to this satire, to cheat these parasites into the service, by holding out a rewiinl they were never to get, was reckoned a thing to be hmghed at. — I'rcilialily the practice existed from a very early age, though I cannot give authority for it. Parasites are in I'Uiutns' I'lays, but these are in a great imasure transl.aions. The following <|Uotation from that author, however, eA|iresses a feelinu', which I should suppose prevailed in Roman society at the time : " Quaudo halito multo» cognates, quid opus niihi sit liberis. Nunc bene vivo el fortunate, atc(ue animo ut lubet, .\lca bona niea morte coguatis ilicam interpartiant, Illi apud me edunt, me cji.mt, visunt ijuid agam, ccijuid velim, tjui inihi mittunt munera, ad prandium, ad ca^nam voc»nt." ..ussmir IN ACCUMULATIVE STRENGTH !»" .iiiil that tliiis, if thfir fiiiuily is niirru'iDiis, they, wli.i iluiin^ :li" lifoliiiu' cif their father enjoyt'd altiiieiict', tiiid tlial his lieatli leases them in p'lvertv.' XothiiiL'. 'finely, can nmre eh?arly sh i\v the extreme ami ) 'Tvailiiii,' s.ifishness of the time, than its lieenmin^ neei's- Miy for the ma^'istrate to cniaiiel the citizens tu marry, ami .il-o to compel them to leave jiortions to their chiMren. The existence of such a st^ite of thin^,'s imjilied a ile<;ree of i-ijatinn of feelint,' ami action, so urreat, as necessarily to [iiodiice Lreneral weakness and decay. The ;.'eneral seltish- Mcss of the principles j,;nidinu' the conduct of inilividiials, may he j^athered from a jirevailini^ ])roverl', " when I dii; let the world luirn."- When such were the maxims ruliii;,^ M'riety, there could not fail to he a lieedless sacrifice of the interests of futurity, an exhaustion ' 'piently lie formed as were of very (piickly returninj.^ "iders, and, as the vij,'or of the accumulative principle 'I'cayed, the members of each sueceedini; L'eneratioii saw a ."iiss of materials fall from their ^jrasp, which had .itfonled t^Kiia ]ikri!in(|ue piirciUcs sine Ciiiisa libtros siiaw cxlierfilimt vol omittuiit. / -'. Lit). II. Tit. is. I'lipiiint c|ui(lcni cojfDiiti omnia, et t\tninei, vel cum lilitrtatc scrvi ; Hlii vcro licet imilti consistant ; ctiiim»i iiiliil otfemlerint p.iri iitc!<, confunduntur, etc. Novel. XVIII. I'ref. ■V.uov AafovTot yaia m'X^'7''" Tif'. Suet. .V siriiilar proveil) " aprt'H nous !■ ilijuye," '8 sail! to liave Ix'eii often in tlie mouth of .Madame I'oinpa- 'iiiir, one of the purest self worshippers ever e.xistinij. It is perhaps iMirthy of remark, as showing the propensity of selfishness to gra.'^p the ! i'vii lit, that Ixith the Komans and the lady were very prodigals even 1 wh.it was entirely th<'ir own. Tlie former it is well known r.ipiiUy • \liaiisted their constitutions liy every sort of deliauchery ami excess, •K' latter was as little economical of her personal charms. .\t twenty I' r lips are said to have lieeii liviil from the too constant application : lur teeth t\,\\ \'< tlir \v.iiil> "f tll'MI Ill"iv 1 fc.lvt'atlnTs.' Til.' luriii- "f v,iii|»iitiiiu liunian lil-' (Iiiuiiii>1iim1, aii.i lli-- „,„nl.TS Ml inankin.l .liiiiinislM-.l \viili lli.Ma. Wh.-ii vir,. itSl-lf 'li.l lint SUlliri.Mllly Chfck 111.' -PAVtll of th.' .■Irlll.'l.K ,,f lit.', it l.iun-ht waul aii.l laiiiin.' In its a.-si.-taiir... Th.' liislniy ..f til.- i;..niaii wmM uud.T lli.' ('..•.-ai>. is a iii.'lau- clinly'.i.'tail ..f till- ma.lually .l.-iavinu fuii.l> nf th.' Kiiipiif, iiii.r th.' uia.luallv .l.-.-ivasiii- inimh.T.- "( it> iiiiiahitants. Italy. a.T,,i.liii- t- I'liiiv, an. I ..ih.'r wvit-Ts, was in tlu' .-M li,„.''s .■i..w.l.'.l with iM.n,,!.', thi.-kly ^.'1 with .iti.'s. anil rich in all lhiiiu> niinist.TUu t.. th.' n 1.- "l' its inhahitants. In his .lav. it. .liniiiii-h.'.l l.-imlatinii .i.'i..-n.l.'.l for th.'ir sus- U'liaii..' ..n Ih.' i.n..lu.ti..ns .,f ..th.-r t.'iritori.'s. Th.' chfui-i' certainly wa- not ..winu L' aiiv alt.^ratioii in the niatorials. ••N,.n fati-ata aut .'Ito la humus;' .s'vs Coluni.'lla. Tli.' earth wouM hav.' vi.'l.l.-.l th.' sani.' r.'turns, ha.l ih.-y wli.. ,,,,ss..ss.'.l it h.'.'n wiUin- t.. cxp-'iicl what was lu'C'ssary 1.. ■ riv.' il th.' eai.a.itv ..f yi.'Min- them. As ih.' maU'rials wei.' onlv wrou-hl u]. L. very .p-i.-kly r.nuriiin',' ..r.l.'rs, Ih.'y ha.l n.'.-.'ssnilv a mu.h small.T .■apacity. an.l the annual ..'turns ma.le hv ih.'m were ..*.■ .•..ns.'.iu.'n,'." much less. l'a>lui.' l.i..k j.la.-.' of tilla;^.'; ...rn was hn.u-ht tV..m ,h,. i,r..vin.-.'>; an.l wh.'ti th.' supply faile.l famine .'nsu.-.l. Kv.'ii the .•..iistru(ti..n ..f shi].s tor th.' transport ..t this, an.l .ither ni.'ichan.li..', w.mM s.'.'in t.. ha\.' h.'en an .'tioil t,, vvhi.h th.- a..-uiiiiilative prineil.l.' was s.-aic'ly e.iual. It wa. loun.l n.'.-.'>-arv to ..n.-..urau.' it hv i.'wanlin- th.-se . [S,.v..ral vMit..,.. luiv asc.,l...l th.' f.iU ..f Ito.nf on its v.-onmnu- sMe, n. tl,e.l.....u.m a«..v ..f ..,.,.,.■>■ t.. tl..' K;i.t in ,..u.mnt for impn.to.l Lixun..-.. This was not a .s.paiat.' an.l .liHtin.l oanse .,f .lectin-, b.it rather on,' of lU con- c.n.itants It is l.ut one of th.. ,.hase« of th.' ^vi^i-r.A an.l f.in.lanuMUal caus w.-re lapMii;.; tr..in a in..n..y ec...n.m.y l.i .i state .,f harter. I rn^mm IN ACCTMrLATIVK SrilEN(iTH 'if> \v!iM iMiispcutt'il that lii.uifli iif iniliistiv.' Sniin'tinirs laii'l tMiiiH'rly riiltivat('(l was allowcil id lie I'litiicly \va>tr. and ji.isst'd alto'.'cllicr iiiit lit' tilt' ilass nf iiisti uint'iits. Tlu' fuicst aiiil wiMt'iiicss ixaiiu^il nii ttii' nuiiiaiis, as tlii'V wniilil nnw, t'ni -iiiiilaf icasoiis. nil an Iiiilian i"iiHilalinii, \vt>ii,' snnif of these tiilics jiut, ill ]i(iss('ssi()ii uf tlii' ilniiiaiiis, atirji'iitly tlic jiiujicrty • '( tlit'ir face, at ini'sml yioliliiii; ahtiiiilaiitly u> tlio |iroviili'iit imtustiy iif tlie whiti's. Had {\\<-xv hfi'ii im irrii|itiiiii ni' ilie l.ail'aiians. thi- Eiii|iire niu>t have ])t'iishecl, iiini't' sluulv ixm- li:i)is, liiit as cpitainl\', fioiii the n]i('ialioii alniio of ilicse iiiti'iiial cauHL's nf di'oay. I'hcv wimc ricpasiduiii^ a juntricssive diiiiiinitiMii of the capacity whicli niatciials foniieily possessed. Thus, it is to tlic Kiiinaiis thcnischcs as miicli as to the liai- Kariaiis. that the destruction of llie inildic editices is to he asciihtvl. The stones were a]i]died to private jmrjioses. With thi' cajiacity for yitddiir^' a return, tlieic iK'cessarily jierished t!ie return yielded, and the power, eonsei[Uently. of niaintaiii- iu;_' till' same nuniher of men, ami coiitrihutiii',' an eipial amount to the wants of the state. Ilmce the ]Mi]iula!ioii of the Kiupiie, and the iniptnial re\enue. diminished from a;_'e to au'c, Tlie diminution would lia\'e heeii much mon- ia]iid hut for some counteract iii'i c.iuses. Home, while she eon(|uered and ciislaveil. '_'ave jicace, and jieatc eiiahled the arts to pass from countrv to country, and I of the world, and eiK ii( le it in hei- ein])ire, reeeix'ed into her hosoni those who had heen free, or \vere the imnieiliale deseeiidanis of iieemen, and letained something' of their \iitues. The un- L'o.criialile licentiousness, e\lrava'_'ance, ,iiid ]ironeiiess to e\il "I the Italians, were tempered hy the i:reater decency aii' cms.'* falirii'.mti- 1 11-^ in»uiwi cunimodii cmislitiiit pro L'oii<1iti<p;i' : Lutini" jus (,iuliituiii : fnuiiiiis ills i|uatui>i' lil)ei"!inn ; '(ua' "Mstitiitii liodie scrv;iiit«r. Slut, in vita CUiniii. .\I.\. ! I J^ III' !.!i HI KtO INri:UNATI()NAI. DIFIEIIENCK?' wliu tl..(kf(l in I., ircniit tin- .liiuiiii>hiii_' mniil-fi-- i>f hor citi/fiis.' 'I'llCM' two cirruiil-I.ilM I'S, llnWfVrl. niilv 1 rl aP Ifi i , 1 1 !.•>• CMllIl! lint i.-ist. the advalicili'.' dc'.'.'iit'i.icv. l">vclt.v. aliil wraklioss, that wfiv ;.'iailiially -ajFimrj; thr t 'Hii'lalii'iis uf tin- Kiiipirt', and cxiMisinL' it t" \'il with wiial is vet ticsh. th.' dcl'eits nf llie eiim]"nnMl were mit at tiist jiei- (t'litiMe; I'V ami Ky. the adulteration ditlused thiM\i..'h il \vniM'4ht on lln' whoh-, and rendered it all alikf wuiihless. Thf iiroiiaua'ion ol < ■hri>tianity ovt-r the Kmiiiio is to he leekoned as anothei- of the eiuises letardiu',' its decay. It is to he ol.seived. howt-vei . tliat this look place too lute for leaj.in;,' the advauta-.'s. svhiih the morality of the Ciospel miuht have otherwise eonlerreri the lUSf IN ACCIMI'LATIVK STRKNXiTH 101 i.|MTati'iii nf Liiiivity, huwever, tin' I'uicc wiili wliii'li thry icii'l Im this piiiiit iliiniiiislit's, as thi-ii ilistainc fium it lii-iifax-:, .iiiil till- t'aithcr tlifv an' ii'iiiuvimI t'luiu it. tin- u'lvator tin' ia]'i'lit\- of tlicir jii(f,'rt'ss towanls it. 'I'lu' suliji'ct woulil iiMi tlioit't'oii' 1k' faiiiy cxliauslfil until all llif lirciiiii.staiices i>i the mural aiwl iiiti'Ueilual stall", iiiul utln-r I'll liiiil.ns nf the cnniliticiii of t'\ery yit'(>|ilf. hail lift-ii t'xaiiiiueil, .Mill niiiiiiaii'il with till' t'.xtt'iil til whirh tin; fui iiiatioii nf iiislni- iiifiits aiiiuiii,' thi'iii is aihaiiccil. Kiioii^h. hnwcviT. has pt'ihaj'S liii'ii ili'iii' tn show, that this jinni-iiili' i> nf \i'iy I'.xtt'iisivr liprialinii, aii'l that in niir sulisi'i|Ui'iit ini[uiriL's, we arc war- i.mti-il ill assiiiiiiiri the stii'iiuth nf thr t'tlcctivt' di'siiv nt .11 ruiuiilatinii tn !■!• a ciicuiiistaiK r nf ]iiiiiiary iiiii"iitaiici'. ill till' ilftrriniiiatinii nf till' oxti'iit tn which tlii.' fmiiiatinn nf iiistiuiiii'iits will III' ranii'il in any smifty. \Vi' shnnM imw pinii'i'il tn cxaniint" tin- iimii' iiii|ioi taut rllrcts ii'sultiii'_' fimn \ Ilia! inns in the stri'n;j:tli nf this [ii'inri|ili' in ililli'iriit iiu'iiil)t'rs nf thr >aiiii' cniiiiiiiinily. It is hnwi-vi'i m-i rssary first tn (■mi- -i'lcr >nnie jiht'nniiii'na |iiniliiieil hy tlm jirnu'ii'ss i>f it, ami ■I thr inventive faeully. ami eettain rla»itiratinns nf iiistiii- iiiciits ami names .iiiplieil tn them, wliiih ha\e thence aii>eii. i!ii> will fmni the sulijeet of the next ehaiitci ^mim warn I Id II (HArTFn \iii. I (iKlIir. li|\I>lK KMl'l.oVMKN IS ANDi^llKl; I'UKNo- MKNA riMii'it i:ii i;v KKt-i>i;rs ik ai i ki.kiiatk thk KXIIAlSlInN . KvK.i;v iiuliviiliial cinlfiivi'is lu I'sijiiU'^t. as sjiffilily as lie can, llw caiKicity <>t' tln' iiislniiiiriits wtiicli he jmissc^x-s. I'>y raiiiiUv cxliaiistiiiLr the cajiacity nf any instniiuciit. tlu' r.'tunis yielded liy it are imt lessened, Lut iiiiiekeneil. The ik.wcis it jKissesses t(i I'estuw enjnynienl, "V tn aid in the {'(.inialion of utlier inslnuiieiils, are m.l diminished in (luaniity, Imi sooner linmuht into aetinn, and it ]>asses t" an order ol '[uieker return. Wlieii tiierel'ure the elldrts dt' individuals, sd directed, are s\u'eessl'nl, liv jilacinu' the instruments ojierated im in more .l\nekly returnin'_' urders, they stimulate the accumulative [irineiiile to -ive u're.iter capacity tn instruments ct' the surt, and |.rci]'iiUii'HuIly increase the capacity of the- whule stock of in.-iruments owned hy the society. It is to certain phenomena, in the production of vvhicli thoe two circunistiinces are the main i;_'ents, that we have in this chapter to direct our attention. As the knowled;4e which mankind jiossess of the course ot nature advances, and they di.scover a ^Tealer numher of means to provide for tlieir future wants, the instruments they employ for this purjiose hecouu' very various. The exercise of the arts >>i' the weaver, ;hc Macksmith, the carpenter, the farmer, imjilies the exi-teiue of ii ^reat variety of to,' at "Mce. if .M.nv ui.au liad idl the tools which tliese several occupations reciuire, at least ihree-fourth.i of them would OF SEPARATION OF KMl'LOYMKNTS 103 (..nstaiitly lie idle ;iml useless. it were clearly then l.ttter. were any scx;iety to exisit wliere eiieti man li;ul all the-i- tools, ,111.1 ahernately carrie.l i>n each of these occui.atioiis, that the iiienihers of it slionhl if i.o.>silile diviile them amoUL'st them, iMch reslrietim,' himself to some luirtietilar .•miiloyment. Tliere would llien he lu) superlluous imi)lenieuts, each s.-t of tools would form an instrument much more speedily exhausted, lud therefore of an order of .[uicker return th.in hefore. In tases where this could lie done, common seii-e would ponit out ihe advanta:^e of it. When, for instance, a man's loom came In lie Worn out, he wnulil j^o to his nei^hlior and say, " I shall not make another loom if y )U will undertake to do what weaving I may reijuire ; in return I will ^ive you some of the produce of my farm, or will do some l.lacksmith work f.ir you." Tlie offer would he accepteil, and similar motives o|PL-ratin<,' il:rou!4hout the society, each indivitlual in it would confine his indu-try, as far as possihle, to the employment of .some par- ihidar set of tool-i or instruments. It is not periiaps likely [olivious], that this was the manner in which tli.it division of orcupalions with which we are now familiar was ori;4inally produced, hut it nnist evidently have hceii pro.hiced in this wav, had it not heen otherwise ljrou;,dil to jias^, as we see, m fact, that even now it is thus Itrouj^ht to pass in tiie proLjress ..1 settlements in Xorth America. In smh situations, every man is at first prohahly ohliged to he his own carpenter, -la/.ier, tanner, cobbler, and perhajts to a i^-reat extent his own i.lacksmith. As the settlement tills \\\\ and the population brcome-s suthciently dense, he ;„'ives up tliis multif'ari.JU^ industry, and takes to some particular branch. The advai.- imes of the chanue to the whole community, and therefore to .very indiviihial in it, are great. In the first place, the variou.s implements bciu'j; in constant emiiloyment yield a better rcUirn for what has been laiil out in procuriu'.,' them; being -Moner exhausted they pass to a more ([uickly returning order, lu conseiiuence, their owners can affor maiie loi ii'c lUIUic V>'.iIUS C'l ..iiC v. iMiC :ji;c;ci;. ifaM ^m ^^f^ I ' 1i ; ii i 1' 1 !i If* & H)4 or sKi'AUA rioN or kmim.on mknts Siicli a r.'\Mliii:Mii (.111 "Illy liavc jilinr, wiicrc tlic iiiili\ idiiMls fX'Tii^iii'j til'' ililli iiiii fiii]il"yiiii'iil>. liavr a iraily (•i)iiiinuiii< a- tiiiii with iM'h iilhiT. Ill situation- wtn'ri' tlicy caiiiiMt •■•i^ily cuiiilniiiiicali', •■illn-r from (if hi,-- iiwii. .Ni.illu'r i- it likely lu take jilace extensively unless while till' ai ( iinnilative juiiu iiile has e(insiileialile .sticnuth, ami where. ciiiisec|\iently. a laiu'e aiuuiiiit nf l.ilnir is \viuii'_'ht uj) ill the several implements in w .-. Where, as in Ilimliistaii, the liM.m i> merely a few sticks, it wnuld save one individual \ery little tu emjiliFy .neither tu weave fur him. It is a(e(irilin;jly. in einintries win-re the jiupulatidii is mnsi dense, the facility nf cnnimiiiiieatii)n ;jreatest. and instruments WTniiuht u]i til the mure sluwlv letiuniny nrders, that ilnplny- UK'iits are nmst divided. As a di\isiiin uf em|il(iynieiits imiilies the existence nt exchaii;_'e nr haiter, sn, as it extends, these exchaiiues lieiume necessarily mme freijiieiit. Kvery man. tn prncure the su;i)ily of his various laiils, has to enijiloy the services of more individuals than he had liet'ore. The farmer, who used to manufacture his own cloth fiom his own lleeces. traust'ers these to some one else, and jierliajis, alter they have jiassed through the hands of the carder, the spinner, the weaver, the fuller, etc. part of them n turns to him auaiii in the shajie of clotli lor some garment that he is in need of. In an advanced state of .society. ver_\ Irw w.ints ;iie supplied hut hy articles oi' instru- ments which li,i\c passed through many hands. We c.iii scarce then tiily jmiisuc our suliject, without sniiie examination of the niaiiuci in which these exchaiiLres take place, and of the rules hy whi' li they are leuulated. As all in-; I uMii-nts exist solely to sujiply wants, sd any man ' III ( ■ if \ .■< Ii 1 iiiiiiiili'i.'y. stjiai:itiiiM nf iin]ili>Mnriit> ili'jii'iiiis upon tlu' " |iri\M'i- C.I :i».« i.iiioii." Hi- la-iirvi-il tli.it thri)ii:;h ;ui <-\i-i-ssivc scatUTiiij; out lit tin- |Hri|.li- iiii.i till- 1.:i.Uw(mh1s -I til.iiHiits III lii-i il.iy this |i(iHcr. aii.l tlirnliiri it> iiilv aii;.i_< -. «t. ('(imii.ii i- Kdw.inl < Jilili"ii WmLi !i. Ill ..i] :!..■ '■ 1. .1 J. II iv>rK.M or k\{ fianc.k lO", will c'oiisfiii tu ri'ioivf Mil iiistniiiii'iil in <-.\i_li;iii_'f, nr exjicri !•> .i\i; it in f\(li;iii.;f. iiiilv ;H it is a nifaiis ft' >nji|pl_viiiu' wmit-. It i- tin- luisiiio- "f (;\t'ry man tu iidnjit the ivailif-t aiul i-asicst iii'aii^ lu' Can tli'vi>f In su|j|ilv all (i>iiiiii_' inriis. ami it i> -■l.-ly ln-caiHf tilt' lueiiimn ut dartfr [r\itiaiijr| jirfsfiit-- llu' i.a'lifsl mean- ut' i-tli-cliiii,' this ciiil, tliat hr .i'l(i|its it. i'lUt lal.or is tho t'uml which all mcii lia\r, uiii m) wlii'h to >ii]']ily tlii-ir want^. Some have "thi.-r t'lunl- It-JiIc^, imt l-vitv man has this, ami strip a man ul' cv.ry ihinu' ail\fnlitiaiii tu .'ivc !lic latiur which lit- has cNin'iulcil on this, fur the lalmr which has liL'i.'ii e.Niit'mk'i! un that, ami lahor t'ui- lah<)r wduhl -(•cm tu I'f the must simjilL' uf L-.xchan^cs. it ii'vcr, as wr ~!.all sec. exactly takes jilacu, Imt sumi-tiiiK's it is iioarly aii|ircixiniatcil lu, and, that wo may .--ct unt trnm the must sinqih' elcnienls, wf may .siijipii.se that it is actually aniscd at. .\ny man will he inclined tu exchaiiLie une iiistiumcni t'ur uiuther, if, hy su duiii'.', he can sa%e himself any part of the l.iliur which he must utheiwise expend in pruduciiiL; that uther. .\ lives in some place where willows are to lie had for cutliiiL: thciii : he employs himself in making willow haskels, one of which lie fiiii>hes in two days; I! oilers him a straw hat for it. It he Wants a straw hat. and thinks that, were he to set a luakinj,' one, it would occu]iy him more than two days, and iiKjreover, thai neither 1 >, E or F. who make straw hats, will '.;ive it fur les.s : he will he inclined to make the exchan;_fe. In 'luiii^' so, it is a matter of inditlereiice to hi-ii what time W may li.i\e ex])ended in making the hat, his only reason for eiiteriiiu' iitu the transaction, is the saving i him inure than two days' lahor. he Would lather make a willow I'li-ket for liim-elf than exehaiiL;e his straw hat fur it Kveii it ,| -I r 1 '•i u i !! i '■ I il Kit; OF SKl'AliATlON OF FMPLOVMKNTS hi' hail not tlic iiianual skill nuffssary, ln' would apply himself ti) acqiiiri' it, and take to the (itfiiiiatiuii (if liaskul-iiiakinu' in jiii'fficiHf ti) thai of iiiakiii;,' hats; as we see, in employments wliere mere laltor is concerned, thai one is ileserted for another accordin;_' as it ;iives less or more wau'es. it -o comes to pass that in the same society, in all exeluinu'es, as far as we can conceive mere lahor to he concerned, one man, A, harters that which has cost him two, or twenty days' lahor. with that which has cost another, li, two, or twenty ilays' lahor. We must however hear in mind, that neither does A olfer the article, nor does 1'. receive it, simply hecaiise it has cost two, or twen'y days' lalior. A offers it, and W recfives it, hecausc it is an in^lnim.-nt to supply future wants, and under til.' siqiposilion that it cannot he ljoI for less than two or twenty days' lahor. In such cases, the person or on it, hut hecausc, he h.ivinu' expended tins, he contdudes that it cannot he :_'ot for less ; liiat if it has cost him two or twenty days' work, it would have cost any other, and woiUd cost himself, the same 1 ilior. If he knows that the p.Tson desirous of cxchani,'ini^ is an unskilful or htmulin'^ workman, or if he .sees that the lalior has heen injudiciously applied, he will not t,'ive what is demanded. He knows, in that case, that he can make it, or -et il made, tor less. Were one t(j employ him.self in roUini^ a stone u>. hill and down hill for a month together, he would leave it as useless to him in the way of exchan;^e as hefore he put his hand to it. It may he laid ilown as a rule, then, that in as far as lahor simjilv is concerned in all exchanges, one thiic' will he hartered for anoilier, not ui proportion to the lahor that has heen respccti\ely he,- liecn constructed, to Uiake other articles AM) THK SYSIKM OK FA( HASGK 107 tnuiil to tlieiii in citpacity t(i supply wiuit- ; tliat, if this laskft exchaiiL^t's fur that lial, thoii-li uarh may have oust two iImvs' lahor, it is not exactly hecauso imlIi has cost it, hut l.fcausc neither a liasket eipially Liood as tlie one, nor a hat e(|naliv ,l;o(m1 as the other, can he niach' for less than two (hiys' lahoi.' Asa corollary from this, it follows that, whenever an article comes to he made with less lahor tiian formerly, articles of the >ame sort which may have heen }>revioiisly manufactured, pro- cure for their owners less of other artich's in exchaii;,'e than iliey dill hefore. They exchan:_'e. not for what lahor has heen ;h tually wrou;^ht up in th'Ui, hut for what is now nipiired to make others similar to them. Thus, supjMisinu' that a hasket- hiaker, say in some settlement in North America, haviu;^- to i^o mi fo(jt a considerahle distance through woods and swamps for his willow twi;j;s, requires one day to procure enoui^h to make a l.a-ket, and that he takes another to work them up, he would then prohalily receive for each hasket two days' lahor, or articles havin;.^ cost two days' lahor. If now, however, a place when' equally <;ood willows urow is discovered near at hand, so ihal only half a day isreipiinMl to net enough for a hasket, and if tins is L'enerally known, he will no lon^jer he ahle to exchani^e them at tlie same rate, hecause, as we have seen, other people would make haskets for less, that is, for one and a half days' lahor, or for articles in the fahricatioii of whicli the lahor reviously to this discovery, would only exchaniie for articles re(|uirin'_' fir their fahrication the lahor of a day and a half. The .same rule that apjilies to till- trivial instance, holds j,'ood in atVaiis of greater importance, and veuulates a lar;je amount of exchan'.^es. it can however never exactly hajijien, that lahor will lie ex- I liaiiued. in this simple way, for lahor. The formation of every Jn>trument, hesides lahor, reipures also the assistance of soiue other instrument. Even the hasket-maker and the hat-maker, .iliowiu'.,' them to ^-t the twi<;s and straw they rei|Uin' for the liouhle of collecliiii,' them, wnuld need, the one at lea.sl a knite, and the other a needle and thread. .\ii\iliaries so inconsider- d'le as these need scarce hi ..iticcd in the reckon im; ; Imt i 'I mi . ia«2^-i-l*' M^i^m^ 'I 1 i ' '!.; { ; 1 ■ ■.! ! f . ' i* 1 los or SKrARATlON or K.Mri.OVMENTS llific art' ruses when' ihcsi' assistiiiL; instiuiaents may ln' said lu (111 a 'jieal I'lUt, iitliiTs, in wliicli tliey may In' .said In (Id iie.'irly tin- wiinie nt the wnik. In a steam-lioat the eii^iue mav lie ((iiisiileieii a^ till- ^^reat lahorim,' jinwer. thouu'h the servi' es ot the iiKMi wiui supply fuel, and reu'iilate' tiie niDtinn iif il and i>t' ihe Imal, enter also lar^^ely into the ariiiiint. In a set nf well-cnnlrivi'd, and well-tinished pipes, l(ir (;iindu(jtinu' walei tliMiii;^li a city to the ditlerent liouses in it, the amuiint uf Immaii ialmr entering [diiceily] into tlie pincers is veiy tlillilli;. A Weaver we shall supjinse receives thread to weave into ,i jiieee iit linen, and tini^hes the joli in thirty days. Were he now, in return. Ill I'eeeive from liis eni]iloyer simjily tliirty days' lalior. he would Ljet ton little ; t'oi, his loom liein;,' an instrn- nient jiartially eNJiausied in lalirieatinu' the linen, this exhaus- tion ou;^ht to form an item in tiie aeeount. Supi)ose that the elleetive desire ot aeeumuiation of the individual, is of streni^th snilieient to earry him to the order (i, doulilini,' in seven \ears, tliat the loom 'list one iiundred days' Ialmr, and tliat it will be exhausted in seven years ; it would then rei|uire to return two hiuidred days' Ialmr, or an ei[uivalent, at the end ot that period. 'I'he return however is not delayed so loni,', but In-Lcins to come in daily, immediately after its eonstruelion. tJaleulatin;,' then what yearly return is eipial to two hundred day.s at the end of seven years, in the estimation of a man who reckons one day now eipial to two then, it will turn out to Ite nearly twenty days. We may allow that the loom is in employment three hundred days a year, it would therefore, on these ]ir neiples, have to return two days' labor, tor every thirty days during; whii II it was in operation, and the weaver would consecjuenlly have til receive an ei|uivalenl to thirty-two days' labor; at l"ast had he not a moral eeilainty of reeeivin;^ this, he would not have fniiued thi' instrument, and were such return to cease he would not reconstruct it. The transport of ;_'oods by sea is an event liroU;;ht about as nnich by llu' agency of in~-truments, as by direct human labor. A vi'ssel costs, we shall say, live thousand day.s' labor, is exhausted in seven years, and is naviiiated liy three men. If she beloic^s to a pci-nn \\li'-e ellccti\e dc-ire of accumuUition i^m^^it AM) THE SYSTKM OF FACHANGK 109 'iirries him only to tlio class (1, ami >uiPiinsiiick of instruments of indi- viduals and of societies, with the excejition of land, considered not as actually cultivated, but as having [been given] a I ! 'Jfxr mm ^mf 110 OF SKl'All.VnON OF EMl'LOVMFNTS capacity t'nr hciii^ cultivaU'il, is termcl rupilnl. The iiistru- iiicrits Id uliicli this ttTiii a])plii;s i;ii|i])ly the futun- wants (if lilt' imiiviiiuals nwiiiii'.' thciii, iiulirecily, citlicr froiu lieini,' tlioiusclvi's coiiuiin(iiiics tliat may lit' exchair^'cd for articles directly >uiteil tu tiitir iiffds, or by tiieir capa'iiv of pro- duciii;,' coiiiiiiiiditir> wiiicli may lie so e.Ncliaii'.'cd.' (.'ajiital itself is a^aiii sulidivideil into ,/!."(/, and (iirnlatinff capital. Fixed capital consists of instruments which have a capacity for pnnlucin;^' coiiimoditirs to he exchanged, but are not tlieniselvcs formed for the purpose of heinu' exdian.ued. Cinuiatinu ca]iital t onsists of commodities fitted for bein>,' exclianu'cd, oi of instruments in pn^cess (jf formation into such commodities. It often happens that tiie division between fixed and circu- liitini,' capital is drawn with diHiculf s(jme in.slrunients belon;;,'in^' jiartly to the one, and ]iartly the other. Thus a liorse employed for aLj;ricultural purposes is ii i)art of tixed capital, wliile an ox may beloni; partly to lixed, and partly to circulating (apital, as he is rearetl and fed, in part for the services expected from him as an animal of draft, and in part for the price iiis carcase brings. The total instruments owned by an individual, or a society, and comjirehended under the terms a .stock rese -ed for im- mediate consumption, tixed and circulating capital, have received the general apjiellation of stock. All instruments, wlietlier comprehended under the divisions capital tixed and cinulatinfj. "r a stock reserved for inuuediate consumjition, ])ossi» a capacity for supplyinj,' the wants, or saving' the labor of man. But the wants which they supply '[ A)i(i.iriiitly Itae (.xclmU-.s liiiui, considered iis the liajial instiuniciit (if iiBriiiiltiui', from the latigory of capital, liccaiise it is an instrument of "indefinite jieiiod c.f exliau.t'iiin " and yielil.s income iu the form of rent instead of inteiest or ]irotit. It in important to olmerve that Rae makes no I re of the specific (htiiiition of capital here given, whiili follows closely the le III of Adam Siiulli. His \i (irking; conce|it of capital coincides with all stock. The title of this secouook," it will lie remeinlieied, was: "Of the Naliiie of .Str cut down tomorrow ttiey may yield a lumdred conls of tirt> Wood, ;ind if the latter be cut down tifty years hence they may yield the same. We should not neverthele.s.s conceive, that they were e(iual the one to tie- f accumulation of tli- |iarticular community. Tims in a community whose etlecti\e ilesire of accumulation is of strength suthcient to carry it to the formation of instru- ments of the order E, doubling iu ti\e years, an instrument, which at the expiration of five years yieldeii a return e(juiva- lent to two days' labor, mi,<,'ht fairly be estimated as equivalent to one day's present labor; if at the expiration of tea years it yieldeii an equivalent to four ilays' labor, it mi;4ht also now be rated at one day's labor, and so fur other periods. This therefore is a mode ;ree : lait. in eases where the accumulative l)rinciiile has not yet luul time fully to operate, the foriuer will exceeii the latter. Thus, were we to suppose the returns luaiie hy the whole of the instruments helonyinj,' to a society, or their total capacity, to he suddeidy douhled, without any addition to the lalifjr employed in formin;^ them, the total alisolute stock of the society would also he douhlcd, wliile its nlalive stock would remain unaltered. The relatifins of the srviTal instruments possessed hy it remainini,' the same, what- ever commodity hail iieen adopted as the standard, when ap]died to measure the others it would ;,'ive the same results as hefore. It never, indeed, can hajipen that any increase to the capacity of the instrunient.s forminjj; the stock of a society, so ;j;reat and sudden as we have supposed, can take place ; but however small such increase, it would have a real ellect, and would occasion a ditlerence in the amount "f the whole stock as estimateil in the one or the other manner. Kvery such increase is eti'ected through the opera- tion ol' the inventivi! faculty, and we shall therefore defer the consideration ot the etfects tlowini; from it, until we come to treat of the phenomena resulting' from tht> proi;ress of that faculty. Thoui;h the division of employments consoiiuent to the progress of science and art, and the operation of the accumu- lative principle, on the whole greatly acivlerates the exhaus- tion of instruments, there are yet some jnirticulars in which it tends somewhat to retard that exhaustion. In the most sim))le state of society, when art is so rude, and accumulation so little advanceil. that each indiviilual forms almost all the instruments lie himself or his family exhaust, and when, con- si(juently, the general stock of the i. immunity is nearly altogether a stock formetl and reserved for immediate con- -uniption, it can Feldoni haprj- .(.... .i,._. .,.;n 1.. . ;.i,,._ _.. AM) THK SYSTEM OF KX CHANGE 113 'vcr ahuiulaiire. ur a deticiency i>{ itisininifnts df any sort. As rach imlivitlual tan iiiakf an accurate estimate of hi>< own Wants and tlmse uf his family, iprmient men, in such a state "t thinizs. jmivide only the instiunients that may be n\' use to ihriii, and do not fdrni any Imt >ucli as they fnre-ee will come iiiio emiiloymenl as they are t'ornied. I'.ut when individuals it;i~inu' to form only instruments directly snpidyin;,' their own Wants, L;ive tlie i,'reater part of the industry they can (OMiniand to manufactuiiuu commodities for the jmrpose of • ■\( haii^'e, as they have not tiie means of calculatiipj with cjUid accuracy tiie wants of other men, it occasionally hai)i)ens tiiat some commodities are produced in excess, and that there > a deticieni y of others. When, ai:ain, the >tate of vdciety is su( h, thai each in- inidual forms aliuost the whole instruments he reiiuire.s, tliere is Very little transport of comnioditie- from place lo place. The amount of transport necessarily increa.ses with tlie .separation of employments. This forms another drawback liom the advanta;_'es arisin- from the e.xti nsion of the division ot occujiations, and system of exchaiiLie. On account there- tore both of many commodities beim; jiroduced in exces.s, and 'il Us beinj,' nece.s.sary to transport mo,st from place to place, there are always, in such .states of society, very many com- iiiodiiies lyinu idle, beini; neither under process of funnation •r exhaustion, but collected in ma.«.scs at different points, waiting till some vacancy be found for them. The longer '.liey continue in this .state the farther they must pa.ss towards the orders of slower return, and the more the operation of the accumulative principle must be retarded. It .seems to be chietly from the desire of obviating .some- what these two disadvaiitaj^es attending' the general advance "t art and industry, that, when the nature of the occupation permits it, individuals enj^a^ed in all the ditferent divisions <'r industry place themselves as near each other as possible, uid form villages and town.s. Eadi can thus more easily adjust the amount of commodities he produces to the wants "I other men, and ilnis also there arises a great saving of transport. It is iiiSu ill u yiciil hieasuie owing Lo the necessity of !j 1 '? \lf \i »■; ' r if ■ ■'I I 11+ or SKl'AUATION ( >r EMPLOVMKNTS tnmsi»ortiii'_' cmiimiMlitif^ trom i>1m(.' to placi', uiid to the (littiiulty ot rt-^iilatiii'^ tin- jmri-.' aiiiotml prclui-tMl cDiis.'nucnt (III tlie \' uifnliaut--, (IfVotiiiL; tlifinsi'lvL-.-, sdlt-ly to thf l.u>ii;fss (if lraiis],oil ami exch iii-c MtTfliants arc tlic uicat (■xchanmTs of sdcicty, rc'iulaliiiL; the pnMlucticii df (■(iiiuii("lilics ami ( (illcctiii'4 and (li>lriliiitiiiu llicni {<< situations wIiltc the iR'vcr-Lt-asin;^ ].rii(>-sfs of formation ami cxlian-lion are [to- dncin,' vacancies for tlieni. It is ilicir liii>ine~- to make tli(-e exchanges with the 'ireatc-t posMhlc rapi'lily. ami least j(o>siii!e exjiun^e. There is a 'general average time claiisin-,' from the prioil of the formation of cv.-ry comniodily. until it pass from the indiviilual liavin',' forme(l it, to the iiuliviiliials who exhaust it in the Mijiiilv of their wants, or employ it in the formation of other instrument.-. The merchant who effects the transfer of comnioditi.- hetwi-eii the other nieinhers of society is fntitle(l to ren'ive an amount excei/dinu' that which he i,'ave hv the return which the hilxjr enilio(lied in the conuiioliiy exeiianL;e(l should yiidd for this avera.'e time, accordim.' to tlie ,L,'eneral rate of reHirn of caiiital in the ((ininiunity. If therefore the -iijierior intelligence, penetrati.m, and activity of aiiv merchant — uiviie^ him the power of foreseeinL; with -greater accuracy than his hrethren where vacancies are ahotit to exist, and what will he their extent, and of disooverin;.' where the coniiiKjdities proper to till tiiem up may most readily l>e found, and most easily traii.siiorled to the re(|ui>ite j,].„.,.s— fiiahles him to elftHt tlie.-e transfers with u'reater fadlity than usual, and within less than the average time, he will receive a proportionally izreater return than other merchant.s. ( )n tiie contrary, if, from a deficiency in these ([ualities, any merchant attempt the transfer of cuiiiniodities fur which there is .10 vacancy, or etfect the transfer of com- modities for which there is a vacancy, at more than the average expense, or in more than the averaire time, tlie returns his capital yields iiim will he less than those usually received hy t a other niemhers of the community. Mercantile energy is thus stiniulatetl to etlect all practicahle exchani,'es with the ^reale.st possihle celerity, and at the least possible expense. AM) THE SVSTKM OF' EX( HANGE 11 r, Tlir in'tiviiy which is in cKiiMMjutMici- .jivcii tn th.- ]iri)ce.ss ■ •f fxchaiiu'e. i> ;i fin uiiistaiiLt.' uxcft'.lin.^'ly lifut-ticial to the iiiliTests 1)1' tht; i ommiiiiity. I>y li-i>,,.iiin„' the •listainf lit'twc.'u the [it-riods uf toriiiatioii aiul exhau-tioii. and iliiuiui>hiiij the c\]iL'iise of fc.riiiation (tV)r traiisiinri makes a part ut tiial r\|.fiise), the siKcf-stul cxertidiH of th.' m.-rraiuilr ])(.rtii.ii I I -Mciety have a jHiwcrlul teiideiiry t" iin-stTvi' iii>iriiiiit'nts 111 lilt' inure iiuickly retiiriiiuu' onliTs. and tn exLitc thf aetinii "f the accuiiiulativi' iiriiicii>le. Our sul.jeLt luii^i'.iiieiitly n'<|uires us tu examine sumewhat m^re parlieularly llie iii.Lhanisin l.y whicli the bu^sine^^.s of nioreliants is eomlncted, and the mini.- nf calculatiun hy which it is i»ra(tically r.-ulaii'il. (»iir attention tiM. is muie es|t."eially called tu thi'si', Itecause it is t'rtjm the torniiT that the i>rinci|iles of the present science of ]Mditical economy are deriv.-d. and cm till' latter that its nomi'iiclaiiire i< fo-ainled. The fdundation of the mechanism of mercantile transac- tions is Mi)ii< //. Colli and silver, or, as they are called, the precious metals, arr more properly entitled to the apjM'Uation of money than any other thin;; is, hecau-se they more ^'enerally pass for niom-y than does any thin^ else. Their beauty, their ineorruptihility, and some other of their ijualities afterwards to he considered, liave, in almost every country, rendered them the means of aflbrdino much enjoyment, that is, of supplyini:, to a lirLie extent, certain of the wants of man. It seems likely liiat these nualities, joined to the facility with which they iiiiiy be transported from place to place, tirst made them e.-teemed the most desirable of all commodities that one could po.-sess. In the very frequent revolutions and commotions that occur in the earlier au'es of society, articles that do not deciiy, can lie hid, or carried oti without difficulty, and are always estimable, would naturally of all others be most 'ov.'ted. They thus probably were tirst cliietly sought after, lor the purpo.se of being retained, not tor that of lieing ex- chani^ed ; even yet in many countries, partly from old habits, and partly from still prevailing iusecuritv. thev nrc ehii'tly liri/.ed as ot all things, those best ht to Ik? hoarded. But, ': VI i n li- I !i- i' 1 lU; OF SEPARATION OF KMPI.OVMKNTS in whatever inaiin.-r ttirir ii-e iiiav liavc Keen iiitr^t'uod, {.r lii'W iii\i(li -nrwT 111 stPiiif cduiitrit's it may he «l.'|H'iiil(;i!t (.11 a t.-cliiiL: <>i iiisi-iurity, at pn'sciit oi tnriiieriy )i;vvailiiiu'. and iironilitinii tlR-ir jiossess.irs to kee). not to jiart witii ihoni, thi-y are now nioie generally souulit tor, foi- the {.nrpost; ol i.eint; ininieilialely j.a ot society, men divide into ilitferent o(cii].ati(ins, and eadi ceasiie.' to t.ihricate him.-elf all the instrument> his wants require, liarters the instriinieiits or commodities he torms tor those formed l.y VSTKM OF F.X(HANGE 117 all the l»ii-iiii.':-s (if fvcry iimiitry that (••iii-ist> not iii barter, 1- carncil un. I'u-iis of uM iiiid silver coiiir.i, that i-> staiiii«,"(l witli a 1.1, irk r' '.'iilii iil: and assurini,' l>y the authority of the uia'^isinite the \v.i;_'} • iunl tiiientjs.s uf eiicii. enter largely intn transactions I tile foriiii'r iiriier; they make the lailk of the current enin ui nmst ciii.iitries. Mipi. >ini,' the whole ni the exehaii'^'es 'i\ any ruuniry that are ni" -^iniiile harter, eltected hy money, ami that U'>M ami silver torni the sole niunpy. then the amount ul liii'm >■• einjiloyed [at any _'i\en le\el of priees] Would seen, to he rei^'ulated by iwo cireumstan( cs. The first of the-e is the ([uau'ity of connuodities that may • \ist to 111 e.\i liaiiijed. This a^.iin must depend on the ,iiantit_ if materials wroU','lit uj) into instruments, and on the proj,T> ss of the division of labor [i.-miiloymenis]. As the number of instruments increase, and as from their first 1 lumenciiit,' formation until they are exhausted, they pass ihrouj,'h more hands, the amount of exchani^es must increase. ..s the number of instruments formed decrease, and as every luaii liimself constructs a greater proportion of thijse neces.sary I 1 supply his own wants, the amount of exchanges must iliiu.iiish, and as the amount of exchanges increases, or diminishes, so must tliere be renuired [at any given level of ]irices] a greater or less (juantity of tlie medium through whiih they are transacted. In such a state of things as we sup ^e, could every man see exactly beforehand the whole series of the exchanges that would present themselves to him every j)rudent man would so manage his exchanges, that - his purchases ant' liis .sales, as to provide himself with uie exact amount of money necessary to etfect every exchange that he might deem it advisable to execute. Hut no man can with accuracy fore- see what transactions may present themselves to him, or when they may do so. The amount of possible future ex- ( hanges that may otter to any man, and the time they may occur, are exceedingly uncertain, depending on many things not to be foreknown — the operations of other individuals 1 iiiiaged in the formation of instruments immediately or I'-molely connected with those ou which his means or industry ii \ I HB hi ^M^aaiBM^ ■ I; I It '1 I' ! f . 1 > > 1 i i lis (•F SKl'ARATION OF KMl'LOY.MKNTS i^ iii'.M'jf'i. thr KPiii-i- "t till' vvinii-i iiiul >fa>iai-;, tliu fortune <>t w,ir ilir )irii'^rf-> "t trt-atit^, ami mmilurk'-- oiIkt evicts . Mill, illy (Iciiil.ttul in thfir issiiu*. Kvery man. th.-ri'turf, wmiM in -ndi a stati' <>< tliin.;<. siitfiT two infunvcnii-iKcs. In- wtmM "((•a-i"nal!v liav.- \n,, niucli innniy, ami m ra>ii'nally tou littlt-. \\r wi.uM -nnn'tinii'- havt- a sum lyiir_' fur a l"n- limt' iisi'le«rt liv him. ami an ailvantaji-nii- jain lia^' wmiM xmu-tinifs lin-sfiil it.-cll' u> him whiih Ix- had ma ( ,i-h Mitt.i it lit to itlfct. I'.iawfcn tlu'S'' tWM (i].ii(isitc fviN. it wcniM 1m- hi-j husiiu'ss Id <- roiitcni to suttn- occasionally tVom hoth. Which of tin' two it woiiM )..• mo-t ]>ruilcnt hT him U' run ;1il' ri-k of siitfcriii- lioni, would. I conci'ivi-. dc)iind on another cirnimstam ••. f"iniiii^' the second of those that, under the .^uipjiositions we have made, rej,'ulate the amount of jm-cious metals in ( iri ulation. Kvery man must he more nnwillim.' to iiui the risk of havini,' a sum >■( money lyinu' us.dess l,y him, I'V how much greater the amount of the returns he toiild hav.- hy turning it to the formation of instruments. If then, in llie SMciety of wliich any man is a niem'oer. instruments are not far removed from the tirst orders (jf our series, when they SMone.sil douhle the exi>enditure of tlieir formation, lie will rather ri.sk the in- convenience of havinu too little money hy lam, than tlie loss ..f haviu'^' a sum in his cotfers lorn.' unemjiloy.d. which mi^ht have lieen converted into instruments yielding' lar^e returns, r.ut if, in the society of which he is a memher, instruments are far removed from the rir^l orders of our series, he will be disposed to reserve a greater amount in the hopes (^f making more hy .some advantageous huruaiu, than he could hy expend- ing it on the formation of any instrument. We should exjject then to find, that, in countries where either the iirinciple of accumulation is too weak to carry instruments on to the more slowly returning orders, or where it has not yet hatl time to do so, money would be scarce, and that, whore this principle Living had time to act, its .strength has carried them to the farther orders, there money would be plenty. Such will be found to be the fact. In China, gold and silver are rarely seen, in the interior traffic of the country ; in Holland, they mML^m AM) THF SVSTK.M OK KX( II \N(.K 11!» ]\A\i- alway- ai"rim(li-(l. In new s.-ttltiiiiiaN, iii-triiiiitnt>^ arc <•[ \cry juickly i>-turniiiL: "nl-T-. the aiii'iunt "f rniu to I'l' tiutul is • \' ifiliiiL;ly Miiall. Wlifii a man tlurt' lia> ra-^li in liis jiMckct. Ii>' tiri(N Ml many Illinois iliat he luiiM with imitil L'\ji«'n lict'ori', may have !>roiii,'hl a -urn lit two hundred [loiinds to the iilaie where ho is now -rtth'd, witlmnt at jiresent twenty dollars in his pocket, and A ho |iciha]i--, Wrre thai sum suddenly demanded of him, mii;hL .'M\e diltirulty lo procure it. In one sense, then, the man is I'oor. r.ut, were this man a>ked to -ell his farm and his 'tlier projierly. hr ]irolialily would not u'lve il for less than a thousand pounds, and he miuhl <.'et this sum for it. If so, it 1- ten to one that he would lay o\il the greater part of it in the purcha.se of a larj,'er ipuintity of land than he before possessed, and the remainder in iiuprovinii that land, .so that a year or two would see him Just a.s bare of lash as before; and twelve years afterwards, if he went on prosperously, he would >till have but a trifle of ready cash, though perhaps he might truly consider his jiroperty worth two or three thousand fiounds. and might not be t I r ., ' ll'O or SKI'AUATION OF EMPLOVMKNTS iiiL'tiils, ill imr(;li;i>iiiL.' llif iii-truiin'iils n\ tnidi-, the iii.itr linildiii'^ ami exteiiijiiiu' their >;ettleiiieiit>. in liurelia.'-iii;:. imt diMil slock, Iml ;i(ti\e :iii<{ slower return, than they would otherwise occupy. One wishes to puichase a pair of youni,' horses of a particidar sort ; fur this puri)ose he reserves a (juantity of coin enuivalent to four hundred days' lahor ; he happens, however, not to meet witli a pair that suits him for the space of si.x months, when he purchases two, L,dvin,u for them the amount he had anticipated. It is evident, in this ca.se, that they have really cost him, not only tin.' four hundred days' lat)or, hut all that in the country in which he lives, that lahnr would have produced, hesides paying f(jr itself, durinu' the si.\ montlis he was lookiiii; out for the harjiaiii Now, as this additicjual outlay cannot add to the capacity of these instruments, to tiie stren,i:th, swiftness, heanty, and health, that is, of the animals, nor diminish their ajje, it must he esteemed as lessenin.t,' the proportion hetween the return to he ^^ot from thei:i. and thi' outlay expeniled on them, and must nio\<' them ]iroportionally towards the orders (jf slower return Ai^ain, it may iiave heeii that the person who at la-t sold the hcu> mav have heen ilesirou.s of sellini; ^Woiilli i'l' X'l'.nu-l, Hook V. MI I t AND THK SVSTKM OF P^XCHANCiK 1-21 tln'in for six iiiontli.> IpclMri' lit- I'li'fctfil tin- sale, and tlut at tin- (■MiiiiiH-iict'inent uf that yonnd lie may liav.' im-t with ,iii iiih. Il wr :-ii|i]iiwc iliciii tu have l.iM'ii iiieri'iv u^ijc^s t'l tln'ir owiu-i liiiriiiu tlie jieriiMl tr":ii thciicL' fla|>sf(l, the si-rvi( I- tliey reiiilcicd him hciiiL: jn-t Millitit-ni to pay tor liicir tu.id and ki-fji, still, this retardation ill the rt'turn from the outlay in ili.' forniation of tlu-ni a.- an iiistninieiit, also move> tJHiii ioi hiiu x, much towanN tiic niMti; slowly returniui; order-, .lud dimiiii>he- tlie activity of the accumulative principle. If the individual who rai-ed them >ii>es not receive an additional ]irice, pinpirrtionate to the del.iy, tiie occurrence will have a teiKJeni y to make him i^ive up this luaiich ot liu.^iiiess. Similar events lakiiiu' placi' in the e\cliaii;,'e of other in-tru- luents, would produce similar results, and therefore two evil- would necessarily accompany the -tate of .ittairs we have sup- po-i'd. There would he two drawhacks on the proL,'ress of the industry of the .s(x;iety, the one consisting' in the exp<'n.- tlio >aker, licaliiif,' toL;ctli-T, cllL-ct. all th.'ir Imsi.ic-^ .■ithcr liv dirfct liarter, nr I'V i.isti. Till' Inif. her wcjiilii. in very many case-. Ue ■^alistifil witli the in)]ilifil iironii-r of tlir tirt-wi-r ami tin- liakiT, tlial, at soiiir fiitiiri' lime, tla-y will u'ivf liini a quantity of thf coni- moijiiii-s they res]ieitively ileal in, or of money, or some eipiivalent to it. ecjiial to the j.rice ol the oeef ea'h reei-iveil. This moile ,,f elf."'tinu the olij..M_-t, constitutes the system of rreilit. the -.eon'l well known, the u'reat hulk of transac- tu»n- are carried on liy the aid "'f it. Were the actual or im- jilied ]iromis.'. whicii the ]p,irty reeeivinu the connnoility makes to Iniu '.'iviiiu it, aU\M\s lultilled, it wiaild in itself be unattended with any lov-. and mi'_'ht possihly he -o managed us almost entirely to supersede the use of coined money a.s a mediinn of exchanu'e. The whole amount of the lairchases made hy any individual within a limited time, is, in ;;eneral, ahout emial to the sales hi' effects within the same time. if. therefore, in any commu- nity, all the exehan;,'e.s, which are not direct harter, were to be transacted by credit, and were the obli;.^ations to pay j,'ranted bv all jiersons en'_'ai;ed in business in it to exjiire at the same time, when that time came round, every individual would iudd obligations to receive, to about as larue an amount as he Ir d uiraiited to jiay. If then each individual had i,'ranted olili'.Mtions to i)ay, to the same persons as he had received others from, the busiiie.s.s would be at once conidudetl by a reciprocal delivery of oblij^ations. lUit this can -rareely ever liapjien ; almost all the obli to pay (' Idty pIexediieSH iiid dilliculty. the second Iroiii the lialiilily of the contracting' pirtii's to fail in Itiltillini: their etiLM-enienls, from dishonesty, niiscalcidation, ami acciilents imi"i-silile to he foreseen. These restrict it- apiilicaliun in -eii.-ral id transactions fnr l.ir^'e amount-, little dotihtful in themselves, and which from th.ir nature can he easily sy>tema ,.ed ami anan-ed. Such appears to havi' lieen the '■'/•-«/. /rs. or tran-fers, at l.ynns.' Siicli aNo ire the transfers elfei t.d hy the London hankers. In Kus^a. Iiowever. It would seem to he applied to transactions usuch more various, and comj.licated. Mr. Ston.h informs us th.it the creditors and dehtors of the jirovince ol Kiff, and .several •'tlier., adjoininL,'— the proprietors, capitalists, niercliants, tliose who want funds, and those who want to dispo.se of them,— meet iu the month of January, in the town of Kirf, to make sti.h tran.sfers, and that in l.sn4, the amount -f their e.xehan^e.s "as tipwards of twenty million.* ..f rui/1.-, or ahont three millions seven hundred thousand pound- sterling. Trau-fers -imilar to th 'se are made, lie adds, at l.'ev.d. and many other ■.owns in the empire." There is iuiother method l,y which the system of credits uuuht he conducted, and which -nay he illustrated hy .m example taken from a country .already r.ferred to, where the causes excitin- to its introduction, and t/ivir-j reva- lence to it, operate very jiowerfully. In many parts of N',,rth America, Ijut more especially in new settlement.s in Upper •anada, the scarcity of ca.sh, ami }.erhaps other circumstance.s, often lead traders to ailopt a peculiar pl.m of iaisine.ss, Kv<'rv dealer provi.lcs himself with ii ^-eneral assortment of all .sort^s of commodities in demand in the -ettletuent he inhabits, and I'ckons on heim: paid tor them in the -hape (,f orain, potash, p'jrk, heef, and other comnu.dities, in the formation of which '(;^iiiil)i, lJ-~ -v.'<"fi '/■.i..„„m.. y«./i'.7.,., T,.„„ II, ,, i5o 'Jrch, Voiii-. 'ieoiiomtt, Toun; II. p. .i.');!. 1 M i 'I I .1! 1:2 1- OF SEPAHATinN OF KMPLOVMENTS if ! :l hi- ciiil'iiiH'i- nil' iiu;i_'i'il. lliil in lliis .sort of liarttT, one artirli- will .;ciifr;illy tall >liiirt or .■xreed tin- value of tin- oilii-r, a iHuiinl '•{ UM will not .'xrliaii'^i' tor a lio^', nor a quarter of wheat tor a lio/cn jioiunls of -iULMr. To ohviate the (littii ulty, the ii.'rnfiaiil op.Mis an aicoinit with eaeh of his (■u>lonier~, (hai'jin.; hiiii witli thi' u'ood- furnislicd, and '^ivin^ liini 1 redit tor [criditinu hini witli] liie jirodui"' received, ami in this way jpi-iiiajj- all the tran-a( tioiis helwin-n the two are inana^'ed, e'ither hy liartei or credit, wiihoui the assistance of a ilollar of casji. N'l.r is thi- all; a .'real variety of other trans- actions are al-o ctlccied throiiLjh his intervention. Any per-on wiio may have furnished him witli an overplus of produce, or who has creilit with him, can throuuh his means settle nio-t accounts or halances due on accounts. lie may thus pay the laliorers, and the artitiiers, and tiade-men, he may .Miiploy, hy an order on the --hop, or as it is lalled, store, ot the ( Dimiry dealer. I'lesides these, the transactions of the storekeeper extend to the i,'iviii;_' out of the raw produce of the country to individuals in the settlement, tradesmen, etc., who may not themselves have enou^zh, and to the recei])t in return )f vaiious articles, such as axes, shoes, hoots, made-up clothe : and in this way tliruoh his Itooks, a very lari,'e portion of the husiness of the settlement is transacted. It is not dithcult to conceive, that the whole mii^Iit he so transacted. Were the lountry dealer always to have a su])i)ly of every article in demand in the settlement, at a reasonahle r.ite, and were all contracts for the delivery of jiroduce to him to Ik; re;,'ularly executed, almost all the rei|uisite exchanj;es mi^hl he conveniently ellected lhrouL;li his hooks. Hut in this sort of trallic, a.s the merchant alway.s ha.s commo-. in conseipience, keep ■ut of tiie eiicle ot all such trans.ictioiH, ;is much as ]>ossible, .md store-[iay. as it is called, is rlepn-. iateii.' eful or necessary;- con- venience then to have rendered it ••Np^dien' to liave them formed into pieces (jf a certain weight and linenc-s. when they bcLtan to constitute wii.ii is now called money ; lastly, their i^enera' adoption as money would seem naturally to have rendered them proper measures to _'ive ii.\edness to those ohliuations to luture delivery of thin<,'s in e.\chan;^t.". whi( h the in reased security ami iramiuillity of modern times, and the ureat amount of exchanues Iran.sacted, have in recent days mtroduceci. In the two latter employments, as serving; for real, or determining' the rights which the possession of fictitious money conveys, they occasionally serve as media for exchan'4in^' all in.-truments, and, therefore, for determining am! exj.re.s.sin;,' tiieir relation t>' each other, as things ein^ exchanj.'ed, that is. all in.-truments, they come to denote the amount of in-^trum.nts, or (apital, or stock, which any man posses'.es. A jierson is said to lie worth live undred, or hve thousand pounds, as he has instruments which, in exchani.;e, would he measured by these sums re- spectively; and, as in comiiKtn life all thim.'-^ are (onsid.red, ' [The (imismiiii ut this pmnt u.nstituti - Tart I. of tlic Artiilc nn liujUm^; in the Appendix. | -ThuH the Kniglit parted with h link or twn of lii.i j;old i hum, wln-n in need, ■■Knd in more ancient tiuiea the iriiveller earned hi» l«i^; of gold du»t. i-ir, OF SKrARATION OF KMPI.OV.MENTS ' ■ i< I I mil as llii'V aie, Iml nn.-ifly in tlieir iK.tioiis ami relatiDiis, iiisiriiinfuts ciiiiic tluTi'. ■.A><>. to lie s|M,ki'ii ahoiit, ami cou- cimvimI of, ult'i^'L'tli'-r ill tlie ri'latioii ili.-y have Lk certain pieces of u'oM ami >iUei.' These ari' m>l liit- nnly ettects wlii'-li the e\rlian_'.- nf iii>tni- nieMt> tnr line amilh.T, ami llie (■ulise.iuelll U-i' lit liinliey a- iht! jmiliuni lit' '-Xrhan^i', have jirucllleiMl ill i)Uf ciilK i'|ilii)Il-; of tlniii. The system of exciianue^, heiii,' atteii(le«l liy lliat of creiiil, implies the rxisieiiee of some iiioile ot a>(erlaiiiinu tlie aiu'iiiiit to lie ii'mlereil liai'k for instniiueiu - leeriveil in trust. li is >utVieieiuly iil'vious Uiai this must he ileterniineil hy the onler to whirli the iiriiieiple of aeeunml.itioii, ami the time it has ii.el to operai.'. has larrieil the formation o| in-tniment> in the ■Mieietv. It, in any >o. lety. inilruments are at the opIit I), (loiililinu: in four years, then one receiving an instrument on trust, foi four years, will, at the emi of that period, have lo return two of the same sort ami ([Uality. If they are at tlie onier E. he will have tn rettirn two at the I'nii of live years, ete. Thus it is a common prartice in many parts of North America, especially in new settlements, to sell cattle and sheep on trust, the terms heiii',' tliat douMe the numher thus tran-- ferred is to lie returned in fmr or live years, as the a'^reeineiit may he made. More :.ienerally, Imwever, much shorter perimis are adopted, lor the settlement nf accounts. Th'- natural l)eriods of a year, and a month, have in dilferenl times and placi's, lieen made ciioici' of tor this purpose. It is then nee es.sary to calculate wlial is due hy tin- one jiarty to the other at these period- and these call illation- are naturally made in nioiiev. Instead, fir instance, of leturnini; two cows at the end of H\e years, the liari^ain may he, that a proportional sum is to he jiaid at the end of the tirst. seeond. third, fourth, and tifth years. Were money paid for the cow immediately, the amoiuU v.e siiall say would he twenty dollars, the douhle of that, which would lie the sum to lie jiveii were the time of payment deferred till the e.\pirati"H ol live years, is forty dollars. The annual payment (in inither lie a tifth ])art of the one sum, 'ITliat i» t" s.iy, in R.ies pci i.lni ifrmiii(ili>i,'> . we iMnsiilcr in ciinim)n liff only " rfUtiNf ali>c U " aiiii liisirgiiiii "' absolute stock."] AM) THK SYSTEM OF EXCHANGE 127 liMir iliillars, imr uf the utluT, ci^'ht ■ii)llar>, but mu- iM-iweeii tliu iwn, in tliis cii-e alioui -ix ilullars. Aijaiii. tlie liaruain luav !>.•, tiial a ((»\v 1.1' rL'turiR'il at tln' cxpinition ..f the tiftli voar and that, for h.T ii'.f ■iuriii',' that time, an annual reiiiuneration !"■ mad.-; tin- w.iuld he a lialf ..t the fninier annual payment, iicirly tliie.' dull.irs, and thai >nni accoidinu'ly, when such an irrant,'eMient takes place, is the usual yearly payment fur wliat i- called the rent of the cow. Whatever order iustrum.-nts may he at. some similar calculation nu^iht d.-ternuue. what should be the jiroportion annually pai'l for the u-e of anv of them. The employment of money in the.ee cah ulation-, ha^ simplitied tliem, by the introduction of -cneral rule.s. 'I'hr return which instruments make, i- estimated at .so much in the hiindri'd. or ].er cut. that is. in the hundred pounds, dollars, or whatever nuiy lie the current . oin. Ilcducin- our order- this phraseoloLiy, they would lie respectivelv ; — lu A lUli per cent, jier aim. !•: 1." G 10 H 9 {)er ( cut. per ann. 1 .^ M .V5 ^' "' .. „ etc It is on the.se principles, that all reckoning,'- are made, not oidy of instruments ^iven on credit, l>ut of those retained. In the latter ca~e, the annual return is termeil profits (jf .stuck, in the former interest. There is. h'jwever, this diflereuce betw.eii tlu- two, that, in the profits of stock, i.s ;,'enerally included the return that has to be made, fur the mental e.xertion and anxiety, and bodily fatigue, of the owner of the stock. There is. also, a difference Ijetween them, m common lan-^uaye, arisin" from its beim; the practice to speak of the more favorable issues of instruments, as determining; the rate, without reck(»n- in^i those that have turned out le.ss favorably, or unfortunately. Thus Adam Smith : ' In a country where the ordinary rate of < Icar profit is eii.'ht or ten i>er cent, it may be rea.sonable that "ue half of it should go to interest, wherever busine.s.s is carried on with burrowed money. The stock i.s at the risk of the r ' » If |.i"f!lr ,» . 1-2K or SKrAHAlION OF K.MIM.OVMKNTS l".niAvt.r, wh'<. ii- It wiTf iii^iins it to ih.- l-iMltr; ami four or fivr jxT C'Mit. iii.iy, ill ill'- unMl.T ]'.\n "t tnidc?. Ik- lioth a -iilt;ri.iit ]irntil uiinii till- ri-k of tlii< iiisuraiP .-, anil a Milliciciit ri- ..iii].cn~'' l"r ihc liouMk' of •■iiiiilo> iiiu llif >lo.k.' Here, oriliiiarv pr-.tit .-vi.!. ntly iiifaii>. n.'t lin- avfiaji-/ jirotit. l)iit l\w piotit of favoiaiilr years. Tlie avcra'_'»' jirotil of .i iiitTchaiit, for .•xaiiii'if, 1- not pro].i-ily ih- [.rotit lu- mak— uih,ii his luMic favor.ii'l'' ailvfiiturt-. 'mt wliat hi- inak.'s on M tlio.s.; ailv.-iitun-- tiiat yifl'l a ]>rotil. wlietiifr '.niat or -^iiiall. after .ieiiurtiii.; tlie actual lo-s li.' may siist.uii "n 'itliers. The a\.ra-.' i.rotit- of all the nier< <'l any country, also, iu'lude their very fav.uahle, their le>- favorahle, and tlu'ir lo-inu' adv. iiiuie-. In lhi~ w.iy. usiii;^ the term jTotit for the leliini made trom tie- outl.iv eXiM-nded -11 the folluallon of the whole instrunieiil^ .-(".keii of, .k lual lo^se- .ire al-o ineluded in it. and, ill '-iieakin- ].ro>iiectively of future ]irotit, the ri.-k of future lo.-^s is ue luded, and what Adam .^iiiith ealls the risk of m-uranee disaj.]>ears. If in a (.amtry wlu'ie the averai^e jirotit i~, in reality, only eiuht i^er ( eiit., a jiartieular merchant con- tinue Inr -onie Vear> to make ten Jier cent., he may indeed exi'ect, and is i.eiha].< apt to exi.ert. the -aiiie return in futuro vear-: hut. unless in so f;ir as he (.in truly calculate on ill- iiiercanlile sejacity and activity heinu' above i)ar, in so iIouil:. he act> imi'rudently, .ind the chances are that he is undeceived hy havinu to -ustaiii actual lo-s^-s in succeeding years. \V.- may then assume the rate of interest as a fair measure of the real avera^.' rate of jirolits in any country, and conse- i|uentlv of the order m our >eries, at whiih instruments are there arrived. So receivin;^ it, we >hall lind that it agrees very clo.Hdy with the inecedino ..h-ervatioii-. In China, we are told hy Harrow, that the le^al rate of intere-t is twelve jier cent., hut that, in reality, it varies from ei'jhteeii to thirty-ix. The remarks of other authors ai^ree j.ietty accurately with this statement, tixin.o the onlers at sihle it can he otherwi.se. Loans, inde.d, pa.ss under the name ,,f money, hut money is mdy the means of • llrciiuL: the loan, it is in reality instruments that are 1,-nt. and '.li'v must in return yield not much less [somewhat more] than rtl.at IS p,iid f..r their Use, otherwise they would not he hor- i"Wcd. and [hut] not much more, otherwise they would not he liiit. The system of calculation, the foundation of which we iiave I'-'ii considerinu' a.s connected witli txchan-es, is convenient l-r all eni:aL'cd in the hiisiiiess of transfers, and an.swers their jmrposi-s very perfe. tly. When appii.'d, liowev.T, t.j specula- !ivc jMirposes, it iahors under the disadvanta-e to which all in:,.tir,tl ,j,n>-r„l ,-///.s are iiahle, wlicn assumed a.s y>o>il„t,rf :f,i'nil jiri/irif,l..v.' l.c-n treated of, ;i- thin','s as .simple in their nature, as the rows of ,liirit.s tiuployed to mark the amount of money hy which they are //,.'o,r. ,1, r„,„r.. ,,ar |!.„uh,r, I',irw, Islit. p. •_>.-,. Thr 1,iwh »ya,u,t usury, llieri', a.s fUowlitrr, incmi."i •■ 130 OK SKPAH Alios OK KMIM.OYMKNTS estiiiiatc.l. Sonif ..f tli.- fallacies Ii.tkh arisiii-. will 1..' l)n>- sei.tlv iu.t.'.l : tlR-y will. I L.-lii-ve, l.e fnui.d tu Im- tl.r luuii.laliun of mil. Ii <>( the coiitra.liclions, in which tin- r.M^uiiiii.;- on these Slllijtits are ilivolveil. (With respi< t to tlie parti. ul;ir sul.jirt ImikIi.-.I iiiioii in tliix List para.-Mph, -ei- th- Article on Metlio.l in tlio App.n.lix. llir pa»«a-.' l..".'iiiniii.' ; ••Tims, if in any p.ii licul.ir »o. lily, «-• «. ,.■ to l.e a.-.kf.l, what tl,- cnpital of »ome oti.ti pirsoi. w.r.'," vu: At iIr- ri^k of aiiticii«tini; soiii.whit. a pa«,i«e from Cli^ipt. 1 I. Hook I. of tin- ori;;m.il i9 iulio.lme.l h.n-. 1 The uhservatioii nf I'.a./Mii is now trite, liiat men l.elieve that tlie wor.ls they ."miiloV in the process of rea^onin-, serve the intelle. I as mere passive instruments, but that, m reality, they have often an active retle.x power, tlir..u-h whi- h, while the" mind .leems it ,o„viTns thorn, tliey aie enaM^l to usurp the eommaml of it. an. I >.» mi- lireet its curse. Our author [Adam Miiithl n.)ti. . ■< the err.jrs, which, in this way, have arisen fr..m the u ■ .'f the t.rm m.>uey. "'Money, in (■onim..n lani,'iiaue, as I liav.- already .ihserve.l, frcHUently" sionili.'s wealth; an.l this amhi;.^'uity ..f e.\piessi..n hiis rendered this p.ijiiilar n.ili..n so lamili.ir to us, that even they wh.. are c.jnvince.l of its ahsur.lity. are very apt to f.,roei their own principles, and, in the c.iurM' ..f their rea>i.nin;^s. v> take it f.'r granted as a certain an.l un.leniahle truth. S..me of the best Kn^lish writers up..n .■.mimerco set .)Ut with ohserviic, that th.- wealtii of a ciintry c.nsi.sts, n.Jl in it.s ould an.l silver only, hut in its lands, houses, and cnsumahle ooods of all .lill.-rent kinds. In the course ..f their reason- iii^s, however, the laii.ls, Iduscs, an.l c.m.suniahle i,'oods, seem t.Tslip ..ut of their menujry ; and the strain of their arj^unieiit freciuently supposes that all wealth consist.^ in jiol.l and silver, and that to multii.ly those metals, is the -reat object of national industry an.l commerce."' It is remarkable that, in the use of the term capital, he himself lea.ls his 'eaders int.) a somewhat simi.ar error. Capital means in comm.iu langua.^e a sum of money, or soiiiithin-^ for which a sum of money can be got ; an.l. as > Wt.ilth of X'i'wiii, H. IV. c. I. (See "Note D" in the ApiK;nilix.] . 1 Ii. AM) riiF. s^s•|•I:M of KXCHA.Vii: 1.31 tlir iiir nil- l..,th of iiMti.mal :m\ in.liviilual . ai.ital pro.iu.os a SUM, ,,f „.,„„.v, ,,r >-in..tliin- for which .i sum of in,m.-y • ail \„- 1,'ot, til., similar .'stiiiiatioii of l„,th l.v a row .)f fi.Miivs i> th- thiiiK tha; in tliis way natiirally .■oiiu.s iii.p,.nnost to iniiMl. an.l lu-iic,., t!i,. t Lillys thc-iii<,-lv,.s in !».th cases tl fori, nil:.' tlie inmas,. n.-t iM-ii,;- i,„, lii.tclv piVM.ul to its tho„_-his. it li,.,.,ll..ssly falls into the c.n.lusion that they alsu an- i,.Tf., tly similar. In comparin- imictMl, the national capital a. ii has exist.-.! at -lisrant peri.„ls, the -^mall nati.mal '■'I'ltal of r.-m.,ie pcri.nis with the lar^c nati.uial capital of til'- picM-nt, w,- immc.liatcly perceive, that m.t only tii- s„m at whi.h th.- .iati.,nal wealth was f.^rnu-rly rat.-.l is imreas.-.j. I'lit that th.- thin-s which c..nstitute.| it are chan-.-.J. The w.-altli ..f Kn'Jan.l is certainly ten times n ,\v whatsit wa^ in tl>'' lei-n of Henry the VIII.: we .].. „,,t con.eiv.-, however. iliat It IS f.,i-me.l l,y multiplying tentol.l su. h articles as cm- stitiite.i the sole riches of its inhahitants in that somewhat nxle an.l harhar.Mis a-e. We perceive here, that th.-n- is ami must he, not ..nly an increase l.ut a chan^e. When. li.Av.-ver, w.- cme to cousi.ler the smaller j.arts of^which this' ■ M. r.ase is -ra.lually ma.ie up, as th.- chaii-.- here is m.t perhaps larceptihle (an.l as all we see is th.; sum pr...luce(l hy It, tlu- fact .,f the iiicrea.se hcin- more easily as. .-rtain.-.l il'-'" tl"' laann.r ..f it), the similarity ..f the terms naturally iiicliii.s us to conceive that it resemhles the increase .if i'"livi iual capital, an.l consists of a mere increase of thin-s, not .if a change also //( them. rttaHMki MICROCOPY RESOIUTION TEST CHART ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 7 I.I I^ ill 2.8 IIP-^ 1.. lil 2.2 ^- '3:3^ == L- vj. 2.0 t_ . Ui... 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^ APPLIED INA^GE Inc ►r 5 *8^ - 0300 - PhofW i3- iil .: li 1 f k p 'U 'jl;i iH I i! i ! CHAITER IX. OF INVKNTI(»N (oNSlDKEtKU AS A (iENKllAl. SOtlULOCKAL i'lMNCU'I.E. iNVKNTi-iN is lilt' iiKi.^t important ..f the sccoii.lary a-fiits, to llu- inliufuci' ol whieli man is s..l.j.'Ct. T.- us, it is Uk- qrt-at in.uic.liate niak.T i.f almost all that is th.- subject of our thoughts, or ministers to our .■n.joyments, <.r uecfssilies; uot is then' anv iioiiioii of our existence, whieh is not imlelne.l to itis anteceilent tormin;^ power. Wherever it really is. it is recounised as one and the same, hy this its formative caj.aeity. It is always a maker, an.l, in a double sense, a maker. From the depths of the intinity lying within and without us, it brinjis visibly before us forms jireviously hidden. These are its h'l-st works. lint neither does it intend to stop, nor does it, in fact, Slop lure. The forms which its eye thus catches, and its skill "bodies forth" into material siiape. pass not awav ; thev remain. Thin.^s of power, true workers, drawing to tiiemselves, and fashioning to their semblance, thr change- able and Heeling crowd that time hurries down its stream, lliey are, in truth, the only permanent dwellers in the world, and rulers of it. In this the double j.ower of his works, tiie mathematician is as much a maker as llic j-oel, and the poet as the mathematician; and genius in all its manifestations, may, in so far, be con>i{ its luiinifestation, ami as tlicy who in this ik'iiart- iiiciil have hccii most extensively iiiveiiturs, have in ^'eneral ccimmiinieateil liule of the principles tiiat anirnateil and sus- tained them in tlieir earecr. scit-nei- and art lieinu' silent of tlii'inselves, we may he allnwrd to .'ive wider compass to our view, and to cite, when our purpose rriinires it, those who have lieen real discoverers in any of the various regions over which the power of this jjrinciple extends. The motives, exciting to this sphere of action, are not very apjiarent. Man is e~sentially imitative; his instincts impel him to amalgamate with the mass. From the first moment of his exi-tence, his faculties arc on the stretch, drinking greedily in suiToundim^ gestures, feelings, principh's .md modes of action, which he a'.,'ain connnunicates ; ht; seems liy turns a recipient of existing impressions, and a transmitter of them to others. Nor, unless he look far heyond himself, is there any evident motive for his endeavoring to extricate himself from the ever- whirlin',' circle of which he forms a ])art. Hiuidreds of millions have ])receded him ; to learn and i)ractise what they have left, is the direct road to his goods, pleasure, and honor. Why then should the individual waste the sweets of momentary existence, in rashly and needlessly tasking his feeble powers to form a new jiath, when one already exists, along which so many have trodden, and which tlieir footsteps have beaten smooth ? One of the desuits having i»een asked, why the Chinese had made no jirogre.ss in astronomy beyond th«! rude (dements of the science that they had possessed from a very remote aiuiiiuity, answers, from the indolence, and want of application to the.se pursuits, of the men of , ucceeding ages, and from their preferring, like those of the jiroent day, what they have esteemed their immediate and sulistantial interests, to the vain and liarren rei)utation of having discovered .some- thing new. The reason, which the father I'arennin assiu'tis for the stationary state of their astronomy, may lie transferred to all their other .sciences, arts, and pursuits, which fifty genera- tions iiave contented them.selves with learning, practising, and teachinu, as they received them from men of times more I 134 INVKNTION SfHiOl.OCilCAL f • i| { * r \ I' li (li-tanl. A Nv.-!1 w iuhcd iilteiilion to wh;it is for th.-ir im-eiit, and. as thry ~,iy, sulstanlial inU'ivsts has Ir.l llieiii to .lo Ins, and forliiil theiii to do iiiorc. In that Knii.irf, th.' door to wraltli and hoii^r i> n-l ahso- huelv harnd m anv -n.', and in this it w.mld s,eni >ui.orior to other lands, tliat th.'f, whoever im,ss(-~.-s h.arnm- ha^ a key that will infalSMv open it. Let him who would rai-e luniselt superior to his fellows, -ive his youth to >ludy, let hnu .'are- fidlv make his osvn a due portion of the knowledge, ih.- wit, Ihe'elo.iuence, or what l.asses for them, ^f.red in tl,e VMlumes his masters put in his hands. These astantial advanta-eH, to pursue what there is hut a chance ot -ainiii,!,', and which, even if at h-n-lh attained, is but empty fame,— a breath,— tiie liUine; at the best, " A rt-rtiiin pertinii "f umi-rtaiii p.-iiier. ' The practical wisdom c,f the Chinese answers at once, it were fully. Is that wldch is sound, i>ractical wisdom amon- those Asiatics the reverse of it amon^' u.s Europeans > Tlie reader n.av delermme, by casting his eye.s about him, to discover who are' the men, wlm have been most successful in attaunns,' wealth, cumfort. respectability; in avoidin- dependence, mis- fortune. • •.dumnv. Whoever, or wherever, he may be, certainly be will not tind it is they who havt; fought to be, or have really l.'cen, men of genius. AVe in vain -eanh \' the linii'cr aliment of genius. " Leav.' ine ii'it," the lay [has] it, '■ III its IdllfiillCSS, Its nwti >t;ll WdiM, amid fh' ■■'er pi Iliith fV.T Im-atlii-.i to lov,-." led World, When viTy stnini^ly ielt, it irresistibly impels tho>e whn are r(.!isci(nis ipf cajiacitics e<[Ual tc the attempt, spite of every olistarlt' to lie overcome, or piin to he emiurcil, to task them- selves to the performance of works of jiermaneiit ami liifViisive utility. To reflective mimls, ami lari,'e ami j^eneroiis natures, the creations uf ueiiitis must pie-cnt themselves as of all wmks, those most extensively conferriiiL; enjoyment and power,-' ami their successful execution as of every enterprise the nohlest ; nor need we wonder that to such it should have a voice of Uia;_Mcal, ami almost resistless attraction. When the jieasaiit poet of .'Scotland seeks to recall an ima'.;e of his earliest self, iif finds there uppermost this master jiassion, this "boundless love" of his fellows and his native land, ur;,'in'4 him to make it appear hy something' worthy of it, and marking its strength. This was the wish. •' Ev I. tlieii ii wisli (I mind its pnwrr, A wisli that, to my latest liuur, .Shall striinply hiave my l.ie.ist, ' that led him to the realms df genius. This was in truth the '• ."^ua cuique deiis lit diia lUpidn,' who " threw her inspiriii',' mantle over him," and awakening jiMwers else torpid, enahled him to draw from out the vulgarity before hiding them, images not idly falling, and to fall, on many a iieart : patriotism ardrnt and sidf-devotinir : jiassion ' This is til lie reociie 1 as lonccrns our evisteiu.e, limited to the eirtli and to time, the only light in which it can with |iro|iiitty he considered in these spiTiil.itions. Were we to view it us heloiif;ing to tin- universe and to eternity, action direiteil to the imrposes referred to, woiiM not be impeded from the considerations thus presented, hut wduld, on the contrary, derive from them freedom and energy. -Videtur inventorimi iiohilium introdiietio inter actionen huinanas longe jirimas partes tciiere. LoKU lUeoN. 136 INVENTION SOCIOLOCilCAL t I V •i iiiaiilv vet tcmltT : love without Uie coarseness of tlic oiu' class of sdciclv, or the atH'ctiitioii or eiiicurisni of the other. Who can estimate all the etfccts of tliesc hasty fra^'iiieiits of till- poll's art < If we consider the suh.ject well, ami wei^h it fairiv. wr sliall confess, that their author has exercised an intlufuce already -reater, and far more ahidin;^ than any of the men of his ccjunlry and iv^r. It is thus that >,'enius manifests the jiotcncy of tile iirinciph' that insi)ireb it, aiul that the siniidust lays of the simplest hard, may have a j'owei' passing far, that of the triumphs of the statesman, or the warrior. The one wakens enerjiy, otherwise dead, into action, the other merely (lire( t> that action. " Hut." it may he said, and not without a show of reason, " why, if <;enius is roused and moved by principles .so pure, does it hapi)e 1, that the undoubted possessors of it, are them- .selves .so often defaced by faults, and that we speak of them, and tlwir aberrations, as if naturally conjoined f Ambition, the desire of e.xcellin;,', a much more ([Uestionable motive, would rather seem its proper stinudant." As we are not attemiitin'^ to investigate the governing principles of classes [or indivii„'n to show, that, without suirposiui: the twcj elassrs actuated liy ditlerent princiiile.s, there are .sutlicient causes for those waiider- iui-'s, as they are called, of ueiiius fnnii the ( ommou path, for that contrariety of course, [and for] that seldom iiiterniittim,' opposition and strife, which liave almost everywhere heen maintained, hetween the society in which they existed, and the individuals, who liave heen ultimately the L'reat instruments nf anielioratiuL,' and elevatinu' its comlition. Such an e.\])osition, removing' part of the ohstructions to our view, will make it ajipear, that it i.s not so much from the diversity of the niovinu jiowers, as from the imperfections of tlie hodies im- pelled, that this jarrinj,' and contrariety of action arises. It is necessary to ])remise, that for the present jmrpose, two classes oi'Casionally confounded to^'Cther, must he kejjt apart. Ileal inventors, the men whom we have alone to consider, differ from mere tiansmitters of thinj^s already known. The latter are an acknowledged, and very useful class, in all societies, but they neither encounter similar ditficulties, nor produce similar effects to the former. They neither oppose, nor <..M.al dillrn-iw.'. Th.-re is also a liii.- .iisliuMUishum the „„.,,. |,;,„„.rs nf l,o,,k.-. fr-H. thr nriuiual niak.-rs ut ih.-ir nial.TiaN; il niav .ml h.' wry iMsily drawn iii.l.'f> lu.T.' rimijiih-rs and r.'ijcat.T.-, may 1„. i,i,,rc sarc,.