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LONDON: WHITTAKER AND CO., AVE MARIA LANE. MDCCCXXXIX. ■• ) \ ,\cy^ r\ \a2i^* The View of tf Isteemed on the lank among pro k the autlior's 1 ind improveinei lencral history, Durteen liundn were, under o |loman Empire, juntries whicli istitutions — th( lie origin of inv |cal, to which t! ithor has restr Sscarding fron 3ok has been c rand and prom |rcumstanoes, 1 ehicidation < Ifficulties and ( leography. H iought inelegi [on of all parti jiH'ragcs in his jice-Presideut Bcretary of tli iistructiun at erinan ; and r |d obtained it The IIevolu aims no highc )ung entering jucnt reading le Translator 1 ithor, and as ] kulious of fide jrcfixed a short cliQ}!! and Wei [The first Eig; ! all that our a tlie restoratic Koch's Worl jation, howev full on othc lendmonts as I* M. Schall h kdoi- will find ii TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. Jhe View of the Revolutions of Europe, by M. Koch, has been long known and highly Istccmed on the Continent, as a work of incontestable merit, and entitled to hold the first |ank among productions of its kind. It occupied the labours and researches of thirty years ' the author's life ; and had the benefit of receiving, at different intervals, several additions id improvements from his own hand. As a concise, luminous, and accurate summary of Jeneral history, it stands unrivalled. The principal events and vicissitudes of more than jurteen lumdred years arc here condensed v. ithin an incredibly small space ; bringintr, as were, under one view, the successive changes and destinies of Europe, from the fall of the ^oman Empire, in the fifth cent\iry, to the restoration of tlie Bourbons in France. The juntries which the different nations from time to time have occupied, — their laws and istitutions— their progress from barbarism to refinement — the revival of arts and sciences — lie origin of inventions and discoveries — and the wonderful revolutions, both moral and ])oli- [cal, to which they gave birth, — are here detailed at once with brevity and perspicuity. The ithor has restricted himself as it were to the jmrc elements or essence of useful knowledge, iscarding from his narrative every thing that did not minister to solid instruction. His ook has been conqjared to a sort of chart or genealogical tree of history, Avhere only tlie rand and prominent events have been recorded, striptof all their secondary and subordinate Jrcumstances, which often distract the attention without adding in the least to the interest elucidation of the subject. His researches have thrown a new light on some of the Sfficulties and obscurities of the Middle Ages, particularly with regard to Chronology and leography. His veracity and precision are unimpeachable; and, though his style has been iouglit inelegant, his candour, judgment, and erudition have never been called in question, ^en of all parties and of opposite opinions, both in politics and religion, have united their prages in his praise. M. Fontanes, Grand Master of the University of Paris ; M. Levesque, ioe-President of the (;lass of Ancient History and Literature, and M. Dacier, Perpetual Ecretary of the Third Class, in tlie Institute; M. Fourcroy, l)irector-(u'iieral of Public iJstruction at Paris ; M. Frederic Buchholz, of Berlin, who translated the Tableau into jrnian ; and many others, have spoken of this book in terms of the highest commendation. Id obtained it a place in most of the Universities, Schools, and Libraries on the Continent. Tlie Revolutions, although an excellent digest of the history and policy of Europe, lims no higher merit than that of an elementary work. It was originally designed for the ^niig entering on their political studies, and is an outline that must be filled up by sub- luent reading, and from collateral sources. With regard to the present English edition, le Translator has only to say, that he has endeavoured to give a faithful