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I'il ■'■' . ir:;if!'ii :'■■;' ;i' M :,»;!,;,■, M[}[ ■ ■ \- '.' •W.lB,". * K'!- "1 "i II !■, .ItnilJ. i„ii '^mmm-^^' llliL,.i.:',i',. ,%i.:'i V '■*''■'•'■■■ •' '■"' '"'ilMi'-ii; Pe«?5 vM-. 1, Jl 'li"'Iilll, '''^ ' ' I ' *'rl:;:i wte'i*„,:i: ^"■^-i m Wiiiiniii!i,tfittii;i A rKACTICAL TREATISE ON COAL, PETKOLEUM, AND OTHER DISTILLED OILS. Bv ABRAHAM GESNER. M.D., F.G.S., CONSUIiTIVO CHEMIST. iiTiion i;«tkiai, resoi KrKS," " history ok hew beunswick," '•UBOI.OUICAL KEPOBTS," AC, AC. :i3 •A -J NEW YORK: BAlLLlJ:ilE BllOTIIEKS, 440 BROADWAY London : H. Bailliere, 219 Regent Street. Melbourne : Y- Bailliere' 1801. Paris: J. B. Bailliere et Fils, Bae Hautefeuille. i Madrid : C. Bailly-Bailliere, Calle del Principe. t . • • • • • « • • • • ■ • • • Entered aocordliii.' to Act of Congress in th« yew 1880, by B.\ ILLIFin: BROTH F.RP, In tb» Clerk's Office of the District Court of tlio I'ulted States, for the Southern DUtrlot of Now Vork. B. OBAtanCAD, Printer, Stereotypcr, and Electrotyper, Caiton Suiltifng, 81, 83, and K CttUn 3lrMI. • •••••• C(3NTENTS. ern Dtstrtot ?# M CHAPTER I. Early rocorda nnd progress of the distillation of oils from coala and other bituminous substances. — Introduction of kerosene, patents, petroletim, varieties of coals ; their origin and composition. — Effects produced upon coala hy heat.— Varietj' of oils distilled from coala, bitumen, etc. — Pro- duota of common bituminous coals, etc., 7 CHAPTER II, Materials employed for the production of oils. — Boghead coal,— Albert coal. - South IJogliead coal.— Brown coai.— Bitumen of Trinidad, Cuba, United States, Canada, etc.— Extent of coal fields. — Petroleum springs. Origin of petroleum. — Table of bituminous substances, etc., ... 20 CHAPTER III. JNaturo of tho Products distilled from Bituminous Sub.stances. — Modes of obtaining Oils. — Retorts.— B-shaped Retorts. — Revolving Retorts. Ver- tical Retorts.— Clay Retorts —Brick Ovens.— Coke Ovens.— Stills. Con- tlcnsers. — Agitators, etc., j 30 CHAPTER IV. Prodnets of tho distillation of wood, coal.H, asphaltum, bitumen, petroleum, nnd other substances capable of yielding oUs 57 ^*f^ ^> VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. ('omposition of distillotl oils. — lloinoldfjous coinixiuiidn. — Tablo of the snme.— (Vmiponnds of Carbon niid Hyilro^'oii. — (Jnseoua eonipounds. — Hoiiuilo|;iiO!< olitniiird from cohI tiir, wal, bitHuu'ii, cnoulclumc, etc., 78 CHAPTER VI. Purifioiitioii of Oiln. — Oxidutioii of iIil> iiiiiiuritics in crud<», hydro-carbon oils. — Artioii of ni'id.x, alkalies, and other agents. Suli)liuric acid, nitric acid, permanganate of pota.sii. — Kxtracts from Patents, etc., . . 89 "I - ClIAl'TKU VI [. liuildiiijrs anil Maeliinery. — Method of nianufaeturinfr and purifying the oils di.siilk'd tVoni eoal.v wliicli they are maiuifaetured ;nid purified. The rapid advanees ma;lc during the last ten A^ears in developing minend oils, and their growing importance to the world for illuminating, and various other purj)oses, give litem a value not rivalled by tlic whale fisheries of tlie Atlantic and Pacific Octvins. The ancient inhabitants of different ]iarts of the world, civili/cd and barbarous, were acqujiinted with those natural oils which flow from the earth, namely, mineral oil, or 2 8 KAIU.Y UKCOUDS*. li lU impliilia, Ititiiinon, vU\ Tho Persians, niirmrso, ntid other nutu)iis Htill eontiimo to employ those substmiee.s in their crude state to j^ive H^ht, and Ibr intthcinal purposos. A.s early as U\\)i Eeele, Ilaneock, and l*oitloek- nnuki ^^ iu'lrh, tar, (Dill iti/li' out of' a hind nf ,s/n//r," and ohtaiin'tl patents therefor. In 17(51 oils were distilled rrt)ni hlaek hitunii* lions shale, and were eniployetl in the cure of eertain dia- eases, as stated in Lewis's Materia Mediiw lor that year. More than a eentnrv ano nils were obtained by the dis- tillation of coals, but the [)urilieation of those oils, and their apiilication to the emunu)!! retiuiretnents of life, have been slow in tlieir projjrri'ss, and are not even now brouj^ht to perfection. The papers of the H(\yal Society of London, the Phikisopiiieal Tran.«^actioiis, and other Kuropean publi- eations, jiive aceounts of the distillation of oils I'roin coals and other bitnniinniis subhtanc.es. In 1781 the Karl of Dundonahl obtained oils from C(jals by submittini,' them to dry distillation in coke ovens, like those employed by some manufacturers of the present day Ibr the same i)nrj)ose. Laurent, lleiehenbach, ami others distilled the tars obtained from bituminous schists. These tars were purified in some degree by Selligue, and tiie oils subseciuently obtained an extensive sale in Kurope for burning in laini>s, and for lubrieatii'g maehinery. Many other chemists have from lime to time contributed improvements in the purification of hydrocarbon oils. The discovery of coal gas brought a new class of oils to the notice of the chemist, but the purifieution of those oils, and their application to useful purposes, have been but slowly advanced. The first successful attempt to manufacture oils from coals in America was made by the author of this work. Oil from coal was made and consumed in lamps by him in •i?)' M I'ATKNTfl. m 'I .4i his public locturca nt Prince Kilward's Islanil, in Anj^Mist, 1810, anil sul»H('4uontly iit Ilalifux, Nova SoDtia, acooimtH of wliic'h aro still I'xtiuit. The patont« aO'Twanls olitainoil for iuH improveiucnts wore sold to the North American Konwriif (la.s Li^lit (-onipany, and tlu' oils arc now iiianu- I'actiired and 8(4(1 under tlii; denomination of "Kerosene Oil."* Several patents, obtained by other persons at later dates, are but niodilieationa of the modes of inanufaeture previously laid down, and contain but little that is new in prineiple. Patents were granted in En^dand, in 1847, to Charles ^fanslield, for "an improvement in the manufaeture and purification of siiirituous substances and i>ils fi.pj)neablo to the i)urp(>ses of artitieial liglit," etc. .Nfr. Alansfu-ld's ope- rations appear to have lu'en ehietly directed to the coal tar of gas works, from whieli he obtained benzole. ]Ie was |)erhaps tlie first to introduce the ben/.olc or atinos[>heric liglit, wliich is described at length in his specifications. James Young, of ^[anchester, secured a patent in Phigland (Oct. 7, 1850), and subsequently in the United States (.Nfurch 28, 185*2;, for " the obtaining of j)aratrine oil, or an oil containing ])ara(rinc, and paralUne ticni bituminous coals." These patents have been the subject of much dis- cussion, and law proceedings have been instituted by Mr. young against several oil comj)anies for infringements of his alleged rights. Tha numuliicturo has nevi'rtheless advanced rai)idly, and has been extended to the chief cities of the Atlantic seaboard, and over the coal regions of the West. The claims of those patents extend to the distilla- tion of coal in close vessels, and to the degree of heat emplov(Hl for that p\irpose. The oils j)roduced by Mr. Young's method are inferior in color, odor, and illumi- * From «^)n(>^, wax, and £,\iiioi, oil. if .i ■•1'. M i NUMUER OF PATENTS. 11 ^ r^ natinp' properties to those now manufactured by other che- mists, aiitl as his Ciainis arc under tlie consideration of the legal authorities, with them the decision should be left, witliout the interference of public writers. 'J'hc progress of discovery in this case,, as in others, has Ix'Cu slow and gradual. It has been carried on by the labors, not of one mind, but of many, so as to render it dillioult to discover to whom the greatest credit is due. It is, nntwithstanding, just to admit, that from the facts dis- eloseil in the beforementioned patents, a spirit of inrpiiry was aronsecl, and experiments were multiplied. Almost all the patents that have recently been granted embrace the leadiuu' features of former discoveries, and some of them are characterized by a total lack of invention, and a desire to evade the claims of others. Tlic total number of j)atents granted, with inventions and improvements claimed for the manufacture and puri- lieation of oils from coals and other bituminous substances, siiH'o 1781, arc more than one hundred in number, and ui>\,\ir!' n\aiiutaeture uniierratcd, by stockholders of coal oil com- pa!iies. ' l>uring the past year numerous springs of petroleum have 1n>en opened in some of the Westei'n States, and oils ■•'■ Si'r l!i'|i')r(s of Piitent InvoiitutiiH, Kurnpeau auJ Aiiioricaii, also Tiie -lid; )■/■.•(',-( Juurdil of Sjhdce au'l -Ir/s, vol. x.xx. IsGO. Itl 12 VARIETIES OF COAL. ;i arc produoeil from them ^vlnch are not inferior to those obtainod from the most approved varieties of coal. A description of those oils, and the best practical methods for their purification, Avill be given in another part of this work, and if the above springs maintain their present sup- ply, they will materially afl\}ct the distillation of oils from coals, bitumens, and other kindred materials. Coal is evitlently of vegetable origin, and consists chiefly of ]>lanis which have been subjected to great pressure, heat, and chemical agencies through vast periods of time. Its value to conunerce, manufactures, machinery for warlike purposes, and for oils, is beyond computation. The varieties of coal have heretolbre been classed under the heails of Anthracite, or Hard Coal, Caking Coal, Cherry Coal, Sjilint Coal, and Canuel Coal. Those live varieties have the following composition : — ■M 3 RlCIIARnSON. Thompson. \ Aiithwolto. 1 ( aklii).' ('oiil. Cliorrv Coal.' Splint Coal. runnel Coal. . Carbon ;)25G 87-0r)2 83-025 82-924 70-25 1 Ilydroju'ii 333 0'239 5-250 5-491 i 5-50 Nitro^roii 4k il 1 11 1-01 Oxyjrni 2-:)3 3-80(5 8-r)0G 8-847 13-83 Ashos 1-.J8 1393 1-549 1-128 2-81 VMPOSITION OF COALS. 18 Other varieties of combustibles have been arranged by Bertliier in tlie following manner : — Composition i IVat or ] Lignite, or | BltnminouB : Anthriiclte. I'lumbnKO, or in lUO parts. TiU'f. : Brown I'oui. ; (.'oal. IVnns.vlvuula. (iriiphito. Carbon Hydrogen j Oxygen Ashes Volatile ) Matter f Iron TiU'f. , i Urown I oul. ; (oal. t'ennsyivaiila. 38 54 73 04 II 05 05 2-55 art of tlu'ir carlion, hydrogen, andoxygvn, as there \a less of those (."Ifnienls in the <'oal than in wood. This will bo observed by viewing llie following table: — ■ iiii W'oixl (n'Ci'iit) „ , Carbi'ii. Anilivacitcs nt tl>i' Hydrogen. Ox.vffi'n itiiil Nltroiji'ii Tninsition It'ocks . '.)& •J -40 3-()t) ])itiiiiiiinuis (."(i;il ol'llie SirijiKl'iri/ /ii>rks . 8()' 4-80 711 ]iij;'niti's ofilie Ttrtidri/ Jiiiiks . . . (iO;{li r.oo 2ryC)'2 . 4UliU ;Vyo 4'J-5(i It will also be observed thai tlie older the formation the !.!:reater the amount of carbon contained in its coal, the amount of hydrogen being diminished. This fact may be ascribed chieiiy, or in part, to the greater degree of heat and pressure to which the lower and older coal strata have been, and still are subjected. The gases of deep coal mines are very similar to those of gas manufactories, and such as are produced by a liigli teni})er:itun\ The decjier the mine the greater is the d\s- charufe of carburetted hvdrogen. It is to the internal heat of the earth, and other chemii'al agencies condjined with causes of less force, that we must (.:hielly ascribe tlie trans- mutation of wood into coal. The similarity of the distilled products of wood ami coals, and of charcoal and coke, should not be overlooked in seeking for proots of the vegetable origin of coal. In mines of lignite and cannel coal car- bonic acid or c/tol-e datup is almost the only gas present. In lower coal mines, or those that liavc been longer under m KFFKCTS OF HEAT. 15 eroper arrangenient of the subject, various materials capable of yielding oils by distillation will !>(! consid(;rcd in regular order. Tiie chief of those niattiials, so far as present discoveries extend, arc coal.=, bituminous shales, asphaltum, bitumen, bituminous sands and clavs, ])etroleum, lignite, ])eat, caoutchouc, guttti pcrchu, and the' tars produced iu the manufacture of .steariue. When (U'ganic bodies are exposed to heat, with the free iicliuissiou of air, they undergo combustion. The greater part of the carbon is expelled in smoke, or in carbonic acid, the liydrogen in water, or carburetted hydrogen, and the nitrog(.'n, if any be present, escajies iu some eompouiul of anuu'tnia; but if those substances have heat applied to them in close vessels, there are new results, and a greater interchange of elements takes place. Iu 17o0 Hales distilled substances to disc(./ver if they contained air. \\\ 1773 the same gentleman and T)r. Wtit- son obtained gas from coals, and iu 17S() Lord Dundonald !iurii<'d the gas that arose from his coke ovens at the ends of iron }>i}>es for the amusement of his friends. In 1702 Ml'. Miii'doch connnenced lighting buildings with t'oal gas, and since that period gas lighting has been extended to every (piarter of the globe. Besides the gas employed for illuminalion, it M'as thus early observed, that other gases and oils were produced bv the distillation of coals. The 16 EFFKCTS OF IIKAT. discovery of coal oils is tlicrcforc asokl, if not oMor, lliaii the discovery of coal gas, and cannot now be justly cluinied by any living man. "Wiicn siibstanccH composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are submitted to dry distillation, the first eilect is to remove oxygen from the body in the form of cav\)onie acid, or water. After the oxygen has been removed car- bon and liydrogen esca})e, as carburetted hydrogen, ov oleliant gas. If some of the acids arc distilled they lose oxygen in the ibrm of carbonic aeid and water, and are converted into new acids. Organic acids distilled with strong bases part with the elernentii of carbonic aeid, which uniting with the base and the acid, minus the carbonic acid, comes over in the form of a new j^roduct. If a quantity of coals V)e ])laeed in a suitable retk(>, united to the ash, which usually eonsists of silica, alumina, lime, and the oxides of man- ganese and iron. IMic results here described are greatly modified by the kind of coals used, the degree of heat applied, and the mode by whicli the oleaginous vapors arc condensed. The shajie of the retort, the weight, or thickness of the charge, and the position and size of the discharge-] jijtc, also have an inlluence over the yield of oil, and the time required for its jiroduetion. In general, coals which yield the greatest amount of vola- tile matters, exclusive of hygroscoj)ic moisture, afford the most oils, and estimates are often formed of their value l)y a simple test of the weight of matter expelled by the aj)pli- cation of a moderate degree of heat. This test, however, is ollen delusive, as j?ome coals expel much more free car- lion during their distillation than others, and the sulphur contained in coal adds nothing to the 'oil, while it consti- tutes a jiart of its volatile products. Nor does such a test allbrd much information regarding the quality of the oils a given quantity of coal will supply. A long smoky flame is indicative of much free carbon, a shorter and more lumi- 18 DEORKKS OF HEAT. hi i iii liii '■ •i H i >^ nous niuiu- (.loiiotcs that thoiv ^vill be inucli iixcil carbon in the i:okf. Somo varietios of coals are peculiarly adapted to the manutaeturo of ^as, ns their ehief products by heat are carburetted and biearburetted hydrogen ; such coals do not always contribute the most oils. It is of the utmost consequence to the manufacturer of coal oils to know the quality as well as the quan- tity of the oils any one material will alVord. For this the only reliable test is to submit the material to dry distillation, and the whole ])roeess by which coal oils are pari lied. It will be seen hereafter that coals, coal .shale?, asphal- tums, petroleums, and other bituminous substances, yield not one, tw(^, or three oils; but .«ieries of homologous compounds. Some members of these series are of high specilic gravity, some of low, or, as the oils are called, heavy and light ; the light being eupion, or benzole, the heavy the oil pressed Irom parafline, and, linally, the solid, as paraifiue, naphthaline, etc. These several .series of hydrocarbons are greatly influ- enced by the heat em{)loyed in their distillations, the con- densers, and, tlinilly, their mode of treatment. Again, there are not two kinils of coal that will give the same products, even by the same modes of manufacture. Some yield much light, others much heavy oil ; some send over much paraf- fine, aiul what are called by manufacturers impurities, namely, na])hthaliiie, carbolic acid, ec^pnomor, etc., ever attending the distillates. It is I'rom ignorance of these lacts, and of the chemistry of the above jn'oductions, that so much smoky and olVensivo oil is seen in the market. Few common bituminous coais can be successfully employed in the oil nuinuiiictory ; their distillates abound in creosote, or carbolic acid, and their purification is cxpen- M m M ASIMIALTITMS, fOALS, ETC. 19 fiWo. Asiilialtuins, bituinons, bituminous shales and clays, and canuol coals, are tlio most productive of oils. A tabic sotting forth the resf)cctive merits of a number of those sub- stances will be appended to the next chapter. A few of them deserve particular notice. iW: t^ 20 llOdilEAD COAL. CHAPTER II. Matorinls cmployci'l for ilic iinnhictiipn nf (nlfi. — BnjjIiomI coal.— Albert coni, — South Bojrlicnd wml. — liriiwn conl. — Hiliiint'ii of Trinidad, Cuba, T^nitccJ Studs, Canada, ttr. — Kxtciit dt' ronl IIcIiI.m. — rdrolcuiu hpriii^j. — Origiii of pc'troluiiiii. — Talilf of ViimiuiinjU!! siibslniict,'?, ftv. nOGIIEAl) COAL, OR BlTUMINOrS CLAY. This j»eculiar iiiineral oecnrs at Tf»rl)aii(' Hill, in tlie car- boniferous liincistonc of the Frith (^f Forth, Scotlaiul. It is the malcrial from which Mr. Young obtains paraffino oil and paraffino, and Lis manufactory is in the immediate vicinity of the mines. It has been extcnsirely shipped to the United States, and einploved in the mannfactarc of kerosene at New York and Boston. I)u/in«( t^le year 1859 the Nortli American Kerosene (las I.iglit Company im- ported upwards ol'20,0(>0 tons of this material (or the sup- ply of their works at Newtown Creek, Long Island, and at an average cost of eighteen dollars per ton. In (ronsequencc of the discovery of numerous strata of cnnnel eonis in the Western States of this coiintry, and of cheaper substances for the production of oils, the importation of the Torbanc Hill mineral will doubtless be diseontiuued. Although this mineral jxwsesses few of the characteris- tics of a true coal, the term coal has been applied to it for commercial convenience. It has been the soarce of lon«i- continued and expensive lawstiits. The point in dispute alleeted the ownership, whether it was coal, or not coal, Numliers of the most scientilie men in Eurojx; were arraigned before courts and juries to decide whether the so-called Boghead coal is coal, or bituminous clay. There ALIJEUT C0A1« 21 was :i (loeidftl j>rcpon'lera]ico njiainst the lonn "(VKf^,"' and in fnyor of " biiiiiniiious clay/' Kinally the contending i):irtieH comproinisod, an\l tlio term eoal was periiiitttMl to be applied, although the hitum*'U of the (ireat Pitch Lake of ^rrinidad has an equal riglit to that appi'llation.* Boghead eoal is among the most valualtle nniieralH ibr the manui'aetiiro of oils. It has an unev«,'n I'racture, is ol'au earthy coloi-, and burns \vith a long smoky llame. It yields 13,<.)00 cubic fec^t of gas, of speciHc gravity OwTo, per ton. As it (contains only traces of nitrogen, the quantity of ammonia given olV is small. The Ibllowing is the medium result of four trials in testing its qualities: — Voliitilo mattur .... 70-10 Carbon in foko .... lO'lJO Asli l'J(iU KXI-OO The ton of coal run in common retorts gives 120 gallons of crude oil, of which Gu gallons may be made into lamp oil, 7 g-idlona of parafTine oil, and 12 lbs. of pure paralline. The coke is worthless, and the ash consists chiefly of silica and alumina. At a price of 11 dollars per t(m for the coals, the coast of the oil is estimated at 63 cents per gallon. f AliHKUT COAL. This bituminous mineral occurs at IlillsbonV, Albert County, in the province of New Brunswick, and within four miles of the Peticodiac lliver. It is an injected vein, situated almost vertically in the earth, and from one to six- teen ieet in thickness. It is associated with rocks highly charged with bitumen, and has neither roof, flot^r, uuder- • Li'iuhn JoHrmd vf Oils Liijlilimj, iii. Ti-il. Yoiiii^r r.v WIiIIl', iuul dtlieis. f Report of tlie Coiiiiiiitti'u Xorth Aiiioricaii Keroswio ( l;w IJdit (Joinpany, New Yojk. ISUO. 22 AMIKUT COM.. f'lny, Mor sfnitiirn of tili';n»nn'ii, nor otluT ricconiiuuiir.icnts wliicli ilistiii^'uisli iioal (l«'|i(tsits I'ldiii nil oflicrs.* 'lilt.' AlliiTt I'oiil, so nillffl, is cxlri'inrlv l)rilli:iiil, liniiks vitli ;i cniK'lioidal rnictnrc, (l(.>nstitiite true coal. Like the mineral ol' 'I'ofliane Hill, it lias been the suhji'Ct ol' disputes and lawsuits, the total cost ol' which has exceeded thirty tliou.saiid dollars. If the su\)slance ^Yere coal, tlicooal was the ]>roperty of one party; if asjihal- tiini, the asphaltniii bt-h»n^'c(l to aimthcr. ('oal had Inen reservi'd by the Crown of ("1 rent Mriiain ; but asjihaltuiu Avas not inenti«)ncd in tho grants of the land. In April, lyii'i, an intelliL^ent jury, who analysed thi> mineral at Hali- fax, decidid that it was iisphaltiim, and not coal. Another trial was held in the ooniity when' the so-called AllM>rt coal is mined in Jnlv of the .same \\'nr. It lasted eleven davs. Chemists were .M KIOUOO l(Hi-ll(i(» C. M. WKTMKItfll.r,. (Iks NIK. * >-^'f Tiiylur (III C'uiil, '2(1 ((iiiion, p old HUKCKKNUIDQK r-OAL, 28 The iivcrngo y\vh\ of criulo oil 1'V i'our tri*is iu largo retorts was 110 gullons per ton, aiul Volfttilo itmttcrN Coko . Ilygroacopio moisturo Ash r.iofio 306.'0 0-8fl0 7-4K) loo-ooo Of tlio crvKle oil 70 jior cent, may bo nuulo into lanip oil, 10 jH'v cent, is heavy oil and paraOine. The coko is exceed- ingly Itriliiant and cellular; it burns rapidly, and gives a strong heat. BRECKENRIDOE COAL. The Alleghany, or Apalachian coal field of tho United States has been estimated to embrace 63,000 sipiare miles. Tnterstratified with the common bituminous coals, in this vast region there are very numerous strata of cannel coals, adapttnl to the manufacture of oils. In the numerous sur- veys and valuable reports made on tho coal districts, t^annel coals are seldom described as a distinct variety. A j)eculiarity of the great Western coal field is, that tho coal docs not appear to be separated into basins, or lake- like depressions in the earth, as it is in Europe, and in the anthracite coal districts. Tho bituminous coal is found in the tops of hills, and even in the Alleghany JNIountains, in beds nearly horizontal, and it displays the same peculiarity as iL stretches away towards the Gulf of Mexico, the Canadian Lakes, and the Rocky Mountains. Among; tho cuuuels that have been discovered Breeken- ridge coal holds an important place. This coal occurs in Breckenridge County, K-iiluiiky. It is a rich variety of n 24 CANDLE TAR. cannel, three feet in thickness, and has already suppUed a large anaount of oil and paraflfine. The lamp oil, when pro- perly pnrified, is of good quality ; although the oil heretofore sent from the manufactory near the mine to the New York market has been generally inferior in color and odor. At a red heat this coal yields — Volatile mattera Fixed carbon . Aah Hygroscopic mixture Sulphur, a trace 61300 30000 8-055 •645 100 000 By the ordinary' methods of working, this coal yields 130 gallons of crude oil per ton, of which 58 per cent, was manufactured into lamp oil, and 12 gallons into paraffine oil and paraffine. The quality of the coal is variable, and the products are very nmch influenced by the degree of heat applied to the retorts in the distillation. li CANDLE TAR. The tar and pitch resulting from the manufacture of stearine have been employed for the production of oils. Large supplies have been imported from England into the United States, and sold under the names of " grease " and candle tar. The ordinary yield of crude oil from this mate- rial is 200 gallons per ton, of which 70 per cent, may be made into lamp oil, and 10 per cent, into lubricating oil. The oils are excellent in quality ; but heretofore the first distillation of the tar has been attended with inconvenience, as it " foams up" in the retorts, and the coke adheres very firmly to their sides. The price has varied from 25 to 40 dollars per ton. BROWN COAL. 25 id SOUTH BOGHEAD COAL. Near Poole (England) there occurs a peculiar kind of shale, which has been sold as " South Boghead Coal." It abounds in the remains of fishes and Crustacea. It gives out 42 per cent, of volatile matter, and therefore has offered an object of trial to oil-makers ; but the oils made from this rock contain a greater number of the equivalents of carbon than those derived from coals, or bitumens, and with the ordinary density they smoke in the common lamp. It seems quite evident that the elements of the oil — carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, now composing the shale, in part, have been derived from fishes and other marine animals, and not from the vegetable kingdom, as in the case of coal. BROWN COAL. Singular beds of brown coal have been discovered on the Ouachita River, Arkansas, and at other places in that quarter. They contain the remains of sphagneous plants and woody fibre. It appears that peat bogs have been overflown, or otherwise saturated with petroleum, and hardened by time and oxidation. The oils distilled from this material abound in paraffine. It has the following composition in 100 parts : — Volatile matters condensed into oils, and gas uncondensed 60'10 Fi.Ted carbon 32 85 Ash 705 lOO'OO Crude oil at the rate of 68 gallons per ton was obtaii^ed from it. It is semi -solid when the thermometer is at 80°. Fah., and, besides lamp and lubricating oils, it produces 143 lbs. of parafiine per ton. 26 BITUMEN. lUTlMKN OF TUINIDAD, CUBA, ETC. The eolebratod Pitch Lake of the Island of Trinidad* is upwiirds of three miles in circuniforcnco, and forms the head of La Brae harhor. At the time of the author's visit to the place, the bitumen, of the consistence of thin mortar, was flowing out I'roni the side of a hill, and making its way outwaixis over more compact layers towards the sea. As the somi-solid and sulphureous mineral advances, and is exposed to the atmosphere, it becomes more solid; but over continues to advance and cricroach upon the water of the harbor. The surface of the bitumen is occupied by small ponds of water — clear and transparent, in which there are several kinds of beautiful fishes. The sea, near the shore, sends up considerable quantities of naphtha from submarine springs, and the water is often covered with oil, which reflects the colors of the rainbow. In the cliffs, along the shores, theiv ar« strata of lignite, in which it has been sup- posed by some the bitun\en and naphtha had their origin. It was from this bitumen the author first obtained kero- sene, which difioi"s in some degree from " coal oil." The bitumen is of a grey color, somewhat brittle, but still yield- ing, more or less, to the summer heat of the sun. A cargo of broken massi>s will consolidate itself in a ship's hold in such u manner as to require mining before it can be dis- charged. Its shipment has been refused under the belief that it strains the vossjoI. The following is the result of several trials made with reference to its application for the manufacture of oils : — Spocit'k" jjraviiv Cnulo oil l»y lirst ilislill!