>-ru'l than tlicy who are real inventors, tliey may hettcr suit their i.ro,hulions to particuhu times, tastes, and ..xiuenrie., and. hesides they ean always hnd an atidience jirepar.'d, hv jirevimis trainin.u', to apjilaud. The teiidenev of these i-nrsuits is f. with.lr.iw -luise mccu- ,,ied in them from tlie chuly business (,r society. Thev till ,„,l the ],lare. nprn tor them, and which they are e.xperted to till: even when necessity lai.sh.'s them for a time into them, and compels them to min-le witii the erow.l. they an- marked a. not helun^inu to it. .Mistract and scientific truth .'an only l,e discovered hy .leep and ahsorhin- meditation; impert-ctly at first discernt'd, throu.^h the uiedinm -if its .tuU capacities, the intellect slowly, and cautiously, not without much of douht, and liiunv unsnccessful essays, succeeds in liftin- the veil that hi.les it. The i>rocedure is altoecther unlike the p,,>nipt determinati.m, and ready confidence, of the man of action and -enerallv nniits, to a i^reater or less de-tee, lor pt.rformin- well the jiart. He, a-ain, who dwells in the world ,,r possible moral heanty and perfection, moves awkwardly. ra'-hly. and painfully, throu;^h this of everyday lite, he is ever ini-ta'kiu- his ,,wn way. aiul josilin- others in theirs. To the pnsse.ssnis c.f fortune, these hahits oidy give eccentricity; they att.Mt those of scantv fortune, or without fortune, with more serious ills. Cnalile to fi.uht their way ahly, cautiously, and ,,erseveringly ihr.ni-h the hustle of lit.', poverty, dejiendence, and all their attendant .'vils, are most commonly their lot. ••'!".. il, eiivv, want. tfM' latnni, and tlif jail,' are ealamities fVoiu the actual endurance of some of which, or tlie drea.l of it. they are seldom free. The.se, however, they .,!,.j..,. ,....;.!. ,,rh.er men: there are some peculiarly their own. iii INVKNTION SOCIOLOGICAL 139 I'ursiiin^ olijerts not to lie jicroi-ivi'd liy ullii'is. nr if ptTceivcil, wIkjsi; iinportaine is lii'Voiiil the reach of their conceptions, the motives of tiieir coinhiet aic necessarily niis- appreheutlcd. Tliey are esteemed either idlers, culpalily ne'_'li- ■jeiil in tnrniiiu' to account the talents tiiey have ^'ot, dullards deticienl in the common parts necessary to dischar^^e the common uthces of life, or madmen unfit to be trusted witli their performance: shut out from the esteem or fello\v>hip of those whoso reu'ard th"y miL;ht jirize. they are hrouu'ht into contact with those with wlioni they can have nolhinu' in coiuii'on, knaves wlio lau;,;li at them a^ their prey, fools wiio pity them as their fellows. 'I'heir character- misund-Tstooij, deliarred from all sympathy, uncheereil hy any a]>pioli;ition, the "eternal war" they have to wa;_'e with fortune, i< douiily tryino, because they are aware, that, if tliey succumb, they will be l)oriie otf the field, not only unl;nown, Ijut misron- cciveil. To have merely to pass without iiis fame, the poet paints as a fate capable cif additi^ double uloom to tlie Nliades lielow, '■ Si-d froiis 1.1-1:1 p.'ilMiii, ft (Ifjfctii hlluuui vulti!, Nux atia fa]>\it tristi ciiciiiiivolat uiidpni.' What must it lie to those, then, who feel that, -n; tinal oblivion hides thein, calumny must for a time proloicj the memory of their e.xistence ! Imperfect man is ever jiroinpt, without any consideration of the motives of the aj^ents, to conceive (jf tic evils he endures as of wronj^s received, and to be avenged, on tlic doers of them. We need not wonder, then, that the manifold sutlerings of ^'euius should sometimes place it in opposition to humanity itself, and that, in the inconsistenc}- and recklosness of jiassion, it should turn in atii,'er and in scorn, as its bitterest enemy, on tliat of wliich it is, in heart, the tiuest lover. These are tin- systems, hy which men -uiile their teel- in-s'an.l leasoninu's. Hence the works of almost all men ot really inv-ntive powers, have, at lirst, heen either sli:^hte.l „r .leeiiea. C.Tvantes om^ of the most powerful ami on-inal ..eniu^e-^ of mo.iern limes, and who ultimately operated as iiiruely on allairs as any man whom they have witnessed, was plaee.i l>y his contemporaries far below llie subservient taste of Lope .l.."Ve,-o, and, in his last days, had to turn from Don C,Uiixoif to a theme correspon ct Hlfcii, is a selltUiu ■nt lliat they neither avouch, nor act upon. That 1 \Vi. ,,11111.. t rta.l till- i..inanoe of I'eresilos iii.l .Si^-esmun.li, ptil)li.4u.l lifter l,i, .l.itli : il lia.l i.u.iv succss iIkiu ^u.y ..t lii« work--, ".himais cet h..iiiine o.l..l,iv,- >ayst'il t'orni. Thoir fxpi'ri- uu'iits are limiil. Hein;;, in itieir way, nianuf icturer-. they raiiuot afford to make .such as mii^lit ilcteriorate tiie value o| their i;oods. 'i'hey must not venture on a di>li ai'.o.:etlier new, they contine their powers to the discovery ot somcthinj^ that may '_'ive piquancy to the old. if the practice he not prejudicial to the pro^re.s.s of invention it.self, it is fital to the lasliiii^ lame uf the inventors. The mass keeps swellin.', from generation to generation, hut how, cannot well iic not«d. 'I'hi.s lesult has, however, little to do with our suliject ; th'Te is .■mother which has much. It bein^ conceived to he witliin the compass ot talent, to jirocure, in this way, its own reward, ^'enius of the li'_'hest older, if its productions are not of a sort to hring a price from a li(joksel!er, receives now less recompense than even in a^e.s not .so iilile ['.generally] to ap|>reciate the henetits conferred \>v it; and, from the same causes, the propensity tilit\ to cultivate science, and to reward it, lii's not in the same hands. Science is advanced by men of great genius alone, while it can only be rewardetl by the crowd, or by men high in firtuiie or authority, who have very rarely themselves any pieten.iioiis to it. l>esides, success in these pursuits is not only unattended by reward or favor, but is destitute of popular praise. Tliey ,'inenturu .scienti.irum, ijuoi) luijiisnioili co- iKinis ct imiustri.T praiiiiis ciiriniiit. Xoii iiiiiii ))fn<-ni'".icii- ti;iriiiii, ft ]>ianiiuin. .Soiriitiariun i-niiii mi^riiioMta a ina^iiis iiti'ino iiigcniis [■loMiiiuut : ft piftiii It pLuiiiia sciciitiarum nuiit pciit-s \ iilgus aut priihiptii vires, i|ui (iiisi ram aiiiiKMluni) vix ineiliciL-ritcr ilncti ■i'liit. (,iLiiiictiain lui- i I 5 INVKNTION SOCIOLOGICAL m:_ f Wnhuiu .iMMkin- uf til- - i,-n...s, ,u,.l, in llu- an^, .untinin- our aU-nli.... to th.>.. -N.rtiuas .,f it.- mv-ntiv.- tmuUy ih- l„.„..ta- nf Wliuh, oU.trurtr.l l.y Uu UIir..IL.Sf.Ml .,hslad.', tiav- l„..-ii vrrv lir-lv f.'lt, h.AV many, -vm nt tli- innst s.i(ir»tul ,A- ttuM.. hav- l.MM. a,i-M>'at-ly rewapl-a ' Huw many "t th-n, havr 1-tt llM-ir autl,nr^ m ]..v-rty,..r l>rouuht th-n. t-. if. Ih- ,,..r-M,:a hist,.rv ut n,-.<; n.-n. wl.., in m.Ml-rn lum-s, hav,. l„-..,...li' into !,..nu tl.— arts l,y whul, human 1>uWlT has h-n sn lar-rly a(lva]u-a, i- 1ml- -I-' than a narration n| un.^tur- tuii--. ami in'jratitini-. N,,r ar- ll.- sw-t> ot -.uer-^s itM.lf, in any a-partm.-iil „f u.v-ntioM, -vL-n i|- tasl-a, un.-ntaminat.Ml l,y much -f latt-r- n-~- It is -hi-llv fell at th- lim-. a- sui-rionty, nn whicti wait -nvv and t!alt-rv. Mai... an 1 u.Mnc-riiy. the -r-at H-i.ar.t-rs nf man fmni man, and iMn^on-rs of th- pl-asuru.s ot exist-n. e, tulluw clnso afler. H- wh" '-^uns it, attains an clova- ti(in ooinmanilinL', hut joyl-s-. and un- at-. "Tlp.u.'li lii.'li al...v,- til- -. and l-udly Ll-w. Cont-Iidiii'.' t-iii)— I- "11 lii- ii'k-d li-ad. And th.i- i-uai(l til- t..iU. \Nlii-l. t.. those .unin.il. l-d.' ' It is ,kMlh aloMi- that can -ive him the full symptthics i,f hi- t-Unws, Wh-n the earth wraps her n.ihlest, none any l„uu-r envy him; all lanienl the hen-facMr, no one sees the rival <>r the ma>t-r. Th-^e are ciivumstances disturlmm the course of ;ienius, comiie^ mainlv from nu.sapprehen-ions frnm without; there are oth-i- llowin- from weaknesses, and imperh'ctions, wilhm. There are, in everv society, rules of eonduct. and practices of lite which the progress of events has gradually marked out itml ueneral .^hservance hallowed. < )f these, some are tounded on the jirinciples of morality and reli-ion, some on caprice, s^ome on prejudice. The hreakin- of any of them is always otian, ins;. V-imlari I.ui.k. .lestituti sunt. Sunt .aiim illi supia captum maximal ,«rtis lionunun.. ct ab upinionun. vulgariu.n ventu fa, i'.- ol.ranntur et oxt.n- guuntui'."' ' Chi/'U Harold. n-*#^* IWKNIION S()( lOl.OGK XL 143 fsti'ftiifil ;i criiiif iiiiaiiist -■ri.'ty. .iinl iii n.Mliiy i> ■; the st-rvaiic-.' nf ill. •Ill ciiiistitutt-; :i cliiir;!! t r ill jiulilic L-'iii, it i-i -ji rrtly ami iMUunii-ly. lie iiiaki-j aiiifml> liy uii^crupwlniisly ami iiu\ liis (i\\,i I I'liveiiifm e. Tlio iminiier into iniiiciiiles. au'aiii. lako a wi'ler raiiu'e, it is imt tin- innrality or n'li.;i track, to leap many a hedu'e and many a ditch, and havini.' been ohli^ed after all to make detours in abundance, come out at last weary, .jaded, and bemired. The ills which men of ;,'enius thus occasion and endure, from seekin.f,' for their rules of action, altoi^ether in the relations which they perceive they have to the general .system of human society, without sufficiently regarding those which necessarily connect theni to the little system of some particular « I E « ij^i' 141 INVKNTION SOCIOLOGICAL 1 1 l! "( \s I ■ I ih I i I: -I A n .T;?? : sdiieiy. arc niLTt-ly .Trcrs in the iuliuil cnurse pursuiMl, iini in the UKilivcs from wiiicli ihat ciurse was ailopti'il. 'I'licir are (illicrs iii'iri' fatal, ((miiii'4, iiol from iiii>takfs in aclinn, Imt In. -.11 errors in tin- motives to iution. aii'l from the imagination th.iL it, may lu- aliiAvaMe \villin:4ly to il'> ii f^>''-'ll ^-'^'l. ''' •' '■"'-'^ amount of uoo e.irliest aliment, from tiie j.rMmptin^s o| stront: ile-ires in man, to unite jiimself extensively with his lellow men, to .■\i~t with them, an..|.lii-ins. •■ l.ini.l V hi rh.il.iiiiii, .■ni.l.l.iii I_u,iiiMii!ii .t y ,,.11.111. \ii l.r.Miis. 111. ips.- tii^ .!.■ .i.iiti- .iaii;.,. M'stitu si,..li,ii.- |.•.^,-lt : I1..I11U- f...i.it ■.■ ll.i.' ii.l ju.li.aii.lmii .-mu fui'il- liiiiii. N.eii. ^i .|iii.l ai. h..iiiiii.. a.i ii.ill.ilii i.aitiiii iitiii. tui.. uOlitali,- .aus.i .Ic- ti,i\iii>: iiilimnaii. !. . ..li,-.. .■.iiitiM.iu.- nalui,-. 1. -iiii : sinautiiii i> tu sis, .|m iiiiilt.iiii iitilil..li 111 I. i|.uliIi.M' It. 111.- h..iniiiiuii >... i.t.iti, .'■ ill xit.i i«.iiiaiii-ax, ill,,,. ]i..s-i^. M .liihl ..1. . am ... I alti'ii .l.tiM\. lis. 11.111 -it i. i.rL.iu.ii.l.-li- .luiii. (. .11111111111- iililil.ilis .i.ia h, II . .. .1.11,1 ii.ituiaiii .■>!, 1-1 .111111 iii.jil,sta. it,i.|U.- U\ i|..-a iiatuia. .|iia ill ii ;t it. in lii.iiiiiiiiiii ■ ..iisir\ at . i . .,iu :ii..t , ilo- .■.iiiil |ir..ti-.|.i, lit .ill h iiu- iii.iti at.|iic iiiiiiili, a.l s.ipi. iit.iii. Iiciuuii, tor- t.iii.iui. viiiiiu trail,-:, r.nitiii us .i.l uv.ii.liiiii m'ci'-.suiia. : ijUi -i .Mi.i«...l t'.iirly ..111. U..11I.I ii.it ,-t..|> until i; a-iiin.il the t..iiii wliitli .><... It ha,- -i\.-ii ll. in tin' si.i'.-.h ..t .\iis.'lii,.i. " ^■.lll aiv t.. .li-tiiiplisli, nv s.-ii.' i.|ili...l the al. li.VMiist. '-L.twixt tluit >\hi.li is iictcssarily i\\\ in ils iir..-ii-- aii.l in il^ iml al>.., ami lli.it «liich 1.. iiiu . \il, is, ii.-s. rill, l.-s .ai.al.li- ..f WLikiiiu' tnitii -s 1. If. l.y tin- .l.-.itli "f nil., p.is.iii. th.' iLippy |..' 1 shall 1..- l.ii.tiiilil in.ii.i 11^. in win. li all that i.s ^,,.,,1 -h.all 1... ..ttaiii.-l. liy wishiii- it- |.ivs.ii. .•,— .ill tli.it is .'vil i.scii|ic.l. l.y .|.-iiiiij ii- ah-. 11. I'. It.', If Ihis 1.!.->|..1 .■.iiisiiniinati.iii nl all lluiiirs ..an he I,,, -1.11... I l.> th.' slit^hi ,i|.. iiiiisMii,.., that a f 1 all iiirlhly h...iy. wlihh imi8t ,,...1- piilak.. ..f o.iriiiili..ii, ,^llall he .■.iii-i-iii'.l t.i th.. ^lav .■ a ,-li.irt spaDe i.iili.i lii.iii ill 111.. .■■.iM .' ..f iia'iiii-, uii.it is siii'li a sa.iili..' O. the ...Ivaiii'.'- 111. Ill i.t the li..l> iiiiiiininiii, ' A'. '■• .Wll, .\ lixiii.' aiithi.r. ill the . liaLi'ter i.f Ku'.'i n.- .\raiii. ijivrs ,i!k.. i >li ikin..! |iicturi. .'I till' .hill:;. i..'i- teinlciu-y ..f tin- s.inu' si.pliistiy . INVENTION SOCIOLOGICAL U5 •jrcat mfasurc separates him from them. Whatever he may lit', or may hope to he as an iiiventni, or author, as a man he is misconceived and misapprenendcd. Amoni,' the men with wliom he lives, he lives as not of them, a ma^dc circle is drawn round him which neither he can pass without, nor they, \vithin. Like the attractive and repulsive powers, which one i]ia;_Mietic intlueuce communicatfs to matter of the same sort, the ditlerent direction in which the ^neai movinj,' and cement- in;_' principle of .society ha< heen made tn tlow in him, and in them, incessantly n-jiels, and keei.^ Inni at a liistance from them. This disjunction and i-cdation atlect various natures vari- ously. Some cannot emlure it : they cannot live hut in the constant and intimate sympathy and communion of their fellows. They feci all the loneliness, and little of the u'liU'deur of the desert. They pant for the lan.l of life, and either turn- inu to it, are lost in it, their former existence heini^ remem- liered hut as the wandering's of a dream: or they perish, from their incajMcity to mingle with it. Their liner and u'cntler natures fed, luit not stren.u'thened hy contemjdation, recoil from the coarse and hoisterous spirits, witli wliom they are hroiiejit into contact. They sink in the (oiitiict and pass from life itself, " .\ pi I ii(iU> iilliilll ,;(>t On a wil.l .stiiarii, tliiit n-ckli-ssl_v ^Wfcps 1i_v ; .V viiic.' (.t iini^ir uttfird to the lil.i.~t. Ami uiiiiiini.' nn r<-|pl_v.' To other- ol lirmer mould, the action of these alternately .ittractin;: and rejielling jiowers, tlie passing,' from one .-tate (,f heiiiu' to another comi)letely opjiosite. from the turmoil of spirit e.\cited hy liravinu' and hearino hack a world opposed, to the concentration of contemplative .solitutle, thou^di wastinu', is inviu'oratim:. Like steel which is tirst made to ^dow in lire, and then liluiiL'ed in water, the lineness of their tem|)er is hroueht out hy the jday of oppo>im,' element,'*. It is ohserved hy Mr. Moore, in his life of Lord Ilyron, that hut for the o|)position he encountered, tiie nohle poet had never stootl forth in nnudit ; that jiersecution tound liim, as h'ousseau, weak, left him sironir. i: M •I : 14G IWKNTION SOCIOLOGICAL •i. ■' t V li Si)iiie, ivjain, ihf worM without alloidiiiL: no restinu plafe, ..utfuch themselves in th.' world within. Their exeursiuns oi;twiir' l-ut that of makin- manilest their i>ower. a power 'that has often he.ii -HMt.T than they th.-mselvo have cMiceived, and whii h. dnulith->s, would many limes liave l.rcn more hapi.ilv exerted, had tlirv fonii.i thems.-lves in happier cirrumstann-s. Wh.-n wv iv,,d, for iu.-laii<-e, the ,si)ecidations of Hume, wr do ud always reroUcct tliat hr had l.ren a ncdy dependent l.r.>ther of a Scotch landdioldi'r. had fail.'d in tiie uidy atimipt he had ever ma.le to cstahlisli himself in the world, hy enterin;^' on husiness, and ha.l come to middle liff, known oidy as a lio..kish reclus,., unahle to do -ood, and only to he tolerated, hecause lu' was too inotfemsive to do haim to anv one. Such an exist^n. e may well account for mncli of that ^hrinkin- within iiin^^.df tliat ah-eiice of all heart, that hahitual distru-l. father rejoicin- to overthrow, than hopin- to estal.lish. whicli cliara-terize liis philosophy. Who can t.dl how uieat has heiMi iho inlhienc.- of that plnlosophy, in pro- ducing what ha> licen. what is, and what is to he, in I'.ritain and in Kuropr ' of this we may he assured, that they are least aware of it, wlio ,ire mo,-.t atfected hy it. Tli.'re aie yet olliers ot hiijher minds, who. throu-li hope.s disappointed, and errors conmiitted, over the waste of the worl.l. and tlie ruins .,f their own hearts, can h)ok contidently and coura-(M,usly f nw.ird. to a hri-hter, thou-h far distant pros],cct. It is in this spirit that Lord llacon heijueaths his fame to po-^terity, and it is throuuli it, that he, wiio has been to us so not.ah!.' a benefactor, yet holds conver-.' witli us. The manlv and -.'mrous contideiue with which lie relies ,jn the lietter parts of liuman nature, .ami, in the midst of so many di.scoura-in;,' circumstances !.,ok^ forwaid to tlie ultinuite reiizn of truth and happiness, ronstitutfs indeed, I may be allowed to remark, no small pari of the charm, an.l perhaps of the utilitv of his speculations. between men of practice, and Mate, it certaiidy i'.ut, however the oppositicjn iMcii of speculatioti and invenuoii may opi INVENTION SOCIOLOGICAL 147 exists, iind there arf perhaps i'W of the litter, who have been 'gifted with (Hspositions so happy, or fallen in times so tor- tunute, as not to have experienced sonn; of its evils. Never- theless, if the view which has been i)resented l)e correct, tliis opposition between the two classes, the one en,i,'a:j;ed in the ajiplication of what is alieady known to the production of the means of supplyin.i,' future necessities or pleasures, the other, in the discovery of something' yet unknown and. which may serve the same purposes, arises, nut so mui li from a ditference in the motives h< action, as fmiu a diver-ity in the modes of action: and the principles of our nature excitinu to the aiivance of invention, would seem to be neaily identical with tliose ^ivin;^ activity to the effective desire of accumulation. The ditference between the two is rather in (lei,Meo than in kind. He who labors to i)rovide the means of enjoyment to wife, cliildren, relations, friend^, j.ursucs an end in some dej^Tce sdtish. It is his own wife, his uwn chiltlren, his nwn relations, whom he desires to benetit. The fruits i.f the labors of genius, on the contrary, are the property of the whole human race. On this account, thoUi:li. in the individual, manifestations of tlu' inventive faculty imply a sujieriority in some of the intellectual powers, they rather imply, in the societv, a preiMjnderance of the social and lienevolent atfc tions. It is this ;4eneral acuteness of moral .sensation, and lively sym{>alhy cou.seeenis the only means hy which we can account for this diversity of effects. Men ,tre so mucli uiven to learning, that they do noi readily heconie discoverers. They have receiveci >o nnich, that tiiey do not easily peneive the need of making additions to it, "T readily turn the vigor of their thoughts in that direction. " Tiiey -cm neither to know well their possesions, nor their jiowors ; hut to helieve the former to he greater, the latter less, than ttiey really are."' Whatever, therefore, hreaks the W(jnted Older of events, iid exjioses the nece.s.sity, or the possihility, of ((innecting them hy .some other means, strongly stimulates invention. The slumhering faculties rouse themselves to meet the unexiM'cted exigence, and the possihility of giving a new .ind more perfect order to elements not yet tixe' traced. u< their thu.s wakeiiini,' the torpid powers ; the troublin;^' of the waters they hrin^' about, undoes the palsy of the mind.' On tliis accoiml courau'e distinguisliincne ausuni vaiia oontetunere. At-jue .simile etiani de nobi.s judicium futuris teinponbu-i factum in existimamus : Nos nil magni fecia-se, sed tantum e.i i|ii.c pro miignia li.il)entur. minons fecissc. " i.-.o INVENTION SOCIOLOGICAL and i)rolection fitna the incleiuencies of the weather. It is ill society alone that h.' finds those intluences that move and fet-d liis moral and intflletiual nature, and i^ive him his proper life. lie is in fact th.- creature of society, ami all his passions, emotions, feeliiiLts, may in one sense he considennl as so many social instincts liindinu him to it. Now in herding' animals, and in this re;,'ard man is a herdinu animal, it is not the individual hut the herd that moves. If the individual attempt a .separate and independent movement [lie\oiid a certain point], ho is sure to find that it is iiietfectual as to the herd, and dan^'erous to him.self. If one hle.sscd or cursed with keener eyes and a more sa^'acious nose than his fellows di-scover in tiie distance fresher and ;j;reeiier pastures, and direct his course to them, he becomes a wandeier from the tioek, a stray ..ne, a lost one. It is the same amom.; men. One whose jioweis tran.sceiids those of his fellows and who, trusting to theiu, advances far beyond them, is so bedimined to their eyes by the mists of distance that they think lie has gotten out of this real, living, and tangible world, and is walking in the clouds, is wandering in the unreal splendors of fairy land. It is only when by chance the course of subseipient events brings them to the spot where they discern the marks of his footsteps, that they say one to another, — why, such a one was not in the clouds at all : he was walking on .solid ground. How blind was man in those days ! Such a one is .said to have come before his time, or, which is much the same thing, to have been out of place." iryjsrri wiwaMwvw rllAPTKrv X. OFTHF . vrsKS ..F T.IK PK-HUiFSS oF INVENTI..N AN1» „FTHE KFFKrXS AlUSIN.; KHuM IT. AS IT ( hNTKHNS rrsKLK WITH TIIK MATKKIAL WoKLD. IsvKNT.oN .s the only puwcr on earth that can he sai.l to La. > It enters as an essential elenient into the process o the increase of national wealth, heeause that process j s ^ creation not an aciuisition. It does not neces anl enter ;;;:; the process of Ihe mcrease of uuUvulual wealth, hecause that may be simply t'n acquisition, not a creation. Would we take time to' consider of it. ^ . ^-"f P^^^f.?, Uiat such an increase of national capital as "jl --^"f . )- > nuike of individual capital,-' is at l-f^-''^'^^'^.^' ^^n fe^er j is no apparent cause for it. Considering capital >" K^nf^^; • he only use we can .liscover for it is its enabling the com- .unity'to draw from the resources the ^^-f^y^^'j^ necessaries, conveniences, and amusements ot life. Us sup ly :; which, according to our author, construes its rea^ weaUl. It is only so far as it is instrumental to this end that we can see a use, and therefore find a reason, for its existence, ^ow, Di.li.lerant .cu...uUu.m," or ••multiplication of iteins.'] u. '■ I INVKNTION KCONOMK as (iiii; iiiiliviilu;tl i> U[t>T<- pinviili-nt .iiid ]iruiitiit than auuihcr, we can la^ily ■ nnii'ivf liow uni- may ihiik; to jMncure tor liiinsi'lt' a ..Ti'atiT -^liarr tliaii anoiluT i>i tin- iialii)nal fiuuls, the mean-, ur instniiiicnt-, s(.I\ill^ tn unlock tin- stoic-i wliic.li till' uaii'in [aln.-aily] possesses; liut it is not so easy to I'on- ceive how. or for wliat juirpose, a tieniTal increase ot' these means or insiiiimiMits sliouM take place, without some acconi- panviii',' discoveiy ol an ini|irovement in their construction hy which they may jiut aii'iitioii;il le of a veiy small one. T!ie only instrument used for llireshin'..; out ^Tain in (ireat i'.ritain, until of recent years, was the tluil. Hente one or more tlails formed a part, thou;4h a small part, of every farmer's capital, and therefore all the tlails that all the farmers had, a part, tlioui;h an exceedingly inconsiderahle part, of the national capital. So simjtle an instrument and one so easily formed was made, I helieve, u'eneially, hy the farmer or his servants, though sometimes hy proft;s.sed mechanics. In wliatever way fabricated, it is evident, however, that tlie numher of tlails made, tliouL^h from the convenience of havin;j; a supply pro- vided heforehand they would exceed, could never nuich ex- ceed, the nu!nl)er of persons employed in the operation of threshing'. A profes.sed tlail-maker, indeed, if diligent and intelliL;cnt, mi^iht, hy the aid of these qualities, have been aide to make them cheaper than his lu'ij^hhors, and, if economical, to extend his husine.s.s and come to have some amount of capital in this shape. Hut, thouj,di thus, by his industry and fruj,'ality, an individual might have accumulated capital under t'li." form to an extent to which we can set no precise limits, tne national capital never could have been so increased, because, if one person by greater diligence and activity made more tlails, another, from a deficiency of these qualities, would make fewer; or, if we su]ipose all the nuikers of tlie instru- ment to be alike industrious, and thus the stock o\' it to accunnilate so as to do more than supply the wants of the threshers, the article would remain on their hands, and they wovuvi iKitiiraiiV cea.se tt; priittiice tiir riuperr^ouiiuaut .suppiy. 1^6 INVENTION KCONOMIC l.VJ tliiils, ii.'itlifi tin' national 111" W'luM !»' uiucli iiicrtM-i'ii Wliil." th.Trf.)!,, the in-uuiiu-nt ivT.iin.-l ilii- I'-- l»-rt'M-t thrill, it is, I thiui<. l-K-lty .-via.Mil. il.at, thuu-ti inaivuiual. unJit actuimilali.' (:a])ital liv iiiakin. cai-ital, iinr the national lev.-ni liy their etlurts so .lirectiil Ahout forty vears auo, the raM.-r ami more i„'rlett ni.-lho,l of exeeutino this jao-es^. hy what i> ■ all.-i the thn-^lunu niaehin.', %va> invented. This n^w uistninient, thouji tai more expensive llian the touu,r. y. t, peitorn.m- tl..' op.MMiba. more elteetuallv, an.l with niueh h- lahoi. he. anie natnraly thin-s which tarmers werr .irMrou^ of havin-, A f.irmer . oul, haVL^ had no motive t.> ae< umulate hut a very iMllin- eapilal in the shape of HailN Ijecause h.ilf a .lozen w^^re a> iwelul Ir. him as half a thousaml ; hut he had a ureat motive to aeoumu- late a con>iderahle capital in the .hape of a thre^hiie^ maelune, hecanse it would save him niiuh annual expenditure of lahor, and the operation so performed, separating the -rain more etiectuallv, wouhl -ive him a small addition to the corn yielded hv his suhse.iuent crops. Accordin:^ly its invention was tol- iJwed hv tlie accumulation in this form of a lar-e amount ot capital, and so hy an increa>e of the whole a-ricullural capital of the nation. V.ut, heside.s this direct etlecl, the .-avui;.' it produced in one uf the main processes of agriculture au-meiiled the profits of the farmers, and len.led, therefore, lo make all farmers cultivate their farms more perfectly, and some to en-a-e in improving,' land not hefore cultivated. ISolh the dir"ect and the indirect etfects of thi.s invention, therefore, nuwL have helped, in no iuconsiderahle de^'ree, to au^ment^the a.^'ricultural capital, and so the whole capital of the nation.' "^ •• it readily occurs to every individual that the .luantity of hardware, the numher of pots and pans, is in every country limited hy the use which there is for them ; that it would he ahsunl to have more of such utensils than are necessary for cooking the victuals usually consumed there ; and that, if the (piantity of victuals were to increase, the numher of pots and pans would readily increase alon;4 with i , a part of the in- creased .piantity of victuals hein- employe.l in purchasin-^ them, .ir in maintaining an a.ldilioual numl)er of w.).kmen ■I:: thi. p.r-r:.r'' K:u- , !,,oe!s' {■>l!o«« I-iiii1ki Jiile.j l.-.l- IWIATION KAONOMIC 15! f I \ wh.-.. i.u-111.— 11 \v,i- t.i make tli.Mii." ' I'-'it, tliMU'.'li llu! ii.,;i..iial laint.i! . .iiiii'.i tliu- \'>- -\\\']'"-"''\ l" a.cmuulat.' ill the -h,,l.> ..I an a.MiliMiial iiuuiImt of pot- and ].aii-^ [of any Iix.mI ivj.r], iiMliviilual- who '1'mI in hardwaiL- friMju.-iitly ai-^iUiiulatf ra].itaK in tlii- -hai»'. lo a laru'f amount. We rail ra-ilv lonrrivr, thai tiif national rapital also niiolit aciuiuulal.' in llii^ -tiaj..-, Wfiv -<\n>- .Hm ov.tv, iiro.lueinu' an inii.rovcnimi in the luanulartnrr. 'o nmir. Wnv a niftiiod ,iiMo\crrii ot liio.uiin- an.l inaiiufacliirin- jilatiiia, or M.me inrtal MHiilai to it. at only four or tiv,' tiiu.-s liie i'o>l of lira~>. it would, without douht, h'- ciiii.loy.'d in the fahrica- tion of kitdirii ut.MiMls of all -.n>. Not iH-in.' acted on by lire, and other de.-tioyin.: ,i-<-iit-. it would ~ave a ^rea; deal e somewhat au'^niented.- If any one will, in a similar manner, consider any of the other articles which helji to make n\> the national caj.ital, I think he will have dilli( ulty in assi-nin^ a suthcient rea.son, from any of the views presented in the W-nlth <>f Xafions, for its increa.se, unles.s lie coiiiieet this increa.se, .somehow or another, witli some impruvemeiit in the particular department of indu.stry uf which its production makes a part, or in some other department dependent on it. He will perceive, that, though there is no ditliculty in conceivin.i,' that an individual may accumulate a very lar,L;e capital in the form of any of those articles or commodities, the total of wliich make up the national capital; with the exception, perhaps, of money itself, there is ditliculty in discovering a reason fur the accumu- lation of any of them, throughout the whole comnuuiity, so as to form any sensible addition to the national capital. It may perhaps appear, that, in whatever shape the indi- vidual members of the community may accumulate capital, -[For use of teriiii', sec tlie cud of the cluiplcr. J ^^- INVKNIION KroNoMIC 1 :..-) v..t th.>t th.. Ht.Tt^ n, th.. „v;a.T n.nul..r l..mu thn-i>uvu^t, ■,l„.v nn.'ht acnnuul.t. ii nna-r -..nr >h.q r .Mnth.T._ U e ,,,; „„, ,,„w..v..r. u w>ll U- r..rnlU.ri...l. I.T. .h.c-...s,n, a ,„„Ml,.l.tv, l.ut .i -.If-.vi.l-nt prin.ii.l.: .wt what nu.'ht i.-. ;„,. wl.al .nu>t I.-. X..W, .h.>v .^ .m „,.,•,..-„>• t^r nna.nu.., ,l„a tln> mu>t 1..- .!..■ -a-, Lt, witl.-U ••nt.-nnu' at all ..... he „,„„^„. „n,,.. ,ul,,.a. ,t i~ n..:.l..tu-uUlM"T<'-ve that th,. ,:,„, ..f thr prnu-.pl. whi' h i.mnu.t,- t^. -aw. Um-Ii ..n..u> ,l„,„t a ~lat. oi tl.u.-, whi.l. .ln,nn.~h.> th-' .Wuv l- ~ay. V ,...r^..u ,nu-l !..• n.o-t .i.^.n-n- ,.r u.lti....' ,...m-y wh-.i h. ,„,v..uv. that l.V th,. a,,i.nMl...,. ,.t U. h-..uM .nak- a urpl ;i,,.l.,ulof.t: whH. U i~ UMuitr^i tu hnn. ti;al,.t 1,^ ha.l a .„„,.iH.l cai.ital, he o.uM .lifr ■'!. -i"" '^a..' 1' "t la.Mi.rss that wuuM h. v.rv ,,r,.tilal.l... Wh-n a.. u,„.n,nu .M tin. ^...l ,„vM.ut- itself tn a rru,l,.nt an.l .nt.T,.nM,r., 11.....!, l r .nan, ll.,, ......tious he .nak..> tu .alh.r t......th,T a M,u 11 ^U.u ar- ,„„,,i,ue> ah...st i..ere.l.hl.-. n.U, .f th. rri.ic.,.le w-r. t-, ,,r,.vail so ^eneiallv as to lill ..p .v.ry hra....h ot Im^nr^s sv.th... the . Lut tliis W.-allh |m--im| ,iu.iy 1 1 th.-lii: wlut lli" l.itlitT uatluT.-.l w.is n..t .tMi- lu III, mil. nil lii> rar,-, .ui'i iIm-.v ■.'nidiuiUy >;uik in tin- rank Irniii wlml, h,- liad imu.'IU'''1. Th- i.p.|M.rtiM!i, nuMiilimi', liftw.-.n ri( h aii'l ] r. aii'i \.\\<- t'lta! wi-aliii ..f tli.' rMnuiiuiiity, ri-liiaim-il liilt li'll.' iliali-i'd. Al li'imlh. ill -"iiir ■[Uarl.T iir aiiMili.T, an inipiMVciiii'iii l.r.'in In Ih. j.rp .'iv.!. Wlr.l do w.- find t^ hav.- Im'.-ii 'ho iiiip-t ]ir'niiinriii a(( •iinpaniini'iil "t tlii> < lianu'- ' 1^ it ;i diminisliiMi i-Niirndiluiv- -an iniiiM-cd ]iar-i!ii"iiy --a tniuality liciuii- iinkiinwn ' I li.di<-\v iiuL Any uieat diiiiimUiMii m| the r\|.cn.litiii.' ..I' a wh'.lc r,,iiiiiuuuty, it will li" found (iitllrull lo trarf, lait \\v -liall alwiy- di-.uvrr that inv.-ntioii ha- Miiiirliow or aiiothiT h.Tii hii-y. .'itln-i in iniinoviii'.' ai,'ri- cultiiiv and till' olhiT old art,-, or in di-r-.vrrinu' n-'W '>ii«"^- It is only whrii -oiac -r-Mt and -trikiiiu iiii]pri)Vt'iit(jiit i-siic-^ from thi' cNt-rtio . oi ihc invcative jiow. r, tiiat wc in Lit-ncral attfiid to it- .•lli'd-. KviTy on.- r.-adily urant-. that, Init for liir inw-ntion of the -ir.uii t-imiiu', the ciiiilal <»f (In-at llntaiii would want nnuh of its iirt-scnl vast atiiount, W.- i-i-rcvive not ,sn readilv the iiuiiuToiis small iniiirovfiin'nts, whiedi have hcen uTudiially. from Vfir to year, si)rfadin'^ th.-mselves through every department of the national in.a...l., as llu- ..atur.. a,..l .■xUMil -t tl,. t..rrhurv «-,ll aa,.nt. H. ^r^-aks .„' ILJla...! als.,, as a <-a.,ury wh.h haa tli... ..early aniuin'.l it^ lull cn,uH....c-..t ,.i r.chc-> ; wl...r... m .-vrv i.a.tunla. Lra.-h -l la,M...s. ti-.r.. was the ..vaf^l (i..a..tkv uf st...k thai .-..uM U- ,-.u,,l.,v...l ... .t. I ;v„„M ,K..>. a,.,.-.- lHat,..v.,. aoordi.-u tn h..u,lh. ,a..,^,,.l.... .n,l.via..al am..u..lat.nn, as a ,.„-a t aava,Ki..U th.. ..at.n..al , .vital has li...its l...y,.„a uhi.h it .a.... ... .■M...ha,.i,al a.^i ...a.-.-la^tur...^ „,a„,trv, which, M...e that l.er.ua, haw ^pr,....,' ..^ ... ••m't l;r.tai..; whu ca.. su,,,.ose that she w.a.hl hav. wa..tea ah.l.iy ^„ ,„„,i,„.. i„ U.e s,.r,...s.tul ,...,s„it of w.alth: or that she wuuia ,.,.l have ^tartea lorwara with In-h vi^.^r ... ihe career, .,,.1 aava..e.a .1. it with -reale.- raj.iaity than ... a..y lor...er i.rrina (if hei history ' There is ,.0 avo,ai..u the a.l...issiun, that, to every -real ,,ava..ce which ..atio„s .nake i.. the aciuisilio.. '.t wealth .1 IH „..c..ssarv thai i..v,...tio„ leaai.,^ to i,i.i,rove.,.e..l shouhl lend „. aa- ■a..a, ^ra..ti.,u this, it ..ecessarily lolh.ws .as when one . .use is ai.scoverea snthcient to accov.nt for the i.he..o...e..a we ,h„„ia confine ourselves to u). that we are not warra..ted to ,ss,.n.e that they make eve., the s...allest sensible pr^-ress without the ai.l of the sai.io faci.lty. To this -eneral observation there are o.ay two apparent ex- ...ptions The i.ro-ress of con.n.erce by the .nerease of some pa.ricular branch of it, or by the openinu' of fresh branches; .na the settlement of new cou..tries. If these however, shouhl be esteemea excej^t.ous to the obser- vation witi. reuara to any partic.lar natio.. or nations, they are .-xtensions of it with re-ara to all the nations of the earth ; un- plvin.' that the h.crease of .general wealth is connectea .vuh the -eneral spread of inventio.., or inventions, over the world." ^iTho two foreKO.ng .uterp-lation. are frnn, bk. I.. Chap. I., of the -rimnal : the first from p. 15, the second from pp. I'.i-J4.1 . ,.- . ,.**3 ■ i^M i 1 I III ■ 1 15H INNENTION KCONOMIC r.rsidf- tl:i- ( ill uiu^i:iiHi'^ lii-tL-iininiim th.- jiro-n'-s of in- M-iili..ii aii~iiiu tn>in ;li'' iiuUiiv nf man. tin- inveiilor. lline ni.- ..ih")- .lr!»ii.liii'_' "11 till' iiii"ii-s ill wliii li tin.' i^riiiciiilcs (.f Ihat uatuiv aiv .-M'itr,! t" I'Xfrt t.lifiii-''lvi-- in this -plu'rc ni ii( tinn. aii'l uni'liially \n ili-,ri'ni anil I'.ovclnin- llic iiiialitie> an.l ]].i\vri- .4 ilii" variiiii- ilivi-ii.n- "i tin' niati'rial wnrM. 'I'lir -iirlai-.- I'f till' iMnli iiii'>''iit- a \a-t Variety nl niiUfriaU. Si. lis. ciiniati-. liwn.Tal-, vi-i'taM.-, tli- li^i "[ Om- waters, tlic l,j,,;, ,,!■ il,,. ;,ii, ami till' liiMst- III' ih'' ti-M, an- I'luilr.-sly (ii\ri- siii,.,l, ami, ri'uM w.' liiinu lia. k tin- >urliii' n\ ilir '.'IoIm' to the stall' in whicli it cxi-ii-il v.hi-n man first niailc his a)i]H-arani r on il. we >l,nr,l! iii-il'aiilv -lan-.'Iy lin.i .my two jioints in all reslMT-.. a!iii-ienie. imai having heen eV'iy in'W aii'l then enmi'i'lln' nr imlueeil to aiiiii'l iiiw m.iteiial-. ami, a- they rhan-eil iVniu the mie tw the other, til havi' i^een •jiaihially l^l hi'iii the km.wleilue <>i' tlu- ne.-t >i!n]ile am! ..!i\iii!l~ nualilie- anil jiower-. t" a liereelitimi olthn-e whii h all' iimre enmiilex. anil ditheiilt In iliseern. Traein- any invenlinn niiwani- lm it- tir-t heMinniie.'s. uv shall ili-eiiver tliat iIu'm- have lieeii ex iliiv^ly rnde ami imiievl'eet, pri neeiiinu limii the -imiile-t, an.l wlial wouM >eeni to us. the must nliviou.- oh,^ervaliiins ; ai^l that it ha- ailvaneeil towanis iierleeti'in, hy havinu heen leil te rhaiii;e the materials with whieli ii nri'^inally i.i.erateii, ami jias>inu from one to another, has at i-aiii >te]i nf it- i)r'i:.:ie- di-covereil new i[iiali- tie^ anil ari[iiireil new ]ioweis. 1 helieve a lenilheneil im(uiry iiitn the history of invonlioiis woiilil leail til the followin'4 eont.'lnsions : — 1st. Arts ehan:_fi' material-, Il havin- iieeouie ilitheult nr imiiossil.le for men tn ohiaiii the materials with wliieli they liail lieeii aeru-li.me.l to operate [in aiiv hraneli eif imhistry], thev liiive li.i-n led to aiiopi others, and, letainin- the kimw- ledL'e iif the .lualilit's ami power- of the nld, have added to them thiise nf tlle new. I'd. Itiltereiii arts adnpl the .-ame materials. Men have l.een eneoniaued In ojierate with new materials, from materials hein'.^ jire-ented to them evidently lielter suited to their INVENTION KCONOMIC 15» puipos-s than th. oia. -uM ih.y l,e uniu.' sui.mis.ive to thfir art. , i r • :;(1. Th.- oiR-ratiuii of itit-^f circuiii-truRc-, has slowly .liiuiii- ishod "thr proin'iisitv of lu.mkiu.i t . servile iiuitatioii. an.l -iveu a l„...imnn.' to >,k.nce, hy hrh.-in- t.. li-ht the .lualities an.l powers conunoM t.. n.anv niateiials-lhe -eueral iTUKaples of thu.-s. The liniilea ol.jects of the present inquiry, liowever, torhi.l „ur entering into' the lenuiheuea train of sp,-enlation. that wouM hr neee>sary tnlly to estaMish the.e runeluMnns hy an a.leouate investigation of the pro^res^ ol inventions, I shall cunt'ent niv>oIi with achliuiu'^ a .ulheient nun.h T of n.stanees lu sliow that this continual ehan-e lias heei. a , ircuinstan.e operatin- very l.ene.f.eially and etiaiently, m .nlar-in- the liMuntls ol human kaowled-e and power. When men are deprived of the materials with whi. h tiiey used to operate in the laodueliou of n^res ■.•;es, an.l hetwem them and want have only sue!, as are suuilar, hut not the sam.', one of two things mu^t liappeu. Th-v mu-t either eoM4Uer the ditli. ulties of the new matter, or must p,.nsh. In the earlier a--- of the world it i> searee m 1- doul.te.l. that the latter event was of not infre.nieut oreurrence. Trihes forced from their liomes hy more powerful trihes, must have heen often kd hv hope, or driven hy despair, into re-ions that ha.l n,a hefire'vielded to the .lominion of man. T-ut the materials which different re-ion> present to human industry, are very .seldom i-reer-ely alike. Th.^ new would oilier trom the old in hein-.: m some re.pects wor.se, in others hetter adapt-d to its puri-oses, than they. Tlie ditliculties are much more apparent than the henetits, the former havin- -enerally to he overcome, hefore the latter he apprehended, or distinctly perceive.1. The attempt, then, would prohahly never l.e made, hut for the promptiiv^s of necessity. Its .uccess has two advantau-es. The suhjection of the oi,,taeles carrie.- the inven- tive facultv a step hirther forward ; the larger rcaurns ma.le, ,,win- to "tlie circumstances in which the new material is suj^erior, increase the rewards of industry. As the success of the attempt wouhl advance the skill and the power ot tho.e who made it, s.) its failure Would ,il>audun them to famine. In the thrmer ca.se, the individuals whose intelligence and c.jura;4e 'I HK) INVENTION ECONOMIC ov.Triiiiie tlif (ilistaclcs, would be exalted hy posterity into •;ods iind deiiii->,'i)d.s; in the latter, the field would remain open to more succ'sstul essays, in other times, and hy other races. An ini|uiry. liDwever, into the i)roi,'ress of the arts essential to t\tf cxistciKe (.f man in any torm of society, would carry us hack til a^'es ■> remote, and invnlvfd in an ohseurity too deep to pfuetrate. Xi.nr of thr arts which are not necessary to the preservation of Imman .'xistence itself, has ]>iobably had u'leater influence r;. the mndcs which that exi-teiice has assumed, than metal- liU'jy. Without th.' metals, it would be impfissible for the ome are easily reduced, of otlieis, with -reat diltieuUy. < if all tiie -ubstances he attempts to ela.-^sify, none, from their number and variety. ;4ive ;4reater trouble to the mineralooi.st. Tiie discovery of the ijualities of sueli jiortious ot these metals as wen; found pure, would soon make them be considered as the mo. Hut for the gentleness of the ascent, it is ulto,L,'ether likely, that the art would never have attained the eminence it has ;,^aincd. Had the earth, for in- INVKNTION Et( )N( )M1C 161 stance, [lossessed no metallic stores Imt the more iibundant ores of iron, by far the most useful in the present days, it seems not unlikely, that no metal would ever have been wrouijht. The steps by which it rose, were, however, too numerous, and the vestiges' left of them are too indistinct, for me to attempt here to trace them, were 1 even prepared so to do. 1 prefer rather, in illustration of the subject, to refer to an art which has been in prac- tice for thousands of years, and to an inij dement in daily use. The i)lough, in its most simple form, is an instrument the invention of which would natura^y follow the domestication of the ox species. Men accustomed to loosen aTid stir the earth, with the ineliicieut implements of that ancient period, could scarce in time fail to remark, that the sluu-^ish strength of this animal mi-ht aid liiem in the operation. They seem to have turned it to this purpose, by a very simple contrivance. A lon<; crooked saplini^, similar to the clubs used by boys in some ""of their t^ames, Imt larger, had its thick, curved end sharpened to a jioint, and its other extremity attached to .something like what is now called a yoke, coupling' two oxen l,y the neck. The long straight part of the implement passed between the animals, the part turned downwards rested on the earth behind them, and when they moved forward, along soil very easily impressed, would mark it with a furrow, whiih might be deepened by a man walking close after, and pressing it "iluwnwards. He was assisted in this operation by the a.ldition of a handle projecting upwards, the point was liardened by the action of the tire, and auotlier person guided the oxen. Such was probably the earliest plough, and those that are usee! in many parts of the east, to this day, ditler not much from it, with the exception of the point being defended by a sort of iron tooth, and the wood not having a natural, but an artificial curvature. In Java, a man when he has done his day's work, carries home his plough on his .shoulder, as a woodman does liis axe. The defects of such an implement are to us very plain. It (mly scratches the s -il, it cannot make what we call a furrow, and it is only very lit^ht, samly soil, or the sort of mud in which rice is cuWivated, on wliich it is at all capable of acting. As the .[uantity of this sort of soil is in all parts of the world limited, men weie gradually furce.l to attempt the I. •? ! ii;-2 INVENTION KCONOMIC fi i ! ! t; lill.Tje lit' limi iiiiiix' ililHcult tn sulitiuf. • (vit the 'greater jjart nf Asia, tlioy liave doiu" su, liv a -iiiipli' eiilaii;eiiient ami str. ii,i,'tliiMiiii:4 of the tirsl riule iiiipK-iiieiit. The model iiu- mediately liefore their eyes seems to have so eoiitiiicd their liowcrs n| luvciiliiiii, that they atlfiuiitfd no eha;i:,'e hut this. In that par! of the woild, if we exeept (Jliina, and the eoiintries horderiii;^' "u Kinuiie, the earth is conSL-qu enllyseratchi'd, or at hest stirred, it i> i:ot in our sense of the word jJouj^du'th The iniiirovcninUs \vlii( h w.' hav.' maik- in tlie np.-ration are two- fohl ; the first coneerns the etlect prodiict;d on the soil, and the ,-econd, the ease with whieh it is produced. The furrow we form makes earii portion of soil operated upon, deserihe aljout one thin! of a cirrle, thus lihuidinu' all the parts of the surface to'jether, leavin,^' it very ojkmi. and placim,' the vcL.'eta!de tilires in tlie position hest suited to induce decay. The turn, too. thus '.^iven lo i^aeh portion, puts it out of the way of the ne.xi, which is therelore, with comjmrative ease, moved into its proper ]insiliou. It seems not to have liecn until the instrument ;,'ot to Kurope. liiat it assume(l a form ca ' '- 'A e.\ecutin;j; such an operation. Such was prohahly tlu lan i)lou<^h, tlie woo.l- work of which is thus deseril"'d hy \ ir-il : "( ■..miiiuc. in >;.Ui> uml'Iui vi tli'\a il'iiiatur ill liiiiiiu, >-t riiivi formaiM anipit uliiuis :u;itii, llllir :l >tirpr jle.lfS tcllle plotelltUs ill nrt... r.iii,. ;uiiv~, ihiplici aptaiitur (U-iitiilia dois,,. ( ■ . tlitur rt tilia ante jn^'o lf\ i.s, ;iltiir|iu. fau'ii^, Sti\.u|Uf. i|ii;e i'iiirn> a teluo t'ili|iu-at iliios ; fa su>|niis.i f.H-is exjiliiiat idlmra fiiiiiu.s. An elm hcnt with ureat stienuth m tlie woods, is forced iiito a hi/ri-^ and receives liie form of tlie croo^ced plough. '1 o it are fitted the f. /im stretciied out ei;..:ht h-et from the lower end. the two "//,vs. the ^hiit"i:<> with the doiihle hack, and the stini whicji hclids the lower ]Mrt of the plou.^ll liehind. Tiie liuhl lime tree i- hdl-d heforehand, for the yoke, ami the lof:y heech foi the oiher jiaMs, and the smoke .seasons the wood huiiL; \\\i ahoVe ihe lire. ' 1 see not that this /-('/■/-. whieh has ^iven ;/./. ome of the INVENTION ECONOMIC 163 commentators a little trouble, can be any tiling' else than the original crooked suplin-, here swollen to a lar-e elm knee, I'orni- iiiii the body of the plough, injfr.ri r/rnvr rohur arafri, and to which all the other parts are appende.l. From it, instead of the lon;^'er straight part of the sapling, stretched forward n ■separate piece, termed the tnno or pole, and the stim, or handle, was retained. So far thTy<>nhni,l, fitted into the shortened pole or trmo, and bearing, as before, the chief stress of the draft, (ireater .symmetry and lightness were thus -iven to it. The mould board gradually attained its present form, the coulter and another handle wen- added. In recent days, it has brcn maile nearly altogether of iron. In T.ritain, where this revoluiion in the material was introduced, it is ileserving of notice that the metal implement. (,nly that its parts are slenderer, is an exact copy of thr wooden one. There is yet too the shaith. In some, at least, of the American iron ploughs, the sole con:>exion between the u].per and lower parts, uidess that given by the mould boards themselves, is a .strong liolt screwing tight. For a plough of such materi; Is, tins la.-;t metamorphosis of the original sai)ling (,r I', iris, would .seem the better construction. Tims, the moving: of this implement from one region and people to another, the con.secpient adaptation of it to dilV.'reut ami more dillicult soils, and the chan;je »[ the materials of which it is formed, srem to havf been tlie occasions of it- sive improvem.iil. Tliey have stimulated the faculty ol mvention, and weak.Mie.l the jmipen-sity to servile imitation. 1G4 INVENTION ECONOMIC ' ! The iiistniiiK'iit, so chiiii;4e(l, it may lie remarked, is on its return to cdunlries in which, perhaps, it tirst assumed form. Kni^lish ploui^hsare to be sern in India, and some modification ,.f them must, in time, become the t,'eneral plouizh of the country. (»ur next example of the effects of these circumstances on the development of the inventive facidty, will be taken from the proi^Tcss of sacred architecture. It c(jnspicuously exhibits the strcMi-th of the jirinciple itself, anci the trammels liy which its enerL'ies arc soipctinies confined. When men worship the deity, they find their devotional dispositions assisted by the presence of external objects, par- takim.; of his attributes. Thus, whatever brin-s sensibly bffore us the ideas of very -reat jwwer, and uidimited dura- tion, fills the mind with tliou-hts tiiat are very near akin to devotion. Hence, men in almost all au'es ami countries, have either made choice of jiarticular natural objects, inspiring such ideas, as concomitants of their devolious,— they have wor- shij.ped turning to the sun, or in groves, or on the tops of mountains : or they have formed things, having in their con- cejitions a sort of unison, in this way, with the object of their worshi]!. Of all the jieiiple who have employed themselves in forma- tions of this sort, and devoted a portion of their industry to the construction of instruments .serving, in some degree, to sati.sfy tliose natural longings of the human mind after something bringing before it liie perfec tions of the deity, none Iiave been more eminently .succes.sful than the Egyptians. The sudden- ness with which the art there attained an excel! uce, that even now connnands our fullest lulmiration, is a phenonu'uon well deserving the attention of .speculators on the extent ot the immau jMiwers when roused to free and active exertion. Several circumstances seem to have contributed to deter- mine the form wliich architecture there assumed, and to carry u at once from infancy to maturity. One of the manifestations of j)ower most apt to attract the notice of men in the early stages fif .society, as very great, i.s ilie nioviu" of laru'c blocks of stone. To men altogether igno- 1 allC Liic Hi' ;ij\VL:r=s, liDvrever -tr-'ng 1"^" ,-,!v! 1 Ti\ fii'ciii G t r^ INVENTION ECONOMIC Ifi- move a cubic stone of the weii^ht of only two tons would l.o impossille ; for, enough of them could not t,'et hold of it. To meu a^'ain, havini^ made a certain dcLjree of pro^'ress in art. and aware of the advantage, for instance, of the lever, th«)u>,'li it mi;,'ht then be practicable to move into an upright posi- tion pillars of even a few tons weight, such obj. ts would still seem very striking displays of power. They would also impress them with the ideas of extended duration, which the indestructible nature of the material, is calculated to produce. Accordingly we tind that the er.'Ction of such columnar masses, has been a very common act cf men, in rude states of society, in their etlorts to draw themselves near to some conception they have had o{ the great first cause. l!ut it is not mere bliml power, and eternal duration, that is attril)uted to the deity ; besitles this, all men ascrilu- to him un- erring wisdom, and most men, boundless benevolence. Kegu- larity of design, then, especially if combined with visible utdity. renders any object of great and changeless power, m\ all objects continually before our eyes, is that most generally turned to with religious feelings. Synunetry of design may be given to collections of columns, by preserving them at regular distances, and forming them into circular, ur straight lines. The circles of the Druids in Scotland, and in other parts of Europt;, are examples of this sort of form. Greater unity would be given to an erection ot this sort, by the addition of horizontal pieces, stretching from the top of the one pillar to that of the other, and jKirtially rooting in the fabric. Such an addition would also heighten the notion of power embodied in the work. The poising large masses of stone on the summits of elevated cohimns, must have appeared a stupendous exerti(Ui of jmwer, to tho.se whn first contcuii)latcd it. Such seems to have been the character ot the famous dniidical temple of Stonehenge. A form similar to this, w.iuld therefore seem likely to be that, which the ancient Egyptians must have bren inclined to give the reliirious edifices they constructed, when leaving tlic higher grounds, they began to descend and occupy the plains; and su<'!i is. in t;irr, the general outline which tlie ruins of their edifices yet II •i lor, INVENTION FXONOMIC ]. resent, r.ul they possessed arts which enahled them to :_'ive their edifices ii decree of <,'miuleur, far superior to the rude structures of the ancient Britons. They were jirohahly either themselves workers of stone, or had tlie means of knowini; how stone may be wrought. The more aticient Troglodytes were perfect in the art of cutting -tone. Their labors were conhnetl, however, to forming e.\- .iivations in rock, they do not seem to have ever tliought of dividing these rocks int.. fra'jments, and again reunitim,' them into some re.juired form. indeed, this is an idea, that could not very readily occur as a means of facilitatinu llie formation rafts stationed close by, when they could be trans- pt.rted to any rcMiuired situation. Tl..' riches also of that celebrated valley, then probably recently e.xjiosed to human industry by the retiring waters, and which the efforts of fifty centuries have not yet exhausted, gave the inventive faculty as its instrument, an almost unlimited command of labor, (lenius was not wanting to reach lofty conceptions, (jr to ijiply the means ]>ut in its hands so as to give them an adc.puite form. Tlie works it jiroduced were the admiration of antif aroliitecture underwent ii revolution aniouL; tlie nations tliat were finally eoiisnlidated into tlie Koniau Empire, hy tlie ailoptioii oi the aieli. and the employ- ment of cement. The K;_'yptians and Creeians were stone- (Utt.'rs: the Romans, masons. The sjiirit of imitation jirewnted this clian-e in the material jiart, from produein-, immediately, a corresiMindiiiL' ehan>.;i' in the ideal. Under the Romans, tin- arch and the column were comhined. It was not until after the ruin i>t' tie- Kmpire, when architecture n-eonimenced aniou'.' other races, that it assiniit-d a new form, correspondent to the ehaiiiie in the mechanical part, and suiteil to the jiurposes and times. When arts, other than those of their native wilds, tirst began to be aiiv thin;,' to our rude ancestors, the art of the ma.sou, received by them from the Koman.s, was properly the capacity of .shapin;,' a stony ma.ss into a form, realizin-,' .some of their imaL;inations, from materials, which could be easily transported to the point retjuired. While the Ivjyptians ami (lieciaiis had had to apply their powers to chan>;in,L,' the tiuurcs and positions of masses of rock.«, tiiey pos.sessed the art ot constructing a rocky uiass. The instrument of the former wa.s the chisel, to carve into sliajie, of the latter, lime, to work out to shape. The bej^inuinL^s of ih.' former art in Africa, and of the latter in Europe, are marked by the same lavisli expenditure of human labor, though in ditfereiit modes. In the loriiier, the human hand, slowly, by dint of strokes int^r- iiiilted not tor -em-rations, duu' out caves, or carved iiillars. In the latter, also, ilic human hand cemented small fragments of rock to small fragments, till in the lapse of years, the mass ''ratlualiv swelled out into some desired ioriii. iiie e.vleul oi INVKNTION KCONOMU it;() the operations of tin- one was liniite.i, hy tlie [K.wer^ of ui- •liisiry, to put lirje blocks and toltiuins of ston.- into th.' re.' niiitenals. The operations of the other iiu'ain. were limited, solely, by the cohesive (lualilies of the mass it formed. Th- effect at wliidi both aimed, ^-ran.leur, the union i>( power, .lurability. and useful design, was mainly produce.l in ih-- former, by the vastness and symmetry of tli.' several parts m the latter, liy the same t[ualities combined in a whole. The art was probably at Hrst appli.'d in modern Kudim-. to the construction of j.laces ot stren-th. S,.lidity to resist th- batterinji en<,'ines, hei-ht to prevent the fortress bcin^; scaleil. and the a.lvanta-e of having' scope to annoy the besiei,'ers. produced the massive battlemented towers and castles of tlu- ancient barons. As its materials were the most durablr, principles to which we have already adverted, soon led to its application to structures devoted to the purposes of reli-jion. A jdain wall of .small stones and lime may convey llie idea of durability, but only in a sli-ht decree, that of pnwer or desi<,'n. A "circular or angular colunui of the same materials, if very elevated, is better fitted for these ends, but still, is far inferior to one composed of a soli.l block. A lofty stone arch, a-ain, is one of the most .strikin- ilisplays of power tliat human art exhibits. The aspect of a mass so ponderous, hanj^in.j tlius securely in hi<.'h air, fixes the attention, and tills tiie mind with awe. It is, accordin.u'ly, by a skilful mana.uement of the arch, that the .^randeur of etfect of what we term the Clothic architecture, is chietiy produc-d. All the other jiarts are subordinate to it, and confined within the smallest limits sutticient to brin- out its powers. In the m.jre i.c-ifect specimens, there is no dead wall : a congeries of lofty arclu-.s, supported on short, or slender pillars, is wrou-iit into a ma-niticent and beautiful whole. The feelin;,' of admiration here springs from the consideration of the power manifeste - 'Mm:iiji:mMiBk.t^:t;M^:^^:M^ - Li '. "^"rVk — ■! 1: ' !| P ITtt I N \ KN'l'K )N FX'ON( )M I( ' was uiucli iii"ie slow, (i.ii-iili'iiiit,' that it scarcely ever re- ijiaincil wholly siatidiiary, than was lliai of the (Ircciaii, for it is, in rcaliiy, far more ditticiill. Several eaui-es Loutrilmted to Its ailvaiice. The u-nal extent of tuiintry over which its .leiiienls Wire ililluseil, occasioned the use of various sorts of stone, and ]iroduced the advanla^eoiis etiects arising from a loiitiiiual cliaiii.'e of materials. Tiie art of the mason im- provrd, >tren_'th was ohiiiined hy .joinin;^ ston-s into one another, rather than hy ceiuentin.; them tou'ether. The use of Ireesiiinc, a rock easily wiouiiht into shajie, jirobahly liiid con- sidcralile elfrci in iiioihiciuL; this imjirovcmeul. The architect was thus eiiahled to hrin^' out, in „'reater lineness, all the [larts of his faliric. Tiie feeling's of men, also, set towards the jiursuit. Kiu'js, nohles, a jmiud ami powerful priesthood, stood really to rew.inl and apjilaud its successful creations, and assemliled nndtitudes L;azed on them in silent and delii;hted admiration. It has been truly said, that it formed much ol the poetry of the ■.vs.^: In the waul of other species of intel- lectual e.xiitemcnt, men were needs very stroni^ly moved hy an art, that thus wrouuht on stone and lime, they knew not how, to pourlray -ome of the ileeiM-st feeling's of their hearts. It seems to have heen only sli'^htly retarded, hy a propensity to servile imitation. The vaiious kiuizdonis into which Kurope was split, and the ditliculty of intercourse anionu-l them, -.^ave eoura),'e to the aitistf.., wlup were themselves the greatest travellers, to atlemiit works from which they woidd have shrunk, had th--" \.h 'le to i'i !"e of them had easy access to estahlislied models. Neverthele.ss, there is a fact, which shows that liie oppressive intliUMice of this jirinciple was far from inert. The epochs of the most raj)itl advances of the (iothic arclutecture, were the periods succeeding,' the contiuest of kin,L,'doms \>\ new races. This circumstance has given occasion to several, to conjecture that it .stands indebted to the knowleilee of its princiiiles which some of these conquerors lirouuht with them. The sujiposition is improbable; we have no reason to believe that they bruULiht any thinu' else, than what necessarily belonged to such men, a bolil and untnini- meled spirit. This, indeed, is an essential element, and one, as we have seen, oi' gre.it power in the composiijoii ol genius. INVKVnoN KCONOMir 171 It was thus that the proiiiinunt detects of the art umh'r the Anuh '-Saxons, an exnherance of dead wall, and want of i-l,-va- lion, were n-niedird hy the Normans. The Saracens in Sjiain. wroii^iht also a similar ehaiiiie. At no ],n\ 'dinu' jieriod, did tlu-re t-xist men, so niiieh <^iven to the erection of pi'inianent siructur.'s as nindern Kiiroiicans, an<^ their American .lescendants. Their comniainl of materials, their resource i>{ jKiWer, are hy much superior to those possessed hy any antecedt-nt people. It is certainly, then, surprising', that they should he .servile C'lpyist.s of tli.' arts ut those whom they titly look on, compared with thfinsL-lves, as harharians. I apprehend we can only explain the phenom.iion. fioni the inlhience of the insiinct of imitation. Tiie fNtende. intercourse hetween all I'arts of the world, the ditiusion of the J, p. ducts of hook-makin-,', and of picture-makin-, rentier us familiar with existing niod.ds of all sorts. An artist, there- tore, wlio has to construit any >,'reat clitire, tinds it sifest copy from some one whose merits have been acknowled^'e.. and' takes the measure of a (hecian tcmjile, or Gothic church. Thus, at least, he covers himself from censure. Ilence it is, that we so often see, in the cold foL,'uy climate of I'.ritain, or in the hoister.ais one of North America, an imitati<.n of some structure that had heen admired in Greece. The claims to admiration wluch the copy po.s.sesses, fall, however, far short of the original. In the first place, it wants that evidence of ])"rfect ih-si'^n, which arises from the complete and easy accomplishment of a purpose. What answered the mild clii.iate, and .serene skies of (Ireece, is felt to he inconvenient, ami therefore uelective, elsewhere. Next, it is mo.st probably a very deficient copy. The effect of the Grecian structures, depends, as we have seen, in their consistin;.: of larue masses of stone. Our imitations are jirolialdy the work of the mason, or possibly the plasterer, and convey, tlierefore, no idea of jiower, the very essence which it is desired to embody. There is hence, also, generally, a failure in the execution. When the mind is full of any lireal idea, it knows when it has ,i.;ot an adetpiate expression for it, and rests not satished until it has titly and accurately e- iljodied it. Hut, if this ^'reat jiresidin- tiiin' withij! distinL.'uishins.' the iiica uc w;:'.u: trivi'c is n 172 IWKVIION KCONOMIC !h \ = / ill riu'tit fruiu till' wr"ir.:, 'ir prcvfiitiipj th'' i;iiiiiinis--iiiii ut' tlif "realt'st frriir>. Oni iii;i.suii-\v(jrk iiinl jiLi.-ti'rucl t'al'rif.>5, arc ciiiis(M|iii-ntly, MJirii lua-scs uf iiiiMiiu'ruitics. Our .liiiic,' III' (ii.iliic iiio(icls, t(]r -imilar r.'as'Hi^, '^'uniTally fails as coiiiiilftt'lv, A laru"-' lalln-dral. mdi-t'd, niusl lie ad- iiiiri'd anvwlicrc, Imt lliis is t.Ki '.'rt-at a wurk to he atlcinjited. A ciipv is pKilialily laki'ii. from muih' (,!ia]irl. We fur^et, that what was adiiiiialili' f'lr its purjMisf in -uiiic small aiicii-iit rnstir liaiidct, is niii of iJian- in our i;iu.-> ; thai tho arrhes, \vhi< h, t(i simple ]iL'asants liviii'j in hiUs, sfenu'd ina^nitircnt, to till' chifftain, issuiii;^ fur a timi' fmm his naked fortaliec, idi'uant, must a|i]ii'ar mean and insiuniticaiil, tu tlmsu whose halls iire nearlv as lufty ; and, that the whnle pinnacled and buttressed siiiiriure, ( T'lwded on ami jierhajis overtopjied hy sijuare unsei'inly huililin^s, devilled to mt'auer uses, shows amonj,' them, trillin'j. and i'antastie, like a toy erected to please children. The examples we have hitherto considered, are of the same arts chamiiuL.' materials. 'I'linse wl'.ich we have now to iiLtend to, are of diifercnl arts adopting' the same, or similar nuilerials. When arts arc l.nac^ht toLjether, they liovrow from each other. Men jierceive that some materials, or iustrunu'iits. or processes, emjiloyed in tlu' one, could they he tran-t'erred to the other, would he the rause of its yielding; larger rei\irns. They are eneoura^ed, therefore, to attempt the chauLie. and experience shows that such attempts jierseverin^ly juirsued, are Lienerally successful. Ktlorts of the inventive fai ulty, succeedinii in etlectin<,' such translers, are more imporianl than those in whidi it accom- jilishes sjuqily a chanuc of materials, for they tend more than they to weaken the jh wers of the ]iropensity to imitation, and estahlish ueuer.d jirinciples, applicaMe to all arts. Hence we ohserve, that, in countries where many arts tiouri-li, there are most ueneial principles, least servile imitations, and very often, a continual onwaid ]iro;_'res.-, I'.anen a]'art, they show u'cnera- tive viitues whei hrouulit io:^,-iher. I lake it, that it is chi'th from ili'- i-ircumstance. thai ihe seats of commerce ha\(' lifi'ii .-o ueiierally the jioinls from wheiu'c im)irovemenls in the arts have emanated. Thus, aNo, conntries where various MMMi INVKNTION KC'ONOMK 173 (litlt'i-eiit races, ur nutimis, hiivi- niiiv^'lfl tu^etlicr, ;iro to be nnU'd as coinintr eminently t'orwanl in the career of imlustry. Crrcat liritain \r, a remarkable instaiKf of tliis ; so are tbe United States of America. When iiuliviiluals meet from (iitferent countries, they reciiirocally comm\inieate and receive the arts of each, adopt such as are suited ti> tlhir new circum- stances, und pmbiibly improve several. St-rvil.- imitation can there iiavc no place, for there is no c-immMn st.indanl to imitate. (Nmntries au'ain, wliere only nnr art is practised, and whcr.! till' population is ((imposed of one iinmin<,ded race, ar»^ ;ue .erally servilely imitativ(,'. Such are some pundy ai,'ricul- tural countries. E.xperience shows, that, from the inliuence of this propensity, improvements, in the.-^e. always introduce tiiemselvcs very .slowly. Leaviu;,'. however, these ;^eneral reflections, we should now turn to particular in-tances of passages in this way, of jirocesses and inventions from art to art, and consequent iinpnjvement of old, and u'eneration ol new arts. I'mt, as these will lie chietly recent, and Kuro])e.in, there are one or two circum.stances, atfectinu' generally their progress i.i this part of the globe, to which it may be as well previously to advert. The rough and varialde climate of Eurojie, compared with the reudons that have given oriu'iii to most of the aiis now i>re- vailing iu it, renders the neces.sary cost (if subsistence much greater. To live at all, in most parts (if Kuropc, men must consume a greater '[U.mtity and In-tter (piaiity of food, or they must be nuire warndy clothcil and c(imfortably lodu'ed, than in regions nearer the eipiator. The influence of this circum- stance has ]irobably been somewhat increased by another. Along the Mediterranean, civilization seems to have gained Lireat part of its advance by colonization, and it is to be ob- .-erved that this movement of men from one region t(i another, proceeds from ditlerent motives than others impellinu' them to a change (if seat. Men are often C(imp(dled by necessity to migrate in tribes and nations, but emigration in small parties, jiroceeds from choice. They cannot well be induced to leave, not only their homes. but their kindred and nation, unless from the h(ipe of bettering their condition, and, if their project nii.scarries not, they - inat'iuuitieil for the pains of .■mi-rat ion, !>v a L;rrati'r conimaml of tlu' nuCL-ssari.'.s and coni- foiis of lif.-. Thn-, hiiljits of larger consumption are intro.luc.Ml. than absolute nrcessity mvM .1. iiian.!. T-oth circumslanocs would have llir .-tVect of au;4m.'ntin.L,' the cxiH-nse, or the waue^ of labor, and of (■nMlin;^ an additional dilliculty, to the passau of the arts of warnirr tdimaK's into these more northern regions. It is very evident, for example, tluit an Kuroi-ean workman eould nev.'r have sat down to a Hindoo loom, for the purpose of fahrieatinu' a -arment to himself; it would have heen nuuh better for him to k.'ep to Ids sheepskin jacket. I'.efore the trans er of any art could !»• elleeted, invention had to supply it with additional facilities. Stimulated by its wants, by the mw scenes in which it found itself, and by the new materials submitted to it, it accordin!j;ly seems always to have succeeded in doin- so. There is, perhaps, scarcely an implement in -eneral use in Africa, or in Asia, exceptin;^ from it China, that has not passed with improvement into Europe. In modern Europe, loo, the strength of the effective desire of accumulation, seems to have been always greater than in any othei' part of the old world. This circumstance has much facilitated the passa-e into it, of the several arts, an.l balancin- the higher rate-^ of wa^es, and more stubborn materials, has render^il the formation of vrry many instruments there practi- cable, which the weaker accunnilalive principle of the AoUUics, or Africans, would havv left umittempted. It is w..itii while to remark, that there is a consi.lerable anaiouy in thi^ jiarlicular, between the ditferent conditions of society in that continent and Asia then, and what exists bctw.'en them now, in EuroiR and North America. The ueiieral wa-rs of labor seem always to have been hi^^her in Europe, than in Asia, in tiu' same way a-, the wages of labor in North America, are now higher than in Europe. The same process, too, that carried the arts to Europe, .'^eems now aidiu- their passage across the Atlantic. As tlame ofU'n sets again-t llie wind, for that it is fed by it, so invention seems to hold i's course auainst opjK.sin- obstacles, for these obstacles excite its power.> and nnnister materials to tiieir action. The iiroLMcss of the knowledge of the natures and (pialities INVKATION KCONOMIC n nf jiarticular sulj.staiice.s, gradually intro.luced a kii<'vk'(l.ro of the properties and natures of suhstances in .i,''-neral. Mmi tir>t see in the concrete, afterwards in the abstract. Thus, the dis- covery of the several mechanical jiowers, and the knowledge acquired of the nature of each, led in time to the general jirin- ( iples of mechaniis. A knowledge of the mathematical pro- jierties uf suhstances, as in land-measuring, and iti the regular figures of architecture, led to a perception of the general jiroperties of tigure, or of space as an atVection of matter, and, at last, to the iloctrine i/f pure space and motion. In the ancient world, science, as f(]unded on a generalization of the experiences of art, was little prosecuted. It is oidy in modern times, that the science of experience has come to form an element of imi)ortiiuce, in tiie general advant'e ot invention. It is clearly on the antecedent progress of art, that the foun- dation of the hopes of ".aeon, for the future ]irou'ress of sci"nce, resti'd. His ]itiilosiiphy may be fitly desrrilicd, as a plan to reduce to method tlie chance processes that had been going on before, by which men, as we have seen, happening on one dis- rovery after another, grope their way, as he expresses it, shiwly, and in the dark, to fresh knowledg md jiower. The progress of the philo.sophy to which he has 'W his name, as well as that of the science of mathemitics, ave unipiestionably dis- covereil to us many general truths and theorems of art, ami form therefore a new element influencing its ])roL:ress. Tiie L^reat moving powers will, however, s ., I apprehend, be found to proceeil from tlie principle'^, the action of wl.!eh we are now to attempt farther to trace through partictdar instances. Men must have been very early led to the use of some of tile farinaceous jilants, and other vegetable matters, whiih, before they are tit for fooil, require to be reduce(l to small fragments. To i-M'ect this, they nmst either have rubbed them, or beat them, between sonu; two substances. If stone were the material, they wouM rather juvfer rubl)ing them, from the liability of that substance to break, and from its weiuht. It is thus that the rude tribes nf southern Africa, to this day, lay their corn on one llat stone, and grind it by the ludp nf M r 1 t \ ,!» 17ti INVFA riON KCONOMIC iiioiIht.' An iuiprovfiiiLMit uii thi iiisininiL-iU. i-* tn lime the lower sliiiie a little Inillowed, iiiiui:'d tinnitno-, ]iiiii.Tiis tun . iMitiiiii's >\w<-, -'A tiininiT TiU'll tin- l.rai !o kno.k," i- am. n- ill. utniMl- i nniii. latr.l. Wu yvt ^piMU o! -tiiUiiit; liaili y. I'riu' eaily Iroiit i. i Mn. ii oi Ani.iioa, in tin' .l.i\s of tli.ii e\l;iiiU' jLiviity l.ctoo' tli.y -It iq. w a. 1- mill-, a.!..].!.'.! tin: In.liaii iii.irlai ami p.-.-tU' .Ifsoribfd al.ovo. with the a.l.lilioii that tin- lali.'r ..t lai-iiii; the' h.avy |H-tle \va:< ^;ifatly li-lilriH'.l l.y th.' .Ilia. 'iiinni ..t a -pi iiiu |i.,|c. Tlii-r w. ir .■ all. .1 " s.impiin; iiiiU,-, ■ ,111.1 the 1..U.1 i...i-.' made I'.v their o)Hiuioii .-..111.1 1"- In-iol a Imig way tho.ii^h ih.- t.ii. -I. ,11. .1 .iiiii.iiiiue.l 1.1 ih.- tr,ivill.i hi.-< appi-.>,iili to a .;liai iiij;. Th. iiitio.lmti..iiof w.u.r mill- int.. m;iiiy p,irt-..t tii.- li.ipK-s l^. periiiaiuiilly oppo-i-.l l.y i:i-i-at .ilist,uli--, owiiii: t.i till- cxtiemi- -i-as..ii,il variations in niiii- l.ill. ■|'ln- .li-M.i- ju-t .h-s. ril.. .1 wmil.l -i-eni to In tiie tir-t aii.l most ihitiinil ailv iiu-e upon tin- '.',', i'n -tone ill these regions. 1 INVENTION ECONOMIC 177 tlu'ir powers, or tln'ir necessities, nii;,'lit excite them. To over- come these increasin;^ ditliculties, it wouhl retiuire no i,'reat •stretch of the inventive laeulty, to hit on the exjiedient of placini,' a firm transverse bar, with a hole in it, fur the passa'.'e of the handle of the pestle, acmss the top of the laorlar, from side to side. Such a chan'je in its construction, seems aecurd- ini,'ly, to liave heen very iienerally eifected. Simple as it is. it contained the ^erm of very many suhse(pient improvements. The force employed, act in;,' tluis not directly, but throui,'h tiie intervention of n fulcrum, may be so iipplied as to f^ive either increased velocity, or increased power, and the reL;ulated move- ment introduced renders mere power almost all that is neces- sary. The size of the mortar, and wei'^ht of the pestle, mii,dit, tiierefore, be increa.sed indetinitely, and tlie instrument inii,'ht be put in motion by men, or by cattle. The e.xpre.ssion ot tlie veu'i'lable oils, was found to be the most ditlieult operation to be performed by instruments of this sort, and it is probalile, tlial it was to elfect it, tliat machinery, by which increased force iniu;ht be employed, was tirst made use of. Oil iniiN, of this sort, are yet common in the east. This construction rendere;inal instruments, tiie capacity of the wood to receive and modify motion, and of the stone to bruise and coiuniinute hard vcLrelable matters, its invention seems to have had considerable etfecl in advanciu;^ art still farther. The 17^ INVENTION ECONOMIC I : [ 1 iiioviii;^ jiowiT, ill one of tlie most latiorioiis and common opera- tions, was thus rciliicfd to a simjilicity of action, that paved th(! way for it-^ lieing performed by un inanimate agent : .nich an ai,'ent was introduced into the process, through the inter- vention of anotlier art. In liol icgiims, water is very abundantly consumed, botli as a necessitv and hixury, fur inime(Hate u.«e, and as tl>e great fertiliser of the soil. In such regions, the raising it from wells and rivers has always been a very common and laljorious pro- cess, anil to facilitate it has given occasion to .some of the earliest efforts of ingcntiity. One of these consisted of a large wheel, placed upright, and to the circumference of which small buckets were atVived. It was put in motion by treading on it, and the buckeis and it were so arranged, th;>t they should just us aupra ai'iipfuiii est. i'ini c;!!!!!!! frimtts atliguiitiir iiiiiiKr, i|\i:i- cum percutiuntur ah iiiiiMtu Hmiiiins, ((iguiit pi(ii;i iilicntf.s veisari roliim : ft ita ni(nli the formation of tloating gardens, where the Dutch would Ijuild dykes. Tiie invention maintained itself through the se. lmi.ortant as these eii-ines were in themselves, from tlieir immediate utility, they %vere more so m heir etlects. M.n s min.ls were directed to the advanta-.-e of what is termed machinerv, instruments, that is, -ivin- new velocity and direc- tion to motion, ami to the ,,osver of inanimate a-ents generative of motion of both of which the mill alfoided the tirst eminent instance. Kxanivles of the jmssihiliiy ..f executing hy other TK.wers than the human han-l, or the slren-th of th." interior animals one of the mo>t ditlicuL of the operations that the necessities of mankind calhd for, being brought freshly before the eyes of almost all Euroi)e, naturally prompted the genius of reflective men to conceive the idea of applying them f. .,ther, and even more ditficult processes. This general stimulus to the inventive faculty, conjoine.l with others, acting vigorously, but occasionally and partially, and already relerred to carried the improvement through a great variety ot opera- tions Mills of all sorts, came to be constructed, driven commonlv bv water, as the more f<,rcible, and manageable power. To trace the ciinrse of invention through these, were not to mark the principles regulating the progress of that faculty but to enter on a description of Kuroi.ean art. It may be sutlicient to observe, that, in c(.nformity to these principles, n.a onlv was each ditliculty overcome by it, a benetit to the particular art it was meant to serve, but to art in general, each eomiuest extending its anthority, not alone over the province where it was achieved, l>ul over tlie whole region which it was its object to gain. If, for in,stance, comparing the ingenious and complete ma. hineiy of a well-constructed tlour-miU ot the present dav. with a model of the rude and imperfect engmes of the sort that existed two hundred years ago, we ask the cause of the dilVercnce, we sliall probably l,e told, the improvement of mechanics : hut, if we trace the progress ol this improve- ment careiuilv. We will iiir; that it was the titling ot the INVENTION ECONOMIC ISl machinery of this very enu'ine to other arts, that was one of the main producers of it. The proihictions of thi; union of arts alsr. propaL'atini,' others, like all ;,'eneraturs, their increase ^'oes on, when th.