transcript of his Uhor, and as literal as the idiom of the two languages would admit. He has been more idious of fidelity to his original than elegance of style or novelty of ex\)ression. He has jrefixed a short sketch of the author's life, abridged from two of his biographers, MM. choill and Weiss. [The first Eight Periods bring down the History of Euro])e to the French Revolution, which I all that our author undertook, or rather lived to accomplish. The period from that event the restoration of the Bourbons in 1815, has been continued by M. Schoell,* the editor Koch's Works, and author of the Histonj of the Treaties of Peace, &c. As the conti- aation, however, differs a little in some ])oints from tlie views of the original, and is not full on others as might be wished, the Translator has introduced such additions and lendments as seemed necessary to complete what was deficient, according as nearly as M. Schtt'U has also interspersed a few explanatory paragraplis, -wliicli, in the present volume, the hilor will find included ivithiii brackets [1. ^ «, .v LITE or KOCH. possible with the sjiirit and dcsipin of the author himself. Tiirse iiltcratious, as well us tlij uutiiorities on which they have been made, will be foimd carefully marked. LIFE OF CHRISTOPHER W. KOCH. CiiRisTOPUKR W)i,i,i.\ir Kncii, equally distinguished as a lawyer and a learned historian, wa- born on the !)th (tf .May, 17^7, at Iiouxwiller, a small town in the seit-nimy of Lichteul)eri; in Alsace, -..iiich then belon,u,-ed to the Prince of Ilesse-Darmstadt. His father, wlie was. member of the Chandler of I'inauce under that prince, sent him to an excellent school ii his native place, Avliere he received the rudiments of his education. At th(> ano of thirteen; lie M-cnt to the Protestant rniversity of Strasburi^, where he prosecuted his studies undc; the celebrated S(duc]iflin. J,aw was the profession to which he was destined ; but he show( an early predilection for the study of history, and the sciences connected with it, such ii.;, Diphmi'tlics, or the art of deciphcrinij; and \ orifyiny; aiu'icnt writs and cliartularies, Genrui logy, C/iri>fi')lo<:!/, &c. Schu'jdlin was not slow to ajipreciate the risinu; nu-rit of his ]ni]ii'l and wisluul to make him the companion of his labtmrs. lie admitted him to his friendslii|i| and became the means of establishinu; him as his successor in that famous ])olitical acadeiiiv.i which his reputation had formed at Strasburii', by attractinj;' t'» tbut city the youtli of tl first families, and from all ])arts of I'hirojie. Koch devoted much uf his time to the (jaiin; Law, and soon L!;ave a ])roof of the jirourcss he had made in that bra.ich of study, by tli Academical Dissertation which lie published in 17U1, under the title of Coiumeiitiitin ih CoUutioue di^iiitatum et boipficiorum crclesiastironwi in viijx'rio Bdvumn-Germcviico. 'V\\.-\n treatise was a ])relude to his Commentary on the Pnismalic Sanction, which he pnblislir, in 17W)— a work which excited an extraordinary sensation in Catholic (ierinany, and ])ri cured the author tiie favourable notice of such prelates as were most eminent for leariiin.i and piety. After taking liis academic degree, Kocii repaired to Paris in 170-, where he staid a yc;iiJ honoured witli the society of the most distinn;uished literati in the caiiital, and freqnentiii;^ the royal library, wholly occupied in those researches which prepared him for the h^ariid: labours in which he afterwards ensj^agcd. On liis return to Strasburp;, he wrote the cuin tinuation of the Historia Zarivgo-Badcnfiis, of which the first volume only was drawn up 1 Schcrpflin. All the others were entirely the work of Koeli, though they bear the name > the master who had charged him with the exei^ution of this task. Schu'pflin bequeathed i the city of Strasburg, in 17(J0, his valuable library and his cabinet of anticpies, on conditiul that Koch should be appointed keeper; whi(di he was, in effect, on the death of the testatiJ in 1771. lie obtained, at the same time, the title of professor, which authorized him if deliver lectures ; for the (diair of Sclui'iiflin passed, according to the statutes of tlie Univcrsinj to another professor,— a man of merit, but incapable of supplying his place as an instruct!.