\tioi» . Oils by -soroiiil (iistilliitiou per cent. PnrivtVuip jHM- cent. . 0-882 71 gallons 62 " U * fSoo the froutispieco. BITUMEN. 27 i:i« jf Of oil proper for lamps it gave 42 gallons per ton, and for lubrication 11 gallons. A bitumen yielding more than the above quantities of oils may be obtained in small quanti- ties on the borders of the Great Lake. The odor of the oils obtained from Trinidad bitumen has heretofore been very offensive. It may, however, be removed by proper treatment. There are several extensive mines of bitumen (chapapote) in the Island of Cuba, and springs of petroleum have been known to the Spaniards since the early settlement of Havana. The average product of crude oil obtained from this bitumen is 120 gallons per ton. It has recently been shipped to England for manufacturing purposes ; but with all the skill that has been applied to them the oils retain their objectionable odor. Central and South America abound in asphaltum, bitu- men, petroleum, and bituminous clay, which have begun to draw the attention of enterprising Americans. The latter is an excellent article, and its oils are free from many of the impurities so often contained in coal oils. V^aluable deposits of bitumen have been discovered in California and Nicaragua. The as^ihaltos of Coxitambo, Peru, have long been known. Bitumen and petroleum also exist in Canada, in the county of Rambton, one hun- dred miles east of Detroit. The naphtlui of Rangoon has been shipped from Burmah to England, and, after purifica- tion, to the New York market for sale. It yields three per cent, of paraffine, and much heavy oil. A vpin has recently been discovered near Cairo, thirty miles east of Parkers- burg, Virginia. It is represented as a perpendicular mass, jutting out from the side of a liill two hundred and ninety feet. The strata of the hill are nearly horizontal, and they are cut at right angles by the continuous vein of the bitu- i>"] • 1 :m ii * ii 5 I I 28 PETROLEUM. minous mineral, wliicli is four feet eight inches in thickness. TIio position of the vein has been ascertained by the pro- prietors, who have sunk a shaft upon the hne of the out- crop. A sensible description represents that it appears the hill has been split, a perpendicular chasm opened, and after- wards filled with asphaltum in a liquid state, and which has since hardened into a coinpact material. Coal never occurs in this manner ; but is always interstratified with its associate sandstones, shales, and fire clays. In all its geolo- gical relations and character, the Cairo deposit is like the asjihaltum of Albert County, New Brunswick. The bitu- men veins of Cuba have similar positions in the earth. The Cairo asphalt will no doubt be found valuable for the manufacture of oils. But it is the oil resources of the United States that more particular descriptions are called for. The geology of bitumen and petroleum opens a wider ranire for investigation than this work ia intended to take. PETBOLEUM SPRINGS AND BITUMEN OF THE UNITED STATES. Among the number of natural productions adapted to the manufacture of oils within the limits of the United States, none appear at present to be of greater value than the petroleum of the coal region. The "Seneca or Gene- see oil '' has long been known, collected, and employed for medicinal purposes. It occurs in the State of New York, at Cuba, Cayuga Lake, in Cataraugus County, Syra- cuse, and other places. At Fredonia, Chautauque County, natural jets of carburotted hydrogen issue from the earth. The gas is collected in gasometers, and employed for light- ing houses. Similar streams of gas have been found at ALLEGHANY COAL FIELD. 29 other localities.* These gas jets are evidently connected with the naphthalous springs, and arc the result of decom- posing agencies going forward in the earth. It has been already stated that the Alleghany bitvxminous coal field occupies an area of 63,000 square miles.f The number of those square miles in each of eight different States has been set down in the following manner ::{: ra- it- at i No. Statkb. Area of the States. Aren of Hltuiiilnous Coal Strutu therein. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Alabama .... Georgia .... Tennessee . . . Kentuck}' . . . Virginia .... « Maryland .... Ohio ..... Pennsylvania . . Sqimre Miles. 51,770 58,000 45,000 40,500 64,000 13,950 44,400 47,000 4,300 150 4,300 9,000 21,000 550 11,900 15,000 Total 364,620 66,200 At numerous places, and throughout almost the whole extent of this coal region, reservoirs of petroleum, deep in the earth, and springs of the oil have been found to exist, and frequently associated with salt water, and doubtless salt itself. * Vanuxitu's first Annual Geological Report of the State of New York. 1837, p. 1U5. f Transactions Asso. American Geologists and Naturalists, vol. i., p. 436. t Taylor, Statistics of Cool, 2d ed., p. 271. 4M m I t ih 80 PETROLEUM SPRINGS AND WELLS. The original manufacture of kerosene, for wliieli the public is niucli indebted to the New York Kerosene Gas Light Company, was ibllowed by the manufacture of "coal oil." Tiie celebrity the oil has obtained for illumination has led many to examine the earth, not only for coals, but for every mineral that will afford oil by distillation. The result has been remarkable. In some instances the borings made for salt water have given vent to petroleum in large supplies. In places where there have been indications of tlio mineral oil at the surface, the earth's crust has been perforated, and the petiolcum is now pumped up, and constantly flowing from its deej) subterranean cisterns.* What is the value, it may be asked, of 63,000 square miles of country whieli yields coal, iron, oil, and salt, beneath its fertile soil? ! ! ! Here are the elements of strength, heat, light, food, and the giant steam opened at once to the science, skill, and untiring energy of an enterprising jujoplc. Mineral oil, or petroleum was known to the ancients, and employed by them for various purposes. Herodotus treats of the wells of Zakantluis, now called Zante, which still yield bitumen. Plutarch describes tlie sjiectaele of a sea on fire, or lake of inflamed petroleum, near Kcbatana. The perpetual fires that burnt at the Pagan shrines are supposed * To obtain the pctrolouin, lioles of tlireo and four inches dianu'tci' nro drilled througii the dch,i.i of the purfiicc and the rocks lieneath. When the oil is "dntch" it is foreed out by tlio pressure of tiie ^'a.s below, ami Hows for some time without the aid of a pump. An iron jiijio is inserted into the hole, and so eontrived that tho surface water shall not enter the well. To the to]) of thi.s jiipe a pump is atl.ieiied, and worked by hand, or by .steam jiowi'r. So ;_'n:'at is the disnhari>-e of tlie pctroleuui. in some in,'d in lamps and for oiling machinrry. To obtain these results, not a little will depend upon the form of the retort, and the mode by which the oily vapors generated in it are condensed. I'he retort which will per- mit the charge of i-oal to be equally heated throuudiout, is best ; lur if the heat be strong on one part t)f the charge, and weak on another part, the former will produce perma- nent gas and impure oils, while tho latter has, perhaps, a temperature too low to produce oils at all. It is on this account that revolving retorts, which keep the charge in constant motion, have been introduced. RETOnT. — EI.RVATIOK. fictile BKTOUT AND MAIV.— BKCTIny. Full descriptions of all the retorts and ovens which have been experimented with, tried, patented, used, and in use, for distilling oils from coals, would not be inteiesting or .i-i.j 88 RETORTS. useful. For such descriptions it is necessary to refer to the American, Eiifflish, and French records of patent inven- tions. Grreat as their number is, it is still increasing. Many ])ersons besides chemists, who are concerned in this kind of manufacture, and tyros in the art, have a fimcy for some novelty in which neither philosophy nor chemis- try can discover any merit, and vast sums of money have been wasted in seeking the talisman that would convert everything into oil. Horizontal D-shaped retorts, of larger size, two or three being heated over one furnace, have proved satisfactory ; lit. I a.\».u£3t.EK DEL vTVATENa- 69» Sv. REVOLVniO BBTOHT. — FEONT KI.F.VATION. ; I, I and in .some instances they have taken the places of the revolving cylinders. They may be made of iron or clay. They are simple in construction, and readily charged RETORTS. 89 and discharged. They may be made from thirty to forty-five inches in width, and from eight to ten feet in length. The latter size will distil three charges of cannel coal, of 4501bs. each, in twenty-four hours, at a heat not exceeding 780'' Fah. Forty of these retorts and more may discharge into one main, from which the gas is conveyed to a gasometer, to be afterwards used for fuel or for lighting. It is necessary that the discharge-pipes leading from these retorts to the main should not be less than eight inches in Scale vy^ m„ l l--L] I I . II I 'w K '■' '<^ '<' :!il^i:i:-lliilii:!:^^ 1SP3 i" ^il!iill!illlll!!llillll!!'li'!i":';i i iljli. *M Tl ^ ^^^^^^S^r ill llil iiiiiipur, iilillillUI I:. ! : jM 1i ■ ■ J IWATtRS-SON •KVOLVIMO BKTOET.— ri.AH. li.HaEMCH.OD. diameter, to prevent pressure and insure safety ; and they should be inserted into the end of the retort opposite the Will /!'" ^■ii m M I 40 REVOLVING RETORTS. head and fnniaoo, ami upon a lovel with the upper part of the charge. The main itself should be three feet in dianietoi". * ' REVOLVING RETORTS. Kevolving retorta were employed by Gingembre, of France,* and by olhers, many yeara ago, in the manufac- ture of coal gjis; but from their cost, and liability to get out of order, they were discarded. Since January, 1858, several patents have been granted in the United States for this kintl of retort, as being adapted to the manufacture of oils from coals, shales, etc. In some establishments they are now in use ; in othei's they have been replaced by large D-shaped stationary retorts. They are iron or clay cylinders, frequently six feet in diameter and eight feet long, sustained upon an axle at each end. the vapors passing through the axle opposite the furnace, or head, where they are charged through a man- hole in the usual manner. They are kept in motion by machinery propelled by steam, making two or more revo- lutions per minute. The advantages of the revolving retort are, that the charge being constantly agitated by the UK^tion of the cylinder, every part of the material is from time to time brought in contact with a heated sur- face, so that it is exhausted in much less time than it could be in a stationary retort; thus, also, there is a saving of fuel. A retort of the above dimensions will run six charges of one ton each, in twenty four hours, of ordinary cannel coals. The objections urged against them, by those who have given them a trial, are their cost and lia- bility to get out of order. They also grind the coal to a powder, which, by being carriec" along with the oily • thrveLi iVJnvention, vol. ix., p. 235. :l f VERTICAL RETORTS. 41 !i vapors, is apt to fill up the condensing worm, and its admixture with the oil increases the cost of purification. But the rapidity by which they distil the coal, and the saving of fuel, are certain results ; and the ingenuity of numerous inventors may hereafter relieve them from the above drawbacks. The revolving retort cannot be employed in the decom- position of Albert coal, nor any of the softer bitumens. These substances melt, and adhere to the iron closely, and therefore cannot be agitated like dry coals, when they are heated. With the before-mentioned objects in view, namely, the agitation of the material while it is exposed to heat, oscil- lating retorts have been recommended and patented. Iron bars are fixed longitudinally in the cylinders, to prevent the charge from sliding, and to insure its rolling over. m t >i BRICK OVENS. Brick ovens have been introduced to decompose coals and produce oils. They arc made of fire-brick, and laid in fire-clay. Their form is such, that the heat is distri- buted over a large surface. These ovens are incapable of resisting pressure, and they are apt to crack and grow leaky. If they are ever found to be economical, it will be in situations where coals and coal shales are cheap and plenty, and where the loss of vapor and fuel are not things of large account. I '^ VERTICAL RETORTS. In France, at Mehlam on the Rhine, and other places in Europe, upright retorts are used. They have been em- ployed in Ireland for the distillation of pe".t. They are filled from above, and when the charge is exhausted it is i! '.*] r 42 VERTICAL RETORTS. drawn from beneatli. They require a great deal of fuel. The yield of oil is small and impure. r^"^ .JZ^::z;!^ii^\<>m ly-^, — ^ \'-&o^ — I ■! 3fbe6 vbktical ivasiieh.— section. Scale Patents have been granted in the United States for several vertical retorts, in which improvements are sup- WASHERS. 48 posed to have been made upon those used in the Old Country ; but in none of these have the advantages sought nOmZONTAL WASHKR AND TANK8.— END ELEVATION AND SECTION. for been obtained. It is obvious that the discharge of the gases from which the oils are condensed must take place ;; ■« I ^ li I, -i i: i iJ 44 WASHERS. above the mass of the material in the retort. The sooner the oily vapor of the charge is removed from the retort W,«T£RS-iO/V S. C.V/.ettNUI OEL. UOBIZONTAL WABIIEB AKD TANKS. — I-ONOITl'DINAL 8E(TI0N. and condensed, the greater will be the amount of oil pro- duced; for if that vapor is exposed to a heat equal to that by which it was first formed, it will itself be decomposed, and a part of it converted into permancTit gases. Again, CLAY RETORTS. 45 the vapor iirst formed will be deprived of a part of its hydrogen, and there will be a diminution in the quantity of lump oil. Agitators, or stirrers in retorts, have been introduced for the purposes before-mentioned. Count dc Ilornpesh patented and used an Arehimedcan screw nearly twenty years ago. By means of this screw the material was agi- tated, and finally discharged at the end of his retort. Several American patents have been granted for machinery to stir or agitate the charge of material, both in horizontal and upright retorts during its distillation. In situations wluire coal is abundant, the value of these inventions will be carefully weighed against the complexity of the machinery and its constant wear. Ill order to apply a certain degree of heat to the sub- stances undergoing distillation, baths of fusible metal have been ])laced in retorts and stills, the melting point of the metal being adjusted to the degree of heat required; but the experienced distiller calls for no such aid. CLAY RETORTS. Clay retorts were used in the manufacture of coal gas many years ago, and a contest has long been carried on between their advocates and those who prefer iron for that purpose. In Europe the clay retort is gradually coming into use. In Scotland the old iron cylinder is now seldom seen in gas works. The manufacturers of coal gas in the United States are yearly submitting clay to the test ; but up to the pi v'sent time, of all the retorts in operation, a very few are composed of that material. When the clay cylinder is first charged, gas escai)cs through the fine fissures opened by the baking of the substance. These openings, however, arc soon closed with carbon, and the retort is ^•HJ m i. t . ;ii^ i iif M 46 COKE FURNACES. t:| perfect. The chief advantage of the clay retort is its dura- bility. In tlie distillation of coals for the production of oils, tlay are, doubtless, valuable, and the ordinary mecha- nic of the country understands the methods by which they are put in working order. In their use, it should always be understood that they will not withstand as much pres- sure as iriMi, and therefore their diseharge-pipes should be large, and their condensing apparatus open and free. Among the numerous means applied to the extraction of oils from coals, coke furnaces merit some attention. Char- coal has been known since the earliest ages. The coals mentioned in Isaiah liv. 16, seven hundred and twelve years before Christ, evidently refer to charcoal. The cutting and ])iling up of mounds of wood, covering them with earth, and tiring them to obtain charcoal, is a process familiar to almost every one. In this operation all the volatile products of the wood cscajie in gas and smoke, and are lost. Within the past century charcoal furnaces have been invented by which those volatile products are collected, and the distillation of wood has produced a new class of substances; the chief of which are acetic acid, pyroxylic spirit, creasote, picamar, copnomor, paraffine, eupion, etc. In Cliina, Russia, and Sweden, the carbonization of wood is eiFeeti'd in pits, or furnaces not dissimilar to those for which patents have been recently granted in this country. The furnace is in the shape of an inverted cone, and the receptacle for the tar is at its side. Coal is converted into coke in a similar manner. In Europe coke has been exten- sively usetl in the manufacture of iron. In Great Britain it is bui-ned on railways to avoid the smoke produced by coals, and coking furnaces are in constant use for its sup- ply. In 1781 the Earl of Dundonald obtained oils by heat- COKE FURNACES. 47 ing a quantity of coals in a coke furnn.co. The oils were condensed from the expelled vapon , and coke remained. The manufacture of coal gas now supplies vast quantities of coke, and the oils arc called coal tar. In August, 1853, two patents were granted in England for upright coking furnaces, the object being to obtain crude oils, and not coke. In these, and in other instances, the coals are produced in large perpendicular conos, or cylinders of masonry. A fire is lighted below, and as it advances upwards the volatile parts of the material arc driven off by the heat produced by itself, and without the aid of any external heat. Discharge pipes are fixed at the top of the furnace, and communicate with a condenser in which the oils are formed. The first objection that presents itself to this method of nAT£ftSclSON OMQCS/VCn. L^€L. KXIIAroT ANP C0NDKN8EB.— SEinrOV. 8CAI.K OK rOKE OVEN'.— PLAN AND SECTION. obtaining oils is the admission of air to the material, by which combustion rather than distillation is the result. To 48 CORK OVENS. aflbrd a romody for tliis difticulty Mr, Littlo obtained an English patent in 1854, the invention of which is to draw, or drive through the fire a blast of air, which is then said In ['it I iW,.i.i, 'iJ,:::i:ELrj_i_ ^fi' W i' iW (l V i ' ' ' i 'P i ' I ' i ' I ' I ' r / |T7iTiViWiW g M T f?jv^T iii!'i:'i;i^^^^i^i^^!^ia^^ i1'*' iTn frTi^T r r~i i i i ' ■ i rr itVi' i'.'i'i ^ s TT,i i: I'll w*^ ll I, >-l. J, I *. I r~i~i -- I I I I I ±^m sm>m \ \\ \ \i^sum mm^t ! Ill II I I I m ' I'i ' i'i ' JM mm.^ i ^^miim M i : ! , !,!: !: ! ;;; i ; i ; i , 1 :1:1:1: 0: 1:1 :0 , mnTnuiri I I I I I 11 1 r 1 1 1 rirmirrrmTr x; ■ Aliaa-aall •<- ft.V.CIINia Bl^ tuKK OVEN, — SF.lTKiS. to be " burned,'^ or deprived of its free oxygen, so tliat the combustion of the material is avoided, and the distillation carried on by the heat afforded by the gases emanating from the material itself. In this process the charge con- tained in the coking furnace is first fired at the bottom, then a current of air is drawn tlirough the fire and the material in the furnace by an aspirator or exhausting pump, the oily vapors being drawn into condensing chambers, or worms, in the manner practised in ordinary distillations. An upward distillation has been opposed on the ground that the oil, which at first would be at the top of the fur- COKE OVENS. 49 nace, falls back, and undergoes repeated decompositions before its vapors finally escape. In practice this objection Js groundless, for if the vapors from which the oils are 1 .1 yif ifft ^ =^=^ \5Feet M inches at the " tail jdpeJ^ The worms are surrounded by water, in a tank, where they are kept cool. But when the oil contains paraf- fine, the water must be allowed to heat up to 80" or 100° Fah, In cold water the paraffine would become solid, fill up the worm, and lead to the bursting of the vStill and all its dangerous results. ■: I PRODUCTS OILY AND VOLATILE. 57 CHAPTER IV. >e iS It :il ^, ,f- )° ,11 .11 \ Products of the distillation of wood coals, asplialtura, bitumen, petroleum, and other substa ices capable of yielding oils. PRODUCTS OF THE DISTILLATION OF WOOD. Tub. products of wood distilled in close vessels are very numerous. The resinous woods give results different from those not resinous, and each kind affords some peculiar products. During distillation all yield more or \c.s car- bonic acid, carbonic oxide, and carburetted hydrogen. Charcoal remains in the retort. Some of the products are soluble in water, othere are not. Of the pi jducts soluble in water and volatile, there are acetic acid, or pyroligneous acid. This is tfcs most abundant liquid. It contains much creasote, and preserves meat, giving it at the same time a smoky taste and odor. Pyroxylic spirit. — By distilling the crude pyroligneous acid a mixed liquid is obtained, known as pyroxylic spirit, or hydrated oxide of methyle. From this spirit Gmelin and Liebig derived lignone, xylite, xylitic acid, naphtha, xylitio oil, and resin, mesetine, methol, mesite, acetone, and other volatile liquids have been obtained, c " which, up to the present time, there is but an imperfect knowledge existing. PRODUCTS OILY AND VOLATILE. Among these creasote is predominant. This is a clear neutral oil, with an odor of smoke, and hot pungent taste. It evaporates without residue, and is turned to a brown i 68 PRODUCTS OILY AND VOLATIIiK. it ft- V color by bcinp- exposed to the light. It is soluble in ether alcohol, acetic acid, ammonia, and potash — is used as a styptic, and considered as a valuable remedy for the tooth- ache, Creasotc ha? 