-re are no retarding; checks, to borrow a plirase of common use in inquiries connected with these, not in a simple arithmetical, but in a u'eometrical pro;,'ression. The effects produce"!, by the passa;;e through different arts, of this improvement on a very ancient en^'ine, important as they were, have been far exceeded in extent of consequences, bv one of alto;,'ether modern invention. I allude to the steam enut what of this material lay close to the surface, and the fields inmiediately beneath, having been wrought out, the miner was urged on by the increasing wants o: his countrymen, and the abundant materials before him, to penetrate still deeper; and the labors of generations formed large excavations, in regions far beneath the surface. Here, liowever, he was met liy an enemy continually gathering strength as he advanced on him, and threatening completely to bar his future progress. The farther he penetrated, water poured in upon him in greater ([uantity, while to free himself of it he had to elevate it to a greater height. A {X'riod seemed approaching, when very many of the mines nmst be abandoned. In this extremity, it was natural to the men engaged in this occupation, to cast about, and endeavor to di.scover some device, through help of which they might successfully continue its pursuit. The resources of all powers hitherto known having been tried, as far as in such situations they could be effectually employed, and seeming to be on the point of yieldmg, it could not but occur to aLLenllve Lliiukers, iiiai, if liicy were lo VI V ; "I \ IS-l INVFATION PXONOMIC pucceo.l, lb.' pmhahility was it wouM 1m- ihn.u^h s..me one hithert.'. unfini>loyc.l. Of thos.., steam was i.t-rhai.s the most appaiv.it, aii.l mana-eiibk-. Its fortu must have been, at b-a-st in .'r»ormed by it, too, seenied i^eculiarly titted for it-^ action. Water is move.l in i>ipes, and, it is only in conlinemeut that the power an-in^,' from the raretication aiul con.len.sation of >team bec(;mes sen- sible. It aiipeared then by no means impracticable, to manage the condensation anf lah'ir, necessary to tlie tli.scharj,'e of its I'unctions, was e.\cessi%-e. It havin;4, however, lieen thus established, that it was an a,'ent within the compass of man's ability, to make a partner in the series of his operations, there was a stroiiL,' stimulus to endea- vour to render it a more eC(pnoniii al a;.'ent. This was etleeted by a change in the construction of the apparatus, t! leading feature of which is, the causiiij^ the steam to i«rforin its operations. throu;.,di the intervention of a piston. The instru- ment thus i)roduceil, was an effective ami economical operator for the purpose desi.uned. The improvement was important in itself, and far more so in its cousetiueiices. Had the macb.inery of simple pipes and valves been continued, under some improved form,' it mi<,dit have appeared only fitted for propellinj,' fliiiils, and been confined to that j-urpose : as through the aid of sails of some sort, wind has been made to propel ves.sels, from very early ages, though it is only of comparatively recent times, that it has been applied to give motion to mills. But, the introduc- timi of the piston, and its adjuncts, showed the power in a familiar form ; the handle of a pump was a thing well known as put in motion by machinery, and it was obvious that the movement had only to be reversed, to communicate motion to any machinery. Under this form, therefore, its progress as a power through all other machinery, may be said to have been inevitable. It posses.sed the important advantages of being ahvavs at command, uniform in action, and unbounded in force. In this progress it was assisted in one important step by science. The discovery of the doctrine of latent heat enabled it at once to surmount a great obstacle, which might otherwise have lonu' limited the extent of its operations. It is j.erhaps not to be supposed, but that the general truth would have lieen itself at last made known by the continual groping after improvement, which the existence of such an instrument in the hands of men would of itself have occasioned ; if how- ever science advanced it by only a few years, the beneficial • The formation and condensation of the Bteam, might have lieen managed in chambers, scijarate from the system of pipes and reservoirs elevating the water. 0s' ' H+ INVF.NTION KCONOMIC hi i. f .■IliTts uf siirti ;iii aiiticiiiatinii, will !»■ allc^weil t') hav.- Imm-h viTV ■^rcat.' ill its (oiirM^. two tliirii,'-. s.m'iii siM-cially worthy of notice, the iul.liii'.iial fn-fiioiii whi.h it ;^ine th.- inventive farnlty. an.l tht? .irnniistances whi< INVKNTION KCONOMU 1S5 ocean. II wo consider, in addition to lliis, the -reater I'lay which, from circiinistances already enuni-rat.-d, tlie inveiilivt' fiiculty en.jnvs in t»-«t continent, we shall see that it was there, .so to say, that th. inijirovenient oii^dit to have taken place. The point, Ux). in Ni.ith America, wIutc it did tirst actually take place, is al.Sd, a.s it were, partiMd.irly marked out for it. The transport helweeii N.'sv Vnrk and .Mhany, l>y sailing vessels on the Hud.son river, was iioth very expensive, and peculiarly tedious. Steam has there <.han-ed a voya^^e of days, or weeks, into one of less than si.xteen hours.' Tlie circumstances leading; on to the invention of steam laml carriage, may also he noteil as exemplative .if this view of the suhject. There were tirst simply railroads, to facilitate heavy drafts for short distances, from coal mines ; then there was a more -,'eneral use of tliem in all heavy drafts ; finally, there was the general application of .steam, as the power to etlect transport of all sorts, and with all vel..cities, alon^; the smooth surface they afforded. All that was want'-d for the last step was, that the mechanism should be rendered less heavy and cumbersome, ami it may be remarked, so ;^reat confidence had iK'en {generated of the power of the inventive faculty, that the undertaking; was commenced with full assurance that it would accomplish the desired improvement, althou>,'h the manner how was not known. The result showed that the confidence was not misplaced. Thus, such are the steps by which invention advances, that it would seem, had there been no country like (Ireat I'lritain, the steam engine might not yet have been produced; had there been none like North America, steam navigation might not yet have been practised : and again, had not (Ireat Hritain existed, metal railways and steam carriage might have l)een still only in the category of possibilities. ■Since the passage in the text was written, the art of the application of steam, as an agent in transport by water, has made a farther step. It con 8i»t8 in a passage of the engine used in laml carriage, to that use.l in water carriage. Besides this, however, tlie germ of some other principles ha.s apiieared, which, it seems probable, will ultimately pro.„,,» rt.v-^!ution in the art. It i» remarkable, that the site of thi.s event is also the Hudson. t ! 186 I N VK NTK )N EC; )N"OMIC The invention of printing; has often been citeil as one of the most important of modern times. The stej)H by which it advanced were also of that u'radual and easy nature, one leaiiini,' on to another, and surrounding circumstances prompting to essay the ascent, as to take away all admiration of its progress, were it not that the cfinslitulioii of man's nature renders tin; passing of any individual, coolly anil deliberately, the least out (jf the circle of imitation, very often a proof of the strongest powers of mind. There was first th-j stamping with signets ; then the transfer of this initial art, to stamping, instead of iiaiiiting, playii.g cards; then the existence of a great and unceasing demai.il for one book, the Bible, the excessive cost of transcription, and the transfer of the art of stamping cards to stamping pages, first of the sacrtid volume, and afterwards of others : lastly, there was the passage of another art, that of casting dies for coining, to facilitating the formation of metallic tyijes.' The art, thus perfected, was dis- seminated by ihe tyranny (.f a petty prince.'^ The ar^ which [while not itself a technical process] has most imnieuiale connexion with the increase of wealth [in general], the business of banking, is itself in some measure illustrative of the inliuence of change in producing improvements in all arts. It commenced in countries where exchanges for large aiimunts were numerous. Venice, Florence, Genoa, Amsterdam, the great marts of commerce, were the first lianking communi- ties. In them, however, its operations were confined U> ft ' In ascribing tlic invention of jjiinting not to cluince, hut to the gradual ])rogrcss of e\tiits, I nni supportdl liy tlie iiuthority of Conilorcet, ainl appa- rently also by that of Diigalil .^tiwart. " L'invention ilc I'iniprinierie a wins ilout .ivaucr le progrea ut the easy terras upon which the Scotch banking companies accept of repayment are, so far as I know, peculiar to them, and have perhaps been the principal cause, both of the great trade of those companies, and of the beneht which the country has received from it." If we may judge of the progress of an art from its general success, the transfer of the business of banking to Scotland would furnish another proof of the benefits accruing to arts themselves, from their passages from country to country. No- where has banking been productive of more acknowledged advantages, [as is shown in another place], and nowhere have the evils occasionally attendant on it been fewer. As also illustrative of the subject. I may call the attention of the reader to a fact often noted, — the .small progress of the aborigines of the new worUI in art, when compared with that attained by the inhabitants of the old. If we are to search for natural causes of the phenr. Rol.. >-t«mi'!> Hi.slory o/Amfrica, Vol. II. ' Xeiiophon, Cyrop. ^m^^S^^^^ INVENTION ECONOMIC 189 coiiiinrr within the range of the strength of the etfective desire f.f acciimuLition of the neighhoring jH-'ople, as tillahle land. Herdsmen once existing, it could scarce he hut that they would spread themselves wherever they could find support for their cattle, and gradually exterminate the hunting tribes. There is, I think, reason to suppose that such a revolution occurred in Europe many ages previous to the time of recorded history. Its importance may he estimated from the observations that are made in a preceding part of tlii-^ volume.' AVe may, on similar principles, in part, account for the low rank in the scale of humanity occupied by the aborigines of Australia, that fifth and yet but partially explo-ed continent. The uniformity of soil, climate, and natural productions, of that whole region is very great. This limited variety of materials would seem to have diminished the number of arts generated, and that of improvements arising from efle ts of changes, among those having obtained existence. In conclusi(jn 1 may observe, that I believe it will be found, that there is no art in existence which we may not find means to trace, with greater or less certainty, to the rudest and most simple principles : and which may not be shown to have attained perfection by continual changes from place to place, and material to material, and by encountering conseciuently ulternate dithculties aiul facilities, the former developing its powers, the latter extending their field of action, and both, by helping to intro(hice general principles, weakening the restraining power of the tendency to servile imitation, and advancing the progress of science. This successive passiige of the siime arts from country to country, and from one into another, seems to be the great exciting cause of the progress of them all. The greatest improvement of British manufacture in recent times is, I may remark, [the result of] a passjige of ' Page 84. Were this the plsce to enlarge on the suhject, many circum- stances contirmatory of such an event might \ie en'wnerutcd : a» the traces of the existence of a race of mere hunters over all T.urope ; the roots of European languages being the same as those of central Asia ; the form and constitution of the present domestic ox species, and of sheep, marking their gradual migra- tion from a warm climate, into colder region* and more ahundant pasture. if''"*' " a»: h:- v.-,%>vs_v.>^ ;^^:. 190 INVENTION ECONOMIC this latter sort. Tlie (-(.tlim manufacture is a passaj^f of the art of fabricatiiij; woollens, into that of fabricating cottons. It was the perfection of the former more easy art that showe.l the possibility of the existence, and eventually brought about the existence of the latter,— invention in this case, being excited by the higher wages of labor in Europe than in Asia. Improvement was the consequence. The peculiar difficulties the material presented being overcome, the facilities it possessed were experienced. This view of the subject seems somewhat to illustrate the following retiections of Lord P.acon, concerning tiie early progress (^f art, and may satisfy us tliat, even yet, they are not altogether inajiplicable. He observes, that, " although, when we tirst begin to consider the variety of necessaries, conveniences, and elegances, which the mechanical arts minister to life, we are rather struck with a feeling of admiration at tlie abundant wealth which mankind inherit, than with a sense o< their poverty : yet, when we examine every thing, and consider through how many chances and revolutions these arts have been brought to their per' ''tion, and through what simple and easy reilections they have been discovered, such sentiments will soon leave us, and we shall be inclined to conimi.serate the penury and barrenness of inven- tion of the human race, which have taken so many ages to accomplish things deducible without ditliculty, from tacts neither very numerous, nor very hard to be ascertained." It is inileed true that the philosophy, in the introduction of which he bore so eminent a part, has, in these latter ages, been a very etlective promoter of the dominion of man, and, mixing with art, lias much puiitied and dignified its spirit, and greatly increa.sed its powers, turning invention in this depart- ment from iiarticulars to generals, and converting art into science. This has more especially hapi)ened in the chemical sciences, antl those connected with them, a sphere to whicli, I may be allowed to ob.scrve, iiis system .seems particularly applicable. There, science begins to lead and direct art ; in other departments she rather follows and assists it. lUit, with regard to the general progress of art, even its recent history '.Vol-, (hi.. L. 1, L.\XXV. INVENTION ECONOMIC 191 evinces the justice of these observations, and shows that " men estimate falsely both their jwssessions and their powers, (leemini^ of the first more hi^'hly, and of the last more lijjhtly, than they ou_'ht." ' We shall admit this, if we consider the vast number of qualities and powers, and of new practical combinations of them, that, in our days, have been discovered iuid applied to use, and reflect on the long series of ages during which they were hid in darkness, on the proximity of men to them, and the ease with which they miyht have liu'hted on them, would they have turned their eyes, ever so little, out of the busy circle of actual life and occujiations. If, too, the history of the past tell us truly what the future will be, we may feel assured that, as it is not the powers of nature iir of man, but the application of them, that is limited, if indi- viduals be inclined by their own dispositions to apply them- selves to purposes conducive to the general good, and if they be incited to do so by cause."- similar to such as have before operated, art and science will still stretch their capacities, until they may at length reach an extent of which it is impossible for us now to form any conception. An attentive consideration of the history of art might also give rise to a series of retlections of another sort. It would show a purpose, which does not strike us on a first view of the creation. Nature, it woulil .seem, if I may be allowed so to express myself, sensible of the combined pride and im- becility of man, has so arranged the world she bus provided for him, as to make it the means of urging him on, in a continual progress, towards higher and higher attainments. Neither the defects of his limited and cloudy faculties, nor the intoxication of the vainglory, that, fed by his imitative propen- sities, is ever representing him to him.sclf as having reached the summit of terrestrial ix-rfection, can preserve Inni station- ary. He is now impelletl by necessity, now excited by hope, to attempt the amelioration of his condition, and thus gradu- ally to develope the latent capacities of his own being, and of the sphere of existence in which he moves. lly a diversity of ( liniates, soils, and nation.s, .steps are, as it wt-re, arranged for liim, up which he is gradually enticed, or compelled to mount, 'A'or. Or.;., L, 1, LXXXV. «? 192 INVENTION ECONOMIC to fr^sh aciuisilums of kuowle.l-e an.l power. He is never allow.-d to remain stationary. A portion, indeed, of the race may and fnr a limited time, bnt ultimately they either im- l)roVe, HI- yiel.l their place to snrroundin- peoples who have improved. Some i^hilosophers ur^'e it as an objection a^'ain.st the world's having' been formeil by a desi-nin- cause, that so lar-e u portion ..f its surface is useles.s to man. Accordin- to tliein had it been formed by jM^rfect and beneficent reason, it should have been such a level garden, as a certain theorist supposed it ori-inallv to have been. Had it been so, we may ■^nh-U assert, that man, as man, could never have inhabited it. He iiiu-t either have been formed above, or sunk below, his present conditiun. because we do nut turn to any account the sandy desert, or rugu-ed mountain, we are not entitled to look on them as blots on the -eneral utility of th. creation, or sup- pose even that they mav not be put to use by succeeding uene'ralions. The sava-e of New Holland conceives every tree nselesf that does not soon rot, and so breed maggots for hini. The ancient llomans scarcely conceived that the woods and morasses of Caledonia would, at any time, he abundantly useful We iud-e rashly, then, in condemning as useless any portion of the earth. Even the barren deserts of Africa may, in after a-es, be fertilized. Art and industry may, m time, draw watJ"r plentifully from the depths of the earth, and cover them with treple harvests. To do so, human art must make great advances, and these and the other obstacles it has met with, and will meet with, are stimulants to its advance. . War itself, so great an evil to the individuals within the scope of its ravages, is evidently the only manner by which, in certain states of society, an amelioration can be induced. The .lestruction of the Uoman Empire, and almost of the Uoman race by the barbarians, was, perhaps, ultimately, the most 1,'eneticial revolution ever brought about. Even in its minor consequences, this apparent evil produces also much of real onod. Without it. many of the most useful inventions might never have been eith-r propagated, or improved. We «re ever ready to forget the part which nature thus INVENTION ECONOMIC 193 thus bears in our operations, and to lay tlio wliuU- credit of our skill and industry tn mir own discernnient. 'I'lio slow and u'radual nianiuT in whicli sIr' lias lud us on to tlu' aniuisitidn (if every art, aetinu' all aloni,' the part of the sat^acious teaclier, who puts before his scholar, at first, the iii'ist sinijile and easy lessons, and on his niasterinL,' these, by de;,'rees, through I lie iidluence of suitable rewards and penalties, coiuliicts him to more ditUcult ell'orts, meets not our notice, ami rises not to our tliou,i;hts. Were these or similar reflections fitly placed hero, the subject miu'ht give tMit:i. Kliiuluiii jiiiliiiiiH Kiiiius i-(iiiarimi ' C'l.iitinuu lias lt;.'fs u-ttTiiaiiiu- fciilt-ia c.Tlin liii|M)suit iiatina Imis, ^no tfiii|in s\in lar-,'ely increased, and, the strength of their effective desire of accumulati(ui remaining undiminished, their absolute capital would be proportionahly augmented. I'.ut, as llie whule stock of instruments [still] remained the same, with the exce{)tion of the difference made by the surface of the fields having been sprinkled with a quantity of this mineral powder, their amount, as measured by one another, [or by some par- ti< ular instrument taken as a standard and to which all other instruments are referred (see C'liapter VIII.)], would be the the ' Tliis follows from the nature of exchuniro, hoc pages KM lO.'i. [Wliat Kai^ iMoan.s l.y llii.s reference to his llnory of ex liuiigc in the riglilli chiiptor, is somewhat oliscure. It i«, apparently, that the system of separation of employments and resulting system of exchange, with its phenomena of comjK.-tition, forma altogether a benefit-of-progresij Jitlusing mechanism. J -•Sir ir^--;^'.-^ ~.-- I ins INVKNTION FCONOMK" H.'irnc as licfori'. Sonic iii>triuin'iits ini;,'ht possibly exch.in<4e lor a ;.'r(at(T aiiioiiiic of iiisinuiii'iits of aiiotliiT sort, llian foriiifrly, 1>UL this chan'^'i' vmill iio luorc he lonsidiTi-il au iii'TrUMj 111 tlir loiid value, lliaii tin- fad of tlir latttT inslru- iiiciit t'xcliari^'iriu' for a less amount. eouM In- cou^iilereil an iinlicalion of a iliminiUioii of the total exelian;jalile value of the .stuck of the society. The n'l.itive capital ami stuck would thus reiiKiiii iim liaii'.'ed [for tlie lime lieiii^']. l!>it. ifioiiu'h this relative or exchan;.,'alile value of tlie society's stock iiiiuht remain unchaiii:cd, its absolute tances. 1. The memhers of tlic society possess, in fjoneral, a more aliuiidant ])rovisi()n for future wants, the revenue of the whole .Society, and of each individual coiu[)osini^ it, is increased. '2. 'I'lie whole society, a.s a sep.irate community, becomes more jiowcrfiil. in rclatii>n to other communities. It can sup- jiort the burdens of war, and the expense of all negotiations and national contracts with foreij,'n powers, with i^'reater ea.se. It can uImi, without inconvenience, execute a greater number of useful works anel undertakini^s. The imjwsts which the state le\ ies for such ])urposes, in a society wlierc the stock of instiunienis is wrou'jht up to an order corresi>ondent to the average ell'ective desire of accumulation of its members, must almost always occasion some diminution of that slock. The returns coininu: in from their industry, being only sullicient to reconstruct the in~Uiiments as they are severally exhausted, an adilitiunal drain made upon their funds must, in most cases, prevent the reconstruction of many of them, and conse- quently occasion a (lisapj)earance, to that amount, of a portion of the general >lock. Uut, when instruments are of more prudiutive orders than the elfcctive desire of accutnulation of the society dcm;inds. the abstraction of a part of their returns by tlie stale, to sup])ly its exigencies, only carries them nearer, or brings lliem altogether, to an order corresponding tu the strength (tf that desire, and, therefore, interferes not with their «.,!... .ii^t vn/'t iihii 'J'-i vit i, in Tin tlmf, r^ii^tjl i« Tiu'd out of rftyt^UUe not out of capital. .- Ill INVENTION Kt'()N( )MIt" 199 3. Ap it is thf effoct nf improvem.'nt, to carry instnunotit^ intu orders of quicker return tlutn the aicuinulativr ].riii(iiple iif tlio s(ieiety ileiiiamlrf, a i,'reiitfr rMv^v. of iiiiiteiials is hnMp^lil within reach of that principle, ami it cunsequtiitly t'ninis [eventually] an a(Milicinal amount of instruuienUs. The various auTicultural iiuimivements with which invention enriched that art in i'.ritain, towards the conclusion of the last and eoiii- nieiiceyuent of the present century, «K.casioncd ,i .ureat amount of materials to 'oe wroued liy llie society, or the sum of the values jiro(hice(i hy measuriiii,' the one with the other, [or all relatively to the customary standard], shows that the members 111 the society really estimate tliem hi|_'her than they wouhl thus lie rated, hy their instantly cdmmencini,' tcj work uji, into analo;_'ous instruments, inl'erior or more stulihorn materials, or liy their workint^ u]i similar materials more laboriously. The aiiiounl thus wrou'^'ht uji, until the )inicess stops, by the total iustrnnients constructed airivin;^ at an order corresiiondenl to th" ellective desire ot accumulation e of other jieojile."- Now I apprehend that high profits springing from improvement, can .ever lessen the sale of 'lit .stilus to tlie cditir tl.iil the application of Rae's expresMtioiis " :ili~"liile " mill "relative" capital or stix'k mii,'lit, indeed, with greater [iicipiK ty he turiu'd right almut. Wliat he ealls the absolute iiiinht lie ii,j;iided as the relative, that i.s, in accordance witii hia own explaiia- tinii. Illative to the prevailing effective dtnire of acciiinul.ition in any -" ii ly at any time, taken as a standard. Ami contrariwise, what he 'ills the relative might well be eousidered as the alksolute, since it« inririse iiicaiis the increase of the actnal accumulation.>i einljodied in iii^liiiMunts in any society. When, for example, after a rapid adviuice "I the arts ill any country for ten or twenty years, its total stoik of iii-iiiiiiiiiits iiiiiiis to he prici'd, let iis say, at .■*9(Ki,(MlliMii oi pcriiiaiiciicy seems to :,'o natuially with the notion of ili^nhiti iicss, and, according to Kae's own sliowiii;,', any incrca.se, at least III «li,it lie calls alisi.lnte capital, i;. ciitially ephemeral. J ■ W'l 'Ulh uf .Wiliiiin, Book I. ix. The [laradox contaiuuj iu the p.iij.sage preceding this i)Uotatiun it cx[)osed by Mr. Kicardo. «*il \'A i .1 li in h ' 202 INVKNTION KC( )N()MIC l;()ii(Is cillicr iit lioiiio or abroad, for they do not occasion a lis.' ill tluiir price, hut ratlier ii fall in it. — " In cmintries wliicli arc jiisl ailvaiiciiii,' to riches, the low rale of profit may, ill I he price of many commoilities. compensate the l)i|.;h waj^es (if lalicir, and enalih; ihnse countries to sell as cheap as their less tiirivin;_' iiei_diliors, anion;,' whnm the wayes of labor may be liiwer."' In countries risinL" to riches, I conceive, on the contrary that profits vill commonly be lii;,'h. They will be higher than wliere, the principle of accumulation havinj,' had time to work up all the materials within reach of its strength, a stop is jiut to its farther advancing,' the stock of existin<^ instruments, and the slate of the society becoTiios stationary. If they lie lower than in other countries, during the progress, it is from the greater stren^'th of this principle. In North America, i)rotits and Idior [wa'ies] have been as a matter of fact licrmaiiently high, from the uninterniilting transfer to that continent of European arts, and from the generation of new arts in the country itself. In IJu.ssia the jia.ssage, in like manner, of new arts has kept the rate of profits high. I'.ut, of all civilizeil countries of the present day, these, probably, are the most rapidly advancing to riches. If, ill any society, instruments lie at orders of speedy return [and conse(Hiently the rate of profits high], and we have not the [ready] means of a.scertaining whether or not this proceeds from the actual recent proL'ress of invention, we may fairly conclude it does .so, if, in that society, there be much economy, little luxury, good faith in exchanges, fidelity in the il charge of promises, credit consecpieutly extensively prevailing, and few breaches in the peace, or transgressions of tlie laws of the community. If, on the contrary, there be little economy, m.ch luxury, a want of good faith and fidelity, credit narrowed, frequent public and private crimes, we may certainly conclude tiiat this jiosition of iiislrunients arises from a deficiency in the accumulative, not from recent progress of the inventive principle.'- it thus appears, that it is through the ojieration of two ' H'Killh of .Va/ioH.», Itook I. c. ix. '[i'iiis [■..-.n.^'i.ipii IS .-jn intLrpuiiiiliuii lakLii froisi {). 3'J'J '-i ti:-v "r'-gnW' j INVENTION ECONOMIC SOS priiicijilcs — the accumulative, and inventive, — that additions arc made to llic stocks ol' coiuinunilies. It would coutrihute siiuii'ltiin^' to accuracy of j)lira.scol(i,i,'y, and tlicri'lore to distinct- ness of conceiition, tu distinguish their modes of acti(jn hy the f(illowinj,' terms : 1. Aavmulation of stock or capital, is the addition made to tlit.'se, through the operation of the accumulative principle. '1. Aiiijvxnitation of stock i^' capital, is the addition made to them, through the openition of the jjrinciple of invention. ;>. Increase of stock or capital, is the addition made to them, hy the coiijoinod operation of hoth principles. Accumulation of stock diminishes profits; auLimentation of stork increases profits; increase of stock neither increases nor diminishes profits. [" .\(cuimi!:itiart, is a system witiiin whicli all circumstances are common and similar ; and all societies comi>ared tou'cther, are systems in whi' li all or many circumstani cs are jirojier to each and ili>siiiiilar to otiiers. The wa^'es of labor, orders of instru- mciils, and imitits of ,-tock, in one society, for instunce, are [a|)iiro' imalcly] the same: hut in ditferent societies, tliey are, or may he, iliverse. When two ]iersoii> in the same society cxchanu'i' rommodilies, we have seen that the exchaui^es they make are for ecjual (luaiilitics of labor, reckoned accordini,' to the lime when a]i]ilied, and the actual orders of instruments. This lia]i]iens becau.-f nuc man's jicrsonal labor, or the com- mand ol Plhei men's labor wliich he may |Hissess, is ecjual to another man's j .rsun,.! 1 ibnr, or llie command of oliiei men's labor which he may possess. In separate societies, however, this law obviously nii lonLirr Imlds. An individual in one sociciy. exchan^^ini; wiiii anuLlier, in anolhei .-lueietyi eiinuut OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE SOS pretenfl to rofriilato the amount he is t^ receive in return hy tlic power wliich In- jiuf^sosscs, if lie ooiiceives too much ite- niamliiil, of tiiriiiii|4 liis own funds to tlie formation f that whifh he desirus, for he has iiu such power. To form the {•omiiuidities he in tliis case desires, it is necessary he slioiild heconie a menilicr of tlie society in which they are formed, and give up the place he holds in the community of which lit! now makes one. If the manufacturers of doth in Kiii:land find that the farmers do not i,'ive them, iu the form of wheat, the same nuantuy of hihor that they in exchangi- give them in cloth, they will turn their capital U) agriculture, and 80 reduce the price demaniled ; hut should they find that the American farmer puts less lahor to the formation of the wheat he exchanges for their cluili, than that cloth costs them, they have not the same means of lowering his price. As the exchanges, therefore, that take place between the iiieiiihers of ditlerent societies, cannot be regulated by the amount of labir embodied in the commodities fabricated by each, there would seem to remain, is the foundation of the principles of such exchanges, only the ([ualities of the articles exchanged. If the manufacturers in Kuglaiul tind that, includ- ing the expense of transport, they can have wheat as cheap from the American farmers as from the Uritish, they will be inclined to exchange, and if the American farmers hnd tliat, including also the expense of transjmrt, tliey can iiave English cloth as cheap as American, they will be inclined to exchange. It is evident, too, tliat the British manufacturer will be more inclined to exchange, if the American wheat come cheai>er than the Uritish, and the American farmer, if the liritish cloth come cheaper than the American. The commodities to l)e exchanged between any two .societies, may either minister to use, or to luxury, or jiartly to both. The subject will present itself in the most simple form, by ilisciissiug separ' '^ely the divisions of it thus indicated. ' Kiist, then tve havi' to consider the principles and etfecis of the excliungcs of commodities which are in no degree luxuries. If the members of one society, liavim; liefore had no inter- course with some other .socielv. become aware that in it there I.^' W ' I w 20G OF INTERNATIONAL TRADP: is ii rnmiiiodity of lliis sort, of wliicli thoy would (iosiro to have ii -ii]iplv. the i|Ui'sliiiii to 111' ilcicriiiiiitMl i«, will they iiruciire lliit sii]iiily, and if so. what will In' ihi- clU'i't tliciur rii.sulliii;^. A> thrv hiivi' hilhfito doiir without the cotnriiodily, they iinist alrtiidy jiossess some siihstitule for it. They will then only seek to ]iioeure it, if they can jirocure it for less lahor than the suhstitiite they already possess; and if they can procure it for less ialior they will naturally lie excited to do so. Were co.al, for instance, tlie ( oimnodity which the niemhers of one .society A possess, and of which the members of another society B wish to ]irocure a sujiply, there must he some means in existence in 1'., of more or less fully and easily satisfying,' the wants w hich that miiu'ral can supi)ly. It may he, for instance, tliat wood is the fuel there consumed. Let us suppo.se that three cords of the wood commonly hurnt, are oipiivalent, in the heal pveii out hy them, to one chahlron of coals ; if, then, iu the society !> there lie any commodity there equivalent to less than three cords wood, and which, transported to A, will in A lie iM|nivalent, considcrol as an utility, to one chaldron coals, the exchange will lie possihle, for this dilference may pay, or may dti more than pay, for the expense of transport. If, for examiile, in the society A timher for architectural jmrposes be more scarce than in l'>, it miuht happen that the wood used for fuel in 15, when transported to A in lof,'s, would be in estimation there. It mi^ht be that in A, owiui,' to the general application of the soil to au'ricultural purposes, and the scarcity of forest, a (luanlity of timber, tit for the use of the builder, such as mi^ht be ^ol out of a cord of the tire wood used in H, mit^hi exchange for one chaldron coals. Were, then, an in- dividual of ihe .society 15, to transport to A a (piantity of .sipiare timber lupiivalent in 15 to three hundred cords of wood, he mi,Lrht exchan;,'e it there for three hundred chaldrons coals, and mii:ht so return to 1> with a commodity there e([uivaleut to nine hundred cords of tire w, would be lluu.sfeilt:U to A, aiid 1.1 OF INTP^UNATIONAL TRADE 207 wruili] rcttini, ill the lonii of rnals, an ('(juiviilciit, aftor payiii'^ ihi' ( liar;^('s of lraii--]ioit, lo iloiililc tlif lalnir i'X]ii'ii(li'(.l in its iMiiiiatioii. Iliit in lliis stale of tliiiiu's llu- wlioUf advaiitau't' woiild lall to tlic society 1'.; fuel woiiM lie more easily oliiaiiieil tlieic, lull liinlier would not lie nior(> easily olitaineil in A. As, liowevei', it would lie e(iually in the jKiwer of the iiienilMTs of the lattei' society to send their c three days' lalior lui^'l.; nnw he oliiained for two; anil that the ((uantity of Imildiii'^ tiinher that in A c, lliey may be com|)ared with other instruments belonu'iui,' to the society, salisf'yin;^ more or less perfectly the same class of wants. And when, throuj,'h the exchanLre of other cominodities for them, they can Ite obtained for less labor than such instruments, they will naturally come to be so obtained, and will comjjletely or partially lill the place of them. As coals will compare with cord wood, so Indian rubber will compare with leather, Xew Zealand weed with hempen cordage, slates witli thatch, copper with iron. In these ca.ses, and in others where probably mere utility is sought for, there are means of comparing one thing with another; and the substitution of the one for the other, when in proportion to the labor necessary to obtain it, will more eil'ectually supply future wants and is always a real improvement. It will often hai>|)en that the process will engage in it more than two societies. Thus, the .society B might exchange wood with C, C might exchange iron with A, and A coal with li. Similar principles would still, however, guide its progress, and similar effects result from it. While the exchanges were con- fined to commodities in no degree luxuries, an increased pro- vision for future wants would result from them, and a general augmentation of th(> absolute capital of the societies receiving these new sujiplies, and tiuickening in them of tlie accumu- lative principle, would be experienced. They would in them all have the general etlect of improvements, and would operate, in the case supposed last, in the same manner as would in B some discovery facilitating the transport of wood, in C some discovery facilitating the smelting of iron, in A some discovery facilitating the miniu'.' of coal. The fewer obstructions, there- fore, that stood in the way of such transfers, the farther, in these cases, would the stock of instruments in those societies be carried towards the order A ; as any obstruction that might occur '.ould, on the contrary, have the ell'ect of checking the proLiress lowards the more (piickly returning orders, and keep- \\\'S them nearer the order Z. The benelits to all parties, arising from such an interchange 111 OF INTKHNATIONAI, rUADK 2«9 (if cDininndiiii's .is we hiivo descriln'il, would lie liahlo to be iiitriTuiiti-d hv w.ir or l>v lt>^i.sl:itivt! (Miiiclnifnts. Tliusi' ilia- tiiriiiii.; causes wo h.ivi- ^it'tcrwards shortly to advert to, )iut lluTf is ono arisiiiLj frniu the jirou'ri'-^s of invention tliat may he projierly noticed here. As there are no limits to the inventive- faculty, -^o no coni- tiiunitv can assure itself that any coiuinoclity whii h it now jiroduces and exi>orts to some other coiuiiuniity, may not come ti> he produced in that commtmity, and so he no lotr^'er exi^orti'd there. It may he. for instanci', that, to return to the su]iimis(m1 case we were just considering;, in the society !>, strata of cm;i1 are discovered so near tin; surface as to he a.s easily wroU'.,'ht as in A, and that the spirit of enterj)rise may there he suthciently active, successi'ully to en^'aite in the occuiiiti(»n of niiuinu for them. In that ca.se coals would there he jiroeured fiT aliiiut tive-sixths of tht' lalior they liad cost when hroie^ht ffom A. They would tall in relative value, tlu! ahsoliite capital of the society wuuhl he auuMuenled, and profits proportionally increased. liut while in the society I!, the etfects of the pro- ','res,s of invention would he thus henelicial, in A they mii^ht o|ierate prejudicially. Xo exjiortation of coals could imw take jilace from A to \'k for heinu necessarily very nearly at the same price in the one as in the other socit'ty, there would he notiiiiii,' to pay the expense of transport. Iron then could no li)ii'_'er he paid for in coals, uidess that commodity sold at a lower rale. To ]iay for it, coals must lie sold at I! for les-;, or etleciive desire of .accumulation, a withdrawal from the reach of the accumulative principle of 210 OF INTERNATIONAL TllADK \\ ' its iiicuilifrs, ot smiir ]inrli()ii of iiiiitcriuls lifforc witliiii its An iiilL'rriiiilinii i<( tlif i'Xt:liiiiij,'c >>( articlfs nt' rv[x\ use liclw.rii roiiiiiniiiitics clK'cks acciumil.iti, sud- denly to cease, tlie event nd.uht he felt as a very great evil, and ' tirst, the substitutes for these materials renuirint; mure lal .ir to Work them uji into instruments of the sort retjuired, tlie whole stock of instruments possessed by both societies miiiht be carried on in the series some distance towards the more slowlv returnin,' orders. It mi,i,'ht happen, however, that in the Society i'> importinj,' coal, there were beds of coal [caji able of beiii",' made] as easy to work as in A, and that in the other A iniportin;^' wool, there were tracts of land as cajiable of feedin;^ .slieci) as those employed for that i>uri)Ose in !'>. In this ca.se, it is probable that invention would apply to such materials, and that, in time, coal would be ol)tained in 15, at a.s (luap a rate as in A, and wool in A at as clieap a rale as in 1!. Were il so, by the .saving of labor and of time in the transjxirt of the commodities from country to country, the stiicks of instruments in botli societies would be placed in orders of move ipiick return than they were at the commence- ment of the interru]ition. Whether the loss on the one hand or tlie saving on the otlier, might, in the circumstances ol either .society, be titly esteemed greater, would depend or whether or not there were materials in existence that by the power of invention might with sutVicient ea.se, and within tht requisite time, siij)]ily the paiticular wants in (pie.stion. There might not be tit materials, or the time reiiuisile to work then Iq; iiii-hl be tO" bi!!g. r.efore the cession of Norway to Sweden, it was reckoned t< OF INTERNATIONAL THADF, 211 |iro'liiro tir.iiii or vcu't'talilc-; fur its inlifiMtuiit-^ suHiciciit niily fur t'lir or li\t' iiKnillis. Its .su]i]ilit's I'ur llic rest of ilic year \v. T' 'lilt; iH'il Iruiii I)iiiiii:irk, to wliifli cnuntry, in r(>tiirii lor iMiiu I iivril (roiii it, it cxjiorteil tiiiilirr. When the Lin-al ]iM\viT.- Ii:i(l rosolvi'd nil its anni'Natioii i.i Swi'dm, a I'.ritisli tlii't lilockadml its i oast tlic peasantry canii' in starving' ''lowd* I" the town's, and a cciimtry troiii wliicli tlie liravcst r.Hc in Kinii|M' MiKi' i.ssiied, was eonilielled to yii'ld wiilmiit a stroke. I'iic insult then n-ceived, and llie liardsliijis eiidiire(i, liad llie itlc'ft ot :,'ivi!i^ a ^Teat sliniulus to a'jriculture. The more i>|'iilent formed tl.iins.-lves in'ci societies for the purpose of iiupr" iiiL the art, individuals skilled in its u])erations were iiiLru- ' in r)ritain, and in a few years a ;_'ii .it addition was made i' the a;:ri('ultural produce of the country.' The time in this case reijuire'l [allowed] for the formation ot instruments was loi) <,'reat [short], even supposing,' there had been a sutliciency of materials of which to construct them ; and had not, therefore, tlie si.ciety submitted, it must have endured successive evil.s. ^lany inst.mce.s, however, miyht be cited, where the inter- di( tion by war of the intercourse between different countries, li IS very speedily produced a sujiply of the commodities iniirdicted, and ap{>arently without ^'reat injury to tlie iiiiion possessing; the materials neces.sary lor their forma- ti ;i. " Ujion the breakin;^' out of the war with France," observes Mr. (lee,- "and pnthiliitini; 'nch commodities, encoura;4ement was ^iveii for erectinj: several of those maini- I'aclures here, as the histrini;, alaniode and other silk manufac- tures for hoods and scarves which th' cinj^'s royal consort, the excellent (jMieen Mary, look no small jiains tu establish; for wliich aitii le alone it is allowed France drew from us above £4(1(1,(100 yearly. At the .same time the manufacture of ^jlass was established, whieli before we used to have from France, and also that of hats and i)aper. In his time also the manufac- tures of copper and brass were set on fool, which are brouj^ht to ;,'reat perfeclioi!. and now in a great measure supi)ly tlie nation with coj)pers, kettles, ;ind all other sorts of eop])er and ' riHSf fiiol- I li'.iriHil in a tuiir tlinm^li t1i.it iinmiry in |sls. I li;ivr no H .lii.-. iri .l.>, I t,lllinit; VI il.tl 1^ 1I'»W tin- >i ' 'J'lnili iitiil .VaiiV/a'ioH ii/'h'nat llni \j>,'A. \-,:\-. 212 OK intp:rnational trade lirass w:iri'. TIk- iii;ikin!,' of siiil-cloit) was licjnii and carriod on to •^Ti-.il iicrli-clioii, and also sword Idadcs, scissors, and a jifoat iiianv loys niadi' of stwl, wliich formerly we used to have froiii KraiK (■ : in tin- maiiuracturc of wliiili, it is said, we now e\rfi all othiT nalimis. Tlie suiting up of salt works and iiii- {irnviii;,' of salt s|irin-sanil rook salt. Iiath |irov('d very lienelicial liere. and saves a viry u'reat Irrasnre yearly, wliirti we iu-reto- fire paid to l-'raiu e for salt and a 'jreat many other thinuf whieh I furltear to viiunierale.' \ ' CHAPTER XII. OF WASTE, OR PURE ECONOMIC LOSS. TiiK (MUSI'S arising' from delicieiicies in the moral and intel- lirUial jHiwers retanlini,' the j)roi,'ress uf improvement and aiciimulalion, and diinini.Htiin^' the stocks of societies, whicli we tiavr hitlierto noticed, refer to the matter of which commodi- tii> luiisist.' There are others proceeding' apparently from the -line deticiencies, which create dilliculties in the exchani,'e ,1111 1 preservation of instriimenls, anil)l(', innl lif very I'lLMiut'iitly, I inii^ht siiy j;enc- rally, I'lulisivors ii> dn so hy rc]irt'.-t'iiliii;4 tliiiii^s to he olliir tliaii wliMl tla-y are. WiTe any one, tur exaiiiiilc, ilt'sirous of piiicliasiiiL: a horsf, iiiorally fcrLaiii to wliat^oevur vciidur of llicisf animals lii; a|iplic(l, lit- would ti'll liini, as nearly as lie liini^elf knew, the ([ualities ot liie horses lie had on hand, and their ju>t value, any ]iiireliase (if this m.m Ik- niii^ht havt; to make would he ma1mw return. Indirectly, tiMi, they may occasiun still more serious losses. If a hirmer he deceivcil in the ]iurchase of a imrse, it may very injuriously rclaiil his iipt'ratiiins at tiu; nionn'iit when it is most necessary fur him to advance them. If a huildei' he deceived in the tindier he iniich.i.-es. it may occasion the speedy decay of the whole fahiic lie erects. The aniciunt of loss aii>in;_', hoth dincily and indirectly, from suecessfui or uiisucce»fiil alteni]its to pass nil' commodities for what lliey are not, is, 1 appieheiid, determinctl hy the weak- ness of the social and lienevolcnt alleitioiis and intellectual piiwers. Where there is the most lively sympathy with the distresses and losses of others, one will he most restrained from h-.'iii:,' the caii.-e of Ions to another, hoth from the prom])t- inus of his own feelings, and trniii a eonsitleriition of the seiiti- meiiis with which ollu-rs will rei,'ard him. Where the tendency and c(iiisei|Uences nf actions are most clearly seen, one will he must cautions of doiui,' any thin;.', which, hy weakenin;.' general conlide-ice and .-ecurity, may iiiejudicially aflect the interests of .-o( iety. .SiRJi looses will therefore he least fre(|uent where the accumulative principle is stroni,'est, and must frenuenl where it is Weakest. in China every man who sells tells as many lies as he think.s have any ciiance of passing. He is never ashamed ut OF wastp: !15 heiiii,' detected. When that happens, he merely couiplinienta the person discDverin^^ the intended deception on his sa^atity. Anion;^ the ancients, l)otli Greeks and lionians, all sorts .>f '-^» trickery and artitice in purchasers and sellers seem to have J hecn common. I'lato makes Socrates say that, in tralHe and coniiiicrce, there is no such thing as an honest man, and (,'icero ii has a remark very similar. These, and the like assertions oi classical authors, have indeed, now-a-days, heen put down as mere prejudice; l)Ut, though we are doubtless ii very acute and sagacious generation, I can scarce think hut that Socrates and Cicero knew their own countrymen better than we can do. Mercantile lionor and fair dealing are modern terms. With- ..ut uuich of the reality of what they import, the extensive U.iiisiietions now c,irrieily to incliviiiual>," not only Irom the lack of a " sjii.-it ol' iMtc;4rity in credit transactions," and oencrally in that dtiiartniciit ol economic a(,t vitics which i:^ called exihan^o, lait also from all forms of " frauds and violence punish- aMc liy law," in contrast to mere deteils, in every Itranch of liusiness.] To ^uanl aLiainst tiiem always reiiuircs some vigilance, and occasions some cx]icnse, and often demands a ;,'ood deal of both. 'I'lie loss hence arising' may he very consideralile. It is said that the cloth traile of X'crviers, in France, was ruined from the nundier of thefts lommiiied in various stages ol the manu- lacturc, o( (iisioidn'j a loss of aliout ei^'hl j»er cent, on the ijuantiiy jnoduccd. The intrc(iuency ol ciime will also, 1 apjirehend, lie found chielly to depend on the same jirinciples that <,;ivo force to the ell'ectivo desire of accumulation, — the u'cnciral strength of the social and henevcjlent alloctions, and intellectual powers. Where a desire of promoting' the common Liood prevails, and ihi re is a clear ]iercepiion ol' the means of doinj; so, iid'rin<,;e- nienls on the rii;hts of individuals, or violence t(j their jier.sons, will he rare. It is the stren;.;th of the moral feeling's that is tlie safcLiuanl of the laws. Where these are destroyed, or .Lircatly wi'akencd, as where a person ha> lieeii cast out oi the lirotlerhood of society liy licinj,' marked as ,i criminal, ihu dread o| curpoi-eal pains is scarcely ever sutlicienl to I'eter from futuiv' irespa.s.scs. The I'stahli.shment of tjood laws and the security of the system of j4y wars iiiaki', also, no small item in the accuiinl of hissts, to which tin' >toiks of all communities are suhject. Till loss ociasioncil hy the tleeeits anil frauds of individuals, and liy the |)rohiliitions and violence of states, may not unfitly he leniicd waste. i'l'lic itxiiri-ssidii "(tf Waftf," wliiili alone Wiia the (iri^'iiial title "f this . Ii.i|iur, does not ^eeni ailei|iiate. It iloes not u'ive an iinpn ^sion Mitliiirntly .li-linit from that lonvi ved hytlie ti rni luxury. According to Kaes treat- n» nt •>> tlii.s huil .siitpjci t, and acconlmj; also to the ordinary >i»ai,'e of lan^^ii.iue, «i dtli or iiiduslriil energy may lie ^aill to !«• niisai)|iro|)riated or vulhH d iii liiMi'y. Til'' Haiiie taken ])l,ne through the il.reet expenditure oecaMoned tiy w.u ■ml |ire|>iirations for war. I'.ut what Kae deals with in the present chapter is indirect not direct causes .1 loss; not with Wealth wliicli is created iii.i misapplied, hut with wealth uhi' li is not created at all. 'lliis last is .i llnug which necc.ss,irily escai« > the CI i\,-.u> taker in every country, .iiid is indeeil tin leading siiliject of our si u iice. Kcotiomics is nothing if it does not develop an eye of the imagination to -ic iliat. Ill iiic«leni civili/ed countries, after everything possililc is done I ininiiu- iiiiliudii.il cnn rs and ini.^denieanors, it is "the prohlliilioiiH ami Moleiice of 1 .11 s" 'vhieh ciinslilute the chief prevenlahle cause of pure economic Iobw.J jm m^.^ Ui h ('IIAlTi:U XIII. nl' IIIK KKKKcTS KKSI'LTI N(! KI.'o.M I )| VKK'SI 11 KS ()K sri;i:N(iiii in tkk accimilaiivk I'UiNrii'i.K, in mk.mi;ki!s ok thh samk socicty. 'riii; lii.iss (if till' iiidiviiluiils ('(piiip'^iiiL; any society, KciiiL; iipfiatrirciii:;tii of the etlcctive desire of accumulation, in the iiidi\ idiials formiim them. The accumulative iirincijilc of the ditfercnt individuals com- |iosiiiL; the s.uiie society, may vary from the average stren;^".h, either liy heiiiu' aliove, or helow it. There will, in every si'( ieiy, lie some iiidividuals not di-jiosed to i(instru(t any iiistiunieiits, l,ut such as ari' of orders of more ijuick return m^ OK KCONOMIC STItATIFK'A'riDN :iit til. Ill tliii.se ;,'(;iiiTiilly formed; a.s there will lie others, ilispo.sed, if tiny luive no (ipportuiiity otherwise to muke lulditioiial |iro- vi.>ii)ii for luturity, to e.^jieiul [nirt of their revenue in workmi,' 11]) niattrials even to orders of slower return, tiian tin' avera'^e of till.' instruments .ilready formed.' Persons of iln- former rlas.s, possessing any amount of lunds jireseutly availahle, would lie inclined to apply them to the foniiatioii of instruments, could they olitain materials, returnin;f >o larLiely as to correspond to the estimate they make of the future ,uid llie iire.-^ent. lUit they will not he able to lind any -uih malcrials, for they will have heeu previously appropriated, iiid wT'Mi^ht up more lahorimisly than they would he inclined . do, y other memliers of the society. if, ai,'ain, the funds [accumul.itcd means] of an individual ol tiiis class, coiisi.-its of instruments wiio.se returns are future, he will i^radually transler them to other memlieis of the society, who.se accumulative prim i|ile is stronger than his own; for, aceordin:^ to his esiiiii.i of the future and the present, he will receive more for tiiem than they are worth.'- It thus happens, that all the iiiciiilicrs of any society, whose accumulative principle is I'wn than the average, are ;jradually reduced to poverty. Till' same persons, moving to a community where instruments wi ic of orders of quicker return than those eorrespondenl to till- -tnii.L^th ot their own accumulativt; iiriticiple, would aci|uin' property. Thus the artisan, or laliorer, who, in Kn^dand, never ihoiiiiiit lit savin;;, is excited to accumulate property, m North Aiiurir.i. The < hiiiese, who, in Muiope, would he very ' I I lii^" l.t.st I'lass lit iiL-iinmil.ilcir'i riiriw an imnMr wliu'li iiu'liiilrs ;i > nl fiiml.H til im.-l III titles iif piMi«'ily in iiintruinciils, iiri', nl i.-ouiai, sliiit i.iit ailu ^' lliir ill till' iiianiu'i' K.n' nm.s mi U< ilf.^iiiln'. 1 -'[llisl.itiii;; till' .tliow ill (111' rvi'i_\il.iy l.iiimiagt; of 'lii' iii.ii ki't plu'i . it iiii:;lit 11 "1. I'riBoiis of llir furiniT vliifx |M)ssi,'»sllig s^ivulilr fiiiiils «i.iili| In- ill. iiiuil to iiiM..it tlifin, Li.ulil llify Hiiil safe iiucHtiiiiiitt* ictiiiiiiii)/ sn lii-jily ■Ml lllr pnil'llil.il.' pi llll !l.s to COIl.StitUtf l futlicilMlt illlllliillillll. lilll illl sail- siruritHn an- .silling at too hi;;}) a piiii If >iirli pci'sonH happi ii to own |i,.y 111;.' piiipcity aln-.iily, tin " pi'i-niiil \.iliii'" in tliii in.irki'l of tin.' htrics of .nil, nil Irs yii liliil liy it, is Ml imiili i;ii'att.|' than llit-ii' own valii.iti.iii, .i. ■ nnlliiK to lliiii istini.iti' of pn.^i'iit ami liitiiii' (tluli' own " iliscuiinlin;; ..f llif fiiluiL'j, ilial llu> part w itli tlicir uwiiiTaliip. J 220 OF K('()NC)MI(: STIIATIFICATION ' .'( ■' pri'(li^'al>, arc acinunleil truLial in ihu Liopical rej^ions of Asia, ami thcif attain to consiileralilf wealth. Iiiilividiials whose accuiimlativt' i)rinciy)lo, is., on the other hand, .stronu'cr than tht' other inenihers of the coininnnity, woulii lie iiiclint'il to construct instrnincnts of unicrs reluming more slowly than usual, rather than not devote a part of their present funds to additional prtivision fur futurity. Hut this i.s not necessary.' They are the natural recipients of the funds passing; fnuM the hands of the prodi'jal, and their exees.s of priividenee, halanccs his defect, and maintains the whfile mass of instruments in the society, at m-arly the same orders. It thus hapjiciis, that all instruments capalile of transfer, are in tile same society, at nearly the same orders.'^ Some instru- nienls, liowcver, cannot In- transferreil, for many of tlieiu that are of 'gradual e.\liau>tion. and directly sujijily wants, must heloim to the jier.-oiis exhausting' tiiem. Wearin;..; apparel, hou-ehold furniture, and sometimes dwelling-houses, cannot he the pid|ierty of any other individuals than those in whose service they aie exhausted. Such instruments must often, therefore, ( (incspond to the slicnu'th of the accunnilative prin- ciple ol' their possi'ssois. If tliey lielom,' to persons in whom tile strength of this principle is 'greater than the averaj^e of the sot iety. lliey will not indi'ed vary muth from the ])revailii.^ onler.-. the surplus funds of such individuals, j^oitii,', as we have seen, to the acipiisiiion of the stock of the prodi^^'al. The dilleiciice is proljalily just sutlicient to indicate the character ot their owners. Thus if we in.sjiect the dwellinu-hou.ses and furniture o| li^id economists, we i^enerally iierceive that they h.ive an air Koiii of diiraliility ami elliciency, distini^uishiny them IVom tliose of tlu' r<'si of the community. Whi'U, aL^ahi. individuals, in whom the stren;.;th of the cHective doiic of accumulation is hdow the average ol' the society, have n(j other stock hut what is enihodied in instru- ' i'rii.il is, ji IS nut iiiiTssaiv sii till- its llir '.'I iiciiil .litUiiliim ixi-slin;; .it uiiy mil liiur is . ..ii, 1 I'm il. Willi iIk l.ipsc i>l lim. sliuiij; sdviTs may, iiiiil nt'ten (111. iIcsciihI li> ,1 Inuir- iiiaru'iii "i imi- 'luiit m- a< .iiiiiuliitidii. | I Willi tlii>-(' iiol ciii.il.le lit ti Ill-Ill thorc ixisls al any tmn' all ilrgrci-s nf (iiluitioii ill ii-|ni.i to lin siiics lit ■• orilurs," auil Ikiri nf ilitrcrt'iilial )^iiiii» an. I li.sMs. 1 OF ECONOMIC STRATiriCATION n nietits of this sort, these instruiiiciits, in their exhaustion nf thfiii. will n)rrfS|M)ii(l to the weiiker i")wer of this i(ririci]ilf. Su(h, unfortiniiitely, is sr)uu;tiines the rase, willi what are tnnicd the lower classes of society: causes to which we shall afterwanls advert, sometimes L'eiierate a sjtirit of imjirovideiiee aiiioii^' these classes, and diminishing the estimation in wliich liny hold the interests of futurity, incajtacitate them from ex|pendinv.' any present funds, as a provision for these interests, if they do not return either very speedily, or very lari,'ely. The conseiiuence is, that the instruments of this sort which they jiossess, liave hut a very small capacity for the supply of their comiiif,' neeils, and that they are unahle to extricate them- selves from pressinu' poverty. Thus, supjKise that a man in this class, has two different hats otlered him, the present appearance, and immeri'sciit, dill imt jircviiit llie iiiti'icsts (it tliu luiiirt' t'roiM liciiiL; cari'fully rcL^arilnl. ( )ii itio cniitiary, diil she elmosi' tlio imsulistaiilial, Iml iiinrc slmwy, or rlira|MT aiticli', we iiii;,'lit witli einial (citainty iiit'iT, lliat ihe lireseiit, ill liiT esliiiialiiiii, Car oiilwtii,'lieil llie future. All wlin iiave iiaii (iiijinrUiiiitics of niakiiii^ siieh uliservatioiis, iinist have itiiiaikcil till' iiitliience, wliich the one line of cniuluel, or tlie iitlifi-. I'XiTcises (in such individuals. The ditli'reiire lietweeu ihciii (iiii^titules thi' main distinctinn hetween thrift and uii- tlirifl. llic iiirmer nl which is the only safe means that jiersons in tlij lower walks of life jmssess. throu,i,'li which they may _'ive a 111 ^'iiiiiiii;,' to their fortunes. 'I'lie stole aeeumuhited hy the ' .\ereisc of the virtue of judvideiice, which, as it shows itself in them, wc tiius denoiiiinate, eiialiles them to turn the liiiids (jf their daily lalior to the construction of other instruments than tho>e, and, iit IciiLilh, to add larj,'(dy to that stock which is desiiiuMl to sujiply the future wants of the whole society. What is true concerning one individual, is true coneeriiins; mail}-, and on this account, the dei^ree of strength of this lirinci|i!e jiossessed liy what are called the lower orders, exercises a ^reat intluence on the amount of the i,'eneral stock, adumidated hy tlie scx'iety. The iiillueiice, in this resjtect, of those who form that class, is, indeed, much more imimrtant than we mi^'lit at tirsi suspect. Tlieir j^reater niimhers would alone make up for the smaller power of each, liiit besides the weiiiht which this consideration is entitled to, the amount of lalior that may, witli advantage, lie accumulated hy the mere workiii;^ man, in iiisliunients of this sort, is, in reality, very coiisideralile. His dwelliiiu and its contents may fitly lie con- sidered ,'is a stori> that lu! pos.sesses. for the supply of the future wants of hiiii.^elf mid family, or, what is the .same thing, for the alirid',^nieiit of their future lalx.ir: and accordiiiL,' as lliere is much or little ol' tliis ]irovisioii wrmiLrht up in them, will the one he siipjilied or the other saveil. First, the house itself, as the place in which he and they live, .ind ]iiirsue many of tiuir various oecuiiations, will not yield the advantages it OF KCONOMIC STKATIFICATION 22n .iiijlit, if the a]).irtiiu'iits lie irnl hh roomy ami well liiiliU-il. as neither from llu- closeiipss of the atiiios|phere to iiidiue (lehility or ilisease, nor. from their coiiliiiediiess ami oKscurity, to craiiip ;iiiil rc'tard the iiimales in tlieir si-veral lalnirs. Tlu-n, acHord- iiii: to tlie coiiipaetness and tini.sh llial is uivcn to the walls and other jiarts will the inclemency of the weather Im- mure ttr less exeluded, and a ^'reater or les^ ([iiaiitily of fuel, Ke in future reijuisilo. The eiiiihoards, where things may he readily put past, and as readily found, and wliere they are ]iMvseiv('d tr"iii destroyinL; cause.s and accidenla, the cookini; ntensils. the lieddimr, anil llie numerous other articles of the sort, thai enter into the domestic economy of a frnual ami industrious family, are to he considered, in like miinner, as so many means hy which future lahor, or future expen.se, may be i)revente(l or diminished. The extent of the saving' which the provident working' man in this way elfecls, is sometimes very ;,'reat. In a rude, or imperfectly tini.shed fahric, fuel mu.st he wasted : in one where there are not jjroper conveniences for preserving and conkini,' food, food mu.ist he wasted ; and where there are not tit places for dejyositin^' articles of wearinj,' apjiarel, they must soon uet dirty, and receive nuicli unnecessary damat^e. In a well tinisiied, and convenient hahitation, too, the inmates lose no lime, either from torpor in winter's cold, or lan^'uor in >uiumer's heat ; they have space and comfort to jiursue their various lahors, and unless it he the jieriods i,'iven to rejMise, ami to their meals, may emjiloy the whole time they spend at linine, in some useful or agreeahle occupatiim. The animal frame, also, it is to he ol)served, w'len exposed to the extremes of heal and cold, and to damp, seems to reijuire a .i,'reater su]iply of nourishment, than when properly sheltered and pro- tected. 'I'his is seen in the inferior animals, and ai^reein^' with them in other parts of his corporeal constitution, man does not lure ditler from them, and when comfortably hMlj^ed, is pre- -erveij in health and vigor, on a diet which he would else tind l"o scanty. The amount of provision for future needs, that iiiiiy, in a similar manner, he embodied by u lahonn or mechanic having' a family, in [superior] beildin-,', and other runnture, and in kitchen utensils, is very considerable.' 'If till- tculir Ik- «kc|>lii;il Cdiiitriiiiig tlic ell Vets of a Hutlicitut .supply of r;^ ' i: hi i i ' i ! / I i)' .'irv '. '.( ' 22+ OK KCDNOMir STKATIFK ATION ! It is to hi' licrc ohscrved, th;a tlic j>n!val<'ii('(> <>f a really ('(•luiiiiiiical sjiiril atmiiiu' thi' wurkiiiu' class, iiiiiilics iin iliiiiiiiii- liiiii 111' ilic [a.vir^Mt.] iiurcli.xsis iiiadi' \>y tliciii. Hn ihe ciiiitrarv, it liriti'^ llh' ilfsirc >>( tlic lalmriT. uiidiT siicli a sii)i|io^iii(.ri. til turn I'Vi-ry sixpfiifc lii' can rarn l(t suiiic iisclul i'iii|iliAiiicnl, cillirr til till' ai i[uisitiiiii nl' iicrcssarirs, or otlicr ciiniiiHMlilii-;, he iiiust liavi' as many ilcniamls im tho cajiitalisl [on the 'general market] as lict'iire. Tin- chanLTi' jirii(luri'. hlankels, kililim utensils, and anil les ul that sort, and tnr all mailers used in the con- sLructinn nf d\vt'llill'4-hnuses. Neither, il is ti> he nhserved, would the prijvalencc of a contrary spirit amoni,' llinse orders, and a pmiieness to seize on the enjoymenis of ihe jiresent. occasion any immediate diminulioii of llieir demands on the capitalist. It would merely lead to his pro\idin',i lor them a i,'reater amount of instiuments of sudden ixhaiistion, conirihutin;; to the ^raliti- eation of the instant, and a smaller amount of those of Liradual exhaustion, iiMividini^ for the wants of futurity; and to his U'ivin^ a construction to the latter, that mi;.,'ht make them correspond during' the ]ierioii of their exhausliou, to the lower dcL'ree of the accuiuulal ive principle of iht! individuiils in whose servici' ihey were to lie exhausted. Such a ciniimstance would, therefore, occasion the production of a lari^er portion oi niatrriiils ami utensils, in i!iminisliiin< the i'\]ioiiso of ilii t, I wmiM roi|iirst him til iiM'l I ouiit Kumfoiil's /■,'-.'(. I It i- L|i|iarriit tliiit till.' fiiUL'i'iiii; iiri;iiMieiit iiioulcvtiiig tlii' virtiii' of tliiift, IS viiv ililtiiTiii froiM till' usiuil oiii . Koi' |)oor ino|ilr til s.ivi- iiioiii'V, :is tliry :iii' i-iiMiiiii't l\ urjlfcl 1.1 ilo. i.lti'ii .Mil-.- il'iiii to |iiirsiii' a iiio-:| iuir.-oiioiiii.-:il I'oursi' of lutioii. j i 11 A It OF FCONOMIC S'lRAiniCATION (ii-lic ;i(it"i. f)t' artick's of iiMiirishiiu'nt more ^ratpHil to tin" -•'n-i>. hut not more nutritious or more wliolc-omi' than 1 li'Mpfr Tare, of ti'Wcr sulistaiitiiil articles ol dress and furni- tiir. ind more of those tfiat arc tliinsy and showy. I'll'' wliole st'xk of instruments t>wned hy the hiborin;; |H].ul:ition, would thus contain a smaller amount of the means i<\ l-s.-i'nin;.' future lahor, or exjM'nse, as their effective desire of ;n rumulalion diminished in stienj^th. Even nistruun-nts tli.it thrv ilo ma own. hut of which they pay for the u>e, a,s ilwillui^-liouses n-nted l.y them, are in a ;:reat measure, rt'durrd to the same order as those which tiny would them- -tlvf- form. In the rank of sixicty ahove them, improvidence is Imii.' hefore it show on the dwelling', it attacks (irst other tund' ; hut, as they have not these other funds, it necessarily -hows itself in the funds they have. Tims, if a family of improvident haliits L;et the use of the hest lini^hed dwcdliii;,', tlifV sodii so (lainaL;e it, as to dej)rive it of its etfu ieiicy. ."^tiiu.' manif(;station of what we call careless hahits, want, that is, of taking' thought of the consequences of what one is il'iiiii_', Krciks, we shall say, a pane or two f>f <;iass, in some of tlir windows. To get these re[)laced is present expense, and tn>ulii>': ilemands, perhaps, the thnivj. witliout a pot or two of !i'|Uor, iir some other immediate enjoyment, ami recpiires the tn>ul'le of '^niu^j, for the glazier, f>r acting for hiia. An old hat or two. or some bundles of rags, stutfed into the holes, >hifis otf this denial of present pleasure, or ease, to some other tiuir. a time which, similar hahits, while they render the arrival of it more needful, indefinitely postpone ; and the window that had been formed to exclude wind and wet, and admit liuht, serves, at last, to let in the wet and wind, and -hut out the light. Pursue the efl'ects of the.se habits, this a! 'Sorption in the present, and heedlessness of the future, as tlicy show themselves ujx-m the jdaster, the floor, the ceiling, and we shall find them soon doing away with the efficiency of till' whole dwtdling, for procuring enjoyment, dt sjiving toil, and rrducing it, as far as it is a provision for the future wants of its iuuiates, tu a condition little superior to that of the uiiseraMe mud hut. Tlie i)rescnce of this evil, to a greater or les* extent, is Mi^nm^^i^^^^^i&m^Q^ii^M^m MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART ANSI nnd ISO TEST CHART No 7 ^ APPLIED l^yMGE Inc I ^^b) 48^ - G30Q - Phc"*- or KCONOMIC STHATIFICATION I :! )\ niaikid, l)y tlic liii;h ratt-s of iiiU-ir.-l ^'iveii, for tlie jietty siiui horrowiMl liy imlividiials of this cia>.'<. The increase that i paid to liave taken jikai; in the nuinher of jiawn-brokei.s' shop in Eii^^hmd, and tlie lii;^h rate of i-iterest there demanded, am L'iven, by mechanics, for small " ns atfonleil to one anothei would seem to indicate its presence, to a decree sutlicient ti alarm a lover of his country.' When We come to treat of tlie causes that seem the ;.'rea ai,'ents in dinunishinLT the stuck owned by a community, thi mode in which the strenj^^lli of the accumulative j'rincijile i Weakened, and e.\lrava;_'ance introihiced amon^ the lnwe classes, and the ellects arising; from these circumstances, wil {•resent themselves to our notice. It will then apjiear, tha this diversity of the orders of instruments owned throui^hou a community, can never exceed certain limits. On tlii account, and because tlie stock belonuinu' to the lower cla.sses when the aciumulative princijile is much lower with them thai with the hiL:lier ranks, is always inconsiderable, the orders V which instruments belong in the .same .society, and the [pecuni ary] returns they make, or the (jrdinary profits of .stock, ma; be said tt> lie nearly eijual throu;,'hout every community. 'I'his uniformity in the orders of instruments, and in tin returns made by them, in conjunction with the system o calculation, by which, as we have seen, transactions relatin; to the transfer and accumulation of capital are regulated, pro duces effects on the conce]itions of the individuals concerned Worthy of being noticed. The rules by which all persons regulate their proceeding in the construction of instruments, are drawn from tin [pecuniary] returns made by them, that is, the profits yieldei by them. If an instrument, or a series of instruments, whicl it is projioGed to construct, promise to yield the usual profits the enterjirise is undertaken, and, if it make the anticipate! returns, it is considered a profitalile, or gaining business ; if i do not promise to yield, and do not yield the usual profits, i ' Pawn brokrrs charge, 1 liplievp, alioiil -Jo per cent. The ccinibinations o tlie working clasacn in Hocieties, or uninns, have lent their nienilx'rs siiia! sums, if I well remeiiiher, at a rate nearly eimal. I cannot, however, recoUec my authority for these utateiiients. (-"*>*-'-.■ <"' . '«*; OF ECONOMIC STRATIFICATION 227 i^ ciinsiderocl an unitmtitable, e really uii])r4_^ i OF ECONOMIC STHATIFICATION 229 iif the society, tliey produce etiects of the utmoHt importance (11- hits iilreiKly heen suj,'gested), upon the character I'f the pi'piilation itself. Iiistruiiient^ at any time stand at appioxi- iiia'cly the same "orders," hut the members of all advanced xricties are stratified. To treat economic stratitication ade- (Itiatcly would neces.sitate a -tudy of ;,'reat comple.xity, since it nmies aliout throu;;h tlu' njicration of several principles, in addition to the pure accumulative principle, "always actin;^ in cuni'jination." Some furtiier consid ration of the sul)ject is as fnllows.] To add continually to the stock of any community, even —III. times to maintain it without diminution at its actual amount, is a process in tiie prosecution of which ditliculties always oppose. While the funds of any society increase, the numliers amonj,' whom those funds are to he shared al.so [iiwinially] increase. The greater annual revenue which in- vent idu and accumulation provide, thoui,'ii it must support a nii'ie numerous ])opulation, nuiy not support a population having, individually, a greater share [amount] of the means of cMuifurt or pleasure, than that possessed by the members of the sdciety when improvement was yet in its infancy. To earry the connnunity still farther onsvard, even jM-rhajJS to niaint.dn it in its place, requires, therefore, -.generally, that the interests of futurity should hold the .same relation to those of pi.-ent time in the minds of the members nf the society ius ev.r. If, therefore, amon<,' any of the divisions of the oody l»iiitic, futurity weighs more li,^]ltly when cnmpared with tiie present than it did before, there there will i)e weakne.s.s, an mrapacity to advance or even to maintain the same |»'-itinn may be exjienenceil, and, that which is ilefective diawiiiLT to it what is .sound, from this point liie pn^ress from bad to worse may commence. The course of society may thu- '"■ -ai i to be' al.VMVs ii^'ainst an opp,j.>in:,' current, which, if it e.iiiiiut be slemnieil. sweejis downward with headloiii,' force. " Sir iiiiiiiiH fatis In pijiis nieie. ,ie i.-tio r.iilila|isii lefnii. Noll lilitcr, (HiHiii ijiii adveiM) vi.\ riiiinine Iciiiluiin lviuii;.'iis siib.-L;it : si liraihia forte r.-iiiisit, Atilll*» iUl.!!!! in !■■' ^j« pi .y*' i* I .i 230 OF ECONOMIC STKATIFICATION As a fdimdation fnr tlio few uhscrv.itinns which our linii permit me to make on this part of ihr suhject, it is necessai to refer to a circimistaiKe, tlie truth <•( wliieJi was assumed an early ]iart 'jf tlie diseu.ssion. "The numliers of evei Hociety." it was said, " increase, as wliat its memhers a inclined to esteem a sufhcient suhsistence, is provided f( them."' Tiie oidv classes in society which o(i«|{iJ|Ari' has coi sidered, are the two of capitali'^ts and laliorrrs" With re^ai to tliem we iinV'ht ti priun, and alistractinj,' our attention froi wha< we know te He tKh fact, he in dnnht which of the foUov in>,' suppt>iicionS would lie correct. We mi^rht sujipose that hoth classes would reckon that sutiicii'iit subsistence which had supported tiieuiselves [in tli pasij, and that the nunihers of lioth heiiii,' equally nndtiplie< the average revenues of the individuals composin;^' hoth mi"l remain the same ; or we mij^'ht suppo.se that neither cla.' Would reckon that a suHicieiil sulisistence on which they ha hecn supported, and that they would not add to their numhei hut in a proportion less than the additional funds j.rovidei so that the averaj,'e individual incomes of I, )th capitalists an laborers, wotild he equally and oaitinually increased; oi finally, we nuL^ht supjiose that the capitalists would add mor to their numbers than to their revenues, or that the laborer luiu'ht ilo the same thinu'. Hut though it might he diHicult, n jin,,ri, to determin which of the.'^e would take j)lace, yet, in fact, we generally tin. that, in the progress of .society, the increase of the numbers o capitalists does not keep pace with the increase of their stock and incomes, while that of laborers does keep pace, or do;^ more than keep pace, with their incomes. The cause of this circuni'^tance may, I think, lie shortlj stated as follows. Marriage may be desired botli tor the pleasures of sense anil for those of sentiment and affection. Hut, among men o even moderate fortune, it docs not in general add to the sui. of tiieir jiurely sensual gratifications, It were obviou.sly absuni considering the lives which most young men in this class ii '.s,..- Chapter in. OF ECONOMIC" STKATIFKATION 231 absurd, •lass ill Ktirojx' lend, to speak of ci'lihacy iis imjilyini; ■ili'Jtiiu'iu'f. Purely selhsli molive» will never, llierefure, lead such men to turiu this connexion. They will rather keep them from it, \.iiiity aiding, or prompting' them to the resolution nf refrain- in.: fmrn any such union, until they have a ])rospect of raising ih.ir families ahove their own rank. Aiming men in the laboring class, again, marriage generally :M- to the amount of immediate sensual gratitieations. I'urely -illi>li motives, therefore, side with those of sentiment and ;illi- -tiim in prompting tliem to it, and they are not .so apt to tiiicrtain the ambition of raising their families above their own luiiditinn. Hence, while capitali.sts are inclined to think that .'idy a sufficient subsistence for their offspring, which e.xceeds what they themselves were supjxjrted on, laborers a^e content if tlity leave their children in the same condition as them- •ihis. It thus happens, that the ime class has a tendency < iiutinually to rise al)ove the other. 'i'liis separation has farther effects. X'anity itself is sometimes a coadjutor to the accumulative principle. A man's pride is sensibly gratified by rising, as it is called, in the world, and placing himself on an eciuality with iliijse tu whom he was once inferior. I'.ut tlie further they are al'uve him. tlie greater his dittic\ilty in raising himself to tiieir lev.l, and the less his hopes of any gratihcatinn to mere vanity tium this source. It is, I apprehend, in a great measure on this accciunt, that as capital increases, there are fewer instances nil of the earnings of to-day, in making provision for the wants of to-nmrrow, every now and tlien, when that nmrrow brin'.:s nothing for itself, gives rise to severe .'.utfering. The condition of the laborer Hucfuates between abundance and r'tir •2M OF ECONOMIC STRATIFICATION .Iissipation, ami want and niiseiy. Th.' society loses, first tl iHMietits of that stock, wliich the laborin- classes accumulate i a b.'tter state of thin,i,'s. It loses, also, the amount re-iuisit to keep the lal;orer from starvation when in necessity or t raise up other laborers, to supply the place of thosi- wh perish from want, or the diseases c.jiise.iuent .,n it. Thes may l,e called direct evils; those which are indirect are muc -Crealcr. Waste [as j.reviously .iefined and explaine.l] accompanie .hss.pat.on. When laborers are in general improvident an, extrava:^'ant, very many n{ ihciii must be dishonest. Men ar naturally suspicious ,,f persons wliose e.