^ of youth in the study of the political sciences. The pupils of Sclurpflin were thus transfern .1 to Koch, who became the head of that diplomatic school, which, for sixty years, gave to the public so great a number of ministers and statesmen. In 1779 the government of Hanover otf'ered him the chair of public (jerman Law in tli< University of Gottingen, which he declined. Next year the Eni])eror .foscph II., who kiicv well how to disting)ii8h merit, complimented him with the dignity of Knight of the Emiiiifl an intermediate title between that of baron and the simjile rank of noblesse. About tlii same period he obtained the chair of Public Law at Strasburg, which lie held until tiiiil university was suppressed at tiie Fhm ch revolution. Towards the end of 17Hi), the I'rol testants of Alsace sent him as their envoy to Paris, to solicit from the King and theConstiUi[ tional Assembly the maintenance of their civil and religious rights, according to the faith i former treaties. He succeeded in obtaining for them the decree of the 17th of August, i7W| bich sanction pre net inch ftccd at the Iplained by ai itified by I Ik? iMeantiine, ti at brilliant as lanties of ihi |e career of K i liis country. ember of the J |pd ultiinalely \ exerted hims retold the vm. tistria. 'i'he i hen, on the i2( lance. An ofli Itlic Lower HI pjiired him. J bich he had tli [ices. This let iircd in a prise Pet of escajie, ( HI to liberty, n |thcir jirovinci wsurcs that wc |prcvent the sa th ))leasure the LIFE OF KOCH. s wi'll as tli(j )ii;h saiu'lioiu'il tlicse ri;ilits, mid vlccliiicd that the orclcsia^iical bciipficcs nf the Prolcslants »ro not itichiilcd aiuoiif; those whicli tho (k-cice of the 1st of Novcnihor, preceding,', liad icc'd at tlie disposal of tho nation. Tho former decree was moreover exleiuU'd and [plained hy an act, bearitifi,' faction whicln-oiivulsed the nation, Id iiltimalely subverted the throne. \\'hen president of the committee of that assembly, exerted himself for the maintenaiico of peace ; and in a reiiort which he luaile in 171)2, he retold the calamities which uould overwhelm I'rance, if war should be declared a};ainst iistria, Tlic republican faction, by their clamours, silenced the remonstrances of Koch, lieii, onthe'JOth of Ajiril, he spoke in oi)]iosition to a measni(! wliicli proved so fatal to lance. An oflicial letter which he addressed, lOtli of August, to the constituted authorities Ithe Lower Hhiiie, sufficiently exinesscd the horror with wliidi that day's proceedini^s had ^])ired him. lie ]irocnred, moreover, tlie (•(incurrence of his fellow-c^ilizetis in a resistance, lich he had then some reason to hojie would be made a common cause by the other pro- ices. This letter drew down ujum him tho persecution of the rulinj;' jiarty. He was im- ired in a ])risoii, where he lan;.':uislied for eleven months, and from whiili he had no \n'0- e(!t of escape, except to mount tlii! snafi'old. The revoluiion of the 'Jth Thormidor restored m to liberty, when he was a])pointod, by the voice of his fellow-citi/ens, to the Directory [their ])rovincial department. Jle endeavoured by all means in his power to defeat the Msures that were taken to injure his constituents ; and had influence enout!,li, it is said, [prevent the sale of tlic funds belonging; to manufactories and hospitals. He then resumed th ]ileasure those functions which he had unwillingly accejiled ; in 17'J->, lie recommenced 1 professorship of public law, and returned with new zeal to his literary labours, which had •n too loiif^ interrupted. Six years he sjient in these useful occupations ; from