'so remarkable antiseptic properties, and is employed m yeing and tanning. A distinetion between creasotc and carbolic acid has not been clearly made out. Picamar was discovered by Reichenbach, with creasotc in the heavy oil of tar. With potash, it forms a crystalline compound. It is a colorless oil, having a hot, bitter taste. Its composition has not been clearly described. Copnomor. — With the creasote and picamar the above chemist discovered opnomor, a limpid, colorless oil, highly refractive, with an aromatic odor and styptic taste. Nitric acid converts it into oxalic acid, nitro-picric acid, and other complex substances, of which little is Icnown. JEiqyion, another oily, or rather spirituous li(]uid, dis- covered by Reichenbach in the oil of tar, is C,, II 4. It is readily purified by distillation, and has a specific gravity of 0"740. The author obtained it from the tar of candle manufoctories, with a specific gravity of 0'640, and a boil- ing point of 112°. It is, therefore, among the lightest liquids known. It resists the action of the strongest sul- phuric acid. With nitric acid it forms several new combi- nations analogous to those of benzole. It is jierfectly colorless, evaporates rapidly, and to some persons it has an agreeable odor. This oil does not exist ready formed in the tars, but is produced by the action of strong acids and alkalies upon the distillates of crude oils. In the manu- facture of hydrocarbon oils, eupion includes a number of die members of the homologous compounds of carbon and h3''drogen. It is now irequently sold as benzole, and em- ployed for making what is called the benzole or atnio- ' PRODrCTS OF THE DISTILLATION OF WOOD. 59 Spheric light, and for removing oil stains from clothes. A number of liquids have been classed under the denomina- tion of eupion; they are all hydro-carbons, and their formula is C, II, or Cj II4 , or some multiple of it. Eupion may not only be distilleU from wood, but also from other subsHnces capable of yielding .rs by distilla- tion. It burns with a brilliant white flame, free from stroke ; but it is extremely inflammable, and a dangerous liquid lor lamps. SOLID PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM THE DISTILLATION OF WOOD. Paraffinc is the name of a white solid substance, or silvery scales resembling wax, discovered by Reichcnbach. It is formed in large quantities fn"" the petroleum of Ilangoun, and the author has f^btainea it from the Ouachita coal of Arkansas, at the rate of 1-13 lbs. per ton. Coals asphaltums, bitumens, petroleums, peat, and other sub- stances, aftbrd para/Tuie from one to five per cent, of their oils. It i>i most abundantly produced by the distillation of wax with lime. ParaHine melts between 110° and 114°. Its specific gravity is 0-870, and according to Lewis its formula is C<«, II a,. It is readily made into candles, and in a wick it burns with a beautiful, clear, white light ; and the candles I'c semi-transparent. It is indift'erent to the strongest acids and alkalies. A number of compounds of carbon and hydrogen have been confounded with paraffine, such as methylene, ethylene, butylene, etc. It is remark- able that the parafline produced by the distillation of dif- ferent kinds of materials differs considerably on some points of comparison, some having a higher, and some a 'ir? 4 ■ I 60 PRODUCTS OF THE DISTILT.ATION OF WOOD. !, Hi !i * lower melting point. These differences, however, may arise in some degree from the amount of heat by which they .aie produced, and their treatment to render them pure. The greatest obstacle to the application of paraffine for candK's is its low melting point. It may be mixed with ble.nchcd wax, which does not fuse, in general, below 154". The cup-like cavity around the wick of a pure paraffine candle is apt to yield to the heat, and the melted material overflows, and boars with it the name of " sluty Doubt- less there are improvements to bo made in the manufacture of this beautiful article. Paraffine does not exist in coal ready formed. It is one of the combinations resulting from the interchanges of the elements of bituminous and other bodies during their exposure to a high temperature. Paraffine burns well in the kerosene or common coal-oil lamp, when dissolved in hydro-carbon oils ; but in cold weather it hardens, and will not then ascend the wick. Cedrird is a volatile solid which forms red crystals in a solution of sulphate of iron. These cr^'stals dissolve in sulphuric acid, and the red color is changed to blue. The blue tinge j>roduced by reflected light of some of the coal oils in the market owes its origin in part to the pre- sence of ccdriret. Pittical. — When heavy oil oi tar is neutralized by potash, and barytic water is added, the solution is of a deep blue color, from the presence of pittical, which, when pure, is like indigo. Its color has been fixed on cloth, but its manufacture has not yet been brought to perfection. Pyroxanthine is another volatile crystalline solid, first obtained by Scanlan from pyroligneous spirit. Its crystals are of a fine yellow color, easily fusible. Its composition is represented to be Q^x H9 ^\- The foregoing are the principal products of the distil- PRODUCTS OF THE DISTILLATION OF COALS. 61 lates of wood. Besides these, tliero are others which are constantly engaging the investigations of chemists. They are important, and in time they will probably be applied to useful purposes. When the different kinds of wood, the different chemical changes produced by different de- grees of heat, and the variable operations of re-agents are considered, it is not surprising that this division of chemical science should advance so slowly, and so little should bo known of the changes matter undergoes by seemingly invisible agents. The identity of most of the before-men- tioned products, with those , ^suiting from the distillation of coals, affords much additional evidence that coal and bitumen, like wood and turpentine, have had one common origin. ■i i PRODUCTS OF THE DISTILLATION OF COALS AT A HIGH HEAT, OR COAL TAR. Certain specific spirits and oils hnve been obtained by chemists from coals and other bituminous bodies. These spirits and oils have been distinguished one from the other by their densities, boiling points, and other characters, and have received different and sometimes very inappropriate names. From coal tar Peckston distilled oil of tar and spirits of tar. Laurent, Keichenbach, Hoffman, and others, have given the composition of coal tar. Wagenman applied himself to the oils derivable from turf, brown coal, and bituminous slate, from which he obtained photogen, solar oil, und paraffine. From the slate near Bielefeld, En- gelbach distilled light oil, heavy oil, butyric fat, and asphaltic fat. Mansfield in his patent, registered in 1847, describes alliole, benzole, tuluole, cumole, cymole, and mortuole, 62 PKOUUCTS OF THE DISTILLATION OP COALS. products coUcctod by him from the distilhition of ooul tar. Amonjr the oily substances obtaineil by the distilhition ot coal tar the following iuive been described:* — Boiizdlc C\, n, Ciriii'nt', or cumole (.'„ Hu Toluolo, or toluono <-!u 11« Kaplitlmlino C.,^ 11, Amlirufeiie, or paruimplithaliiie .... Cj,, Ilia Chryscno Cw Il« Pyrene Ciu Uj Aiiipalinc. ACIDS. Carbolic C., H. 0. II. O. Rosalie. Brunolic. B A SK?. Ammonia N. II3 Picolint', or odorino ('ij lb N. Analino CAh N. Leuoolinp, or quinolinc C,, IT, N. Parvoline ('1-, Iba N. Lutiiline C, Ha N. anil otliiTs not yet I'ully investigatuil. Besides tbe foregoing compounds, derived from coal tar, pheuyle, pyrrole, aniniine, olanine, cyunole, bcnzidam, etc.. and otliers have been described. It has been usual to sepa- rate the co;d tar of gas works into two 2)arts, namely, naplitha and dead oil. The tar itself always contains mucli finely divided carbon, the quantity of which is augmented by a high heat. Both the naphtha and dead oil consist of a number of hydro-carbons. 'J'hese cannot be considered as certain compounds, as they are liable to great variations. The nature of the coal, and the heat ajiplied, as before remarked, have much to do with the quality of tlic tar, cannel * See Gerliarilt. Chein. Or'jan. vol. Iv., p. 426. TRODUCTg OP THE DISTILLATION OF COALS. 68 coiil hiMtig 111 ways mure j)r(xluctivo of sj.irits ami oils than coinnion bituminous coal. Besides these; various and varia- ble products, several of them, if not all, have many deriva- tives, formed by their combinations with other substances. For instance, by the action of chlorine on naj)ht!ialini>, we have, according to the nomenclature (jf Laurent, chlonap- tase, chlonap^^w, chlonape distillate frequently contains paniffine oil and paraflTine. Among the valuable derivatives of coal tar, is picric acid, Welter's bitter, carbozotic acid, or nitro-phcnesic acid of some chemistfl. This acid was discovered by M. Guinon, of Lyons, and its composition is stated to be C,.j 11,, N. O4 Oj This substance is obtained by ac^ting upon coal tar, or coal tar naphtha, with strong nitric acid. Tt produces a beautiful yellow color, which is capable of beinj^ fixed on silks and woollen cloth. It is used in France and England as a dye. The yellow stain communicated to the skin by nitric acid, and which cannot be removed by washing, arises from the production of picric acid. Analinc also is converted into a violet-colored powder, which has been sold for $2r)0 per lb., on account of the beautiful red and purple dyes it communicates to silks. Its colors are permanent, and exceed in delicacy any before discovered. Benzole (Cw IT«). Bicarlmret of hydrogen (Faraday). Ben- zine (Mitscherlich). — This oil, so called, although it is rather a 8j)irit, was discovered by Faraday, and by him condensed from oil gas. Mitscherlich obtained it by distilling ben- zoic acid with hydrate of lime, and it may be procured by passing the vapor of benzoic acid through a red hot tube. It exists in considerable quantities in coal tar naphtha, from which it may be separated by fractional distillation. It is readily purified, by first washing it with sulphuric acid, then with a solution of caustic potash, or soda, and final distillation over lime. Its specific gravity is 0*850, of its vapor 2'742, and it boils at 186°. Like other liquids distilled from coal tar, it is scarcely a distinct and separate product; but forms a member of a series to be noticed PROniTCTS OF TIIK DISTILLATION OF COALS. 66 horoaflor. neii/olo holds a iiK^diiim position h(>tw<'on alii- olt^, 3o calloil, and naphtha. With chlorine it forms chlo- robenzolo C,j IIj Cl«. Similar comiK)undH arc also formed with bromino, nitric and sulphuric ncid-s. It is itself a Htartitjg point or type of a serios of hoinologou.s compound.s, the common differenco at each step being Cj I Ij. These compounds all admit of their hydrogen being replaced by one, two, or three equivalents of chlorine, bromine, nitric acid, and amide; finally they give rise to ba.sea, of whi- h aniline or phenylamine is the type.* It will be readily perceived how benzole differs from eupion. In both, the multiple, or increiu^ing number o. the hydrogen, is two ; but as the benzole series starts with two equivalents of carbon to one of hydr(»gcn and eupion, with one equivalent less of carbon than of hydrogen, the former series contains the most carbon throughout. In making the benzole, or atmospheric light,! the benzole requires to be diluted with alcohol, to prevent th(! llama from smoking. Again, eupion alone is found to be de- ficient in carbon for that purpose. A mixture may be made of the two liquids, in which the quantities of carbon and hydrogen may be so adjusted that the light will be brilliant and without smoke. By adding benzole gradually to strong nitric acid, with • Grogory, Outlines of Organic Chemistry. London, 1852. 3d e.i ■ 128. f The benzole, or atmospheric light, ia made by passing a current of air through benzole, or other volatile liquid hydrocarbon. The air, by tiiking up a quantity of the liquid, burns freely, and is distributed in iho manner of coal gas. Numerous machines huvo boon invented for forcing a current of air through the fluid, and some of them are very efBcient. But l)ol()\v a certain temperature tlio air will not convoy vapor suflicient to aflbitJ u gf)od light. In cold weather, also, the vapor of the bonzolo condenses in tlio pipes, and tlie liquid itself requires the application of heat These dinieulties have so far been insurmountable. 4 I 'ti I. n |!Hfe 66 mODlUTS OF TIIK UISTILIiATION OF COALS. tlic iiid of a ^iMilK' heal, a coiuik)!!!!!! is formod which disHulvcH ill the aciil, and, on fooling, colU'ctH on lh(! sur- laco. On (Uhjtinff the mixture with water, nitro-benzoh; is precipitated in the I'orni ol' a yellow oil. This oil has a sweet taste, and the ■ lor of the oil of bitter almonds. It is used in perrumery, and in the bakery. lienzoK^ is employed for many useful purposes. It dissolves the gums, resins, and all fatty substances. It removes from elotli and silks sj)ots of tar, grease, turpentine, etc., ami i'or those j)urposes it has been imported from France in small bottles, which are sold at high prices. Its rapid evaporation rentiers it also a substitute for aleoliol ;md turjientine in the preparation of paints and varnishes. Cuinok (Cij ll,a), when treated like benzole, its ho- rnologiies yield a crystalline solid, which is fusible and volatile. Toluole (Ci4 IIh) is another oil, analogous to and homologous with benzole, it boils at 220"', and lujs a speeilic gravity of 0*870. When treated with nitric acid it yields two compounds, iiitrotoluole and dinitrotoluolo. DoviUe obtjiined a scries of comi)ounds from toluole, in which the hydrogtMi was rej)laced by chlorine. XaphlJuilim: — This interesting and remarkable hydro- carbon exists in almost all kinds of tar. In coal tar it is very abundant. It iloes not exist ready-I'ormed in coal, but results from a high heat in its distillation, and an inter- change of elements during the (.leeomj)osition of the bitu- mint)ua mineral. Creasote, or carbolic acid, is its usual companion, and seems to add to its quantity. By the repeated distillations of coal tar, naphthaline will crystallize at the bottom of the receiving vessel, and may be separated from the oils that accompany it by simple ilraining and pressure. It is rendered pure by agitation first with sul- 11 I'UODlHM'rt OF TIIK niSTII.LATION OF COALM. 67 pluirio acid, then with a atronj,' solution of caustic Hoda or poliusli, and dual distillation and crystallization. When ])ui'(>, naphthaline is colorless, and forms bfautiful flat iirid lU'odlc-shapi'd crystals; it evaporates rapidly, like ciirnplior, and ^ivcs out a pix'uliar odor, unpleasant to some persons, but ajj;r(H'al)l(! to others. Its taste is hot and pungent, and it corrodes the skin. A soap made; from it was considered heneficial to t\w. complexion. It distils with water, and, like camphor, sublitnes and crystalli/cs against the sides of the bottle in which it is contained, and opposite the light. Chlorine and bromine combine with na])hthaline, and lay the foimdation of a gn^it nujnbcr of (lompounds, which are formed by the sid)stit'ition of the chlorine and bromine for hydrogen. The labors of liaunsnt have; beisn successfully applied to this incpiiry, by which a new held of research hiis been opened, and tluj doctrine of subslitu- tion more clearly established. Sulphuric acid (ixcrts itself upon nnphth.'dine, forming /n/j)o.sulpho7)ap/ifJ)ah'c, hyposul- ])/ion(ip/i(hic acids, etc. Thus, also, with nitric acid ; but the number of these condonations, and the great length of their names, nuider full descriptions of them unnecessary in a work intended to be practical. Naphthaline is worthy of a trial in medicine, and may hereafter prove itself to be valual)le in the arts. In its unpurifunl state it adds to the olfensivc odor of the oils distille.l from coals, and incre.'uses the cost of their treatment. P LS. applied to the dit^tilling vessel sLould not exceed 800" Fab., while for the produciion of illuminating gas a tenijievature of 1000° to 1200° will be required. Nevertheless, it should ever be remembered, that to >>, Ice the greatest quantity and the purest oils, different < oalt; require different heats, some of them yielding up their t,,iy vapors more readily than others. Therefore, if the same coals which produce the before-mentioned compounds of carbon and hydrogen contained in coal tar, be dry-distilled at a heat not exceed- ing 750° or 800°, the products will be different in quality and quantity. Instead of benzole, there will be eupion ; naphthaline will not be formed, and if formed, the quan- tity will be small ; the quantity of paraffine will be greatly increased, and the amount of creasote or carbolic acid reduced ; so that the purification is less expensive. There will be, also, a great change in the quality of the oils. Instead of coal tar naphtha, which cannot be burnt in com- mon lamps without smoke, on account of its being sur- charged with carbon, there will be a large amount of oils, with fewer equivalents of carbon, and admirably adapted for illumination, and also denser oils for lubrication. The following are the results of one ton Newcastle cannel coal, distilled for gas and for oils : DISTILI.KD FOR GAS. Products. Coal gas, . . . . 7"4oO cub. fl. Coal tar, .... 18^ gals. Coke, 1,200 lbs. Products of the Coai Tnr. Benzole, 3 pints. Coal tar naphtha, ... 3 pais. Heavy oil naphthaline, &c. 9 " Total, . 122 cala. DISTILLED rOK OILS. Products. Gas, 1-400 cub. ft. Crude oil, .... G8 gals. Coke, 1,280 lbs. Products of the Cnulo Oil. Eupion, 2 gait. Lamp oil, .... 22') " Heavy oil and paraflinc, 24 " Total, .... 48-5 gals. PRODUCTS OF DISTILLATES. 71 The product set down above as lamp oil consists of several oils combined, wlucli will be noted hereafter. PRODUCTS OF THE DISTILLATES OF ASPHALTUM, BITUMEN, PETROLEUM, ETC. The asphaltum of New Brunswick, now called Albert coal, is one of the richest materials ever discovered for the manufacture of oils. Seventy per cent, of the first distil- late, after purification, may be brought up to a specific gravity of 0*820, and burned in the ordinary coal-oil lamp. The material contains nitrogen, and therefore yields ammonia. It melts in the retort, and the vola- tile parts escape at a lower heat than those of coal. This may account in some degree for its greater yield of oils, and their freedom from impurities. From it naph- thaline is seldom produced; and although parafline is found among its products, creasote and other compounds of its class exist but in small quantities, while the illumi- nating oils are abundant. The oils themselves belong to a series which contains less carbon than ordinary coal oils. They burn freely, and give a clear, white light. The asphalte, or bitumen, of the Dead Sea affords much oil, mixed with the impurities before noticed. There is pre- sent, also, a peculiar volatile oil, which gives even to its purest products an unpleasant smell. This might properly be called odorine^ although it does not agree with the odo- rine of Unverdorben. The bitumen of the Pitch Lake of Trinidad contains sul- phur, and sulphuretted hydrogen issues from the pit where the semi-liquid mineral is discharged from the et rth. By distillation it also yields a whole series of hydro-carbon 6 nl PRODUCTS OF DISTILLATES. m oils, some of wbich liave been called nophtlia, and repre- sen tod as Cg II5 otlien' Cgg IIib Tt is quite evident that bitumens and their distillates differ materially in their com- position, and therefore their value for the nianufaeture of illuminating oils, or for gas, can only be a.«cert;uned by experiment. This bitumen yields 70 gallons of crude (?il per ton of 2240 lbs. The impurities m its first distillate are numerous. Among its soluble part.; pyroxiifc spirit and other products of the distillauon of wood have, bc^n detected, ;;^.^'ing evidence of I he vegetable origin of the pitch. Ail the oils 'lislilled irom this substance havi a most forbidding sn,,;!. vhich arises from a volatile oil. This oil bids defiance to acii.is and alkalies, indeed the lat- ter render it more persi il.\U. The bitumens of Cu'>a yield I'rom 100 to 140 gallons per ton of the cnsde oil. These, when purified, are admira- bly adapted to lamps. A British company has recently shipped the ' itumens (chapapote of the Spaniards) to Kngland for the .'nakiug of lamp and lubricating oils; but the odor has followed them, and presented an obstacle of sigiiHioance. Few of the bitumens of Central and South Ameri'ia have been tested in reference to their composi- tion, or value for hydro-carbon oils. Those of the Iniled States and Canada are beginning to draw the attention of Hianufacturers in reference to their value in competition with cannel coals and petroleum. The bitumen of Canada West contains decayed vege- tables, and is no doubt the result of petroleum that has long been exposed to the air ; 2,000 lbs, yielded 109 gallons of crude oils. From this crude product 64 gallons of lamp oils were distilled, and also 18 gallons of heavy oils suita- ble for lubricating machinery. It differs very essentially from the bitumens of the West India Islands, and the oils PRODUCTS OF DISTILLATES. 78 y rcqiiire careful purification. Tiie great diversity in the cliaraetcrs of those substances opens an extensive range for ehoinieal research. Bituminous sanils and clays arc found at many sites in Central and Souih America. These, when submitted to dry distillation, afford various quantities of gases and oils, whieli possess the ordinary characters of bitumen oils. Among those substances may be reckoned the "prairie ga.':! ston(>" of Illinois, of whicli glowing descriptions have ajijx'ared in newspapers. This is a grey limestom^, with pores and cells partially filled with bitumen. By distilla- tion therefore the roek yields liydro-carbon oils, carburetted and bicarburetted hydrog(m gases. One sample of the roek gave at the rate of 18 gallons of crude oils, per ton. The bituminous brown coal of Ouachita, Arkansas, has already been noticed. All these oils, when ]iurified, and when they are of a specific gravity less than 0*850, are extremely fluorescent. When frt'od fnnn acids they appear yellow by transmitted light, and by refiected light blue. The beautiful hues of the rainbow are sometimes brought otU by frequent distil- lations and the use of sul])havic acid and caustic alkalies^ by which the illuminating oils are fiwpiently injuredv U is a peculiar feature of impure ooal v^^ to ohnHg^ \nnW W exposure \o the air and Ix^lsi.^ l^h* vH«iit *^»e from the worm of the still perfrxMlv cv^^^'Kx^ will t«rn j'ellow, then red, and in a fow ku-^ 4^ vl«^vk brown, Sometim(\s this change of color K>gins .^t t^^ swrfavv of the oil, aiwd pro- ceeds downwanVs until tho x^hole mass is discolo>\\i This arises from t\w oxidation of tiie imjniritics ^\\ the atmo- sphere. Cha»!gos of i^s>Ior also arise from iht^ pnHlonviuanoe of an acid or »n alksii mi the oil, wiiich should b<' ^KM'foetlv neutral. TW purv"^ oils, when oxpased to the direct rays I 74 PRODUCTS OF DISTILLATES. ft] 1 1:1: If:';! of light, will vary in color, according as the diiy is bright or cloudy. They j)ossess photographic properties not well understood. Petroleum, or mineral naphtha, is generated in the earth, and issues from it at numerous places in the old world and in the new. The naphtha of Baku, near the Caspian Sea, is nearly colorless. The springs of the Burman Territory at Yananghouiig, upon the Irawady, send up a brown naphtha. At this place 520 springs yield upwards of 120,000 gallons of petroleum yearly, and no diminution of the supply has been recorded. The Barbadoes petroleum, known as Barbadoes tar, the springs of which were visited by the author in 1818, still send forth their oily products, and the springs of other West India Islands and South Aruerrca have not failed. All these tarry substances afford oils W distiilJaiiioij.^ same of greater and some of less value. TW pet'- I ■< CM the gr*»ttt Alleghany coal field do not ghwr-uhe r _ iitsmc. of Southern naphthas, but a rriffrTcis! il!\ ir-^leasant. ^ n general they are of ;t rk .v.. c. or, ;;, appeaj- ransparent when held ;l_: ::-i ':i:rht. Tin \ vary iim tlioir character, and espe- ,..1. , -^ « cit^i, gravities, which extend from 0'814 to ('• ' Tb* mcMlts by 'wcliiiich they are to bo refined muse ■cairT amumdim^y. THliie denser kinds yield much heamj oirbonaiceous matter isitil for illumination. When j>Mpei%: parafied tate oils- art inoffensive, and burn with great brill iajucv. SVvme of 1( nr-s, *hen exposed to the air, evapo- rate rapidly ii A I iti u jijirk bitumen, others resist evapo- ration, and -^ka over""" iike Ijuseed oil. Their oils differ • ' sHiii|>ie of mttve ptiwrwiinmi iTf>eivc(l from Dr. Dnlo, of Allcglinny r, ,111 , I'll., will fcukuii froBi u -^nm:^ nwiicd by Lewis Peterson, Esi}., lias u .-.pui gravii}' u. >)'8l4, auni will yiulu iiiuuty percent, of pure laiiii) oil. PRODUCTS OF DISTILLATES. 75 from tliose distilled from coals. Tlicy require a gioaUT heat iu their distillation, and their vapors are extn^inely inflammable. These petroleum oils usuallj commence to boil at 160" Fah., but sometimes at a still lower degree of heat. The lighter or spirituous parts of the charge llien begin to distil oil", and as the heat is increased the heavier portions come over iu succession untd the thermometer reaches 565", when paraflTine, if any be present, will begin to a})pear. It is therefore extremi-ly difficult to obtain any one specific oil, of which the aggregate is compounded. A thermometer fixed in the still indicates the boiling or dis- tilling point of the mass at the time of observation, and nothing }nore. P]ach of the oils composing the aggregate collection has a dift'erent number of the equivalents of carbon and hydrogen, with which the several boiling points doubtless agree ; but the exact rate at which the boiling point docs increase, according to tlu^ proportions of carbon and hydrogen present in the several oils, has not been accurately discovered. Laurent has given the composition of some of the oils distilled from bituminous schists as follows :— - Boiling TointR. 144° . 171° . 210° . 304° . Carbon. Hydrogen. 86 14-3 85 14-1 8G2 13-6 85 60 14-5 St. Evrre gives the following : — Boiling Points. 