\i)enditure exceeds th •""Hxls of i.rudeuee, and they have too often reason to be .sc jfonesty IS at last the be.^t policy, but it is only at last Peieit and knavery very often succeed better at Hrst and therefore, per.ple wh.i look not beyond what is present an( immediate, are very apt to resort to artifice and fra'id, to -e, rid of the necessities which their e.Urava-ance brings on them Hence, such a state of things woul.l imply much watchfulness many chec!cs and contrivances to guard against fraud aiK violence, and much loss, both from them and from the expen- sive machinery necessary to restrain them. The most pre- .judieial, however, of all the mischiefs that belon- to our subject, brought on by vicious principles of action perva.lii... the lower classes, is the gradual spread of similar manners and feelings tlinnigh all the onlers of the state. The middle and iiigher classes of sociKy may be said to rest upon the lower ■ when decay, therefore, infects the foundation, the structure niu.st fall. I'.y looking back for a generation or two, we shall h.ui that nearly all the capitalists in the nation have sprun- directly from the peoi.le, and that to them we must finally trace the greater part of that honorable enterprise, fru^-alitv and perseverance, which have- given prosperity and power to tate. W hen the principles tiiat actuate the great lower ami sustaining ma.ss have a lar^e mixture of benevolence, self- denial, and probity, and when there is nothing in the institu- tions ul the .society keeping tliem down as a .legraded caste there h a constant mounting upwar.is of the elements of health and strength, giving firmness and vigor to the whole tl ■ \ OF KCONOMIC STHATIFK'ATION 2:^- <|iiiriiiL' ii lar<;e .surface to operate on. and many years for tlieir Luuipletion. "And so it is with all our inipU-nients, tht-y ;ire pa.ssin;,' on t'l 1,'reat matliines. This iir()<,'ress can be averted l.v no con- cf'ivaMe iiroct-ss that would not have the etlect of fettering' all the active powers of humanity. It is tiie inevitahle con- seiiwince of man's asserting' and employim; the dominion over the realms of nature wliich his Creator has hestowed on him. I'liicin;,' ourselves in tlie position ot llie philosojihers of the ai,'e <>( r.acon, it will be ditlicult for us to assi<,'n a reason why we would not have hailed the discoveries of which they are the results as ^reat inventions, conferring benefits on the whole human race, without Icin;,' a means of occusioninj.' wrouj,' or sorrosv to anyone.' And yet there was a (juestioii which nii^jht liV possibility have occurred to the philosophic philanthropists of tiiat day. 'AVho are to be the owners of these ^reut machines ( Will the mechanics and artisans who now wield tiie tools own the machines, or will they be the propertv of a • listinct class ? ' We cannot ascertain how they miu'ht iiave " j,ni>ri determined the liuestion. It is most likely, perhaps, that they would have conceived that the owners of the tool.'-, cliibbiui,' to','ether to purchase machines, would have owned the machines. To us, experience has determined it. So constantly has it occurred that it may be said it has invariably happene(i, that the former artisans, in ^'iving up their tools, have never become the owners of the machines that have succeeded tiiem. These machines, manufactories, or whatever name may be .L'iven them, come to be owned by a distinct cla.s.s. The opera- tive lias no property share in the industrial operation, he owns nothini,' but his hands and the art of usin^ them fitly. For opportunity to use them, and for pay for their use, he depends on ine owner of the machine. He suffers in conseciucnce a de';radatiou in the social scale. Formerly he was a small capitalist, now it is the characteristic of his condition to bt- a nil-re operative, destitute of capital. The difference nuiy K- seen by recalling the pictures left by Ho<;arth and Scott, when ' Ktcnim invciitoium benericia a.i uriiversum feenus humanum pcrtiiiei.- IHissunt— iiiveiUa lieaiit et IjtiieSuiiim (lefcrf-nt aluu.ne alicuiu.-. iv.iiiri* s-.t tristitia. r.ui OF IXONOMK >ri{ATIl-I(ATI()\ tlie tfiaii'_'i' w;is |u-,t tciuiii- nv.-r itieiii. appiviiticr Mi,l til.' I'atli.T .,( liaili,- Xir.,1 Jarvie, witli th- pivM'iit taaory l.oy, ur l.-ok at tlie fate which, in .jiir i-.ii,ri.ti.,ii, awaits any uf „wr hamlicrafts wh..-n the ruvuhiti-.n [tlimu-h winch niodcrn industry seems destine.I tu pass in all it.-; l.iaiR'hes i.s coui]iirte]. ' ■ I'll •rl 1 \ \ CHAITKI! \1\. OF- THK 1M;IN-( IPLK OF THK DIVISION OF LAIIOR. XnT liavirij.' hcen iiKle without interrupting: the course of iiivesti^iilidn, to enter into a discnssion of the j.rincipie i>f the ilivitiion of labor, as viewed Ky Adam Smith, I li.ive thouL'ht it better to place apart the observation-! I have to make on it.' In the Wiiilth nf X,tf,n„s, tlie division of labor is con- sidered the jjreat (generator of invention and improvement, and so [indirectly] of the accumulation of capital. In the vifw I have j:iven, it is represented as proceeding from tlie antecedent progress of invention, and increase of stock, and as operating chiefly by i|uickening the exhaustion of instru- ments, and so placing them in orders of more speedy return. Now m reality, as far as its origin is concerned, the account of the matter which we find in the Wmlth of Nnfion.i, is more favorable to the latter supposition, than to the former. " In a tribe of hunters, or shepherds, a particular person mikes bows and arrows, for example, with more readiness and dexterity than any other. He freciuently exchanges them \>>x cattle or for venison, with his companions; and he finds at last that he can in this manner get more cattle and Venison, than if fie him.self went to the field to cafh them. From a regard to his own interest, therefore, the making of bows and arrows grows to be his chief busine.':.«, ami he I'ecomes a sort of armorer. Another excels in making the frames and covers of their little huts or moveable houses. ;lu :ho origifiii liui cimiiUi wiu- ao 'aiifH^ndix to the second " Book. J a^^ H . i f 2:is OF DIVISION OF LABOK He is accustomed to lie of use in this way to his neif^hbors, who reward hiui in the same manner with cattle and with venison, till at last he finds it his interest to dedicate hiin- selt' entirely to this enii)loyment, and to become a sort of house carpenter. In the same manner a third becomes a smith or a bra/ier; a fourth a laniier or dresser of hides or skins, the principal part of the clothin;,' of savaws." If this lie a true account of matters, it is evident, that it is the antecedent i)roL,'ress of invention, and the existence of the .several arts of the bow-maker, the hunti;r, the car- l)enter, the brazier that is the real cause of the separation of the mend)er.s of the society into artists of diiferent sorts. I rather think, however, that it will be found, that .separate artists have come to t.>ci-t from the pa.ssa^e of individuals from one community to another, and there carryiu'.,' with them the arts proper to each.' If, for example, in any par- ticular tribe, the art of reduciui,' from the ore and workiuf^ up some of the metals, were well known, and were chance to throw a member of it among another tribe ignorant of this art, he mi,i;ht come to employ himself altogether in the smelting anil giving form to metal, and there might come to be a class, whose chief employment were that of working in metal. iJut it is of iittl" consequence how the separation of employments was broughi about. The real iiuestion is, do the acknowledged advantages of it proceed directly from the increased etliciency of the labor of the workman ; or from the stock of instruments of the society being thus in much more constant employment, and its being, theref(jre, in the power of the accunmlative principle to give them a much more elfective construction. The etliciency of the labor of the workman may be ad- vanced, either by his dexterity being increased, or by an improvement in the construction of the implements with which he works. '[Hue i.s supported in this surmise by Biicher (lwlnsini.il Kro/iUion), who maintains thut the primitive division of .•niplnyments was intertribal, rithiT than l>y classes and individuals within each tribe. From the earliest times there has been, however, a separation of employments as between the sexes, affording a point of origin of arts.] \M *v. OF DIVISION OF LABOK 23!> 1. As concerns his ilexterity, it is to be noted that it is cliietiy ill the beginning cf art that great manual dexterity is reijuisite. Tiien the hand is the great instniinent. The manual dexterity of the savage in hurling his dart, or slioot- ing witli his 1k)w and arrow, in guiding his canoe by the pole or f)addle, in framing his fishing and hunting apparatus with the rude tools he possesses, far exceeds that necessary to the civilized man, not only in the coniniou, but even in more delicate arts of civilizetl life ; and. were we to take Hito the account things generally confounded with manual ilexterity, quickness and accuracy of sight, and delicacy and tiexibility of the otlier organs, the disparity between the two would be much greater. As art advances from its first rude elements, the hand does less, the instrument more. To acijuire the manual dexterity necessary to guide a bark canoe with security and speed, requires the practice of years. To row a boat equally well might be learned in a few months. The mere manual dexterity necessary to move the different pieces of mechanism that govern the motion of a steam- bo.it, might be acquired in u few days or hours. It may be remarked, tluit tlie examples of thi.s dexterity adduced in the Wealth of Xations, are from arts where the implements are exceedingly simple, and where, of con.se- queuce, the hand is the great oj)erator. Were improvements taking place in the art of pin-making, or nail-making, that would be done by the instrument which is now done by the (luick and complex motions of the hand. In fact, in the arts in which the greatest improvements have had place, such as in the cotton manufacture, the mere manual dex- terity re(iuisite is very easily acquired. In a few weeks, or months, the limit is attained. But, when the manual dex- terity requisite for the practice of any art can be attained in so short a time, it cannot matter much to the society or to tlie individual, whether the workman have to learn one or several arts. Besides, the acquisition of any difficult art very much facilitates the attainment of any other. The great matter is to get, as a workman expresses it, the use of one's hands. To become familiar, that is to say, with haudling matters of various sorts, judging of their forms and 2+0 OF DIMSION f)F LABOR I ! ; f ^fv;i„ ! qiialities, and ac.iiiiiin<; the power of (IftiTiiiininj,' the move- meiit to he ;,'iven, and the liahit of executinu' it ([uickiv md accurately. When this i^. acquired, there is no great "ditti- ctihy in t}ie nianai,'eiiient of any coninion ty the oi)eration of any circumstance, it could there he carried to its fidl extent, whether would its beneKts !»•■ fclr, in the increased dexterity of the workman, or in the inereasetl etficiency of the instnnuents employed ^. At present a man emjiloyed in such work, generally ploughs, liarrows, reaps, mows, threshes, and drives as well at twenty- hve, as at thirty-tive, or forty-Hve. It seems not very prohahl'e, therefore, that, w.^re he to confine himself altogether to one of tii.'.se occupations, he would perform it better than he now docs. On the otlier hand, it seems very likely, that, did the dependence of the several agricultural operations on the sea.sons permit the sejiaration of occupations in this art, the mijilements emjijoyed in it would soon become nuich more etlicient. We see, in fact, that it is the imi)ossil)ility of this scjiaration taking jilace, that does here retard or prevent im- provement. Thre^hing-niills, for example, would be univer- •sally adopted were it not that, being nearly idle a great part of tlie time, the cost of construction is too great for the return. The mac hine is probably unemployed for nineteen days out of twenty, .so that .ould this .livision take place in twenty adjoining farms, each of which has now its own tlireshing-mill, nineteen of those at present necessary might lie dispensed with. The same thin,; may, I believe," be .said concerning drilling-machines; it is rheir cost and the long liine they lie idle, that prevents their general ad tion" V \ Ol" DIVISION OF LABOR 2+1 Similar causes altoj^ether prevent the intruiluclion of many nther iiif^eiiious nuichines and iiuplements. As much in- u'fuiiity, intleed, has been displayed in contrivances for the purposes of this art, as for any other; but the instruments ].r<*luced, thou,iL,'h they would have been very ellective aids in particular operations, have never come into use, because, unless for a few ilays every year, they would have lain idle on the hands of their owners. Were it possible for farmers til divide their employment, and, eacii takinj,' to a par- ti(ul;ir dejiartment, were the distinct occupations of ploui^hers, napers, harmwers, etc., to arise, none of the instruments .iiiployed lyin^; idle, they would yield mucli more speedy r.tiiiMs; their construction, in all probability, would ;^'rcatly improve, and the whole capital of the country would soon b.' very nuicii increased. It is worth while observing,', too, that in this sort of labor, the improved construction of instru- ments seems to lessen the (juantum of manual dexteritv necessary. The manual dexterity necessary for mana^'im,' a threshing' or a drilling-machine is very trilling. It is chieliy in some very delicate arts, such as that of watchmaking, or in some in whicii, from their nature, the use of tiiols cannot be extensively introduced, as in printing, that the elticiency derived from long practice is very great, an ! where, ciinse(pit;ntly, the division of lalmr would seem in this way a direct im|irovement. These, however, make but a small part I't' tile arts of any community. 1'. Among the direct advantages derived from the division "I labor, Atlam .Smith reckons the invention of many machines t.iiilitating und abridging labor. It seems to me, that the facts are, on the whole, opposed to this idea. Whatever cf>ntine3 ii nian's faculties to one monotonous occupation, must rather dull ^md cramp, than quicken and expand them. " The under- ~t mdiiigs of the greater part of men, are necessarily formed by tlieir ordinary employments. The man, whose wliole life is M'cnt in performing a few operations, of which the clfects, too, are periiaps always the .same, or very nearly the same, has no I casinii t(i i^ixert his understanding, or to exercise his inven- ti-n. in finding (.ut expedients for removing dillicubies which n. VLT oicm. He naturally loses, therefore, the habit of such I^^^^^,^_^ 212 OF DIVISION OF LABOR exertion, and ;,'enerally becomes as stupid and i<,'norant as it jioseible for a lamiau creature to become. The torpor of his rain renders him not only incapable of relishinj,' or bearing' ii part i any rational conversation, but of conceiving,' any geneiou noble, or tender sentiment, and conseijuently of forming; an just jud^Muent concernin;,' many even of the ordinary duties ( private life. Of the great and extensive interests of hi country lie is altom'ther incapable of judging ; and unless ver jiaiticular pains Iiave been taken to render him utherwise, li is (Mjually incapaljle of defending his country in war. Tb uniformity of his stationary life naturally corrupts the courag of his mind, and makes him regard with abhorre- , th irregular, uncertain, and adventurous life of a sold. .. I corru])ts even the activity of his body, and renders him in capable of exerting his strength with vigor and perseveranc in any other employment than that to which he has been brei His dexterity in his jiarticular trade seems, in this manner, t be aci|uirfd at the exj}unse of his intellectual, .social, an martial virtues." ' These being the direct effects on the intellectual and morn powers of the division of labor, it can scarcely l)e said to 1' the direct cause of invention in the anisan. The extendei division of labor [in modern industry, however,] implie the existeiKi of many arts, and of much intelligence [in .sonii of the mendiers of the .society]. Where it exists, therefon the inventive faculties will be generally active. JUit thi activity, though a concomitant of the division of labor, is to Im held as an etlect, not of that division, but of other causes them selves jiroducing the division of labor. It will appear, ii short, to be, like most popular jirinciples. a result, not a cause and ranks properly, not as a prime mover in the cour.se o human affairs, but as a conse(|Ueuce of the actions of ilie prinn movers. [For :i iiuicli more vigorous tiiutinciit of the Icailitij; .sulijccts dealt witl iu this ( liapter thi' iculci- is it'feneil t" l.iUKU'riiah', to wliom Kae is ui. iloulittiily iiiUili iii'.Klilr.l. I >\y..,l-h or X.i'n.n-, Hook V. ,■. I. APPENDIX. A^ ARTICLE I. itF TIIK NATU1!K AND KKKKCTS OF LlXrUY. 'I'liF. ;,oiii ral tciKkncy of all tlie circuiiistaiicrs, the iiaturt! aii (if wliich it has Ik'cii our aim hitiuTtt) to iiivcsti^'atc, is to advaiic thf wealth of society, the capital and stock of coiii- iinuiitiis. Were the operation of the principles of invention anil accvnnulation to ;:o on unchecked, the amount of the stock of nil nations woul.l be^'radtially and uninterruptedly increaseil; the oiir ftn-nishin;; the means of providing,' additional supplies for the wants of futurity, the other j^ivin;,' the motives to inak" the provision. But there are opposite principles, the tendency of which is either to retard the pro<,'ress of the ;,'eneral stock, or actually to diminish the amount already existing;. To some of these we liavi' now to attend. As the prevalence of the l)enevolont and .social affections, and the stren^'th ;>f the intellectual powers, are the jrreat sprin;.'s from which the increase of the wealth and prosperity of connntmities arise, so it mifjht he expected, as 1 helieve it will lie found, that the dimiinition of that wealth is eliietly occasioned by the .spread of contrary principles, hy the ascendency of the purely selfi.sh, and deha.senn'Ut ol the intelli-ctual and moral parts of our nature. The first of these principles, of which we have t(j consider the opciation, is vanity; hy which term I understand the III. re desire of superiority over others, without any refereiici' to the merit of that superiority. A perfect Ininj,' may h- desiruus of superiority in well-doinj;, not on account of sur- jiassiii^r .ithers, hut from pleasiu-e in the t,'.>od he does. A Nery m ^jf-r^siA j^^smm^ I ,. (■ -It AIM'KNDIX )< I f K I .All l»iti;,' may ilrri\c sati>factii.ii tVoin a Mi])iTi()rity in i.-vil "Iniu;.'. >iiiililv I'roiM tli«' jdtaMiii- wliicli tlir ciitainty ol' lia\ in; 1). ell llir caiiM' riy iiia\- ;,'iv.- )iini. F^>ut tliiT -cin- 1(1 1m- a tVi'liii;,' tliat timis its prnpri' ^lat iticat inn ii iiiiT.lv i:"iii;^ liiyund otlurs, wiilnnit I'ct'iTi-nci' t^ tin- i>iitl taki'ii h wiiuM 1m' i,fratitiin>itie inca[iaiitati- it I'luni attainin;: an nninciit (|";,ni.- dl' it. I is tliis wliicli. lor want "f a Kittcr \vtin^iiish li, tlirtciiii \anit,.. It i> a [lunly srltish fi'clin;,^ ; its jih-asuri' cciitrf in till- iiiili\ iflual ; anil it' it ilnrs nut rniliavir t iliiiiinish tlh- .■njnynirnt ul' Mtiii-rs. it is m-vi-r ilin-utly it olijict tu inciiasr tliiin. Winn, in tln' cuursr ul its actioi jilrasiu'c is CI ininiunicati il tn ntlnrs. this arises ironi it l)fiii;_r tlii'ii liliniliij with I'thi'i- l'i-i'hni;s. Its aim, in all rasrs that cnnn rn lair sulijict, is \n \\;i\f wlui dthiis i-anniit lia\r. ( liie ni' thr must ]iii-t'i-ct insiani;i's i it i'\rr I'X liiliitril was wlnn ( |cn|iatra caus.-il a \cry jirrfioi; jiraii tn l,c' (lissdlMil, that shi- mieht ciiiisunn- it at a ilrau;;li 'I'lnrr I'nniij In- lull' nil jiliasuif in tlif taste ol' the liininr. tlu: must have linn latlni- ili-aLjri rahlr ; the ^natilici'.tinn coi sisteil in havine; ijfank what nn mie else emild atfiinl tn iliinl The sun of the laninu^ li'iiman artm' jiert'nrmi.'il a siniilai' Ifut We leain I'lnm I'liny - that it liecami' a suit ol' lasiiio at Itniiie as it seems tn have lieen in the h^ist;' lint it is seliliim that this I'eelin^ fixes itsell' ufmn objce that ;,natit'y it alone, or nlijects s.ilely liesii'alile t'rnui tin.' diH cnlty nf nhtaininji lliem, ani! I'miii t he fonseinieiit [iaetitinii s\i|M rinrity which tlieii' jmssi'ssion innilies. It rather prelV such as ha\e also ijualities cajialile ol eratil'yinj;' otlici' ilesin or minist. line' to other jili-asin'es. The amount, howevc III' these other wants sU|iJilic(l hy the olijects it CDVets is oftl ' Kilins .Ksojii ilciractani ix aiiic Metfllii' Scilicet 111 ik'cics »iiliihim c.\-iir')Oi'tt, uccto Idluit insiguiiii biicciim. Hill'. .^'1'. II. .'i. riic value. l,0ti,0iin sistcrtii, «as equal to aliout t'.'i.tH - I'liii. l.\. .->!). ■ * ;■- III;:: j;;u it;:: ::iii ci'.vlf :;iinacU:. t^Hi:::ti!r t'i::liur;. ^T"*r- mm OF LrxruY 247 N.rvMiuill; if this 1m- larp' .w^w^h I" t rvianitly liavc aiis.-ii. almost ;,it..Mli.r. ficiii tiir hi>;h pri.r tiu-y .-o^t. A di-h of ni;;htin- "mI.^'v liiaiiis (-(.ulil srairrly hr a wry liciicious mors.-l. yrt \,laiii Smith .niotcs from IMiny tli- ]-.il'' as ahoiit £urmulirt £S0 w.-.v -ivn. A.'-onhn;,' to Suetonius, no m.-al cost Viirllius l.-ss tliau £2000. •11„. ,n..nuoiis iiiicfs iMi.l for various artic-hs of .hvs> an\ .,„,,.■ ru^hiousof a parti.'uiar --ort us.d to Iran on at tahlf. ,i; VotiHOo. Thr things to whifh vanity srrnis mo-t r.a nf heat yielden will the assumed sup.'riority be ^^reater ..r less. K.w thin-s have .jualities bett.-r Htted for the t;ratiticatioii ..f this passi'.n than li.piors. Their p.-culiar flavors an.' tastes 24S AI'PKNDIX ♦ i nvr Mitfici.-iit to "l^tiiii,fiii>li tli'iii, ami _\i't atiitid im riM)i to "Ictfiiniiir liusv iiiucli tin- orii' ixc«-r(|s till- utlier. Tli inia^niiatioii. alwi, sccins to have a pfciiliar jowi-r over tli or;,Miis 111' tastr aii'l siinll. ami to h.- ahir, tlirou;^'li tlif iiistni TiHiitality of lialiit, to hriii;.'; tlirm to rcci-iw pleasure t'roi wliat at tir-^t \va> imliti'crciit, juiliaps even (lisa;^ri'e)il)l) Ht'iicf it is itnpossilili' to set aii_\' 1k)Umli. Itav.-s (,ii til.' iiiilatf. i- mI/imI and ilw.'lt 141011. ami li-iii;,' assi>fiati- t.ll.ctual il<'li;^'hts, is tixi-d in tin- iiiiml "f tin- sfutiimiital . iiicunaii as sdiiii'thin;; iutiiiitfly •^utiiassiii;_' what he wmil.l illi. rwise liavc coiiC'fiv.d of it. Had pfarls, wh.-ii di-Milv.il in viii-'^rar. producrd a lwvcrai:>' tliat tln' iiiiai,'inati()ii I'HiM IHis^ilily lia\.- traiisforiii''d into a dflioai-y. li-.w \v><\\\<\ it nut tiav.' Ixfii fxtojl.d liy tln' I{onians ! The u'liifial foiisuiiiptioii of any commodity l>y tli." vul;,'ar IrsMiis. on till- contrary, in many mind-, tlif pi.a-.uii- it Would otliiTwisc ji\yi-. It hrini:s down tin- imlividual, in tlii-. particular, to a l.vcl with th.- low.-,t. This t'.-.-lini; ■^:i\i- risf to the cxclaniation l>y a one.- ci-li-hratid ui'itlH-rn Ducli'-s. -What a pity that f^'^s wcr.- not a sisp.ncc th.- !'''■<■'■■ 'i'hf Konian moralists and satirists ;,'round many of th.-ir invcrtivf-. a;iainst the fxtrava;,'aiicc of the times, on the want of connexion hetween the ijualities of the articles and the rstiniation in which they were held.' Helio;.'a!>alu^ confessed, that it was the relish which the clearne.s.s of the dishes ;,'ave to ihem, that led to the extrava;,Mncc of his tahle, and like'l to have the price of Ids UvA overrated, l)ecause thi.s sharpeneertinet ergo I'ruceros ol I i ^ I 250 AIMM.NDIX IxlifVcil tliMt in ciMiki-ry, a-, in ntli'-r art-', tiny hail attain tlir summit crl'ictiiin. Of llii'ir ;.fii' si-riously f.-arful K- sliouM tlicsi- rndc warriors only taste it. it iiii;_flit so hii;! ;:ratify tlnir a]ijiititi', as to hrin;,' tli< ni 'lowii at oni'i' uji till- I injiiri'. Tlii-y canif. notwitlistaniiin;j. hut nfitlnr th nor tliiir more jxilishiil ilrsi-i'tiilanls seem to havf fou partiftilar cliaiins in tin' 'jiirniii. \\ !■ tinil thr istiniiition of i\rvy articli', whrtlu'r of ili-i-ss, fnrnit\irc. or of rinii]ia;,T, if to !»• -.nn hy many. ri-;,nilat also, in a very i;i'tat ilr;,^rci'. hy tin- i^ratitication it afi(>rils tl jMssion. " With till' m'rali"' part of rich iiioplr, tin; ch (•njoymi-nt of i .ilu's consists in the parailc of rielu/s ; whii in their eyes, is never so comjilete as when they ajipear possess those ilecisivf marks of opulence which noUnly c possess hut themselves. In tlnir eyes, the merit of an ohje which is in any ile;,'ree either usefiil ov iM-autiful, is ;,frcal enhanceil hy its scarcity, or hv the i,'reat lal>or which reijuires to collect any consiilerahle ipiantity of it; a lal which nolM)ily can afford to pay hut themselves. Such ohje they are willin;,' to ])urchase at a hi;jher price than thii more heautiful ami useful, btit more comni(Jii."' ■' Thuujrli iutlueuce now, perhaps, is not so i^jreat as it was anion;^ t ancients, it is yet more apparent. The proi,'re.ss of art 1 hecn .such, that there is scarcely any material, or fabric. Color, tlie ])roiluction of which it does not so much faciliti as to l)rin^' it within the reach of a lar^e mass of consunie ' Aliuil iliair.imm liijiioiis uMiuisiti genus, nuoii gunim voeavere, iutesti piscium i\( t^risijue ijua- abjicieuda casent sale maceratia, ut sit ilia putresc tium sanies. — Nee liquor uUus pttnc jir.i ter unguenta majore in prctio i CM pit. I'lm. lib. ;il. c, M. .\ai. Jif. -The cilict was in the time of tlie t^mperors Valens ami •■ratian. iinci wine were laid under a similar prohibition. ■i WrrJfli of Stition^.. !'. I. c. XI. \\ wt OF uxriiv 251 Goia It tli.ii I'-i.'s its valiio an ii ,s of articles, will ai-i.ly, in a j^nat Mi.asur.', t,, tlir wlioh- .-xprn-litniv of thi- ..pul.iit. ■ Wh.n hy th.' iinprov.'ii.Mits in till' iinnhictiw pow.Ts .,f nianufartuiin;,' ait ;in.i in.histry. tin' fxiicnsc of any on>' dn-ss conits to !>.■ '..ry iH.Hl.iatf. thf vari.ty will natnraily !>.• v.Ty j,'ivat. Thf rich, i„,t IninL,' .ihl.- to.listin;;ui~h ihi'.nMlvc- l.y th.' .-xprns.- ,,f any ,,,„. ,ir.s"s, uiil naturally .•n.k'a\..r to .Jo so l.y the niultitudo aii'l \ari-ty of thfir .Ircssos. ' 'I., ,ittinii>t to .iinni.Tatf th.^ iiio.l.s in which fasliioii van.-s tl„. titii.s-. ,,f thin;:s for the jiur])os.s of it- votari.s, wire little la-otitahlc, an.l is, I niipivhiinl, suihtMuous. Its cxt.-n.h'.l jiitln.iicc will lianlly h,- .lisinit.-.l. ■ What is the cans.', ' -U- i;iiiiiiN Mr. Storch,- '■ tliat ;,'ives so hi;,'h a valu.- to th.^ rare i. welv with wliich opuleiic loves to .l.ck its.'lf ' is it the ).l, ,i-inv they -ive th.- eyi', hy the hrilliancy of their retlect..! liiht ' No: that sli;,rht enjoynient lias n<. nlation to their \ahir . it is hecatis.- thoy attest the wealth of him who wears till 111. Such are all the ohject.s of this sort .)f lu.\uiy ; the aiHount of enjoyment they j^ive tln-uu;,'h tlie direct nie.linni of til, Miixs is nothing:, in comparison of that which they yiel.l liv the .iisplay that can Ite ma.h' of them to others— even ..hjects which seem hy heir natnre to have no other end hut t.. please the senses, are alm.>st alto;,'ether estimatcl hy the .'latitieation this display proiluces. t'oiisi.ler a smnptuous repast '.dveii liy opulence, separate from it. in thoti;,dit, every thin;,' that serves only to show the riches of him who ;,'ives it ami leavi; nothing,' ahsolutely on the tahle hut what may -ratify the appetite of th.' in.livi.lual : what woul.l r.-main ' in short, if we take a <,'eneral surv.'y," contiiuies the same author, ■i>f all that expenditure which is ma.le after tlie natural .lesires are sati.sti.-d, w.- will perceive that it is almost altM;:ether iX!casiuned hy the desire to appear rieh." ■ Tliis 'le-ire of apjHMrin;: sup.'rior to oth.'rs thus k.'eps a vast ' Lkm. 15. IV. c. I.\. -Court (I'Kcouomit /'ofitifj'ie, liv. VII. c. V. . y-n./,' :i jL'or.nviit I''J>>hut. \W. VII, i' IV. ;■>. n i ' hi 2r.i' Al'rKNDIX nmnher oF tliiii;,^s in ;i st.Uf of ceasclt-ss revolution. All tl • loiiiain is iimli r thr lulf of t'asliioii. Iliiuit, ,iclili,;it, iiiiit;it i|iiaili';it;i intiiiitli^. It distroys lii-i'orf its tiiiii', as Mr. Say coiii|)lains, whatn it lays its hands on. ' Any tliin;,^ wliicli a prrsc^n has pi Niilf'l hiiusilf with, U) snvc sonii' usi'ful jxnpose, is pr«-siTV as lonjr as ])ossil)ic, its consuniijtion is ^n-adnal. An object luxury is of no use froni tin' nionunt it ceasrs to ;,'ratif3- eitl; thr sriiscs. or tlif \anity, of its p(^ss.>ssoi-. It is ilestrovt at least in ^^iratcr part before haxin^- ceasi-.l to exist, a: without ha\in;,f sujipliid any r.al want;— luxury ha.s alihoi-icnei' «'\rry pidtitalilc- rxiirnsf." 'I'hf expend! tuif occasioni'd by this desiiL falls on all clas,'' of .sr)ciety. 'J'o supply it takes a lar-v portion of the ri'Ven ol what ar.' oalh-d th'- niiddl.- ehiNses ^that is, of thosr wIkj a ncoi,nii/,ed members of the middle classes], of thosi> who ha • lillieulty to pro\(,' their claim to be so ranked, of those w! are cond'ortablr in the lower classes, and e\cn of those \vi ha\>' ditHeult_\- in jirocurin;; absolute necessaries. "In < classes,' .says .Mr. St an.l l.n.ks niun.l his own s,.,lnlously arran^^e.l cliamber. It is this tVi'linj; we exp.-ri. Mice when we say that such a house, i.r (h-.ss. has an air of comfort al)Out it. Tin- term ha; pro- ].i liv r.fereiic.' t.> the sensual, ami t.) the benevolent, not to tlir's.lfisli feeling's. The si;,'],, of v^tatues. paintinj,'s, How.rs, i. ,ils,, tMpable of atl'ordin;,' a hi^di .l.'j:ne of ;,'ratitication to many ininds. Th.' decree (jf pleasure thus exiierieiice.l isilifler- .nt in .iitl'erent individuals, ami it is scarcely possible to ascer- tain what its exact amount is in any one: hence the ditliculty, ill iiMist cases, of ileterminin;; what is, or is not, luxury. Mr. .srt of nia^dcal characters, presenting' ''Very N.here tills inseription : A'hnirr the istiiit of mil rlchis.' \ anity. th.'re can be little doubt, is the pre the eye, and to th-' miml n the beholder, wh.'ther owner or -irst, Th.' l.ii^er (lart of the -ratificati.m .htived is drawn |.rub,'dily ill most (';is,.s from vjinity, ami we occasionally im-et with a eharacter whose jdeasures are alt. 'LT.'ther th.)se ot "-teiitatioii ; like Tojie's pro.li^al. Nut fur liiiiiself lie M'.'-, .ir lieHis. i.r cat-', .\iti-ts iiiu.'it (■!i.".>o liis |iii.tiiics, luusii.-, nuats ; 25-I. Al'rKNDIX bl . ^'M . II. Inns f.ii Tiipliiiiii (Irawiiijrs and ile>igiis, Fi.i P.iuljrokf, statUM-i, dirty u'ihIs, aii'l ( oiiis ; llaii- iiioiikisli iiiaiiiisiri[itM fur Iliarue ali>-ii , AikI liuoks foi- M.-ad, and Inittfrtlifs for SI. an.-. I'liit, in iiKi^i iM's, ri'iil iiijiiyinciU [nf an acstlirtic nature o DtluTwiseJ iiiix.'s lar;^'i>ly witli uitTf vanity, in .xiM-nilituiv <> tlio [iuxiiriims] suit. Adam Siiiitli niuarks. that " It is ndt l)y ih>- importation ( -old anil silv.i' th.it the (lisco\ .•ly of Anurica has fnri.-h.- Huro]!'-. r>y th.' alnind.mcr of tlif Aint>ricaii mint's thos mi.t.iU liavr hfcomr ch.aiiif. A siTvic ■ d' plat'- can n.iw 1 jmrcli.is.d f.ii- aliMiit .i tliird I'art nf tlii' corn, or a thifd pai of till' lahor, wliich it w.nild liavc cdst in tlir tifti-cnth Cfiitui-; Witli the s.iiin. annual t \iicnsc (ji lahor and (■omniudili.' KtirnjH- can anmially ]iiirch.iM- alnint thfrc tim.'s the ,tio!l', I'.. IV. c. 1. 1 >^ I ov i.rxruv 253 tlir Utensil-, fitlu- thilt ilfCnUIlt, IMHIV iif tho tal)l.- 'T th.' kitchfii. ure nftni. uixm ii'Toi-ablo wh.Mi iimcK- of thoiii. A silver lioilcr is niort cieanlv than a lead, copper, or tm oin am 1 th -aiiie i| vil\rr (iiie uality woulil render a Lr(j ,1(1 iKjiler still In-tter than a But, even 1 f we sliould ailniit thit silver, as a iiiioility possessii i-iiiii itliiT accoui iir many useful i|nalities. is va luabl. on Its than its scarcity, we must also :,M-ant tiiat a verv hi Ui'e sliare o ,f i.ther (lep.utmeKts of tlie ex[ )en( litnit .f tli.' wealthy consists of m luxio-v articl tl le sole '^ rati- tication a tibnl.d liv whieh i-. th.it they al )ne ( -.~e-s them. in another \ 1" It is then, I .ipprehend with sonn an att'ord to truth, that. tliieniL their ,art >>i the ]V,'tlth of X'itln),.<, the author, in causes which hnni-ht on the diminution of the .I'll •at f.'U(hil lord-, and .iseri liiiiir du'iii chietlv to ^1 I'Minnieree I'l tillUe. c \iieniun tl leir revenues > >n the produce )f foreii,Ml aii'l maimfacture inste.id of maintaininj; a lar;;. •haracteri/es the hulk of the articl. s constitiuin^' th nditure as useless for anv other purpo-^e than the eiatiti- ction of a selfish vanhy. - All for ourselves, and nothmj;- to, l""l lie, seems, in everv a^e f 'he world, to liave been \alue o maxnus o tliev con if the masters i.t man kind. \.s soon th Id find a method of coiisinunij: tl .■hoi. f their rents themselves, tlu'y ha.l no .iisposition t-. them with any other persons. F-jr a i ,f d lamonil I'kl. jierhaps, or some thin.' as fi'i\olous ami use anu'i tlx p| lei .1' th maniteiianc" lainteuance, o or w th.y hat is tli<' same thiiijj;', the f a thousand m.'n for a yeai-. and ,tl, it the whole wei-ht and authority which it could L'i^ hriii. The buckle-, however, wer- to n ( reatnre was to have any thi'ir own, and no ..tl 11 r lium.in c -hare of them: whereas 111 tl miiri.' ancii •nt method of expense, they must ha> laieil with at lea-t a tlionsand ] pie. With the jud^res tl Wer to d.etermiiie the preference, thi> ditVei ■elice was \ ler] lat eC|-l\ e id til us, tor th the iiieane-t. and the ni •atitication of the most childish, st sor.bd of all \anitie-. they eiadu- larteii ,1 their whoh' Lower and authority. Havui;; d tlleil birtl iriLilit. no it likt sau. f' if ittai'e m tune if Inniirei' and necessi itv, but. in the wantniui. 1' ■niv, lor ir. (i/'/i 0/ .\.,ii v.. I. .\i. >o6 ArPENDIX trinkets iimi liauljlis, tittir to 1k' tlic playtliiii-s nl' childn-i tliJiii tlie serious pursuits of ineii. tlu-y iM-came as iiisijrnlHcau .1^ any substantial liur^'lur or tradesman in a city."' Evoi here, too, there is some e.\ai,'j;eration : the M-at of a wealth; moijern nnlijeman exeeeils the riuh' castle of his luvlf har liarous ancestor, not only in tlie ;,natitic-alion it ;,'ives to t}i personal vanity of its possessor, hut also in the refine- atid mansion nf those who ha\e tile foltUlle to Jiossess hei-editaiV Wealt and hereditary claims lo L,n)0(| society, to those who lia\ themselves accumulated, or are employed in accumiilatin riches, and raisiiii,' themsilves to di-tinctiuii. from thence t the lowei' -rades of life, ,-.nd, at last, to tin' mere drud^^'s f the community, we shall tind every stiji we take marked h a j,'reater ]irominence in twe ' '■umstances. The amoui expended on what are neither t' ■essaries nor convenienc( of life iiecomes Kss, hut that ( xpenditure is mori' ilecideill mere luxury. 'I'aste jii\es enjoyment even to the wihlei extra\auance of those whose chief occupation has hoen 1 .leviM' means to enjoy life, and to make it a;,'reeal>le to other; hut he whose husiness lias heen, or is, to discover the he; means of ;^'ainin;^ wealth, thou;:h he may yield less to tl de-^ire of show, does s(j more thoroujihiy. He hecomes a niei imitator, and. like most iniitat(as, is a]it to retain all tl defects ancl to dn"!) iiiuch of the eraces of hi^ f'-I'V- Vanity is conihate(l hy th.' strene;ih of the scjcial ar henevolent affections and intell.'Ctual powers. The fonir represent its excesses as hurtful, the latter as ahsurd. Tl same principles, therefore, which ;:ive stren;,'tli to the etfecti' desire of accumulation, diminish the sway of this passio Heme, in all sociities, where the etiective desire of accumul tioii is hi;,di, ami instruments couseipiently at nr.lers of slo i\'\ WLWM or u'xrRY 267 MtUMl. of ,nly k.-pt at on lers ;)f ciuick ivturn from thr pro- litil (pf iiiiprovi'ii ' whik-. in socifties w lent, vanity ami l\ixury will pn-vai 1 hut lltTt th -Hi'Ctivc tlesirt' of ■Arf ■niinilation is low, anenevo!ent 1 in" the intellectual ])ower-, is ^'eiieially aceoin- i<,rth. ami tiie <,'«-neral preval-nce of vanity luxury. 11 <'-fnfral, are remark able for the iiiMueiiCf w liich Nixa^es. ... ^ . , u.ity has ovrr them, ami for their propensity to ^'ive up any ,.v..^W^nu tlM'V mav have made for the future, or to sutler ,.rr privations, to have thr means of deckin;; th.'ir persons ;,l,itati.ms with something rare ami costly. .listinj,'uishin<; .1 liai III, til fr M otlins. Beads. Ikjiics. ]>luiiieH of feathers, pcjrcu- .ilu.l.'s, are soii"jrht out. ami wrought up l.y them with ^'reat .al-ir. They besides cut their Hesh. or tatoo th.-ir skin. The ,,]Mniiion costs severe pain ami r.Miuires some skill, and the i....,rin;,' the testimony ..f tliis outlay alxmt with him is as real ,1 -ratrtication to tlu' vanity of the savaj:-' as a diamoml rinj; l.TtliMt of an Kuropean. Tieir iiitircourse with civili/ed nations turns their de.sires towards tineries of European luaiHifacture. Class heads, trinkets of silver, or, if it he not u. )»■ had. of till, tin.' clotle. showy e< tt.,iis and silks, then iiiak.' up a larj^f part of their expeiiditiu-e.- i[This sifni^ to !>,■ a .l.l.atal)le poi-itioii. .See tli.' note at the end ..f this artirli'.] I have sc . nianv ( f the Iiiaiaiis in Cana.la, whe.i in high .Irew, clolhe.l ,„ the ti,H-t Ki.glish eloth, of which they are, I an. mhl. exeellent jiulges : ,, ilaiuly, however, i.i the way they wear it, the hi.lian Mai.Uet, one ina.le tnu k for the jmrpo,>*e, with a hroa.l hUie l.or.ler, makes a more .-..nvenieot and 111. in- lici'ominf; rotif. The ahnoHt irresistible passion winch these people have, for whatever they ,.. ;. live esteemed precious by others, must have struck every one havinj? ha.l ,u,v mtercourse with them. I'erhaps the following anecdote may be worth relat- aiL-. as in some degree illustrative of it. I was .moe voyaging with a friend in a sn.all canoe, when we ehance.l to keep cmpany for two or three days with K 2.)8 AIM'FADIX ! .• I , f { ' ■ 11 All travell-'i-s sp.-ak of the vanity of tiH> Chinese, and < their pn.iM-nMtv to show. Their ^'litterinjr ,iril(linilk, ai have theniselves carri..l in a chair. This does not pass wi th.'m fi.r vanity, or attectation of ^rrandeur. but for an evi.len tliat they esteem the persons whom tliey visit, and that tin themselves ar.' above absoiut.' want, and are not it. a .lespi able con.lition.' This attention to a showy exterior seems have led Mr. Kllis tn f(,rm too lii^h an estimate of tiie -.a^nei ..puleiice and cond'ort <>f the pe(.i>le, I have been niu struck." he s.ays, ■in all Chinese towns and viila;,n's with t numbiM- of p.'Vsons apparently of tlie middlin;,' classes; fn this I am inclin.'d to iid'.r a wide ditbision of the .substant eondorts of life, and the conseiiueiit financial capacity of t coTintry.' - The*^ Komans are still more conspicuous instances of t extrava;:aiice into which this pa.ssion betrays nati(jns. \ an; rei<,'ned tlfouuliout their expenditure. 'I'he .lecorations »onie Iii.Uaiis ill aiictliLT, oMf ..t wli.iiii a sinftf iiitunii. tuiil lia.l iiMluced 1 iiieio skeleton. One fnieiioon wliin we stopjied for a little, they ieqiieste( to coMie elose to tlieni, an,l open a ease we had, to let the sick man examiiu Havini; done a» they .iesired, the iiivali.l seeinej sadly ili.^ai)i)oiiUe.l. thoiiL'ht,' he said, "when I saw it at a di.stanee yesterday, that the im was silver, and it seemed to me it woul.l do me goo.l to look at it, lint it is ( tin. ■ The exiiressioii of his countenance and voice showed that he fancied sight of so nuuh silver, would have arteil like a cordial, and so 1 dare sa wouhl. It is to he observed that It is not the custom of Indians to ni re.|uests hav in- an ail of impertinence of stran-ers, or to express appointment ' l.ti'n~ /;./.>'" ^'-.v Vol. IX. p. ."):il. ■J i;,,,;,,..,...,, . <''.■..'[. I'll!!, e.lition. IslS. p. -JltT. t.^^^^f^-^^^:' ^^^"^ B'^-^^TT ■iluced t"i ;i ■qiu'sted us OF LUXTRV 2o!» their i»r>ons and iiiaiisions were a slunv of the most costly luxurii-, '•(iemnias, inarniDr, fhur, Tyiiheiia siu'illa, tabelhu*, Arijeiituni, vi'stes (iytulo nun ice tinctan." Til.' hra.l. tlie neck, the arms, the tin^'ers, of a Roman la.iy wirr loaded with jewels. Fliny relates that the j.wels which [^.jlia I'aidina, the wife of ('ali^ruhi, even after her repudia- tion, carried on her person when attired simply for payin<: visits, were worth forty millions of sesterces, upwards of two hundred thousand j.ounds sii'rlinwn .ihvady jxiveii. and numy more mi-,dit he added, were it neces- sary tM repeat what has be'en often narrated.' 'hie ma;,'nihcenc.- of the eastern Kmpin> was perhaps even -reater tlmn that of Rome itself. It retlect.'d something' ')f The exeessive splendor of the Babyhjuish and other Asiatic monarchies. Chrysostom thus d.^scribes the palaces of the ii,,l,lev ■ The nj<")fs made of wood were ^dlt. 'I'he d.H)rs. even tl„. loH^ foldin<,^ doors, w.'re of ivory. In all the chand.ers she Nv.dTs were Tncrusted with marble. If they were only of inmin(»n stone, it was covere.l with plates of >;old. The beams and e.-ilin^s were j,dlt, ami the apartments were inlaid with small -tones, ami often with precious stones. Over the tl(X)rs weiv -nmetimes spread very rich carpets. Their taste for ma-ulticence could bear nothin^^ of the ordinary kind. In the r.M.ms were j,'reat pillars of marble, with their chapiters ^dlt. and sometini^s the whole pillars were ^rik, statues by the iiiost excellent artists, pictures and mosaic work. The beds were u-ually of ivory or of wood, Lrilt or covere.l with silver Iilatev and sometimes of soli.l silver decorated with j^old. All 'Tlu- vr.uUn- i.Kiy consult (UI.Im.h, or tin- work of .M. aAni.n ^,( ivory; tin- pots and oth.r vr.ss.is, uv.ii fov th. iiKtaiii'st uses, Will- ol' ;:o|(l ami silver ' .Mr. Sav has r.Miiarke.l, that then' is a lar^^e ].art of ih. coiisiiiiijitioM ol tia- Kn-iich. which is occasion.-,! l.y thei cxc'ssiv.' attention to iiio.h' ami fashion, an.l that, in thi r.-siMCt. they contrast .iisa.lvanta;,'eously with th.' En;,'lisl who pay ni.jr.' att.'nti.tn to comfort an.l conveni.nc. an.l les to th.- .-hauirin;: fanci.'s l.y which vanity s.'cks to .listin^ius its.'if. Instruni-'iits hav.- never, in Fran.v, Irmii wrought n to or.i.rs of so slow return as in En;:lan.l. I ImH.v.' it will h.' f..nn.l tliat th.' streii-th of tli.' .ti'ectiv i fatij.ni.'.- Th.' lin.'r c..ttons, also, of Am.'rican maniifactiit are^.-f a stout, r an.l nior.' siihstantial fahric. in.licatin;.' th th.' Am.'rican pinchas.'r h.oks more t.) th.' w.'ar of the artic th.' Euroi..'an t.. tlu' .l.lieacy of th-' fahric. Th.- sam.- tlni mayl..'sai.lofwool.'ns. A suhstantial farmer in En.irhm.l woti scarc.iy.as one .)f the same class in North America, think hn self .l.'c.'iitly cla.l in a wint.rs suit of which th.' cl..th c-t on a .lollar yi.r yar.l. th.m>:h a comfortahie and .lurahl.' .hv-s. It is t.) 1 hs.'rvi'.l, that, as vanity is oppos.'.l l.y the sf.e an.l h.'n.vol.'nt atli-ctions an.l int.ll.ctr.al pow.rs. accnhn;: th.' one or the oth.-r of tlu's.- pr.'iM.nd.rat.'s, the manifcsi tions of that luxury which yet r.'mains. are mo-liti.'.! ii sun..' res.'mhhinc.' t..\vhat it approv.'s. When th.' intellecti pow.'rs ar.' .stron;;. this passion .mleavors to elude them attaching: itself t.. ..hj.'cts that it can r.'present as of p man.'Ut ^'Xcell.'U.'.'. When the henevol.nt art'.'cti..ns i M'l,rvs..st..tn. .luot.-.l l.y .I.Tlin. /;.■,/, „-i.>' i-q»r.>-.».ntin^' thoii. ', prncclin- fn.M. a wish t.. ^n-atify nthr.-s. an.l to .Ipiiv with tl,.„, thiii-s. wliicl. aiv at loast <,'..n,nilly .•sUvi.i.mI ran- an.l valnal.l.' "in thf foniier cas.- it .•.scap.'s opposition, aii.l finds v.nt in rsprnsiv.. huil-linjrs an-l .k'Corations ; in tho lait-r m .uprntuous ..nt.Ttain.uonts. a.,.1 luxuri-s of the tahh-. ■'In l|,,lla.i.i;' savs MandevilU'.-p-op!.- an- only spann;: ni such thin- as ar.' daily wanted and n consunu-d ; in what i> iastin" they aiv quite otherwise: in pictures and niarhle they aiv pp.fu-r : in their huil.lintrs and wardens thoy are extrava- .rmt to h.llv. In other countri.-s you may meet with stately nuut- and'palaces of -vat ext.M.t that helon-s to princes which unlHHlv can exp-ct in a .•omnionweaith, where so much ,,,„alitv is observed as there is in this; hut in all Europe you -hall tiiid no private huildin-s so sumptuously ma-nitieent, as a ..ivat many of the merchants' an-l <.lher ^'entlemeiis houses .,!•"■ in Amstenlam. and some oth.r ,t,n-"at citi-'s ot that ,„•, , since, and the ^^eiierality of them that l.uild there, lay out n .M.ai.r proportion of their estates on the house they dw-^ll iiMhan anv people upon the earth." ' Something of the saine .•vniu^ m.iV. I think, be observed in the expenditure ol the North \m''erican.s. Their iiouses are freMuently lar.ire-r than th.v l,ave use for, so that part of them remains unoccupied, ri,,'. V are also, often built with a j;reat.-r re;rard to sliow than ,.,,„.Vnrt. Ther.. is little substantial diHerence U-tween a .irold and Mlver watch, but thai the former costs double ot the latt. r (iol.l watches are p.^rhaps more common in Nortli America, than in any other part of the world. It is pure vanity that lea.ls to so i^'eneral an adoption ol this luxury, by ,.la~~..s who in En-land woidd not think of it, but it is a vanitv tliat fixes itself on som-ti.in- permanent. In the end, tl„,,'i. no ch.'aper wav in which man can write,' I am rich, ,„• at l.a-t, ; am m.t absolutely i-oor," than to carry a -old watch. It is ready to meet all occasi.^ns, and all pei-sons.- ' l;.i„,iil< (). F'lhl'- ofrh' /it.v. -Tl..^.- „l,servati..ns apply t- the popuUtion of Hriti.O. -It-soent or l.irth „„ l„„h s,.i... of tlK- lin... IIW ovrrluoks horc that th. iK«st....,.on of .i p-M w.t.h c,r ,i„v sol. .f valuuhk- jewelry, constitute, a hoiinl of wealth «hKh ,„,v I'e of .reat use in certain emer«en,..es. It i,s like the gol.l chain of the knv-hl of -.he Mi.Ule Ages, of wluch he speaks elsewhere.) I r., 'ill ii ! '^1-'' I i h 1 I' :iti2 ArPKNDIX 111 Iliitaiii, on the otlirr liaml. tli<- luxuries tliat mix tlii'iti- M'l\is willi till- virtiKs nf liiisjiitality arc iiiorr apt to [Hfvail. Tlici-c rare wiuis, aiict\ve(.'n the a;,'ricultui-al jiojiulatioii and the inliahitants of citiis, wliich the fcillowiii;; sa;^acioiis icmarks of Montesi|uii-u ^imiu to me '-iitiiciently to explain. The extent of luxury faithei- de- |H nils on the si/.e of towns, and esjiecialiy of the capital. In proiKirtion to the ]lopnlousne^s of towns, the inhaliitants are tilled with notiiinsof vanity, and actuated i»y an amliitis .lown vanity; tlie absolute neces,sity of workin-; »ip th.- nuit.'rials within reach, rouses the actMniiulati\ e princijile to aetion. ami the abundance of these materials stimul.it. 's it to unr.niittin;: .xortion. There is h.'iicc no Letter seh(K)l for the dissolute Kuropean than the hack \v..ods. After a do/en yars' resi- d.-nce in them, or in tlie clearin<:s to whidi hf has help.d to convert them, he comes out a completely altered man. It is perhaps proper to observe lier.'. that no biaui'- can attach to imlividuals, for compliances [within reasonable bnundsj with the lollies to which the passion of vanity prompts. It were a j,'nat mistake to imaLrin-- tliat even its absurdities are easily avoidable. It is in vain for any one man to oppose ^-neral opinions and practices, lunvever ridiculous. If lie does so, he is sure to encount.r jrivater evils tlian a compliance with the customs of the society wouM iidlict. It is the business of tlie poor man to stand well with the world, else he would scarcely make his way thn^i^di it. It is his business, too. to avoid a display of poverty. One is .sure to have mtj.st friends wh.n they least ne.^l them. " I'our --etablir dans le monde," says Roclicfoucauld. on fait tout ce ipfon pent pour y paroitre t'tabli. in-ituioes «f the in.l.fati.L'able in.liistry tl.ey cxcitf. TnictH r.f Unci, .so very l,.urin aii.l imimictical.U' as to =-.ei.i ccni.Uimied to p.ri.clMal sUrility, may !.,■ hci-ii ill pioccxa of l,ci!iL' .•onv..rt.Ml into fertile soil, l.y Leing let out in small IKU.lies' at very long or perpetual lea.ses. A iwitiou of the eatate r.f I'llfo.hUes. luar Aber.leen, allllo^t a cnntmuity of rock, was, I reeolleet, so reclainiiiiK ,il.le.l in hiring laU.r or in buying titlea to property (" invi-sling'' properi, is an histoiual category.] I '!l^ ( ? f •! I ^^1 ->G4 APIM.NDIX ■ Niitwitli-taii'liii;,' my i"iViMty writ.- ,i .l,.>uit iiii»i()nary tioiii ('liiii.i, I liav.' yet Im^ii jilil.- to ifli.'Vt- tli.- .■xtivin.' iiMMi-y ol' two |MM,i- < liiiNtiaii'.. 'Ill,, oil.' liail liis Iidusc, his funiituiv ,iii,| lii^ iiM|,|fiiifiit> of tra.l.-, .i.stii.y.,! }.y i\r>: l\\'- DliiiT u.i^ ],y |,|-(.t'i— -iciii a [iliysiriaii, ainl sdiiic tliit-Ms li.ul ill th.' iii;.'lit canir,! off his silk divs.s,- ; tli.\- mi^ht as Well liav.' stolrii ]\\~. pnifi.s^idii aiiil his ii'imtation ; for hi-n- a physician, mil.ss >ircssr.l in -ilk ami cows hair, pjiss.s jur i;:ii..raiit aii'l is rmplny, ,1 l,y i,u on.-. Th.- .|,.ft.ir wl... ha I lust his silk. 11 rnh.-s was |.i.,hal.ly w.irs.. .itfihaii tii.- iii.'chfiiii.-. th.- loriii.T was still in a cMi.liti.ni t.) tiii.l unrk, tlu- l.itt.'r was not. II,. i.n.l.al.ly, iij.l I. h.i.i nankin l.-ft : hut liu.l h- iirfss,.,| in it, ,.,|„.,.ia||y ha.j h,- pr.'t.'nil.Ml t.> say it was th.- iii..r.' «<.iiil,.rt,ihl.' w.ar. h.- w.piiM have act.-.l alM)ut as wisely its w,,u|,l a ],()., r y.iiii!!,' M.l>. in Kn^l.ami whi> sh,,iil.l, in rnl'.l wint. r .lays, attin- hinis.ll' in .In-a.in.niLcht. Wli.. u.,nl.l trust ii cas,. t.> SM .-ilisur,! a nmrtal ' Til.- mm ni" in.|..|M.n.l,.nt t'..rtuti.., .-i^^.-iin. tli.,u-h h.- n.-.-.l f.-ar no v,-ry s..|i,,us ,.\ils Ir.Jin s.ttin;: hiins.lf in .|ir,-(.t oii]i,.siti..n to n(-,.iv,.,l m.i.|.s ol' ..xtr.-iv.i^ani-.-. will yet c.-rtainlv incur thi' char-i- ,,( c.-c-ntric-ity, [M-rhaps ,)t' ni;,'i,rarilly paisinioiu-. Th.'s,. ar.' small iiir.,nv.'ni.-u(-(-s. hut h.- t-onsults his ,-as,- in avoiijin^ tht-m. A pirs,,n is th.n .inly pr..p.rly -iiilty .,!' intlictin;,' an injuiy «>ii th.- (-..mnsunity, wh.-n h.- runs into ixitli acknowl.-.l^^.-ii extra\a;:an(-.-s ami rt-al luxuii.-s, H,- is c.-nsnr.-il hy soni.-, hut cnvi.-.l an. I follow,-,! hy .,th.-i's. An in.livi.hial iiiay, ,,n th.' oth,-r han.l, so.,i u. a.lvam.- ,ii.- pr..sp,-rity .,f th.- wli..|.- .soei.-ty, .,1- at l.-;tst ..f th.- oi-.k-r in it in whit-'h h.- is hims.lf rank.-.l, hy c-h.-i-kin;,' his vanity wli.-n it ui-^.-s him t.i a.lopt luxiui.s, p.-rniitt.-.| t.> his fortun.-, th.iu-h not .l.-mau.l..l hv it. The n. .hi, -man who, in .-.|nipa;r'' aii.l lack.-ys, k.-.-jis s..m,-what within th.- limits which his rcv.-iuit-s w..ul.[ atfonl ; th.- tra.lcs- inans wif,-, wh., .lr,-ss,-s in calio inst.-a.l ..f silk, aiv hoth, t.i a snuill L-xt.nt, i.uhlic h.-ncfactors. Luxury, imk-d, ;,o-n.-iallv a.lvanct-s .n- ^r.-c-.-.h-s slowly, an. I can scarci- he succt-sslullv t'ucourair.-d or..pjios,.l hut hv .i.-,-i-,-.-s. Th.-r.- is alwavs, an'l in cv.-ry .s.,ti,.ty. ,iii.- lin,-, to -^n In-yoii.! which is ackn..wl.-'>f iliticr ;^r<-atiy, tliiT<- uouM !»• 1,'rcat ilitH'irncts in the rstimatf niaili' of racli. Whatever couM really set foi-tti 'o aii\ant i_'e die heanty "P ;_'race of toiiii or featui'e. wonlil !«• |iri>]iortionaiiy jui/ed. as woulil real lieanty in aiticies of fninitiiie. aii'l in tlie form ainl ilecoratioiis of a|iartiiients. lint un'ler this siippositioii. otliev circuin- stances liein;^' eipial. that wouM always !«• preferi-eil which was cheapest If two articles, tlielefore. WiTe presenteil. which tlie one was of imich greater r.-al heauty than tlieothe,. !)Mt also much moie expensive, thoneh it mii^lit Ih- that tlie former woiiM lie preferreil. its lii^h cost would he esteemed a defect, and would pi'ojiortioniilly diminish the pleasui'i- yieldi-d hy it. \'ery eX]ien.sive ai-ticles would, if possiMe, he a\iiiiled. A %eiy Costly dress, for instance, wnulcj ati'ect the mind of such spectators disa;,'reeal)ly, as au;^urin(; either a want of taste, (jr a want of lieau:_\- in the wearer, reiniirin;,'' much adventitious aid to help out tin' deticieuc}'. It would produce a disa;;reeahle feelin;,', somewhat similai- to that caused hy the V i"w I if a profuse cxjieiiditure of animal power, lii'in;;inL,'- alxiut o!;ly a .Miiuli .li.Lt.and impressine. therefore, with an idea of Mfiitoiis iiititkis iijitiiu raUtiw-- -'■-Irrti. ('. — ('oicft'ssiis t, .11111 ^■^^^, iimh|iiiiiii »e his iiti priiptir vfifciiiicliaiii ..uMuii. mill. //;<'. \rtt. xx.xiii. c. 11. 'ii .^< \ M ■_'Gti AIMTADIX m f ! hii I : 1 <.f si;,\\ly r.-turniii_' unl.i-s. Tliis iw cliirtly r.'iiia;k;il.li' in |,,,j|,liiioK iiit.i]>l''i in !»■ in-niiiiiicnt. It' tlif niatcrials ami woikniatisliiii nl' tlir^- air not Mihstantial, ami such as insure .hiraliility l" tlH' rditic.-. till- 'i''t'.-ct is coini.ionly ]HTC.'])til>lc, anil i> ri'iicul.d as pnxjr.-ilin^ I'rnni iiuvrty, oi- I'miu dr.'ad of cxprnsu. 'I'lii- vanity of tiic rich man, tlnTi fori', her.' ixcitcs liini to work for succrcdini: -vn'-iatioiis, tliat li.' may ;^ivr tlic tdVM'iit a hi^ii i'lca of the rxtcnt of his rcsoiu-c.-s, \{r hfsidcs, ill this wav. iioiM-, to mak. it ai'].arcnt to his contciiiporari.'s, that a iiionumi'iil of his pro-jMTity and nia;,Miiticciico will d.sccnd to future times. The same ohservatioii will a])i.ly to |, 111 he works unil.Ttakiii hy a proud and .•xtniva;,'ant ooveni- III, '111, \'anity is always an opn-ator in their foi niatioii, ami iher.'foiv thfir const r\ietioii is mvcr altciuvther reLruhilcd hy the dnvvailinu' or staiid.ird] stivimth of th.- accuiiiulative iirincipli'. nor aiv tliry iiistrunirnts of the orders which it would indicate. - Thr proud mini^ti'r of an o-teiitatiotis court may fiv.|ii,ntly take ]ilrasui-e in .•\rcutin.i:- a work of sph-inlor .and mauniticrnce.such as a ^reat hi<,diway, which is frvi. have iiothine- to I'ecommeiid them hut their e\tieiiie Utility, is a husiness which appears in everv iesp,.ct too iiieaii and jiaitry to merit the attenti httli' apiiliiMl.ilily mi'liT liri'sciit .lay .(in.lilioiis ef ^(UiTiiiiifnt in Wt'M.in I'.nreiic .iiul .\inrij. ii. Om' of the lr;irliiig ilniiiis .vi'i ywluTf on (luMi. irsi.iu.r,- is ihc -riMt iiinl t It inlr '>\ pittv UM.I.'itakiii^s e\lr;»v;ij;;iiilly . ,,iiic,l ..lit. iii.' ,i|i|)n.i>riiii:oii< foi- i.al!> iiiv.il (lul.liL works, foi l.uil.liiigs svhirli si, Mill,! umI, el Imv,' o.^iil, ,i,i,,r iu,l iij,ij.'iiilio,.iui',' .ir-' ln',,iii'ntly iiii.liily V 111 .i.iuii In. liis. tin- I eve lull' ot tlio stale lias lici-ii lliiis liittcn-il .lUiiy.] i\M. Wf OF u xniY •2t)7 tlioiiLTh it inchi'ios tliat <>l' s.>v.t,i1 ;,'cii.TiKinii^ of iiHliviihials. In statr-iinii. tlitTt'foii;, in tin- atikirs of states, tli'' acfnimiiia- ;ivfi)rincipl.'shoulil l.c vtion;:. (ir.'at diiraliility. cnnsripi.^ntly, in puhlic works. i> always dfsiral:!.-. In lil<.' maiui-T •^n\,-ru- nicrit> sliouM l)i>rrow on ilitfnvnt pnnciiil<-s from iiulivi.inal-. No onr. for instanci-. now dispnt-'s tliat it slioiiLl have li.rii tlio policy of (ii-fut Hritain to liavr l)orrow..l us mucli on Ion;; aiinuitif> as possiMf. Tlir niisfortuiir is. that statcMncii -rnirally tliiiik of tiu-nisrUes inoiv tlian of tlu-ir country, ,in.| ii.sicaW of i,'rappliii;r with present eviU, let tlieni i,n-ow. c.inl 'Ht if they ^'low cpiii'tly and iniperce]>tihly, and do not threaten to deprive tlieni of tlie ;:ratitication of niaiiitainin;: the pride of their jiower for a f.'W yars political triumph. This consideration may in part r.vplaln the cause of the .^Teat (iurahility of pnhlic w(n-ks in China. It shows uiat the iiatenial charact-r of the government is in some measure a reality. I suspect, however, that the contrast hetween the eonstniction of puhlic and piivate works then-, is morr .ippareiit from the .liniiiiishiii;^ stren;_'th of the aceumnlative piineiple in that j,nvat Kmpire. I shall jir.sently ha\r occasion lo adduce some reasons for this r'onjecture. It is perhaps lien' worthy of remark as -.rv ini: to >lio\v that ostentation and extrava;,'ance iiav.- very little connexion with any other species of enjoym.Mit, hut that which place-, its ::Tatiticati()ns in some superiority over others, that in projior- lion as nations are a Idieted to vanity and iu\ury. their ran;;v ui' hodily enjoyments s..eiii:- to hi'omie le.>s, Cleiinlin.ss. for instance, may he said to he a retiiied sensuality; it is a real . iijoyment. on which tlie .self-moititied ascetic w/istes not Ins cair ; and we find tliat least attention is ]iaiil to it hy the vain, and most hy the pro\ ideiit. so that other thin;;s liein;: cjual, where the effective desiii' of accumulation is hii,di, there it is most scru]mloMsly ohsi-rved ; where it is low. it is littl'' re^a riled. 'Ihe North American Indians senn ivally not to ha\e any nutiiiii (jf its existence. It ajipears to iheiii, in other people, as an atl'ected and uiuKCounlal)le >crupulnsity.' The (.'hinese are descrihed as te .1 " 111 till- Api>' I lull.V. 1 !»\ \ I 1 » 'lit t |i If J \ !^ f 2«}.S AIMM'.NDIX taiiilv. .1-^ iii.'iv '"• u''i'l"'i'''' ''■'"" v.ii-ions piiss;lj.'fS itl tlio Latin writirs. I'.ir Ironi li.ini: ^^'i-it wi> wduIiI .-^t'Tin olt'iuily. All Knuli'^li u'.'nllriiiaii \\<>n\<\ ii..t think ..t' writin;,'' to liis I'ririi.l lliat if \i'- .iin.-l witli hiiii li>'sli.inM tin.l \vrll-\v,i-ti'''l ili,-lii-s. . N<' li"ii it i:iht)riius it liihX I Kl.'ii.lit hl.i !>■ ; ' Hur.icM- intr.MliHT^ a fanciful .■piruiv. (•-.inplainiii;;- of iiiiwashiMl ._n)l,l.t-,, want of talil'' najikin-- anil -au'lii-t, a> takinu' away friiiii thr |ili'a--mv> nf a vum]itiiniis f.-a^t.- In iiioil.Tn tnn.'S lli)ll;in'l lia^ Ihmmi I'^tr.MiH'.l til'' (•n:intry nf clranlin.-,-, ; Kw^- ian'l {irilia]!- lank- n^'Xt. liiiprnvrni.iit can ncv. r facilitat.' t)ic pro'lnctiMii nf iiicfc luxiiri."^. It cannnt dn -n Krcaiis.' it i- imt tli.- tliini: itself, l,i,t ivlv 'lie 'I'lantity nf lalmr milMMlird in it tliat vanity Yv\/.'-^. hiiiiiiii-ii th.' lalinr n.'cc-sai-y fni- its pi-n.jiictinn, and ynii take away wliat tiii^ j.assinn cn\vt~. It wiU, tlicivfoiv, jthriviftnl rith.T consiiiiic a jirnjinrt innally kii-^rr .niantity ,,f tlw cniiiinn.iity, nr will turn it-clf fm- its -ratiticatinn tn ., ill. r cnn;nin.litic- nf ■_''irai.T rarity, w liicii a greater anmnnt (,f 1 il,nr. nr M.nii' .M|iii\ al.'nt tn it, i- necessary to imrcliasc. I'carls. as nriianieiits, prnKalily >lrri\c ii-arly their wlml.' value finlll their s|-,ncit >'. IJeijllee their price tn nlie half, ail'l tiie le,k Ilemlei tlieni nl it .1 inal ile fnl' a tritle. and they .■uuM he iin Iniiuvr wnin. It lias 1 n inoiv than nnce attemple.l In ellltiv.lte them, that is to Ill.ake the nystel- that pi-ndnces them, \ « Av ttieiii Universally and plentifully, i/m- neaiis cmic-ived it practicahh- hy piickin:;- the animal, and niher managements, luit the sclnane has newr sncceede.k H,id it dniie sn fully, it had certainly I"en nsel.'ss Suppose it hau diminished tJie lalmr necessary tn prncure them hy one half, ih.'n .1 lady tn he as richl.\- dressed as 1m fnr.', w.aild just have had tn carry dmihle the nnmher. Had the facility 1 n farther increased, s, , that they luc.ime as plentiful as ;,dass 1 II, ,1. /.■/.--'. l.il'. I. V, ->./'. I\' 1., 11. Tlf l;. .111111-, il i- tnir, li.itli.'il t'n.|ueiitly, liut then lln'y li.i.l inillKi -Ml' 11"! liii'i'. .""1 """ll''!!- "'I'' luyli pti".!. M!i OF M xruv •269 i.a.K. thfV would thon liuv.' Ik-oiiu' as usoloss. If .'Vcry p.asiiit ^'i'rl i-uuia atronl to liavo a -triu^^ of th.iii. H" la-ly uuuia wT^ar tlicni, and wlifU ladifs t-.'asi-.l to wear tlinii, prasant iri.l- would lay thoin aMd.-.' It is th.- sanif with all othrr articles that aiviiiciv hixurios. As they only scrv,' for ii;arks of tho riflus of tlu- individuals po— sin;: thyin. rvry .tiiniiiulion mad.- in the lal.or riidK.di.d m thmi diuiinishrs. ui a i,roi.urtionatf (h-r of th. Komans never ate h-n l.iit wiien at a di-laiice from the sea. nor llesh hut when on the sea-shore. Civen peas hecome lii.\uri 's at Christmas. Sh.iuld the he-t tlann.l co.st only two pence ii yard, it would still h.. worn hy all who now wear it, an.l hy many who d>i not. its consumption is not conspicuous. On the \-ontrary. w. re any particular tine fahric of cotton at pnseiit used for -owns, and eostin- two shillings per '■ "Tlu- Iili'C ef pt'iirls ill iikhUih tiiiH-.< li:is v, ly imi.li iltrliniMl ; (kiiUv, m>i .i.ml.t, to.in .•luiiigc of iii.iiiiicrs iiiul fa.^luoiis ; Imt more |,n.l.iil.ly, fnun tli.- .i.iiniiulile iiiiitttticn iif peails that may lie el.taini'.l at a v.ry 1'>nv prue. MtCullooli's DirtioMirij ■,fC«»im'ir, . Tliry air ills" li .-s w.nii. w^^ ?4 i'* ll fe [ i|JM ( t!| JllKl' ■ 270 AIMMvSDIX i ViU'il ill ci iii'-i|iiiiHv (if iiiipniM iiiiiit tn l)f Milil l')i' twi) |icii('c ]p(;r yai'il. it coiilil mm l(inL,^iT !«• worn. It wmilil no l()ii;,r,.| 1,.- ilf.-^s for iiii\- rank, aii'l its coiiMin jitioii would tlifi-.t'orf Wiiiiiiiish of Alioiit tcii yt-ars a;,'ii. wliat ai> cailnl l.^li.iiii Ih)1iii. .-IN' t'asliioiialilc and much worn in Canada and tlif Unit' i Stat.>. Tiny tlirn cost tlir<'<- oi- four pounds. They may !"• had now for a fhillin;;>. and no oiir wears tlhin : straw whii-li wi r.- then disused Imt by the less wrahliy. ale h'.u ]irefrn.d; th.-y arc d.arei- and less durahle, l'eo])|e who re;^ai-d a|i]ieai'ances. ai.d aiL' accustomed to see and he seen, can scarce expect that any imjuovenient will materially diniinish their yearly outlay for dre-'S. f(,r them- seUev or f.imilies, \\'hate\ei- projiortion of thiMi' i'e\enui.-i they may have found it necessaiy si, ((, expend, in ord<'r to maintain the a])pearanei> their ranU rei|uired they niay lairly reckon ihe\- will haxe to expend in lulure. The ;;;entleman, the tiade-man. the lady, the si-r\ant L^irl. must alike ohey tic laws which the strength "f thi- principle imposes on the societ\'. \\'liate\cr ad\aiice im].ro\emeiu may make, they nuist still lay theii' account with Ih'Iul;- locked down on hy theii' respccti\c asscii-iatcs, oi- ha\in;_' to wear garments just as cxiicnsi\e as e\er without heint,' hetter lookine-, oi- more com- hirtahle, in a decree .luswerine- h\- any means to the facilities of fahrication etl'ected hy th.' successful ett'orts of invention. In so far as their dress is .1 mark of their riches, a soi't uf in- scrijiti'Mi the\- hear ahout w it li them, as Mr. Stoich expr(>sscs it, se!\ iuLi to imjires^ olliers w ith a hejiid' of their possessing;' a certain amount of wealth, ^r holdinu such a raid< in sDciety, it is exacth" analo^oUs to cnin l)o\ihle the faculty of pro- dtiction. the i|uanlity cari'ied ahout. to answer the same IlUrpi ISC. l!iUst he douhled. or recourse must he had to some other material. I'urple or scarlet . serveil amou^' the Itoniaus for a mark of this sort ; only the rich could ati'oi'd to wear it. .Vlthoiieh still admiretl as a color, it no longer serxes the jair- pose. ami is comparati\ ely little iiseil. i.acc, anions the moderns, was once . a mark of the sjinie kind. In\cntion has so far facilitateil the production of some sorts of it. that the wi'arine' them no loni;>|- confers distinction. Increase that OF LIXrKV :7i fiicilitv, till ii Viu-il "f tl>.- tiii.-st sorts may !)»■ had for a ffw half |H'nco. :iii(l it is ,|iifsti()niih!c if the hfiuity of th.- f.ihric woiiM prcsiTve it as an article of clr.ss wfarahle l>y any one.' Ti\nn, till- m.imif.ictuii' lia.l mrivol .it t!i:it iicifci ti"ii, «Ms .„, i.isteful Ml the il»'.-ii:ii, . ml ~.i .l.'liiMtc .iii.l tHMUtifiil in tlir «..rkni.iii .-hip, as not to 1).' exii-lli'il by tli<' l.t-it siHvinifns of llnissi.ls l.ic.v During thr 111.' war. veils of tliia law Wfic sold in l.omloii fioni twt-nty to one luunln ,1 yninoas ; tlu'V ate now .sold from eii;lit to tifleen gmnea.s, Tlie etlert,s of the eoi.i|ietiti.i!i c,f in.ieliin.'iy, howevci', were .ilioi.t tlii.s time felt ; ami in l«il.-i, the liroi'l lares be-an to he siiper.se.le.l by the new manufacture. St.ani power wa.s tiist info.liice.l by .Mr. .b.)in MmUey, in Isl.^i l;an of -eiieial supply, riv.din^' and snpplantin.', in plain nets, the nio-t timshe.l pro duclions of Kralice and the Netherlands. l,.ice, li.iviiig become .1 coiii'iion ornament, easily accessible to all cl.i.sses, has loM its attractions in the fashion- .■»bh- circles, by which it was formerly p.atronized, so that very rich l.ice is n.> lon-rr in demand. And many ail ides of dies-, whi' h in our drawiin^ rooni.s ,iiid \'.M looms, lately consisted of the mo.st .o-tly and tasteful p.itteriis in l.vc.', ,ire now cither superseded or made of dilleiciit niamif.ictui e. — Many ..f the embroiderers in NottiiiL'haiii are at present unemployeil ; and even foi the most splendiil and beautiful specimens of embroidery, some of win -a have orcnpi.d six weeks, workuii,' six days a week and fimrteen hours a day, the young womi'ii have not earned more than one shilling a day. The condition of the plain lace workers is still more deplorable -they cannot obtain more, on an average, th in tu o shillings ami six pence a v,-eek, and working twelve or fourteen hours per d.iv, fur then anxious ami unreinittiiig I.ilx)!," — McCuUoeh's " .-. r,--} <^ ''.•>': ^-^1 .'.■^•""i % 'i72 ArrFADix <,t' ;,n,(Ml l.Mtli.T. ami (Mpalil.- ol' Immiii: f"Mii''l f' >r "tir sixt'ii of tlic .iiithiy. it woul.l lir an .'H'ort of tliat \liovs raiuiot !m' ,li-iMii>r.l witli l>y any cla-^^ 'I'li-'y ar.' worn lor foniloit. nut I'nr >li- ialior n.rrs^ary t■■ a ival iniiii-n\ri,irnt : only a Muall part 'if it \\n\iU\ 1m- lo^t in vanity: f,.!'. \nil.-- in til- lii-li'-t clasM-. a .1\\ i'lliii.i:-lioiisc i- nnu!li IV fur cnafnrt than \<rovrnif!\t. Iiiiiirovmicnt^. too. in the faliii'-atinn of articlrs of ;:-lass, atnl rarthen ware an- in a .■rrat (Iru'ivf real. ('..uM thr niannfactniv nf |ilat.' ;:lass U- Zo facilitat..!. that it n,i;,'lit h.'ha.l fnr only il( .mMc thr pi-ic- (,f (..ninioii wimliiw -la-s. tin- -iilistitution nf thr ,,nr l^r the ,,th.-r .■niijil ii.it li" call.-.i a Inxnry. Imt a r.al inqmA rnicnt, an inirta--iil |irovisi.iii f..r th.' --tiplily of futuif wants. In Cival Ihitain inr-.Miuily has -iu-crr.'n.liture u OF U XI UY 273 wiiicli !i youiii,' fi'inalf iiiakt-s lor sucli part of her iipjiartl as i-~ I'.irnuil iif tlif^c stiiHs. is little Icvs tliaii what her iiiotlur, twtiitv years aj;ii, wa> aectistl' even the tiiust ami most ■ iiiicate of these t'ahrics, is such that vanity seems to lit> ■ li-eariiiiij: them. The utmost efforts of in;,'enuity can -earcily iiulMiily a sutliciency of lalK>r in tliem, or \ary t'lciii M) as to make them a tit full dre^s f(jr even a tradrs- iiian ^ wife. .\11 Inxurirs occasion a loss t) t)ii' 'ciety, in proji()rtitrenj,'th of tlie selfish, and weakness of the intellec- tual jiowers and Ix-iievolent affections; and, consequently, th.it it is inversely as the strengtli of the accumulative Jiriuciple, 1^ /i'^ '. !• ■ • |tl iri' h AI'PFNOIX Thoii^'li \i\nity. in this way. '.[MTat.-, diifrtly to rftar.l tlic innvasf of tlw stwck of ttv -.K^^i.^ty. som.- of it- iinlir.'ft .-H'rcts liav.'. iiot\vitli>taiuiin;:. an oppo-it-' tni.l.'iicy. As an aiita^ro- nist to th'- iv'-traiiiin;: intlunio' of tli-" spirit of iiaitatioii it i- often a V. TV useful auxiliary in tlie '-i.rea.l of inventions 'riii'se, witiiout ils ai'l. niiirtit j.erliaii- have Imih sliut up m tlie roiuitriev wlierc tliry were .li.-fovei-'ii ; i-eitainly tliey woul.l not have pa-sed fr-mi iv-ion t n -i n. so lapnlly as they have sonietiiin- succ'.Mle.l in doin;.' UiLler th'' ;,niise of foivi^.'-n raritiis. ami c nia.l.- tlieir way fasily ; an>l tin- ma-k nihliin-' off' in time a suh-tratuni of utility ha- h-'fii fouini luuier it.' Soap seems to tiave heeii tii-t made in the mid-t ot the ashe- and tallow of ( nTinaiiy and ( Saul, ll eaine to K<.in<' a- }i iuxniy, in tli.j sha]M- of a i.i-iiirnt fof th.' hair. In tlii' coui-se (,f time, its -.iipeii..!- ih'ter^ent .[Ualitie-; lj..c-omin- a|i]>afent, and tin' maniifariure lieiiiL;- introdiio-d this article so essential to th.- comf..it of the modern Knropcan, pas-.-d (Mitirrly out of thf rank of luxuries. Vanity also hrou-iit silk t(") Kuro]"'. At tir-t it was almost entirely a luxury. As a -armeiit it often has more l)eanty tlian [material "\'] anv other texture: hut wlien it exciianired for it- wei^^ht in iioiil. its heauty must ha\e coiistitut.d hut a small part of till- enjoyment deri\ed from the woariie_^ o\ it. In v.nie fahrics it is now scareely a luxury; its (|ualities of durahility and beauty se.-m to ;;i\c it a ival sup-'fiority. sutlici.Mit to render tlie sajterior priee paid for it no dis-i]iation. Int-reas.' tliat facility very much, and some of these fahric- would lie [altogether] .liscarded hy vanity, [hut retained hy true economy]. Were velvet to hecome as cheap as doth, it would not h.'\vorn hy the higher class.'s; its greater durahility would mak.' it too economical for thoni. and its adoption hy the lower would render it vult^ar. Fahrics of cotton were at tii-st luxuries. They would not. perhaps, have l)een worn [at all in Europe] liad they not had rarity, and conse.iuently vanity, to recommend them. < 'ashnure shawls are so now. in time they too may cease to he so. The process, indeed, lias made some proj^ri'ss in France, where. I liave 1>eeu told, !rr.,i.,,.,:. \:^\.-\r VMI i^ in.i tli^ OF LT'XURV 275 tilt; hrec'il of tln" animal yielding' the w.xjI has t».>fn introiluct'd, and the manufacture consiiJcratily advaticed. Vanity, also, [hesides aidiui; in the spread of e.stahlished art>] sonictinifs facilitates [the creation of wholly new forms ol] real iiiiprovem.'nt, by tlie hi<,'h estimate it i^ives to articles that are luen- luxuries, but which contain the rudiments of extensive utility It thus stimulates invention to facilitate thtir production, di-velop their utility, and put them out of tin- class of luxuries. tilass was at Hi-st a pure luxury. It was j)rized \>y the Romans for show, as j,dass Ij^'a^ls are now hy sava^'es. In^n-nuity at leiii^th perfected the various processes of the manufacture, and made it an article extensively supplyin;^ real wants. The diamond is at present chietly a luxury; slmulil art ever succeed in j,'ivin;,' at will a cry.'^talline structure to simple carbon, .so as to convert it into that substance, it would pass from the rank of luxuries, and would, too, contribute iar;.'.ly to the supply of real wants. The hi^di estimation in which it is held serves at present to turn the attentif lalx.r of wliicli the Hccniiinlntivc iirinfiplf is capjibh-, pnvious to the abanlot« not carry tluc line of s|K-culation f ir ciiou"h. HiH hanaiiriK' of the sul.jfit as a wholi- is, conse.|Uci)tly. n.ucli iiifpnor to that of Hume an.l sonie otlnrs. It may be said, 1 tliink, to lack gci.frosity : ami hcncf its .'rror. Such a swceiiiii:: indictment cannot issue against tlic wliole human race. Kae's teaching here, on its purely economic side, needs to l,i- supplemented liy the following from Rigehot's E'onomir Slwli.,, London edition, ISMt, p. I7L'. "Hut we must oliserse what is incessantly forgotten, that it is not a S|,artan and ascetic stale of society which most generates saving. . . . With- out the multifarious accumulation . -vr- '•■?- ■ J ARTICLE II. ui' i:.\(IIan<;k hktukkn diffkkknt < <»M.MrNrnKs op ( o.MMolHTIKS WHKH MINISTKI! To LIXIHY. WiiKN luxuri.^s, the pro.lucu of fon.'i:;n art, pri'Si'iil thfiu- -.•Iv.'s tM :i society, wIk.to thi,-y liad l)efoiv Ix.-en stran^'.-rs. tlifir I true 1 valu.' cannot l.t- [rea.lilyl asc-rtaiiiLMl l.y coinpar- iiii: tlit-'rn with comnioditit's oi' -loinrstic formation, for it i.s II It inilfi-il thf really u.Hcful iiualiti.^.s of coniinoilities [which aiv rcailily coinparaljlc], that tit tlu-m more or les.s perfectly f'. i,^ratifv the pas,arfd with real lieinp, he would Iw able, knowinjj the value of the latter, t.j state pretty nearly what it actually sold for. But were a person, in the same country, perfectly ijrnorant of the value of p.>arls, and never havinj; seen any, to \>e .sliown a strin<,' of them, and made acquainted with their qualities in relation to artificial pearls, and jjlasw beads (if variou.s sorts, thoujrli knowing well the price of the latter, he would e>rtaiidy be unai)le to assij^n the .sum to Vxi got for the former. Were a variety of alc(jholic liquors to U' pre.sented to an individual quite i;^'norant of them, and of their value, and were lie, chan;;in>; from one to another, to partake, wca-sion- ally, freely of them all for months and years to«,'ether. all other , !frum>.tanees coiiperuinL' them but their sensible qualities mmW 278 AIM'KNDIX ) Pi am] .tl'.ct, l.riiiu' cunei-altci fidin him. lit- wniild ctTtainly 1"- wrial.l.- to fix tli.ir nlativc vain.-. \V. v. in likf iiiamuT, sji.cinicii.s of all tlir diHir.-nt tal'rics um-.I lor i'.'nialc attire for til'- la>t t.'ii yeaix, with their n-lativr diMivhilitii-^ tickutfd on thiiii, jin-Miitr.l to a per-^oii of j^ood ta^t*-. Imi jurt-'i-tly i;;iioraiit of tlu-c mattfrs. he wouM c-crtainly aNo U- ijuitL- iiica]ialilc of t-oiiiiii^ near tln'ir actual nlativi- I'o-t [to pur- chasers in til.- market.] The same oh-ervation will apply to all otlier luxuries. As tliey compan' w '\ each other, not hy their inherent ipialitie--, hut hy the .litiiculty in procurinj,' them, unless th. mparative lalxir necevsiry to pnxure them he known, there is no irieans of ti.xinj:; their relative price. It atfonls a lule. too, hy which wc may test what are. or are not, luxuries. Thus. I apiireheriil, that were a silver spiMni, or sauce-jiaii, or vase, shown for tlie lirst time, to any jurson in tile miil.lle ranks (,f life, thou<,'h iirnoranl of its valu.' [selliri",' price], yet seein;,' its heauty and susceptihility of receivin;,' the most delicate impre-^sions of the workman, ami heiii;.' informed of its will net cliar^.- him uion- than ..tlKT-, aii.l that .V , A- wit'.- aii.l Mr. Bs wif-- w.-ar th.' sain.- M,rt, h- will car.- litth- wh.-th.-r li.- -.-t- l'..r liis m.-u.-y six "T tw.-iv.- vani- .ir wh.tii.r it t.- t\v.. ..r tin..- inch.-s hn.a.l. Ail tlial li.' i^- c. .iic-riic.l atxait i-- that h.- -Ipiiil'l u'.-t as tiiuoh as ,,tli.r 1 1'l.-. L.-t th.- -aiiif farm, r think <.f imrchasin;,' -.mir II. w maiiur.- f.>r his lan.l. In- will e-..M(-.i\ .- it m-c-s^ary to asi-.-itaiii l...tli th.- .-tf.-cts .if th.- artic-1.- \ii...n tht- soil lit; farms, in (-..ii,])aris.,M with ..th.-r maimn-s. an.l its c-.ist als.. cmi- |.ai./.i with th.in. If h.- tiii.l that, c.mi.ar.-.l with tli.-in, till- I'.jst i^ no ^r.-at.-r. Ii.- will 1>.- iiK-lino.l to jinrehas.- ; if he liii.l it l.-s, ht- will conciv.- it -.. miu-h piin ; whilf it lasts it will hf .'.|iiivHl.-iit V> a marl.- pit .lisc.>v.-rL"l rts a c-ommo.iity haviii;,' a -ha.l.- of .iistinc- tiou s(-an-.-ly iM-rc.-ptiM.- e..nsi.l.T.-.l in n-lati.m t.j th.- .l.';,'r.-e .if .-nj.ivm.-nt 't i,'i\i'^. hut snlhci.-iilly mark.-.l t.> .listin;.'tii--- sort, an.l if lialf a .lo/t-ii p.-. .pie of rank a-l..pt th.- us.- of th-- article as a si^'n ..f lh.-ir superi- ority, it has all chati.-.s to .-nt.-r into th.- cmsumption .>f .-very iii.livi.lual in th.- ommnnity wli.i can ati'ord it. In such cas.s. th.- J. rice of tin- conuno'lity .hpcnils [at first] altou'.-thor on th.- v.-n.l.-rs of it. But. as t-ach of tlu-s.- wislios t.) si-11 av miK-h as pobsihl.-, ami as ho can .lo so m.)st •-.-a.lily hy und- isfllin;,' his nei^rhlKirs. tli.-- price ;,M-aninimiit}' to which he lielon:_'s, ,ind in return receives f(ir it a coni- nioditv, a simple utility in demand amon^- his cn'intrynien. Let the former commoility he lace, and the country to which it is exporte(l K. and tlie latti i- counuodity hai ilia, and ciuntry to which it is imported I). In jirocess o." time the trade increases, until a lar;,'e lUantit)' of lace is exp.