which, how- [>r, ho was once more detached by a decree of the senate, which nominated him a member Itlio Tribunal. This nomination Koch accepted, in the hope of beinp; useful to his Protestant lintrymen, and to tho city of Strasbur^', in obtaininj; the re-establishment of the refornu;d (i;;ion, and its restoration in th(> university. Ho did, in ett'ect, ev^vt liimsolf much in ^lalfof rclif^ion, accordinj^' to the confession of Au^sburij;, as w( I -is of tho Protestant wlemy at Strasburp;, wliich was suppressed at this ])eriod. ['he Tribunal having been suiipn-ssed, Koch declined all places of trust or honour which re offered him; and only requested permission to retire, tliat he might liave a short interval himself botween business and the grave. A pension of ;i(HU) francs was granted him, Ihout any solicitation on his part. In ISOK, ho returned to Strasburg, wliore ho con- jued to devote himself to letters, and in administering to the public good. About the end of [0, the Grand-master of the University of France conferred on him the title of Honorary ctor of the Academy of Strasburg. His health, which had been prolonged by a life of [at temperance and regularity ami the peace which results from a good conscience, became ordered in 1812, when ho fell into a state of languor, which terminated his life on the 25th lOctober 1813. His colleagues, the professors of Strasburg, erected to his memory a Inunient of white marble in the church of St. Thomas, near those of Scliuijiflin and [erlin, which was executed by M. Ohnmacht, an eminent sculptor in Strasburg. One of biographers lias pronounced the following evdogium on Koch: — "A noble regard for |tice and truth, a penetration beyond common, a diligence unrivalled in liistorical earches, a remarkable talent in arranging and illustrating his subject, an incorruptible fegrity of principle, and unclouded serenity of mind, with a zealous desire of rendering Irescarches, his information, and activity useful to his species — these were the prominent lures of the mind and character of this amiable man." In addition to this, it has been larked, that although professor Koch had not the art of a graceful or even a fluent elocu- viii AUTHOIl'S riiEFAcr,. tion, no iiian over possessed in a higher decree the talents and qualifications of a publ instructor. Like Socrates, ho had a manner peculiar to himself. Ho was not so mucii teacher of sciences, as of the means of acquirinfj; them. He cinild inspire his scholars with taste for labour, and knew how to call forth their several powers and dispositions. Thoii;;!! a man of the most domestic habits, and a lover of children, Koch never married. Two lives of this celebrated professor have been written by foreigners. The one is by "Si Schweif^haeuscr, junior, a professor at Strasbourg; and the otlier is prefixed to the iic edition of the Histoire des Traites dp. Paix, by M. Scha'U, the editor and continuator i several of our author's works. This latter biographer has accompanied his sketch witii , descriptive catalogue of all Koch's works, the ])rincipal of which are the following:-- Tahles Gtitiealogiques des Maisons Souverainefi du Midi et de POuest de l' Europe 2. Sanrti Pranmntica Gcrmanorum illustrata, 3. Abngf de FHistoire des Traites de Puix entre h Puissances de VEurnpe. A new edition of this work appeared in 1818, enlarged and con; nucd by INT. Sduell down to the Congress of Vienna and the Treaty of Paris, 1813. 