520° and 530° 485° " 500° 414° " 428=" 268° " 275° Carbon. Hydrogen. 36 34 28 26 24 22 18 16 M 76 I'UODLCm OF DlHTIl.LATKS. Candle Tar. — Wlieii the tar resultiiijj from the inamifac- ture of stearinc is subriuttod to ilistillaiion, it soiuls over a series of oils, tlie ehief number of which are good iUumiiia- tors. ParafTme also appears in the latter part of the ope- ration. Frequently there is tlie production of much aniline, the vapor of which produces a burning sensation in the throat and nostrils, and is very unhealthy. Tiiese oils are easily purified by alternate washings with sulphuric acid and solutions of the caustic alkalies, with final distillation. They are of a light orange color. The lighter oils are colorless, and by rectification they may be obtained of a specific gravity not exceeding 0'680. The denser oils are superior for lamps. Caoutchene, or oil of caoutchouc, is produced by the distillation of India rubber, at a moderate heat. A series of light oils, easy of purification, is the result. The vapors are very heavy, and dissolve the resins, shellac, and amber. These oils have been represented as being caoutchctie, which boils at 72", Faradayine at 96°, eupione ui 124°, and caoutchine at 330". ' Gutla Percha yields oils nearly allied to the above. Peat has been extensively distilled for oils in Ireland, and also for its soluble products and paraffiue. Its ordi- nary productions from a ton, when worked by Reccis' patent, are — Ammonia Acetic Acid Naphtha . Oils Paraffine 0289 0-207 0140 1-059 0-125 The Irish Peat Company, in the ' ounty of Kildare, obtain from every ton of peat three lbs. of paraffine, two PRODUCTS OF DI8T1LT..VTK8. 77 gallons of lamp oil, and one gallon of lubricating oil. In America, where the materials for manufacturing those oils are rich and abundant, it is not probable that peat will ever be employed for such objects. The coke of peat affords fuel, and may be used in the decolorization of sugar ti I i^ « m 'ir, ^mi 78 OXYOKN OILS. CIIAlTEll V. Composition of <"vn, oxygen, and nitrogen increase or decrease, rise or tall, in exact and certain quantities, or numbers of t>quiv:il<'iits. Take, fur example, twenty volatile acids, as jrivi'ii ])y Dr. Gregory, and with a general formula of Cj, llj 04* as fol- lows :-- 1 Formic acid 2 Acetic " 3 rropylic acid 4 IJutyric '' 5 Vnleriiuiic acid 6 Caproic " 7 (Enaiithylio " 8 Caprylic " 9 Pelargonic " 10 Capric " 11 Margaritic " 12 Laurostearic " 13 Cocinic " 14 Myristic " 15 Benic " 16 Ethalic " 17 Margonic " * Handbook of Organic Chemia Uon, 1852. = 0, ir.. (), = C. Il.c, = C. II.o, = C. IK 0. = C,„lI,(i, = (\. n,,tt. = c„ 11,, u. = C,« Il,„(>, ~ C„ II., 0, = Co H:„ O. ^ Cn IL. (). = C';^ 11:, 0, = C:„l [,„<), = c„, ir.. Oi = Cs,i Hao Oi = C.„ H,i 0, = Cm II.4 0. Yy, 3d edition. By William (iro;^ory Lon- 80 ORGANIC AND HOMOLOGOUS COMPOUNDS. 18 Basic acid 19 Balenic " 20 Behenic " 21 Cerotic " 22 ilelissic " — Cse Hso 0,1 = c„ n,, O4 Here we see the quantities increased by the number 2, while the oxygen 4 is constant. By liis able and ingenious researches Laurent discovered a law of substitution by which one element is replaced by another, according to a perfect and harmonious system. The correctness of this doctrine rec d confirmation by Dumas, Dr. Hoffman, and Baron ^' h.g, and its opponents yielded up their views to its facts. " Of fifteen elements, the equivalents of ten of them, or two-thirds, are represented by whole numbers, that is, they are exact multiples of that of hydrogen, the lightest of them all. They are — '■ Hydrogen . Oxygen . Nitrogen . Sulphur Bromine Iodine Fluorine Piiosphorus Arsenic Carbon " If only ten of these = 1-0 = 80 = 140 = 160 = 80-0 ~ 1250 = 190 = ^2 = 750 = 60 were known to us, the law would immediately be assumed that the equivalenis of the metalloidal elements are exact multiples of the equivalent of hydrogeny* A series of tyjjcs has therefore been discovered. Those types consist of different elements, and to which other * Elements of Chamistry. By M. V. Rognault. Vol. i., p. 347. ORGANIC AND HOMOLOGOUS COMPOUNDS. 8L simple substuuces may be added, or replaced while the ori- ginal type is preserved. The series of volatile oily acids is only one of a number of such series already made out, and to which thj oils distilled from oleaginous and bituminous bodies must be added. These series are homologous. Each member of them differs from the others by a certain num- ber of the equivalents of carbon and hydrogen, or by a multiple of them. In their properties these compounds are perfectly analogous, and only differ in degree, and the difference is exactly in proportion to the amount of carbon and hydrogen they contain. Taking the example given by Dr. Gregory — IS " Pyroxilic spirit is Alt'oliol is Oil of potato i^ C, H„ 0. C„7I 0, C, H,o 0.2 Cio Hia Oa Then the alcohol and pyroxilic spirit differ by Cg H2. Tlui oil of potato and pyroxilic spirit differ by 4 C^ II2. The compounds between the oil of potato and alcohol have not been discovered. When a series of substances, especially if derived from the same source, is discovered to have analogous properties, it may be presumed that their compounds are homologous. Although some of the members of the group, or linics in the chain, are undiscovered, they may yet be obtained, and the perfect series completed. It is only a few years since two (jf the acids obtained by the oxidation of alcohol- -the formic (C^ II O3) and acetic (C4 H3 O3) — were known. Now recent discoveries have filled up the series to sixty equi- v'almts of carbon. The alcohols and ethers, and the acids of their different 5' 82 ORGANIC AND HOMOLOGOUS COMPOUNDS. series, diflfor by C^ llj, or inultiplos of one or bct'r of these numbers. Still, in all the members of a group there is a family likene.ss. Ileiv, also, the boiling point, and the density of the va]ior, are governed by the proportion of carbon present. Ethyle, methyle, etc., have their deriva- tives. Each of these derivatives is the starting-point of a series of liomologues. M. Dumas, Dr. Gregory, and others, have brought to notice the great analogy between the ele- mentary groups — chlorine, bromine, iodine, potassium, sodium, lithium, etc., and homologous organic groups. Every organic compound belongs to some series in which each iiiiiividual member of the elementary substaneos is increased or tliminislu^d by certain regular and fixed quan- tities. The fact may be again repeated, that the oils before described sis restilting from the distillation of the dift'erent oleaginous and bituminous compounds, are not each a single t>il i>f their kind, but consist of many members, which form u series of oils distinct one from the other. They have the same root, but ditfer in the branches. Each mem- ber of all their several groups contains a different num- ber of the equivalents of earbon and hydrogen, forming chains which rise, steji by step, from the solid to the liquid, and from a denst> liquid to a light and extremely vohitile spirit, and fmally to a gas. Again, each of those members is capable of forming entirely new series of compounds, when combined with other elements. As regards the original oily groups, when tlieir components of earbon and nitrogen are the same, tiieir properties will be the same, irrespective of their origin. They will give the same amount of light whcii burned in lamj^s, and be equally applicable to useful purposes. This likeness can only be discovered by their .specifie gravity, boiling j)oints, and, more important than all, by their ultimate analysis by the chemist. As all ORGANIC AND HOMOLOGOUS COMPOUNDS. 83 those oils are capable of affording light, and the term "photogen" applies only to one of them, the appella- tion of hydro-earbon, or lamp oils, has been applied to all that are now consumed for illuminating pur- poses. 2S.S the oils here treated of consist of carbon and hydro- gen, some notice may be taken of those two elements. Carbon occurs abundantly in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. In its pure and crystallized state it constitutes the diamond. It is the chief substance of plum- bago, and frequently forms more than ninety per cent, of anthracite coal. It is essential to the organization of ani- mals, and enters extensively into the composition of mine- rals, especially the varieties of coal, bitumen, petroleum, etc., and all substances of vegetable origin. Carbon ap- pears also in the gases of coal mines, as carburetted hydro- gen, or fire-damp, or carbonic acid, or choke-damp. When organic matter is heated in close vessels, volatile substances are expelled ; these consist of cr^bon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxj-gen ; the residue is carbon mixed witli the ash — the minerals that enter into the composition of the wood. Carbon is without taste or sm(>ll, and insoluble. It ■■ -J'sts decomposition, and, when buried in the earth, is imperish- able. Combined ^ith oxygen, carbon forms two gaseous compounds, carbonic acid and carbonic oxiue. Car- bonic oxide may be considered a compound radical. It combines with chlorine, oxygen, and the metals. It is a transparent, colorless gas, without taste or smell, and, when inhaled, is fatal to animal life. This gas takes fire, and burns with a fine blue flame, which is often seen on the surface of coals burning in a grate. Carbonic acid is formed by the respiration of animals, I 84 ORGANIC AND HOMOLOGOUS COMPOUNDS. and by vinous fermentation. It is a product of combus tion, and is produced artificially by the action of acids upon carbonate of lime. It is a colorless gas, and so much heavier than air, that it may be contained in open vessels. The efTcrvescing properties of wine, beer, soda-water, and some mineral waters, arise from the presence of this acid. It forms the food of growing plants, a part of which they retain in their structures. Another part is expelled, aiai is found in the atmosphere. }hjdn>jen forms one-ninth part, by weight, of w^ater, and exists in vegetable and animal substances. It has neither taste, color, nor smell, and is the lightest substance dis- covered in nature. It is nearly sixteen times lighter than oxygen, and fourteen and a half times lighter than air. It was, therefore, first employed in floating air balloons. A pressure of a thousand atmospheres has no sensible effect in the condensation of hydrogen gas. Sound moves with three times the velocity in hydrogen that it dof's in com- mon air, and it refracts light with more power than any other gas. The greater the quantity of hydrogen present in any body, the less will be its weight, or specific gravity. It is thus with the hydro-carbon oils. Hj'drogen is also the most inflammable substance in nature; it burns with an almost colorless flame, and great heat. The ojtinion is entertained by some, that hydrogen is a gaseous metal, as mercury is a liquid metal. Carbon and hydrogen, hydro-carbons. — Carbon and hydro- gen combine in a great number of proportions, and conse- quently produce numerous compounds; and as both elements are combustible, their compounds are also com- bustible and inflammable. By some these compounds are called carbo-hydrogens. At the ordinary temperatures, some of these are solid, sncXx as paraffine, naphthaline, etc. ; ORGANIC AND HOMOLOGOUS COMPOUNDS. 85 )th others are liquid, as the oils of lemons, napbtha, etc. Two of thera arc gaseous, namely, light carburetted hydrogen gas, and olf fiant gas, which are the roots of two, if not more, series of compounds. All these compounds are the pro- ducts of vegetables, or they are produced from the decay or destructive distillation of organic matter. Carhure.tted hydrogen (C, Ilg) mixed with atmospheric air is the explosive fire-damp of coal mines, and it frequently issues fiom the earth through fissures connected with beds of coal, or collections of petroleum. When mixed with twiec its volume of oxygon, it explodes with great violence. If mix(;d with about six times its volume of air, it also explodes. By this mixture gasometers have been blown up with terrible effect. Bi-carhuretted hydrogen, or olefiant gas (Cj H,), mixed with tlie above and other gases, occurs in coal mines. It is also transparent and colorless. It takes tire readily, and burns with a white flame, giving out much light. It is also the root of an extensive series of liydro-carbons. Tliis gas and the pivceding carburetted hydrogen, when pure, form what is known as coal gas, now extensively employed to light cities. Its value depends much upon the, quantity of olefiant gas contained in the mixture. The light produced by the combustion of the hydro- carbon oils is like that of coal gas. It is from gas in both instances. The oils are put in lamps, and inflamed ; the gas is produced at the top of the wick, and decomposed instantaneously. In the other instance, the gas is made by heating the coals in retorts, and storing it in gasometers ready for use, and its distribution through pi])es and bun d. In the benzole, or atmospheric light, the va})or of the hydro-carbon is conveyed in tiie air to the burner, and there burned as coal gas. The fluctuations in the con- 86 ORGANIC AND HOMOLOGOUS COMPOUNDS. ; : i densatioii of this vapor by changes of temperature arc impedimonts to this mode of supplying artificial light. Homologous series obtained from coal tar. The radical is Cjo II4 ; the multiple is Cj lla. liolllng point. Hpcc. gt Cio Hi 135° C,a II9 Benzole . . . 186° 850 Cu lis Toluene . . 237° 870 C. H,o Xylole . . . 288° Cifl Hij Cumolo . . . 339° Cjo Hh Cyniole . 490°* It will be here observed that the boiling point rises 26*5° for every additional equivalent of carbon. By the aC'.ion of chlorine, bromine, nitric acid, etc., each of the above hydro-carbons forms the root of other distinct and well-defined series. f Homologous series obtained from the litximen of Trinidad, distilled at a low heat: No. Carbon. 1 4 3 2 5 4 3 6 5 4 7 6 5 8 7 6 9 s 7 10 9 8 11 10 9 12 11 10 13 12 11 14 13 12 15 14 <13 16 15 14 17 16 15 18 17 16 19 18 17 20 19 18 21 20 19 22 21 Hydrog. Spee. grav. Boiling point only partially contlonsod. 0-715 130" 0-775 180° Embracihg the hydrocarbon oils suitable for lamps. Speiiilic pravity of the whole when mixed, 0-819. Paraffine. * Generally represented as do IIn. f See Gresjory'a Handbook 0/ Organic Chemistry, 3cl edit., p. 129. ORGANIC AND HOMOLOOOUS COMPOUNDS. $7 The bitumen of Cuba, Albert coal, bitvtminous shale of Albert county, the petroleum of Virginia, and candle tar^ product' the same series of hydro-carbons. The Heries obtained from Breckenridge coal, distilled at an average heat of 780°, was as follows : Ihi. Carbon. Uy< I 4 •> S • 4 1 i 6 4 » 8 i m 10 • m 12 T m 14 9 m 16 2& 18 LO m 20 2 Supposed to exist, but not condensed. EniHracing the hydro-carbon oils suitable for lamps when raixed. Spec. grav. 0-819. Paraffine. A coal from Kanawha. Virginia, when distilled at a heat of 900°, gave part of a series thus : No. Carbon. Ilydrog. 1 8 4 2 12 8 3 16 12 ■A- 18 16 Caoutchouc was distilled at a moderate heat, and the following was the aeriea produced : Ko. Corbon, Hydrog. ,8 p. prftv. Uoiling point 1 8 t 678 94 2 » 9 3 m Q 4 11 M 6 13 n i 14 12 Other series of hydro-carbons might be laid down ; but the foregoing are sufficient to demonstrate the existence of 7 9 OROANIC AND HOMOLOGOUS COMPOUNDS. a system which cannot be carried forward to perfection without great labor and research. This system is being gradually extended to every branch of chemistry, and ia bringing the science into a beautiful harmony with mathe- matics, and its kindred study, a.stronomy. To the manufacturer it is of the firat importance. It teaches him that he has to deal with a great variety of -compounds. An increase in the degree of heat employed itt his operations will change the properties of his products, increase the proportions of carbon, and defeat him in his objects. A temperature too low will give results to disap- point him. He cannot fail to observe the different proofs at which his oils flow from the still, and the constant increase of heat required to produce them in tho process of refining and purifying ; and having obtained even an in- distinct view of the point he would reach, his skill and experience will bring to him that knowledge of his art he desires. f':\ OXIDATION OP IMPURITIES IN HYDKO-CARBON OILS. 89 CHAPTER VI. Oxidation of the impurities contained in crude hydro-carbon oils. — Action of acids, allcniics, and otiior agents. — Sulphuric acid, nitric acid, pcnuunga- nato of potash. — Methods of purification. — Extracts from patents, etc. I When oils were first distilled from coals, few attempts were made to free them from their offensive odors, or remove their coloring matters. The only mode practised was fractional distillation, which is altogether quite inef- fectual for that purpose. Although the oil made by the Earl of Dundonald in 1781 was burned in lamps, it does not appear that any process of purification was practised at that time. The earliest mode of purifying petroleum was simply to distil it with water, and this is more beneficial than some of the modes practised in the present day, by which the characters of the oils are changed and their illu- minating powers deteriorated. The great number of impurities contained in the oils distil- led from coals, whether from coal tar or crude coal oil, renders their purification somewhat difficult, expensive, and uncer- tain. The varieties of coals and other substances employed to obtain h3?dro-carbon oils, the fluctuations of heat in dis- tillation, and varying qualities of reagents, will ever require the care and skill of the practical chemist to overcome them. Much has been done in the purification of those oils, much is still to be performed before they are made perfect, namely, free from all offensive odor, and free from color. The great difference observed in the qualities of the oils in the market arises less from the different modes m 90 ACIDS, ALKALIES, AND OTHER OXIDATINa AGENTS. by which those oils nro tuated, than from the propertiorf of the coals from which they were distilled. pi R ••• '1 ACIDS, ALKALIES, AND OTHER OXIDATING AGENTS. Acids, ftlkalies, peroxide of manganese, permanganate of potash, bichromate of potash, etc., have been unsparingly used in the j)urification of hydro-carbon oils, on account of their oxidating properties. The object of chemists has been to im})art oxygen to the impurities, by which they sepa- rate themselves from the oils, and generally fall to the l>ot- tom of the vessel that contains them. The oxidation of organic compounds takes place in seve- ral ways. In combustion atmospheric oxygen is aided by a high temperature. If the supply of air be deficient, as in the case of a bu'-ning lamp, the hydrogen, from a greater attraction for oxygen, is oxidated, and the carbon of the oil appears in smoKi' ..<.: soot. The decay of wood is pro- duced by oxidati li, iu i ulmine is the result. So also in some of t-\e inipuritiot; in hydro-carbon oils ; their combi- nation with oxygen jj^ives them new characters, by which they no longer remain with their native liquids. Keagents may be applied to oils that will not separate from them until exposed to the heat of distillation. By its oxidating properties permanganate of potash converts .sugar into oxalic acid. Bichromate of potash diluted with sulphuric acid converts salicine into the hydrupjt of salicile, or oil of spirea. Action of sulphuric acid. — In general, when sulphuric acid is applied to organic compounds (and such are the oils under consideration), it decomposes, or chars them. By the aid of heat its effects are more powerful, and it trans- mutes starch and lignine into grape sugar. Its action upon iWsf ACIDS, ALKALIKS, AND Ol'UER OXIDATING AGENTS. 91 naplitluilino and other compodiids of carljou and li vdrogcn lias been before noticed. ParafRne is not sensibly affected, when liMJlcd with sulphuric ucid. For this reason it is employed in the puritication of that substance, as it abao- lately bums out all its impurities. Sulphuric acid, or oil. of vitriol, is now universally used in tin- j)uririeation of coal oils, by which some of their impurities are <<■ erted into tir, or rendered soluble in water. The ac' be s(;pa- rated from the tar by distillation. This aei om- poses a part of the oils in proportion to i " and the quantity employed. It is a powerful j)uiiii r. It removes one kind of odor and substitutes another less dis- agreeable. How far it changes the characters of the oils has not been determined; but in some instances, when it is used in large quantities, there can bo no doubt it produces what may be called su!/)Jiu-oiL^, which are unchangeable by the use of alkalies. Certain it is that these sulpho-oils aro quite dissimilar to the natural oils obtained by the frac- tional distillation of coal oils, and are inferior to them for the purposes of illumination. The powerful effects of the before-mentioned acid in removing impurities from the dis- tillates of coal, and its clieaj)ues8, have brought it into general use.* Aciion of nitric acid. — The operations of nitric acid upon organic substances are very numerous. It usually, if not always, produces one or more acids. From gum there comes mucid acid ; from indigo, indigotic and nitro-picric acids; from stearic acid, margaric aiiid, etc. Laurent has clearly described the action of nitric acid upon na[)htha- line. Benzoic admits of having its hydrogen replaced by one, * The nvcrago specific gravity of conuuercial sulphuric acid is 1 'bOO. It sometimes contains nitric acid. !'i I .^^ -^> IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^O ^A^ .V^ ^ ^ A^V < V\% 1.0 L^|2.8 |2.5 ■^ Ki2 ill 2.2 IS 1.1 l.-^l 12.0 iim 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^ 6" ► V] / Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 '^- .^ ^'4^f4!S 92 PURIFICATION OP HYDRO-CARBON OILS. two, or three equivalents of nitric acid. This remark applies equally to eupion and all the lighter products dis- tilled from coals, petroleum, etc. All these compounds have an aromatic odor. As an instfince, when benzole is saturated with fuming nitric acid, and water is added to the hot solution, nitro-benzole subsides as a yellow oil with the odor of cinnamon. It is sold as the oil of bitter almonds. Other light hydro-carbons give similar results, and a great number of oils, useful for perfumery and cookery, may be produced from them. As an oxidator nitric acid is more powerful than sul- phuric acid ; but it exerts a greater action on the oils them- selves, changing them into nitro oils, and removing them further away from the natural products of the material first employed. Permanganate of potash must be included among the materials used for oxidating the impurities contained in distilled oils. Its effects are feeble when comparctl with those of sulphuric acid, and its price is too great a draw- back on the profits of the manufacturer. METHODS EMPLOYED FOR THE PURIFICATION OF HYDRO- CARBON OILS. If I'; The earliest writers on the production of oils from coals and other analogous substances, did not describe any very satisfactory mode by which those oils could be purified. Selligue was perhaps the first to supply a method for this purpose; and it appears in the voluminous specification of his patent.* He commenced by agitating the oils with sulphuric, muriatic, or nitric acid. The agitation was con- * Specification No. 10,726, English Patent OfBco. Buisson. Translated by Du Mansfield's process. 93 tinued for some time, so that every particle of the oil should be brought in contact with the acid, and a certain change of color had taken place. His agitators were of peculiar construction, and he has described them at length. After the oil and acid had been allowed time to separate, the former was decanted and washed with soap-maker's lye, proof 36** to 38° Baume. Thus a part of the coloring matter was precipitated, although some of the lye was sub- sequently permitted to go into the still with the oils. Fractional distillation was also resorted to, which with variations in the above mode enabled the chemist to pro- duce oils of good quality. The specification of Selligue was written with great care; but his operations M'ere complex and expensive. The alternate use of acids and alkalies forms the principal feature in the purification of those oils at the present time. Mansfield's process. In 1847 C. B. Mansfield of Cambridge, England, obtained a patent for the •' purification of spirituous substances and oils" derived from coal tar, &c. Of the products of coal tar he describes five, namely, alliole, benzole, toluole, cam- phole, mortuole, and nitro-benzole ; for each of these classes he modified the treatment. To alliole and benzole, he applied diluted sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, and agitated the mixture, which was allowed to settle, when the acid and impurities were drawn off. The spirits and oils were then agitated with water, which was also afterwards removed, and the spirits and oils placed in a vessel of fresh burnt lime, and finally rectified by distillation. The toluole, etc, wore purified by a similar method, except that stronger and greater quantities of the acids were employed, and the Ml -'!