>rted. and a lar;,^e ipiantity of harilla imp. that it would ])lace somewhere there the connnand of all the lalior which in E was actually paid for. Amon;: the inendiors of the society D, doubli' the iiuantity of barilla that the lal)or [indirectly] expended in procurin;;- it was [e(iiutably] entitled to. would somehow or ■mother be shared. The ad\antai,n> would not certainly, of necessitv, h.ive that he.ilthy and OF FOREIGN TRADK IN IJXrUIKS 281 vivifyin- L-fft-ct wliich rea! iinjirovfinent (xcasiDiis, f(jr it iiii;:lit not .spi-L-Jul tlir()ii;;li tlir wlinlc cuinmunity, hut iiiirrht lie (lissipatt'd in luxuries by tin' nRTchant>^. mannfacturer-i. ami artisans iMij^ai^eil in aci|niiini^ it. If, however, in other liranche.s of tra^le ami of iiianufacture.s for expeen ^ulijected to the effects of a free competition, may V)e presumed to U- in a j^reat dej^ree luxuries. In them, we may \>c svu'e, vanity has found a material ^n which she could easily fix, and from which there has been no opportunity of di.slotition, when opportunities have presented themselves of observing them, enable us, however, with some certaini y to determine, how far tile commodities subjected to their operation have been luxuries, or real utilities. In regard to articles supply- ing real wants, the more easy and unconstrained the com- munication, the more e.xtended the production, the freer the competition, the farther, as we have seen, are the stock.s of instruments of tfie societies exchanging carried toward.s tlie more (piickly returning orders. Every step in advance in the course is equivalent, suljject only to the risk of the connnuni- cation l)eing interrupted, to a real improvement. With regard to such commoilities, any general evil resulting from over- fini'luction is quite impossible. A partial glut, a.s it is termeil, may indeed occur : Ijut tfiis, although a slight partial evil, [although an evil to particular persons], nnist Vh; a general g ' i : .^t, i m iiinic rapidly to j)./rffctioii,as if tli^' on- yit-Mi-d (ip its metallic triMsuns witli u'l'^'iitf"!" facility, tlu^ sun ilitfusi-il a niori' ;:fiii!il waiiutli, ami ttif fartli i.-jnic.-il in universal ami cxuh.Taiit fertility. Tlie iucn-aseil piuvisiun for wants thus presented, must either lie cDusumed. i>v api)liecl to the formation of in- struments to supply the demands of a moie distant tuturity. Hut thou;,di th.si; are th.- etiects of increased facilitit.'.s in the excliaii'^'e of commodities in as far as they are real utilities, it is exactly the reverse in so far as they are luxuries. Restric- tion in the exchanu.e of luxuries may be. and oft.Mi is telt. as no diminution of enjoyment, hut a ;,'reat snvin;j: of lahor, and the removal of that restriction may almost inuuediately ol)li;,'e all. oi- many of the communities exchanein-. to exjiend the whole amount of lahor tle-y had hefor.' saved. If then we tind that increased facility of exchan;,'e. inst.;ail of .litfnsinp; plenty, spreads poverty, instead of carrying;; the stocks of the comniuniti.'s exhaULdu-- towards the more i|uickly r.'turnin;,' orders, places them in those of slower r. turn, we may assure ourselves that vanity must have heen a very potent :..: nt in I'iviu^ to the coiamodilies exchanj^ed the estimation in which they were held. Perhaps the most remarkahle e.v;umple that was ever pre- sented, of ^^eueral and loni; continued restrictions beiuj; at once and completely ren.ovcd, is that which occurred in con- ,se(|Uence of the general peace succeediue; the tinal defeat of the Kmperor Napoleon, A power which modern times cannot panilkl, hail been lou<: exertL-d to bind up the commerce of Europe. It had been exerted in vain, for that commerce still ino\ e^- sible but that a vast iicprovement must have been universally exi)erienced,an au^uieutation of the resources of boci<-ty every where felt. The havock and in-eurity of war, and the waste of stock and lalxu- atteudin;; it w.iv done away with, and tlie wdiole ener-y and intelligence of the niost powerful and intel- i,.pt,i:i! race which possibly the worleen. were ^m m, ^i OF FOKEIGN TRADE IN UXrUIES 285 turrnMl to tlif aits of peaci-. aiul the aiiu-lioration of the condition of man. Instcail, however, of havini; to mark the lin>j,'res8 of ahnnilance, prosperity, ami happiness, we are rather calleil on to note the prevalence oi yRiverty and distress. It i^, I ajiprehend. impossible, to explain the far extended oppres- -imi under which capital and industry have labored, bnt by admitting' that they have applied themselves lar(,'ely to objects, tlie direct etlects of the attainment of which are worse than ii-"'less to .society. .Misery it is trne is clamorous, happiness is i|ui.t, and therefore the amomit of the actual distress may s'linetimes have been made to appear "greater than the reality; but admittiu!,' a lar<;e deiluction b^r misrepresentation thence ari'-iiij;. there remain too many well authenticated facts and •-latcments to ilonbt. that if freedom of intercourse ami com- {" tition has produceil ;,'ood, it has al.so producetl evil, and hiiice that luxuries have miide a larjje part of the commodities in the production of which that competition has e.xertcd its powers. We may ob.serve, too, that countries proihicers of articles which cannot be aceountetl luxuries, have in fact derived latur will here effect a saviu<,' to the connnunity to that amount. ( 'ommotlities which are mere luxuries, derive their value, as we have seen, from the ditiicidty of ohtainin<,' them. The amount of labor [and other costs of pnxiuction] necessary to procure them, and which thus may !).• said to Ik.' emlxxlied in them, is wliat makes them esteemed. It is throu;,di it that they become tit (objects of vanity, marks of riches, thinj,'s dis- tinj^uishinj,' their possessors from t)ther men. It is of no consequence how this labor has been expemled. It may have been <,'iven to ransack the depths of the earth as for diamonds, or of the sea as for pearls. All that the pos.sessor of the luxury ilesires. is, to have a means of showing that he has ac<(uired the comnumd of a certain amount of the exertions of other men. It is a matter of imlitference to him, what the difficulty is, to surmount which these exertions are neces.sary. Thus, were we to suppose that diamonds could only be obtained from oric particular and distant country, and p.'jirl". froi'i OF LUXrUIES AS OB.IECTS OF TAXATION 287 aiKtther, and wore the produce of the mines in the former, and of the tisliery in the hitter, from tlie operation of natural causes to l)ecome doubly ditiicult to pr(x;ure, the effect wouM merely he tliat in time half the quantity of diamonds and j)earls that it had before been necessary to luiploy for that puq)o-f, would he sutKcient to mark a certain opulence and rank. The same (|uaiitity of ;;oid, or some other commotlity reducible at last to lab(jr, would l)e reijuired to procure the now reduced amount> as the former larjijer amount. Wert- thf ditliculty interposed l)y the re^nilations of the le<.d>lators of the distant countries, it couM make no difference to th.- fitness of these articles to serve the purposes of vanity. As in the case of a natural dilHciilty, an additional quantity of laljor would Ix- requisite to jirocure [on the market] the comnnxlities in question, and tliey would, therefore, e(|ually serve the purposes of vanity. Xor would it Seem to altei' the casi-, were tin- difficulty interpo.sed by the ie^jisiator oi the society cousumini; [but not producin<.j] the articles Foi' the sake of illustration, we may suppose that some par- ticular sixiety is possessed of a pearl fi>hery, from which its iiK'iiibers are snpp!ieI farther, that tile case may assume the sinqilest form, that this sfxiiety has no communication with any otluM". The hshery is situ- ated in a particular bay. where alone, it is found, the animals yielilinj; these concretions can live. The ialjor ainiually ex- pended in procuring; this lu.xuiy, amounts to a million days, or reekoninj; each day at two shillin;;s. to one hundred thousaml pounds. Each cures one hundred oysters; from which, on an averatje, one pearl is procured. In this state of thin;,'s a iliscovery is made, similar to that which Linnaeus conceived prol)al)ie. It is found, that, by a particidar [)rocess, the eQ^rIs, conseouent! V the amount of jjilior t^vseiidi^d ti^ M^wm »!"< I *2h.S APPKNDIX in pidciiiiii;,' cacli iiiii,'lit !)<■ little iiKjre tlian the tivr liuiniiiMlth j)iirt of wliut it \\a.>. Tlif iiitiiii.itr ftlk't 111' siicli a cliaiiiTf wciulil (k-peiul i» pearls ciiuiil lie i^ot simply for the lalior of tishini,' for them, a stiiii;,' of them mi>,'ht lie hail for a few pence. The very poorest class of Women in the st valueless. If. however, we suppose that instead of the fishery liein;j free, the K';;islator ;islator, a clear annual revenue from this source of eij^'hty thousand jiountls. This revemie W(juld not cost the society any ihinj,'. If not ahused in its application, it would Ix' a clear addition of so nnich tSinith seems to have conceived, mere luxuries, a tax imposed on them at the mines would have a similar cti'ect to the hyjiothetical tax on pearls, whicli we liave been considerinff. It would make a real addition of so nuich to the revenue of the community pcLssessini; tilt! mines. In this case the tax imposed by the kin<; of Spain on the j^old and silver obtained from America amounting,' at first to half of the whole tpiantity annually pro- cured, would not, unless aiiion^' the first adventurers, have causi'd any diminution of the revenue of individuals, and its pnxluce would liave formed a larj^e real addition to the ^'eneral rt venue (^f the Nocietv. >iVul OF MXrUIES AS OH.IEC'l'S OF TAXATION liW XfitliLT ill this cii.Hi', howevtr. nor porhaps in any otlier, lia\f c'dtiiinodities aitoj,'etlur luxuries prfSfiitetl tlifiiiselvfs to tlir operations of the le^^islator. They all, prohal)ly, derive part of tlieir vahie from their utility, althouj;!) in many instances the part it makes up may he \try small. Hence a ^'eneial tax upon almost any class of comiiKKlities, is a tax ill whole, or in part, iijKin some utility, and ahstrai-ts some- thing; from the revenue of its consumers. All silk ;,'o^. APPENDIX Alcciliolic liiniors, con-id.T.Ml as a class, are pr«)l)aKly. in a •,'mit df^rr.M., luxdri.'s. Tliry may in part Ih' n-ally useful, hilt certainly, sp.'akitii; in tlu- u'-'o-'riiL tlicir o.is'unption is iiMt iii.aMUvil ],y til" utility r-'snltinu' t'n)iii it. ■- ".ii.- of tliciii. how.'v.r. a;,Mv.in;r with -'ach othrr in th" aniotuit of utility they may I'^.ss.'s'.litV.-r yt lari:"ly in th.; (|uantuni of luxury ..niiK"li.il in tlw-m. Thus it i^, I apjuvhcn-l. xvry ilitlicult to say v.hithfr nnn. hnin-ly. whisky, or ^'in, con-i.l.-rinj; each wi\h rr^anl to its intrinsic .pialitifs. is the pnf.'rahl.- liipior. It srcnis prohahl.' that they an- nearly alike in most respects, save their hein;: more or less luxuries. In (Jreat Dritain rum is, I helieve, at least .louhle tile pric.^ of whisky. an.■ coiisi.l.-re.l a luxury.' The chief l.art of the hi;rh price in Knj,'laml of rum an;jradually in pro]K)rtion to it, the :ihi}; .iiiiciite .sorts mii^iil, perhaps, come to in- esteemecj as II Irsi (■■ 1 :;3!^M 292 AIM'KNDIX a iii|<'i|iiat<' iiiark^ <>( a cajiacity to i-xjuihI lar;,'fly iiinl ■<<) Ix i-'itiviit.il into csjiicial luxiiri>s In tliis casf part nt" thi cxjiiricliiiin' ol' iiiili\ iiliial'-, wliicli i^ ikiw dissijiati'il in ilianj; in;,' t'a-~liiiiiis. wdiiM 1»> inaili' over to tlif lc;x'^''''t"r, iiiid iiii;;li snttici' to sustain sohh' part of tlif jiiililic luii'ilciis. All sii(-li iliiti's, lio\\"i\ i-r, r.i|iiit<' to !»• iaiil on vciy ;_Maihi ally, ilsc till- consnniiition of tli'' (■oinMiocJitiis nn which thtM art- iiiijiostil may \fry prolialily In- sto[)|M(l. M.m havi ;;fn»'ially a \i-ry iii;,'li opinion of tin- riasonahlcniss nf thi-i coiiduct. and the coirictiKss of tlnir taste. i hey aii' apt t< fancy tliat there is a real and very ;;reat cnjovnient in ex jM'iises, wjiicli. in trntli, liave .carce aiiythin<; to reconiniein them hut tile ^^ratification they afford to vanity. In liki Jnaiinei- when any artich' lises suddenly and ;,'reatly in prici when in tlieii- powei', they are prone to adopt some siihstituti and relini|uish the usi- of it. In sucli casi's ihe oliser\ation i fofced on them, that tlie commodity is no hetter than it wa itefore, and that, if then tiny sometimes used anothii- for it the hest thin;,' foi- them now to do is to contiiie themsijvc altoi;etliei- to that otln r. Hence, were a hi;;h duty at niici imposed on tile otiier iiand, imported from ahroad, iiave only t(.> l> watciied at tlie time and place uf importation. Tlicrc is a case in wiiicii duties imposed on foreijrn com modifies, ha\e particular advantaj;es. It not untrciiucntli fci-.fc or IJXIHIKS AS OIUKCTS ()]■ l.WATION JltH hapji. IIS tliat ill iii.iriiit'iictnn-. svliidi it is tlif nl.i.ri ni tlic li';;is|at<)r to intnnlnc.', ainl cany tu j..Tt'.M-tinii within tin- si.c'iity. till' cliii'f. ]Mrlia|>s tlir (inly ilitli-rcnnv Ictw.n tin- ■ •nioyiiifiit ari'dnl.cl liy tli.- t'orci^rn ami liy lli.' cl.nn.-st if iirticli' li«s in till- j,'rati Heat inn tin; t'orim r arti.nis tu \aiiitv. Tliis is v.ry 1,'cncrally tin- cast' in all cuininoditi's att'ordin;; iiiatfrials till- ^uch articlfs of lircss aw an- seen \>v main , tlii'sc iH-iu"' always in a jfi.-at (l,i,'i-.f lu\iiii«s I v.iy ihik-Ii i|ii>'stion, for iiistanii. wlirtlirr tlif passa;,'c of tlir niaiinfactiiri- of calicoes from liritain to Aiiiirica, lias occasioncij tli.- wtarcis ,,( caliccws ill till' I nitc.l States any scnsildc diininiition in tin- comfort, or in till plcasiiro arising from tin' j)ir<'cption of U^antv, airoiclid hy such articles. The stanilar-l is in such cases altogether relative, the pleasure ^'iven hy any particular drtiSH of this sort iirisinj^' from its heiiiir as fashionahle, ami as he- coiiiinir as the dressus of other persons, or more fashionahle ami more InM-omiii;,' than tlieirs. and llie chief rein;' te for rendering,' any fahric fashionahle. seeiiiin;: to 1h- that it Iw costly and liavt- novelty. The unrestrained iiitroo. in trans- ferinj,' the manufacture of any of them fn nie eountrv to another, it very fre(|uently happens that, in as far as the article in (|uestion has real utility, the domestic soon e(|uals the forei;,'!! variety. It is ehielly in a lalwirious tinish. for the most jiart tiie result of the ilemands of vanity, that tlie former falls hehind tiie latter. In such instances the operation of traiisfcrriiii,' tlie art from one country to another, hv means of a protective duty, takes eitiier vrry little, or notliiiij;. from the i-eveiiue of individuals, and makes, it may he, a consider- ahle addition to that of the le^^nslator. Its ;,'eneral eri"ects on the funds of the community, are [accord in j,'ly directiv and indir.'Ctly, to advance tlie ah,solute capital of the ,societ\- liv the introduction of a new art, and, duriii;,' the pr(«-e,s.s, to ;,nve a considerahle revenue to the le;;islator for the attai iinent of puhhe ohjects, witiiout eiicroacliinj,' at all. or hut ii. a , .-rv »C23 »u\: \V,U •2y how iiiuch, therefore, any operations of the le;^islator add to the jtrid- of any commodity, hy so much, it is .said, they always, and in every case, taku from the revenue of the .society. When, therefon-, hy taxinj; forei;^n luxuries, the le;;islator raises their price, it is asserted that he proiiortionally diminishes the general revenui' : [and therehy the j^eiicral stock or ca]iital. since capital can only au^^meiit liy ac<'Umulation from i'e\enue]. The answer to this ohji'ction is, that thou;^h as every commodity consumed hy an indi\iilual, derives the estimation in which it is held from soiiiethiui; in some most complicated system of pel-sons and thin;:s const itutin;^ the society of which he is a inemlier, while that s\ stem remains in all its pai'ts un- ehanp'd, whatever ;,'i\es him ilie command of a ;^reater portion of the particular commodity than liefore, necessarily increases the amount of C(jmmoession of a certain relative supiiiority, or a command ^|-eate!' or less of the lalMjf of other men, then the ;;enerally iliiiiinished cii.st of "•■ 'auilrait ikih lirer iu eonnii|Uehee inMiiile i|u'eii faiBunt nionter leur ]irix ' la violence, on accroil leur utilite, i.a \aleiir (-changeahle ou appreciative ,st uiie indication ile I'utllite donnee U U pioihiction letlle, qu'uutant ijue cctte valeur est abauilouuet a elle nienie '^^^EZvSStl 2!)f, ATPFADIX U^. i>r MO j)ir'|)lit re, i|u'uiituiit que le nitTiMire pent n'y iiif>iivfnr avee fiicilit*'-. " p. ;"). \'nl. I. So fill as till' iiliove is appli -alile tn luxuries, it is eviileutly iiDtliing hut iiii i/iip ilijii/ ilresseil ill a iiietaplior. — a sort ortaiJt suj;gestion ok to the erroiiKius taetiis hitherto pursued liy most advocates of unimpeded foreiitn trade. The mistake has lieeii made of takiii!.' up the defence of the consumer — of commiserating him for the bur lens he has to liear liecauae of tariffs. We now see that such is the nature of expi nditure for consumption (a lar^'e part of it) that he is jioiiii; to he hunleiieil in any event. If tiie government dues not tax him he will tax hiuLself. The line of hattle should lie drawn not in the realm of exchange hut in that of production. The cpiestiiui shouhl he asked, how does th" protective policy as actually carried into praitice affect the forces of production — the prime movers of industry. Does it promote or hiniler them ?] 1 IS 11 I 1 1 t! i If! yi' i ■Mi ■!f?i Ar.TICLE IV. OF THE ART OF THE HANKER. I'AHT I. OK MAN'KI.Vi: IN CKNKHAL. I'AKT II, -OF I'AKTICL'LAK SYSTEMS OF I!ANKIN(i. I'.mr /.' 'I'liK husiness (jf ljankin<;, .si-ciiis to owe its t'diiiidatioii ami I xtriisiuii, to its capacity for j^iviii^ r(^)in for the (leveloptaiciit (pf tliL' Ix'iu'Hts, and for restraininj:; and ronu'dyiiij^ the evils of tile system of credit. The operations wliidi the hanker • xecutes in a j^reat society, liave more than the a(lvanta;,'es <»f th(jse perfoi'med by the system of vimmnts in France, or Kiissia. and by tlie jx-tty store-keeper in a remrjte American Mttlement, and avoid many of the inconveniences of Ix'th. He is the instrument, throuf,di whicli tlie mass of tlie e.\- cliaii^'es, takinj,' place in the community, is performeil. It is his husincss to furnish the means of transiictinj; all e.\- ihanL;es tliat tlic condition of the society recpiires. and it is the husinesw of ail individuals havinjr many such e.xchaii<;es to ertect, to nuike application to him for the means of transact- ing' them. In a ;;reat .society, a person extensively eii;.;a;;e(I in business, may, in a shoit time, have transiictions with twenty, thirty, or .1 iinndred individuals; }iis circumstances can Ijt; known but to a few of them, nor is it jM)ssil)le for iiim to produce to each ^iitisfiif'tory evidence of his own capacity to discluuffe his '[This ia the omiHainn from CliapU-r VIII., whi-re Hue )H>gan his (liacuuion '■f tlif Bulijtct of credit.] r^sT 1 i ! i >n X' 2!)8 A1'PKN?)I\ (•ni^aj^i'iiu'iits. iir to ;^ivf him tlit- sfcurity of otlirrs tor tlicir |iirroriiiiiiK-f. ;iii(l fViTi cnuM hv do tliis, it would Ix' iiisutii- cifiit tor thi- jiuijMiscs of tile LJivatcr jiart of tluiii. If >ncli a jH'i-xiii. lio\\t\ci-. really [losM'sscd fiiiiils in trade and manufac- turc. if lie really owned a stock of instiuiiieiits reijuirin^ a constant clian;^e ainl transfer with those in the hands of others, he iiii;,dit tMiil means to satisfy oii" iniliviilual, the liankei-, of his ea]iacity to execute tlu'^e exchane'es in reason- ahle tiTiie. oi- procure others to he nsponsihli' for his iloin;^ it. It is then the husini'ss of the liankei' to ^'■ive him the means of doin;,' sii, and he accordin;^ly lemls him money when }ie reipiii'es to adcl to his stock of instruments that is to laiy.and I'eeeives mone_\- fi'om him a;,'aiii. when hetra- fers in^ti'nnients to others, that i->. when he etl'ects sales. E\ . jierMin en^a^^etl in l)Usiness doin;; the same, till' hanker is ihe ;,fcneral lender, and recei\ei' of the siiciety. 'I'he mechanism of hankin;^^ is mana^^ed in two ways. Tlu' one is h\' di'-co\nitini^ iiills, that i^-. hy ;4ivin;,' money innnedi- ately. foi- the (ilili^atioiis iiy which one nian conti-acts to pay miiney to another, at some futmc time, deihictin^ a part, the jiroportion of which is tjeterniineil 1)_\- the order i i which instruments stand in the soeiety. and liy the length of the ]>eiiod. This method is analo;^""^ to that of i i rimtii It. ]tnt far ]iref.'rahle. 'I'hus, an individual who holds an ohli^ation hy which anotlur hinds himself to jmy him the s\nn of two thousand poinnU in --ix months, were he in some part.s of liussia. would he just iliahle, were he contidenl of the soKi-ncy of his dehtor, to contract ohli;,Mtions to that amoiu'.t, and pay- ahle a. the same time. Were he then desirous iif havinj; somethin;^- tiausferred to him, of the \alue of two thousand ]iounds. his ^^rantin;,' an oiili;^ation to that amount, and payahlu at ;-;x months, nuLrht help to make the two transacti(jns of ea,sy arran;,'enu'nt. Hut, supposin;,' that he were desirous of ha\ in:; a nund)er of small transfers made to him, that he were to ;;rant a ]>roportional ninnher of ohli;,Mtions, that the pcr- .soiis to whom he ;;ranted theiM Were a^'ain to erjuit oilier^, still smaller and more mimerous, and that these were a;;ain to he suhdixidi'il and reunited, it is e\ ident that the ina.s,s of oti;,;,.., .v-nh! !ie;v.!!le ^(! eoiiiMlie:!': d :!!ld tlie !!!!!!;]ur = =f ■■•■•■' M OF BANKING •2<)9 ilivi.iiials cdiicc riK'd in them so lar;,'f, tliat tlu- trouMi- of ,iinm;,nii;_' tln-iii would Iw exci-ssivr. Tliis system is of ui- >. 'luinec. us }ias l»eon alrwuiy ol>scrveil, of limitt-il application. I!iit wlien an individual ^'ets a bill discounted, the transfers he ( fi'fcts with tlie hank hills lie receives, occasion no future troiihle to himself or dtliers. 'I'he system of hank credits is the second mo of hankin;; is mana;,'ed. It is somewhat analoj^ous to that carried on, throu;,di tlie aid of the Inniks of the North Aimrican store-keej>er. Th.- hanker ;,dves the means of etfect- iii;: any purchases which those dealing; with him are .lesirous "f inakin;,'. and, when they sell, u'ives them immediate credit ti'i ihf amount they recei\f. He is not. however, like tlie -t"iv-keeptr. iir^ffcj on, hy the divad of a stock of ;,M()d.s lyin;,' "11 Ills hands t'lo Ion;,', to allow prDpic to run accounts with liiiii whose credit is in any iiu aus di'ul.tful. Me is a dealer '•imply in cnMlit, ,i,id it is his hu-^iue^s 1.. I'oiv ;,dvin;r credit, to driiiaiid such security a> may sati~fy i m that he can sustain iiM lovs, and this h.-in;^' ^'ranted, to atii.rd the rei|uisite accom- iiiuilation on rea.sonahle terms. 1 he advanta;;es which the liankir dnives fmni hrin^' the U' 111 lai lender of tin' eommiinity, arises eliictly, from the 1" luliar sort of mon.y lie leiKN. It is nut -p.-cie, hut merely an •ihli;,'-ation to pay in specie. Hut as all who en;,'a;:e in hii-iiie^s have to return cash to him. it is eipially ^'ood to them a-~ -peeie. and thi()U;,di them is »i|ually well received anion" till other UKMuhers of the Community. Thus the money of the lank, r comes to make a ^^reat jjart. or nearly the whole, of till' eiiculatin;,' medium. Till- henetits which the soc-ii'ty rectives from the system, "Inn there are no defects in tiie conduct of it, seems to he tluvefold. l-t. As far as it extends, tli>' expense of the circidatin;,' inidium. the expe' .,e which men in husine.s.s must otherwi.se hi put to hy hei:,^' (jhli^'ed to have a (piantity of cash alwav^ i_\ ill;: hy them to meet sudden emer;;eneies, in done awav with. When a man wants cash, ln' ;ioes to the hank for it ; \\lirn he has cash, he carries it to the Umk. Monev never lie>i ;,ii.. MJ;-^ ... ■ \ ';• t <\\ . ^ 300 AIM'FADIX •2<1. It iliM's away with all ijirici.-nev in thf circiilatinjT iiiiiliiiMi [in r,-^|)..('t t') till' inilividiial].' Wlicii tin- -iy>tfiii i)f iiistniiiHiits wliicli lii'liiii.^ to an iiily the flfl'i-ct, and whoii it is rt'diin- liant, fii- has no dilHciilty in disposing,' of thf snpcrHiiitv where it may lie usefully t'ni]ilii\i'(l. •"!'!. It dues both, without the evils otherwise attendant on tlie siilistitiilion of ereilit for coin. The dealinirs uf men of liiiideiici^ and ehaiaeier. are not so mixed up with those of impidv ident and sus].icious persons, as to make the one hoar the liurden ,,f the li.sses sustained tliroui,di the follv or dis- honesty of the other. K\ery instrument, as its formation is pushed on hy the industry of the memhers of the societv. is moveil directly to its projier statinn. It neither runs the risk ot li.in;,' suhjected to remain nsel.-^s. owin;^ to tlw expense of niosnii,' it. nor of hei;ij; misjilaced or de~tro\ed in the process of mo\in;,r it.- The tendency of these three effects. tl'.winL,' from tlie haiik- in;,r system properly cniidiicteii. is to carry the instruments suhject to the o](erati'in of exchaii;,'e. to orders of more ipiick return, tiian they would otherwis,. liave (M-cupied. The outlay expeiiiled on them is not so ;;reat. and they sooner make the exjiected ii'tin-ns. The ai-ciuiniiati\e principle reci'ives in con- .sei|Uence. a stitiiuhis, that enahlcs it to emhrace a lar<;er com|iass of in-tiuiiieiits. and the ;,reneral stock of the society is scion pi-opoitiein;; no »>x- trai IIS olistruction to the additional i'xclian;;es lecpiired, and hence new hranches of hus'iiess arise. From hoth these circumstances, the numliT and amount of i'xchani,'es increase. Tlie money of the hanker, compared with j;old and silver, as a mediiiiii of exchanjxe. would tints seem to he not onlv less expi-nsive, hut more etiicient. When the circulatin^t iiiiiugnipli are nl)vimisly iiii «'xngj;oratioii. But the Imi.lni (.f liiii-iness risk is certainly greatly niitigateil iiiider a n^giiiie of if>:.-;=v' 5is«yf?g OF HANKlN(i aoi any CDuntrv is sjM'cic. pruhalily tar tlir lar;,'cr portiDii of it lit-s i'lli'. E\<-ry iiiiTcliaiit. in •iiicss he caiiifs 1)11, (liiin;; artuall}' iiDthiii",', l>\it 'Hilv waitiii;,' to e. Were We, therefore, to coiitine the advai:ta;;es derived from the institution of hanks, in any community, to the suhstitu- ti'iii of a cheap medium, for a dear one. we siiould make an iiupi ifect estimate of tlieiii,' If, for instance, the circulatin<; luediiun in any country U' one million in coin, and if that ix- supiisedid tiy paper, siiould the i|uantit\- of pajier in circida- tiiin he foun A >. ov fl t (.1 lllrlPtn <'I A fmidoyin.'nts, approaeli of instruments to tin- more slowly rctuniiti;; onlirs, ami acruniulation of stock. Tlicsc tw( circunistanci's dftirniim' tlif amount of tlic jiossii)!.- .'Xf-lian^jt's and.conscc|U<'ntly. |at any ;:ivcn l.^v.-l of jtricrs] of the (aniouni ot 1 mon.y [of all kinds] that may l«' fuiplovt-d in iff.'.-tinj. tlnMll. •"id. Till- ;,'.'ntrai intfllj^cuci'. sa;,'acity, and inti-^ritv of tht iiicnilicrs of till- cominunity. A person ^jreatly dcticient it any of these respects, is one with whom a hanker would no\ wish to deal. r.ut. these iiuaiities are of those 'dviii"- stieni'tl to the effective desire of accumulation: this circumstance theretore. may he consiileled as liier;;iii^- ill tile last, tlu ;:eneral streiiLTth of the accumulative jirinciple. ■'•'•>• 11 tlieieiicy and security of the system of luuikin^j adopted. On the other hand, the l«'netits to Ix- derived from banking: in proportion to its extent, would seem to he ^rreater. th» nearer instruments are to the more (piickly returnin;,' orders and the ^^reater coiis,.i]Uently the srarcity of specie. Where tiier-fore, the accuiuulativ.' principle Iwin^r stron;.'. and fnmi the implied intelli;;enc.', and honesty of the communitv. tht= svst.'iii of hankini: extensively practicahle, 1ml from want of time to work up materials to more slowly returning; orders, instruments an- at those of .piicker return, tlu're the opera- tions iif tile hanki-r are jieculiarly Ix-neticial. \\ e have, perhaps, sutliciently enlar OF bankim; 30S i> rato'l. If it may lx> always oxohaii;;orl for spoeii', or for ^niiif proportion of tin- <;fiicrai rcvinui- abstract*-"! for tlit* [iiirpost's of ;xovprninpnt, it will Iw a rcpresontativi' of soiuo- tliiii;,' roal. But it soinrtitiifS liap])fiis that hankers S(|U.iiult'r. Mr waste, the fniuls pr')vi will 1h' dispised to allow tleir funds to remain in that employment, and he content with the mi>(lei-ate revenue thus pnxluei-il to them. When, "II the iither hand, they are at orders of quicker return, tiiere i-- a ;,'ieat tem])tation tnii>er term for an accumulated -'"ck c.f money in funds. Sometime.^ in this .Article l!ae uses this term, hut ^siv in; iiM*>yiri^ liif- tciio a 904 AIM'KNDIX d! M.V jl wliieli, as if is totimlisi on jncvailiiii; (ipiiiioii. it is liaJiic t rifiivc trmii wliatrvi-r shakes public contiilt-nci-. Kvi rv p-'Tson ('ii''a;'cil in thf t'orniation anil transfer < coniniiMlitiis. anil ailnjitinj^ the system ol' CTeilit as tlie niediui oi tran^t'iT. is imleiiteil to some ituliviilinils, as, mi turn, otlit imlis iilnals are imlebteil to liiiu. 'I'Iil- stiK-k also of instni nients lie lias on liaml, allows him to oHer a ce lain amount l connnoilities for sale, and re«|uirfs him, if he continue lii husiiiess on the same footiii;,'. to [lui'diase certain otiier com moilities, ami ]iay for certain amnunls of laUir. What i owin;,' him, an pay, in (Ifpfiulfncf on the proceeds (A sales I ix' eH'ected ; ami some of these l)ecoiiiiii;r incapahle <•! "liiaiiiin;.' tlio nie.ins of nieetiiij,' tlicir en<,M<;eineiits, tlieir f.iiliin increases the <,'etv i al distress, and farther lessens the iiuinlier inclined to purehas. At this ry critical, lie cannot, in justice to himself, ijrant all the r"|Mivite acconnnodation. and yet, his refrainin;,' from doinj; s" liiust a;,';,'ravate e.xistin;: evils. As sjH-cie is, in .such a state "I thin^.'s, the most desirable of cominiMlities. he has rea.son to t' .ir that a lar;,'e jMntion of his money will 1m- returned on him. .vhich he will lie re.|nired to repla.-e with •! Ill (itlii r p/irts &..n'«^'!'i^SirE«-- 1. 30(J AIM'KNDIX 'i III !! ^tcchi to !»• tlif iliiiiiimtiiiii uf cdiitiiU'ts, ainl cons.'imciitly ilil)t^ |iru'_fr"ssi\ ilv ilimiiiisliiii;; tin- aiiioiint nt' payiiHiits, I wliich it is iicc"s>aiv ti> |ir<)\iili'. 'I'liis toriiiiiiatinii is ii-tarili liy till' "-ti ii:.'L,'lis lit' th'isi' wliDsr ii-al t'uiuls, in jirniiortinii till' <\;tiiit lit' tliiir liusjiiiss .iTf siiialli'sl. ami wliusc iiiotiv til cni^'a;,'!' ill frcsli traiisactiniis. an; cliii-Hy the liopi-s *:=.:-l? it^*: OF HANKING 307 ]),iyiiifiit anil rt'Ct-ipt nf tin- n-vomic ..f tlw stat.\ Wti.'itfV.T ill.- ;,'nvfriimfiit ri'Cfivfs. in li.-u of the pr.'i-ioiis m.'tals, nr itli.r cninnKxlitifs, in payment of tlif inip.ists it l.-vii's, will li,i\.' til.' \alu.- of tliat for wliicli it is tak.-n in t'xclian;;r. < ;..Minni.iit may so etween ilitfereiit countries. Banks, as '''" .-'■'■■■'{ 'icaiers in tiiese tals, are necessarily exposed to the inconvenience af havin^r to provide a supply for the d. inan.ls ,,f.(.asioned l.y Huetuations in the laisiness of diti'er- 'tit countries. Althou;,d). howeve-r. this circumstance is always "inre or less intimately counccted with tin- hiisitiess of hank- m.U' It is not n.-c-ssary foi- our purpose to examine the effects n'siiltin;,' from it. We may contine our attention, therefor.-. alio;,'ether to the 'onsideraticjii of the art. as a means of facilitatin;; .•xchan<;cs uithin any society. A hrief statement of its condition"in Se,,tland. a country in which, toJudj:e from the circumstances .itten,|ii,^ its intr. luction, and the practical heneHts arisin;,' li"ni itsuperati-n, it has prol)al.ly arrived as near perfection 4> any where, may sutHciently serve the purpose of showin;; the manner in which the modr ,,f its operation may he •Aplaine.l hy the principl.-s I have endi-avored to develop, and li"w It s,.,.ms to attain the power of communicating,' il„. .idvanta;:es it is capahle of hestowinjr, amJ of avoidinTj the •■^ils to which it is sometimes liahle The Scotch hankinjr -y-t.iu is also hetter fitted for an example. lK>tli as it was the on- directly presented to the oh.servati(ni of A.kiu Smith, and ^•^i^ >''^ 308 APPENDIX .V' finiii wliicli, )icciinlin;;l\\ liis ideas on tlif subject seoiii to h cliittly tiikeii, hikI Imouisc it is not directly connecteil wit tlie issue of j;o\ ellllnellt [laper. or witll tile passilj^e i»i' coin c l)iiiiion fr fliictiiatioiis of Imsincss rt'tidt-r a iiirrcliaiit soiiU'tiiiH^s a bornnver. soinotiincs a IcikUt. For ixaiiiplf, two li'.crcliaiits in Gifat Britain air iMi^fai^ofl in the tiniluT traiif. tlu' one in that carricil on witli I'rnssia, lln' other ill that witli t'anaiia. A chanj^e takes plact> in tlie husinesH. tVoiii the iluty on Prussian tiinlwr heinj; lossened. Tlie Caiiailian tiniU'r trailc In-inj; tlius no loii;^'fr protitahle, tlit; ini reliant wJiose capital [i'undsl was eniharkeil in it. with- iliaws it I'njui that trade. He employs a portion in an experimental adventure to Prussia, hut the lari^ei- part he has no immediate use tor, and is, therefore, in a comlition to lend to others. On the other hand, the merchant who had heen accustomed to trade to Prussia, knowing; the details of that liusiness, and havinj; a corresponili'tice estahlished there, is all!"' to employ with advantaj^e a much larj^er capital than he p.issrsses. He wishes to Ixirrow instruments, that is, com- modities to export to I'ru.ssia, and to iiave tln' use of ships for the iloiihle transport. Fluctuations, such as tliese, and in- iiiiiiiiiahle othei's. occasion continual var itions in tlie stock which every merchant, or trade with I'russia. 'I'ln' etl'eet pi^duced is. ii so far. similar to that which would havf lesiilted iVom tlu Canadian trailer leiidiiiji- part of his ca|iit.ii ldireetly| to tht tradei- to the It.iltie. It ditters iVom -uih a u.insact ion, how «'Vi'r, in three i-espects: 1st This,- two indiviiliials mi;;ht Ik uuknowi: lo each other, an I nii::ht have no means of asci^rtain in;j thi r respective plans ; Jd. The merchanl tradinu to C'anadi woiilii pi-oh;dily lia\e either less or more sjiare funds, tnan tin merchant tradinj,' to Prussia reijuired : lird. He mij,dit, also proliahly ha\i' occasion to call f.ir them, lor his own purposes at a time wlu'ii it mij,dit he incon\iiiient, or inipos: d)|e, for tin OF BANKING 311 othtr to replace tlieiii. The Kaiiker, on the eoiitiary, is always !■ :i(ly to receive or to lend. Tliniii^rliout all the occupations canieil on liy the ilitlerent ii:.inl>i,'rs of the community, similar circumstances occur. One tr.iilesman, or mechanic, is laying; hy t'unils lor Imiiilini; a Iwiliinj,' house, anothm- is exix-mlin^' all the fun.ls hi- has laiii Ipy, ami, pi-rhaps, horrowini; a litth- more, for the purpose lit liiiishiii;: a ilwellin;: tiouse. While the farmer is depositing,' ill thf hank some part of the proceeds of his sales of <,'rain and cittle, the corn merchant and .e huteher are lirawin;; funds iiuiii till' hank, for thf purjxjse of assistin;,' them to purcha.se I Insr commodities. It wii! thus he found, that the person makiti;,' the deposit, is • me who has just transferred to others, who can employ them :it the iii'jment to more advanta;^e than he, sonn.' instruiui'iits wiiirh he held, ami that in return he receives a claim to that .iniuuiit. on the funds [as,sets] of the liank. and of interest on it till paid. These funds, [a.s.sets] ImwrMT. consist chielly of liiht^ iiwiiiL,' to the hank hy the community at larj^f. and that iiiti list is drawn from the profits arisin^r from th<- stock of ui-truiiii lit-- iffectivi-ly owiiid hy the hMid< and lent h\ it to til' iiidiv idiiai ' with whom it deals. Ilriici- the perM)n m.ikiii"- ih. ill posit is one lia\in;_'' transferred a jiart of hi'- >tock of ii.-tnimer.ts to an individual, and re(ei\ ini^f in lieu of it a sh.ite I', the claim of tlu' Icink, on the ;,^'iieriil ^toek of ih--t ruiiient-- owiied hy tliose indehted to it. 111 this w .1 V thi- hank mav he i-ni-idereil as a hroker neeotiatin;^ lietweeii those, the condition ■ i whose husiness rei|uires theiii to horrow. and those, tie- iMiidition of whose husiness di-,poMs theiii to lend, and ;,'eneral- i/iii;: the tran-actions of Udh. It is not h\- any means, iiowever, only a hroker, lieside^ the tluctuatiii;,' deposits, it li.is a lar;,'e capital of its own emh;irked in the husiness. This I- eliielly owned hy indiv idii.ds whose circumstances place ill' 111 ]ieiiiiaiientl\- in the class of leiidi'i-s, persons retin-d, or I'tirin;,' from active husiness. or widow--, etc.. w In i. selling'- otl' ilieir stock, emplov tlieir funds in this manner. riiis system proliahly yields as many advanta;,'es as ;ui\ liitlieit'i discovered .ind a\oids. as well as m.iy he the chief ' vils lo which the lnisiness of hanking' is snhject. 312 AIMM.NDIX ' \ \l I: ft ' 1. Hy tnciiis lit' it ;ill jiossililc exiliiiMLTc^ arc tiiaili' at t) least "XiLiis'- . ami witli tlif t.'r';,, ^reat e. .iilidence ill the stahilit\- of tli h.inks that iiothini,^ hut siiiiie \ir\- ^r.at ri\ohilioii in tli atl.til-o| the socii ly. Ml' s(,|lle ^le.il e.i||\ iiUiuii ill the llione mark't. would l,e ^Mtiirient to sii.lke it I >\\ in^ to the SVstel liiii-ned. ! he jM.s^il.ilii y of ally i;re,it disturhaiii f the ii,one maikei is pi'i'Viiited This fninis (lie fourth ciicumstancc t he lloli'd. i I ha\" olisei\ed ill the jireeidinu' Jiari. th.ii wlnn an OF HANKIN(i 3i:{ nx.rsf hiippi'iis to tlif ti'.ulf of n coiiiinuiiity, tli'' iliiiiii)Mtioti III' ^,ili"> wliicli is til'' coiisiMiiii'iici' of it. wliiif it rfiidfis it iirciss,ir\- for tlins.'. wlin-^r 1 iii^i ii'ss. as conipariil with tlitir capital [ri'aiU' iiiotirv |, is mucli t"\jiamii'sited with him. they have no particular motive !'■ induce them to lodj^e it in any hank. Hut. when a p'Tson iiit'uds !•• keep nion<-y l\in;; hy him. he will \>i- apt to pi-efer i-.iin ti) p.iper. the foi'mei' is tile secur'st of any sort of pro- I'lty. the latter may ]iossihly he insecure. He will iiioie ■ -picially lie inclined to prefer the foriiii-r if he have the , i-i siis]iicion of the stahility of the hank issuing; the papei-. 1: 1- thus that, at such seasons, what a<'e calleil lains upon |i,irtieiilar hanks ai'e \fry apt to arise, and Uitli to l(rin<; ruin "11 the hank, and increase the ;,'eiieral eiiiliari'assment. Hut uheiever, as ii) Scotland, the hanker allows inteii-st on all -uiiis c|i pl' the si'iirty in the shape of .leposits 1 ,\e not for fifty \ears hei'li 1 \|M.-ed to any dan;^ers or ini'onveiiienc' s of the sort and in ti.e midst of the ■«c\ei-est coiiiiiiercial distress, and the i-inn of til' hank ine- estahlishmeiits of the sister kini^'doiii. have alwavs I !/ ') K ! ilh i I I >v ■!■ .•{14 ArrENDix niaiiitiiitinl tlnir conrsf stf.iilily, hihI 'ut-cii alilc to apply tl n-sniin-C' cif tin' coiiiiiMinit y to carry tlio>>f tlirouj^h tlic erist wliiisc I'liiliarrassiiii'iits liaii arisen, not I'roiii the baiikru] state 111' tlieir atlairs. hut Ifoin the pre>siiie ol' llie tiiiies.' ."> Kaiiks have vei-y ol'teii JNsned an ovei-ahnmlant stijtpl of their |iaitieiihir ni'iiiey, ami it has heen deureeiateii. A ell'ectiiai n-iueily lons, ho\\e\er, lio not tliink ihi tiii^ i-~ sniiicient and heiie\e, that, notwithstamlin;^, an ovi i»\ie may take |)la<'e. If so. tlie Scittcli systi'ni, hy its tei ijeiicy til r.tuin on tlie hank all Tiiomy nut in inmiedia n--e Wdnid seem to he a pretty eliictixe check on tile OCCU lence of such an e\ il. I'.ankin;; may he titl_\' descriheil. as a ;,fenerali/ation of ind \idiial ciedit I ransaci ions, l^\ery s_\>teni of liankin;^ ^'eiiera i/.es tlieni to a ;,Meater or le,s,s 1 xtent. 'i'lli- Inure coniplete ti ;_'enerali/.ation, the more I'ompletely does tiie system perfori its functions, ami tin- nearei- it conns to tiie peri'ectioii ( art. 'i'lie Sc.iteii system, \ iewed as an art nf tiiis sort, seen toii(it'nc(' t.ttw.fn Loni l.ivtr|nM.l iiii,l the (liiiiufllor uf tl Kxi'lui|iu'r iiii'l till' I'liink i rxpamliil. an' uii(l>r the nccossity of l»orn)W- iii;,' to a lar^^iT extent tluvn they luul antieijiated. If, on xieli iK-ea^ions, they whose hu.siness has t)een contraeteil witliin n.iiTMWer limits than their (•a])itals [means] woiiM have ail- iiiittiil, and who, in e()iise(|uen(e of avui'lini,' to purehase, have .1 hii;,nr sui-plus (•a|)ital Ipurehasin;; pow.rj than usual in their li.iinis in the shape of money, retain it there, instead uf plaein;,' it in the hank, tlie hanker is restraineil from makiii;,' the a'Kances he otherwise wouM, and a violent check is i;i\en to tlie n|Mi-ation of the credit system, siithcient to ;,dve a Ix'^^dn- iiiiii: til eunviilsions more extensisely deran;;in;,f it. This system, also, as comjiared with tlie En;;lish, adjusts it-rli' with ;,a'ealer precision to the actual circumstances of the twu t^qeat classes of the comiiHinity, the lenders ancl liorrowers, \ii wli.ise trans.ictions it serves as tlie instrument. \\ hen, in ciiii^, ijUriice either of the pro;,'ress of acciniiulat ioii. or (jf iiii-f,iitunes hefallin'T the indiistrv <>f the cuuntrv, instnuneiits .ii'' placed in more slowly returnin;,' orders, and profits fall, iH.rruuers shoidil pay li'.ss, and lenders i-i'cc ive less, hn- tlie II-.' iif cajiital. And rever.sely. when prutits rise. m. ire should i'- paid hy the one class, and more receixcd hy the other. Tlii^ is naturally hrou-^dit almut where a <-ertain rate is paid I'll' funds dejiosited, as well as foi- thnse drawn. Ind-r such .1 -^y-tem the hanker cannot ati'ord to have any ca|nlal [any iii'iiiry heynnd the necessary reserve] lyinj; dormant. He iiiiisi, therefore, preserve the proper proportion hetweeii the finuls depositee] in his hanils, and those drawn out of his li.illd-. When the former hiCoUH- tcnj ;,jreat, which w ill he the e.i-e when trade is dull, he lowers the rate of interest which 111' eli;ir;_res his customers, and. also, that which hi' i^ives them, ami thus dimiiiislies th<' amount deposite^iilt fruiii l)iiiiL,' al"ili-.li.-,|. (ir Iroiii its actiuiis Uin^ inqxiliil. ( »ri t accduiit I sliall stall- tliirr liy|Mitlii'tical casrs, with rr;;ani tlir sys|. Ill wliicli w.' ail' imw coiisiilLiiii;,', as an ••xaiiijilf tlir i-tficts (if Ipankiii;,' in ^'incral. In the y. ar Is2il it was |(rM|H.sr.l in thr Ftritisli I'aiiiaiiif to iiiact a law piittin;.' a stn]i tn the circiilat inn of one [loii liank iiof.s. the I'hi. r nioiny of Si'otlant and tlir rU'rcl liad ivally Imih iitti rly to alKilisli tlie husin ot hankin;,' in that roimtry, and iml.ss in hartir. to in.i all liuyin;,'' and s.llin'_'^ tn Ir.. tr insarteil in coin, litlni- in rea cash, of in cash paid whin the |Hriod. to which credit 1 hei-n hlliiteij. expired In considering^ ti,,, ,.t};.,ts ,,!' sm-h a chaiiixe, we mav div all transactions now t akin;,' |ilace in Scot latid. and concert in the c|l|estion, into llmse etr.-cted 1 ,y iiank hills, or as tliev telliie,! hank notes, and those etfecteil hy checks on soliie ha I. t>t thos,. now elf'.'eted hy haTik hills, of which niajoiity are what are call.'d one ponnd notes, (it niav he s that without lliese hills 1 ..Miy |Mirchaser. that is. everv jier in husin. ss wnuld lie ,,hli-vf| to have contiiuiallv Iviin' liini to answfr occasional demands, a certain sum of act mon.yl |.r.ipoitional to tl xt.-nt of his husiness. and wl jireparini: for s,,iii,. estiaordinary occasion, hir a len;:tli tim.- piesioiis he would 1„- collecting and hoarilin;r up f„i siillicieiit hii' the purchase or puichases h.' intend. mI maki A larue jiart of the money nf the country, would therehire. cnstanily lyin^' idle doin;^ Unthin;: hut waitiui; foi-someth to do. |,rt US siippos,. that We aiv in Scotland at the ],res moment, and that h.mk iioies hein:: ahle to hear and ansi Ab OF BANKIN(i in'i tu sonic otiicr jxTsoii, oitlicr to jmy sonif licbt. or to nmke ijuikfr, who sets UH iiiiTliiisf, or if Hot. earrifs us to tin' li out ii;;iiin on the sanK- round. Soniftinics, ine put hy in sonic place of .security, aloii}; with others of our hrcthren, and with them to wait the chance 111' liein;; called out to cH'ect .sonic exclian^je. aftc-r which we a;.'.iiii return fur a time to inactivity. ' What in the supposed ca.ses must he true of a particular .set lif hank notes, or a |iarticular .set of soverci;;ns, would lie true of all hank notes, and of all sovcrei;^ns, and hence the amount "t exchan;,rcs eti'ected in any particular year, hy means of three and a half inillions of hank notes (alMnit the present ciiculatioii of Scotland), must he far ;,'reater than wuuM be 1 tiectrd in the .same time, uinler the supjHisitions we have liv three and a half millions of sovcreiLrns 'I'he latter ci.iiiil no t lH)tli he ett'ectinj; e.\chan;^es, ami lvin;x ''"' 2. liiit, lK'-.i(les the c.\chaii firciiinstani'' woiiM r.ii.i.r it iiccfssurv to mak-r to tlic oiroilatiii;,' iin-ilirj in onlri- to Iiiin;: sov.Tfijfn^i to a|n.ro\iiiiiitf in ctHciciicy ilif li.iiik iiotfs, till- place of wliifli tlii'V e coi jectnreii. not known, eveiy person en;fa;,'eil in litisiiiess won iK-easionally eir in his calculations, and would som- tinier lia\ conuMoilities otl'.rc d liini wiiich he would wisji to pnrchas l)Ut for want of ca-h would he unahle to purchase. The t\\ eirciniistances refencl to, the .uiditional expense of exchan"e eonse(|uent to the additiona I money [sp.cie) necesvar\- to etfiji [any ;:iv.-n amount of) theni. anil the rliminution of e\chanir( conse.|Uent to the Want I" the money |eonventional inear of payment] necess.iry to effect them [.■xpeditioiisly |, unite( Would mark tin' direct loss the .■ommunity sustained hy tli alx.iition of the hankin;: Mstem. 'I'he in-lirect loss woid arise from the check ;,'iven to the accumulative j)rinciple, h till- diiiiinishe.l .|uickness of return of instruments — l)v wlni would he termcl the dullness of tra.l. — and the diminishe accumulation of stock conseijiieni to it. l!ut such a supposition as that we liave made, could n( possihiy come to he a re.ility. When the art of liankin;,' ha once heen introduced int(j a comitry, the ad\anta;,'es resultin from it. are too;,r,vat to admit of its l>ein;r alto;,'ether alH.iislu-, There will always lie .some generalization of credit tran.sac tions, .some recoj,nuz.'.l mode of transferrin^r fnjiu liand t hand, promises to pay, made hy one individual to Hiiotiiei The eiiactm.iits of the le;;islator may act on th.- art so as t' make It moiv or le.ss effective, hut they cannot prevent th practice of it. 1 shall, tlierefore. make another si ppositioi: anil a.ssume that the measure innpo.scd ha\ in;: heen adopted sov,-rei;:ns took the place of h.uik notes, and that, notwith standiii;,'. the hanks continued their operations as hefore. In this case the hanks. h\- tlie supposition, invine- .soverei>'n: out. ani receiving: them a^aiii in the ,sa:ne manner as thej V.\s Mite OF BANKIN(; 31!> liaiJ tlii-ir own iioti-s, tin' ('iiiiiiiiiiiiity in nt tluit nf liamlliiiir t.'"'l'l insttiwi III' papiT, ami tlii-y wmiM Iia\c liad tin- at tlio jK)siti((ii. iilso. is iiiadiiiissilili'. Tli.' 'liiiiimitioii 'ft" tlif pai«'r nioiicy issuftl 1)\- tin' liaiikcrs. \v..uli| li.i\>' pniportioiialily iliininislicd tlicif prnfits 'I'lic aiiiiiiint of oiif poiiml liaiik iiott's thtTf (•ircuiatin;,'. iM'iri;,' soim'tliin;,' o\ii- two iiiiilioiis. thi'ir circulation woiiM ]>ro|pat>lv lia\"- •"•l-ii I iiitailiMl t)y tli>' ini'asiiic hy ni-arly two iiiillions Tlii^ at tivc p.-r cent, is not much sliort of half of what they inake t.v tlie whole fumls ilcposited in their hainU, which ha\f I., en • -tiniateil at alKnit twenty millions, an'l on wliicli the\- ;faiii • lie Jier cent., tlie I lifieienCf lietWeen what tlleV rhai^'e those who Ihiiiow from theiu. ami which they ;,'i\e iho>e who |iim1 f" them. Their profits must therefore, have Keen ;,'ieallv' • liiiiinisheil hy the measure, ami luiless we suppose that hankiis in ScMtlaml have more than the ordinary profits of stiH-k, whicli, where there is so active a competition, e.innot well he, ( il.ital wouM have het-n withdrawn from the lnisiness.' or the hii-iness would have underi^one a ch.in^^-. It is prohaliK' that the latter circiUiistancc Would have happened. The hanks Would .>itlier have made more than one per cent liiHerence hitwr. 11 wliat they allowed and what they diar^'ed for monev, 'If as is mole likely, they would h.a\e c' ani;eil the svstem of liaiik credits. The husiness i>i the small dealers, tradesmen and farmers, who have credit with the hanks, is transacted mostly by one pound notes. iJaiik hills exceedini; five pounds rarely pass into their hamls. Tuder the supposition, ther.- t'nie, this cla.ss would have circulated hut v.^ry little of th.j '■anker's paper; he. consequently, would have declined ^jrant- iiiLT them credit, in this way, and confini'd his cre(lits f)f this ' II may 1)0 i>li,iiervi(l, that tliuru i.s a t;n:it iliiriroiiie iKtui'ii - to i\u- issdc ol' wliicl lie was (•(iiitiiiiil. ;iu(l whose liusiiicss, coiisiMiii'-iit ly. wotilil hav( hiMii iiioiv |)i-otital>l.' to liiiii. 'I'lif facility "f -■xchanirc ainonj, llic Muall liialcis would liavc liccii <,Mvatly alirid;,'cd, am throiiLrh it. tliat anion;,' tli'- whole c lianker, ill money lie issues- may he fitly descrilied as counters wliich li e-ives I hem t'oi' tile jiurjio^e of arran;^iii;.f tiieir transactioi: with one aiiotlier. and wiiicli they return to liini immediatel tlies are arraiii^-ed. tiiat thev mav h.- rated (Jii his lioot; ;* 'IKac iiCL.'li'i'ts 111 iiiiMiti'iti ciin' 'in'iiin^taiiri' mm-li i.in]ilinM/rcl l.y ro-fi niiti'is. tluii is, tli;it tin- ..ih- iimuii,! n.itc in S,(itl,iii.l is .|iiitc iier.~s.iry (11 iliU- till- ti.iiiks to iiMiiiliiin tliiir cxleii.sivi' syst.ni of liruK.lies, wliirli i'.iri 1. liiililc liaiikiiiL; fii.ilitn's rv.-ii into ihr sniiilK'st liiunlt'ts. Tlic .siiiall lian iioti- luniisliis ,1 ilii'iip " till iiiiiiK'y," witlinut ulurli luaiicli liankiiij,' on ai laij;<' sr.ili i- I.hi cxihiisim-.I ■•'[■rii.it is, till' nioiiry wlii'li ill- piys out an.l r.Ti'ivcs. " Hank money" tins |i,iiai;ra|ili is not " li.iiikir's money.' tli.it is, liauk cre.lit ciiiiency wlii we oi-.linaiily speak of as Leing " issue. 1 ' ; it is aclnal money, siieeie. as us in coiiiie.ti..n «itli a system of liankiiiw Se.' lielow,] 0^ OF BANKING 321 jii-oordin;; to the place they occupy as JKirrowers of part, or as (iwiiers of part, of tlie ^^eiierul funds wliicli l)t' lioliis. An in- • |iv (lal who has a deposit in a hank draws froTn it, we shall s,i . , the sum of £1,000, and Ii'ssimis hy that amount tlie ■Irpiisits in the hank, anil foi' which it has t(j {lay interest. Hut, of course. h>' intends to put it to some use, that is, to make some pureliase or yairchascs with it, or pay for some I'l fore made. The person or persons to whnm. for tiiis pur- |«-e. Ik- transfers it. hy the supposition dealers with the hank il they ha\f no iiinneiliate use for it. will directly carry it to tlie hank, ami then the ;;eneral deposits and loans of the- bank will he the same as liefore. hut the hank accounts of tlie parti- cnlar (hjwisitors and hormwers enj:a^e(l in tlie transaction will li;i\e sutiire(l an alteration. If. on the otlier liand. any of thcise iniiividuals. amon;; whom the £1.00(1 is distrihuted, or ail of them, have use for tlie sums tliey receive, that can only le to make some immediate purchases, or to pay for .some liefore made. In this way. after passing throuj^li a less or _'i<,iter number of hands, the .tl.OOO the banker has is.sucd linds its way back to him. and. as far as his business is con- cerned, he is exactly in the same situation as before lie issued it '["he situation of the ]>ersoii who took out the money, and tlial of them who return it. is altered. (Jne liolds a fp'eater ^tnek of instruments, and the oiiie ]iarticular instrument or instruments, an>l the latter ii.ive done the leverse. The bank money, therefore, jia.s iii'iely served the place of counters, by aid of which th<> eii^toiiiers of the bank settli theii' transactions. anro;^ress, there was a proportional diiniiiutioii in the amount of interest which the bank had ''• piy its eustomers. and. if the counters it ;;ave them were i.i.i.ly jiieee^ of pa]ier (ci^tiiie it little or nothing,', thi- uoiihl lie -o much cle.ir e-;iin "o it; if they were ;_'tantially the same, nnless in so fa as the liusiMes> of one hank may In- extending,', tliat oi aimtho contracting;, a cin-Miiistaner wliich is jfenerally of littli nioiiiciit to the conniiunity. It is only wh.'ii th.' hankers money pa'sses out of tlie ranrr. of those havin;,'- transactions with liiiu. that it come.s to hole the place of other nioniy. While it is in tlicii- hands, i performs the otfice tliat other money would, and in thi respect, if it he ])aper money, lie >^;x\ny^ an advanta;:e no directly sprin^^in^ from the excliance> mana^'e'l hy his fnn Individuals, however, wlni do not deal with any hank, when liankin;; is properly managed, are pci-sons whose athaii's d< not reipiire tliem tn keep [much] money hy them, and hy th( ajijency of lM)th classes, it is, tlieicfore, preserved in ccjntiiuia motion and employment, I have entered into a longer d(>tail on this suhjeet thai I haf)r conse (juent on it. the -oim'cc of stock, wln-reas I have cnde'a\ored ti show that exchanc;e is the result of the increase of stock, am suhsequent divi>ion of employments, that tln' nei'cssity for it existence is a circumstance reiardini,^ the increase of stock and that the heuetits of the art of hanking spring from th facility which that art e;ives to the process. ' [ .\|i|uirfiill\ .loiiii stiKwt Mill lollouid XiAf in tli it passage nf his I'rinri-Jt (Hk. III. 0. 111. -e. . :! , mIuti- III' spiMUs iif tlir •• .•Iticiincy of ludiify' n an fviirissi.in in Mrmo ilf:;iff jinfiralili' to " ia|iiility "f ciiculation."] ss OF BANKING 323 As oxchani^e may Ijo said to l)e the comtnencenient of A'd to. and where, conseijuently. no such su{)erabundance of the commodity, money, exists, money naturally resorts thither, and is atti acted to the spot where it l"Mrs the hi it hr specie aloiu] of wliich the ba forms tlie centre of circuliition, as compared witli that, whi vvluTe tliere are no bunks, circulates slowly and aftfr interv of iiia(ti\it\' between dealer and dealer: that the one "a more i'a])id ciicnlation, serves as the instnimeiit of ma more purchases than the otlier"; and, consequently, that if 1 same Mumlier of transactions only takes |»laci- after thf est; lishment of banks, as before their introduction, then un: less money will be neces,sary. and if the same money be cin iated. the fact indicates, that a <;reat addition lia.s been ma to the b'Usiness transactfd. and still more if the moii circulated exceeds that formerl}' circulated. It is this li event, that. 1 conceive, ^fenerally takes place. In this, as other instances of real improvements, the [ultiniate'i effect contrary to what miyht have been anticipated, the <;rea facility in j)erforinin;,' the operation brin^inj,' so much ;^rea a eom{)ass of materials within its reach, that the occupati f^ix'en to the art, instead of diminishini^, increases, and by t subdivision of employments, and abandonment of barter, mon comi-s to be so much more used as an instrument of exchan that on the whole, the (piantity of it enii)loyed is auj^menfc in the same waj-, as when a road is much improved, thou one horse may be suHicient to transport what three did l)efo yet the conunoditiea transported .so increase, that there a notwithstandinj;, thrice the number of horses employed.' Tl is especially the case in new countries, where, from cau; alrea OF BANKING 325 .•very jktsoii ennf.i^^ed in husincss, dt.-rivos iii(iiviilu!illy very ^r.-;it advautai^es from the system. These ailvaiita<;es art' n-- >olvable into the circumstance, that evrry such pm-son is frtM- from tlie necessity ol" keepinij any monev by him. Wliatever il'iiiniids are made on him lie auswfrs by means of his casli cndit. or by di.scountinij a bill, or bills. In this way ' partly Ijy tlie coii%-eniency of discountin^r bills, and partly by that of cash accounts, the ci'editabli.' traders of the country are dis- pcnsfd from the necssity of keepinj^ any part i>f their stock liy them unfmi)loyed, and in ready mone}-, for answcrinj^ I iccasinnal demands." ' Now it is certainly very remarkable. tliat it did not strike Adam Smith, that if all the creditable 'iialrrs in the comnmnity, that is. the j^reat majority of those ulin before the establishment of banks would have kept money ly them, will by the facilities driven by the art. l)e dispensed w itii the necessity of doinj^ .so, and can still cai-ry on eiiually ixteiisive transactions, the money requisite to tran.sact the ^vneral busint.'.ss of the country must l)e dimini.shed by that uiiiount. If, for example, acconlinj; to the estimate he makes. the specie in cii"culation in Scotland before tlie intnxluction of Ipunkinj^ was about one million sterlin};, after the establish- iiieiit of that art, had the exchanj^es effected remained the >ui!ie. a much less sum than one million would have l)een -uthcient to perform them ; for all that money would have I'eeii useles.s which it had before l)een necessary to keep in the fotl'ers of the ditierent dealers, and which formed the ffi'eat mass of the then circulating medium, or rather of the moliutii [half circulatin;^ and half stajjiiatinc;] throuj^h the iuterven- tiun of which exchanges were tran.sjicted. If, then, a million had been still employed, — if a million of the Sanker's paper li.id suiiersede 1 have stated above, a j^reat increase in the ti'ansfers atlecteii, and would have shown, either " that a larj^er compass "f materials had W^en brouj^ht within reacli of the accumulative lirineijile, or that em])liiyiiients ha' amount of j)a})er circiilated, must he so much whi they save them from hiinj; ohlij^'ed to keep hy them, fc this is the ••mplf)yinent to which, where hankinj; is propel foiiducted, bankers dev(jti- thiir whole finuls, and by this mo of reckoning,', the >-avin;,' etl'ected by them in Scotland mi^ bfc maile to appi-ar fi|ual to thirty millions of specie. VV» bankin;:. liowever, as a (li^tinct business, totallv abolished that countrj'. the event ciTtainij' would not brin^r into thirty millions of spccii'. Tlie eH'ects pror of i ^ for tlm purposes of exchan<,'e where there is no bank, it reckoned always in i|uantity proportioned to the transactic carried on. On the contrary, it seems to me, tluvt when or a bank is established in any coinmuuity, the money circulat ' [Of course these la.st stiitements are cxaggerateii. Nut the same amoum tiusiiRss, to lie .^urc, Imt Sdinetliing like the same amount would still be tra acted on a lower range of prices. But it is nevertheless true that one elfecl the supposed occurrence would lie to introduce barter to .some extent, aloe margin of the use of niiiney, where barter did not before exist. ) - As for instance, the contraction of issues by the bank of England in IS ithe ininu'diate cause of the disasters of that year,) and the legislative etu ments on llritish currency for the last twenty years. \S OF BANKING :^27 .uii(in^' f^"''"' triiM--actioiis. j)erf(jrinin<,' the ^.mie part iis a iimlti])lieity "l' checks, operating; iipmi their M-vi-ral accounts, mi^rht accomplish. It is not a t'uml I' i>t \>>r iii.ikiii;,' exehanires, hut an instiiiment applie.l for [ami htoiii,'ht into nse] at the time eXehan^eH are to U' made. an. 1 op. ratin<: vipm the real I'nnd kept for tliat purpose, viz., tie' claim which the bank has .,n the j.'.neral stock of the coni- iiiiinitv. the specie tleposited in its vaults, and the other items making up its capital [assetsl, which, like the coin in the ..M -li'jKisit hanks of Italy an.l H.jllan.l, constitute that part of till' i.'eneral stock, really perf; the function of exclian^^e. Il' this lie the case, it follows tliat the more perfect a.s an art hanking' heconi's, the h'ss.ntht r circinnxtavcPii hiiiif/ cqwtl, is the amount of ti'e cireulatinj.' me.lium ni|uired, and the ;;nater the savinir to the connnunity. It also follows, that a svstem of hankin^r- considend merely as a means of trans- actiii" exchane-es takim' i)lace in the ordinary course of atiiurs within the connnunity, approadies nearest to the excellence ,,i art, when it most etfectually s.cures its funds from beinj,' s,|!iandered, and when the counters .inployeil hy it in its ..p.rations, issue from it, pass throujrh the hands of its customers, and tind their way hack to it most easily and i|uickly. The former circum.stance diminishes t!ie risk of loss iVom this mode of etiecting exchan^'e, the latter .liminishes the expense of it. It may farther be observe*! that the popular notion, that the advantae;es of bankine; are limite.l to the substitution of paper for sjjecie, and the creation to that amount of a tictitious capital is altojjether erroneous. The advantaj^es derived from this source are ratlier continoints in which we are at variance. The views I have endeavored to unfold must, in so far, stand alone. It so happens, however, that concerning the principles of investigation themselves, there is a common standard to which the disciples of Adam Smith refer, and on the rules drawn from which, I also conceive, the determination of the (juestions debated must ultimately rest. Adam Smith has l>een said to have made political economy a science of experiment, a branch of tiie inductive philosophy.' Now, I apprehend, tliat the spirit of tlie philosophy of the author of the W'lalt.h "/ Xnfions was completely opposed to the inductive philosoi>hy — thf pliilo.-iophy of Uaciin, and that he never intended that that Work should be received as if established on it. If the read'-r iniru.;ucti )!. St.vivii. ^I. ■2:>, iij .SSit APrKNDIX : I i iiUFfc with iiif. lie will pri.liahly tcm. ami nf -ciciui'. In tin' mii-. ttif miini t.'.\]ilaiii- iiatiir; lilii'iioiuena acfiiiilini,' tu its ]iri'(iiiH('ivril notinn^. in thi' uthf it tiacfs iiut, hy a car'-fiil inle'i]irt'tatiiin, lin' n-al connexitii lictwi'i'ii tiu'iu.' 'lilt' hirniLT will always In' tla' mme piiimla ' " Xo» sii|iiiilfni lie ilftnrlMiiilii ta, i(iKc nunc tlcin t, jiliilosopliia, nut si r(i alia sit. aut erit, Iiac tnit'iiil.itiur aut uuctinr, niiiiiiut lalxiranius. Neiji fnim (ittiLinuiH, i|nin )i)iili'H(ipliia ista ri''i'|ita, ct alia' ivv utilitateni et cllt-ita dcsci'mUt. Slut it.i<|ue (ijuimI feli\ faustiiniijue .sit utriijue parti i diui' iloctrinaru t'niaiiationLs, ac (lu:f iKsiiensatmiies ; ilii.i- similiter lontfniplantiuiii, si' pliilosopli.iiitium tribug ac viliiti cogiiationts : atijue ilia- iifutniuain int3r iiiiiiiica, aut aliena, sed fuikrata, tt niutuis au.\iliis devincta' ; ait deniiii alia scientias loleiidi, alia iiiviniendi ratio. Atijuc (iuilm.s prima |iotiiir a.ce()ti(ir est, oh festinatiouein, vel vita- civili-s ratiout-s, vi'l ijuod illam altt am nil mentis intirmitatem capere ft coniplecti nun [lossint (id ijuod liiii| plurimis accidere neues.se est,) iiptanius, ut iis feliciter tt ex voto succeda <|Uiid agunt ; atijiie ut ()Uod .seiiuuntur, tencant. Quod si cui mortalium cor n uf all snhjcits uf ;,'cneral intt'ivst ; wliilc the latter iiiu^t l>e confined t

p/(iiiiiii,.>.n1,,.l^ ti>a» all »;,.l.f l.r..!i.^r. „„„ijT-' - ' T-- -V-- - 332 APPENDIX Ml Vi' ( I • i- 1 manner, ttie heavenly Kodies seem to him tn have naturally t circular motiun. I.''t n-. now su]>[iosi.' that the t\V'> sorts of {)hilo.so]jhy : 1st the exj)lanatory or systematic ami lM. the imhielive or scieii- litir, in pursuit of ihe'ir respeetive oKjects, ajij'ly themselves te till' eonsiiji-iali'in ot the eoniiilieateil s(;rii'> uf phenomena, con- nected with scusilije motions of all sorts. As what is <-.inei.'iveil to he aireail\ l-ciiown reipiires nu exiilanatioii, the jihilo-ophy of system takes things which, hecausc familiar, are ailmilt-d as ulivious. as tlu- mc(iia for oxjilaininu' all oihcr things. To ijo otherwise, were to umler- takc a Work foniLin h< it.~ olijects. In this way, umier its hands, the practical rules df the oi'scrver, licconie the specula- tive piinci]ilcs ot the ]jhilosophcr. Moti'.n i- divided into natural, and NioN^nt. ( erlain hodies have a natural tondc-ney downwanls. others upwards, (jthers to move in a circle. Kroni these princi]ile>. the whoh' phenomena are explained in a plausifih; manner, and arrairjeil in a systematic form. Such was tiie plan of the phil isuphers (jf (ireeee. and such their pseudo science of motion. It is evident, that however it mi^ht system.itize and explain facts already known, it could not conduct to new truths. It ccjuld not lead farther than the lirinciplos from which it „t out, and these evidently emliraced not the laws of the .Lreneral sy>ii-m of thinu's, hut only circum- stances, the resnlt.s of tho.se law.s. The philosophy of induction has for its object the discm-ery of truth It .seeks for the laws reu'ulatim,' the ','eneral system. As it is the ;iim of the other trineiples, are to tlie other collections of facts, the causi's of which are u> be impiired into. When, tiiendore, tiiis philosophy apjilied ii.^elf to the con.sideratioii of the phenomena of motion, it ])roii,(unceil the whule antecedent system factitious and fureiLin to it.s objei'ts. anii commencin;^ theii- iuvestiu'atiiin s.m.u-iou-ly and dili^eiitlv atn'W, it dis- co\erei| the real and simjile laws reixulatinu the \iirioiis series of these eVenl^.' ' Kti:im i|u;uii ■Ic imu-^i- iiiotuiiin .iIii|iiHi ^i'.-iiilii ;ir r vnlurii, .it.jiii- ilivi>i'mi.'iu I'X illi.- iii-tiliirii. ililiiTiiitiiiu iiicitiw iMtiir.ili- et viol, mi. iii.,^inia i-um \s OF SCIENCE VERSUS SYSTEM-BUILDING 333 To which of tho.sc opjjosite «'cts does Adam Smith helon;,' f and nil which nt' these two modes an' the jirinciples L'uidiiii,' his s]iecu]atioiis framed ? To me it ajiiit-ars that his philnsoj,hy is tliat of cxjilanatioii and system, and tiiat his siicculalions are not to he consi(h'red a- in(hKtive investi»;ations and exiMisiti(ins of the real prin- (ililes ;,'uidini,' the succession- i f jihenom.'na. lait as successful 'llorts to arrange with rciidarity, acroidiiiL; to common and ]irc(onceived notions, a multiplicity of known facts. My reasons for tlii> ojiinion arc ilrawn. 1st. from the ohject ;it which his i)hilo>ophy aims: I'd. iVom tlie methods wliicli he .idopts to attain it : .'Id. from tlie consi'(|Ucnces which have roulteil from his lahors, I sliall arrange the proofs for the jiKiice of this conclusion, which I purpose suhmittim.' to thi- reailer, accordiiii: to these thiee lieails : contrastinu' in ea( h the sj.irit and ronsecpiences of his speculative principles wirh those ♦)f the inductive piiilosophy. I. Accordinf,' to Adam Smith " Wonder, and not any expec- tation of advantage from its discoveries, is the Hrst j.rinciple wliich ])romiits mankind to tiie study of i)hilnsophy, of tliat -' lence which pcttpih to lay o)ien the concealed connexions that unite the various apjiearances o, nature;' — philosophical -vstems are to be considered as mere inventions of the imagina- tion to connect together the otherwi.se tjisjointed and discordant I'heiiomena of nature." — "A jihilosophical .system is an ima,i,'i- nary machine invented to connect tou'ether in the fancy, those iillerent movements and elfects, which are alreadv in reality pcrlormed. " ^nc .r.li,a, introiliRiuit : ijiiii' tt ipH.i (iMniinu c\ no;i(iiie viil^'iiri est; iiini (minis in.itiis vidli'iitiis fti.Mii nutiiiiilis revfr;i s-it,— JHtn mere [xiimlaria sunt, ct nullo inii.li, ill N'ntunini pfuetraut. Xnr, Or:/. Lili. I. Ixvi, Ai'.i TO Hai wiUf oi af^ifiuwoi vai ;-!> xai to ■:r,i^roii ■jc^arro (pt\oaai;n'ii'. etc. ATi>t l.il). I. C.ip. ■_', NUtapli. •Tlu-.^e p.-».ssai;fs me (luotfd from cint- of his pnstliiimo.is woiks ; ■•Tin- I'nn.iplfN wliifli lo.iil ami direct I'liilosopln.^il Iti,|niii,.s, ilhistniti'd l.y tliu llistniy of Astronomy, of Ancient t'hysics. Loiric. iind .Metapliysii'ii." It m.iy li-riiiips lie tlioufiht tliiit in this work la- lepre-. nt>; (wily what he eone. ive.i to '■'■ 'he aeliial path finn Onjiinniii. Tlic passaiios alreaiiy (luoteij may show tliis aii'l many others lui^'ht Ite adihiced. It is throui^'hout the emieavoi of the fouiiiler of tli(> experimental philosojihy to hold out truth itself, and the Ki-netits to he deriveil from it, as its ohjcet ; to show that thi< we can never reach hv anv i^tlort [ coniicctinL; any M-riey of interesting events, i(j the consideration of which curiosity may direct the attention. " In the mean time it will st-rve to con- tirm what has u'one before and to throw lii^ht upon wiiat is to come after, that we observe, in ;,'eneial, that no system, how well soever in otlier respects support, il, has even been able to jiain any u'eneral credit on thi' worM, whose connectinL; jirin- ciples were not smdi as were familiar to all mankind."^ It is by this circumstance that he judues of the merit of all philo- sophical systems, and tlie suj)eriority of Sir Isaac Newton over i>es Cartes, consists, according to him. in his di.scoverim,' that is to lie viewiMl a.s an ii.lilitiotml illustration of those piiiici]>lfs (jf the huniaii niiiul, which Mr. Smith has (loiiited out to he the miii: ,-^„/ motives of philo- sopliual re.war.ihes, Dugiihl Stewart, also, in his life and introductory disser- tation intimate.^ the same thin-. The best pro..f, however, is in the course he actually himself pursued. ' Ktenim verum e\ampl.ir niundi in intellectu humano fundamus : quale invenitur, non c|Male cuipiaiii sua [iropria ratio dicUiverat. — Ita. pie ipsissinia; res sunt (In hr,c generc) xeritas et ulilitas. Xor. ii,;i. LiK. 1. cwiv. - Rursiis. SI alius .|ui>piain fortasse vcritatis in^|uisit fult in attendiiiL; to tliem.^ N'o doctrine, certainh, can he more opposed to the spirit cf the ]ihilosophy of Bacon than this. It is this propensity to i^eneralize immediately from a few familiar noiiuiis, that he all aloni,' represents as the vice of the antcc .•.lent systeni-Luildei.-. and the error which hi-, followers have to ;,'uard a<.'ainst ■■ There have lieen, and can Ije." he says, '■ Imt two modes ot searchini,' after truth. The one conimencinu the chain cf reasiininj,' with some familiar conception of thing's, tlie.i frfjiu them immediately to jieneral axioms, and from these, and their assumed incontrovertible truths, .judi,'es of all particulars. A way of philo.sophizinu' brief, Imt rash ; easy and well fitted to conduct to disputes, but not leading' to a knowledtie of nature. This is the common mode. The other rises ;^raduallv and slowly from fact to fact and only at last arrives at the most ;.'eneral conclusions. The.-e liowever, are not notions, the pro- duds of the imagination, but real laws (jf nature, and such as ■ he h(>rself will acknowledge and obey." < )f the two, the former, the explanation of things according to preconceived notions, much more easily gains a.s.sent than the latter ; its principles collected from a few facts, and these of familiar o'l urrence, .seize on the judgment, ami till the ima'jination. Whereas, on the other hand, a real interpretation of nature must find its materials in things very various in themselves, and gathered together from different i|uarters, cannot make a ' Ih^ioni r,f A'itrr»iinnij. I'es.siiiiuni ciiiin oniniuiii est iui>;iimiiii i|iii).I ex innstnsn cajiitiir iii rebus intillfctualiliiis. Nihil t-iiini imiltis pla.et, iiiii uiiigiiuitioneiii fcriat, aul iiitfUiM-tuin vuli;aniiiii notioiuim nodis a.Uriii^^al. ut - I'tii dictum est. .Vof. Oi-;/. Lil). 1. Ixxvii. "a sensu t-t parlii.'ulaiibus piinio loco ad ni.ixiiuc ircm-'r.ilia adv.pUuii, ' ui.|iiani ad polo.s tixo.s circa ipias llt•^|)Ml;^ti■ln(■!^ vcrtantur ; ah illi.-i c^itcra per II ' lia djrivciitur ; via certc cuiiipcudiaria, scd pra'cipiti : ft ad X.itui.ini iiu l"'Nia, -d disputatiiuic.i vcm proclivi ct accoiimioduta. At .■^.-cuiidiun mw, ''^ ''t'l .jontiucntir, ct gradatim excitaiitur, ut leiiuii.si pontic loco ail LM lur.dissiina veiiiatur ; ca ver ,'pncralinsima evaduiit, noii notinualia. .■•cd 1 ■ 111- teiiulnata ; i-t tali.i nuae Xatura ut rt-vera .sihi iiotior.a ajiios.-at,, ,(uod.|ue •..■..:■,- i-. ..vetiit ii! mfj-.:!!is," Sav. 'irj. I'raf. ct iih. I. xviii. :m\. '/' .'=*^: &Mm^ ^:u] APPENDIX fll^ i ; i I 1 i, *i fiircilile iiuprcssiiiii on the mind, and must iiefcssarilv ajipear it as sonictliinu' harsli, umisnal, ami mysicrious. Hmce in c chains nf rLMsunim:, liavim,' for tlieir i>\(\rtji not to ^ain a kno\ led^'i' of nature. Imt to direct tiie opinions of men, the mode l)hi]oso]ihizinLr wliich jiroceeds \>y arL,'uin;,' from laiconceive notion-, will always he the most successful.''' I lielieve it, will he found, that the pra'jtice of the author the nVrt/zA ■>/ Xiifidiis. every where a-jrees with his theory, ar that he has himself, in all hi.s sjieculations, ado]ited the exjil; natory and systcmati/iu',' form of philo.-ophizinL'. instead oft! -iicntitic and inductive, coiifdrmiuL' himself to tho.se princi{)l( which he has p(jinted out as leadini; and directinu' philosophic; in(|uiry, and accordini,' to the accuracy of their aureemenl wit which, all systems of nature have con.stantly, he tells u " faileil or succeedtMl in (;ainim: rej)utation and renown to the authors"; and that, his ohject iieim' every where to huil common facts and familiar ohservations into a system, not t impure into the cau.ses or real laws from which they sprin; he takes those tiling's for fundamental jirinciples which woul present them.selves to the inductive in(iuirer as phenomena, th principles of which his manner of philosophizini,' would call o him to investigate. In the cataloLiue of our author's works, the Thinrti of Mon Si-atinhiit^ ranks ne.xt to the IiVjuirii infn tin- Xufun - Wmlth vf y,itin(is. On what is it founded A u'cneralization from what is termed sympathy — a prineipl than which there is perha]is no one more sensihle to ever ii;dividual. more capahle of servint; as a familiar hond of coi; ne.xion hetween the phenomena of the moral world, or hettc fitted therefore, fo; the purposes of the systematic philo.sopher hut than whi( h, also, there is, prohalily, no single circumstanc in the combined actions of the mind and body, that woul ' l,tiiin Icinco \aliclicin-s siuit ml .:\uni v.uiis ,t nuilliiiu .li.-,hiiiuliiis xpatsit «.ul|i.,>t:i., iiiti'llfi-tmii syiliUii ii.-|-,iit»Tf iinii po^-iuit : ii! luri'.-^sr »it i;,ia, qucia I'pininiR-.-, ,liii;i>- It ,il..\,\ dew Stands on his foiehead, his features contract, tie liieathes with ditliculty, Iri "ulis sink under him; — in fact he will he found t(i lie in thi very same state with the person 'Iterated on, in all respects, lait that he feels not tlie acuteness ni tnrturing pain, and is not subject to the quickening reaction prinhiced l>y it. The vital j)owers tlierefore very possibly yield f"r a little, he faints, is carried out to the fresh air, and in a lew minutes walks olf astonished at the strangeness of the • "lurrence. When he reaches his home, he learns that an intimate friend has sutfered a great calamity, and the intelli- •_'''nce deeply atllicts him. In both cases he sutlers, or ^yuipailiizes, with anotiier ])erson. I'.ut are the two pre- I i-idy alike ? are we warranted to assume, with Adam Smith, ih.it the laws governing them are the same :' and is there not a >iugular blending in l>oth of mental and corporeal phenomena, all the circumstances rif the actions and reactions of which are lieserving of the minutest investigation from one, who would set about an inductive inquiry into the principles of our compound nature ■' The picture, which, adopting the common notion of sympathy as the point of view, he ha.s given of the phenomena of the HKind world, is exceedingly interesting and comprehensive, and a'^ a system regularly arranging a va.st mass of facts, is very \;ilnable. Here, however, its merits cea.se. Xo one, I iippreheiid, will nfiw cite it, as truly developing the nature "t our intellectual being, as an addition to the sciinn- of niiml.' Similar observations will apply to his fragments on the Siv theacpount given of it liy lua ii!: in his ErKica' .VyMViij... Y 33fs APPENDIX t iinitutive artH. He adoias in them the hyjudhesio that pk'asure they j^ive arises iroiii some ditliculty in the exe lion heinfi overcome, and it seems to have lieen his intention b;iild up a whole system of art on this princijile. Perhaps circumstance can lie found, runniuj.' more thrnULth all the ai and, ihciffiire, lielter litti-d for the C(jnne('tin^' purposes of I system-huilder, or, on llie other haiid, more curious in iisi and which, thcreture, the inductive pliilosopher would he mi inclined id imiuire into. How is it, that the imaj^es of I poet eoine upon us with most force, when he jiuts his woi into measured cadence :' How is it that an ideal form, struck DUt of nuirhle, atlects >is so much more than if moul: in wax ? Is it that the .spirit, when fully rou.sed, and strivi to embody sonu.' i^reat sentiment, or stronj,' emotion, natura seizes on the materials which may best betoken eneru'V, a thus contrives to ,i;ive an additinnal air nf intellectuality mere matter / — Tiiis, or a serii-s of such ((uestions present the selves to i\w. inductive ini|uirer. What to the systema phiiosiipher atfonls ilic means of explaining otiier things, is him the subject itself of imiuiry. liut, of all his speculations, tliere is none in wliich lie seei to be more comi.lctely the piiilosojiher of system and exjdar tion than in the Wndth nf \ v i.. >■';>>. ,.