4. Tub, des Traitis entre la France et les Puissances Etrangcres, depuis la Pai.r de fVestphalie, 4> '). Tableau des Pernlulions de l Europe, ^'C, (J. Tables G£n£alngi)i and extended or abridged the different jieriods according to eireuni- lunces. In continuing this work down to the ])resent time, he has deemed it necessary to )n(lude at the rrencli Uevolution ; as the numerous results of thai great event are too ^iich involved in uncertainty to bo clearly or impartially exhibited by contemporaiy riters* The Work is divided into eight I'eriods of time.t according with the ])rincii)al revolutions Ihich have changed, in succ-ssion, the jiolitit al state of I'huope. At the head of each period ]>laeed either the designation of its particular revolution, or that of the jHnver or emjiire ^lich held the ascendancy at the time. In limiting his treatise solely to the revolutions of liuope, the writer has not touched upon tliosi; of Asia and the East, exce|)t in so far as they ^ve had an innnediate influence on the destinies of Europe. Conscious also that the dis- iguishing characteristic of an historian is veracity, and that the testimony of a writer who Is not himself been an eyewitness of the events he r(!Cords cannot be relied on with imjilicit Infidence, the author lias imposed on himself the invariable rule of citing, with scrupulous pe, the ])rineii)al authorities and vouchers, of each period and country, that have guided m, dming his researches, in selecting and examining his materials by the torch of jiatient Jticisni. Without this labour and i»recaution, the Work would have been of no avail as an bm(>ntary help to those who were desirous of acquiring a more minute and solid knowledge [history. In the edition of 1H2H, from which the |)i-pst'nt fraiiBlatioii is made, the Tiiblvau has buen cunti- eil by tlie Kilitor, M. Sdia'U, down to tiiu -'Oth Noviinbur 1815.— T. >iiuu in tliu last uiiitiuus, iucludiuj; the coutiiiuutiuu. poth general ar in Empire in t! | itohaveaconciii cct of states aii| ociety in mode: olutions, we r;| ite the influeii' Empire, reciim on of their tcrJ ites, in coursr \ the progress I confirm. l\I:i| rity, carried tlit< mits of their o'| learly a thousaJ o every reader urope became t| national law ai of common pi eir jealousies, ivilisation, ami d institutions li- I and their rovoj d in the lapse ol ' ANALYTICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE TO THE REVOLUTIONS OF EUROPE. PAOK Trassi.atoh'x Prvface i'i I.IKK (IK M. KlICU ". Auiiior's I'KKI'.VrK *' iNTRODL'ivrioN;— list' of liUlory, 1. Aicliivi"!i luiil ri'corils, 2. i.tMiiiriipliv. 2. (ioiiciildiiiiM, 2. CliniiiDliiny, 3. Aki- ol'tlio \Vorlil,4. The Mnsiiir iir S.icroil liistury, ■». Juliiiii yi'ar, 4, liit'i-Dtiuii culi'iidiir, 4. Ui'I'orir.eil year ur eiili'iiilnr. 4. Clil ami lu'w slylc, 4. llutli of our Siivicmr anil Clirislian i-ra, 5. Knoclis or eras in aiiciiMil uml inoiltTO ciimjiiitation of time, 5. IK'i;ir;i or IliiiUl of Mahomet, G. Vnlijar or Uionytiaii eia, 0. Kra iiseil in Sll«ni^h and l'onii(,Mie»e rt'torils, 6. .Iiilian period, aocordini; to Sealiui'r, G. Cytle ol the sun, G. Lunar cvile, (■). Cycle of iudi.tious, G. Hiiiturv, how divided andclassilliMiCi. riiivei!.al history, 7- 'I'lie middle iiKeJ, 7. The aiuient historiiiis, 7. Astronomical ncience onxi- nated in Chaldea.7. l'liu;nii:ian» tlie lir»t naviniitois, 7, Karly history of Kurope imUiiown, 7. Karly moiKU\.-hii'S, 7. Ve>ti);e» of the K^yiitian civilisation and P'^er, 7. Antiiiiiilies id' the states id' Assyria and Hiil)ylon,7 Tra- ditions thereof unsui>iiorled by llirodotiis,7. Tim only certain uccount of the coni|uest» of Slialmane«er and NelmchaiUiezzur to lie found in the Scriptures, 7. I'er- sian monarchy founded liy Cvrus, 7. Petty kingdoms of tireece. >*. Powerful repuldics of Athens and I.acedir- mon, H. Military prowess, love of lilieriy, learniiiK, art and sciences of llic (Jieeks, 8. Philip, Kin« of Macedon, W. Coinpiesta of Alexander Ihe (ileal, (*. Kin'„'ilunis «st,-iblislied at his death, H. K^-ypt and Syria, i. Kin|{i of Home, M. llislorv of the republic of Home, H. Uiimuu liislorians, H. The CarthaKiniun power, f.. The Punic v\urs, or contest of Home and t'arlha),'e, H. Destruction of CarliiaKO, y. No vestiges, monuments, or public records, of that maritime city, now extant, D. Pompey,^ Ca-sar, and Oassus, 9. Destructive amliilioii of .Julius Ciesar, 9. Vail of the Commonweallh of Home, '.». Death of Cieaar, 9. 