■■ I' m m 94 YOUNO'S PROCESS. number of distillations increased. The specification of this patent is also of great length, and directed to objects foreign to the purification of the oils derived from bituminous sub- stances. young's process. \Wm' This alleged improvement consists in treating bituminous coals in such a manner as to obtain therefrom an oil con- taining paraffine, which is denominated paraffine oil, and from which Mr. Young obtains parafl&ne. He employs " Parrot coal," " cannel coal," and " gas coal." These are broken up to about the size of a hen's egg, and distilled in common gas retorts with worm pipes and the ordinary refri- gerators of stills, the water in them being kept at a tem- perature of about co'^ Fahr., by a stream of cold water entering the worm cistern. The retort is kept at a " hic red heat ;^^ a higher heat will produce gas rather than oil. The retort is heated up gradually, and the product is an oil containiiig paraffine. The crude oil is put into a cistern, and steam heat applied up to about lo6°. This separates some of the impurities, and the oil is run off into another vessel, leaving the impu- rities behind. The oil is then distilled in an iron still with a worm pipe and refrigerator, the water in the latter being kept at 55° Fah. The oil thus distilled is then agitated with ten per cent, of oil of vitriol one hour. It is then allowed to settle twelve hours, when it is drawn off from the acid and impurities into an iron vessel, where it is again agitated with four per cent, of the solution of caustic soda of specific gravity 1-300. Six hours are again allowed for the alkali and impurities to settle, when the oil is again drawn off and distilled with half its bulk of water ; water being d KEROSENE PROCESS. 96 run into the still from time to time to supply the quantity distilled off. The lighter oil comes over with the steam, and is employed for illumination. The oil left in the still is carefully separated from all water and put into a leaden vessel, and there agitated with two per cent, of oil of vitriol. It is then allowed to settle twenty -four hours. This oil is then run into another vessel, and to every 100 gallons there are added twenty-eight pounds of chalk, ground up with water into a paste. The oil and chalk are agitated toge- ther until the oil is freed from acid. After it has remained a week at rest, it is used for lubricating machinery, and may be mixed with animal or vegetable oils for that purpose. To obtain the paraffine the oil containing it is brought down to a temperature of 30° Fah., when paraffine will crystallize and separate itself from the oil, or it may be filtered and finally submitted to pressure. Again it is agi- tated with its bulk of oil of vitriol, and the operation repeated until the acid ceases to be colored by the paraf- fine, which is kept melted during the operation.* What- ever may be the merits of this mode of obtaining lubricat- ing, or paraffine oil, so called, the lamp oils are of a dark reddish-brown color, and of an unpleasant odor. They also incrust the wick of the lamp in burning. , It is evident that the quantity of acid employed is too great, and by which a part of the oils are decomposed. In the purification of the paraffine the oils are charred, or burnt out. The paraffine alone resists its action. ■1 III KEROSENE PROCESS. The specification describes the process for obtaining oils, denominated Kerosene, from " bitumen wherever found." * Extracted from the patent of Jamoa Youug. i mi IB 96 KEROSENE PROCESS. ■hi- The Kerosene consists of three distinct hydro-carbons, namely, A Kerosene, B Kerosene, and C Kerosene. The C Kerosene, or that which is employed in lamps, may be formed by an admixture of the light with the heavier oils, until the specific gravity is raised up to about 0*800, water being 1000. The first part of the process consists in submitting the raw material to dry, or decomposing distil- lation, in large cast iron retorts at a temperature not exceeding 800°. The condensation of the vapors is effected in iron pipes, or chambers, surrounded by water. " The liquid products of this distillation are heavy tar and water, or ammoniacal liquor, which lie at the bottom of the receiver, and a lighter fluid which floats above them." The heavy fluids and the light are separated by drawing off one from the other. " The heavy liquids may be utilised or disposed of advantageously ; but they have no further connexion with this process." The light liquid is submitted to re-distillation at the lowest possible heat, in a common still and a condenser. The products of this distillation are a light, volatile liquid, which accumulates in the receiver, and a heavy residuum left in the still, and which may be added to the heavy liquid impurities of the first distillation. The light liquid is transferred from the receiver to a suitable vessel or vat, and mixed thoroughly with from five to ten per cent, of strong sulphuric, nitric, or muriatic acid, according to the quantity of tar present. Seven per cent, is about the average quantity of acid required. The preference is given to sulphuric acid. With the acid and oil, from one to three per cent, of the peroxide of manganese is added, and the whole thoroughly agitated together. The mixture is allowed to stand undisturbed from twelve to twenty-four hours, in order that the impurities may sub- i:' ? ;' h KEROSENE PROCESS. 97 side. The light, supernatant fluid is now drawn oft* into another vessel. The distillate is then mixed with two per cent, or more of freshly calcined lime, which takes up any water that may be present, and neutralizes the acid. The oil is then distilled, and finally rectified, if necessary. The product is kerosene, the lightest part of which is called A kerosene, and the two succeeding parts B and C kero- sene.* The above mode has been much improved by the use of steam, introduced into or above the oils during their distil- lation, by diminishing the quantity of acid and washing with water. The latter removes much of the soluble impurities. The A kerosene is perfectly colorless, and has a close analogy to eupion. The remaining hydro-carbon oils are of a light straw-color. They burn freely in lamps, without incrustation of the wick. There are a number of oil manufactories in Germany. In some of these lignite is used, in others cannel coal. The coal is usually broken into small pieces, and when it con- tains sulphur it is moistsned with lime-water. The coal is then thoroughly dried in a furnace constructed for the purpose. The dried coals are distilled in common gas retorts, the eduction pipes of which open at the ends oppo- site their heads. In some instances the flame of the fur- nace is not permitted to strike the sides or upper surface of the retort. Paul Wagenmann, of Bonn, Khenish Prussia, in his patent, states as follows : " My improvements consist in breaking the coal or bitu- minous slate in pieces of about the size of a walnut ; and if they are very sulphurous I sprinkle them with lime- in * Extracted from copies of the kerosene patents. 98 wagenmann's process. m water. They are then taken to a drying-furnace of the following construction: A space by preference of two hundred feet in length, and twenty feet in width, is inter- sected by walls of two feet high ; at the distance of every four feet these walls are bound together by arches of one brick thick, and on these arches the coals and bituminous slate are spread. " The space below the arches is filled up with the residue from the retorts. " The coals or bituminous slate, when dried, is distilled in retorts, which are so far diflferent from those used at the gas-works, that the pipes for letting out the produce of distillation are on the opposite ends to those where the doors are. Over each fire are two retorts, each by prefer- ence, of about eight feet long, and two feet wide, with an opening of five inches, to let out the produce of distillation. The fire runs below the retorts in a direction from front to back, the fire bars only extending part of the way. I pre- fer to arrange a stack consisting of eight fires and sixteen retorts around one chimney, by which means I am enabled to lead the flame from one fire to the others, and by that means to heat the retorts by a graduated heat. " The products of distillation of the sixteen retorts meet together in one iron pipe about eighty feet long, and two feet diameter, which is surrounded by another, so that cold water can run between the two pipes for cooling. The gases, after having passed this pipe, enter in two cylinders, about twelve feet in height and four feet in diameter. These cylinders are filled with iron wire chips. The gases, after having passed the cylinders, pass through another iron pipe, forty feet high into the air, which pipe, to regulate the draught, is furnished with a regulator. " It is important that the produce of distillation should wagenmann's process. 99 ■I^ not be conducted bo as to produce preseure in the re- torts. " The produce of distillation runs into a general reservoir, and the reservoir is so arranged that the condensed pro- ductions will have an average heat of 80° centigrade. The oils separate themselves here from the ammoniacal water. The ammoniacal water is thrown over the cooled residue of the drying furnaces, and mixed with it, which produces a very good n)anure. The tar, after being separated from ammonia, is distilled, and the product of distillation is cooled by the means of a lead pipe, standing in a cooling apparatus, the water for cooling being kept always luke- warm. The product of distillation is divided into three qualities : No. I. from the beginning of the distillation to 0-865 specific gravity. No. II. from 0-865-0-900 specific gravity. No. III. from 0*900-1 '930 specific gravity. " The produce No. I. is mixed with sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid, at a temperature of 25° centigrade. Three hours afterwards the oil is taken off and washed with a solution of caustic soda, at 60° centigrade : it is left two hours, and then separated from the solution and dis- tilled. In the still is mixed a concentrated solution of soda. After the distillation the oils are light yellow, and give an average weight of 0*815-0"825 specific gravity. To cor- rect the smell I wash the oils again with sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid, separate them from the solution, and wash with concentrated solution of soda. " The oil No. II. is treated the same as No. I., but with different quantities of acids, and at a temperature of 35° centi- grade. The product, after the distillation, is a lighter oil. " The oil No. III. is the product for the preparation of the finest oil and paraffine candles. This oil is treated with sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid, at a temperature of N n 100 waoenmann's process. I- 83° cuntigrade,' and allowed to stand ; it is then separated from the acids, and washed with a solution of soda, at a temperature of 60° centigrade, and distilled. The oil con- tains paraffine, and is taken to a cool cellar at an ave- rage temperature of 12° centigrade, where it remains in iron butts for eight days. After this time the paraf- fine is separated from the oil by means of a centrifugal machine and cast in cakes, and pressed in a cold hydraulic press; afterwards melted and mixo'l vvith sulphuric acid, then separated and washed in watci ; it is then heated and cast in cakes, and again pressed by a heated press ; after- wards again melted and mixed with sulphuric acid at a temperature of 70° centigrade ; the acid is drawn off, and the paraffine is washed in water, after this it is melted with stearine." In some instances the retorts are placed in a circle around the chimney, and two of them are heated by one furnace. The gaseous products of the distillation are conducted into a large iron pipe, upon which a stream of cold water plays constantly to produce the necessary condensation. The uncondensed gases escape at the end of the condensing pipe and are lost. The oils and other liquid products of the dis- tillation flow into a cistern, whence they are pumped for purification. Having been separated from the aqueous products the oils are submitted to the purifying process. Some chemists have the oils mixed with four per cent, of sulphate of iron, in cast iron cisterns, supplied with agitators worked ly machinery. Next the charge of oil is distilled, and for this purpose various expedients have been resorted to. Some distil in vacuo, others employ common, or superheated steam. The latter obtains the preference, especially for the heavy oils. n GERMAN METHODS. 101 The distillate is usually divided into two parts. The first is permitted to run from the still until the specific gra- vity comes up to 0"870. The spcond part embraces all the remainder of the distillate. The first part is then ogitated four hours with six per cent, of concentrated sulphurio acid, one-eighth per cent, of bichromate of potash, and one- half per cent, of hydrochloric acid. The second part is treated in the same manner, except that the sulphuric acid is increased to eight per cent., with one-sixth per cent, of bichromate of potash, and one per cent, of hydrochloric acid. After the acid impurities, etc., have subsided they are drawn off and the oils are agitated two hours with lye and steam. The oils are then distilled, great care being taken that they should not "boil over." By this mode lamp oils, heavy oils, and parafiine are produced. The paraffine is put in a cool place and allowed to crystallize in the usual manner. At Bitterfield the coal is broken into small pieces and dis- tilled in elliptical retorts eight feet in length. The discharge pipe is of large size and opposite the head of each retort. Pressure upon the material while it is undergoing distilla- tion is avoided as much as possible. The purification con- sists in the alternate use of acids and solutions of caustic alkalies. Dr. Vohl, of Bonn, commences the distillation of paper coal at a low heat, which is gradually raised up to a red heat, and he remarks that slates containing twenty-five per cent, of water yielded the largest amount of oil. The author has observed the same fact in the distillation of bitu- minous shales imported to New York from Pictou, Nova Scotia. When the retorts are first charged with those shales, steam is generated from the water contained in them. I'll 102 uboohan's patent. .1 ■I With the Htcam Borao of the lighter oils arc distilled over, and with it condense. The effect is quite similar to that produced by admitting steam into the retort at the com- mencement of the decomposing distillation. In both in- stances the quantity of oils is increased. Broomari's Patent. — Among the lists of patents for the purification of hydro-carbon oils, this patent, which is dated London, February 28, 1866, has been overlooked, with several others of equal importance. The patent is for "improvements in treating bituminous shale. Boghead mineral, and other like schistose bodies, in order to obtain various commercial products therefrom." The schistose bodies are first decomposed in common retorts. The receiver is placed at some distance from the retorts, and receives through pijies a part of the gas gene- rated in them. Condensation is effected in refrigerating pipes kept cool by water. The oils are treated in agita- tors, or purifiers with sulphuric acid and caustic soda, and then distilled over again. The light oils are separated from the heavy for illuminating purposes by distilling them down to proof 82* (Cray Lussac's Areometer), all that remains is separated from the paraffine. For this purpose the heavy oil is placed in refrigerators with double bottoms and exposed to a low temperature, by which the paraffine is separated. The remainder is gathered into bags and sub- jected to pressure, to remove whatever oil it may contain.* The products represented as b^ing obtained by this mode are— " 1. Essential oil. " 2. An oil fox lighting purposes. " 3. A fatty, unctuous oil, for lubricating machinery. " 4. A liquid tar, for lubricating purposes. • Journal of Gaa Lighting (London), Sept. 16, 1866. IJOUMKUS TATKNT. 108 "5. A fiolkl tar. "6. A ' bluck/ which may bo viaeil in tho nuviiufiicture of printcrh' ink. " 7. A ' l)l;mk/ haviiij^ tiic proportios of luiimul black. "8. runilUno. " 1). Ammoniacul water, containing six per cent, of liquid ammoni;i." There is some obscurity in tlit» spocillcation of liiis patent; still the practical nianul'ucturer will roailily umlorstand, from the above, the luiture of tho ))n)cosi} employed. liodiiicr^s patent iHihdL'd London, February 4tli, 1856.* '' Tars are taken which have been produced by tho dis- tillation of coal at a lii'jh ti'inpfraturo, au(Oi as are made in the manufacfure of coal gas. This tar, beini? the cheapest at pri'sent, is therefore preferred; but tars produced in a similar nuinner, at a high temperature, from shale, peat, wood, and from bones, or other animal substances, will answer tho purpose. These tars nvo placed in an ordinarv still, into which tiie bulb of a thermometer is i)Iaeeil, and connected with a worm immersed in water; this water is kept regularly at a temperature of between dU" and 80° Fah., throughout all the distillations. The heat of tho still is raised by fire ; and when the thermometer in it lises to 300° Fall., the instrument is n'moved, and tho products of distilhiti(tn above 'JOO'' arc run into another vessel, and kept separate from the ]U'oiluets of distillation below 300^. The latter are rejected as unlit for the purpose. The tar is distilled to dryness, which is known to have taken place when i)roducts cease to run from the condenser, the heat being always kept up.'' "The oil obtained from liie coal tar is purified as follows: This oil is put into a leaden tank, and to each live hundred gallons is added ten gallons ♦ Journal of Gac-Lijhting (London). f I %i 104 bodmer's patent. i I -if ] t I' ' *" of commercial brown sulphuric acid, of strength I4O' Twaddle, or about 700 specific gravity, and they are well agitated together for one hour. The vitriol is allowed to subside, which will take place in ten or twelve hours, and is drawn off by a stop-cock placed at the bottom of the tank. Another ten gallons of brown sulphuric acid is then added to each five hundred gallons of the oil, and agitated for four hours. The oil, after subsidence, is re- moved to an iron vessel, and to each hundred gallons is added ten gallons of a solution of caustic soda, marking 70° Twaddle, or weighing 13^ lbs. to the gallon. These are agitated together thoroughly for ten or twelve hours ; and it is preferred to keep the temperature of the oil in this tank up to 80° Fah., both during the agitation with the caustic soda and afterwards, for ten or twelve hours. The clear oil is then removed into a still, and to each hun- dred gallons is added about 20 lbs. of the soda ash of commerce, 20 lbs. of slaked lime, and four gallons of water, or 40 lbs. of caustic solution of soda, marking 70° Twaddle — or by measure, three gallons, weighing 13^ lbs. to the gallon, arc taken for each hundred gallons of oil put into the still, and heat is applied. In general, no oil will come over until the heat of the still has reached 300° Fah. ; but if any should come below this temperature, it is rejected. When about eighty per cent, of the oil put into the still has been obtained, the process is stopped. The product of distillation is the improved lubricating oil, which is named ' new tar oil.' It may be used either by itself or mixed with other oils, fats, greases, and soaps." P. G. Barry places the oils in wooden tanks lined with lead. In these tanks the oils are agitated with five per cent, of tliflr weight of sulphuric acid, during a period of three hours. After the acid and impurities have settled. BANCROFTS PATENT. 105 the oils are drawn off into a second purifying vessel, and there agitated with five per cent, of their weight of caustic alkali, or with lime water sufficient to remove all the acid present in them. After the alkaline mixture has subsided the oils are again distilled. Bancroft obtained an English patent for the distillation of hydro-carbon oils from the petroleum of Burmah. He admits high pressure steam at fifty lbs. to the square inch into his stills, and places a fire beneath them until all the cupion is distilled over. This part of the distillate being removed, the fire beneath the still is increased, and the steam forced on, until about ninety per cent, of the charge is distilled off. At the close of the operation much paraf- fine appears, which renders it necessary that the condensing pipes should bo kept at a temperature not less than 90*^ Fah. In several instances the cooling down of the con- densing apparatus has led to the bursting of the still. A process is recorded in Lc Genie Industriel, and repre- sented as being the invention of Messrs. Dumoulin & Cotelle, by which the heavy coal oils are made to burn in lamps without smoke or odor. In a close vessel they place one liundred lbs. of crude coal oil, twenty-five quarts of water, one lb. of the chloride of lime, and one half lb. oxide of manganese. The mixture is thoroughly agitated. After a repose of twenty-four hours the clear oil is decanted and distilled. Next the one hundred lbs. of coal oil are mixed with twenty-five lbs. of rosin oil, and this is con- sidered the best part of their modt\ This last mixture may be distilled if necessary. From the high per ceiitage of carbon in the heavy coal oil, and also in the rosin oil, it will appear theoretically that this mixture cannot burn without smoking in any of the ordinary coal oil lamps, and this is found to be ^he fact in practice. In an argand lamp n % 106 NUMBER OF PATENTS. II: |! 1: [Is 1 witb a sbort-toppcd wick, and a button over tbo inner air tube, or in tbe campbene bunp, tbe above oil will burn witb a sbort flame and brilliant ligbt, and so also will tbe rosin oil, or tbe beavy oil, mixed or unmixed ; but tbose lamps are rapidly falling into disuse, benig sup})lanted by the kerosene, or coal oil lamp. It bas been already stated tbat upwards of one bundred patents bave been granted for alleged new metbods of manufacturing and rectifying oils distilled from coals and otber bituminous mineral substances ; and upwards of forty patents bave been issued for retorts and otber apparatus con- nected witb tbis brancb of industry. A description of tbe various metbods and similarities of operation, witb tbe extraordinary and unpbilosopbical fancies set fortb in some of tbose patents, would not interest tbe practical man nor tbe general reader. Tbe extracts drawn from tbe foregoing patents bave tborefore been deemed sulfieient for tbis brief tecbnological treatise, and to direct tbe manufacturer of oils to tbe valuable discoveries now placed at bis band. Tbe preceding part of tbis cbaj^ter will bave sbown tbat upon a few leading, and, as it is supposed, essential o])era- lions, all tbe patentees appear to agree. Upon non-essen- tials tbey differ as widely as persons do in matters of far liigbcr importance. It is conceded at tbe present time — 1st, Tbat tbe crude coal, or otber material, must first be submitted to dry, or decomposing distillation, and tbat a moderate degree of beat will proilnce more and better oils tlian a bigb temperature. 2d, Tbat tbe use of a strong acid is necessary in tbe puri- fication of sucb oils. 8d, Tbat tbe acid must be succeeded by tbo use of an alkali. MODE OF MANUFACTLitC. 107 4th, Tluxt it is necessary to distil the oils after the use of the acid and alkali. It will be perceived by the foregoing extracts, from patents for the manufacture and purifu-atiou of oils, that distillation, acids, and alkalies, form the basis of every alleged invention ; but upon the quantities, the modes of application, and the minor details of working, there is much disagreement ; and persons unskilled in chemical science have frequently introduced some peculiar mode in the application of those agents, to give novelty to their patents, or to satisfy their employers of their superior skill. The oils from different coals require different treatment. The oils of Albert coal (asphaltum), Bogliead and Breck- enridge coal are easily purified ; while the oils from the ordinary American, English, and Scotch cannels, require more skill, and cost more to bring them up to a fair stan- dard among the hydro-carbons sold in the market. The author has made more than two thousand experi- ments in reference to the manufacture and purification of oils distilled from coal, petroleum, and other materials. From long practice, and the imi^irovements introduced by others, ho ventures to lay the following plan before his readers, as being generally applicable to the distilled oils of coal and bitumen. Petroleum will be ndticed in the sequel. Eegarding the purification of those oils, the present is the age of experiment. Improvements arc constantly advanc- ing, and some time may elapse before their manufacture is brought to perfection, and the distilled hydro-carbon oils attain that commercial and economic value they are destined to reach. H H f w 108 DISTILLERY FOR COAL AKD TETROLKUM OILS. CITAPTEE VII. Buildings nnd Mnchiiicry. — lletliod i]} Mniiufacturing and rurifying the Oils distilled from Coiils nnd otlier Ritnniinoiis Substances, nnd the Pro- ducts derived tliercCrom. — Distilling by Steam.