>." " lie- rau>e it is against its nature, and I know, therefore, it must 'At^ur .k. istis lulms, (|ii:i. vi.lcntur vulval;.-, illml homines cogileut : -)liir siiMf ens a.lliUi' iiiliil aliu.l aijfif, iniiim ut iM.nini, ,,ux- nini sunt, oiu.-.i-i a,l ca, ,,ua' frr.iueiiter tiiiiit, rufcriint et iicuc)nimo,l.Mt : ut i|isoruin, |Uii- fif.|iieiitiir eveniiint, cau.sas niillas iri(|uirant, setl .-a ipsa n-cipiant tan ■ |U.iiTi i-uiicf.' non taiu fie(|iK'iitfr et faniiliaritiT '"■s,., niulto niimis res novas in lucfin protralii, ahsipie vulj^^arium iiruiii causis et oansani.n oausis riti> cxamiiiatis .-t ix-poitis ; neccssario ail :.s viiL-arissunas in histonani nostrani recipien.las conii«aiimur. (^linetiam ml iM.i.'is pliilosophia- otrwissu ili-pri'liemliinus, ijuani ipiml res, qua faniiliares -lint rt tic.|u.'ntfr oocuriunt, rontcniiilatioiiHii lioniinnni non nioivntur et 'l.tiii.aiit. se.I iv,-L-piantui- oi.itei iinpie eainni .■aiis;u ipiari soleanl ; ut non -.i|iiiis ii'.iuiratur informalio ,!.• rcl.us i^iiotis, miam attentio in notis. \,u- atsi ^rvt j \i\ 340 APPENDIX 1 -f fi liave lifcii proiluced by violence — hy .«onie external fon TliiiH, too, jinsfpn^' mere jiractical olwervers of events, th would tome to lie thi' terms ^-ravity, levity, natural and viol- motion. Now all these words and jthnises, il' correctly int jircted, are perfectly correct, accordinj,' to the measuri' of ' knowledire of the individuals, and assume nothing,' hut wl their experience warrants. When it is said that smoke ascei in cunse(|uence of its levity, or because it is the nature of and n of things, fr the system of nature itself, causin;^ that ascent, and that, wh this ^'eiieral constitution of thing's remains unakeivd, all sii bodies will ascend. So it is when it is said that it is aijaii the nature of a stone to move in any direction but downwar and that its other nidtinns must lie violent. The expressioi in strictness, mean 'loihin^' more than that unless acted on some extraneous cause, while the jiri'Sfut comlition of thii lasts, if it move at all, its motion will be directly downwar All these are conclusions drewn from exjierience, and foi general rules of real [practical utility. Science will never tea the savage to shape, to trim, or to jireserve the poise of 1 canoe, better than observations similar to these have alrea taught him. When now the systematic philosojiher applies himself account for, and range in regular order, the various phenonie referable to matter and motion, his oliject being merely expl nation and arrangement, he naturally sets out from comm and familiar notions, and principles which no one doubts and applies all his powers tn tracing o t from their ojierati some ex])lanation of the phenomena in (juestion. " Keasoni on these familiar notions, from a few particulars, and perha some generally admitted maxims, he rises immediately to t most general conclusions, and from their tixed and immutal: truth judges all other particulars. If some of them seem co trary to his theory, he employs his ingenuity to explain the away, or to make them appear coincident, or removes the dit culty by terming them exceptions : while such particulars are not opposed to liis p;ii!c;pii-.s, arc lab.iriuiisly and artful \s n^u^. wm or SCIKNCK VERSUS SVSTKM-HriM)IN(; .']41 ;irraii;,'cil, acfordiiii,' to his syste in." ' ()iiiittin>r. for the prc- ■{ i/mviti/. Irviti/, nittiinil and vio/rnt motion. Now it is "liviiius that, ]>y this applicaliim of the terms, hv completely, thdUi^h imperceptilily, chanu'es their meaning'. As employed I'V the man of practiail observation, thuu^^h perhaps .somewhat n.iifusedly conceived, they necessarily and really mean nothinji more, tlian certain known conseipiences, the results of some unknown laws or powers rei^'ulatinj,' the system of thin<,'s. As 'iiipioved by the systematic philosopher, they, on the contrary, are assumed to be the very laws, powers, or principles, them- selves oovernini,' and sustaining the mundane .system. The ihaiiiie in signification is not perceived, for the generality of uiankind are incapable of any thing like metaphysical accuracy ot conception, and are led away very easily by the fallacies of language. Its conse([uences, however, are important, for if we iniderstand by science the knowledge of the real laws of nature, —the laws governing the general system, — this assumption com- pletely diverts from their discovery, for it induces the belief that they are already reached. It seems to be on this account. that Lord 15acoa so often points out the errors arising from the ha uy adoption of preconceived notions, " anticip.itiones," the irieatcr part of the first book of the Aovum Organum consisting, toriiiain eniiii iiKiuireiuli ft invenicmli iipiiil anti.juos ft ipsi piofitfiitur, It scti|)t.\ foruiii pr;f 8fi feruiit. Eaautfiii tioti alia fiiit, (|uani ut alj exempli* •iuiliusiliiin et piirticularibus la.lditis notioniliua coiiiimiiiilius, el fortaKse pur- lioiic iioiiiuilla ex opinicmilius rectpli.^, <|ua; inaxinif placiieriint) ail cmiflu- =i( iiiaxiiiie gerieralta sive priiitipia Bcientiaruiii, aiholarent ; ad (jiioruni viiitatfiii imniotain et tixaiu conclusioiies inferiores pir nieilia filiuerent ac pr.iUirf lit, ex quil.ua arteiu coiistituf liant. Tiiin ilenmm si nova imrtitularia ft exeinpla mota essent ft a.ldiicta, qme placitis Huis refrigareiitur: ilia aut !KT di.stiiuttiones, ant \>vv regulaiuni suaruni cxplaiiatioiies, in ordmeui ouIj- tilitir reiligeljaiit ; aut deniuni per exceptiones grosso niodo surimiovebant. At rerum paitieulariuin non refragrantiuin caiisas, ad ilia primipia sua l.il"iriiise ft pertiaacitcr accoinmoilabaut. Veruin net; hiatona naturalis .t 'VMerientiii i!!a rrat, ■.i-.y.-.vr, hu~~^ "portebat •luii^c ci-rtc a:;ust ;j - '- - ' latiu ad gentralisainia omnia perdidit. Xov. Onj. L. I. cxxv. k-i. «ovu :\v- A1M»KM)IX li in fact, of an c.xfio.sititdi nf tht'in.' Acutencsi of reason and reach of Uioiis^'lit are tlius, lie ohserves, remlered use! for they tome too late. Tiie j,lace for tliein is exatninin'.' i weii^liini,' exiieriences, and i'uiut tliex- de the pi |i ii '"Noil, ,- oiiiiiiu (iMiiiium at/itmii iiii[fnia (.■oicrint, it lalxiics iiintiilf .'mis titri jK.tcrit in »ci«iitiis per antic tiones: (jnia firorcs radirales, it in i)rinia ili^'i^tione niintis ali excellei fiMKtioniMn ft rinit'ilioruni st(iucntiuni non tuiantur." .V«>-, Orj. Lili. 1. j - /'//^ifi,a vriVi nt'i; ipsa niali cxpoi-.s— natiuif onini siilitilitatcin Io'il'o intfrvallo non attinj i-t picnsamlo (jikuI non lapit, a.l firorf.-< polius .staliiliundo.s, tt i|ua.ii tigen< ■ in.ini ail viani virilati aptiienilani valuit— lio<; sulitst frauilis, ijiioil syllo mus ox propo.iitioniljn.s constet, priii>o>itiont>s ox vt-ilii.-, vvil.a auteni notioi ti.s.siT.u It .si^-na sint. Itaipie si notiont's ipsa- mentis (ijua- vurlioruni ip aninia sunt, il totius liujiisniiiili structura- ac faliiica; l)asi3) malu ao ten a lelnis alwlr.icta', ct vaj,'a-, nee satis iletinitie et cireuniscripta-. lieni inultis mollis vii.osa' tuerint, omnia ruiint.' .Vor. On/. I'laf. \S mm , OF SCIKNCK VKKSUS SVSTKM-Hl'II.DIV; .'143 cipli's hy which they ihcinsi'lvcH arc regulated, the laws, that is til say, accor'liii;,' t<» which tin- iihciiotiiciia, si> (It'iiuiiiinitfii, are liriMhirciJ, tliat a hf;,'iiuiiiii4 was •^ivcii tu rt-al scifiico. Then tlic laws re^'iihitiiii,' the universal .system were liradiially uut'iijileil, and thini,'s seeinii)^ly turever hidden in the depths of the iiiiniensity uf sjiace and time, hroii^'lit clearly lieture the iiilellcrtual ken ol' man. A< in the system uf tliintrs making' tip the world <>f mere nutter, certain terms are empluyed Vt denote general facts and rules, which [common] exiierience has tan',dit, .so, in the com- pound .system of mm and things makiii<4 up thi; world of ' ivilizeoii.s forming' tln'M' sofictio, I liavf not i-xaniiniMi inti and ilo not [m lend to know." His answer, in >liort, would h that lie knows tli.-ni only as losults of tlif laws t^owrnih'^' lli ;,'(;iii'ial syslcin of wliicli he makes a part. I'>y taking, therefore, these, and sueh like comnii'n am taniiliai' notions, as the foundation of his reasonin^j, Ailaii Smith made his work an e.\]ilanatory system, not an iiiduetiv in<|uiry. The iiriiiciples of the inductive iiliilosophy wouli have led him to ini|uire into the nature of those faniilia ii'jtioii.s, — into the laws or causes of those eoinnioii occurrences and he would have set 111' ihc-r, eiiiieavora thus at last to rt-arh the real laws of iiatiin-. Wliilr the one assiiuies pheiioiiiena for jirimiiiles, the other il'lihis to the tiling's ;,'iviii^' ri>e to those iiheiioiuena, and - "ll'Ttiiij,', eoiiipaiiiii,', and arraiii-'iii^ these, traces out the real .Miiii.xions lietweeu them, the real priiKi]>les i,'overnin^ nature. We may easily salisty ourselves of the ilitfereiice of the priii- . i|il'> which true science reaches, and those employed in the ll',oh/i i,j Xiilidiis, liy takin;; M\y of the latter and seein;; how It agrees with the rules hy which the former may he tested. fliu- the principle, that self-interest is the ;,'reat and all-sutti- ■ n lit cause of the increase of wealth, hotli private and puhlic, :- evidently nothing else than an application of the common .i.--uuiplion that a man's fortune and his interest are the same, iiid a 'jeiieralization of the ohservation that he, therefore, who understands his interest best and takes best care of it, will ;,'et rich t!ie fastest. lUit if self-interest be, in the scientific sense, till- cause of wealth, both public and private,' (the law iicconl- ii:u' to which it either is, or is not produced,) whenever self- mtdest, (the desire of betterini,' one's condition) manifests it-tlf ill action, it must tend to the increase of public wealth.- l»o the labors of the cool, calculatini,', <,'ambler, or of the sharper, add to public wealth I Does the spirit of keen ])ar- j.iiiiiie,', and taking every possible advantage of those with whniii transfers are etfecteil, that sometimes pervades classes, •Hill idiumunitief, add to public wealth ? Assuredly not ; yet 111 all these self-interest is the ruling motive of action. Let it iii't be saitl, that these are exceptions to a general rule. 1 ' I '.MP lie rhomine li'ameliorer son sort ; print;ipe (|ui est au iiiiiiule moral, > iim lii gravitation eat au nioutle phisiijue. Stoicli. -It will l>f ol)serveil tliat 1 here, anil throughout, speak of self-interest in 'lit- iiiiiiniou and fap)iliar sense. The author of the Thtory of Mirrit/ .sv»/i. 'iM,/. was not an utilitarian. If the reader hap[>en to be so, h ill j)erceive tiMt tile aigutneut is not altered, the names only have to be so. ii m n ! V.HJ 11 1 i'4\ t • u ■ M \ i'l .1' 1 ' ■* IH 346 AIM'FADIX lii')n,i,'fi tlierc tuny lie exc-ptions to ■^'cntTiil rules, then? ar t'xc.'l.iiiiiis to s.j.Miiitic i.riiicii.k's. ' WherfVPi a scier caiHf, iir law, or principle operates, tliere tlie ttiiiiL' it.'^el wlii'l] it i> .viiid to Ijf the cause, is iiece.^sarilv proiiuced. il may \n- imi/ersally alHrined tliat. wlierc thi.s tlie foru there thr tliit.u' >i^\vj.\\l is also, and where it is not, tfiere lliii!',' c-ainiot he.i XothiiiL' is to lie received for the scientitie cause, unless the thiiiL.' priii-. IV'. in the dittercnt nature of the one and other. The oliservati!!. .V,,,'. Ih;,. I,il.. II. iv. -Oiiiaiii.. s,.,uiui, 11! n.,ii MHipiatm alLpia iiatiua ]ii.) viia f.,iiMa, ni< OF SCIENCK VERSCS SYSTKM-HriLDINXi 347 I n ri'u'arileil as tlie tiiost eiili^'htenetl sulf-iiittTt'st,' has ol'tt'ii I.mI, as vve liave seen, tu a roiirse of action the very reverse. Till' lloiiians, under the emperors, were assuredly as earnest in iliiir i|Urst alter haiijiiness, as were ever any race, yet their manners, and tlieir wiiole ]>raetical morality tended to the diiiiimition uf wealth jirevionsly aceiiinnlated, and they -wdlowed up, in extrava<,'ant dissipation, the riches of kinj,'- ■ ioiiis. Xor let it he here answered, that fa'ts .ipplicahle to ihr l;l.iiitias ii-Miota.>( ft liutiTcn;iniM.«, per i|Ua,s a\ioniat,i, tanijiiaiii igne, Mro- liiiitur. /',/./. [ah. I. xlvii. I'eihaps It may lie s.iiil, lliiit tile strktness of the in.hietive nietluHl can ""'y '!'!''>■ '" 'I'l' ^'ienee.s treating of mere in.itter .m.i it.s alltetlons. I'hi- «' n !o ill. laie thi- --aTiie thing to lie, anil not to In-, a ncience of experiment, aii.l IS l-iM.lis in opposition to the anthoiity of llie foun.ler of the imliietive [liiilosophy. "Kli.ini liiihitaliit (|iuspi.iiii potlils ipiani ohjieiet : utiiirn ii.is ile natnrali tiiiMaii pliilosophia, an etiani lie scientii.-< relir[ius, logi.i,.§, ethieis, pohtieia, M'^ laiiliun viani ncwtrani perliciendia liM|uaniur. .\t n..s eertede iini\ersi.-) Ii.ee, 'jii:i .li'ta sunt, inlelligiimi.s : .Atciue i|iieMiailiii."liiiii vuL'aris, l.ii;iea, i|ii.eiegii 1- pel -yUogisiiiiini, lion taiitiini ail iiatiliale.s. seil .nl oiniies .seieiitias Jierti- 1 ' ' : it.i et nostra, ipia' proceilit per iml iirtiimi m, omnia eompleetil iir. 'I'.im I !Hiii hj^toriani et laluilax invenienili eontieiiinis ile irn, iii'lii, et n v '-iiikI: i , ■! -iiiiililiiis : ae elnim ile exemplis reriiin eivilium ; le e ininus ile moliliiis 111. li'.ililiiis III' iiiiii-i'r, romi'ij!, aut Cfi'lafioiir., aut »imi!'l us." .Vor. On/. i.lii I. e ,vv\n V' 1 if' / I ^ , I . 1 1 i: I, 348 AIM'KNDIX If i III. Thr actual histdiy of what is termed the science political t'coiioiiiy, is another mode of ascertaining' the just of its ])retensioiis to that appellation. ]',y comparing; it w the generic character of the history of philosophical .s, . ts the explanatory and systematic form, ■,'iven by the founder the inductive philoso])hy, a.s contrasted with what he poini out was to \h- expected from that jihilcsophy, ami time 1 .shown it has accomplished, we niiu'ht have larther ;^rouiid.s conif! to a conclusion on the ipiesiion. To do this at lenj; however, would Uvd us too far heyoml limits, which I hn already exceeded. 1 shall, therefore, confine the few farti oliservatioMs I h.ive to make, to one circumstance, which Lc I>acon v'ives as characteristic of the- two .sects. In his ti'.,'Ui tive lan,i,'uaj,'e " the path which the inductive philosophy tak is at hrst steeji and diliicult, hut lea(!s to an open counti wliili' that a .]ited hy the e.Nplanat' / and systematic, thou at first easy and invitinu', is at last lost in deserts or conduc to precipices." ' The doulits and dilliculties in which the progress of the has hcen involved, who have advanced farthest aloHi,' t aiJparently safe and easy road that Adaui Smith seemed have ojiened up, indicate it not to he the path of science, i these I shall adduce a few instances. Capital is unilbrndy treated of in the U'mlth nf Xatioiis, a tiling' homo^'i'iieous in its nature, havim,' always the sail (pialities, (according,' to the deliuition of Mr. Say, an amou: of values), and any increase or dimiinition of it, as a me alteration in <|uantity. This beini,' taken to lie the case, like causes produce like etlerts, it seems very evidently follow, that the only manner in which a cliaui^e can be pr iluced in the returns yielded by it [to the owner], nnist be I the lalior that it employs, absorliini,' a lari,'er or smaller pii of them, 'i'his result is not uniformly kept ni view in tl Wraith of X^ifinii-i, thouuh it is very fre(piently brought fo ward.- We are olteu told, that, as tlie wa^es of labor fa ' — " \'lii altiT.i .il) iiiiti.) .■inhi.i ft .IiII'k'iIis, ilu-inft in :i|ierniiii ; altf piiiiii) iMliiitu I'xpciitii i-t prcifliv i.s, .lucet in ,iviii el pr:i'oipiti:i." •'(•■ Wli.it is the iMturi' of tin- pintit of slmk 7 and how dcies it ori>;iiiati- 7 a iiut'.stMiaH thi' [ rt'al] ;iii.su-i'!-s rn u'h)i:h 'lo i!'„»t i!!i!!ie'.l!u.tt;lv sii'-'crit t!>.r;i-=i:'v€ or SCIENTK VKRSrs S\STEM-BriLI)I.\(i 349 jT'itits rise, and a? profits fall the waives of labor rise, but ■ ilitr liiuses besides the jimjiortidn of its returns paid to the laborer, ,are conceived to operate on it. Thus a simple increase ill its quantity is assigned, in one part of the work, as sutlicient of itself to occasion a fall in profits. "When the stocks of many rich niorcliants are turned into the same trade, their mutual cotnjietition naturally tends to lower its profit; and when there is a like increase of sloek in all the ditferent trades carried on in the same society, the .same competition must pro- dui.c the same etiect in them all." Mr. Ilicardo has, however, ]ioiuted out. from Adam Smith's (jwn principles, that no such ( tlcct would ensue, and insists on it a.s a ociieral principle that \v;i,i's alone vary j)rotit. I'rotits, according to him, are in- I rcascd or diminished, exactly as the maintenance of lalior i.s • asy or ditliiult, from fertile land beini: abundant or scarce. A'liiiittini,' the ])opuli»'- notion of capital, that .serves as the b.i-is of Adam Smiil. . reasoninos, to be of a .sort on which true science may be built, the theory of Mr. Ilicardo .seems to iiir liard to be controverted, and has certainly the merit of •-■i\in!,' uniformity and re},'ularity to the .sy.stem. It has accord- ingly lieen acquiesced in very ;,'enerally in I'.ritam. by men who are i,'iven to this department of inquiry, ami has been adopted and defended by many writers of un([Uestioned ability. Nevertheless, it may well be doul)tcil, if it has added to the ;.'oni'ral confidence in the science. The conclusions to whicli it leads liave in them something so extraordinary, as to ixi fed ihe streni,'th of any common measure of faith in such alistra(ti(»ns. Thus, accordin<,' to the principles of this school, no extension of foreijiii trade, however advanta^'eous, and no improvement in d..mestio industry, however j^'reat, can in the least increa.«e I'lolits; [unless they cheapen food, and so multiply laborers. and so briuiZ down money wa^'es]. On the other hand, no liiinimition of foreij,'n trade can, of itself, le.-^.sen jirofits. It I'llows also, from the same jirinciples, that colonies <,dve no "'•niiMercial advantages u> the mother country, and, therefore, ■ . . Till' juulior of the Wfri/t/i :,i' .yu'ioni appi-iirs to ronsii'.iT the iirotit of ^'"'k, ;i» paid out of iind llunfori' .ItTive.l from, the " viihie adilcMl liy the M'.rkiiiaii to the rftw iiintrn'al." ( IjhiiIitiIaIi., /jx^ioi-y. p. 149.1) 350 APl'KNDIX ^^^ hi 11 >i I lliiit lifiiiu' in -I'liciiil fxiieii.^ivo, they uu-lit to h,. shaken a.s a huiiien on iirr resourcus. Sir Henry I'arnell ohser^ an.l ((uotrs Mr. .Mill in his support, that, "The capital wh snpjilics eoiiinio(liti..s tor the colonies wonld .still j.repare or inoditu's if the eolomes eease-d to j.urchase them: and th euniiiiodiii,.s would tmd eonsuiners, tor every country conta within itself a market lor all it can pro.luce.' There is, the fore, no advanta.u'e ilerived under freedom of comiM'tition. fr that part of ih,. trade with a col,,uy whii.-h consists in sujip in- it with .uoods, since no luore is L^aiiied hy it than si ordinary profits of st.ick as would lie j.'ained if no sui'h tr; e.xi-^ted."- 'J'iiese, and similar docirin.'s. have somethin- in them stran-e, so c,,ntrary to e.xiierieiice. and .seem >. .il |,i,,iit yul.liM- |„,w,-i- .,t capiial-two \,.,y .lilfert '•""'■<-|"-| -I If 111.' coloiii.'.s w.MO "ill ttio .Icep sea Slink,- 11.S Hotitluiiii luil it. Til. was, iii.l.r.l, ill tlu' .■..loiiial s|„..u.ilati<..,.s ,.f .s.-vr.-il writ.Ts of this pt-rio.l, a ,„, .•xtiaonliiiaiy .-x.-iiiplii;. ,it i..ii uf a liiiim ..I., Mi,ii;il ilw..>,-,- 1 i\^ OF SCIKNCK VERSCS SVSTKM-HriLl)IN(; IVA whiil beconit'S of the all-sufHciency nf capitiil ' — ami, if the r.rilisli (ioveriiinent couM a(lvaiit;i,i,'o Iielaiul hy tuxini,' .iliMuiees, wliat beciiiiies uf the jirinciple of non-iuterfereiice ? -vfi there are jierhaps few j.i'ople, on whnia it has had :iif fllrct the autiior probahly ilesircd. It has the (Hsadvaii- ii-r of I'nAiiii,' too iiiuuh. When it is shown, that, aceor(lin(r ;u nreived jirinciples, two larite classes so intimately depen- liMit (in eacli other, as are the laadhjrds of a ^reat country, ml the niechaMics and capitalists that they emjiloy, can he Miiiiilctely severenll ti^ure to ourselves that then- is a loss to Ireland, a uain ;i -nuie other j.lace. We canma ;j;ct rid of the ima.u'ination, iliAl. it the liindlords were all to ^'d in a hody, for instance, to iini^sei . spend their rents there, they would u'ive protit- I'hlc e! _ .pyment, in .some way or other, to a vast number f lab,,rers, tradesmen, and artiticers, and that tlie population unl wealth of that town would be lar^'ely auymenteil, that '1 Ireland projtortionally diminished. Ilie.-ie, and many such like instances .seem to us contrary •in the usual progress of real knowled-e. The experience of what true science is, has accustomed us t(j e.xpect that in this. a- ni uiher branches of iinjuiry, the farther we aiivance tht; laijer and lar;,'er a compass of undeniable facts .sliuuld present tlR-iii-clvcs, that w should be able more and more evidently ■o> inimect phenomena, that .^eemed at hrst di.sjointed and i--nl,ited, and that, the indistiiHtne-;.s of distance Ijeinj,' re- m-vrd. truth should stand clearly itefore us. Deceived in our aiiliiipations, we feel like travellers who hnd the strai-ht and >vrlllM-aien path on which they entered, becoming m..re 'I'vi.ius and faint the farther they journey, leavini,' the habita- !iHii. c,r nieii, and leadin- to barren and dan;."r..u.s wa.-les. lli'-iiu'h we can trace no error, we be-in to suspect that ther.; ''• "ii'\ and that someiiow or other, we have taken the wruny 'iireitii:ii. {> li m 352 ArrENDix :,i wmmm^mm^jmti m OF SCIENCE VERSUS SVSTEM-HriLDING 333 miure the cause uf that philosopher ami conceal his real merits. It wc view his philosophical system of the ir><(lf/, of X„tivm, 1 iiiilced any of liis philosophical systems, as he views every -uch system, " as an imaL,'inary machine invented to connect •--'■tlier in the fancy rho.se dittcreut movements and effects ,v!iich are alrea.ly in reality performed," nothing,' of the sort can - more lieautiful. A clear, orderly, and extensive view is _'.ven of a vast ninnher of interestir.'^' and important facts, ' nn.cted liy a few familiar jirinciples. A <,Teat body of ^iiowlcdue is thus brought before the mind in a sliape which it in rradily ;4rasp, and easily command. The object bein<,' not •- discover, but to arrange and meth.idi/e, all the subordinate I riiiiiples of the system are arllully bcnl so as to endjrace the ,i.rnomena. and care is taken that the ima^ination be not -liocked by a view of matters that shall seem irreconcilable to •.iie aspect of atfairs wliich tlie [meiv] contemplation of the World of life itself presents. Sur is it to be disputed that a ..neral .system of the .sort, besides the j^leasure and the . !v,nitaLi;e derived from it, is likely to lie nearer the truth than -i.culations of the same nature, confined to particular parts. The case, however, is completely altereii, when the loose and !t"l'>i' principles on which such a system proceeds, are > iopted as demonstrative axioms, tlie discoveries of real science, Hid are carried out to their extreme conseiiuences. Their ri-inal purpose is then altogether chano;ed, and instead of -rvini,' t(j bring before the mind a collection of facts, they lead .: fiirtlier and farther away from truth and reality, into the ' .'iren and wearisome regions of mere verbal ;il»stractions. ' ff! ^1, *i' M II'! AIITKLE VI. TIIK TMKonV OK l'( (ITLA'IH "N i 'I'llF. I;i\v> ()f tnic iiiilucti\c scii'iK-f ari' of niii\r txci'|)tiipii^ If I'Vcii a siiiulr iiiaiiit'i'>t cxc tii.u occurs it cii^lit t'l iii\a!iilati' tin,' law. ll'. For iiistaiici II. 'W foiiijiouiiil wiT.- t'ouinl tliat oljt-y.il not tin- elKMiiical 1 ol' (Iftiiiitf ]irojiortioiis. it woiilil ritriitiv occasion an unc; tfclini,' in the \vli"ic clicmicai woi-M, ami tlicic woujil no i-cst tiiiTc tili the appav-it anomaly was exjilain ( 'onsidi-rtil in this way th" laws of population as fxpound l>y Maltlius will In' fouuil to fail. His ciTor arises from t fact that he assimilates man to tlie inferior animals. Tl was also the [nactice of the elder .Mirahean [who maintain that where\er there was suhsi.sionce, the human sj)ecies wot nniltiply " like rats in a liarn "] Now the nature of the two is iliti'erent : ami if you assui that two thin^.s of unlike nature obey the .same law.s, you i ;,niiltyof a rashness that almost infallihly vitiates youreonci .sions. The inferi' ■ animals are leil liy mere instinct, whert man is guided l.\ rea.son. hy fancy, and hy that chan^'cl thiiiiT we call moral feelini.'. Moreover, ma', and the low animals are different |ihysical!y. With the latter the feui; '[Kioiii Kilo's nuiim.scri|it written in the SamUvicli Islands, with the exo ticin iif llif List throe juimgraplis whioh are taken from p. 3i;l of tlie PoU'i Two rather more elaborate versions of Rae's final |)Osition on the subject population have alre.;.ly been printe.l in the E'-onoiitf JouruaJ for Man OF POPrLATION 3.=)5 i^'liiiits the malt- only when nIi.- is in a con.lition to eonct- ive ■ witli man it is otl.erwise. Th.-ie aiv still othor important !• .mt> of .liH'.Tt'neo un.ler this hea.l which you will tin.l set Mrfh in the M,:n,,,ni1,;i;„, whtT.- .Swrat.s is ciunneratim' the paiticMilars of mans sup,Ti.,rity. [Hut th.- more sij^niHcant hti.rences an- not those which are solely or chieHy physical ; iMit those which arr psycholo^rical aniTmnral.] Man "is the <.iiiM of art. of phantasy an.l of reason full .jf freaks. The rapid -kpopulation of these i.slan.l.s is, in itself, a 'iirinus circumstance, an-l hi-hly interesting as connecte.l with the prol)aMe fate of other ni.le nations, the mass of 'li'- -arth ill fact, if .sul.jecte.i to similar influences. [It is, 111' mover, a phenomenon which does not .sipiare with the Mir,.l..au-Maltluisian doctrine.] Suhsislence is easily pro- uivd here, then- heinir an abundance of vacant, fertile land. tuo hours .laily hit'or on which would ^dve everv man ample Mippoit for a lar-e family. Cattle, -oats, and horses (the i itt. r eaten hy the natives and preferred to beef), have h.-en lid.d to the resources of f<;rmer tina-. One would expect, til' ivfore. on Malthusian principles, an increase of p.^pulation ni-tcid of tliis fearful diminution. \iee is put down hy .Malthus as one of the checks to I-pulation; an.l here it is true .if recent vears vice, in til- f,,rm of .li-unkeniiess an.l lieenti.>i.sn.-ss especially am..n>r vniiii;,r iV.niales has uivatly increase.!, [But with Malthus vRv is treate.1 as sp.-citically -.i check ' to the pressure .,f a i:rowin<: population upon the means of sul)sisteiice. an.l uivin;; out of that pressure. Here, as lias just lieen ohserv.-.l, tmiv is no pressure of population.] Those other f.jrms .,f VIC.-, an.l thin<:s anah-irous to vice, wiiicli are the positive fh. cks of a <:rowiii;,r population in straiten.-.l material circum- stances— wars, epi.lemics, human sacriHc, infantici.le, inc^n- -taiit marriajjes, and intercours,- li,jtweeii males (which last was tornierly an estalili.shed instituti.^n), have all since the I'iiuiiijr of the missionaries lH.-en .greatly le.s.seue.l or .lone ■ i^^ay with altojrether. [The fact is that the Malthusian philosophy of iK)pulati.)n a-counts f.jr the vital phenomena of healthy societi.-s only, :it a:i i-ji tlial ul sick .SiXieiies, .such as the one in the.se i iSsi^ (' :^r,r, APPENDIX li I i>lan of the sinnaiifs).' aivl stipli as Koitic was in thf clays nf licr ilccl A scicntitic tlii'nrv wiiich for nn^re jiha-ure or a^ a means of j,na ui:: ami contirmin^ the atlectioiis. He has in short the i city of iliminishiiii,' his numhi-rs hy alistiiieiice whic): rea-on. either when on the riudit road or when a wande may teach him: n itself. 1 iif till' tiiis- ■r I led i lit;, totality "f iiit'.stly in- rlfssly rni- MiU) is a'l icli iTi'iicra- llt of SOIMi- cllts WOllllj scliilil.'ulat.'n liy motives, than passively oper.ited on l-y th">m, an.l 111 'ul.lin;,', therefore, its eiierj,'ies to suit the course it a.lopts 'I'-.isions a iliti'erence hetweeii phenomena intluenceil liv it ..III all others. H.-nce. acc.ul|iii;,'ati<.ii of oj.p.iHin;,' moi hflp'^ to art'onj an explanation of what 1 coiictive to Ix of the main causes .jf tlie decay of states. [In til.- Article in tlic E-Ohomi<- Ji.nntul nuntioncd al...ve, K.ie gm'g exttiiHivily, than in this lnit-f oiitlin.-, into the nature ami causes of »1 ■alia the 'instincts (jf sociity toucliiiiK niitlirx of nmrrlage and jirocre He (levelopx there at soi,„. |. n-th tlie i.Ua that the elfective desire of otr. >le|K.n(N not only u]>on in.liviilu.il psychology (as we i>r.linarily set iMmi that order of facts), hut al-o upon a -eneral hopiful, optitnistic outlwk < Iiervailini,' the whole social group. When a soc.ety tets on the ilowi road, and its ineniUTs feel a scn-e of depression and lack of 8.■lf-re^p.•ct cease to l.reed. Under such conditions there i^ 110 ai;retnieut hetweeii nia circumstances and the propav'ation ..( the species. The effective desi ollspiini; means, of curse, not nun ly the desire to hrint; children int woild, hut the takin;.; satisfaction in them, and the desire to rear tin maturity. On these points, and jjenerally on the whi.je subject of the t of p..piilati.iii, powerful supisjrt is afforded Kae l,y liagehot in his A>o si,i,i;- .. In one particular, it seems to the Kditor, Kae is not altogether <;orrect that is in the pfisition he takes here and elsewhere with respect to the rel hetween the principh- of the elFective desire of ..trspnni,' and the princi the effective desire of accumulation. They may he often opi)o.sed to other. In a health..il s.iciety, indee,!, for general suiiiI!< ti) mtl(x>k on life he ilownwarj f r^^|)^•L•t, men wrrect ; and /) the relation e priiici|>lc o! )<).-'eil to each reasons, both will )m: weak. 3 the uttvte of y individuals, •eak effective led in'tablish her own designs." " Little else is requisite to carry a ?tate to the highest degree of opulence from the lowest bar- larism but peace, easy taxes, ami a tolerable administration of justice; all the rest being brought about by the natural course "I things. All governments which thwart this natural course, wiiich force things into another channel, or which endeavor to triest the progress of society at a particular point, are un- natural, and to support themselves are obliged to be oppressive :iiul tyrannical." ^ •nni oj i/it L'Jt Hiui IVrn iiiniji of Dr. Smith, ny bugaiij : 'tewart, p. 1U4. i ; •■ V ■W) APPENDIX H' J'' iH H,l|!! i fi r n i SH ^ !l I t lli>' liiinri],!,, [„tr.on,,i„ic iM,liii,>] here- ^t-l forth l,v A.i Muith, thuu.h not tnnniilly aiinoiiiiccl in tli.. I(','„///, ^"''o,>^. ruu^. n,-v,.rtlH'l,.>>. throu;J, thr uh„Ir u-,,ik, .uid It- paniculai ,ii,i,li,ati.,n to tlij. s.iencL-. forms tlir nu »ni..M;.nt of the tondn>io„s to uhi.J. hi- [,,ur..lv .anu.m iv;.-on,n^. t.n.l. It i, vny fn.|,.,.utlv. also expres- iTou.uhl furu-anl l,y thu sni.portrrs of his , .pinions as arL;uinL-nt a-ainst the iiitcrh-runce of the h-islator 'an, I ■>11 tl,o.,. ih..y employ, none j.erliaps. is more popuhir has i,a,l ..greater mihienrr in -ivin- curren.v to the sy.je A hnef examination of it> n,. rii mav not, tiien, form ""proper intro,i„etion to the parti, ular Mihiect of this hooj.- Im -inri phih.-ophical aee.iraey, the uhoje of everv politic ^>>ten: ,s certainly natural. Ksvry poliiieal svsten; must alioue,! to have proeeede,! from the operation thnar.]. Ion- e ten.le,! tnue, of the thmu- without, an.l the things within ma actm.u' a> the power,- an,l principles whi,'h nature has ..iv, ;'"■'"■ '■^'"^''""■•"^•^"■1. Kverysueh >y-ten, has many pan ''"' ''"■'^' ^'" '"''""-' "■ ■■' .-'■'■^'t whoh.. ami tro.n their aeti, :i"'i ifaetion .,n eaeh other the movement- of that whole pr m.,1. it seems not, therefore, to me. that we e.an take any , tH.so ],art- separate from the e-taMishe,l, [,,.a.i of all can siate< ■"^■'' I'c takca, .separate from the re-i of tlie frame of soeie^^ •'■"1 ll'c action- they generate coii.-i,|ere,l a- unnatural i <'i.cr.t.n, contrary ,o the order of things „hich nature 'ha c--tahl,she,l, lor, to speak in the .general, ihey are all moulds :'"^''' "'■■ '"'■'" and character ,.f their time and nation am in^tc.ad ol ^ivin;, laws to the at;e, must rather he ivLrarde.l I. the rlulosopher a- emaiiatr,ns of its genius, and or.uis 1,; ''.'"'■'. .": '-"'''■■'■ '^ ""^■'■<"1. Were the wlmle present rac- "1 1- mcians .^vept from the e.aith. -o luile essential difference wouKI there he hetweei. them and their ,successors tlut the cl.an^e honre resulting to human atlaiis could not. prohably l^' traced a century afterwards. Napoleon, wlum speakin, Ji, this sul^eet to one of his ;;enerals. is somewhere reported i^^ .r^ . OF LAIS>E/ lAIRE ivfi expresscil liiinsclt' in iirarl ■•{til y tilt- liillowiiu ttTiu-. Wc are ai>t tn think that we have d;iut much more tliati uv really have, h is tlie march .>f events that has made II- and makes u.s. what we arc. Had you aii.i I ne\ei r\i-tc(l, our places would have he.-n lieM liy (,thers and wvir we now to cease to exi-t, the hlank wnuldhc su lillrd ,i< !iMt to he iierceptilile:" It must he allowed dut this wa- with justice said of himself, ev.^n !,y >ucli a mau Already w.- perceive that all the apparently mi-hty chanues lefer- dile to hi.s per>onal au'ency, were rather undulation- on the -urlace ol' tlie tide of human atiair-. than alterations in its I nurse.' When we speak of the C(uirse .if the oj.eration- of naiur i 1 "ii.an alfairs, ]iliilos.,phical accuracy wo,;I,|. I think, iu.ply a lel'Tcnce to the wlioic cour.-e, and all the springs and prin- iples, tiuit actuate ami -ui.ie it. These sprinu^ and prineiplev •li-rurdant and jarrin- as they may appear, may. uev.'rtheh-- li:tem nearer and iiraier ]»erfection and lia])piiie-,s, " Fli.in .-..•eliiili,' e\il >tiil e,l , ll,^ - 1. Aiid l.ettei tlieii.-i; -.vs-^U). ,irul l..;t'-i ~till. Ill illCuiite plM-,,.,,j,.,| ■■ ilii- is a iileasini: ami no impr./hahle tlieory. hut. in t!ii- view ' i !!ie suliject. it i- the teiuleucy <.f the whole of ih,.se -prui^- aiid j.rinciples that we have to consider, not some taken apart ti-iu otiiers. indeed, if we reason analouically, concerning :!i'' apparent action of these dillerent sprin-s an.rprinciples, s.. I'll trom its appearino prol.al.le th.it the direct imerference ol •iie le-i.slaior in eudeavorinu to i,'ive an advantageous u i.i the course of the national industry, in it- ellort- ■d!er the pro, thai it \wll farther it. To perceive this, it is necessary particularly to attend to ■d.'- 'h-tinction which Adam Smith makes hetu. en nature an.l ^T! a> applied to the pro.jress of human attairs. When we .-av. ITht'se last .'.tateiHeut- seem to ^o Iwdlv witli \Ue\ a.Ktiir,.- ,,t invc'iiuoi: i ' all ! i Vfli iii .'/' 362 APPENDIX iti a Ihiiiu' is proilucLMl hy art, we mean, that it is tho resul the agency of man. tlesi-ne.lly .Hrecte.l to its product Wlien we say, a thin- is iiroduced hy nature ; we m that it is prn.luee.l either without the ai,'eney of man, or, it his a-ency, without its hein- hi.-, intention to iir,„i„ee tl whi. h he, nevertheless, prn,hiee>. Thus the fruit, whieh a t cultivate adsanc- the sum u\' the national opulence, as IS sanl to make no part of their motives to acti.m. i.s esj.'em • wurk of iiatuie. in the same manner as we may esL.'e a fo,,tpath, h>rmed l)y the continual pa^sa,- of people ,,v -ome moor or heath, to he the work of nature. According this view .,f the sul.ject, it is the K-isl.Lor alone, who van, desi-n.act with the view to advance the nati.aial opulence. ' w held, however, tiiat a.s this interference of the 'eqislator di tnrhs the cause which events would otherwise have taken, acts in opposition to the course of nature, ami, therefore, thi the jiresumption is that it will he injurious. On the contnir I liold, that a, just analogy would rather lead ns to infer tlu it will he heneflcial. It mu.st he ackiKiwled.u'ed that when man acts most suecesi tully. it is thus that he does act. He never, indeed, seeks t von.iuer nature otherwise than by oheyin.u' her, hut his ain nevertheless, always is to con.pier hJr. P.y ohservin- th order of events, he aopiires the j.ower of ihaiij^inL; that ordei He does so, hy that which distinuuishes him from othe animal.-, thv reasonin- faculty, which so directed we term art ,\^ OF L.MSSEZ FAIKE 303 iii'l without tlie aid of which sd direct. •ti. we scarce .dtuiii iiiv i.i.ject. I'iiu though ait and nature thu'^ jait in opjiosition to ■;ich other, tlic form of expn -ioii is more ] ojiular than "irrect. Were thf chanu'os whicli man ev.ry where produces 'II tile course o;' events, contrary to the designs of nature, we huiy rest Nitistied that die would not have -iven him jiowers Mill.cieiit to effect them. What we call a conqueriiiu' or ."V.'rniiiu of nature, is to he held, in a more enlarged and Tut-r .-ense. an actin'4 in ol.edience to her dcsiuns ; and man. !- a reasoning animal is rather to be considered as an insirii- :-iiit in her hands, through which she cttects much of that iianu'- in the order of event--, and consentient jirogre.ss from - 1 1" 'letter, that we may fairly hope is g,,inu on, than i> a .-ejiaratc ;f_'ent actiiiL; in "pi.osition to her. In tlii.s -e chains ,,n it.self and sit .-till f That though every "lier.- else nature willingly .submits herself to its government, :i:iy. -eems tu court it, yet here slie commands il to rest a iii'i" spectator, beholding her ■ workiii',' out her own ends in li'-r own way ; " The jucsumjition, it seems to me, would rather be, that, ■ iioiiuii neither here nor id.sewhere can man in wi.sdom ojipose Jn the wonls of Kchmiiul liiirke, — " Art is man's naturi'"; or, as another '..IS ixprosseil it,— "man is the executive ori;an of nature. .Ml this may lie fully admitted and yet l.ring us no nearer the answer to the jiractical (|iieHtii.n, — how imi..h iK'sidc nminraininj; simple law and order '-I ttmg uji the "common Judge, " in Locke's phrase) had the State in general I'tiir undertake to do? This is mainly not a (juestion of economics hut of |"'litics; and it is not answered in the least liy arguments drawn from lll,ll,„rv.1 'li «• i ■' • I I I 11 ' 364 Al'I'F.NDIX nature, yet Iht.', ii- .•Iscwlu-rf, In- i- c;i1I.m1 ..h to iliiect . Tl^it the roiilt nf a >iu(c->iul iniiiiirv Into iiiitiuv nt wrallli. \vm,i1,1 tLTiaiiialc 111 ali.'r,ljij._; tin- niuaus uxiMPMii- ln/m-nr- that Icui-latnr- had - ..luiiiitt.'il tiMin attcii'tin_' tn all t!ic ( iieuiii.-tanccs (uniiti ;,.(1 ujth the urii\ nf that wealth, wliusr iiidure- it had hreii iludr aim advaihc, an. I wniild s.. t.^aeh them, imt i!,at ihey .ai-ht iviiiaiii inactive, hut how they may art -alt-ly, and advanta ewheiv. hi.-^ ad\ ai ill kiiowled'je would -how !iim hi- jiower, not hi- impotence .Accoi'.lin,' to ihe view o! the nature of stock, and of i can-es 'jeiicnitinu and addiii:. to i!. which ha- heen -iveii the |.reccdiim 1 k. it would seem that it- increa-e ad\:in<'ed ; I. \\\ \\hat.\cr ]iioniotes the ;jeiuTal ilitelliu'ence a morality of the s(,cieiy: a.nd that. e.ai-e.|iientlv. the mo; and intellectual education of the people makes an importa element in its ]iro'_ic-> : II. lly whatever ]iioniotc.s invi'iilion: 1. lly advancin- the progress of scimie anil art within t eiiii'iiiiinity : 1'. \\\ the iranster tiom otliei comniuuities of the .scienc anil alts there uelier.ited : III. i'.y whatever prevents the dis-iiiatioii in luxury, ot ai portion ol' the funds of the « omnuuiitv. A lull investigation of the modes in which the le-islat may promote the imrci^e of ihe stock of the comiiiunit Would eoiiipreheiid an examination of the mannei in whi' he may o]ier,ite in these several iiarticulars. -f the rules nece saiy for him to uhserve in each iMse, and an enumeration i instances, in whii'li, according ;i.s his ellorts have heen jiidie (uisly or injudieieusly e.xerted, lie has succeeded nr failed i his enterprises. When we examine the arts practised hy the nicnihers i any of the numerous societies, anionn whom tlie surface of tli OF I.AISSEZ FAIRE :W5 nth i- iliviiled, wl nd thul thcro an- vorv few wliiili hav." irit be granted. The (piestion again resolves itself into par- :;'ulars. and the investigations of the political economist, u-uld seem to be confined to the tracing out, from thi' 1 riiiciples of his science, rules determining when the pa.s.sage of .my art is i)raclicable, and when the benefits derived from it will exceed, or fall short of the necessary expen'-.e of effecting '.he passage. It is not my intention to attemjit a full discu.s- -leii ..f the.se various particulars. It will be sufficient lor the "bject in view, to enumerate the general advantages which such ;r;msfors produce, and to state some of the chief circumstances t.iv.iiable. and some of the others adverse to their success. ^>i- -'Tlif Traii^iiliintiition of Artu and Institutions, ' .Apptiidix to the if l' w MM hi 366 APPENDIX Wlicii iheso iiiea-ures are CDiupl.-t./Iy sucoossl'nl, that wli.-i, th.. cuun.Mlity. the i.roduct of th.- ;ut in .luesti'ni,, coi to he iiiaJ- at llir saiiii- c,,>t in tlic countiv t., which its ma factur." is tran>luinMi. a^ in that (kmu whi.li it con.cs „r k-ss rust liian th.T,., the advantau'es which the conuni.n (l.-Tivcs fruni ihrm aiv varintis, but. as cnnccrns coMiniu.iiL not hixuiies, may he rc(hiccd to three lieads. 1. 'I'iie savin- ,jf the exjiensc of tiansiM.it of tlie fore '-"""iio'lity. This, as is shown eIn ditlicull of transport, that they cannot ,i into th.- system of e.\i'han-e of two s.,cieties. "lliey are \> 'luce.l, or may very easily he produced in the pio-ress of t eon-truction and exhaustion of otlier in.>truments, hut fn Its l„.in,o f,,und very diilicult or im].ractical.h' to transin them -o places where tiiey mi^ht he exchan^'cd for valuil commodities, they want the whoh-. or a ..-nal part of t utdity they would there possess A f.rm.-r. tor instance the Ulterior of sonc- -reat agricultural countrv, say Xor America, has almost always a hu-e mass of' C(,mmoditi which are nearly, or aito^.-ther. valuel.->s to hi,.,, (ireat pa ot the timher he cuts ,lown he is ohli^ed to hum „p „„ tl .i^roun.l, and ,nu, h of the i.ro.Iu-e of his orchard, of his dair and of his poultiA- yard and -arden. is either entirelv or in .i^reat I.ieasare. lo-l. Xo little pan of the direct pVoduee til- lain,, ,s also l,,st. Hi> working cattle aiv idle for w,.el '"■ "lonths in the course of the year, and any superahundan, "' tl"' nior,. iailkv article., such a^ turnips, potatoes oat 1 Ins haiid Whei 1 a mam or hay. lies nearly useless o, ^ _^_^^ faclurin- viUa-e is esiahlishod in his iiei-hhourliood 'all'su'c p.oduetmns hecome valuahlc, and are transferivd to t! artisan, a„,l ,„aster manufactuivr. as returns for the pro(hicl I't their art. The pine ot the forest ^.,es to build the houses, tlie maple, tiie birch, and the walnut to liiake funi tiire for them, all potatoes and other vegetables of the s.ir that ran be spaied. aiv consuni.d l,v them as articles , lood, the working cattle -et employed at all times, and tlier are i,o„e of the returns uf the industry of the a-riculturisi I'Ut lii.d a ready market. The advanta-os hence re.snlrin OI" LAIftSKZ FA IRK 307 '.. thf jiarts i,f thf fnumry wIutl- tli.' iifw ,in tix.-> it.st-lt'. limy 1»> L'stiiiiated by .jlis.nvin,' ili.- -mu ri-o in tlie value iii.l ivul of laiKi which t'olluws it. W.- have also a u'ool iiirasuiv of th.m, ill thf .littereiK'o hutweeii thc-e in the iH'iulihoiiihoy stimulatin;.' invention and ilnninishin- the propensity to servile imitation. Ev.r\ u-rful art is so connected with many, (,i with all others, that wli.itever renders its products nior.' easily attainahle. fieilitates !hr operations of a whole eircl.' of art.s. and introduces cjianue — !lie L,'reat au-ent in producini; iuipniv.'ment<— under ilie must t.ivoral.le form. Thus the recent imi.rovements in the iron iiiaiiufacture, have in (Ireat I'.ritaiu had no inconsiderable share in - i!.-i tin- the ofiieral improvement in the mechanical arts which !■..> there taken place. Arts, too, as we have seen, when Iroiic^ht to;;etlier pass into one another, and thus also impmve- li.-nls in old arts are j.roduced, or new arts j,'enerated. Kveii lii.'ir very existence in any society j,'ives a jiowerfiil stimulus t.i ihe in-eiiuity of its mend.ers. This has been well notice,! by Ml. Hamilton: "To cherish and invigorate the activity of the lii:iiian mind, by niultiplyinL; the objects of enterprise, is not anion- the least considerable of the expedients by which the wialtliofa i.ati.ni may be promoted. Kven thin-s in them- - not positively advantageous, sometimes become so, liy theii tendency to provoke exertion. Every new .scene wli"icli is ■•\'vwi\ to the bu.n- nature oi man, to rouse and e.xert itself is tli'' addition of a new cneniy to the general .stock of effort. ' . 1 lu f.irt.gomg seems to l>e the Inisis for an argument for " internal improve- ' "lit- rather than for protectio... L'M.l..uiae,ily a community is hel.l hack '■"'lomically hy hick of "power of association. ' an.l this hist .lepen.ls ciiierty ■" means of transportation. Hut so far as products of ,lomestic agriculture "Uiot he exporte.I hy reason of excessive cost of tran.siHirtati(,n, this very cii --!::«. .i:-.:i: C'.;:^t it ulc= tndjrcctiy .. iutiiiai pojUciion for manufactures. I I / I! &llf! ! >i ;(i8 TI II' lU'C'l->Sil ATPENDIX -pint 1.1 uiitiTpri-t'. u-i'tul and j.rnliiic as it i,« rilv 1 nJiitrMcIi >;iiil>Ii(:ity ..r v.n .-tv of tli .ire tM(.iL-ty. It nnisi l.e Ic^s in a ion of ciiltivaturs ami niLTth i'-s III a nation of cultivators and iiHTchants, than in a n; "t iiiltivatois, aMili(-.T>, and luurchants." ' ■■;. Thr supply of any L-oiiiiaiiditir> which our society i •■ii-' hal.it of receiving fi.,m aimthfr and in.icpfndrnt socict liahle to liu suddenly interrupted hy \var>, or other eai Hence arises [not infiv.iuently] -real waste of ihe resuurct 'le- cr,iniuunity. In many ca,-es the whole system of im iiients It pu-^sessrs i^ at ume disjoint. -d. and it is hniu' liefor( -iciety recovers fr.,m the ^Imek. The deficiency is at Mii'plied, it may hi' in a more elfective manner than be "111 111 til.' interim there i.-, ureat waste. Communities de] 'tent uii ntheis for the supjily ,,f commodities for which i cannot readily (ind -ul..-titutes. must [therefore] iiecessa ■•very now and then, ],,- .-ul.jected to -reat diminution of t luiids from such causes. There are few extensive wars ■io not funii>h iii.iauces of it. It is jiroliaMe that the ahso lo-- .M| caused to the present I'liited States, from the interi tioii of their intercoui>e with fireat liritain, at the comnieucen of the war of the revolution, eiiualled tlie whole expense of i war. The lo-s which many of ihe continental nations exf •need from the sudden interruption to the supply o|' IJri manufactures, durim; thi- pro^iess of the war a-ainst Xapol, was also excessive. (Iivat Ilritaiii herself, on the .same occas siiUered very .severely from hein^ at once deprived ofihesiif of materials neccs.saiy to many hrandies of her industry. T tin' cuttin- off the .-upply of llaltic and Xorwe-ian timber, for some years very seiisilily felt by her. It is no doubt true, that, on such occasions, the necesi which arises to procure substitutes for the commo.iities wt are deficient, lar-ely stimulatinu m-enuity, often ultiinat produces real benefit. Wars and similar interruptions to inl course, as has been repeatedly observed, are, in fact, one of chief a-ents by which the arts have been made to pass fr ' llV.r/i-.. v., I. I. l-;,.,„,rr nn M f .._ i^^ -r.V .• * »-;.' r^-'-'^X'-'-i OF LAISSi;/ FAI1{K .'{()!» It IS, must ion to the tiuns which I nation of nieiclKuits. in a natimi •ciety is in I society, is licr nanst's. csuiirces of of iiistni- ; licfoic the is at last lan lieforo. ties ilei)L'n- vhirh tluy necessarily, m of their wars that le atisijlute i interriip- neucenient nse of that ns exjieri- lalor, without the -acritice in this way required; an.l it is the husiness of iv,i-nn, watcliinu t'vents, to .separate the ^ooil from the evil, and 1>. -e.irrh for plaii.s .if olitainin- the diie, and avoidiuL; the "ihcr. Hut while the leijislator is cMle.l on to act, he is also lalled "11 t(i act cautiou.-ly, and to re-ulate in's proceedings \oints, and to re-ulate his proceedim:- :; ' irdilluly. Wlieu there are circumst,.iices ],articu!arly uidavoraMe t(. the ji.utire of the art, and no countervailiiiL: circumstances jiarti- ' darly favoralile to it, the tirst introduction of it i.,,, it <,iily HMpured that the principle of accumulation ■'"uld have e.xi.steil in suliicient stren.i^lh amon;^ the people of I nice, to carry them to the construction of instruments of the '. I were r.ii^-ianci, and uthei iiiaiilime ill i\. ' AIM'KNDIX and (■(iinnicrcial nations. Tti.- Frcncli at tliat time had and (■oiiiniorr.', and liad Uifir ;i(riinnilativo piinciplu hf striiii.4 as til lead ilji'in U> ronstnict instninnMits returnn slowly as thost' lornii'd liy tiic Kn^lish ,ind Diitcli. th.ir nit-rci' and navy w.udd easily iiavc rivaled those of nations. 'I'hc atliiniii of the i'.ritish. in some instanei sni)|,lant the I)ut(h in iht-ir ti.si„.ry, was iiahle to a .si ol)ji'ctioii, Amonu ciniimstances j,aiii(u];,rly lav(.ial)le to the tra of a foreign ait, may In- nijled the raw materials of the u facture existiiiL; within the territory of the .scjeidy in almnd The aeijuisition of the art in tliis case saves the e.xiH-nse diMiM,. transjM,rt. On this aeroiint, tlie hrinu'inu' the wo manntactnre to Kntzland was a very hajijiy measure. liis pur])o.-~es hy premium^ for sue ful individual imitations i>f the toreiyn article : l.v u'eiicral h ties on the home manufaciuie ; or hy duties on that impc from aiiroad. Of these, preuuums take so little out of common funds, that tiicir amount fi>rms an item too snial enter into the calculation, in (juestions of national ]><, They are u-cful as testing the ]irarti(aliility of the tran iliat havinu; liecn done, it havin- lieen made .■^ullicieiitlv a rent that nothiuL.' ])revents the 1. ranch of industry in (pie.- he'Mu olaMished. hut the ditticulties attending,' new nn lakin-s. the want of skilled lalior, and a .Mitheiently accu knowledge of the properties of the material.s to lie emjiloye the formation of the new instniments, it is then projiei jirodHd to diret't and ueueral enconraL'enients hy hounliei duties. In this way re.il cajuial, and healthy enterprise directed to the art, the dilliculties attending its iiuroduc oveicoiue in the shortest jiossiiile space, and Ihe comiuodi yielded hy it are produced at hss outlay, ami atforded at a Dfice ihan that, at which they were hefuie imported. It appears, therefore, that the le^'islaior can etlecti\ OF LAFSSKZ I'AIKK 371 lulvaiuu tJic ;,'eiuTal stock of ;i socii-ty, l.y ell.'ctiii- the |.;issai,'. nt till,' iis.'ftil arts from lori-ij^ii (.•oumrifs to his osvn. To this ])ositioii several ohjectious may he made, of which -oUH' are fro- 'icdnms relative to the wealth (jf the comnninity, it is his iini to act in accordance with them. In dc^].otic L,'overn- iii'iit-^ this is the case, because there the legislator looks "II the wealth of the jjcople as his own ; in free L;overn- Mients because in them his interests are i.lentitied with theirs, it may be that he d(n's not adopt judicious measures for the purpose, l)Ut if .so, it is his Jud-iueiit, not his will that is ni fault.' •VLiaui, it must lie u'ranted that llie perfection, or imperfec- tion of action of til.- pow.-r invested with leu-islative authority, acjieiids chietly on tiie prevalence or defect, of intelligence and' i'lilihc -iiirit throughout the community. Every government nsts „■.' opinion. Wheuev . the majority are thorou^'hly cn- vniced that tlu'y would derive advaiita,i,'es from a chan-.'e "in the I institution, or in the por.s.ju or jjersons adniiniarf Article I. p. '.'(jT. J J If f>' 19; f! 372 AIM'KNDIX • icr.'ctivr. Tlirr.' is always a < l.,s.- loniifxiuii h..t\vr..n llatlir.' i.r thr l..M,|,l,. atwl nf ih,. -oV.Ttllll.'Ht. I lrs|„,I is|„ illlalvhy iiii|,ly a -'•!:. Tal ,l..|,,iM.rii.-m m l],,' ilil rlL-rulal iiK.ral pipwcis; trrcdnin ami upI.t. an ■■l.vation ,,| ih,.,,,. innrv ,|.-lM,tic tllr U"Vr|Iini,-llt III., lucre .J.lM.Ii.lci.t ol, til.- '"' '■■'1"" '' :' -'ii-l'' I'lTMii,, til,. i,,,,r,. it IS .siil.|,.(t I.I irio; i.il i.-_'isialiv,. m.siMir,-. Til.. iii,,rv ,l,-,-.i„,ii, tli.. -..v.inin. ii'.wrv.T, the If.ss aN.. ilir iiil.-Iliu,.|i,v, aii.i 111,. ..'n-at-.r s..|ti>liiii.ss, ail, I ,u!i-.,.,iu,.iilly til,, v.tiiity ..f lli,. u,,\.rii...l. ' I<— , .il>.., III,. iiiv..niiv.. [..iWiT, aii.i th,. a.lvaii,-,. in -. i,.),.-.. ; :iil, an.l till. ._.n.ai..r tli,- a.l.li.ii.m i., liixniy. I'-iii ili,. l,.vs <-..in|.aiali\,. a.jxaii.,. in >,i,nc.. aii'l all. aii.l tli,. .^n.al.r :i'Mi.ti,.ii t,, liiMiry. til,. ..qvali.r ta. ility i- ..^iwii U, s,,, 1, ,,|k ti.'ii^ ..I III,. l,.u'i~lai,.r a. l,a\.. Im| il„.ir aim i., iii,r,a>,. wcallli ..I th,. ,,,iiiiiiunity. Tli,. tarlli,.r any s,„ i,-ty i, l„.|| "tli.Ts in a kn.iwl, .,]-,. ,,f tli.. iiM'tiil aits, th,. -D'atrr iiiinilK.r ,.f 11,. w arts that may 1„. inir.Mla,-..,! ; th,. lai-,.r am. ,11111 ,if luMiiy that pivvails in it th,. ._'ival,.r th,. n-vri thai may h,' rais.-.l I.y ta\ati,.ii with, ml int,.| f,.riiiu' wiili in viiinal incr.m... Il,.n.-,., si„.akin.4 -,.|i,.|ally, if Ic-i-lat.-r.s ilf>|M,tii- ■_',.v,.nim,.|its, w.T,. ,,iln.r ,in uni^Iancr.- cpial. w,,i li|. Ill,, IV pii,!,,' t.i .J., \vr..nL.'; lli,.y lia\,. th.-iv s,, ^vat lacil III ai'tiiiu', llial lli,.y ha\,. .^r,.at,.r , liaiic,. t,, -,, ri'^lit. A r,.(,.r,.iic.. t,, ..xami.K.s wi'l mak,. this appan.nt. If, 111 iii.-t;,ii.v ,,f ,111,. ,,1 the 111, .St i-n,,raiit an,! slavish ..f ...xjsti -.(•i,.li,.s, uv tiiin I,, sniu,. ,,n,. ,,f th,. i. Ian. Is ,,f tin. ,s,,iith S ii will ]„• ali,,w,.,| that a ir^islat-ir „f intc.lii-i.iuf an Jik.-ly M'Milt li,,ni th,. iin>killiil ,. Molts ..f ..vi-n any ,,C their l..irh;u-,, '■lii-'ts. ,lir,., U.,1 I., SI, ]iraiM.w,.nhy an ,,l.i,.,t. \\\j .>h,,iil,l n • ■oiu'eiv.. 1„. wasu..l lliL' n.M.iirfi.s ,,f his e.amtry, l,y turnii pint ,.|' the iiati.inal Ciiinls t,> siuh puriM.ses. • >f exteiisi cuntiit.s wlu'ie unmiti.jat,..! slawiy an.l .l,.si,..tism j.twa Ivjy],! is perhai.s iii,.st nn.K.r th,; ,.\e ,.f Kiii,,|,eaii.s. h is n, h.,wev,.r, c,,mni.,nly h,.liev,..l l.v tli,.m, thai the projucts uf i ].rL.>,.iii r.ili.r l,,r the intr.Mlm.ii.,n int,, it ,.f m..,i,,.in ^ci..m..e ai «,\^ or i.Aissr/ lAiuK :{7.{ ul .II.' infoiisistfrit with til.' ilictatfs ,>r >,,uii.l |,.,li,-v. Kiicts uoiiM .iiMnun>tiat.' tli,- tiillary „f a„y muIi MippuMtimi". Kriurs. 11'. .li.uKt. iiiiiy liav \,*-i-u, an, I may Kf . i.iimiitt.'d, l>ut tlir -,.,,,1 ..-ur,MlIy ov..ilMlaiir,.s tli.' evil. Tli.- ivv..lutio,i wruii-ht in l;u-Ma i.y r,.t..r tli.' (irrat, is aimtlnr iii-taiir,. ,,f tla- -ainr -■r!. In such cases the [M.wcr <<\' the Ic-islaior t.. dhct l.ciic- liri.il clianucs is SM -ivat, that c\cm his nmst hhiinlcrinu' clh.rts Air -rlilciii :,..oiicthcr siicc.-sh'.s. A truittul s.,il yields lar_'.. r. turns, ,.\cn to a wry iin-kilful hiishaiulman. If we j.as- li-ni thcni tn -,,v,Tniufnts. ..f which frc,.c .a],a,iiy to i.r.Miiice u""m1 is .hniinished, tin- liahilitv t.. crmr i< aU., .Jiniiiu-hcl. h \vere tnjly in the h-islatun- of the llillcl Stales, to iiua-me it-elf ,ai,.,l,h- of ._m\ ilii; ..n impulse so -n.l.leii ami -reat. tn the resuur. es .,f the counlrv, as th.it iTnicJit alM,ui in K-yi,t hy the pre-ent l"a< ha, ur in"l;iis>ia hy !l'c lir^t I'eter. It has the advaiita-c, h..wever, ..f heiii- much Ic-- liiMe to error. luery import.int mea>uiv tliere aL'itate.l. I'clnic It can he adoj.ted. is siihjccted to the scrutiny of ^reat ■iiiiiil.eis of iiitelli,-ent and w.dl informed indivi.luals, slmm- !':•-! alike hy tlieir re^-ard to their country and to themselves, :■' trac,. ,,ut with accuracy its future operations and elfects.' l;y this means the .-reati-st .security, of whid, the nature "! Inmian affairs admits, is eiven a.uMinst the ailopti.,ii of ;iiM'"liiic or hurtful .schemes. With such cautions, the icyis- I'tor may with prudence undertake a .^eries of measures, tin: under other circum>tances, were of very douhUul ■Apchciay. Ill one sort of -overnmeiii, therefore, the facility of action uiv, warrant to act, and in another the prohaMe freedom from 'iT-r. In lioth it is the part of the h-islator to act, hut to act m (onformity tu the laws arisin,;/ from the constitution which nature iia.s j,'iven to man ami to matter. In doin- .so instead '■I actin- in opposition to nature, he tills his natural place in a ^vMcm estahlished hy nature. In hoth, also, it is the part of ti"- in(iuirer into the principles of politics, to emleavor to throw liaht alon,-,' the path of the le-islator. not vainlv to itiempt to persuade him, that an iusuj)t>rahle obstacle bfocks «'li H m k ! ' » ji 374 APPFADIX Fiii.illy, coiicfriiiiiu 'i.i- objcclimi, it iniiy be obscrvi'd, thai it ivlt-rs t( llic tuUowers ol AUaiii Sniitli. They ImM nj) Ifii^lalive intort'civnce as neces- >aiily ami e^sciilially evil. Thr siToml ohjcctiiin I liave tn iiotr, as ivsultiii',' from th( natiiiv of thin'^s ihrmsclvt's, is the j)ossililc t;vil efffC'ls of ai: cxti'.-sivr rcvt-nuo aciruim; to iht- i<:;4islator, from protecting and L'licoura-inu; tin- imlustry of the society and turniiiu' intt his ' wii rollers as much as jiossihle of the amount otherwist ilis>i]iated in luxuries. A suiierahumlant revenue in the handi of the le^iNlator. thoU'Ji directly a '^reat L;o(fd, is s imetimes indirictlv i -ivat I'vil. It may enable iiim. without aii^ ex].eii-e to the sncicty, t > carry on juMj.M-ts that must otlnTwisi have jire— ed heavily on its rrM.urres, but it also places ai instrument of Lireat powir ii' his iiands, and one which, in cer tain eircunistances, lie may turn to very pernicious "iids. I may have an ellect >imila ■ to that which the discovery of tin Wi'stern continent jiroduced on Spain. The direct etieets o the ri(dies that th.wed in fMui the lU'W world, were miuhtily U increase the jiower of liie Sjjanish monarchy. Indirectly, how ever, tiieir elfects were to coiTUjit the cotn t and tile nobles, am to spread wiile. ihrouji ilie hi;jhcr clas>es, a dissolute, and ye a mercenary s]iirit. Tiie objection, liowevi^r. only refers at al to countries wiicif there are no jaiblie burdens to ab.-orb th surplus ]iulilic revenue. Is is, eonseipuMitly, totally inappli cable to (Ircat I'.ritain. It al-o chictly refers to countries wher there are no etiicient checks to abuses of the le.L'islalive o executive jiowers. Tiiis, too, it may be observed, is an objec tion which, as tUr as I know, has not been uru'ed by moderi jiolitieal cedininiists. The objections, which have their hiundatioii in the views c the subject ]iresented li\ .Vdani Smith, and which are urued b his prescpt followers, depend mainly on the nature of word; and the so]ihisms jiroduced by a j,'eneralization from name inste.ul of ihin;,fs — fidui preconceived notions which verbally but not really, embrace the phenomena. Terms, and so, alsc ie,i>onihL;s. fitly ,ipplic.;i to the opcrulious uf individuals ni ia OF LAISSEZ FAIKK 375 ].n sorvatidii, enjoyment, and increase ol wealth, are transferred iiiiiiiediately to societies, and tlie [economic] rules and i»rincijtles which iiold ^'ood in the one, are assumed to be exactly appli- ciMe to the other. If what is thus taken for |j;rauted be ii.liiiitted, t'uiilier discussion is unnecessary, for the truth of the ].i..lM)sition to bf {>rf)ved, is inijilied in the terms in which it is .imiuiated. It has been my aim, throughout the iireccding j.iji-. to exjiose the fallacy of these as-uniiition>, and, couse- ..'b iitlv. of the arguments resting on them. Tlie ].c)i.iti<.n of the i-phoMir of hii^-"-. /'liff is precisely that "the 1 ,!urf of huiiiim iitt.iirs," itspectiiig ;liiiig8 political, .loes not admit of - ilti.icnt ••.Hfcunty ■■ ag;iin.st grave alms,a it— "A great gii'.t is tixeeople, except ■ . int. rested beneticianes, inform themselves and take action. Hut we have 1.. iM|,. us a broader i|ue>tiuii than that of jiroteclive tariffs alnne. lin b.ith sides of this ,onti.cx-.iim some kiiowlclge and some g 1 will, but aho always prone to it.lkctual ,ind moral erroi. The .luesf.on Is, by which general plan can .... i. ty liest get the work of the world done ; is it by the relatively mtlexible, |iir,nii,cived, centralized inetliodMif the governing power of organized civil -", icty ; or by the comparatively llexible, spontaneous, deeentralized methmls ni individuals and voluntary associations of iiidivi.luals? Is i'., in short, by il.c impatient plan of compulsory regimentation: or by the sh.w moving ■If thi.dless method of freec.om ? "Tlie imiuirer into the principles of politics" has indeed the high olhce ; . throw such "light" as he may possess "along the path " of the niany- if ;ule(l legislator. It is his duty to say not pleasant things, but true things. N.it ,ii all in the spirit of a mere oVislructionist, he may {«iiiit out. that certain -[■.,ilic "ills" connected with "legislative interference" along many lines, oc not "casual" but permanent, and that they clearly outweigh the possible ■ ickiiowledged go."-d ' t^-- l>^ d.crivr.l. And speak, -i; generally, he m«v teach <*^^£*-:t,v AIM'KNDIX tliat no letiijrcl j.ilioy Iwscd on the tli«t."in in goveriinieii Suili a policy, niergini; witli ol:.r polieies, is iilinost certain to l)e coi oroniiseil i.oni|ilet. ly out of shape. Only the private niunajier (witli all li Khort-coniinf.'s) is eye-single to the econornii-, Imsiiiess-like execution of ai piece of mirk. All this, ai'd otiier aspi'cts of thi.s great sulijcct, helong to an "order facts " with « hidi Kae does not sieni to have heen at all aci|Uaiiited. Cle.irl |M)litics Has ids hiind sidt-. In these matters his great adversary was vast his su[)erior. j m I •>! '/■if ARTICLE Vm. (iK TFIK sri'POSKD IDENTITY t'P THE CAl'SES (ilVINO KISE TO INlMVIUrAL AND NATIONAL WKALTII.' I'AIIT I -WHKN ASSUMKl) AS A sKl.l' KVIDKXT TRfTH. I'Alil a.— WHKN DKDLLEl) KKOM AN IN(iKNIulS TIIKORV. I'Alir I. W'llKN wealth. cnnsidtTed in tlie mMicral, is CDiu/fived to be a iliiiiL' fitlier .so fieur as to ri'iiuiiv no dctinition, or sf) simple as td lie fully j^rasped liy any detinition, two ditleruut and oppos- ing,' systems naturally seem to arise concerning it. The wealth of all the individuals in a st te lieini,', it may be >aid, of necessity measurcil by the amount of the national ' (Tlif title of Hae's tirst " Book " ill tin' origiiiiil oilitioii wus " Iinlivi.luftl mil National Interests are not Mcntical." i'ln' iilea accords with liis leailing .iiMiipt oil the .tide of man's a.'<..vs room for efforts of soci' .y to compel its dclini|Uent memliera to oh.serve their leal, long-run interests. But the argument elalMirateil in this and the I'Ttgoing Article,— that organized civil society is itself called iijion to play the piirt of eiitrrprfneur and be progress maker in the realm of industry, is no accessary part of Kac's genera: systc;:: t;: rpccuiaiiuii. ]■ B ^: >; ■- w^m ( I HTn AIM'KNDIX : ; I i» II' V wnilth, wliiUuvcr ad.ls in thu Wfulth of tin- nation mu imrrasc the stocks uf intlividuals. I'.nt it lia.s always het'ii fouii .lial nations have become most wealtliy when they hii\ en;,'a:,'e(l nidst extensivi'ly in commene and manufactures. 1 eneourane commerce and manufactures by every jiossih means, siinuld, therefure, he the '.Teat aim of the lej,'islatoi and every enactment and re^\datior' (jf fiis conduciiif; to th etlect, as it. cannot hut tend to the increase of the j,'ener; funds, must ultimaiely add to the stocl complete inaction on the part of the lc;_;islator, of the remov; of all restraint, and of jicrfect freedom of trade. Holli sysit-nis proieed on the assuiujition of the e.xact idei titv of pulilir and piivate wealtli ; of wealth, as it is the .san word, lieiu',' iilways tlie same thim^, whether applied to ind vi(hials or eommunilies, and hrjn^ in its increase ami decrea! sul>Je( ted in all ca.ses to similar laws; — an assumption tlowir easily from the concejition that its nature is very simple an m.iy wiliiout dilliculty he apprehemled. '{'he latter of these systems, that adopted hy Adam Smit we mi^^ht expect, would at present he most popular in Kurop Institutions and forms very often endure after the circun stances that had oriuinally called them forth have disappeare and when, consei|uently, .lieir operation injuriously restraii the movements of some new order of thin;j;s. Such seems tl condition of most Kuro](ean kinj^ihrnis at present. The Iran of their existing,' constitutions and laws was moulded in remo limes, in ages of comj)arative harbansm and stern military rui i! "^^^'^l^g^^^^ ADAM SMITH ON FREE TUADE 379 ami is, therefore, in many parts, unsuited to tlic circumstances c't' the present period. It is perceived that a multitude of ;il.uses exist, and the efforts of the majority are directed to • Irtect, expose, and do away with them. The prejudices of iiuu of liberal minds and enlars^'ed views, for even such men liive prejudices, run consetjuently, rather towards overthrowing and rooting out, than to establishing.; and niaintaininj,'. A ~\^iem ipf piilitical economy, the fundamental principles of ■.vliich inculcated the doctrine that every attempt of the ruler t'l direct the industry of the community was injurious, and that all laws having this temlency should be abrogated, fell in with the current of pulilic opinion and could not Imt draw to Itself a large body of zealous and able advocates. It is in this temper that Mr. I'lentham addresses its author. " On this -ubject you ride triumphant, and chasti.se the impertinence of kings and ministers with a tone of authority, which it required .1 courage like y(jurs to ventuit; n|)(in, and a genius like yours til warrant a man to assun.'" ' It may be remarked, also, that as the circumstances of Ijiri'pc, in remote ages, produced the former system, in the liiesent give pojndaiity to the latter; so in North America, where a new form of govenmient suited to the state which -■■liety has there assumed, has been estaltlishetl, we might < \pect, as is the case, that a medium would be taken between ihe two extremes.- .My main object, in this book, is to show tliat that notion of the exact identity of the cau.ses giving rise to individual and national wealth, on which the reasonings and arguments of .\ilam Smith all along depend, is erroneous, that consei(Uently the doctrines he has engrafted on it, cannot be thus maintained, and are inconsistent with facts admitted by himself. i liave already observed that through every part of his work, 111 llie contluct of all his reasonings and arguments, Adam .■^iiiitli blends together the consideration of the processes by wiiieli the capitals (jf individuals and nations are increased, and always treats of them as precisely identical. Sometimes this ' Df'eiKe ri/ L'tiiry, '[See " Note C " in the Appendix.] :?sn aimm:m)IX is assumed as a self-evident triuti, s(Jinetiiiu!s it is a dediiotio from an inu'f'iiioiis tlieory : Init, in one slia])e or other, it form tile basis on wliicli his whole system is built. If this simjil view of the suliject be admitted a.s correct, it may very easil be made to leail to the conclusions at which he is desirous < arri\ in'_'. Till' axiom which lie biini,'s forward, that the cajiital of society is the sanu' with that of all the individuals wiio con |)ose it. beiiii^ ^^ranted, it follows that to incre.'isc the capital of all the individuals in a socit'ty is to iiu lease the' L'ciier! capital of the society. it .st'cms, therefore, also to follow tlui as everv man is best jud^'e of his own bu.-'iness and of tli niiides in wiiich his own enpital may be au'_'mente(l, so t prevent him from adopting; these nindes is to obsiruct hii in his clforts to increase his own ca])ital. and, in so i'ai as h: ca]iital is a i)art of the General cajiital of the society, to chec the increase of that 'general lapital; and hence, that, as all law for the rei,'idation ot commerci; are in fact means liy which th legislator prevents individuals conductin;^' their business £ they themselves would deem best, they must operate jin judicially on the increase of individual and so ol general wealtl In pursuance of the same idea, of tin,' perfect iilentity of th means by which individual and national capitals are increasec the argument is thus further enforced. Accumulation is th means by which individual cajiital is aUL;mented. We kno' very well that if any person spend as fast as he makes, he ca never uet riidier. Whatever his u'aiiis are he must save .som part of them, else he can never add to his cajiital. Tli amount also of his savings for any jieriod of lime must measui the addition, which, durim,' that time he makes to his wealtl As, therefore, the capital of a sin-^le individual is increased b his continually accunndatin;^' and aildim,' to it whatever li saves out of his revenue, so the national cajiital. or the cajiit; of all the individuals in a nation, is increased by these iiul viduals continually accumnlatini: and adilin;.^ to it what the save out of their resjiective revenues. Hence whatever jiri vents them from niakini,' the most of their resjiective cajiital or drawing; from them the lar^^est revenue, in .so far as deprives theiu of the pt in a like propor- tJMii (liiiiiiiish tlicir imlividiial at'cumulations, and cinisf- ijiu'iitly llic sum (if all their acciiiiiulatiuu';, or llie aininint a.lilei] tip tlie iiatiiiual capital, lint all laws for the re^nilation if roiuuierce, ami all eiicourai,'eineiits <_'iveii to jiarticular 1 laiiclics of inilustry, ilo in fact iirevcnl imliviijiials from turn- in.; their cajiitals intn the channels which, Imt fi'r these rej,'u- litiims, they woulil prefer as ollerin;,' the lar;4est returns. They mu-;t, therefore, it is said, to a certain extent, diminish individual accumulation, and ciinsi'i|uently, iri an eijual propnr- ti"n, the increase of n.ttinnal capital. X'icwiu'j, then, the siihject in this simjile liuht, and takini; ;i-^ undoulpted truths the assumptinns of our author, that individual and nat'oiial wealth increase in the same manner, ind that the manner in which individuals increase their riches is hy saving from their revenues, we would easily airive at the doctrine he inculcates, tliat as every man is the liest judLie of his own interests, so he should be left 1" I'ursue them in his own way, without the leLrislator at ;iil intcrferim: with ins operations, or pretending; to aid or ilirrct lliem. This very simjile view of the suhject would, however, be d'lictive in two respects. 1. Thoutzh it is, in the !,'eneral, true that individuals may liiid some eniiiloyment, by the prosecution of which they may jiocure a n;venue, and so. by saxini; trom tliis revenue, acipiire Wealth, or add to what they have before acnuircil, yet it seems Hot so clear that it is by this means alone that nations advance, "1 cm advance, in the acquisition of wealth: because it nmst frrwr to us that materials on which the national industry may '■■ employed are to be provided, and often are or may be wanting'. -. it is not allouelher correct to say tiiat the sole means wiiii h an individual emi)loys to add to hi.^, capital, is the pro- 1.1 -s of savini.' from revenue. It is very evident he nuist lirst jain this revenue, and that the amount he Ltains, and conse- Miifntly the iiuiount he can save, nmst in lieneral depend on till' talents and cajiatities he possesses for the prosecution ol' the particular employment to whicli he devotes Inniself. As .--J-yi ^?r;- ."-.r^r.a.i. ■«X; nm ^^ A masftjg !. t ih i' I vl M\.'. :]s-2 AIM'KNDIX iiii iiKiuirv, ilR'n-lort', into iht; manner in wliich an imliviili luii^'ht most rajjiiily accuiniilati' wcaltli, winiM in part rcsol itself into an examination of tlie modes hy which he miji acciuire the ^'reate>t ]»'rfeclion of lkill. and dexterity of all the individuals in a nation, the various liusinesses and prof(--sions that may be carri on in it, may be raised to the hiL,'hest pitch. These two circumstances render the subject more intrica '.ban the tirst simple view \' •■ niij^ht be inclined to take of woulil lead us to suspect. \n attention to the operation I'ither ;:rowin;_' rich, amither is becoming,' ]ioor, a the change prmhiced, seems not so nuich a creation ot weal as a jiassa^'e of it from one hand to another. These transf have iieen i,'oin'_' on in all ai^es of the world and have exis eipiallv, in what lias been called the advancing', the stationa and the decliuiiiu' sta'.:es of society. Everywhere tiiis uie; of acipiiriii',' wealtli i> npen to indiviihuds, and they eve wliere avail themselves (if it. l.el any one in any country, (Ireal Uritaiii for instance, trace backwanls for hfteen twcntv years ili • autatiniis that have occurred in the fortu (if the persons wiih whom he is ac(iuainted, and he will t that tiierc are lew. wliose circumstances are not very mi ehan'4e(l troui wjiat they then were, (lood condiut 2ood 1 tune, and fruuality have made many rich who were then pc impiuden( c, mi>fiirlune, prodigality have made many ]>iior \ were then rich. r.ut while that man has thus been addni'r liou.se tu hd «• ; "^i^ - -.'■1*3" -'J Lj-i; ^w"f^ ADAM SMITH ON FRKK TUADK .Ss:'» ami turiii to iiinn, iuiut a very small part tcnce, nations do so hy the production of wealth that did iK't previously exist. The two ]irocesses ditler in this, that the • aic is an Krijiiiiititiii. the other a rniifmii. A'l nihiln nihil jit. Nothing can spring out of nothinj:. K\riy ihin^' that exists must have a cause. As we do not see ;!iat individuals increa.se their wealth hy creating; new wealth, we do not think of ini|uirini; how the riches of an individual came to exist, hut how tliey came into his possession. Uut as uc do not see how nations can increase their wealth, hut hy ■ iratiu'..; new wealth, we naturally imiuire, what are the causes it tlie wealth of nations. Adam Smith asserts, and as I think truly asserts, that these iau-(s are to he found in the improvement of the productive ]n\vcrs ot human lahor. Men, and therefore nations, are said !m lie rich or poor accordin<,' to the dei:ree in which they can illMril to enjoy the necessaries, conveniences, and amusements "t human life, lint as it is the annual laViour of the nation which supjilies these necessaries, c(jnveniences, and amuse- iiitiits ; so as tliis lalior is well or ill directed, the supply It allords nnist lie jjreat or small. The skill, di'Xterity, and ud'.'nient with which labor is applied ; that is, I presume, tlif t H iiity of the operations which it employs for executing; its •U'l-, and the accuracy with which it conducts them, must ' nii-f(piently mainly re;„'ulate the amount which it ])roduces. i iius the increase ot the skill, dexterity, and judgment witii :is4 ArrKNDIX II I, Ahicli l!iL- national lalx.r is a]ii.lic(l, furnislu's >is with a caug fur the imn.'as.Ml juiMliulivi- jjowcrs of tliat lalmr. ami so fo tilt' intivasc of tliu national wcaltli. 'I'his account of matters will lie fouiul sntlu iiiilly to H'^re Willi the ideas whieh the conteiiiiilation of their prot^ress force on every y laws wh arc exceptions to those that apply to the rest of niaiikiml. ADAM SMITH ON FRKK TRADE 3H5 ^^hi.li the im-Sfnt aijricuUunil I'mpi-rty "f the nation would W ,, ,;,.(!. would lie double that at wliirh it was formerly rated. Ilir thin^.'s, too, that ^^ .--tiniated I'ornie.l the increase in both, ,v..iild have been ]iro(.. ed by man: they wo>'ld be his work-. r.ui though two lhin;_'s may both be .'stimat<-d as worth a sum • t money, and may both be works of man, it fallows not tliat •h. principles which have i)roduced them an- p.-rfectly similar. riH- jiofm of Chilli' Harold cost tii.' publisher a certain sum ; - did the paper on v.'.iich it was printer.. They both, too, w. r.' works of man, and requireil mental and coriK)real ener^-y :.. produce them: but w.- should not, therefore, «ay the prin- , iplrs that producfd them were precisely similar. Within a few centuries the national capital of C.reat ISritaiii !i,is increased tenfold, ('<>uld we imagine that we could tel! \]a< fact to some one of the men of the olden time, waked from ill,' slumber to u-, we may supi)ose 1,.