'I'riiimvirate of (Jcliivianus, Antony, and 1-epiilns, 9. Death of Marc Antonv, in i:«vpl, U. Koman Kmpiro founded bv Anuuslus or Dctaviauiis, 9. Kxtent and popn- latiuiiof the Uumau Knipire,9. Coniinesls of Trajan, 9. The Uoman Senate loses all real aulliority under Tibe- rius, (Jali^Mlla, Nero, and Doniilian, U. fteinns of the emperors Titus, and Ihe Antonines, 9. Coustantine the (ireatestaldishestlie Christian religion, lU. Hetransli.MS the seat of empire to lly/.anlium, tlierealier nameil Con- stantinople, 10. Division of the Unman limpire by the will of Theodosins the (ileal, 10. Ilonmius Kmperor of the West or Uome, 10. Arcadius Kmperor of the Kast or Constantinople, known us the Greek Knipiie, 10. Orisin of the papal pov^er at Hume, 10. Mahomit founds a new reliKion and an empire, 10. KinKdoins of the Franks and northern barbarians, 10. The Normans, Itussiaiis, and Ilunnavians, Jtc, establish monarchies, 10. Germany becomes a paramount state and sovereignly, 10. Rise of the House of Capet, 10. Norman coiKiuests, 10. Domi- nation of the Popes, 10. Kestoralioii of Uoman juris- iirudence, 10. Italian republics, 10. MokuI Empire in the Kast, 10. Ma^na Charl.i and Eniilisih Liberty, 10. The Imiuisilion, 10, The Turks under Mahomet II. con- quer the (Jreek or Lower Empire, 10. Fall >f Constan- tinople, 10. Restoration of learning in the Wi ;t, 10. Re- newal of commerce, 10. Kevival of the belles lettres, \0. The reformation, 10. Discovery of America, 10.^ Reli- gious wars, 10. Political system of Europe. 10. Federal system, 10. Peace of Utrecht, 10. Libetline and im- pious philosophy, 10. Revoliilionary epoch, lU. PKUion I. From Ihe Inrn»ion of Ihe llnmiin ^''^rr in Ihe Ifrsl Ihe Hiirhariiim, 400— 8U0. to tliu lime I'J CliatleiMiyne, Ai r\i 300 Harbariau nations invading the Western Empire of Rome, enumerated 300— ;t75 The (iolht embrace Chriitlanily auo— 400 Confederacy of- the Franks ,'t00 Confederacy of the Alemanni 20O The Saxons and Angles 37,i The Huns invade Euruiie 412 Ataulphui King of the Visigoths 413 Coiii|iie»t»nf the Hurgundialis (' iiiostsof the Alemanni and Siievi ........... 430 Clodiun founds the kingdom of the Franks al (;anibrai .•.••,'■,■*■"■.■ '.".Vi' 451 Attila defeated by yVUius, in which ob.tiuale battle 'I'heodoric Kii.g of tlie Visigoths, the ully ol \W Romans, is slain ;•■•,•"■„' 4H0 Clovis defeats Syagrius and the Romans ^jt Soissons ',!.',','■' 49G Clovis defeats the Alemanni at lollii.ic inMr Cologne " 49C Me embraces Cliristianity ; 5o: HedeleaU the Visigoths at \ouiUe.. ............ 534 The descendants of tUovis compter the kiii«d.>ii. of Itiiigundy 409 The Vandals compier Spain ••••.•;■•':■ 415— 5.><4 The Visigoths establish their dominion iii Spain and in Africa ;••• 427 Censericthe Vandal subdues the Romans in Aln.i 455 The Vandals pillage Rome ............■.-•.•••■ 51(4 Helisarius overturns the Vandal kingdom in AInc.i 410 The Uonians retire from Hritain 450— «J7 The heptarchy of the Anglo-Saxons H27 Eiibert crowned King (d' England .■••,••, ; 47G Augustulus, the last Roman emperor, is detlironi-il bv Odoacer • • • • • • • • • • ■ • 489 Odoacer put to death at Ravenna by Theodouo j the Ostrogoth ' 547 Totila takes Rome 552 Death of Totila •.•■•••;\"c;',"'",\' 5.-.;) Nurses defeats Teias the last kuigot theOstrogotli* oGH The Lombards invade Italy 572 Pavi.i taken by king .Mbiiims .572 On the state of (iermauy • ,•••••;,'■, 400— GuO The Slavi establish themselves almbard king sei7.es Ravenna. Haveiina ceded by king Peiiin to the Roman poiiM| C22 The hegira of Mahomet 713 The Saracens conqner Spain ........ .; • ■ •- 739 Alphouso I. establishes the kingdom ot Ovieilo o.