— Continual Distillation. — rarnffino. — Lubricating Oils. w% 1^ ^1: DISTILLERY FOR COAL AND PETROLEL'M OILS. Before any suggestions are made in reference to a proper mode of manufacturing and purifying the liydro-carbon oils, the construction and arrangement of the manufactory itself require some notice. It is very desirable, in all cases, that the buildings constituting the establishment should be constructed of stone or bri(,'k, with iron roofs. The occu- pation of -wooden buildings is unsafe; "when they are employed, great care is necessary. Every preservative against fire, by the use of non-combustible material and the command of water, should be planned for at the onset of construction. When coal is to be distilled in retorts, the retort house should be separated from the distillery, or refining house, and all crude materials and marketable oils should be kept in separate stores, away from the operating part of the establishment. Eeceivers of the products of the retorts are advantngeously situated underground. A steam pump, communicating with cisterns of water, and supplied with hose capable of reaching every building, should be always ready for action, while at the same time it performs the ofliccs required by the manufactory. Between the stills and the several worm-tanks and DISTILLERY FOR COAL AND PETROLEUM OILS. 109 receivers it is necessary to erect a strong brick or stone wall, through which the connecting pieces between the stills and the worms pass. It is also desirable to separate the stills one from the other by partition walls. During the distillation, and especially at its commencement, a light hydro-carbon vapor frequently escapes at the lower extre- mity of the condensing-pijie. This vapor is highly inflam- mable, as well as the lighter oils that accompany it. No lire should, therefore, ever be permitted in the body of the refinery. The agitators should be placed at convenient heights to permit the oils to flow from the acid cisterns into the tanks where they are to be washed with the alkali, and to run thence into the stills. A good arrangement of the ma- chinery is of much consequence ; and, above all, the most rigid cleanliness should be observed in every operation connected with the manufactory. An abundant sujiply of clean, fresh water is absolutely necessary. The plan and sections (pp. 110-111) represent approved arrangements of the building and apparatus of a coal oil or petroleum distillery. Coals. — The crude oils distilled from coals differ greatly in yield and in quality. It will be observed in the table given in a preceding chapter, that a few varieties will pro- duce over a hundred gallons per ton. Some cannels will not yield over fifty, and others thirty gallons per ton. The qualities of the crude oils also differ. Some afford large quantitiec' of parafiine, or heavy oil, and but a small percentage of lamp oil. Others yield much eupion. In the purchase of coal lands, or coal for the manufiicture of hydro-carbon oils, an accurate test of the coal is necessary. Coal oil works have been erected at coal mines, where the coal itself is almost worthless for oil-making. i 110 DISTILLERY FOR COAL AND PETROLEUM OILS. V: ^ I! Li r L - j i .ili . Ir i i -tf^ifirV J n 'i ii lr j uV , i i , ii n ^ ' ufr ft-rfV iUiiii ii^fe Frffil — 1 1 fit riT ir Hi m ^ i, :^s JriHnr'^' ::-::»- /tA TERS c. SON ■ cjy. GCSNCn. DLL. I BECTIpN ON LINE C— n OP PLAN. COAL OIL REKIUKUT PLAN.— 800 CALS. rAPACITT PER DirM. DISTILLERY FOR COAL AND PETROLEUM OILS. Ill 8BCTI0N ON BROKEN LINK A— B OF PLAN. EEFEUENCES. E. Stills. F. Worms. 0. Worm tnnks. n. Holler. 1. Eiiirlno. J. Steam pump. K. Still fiirnacB. L. WiL^hers, or sgitators. M. Hccoivers. N. Market tank. O. Syphon of still pipe. P. Drain. Q. Chimney. U. Water pipe. S. Steam pipe. T. Wa-slier sieailnf.'. IT. Pipe from agitators to stills. V. Ventilators. "W. Tail pipes. X. Still houM. Y. Kefliiery. Bitumens. — The preceding remarks are also applicable to aspbaltunis and bitumens. The tars of candle manufac- tories also give different results, and yield some heavier and some lighter oils. Retorts. — Different retorts also produce different results. "When the discharge-pipe is high, there will be less crude oil ; but the oil will be lighter and purer. Pressure upon the charge and its vapors during distillation will diminish il! f, m lA I if m- ii- -1,3 - % 112 DISTILLERY FOR COAL AND PETROLEUM OILS. the yield ; and where the condensation is imperfect, a part of the lighter oils will escape with the gas. The revolving retort has the advantage of distilling coals and shales in less than half the time required for stationary retorts.. The yield is also large ; but the crude oil is impure from the quantity of dust produced by the agitation of the material during its dry distillation. More important than all is the amount of heat applied, which should, as an ordinary rule, not exceed 800° Fah. Before the coal, asphaltum, or any bitumen is thrown into the retort, it is advantageous to break it into small pieces. Large masses seldom discharge all the volatile matter from their central parts. Condensers. — By removing the heat that attends the vapors and gases produced by distillation, their particles are brought into closer proximity, and all pass from the gaseous into the liquid or solid state, except the permanent gas, which is incapable of condensation by ordinary means. Condensers are usually metallic worms immersed in water, which is kept at the desired temperature by the admission of cold water. It is quite immaterial whether the con- denser is a long metallic pipe, a series of pipes, or an open chamber, if it be of sufficient dimensions, and kcjjt at a low temperature. Receivers — at coal oil manufactories — are tanks, usually sunk in the earth, to allow a descent of the oils from the condensers. They should be closely covered, to pre- vent the evaporation of the lighter oils, which, in warm weather, is very rapid. The gas which remains uncon- densed should be conveyed to a gasometer, and there stored for fuel, or it may be purified in the manner of ordinary coal gaa, and employed for lighting. In general the gas is allowed to escape, especially where fuel for the manufac- tory is cheap. It is admirably adapted to the distillation I; ^ TREATMENT OF THE CRUDE OILS. 118 of oils, and, with proper burners, a high degree of heat may be obtained. Precipitation or settling. — With the crude oils that flow irito the receiving tank there is always a quantity of water, or ammoniacal liquid combined with some carbonaceous matter and other irnj)urities. When the coal, or other material distilled in the retorts, is very moist, the water in the receiver will sometimes amount to twenty per cent, of the distillate. To remove those impurities it is most advan- tageous to pump the whole into a second receiver, or tank, which should be elevated a little above the working level of the stills it is designed for. The crude oils and their impurities should next be heated up, by means of a steam coil placed in the bottom of the tank, to 90° or 100*^ Fah. The ammoniacal water and the impurities soluble in water will then settle, and may be readily drawn off. Ammonia. — When the ammonia present in the water is sufficient in quantity to pay the cost and a profit upon its separation, it may be neutralized by the application of sulphuric or muriatic acid, and the solution evaporated to obtain sulphate, or muriate of ammonia, or it may be pro- fitably employed in combination with other manures for a fertilizer. The carbonaceous matter that forms a stratum between the crude oils and the water is worthless unless it be used in the preparation of artificial fuel. TREATMENT OF THE CRUDE OILS. Si' The crude oils, being separated from their impurities, may at once be submitted to chemical treatment ; but as a general rule, and especially when they are heavy and con- 114 DISTILLING BY THE AID OF STEAM. fV ;r! l£i~ tain mucli tar, they should he first distiUcd. This distilla- tion is made in a cuiniium iron still, protected from the action of the fire by fire brick, which c(iuali/es the heat, consequently the expansion of the metal, and lessens the risk of fracture. DISTILLING BY TIIK AID OF STEAM. The "charge" of oil prepared as above, may be run into the still and distillecl without the uao of steam. But when it has been " run oir' to four fifths of the whole quantity, or when the part remaining in the still will be a thiek pitch when cold, common steam should be gently let into the neck, or breast of the still. The steam immediately pro- duces an outward current through the condensing apjniratus and brings over all the remaining part of the oils, leaving a comjiact coke as the only residuum. Furthermore, it gradually diminishes the heat of the iron and prevents it from breaking. When the steam is thus let in, the fire is to be removed from beneath the still. Common steam under moderate pressure has been intro- duced into stills, both above the charge and into it through- out the entire distillation. In the latter instance the steam soon becomes superheated after the lighter oils have been run off. Again, steam previously superheated is driven into the charge during the distillation, and for the distilla- tion of the heavy oils and j)araffine this mode h;is the preference; yet steam is advantageous however ajtplied. When it is superheated the condensing apparatus should be extensive to meet the increased heat. Continual Distillation. — In the first distillation of the crude oils, as they come from the retorts, and in subsequent ones, the oils may be slowly admitted into the still after it :i^. V: UldTlLLIXa BY THE All) OF STEAM. 115 hns become sulliuienlly lioutoil and tlio oils bogiii to flow froely from the worm, or coiuk'nscr. IJy the mljustinentof n cock, ii stream of the criule product may be permitted to flow throuf^li an iron tube into the still while it is in ope- ration. Th(! tube .should ili[) InMieath the oil in the .still, the in-llow <}f oil into which must not exceed the out-llow from the condenser. A greatt>r amount of heat will bo recjuircd fur this operation than for the common method, as much of it is taken up by tlie. cold oil constantly flowing inwards. By tliis mode a still working lUdO gallons may be made to run double that (piantity without interruptioiu and .steam m.iy be api)lied in any manner before described. ?'//(' Jiral dislillale. — The first distillate of the er\ide oil .should be .sei)arated into two parts, each of which re(|uire3 somewhat dilfercnt treatment. The first part is that which distils over from the conuuenccnumt of the run until the oils in the receiver have a proof of 30'^ by hydrometer,* or a .specilie gravity of 0"843. These light hydro-carbons and the eupion they ci>nt;iiu form the lamp oil. The quantity produced will dej)end U})on the rpiality of the coal, or other material, whence they liave been derived. This jtart of the distillate being pumped from the receiving tank, or otherwise removed, the remainder, or second part, is allowed to llow on until it assumes a greenish color at the end of the worm pipe, when steam, if not previously employed, may be let into the still and continued until the whole distillation is completed; the fire in the furnace beneath the still being withdrawn. A quantity of coke will be found to remain, amounting to ten or fifteen per cent, of the whole charge. This coke is excellent fuel, and after all its volatile matter has been expelled it may be employed in the clarification of sugar. * Soo note A, Appendix. 116 DWTir.LINO UV THE AID OF STEAM. I i' i'i: :| When steam is not eniployoil the residuum in tlie still must not he run down lower than a thiek pitch. Coking in the still without steam is unsafe and ha/ardouH to the iron. The iirst ]>art is then to be plaeed in an iron cistern and therein thoroughly agitated from one to two hours, with from four to ten percent, of sulphuric aeid, the object being to bring every particle <>*" the impurities in contact with the acid. The quantity of a(!id to be used depends upon the character of the oils and the coal, heat, &e., em- ployed in the retorts. If too much acid is ajiplied the oils will be partially charred and discolored; if too little, the impurities will not be oxidated, and the oils will change color. After the agi- tation of the oil and acid is comi)leted, the mixture must remain at rest iVom six to eight hours, when the acid, with the chief })art of the im})urities, will have settled to ilic bottom of the vessel. They are then to be drawn off, and the remaining oil to be washed with ten or twenty per cent, of water. The water removes a part of the remaining acid, and carries olf the soluble impurities. The acid now appears in the form of tar, and may afterwards bo separated from the irn])urities for further use. After the water is withdrawn the charge is to be agitated two hours with from five to ten per c^nt., by measure, of a solution of caus- tic potjish, or soda of si i>cilic gravity 1*400. The hydrates of those alkalies may be used in the same manner; but the solution of caustic soda is generally preferred. Like the acid, the strength and quantity of the alkali must be v; i ied according to tlie (lualit}' of the oils. After a repose of six hours or more, the alkali is to be withdrawn from the oil, and any further impurities r<'ndercd soluble, by its aj)[)lica- tion, washed out with water, lifter the use of the water the oil should be perfectly i;e;, '.ral. When the water is Mt^TIM.INd UY TICK AID OF 8TKAM. 117 witlir cent. tU' the alkiilinc Bolntion, or an equivalent ([uantity of lime, or sodii ash with or without water. During,' tho whole of thest; opera- tions tlie oils and tho several washes applied to them are to bo kept at a temporatnro not lower than UO"-' Fah. This ifl conveniently <\->\h oj rir uns of Hteam eoils fixed at tho bottoms of lii" tanks in vJiich tho agitations are made. Tho arritat r innploytl may bo of any kind, if its action is efficient ''; idly the oil is to be earefidly distilled, with or rvithout steam. /. small quatitity of thi> liLditest pro- duct or eujtion, whieh comes first from the condensing worm, is usually disrojoiTtl. and may therefore be trans- ferred to tlu succeeding ehar;ie. The last distillation sluudd be made slowly and with care, avoiding all fluctuations i)roduoed by an unsteady beat. If desired, the eupion may be taken olf at tho com- nionconi(>nt of tho distillation. It should be at proof (50", or specitic gravity, 0'738, or it may bo allowed to run in with the lamp oil. When tho distillate has reached proof 40°, or specilic gravity 0"819, tho remainder is to bo trans- ferred to tho next charge, or the heavy oil, as being too dense for illuminating jnirposes. The niix(>d oils intended for lamps have their disagrooa- blo odor ohiedy removed by allowing them to remain in flat open cisterns over weak solutions of the alkalies during a period of some d.iys. Light al.-o improves tluir color. I'he alkalies employed in the foregoing treatment ma}' be restored and used in subsequent puritications. The oils of the second or heavy part of the first distil- late are purified by the same meu«s as described for tho lighter oils, except that they require the application of r>! \ I.' l;,i m. w 118 PARAFFINE. more acid and stronger alkalies. All the oils distilled from then.i at proof 40° are to be added to the lamp oils. At the close of each distillation, and as the oils acquire greater density, the color grows darker and changeable, finally they are })arlially charred, and especially when they have been di.stillt'd without steam. These dark-colored oils may always be renovated by the use of acids and alkalies, the permanganates of potash and soda, and, finally, by distil- lation. The color of the lamp oils should not exceed a tinge of greenish yellow, when viewed in a clear glass flask six inches in diameter. If by accident, carelessness, or negligence, the oils treated by the foregoing method should be ini[)ure, they must be submitted to washing and redis- tillation. Paraffinc. — In general all the oils below proof 35° con- tain more or less parafiine ; below 30° the paralfinc is still more abundant. When the whole process has been well conducted those oils are to be placed in tanks in cool situ- ations (thermometer at 40° and lower) ; the paraffinc will then crystallize on the sides of the tanks in beautiful white silvery scales, from which the still liquid oils may be with- drawn. The parailine, in a solid state, may then be re- moved, and submitted to powerful presses io got rid of a further portion of the oil. It is purified at last by agitating it while mi.'lted with one half or more of its weight of sul- ])huric acid. The acid is then washed out widi hot water and solutions of the caustic alkalies. It is again pressed, and finally melted and cast into masses, or run into candles.* The heavy oils, and those which drain from the jiaraninc, are excellent lubricators. They may be mixi.'d with ani- mal oils wliiii it is desirable to give them greater consist- ence. As they do not readily oxidate when exposed to * See Kiiiiiip's AppUal Chemidnj. Vol. i., p. 3S2. Loi.iun, 1S55. PURIFICATION OF PETROLEUM OILS. 119 the air, they are peculiarly applicable as lubricants. The gumming complained of by machinists arises from the oxi- dation of the oils they have heretofore employed to relieve friction. These heavy hydro-carbons, and even the solid paraffine itself, may be decarbonized and rendered suitable for lamps. Just in proportion to the amount, or number of the equiva- lents of carbon withdrawn from them, so are their boiling points lowered and their specific gravities diminished. The author is disposed to the belief that hydrogen is a volatile metal, of which the oils before described are carburets. PURIFICATION OF PETROLEUM OILS. ; An almost colorless naphtha arises from the earth at Baku, on the border of the Caspian Sea, accompanied by hj^dro-carbon vapors, which arc collected and used for heat- ing and lighting. It is also used in lamps in its natural state. A single distillation renders it (pite pure. From the presence of paraffine the Eangoou petroleum is nearly of the consistence of butter at tlie ordinary temperature. It has been treated with sulphuric acid and the alkalies, in the manner mcommended for coiil oils. The paraffine, which was first discovered by Mr. Faraday, is also treated with the acids, and then submitted to pressure, !^[uch of the Persian oil is colorless, and is consumed in lamps with- out purification. The petroleums of South America and the "West India Islands often contain much sulphur, and their odor is very offensive. In examining some of the now almost inactive and extinct volcanoes of the West Indies, the author observed that the petroleums of volcanic districts were 9 ! ! I > 120 PURIFICATION OF PETROLEUM OILS. W rf* > much more offensive than those of undisturbctl localities. Boiling mud with steam issues from the earth on the shores of Trinidad, and raises itself into conical mounds, sometimes fifty feet high. The petroleum at those places has an intolerable odor, and contains sulphuretted hydrogen. Gold is immediately tarnished by the gases of these sulphu- rous districts. All these natural hydro-carbon oils require active treatment to render them unobjectionable for domes- tic purposes. The alternate use of acids and alkalies has been found the most effectual in their purification. The petroleums of the United States?, of which great quantities are now obtained, differ much in their densities or proofr. Some of the wells in Venango County, Penn- sylvania, afford oils of specific gravity 0"800. in other parts of the oil region the petroleums have densities of 'O850, and even O900. Indeed these heavy semiliquid hydro-carbon compounds sometimes pass into compact bitu- men, an example of which may be seen in Jackson County, Kectmeky, and at other places. These deposits of solid bitumen have probably been pro- duced by the evaporation of th(>, lighter hydro-carbons, and by the oxidation of those beds which ?iow appear like the sites of ancient lakes. They are quite dilVerent in their origin and characters from the injected masses of solid asphalte discovered in Ititchie County, Virginia, and in Albert County, in the Province of New Brunswick. From the great difference in the densities of those petro- leums, there is a great difference in rc^gard to their value and their treatment in the process of purification. Of tlic lighter oils ninety per cent, of pure oil ibr illuminating purposes may be olitained ; but of the more dense varieties, and those which contain much tarry matter, not more than forty or fifty per cent, of lamp oil is at present produced. I PURIFICATION OF PETROLEUM OILS. 121 The result has Leen the same as that in the manufacture of coal oils. Large quantities of the heavy oils, and impure paraffine, accumulate in the distilleries, and will continue to increase until a cheap and successful process is discovered for their decarbonization. The methods practised by persons engaged in refining the American petroleums are as different as those in use for the purification of the oils distilled from coals. Some employ acids and alkalies in the manner i)reviously de- scribed, others use alkalies alone, and steam is applied at various degrees of heat. Some of the oils produced by those means are of good quality, others are inferior, and do not ascend the wick of the lamp in sufiicent quantities to afford a constant light. In others the illuminating prin- ciple, by some change effected on the carbon, is partially destroyed, and in almost all the odor is disagreeable. The oils from some of the wells contain traces of chloride of sodium, others carbonate of soda in quantities sufficient to affect their treatment. The denser oils, or those which contain too much carbon to admit of being consumed in lamps without smoke, are excellent lubricators, either mixed or unmixed with animal oils. It will be perceived by the foregoing statement that it would be a difficult task to prescribe a mode of 2>urifieatioii to meet the requirements of the oil refiners. Neither the petroleums, nor the oils distilled from them, contain crea- sote, or cabolic acid, and other impurities which contaminate the oils distilled from coals and coal shales ; their purifica- tion is therefore simple and compaAitively cheap. When the proof of the oil is not below 38", distillation with water, or by the use of steam, will most frequently render the lamp oil of good color, and its illuminating pro- perties will be of the highest order. Before the heavy oils, il! i,- i . 1 * 122 rURTFICATION OF PETROLEUM OILS. those below proof submitted any treatment, it is necessary to give them a preliminary distillation, by the aid of common, or superheated steam, and the distillate should be separated into two parts, all below proof 88* being set aside to be treated for lubricating oil, and a farther portion to be added to the illuminating oil. Wash- ing the lighter part of the charge with a solution of caustic potash, or soda of specific gravity not exceeding 1"400, is useful. A final distillation over a weak solution of either of those alkalies will generally render the oil pure. The heavy parts of the oil miy require agitation with equal parts of sulphuric acid and water, followed by an alkaline wash and then distillation. It is onl}^ the most impure oils and those from the wells of certain localities that require the use of acids, which, like the strong alkalies when used ill excess, greatly impair the illuminating properties of these hydro-carbons. The lighter the oils the lighter will be their color. At proof 45*^ they are colorless. At proof 42"^ coloring matter begins to appear in the distillate, and continues to increase until the charge is exhausted. In order to present the lamp oil of a light color some refiners have sent it to market at proof 45° ; but it should be under- stood that such oils are much more inflammable and liable to explode than those at proof 40°. Color in this instance should be sacrificed to safetv. Tlie offensive odor of these oils is removed by the means laid down for the deodori- zation of coal oils. A valuable property of all the before- mentioned oils, consists in the fact, that they never become rancid nor ferment. Indeed they are improved by ,nge, and gradually lose their un]')leasant odor. It is unnecessary to enlarge upon the national advantages which must evidently result from the manufacture of oils from mineral substances. Some of the uses to which those REFUSE OF OIL MANUFACTORIES. 