- woultl ask how it cotdd bi- ; how there could have been ]. reduced so mi:.4hty a chan;_'e : or from wlience so full a tide of wealth could liave flowed in ujion us. Hut were we then •j. take him abroad and show him the wonders and achieve- in- iits of art with wliich the laml is oversj.read : the various processes carried on in our manufactories and workshops; the - ientific labors of the ayriculturist ; the curious mechanism with which the vast bulk of our ships is put to^'ether and -uided ; tire and water transformed into our obedient drudges, . \riivating harbors and drainini; mines for us, caiTying us over •Iir land with the speed of the wind, bearin-; us through the ■ van against tide and storm: he would no longer wonder whence the wealth was that he saw anamd, or that the land vi.lded tenfold what it had done of old, tlujugh he might well ■ Liiiand liow the power had been ac(piired that had wrought S(» urral a change. Were such a thing possible as we are thus imagining we can -r.irce suppose that any one would be found to reply, — "the whole process is nothing extraordinary; it is just the same as Vm. must have seen in your own days, when, by continual parsimonious saving, an individual accumulated ten times the capital he once had ; he began, perhaps, with one house, and ••;;;:;! owiiing Icn. r?-,^v:! .-.T: !-.--■;•.■. :•-•!■ •■ ; '- 2 B I! iV i , ii 3.S(J AIM'ENDIX ! : • ■ I ' I ^^■v 4^ Fiivcnt'oii is the mily power nn faitli, that can Kc saiil I TfalP. It L'litirs as an rsscntial clfniciu inln tin' jirufi'Ss iliu incn-asi' ot naliniial wcaltli, iMcau-c that proix'ss is a crt tion, iidI an ai '|iiisiiiun. It il(if> nm ni't('s>arily filter into t process of till- increase of individual wealiii lie-iniipii( llierefore, that the two pmce-ses are perfectly sindlar is inci lect, and the doctrine whiiests of iinlividiial- and cDiunmnities cann he thus estalilished. The ends whicii individuals and nations piiisue, iiv ditferei llie ohject of the one is fi aciiaire, of the nther in < leate. T mt'iiiis which they employ, are also ditfereiit : industry ai l)arsini.iiiy increase tiie capitals ul individual- : national wealt uiiilerstood in its lari^est and truest sense, as tin; wealth of ; nations cannot he iiicieased, Kut throu'jh the aiii al>u ut' tl inventive taculty. Though each niemli.-. ■ i a Cipniiuunily lui lie desirous he inay u'iiin it liV a(-([uiiin^' a pc tion uf the wealth idready in existenci'. it fulhiws unt that ' creati-s wealtii. The coniuninity adds to its wealth hy creatii wealth, and if we understand hy the le^'islatoi the ])oweractii for the coiiiiuunity, it seems nut ahsunl m unreasniiahle th he should direct part of the energies of the community towar the furtherance of this power of invention, this necessary el nienl in the production of tlie wealth of nations. Ill the lollowin;.,' cases it would at least se 'iii not improhali that the power of the legislator scj directed, might lie heU'^ticii I. In proniotin;,' the pro^^'ress of science. II. In jiromotin'.^ the iiro^ress of art. 1. r>y encoura|.;inL; the discovery of new arts. 2. l>y encoura^'in;4 the discovery of improvements in il arts already practised in the ccjuniry. ."'•. l>y eiicoura.uinu' the di.-.c(nery of methods of adajitini,' ar already practised in other countries, to the particular circut .stances of the territory and community for wliicli he lej^islatt In the attainment of all these objects, the aid of the invei tive faculty is retpiired. Our judgment of their propriety ns f:ir OK thi i-i det. ... .1.,.;.. te! - .ir'^*4= .m Wr'-^k- ADAM SMITH ON FUKE TRADE liHl ili'iicy to ])roiuoto the wealth of tlie community, woulil seem to .l.'I.einl oil two circumstances. 1. On the prohahility of llieir -iKct'ss, iind of tiiis success enabling; the industry of its mem- h .IN to ac(|uire with increased facility some of the necessaries, ( ouvenicnces, or amusements of life, the cajacity for producing which, measures the general revenue and riches. 2. On the l.i.plialiility of the future wealth to he derived trom thi> new -.iirce, lieiu',' suthcient to repay the expenditure of present Wraith necessary to open it up. As far as any consideratif)ns, which I have as yet presenlfd lo tiie reader, warrant us in formiui.' a conclusion, it certainly (l.)is a])pear not inipossil)le, or unlikely, that there miLzhi he iii>tances in which the le;.;i.slator mi'^ht, with advanta^f to the progress of the wealth of the connnunity, direct the energies of -.ine of its members towards discoveries in all the.se ditferent departments of knowledge and action. i'.ut in doiiiii so, he always acts contrary to the doctrine which teaches that he ought never U> di.sturb the natural course oi events ; that is, the course which the efforts of individuals, uninterfered with, liy him, would give to these events. His ,e_'encv so directed, according to this doctrine, must be injurious ; b.eause, in every instance, it in part changes the direction, and in part retards the progress or the natural course of events. In every such instance, he directs the industry of some of th'.' iiieiiibers of the society from gaining a revenue by the practice nl old arts and .so accumulating capital, to the discovery either i.t materials for new arts, or of means of adapting old ones to new countries. By doing so, he takes from the national revenue, and retards, conseire of )»reseri enjoyment, a passion only momentary and occasional. The are preempted to save by the desire of bettering' their comlitioi a pas.sion which comes with them from the womli, and neve leaves them till they l'o to the u'rave. In the whole course c life of the i.'reater part of men, therefore, thouu'h the principl of ex]iense ]irevails occasionally, yet the ])rinci|ile of fruj,'alit; liredoininales, and preilominates very greatly."' "The jiiinciple exci iiii; to fruuality, the uniform, constant and uninterrupted effort of every man to better his condition produces both jmblic and national, as well as private opulenci and is trnpiently more than sufficiently powerful to counterac the "ytravaLiance of ^'oveniment, and the ^'reatest errors o administration. Like the unknown principle of animal life, i fretpiently restores health ami vi<;or to the constitution, in .spiti not only of the disease, but of the absurd prescriptions of th( doctcpr. Alone and witliout any a.s.sistance, it is capable, no oidy of carrying' the preHviiuptiou mther is, that the means also by wliich they are arrived at are not identical. It seems to me, that it reciuires very little pausini,' upon the examination of this principle to i)erceive its incunclusiveness as an argument. It is a principle, nevertheless, whioli, like other popular doctrines founded merely on the amlii^uily of a word, lias been very much insisted on, and meets one in all variety of sha[)es. On this account, the reader may perhaps excuse me, for detaining' him a little lonu'er on the consideration of it, l)y l>rin;.;ini,' liefore him ;i passa'^je from our author, which may s.rve to expose its unsoundness, by showiui,' how easily it may be made to lead to the most obvious fallacies. " The annual pro- duce of the laud and labor of £?■ jland is certainly much <,'reater than it was more than a century au'o at the restoration of Charles II. It was certainly much ;,'reater at the restoration tlian we can supjwse it to have been about a hundred years before, at the accession of Elizalieth. At this period, too, we have reason to believe, the country was much more advanced in improvement than it had been about a century before, towards the chjse of the dissensions Ix'tween the houses of \'ork an, nan Conquest ; and at the Xorman (Vniquest, than during the confusion "f the Saxon Heptarchy. Even at this early period it was ceri.unly a more improved country than at the invasion of Julius Ca-sar, when its inliabitants were nearly in the same state with the savages ill North America. " In each of these periods, however, there was not only much private and public profusion, many expensive and unnecessary wars, great perversion of the annual produce from maintaining productive to maintain unproduc-.ive hands ; but sometimes, in the confusion of civil discord, such absolute waste and destruction of stock as might be supposed not only to retard. as it certainly did, the natural accumulation of riches, but to have left the country, at the end of the i)eriod, poorer than at the beginning. Thus, in the happiest and most fortunate periiKl of them all, that which has pas.sed since the restoration, iiow many disorders and misfortunes liave occurred, which. hiiu-iiL, \. «i«'*-CyW9W!!S.=' ^ISSP^^ ' '^mm^^Bsst -xsta^a^ •wm i M ii H I ! ■ Ni' i ' li )^ 390 APPENDIX but the total ruin, nf the country woiiM have been expected from them. The fire and the plague of London, the two Dutch wars, the disorders of the devolution, the wnr in Ireland, the four expensive French wars of 1688, 1702, 1742, 1750 to;,'ether with the two rebellions of 1715 and 1745. In the course of the ♦"our French wars 'he nation has contracted more than fl 45,000,000 of elebt, over and above all the othei extraordinary annual expense which they occasioned ; so thai the whole cannot be computed at less than £200,000,000 ; sc great a share of the annual prf)duce of the land and labor ol the country has, since the Itevolutiou, been employed upon diflerent occasions in maintaining an extraordinary nuiuber oi unproductive hands. iJut had not those wars given this par- ticular direction to .so large a capital, the greater part of it would naturally have been employed in maintaining productive liands, whose labor would have rei)laced with a i)rotit the whok value of their consumi)tion. The value of the annual jn-oduce 'if the 'and and labor e)f the country would have "oeen consider- ably inci.'ased by it every year, and every year's increa.sfc would have augmented still more that of the following year, More houses would have been built, more lands would have b.-en improved, and those which had been improved before would have been better cultivated : more manufactures would liave been established, and those which had been established before would have been more extended : aiid to what height the real wealth ami revenue of the country might by this time have been raised it is not perhaps very easy even to imagine."' These conclusions would indee, H. II. c. III. rmmimm ADAM SMITH ON FREE TRADE 391 Xations, it was said, can only advance in greatness and 'jiri'sjierity as the numbers of their inhabitants increase. What- cv.T the natural fertility of the soil, however genial the climate, :ihd however well fitted the whole country may be for the piaclice of every species of industry, yet, if it be deficient in I'ljiulation, these natural riches can never be elaborated, and i; uuist hold a poor and inconsiderable rank in the scale of !ia!i(jns. A confined and comparatively barren territory, filleil wiih a numerous, industrious population, exceeds the most t.rtile and extensive country scantily jx»opled. It is the l«'iple that make the state, its real riches lie in its inhabitants. " Hut as population increases, and can only increase, by iiiniv coming into the world than go out of it, every man who iiiarries and raises a family is a public benefactor, and the liactice of celibacy, so far from being a virtue, is, in reality, a .uat public crime. The innuber, however, of those who marry, and have cliildren, in all tolerably ([uiet and peacealde nines, much exceeds that of those who remain single; and, (.iise(iuently, the number of all the inhabitants of the earth III- continunlly augmented, and, had it not been for the wars which the ambition of princes has stirred up, would have been »iill niuih farther augmented. " The population of England is now much greater than at iiic Restoration. It was greater at the llestoration than at i!i>' accession of Elizabeth, and then than during the great I ivil wars. Even then it was greater than at the Conquest, mil at that time, than at the invasion of Julius Ca-.sar. " In each of these periods, however, there were not only laaiiy private feuds and public dissensions ; many bloody and harassing wars ; great perversion of the powers of the in- habitants from the production to the destruction of life ; but -oiiietimes such dreadful massacres and blood.shed, so great iiniltitudes perishing by the sword, and by famine following up its ravages, as might be supposed not only to have retarded the increase of the numbers of the inhabitants, but to have hit them fewer at the end than at 'Jie beginning. Had it II- it been lor these events, the greater part of those whom they arried otf woubl have married and had children, whose whole imiiibers would nat\irally have been greater than tliat ol the iHP^Hi^SSlS-iHWi HUH T. u ' I ■I vi: I \ 'I ' 3*>2 i I ' •!. 1 APPENDIX parents who prooreatL-il tliciii. In this manner every yene tion woul(i have exceeded proportionahlv the one jireeedin" The number of imhistrious liands thus produced would h; huilt more houses, would have improved more lamls, a would have cultivated hetter those which had Iteen impro\ before; more manufactures vvduld have been established, a those which ha, in the same maun from taking what is merely a necessary concomitant, for cause. It is jierfectly true, that the real wealth, strenuth, a pros])frity of a country, cannot advance, Init as its pojiulati advan-jes, and that population can only advance by more bei brouj;ht into the worhi tiian <,'o out of it. It is also true tl they cannot advance liut as us capital advance.-, and that capital can only advance by more bein^' .saved than is spe I'.ut when it is said in either ca.se, that as they can oi advance a- population advances, or as accumulation advanc we have only to aUow population to i,'o on unrestrained, 'iwW to allow accumulation to j^o on unchecked, we f deceived, and led to unwarrantable coiii.lu.sions, by a sort sleight in the use of words. The contemplation of a couple contending' with unremitti labor aj^ainst the evils of poverty and want, and, howev ... ca.sionally pinched l»y them themselves, wardiu'^ them with care and success from their ollspriuy, and .earintr up numerous and industrious family, is a v,-ry plea.sing si,i;ht. is pleasing as an evidence ot the existence of some of the bt and purest alfections of our nature ; it is pleasing, al.so, fro the mere view of the healthy addition thus made to that surt stay of a state, an industrious and frugal population. B when it is hence a.ssumed, that nothing is wanting to augme tlie numbers of the community, and carry it forward to grci ne.ss, than that similar principles an.l conduct should 1 allowed to go on in all its members without restraint, a has and inaccurate conclusion is drawn from a partial view of complicated subjitt. The numbers of a state can nev ■i^ ADAM SMITH ON FREE TRADE 393 exceed, what its resources can su])pnrt. When these resources are au;,'iueiiteil, the princijles wliich tend to the preservation and multiplication of the species are^ in all well regulated coniiuunities, sutticiently active speedily to till up their nuniliers to the anuiuut of the increased supply. In like manu r. the contemplation of honest industry, and patitait frugality, not only manfully Ijcaring up against i)reseni necessity and want, l)Ut repelling them, and accuumlating a ]ilcntiful st(jre to answer the demands of futurity, is also no unpleasing spectacle. lUit for such principles neither public niir private comfort or atlluence could exist, or he preserved. I'.ut, when it is ^ "!nce also assumed, that nothing else is want- ing' to carry tl Loninnmity forwani to the highest degree lA allluence and power, than that similar i)rinciples and conduit, through all its members, should be encourageil, and alloweil to '^o on without check, a conclusion ei|ually imwarnvnted and .iiually inaccurate, is drawn from a like hasty and imperfect view of a great subject. The cajjital of a state is a mere instrument in the hands of its industry, to enable it to draw forth the riches, with v i icli the conjoined powers of nature and art have endowed it. A multiplication of instruments i.s of no avail, unless something additional be given on which they may operate. When invention succeeds in discovering the I' additional riches, the mere view is suHicieut, in every well regulated community, to induce it.-s members to form the new instruments, necessary to draw these riches forth. There must be some strong inlierent vice in any community, where the certain prosjject of plentiful subsistence does not produce an aljundant population. It can only be, also, from the etl'ects of .some great inherent vice, that, in any community, a very protitable investment for capital can be held out, and yet capital not accunmlate with rapidity. Where there is no -utticient prospect of subsistence, people may l)e restraineii tinm marriaL;e by the dread of their families suffering want. Where there is no sutiicient prosiwct of profit, }x?ople may lie withheld from accunudating lapital, because they may see no sulliciently protitable adventure open to them that they woidd not fr ir to embark in. lUu tlit? fact is, tliat people, rather than live single, are inclined to marrv at all risks, and hence 394 ArrENDix i ! ill I ; t piipiilation i: kept r'ij..'cts that in most coi luunities are continually dissipatini,' previous accumulations ca|iital. To form a rii,'ht jndijment of the jiow-r of any coi niunity, umler the most favoraldi- circumstances, of increasii its pojiulation, we must consider the additional marriat; which would take jtlacc, and the i^reater numhers that won he reared to maturity from such as do take i)lace, if plentif subsistence were jjrovided. In like niauuer, to form a vvj, Judgment of the powers of any coumiunity, under the ni<: favoraiile circumstances, to increase its cajiital, we must co sidcr, that, if abundance of secure and protitalih- investmeii for capital were presented, its members woidd lie more eat! to jxissess additional capital, and. therefore, would be mo prompted to accumulate it; and the capital they possess wnuld be more jiroductive, and would not be subject to risked and lost in imprudent specvdations. From tlie inconsideralile rudiments of population and capit which (Ireat iiritain furnisheil to N'orth America, is to traced the <;reat amount of both, of which that tlourishii division of the udobe at present boasts. The former has i creased so ;,'really, because plentiful subsistence has bei afforded it : the latter, because protital)le and secure inve; ments have been presented to it. Had it been possible have afforded, and had the same abundant subsistence be afforded, to the population, and the same i)rofitable and secu investments to the capital remaining within the kin.t,'dom, th- wouM have both au;^'mented, we have every reason to belies in a ratio etpial to that at which the fra;,'ments of both th went to North Americii have aui.;mente(l. It certainly w not the voyage across the Atlantic, but the rich soil on whi( they fell on the other side of it, that excited them to lu.xuriant a growth. This great productixe power of ooth the j)opulation ai capital of a country, when room is afl'ordeil them to sho( tififiiii^ CO e.'isilv to till up nnv "i^p wb.U'h. is Tijnfle iv, ■! national numbers or stock, that a calculation founded on t! ii ^^1 , II 5ar^ii?Hf?^i-j s. ..=^,=ft;.i:- ■ AUAM SMITH ON FKEE TRADE 395 --uni]itinii, that any loss in t'ither wliicli a nation may sustain, i;.i r~sarily occasions a pioportiuiialily {itTiiianent diminution of !- t'luuls must evidently l)e inconclusive. It is very ilouhtt'ul ;: ttif ]in of Londun ov Eu^dand would have been .iiaitT than it is at present, luul there hceii no plague. It is ••■ly douhtt'ul also if the capital of London or of England Aiuld have heen greater than it is at pre.sent, had there been III. u'reat tire. The additional demand for labor and capital, aIiicIi tiiese disasters created, may very well he supposed -."■11 to have brouLiht both up to the amount they had I icviously attained. In all instances of such, or even far greater calamities, i.-trnying a part of the population or capital of a country, uhile the principles and elenu-nts, through and from which ■!iiy sprang, are not consunieil alouLi with them, we see them Miiikly reproduced. When, for example, the great destroyer Wiir liolds his course through a country, ; ud clearing wide his I ith with tire and sword, leaves ]iropert> iiid life a wreck I .hind him, we see not that the traces of his wrath are long I'l'ijietuated ; in the midst of the ruins oi what were, lie the .rnis of what are to be. anil seizing on the elements of ixi^tence tliat lie waste around, they expand with a vigor jioportioned to the magnitude of the void that has been made '.'i' tiiem, and speedily replenish it. Like the track of the whirlwind through the forest, the present desolation is quickly ■ vered up and obliterated hy the freshness of the new growth, 'I. which that very desolation gives light, and air, and the uiiaiis cf e.xistence. We should think the calculation rather tanriful, which, estimating the trees overborne by the blast for (cnturies, and reckoning the increase that might have possibly '.iiic from each of them, should liring out as a correct result, tli;ii all this would have been a clear addition to the vegetable lite of the forest; and that so nnich greater it must have I'cen to-day, had nut these disastei's had place. Calculations |.ri.ceeding on the assumption of the indefinite increase of [..■pidation or capital, without showing also that there will Ik' room for them, are but little mrire loi/ical. !"f"re p-opnlatiou can advai-ce, there must be sometliing on ivliicii it can subsi-st; before capital can increase, there must '^mi^imMiMm^ i! 396 Ari'ENDIX bi' sdiiifthiiiL,' in wtiich it may he etulfoilied. pMiiuce sisifiicc, ami, it vice prevent it not, populatimi will fol show that if eapilal iliil exist, it would produce ','reat pr and, if vice jirevent it not, capital will he accumulated, until there he >ume mean- of .suhsisiinu' the po])ulatiou, employing tiie i-.ipital, they can never, hy siinjily uru'in their i)ro(hiciii m, he rationally expected to he much aui^nie it is invention, which siiowini,' how protitahle returns he i^'ot from the one, and how suhsistence [irocnred for other, that may most titly he esteemed the cause of the e erne of hoih ; and hence this power has most title ti ranked as the true 'generator of states and petjple. certainly, therefore, very far from heinj; a self-evident t that the leei^lator, hy employiu'^ the resources of the coi: in rousinu this jirinciple to activity, necessarily retards, in; of advancing', the increase of wealth and the prosperity ol hlate. I'ART II. Thoujih the doctrine of the identity of the interesi individuals and comnnmities cannot he estal>lished as a si ami self-evident principle, from the assmuption that the ol which imlividuals designedly pursue, for their private en ment, are jirecisely tliose which most promote the progre the i^eneral opulence; and thouj,'h in this sense, as we seen, the identity of the ends which they pursue is noii not real, yet it follows not from this that the doctrit necessarily erroneous. Many doctrines which are far simple or self-eviilent are nevertheless true. Many, whic first sii,dit seem even contradictory to experience, are foum closer examination, to he le<^itimately deducihle from it. manifest that the general opulence, however brought a results, in some way or another, from the action and rea on each other of the whole system of persons and th which constitute conuaunilies, or uelong to theui. It is at least possible to conceive that it is entirely proiluced b] ettorts of individuals to advance their private fortunes. th!.'!!;,'h it. is th.e ohiect (if ind.iviiluals to ncije.ire wealth, a; nations to create it, yet that the series of actions which ADAM SMITH ON FREE TRADE 397 oilucf suii- vill follow; real proHts, \te>\. Hut, ilatioii, and urutiiii,' on aiiL^iiieiited. ■turns may ■ed for the r the exist- titlc to lie ipk'. It ij tU'iit truth, he covintry nls, iiisteaii erity of the interests of as a simple the objects 'ate emolu- progress of as we have is nominal, doctrine is far more y, which at e found, by n it. It is i^'ht about, ud reaction anil things, It is then iced by the nes. That. m.) -f !!t!i, >MV'. i which the iMrincr uenerate, in endeavoring^ to make the ficijuisition, are j ririsely those which are l*st calculated to forward the r'ution: and that thus, unconsciously to himself, each member ; the comnninity, wliile seeking merely his own benefit, II -CI s.^arily adojits the very coui-.se which is most for the .iiivaiitaLje of the society, and, to use our author's words, " is 1.(1 in this, as in many other instances, Ijy an invisible hand, :.i promote an end that was no part ot his intention." In this view of the subject the do(.trine would jnit otf the -h.ipe I'f a simple principle, and assume that ol a tlieory ■ itiluced from an examination oi the whole series of actions ;!i.it are concerned in the production of the wealth of com- II, unities: and in this way we may conceive that it mij,'ht be vitivfai torily jiroved by an extended impiiry into the " Nature t the Wealth of Nations." Such is the theory of this department of human action, •.vliieh the author '_'ive.s. If it be found not to be inconsi.stent with the phenomena, but fairly deduceil from them, the truth I tiie peculiar doctrine, which it is the aim of his work to maintain, wuuld be established by it. r.efore endeavorinfj; to explain it, or attemptini; to show will rein it fails, it is proper to remark that it is blended, thruUL'hout the whole work, with that notion of the exact I'itiitity of the ends which nations and individuals pursue, •!if fallacy of which I trust I have, in some measure, expo-sed ill the preceding chapter. I shall afterwards have occasion to -li"\v that this arrangement of his materials sometimes renders li.- arguments illogical. I am led to notice it at present, ! I'cause I wish to account for the appearance of this assump- 'ii'ii, unremarked by me, in the analysis of the theory I am aiMiut to give. It must be apparent to every one acquainted with the -v-tini, that its parts would not in any way hang together, if ikprived of the .support which this popular notion gives to ;!i' ui. Indeed, I conceive that the truest account that c. .- ,^ *- - 398 AITENDIX ■ ' i I show how the increase of indiviilual wealth does, in ref ppuhire tlie events which we see accompanying nati wealth : tliat the former is the cause, and the sole cans the latter, and must tlierefore produce all the jihenor attendant on it, being taken for an undeniahle fact, and author s."'niing merely to have proposed to show liow it be supposed to jiroduce those jihenomena. Thus, were i was once the popular doctrine concerning population still to be the correct nly advance as the number of industi hands that form them is increased, so every augineutatio the population of a nation is an addition t(j the national ft and that, tlierefore, things ought to be allowed to take i natural course, and all restraints on marriag ..^ done £ with, the assumption and doctrine might be supported 1 theory, showing, or eiideuNoring to show, how all the phenor attending the ailvance of mankii;d towards prosjK'rity alllueiue do, in fact, result from their increasing numbers. It might, perhaps, in support of such a view of the sul be said, " that, as necessity is the mother of invention unless pressed by want, or the dreail of it, mankind n never have exercised tiieir ingenuity in discovering even rutliments of the arts: and certainly would not have adva tliem beyond the mo.-i unformed and imperfect elements. 1 while in genial climates the .-pontaneous fruits of the £ alforded them abundant nourishment, they could have ha motive to tax the labor of either their minds or l)odies to duee that for which they had no need. That it was increase of their nuiidiers, which, rendering the supplies nature had dealt out to them insutficient, imposed the tas them of searching out the means of jtrocuring addition them : and that thus necessity, '(.'mis acut'iis luortalia corda ■•»»♦» I't v.ii ia> ii.-rns iin-ilitaM(li> I'Xttiniiirct artes i'auliitiin, ftc. --'' ' Wh^'ttiiig !i"n;i-i i:ia:!-tiy !.y .asi Tliiit «tudinu8 netd might useful arts explme,' i^m ADAM SMITH ON FREE TRADE .•?!>;> in reality, i; national e cause, of l)hfn<)nu'na Lt, and the low it may were wiiat 11 still held lilted a.s an d revenue, industrious entation of onal funds, take their done away orted by a jilieiioniena iperity ami nl)ers. the subject, .•eiition, so, vind nii^ht •^ even the e advanced ?nts. That, :' the earth ive had no lies to pro- it was the {pplies that the task oil dd it ions to i> in truth the divinity that t .uuht iii.mkind the most essenrial arts. 'Priiiio (Vies ferio iiiMrt,il(-s x rtiTi- ttiniiji Iristituit ; luiii jam :;liiiiili-> att (Vri-s taii;,'lit tlic v'roiiii'l with i;rain to «■,«, Ai;il ariiif witii imn shares the > pMiked (lioiiu'li ; When liiiw lliMliiiiian iwik.s no more siippliecl Their mast, and trees their forest fruit denied.' ' That this urgent necessity, this iniperinus mistress, which nature caused to spring fium their increasing; numbers, ma I.- ihrm spread themselves over the earth, and p- ople (■■ m the most ri<,'orous climates. That the • riiiid lore' of the >terii riiL'^'c(l nurse' thus impo.sed on them, tl^.w^dl harsh, was ii-althful ; as a proof of which we may observe, that men in -eiieral subsist in greatest comfort and abund .ce, where the < limate is most forbiddino and the s,jil most stii'born, because there, that they may subsist at all, they have been oldiged to I ill to their succour the most ingenious arts, and the nio.st indefatigable industry, ' Lal)oi oinni I vin> t lMi|irol)us et dnris iir^rens in n'lis e.-stas.' ' Wliat laniiot endless lalnir iir;;e(! \>y need !' "That, as it is the action of this principle which has given ri>e to all the arts, so it is it which has brought them to perfection. That, while a territory is scantily peopled, and its iiihabitant.s -I-read over it at a great distance from each oilier, they can never subdivide themselves into different trades and einploy- laeiits, and each devoting himself to a particular business and art, e.xcrcise his whole ingenuity to bring that particular occu- I'ltion to perfection ; ami that hence arts are in general in the most flourishing condition, where the population is the most dense. ■' That to the.se causes, thus neces.sarily proceeding from this ureal principle, we are to ascribe in particular both the opulence and prosperity of our own nation, and the necessary diffusion of the arts, manners, language, and race, with which lliey are connected, and in which they are embodied, over the reniotcL '[Virgil, Cfofijic^, I, 149 f (MrydenV Tr4.).] ■:^-_-,' i' -ffCff.''- ■i j(*l .-U,-,,.i. "M' lUliJL,! >._- i i 4M0 AITFADIX ~ * ' 'i, r>"_'i< iif the i^'lulii'. Tli.ii tlnn, ;iUli<»ni;h iiifii in man sff'k nnly ilifii- <>wii '_"""!. they lU'Vfiilicluss ailupt that ci wlii'fi i< must t'l til'- aiiviiiitnue nl' smicty; ninl Iktc t( ill many dluT itistam cs, ,iri' Icil hy m invisilil-- fiaml lo mi';i' an I'lid whicli was no part nl llufir iiitciilinii. tlnTclnrc, as till' rcvi-niii.' ainl jkiwit of a iiatiun can 111! 1, asi- as its ])iijiulatinn incrt-asrs, an'l as tin' ini;reai |'"|'iilatiMn ti'nijs t<> u'ive a lic.'innin;,' to <'V('ry usc'lul art [<• carry it i" tlie lii^rlicst perfect inn, Ic^'islators act a aii~niil ami iiilpaMc ]iait in aitini]itin_', in any instaiu restrain it, nr tn clicck wiiat is nmloulitciUy the natural ajjparcntly the most heneliciai eourse nf events." Such a theory, like almo-t I'very other view of only ont ilile to emhract' a jreat mass of facts, ami periiaps to ^ive it conside plausiliility. In e.xaminini; the sonmlness of the doctrine ftaimleil < it niiuht lirst he expedient to allow tlie a.ssumplion.s necess involved in it to pass unnoticed, and to test its accuracy I: application to facts, ."^ucli is the course which I niea follow in ;iiis introductory examination of the scjiuewhat sii theory, as it seems to me. whicli is the ;.'roundwurk for the and varied accumulation of facts and opinions emlMniied ii Wi'ilth iif Xiitidii'i. I shall allow the author's assumptioi jiass uiKiuestioned in all cases where they are mixed witl explanation of real events, thouj,'h I may esteem that exp tion erroneous; and it is only where, ahjue and unconm with facts, they are hrouLiht forward for tlie purpose of i ments — as incontrovertihle truths in order to estahlish particular doctrine which I coniliat. — that I will feel ui called on to expose the falhicies into which they lead. The celehrated author remarks, ' that it is from his 1 alone that man can draw the uecessarie.s, the conveniences annisements of human life, from the materials wliich nt has place ircumstance.H. First, by the skill, d.-xterity, and jud^-ment With which its labor is generally applied ; secomlly, by the iinp,,ition between the number of those who are employed iu i:- ful labor, and that of those who are not so emi)loyed." It 1- to the tirst of these circumstances, which he observes is of iiiii.h the greater influence, th.at our author's reasonings chietly 1' Icr. and to the consideration of it, therefore, we may altogether ("iitnie ourselves. ■ Ihe chief cause operating on this, the main .source of the l'iM(luctiveness of labor, is capital. Without capital, industry '"iild scarce at all exist. While a man is executing a piece of l;ilior, he nnist have, to maintain him, a stock of goods, and he iiMi-^l have ready provided for him the tools and materials ii.cessaiy for performing the work. These ari' all procured by ' ipital. A weaver, for in.stance, could not apply himself to liianufacture a web of cloth, unle.ss there were stored up for !i:iii a supply of food, and other necessaries, sufficient to main- tain him till he complete and c,.ii ;► .,.,j ^vyre he not provided l"lorehanil with a loom and other requisite tools and materials. \-< i!i \\ ) •I *. if! t: I ' :l! 40:] ArPKNDIX It is cajiital whicli |)roviilfs all tlii'se, uitlier his own or that sonic ciihtT pcrsuii. " As cppital is thus the nii>st essential element in setti industry in nintinn. so it is hy the anmunt of it, that the jn (luctivcness of that industry is ehietly (leterniiiiero- ihictive power of hibor have been made. • Tlie other improvements in machin '.J manufactures' liiive lieen also owing to tiie division of Many of them have been made by tiie ingenuity of ti.. s- , who, from this paration of employments, have taken up th;; trade of making -111 h machines; others, by that class of citizens of whom alsii jiliilosuphy or speculation becomes the sole trade and onupation. "The perfection to which this division of labor may be larried depends on the amnunt of cajiital that sets it in Illation; because the same number of workmen, executing a ■greater i(uantity of work in proportion as they are better I lassitied and divided, re(|uire consenuently, when so chissitied, a larger stock of materials, iuid the extent of the stock of iiialerials jirovided must be regulated by the amount of capital ,1(1 umulated. Again, when so divided, they both rei|uire and (ause to lie invented many ne\' machines. These machines, also, can only be j)rocured "by a capital previously stored \\]>. N'dt only, however, does the accumulation of capital, by [iro- vidiiig more abunilant materials and better machines, enable I he same number of workmen to be better divided, and to produce more work, but it also may be observed that the iniiiilier of workmen in any branch of business increases with '.he division of labor in that branch. Thus the increased ai iimnilation of cajiital, by eilecting a more and mure extended ili vision of labor, not only increases the productiveness of the labor of the same number of witrkmen, but adds to that number. ISy both means, therefore, it greatly augments the total riches of the society, the amount of necessaries, conveni- iiues. and amusements produced by its members, and conse- ijU" iitly enjoyed by them. ■ These productions which labor liy the aid of capital ■ •llerts, have to be trans|)orted to the places where they are to he consumeil, have there to be stored up till they may be wanted, when they have to be divided into small portions, miIumI to the convenience of tlu; persons who are to use them. [ .iiM this woid lioi'aii'*!' the chain of rcagoiiing seems to loriiiire it. I ■!! I I ill II I " Mil" nil I I I I I I I li M I iMI I |i|BIII 404 APPENDIX The flealcrs in wliulcsale iiml retail are eiialilL'tl to iierl'ori tlii'sc userul uHiccs liv till' iii>lnim('iil:ility ui' cajiital, ami tl j^'rcatcr tin- aiiioiiiit i<\' tliat capital the iiKire easily an ellcctiially tiny can ]piTf(iMii them. He!ice, every ailditin llieir eednoiiiy makes to liiat aniouMt, tends also to the increas (if tlic ;,'cneral jinisiierity. " The (li\isi(in oi' lalior is limited hy tJie extent of tl: market, r.efore any man, or any set of men, can in comnio Iiruden(;e devote themselves to any jiariicnlar einploymon they must he assured that they can di>iPose of the coniniodit which their exertii^ns in the jirosecutioii of that em])lMymei will jiroiluce. i'l situations where there is not a sutliciei mimlier of customers near at hand to consunn; the manufacture article, or where it cannut with advanta:;e he transjidMed t thost' at a distance, the makiuL; of that article can nevt liecipiue the exilusive emjiloymeiu of any man, or set of niei When, therefdre, there is imt a sutHrieiitly extensive marke lalinr cannot he so mucii suhdivided as it niherwise woidd, an its ]iriHh'ctive pn.vers are cram]ied for want of room in whic tu exert ihemst'lves. The increase of capital extenils tl: market liy addini^ l<> the numliers and i^eiieral n|)ulence of tl: community, and hy facilitatini; the nindc- uf coiiiniunicatic hulween all parts of the territoiies which it possesses ; and th extending' market ;^i\es, in turn, adiiitional celerity to tl increase of capital. ' To this accumulatiiai of capital, this cdiitinu.il iiarsininiiioi .savin;^ out of revenue, the jirinciple that, accurdin;; to oi author, animates the wliolr pinu'ressive movement of t\ society, he assii^ns the fulldwiiii,' limit. " When tiie stipcks (if many rich merchants are turned inl the saiue trade, their mnliial com))etition naliirally tends l liwer its protil ; and. when; tliere is a like increase of stock i all tJic dilferent trades carried on in the saiue society, the san cnmjctilion must jiroduce the same etlect in them all. A tlien. the jirotits of ( ajiital continually hiwcr with its auj,'nienti lion, there must arrive a period wlcii they will he so diminisht as to render it no liae^er possihle to -ave any part of theni When this jieridd ariives, the cuunlry wonlil tht ii, I thin according,' to nur aulhur, liave aci|uirc(i it-, full ciuuplement < ADAM SMITH ON IHKK TIIADK 405 lichos ; every brancli of Imsiness therein liiuiiii,' the i^reatest i|uaiitity of capital that ctiuld he eiiiployeil in it. • I'.ut besides the iinmeiliati; prodiuM; of its own inchistiy, a 'oiniliy that has niadf any jmiuiess in the aeeiiiuulalion of rajiital, and conseinient division of labor and facility of pro- ilmtion, comes to furnish otluT countries witii many articles, and. in exchange, to receive from thi-m many other articles. This f(jrm.s another source from whence the ne>jessaries, con- v. niences, and amusi'inents of nations may be supplied. A iiFiintry is enabled to do this froni two causes. The soil, 1 limate, and natural i)rodui'tioiis of countries are various. Hii'.n- one country has i;encrally jjeculiar advantages over 'iih« IS in manufacturini,' certain articles. A^'ain, one country <\( ceds another in the amount of cajiilal it possesses and rnuseipiently in the skill with which its inilu^try is apjdied ; heme, also, there are articles which it can produce in ^'reater |Mrti'itinn than other countries, with i:reater facility, or both. "This is the oriu'in, and these are tlie advanta;,'es, of forei^^n iiade, i'lV means of it two or more nations are enabled to e\ lian'_'e witii one another wiiat would otherwise have bee.i lo 1 ac h superfluous for wliat. throu^di these e.\chanL,'cs, ])roeures t'l eai li an additional anKHint of the necessaries, conveniences, iiid .lUHisements of life. '■ It is cajjital which enables th(>m to elVect those bem'ticial i\i haiii^es, and the amount of them must be limited by the iiiinunt of capital that tan lie emb, irked in liie t'mployment." What ijuantity of capital this emjjloynienl may alj.sorb, what (luuit'ty of ]iroducti(in- may thus lie e.\ehani;ed between 'lillerent countries, is a prolilem wliich our author has not, as I tr as I ]iercei\e, Liisen us certain data for solving;. Some of Ills followers think it illimitai)le, iiut it is clear that this was nut his o]iinion. ami that, thou'jh he did nut ;> si'jn the limits, hi iieMTlheless believed there were limits to it. Accordin^'ly lie makes another channel, ihrouL;h wiii(di, when these aie illed. it may llow, eatheriiii: still volume to itself, and addin<_' ■'I the national jirosperity as it pioe 'ctls. ■This is what is called the carr\in^' trade, tht; carrying the -urpbis produce of one naiioii to another. Two countritts may Mve jiioducts which it would be advantageous for ihem to ' \-i n M~. T i\ »' M 40ti Ai'I'KNDIX li A}\ M •'xclifin;^!', liut llifV may iiKt Jiave (.iiiiilal suflicieiit to provi I lie means inrcssary i'ur cfl't'Ltiiiu this r-xclianu'e. In su case, aiioilicr nation liavini,' a supcraluindant capital m roductive i dustry ol' the country enjoyin;^ the trade, wiiich cannot ealculate(l on In-forehand. .\ nation can only po>sess carrying' trade, trom other natifms wanting,' forcien trac ThouLih it may, therefore, form a source of ^ain to a pii liiular nation, it seems not so ]jro])erly to Ik; reckon uiioirj; the causes of the wealth of nations; for, with t -i-neral ))ro_;ress ol' that wealth, acc atli'mpted to ileline.ite the outlines, its emine luthor has illustrated with a felicity of ohservation, ai lahoriou-ness of research, which it were as vain to attem to depreciate, as snperthious to ])rai.se. II" conceives that esial>]i>he> the followiuL; conclusions. "The natuial etlort ol every individual to better his o\ condition, when sullered to e.xeit itself with freedom ai -iecurily, is so )iowerful a principle, that it is alone, ai without any as--isi,ini'e, not <'idy ca|ialile of carryiie^ on t society to Wealth and prosptnity, hut of surmoiuilin;,' a hu dred imjierlinenl ohstruetions with which the folly of hum; laws loo otten euiiunhers its o])erations: thouyli the eli'i of tliese olistrui tions is always, more or less, either encroach upon its freedom or to diminish its security. That " every system which endeavors, eiliier, hy e.xtraordiua ' H..,'//, ./ .V(t-.,i,«, 1!. II. 0, V. ni. IV. c. V. ADAM SMITH ON FREE TllADE 407 tn(iiurai,'enieiil.s to driw towards a particular species of iu- (lu^try a i,'reater share of the capital of the society, than what would naturally u'o to it, or, by extraordinary restraints^ \,, iunx i'roni a particular species of in'lustry some share ..( the caj)ital which would otlierwise be eniploved in it, I-, ill reality, subversive of the ^'reat purpose which it lilt IMS til promote. it retanls instead of acceleratin;^', the ], ruleless of the society toward> wealth nd ujrealness : and diminishes, instead of iiicreasin<,', the real value of the annual ].i.'duce iif its land and labor." And therefore, that "all -v-tems, either of preference or restraint, beiui,' eomjiletrly t.iken away, the obvious and simple system i<( nat ral lib> rty establishes itself of its own accord. Every man, as lonj,' ;i- lie does not viohite the laws of justice, is left perfectly iivr to pursue his own interest his own way, and to brin^ li .th liis industry and capital into coiiiiietition with tho.se of :iiiy other man, or cider of men. The sovereiirn is com|»li ely .ii-.li.ir;,'ed from a duty, in attemptinji to perform which he must always be expused to innumerable delusions, and for the |iiii]ier performance of which no human wisdom or knowh-dge (..idd ever be siillkient: the duty of superintendin;^ the ludtisiry 1)1 private people, and of directini^ it tnwards the tiMployiiients most suitable to tlie interest of the society."' 1 expect in the sei[uel to slmw that the system emitains ..riain fundamental errors invalidatini,' very many of the ■ Miieliisitins, which the author desires to establish. in the mean time, passing' all such discussions, ami viewing the -ubject in somethin;,' of the lij^ht in which it seems to have been contemplated by Adam Smith hiiiistdf, I would observe, that his system, if correct, must be consistent with itself, and with .admitted facts. His theory pretends to sli. v, that the -uurce of the wealth of nations, the abundance, that is, ni all tlie niaterials of comfort and enjoyment the necessaries, the > onveniences, the amuseuients of life which men possess, is to be found in the gratlual aecumulation of capital by the undisturbed industry and economy of individuals, continually tlncjiii^h the division of labor, introducini* imjirovements in the modes in which this labor operates with that capital, and, ' W.^ih I,,- Smmn,, B. IV. c. 1 ;. 'i I v I I ! I! ^1 I J' ui'i, r . HM} 40N AITENDIX (■niisci|U<'iitly. iiicn'a.sin;; with tin- iircatcsl ]M,s>iIpIc rapiiiity t rfliiiiis from llicin. His dcKtiiiic is. tlial the accuimilatii lit' rajiilal \>y iiidiviiiiials, lu'inu thus llic mily tliiiiu rciiuir to idiMiilLt' tlial aliuiulaiiri' with thi- ;jicalusl possilih' lapiiiit oiii^lit iii-viT to lie iiittTftTcd Willi liy tilt' le;_'ishitor ; ai that, if he liocs so. it must IifCi'ssalily lie to tlil> ilt'trilllf of ilie socii-iy for wiiirli lie Ic^jislatcs. If, tlicrclorc, evi ai( cirdiiiu' to him, ihtTi' an' other sources, than the iiie aci uiiiulatioii nf cajiital, ami ( oiisei|Ueiit division of lahor, i wliicii nations are dejiendenl foi tniiiiiiL: tlieir lahor ai ia|i!lal to the hest arcount, and thus drawing from tin ii'souices the most aliundant returns of iieeess.'irie.s, convei encr-, and amusements, thill is ol wi-alth ; in so tai, his then Would seem imjierfeet, and his doetrine iiiapiiliealile. If \ now turn in ].;uti(ular to tlie j)art of the system with whii we aif sjieiiidly interested, We tiiid, in leiilily, that as far it IS coiicfrned, the theoiy is thus ineonsisient with oven aiimitted hy its author, that hence this poriion of it is co tradictory to itself, and to admincd iihenoiiiena, and th eonsei|UeniIy the doctrine diawn tVom ii cannot here 1 maintained. In till' account of the )iToi_;ress of ojiuleni-e, ^iv.ii in ti fl Ki/f/i (./ ,\'////,./).s. We Mild assiL;ned, as one of the cans "I it, tlie intriiduction into a country of new manuficttin " Accordiiii,' to the natural couise of tliiiij^," we are tol " the L^teater part of the Wealth of any uK/wiu'.; .s..eioty tiist diiiMted to agriculture, afterwards to manufaetuii's, ar last ot all to foiei-n commerce."' " After a'_Ticulture, tl caiiital employed in manufactures [nits into motion the i^'ieate • limntity of ],roduy a t'arth'T iiniiriiVfiiicnt and liettiT ciiltivatiiiir •>( i\\r laml ; ami as tin- tiiiility 111 thf iainl had ;_'i\fn liirth to tlif in iiiiitaiuiri-, so thi' ]irou'i'«'-s (if the luaiiutacliiri' n-actx iiji'Hi tht' land, and iiirnasi's still tartht-r it- ttTtiliiy. 'i'in- niannrat' ih Work is exjiiiited. AnmnL; nations to wlioni conmien'e a nianuracturcs aic little known, the sovereiu'ii, upon ext oidinary occasions, can seliloni draw any consideralile aid i'n hi> sulpjects.' In modern war the ureal expense of (ire ar: !,'ives an eviilmt advantage to tlie nation which (an West atli that exi)cnse : and, ronse(|uently, to ;in opulent and civilix u\cr a ] I' ami iiailiarous na'ion." Ai((prdin'4 to our author, some of these manufactures pi ( ccd from the ori'^inal rude arts of the country cultivated a ntined hy the u'raiiual }iroL,'ress of capital and of the division lalior: others are introiluced fiom foreijjn states. This trans takes plai !■ in tin' tollowin^ manner. Trade tirst, hv dei,'re introduces a taste lor the forei._'n manufacture; the demand I it increases with time and the opulence of the society. I! when this trade has hei-ome so general as to occasion an e.xte si\e cdnsumplion, the merchuits of the country, to save t expense aitcniliiiLr the transport of the article from a furei: country, introduce tiie manufacture of it at home. In some ca-ies, then, the increase of ca]iital, ari>inL; from t accumulation of iiuliv iduals, and division of lahour then arisiu::, is not, it would apjiear, sulhcieut alone to account f the pro^jress of imjiruveinent, and consequent |iroduction fresh funds out of wliieli wealth may ^row. For, in cuf where the raw materials exist, ami capital to divide labor ai put it in niotion also exists, these are sometimes confessed dependent ou the imjiortatioii of new arts from other countrii for the means of heini: advantat;eously directed. These a milted lads .ire cerlainly not in accordance with our authoi theory. l'as>inu', however, the consideration of tliis at presei I should wish to direct the reader's atleniion to the applic lion of his peculiar doctrines to events of tliis class ; an that I may do so, it i.s nece.s.sary to examine them with soni wliat more attention. ' W'-alth of Xaiium, B. 1\'. c. 1. ADAM SMITH ON I'llKK TUADK 411 Wlien ^'oods are traiisiMtrtfil from a distiince, a ^'n-at j.art of their price is iiiadf uj) of the t'X{>t'iise, attcmliiii,' llii; tiansjiort. This arises imt iiiordy from tlie siiniik- cxiit'iise nf carria^^o, lait In. Ill lliL' risk attending,' it, from tlie jn-rils «.f latul and water, and the carfli"^siR'ss or knavery of those who arc eiitnisted with it: from the jirotits whieh the (lilfurt'iit ciij)italists, ihrou^li whom tliey may he transferred, exact, and from the ilaiiia'je to whirh eonimodities are suhjeet liy heiii'^' ioie^' kept (11 liaml. Tlie price of very many commodities transported from one country to another is doiihied hy tlie intliience of these causes : not a few of ihem derive more than three fourths of their value from them. Hence the transfer of the manufacture of such ^'oods to the (.iiuitries to which, when manid'actured, they wore hefore sent, i> very hi'.'hlv advantageous to tlio^^e countries. It is advau- ia_'eous from the savini; to the national income which it effects l.v doiii;.,' away with the ex]iense o| transport ; from furnishing', accordiiii; to our author, a new and more protitahle employ- ment for cajiital : and from the j^eneral elfects it jiroduces on ilie national prosperity, as exenii)!itierice, some heiuL; cheaper, some dearer, than in the 'ountry from whence the manufacture is hnni^ht. The ureater jiart of nianufactvires are al.so influenced by the (limate. The dryness or moisture of the atmosphere, the ile^rees of heat ami cold, the brightness of the sky and conse- 'jiient intensity of the liglit, are circumstances which all, more or less, aHect many manufactures. The jiroportiou between the rates of wages and prohts of stock is al-so very dilferent in different countries, and it consiilerably 'i!i "I' I f f V 1 1 ti i« '1^ i 41: AIMMADIX iiitliuMicts till" ilc'tfiiiiiiiiiiioii uf winil iii.ty Ke tlif iiidst advn taiji'inis iiiiMlf lit' ciiiiiliici ill',' any jiioccss in aiiv c'liiiitrv. Wild) the (liscdViTV lit' that fxa' t iiidiIc hC |>riMCiliin', whi thi- [•■laiiipiis :iiiin'jlc imli\iiliiai, whatcvi-r iiitclli^cii aiiil :i]i)ilical ii'ii he may ]iiis-i'--, I an srarcc hope tn airivi' at it ici|uiics the cll"it- nf many imliviiliiais. cmiliiiucil throii a iniisiili'ialili' ciiiir-i' nt' time. Ilnl ihese imiililii atiniis, in the prncess of any manufactu which its reiiio\ il finin mie cmiiitiy to aiintliiT ileiiiamls, a far Imm heini^ the only il'tlinilty attcmliiiv that removal. J accurate kiiowleil.'e ijf the ]iriiici]ilcs of the maiiiifacturo, ai of the niaiuuT ill which every jiarl of it is carrieil on in t foreign country, iiiiisi he olitained : tlu; reiiuisite iiiacliinery h to lie juiiMileil, aiiil Workmen, possessiiii,' th(' skill and ilextefi which cell ]iart ol the jirncess reijiiires, mii,st he jirocun These are ucnt.'raily matters of ;;re 't dilticiiltv. \'cry feu individuals have a thoruii._;li knowlediic of eve dilfereiit part of any coniiilicatcd manufacture. In e.xauuni! any 1 i^c and smce>-lul m inul'acturiiiu' cstahlishmeiit, we cut iiionly tiiid that the various parts of it de|iend, fur the perfectii with which they an conducted, on the ell'orts of dill'ere individuals, who devote their whole attention to their ov departments, am' are not at all ijualiticd to chanu'c l>lace,s wi e.c h other; while tlie director of the whole has only .such l;i ncral kiiowledu'c of each as ei; ihles him to say when it jiroperly conducted, not himself to point out the exact mode licst condiictim,' it. it is his business to preserve the econon of the whole, and to search out the iiulividuals hest fitted f carryin'4 on r'.ery p irt. Hence tlie undertaker of any sm Work, in a country where it has not been practised, has n ADAM SMITH ON lIU.i: THADi; 4Ki < Illy to cii^^ML't' out', but u'finriilly many imliviihials, in (.rdtT tli.it tilt' liitltTfiit |ir very ■_i> it. and the ri'-k of ti>-in,ii ini]iosiil mi l.y enuau'in'j imt'^oiih i>( iii>iiilicifnl skill, ami rnnst'i|iit'nlly --iiltfriiiL; coiiMidc'raMt' loss, 1- not small. Tlie ditliiuliy of ti iiisi>oriiiiu', or of coiistnn tin;4 ilii.Tc, tilt' nt'CL'ssary inailiin>ry, is i>ftfn>till '4r('alt'r ; and wli.'n i:,rst' are ]irocuri'd, workmen lia\iiiu' the rei|iiisile sitiiiL: to ]ierforni an ojieration that is -iraii;^e to him. liesides, he has, in ;^eneral, reasdii in ajipre- li'iiil that, should the new manutactuie fail, he will have liilliculty in aL'ain tindin;,' em]il(iyment in the trade he had tor- Silken. On these accounts it ha]ijiens that " when a inojector altemjits to establish a new manufacture, he must at hrst entice his workmen from other employments iiy higher w.ii,'e.s than tiiey can either earn in their own trades, or than the nature of Ins work would otherwise reijuire ; and a considerable time iiiusi pass away lietore he can venture to reduce them to the iiiiiimon level." ' All these circumstances create so many obstacles to the iTtnrts of private individuals, in their endeavors to carry a luanufacture from a country in which it already jirosper.s, to aiioiher in which it is unknown, that it is, ! believe, very larely tiicy have succeeded in doiir^ so, without the oeciureiice of sniiie favorable ciiiijuncture of events, to aid liuMii in the prnjeri. Ill point of fact it will be fuiiiid, that the transfer of ' ir, .,///, o/".V.('.iiH-, I!. I. c. .\. I I MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 2 1.0 I.I 1.25 5i llili 11 2.5 *~ m MIN-2-^ I 36 1^ 11112.0 .8 1.4 il.6 ^ APPLIED IN4/1GE ■ • f./ «e2 - 0300 - Phons •■61 ?8S - 5<)flq - >>:> I ■ i 414 ArPENDIX I. • ) , maimf'jictures tnuu one niition to aiiotlKT, or rather the <;en propai,'ation, thiouLch all countries, of this most important soi of the opulence of every o?^ has lieen chielly owing to cai which, at first sight, woi.' ieeni little calculated to protluc beneficial ell'ects. Wars and conquests, tyranny and persi tion, the jealousy and hatred of rival states, have, Strang* say, been the main agents in disseminating arts and indu over the glolie, and thus ameliorating the social conditioi the whole human race. Events, that, to tlione to whom t happened, brought nothing Init calamity and sufl'ering, 1 procured prosperity and opulence to the generations that I succeeded them, — cunvidsions, that disturb and derange frame of civil society, like tlujse which occasionally shake desolate the globe, in tiie midst of present destruction devastation, carrying often the elements of future fertility abundance. Marnifactures have commonly been carried to a ilistanc( the men who liave exercised th(jse manufactures. But no willingly expatriates himself. They even, who would seen have least to attach them to their native soil, the poor mech? and drudging laltorer, cling to it with the greatest tenacity, generally ijuit it not, unless forced from it by inevitable ne sity or by the continued jiressure of some heavy evil. In way the ills that the tyranny of despots, or civil and relig factions, or war, or famine, bring upon communities, have o compelled great nundjcrs of their most industrious citiz to abandon their homes, and seek refuge in foreign count These emigrations have been powerfully instrumental in proving the art.« of civilized life and diffusing a knowledg them over the eartli. I'erhaps few arts would have n passed tlie narrow limits to which their first discovery conf them, had not cummunilies been sulij'ect to be torn in pi< and scattered abioad, by tiie violence of the events to wl we allude, and which h.ive been taking j)lace in every age s tlie wiirbi began. A\'henever such ennurations occur, I carry the knowledge and skill of the countries they leave, tho.se in which they settle, and dill'nse them over tliem bringing together the different arts of dilferent countries, i enable ime tu borrow frciui the other, and raise all neare 5^ 0^1^. ,^S '.If m ADAM SMITH ON FREE TRADE 415 :he general ;ant source to causes, produce so il jiersecu- slrange to i industry mdition of ?honi they rin;_', have that have orange tlie shake and icti(ju and rtility and listance by >ut no one d seem to ■ mechanic, nacity, and ihh; neces- l. In this il religious have often IS citizens, countries, tal in ini- owledge of lave much "y confined in pieces, 5 to which y age since ccur, they leave, into them ; hy tries, they nearer to perfection ; and, by giving opportunity to them to unite with one another, from that union, they occasionally produce some that did not before exist. In all these modes, they have pro- moted very greatly the progress of human improvement. The influence of these causes, though more powerful in remote ages tiian in the present times, has not yet ceased. It is shown in L'venfs of very recent date or actual progress. To it we chiefly owe the origin of those flourishing states, which the European race have raised up in North America ; and the rapid progress over the Western Hetnisphere, of every improvement that art or science effects in the Eastern. Besides the direct agency which these outbreakings of the violent passions of mankind, by disturbing and deranging the smooth and uniform course of human existence, have had in easting it into new and often improved forms, they have pro- duced similar effects in a manner less conspicuous and evident. Commerce introduces a taste for the productions of the arts of one country into others, which are remote from it. These pro- ductions, at first regarded as mere superfluities or luxuries, pass, in time and from hal)it, into tilings essential to the ctjmfort, almost to the existence, of those who have l)ecome accustomed to their use. War interrupts this commerce and thus cuts off the supply that it afforded of such articles. Excited by the rewards offered by the eagerness of a demand that cannf)t be sujiplied from abroad, the domestic industry of the country then exerts itself, first, to produce rude imitations of the foreign commodity, and at length, rival manufactures. This is a cause wliicli has extensively operated in modern times, in S])readiiig iiiauufactures from country to country. It is to the wars springing out of the French revolution, and the interruption to European commerce that they occasioned, that the hrst rise of many manufactures in different parts of the old and new world, which are now in a very prosperous condition, is to be traced. lUit besides the inliuence which the violent oi)eration of foreign wars, and intestine commotions, has had in promoting tlie propagation of arts over the world, many of them un(|ues- tioualily have been encouraged and enabled to extend themselves to, and take nxjt in, countries remote from the seats where they originally Hourisheil, by the direct efforts of the legislators of r I 1 1 i 1 1 V I ) I J! f ill I V ,Ji' (I' i ! 41hing in their fre(iuency and the vigor of their operations, ami bec(Huing mure and more beyond the reach oi . I. c. X, 2i> V/. ( • i ■ - r J ;, 1 1 I 5 I I M 1 1 ' t t I 1 I 418 APPENDIX in estalilisliini,' it, Imt in keeping secret the great profits Lf iiiaile from it, for a cmisiilerable period. This is a piece o: 200(1 fortune, however, whicli, thoiij^'h it might sometimes befal an iiidiviilual, he could never Lernreliand fairly calculate on It is much more proliuhle tliat his success would l»e blazonec abroad and exaggerated, tliat several projectors would estahlisl themselves beside him, and, by bribing his workmen witl somewliat higher wages, with comparative ease, succeed in tie priving liim of the jmifits he miglit otherwise liave drawn fron his extraordinary outlay nf labor and capital' It may, there fore, I tldnk, be safely laid ilosvn as a principle, that, in al ordinary cases, a due regard to tlieir own interests cannot be e motive sutlicient to pmmpt individuals to such umlertakings It ;uay no ih)ubt hapjien, as capitalists are every now and ther engaging in injudicious prdjects, and such as eiilier injure oi ruin them, that some one may be imprudent enough to ente; on such a project as this, and may succeed in introducing i particular manufacture, though with the loss of part, or of tlu whole of his capital, i'.ut, even granting that such an occur rence as this may sometimes take jdace, it woubl be far frou serving to help nut the thecjry we a.e discussing. " Everi injudicious and unsuccessful project in agriculture, mines fislieries, trade, or manulacturcs, tends to diminish the fund; destined for the maintenance of productive labor. In ever such project, tliou^h llie capital is consumeti by productivi hands only, yet, as by tlie injudicious manner they are em ployed, they do not pmduce tlie full value of their consump tion, there must always be some dimi'iutinn in what wouh otiierwise have been the productive lunds of the society." Tills project then, being injudicious and unsuccessful, for i would have occasioned the loss of a portion of individua caj)ital, must, by these princii)les, be injurious to the society. If it lie said by any supporter of tiiese doctrines, tliat tin 'This accounts for a remark of our aiitlior : "The umleitaker of a grca manufactory is souietinics alaniied if another work of the same kind is estiil Ii:- II. c. III. I). l:!l. ADAM SMITH ON FREE TRADE 419 i> too strict and constniined an interpretation of them, and thai the loss which the society sustains, by the destruction of the capital of the original introducer of the manufacture, must lif allowed to be made up by the gain which it receives from the profits made by those who afterwards engage in it;' I ruply, that I perfectly agree with him in his conclusions. I tdo think, that the small present expenditure of the funds of tht' society which the project may occasion, may be more than ri'piUil, by the large future revenue that it will bring in. The (inly difference between us is, that the doctrines he advocates, teach us to wait, till the miscalculations of some unfortunate Iirojector confer on us a public beneKt, whereas, I hold, that it would be more just and judicious that the necessary nrst cost of the scheme should be lioine by the whole community ; more just, as thus the burden necessary to be borne to procure a rommon benefit will be divided amongst all, instead of being .'sustained by one ; more judicious, as the society will not have 10 wait, for the attainment of a desirable object, on so doubtful a chance as the folly of projectors. It may also happen, that an individual, by some rare con- currence of accidents, may become initiated into all the secrets ot some foreign manufacture, and, by some equally rare and happy union of good fortune and ingenuity, may succeed in introducing it into his own country with profit to himself. To w.'iit, however, for this, or any such like lucky chance, or singularly fortunate concurrence of circumstances, while better could be done, would be like waiting till the natural actions of tiie winds and tides should, by some strangely propitious ci nciirrence of events, cast upon our shores a valuable plant -,'■ seed, that we might directly procure for the mere trouble and expense of sending for it. There are, also, motives of another class, capable, no doubt, of leading even individuals into such undertakings, and of carrying them successfully through them. The love of diuutry or fame, or the desire to gratify personal vanity, ' " Tlie landlord can utfonl to try experiments and is generally disposed to ili> 30. His unsuccessful experiments occasion only a niodeiate loss to him- 8ilf. His successful ones contribute to the improvement and better cultiva- ii i of the whole country." C. V. o. li. 420 APPENDIX I I .. I i ! are powerful motives of human action, and may sometinit; even he directed into such channels as this. I5ut as tin tendency of such motives to jiromote the growth of nationa wealth is opposed to the principles of our author, ami i expressly denied by him, we need not here enter into an; inquiry concerning them. There is, however, one case, in which it cannot be deniei' that the efforts of individuals tu j.romote their own interest may be sufficient to introduce a new manufacture. If. in th progress of events, the requisites for a foreign manufactur come to be produced in so great abundance, and with so mud facility, in any country, that a projector there finds that h can from the first afford to manufacture the commodity, an: sell it at as low a rate as the foreign merttiant, a due regar to self-interest will certainly direct a portion of the nationa capital into that employment. But, a case of the circuni stances of a country being so peculiarly fivorable to th practice of a foreign art, that, in the very first essays i makes in it, it can successfully compete with anothei where that art has been long established, is assuredly ver rare ; and, if any such case occur, we may be satisfied that th manufacture might, with much advantage, have been previ ously introduced. In a passage already quoted, it is observed, that, " when taste for foreign manufactures becomes general, the merchant in order to save the expense of carriage, naturally endeavor t establish some manufacture of the same kind in their ow country." These expressions are somewhat too loose to cc incide with our author's theory. It cannot be to save th expense of carriage, but to add to his own riches, that a mei chant will endeavor to do any such thing. The consummatio of such a measure, by saving a considerable expense to th community, might indeed add largely to the means of increas ing their wealth in possession of all the merchants. Or rather ( all the members of the society ; but " it is his own advantage and not that of the society, which every member of it has i view;" and, in this .system of perfect liberty and freedom froi restraint, which is asserted to be the true plan of carrying th general prosperity of the coiiiniunity to the highest pitch, ti^ \v m ^m ADAM SMITH ON FREE TRADE 421 ilitiiculty is, to discover a method of inducing an individual to iucur an unavoidable outlay, the returns from which, although very beneficial to tlie whole society, are no more so to him who liiys out a great deal, than to others who lay out nothing. I'uion is said to give strength. PJut union cannot exist unless llu're be a bond to unite, and this bond must confine and ii'itrain. The rods to make a bundle were tvd together. Men are tied Ijy low, a bond binding all to pursue the (iiurse supposed to C(jnduce most to the general happi- iie>s. This bond, though restraining individual freedom of iiriioM, and preventnig individuals from pursuing the course which they might tind most comlucive to their own private happiness, has not, on the whole, been esteemed to have sliglitly promoted the great end for which it exists, the general wfllbeing of mankind. We seek to rectify its errors, not to abolish it. The peculiarity of this system, relating to this particular part of the tield of human action, is, that it main- tains that man cannot in it, as elsewliere, unite, so as to attain a common good. That, on the contrary, when they so unite, instead of attaining a common good, they necessarily burden themselves with a common evil. It aims, not to remedy any ' rrt)rs committed in adjusting the bond, but, to cut it asunder and cast it away. It is called a system of complete freedom Horn restraint and perfect li!)erty. These terms, when looked at nearly, will be found to mean a dissolution of all bonds and total isolation of interests. Hence, in this particular case, wliere an end is to be gained, the attainment of which it i.i admitted would be beneficial to all, it is yet maintained that it is impossible for all to bring it to pass without hurting instead of benefiting themselves. It is impossil)le to shut the eyes to the fact, that the intro- duction of an art into any country, enabling the labor of its inhabitants at once to transmute the products, which nature, in conjunction with their own industry, procures for iliein, into the commodities their wants demand, instead of sending them to a distance to other people to effect that i-hange, is a great good to all, were it only for the mere saving of transport thus effected; but it is maintained, that it is im- possible lor all the members of the community advantageously i:M''^ r i i- I h ! - f : 422 APPENDIX to unite in brinfjini; about this coinmon benefit. It is clearly seen, that a new channel nii-xlit be ojiened from the exhaustless river of human power, sprin^in^' from the niin<;le(l sources of nature and art ; and tliat, if so, a plenteous stream would flow in on the community, ilrawinjj! from which individuals mif^ht add lar-^ely to the >,'fneral opulence. Hut some means must be employed "to open it u]>. There is an ob.struction in the way that must previously be overcoi.ie ; a rock blockiui; it up that must be removed. Xo individual will open up the channel because, were he so to do, he could derive no more benefit from the labor than others who had not laburcd. The whob society, or rather the lejiislator, the power actin-,' fur the wliolt society, miRht do so, and in similar cases has done so, and, tc jud^e of the measure by tlie events consequent on it, with th< happiest success. Why, then, should he not ? The arguments advanced by the author of the Wmlth (» Kalinus, to prove that the le<,'islator oujjtht never to lent his aid to etlect such a purpose, are chietly contained ii the second chapter of the fourth book. They will be found ti rest almost altoi^ether on the assumption, that national an( individual capital increase in precisely the same mannei This notion, I flatter myself I liave shown, cannot, by an; means, lie taken as a self-evident principle, or one .so Hrnil; established as to serve as the basis of an important practicii doctrine. But, even admitting that the two processes ar similar, the [theoretical] arguments of Adam Smith would uc altogether bear out his conclusions. It is, he says, and the sentiment serves for a motto, an forms, indeed, the substance of two volumes that have contr buted greatly to spread his doctrines over Europe, " It is tli maxim of every prudent master of a iamily, never to attenq to make at home what it will cost him more to make than I buy. The tailor does not attempt to make his own shoes, bi buys them of the shoemaker. The shoemaker does not atteni] to make his own clothes, but employs a tailor. The farni( attempts to make neither the one nor the other, but emplo; those different artificers. All of them find it for their intere to employ their whole industry in a way iu w^hich they hu' ADAM SMITH ON FRKE TRADE 423 ' tlifiu, in enablinj,' ihem to maki-. "Ut of leather wtii> u .-.^t tlii'iii very little, luimerous articles that tlu-y must dthersviso have heeii constantly sendiiv; for. to a '.-reat distance hy roads that were almost imijracticahle a \iii:i[ [lart of the year I ,lo not know whether in this their conduct was judicious or otherwise, hut, it is very certain, that however api-arently prudent the measure may have been, ami however ,i,'re.;t the >,ivin^' etlected hy it mi.L'lit have been, it was completely con- iraiy to our author's doctrines, and mi'_du easily he shown by them to have been necessarily and inevitably injurious. We may suppo.se that, just at the lime when tliese two liLiisiators of this little comimmity had come to the determina- tion of takin'4 means to dispense with the services of the di.stant tanner ami slioemaker, they were addressed on this subject by a philosopher of this school. His reasonin'..!S wouhl doubtless have been in the following' strain. " Von are assuredly wronj,' in the plan you are ■}i>'nyj. to adopt, for it proceeds upon very erroneous and illiberal principles, as 1 can easily sliow you. Vou are in want, you say, of some pairs (jf shoes, surely then it is best for you t( purchase tliem where you can iiet them cheapest. But, by the jilan you are taking of ;,'oinu' to a great expense to have them made at home, they will certainly cost you more when made there, than if liouj^ht at the place where you have hitherto purchased shoes. And. if that place can stiil Mipply you with this commodity cheaper than you yourself can make it, better buy it there with some part of the produce of vour own industry. The general industry of your settlement must always be in proportion to the capital which employs it, and will not be diminished liy being left to be employed in a way in which you have some advantage. V>y forcing it to produce an object which it can buy cheaper than it can make, it certainly is not employed to the greatest advantage. Let things therefore take their natural course, and shoes will be made at your doors when it is tit for them to be made there." To these reasonings our legislators might pcssibly reply, •■ We confess that the first pairs of shoes that we get, will cost us much more, thus made at home, than they would do were we to buy them abroad. }5ut then it %vill only be for the tirst .;rtie!c3 manulaetured that we shall pay so hi-h, in the end IP i! II "^»-A^ '£iJr- ■r^-'iv'-f^i. 42f) APPENDIX they will come cheaper to us at home than from abroad ; and it is to effect this desirable result, that we are goinj^ to under- take tlie project. We don't understand very well what you niciiii by the natural course of affairs, but we think the sooner we can u;et them to take a course, that will before long make thing's cheaper to us, the better." The answer to this in the words of our author would be : " 1 don't at all dispute, that, by means uf tliis project, this particular nuinufacture may be acijuired .sooner than it could be otherwise, and after u certain time, may l)e made at home as cheap, or cheaper, than abroad, lint, though the industry of your society may be thus carried with advantage into a particular channel sooner than it could have been otherwise, it will by no means follow that the sum total, either of its industry, or its reven'H', can ever be augmented liy any ;uch project. The industry of your society can augment only in proportion as its capital augments, and its capital can augment only in proportion to w!iat can be saved out of its revenue. ISut the immediate effect of tiiis project of yours is to diminish its revenie ; and what dinuiiishes its revenue is certainly not very likely to augment its capital faster than it would augment, were you to leave capital and industry to find li r natural employments.' Our legislators ndght still jwssibly answer. "As far as we can comprehend your arguments they reduce themselves to this. We have to give out wiiat is a considerxble sum to us, before we can carry this project into effect, and, for this outlay, you think we shall get no ade(iuate return. Xow in this our lrangely assert that, after giving it out of your hands, you will -ft it replaced to you, with large profit, out of the skill and knowledge which the outlay has procured you. I5ut, as in proof of this you bring me only facts and figures, you will see of course that it is quite unnecessary for me to notice such arguments ; for, however i>lainly it might from them appear that your scheme is practicable and must ultimately liberally ivjiay your advances, yet, this conclusion being proved by reasoning, is a theory, and that theory having the disadvantage .if not being drawn like mine from general axioms, and being merely a laborious deduction from particular observations, it must of necessity follow from indubitable philosophical prin- ciples, that it is wrong, and mine right. The case being so, yiiu are, I hope, men of too good sense to dispute the matter farther. Should you however persevere I must take the lilierty of telling you that you are too narrow-minded theorist-*, ami that, by interfering, in the manner you are about to do, with the natural course of events, you will infallil'ly waste the resources of your infant community, and retard its prosperity." I apprehend such i.hilosni)hic arguments would not have had much success with them or otlier men of practice, and that, even should we take the procedure adopted by iu- •lividtials, as a fit model for tb.at of nations, we would not find III I ll^ li- fi 11 I I 1il i > ' I I fit ^ iii n 428 APPENDIX thiit it iiltof,'ether agreed with the rules which the d. ■■ trines of Adam Smith inculciit*-. The reason is, ihut individuals, as well as nations, ac([uire wealth from other sources than mere savin" friim revenue; that skill is as necessary, and consequently as vahiahle, a cociperator with the industry of hoth, as either capital or parsimony ; and that therefore the expenditure which either may he called on to make to attain the reiiuisile skill, is very well hestowed. ]'>ut, though skill is vahiahle both to nations and to in- dividuals, there are many circumstances that render it nKjre su Id the former, than to the latter. In the first place, it is more • huahle. Whatever may he the pi-rfection to which an in- dividual may have lirought his skill, dexterity, and judgment, in conihictinj,' any particular set of operatin the contrary, any jiortion of the future revenue, yielded by the .ski'' d industry ol u n.itiua, luay hv. oolu, ;uid, consequentiy an addition lo ilie V!