| Asturias (_subseiiueiilly of Leon ) fi)-'.lll0 ninslou I „ Lileratiiie and i ^ (.'omnierctf of A P'rom Clmrtemn'ine Arressiou of VA\ Fall ot'tlie LomI Fall nf the new chate of Ravel ' ('liarles the (irei by Po|ie Leo I 0—900 St.iteoflea Egbert King of I Successors of Ch I Louis the llavarl Ireaty of Verdui -.H77 Reign of CI The romaiieu Id! lingua,'!' I Enipiie ol' Ihe \ diiriis of Franc: , Navirte, and i f-9:i'.t ReigunlCI Alfairsiif lii'rniai lliisijii loiiiider oi Duilidph King of I Kiiigdiim of .Nav Feiiilil institutioi Power of milliary Terrilorial parliii J Irruplinii or till' > 'I'hi'lr siiperstitioi Their piracies ,1111 , Their ciiui|uests . Their invasion of I Normaiis found 11 RoUo.or Robert, I Iliiii^'iiti.'in com|ii D.iuish invasions Ueignor Allied tl Norman iiavigatui I Olho Ihe Orfat to -%i Civil instill I Henry 1. sninaiiu lOllio I. Empenir 1 Aniircliv in It.ilv. -1508 Thei'lectiv enipi'rors by tin at Rome JMargraviales of II ■Stale of the churi iKiiigdom of lliira I man crown, by |l'ower of the Co Savoy, the Dau tories Conrad, Duke of ! -1191 The Duke land Treaty between Samuel Aba Ki pxlent of Henii Empire.... Paramount autho remporal system T)ecline of the em 1100 Fiefs of th. Im|ietial and prel Ttisliops acquire t Decline of the it cessor.i of Olho Pmmiade dynasty The ("alipli'llasc tise of petty Ma I of the caliphate The Spanish prin I I'lincof the Moi p5l2 .Sanchothe I sccndauls endii ANALYTICAL AND CHRONOLOUICAL TAULK. XI )— Ono r)lvi«liin ipfllii' cali|ilmti> of tlie WaruciMn l.ili'ratiiii' itiiil m'ii'iiri' oi (In- AniliiiMm Cummuici) of Arubln mwl I mliu I'AflK .. r.» II), ai» I'lCIUOl) II. from Clmrlemn'l'Ki tn Ulliu the Oreitl. A.l>. HOO— Wii. Ani'»ni !<» Kill! nl' tin- new Uimiaii ri'piililic, luicl of llin exar- nlmltf 111' navi'liiiii 20 (,'liutli's till' (iii'iitorowiii'il tMii;»'iiir ot'lhi- llcmmiin liy ro|H- Li'» III 21 — OUII Stale III' li'iiriiiiit.'. Foitllilutiiiil iif ncrliiKiU. . . . 'Jl KijIiiTt Kmijiif KiiKl'ii'i' -"- Sm't'rusdi'K iirCliurli'muLiiic 22 Louis till' lliiviiri'iii, Kiii^i of (ii'rmiiiiy 22 Treaty of Vi-nlim 22 -m77 Ui'i;{iiorCliiirl«H till- llalil, Kiiitf of I'raiK'f. . 'J2 Till- nmmiii'O iiliom wan llio origin of tlir l''r.'ii('li lanijiia.;!' 22 Ivniiiiii' 111' till' Wi'st it !ie|iarUi'il into llic Kini;- iloiiis of I''raiii'i', )ii'rniaiiy, l.oiraini', lliir;;iinily, Navarri', ami of Itilv...'. 22 >— 9J'.t Ui'iuii ofCliaili's till' Simpli' 2.t Aflaim of tli'rniaiiy ami of tin- iliirliy of l.oiraiiio.. 'j:i Hoviii foiiniU'r III' till! Kiii^iKitn ui' liiir;;iuiily 21 I)i»l(il|>li Kii>i;ol ltiir;tiinily 2.'i Kiiiit'l'ini of Suvanr 2'l h'i'oilal iustitulioiiH of ili» Franki ami liHruiaiiM .. 2>t I'owi'r of iiiiliuiry rhit'fs, anil of tlii! iiobli's 24 'IVrrilorial |iiuliiioii'4 24 1 ITU pi ion III' til'- Normans 24 'llii'ir siipi'r^tilioiis 2J Tlti'ir ]iirarl''4 ami Hi'a-kin^s 2.'! Tlieir rinii|Ui'Ktii 25 'I'licir invasion of Irrlaml 25 NorrnaiiH foiiml a vf piil'lio in Iceluml 25 Kollo.or Kolii'rt, Duki- of Normandy 25 lluu:/arian coni|tiesN 2I> Danish inva>iun-i of KnL;lanil l!t) Iti'iKnol Allivil the (ireai 2(i Nuruian navigators, ami maritime diiicuvutiei .... 21! PEIUOD III. I Otho the Orrnt to Oreiprti the (Ivrat. A II. 962—1074. -M'J (,'ivil iustitntious of till' lierman monarchy.. 27 I lli-nry I. suniami'il llif KowliT '. .. 27 IdiIioI. Kni|>i'riir of (>i'vniaiiy,ron<|ners Italy 27 Anarcliy in Italy. .lohii XII. Topu 28 -IjOS The I'h'OtivB UiiiKs ^''r;iiiii iil of llolienii.i . . 3't The Piasis, i I'nlisli dyii.isU 31 lll'iti — '.^!*H (.'lirisiianity iiitrodiiLed into I'ulaini and lliisMa 34 'JHH Vladimir the Great e-pmses liie dieek l'rinceii-.laiis 31 Christianity iiitroiliieed iiio lliiiii;ary 3 4 !)73 Sleplien I., king,lawgiver,an I aposile of the liiin- gaiians 31 I'olitieal institutions and territorial divisions of Hiiiigiry 34 Siipeistitiin ol the 11^/ inline 11 reeks HI 1000 Seels ami schi-ms of the (iieek etiiinh 31 Schism ami liieacli between the churches of Con- st. iiitinople ami Koine 34 Hun-, Av.irs. ami other barbaiiatls, also the I'er- siatis and Uiissians, harass the Ivistt'i'. 1)iiipir<' 35 U6a— 7J9 .