123 oils may be applied have been noticed. Doubtless tlicre arc others to be discovered. The light afforded by the hydro-carbon oils is equal to that of gas, and in an eco- nomical point of view it is unrivalled. REFUSE OF OIL MAKUFACTORIES. In the early operations of manufiiotori.s, and more espe- cially when their chemists have not had the advantages of experience, residual and resultant products are frcrpiently overlooked, attention being directed altogether to the staple articles called for in the market. This remark is peculiarlj" applicable to coal and petroleum oil manufactories. In the United States, at the present period, vast quantities of pitch, heavy oils, and other valuable refuse products are permitted to flow into creeks and rivers, being considered worthless. It is to those products the manufacturer sliould direct his care and attention. To their careful use he will have to look ere long for no small part of his gains. Com- petition will ultimately reduce the actual profits to be made upon the oils themselves within narrow limits, and success will only be awarded to economy and superior manufiic- turing skill. The products here referred to are, gas, coke, ashes, ammo- niacal ivaler, impure sulplmric acid, impure alkalies und jjitch. Gas. — From the numerous coal oil works now in opera- tion, thousands of cubic feet of carburetted hydnjgen gas are daily evolved and wasted in the atmosphere which they contaminate. This gas might be collected and stored in gasometers for the supply of light to towns and villages. An exhausting pump placed between the main and the gasometer would relieve the pressure of the retorts and 124 REFUSE OF OIL MANUFACTORIES. r m I m I* readily force the gas in any required direction. Its puri- fication could bo made in the usual manner. It is to be admitted tliat this gas would be inferior for illumination to that usually supplied to cities; bufits deficieficy in quality could bo made up in (piantit^', and the price at which it could be afforded would remove every objection to its use. At situations where coal, or the supply of coke, is insuf- ficient, the gas may b(i most advantageously employed for producing steam, and for all the distillations required in making and purifying the oils. For tliose purposes it is suj)erior to any other kind of fuel, as the heat may be increased or diminished instantaneously at the will of the operator. For heating, the gas requires no purification, and recent improvements in producing heat by this agent will supply the highest temper.atare required. Coh'. — "When the coal employed affords a good coke it is used for fuel ; the coke of Boghead coal and the bitumi- nous shales is of little value. Some of the asphaltums and bitumens afford a small residue of fuel. AsJx's. — A.shes collect around oil manufactories in large quantities, and they differ in their composition according to the nature of the coal consumed. In all cases where they contain any considerable percentage of lime, they will be found valuable fertilizing agents for certain .soils. Ammoniacal vabr. — "Whenever nitrogen enters into the composition of the coal, shale, or other material distilled in the retort's, ammoniaeal wiit(>r will be one of the products, and upon it the lighter oils will repose in the receiving- vessels. The quantity of ammonia is oflen very con- siderable. Sulphate of ammonia. — To prepare the sul])hate of ammo- nia from the crude ammoniaeal water, the latter is to be saturated with sulphurif^ acid, and evaporated in a cast-iron REFUSE OF OIL MANUFACTORIES. 125 boiler. The saturation may be made in a leaden vessel, and the evaporation performed by steam. When the liquid has attained a specific gravity of 1-400, or thereabouts, it should bo run into a vessel lined with lead, and crystal- lized. Another mode consists of distilling the ammoniacal water, and conducting the distillate into a solution of sul- phuric acid of spec. grav. 1"700. In tliis case the sulphate of ammonia is precipitated, and may bo dipped out with ladles. Cldorohydride of ammonia {sal ammoniac). — To form the sal ammoniac of commerce, the ammonial water is to be satu- rated with hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid). It is usually evaporated in vessels of lead, and then run into wooden coolers. The salt is then to be dried in stoves, and finally sublimed in iron pots with large domes. Some days are required to complete the last operation. Snlplniric acid. — The sulphuric acid employed in the purification of coal and other distilled oils frequently con- tains half its bulk of impurities, oxidated and charred by the acid. This tarry liquid is now very generally dis- carded from the manufactories as a worthless and offensive article. Tliousauds of tons of acid that might be purified for further use are thus annually lost. After the acid has performed its office as a purifier, it should be placed in tanks lined with lead, where, by repose, from two to five per cent, of oil will rise to its surface, whence it may be removed and economized. The acid may be purified by distillation in glass, or platinum stills; but a cheaper and more convenient method of restoring it to its first state is worthy the attention of chemists. Very great quantities of the solution of caustic alkalies are cmpkyed in purifving coal and petroleum oils. At present those washes, as they are called, are permitted to i II la 126 REFUSE OF Olli MANUFACTORIES. m it - run to waste. Frequently they arc partially neutralized by the acid that preceded them in tlic purifying process. When these solutions are strongly alkaline, they may bo submitted to evaporation and crystallization for further use, the impurities which float upon them being removed. If they have been nearly neutralized by the acid taken up from the oil, the neutralization should be completed by the addition of more acid, when they will form sulphate of soda, or sulphate of potash, as one or the other alkali has been employed. These alkalies are excellent fertilizers, when they arc combined in compost with peat or other organic substances. Pitch. — In the first distillation of the crude oil, and in subsequent ones, where steam is not employed, it is not convenient to run the charges down to dryness, whereby the stills are more or less endangered ; and when the dis- tillation of the paralTine is not considered important, the charges are run down to a thick pitch, which, when cold, is an artificial asphaltum. This pitch is very useful for many purposes. It may enter beneficially into the compo- sition of waterproof cements, varnishes, and patent fuel. When evaporated down to a proper consistence, it is valu- able for roofing. The roof is first covered with sheathing paper, and then with the melted pitch, upon which gravel or sand is thrown immediately, and finally all thot remains loose is brushed off". The pitch may also be converted into lamp black, by burning it away from the air, by which the carbon is converted into lamp black, instead of car- bonic acid, which would be the result if the air was freely admitted to the combustion. APPENDIX. ^t» SCALE. 1 TO 66 60 66 60 40 40 86 80 25 15 10 Note a. A TABLE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF OILS. li H ^a"S (IKSNRK. 70 G9 G8 e 0G96 0-700 0-704 671 0-707 i a c t a 1$^ i GG 0-711 G5 0-713 G4 0-718 63 0-722 62 0-725 Gl 0-729 GO 0-733 59 0-737 58 0-741 57 : 0-745 5G1 0-749 I 55 0-753 54^ 0-757 53; 0-761 1 52! 0-7G5 51 0-769 I 50 0-773 49 0-778 48 0-782 47 j 0-787 46! 0-791 45, 0-795 44! 0-800 43 0-804 42 0-808 41 0-813 40 0-819 39' 0-824 I i 38| 0-828 j 37 1 0-833 36' 0-838 35 0-843 34' 0-848 28i 0-881 '• 27' 0-880' 26: 0-891 ' 25! 0-898 i I 24' 0-903 i 23 0-909 22 0-915 ; 21 i 0921 1 20 0-927! 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 0-933 0-940 0-946 0-951 0-959 O-OGG 0-971 33 0-854 12 0-979 32! 0-859 11 0-986 ' 31] 0-864 10 0-994 30 0-869 29 0-875 1 1 1 If lil.l i! f;' i.ti 128 APPENDIX. Tlie tlinoronce between this scale niul tliat of Baume ia nearly five grains (omitting decimals) in the ypecific gravity of every proof given, or J*,, of a degree on the scale. Proof by Dr. Cksneh's Scale. | Baumk's Scale. 80- . . . 20*6 40* . . . 896 SO* . . . 40*6 eo* • • . 69*6 70- • . 696 and so on for all the other degrees. Ppeo. Or. Tlie proof of Eiipion is fixed at . G0° 0-733 " Lamp oil 40' 0'819 " Coal tar benzole 35° 0-843 " Lubricating oil (light) 28° 0-881 " " " (heavy) 20° 0-927 Made by G. Taoliabue, 298 Tcarl Street, New York. /I /^ /- Note h. Tlie following list comprises a number of the companies and firms manufacturing coal oil in the United States at the present period. There are also fifteen estalilishments where petroleum only is worked. Doubtless there are others whoso names have not been reported : — ,/ Aladdin Co., Kiskiminitas, Pa. , Atlantic Co., New York. Adair & Veeder, Pittsburgh, Pa. Anderson, Darlington, Pa. Brcokcnridge Co., Cloverport, Ky. Boston & Portland Co., Boston. Beloni & Co., New York. ' Brooks, Zanesville, 0. Covington Co., Covington, Ky. Cox, Zanesvil'-^, 0. Carbon Co., !N w York. Cornell & Co., Canfield, 0. ;';' Downer Co., Boston. Cf^^n-i / Dean, Cleveland, 0. Empire State Co., New York. - ' •" ":; Excelsior Co., New York. — . ^J Eureka Co., New York. East Cambridge Co., East Cam-/ ]>^f bridge, M-iss. ^ Enon Valley Co., Enon Valley, ^ Pa. Franklin Co., New York. - five ven, APPENDIX. 129 -? C }(^i dt> mi J'a '.. rms •iod. ked. ti am-/ ;>-» ley, -^ Forest Hill Co., Kftiiawha, Va. Falling Rock Co., Knnawlm, Va. Great Wt-stcrn Co., Newark, 0. Orecrs, Kanawha, Va. Great Kanawha Co., Kanawha, Vu. Grasselli, Cincinnati. Glondon Co., Ho.Hon. ILirtfurd Co., llnrtlbnl, Ct. Hiinebaiigh & Co., CoslKxiton, 0. Knickerbocker Co., Now York. Kerosene Co., New York. ?rest()n Co., Ya. Long Ishuul Co., New York. Lucesco Co., Ki.skiininitas, Pa. Murion Co., Taylor Co., Va. North American Co., Kiskiniini- tas. Pa. New York and Wheeling Co., Wlieeling, Va. New Bedibrd, New Bedford, / New York Coal Oil Co., . New Galilee, Pa. Orion (,V)., N.Y. Pii\khani, Boston, Pcasley, Boston. Pago Si Co., Boston. Pictou Co., New York. Palestine Co., Palestine, Pa. PhcLMiix Co., Cincinnati, O. Preston Co., P'.'e:ston Co., Va. Robinson k Co., Perry Co., 0. Ritehio Co. (bitumen), Ritchie Co., Va. Sherwood, Canfield, 0. Staunton, Kanawha, Vo. St.'tniford Co., Stamford, Ct. • - Union Co.. :M.'.ysville, Ky. White Day Co., Monongalia Co., Vu. Western Co., Cincinnati, 0. — Zephyr Co., New York. Total, 5G. yV. 'fK, HI 1^ "ft { \ j 180 A1'1'£NDIX. Note e. Till! following tabic, ri-lutiiig to tho cost of Artificial Liglit, has been oxtraetod from the statement of Dr. Charles M. Wctherill, ami j)ublinhcd in The American Qua Liijht Journal, May 1, 18G(): — Illuminating Mntcrlal. Coft p<'r Ih. or gallon. ('(inftiiiii|iUon In fdur hoiirt. rout of I.luht JHT hour. Wax candles (red) $0 50 per lb. 532 grains lOGSctK " " (green) 458 " Purnnine candles, G's. OCO " 5G7 " 1-395 " Tallow " G's. 15 " 5G3 " 0-324 " Sperm " 4'8, 40 " 587 " 0-984 " Star " 25 " G30 " 0-G88 " 1 Lard oil 1 20 per gallon 12C>1 0Z8, fluid 2-096 " Burning fluid . . . 75 " 5-09 0-74G " Kerosene .... 120 " 3-89 " 0'912 " ADDENDA. Petroleum oil . . . 100 " 3-24 800 " New York coal gas . 2 50 per 1000 ft. 4 feet burner. I -000 fj'ii NOTB d. Of kerosene, or coal oil lamps, there is a great variety in the market, and the weekly list of patents shows that tho number is still increasing. A new lamp has just been brouglit to the notice of the public by IIonATio Eagle, Esq., 120 Maiden Lane, New York. It produces a brilliant white light without tJie aid of a chimney. I N 1) E X. Albert ooftl Annliiiii .... Amfators Alleghany coal field . Acitlf* .... Alkftl'u'H •. . . . AcitiDD of Hulpliiiric mnd . Action i>f Nitric acid Acid, snl|)liiiric, Animuiiiacal wat(!r . Aniinoiiia Aiitliracino AiniiiiiiiiH, aulpliato of, AHphaltuiii Asilfrt .... Artificiiit I.iuht, cost of. Asphaltiini, ilmlillatcs of, . Bltiimoti of Triiiic'ad " Culia . " Uaiijroon " South AiiuTJca " Unitod StatfS " Virginia " Oils of . " West India Island Baku, PctroltMini of, Biiriiiaii Territory, Pt'troleuni Bitniniiioiis siihists . BituniinoiiH Suhstancos, table < Brooinau's Patent Bodinan's Patent Bancroft's Patent Buildings Bicarl)urctted hydrogen . Benzole .... Brick ovens Bituminous sands and clay» II II II II II of. pro( nets, 45, pAoa 21,71 (18 109 '29 90 90 90 91 110 1-24 113 07 124 22 124 i;30 71 20 27 27 27 27 32 73 74 74 74 75 34 102 103 106 108 85 G4, 92 41 73 182 INDEX. I: I,? \m Coke ovens Coal, varii'tit's of, " Composition of, '' ElVeots (.if heat upon " Botrliead " Alliert . " Breckenridge . " Brown " Table of products of " Products of the distillation of Coal field, Alleghany, Coals distilled for gas and for oils Candle tar Caoutchino Cedriret .... Carburetted hydrogen Chlorohyilrido of ammonia Caustic alkalies Carbolic acid Canada, bitumen of . Coal oil lamps . Choke (lamp Coking furnaces Crude oils Condensers Coniiiuial distillatitm Copnonior Coke .... Cuiiiolo .... Coal-tar, volatile bases in, Coal-tar .... Dundonald, Lord, Densities of Petroleum Damoulin and Cotelle's method Distillery .... Distilling by steam . Distillation continual Distillate, first, . Dead oil . Distillation of wood . Dead Sea, bitumen of, Early records . Eflects of heat . Eupion .... Formula .... Fire damp Germany, oil manufactories in, German methods Gas Gases of coal mines . Hydro-carbon oils Hydro-carbons Gl PAOF. 48 12, 13 14, 22 10, 18 20 21,71 23 25 34 G2, 09 29 70 24, 70 70 00 85 125 125 08 72 130 113 47 109, 113 51, 112 114 58 124 GO Gl 02 8, 15 33 105 108 114 114 115 10 57 71 8 18 58 81 15 97 101 123 14 83 84 INDEX. 133 PAOF. 48 ;, 13 , t, 22 ;, 18 20 [,71 23 25 34 I, 09 29 70 i, 70 70 GO 85 125 125 08 72 130 113 47 I, 113 ,112 114 58 124 GO 01 02 8, 15 33 105 108 114 114 115 16 57 71 8 18 58 81 15 97 101 123 14 83 84 Hydrogen Homologous series obtained from coal i> " " " Bitumen of Trinidad " " Cuba u (1 11 u l( 11 11 11 11 11 11 1> la Kanaw Caoutchouc Hydrometers Heat, efl'ecta of, .... Haled and Watson . . . Impurities in hydro-earbon oils . Kerosene, process of manufacture, Kerosene, A, B, and C, . Kerosene Oil Company Leucoline List of coal oil Companies Laurent Lutidine Manstield, Patent of, ... Manslield, rroce.«s of, Naphtha Nitric acid Naplithaline Ovens, brick Odorine Organic and homologous compounds Oils, oxygen, Oils, hydro-carbon, .... Organic compounds, table of. Oxidating agents .... Oils, crude, from coals, ' " treatment of, . Picolinc rctrnloums Paranaplithalinu . . • • Petroleum well .... Picamar Patents Pittical Peat, products of, ... • Pyroxanthine Petroleum of Baku .... " Sjirings .... " Density ctf Petroleums of the" Alleghany coal field Products of the distillation oi wood . ProcM'ss of Mansfield ^ . " of Young .... " for Kerosene Patent of Wagenmaim Peat Company, Irish, Permanganate of I'otash . Pitch coal 94. I'Acr. 80 86 87 87 87 127 10, 18 15 89 100 9 09 127 8 09 9 92 no 91 00 41 71 79 78 83 79 90 109 113 08 120 07 10 58 9 00 70 00 74 30 33,74 74 57 92 95 90 97 70 92 126 f Mk. 134 INDEX. I'EKri Precipitation Parfvtiine, troatment of, Puritication of Petroleum oils ParalHiic . Receivers . Refuse of oil manufactories Retorts Retort, Revolving, . " Vertical, " Clay, . Reiclicnbach Retorts, stationary, . Refuiery for oils Stills Selligue, patent of, . Sulphate of ammonia Sal ammoniac . Sulphuric acid . Steam, distillation by, Toluole , Yohl's process . Volatile bases in coal tar Wagenniann, patent of, Washers . Worms, condensing, Wood, products of the distillation of. Young, James, patents of, rAoa 113 118 119, 121 59, 67 112 123 111, 112 38 41 45 8 37 110 53 92 124 125 125 114 66 101 68 97 43 56 57 9 rAQi 113 118 121 G7 112 123 112 38 41 45 8 37 110 53 92 124 125 125 114 66 101 68 97 43 56 57 9 BAILLIEliE BliOTHERS' CATAI.OOUE OP CHEMICAL BOOKS. A disfoiiiit of 10 iM'j- cnit. Mill bo made off the prices of Books mentioned in tliis t atalogne on pap^es 1 to II, if tlic amount is sent witli the order. [It is piirticiiliirly rrquostcd tint llic maiiiicr in wliich books are to be i'or\v;uxleil .should Iks siKH'ilicd on tlu; order. W by Mail, ti-n per cent, iiiiist be added to tlio reiiiittjuice, to cover tlie cost of jjosluye, wliicli the I'ust-Ollice rcj^'ulatioiis require to be prejjaid.] A('CUin> Troalluc on (tie Art of Brewing. 12niii. 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(I)ruad, .Milk, Tea, CoITlc, Sugar, Tobacco, 4c.) With tf Kngi'aviogs anil 1^'J Woodiiita , , . . • . . 6 00 Kolivll, .Sketches from the Mineral Kingdom. Post 8vo. London, 18,^3 . . 1 fi.) Handbook of .Natural I'liilosopliy. Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, and Heat. rjino. London, lbA6 . . , . , , , . 1 60 Tl • Museum of Science and Art. 10 vols., 12mo. lUustra'^d by engravings on wood , , . . , . . , . . C 25 Handbook of Natural Philosophy and Aatronomy. Third Course — Meteorology ; Astrononiy. ^vo., with 87 litlii graphic plates and upwards of 2no illustrations on wood, cloth. London, Ihia . . . . . . . . 6 00 A Treatise on Heat. l2uio. London, 1S66 , . , . . 1 00 2 60 LaiNMaiuue. Diclionnairc des Keactlfs Chimlques employes dans toutes le ""xpcriencea. avo. tig. P'lris, ll«9 ........ Laurent C? .) Preiia de Crlstallographle sulvi d'une Methode Simple d'Analyse au clia- Uinieau. 12nio. Paris . . . . . . . 87 Luim'iit (Aut;.) .Methode de Cldmle. Preccdec d'un Avis au Lecteur, par M. Iliot, 1 Vol., .SVO., avec fij:\ires dans le texte. Paris, 1854 . . . . . 2 dO Laurent (A.) Cheinleal Method, Notation, d'snlScation and Nomcnclaiare. Trans- lated by Odllng. London, ls<«) . . . . . . . 8 6(1 (Cavendish ."ociety Publication.) Le <>ray. Nouveau Traite de Phott.graphle sur papier etsur verre. 8vo. Paris, 1S51 . T& Leiimann. Physiological Chemistry. With Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo. Philadelphia, 183(5, . . . . . . . . . 6 00 ■■■ . — Chemical Physiology. Translated by J. 0. Morrla. Philadelphia, 18S6 . . 2 26 ~~ Precis deCliimIe PliysiologiqueAnliDale. Traduction du Professeur Drion. Parlj, 1866. 1 vol., gr. ISmo., avec fig. . . . . . . 1 £t 2 on 20 'i 76 3 00 8 00 8 00 . « 00 a. . 2 00 1 bO 9 01 214 4 00 iht) 6 00 , 1 Bn , 6 OO tadi- • 'i 60 a 00 etc. com- 16 OC tllC 'i e OC it la 78 , 25 Svo., 5 OC Heat. 1 60 {s on C 25 io(ty ; wuikI, 6 00 , 1 01) 2 50 8T 2 00 8 50 6 00 2 26 1 U Standard Scientific Works. L'llcrltl^r (8a D.) Trnlte ds Olilmlo Patliii|(ii;ii{ur la thimie, tradultcs par Cliarlea Oerhardt. ISmo. I'urli, — — — Letters on Clienil«try. 12mo. London ..... •"^-^— Kenearchei on ttio Chenil'ilry of Food. Sto. London. . . . •— Prinrlplcs of AKrlculturiil ClieniUlry, with ipeclal reference to the late researches made in KuKland. 8vii. London, 1t<66 ...... ' llundhnok of Orfcanlo Aniilyuls, contalnlnn a detiillcd account of the vurlonn metlioils u«i;d In dulcnnlninn the elementary composilion of Orgimic S^ubntunces. Kdlted by liolfniun. Post 8v(i., woodculi. London, 1861) . .... LlebiK Ulld Kopp*« Annuul Ueport of the Progreaa of Chemistry, io. 4 T-,'j(l ......... LoukC'A.) Tractlcal I'hologrnpliy on GlaJi and Paper. 2d eillt. 12iuo. Sewed, 1S50, I.Ove(T.) The Art of Cleaning, Dyeing, and SconrlnK, Ac. 12nio, London, ISiM Low (David;. An Ir.qulry into the Nature of the Simple Uudies of Chemistry, 3d edit, Svo. Loniiiiii, ls6(i ........ LOWlff. Principles of Organic and Physiological Chemistry, by D. Breed. Svo. Phila- delphia, lS')a ......... niackeiixle (C.) One Thousand Processes in Manufactures, and Experiments In Chemi.'i- 8vo. London, 1825, Half bd. ....... — — — Theory and Experiments in Chemistry. Svo. London, ncGaUlov (Rev. J. W.) I.ectures on : aturul Philosophy. 1 vols. Svo. London, 1860. Half b.1. . . nialairiitl (F.) Lecons de Chimie Agricole, Professcrs in 1S4T. ISmo, Paris, 1S5C -^ (J.) Lecons Elementaires lie Chlmle. 2 vols. 12mo,, avec 104 figures Intercalees dans b' texte. Purls, l>.')3 ....... MarccKW.) On the Con)po?ltlon of Knoil, and how it Is Adulterated; with prattloid direclioMS for lis analysis. 8vo. Loiidon, lljStS ..... lUartern. Esqulsse d'une noiivelle dassillcallon Cbinilque dt^ Cor|is, 4to. ■— .- <\iinbu8llon dc In vnpeur ulconliqne et clheree, iiutonr i'un 111 de I'lntlne. 4to. . Snr la theoric Chimlquc ile hi Kespiration et do U Chaleur Animal. 4lo. martins (A.) Uandbuch der Photographic. Drltto autlage. Svo. Wlen, 1S52 matlier (JTlimoa). roul Mines, their Dangers and Means of Safety. Svo., woodcuts. London, 1858 ......... RIatteilcl. Cours Special sur I'lnductlon, lo Mugnetisineet surles relations eutrc la Force Magnetique et tes Actions Muleculaires. Svo. Purls, 18(4 . . . . IVatteilcol Ct Savl. Tralte des phenomencs Eiectro-Physlologiques des auiuinux. Svo, Paris, 1841 ........ niaUlieWM (W.) Compendium cfOas Lighting. 12mo. London . Historical Sketch aniuiiL-<'a, ImliiKtrli'llvii. Mvn, FiirlK, 1>M . . . . M mifllt'll (1.) M.iiiiiiil "t I'riirllriil AnaiiyiiiK. Inlciiilril for l)i« uar of Mi'tHlliirKl'tii, (.'..|r;i>iH of M III", uihl Aoavrit In Kiiii'i'iil. WItli a >'n,iliiuii tiilili', for tlio |>ur|i i>r H'l iruilniiiK III A-'iiy'< nf (InM iiml SiIvit tlin pri'ilii* i«ni'>iinl, In niuni'i, |iiMiiiywi'l|{litii, •ml ^'rii'iiH, nf MoMn iiivlnl i'iiiiIiiIiip'I In iin« tmi of ore, from a given qiiitntily. i Tul,, Hvn. I'lul t'lllt. I.iiiiilon, IHM . . . . . . . 00 — — — Tri'BlIx' nn tlie AiliillcrikllniiA of Kniiil, nml the C'bemlcitl niriinii eniplujrnl to tIelL'i't tlii'iii. t'oiiliiliiliih' Willi r, Kloiir, MrtMil, Milk, Crfaiii, llccr, C'liUr, Wliien, t<|ilrlt- uou" I.liiuiir'", ('■ilfii', Tfii, ('Imi-nliiic, SiiRiir, ijnni'y, l.nii'tiiri'ji, «Miei'»e, Vlin^nni', Plcklo", Ancliovy Hniicc uml I'lmlu, (.'iitniip, Ollvu (Hulu^l) Ull, l'i'|ip«r, Muititnl. iJnio. i.oii- lion, Wit . . . . . . . . , \ M ITIolK'nn. Trnlti' ili> Tpli'Kraplilc Kledrlqiie. Hvo., ttinl ntliiK. I'ltrlfi, IH,t3 . .3 76 IlipiTli'ire il'()|illi|iii'. 4 vi'Ik, Svi). P«rl«, IMD-M. (Very ncnrcc.) . ITIort'lloiid (' •) KsHKy nil Iiii'lirlittlnK I'llunrK mill DlKlillntlnn. ttvn. I.diiiinn , 4 7.1 "JlortXt (('.) A Tri'HtlKF nn (.'licmhtry iippllcil In tlie Miuiiifiu-turv nf 8nap uml CiimllvH. .\< w U'lllloll. ^Vii., WiimlvlllH. I'llllllilflplllR, \bM . . , , 6 UO Mnhler (<». J.) The Chemlitry of Vegclnhle nml Animal I'hy»lilo|ty, with Intro. iliii'lli'ii ami lintel l>y J. K. VI. Jnhnnton, ami twenty llluHtratinnK, onloreil ami plain. Hv.i , i^iiili , . . . . . . . . 8 BO ITIullrr. rrlmiplen nf riiyn' -I ami Meteorology, llliutrnled with B0<) WoiidoiiW, anj 3 cUiOieil I'liileit. Svii, i.oiiilon, IM7 , , . . . . 4 liO raurnhy (Itov. II.) Klemenlnrv I'riiicipleii of the Tlienrle'" of Elei'lrlclty, Meat, anil Miil.'i iilar AcliiiiH. I'.irt 1. «vo. Cainlii'lilKi' ('''iiKhiml). W'12 . . . " 'ii Ifllirpll)' (I*.) ICiiillnient< applied and relating to tlia Arn mill Miimifactiires. Ilnyal Svo. 7 DlV, 2, Lniidon. KVl. Kach Kill li division of thii tlnu work contains 4 portrallt (engraved on steel) of till) moft cek'bruted uheiiiliitr. Plapirr (J.) Maniml of Electro-Metallurgy. Post Svo. ISM . . A Manual of the Art of Dyeing. Svo, with llUmtration^. London, 1803 . NembU (J. <;.) On Agricultural Chemistry, and the Nature and Properties of Peruvian (.iuaiiu. iid edition, ttvo. London, l»fii{ ..... NiHbet(%V.) Uictiunary of Olieniiiitry. 12ino. London .... Nit'ollcr (H.) AihiD du I'liyiiique el lie Meteorolugle AgrlooleK. Urand iu-foLi de 18 pi. col., iivcc uibleaux el tcxie. Pari.^, l'>,^5 . . . . . . 13 60 Noad (II. in.) A Manual of Electricity, Including Ualvanisin, MaKiiitisin, DiainnKiir- tiMiii, Klei.'li'u-Dynuiiiic), Macnetu-Eleclrlcily, and the Klectric-Tele-'rapli. 4lh edition, miiiclj rewnttcu. 2 void. 8vo, London, I S50 . .7 20 Clicmlc&l ManlpulatluD and AnalyHiKQiinlitntlve and Quantitative. With an intru< duction explanatory of the general princiiilea of C'hemicul Nuniinclature, Av. bvo. Louilun, lh.>2 . . . . . . . . . S CO . Lectures on Chemistry. Svo. London . . , . , 3 7i'> Normandy. Coimnerelul Handbook of Chemical Anntysis. Post Svo. London, ISOO . 3 75 A Practical Treatise on C'heuilcal AualysiSi (Quantitative and <^ualilj«tlve. By Rote. 3 vols., Svo. London, 1848 ..... .102,') ■■ An Iniroduclion to ditto, Svo. London . . , , .2 7.) Orlila(n.P.) Elenieuls of Modern Chemistry. Svo. London . . , 3 'J.'i ♦Jttley ( W « <',) Dictionary of Clieniislry suid Mineralogy. Svo, London . 4 on Parili(J.A.) Klenients (if .Medical Chemistry. 8vo. London . . . 4 i,'> Parnell. Treatise on Dyeing and Calico Printing. Svo, London . . . '.'12 .— — — Eleineiitsof Chemical Anulyhis, Qualitative and Quantitative. Svo. London. 1S43. Ueduccd tu . , . , . , , . ,2 7.') —^-^— Applied Chemistry in Manufactures. Vols. 1 and 2. Svo. London. Each . 8 73 Payeu. Cours de Cliimie Appliquee.professe a I'Kcole Centrale de« Arts el Manufactures, et au Conservatoire des Ana el Metiers. Ri;di|,'e par Delllsse et Poinaot. Ire partis: Oliiiuie Urgauique, Svo., arec atlan folio de i)0 planches. Paris, 1847 . . 8 M 4 on Ift 7.^ 3 S3 1 M) 1 00 7M 800 9 03 1 00 9 30 1 20 K'OO OM a 00 : M 3 76 4 79 fl uo '. 8 CO 1 . 4 (.0 1 . 4 on . IftTS . 3 35 . 1 Bft . 1 00 . T 50 300 a 03 1 i26 a'&o 13 M 7 20 a;. •2 T.< 8 'J.'> 4 ''«||'« |i> rliitrrtlnlr«< *ll| Pr>lf< '■ kIiim* liiilifirlc'lli'ii ili'K riilirli'iitila, it lira hki loilli iiia. II Volt. h«ii , ikVio Nilaa ilu pUrii'lici III Hy,K ■•iiria, ISttfl , . , . . 6 'iH Puyett «•! Illcliurila I'i'ci'l* il'^rrlriilliirt! Ilii'iiili|iiii vl |irHtli|iie. I ?ob.| Ivn. l>i.rl«, [^l. . , , . . , . . !» 75 l*i>t-k«lail CI'. N.) Tri-iUiae on llii< Miiiiufui'tiir* lit (Ilia. Nvn. I.niiilnii , .7 75 I'ffvlfl (i).) Tritl(i> I'li'innitHiri' ilit IMiyMiiuu. 4iiii' cilllliii. tl Vi>l<., Hvi>.,Hlliti<. Purla, ISI7 A 75 •^— — Trull>' ill' li Clmli'iir >i*lili'rrp iIhik ai'n ii|>|>liriiili>iia, Triil