^y: ADAM SMITH ON FREE TRADE 429 national skill ^i^'^s a proportional addition to the conimaiid of nati.mal resources, to meet any sudden enierj,'ency. The pro- duce of the general industry of Great Britain, stands mortj,'age(l f„r a sum, which it would have appeared a century ago utterly imiiossible to conceive that industry could sustain, because, a century ago, it was impossible to conceive the vast increase which has since been made to the skill, dexterity, and jiidg- nile sysiem, and more particularly in the chapter to which I have alluded, turns on the following passage. " If a foreign country can supply us with a commodity cheaper than we ourselves can make it, better buy it of them witli some part of the produce of our own industry, employed in a way in which we liave some advantage. The general in- dustry of the country being always in proportion to the capital which enijiloys it, will not thereby be diminislied, no more than tlie capital of an artificer is diminished who purchases an article from another practising a different art instead of making It himself. It will only be left to find out the way in which it can be empk.yed with the greatest advantage. It is certainly nut employed to the greatest advantage, when it is thus directed towards an object which it can buy eheaner than it cm make. Tlie value of its annual produce is certainly more ' r less diminished, when it ia thus turned away from producing I i ■ i i I i 111' :1 ill! ( 430 APPENDIX commodities evidently of more value than the commodity which it is directed to produce. According to the supposition, tiiat commodity could be purchased from foreign countries cheaper tli.m it can be made at home ; it could therefore have been purchased with a part only of the commodities, or, what is tlie same tiling, with a part only of the price of the com- modities, which the industry employed by an equal capital would have produced at home, had it been left to follow its natural course. The industry of the country, therefore, is thus turned away from a more to a less advantageous employment ; and tiie exchangable value of its aimual produce nstead of being increased, according to the intention of t. law-giver, must necessarily be diminished by every such regulation. " r>y means of suci. regulations, indeed, a particular manu- facture may sometimes be acquired sooner than it could have lieen otherwise, and after a certain time may lie made at home as cheap, or cheaper, than in the foreign country. P.ut though the industry of the society may be thus carried with advantage into a particular channel sooner tlian it could have been other- wise, it will by no means follow that the sum total either of its industry or of its revenue, can ever bo augmented by any such regulation. Tlie industry of the society can augment only in pr(i]iorti'iii as its capital augments, and its capital can augment only in proportion to what can be gradually saved out of its revenue. IJut tlie immediate effect of every such regulation is to diminish its revenue: and what diminishes its revenue is ceilaiiily not very likely to augment its capital faster than it would have augmented of its own accord, had both capital and industry been left to find out their natural employments. " Tliougli, for want of such regulations, the society should never acquire the proposed manufacture, it would not upon that acc(tunt necessarily be the poorer in any one jieriod of its dura- tion. In every i»eriod of its duration its whole capital and industry might still liave been employed, though upon different objects, in the manner that was most advantageous at the time. In evfiy period its revenue might have been the greatest which its caiiilal could afford, and botli capital and revenue might ha\e been augmented wit!i the greatest possible rapidity. " 'i"he natural advantages which one country has over anuclier. k^ ( j i ■ 1 i il 1 } hi ADAM SMITH ON FREE TRADE ill producins; particular commodities, are sometimes so great that it is acknowledged by all the world to be in vain to struggle with them. 15y means of glasses, hot-beds, and hot- walls, very good grapes can be raised in Scotland and very good wine, too, can be made of them, at about thirty times the expense for which at least equally good can be brought from foreign countries. Would it be a reasonable law to prohibit the importation of all foreign wines, merely to encourage the making of claret and burgundy in Scotland ? But if there would be a manifest absurdity in turning towards any employ- ment thirty times more of the capital and industry of the country than would be necessary to purchase from foreigi countries an equal quantity of the commodities wanted, there must be an absurdity, though not altogether so glaring, yet exa':tly of the same kind, in turning towards any such employ- ment a thirtieth, or even a three hundredth part of either. Whether the advantages which one country has over another lie natural or acquired, is in this respect of no consequence. As long as the one country has those advantages and the other wants them, it will always be more advantageous for the latter rather to buy of the former than to make. It is an acquired advantage only, which one artificer has over his neighbor who exercises anotlier trade; and yet they both tind it more advan- tageous to buy of one another, than to make what does not belong to their particular trades." I must be excused tor running somewhat into repetition ill observing, that the strength of this passage evidently lies in the axioms, " The industry of the society can augment only as its capital augment.^, and its capital can augment only in proportion to what can be gradually saved out of itn revenue ; " and that the proper answer to these axioms is, either, that they prove nothing, or, that they prove it by a begging of the question, by assuming that to be proved which is in process of proof. The expression, the industry of the society can augment only as its capital augmen's, may signify, either, that tlie augmentation cf a society's capital, and an increase of its jiroductive industry always accompany each other; or, that rvery augmentation of the productiveness of the general in- Justrv. is produced by an ausrinentation of capital, and can i i! m\\\ 432 APPENDIX he producpd \>y nolhiiit; else. In like iniinner, the expres- sion, the capital of the society can augment only in propor- tion to what can lie i^radually saved out of its revenue, may signify, either, merely that the savini,' from revenue is a necessary jiart of the increase of the j,'eneral capital, and measures its amount, or, that there are no other means of auumentint; its capital l>ut it. In the former of these two senses the axioms pmve nothing; in the latter they prove all things desired, hucause they assume them as acknowledged truths. The double meaning fif the assumptions contained in these axioms, ami the fallacy into which they may, in conse(juence, he made to lead, may he easily perceived hy an application of them to the transactions of an individual. A person residing in England, owns an estate in the West Indies, which he proposes to visit. His motives to do so are, that he tliinks, that, hy his jiersonal superintendence, he can give a helter direction to the industry employed on it, and render the returns greater. In order to do .so, it is necessary for him to procure and expend a certain sum to pay for the expense of the voyage, and the cost of the various articles which his private accommodation will iei[uire there; and he therefore takes measures to apply to this purpose a considerahle part <>[ one year's reveinie of the estate. On account of this dishursement, some one objects to the project, and endeavors, in the following manner, to prove to him that it must be hurtlul to his interests : "The augnu'uted |iroiluctiveness of your estate, and the increased amount nf capital at which it will he estimated, must go on together. lUit, to add to capital, it is neces- sary to save from revenue. Now tin; scheme you are about to embark in retiuires tirst a large expenditure of revenue. It must therefore tend to prevent your augmenting your cajHtal, and conseciuently the productive industry of your estate, which two things always go on together." The answer to this reasoning would be: " It is chietly because I am aware that the [inuiuctiveness of my estate, and what it is worth, are in.separably cuujoiiied, that I am about to he at this expeuse and trouble, for I believe tiiey will enable me to pi;l li;i!igb ill oUcli a train tiiat its productiveness will greatly ADAM SMITH ON FREE 1 UADE 433 iiK rease, aud, as its value I know depeuds on the revenue ii yields, my capital will consequently be augmented by much inure than the sum I am liohv^ to expend.' " I perceive I have not expressed my meaning properly," replies the adviser, •' I should have said ; an increased produc- liveness of your estate, can be produced by no other means than by an augmentation of the capital empluyed on it, and lilt' amount of cajiilal you can possess and can emjjloy on it, Clin be augmented in no other way than by saving from your revenue. I'.iit this plan of yours causes an expenditure of votir revenue, it must therefore prevent you from adding to vnur capital, and, consequently, from increasing the productive- ness of the industry which is set iu motion by it on your estate." Tlie West India ])roprietor might undoubtedly reply : " My dear Sir you .ire conqiletely wrong. The productiveness of mv estate dejiends, not only on the amount of tiie capital which .siis tlie industry employed on it in motion, but on the sort of motion it gives it; aud I hope so to inifirove this, by a more judicious regulation of it, tiiat the same power will liroduce a far greater etfect than it does at present, ami thus In show you, that there are other means of augmenting (•,il)ital than simple saving. For 1 take it, that if 1 add to my gains, williout increasing my expenditure, the proceilure may be ju-t as elfective to this end, as if I were to dii linish my expenditure, and not add to my gains." If we understand the axioms of our author in tlie former sense of the expressions, it is clear, that wlien ajiplied to national capital, they prove nothing more tlian when applicl [i< individual capital, l-'dr, if it l)e merely meant that tlie ]iioductiveness of national industry, and the augmeiilatioii <.f national capital advance together, the ]uopriety of a pm- poscd measure may as well be inferred from its tendency to render the industry of tlie community more productive, as its impropriety may be interred from its requiring a small immediate expenditure of revenue. Tiie (juestion to be deter- mined in every such case, would tiien be similar to that which an individual determines when deliberating on any scheme for the augmentation of his private capital, and w(juld resolve itself into an UKiuiry, whetiier or not the probable 2 E ^h5 I 1 IM r m . ^ ( i i .M 434 AITENDIX retuins from the , oposed measure, be likely to be a sufficient remuueratioii for tlie expense of ciirryiii'; it into eflect. Hut, it is very clear, that this would be a constrained interpretatioa of the inijiort of the passage ; and that the inference the author wished his expressions to convey, is, tliat an increased produc- tiveness of the industry of the society can be produced by no otlier means but by augnientiiiL; its capital, and that the only means entering into tlie i)rocess of augmenting its capital are saving from its revenue. Tin projier answer to these axioms, so understood, is, — this is your llieory no doubt, but it is a theory which is merely ill process of jmiof, and not yet established. Surely, then, it is scarce logical to answer a very obvious objection to it, which the observation of human aft'airs presents, by assuming its truth; or, to deduce the impr(i))riety of a practical mea- sure, drawn from the phenomena which human atl'airs present, and apparentlv very beneficial, by showing that such measure is contrary to its jirinciples. The ([uestion hitherto stands thus. You jiretend to account for the ]ihenomena of the augmentation of national wealth by showing, that an increase of national capital tends to facilitate the division of labor; that this divi.sion of labor in itself greatly improves the productive powers of labor, and is the cause of all other imimivemt-nts in them. That this increase of the i»roducli\e jxjwers of labor, being ecpiivalent to an increase of the revenue of the society, adds to its power of accunmlating iresh capital and giving farther extent to the division of labor, the great generator, according to your system, of all wealth. It is in this way that, according to you, the augmentation of tlie industry of the society is produced by an augmentation of its ca])ital, and in no other manner, and its capital is augmented by saving from revenue and nothing else, and that, from the action and reaction of these principles on each other, the whole jihenomena of the growth of national capital are deducible. Now, admitting for the present that no fallacy can be detected in the principles themselves, they must still be admitted to be only possible or probable theoretical assump- tions, to be proved by the observation of their coincidence \ ;*i^ ADAM SMITH ON FREE TRADE 435 with facts. Admitting then also that, as far as the facts which relate to what we may call the history of the internal pr(i.i,'ress of national wealth are concerned, they sufficiently accord with them, there is another class of facts admitted by you, which these principles do not explain, and to which, on the contrary, they seem to be opposed. Arts and manufactures, the great sources of increase to tlu; productive powers of labor, do, it is granted, pass from country to country. It would appear then, that the gradual increase which the accunmlation of capital produces on the productive powers of any society, is not alone sufficient to call forth all the resources which that society possesses; Init tliat it is often necessary to seek in other countries for the means, which give these resources full efficiency. In such cases, at least, therefore, the augmented wealth of the society cannot he said altogether to flow from the gradual increase of its capital by accumulation, the consequent division of labor, and the improvements thence resulting. Your theory is, therefore, so far most certainly defective, as it acknowledges the existence of a class of phenomena, the laws regulating which its principles by no means explain. Instead, however, of attempting to answer the objections to your system, which this class of phenomena present, you pretend to say, that the practical rules directly, and in the simplest manner, deducible from them, are of necessity erroneous, because contrary to the principles of your system, it being acknowledged by every one, even by yourself, that the improvements of the productive powers of labor thus etlected by the continued spread of the arts of civilized life hum country to country, are among the chief cau.ses of the progress of national wealth and prosperity, they who iiave had the management of national aflkirs, have in different cases come to the unavoidable conclusion, that they did well in even sacrificing a small portion of the national revenue, provided this outlay served to introuuce acknowledged im- provement in the national industry, and source of national wealth. They have acted in this as an individual vould do in the management of his private affairs, they have endea- vored to introduce an improvement into the management of I I ■i'.lG ArrKNDix 1 1 ll .1 I ; \ Aiin 4 Hi lH! 1 I;. i-l it M P the funds willi wliich tliey were iiitruslfd, and have con- sidered the jmce to be i>aid lor smli improvement war- ranleil by the increased jinHhictive jiowers it would '_'ive to the same cajiilal, and eonseut thouj;h, when he acts, it is incident to nian'.> imperfect nattne occasionally to err, to sit down therefore in resolute inactivity w(puld lie the worst error lie could commit. The celebrated author admits, that a manufacture may be introduced by the ojterations of the leu'i^lator. sooner than it could filherwise be, and thus come to be made at home as cheap, or cheaper, than abroad. lUit then, he says, in spite of these a|)i)arenl advantaues of such a iiroceedin;,' on his part, it must be wron^', because it is contraiy to my system. And, before you can jirove tliat it is justihable, you must ]irove that the benefits resulting,' from it could not ]iossibly have hajipened some other way. " ThouLdi, for want of such re^'ulations, the society should never accjuire the proposed manufacture, it v'ould not ujion that account necessarily be the poorer in any one jieriod of its duration. In every piTiod of its duration, its whole capital ami industry mi,'iit still liave been employed, thoui;h upon dilferent objects, in the manner tiiat was most advantageous at tiie time. In every jieriod its revenue nii^lit have been the ureatest which its ca])ital could atlord, and lioth capital and revenue mi'^lit have been auL'nienteil witii the greatest possible rapidity.' Now, 1 conceive, that in>tead of callinu' on his opponents to prove, that all the advantages arisini,' trom any sucii scheme mi,i;ht possibly come to pass without it. he himself has to show, that l' y must come to pa.ss without it. And, that he has to do so, not by assumini,' his theoretical princiiiles as true, — for, if they are so, his axioms embrace ami decide this and every case at once, — but by an examination of the course of human afliiirs, and a regular deduction from them, of the cer- tainty of these a[)parent advantages, or others ecpiivalent to them, tlowiuL' in from some other channel than that of which he would bar the opening. ^^.i^^ ^i^mtm^M ADAM SMITH ON FREE TRADE 437 A nation iniixnts f'rDiii a (iisiiinre a nianufuctnremiill expenditure, effect an increase of the productive powers of the community; that is, they Ljive those powers the capa- bility of i)roducin,i,' tlie same ([uantity of an article with le.ss txpense, which certainly must be allowed to be an increase of tliem. In this the leu'islator act.s in a manner that would be accounted prudence in a private person, who conducted any sv.-tem of industry for his own emolument : in a planter, for instance, who owned and mana<;ed a West Imlia estate. We should undoubtedly ajijirove of such a person's beinj,' at con- siilcrable exjiense, in instructing' his overseers and negroes, in aiiv imi)roved mode of conductin;^ the business of the planta- tion, if this improvement mort than proportionably augmented i\is revenue. Neither l;av proceedings of legislators, in many cases parallel in pruici) to this, been ever objected to. It .sometimes happens, for instance, that those engaged in cul- tivating the grounil know that they can procure seeds of plants, or races of animals, at a distance, better fitted for their purpo.ses tlinn those they have at liome. If the exjiei • of procuring lliem is small, und such as will lie remunerated to an individual by the gain, imiividuals send for such seeds and animals. If it is greater, they sometimes club in societies for the jjurpose. li' it be too great for these societies, the legislator aids them in tiieir scheme, or carries it into etfect him.self. In this way it was, that, it being thought that the culture of the bread fruit tree, a plant indigenous to the Pacific < )cean, could it be intro- duced into our West India Islands would be of advantage to them, government were at the expense of sending more than one vessel, on that long voyage, in order to transport the plant tiiere. 2no one did, or could object, Lu the uutiuy of a portion if i ^■^ I f I' O'H'i- ( t ti:i^ 438 APPENDIX n; of the {uihlin revenue for a imrjMjse so lautlable. In this in- stance, it will lie allowed \>y all, that it would have been fus absurd to have waited in expectation that some individual should hud, or siiould imagine he would find it for his own private advantage to undirtake so expensive a scheme, as it would be to complain of the comparatively trifling expenditure of the commnii liinds, which liie accnmjilishment of this project conducive to liie common ^;ood reijuireil. Hut the exjienditure of a certain amount of national revenue, for the purpose of transporting; an useful art from a distant country, bears, >urely, a close analoL.'y to a similar expenditure, for the purpose of transporting; an useful plant.' If the one be praiseworthy, the other can scarce deserve tlie censure that has been heaped on it. Our author further (jbservcs : " The natural advantages which one country has over another, in producing particular commi lilies iire sometimes so great that it is acknowledged by all the world to be in vain to struggle with them." And, as an instance, he gives the project of raising grapes, for the purpose of making wine, in Scotland. Kxtreme cases are useful, but, to be so, they shoulil be cor- rectly put. The main question iu dispute is, whether or not it is proper to introduce a manufacture from abroaii, by the aid of the legislator, which, when so introduced, will furni.sh a commodity for home consumption at as low, or at a lower price, than it can be bought for in the foreign country. The supposed case of a commodity which, if the nuxnufacture of it be introduced at home, will cost thirty times more, or a thirtieth, or three hundredth part more there than abroad, can have nothing to do with the determination of such a question. " Whether the advantages which one country has over another be natural or acquired, is in this respect of no conse- quence." On the contrary, in my opinion, it is of the greatest consequence, and, for this very reason, that it is only " as long as the one country has those advantages, and the other wants ■: f ' [In tlie case of the promotion of an irdustry by means of protective duties w natural advaiilaf,'es (aiiMot I'e procured l>y any expenditure of revt-mie or capital, hut ac(iuired advantae ^ot Ity means of a very Kiuall expenditure. One country cannot, at any i)urchase, afin'ire the soil, the climate, the comniodiousne.ss of (situation for conducting trade, or any of the other natural advantages which another country possesses; were it so, the [>rice would lie very lar^'e that would not he willinudy paid fur them. Hut one country can often witli ease, and at a tritling exp.ense, ac(iuire the practical skill and the knowledj^e of particular arts and nmnufactures which another possesses, and, hy doini,' >o, i^ain the advantai,'e of procurin;.' for itself the products of this skill and knowledge at home, instead of having to go abroad for them. In the passage quoted, natural advantages and acquired are reckoned equivalents, ami so undoiihtedly they are. They are both valuable on ai count of the ])rodu(ts they yield to human labor. I'.ut they ditVer in this, tliat the latter can be transferred from one country to another, the former cannot. Could t^colland acquire the sur-iy skies and more genial climate of France, its hills might be covered with vine- yards, instead of heather, and its inhabitants might ])rocure "many commodities at a fourth of the price which they now cost them. Xo one would object to a considerable expenditure to acquire so grea. an advantage. If then, the aciiuisition of natural advantages would be worth jjaying for, why object to a small expenditure to procure advantages which are allowed to be equivalent to those natural advantages ? As the author has given one supposed case, as he conceived illustrative of the question, I may be permitted to give anoilier, also illustrative of it: not like his, however, springing from assumptions liable to be objected to, but, as will be seen, framed upon his very principles and atlmissions. A certain country has tiie acquired advantage over fuiother of possessing the knowledge of a particular art, which this other wants. Tlie latter, therefore, imports from the former all the goods, the product of that art, which it has occasion for. As it has to pay for these goods, it luckily happens that ;». _„ ;i_ _;j„ U^^ „lo^ o,^,,ji'»-'>d ll■^vQn^;llfPS in Tin^sessini' the It, un Ita 31UC, udT tli^.- t,. .j!!...!. .1-. — — J- wy{ . h 1 s 440 APPENDIX kiio\vleilu'(! of iiiiotlier art, which the former wants, and the loiniiiociities ])ro(hiccd hy which it has occasion for. In tliis way, the one s(jrt of noods pays for tlie other. The natural anil ac(iuired advanta_i,'e.s of the.se two countries are either ainiiiar (jr ei|uivaleiit. That is, their soil, climate, convenience of situation lor tratle, and their kno\vled;je of other arts, thou<»Ii not o.xactly the same, are on the whole e long re- mained, and must continue to remain, unless altered by .some ciiange in the jiolicy, or great revolution in the affairs of the two countries. - Ii being ital. Whereas, from the observation of the increase of the productiveness of national industry, and of the amount of national capital, going on in general together, we may at least as justly infer that it is the industry which aug- ments the capital, as the capital the industry, and rather come to the conclusion, that part of the national resources should be employed in giving perfection to the industry of the society than that they should be altogether devoted to attempts to increase its capital. In fact, as capital, according to Adam v^iuith himself, is only valuable for the aiidition it makes to the elhciency of the national industry, and, as that etticiency is also, according to him, mainly dependent on the skill, dexterity, and judgment, with which it is applied, an expenditure of capital or revenue, having the effect of increasing the national skill, dexterity, and jud.;ment, would .seem to be the most judicious possible, sc-eing it directly increa.ses those sources of production, from the indirect addition that it makes to wiiich, capital is said to derive its sole value. It lias been my ende.Tvor to sb.ow. in the preceding exami- till' I I ! ' '•A ^! M I I <. i P\ f^i^ ^> APPENDIX nation of the system of Adam Smith, that the doctrine there maintained, of the expediency of the legislator's ahstaininji from any attempt to j^dve increased etiiciency to the inihistry of tiie society by enco;iragin,L' the i^rowth of domestic arts or the imjiortation of foreii:!!, fonnded on the snpposiiion o*' the ])er- fect identity of the nu ans which add to the wealth of indivi- duals and nations, is erroneous. 1. That the reasonings which make it assume the form of a self-evident principle, have their foundation in the andii'^'uities of laii;4ua;,'e alone, and that, in reality, tiie presumption is ai^ainst, not for it. 2. Tliat viewed as a consequence of the theory of tile accu- mulation ot capital, the division of lahor, and tiie improvements residtini,' from tlie action and reaction of these principles on each other, the jud<;nient we form of it must lie altouether determined liy the prolialile atcuraey of the princijiles on which that theory ]irocetds and liy its coincidence with facts; that urantini;, for the pr.'sent, the ap])arent jirolialiility of the theo- retical principles them. ■ they nevertheless do not a'^ree witli the ]ilienomena ; 1 iiere is a class of admitted facts, which they not only do not explain, but to which they are in ojiposiiion ; that the increase of the wealth of every community is acknowledu'ed to be dependent, not only on the accumulation of capital and division of labor amonu' its memb.'rs, but al.so on tiie proj^ress of arts in other communities, and tl.'ir subsciuent transfer to it; that to effect this transfer, a measure admitted to be all-important to the ]irosperity of the connnunity, the etVirts of individuals are insutliciem ; that, in his endeavors to prove that the lejiislator ought net here to interfere, Ao hold to ideals, even though arts perish-Kac very well knew. The following passa-e fioin liis unpublished manuscript sets forth this ini|)ortant truth most .eloiiuently :] • Xow tlion<;h it is uiuloulitrdiy true in the <,'fnfral that with n'<,Mi(l to cxtcriiiil iiatiiiv kiiowlo.ljre i.s the puw-fi- wliicii laist's niuii in the seal.- of luinj,' and aistinj,Miislie.s liini from the inferior animals, yet we hy no means find that it is the • ie^aee in wliieh tliey praetically apply tiiis knowledj^r tliat determines the relative position of particular races or com- munities. It is not tiie external and visible — what he eats, what he drinks, or wherewithal he is clothed— hut his inner and secnt lif-- that makes the man, constitutes liis joy and .sorrow, shapes his course throuj,di this world and determines his fate for the ne.xt. So it is with nations. It is neither the form of tiieir dvvelliuoN, lln.- s n-Ltiiiis that Uijunsh theni, liur " » iBv nXWrSj^BIt^ "l! ill i^ij ilt «. 1 f'\\\\\ I' V'i i 446 APPENDIX the fashion of their dress : it is their interior life, the degree ill whicii th(! perception of tlie true, the good, the beautiful permeates tlieir being, the view which their social feelings and passions leail them to take of things external and the course of action they are thus prompted to pursue, that makes them what they are, which ultimately detern-ines their relati%e positions and controls their destinies. "It is kiiown that the northern portion of the island of Great Britain had at an early period made greater progress than the southern in the arts of peace. It could scarcely well have been otherwise. For, while for about two hundred years England was devastated by the cruel wars necessary for the subjugation of the Saxon to the Norman yoke, during all that time, Celt, Saxon, Norman, and Dane lived peacefully together in Scotland under a succession of native princes and were being blended into one common people. There is full evidence that the rude al)undance of an agriculture successfully prose- cuted w.as widely diti'used among them ; and facts are not wanting to testify that the more elaborate arts had there begun to flourish. " But now the Norman having brought England completely under liis rule sought to extend that rule over Scotland. His domination was hateful to the people and they determined never to submit to it. But how resist the united force of a kingdom so much more powerful than their own ? They retreated to the fastnesses of their mountains, woods, and marshes, and, leaving the open country ,i prey to the enemy, they watched their opportunity, and only i.ssued forth and gave battle when to coiupier was possible. A warfare continued thus for many generations necessarily put to flight all but the most essential arts, rendering the country t>are aud barren, and the mode of life of the inhabitants the rudest possible. So their French auxiliaries describe them. They depict them as a poverty-stricken and barbarous race, among whom it was impossible to live. Here was, in many respects, a sensible retroifression — a retrogre.ssion to a state of .semi- barbarism. The >iiiestion is, was it altogether a retrogression ? H;id t::v Scot liiadc a .stcp b;ickv%ard, or svB.- it in truth a step ADAM SMITH ON FREE TRADE 447 forward? In my opinion there can be no question that it was a step in advance. In thus throw inj,' to the winds all the comforts of life, and counting as n(jthinj,' what he sacri- ficed or suffered for his national liberties and national in- dependence, the spirit of the Scot assiinn-d a higher tone and his soul was trained (Treatly to dare and bravely to do, wherever great and worthy objects wore to be achieved. Adversity was ujxin }iin», 'Stem rigid iivifse, thy nigged lore With patience many a year lie l>oie.' •' But he issued from her school a greater and nobler man than he e\er otherwise could have become [and wliat he has accomplished in happier times all the world knows]." " I ( l.j ill ii ! ■t ! \ f r Ii iti Ai'Tiioirs No'res. No'ii: A. Rij) rnd til on i>iir lie scciiis to have hail no tixfil i. 'JUii. = //,»/., veil. I., p. 4H. ATTHOR'S N()lr:S +4f) Hii'l labor; ami t]\\< opinion, which coincides with that of the Bishop of C'loync' and the l«'arnfviiiients of a<.;ri- culture and nianul'actiirew, ami is, in leality, riO more than the aeeuniulated pr(j- t'crivain ie^ard<- la richesse couniie la pnnsps^ion d'uiir cliiisr plan ile's'ii-i'i' pur C'lu- ipi/i ve lout pus qui' ^lar ceux qui lit jouisieiit.^ " Un autre ecrivain la dehnit h- superjlii.'^ " Un autre t<;ri vain la place dans I'accuniulat ion dn travail exies dVconoinie politique, tome I. page 60. "En Angleterre, Raleigh, Essai sur le commerce, en 1.595. — Edouard Mi.-t- selden, Cercle du commerce, en leiS.— Louis Roberts, Tr^sor du tratic, en 1641. — Thomas Munn, Tn/sor de I'Angleterre pour le commerce etrangei, en J664. — Kortrey, Inti'-nitB et ameliorations de I'Angleterre, en 1664. — Davenant, dans son ouvrage relatif an commerce et au revenu de I'Angleterre, tome I. page 16, en 1696.— M. Martin, inspecteur-general des douanes, ou le Marchand anglais, en 1713. En HoUande, Jean de Witt, M^moires, en 1669. En Itttiie, Scrra, iJrcve tratto dciic cose c'r.c possonn far abondar- H rcgui B! V- I; Ml t M ii! ^1 1" H '\ fi w V^ /t ( i I i 1 J: -V 4')2 APPENDIX " D'iiutii's t'crivains en out place la source dan . la rele du revenu it I'accroisseiiient du travail productif, ou en ren- ., oap. 10, sul principio. — Corniani, Keflez. suUe monete. F^ii Fnince. le cardinal ile Kichelieu et Colbert, Urdnnnanoes et nglemens pendant lenr v\r"' ■•tricion 'Thomas Cnlpcpcr's Useful remark on the inis-ehief of an high national interest, en IfUl.— .Tosias Child, Hrief observations on i>(igi: 37'J. At the time tlie ivfereiiCL- to this note was made, it was my intentiun to have here inserteil s ime extracts Irom the Xi'i-th Aiwrinni R> ririi, and some c,iher puhlications, for the pur- pose of showing' the views entertained in this country cniicerni.ij^ the system of Adam Smith, and some of his followers. As far as concerns this continent, however, these extracts would he superHuous, and I have, therefore, thou;,dit it l)etter to omit them, until such time as the work appear in Great Britain. Note D. Referriil ^' on pa/je l.SO. Adam Smith iiere admits, to a certain extent, the correct- ness of the t;eiieral notions concerning; the nature and otHce of money, entertained bj' ilie .school of political economi ho preceded Hume. Had ht; done otherwise he would ha\ I very unfairl}', for his own reasonint;s, on this subject, are sometimes little more than a repetition of theirs, as mitjht he shown hy an examination of parallel pa.ssaj^es. Compare, tor in.stance, the two following. "Although they who have their estates in money are .said to l)e a great number, and to Ix- worth £0,000 or £10,000 per annum, more or less, which amounts to many miiUons in all, yet arc tliey not possrs.sed thereof altogether at once, for it were vanity or against their profit to keep continually in their hands alnjve £40 or £')0 in a family to defiay nece.s.sary charges. The rest must ever run li. ii. c. ii. m 'I '! i; I ' \ ■1:1 i\ \ t i\. t i|^ ill li i I 4,J4 ArPENDIX .l(.iic the «;irii(r wriirrs f(|Uiil jtisticc Tims Mr. M'Cull(X?h, in liis I'ri nrijilry. nf I'dliticul Kci'ii'iii, I/, assfjts tllUt tllc IlR'l'Ciin- tilr svstfiM. (if which 111' cstcciiis Mun oiir lit' thf fiirlie.st iuid alili'si ilt't'cndrrs. nckniii*! niniiry the only wealth, and iviiiark-. that the siinjilf consiih ration, that all hiiyiii>i and s.llinu' is in nalit}- nuthiu;,' nioiv than tliL' haitfriiiL; i>f one ciiiiiiMidity I'nr aii'ithiT. — of a certain i(iiantity of coin (a- wool, for rxanijil'' for a certain qnantity of <,'oid oi- silver, and vice /■./•>(». was ( ntirely overlooked." Now instead of considering^ money as the imly wealth. Man, on tlie contrary, says. " tiiey tliiit have wares cannot want money: — neith.i'r is it that iiionev is the life of trade as if it conid not suhsist without the same; for we know that there was ^^reat tradiiii,' l>y way of coiiimiit.ition or harter. when there was little money stir- rini,' in the world. " ' ''"hiit the true use of money is its atford- in^f a fixed standard f^r tin price uf oilier things, is a doctrine. indeed, laid down hy IJodin ;i century e.arlier than Mini. '■ Car si la nionoye. ijui doit reader le prix tie to\ites choses est muable et inctrtaine. il n'y a pcrsonne (jui puisse fair estat an \iav de ce i|uil a: hs contracts seront ineertains. les ehan.ucs, taxes. ^ra;.'es. etc., incertaiiies." etc- The ival error of those writei-s was their transferriiijr to national wealth the rules which apjily to indixiiiual wealth; it was I aiija-ehend. tlcie- fore. the same in kind as I ha\e hinted in the text, as that of .\dam Smith iiimself, thtjuyh ditl'erent from it in dcj,'ree. NoTi: F. Il'i'i rml to an /kii/i' 1>(). • Memorial dans leipiel on propose a I'Euiperein' tni moycn de seco\n-ir 'e petiplc (laus les annces stcriles. ' {L'ftris Eilifiii litis. Tiiui. XI. p. 427.) IJe(iu-!jUe-y, (the Mandarin \vho memorializes.) after narrat- ing the miseries s\itl'e)'eil from famine in the province C'hansi, finm which he dates, and statinjj the insutHciency of the ancient provisions of the empure. which sujiiiose a ijuantity fif rice to lie stored up in tile iiiij>erial ma;,'azines, sutKcient for all eiiierircncies. hut which are iiej^lected hy the superior Mandarines, fnun the multiplicity of the athiirs they have to ' II', ,i///. .,/ \;,!„„is. u. --'4. -'/;«' /.( HipuhtiqU'. hv. \'I. yl^ ■% I AITHORS NOTES 453 !riiinii<;e, (ir iiViusi'l l)y tlu,-ir dipciiili'iits, and wliich are, in fact, n<;anli-(l as nhsulftc : piowftls tn state l>is dwii scliemt- for (iliviatiiii;. in future siniili-r cahmiities. ■ Ne seroit-il (Innc i>as a jiriipcs tie pnjtitor de ce tumps (ialj- 11 K lance poiu' riiiiplir dc j,nains l.s i;reniers publics, en Its pavant \inc<\ poiu- en liatir ili- nouveaux, ft poin- aniasser du riz atin das-ivtcr dans ie temps de steriiite If tfrritoire ui-r d.n ri/. a Ke- tcheau, a Leao-tclieau. -t autivs villes snlialternes de sa dependance. Kniin dr scinlilaMrs ma;;asinv (|u'on ctalilira rlans la ville de Tai-tonj;j, (pii est au nord, jiourront aitler a la subsistence des prtites villes di' LoiiLT-pin Kin^'vou, rt autres srmblaliles. ("f sont-la les ipiatres principales vilKs de la province, oil sennit places les ma^'asins i^'i'neraux, et d oil les grains sc rt'pandront dans les lietix (pii i-n auront besoin. ' He nrxt ni'iitions the j)rrcautions hi' conceivi-s nectssary to iruard a<;ainst malversatii>n. '(Jr ajires des precautions si n.k-essaires, supposons (pie, de la libt'ralite di- votre maji-ste, il soit donne cette annee a cliacun de ces vill.s cent miilf francs pnr.r capital: si I'annee est abondante, Tannee le prix du riz est medioere : ce n'est (pie dans le lirinteiiips (pie le prix commence a auirmenter, alois on ouvrira les ma^asins, et on vendr.i ce riz. De cetti viuti' on aura deux avantaiCis; I'un est (pi'en niettant I'abondance, on (■mpt'clicra rpie le prix du liz m- croisM. trop : I'autre, (|iie If v.'iidant alois un peu plus clur (pi'il n'a ''t>' achft(' dans I.' temps de la ivcolte, on seiji en .'tat. ;iu moyeii de Ce proKt, I I I !! I *' i U U 1^ ! 'u\ il K I iti . i i li' ' ' 45(j A1TP]M)IX (laclifti.-r iipivs 1,1 iiMiivclIc iii()i>--()ii an iiiuiiis i\\\ iiiillc iiirsures • If I'iz liaiis eliai|Ur I'licliDit. di- jilii- iju'dii n'lii avait I'aniu-f pr<'crd«'iiti'. I*ai'-I,i. laiieirh rix sort dr-^ uTi'iiici--. ft h- iiMUvcau If i-fiiiplaff. I! s'lrt a uii piix plus dirc ri rriiti a Ihiii iiiiireln.'. N'fst-Cf })as im fxcfllfiit ninyon d.- mviltipli Cf ri/, .'11 Miulai,''faiit iiifiiif If pfuplf ' fai- on nc pii'tfiid ]>as > f iiricliir aiix dfpi'iis du pulilic. L'l' I'iz tiii' di-, ma^'asius -i-i'a \i-ii(lu an fours ft a uii pi'ix I'aisoiuKililf , i|U(iii|Uf ]ilus difi' ijn'il n'ftait Imit iimis anpai'a\:uit. Uii'ii df phis jdstf ft df plus utile (Imun Ifs annufs al"indant'->. Par fttf (••mduitf. If riz ch.aiUf a lUff sf iiiultiplif dans ],' iiia;^asiii ; ft si pfiidant ciiKj auiiffs il sf fait uuf alinudaut'' roci'lt<'. la provision d'uii f ndi'oit, ipii 11 t'toit d'aliord i[n<- df tr.'iitf mi IK- ini-surcs, pfut sf trouvfi- a la ciiuiuieiiif anm-f df plus di' ipiatri- ffut iiiillf uif suif s (If liz. Ell cas di- iii'ffssitf. n f st cf pas df ja uu f xcc Ili'Ut iiioyiii df soulan'fi' toutf uiif pro\ incf ' . . . dans |,s (liscttfs ordiiiaiifs. Ic rix s, ra vi'IlIu a uin' juste [)i-ix. D.uis c.-Hi.s (pii passfiMiit uu pfii rorilinaii-f, nu rii pii-ti ra au piiiple. rx dans Ifs fjrands nijc-fssitfs nn If distiilnhra par auniuii'.'. Tir^ ih Id (vizi'tif Piililiiju.i par If K. I'fif L'ontaufin. Till.' inlialiitants m!' tlif island nl' 'rniiiLt-uiini;' ot'tfU fUtfr into voliuiiar}- associations, wliifh lia\'f lor tlfir ohjeft tlif rfli"t' ot" sonif individual wliosc affairs liavi- hfciMuf deranefd. Tlif}' li\y<- I'.ini tlif nil aus of ivfstalilishin^' hiuisflf in a way which tlify coiu-fivf l)Ur(li>ns thfiii a littlf, though not very much, Thf association consists of seven individu,ils, including- the person for whose relief it is formed. The principle of it will be underst'tiiil from thf f'>llo\\iiiu t.ihlf. rii'^f il'iif. S'Cdiiil i/iiir. Thf first, that is, the pfr.son fi'r The tiist "'ivfs I,") whosf hfiiftit thf company is sfconil rfc<'i\ fs (iO foriiifd. i-fcfivfs ()(» pist.iles third ^ivcs ]'.i rile second ^ives 1.') fourth 11 third l:i tilth It h'urth 11 sixth 7 tiftli 9 seventh 5 sixth 7 seventh ,"> ( i\ Ml'M AirHOIl'S NOTES 4.-)7 Thini >jf''0\ Thf first u'iv.-. 15 sri-i illil 1:5 tliiiii ivcrivc- tiO t'i»ui-tli ::ivc^ 11 tiftii sixth 7 SfVrlltil 5 Fifth jKir. Tlio first -ivts lo st'cunil 13 third 11 fnurtli 9 fifth rrc,'ivf> lii) sixth -ivrs t Sl'VClltll ■) Sn'intli ;l<'s 1.-) Sft'illlil l:^ tliiiii 11 t'uurtii !) Fiiorth year. TIk' first jrivcs l-> seeoml 13 third n fourtli rcctiv.'S 00 fifth ;.dvrs 9 sixtli 11 si,'\fiith 5 Su-Al' ^ I'^ir. I'he first \uV' 'mis of tlie contract arc uiucli WW faviirahlc tnr liie fnt restitiier iles hiens acipiis par ces N'oies iliicites. et aussi rtiiner en unjoin- tonte leur famille, vons mavouere/. ipi il faut un ^land miracle d- la <;race pour le-. y determiner." Litti-r.-< E'li/i" iids, Tom. X. p. 870. ■ I.a deuxieme cause (if ia disette nest jias >euleinent.connne on sc persuade, la nniltittide du peuple ("hinois: j'avoue '|Uelle y contrihue heaticou]); cependant je crois (pn; la Chine fouiiiit des j^i'ains siitfisamment jxiui' la subsistence de tousces hahitans; mais e'est ijUon ne mt'iiaj^e pas assez les jjrains, et i|u'on en fait une eonsonnnation etoiniante pour fabriiiuer du riz et dc reau-de-v ic ou de la raipie. . . . c'est •-urtout le .soir axant que de sc coucher c|U ils en font usaj^e, principaleinent les marchands, les artisans et les soMats. lis out chacun dans la chamhre mi ils coiiclient un fourneau a charlwn de pierre ou ils font ctiire le riz. le the, et chauti'er ceite sort de boisson ; ils la prennent en man;,feant des lierbes salees. et s'enivrent a [leu de frais. Si par nie^ardc, ou etant a moitie ivres, ils lais- sent tuinber de cette raipie dans le feu, la tiamnie s't'luve bieiitot jusi|'an ]ilancher, <|ui nest fait ijuo de nattes d'osier ou de chassis i\v pa))ier. et dont la hauteur nest faite (jue de trois ou ipiatre pie.is au dessus de la tete d"un liomine. Alors dans un instant, toute la chambre est en feu: et parce ipie les lioutiipies oil couchent les mai'chands et la plupart ilesmaisons du |ieu pie, ne s( lilt pas separees de leiu' voisins par des maitre.sses AUTHOR'S NOTES 459 Miiirailk-s, ot -lue souvcnt Ifs charpfiitcs soiit lies .'nsfinlilf. le I'm .s'.;tencl avec rapi.litt.: ..-t fait di- jrraiids rava>,'fs avant (in'on ait pu rt'teiudre. •' Ajoutez a cela i|Ut' rusage trop fn.M|nL-iit :-<, Vol. XII. p. :i(Mt. Many circumstances mi<,dit be adduced, to show that it is not so nuich the want of ptjwer to accunudate, as the want of a desire to accumulate suHiciently stron^,' to prompt to etl'ec- tive action, which prevents individuals in the lower classes in t'hina, from ri.sinj: to opulenct Of tiiese I miiiht mention the nundx-r of eatin^'diouses, and the >,f0odne.ss »i their fare, and the occasional richness of the attire of the cominon people, as described by recent travellers. I prefer, however, citin-,' iiecdote from the L>'ttrt:s Ediriaates, as these are probably an li>s known to the readei'. I'n vieillard vient le trouver " (le missionnaire) " pour lui r.pr.'senter I'e.vtreme desir (lu'il avoit ([ue Ion construisit une .•c'lise dans son villai,a-. V'otre zele est loualjle, lui dit le mis- sionnaire, nuus Je n'ai pas maintenant de (pioi fournir a une pareille depense. Je pretends bien la faire moi-meme, repartit 1.! villai^^'ois. Le missioiniaire, accoutume a le voir depuis plusieurs annees inener une vie tres-pauvre, le crut hors d'etat d'accomplir ce ipi'd prMuettoit; il loua de nouveau ses bonnes intentions, en lui representant .pie .son villa(;e etant tres-con- siderable, il y falloit batir une e<,dise aussi irrande (jue celle qui t'tait i :"^ -&.'i V,* ^ k'-'^ 1 F .' = !^ i ^i'l^ 1 I i 4no ArrKNDix iiiipMrtiuiiT |.ar iiii.' Minhlal'l.- (Iciiiaijilf. !..• \)'vVf i'lit cliiiriiif il apiirriidir c|Ui- <•«• lion lioimii''. (|ii'il a\<)it cni I'oit paimv. m; li-ijuval ii.'aiiiuMiii> avoir taut il'ar;ivut euiniptaiit. ft (|u'il vouh'it l'cii!|ilo3-.T si utili'iiiiMit. .Mais il t'ut lii'-ii plus saipris, lorsiju' ayaiil «ii la ciiricj^it'- 'I- ilcujainlrr ;, cr villax'i'uis coiu- iin-iit il a\(iit jni sc jirMcunr c'tt.' s,,iiiiii.-. ij i-i']M>ii.lit in<;oiui- iiiciit c|ii" il.'piiis .niarantf an- i|u'il avait vnurii c iIi'ssimh, il i-i'traiiciiait th' sa nuiirriturf rt ilr s.m Ni't.'Mifnt .nut en inii nt.'toit pas .ilisolnnicnt niV.'s^-aiiv, atin .iavdir la cDiisolation avaiit .i- Wans son \ illau''' nw i.':,'lisf ('Im't'L' a riionmur '111 viai l^icii. \"ol. XII. p. 3ti:{. To tlirsf .•\tract- I am iniliiC'l to a^M tiic two I'ollowini,^ as .strikin-ly illusti'ati\ ,• ,>[' tin >trani;f contrasts whicli tli-' inmality of tin- ("him-se cxhiKit-. ■ This dominion is tfm{)rr.M|,' ,■ that of husiiands ovri- tln'ir wixi's) ■iinlcc'd, liy the maxims of mild comluct in tin- ditti'mit relations of life, inculcat.-d fnmi rarly childhood. amoULi'st thf lowest as well as till' hiL,di.'st classc, of s(jc'cty. The old per- sons of a family livi' -eniially with tiie youiii,r Tin- formei- serve to moderate any occasional impetuosity, violence, or passion of the latti^r. Th.' intluenci' of a;,'e over youth is suie ported hy the sentiments of nature. \,y the hahit of ohedienci-. liy the preee-pts of morality en-i-aft.d in the law of thf land. and liy the unremitted policv anil hon.st arts of parents to that etiVct. They who are past lalior. deal out the rules which they hav.- learned, and the wisdom which experience taujfht them. t<ur and to jirovidc tor liis jiarent^i' inaintcnanc-i' and ciniifort ior tlif lifotlicr and >-ister tliat lailuri' of wldcli duty would h>- ffiUowed l^y such d.tvstation that it is not necessary to enforce it hy positive law. Even the most di-tant kinsman, reduceil to misery hy accident or ill health, has a claim on his kindled for relief. Manners, -tr"iij,n'r far than laws, and, indeed, inclination, produced and nurtured hy intercourse jiiul inJmacy, secure assistance for him.'' Stdii.in'iiii'.-' Chiixi. Vol. Ii., p. 21. ■The frail females in the l.oats hr.d not endmiced tliis douhle occupation, after haviiii; i|uitteil their parents, or on i..in;r ahandniii'd hy them on aeciiunt of their misconduct; liut the parents themselves, takin;: n"• A ^feiitleman of my aciiuaintance. who had heen lonj,' anionj; tlie Indians, and ranked aiiione; tlieiii as a brother warrior, once travelled a ;,n-eat distance in the far interior lo visit ;i chief. His friend received him in the spirit of hospitality natural to the red man. In proof of it, he (h'clared he wouhl feast him. as he had seen white men feastinji their friends, — for he too had heen a traveller. Accordin,L,dy. his "woman- kind" not heine- adeiiuate to tiie task, he set alKUit cookin;^ and ser.i '^ dinner himself, and, consideriiiL-- all thing's, siic- ceedeil wonderfully. As imitators, however, will often copy rather defects than merits, so the relish of the repast would have heen somewhat improved, hy his memory havinj; heen a little less tenacious of a few. of what douhtless seemed to him the stranj^e ceremonies of the white men. For example : he had seen at the houses of some of his white friends, their voiini.' men employed ruhhin;; the dishes, of!" of which the i • i I\li^.' i} t '^ 462 Al'rENDIX j^ucsts at<;. witli ;i small S(|Uari- pi'-ce of oloth. Xmw, tlif only pii'L'c of cloth, liki' this, which lif happi-ni'il to have, t'oriiit-ii an article of dress iti nsi' aiiiuii'_' the huliaiis, Iitit unknowM. ami nnilescrihahle hy nuKlern Huiopeans. It seems, iiotwith- staniliiiLj, to have Keen in use amon^ tlieii- ancestors, hein;^, it I mistake not, that very LTarment, of which Ulys--es threati/iieil to strip the nnhappy Thersy*^ 's, the da}- he m.uk him feel that he dill not hear the sceptre i . \ain. '!"(» di\evt himself of it, was no doiil)t an inconvi^nience, but this was not to he reckoned in the si^vice of a ;;uest. Accoi-din;fly. hani,''in^ it oxer his ;irm. he rulihed his visitor's platter with it Very carefnlly. at eviiy chani.fe. My friend had nothin;^ for it hnt to honor the care r>f his host hy "atine- ^^ravely and ahiindantly. Had he done otherwise, the chief, who was him- self the most polite of men, would ha\e regarded it as an uii- pard' 149. [.\» ti) tin; ultorior tll'ect:* of Wiirs, levtilutiHiis, iK.-im'cutii)ii.s, and the like, tlifif is (if (.iiiirsL' iiioio to lie ;-ait have witnessed a period when the .soci.al condition wa- =■ -■•i--ratii!ir fr-im to aire; Uk. fi- '\ .»1 ,V.s AJTHOirs NOTES 4*J3 must hav.' looked W-wanl to still sm-c^eding irnproNc'iiieiit. Vet each of thfso ci%-ilization.s nuis.'d within it soiiu' disoa.s.- tliat, coniin;,' to activity, iiipj i>il tli'- j^i.tiu of ifrosperity and life, and l)rou<;ht on dt-cay and death. II "With the exceptio!! of Greece, whose contracted territory unfits it fur a jiarallel, other antecedent civilizations an- known to history only in their conchidin-;- sta;,'es when tin- hand of death was on them. We cannot tell, we can only conjecture, what their condition was in ti>e previous and nion- vi^onjus periods oi their existence. But with rej^ard to all of them, .so far as we can ;.dean anythin-; of th.-u- from historv. or traci- them in their monuments, the remark- ahle fact is'l.rou<,dit before us that the sta','e of their l)einpre.s.sed, was that of fixity and inniiohility. A period of torpid repose preced<-d their decay and dissoluti not uitlioiit interest. Ill 'I'liiRctiiiii \iitli the siiliject ot the elixioii tlironyih tii\atiiin c.f flic ci' iiicii. nr nati'X . is ili rivcil iV'iiii tlnvi- sdurci-s, — l,iliiir, I'ajtital, ami laiicl. I liavr cii- (li-avdi-fil flsi'wlifrt; to sIkjw that capital cunsists alto;j;t;tlK'i' ot' iiistrtiiiit'uts liy iiiraiis of wliitli man is ciialjli'_-ii to the IkuHcs w'tliiii his nach, ^iicli artichs of luct-ssity, comfort, (jr convfiiicnce a> his wants uv^u him to procui'c. I haw- also enilca\ori'il to tiaci' tin- laws which rf;,'iiiati' the increase or ilimiuiition of this ofinral stock iir capital. It is a -oiiiewliat (lithctilt task to ..;,! V.,,.- .\-a It 1 i»iii i this; v> or.t ■.;.;'- K" ¥ Al'THOR'S NOTES 465 is t(, U- appropriated at sonif fiitun- tiini- in sonic particular society, we cannot with propri.ty tak.' as uur standard tlie iiiixlf in which it is now appropriatoi in any t'sistiii{,' .s(x;i«'ty of men. For society is continually chanL,'in«: its phase ovei the earth, and what we may assume now as the best condition of artiiirs, may at some future day appear (piite defective. It may he allowahle therefore to a>-ume that in th-- society in ipiestion it comes at the ftiture period, to whit we have reference, to he so apiiropriated as may most conduce to the welllH'inj; of the whole community, (."onsidered thus theoreti- cally. I think we may assume that it should l>e jjiven to those {)urposes wliich are for the t,'eneral ^'o.m1. I may name education in its larjfest sense ; rewards to men whose i,'enius, talents, or industry have aildeil to the stwk of human happiness in ^'eiieral or of the one particular .society; the .supplyinj: the funds necessary for the prosecution of experi- ments tendiiijr to enlar;re the knindarii's of human knowledge and power: and also a provision for those whom accident has deprived of the means of supporting: them.selves. I may say in general, in relieving the comiiiunity from wliat is now- called taxation, but a taxation required for other purposes than those upon wnich it is at present expended." it 20 I 1 \ ' ,! ! ' I. :s .^ II 1 RESu»UA. PA-^SAC.ES OMITTKK IN SOMK I'.UiT OF TIIK TEXT AND Nerity to a state. To niet't the tnoriiious animal expenditure orc.tsioned by the most wasteful ol' all preceding wars, a revenue as enormous was drawn by taxation from the people, while, instead of their industry enjoying the boasted advantages of perfect freedom, at home it was restMine>i by reuula'ions i<\' old estalili^hed, and abroad its products were legally shut out from every continental port, and could only any where force an entrance with much hazard, and at heavy expense. True: making its power felt through the element that had ever been most propinous to it, it had subjugated almost every spot on the globe, colonized by Europeans, and by this means, in defianre of its enemies, maintained an extended commerce with all parts of the world. But this vast extent of empire, preserved by force of arms, and at great expense, according to the dicta of modern politicians, was an evil of the greatest magnitude, and one which, though the burden attending it is now reduced to comparative insignificance, they are contmually assuring us we ought, as ([uickly as i>ossible. to get riil of. NoiwiilistanJing all these .jisadvaiilagcs, huv'.cver, there UESIDIA 467 is no p. nod 111 Its liist,.ry in winch tlio condition of Great Britain was apiun'titly more flourisliinL'. Tli. exertions of th,' laborer w. ■ lih.Tally rewarded, tlie ex[M-nditure of the capitalist riehl> iei);ud. Kveivthin- '-mvc token of rapidly increasinp wpiilth and ahiindance. The triumph of that cause, m aid of which uar had been emhraeed. pave pea( <• to th- empire and to Rurope, The annual expenditur. wa-; diminishe.i by (.iie half, and the nation was no longer restrained. l)Ut in comparatively a very tritlinp decree, from partieipatinp in all those advantages. whulK in every instaiue. one country, accordin? to prevail- iiiL' notions, is sup(.ose,l to pain l)y fn^e intercourse with another. liut. tlmueh markets for the manufacture, and channels for t!;e commerce of ilie kinpdoni were largely multifilied. Its resources, instead of aupm.ntinp. seemed diminishing. The whole fabric of society seemed ready to sink uu'ler the press:ne ef s..iue new burden. — ruin bepan to thr.-iteii. often to overwhelm the man of capital. — want to look industry in the face. In vain were taxes to a larpe amount repealed, in vam were eiid.avors made to trace the •lepn ssion of the times to mere revolutions in the (hannels of trade, and to other tcmiiornry causes, and hopes held out that th-y would speedily pass away. The evil proved to be not partial and temporary, but pervadinp and per- manent. Far from confidence in the modern science beinp shaken by a result contrary to all its principles, it was resolved to seek a remedy for the acknowledged distress, by adopting larpelv the polii y which this science inculcates. It cannot be denied that the results of the experiment, as far as it has hitherto been carried, have been in the whole, unhappy. The events which have followed, not to say flowed from recent enactments, regulating the internal and external commeie.- oi the nation, have been at least unfortunate. Th-- operations of the banking system, and the extension of pen<-ral contiiieiice and security in alt transactions, which that system is calculated to alTord. seem clogped and restrained. The returns which industry and capital receive, have been still farther een eniiatjed in the preci'dinjj chapters seem to indicate several j;reut causes an deterniininj; the nature and production of stock. They may be divided into three classes. 1. Ref,'ardinj,' thinc;s material. ' [Is it an inadvertence that Kae here sneaks of his second " Hook " as .ieal- i;ig with " wealth, " whci; tr.L- furinai title made it deal with "' stock " :] ¥ RESIDUA 469 1. The nature of the material world, producing a aeries of events .succeeding,' each other in regular onier. 2. The nature (jf man, as a l)eing in part material, acted on, therefore, by matter, and whose existence and plea.sures are, consequently, dependent (jn evt.'Uts taking place among material objects, :i. Also the nature of man, as a being in part material, and whose corporeal powers — his latK)r, enable him to change the positions of the matters around him, II. Regarding things not material, 1. The intellectual faculties of man, reaching not to an absolute knowledge of the material world, but to a perception of the order in which events succeed each other in it, and to a discovery of the means of producing events necessary, or desirable to him, by applying his corporeal powers to change the positions of tlie materials within his reach. •2. The moral nature of man,— the motives by which he acts, determining the degree in whicli he will be excited to apply himself to the discovery of the oi-der in which events succeed each other, and to changing the positions of materials, and .so constructing instruments pnjducing events ministering to future necessities or pleasures. Concerning these two last causes, the general conclusions at which we arrived were; that the more the intellectual faculties are expanded, the greater the ^wwer to extend the knowledge of the succession of events, and to form materials into iastruments : and that the gi-eater t!if strength of the moral powers — the social and benevolent atlections — the greater the desire to discover the order of the succe.ssion (.f events, and to apply such discoveries to the formation of materials into instruments. And cm rejjion to region. This places man and matter in new positions, and discioses to him new connexions and relations, in the nature.s of the bodies within reach of his operations. 2. Servile imitation : the antaiy economy, by fidelity to rng;igv!n-'iit-, \-y a dimini-livd incHiiati-'i! t" luviivv nnd w;»Kte. RESIDUA 471 Its weakness, contracting' the compass of events on which there is an inclination to operate, .liminishes stock, by allow- ing materials to escape from it, and lie idle, which, formed into instruments, would yield abundant, though distant returns. Under it instruments can only exist at the more <,uicklv returning orders. It is accompanied, also, by extrava- gance,"by intidelity to engagements, by a propensity to luxury and waste. The consideration of the mode of operation of these two principles suggests the following remark. Upon these two principles, the third set of causes referred to operate somewhat ditterently. Change excites the principle of invention, but often directly restrains that of accumulation. Imitation restrains invention, but does not directly retard accumulation. The several causes referred to, rank among the chief agents in the production of the phenomena which the progress of society exhibits. We have considered them separately, but they never appear so, always acting in combination. This circumstance would not of itself affect any conclusions con- cerning them, for it applies to phenomena of all sorts, the causes influencing every one being compound. ( I ^, yamhf^r 5. From page 276. Section 1. Narcotics, in so far as their effects are not measured by the quantity consumed, may be classed with luxuries. „ . . » Skction 2. A question concerning the etiects resulting trom their cheapness considered. SECTION I. In the preceding part of this chapter we have considered the loss occasioned to the stock of societies, from part of the products that wo»ild other vvise be yielded by the industry of their members, applied to the formation of instruments, being dissipate.l through the operation of an affection of the mind. We are now to consider a similar loss, occa.sioued by a ■ >. U' i 472 APPENDIX peculiarity in the combined corporeal and mental constitution of man. There are various matters that physiologists have attempted to comprehend under the general term of narcotics, of which the priinarj' operation is directed to the nervuus .system. What their ultimate eftects may he on man, consiilered not in the individual, hut in the .species, this is not the tit place to discuss. Tliero are, however, some ;,'eneral laws that belonjT to them, which it concerns tlie present iiujuiry to notice. 1. A gradual increase in tlie quantity consumed does not produce a correspondent increase in the effects first e.xperi- enced. One commencing with twenty RESIDUA 473 to which the consumption of all this class of commodities is apt to lead. The laVjor bestowed on them is very often not only useless, but absolutely preju.licial to the society. li Their consumption is rej^ulatcd, in a great degree, by the influence of the imitative propensity. We may form a near y tin- testimony "f traw^llers, that over tlif (jreater part of the world, tliey are ratht-r disrelished. Captain Basil Hall, in liis vovaire to Loo Choo, savs he has found clierrv })randv tlie most <'enirallv esteenie'l iiouor amoni,' all nations. an^iu\ of taste, is unpleasant. Most people take some plan to sulKlue fir correct its harshness. Tlie mixtur'- of matters themselves plea.sant in flavor or taste, as in that .sort of cordial, one would suppor.e the most eti'ectual and affreeable means of doinj; so. The Chine.se have i;raj>es, hut make no use of them for the forma- tion of fermented liquors. (,)ur Eurojiean travellers tax them in consecpience with want of taste a-\d inj,'enuity. Tliey, in turn, are surprised at our folly in manufacturing,' what seems to them a more harsh, anil unpleasant, and jjenerally far UKjre expensi\e heverajjje than theirs. Wliich has most reason on his side, the European or the Chine.se, is difficult to deter- mine : for, when the passion of vanitj' joins with the imitative projiensity, the two liave a singular power in producinj^ obsti- nately opposinjj opinions, especially when they have an orf^an to work on .so pliant in the reception of impressions as the palate. The fashionalile drink of the Prussians of old was fermented mare's milk ; while the noVtIes drank this, the coiiniion people were content with mead. This, at least, can be s;iid in favor of the choice, that the latter liquor must have been easily got in the country of wild honey, and would there- fore be vulgar: the former could only be procured by the wealth}-, and would therefore indicate rank. M h ^i.«i ' Many thousami jiipes of spoiled cider are annually brought to London from tlie country, for the purpise of being converted into port wine. One, probably, of the least no.xious of the methods of proihicing the change, is to add to the cider beet root juice, alcohol, louwiod, and Hhiitaiiy root. The interior of the cask i.x then crusted with supert.iitrite of potash, colored with Brazil wood, that the merchant, after bottling off the wine, may inipofe on his customers by taking to pieces the cask, and exhibiting the beautiful dark coloured and fine crystalline crust, as an indubitable proof of the age of the » ine ; a practice by no means uncommon, to flatter the vanity of those who pride themselves in 1... ( .- . .r,. ^. . ,,,,, ..,, .^.nt;;---r;iv.'ij. RESIDUA 475 (^n the whol.-, as it must be alloNved that vanity has a very ..reat intiuence in deternnninK the preference which is given to one sort of alcoholic liquor over another, so it is very dith- cult to determine the point where its operation ceases. Ihis, prrhaps, can only be rovincesof France, thiTfwas .1 Lnii>tiuit struL'glc hciweiMi tlic siiiuggkrs ami tlie revenue otticers, tlu- one striving to r,i: r\- tliioii.-li tlii'ir oKjuL-ts liy stratiigem or force, the other endeiivoiiiiiii.' to lialile them : .<(> that tlie miiKi.stiacy ami the courts of justice hail constantly cases coming liefoie them whicli were geticially scttleil bv tine or impriflonnient, ami not iiifreiinciitly hy trausportatiun. It was propo.scil to put an eml to this state of thinj;s liy j.'1-eatiy reduciuii the iluty on legally niaiiufactureil wliiskey, ami liy autlioriziiig its manufacture in stills of a small size. Almost exei-yone thoui;ht that great gooil wouhl result from sucli a cliangc "f system, ami laui;lieil at the fears which Some few ciitertaiueil of its hail etlects on the general morals of tlie people. The authority of Ailani .Sinilli was liteil as iltcisive of the i|Uestion, ami the measure was carried tlirough ainiil a general acclaim of approbation. I own that I was among tlie i|o'i))ters. and that knowiui; the habits of my countrymen I feared that the immcilh-Jte ami obvious guoil resulting would be counterbalanced by more remote but greater evila. It was in \ain for me, however, to open my mouth against the general voice, and wlien I attempted it my impertinence in opposing my elders ami lietters wa-; only excused as one of the eccentricities or A otTAli^K. Voiiiii. ilOit haa liort ehowu Ibal I was lioL lur wrong. X^_ :1 ,.il' RE!?IDUA 477 where wine is somewhat dear, to Ik- quartered in the southern, where it is very cheap, the soldiers, 1 have fre-iuently heard it observed, are at tirst dehauched by the cheapness and novelty of ^'f)0(l wine : hut after a few months' residence, the crreater jiart of them become as sober as the rest of the inhabitants. Were the duties upon forei^rn wines, and the excises upon malt, beer, and ale, to l>e taken away all at once, it might, in the same manner, occasion in (ireat F'.ritaiii a pretty general and temporary drunkenness among the middling and inferior ranks of people, which would probably be soon followed by a permanent and almost universal sobriety. At present drunken- ness is by no means the vice of people of fashion, or of those who can easily aHWrd the most expensive liquors. A gentleman drunk with ale has scarce ever Ix-en seen amongst us." » The general question that may here l)e said to l)e proposed is, whether, or not, in any j.articular country, the cheapness or the deame.ssof intoxicating liquors will mo.st excite to their intemperate use ? The excessive cheapness of any of these liquors renders it incapable of affording any gratification to vanity, and an equal cheapness in them all would universally produce tlie same effect. That passion would, therefore, in such a case have to turn itself to other objects, and these litjuors ceasing to be luxuries, one main cause of their consumption would be done away with. To excite to their abuse, there would remain only the pleasure arising from their intoxicating qualities, joined to the facility with which it might be indulged. Whether, or not, the ease with whicli this propensity might >ie gratified would lead to long enduring excess, or the vulgarity of the enjoyment to speedy and general temperance, would probably depend on varitms circumstances.— ( tn the climnte, whether near the e(iuator, or at a distance from it.— l)n the sort of liquor, whether purely alcoliolic or mixed with much of foreign matter.— On the .strength of the effective desire of accumulation, for that de.sire, when strong, leads to a restricted consumption of things of which the immediate benefit is problematical, and the dangers to futurity, from excess in them, very great. If, then, the principle is naturally weak, or 1 WtaJth of Sations, B, IV. c. III. \.y 1 ■e5»: ■ rl>:- ■^ i_*? 1^. »r^? .1 i' \ .:! 478 APPENDIX at the moment its action 1>; clo;^r^ed Ity the st jovial assembled round an abundant table, where each excites the other to excess: a band of soldiers living and mixing with the inhabitants of a country where, eve-rthough cheap, these li.,uors are temperately con.sumed. may, on the contrary, be compared to an individual partaking of his solitary Injttie in the midst of those who despise the pleasure, and view him with contempt for indulging in it. It is, however, particularly to be remarked, that the author refers to fermented, not to purely alcoholic liquors, and the former are certainly much less apt to lead t.^ excess, than the latter. I apprehen.l. however, that his reasonings in the pre- ce.ling, and one or two other passages, have been generally received as applicalile to Ixjth. To return to the subject of narcotics in general, all excess ni their consumption, whether it be r.-gard-d as an application of labor to a useless purpose, or to one partially hurtful : whether it proceed from vanity or pernicious habits, may not im- properly l>e termed dissipation, as the articles so consumed may be termed luxuries. It is n^;c:^^.,.L'^-yl-■ 4S(i APPENDIX ';i h \ tlic consideration of tliis circumstance, it is wortli wliiie to fxaniiiif wlutlicr r)r nf)t. wlu-n applied to j)racticc, it lias l»rou<;ht aliout the anticipated results. Of the many instance.s that mi;;ht he pnxlncfd of esx-nts of this class turning out contrary to the predictions of the Notaries of the science, I select one from the (''Hirs iV EcmuiruK; l^nliliqtie (Vol. IV., p. tJ(iO) of Mr. Storch, a work which, according; to Mr. M'Cullocli, stands at tin,- head of all those on Political Economy ever imjiorted from the contini'Ut into En^dand. That author hrin<,'s forward Ireland .;^ an e.xaniple of ijreat prosperity, and very rapid ]>ro^ress in wealth, in conseijuence of that nation folhnviu'' *]\>- rul>'s of the svsteni. ' The sudd<-n anil proilii^ious incn-ase," he observes, "which took place in tile consumption of spirituous li([uors, suyar and tea, soon after the union, is the more remarkahie, from its havinj; n'ity of thr Irish?" Spoakinj; of the prohahility of a rise in the price of colonial proihictions, he ohserves farth.T, "that it may po ,hly diminish th.'ir consumptiou. hut tliat it is nuich more likely that the Irish, wlio have ac.|uired a taste for sucli enjoyments, will work still harder, and produce still more linen, liemp, and oats, tlidt they hi,(>/ }><>>;■ iihiitii of sui/or a(je 296. If the le>;islator, by an arbitrary and secret act, could im})ose a duty on the share of any commodity eonsinned by an inilividual, the rest of the connnunity <;oini; fn-e, that UKSIDIA 48:i iii.lividual would uiuloul)toilly U> ixac-tly s'- imuli a los.r. It would l)i; to hiui a matter ol' iiidiffnciico what tlu' .-oiiuiiodity in (ju.stion weiv. If th.' circtiiiistanecs ol" his condition ol)li;;cd Ids wifo to wear jewels, or him to have a supply of claret on liis tahle, an arbitrary impost of the sort on the ehuvt he con- sumed, Ol' the j.'wels his wife wore, would probably be to him eipiivalont, to a like exaction on coals or brea,'le individual of the duty levied on any article, would be just so much >,'ain to him. The fundamental error on this subject of Adam Snnth, and the present prevailinj,' school of {wlitical economists in Enj^- !and, lies, in th.ir assuming', that what is true coneerninjr an indiviihial, is true, alscj, concerning' a comnnniity, and mani- taining, conseipiently, tliat every impost is so much absolute loss to the society, and every diminution of it, so nmch j,'ani. Before this assumption can be made good, with regard to any particular impost, it is necessary that the three following (juestions concerning it should Ix; determined. 1st. Will the duty so levied, by directly or indirectly etleet- ing an improvement in the arts, increase the absolute capital of the society '. 2d. Will it prevent future v. aste, by the transfer of an art producing useful commodities, the .supply of whicli is liable to sudden interruptions i 3d. Does it fall partly or altogether on luxuries, and is its real eti'ect, consequently, not to diminish, by so much, the annual revenue of the society, but only to apply a part of it, which would otherwi.se have been dissipated by vanity, to supply funds for the neceasary expenditure of the legislator ! Unless these (juestions can be all answered in the negative, the a.ssumed parallel between the effects of an impost on an individual, and (M1 a community, does not hold, and the whole reivsouiug founded ou it falls to the ground. t? I: ;^ ^'1 llKADKirs (iUIDE. ()l;I(ilNAL VoLUMi;. I'llKSKST lUcriuxT. I'ri'futu, 'I'illilr i)f < iiiilrriL.--, liitniiliKliuii, - r.ooK I. lliiliillllilinll, ■ Clwip. 1., - Cliap. II., lioOK II. IiitroduL'tioii, - (;l.iiiM. I.-VII., Chap. VI 1 1., - Cliiip. IX., Chap. X., Chap. XL, I'an I., - ,. 1 'art II., Chap. XII. 1 I'aiagiaph,- Chap. Xll!., - ,, ,, 1 I'aiaLjraph. Chap. xFv., - ,, ,, 1 I'aiai^iapli, „ „ 3 Paia},'niphs, M 11 ■ * ' Chap. X v., - 11 M Apixiiulix, iii.-vii. =xlv.-l. vii.-viii.- ■lOO-tfiH viii.-x. -l.-lii. xi.-xvi. - v.-xiii. 1- -.-= 1- r, !)- 17- •24- :}-2- 7H- i(;4- !(>:-)- VXi- l!t>s- •2'.)-2 ;5(K)- sori :ji3 3iri :!iv :jiH ■.i2-2 ■^■r^ 323 32.^^ 34!) 350 352 H IT I!) 21 31 377-37!» 37il-3S,s i:iu-i31 . l.')l-l.'>7 = :jss-:v.)(; r7 = 3!Kj-444 79 = 163 = ls4 = 11J3 = 1!»7 207 223 = 2(;4 = 2!J2 = ■I'M : 305: 312 = 315: 317 = 31 M 31!) 323 -327 34!i 350 351 357 5- (i : 7-101 102-125 :2!»7-30« 12.5-130 :21H-22S = 132-14!) =158-203 =245-270 = 471-471) = 4tiH = 204-210 = 277-285 = 213-210 = 210-212 = 282 -21(5-217 = 4t>8-471 = 202 = 3.">7-3.58 = 22!)- 233 = 32U-352 = 47!)- 181 = 352-353 = 237-242 Author's I'refai*'. A]i|)., lii'.siilua, Nil. 1. Aiilhors I'rt'faLi'. 'I'alili' '■! Ciiiitfiits. liitioductiiii]. App., Kesiilua, No. 2. .\pp.. Art. Vill., Part I. Ch'ai>. VIII., Sullix. Chap. X., Prtfix. App., Art. VIII., Part. I. Part II. Iiitrodiution, Suffix. Cliaps. I. -VII. (.haj). VIII. App., Art. IV., Part I. Chap. VIII. Ciia|) MIL, Istllaff .Chap. LV. Chap. X. .Apji., Art. I. App., Hf.sidu , N(i. 5. .\pi)., Residua, No. 3. Cliap. XL, 1st Part. App., Art. II. Cliap. XI I., 1st Part. Chap. XL, 2nd Part. App., Art. II., Iiiter|H>l. Cliap. XII., 2iiil Part. App., Rusiiiua, No. 4. ( hap. .K., Interpolation. .\pp.. Art. VI., Ending. Chap. X III., 2nd Ha.f. Ajip., Art. V. App., Residua, No. 6. App., Art. V, Chap. XIV. READER'S GFIDE 485 Original Volume. PkESENT UErRINT. Book 111. IiitroductiMi, - - 1 1'ara^'r.ipli, Chap. I., - C'tiap. II., Cliap. Ill-, 1), ■1), >*), IH), 87), 153), 103), i;4'l), 276), 285), 345), A(n ference page B( M -> CM M v i)( M '1 E( 11 " F( n " , Art. I., fdotrinlu. App., Authors Nott-s, J. App., An. v., footnote. ULAhGOW. PKINTRD AT THK , SIVKRMTY .BIW.S »Y H....lii.T «A. . KUusK AN.- M,, ,.11.. 1 »•: I