  • iii« I'llllliui ciiiinrv 'ill' III rcri'ti'lni'. I'll iilliia il« I'j'i iiIiiikIk'* I'l Uii Vi'l, ill! Ii'll«, I.Ii'KO . . I 'J fill Dii., 'J ynla, 4t» , rl iitliK. I'lirta , , , , , .17 50 ■ l.u Kii|i|ili'iiii'iit ai'ioiri'iiiinl, IMil. 4lo. . , , . 'i tiA PvlnilXi'a Ti'iilii' ill! I'Ki liiriiKi' Hit ri'iiiiiil I a ii|'til>i'itlln|ia ilu irllii Hi'ii'Mi'i' 11 rAiiiilv'l . , . , .WOO II y iiiiin uii Oil vol , i|iil Ki'i'H ilmiiiv Kriiim. ■ .Miri'Ki- ill' ('liliiili' 'riiii-liiiH' I'llltiiin, i'iiiir'irini« kiix imiivi'iix tiriixmiimiM ilt< I'l'ii'-i'liriii'iiii'nt !>rii'iitilli|iii' iliH l,yi'«i'a. tl Vul,, itiuml iMiiiii., hVk' 174 IIkuii'M liitrli'Hk'vii tliiiia le li'XIu. I'iii'Ih. i\!i(\ ,....,. ——^ Niiiiuna lii'iii I'lilia il>' <'liliiili', I'li tii'mi vnliiiin' liii|irliii(' avi'C UlXei Bcconipiflia il'iiii AiluK ill' '.'4 iiliiiit'lit'K I'll I'liuU'iir, t'lii'liiiiiK'. I'liii", l>{il . , .5 50 Polllcr ' I.) MvtfiiriiliiKlv. Ubivrvutliilia et Kcvlitfri'lim rxpcrlinvnluli'a. 8vo, I'lirlii, IMtO . . . . . , . . . 2 00 Pcn-lra. l.i'cturHii on Cnliirlli'il l\ I'nil. I'liHi'l'-, iif tlxi'ilil. ri.iin., wiimkiila. I.oiiilnii, IVi4 2 3& Vvr^WMt 'I'l illi' llii'iirlqiii' I't |itiilli|iii' ill' riin|iri'!iaiii|i ilra ll<»iia. 4 liciiux viil., Svo (iivi'i; 105 ll|{iii'i'< I't 4'JV I'i'liiiiilllliMH iI'cikIIii, mil ii iil'a ilun. lo i.'xii', I't uii'iiiiiiiiikik'" il'iiii iilliis ill' II) pi. 4liii'r< ilniit 4 aunt riilnni'i'a. Oii\ruKi: uuquil lu H'liii'li! li'iM 'iiuiiiKi'iiii'iit ,1 iieiuiiU' iiiii' imiliihli' ilu il.iii fi'. riiiiK, l.'(4ll . . 17 (X) I'lliirilllM'a'lltlt'Ul .lourllHl nii'l Ti'iiiiani'll'ilit. ViiU. 1 (ii 15. Iliilf linilliil. I.niii|iiii, 1*11 Id b. Ii . . . . . . . fiiMIO Aniiiiiii .■^iilisi'ripll"M (piilili^lii'il iniiiillil} ) . . . . . II T6 I*lliiriiiiM'it| ii-lu. Till' Nrw l.iiiiilnii, liii liiiliiiK iils.i thu liiilillii iiiiil KiliiiljurRli I'lur- iiiiK'iipa'iai liy J, II. Ni'Viiis, ,M ll, ^vll. l.iiiiilnii, I.^M, . , . .5 00 PbllllfO ( «. A.) Oi'lit .MiiiiiK iinil Akmii.vIiik; u holvnliao Ouiilu for Auitrolliiii Kiiil- Ki'Miti*. I'2iiiii, Willi wiiiiili III-, l.i'iiiliHi, InV.', , . . , . 1 00 .Miunilil or.Mi'lalllll'ir.V. I'nal Svn. NrW I'llll. I.iillililll, ISM. . . .8 70 I'iliri pN (It.) A Millliiii i>r Kiii'la of iMiri'Ot iliitii mill ili'iiiiMiary cKiistuiiia In ilie I'liUrc cii'i li' u( tliu SIck'iici'K, ami uii all Miljtitta uf fpii'lllatloii iiml |ii'acUi'o. New tilii. Wihii. liS.'iO. . . . . . . . . . :< Oti Plliloonpliicill 'rrilll>ll<'tlOllH nfllii' Itiiyal .^'nrk'ljr nf l.iiiiilnii, irmii Iv20 to Ibbl. iiii'liiHivi', li'iiiiiiiK 'J.'i ViiIm. 4>i<. Ilair Imiiiiil III l(ii''.slu . ISO OO (I'lilili^licil price, ^lU iiiilioiiiiil.) I'lcn v (S.) Till' Art iif I'lrfiiiiii'ijr, niiil llii' Mi'lliml nf ■MauitiiK tW.irs of i'laiiti ; Willi iiiilrinllnii,'* f'lr 111!' .Mamilailiiro nl IVl'liiiiua fil Un.> Hniuikilililef, hcilili'il I'liw- ik'i'., O'liirniiA Viiiviiai'^i lli'ii'ifiict'.", l'<>iiiktiiiii.'<, C ^^tMii^uv-H, I'crruiiitil t^uup, Ac. Witli iippciiUiJi, Ar. Oii.wii 8vi<.,cliilli l.iiiiiliiii, I■^'^tl. . . .2 25 I'lillllli'r (< • I-'.) Talilcuii lie ('ural't<'l'l'.'^ (|iii' prt-aa-iiti'iit u.11 Cliiiliiiiii'nu It's Hicitli.a, li'.a li'inn I'l li'i iiXyili'H iiii'talliipii'!!, .suit ni'iil.'i, null aviw lf» roiuriifii. Trailillt ilu I'Alleiiialiil pai .SiiliiiT'i, 4Ui. ran>, 1-il.S . . . . . .0 60 — — Tlie L'»i; nf tin- llluwpipu 111 the UmilUntivi! miil yiimitilatlVB Exiinilnulloii uf Miiii'iaU, (li'>."<, fui'iiHCu pi'ialiitts, ikc. 8vii. l.i'iiiluii, l^'ill . ■ . 8 UO Fal«i«oii (^a It.) Tlit'iii'ii.' Mutlieiiialii|ue ilu U cliult'iir. M'n. 1S<)5 . . 50 I*ll'y, Mttti'orulii|;y, I ll'. Svo. l.niiilnii . ,4 60 (llirlcli I (.%.) roMtlniis ill! I'liysiqiii. 8 viiIk. I-' o. llnmiifN, 18.S4 . - '2 00 ICuiniui'lwIicrir (('. I-'.) I.rl'ilmcti il-'* ."Imlili 'lik' uinl ilrr .'Vllgcmeilien theuri'l.- KL'lieii clii'iiui". Svii. Htillii, l.vl'i . . . 1 75 ■ AiirHiig8griiiiiltf ilrr qiiantitatlvtii Mliit'r.il"ci''i >i, timl .Mctullargi'.cli, aQuytLacU'ii Clieniii' iliirch Uelspiilo iTlaiikrl. Svn. Ilciliii, lS4,i . . .178 ■ I.''i-fttiten fur ilie (Jimlllativi- I'lii'inlsoliti Aimly-n', niit bi'soinleriT Uui-ksiclit auf U. no:'c, lluiidb. (Ivr uualyl. C'liviiili', Hvo. JUurliii, i>4;i . . . . U 75 12 Standard Scientific Works. Ilniipail (F« V«) Noaveau FjrMtenie ile Chlmie OrgAnlqtie, fondo sur de nouTetlef uietliodes d'observivliona, preceilc d'uii Tiiiile coiiipld sur I'lirt d'obscrTer, de mttiilpuler «ii grHiid et en petit, dan» le luburiitoiru et sur le porle-ohjut dii microsciipe. Deuxieine edition, entierciiient refoiidue, uccoinpHftiiee d'lin iitliis in-4 de 20 pliinclies du flgurei (Icssinees d'aprea nature, gravces et colurlees uveo le plus grand soln. 8 vols., 8to., utias 4to. Paris, ISiS . . . . . . . . T 5C — NouTenu Systeme de Physiologie vegetale ei de Botanlque, fonde sur les inetJiodei d'ohscrvations develuppea lit) Italian Iriigatiou ; l)eing a Keport of tlie Agricultural Canals of Pied- mont and Liimbaniy ; adilreMsed to tli^^ Uireclors of tho East India Company, i vols. Bvo , and plates, fulio, cloth. Edinburgh, 1856 ..... Smith (U.) Practical Oyer's Guide. Svo. London .... Dyers' Instructor. 12.^10., London ...... Solly (E.) Introduction to Uural Chemistry. Svo. London . . . Syllabus of Lectures on Chemistry. Svo. London .... Soulx'Iruil. Tralte de Pharmacie tlieorique et pratique. Scedltlon. Sfortsvol. Svo., avec 68 Qg. Imprimees dans le texte. Paris, 1847 ..... Precis elementalre de Physique. 2e edit., augmentee. 1 vol., Svo., avec 13 planches 4to. Paris, 1644 ....... Suttou ( <'•) The Culotype Process: a Uandbook of Photography on Paper. Svo. Lon- don, 1^5 ......... SlvodeilDnr;3:> Principles of Cliemistry. Svo. London .... Tubic* generates des ComptcsKendmdesteancesde I'Academiedes Sciences, publlees par MM. leu secretaires perpetuels, conformonunt a une decision de I'Acadcuiie, en date du 18 juillet 1885. Tomes 1 a 81. 8 aout 1835 a 3U decembre 1S50. 4to. Paris, 1854 Turdieii(A.) Yoiries et cimetiercs. Svo. Pa. is, 1852 . . . . Tate ( I'.) The Little Ptiilosopher ; or, the Science of Familiar Things ; in which the Piin- ciples of Nature and Experimental Philosiipliy are i^ysteniatically Developed from the Properties and Uses of Familiar Things, Vol. 1. ISiiio. Londoi^ 1855 — — — (t'«) Theory and E.>Lperiuients in Chemistry. Svo. London . . . 'Ibfntird. Traite de Chlmie elementalre. fie edit. 6 vols. Paris, 1834-6 . . Very scarce. Thi«-nie (F. W.) Die Physlk in ihre Beziehung zur Chemie, oder diejenizen lehren der Pl>ysik, ka. Svo. Leipzig, 1840 ...... ThoillHOIl (T.) Practical Dyer's Assistant. 12nio. London Chemistry of Organic Bodies— Vegetables. 1 largo vol., Svo, pp. 1002, boards. 8 50 1 00 I oc 8 2fi 1 60 1 50 3 00 87 5 00 1 50 9 00 19 00 650 1 60 ISO 4 00 1 25 London, 1888 Ueat and Electricity. 2d edition. 1 vol., Svo. Illustrated with woodcuts Lon- don, 1SJ9 Chemistry of Animal Bodies. Svo., cloth . History of Chemistry. 2 vols, lliino. Scarce Treatise on Brewing and Distillation. Svo. London Elements of Chemistry. Svo. London . , First Principles of Chemistry. 2 vols., Svo. London Outlines of Mineralogy, Geology, io. 8 vols., 8to. . — — ^^ System of Inorganic Chemistry. 2 vols,, Svo. London I System of Chemistry. 4 vols., Svo, London . Xhoin>inn (R> D.) Cycloptedia of Chemistry, Practical and Theoretical, including tlie Applli'ation of the Science to tha Arts, Mineralogy, and Physiology. Svo., with lilustraiioos, London, 1854 ....... ThorntllWilite (\V. II.) A Guide to Photography; Simple and Concise Directions for obtaining Views, Portraits, Ac. 9tli edit. 12mo. London, 1866 , 'Fizard (W. L..) Theory and Practice of Brewing. 2nd edit. Svo, London, 1346 . — Brewer's Journal. London, 1864 ...... Toliiniiaen et Oardiasal. Dictlonnaire Tecbnologlque, Francais-Anglais-Alle- niand. 3 vols., 12ino. Paris 180.^ ...... Tuiiilinnon (C.) Cyolopasdia of Useful Arts, Mechntii'^Hl and Cheinic.il, Munufactur- ^ iiig, Milling and Engineering. 2 vols., 8vu., with splendid steel plates and woodcuts. 76 3 60 6 00 1 00 1 12 6 50 75 1 60 6 00 4 »0 4 00 2 60 1 80 8 26 9 00 9 50 12 60 IS 00 3 75 80 7 50 3 26 5 00 London, 1854 12 00 1 14 Standard Scientific Works. Tralte de I'art renaiit des notloni de Phar- TroHsmn vt Rcvcil. in-ti^ii;. 121110. 1851. ,.....•• TurlKT (K.) Elcnitiitu of Chemistry, Incluiling the actuiil State and provuleiit DDCtrines iif the Scienfcc. Stli edit, kjliied by llarou LIl'IiIb miil Dr. Uri'Kmy. Svo, ihilh Vre ( %.) A Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines, containing a clear Ex|»o»llion of tlieir Principles and Practice, ^th edit .corrected and greatly eiiiarned. S vob.,Svo., and engraving on woixl, cloth. r^>ndon,1%W. . . - Dictionary or Chemistry. 8vo. London ..... Van ITIuilVa Sur les combinalsous faltes par le Pyr< |>lioro, 4to, Violeltc Pt Jlrchnnibuull* Dictlonnairc des Analyses cliiniiquos on Re|>ertoirtt ulpliabetlrjue des Analyses Ue tous corps iiatnrels et ,i<-tiHcU'U de|inls la fondation ilo la cliiinie, avec i'indlcatiou des noins des uuteurs et den reuueiU ou elles unt el« Uiserees. 8 vols., 8vo., a 2 col. Paris, lS.'il ... . . Or half calf ......... Walker (W.) The Miignellsin of Ships and the Mariner's Compass : hclng a Iludlmen- tary KxposUion of the Induced Magnetism of Iron In Sea-golni; Vessels. IKiiio. Lon- don, ISM ......... •-^-^— (•'. V.) of Fail. Manipulations Electrolyplnnes, ou Tralle de (Jalvanoplus. tie, contenant la Descriplion des Procedes les plus Kaclles pour Dorer, Ariti nter, (iraver Bur Cuivre et sur Acicr, reproduire les Medailies et les Eprcnves DaKuerrieniies, Melal- User les Statuettes de Platre, etc., au moyen du Uulvanisiiie, 4me edition, ISino. Paris, 1865 ......... "WatNOIl (K.) Chemical Essays. 5 vols., ISmo. London, 13iK) AVcbMtcr (.1.) Elements of Mechanical and Clienilcnl Philosophy. 8vo. Weeki'S {\W tt,) A Memoir on the I'niversal Portalile Eudiometer, an Apparatus designed for researches of Philosophical Chemistry. 4to., with plate. Salidwicli, lii^Jd . Weldon (\V,) Klements and Lans of Chemistry. Svo. London li'erlht'ilila Theses presentees a la Faculle des sciences de Paris pour ohlenlr le grade de docteur des sciences physiques. Paris 1S63 ..... Th«ses de physique, de cliliiiie el de mlneralogle, Will ct Ijipbig^. Manuel Complet de Chlmic Annlytlque, contenant des Notions aur les Manipulations Chimiques, les Elements d'Analyse Iiiorganlquu Qualitative el Quantitative, et des Principes de Chiinie Organi(pie. 2 vols. ISiiio . IVilliainH (('• M'.) Treatise on the Combustion of Coal. 4to. London IVittsti-illi Practical Pharmaceutical Chemistry, translated hy S. Darhy. London, ISM %%'olirfr (F.) Handbook of Inorganic Analysis. Translated and 'ditml by liofmanii. 12ino. London ........ \V«X] 1 28 .'! 25 1 8S 2 Oi) 1 00 1 00 AlckLcmy. Figuler, 6. Apparutua. An Explanatory Diotionary, 1. Art«i and ~flaiiuf!ictii>-i-N. Acken, 1. Braiiile, 2; Doilliii; GcrliaMl. li ; Jnliiisiiii, 7; Lii'liiK.'J; Niia(l,10; Nonnamly, 10; I'ariiell, Id; Kose, 12 ; Vlolutte et Arcli- ambaiilt, 14; Will el Liebig, 14 ; Wobler, 14. '-^— A 111 mala Oerzelius, 2; Thotuaon, 13. Chemistry^ ElemontNof. Gr,^ham,6; Kane, 8; Miller, 9; Murray, 10; Itfijnault, 12; Tliomson, 13; Turner, 14; Weldon, U. ElfiiiHufary. Caliours, 8; Da^uin, 4; Kyfe, 5; Olover, 6; {Jregorv, ; Mala- guiti, 9; Uegnaule. 12; Thenanl, 13. FIrat Stepa. GiUloway, C. f>eiicral. Baudrimont, 1 ; Berieliui, 2; Pelonze A Freniy, 11. Hautlbook. Ginelin, 6. Iliatory. Iloerer, 7; Thomson, 18. Inoreanic. Campbell, 3 ; l!eiieliu«, 2; Gnielin, «; Gregory, 6; Outlines of, 7; Ttiuni.son, 13. ' £.ecturc8. Gurney, 6. — Applied. AjassondeGrandsaKne, I; Annuairede Cliiinie, 1 ; Uarrui-l.l; Hernay, 2, Knapp, 3; Daguui, 4 ; Uuinas, f>; Fraii- cwur, .'i ; lirahain, 6; Kemp, S; Mialib', 0; MorHt. Ill; Mu-pratt, lU; Pariiell, 10 ; P«yen, 10 ; Tliomsiin, 13. — Agricultural. Johnson, 8; Kemp, 8; L;ebi(,', 9; Malaguitl, 9; Memoires, 9 ; Neabit, Id; Payen et Klcliatd, In; Sao:, 12. — CaleeltiHin. Graham, C ; Ilorsley, 7. t'oiirw rt I ec'0>>H. Boutet de Mor- ▼el,8; Cubart, 8; Gerhardt, 6; liegnault, , 11. \ z T| u n U a I . ' Bernay, 2 ; Brands, 8; Fyfe, 5 ; Glover, 6. TInnlpuIaliou. Faraday, 5 ; Noad 10; Benoit. .Tlenioirs. Dumas, 5; Oraliam, 6. Non-ITIetllllir. Faraday. !>. Organic. Bramle, 2 ; Dumas. ."> ; Oer- liardt,6; Umelin, (3; G n-t,'ury , ; l.nwig,9; Millon, 9; Kaspail, IL'; 'i'bumsun, 18; Wolff, 14. I'hil -Nopliy. Dalton, 4; Daniel), 4; Davy, 4; Webster, 14; Weekes, 14. I'riictical. Ilownian,2. I'rOirrcMN Of. lieriellus, 2; I/ieblg and Ktc.) Cbeval- lier, 3; Crabb, 4; Hoefer, 7; l-abnulave, 8; Lassaigne, 8; Nesliit, 10; Ottley, 10; Tollhausen,18; L're, 14. DiatilliMff. Dul>runraut,,^>; Duplais. .'i ; La- cambre, 8; Le.Normaiid, 9; Morewood, 10. Dyciliar and Srourinir. Berlbollet, 2; Blani'biuieni, 2; Brande, 2; Love, 9 ; Na- pier. Id; I'arnel, Id; Persoa, 11 ; Kuuze,12; Smith, 13; Thomson, 13. 16 Alphabetical Index. I Electricity. Decquerel, 2; Chalmer!), 8; Oumiiilng, 4 ; De la Hire, 4 ; Ve Boia Kay- mood, 4; VaradayiQ; Harris, T; Matteuci, 9; Murpliy, 10 ; Noad, 10. Electric-Telegraph. Illghton,''.; Molgiio, 10. ElectrO'inctallliriBry* Dorure, 4; C,i\\- vanuplastie, & ; Gore,6; NH|iiL'i,UI; Uudc- Itui, 12 ; Suiee, 13 ; Walker el Fiiu, 14. Falsifications. Chevalllor, 8 ; llassall, T ; Uiireaux, T; Marcet, 9; Mitchell, 10. Food. See I'aiii/lcatUm*, Gas. Accum, 1 ; ClegKi 4 ; Knnpp, 8 ; Journal of, 6; Matthew.tid; Peckntuii, 11 ; Pelouze, 11. Geoloslcal Chemistry. UischoO', 2. Glue. Culle9,4. Heat. AYOftrailo, 1 ; Cooper, 4 ; Dove, 6 ; Uavarret, 6; LarJner, 8; Hetculfe, 9; I'e- clet, U; i'olsson, U ; Priileaux, 11 ; Keecli, 12 ; lU'gnuult, 12 ; TiiomsoD, 18 ; WilUama, 14. Ink. Encres, 4. ]?Iagnetisni. Becquerel, 2. ilkctt'orolotcy. Arago, 1 ; Cotte, 4; Hop- kins, 7 ; Huuzeau,'' •■ Howard, 7; Kneinli,8; Lambert, S ; Nicollet, 10 ; I'ellier, 11 ; Pouil- let, II ; I'rout, 11 ; Kobertson, 12 ; Subliie, 12. mineral Waters. Bouquet, 2 ; Faure, 5. Optics and Light. Biot, 2 ; Brewster, 8 ; Cliiudet, 4 ; Uu Moncel. 5 | Gorlmm, 6 ; Har- dy, 7 ; Hunt, T ; Kyan. S ; UgM, 9 ; Muigno, 10; Scaniini, 12; Scoffern, 13. Perfumery. I'iesse, 11. (Pharmacy'. Deschnnip.-i, 4; Ooebel, 6; Uuibourt, G; Jourdaln, 8; Pliarmaceutlcal Journal, 11; Uepertolre de, IS : Boubeiran, U; Wit(st«lD,14. Pharmacopeia. Oodez, 4 ; New London, 11 ; Trousseau and Rereil, 14. Photography. Bsrreswll and Davanne, 1 ; Blanquart, 2; Breblsson, 3; Clievalller, 8 ; Cutidall, 4; David, 4; Delninotte, 4 ; Ue- DoiiKe, 4; Dlsderl, 4; Fau b; Uaudin, 6; Hr.r<:wlcke, 7; Heath, 7 ; Hennah, 7; ller- ling, " Howlctt, 7; Hunt, 7; Lacaf, 8; Lcgr- o ; Lerebours, 9 ; I.nnir. 9 ; Mar- tens , Ulntoul, 12; Sutton, 13, Thorn- thwu.te, 13. Physics, Alme Martin, 1 ; AJasson de (IriindsuKnc, 1; ArchainbuuU, 1; Ulot, 8; Ilinl, 2 ; llnutigny, 2 ; Brown, 8 ; Citbart, 8 ; Coulonib,4; CuTler,4; Daguln,4; De»alnH,4; Durand.A; Pau and OheTalller, 5; Oanot,fi; drove, 6; (Iruyer, 6; Gultard,6, Hinds, 7; Julicn.S; Lame, 8; Lardncr, 8; Lieblg, 9; McGauley, 9; Muller, lo; Peelef, 11 ; Pou- illet, 1 1 ; Quetelet, 11 ; ReKnaull, 12 ; Kelchen- bach, 12; ScolTern, 18; Sooresby, 1" dou- beiran, 13 ; Thieine, 18. Platlna. Dlllard, 2. Polarization. Blot, 2 ; Pereira, 11 ; Wood- w. 1859 . . . 100 Barral (J.) nrainage des terreH Arables. 'Jo Edition. Tome9l,2, 3. 12mo., avec nom- breiiseK (igurej. Turis. 1850-67. . . . • . . . 4 60 I.'ouvra!5e anra. 4 vols. Ilarretwill tt Dnvnniic. Cliimie riiotojfrapliique, contenant les elements do Cliim. exptiqiii'S par les luanipiilatioMS l'hotoj;rapliii[iios. '-c Kdit. 8vo. 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Wattd, M.C.;^.,ft|)aratc1y. 1857 tjirumli Eludi's cini pain live ile deiix syitAines do cliauiTHg« ot ventilation k I'llft; ital la Svo. Tails, 185(J \u Nystiiiie de clmufiage ot de ventilation ♦tabll par Van IKcUo duns I'liApi- llllioixioi'O Kind tal Ik'HUJon. «vi>. l*aii«, 1857 — — Siir la coimtnirtinn et TassainisHcmont des latrinen et fo.sfieii d'aisancc plunoliOH. I'arln, 1850 ....... Oregjt. Sii|»j;p,stion.s as to the employment of a Novum Organum Momliiim, 8vo. Svo. For the uao of Sludt'ul.H. 4th 4th. edit. 12mo avoo l.'in- odit. l.on- iloii, 1851) Orvgoty, W. Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry. l^mo l/milon, 1857 .... •—— Handbook of Organic Ciiemlstry. For tho use of Studenta. don, ll>.i7 ........... OrlfHii ^F.Wt) A Compendium of Qualitative Analysis, from the Simplest to the most Conipl-x CasiH, anangi'd in a St'iios of Kight Tables. 4to. london, 1868 CJrove. tx)rielat ion des forces Physiques, par Moigno. Svo. 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Jobcrt tic Lainballc. Des appareils iiectriqucs des poissons Alectriqnes. 8vn.,avec Atlas de 11 plauclies in fol. Paris, 1858 ...... JohH8on, O. W„ The Chemistry of the World ; being a popular explanation of tho Phe- nomena daily occurring in ami around our persons, houses, etc. I'Jmo. Ix)ndon, l!S50 Johnaoni The Chemstry of Common I.ifo. New edition. '2 vols. P.irao. I/indon, 1^50 Klements of a,jricuUural Chemistry and Geology. 7th edit. 12mo. I/mdon, 1850 . Kiemtm, Ij. Ft Co irs comp'.ftt de M*l4orol(ftiPiiliiiu6c Mil vitlcultiiri'. I'.'thci. I'arls, IR.'T liUiiilriii. Triilld do I'aeier. Tliiorie, l^,V,i I'tiillurtslo, travail praliciucs, etc. IStnn I'mi', • Hii I'lnmli, (le Kdn Slat dans la iifttiirp. I'Jnm. rails, 1857, Lanlnvr. ll.indbiHiU of Xatnral l'liil(wci|diy. Vol. 4. Klentricily, Mnptnc'.ism, Acniislli'*. I'.niii., Willi wiMidoul'i. Ixmdiin, IKOO I^ianlnt'i- (D.) nicmistry fur HcluHds, I'.'nio., wllli 170 iUurttmlicnH, I^ondon, 1>*5!I liUSroillc. l!c|)fit(iir.' nAiiAiale dp l'lioliii,'ni|)lile. I'.'mi). I'uiis, 1H68 . K>auHi'l (A.) KtiitUMS'lcntillcincH. I'Jino. Paris, IRrill ..... liVlM'niiil I't Julin Foiitviifllc. .\.mv. Man. dii dinillftlcMir et du Uciu.iiinto. X.iuv. cdil, IJi I'aiis, \H'M I'aiix niiijt-i all's, etc. bvci. : ligiiru.s I'uris, lhf)',l LIcllig (J.) U'ttei-soniiiixlern a^ricullnro. Kdiled by J. Illytl, V.'ii ■ Kaniiliar le'.teiH on Clii'inistry. 4tl> cilit. IJnm. Ldndim, ISfi'J Ijindiin, 1859 tns 1H4 - ( lionii«tiy and I'liysics, in Helntlon ti) I'liysldldcy and l'utli()lii|»y. Hy Banm .Iiis- l.ielii;;, I'ldi'fs.soi- iif (Jhemiflry at tlio Univeihlty of (iiesnen. 'Jiid edit. Svo. brndon, (0 75 75 C8 13 la rs I 00 Ct) CO CO Lcfnrt (tl.) Tiiilt* de Cliiink' IlydniloKicjiic ; I'analysc' clilmiquu des paiix douces et cUs 1 80 1 02 2 GO T5 n 63 00 2 C6 1 C5 • > 70 1 SO 00 liloyil (^11.) K.lementary troiitlse on the wave theory of Light. \l.. edit. 8vo. Lonilon, ISoT ............ liOritic (E.) TraitA coinplet de la fahrication des xnrong contcnnnt des notions Hur Us ul- call-<, ele. ISmii , uvec 'J planches. I'aris, IKuU ...... Lovt- (C«. Ill) Des divpiM's resisluncps et autre propriilAs de la fonle, dii I'er et de Tacier et de leinploi ile ce.s metanx dans les construction.-,, (ivo., avec 'Z plarahes. I'aris, lf>f)'J AIa{j[li}'< .M*llioiU" explipativo dps ennraia diduite de la conipivsition chiniiiiup dps vpgp. l.iux, de (piles dps ilitl'ercnts engniis u.siies, pto. 8vo. Auxprrp, L'-uO ItlulnKUtli ].e(;(ins el*nieiitairpK dp'cliimie. 'Jemppdit. Tome ler en 2 pRvties. I'Jnio., Hvei; liijuies. I'aris, 1868-60. I'uur l'ouvrai;e conipi6t en '.2 vols. MttlUKiitl (P.) U'^ons de Chlmio Agricole, profusso eu 1857 en 1858 et 1859. 3 vols. I'.nio. I'aiis. . . .,,'..... Mulugiill. I'ptit cours de Chimie Agricole. I'.'ino. I'aris, 1S57 Alurtiil (K.) 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Paris, I^a8 ........... Aloiikhovcn. R*i)ertoire G*n4ral de I'hotographie pratique et th4oriqup. 1 vol., et .\tlas. o( ine edit. Paris, 1850 ......... Slortiiurr. I'yrote-ihny. 3rd edit. 12mo. l/mdon, 185(5 .... niuldcr (U. J.) The t:hemistiy of Wine. IMited by H. I!. ,Iones. VJuio. I/mdon, 1S57 . JBaiUiefe Bf others, 440 Broadway , JV. 1*. 1 80 1 80 00 36 2 25 00 62 on Standard Scienlifc Works, H!.:. Mullcr. Principl«H of l>liy»i>M mxl Moti'^roln^'y. Kv J. Muller, M.D. Illuitrnted with 630 woo lent'* tiiil '.! ciilorml (iliktci. Xvo. I^mkIdii, 1h47 . . . . .14 00 Nadwiilt dv UuflToiii ('i>ur'< il'ii'.'riciiltura et d'il/ilraullqua Bgrieulr. 3 vuUi. 8vn. imr ll|{uri'-« et |pluiiclio»i. I'lirin, lh5U . . . . . . . 00 Arn|ilfr> Miiniml iif KlrrtroMiMiilliirKy. Onl edit. 12mo. IlKiireii. I/ondnn, 1^57 . .100 Nonil (Il.niO A maniml i>r I- li-i-lriclty , iiirliiiliii){ (ialviinlMii, MiiKnetiitm, Miki;"*>tn'Elce(n- . city, i'!c 4lh wlit. Hvo. Illustralcil. bmcloii, l^.M-'i?, iiMlufcil to . . . tl 50 Noriiiniiiiby (A«) Tli<* Clii'inintl Atlnn, nr Tiiblci* ; «li' CictlonivrlpH to the Clu'inlcul Atln« ; lieliiR n ilictinnnry of iiiin|ilo«iibi(tttni'P»|Ptc., and a liictioimry of Te'itii itml ri'H.(i'iit.H. rjini>, l/)i»l(in, 1HA7 . • • . 2 On TibliMiiix d'Aniilysci chim quo. 4l(i., avec figures. rBriN,1sri8 . . .6 83 Norlhcott) niitl Church. A Miiiuul <>r Clioiaical AnalyHJii (():iitlilalive). I'Jmn. I,(>ndi>n, lh.')H . . . . . . . . . . . . 'J ((3 Oilnrtt Ani|i*liiffrn|iliin iinlversellp, on Tmlte de« ("r-pngea les plus tiitim*< dans ti>u« Ich MKiKililC', edit. I'ailH, IHJO . , , . . J 80 Orfilo (li.) I-i'^.ini do ToxinildRie. 8vo. I'aria, 1S,'>8. . . . . .7* Orm Circle of SrlcilCCil. Vol. 7. Prartieal ChemMry ; Irirlmling tlie tlienry and prar'n'o iiiliin, Ibji) . . . . . . . . . 1 60 Ottr. U'lnilscape I'liitoj^rapliy. New edit. I'imo. I/mdon, 1860 .... 76 Otfo (J.) Manual iif tlie iH'tertlnn (if I'olinnn by Medicn Oiomieal AlialvHld. liy,] Olio, rrMl'i'^'ior iif Clii'ini.stry in lli iin-iwick, (Jerniany. Kdili'd with Nule-i by W. Mderhiirst. Willi illii.ttraliunH. I'^lnii). .New YurU, l^57 . . . . . . 1 75 Parkinson (S.) .\ treatise on optics. I'.'ino., illustrated, Liinil'in, 1K,')<.) . , 3 0>) Puyi'lia rrecin de C'liiniie Indnstrlello, nouv. edit. Tdiiio ler et Atlas en 8vo. Paris, 1859 p nil I'diivr.iRe eiini|ilel en '.i villi. . . . . . . . . fi <13 Piij'eii (X.) I' rail* enniplet de la dislillatiim des nrincipales nubstancea qui peuvent fiinrnlr ill' I'liliiiol. 8vii., uvec Hnnre.H et planches, raris 1858 . . . , . 1 80 Pfclet (E.) Traitft de la chrtleiir nmsider*!' dans SI'S nppli(Mitiiin«. Iliino edit. Tomes let •J I' Mcp., avee linmes. Paris, 1860. I'mir I'uuvraue enmplet en 3 Mils. . , i) 6J P«'Ioilzt', Tniite de ^Kx^Ialral.•e an Cinr, tire dp la houille, des biliiines, des linnil''s,di la tiiiii be, lie. 8vo., et .V'.las lie '.18 planches. I'aris . . . . . 3 00 ^— ^— — I'atitiealnin dii toke et du f'liarhon de Tourbe. 8vii.,nvec4 pliinehes. I'arin . 1 00 Pcloiixc rt Fmiiya Trade d« Cliimie eenenile, C(iin|ireniint les applinitinns de ee!(e S- II le" a I'.Viiaiise t'hiin ipie. a I'lndiistrie, u rA!;riciilliiie I't a, I'lli.stnne .Valnrelle. '.ienie l..|ilinn. li Mils', et Atlas de planches in 8v(j. I'aris, 18,"i4-57 . . . .10 80 PrlouBi' ct Prcniy. Abie(.'e de Chimie. 4e Kditlon. ISmn., ilhislraled. I'aris, 1850 135 Philll|i4. I'rinoiplosof Agreiilture, especially Tropical, and of Organic Chemistry. 8vo. l.'iiiiliMi, 1ti50 . . . . . . . . . . . 'i 00 Phllo^-'jiSiy III sport niudc Science In cariicit. 8th Kdition. I.| Ih.'iH. I'liur rt «ri 4 voIk. . $1 ftO Ri'Klinult. 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Aii'jiiu'iilo il'iiii iiiAiiiiiiro siir III ! •Mi'i'liiiiiu du .liipon tiaduit dii .i.i|miii pur .). llMllTiiaii, Sm,, iivoc 14 plaiuMii'i. I'iu'Ik, IMuO . . . . . :> 15 Srnirrrii. Clii'iuisliy nl'linirijaiiic Undies. 12nio., illiHtrated, bnidoii, 1S50 .100 NcofTci-ii, Ti-tii-aii uiiii atlirr<(. The inoful nii-laU and llioir ullnvn Inclmllm; fnin, riil'I'i'i-, I'iii, 1,1'ad, /iiic, .Vutiiii'iiiy, olo. Svo. , illuslriitod. Ijiiidini, ISaT . .2 00 SfoiTsby (W.) .Iiiiiiiial nf II Vuyajj'u to AuMlralia and round the world for mngnolioal re- hiMicli. 8vo. Loiidnii, 185'J . . . . . . . . 3 24 Hhrrriitt. A popular treatise on the ori^'ln nature and proportie.i of Light. 12mo. I.ondciii, IS.'i'.i ............ (JO Siranl (A.) Mnnoffraphledp la <'aiinn i^ sucio do la (.'lilne, dito .Sorgho i micro. L'lmo edit, aiinmi'iilhi'. Tmno lor. 8vo. Mursoillo, lbJ8 . . • ■ . 1 35 l/iiuvniK'" nurti 2 vnN. Riinoii (J. v.) Animal C'liomi-try, trniHlalod liy <;on. K. ray. 2 vidfl. Rvo. 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Vol.1. 8vo. LiMUlou, ISo'J ..... 1234 SuUoii (T.) A Iliotionaiy nf I'hntopr.'iphy 6vo., illiistratod. I/)nd(m, 1R.5S . .2 00 Tciiiiaiit. and MltclU'll. Minoralnijy and rrystnlloKraphy, boini; a olassific.-ition of CrvslaU alter their form and of minerals after their chemical componitioii. 12iiio. I>in- di>ii,lS,-.: 00 Tcifiivr iP.) riiimio Pyrotechnique, nu trail* pialiipio do^ foux color*'^. Siiivi d'uii jiotit traits H|iorial pour la fabrication des pa-lillos ^iulplos el dos pastilles dianiauls. 8vo. I'ari-, 1S58 • • . . 1 80 TUoinsnii. Chemistrv of Organic liodics— Vogolahlos. By Thomas Tlionison, M.D., V.U^. I.. .V K. , IWius Troft'ssor of (Tliemi.stry iu tliu L'nivorsity of lilasgow. 1 large vid. 8vo. jip. lOll'J, bds. London, 1838. . . . . . ■ . 6 00 —— Heat and Electricity. 2nd edit. 1 vol. 8vo.. illustrated with woodcuts. I/>ndnn, 1850 . . . . •"• "5 naiUiere Brothers, 4 10 Broadway, JV. 1'. •Jt Slanll)*ii miiiii|iiiUtlonii clilmli|uei niinplinveit. 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Our terms at such prices is Cash with the Order, and positively no further discount will be allowed. m %• Persons having an opm account with us will be charged at the old rate, or about 12 per cent, advance on tlicso prices. Hooka not in stoek can bo imported from Loudon In about five weeks, and from Paris in about si.K weeks. 1IAIL.L1EKE BROTHERS, 440 Broadway, N. Y. European Agonoiei: LoKDON : 219 Regent Street. | Pakis : 19 Rue Ilantefeuille. Maduid : 11 Calle del Principe.