\ralH concpier Sicily, ami be»ie;4i lUsliui- tinople 35 The Lombards, Normans, Arabs, and Tniks seize on its pviivinies 35 VO— 771 l.oinliard kmi'dom of It ily 35 'i'he Greek 111 r Feu Giei{eois 3 > 7io L'O the I^amian, I'mpeior of (^oiistautiriopte.. .. 3i 7I1S — lOOO The Seljiik Tnilis cimi|U,'r .\sia .Minor 3i lOOO Noiniau eoiii|iiesls ill Italy 3.'i 9m) The Turks, of Scvthiaii ori.!iu, obtain aullioiity in the C.iliphateot lla;tdad 35 Instilulioii lit llmirs ol'Seljiiekians and Ar.iliialis.. 35 939 Uapill, I'lniral-Umrah, or commander of cum- maiiilers 33 91.5 The How ides or Great Kmirs ,35 Dow iil'al of the Arabian calipliate 35 103,'<— lOi" Toynilbeg Kicir alOmrah 35 lu7l .VlpAi'l an t.ikes the Greek EmjH'ror Komaiiiis prisoner .15 Turkish coiiijiiests in the Fast 35 1072 Malek Sliak,Scljiickian Sultan 35 Is named ('omiiiander of the Faithful 3l! 1092 Death of .Malek and partition "> liis dominions iiitii the stales of Iran, Kerman, ami liunm 3ti 1152 Culiplis of Uagdad re^>tol^•d , 3(3 I'UUIOD IV. From Pope Orrguri/ VII. to limifuce I'll I. A.D. 1074 to Kind. 11)73 — 1300 Supremacy of the Roman iiontill's 3G lUiii I'ope Nicholas II. forms an alliance with Kobert Giiiscard the Norman 36 luoi Influence of Canlinal Ilildebrand in the ilectiou of Foye Alexander II 36 1073 Hildebrand obtains the tiara underthe appellation of Gregory VII 36 liiou— 1 1110 Itonie subject to the (jeruian potentate 36 1073 Investiture of the ring and crozier 30 1074 Gregory VII. forbids the exercise of the secular right of investiture 37 Ho proclaims himself independent of temporal authority 37 1074 He renews the law of clerical celibacy 37 The False Decretals forged by Isidore 37 1079 Gregory Vll. exacts canonical obedience, fealty ami homage to Home 37 Royal rights of St. Peter 3? Right to convoke general Councils 37 IMvilcjes and power of legates 38 Gregory suiirem« head of the church, constitutes himself the arbiter of temporal princes 38 1076 He summons the emperor Henry IV. to appear at Rome 3S b ANALYTICAL AND CHllONOLOGICAL TABLE. A I). PAOE IU70 Tli.it cmiu'ror and llie (ii'rm.iu bishops pronuuiipi; till' iU'|Mit German Diet held at Spire, under the Empe- ror Henrv VII 1344 Diet of Fraiiktort Corporate bodies and municlpallttes Knrianehisement of serfs progressive F'euils of the Italian republics 1180 — 1315 Ixiuis VII. uiid Louis X. grant freedom tu the French peasantry Kniranchisement takes place in Germany Henry II., Duke of llrabunt, grants freedom to the cultivators of the soil Roman jurisprudence extended throughout the kingdoms of tne West Principles of civilisntiun, liberty and good goveni- ment Code of Jusllniun taught at llolugna The Canon Law eslablisheil by the Roman poniills, 1145 Eugenlus HI. encourages (iratiau In the complla. tion of canons, known as the Decretals ot the Popes 1152 He gives the Decretals his satictiun Tribunian's Institutes of Justinian, or code of the Roman law 1235 Gregory IX. publishes another collection of Decn tuls These strengthen the papal authority And have a salutary influence on society The Peace or Truce of God, explained The Judgments of Cod and Ordeals abolislied ... The feudal law reduced to order and system A.D. Profession of Universilli's I Rhetorical sir 1 1 ">3 Degrees conl'i ll58 //n/)i7« of the privileges o Exiinetlon of 1250 IhetJrand li Germany . . 12.')3 The Ilansc'ati 1:J73 Rudolph of Hi ll.'-O The Guelphs and .Saxony Proscription ol City of Ratisbi the crown . |1180 Dernard, son c vested witli t Suabia and Fri |]24G Succession oft "2.'>(; Ricliard of Cor ll'J.'il Ottocar II. Ki l!5H Is slain by the Marchdeld., 106—1138 Italian r peror as tlieii power liir the l.W Frederic Uarba b 2 He razes the ci Ii7 League of the c 'Jl-; Frederic II. rei 122G He is opposed Lomburdy . . Factions of the The Italian niu The inslitution i The I'odestas, or over their citi Commerce of Vt id; Doge of Venice, History of Veiiic Hereditary arisi History of Geiio^ .■\cconnl of the r Norman chiefs a \li7 Roger, sovereig IliiO Anadelus II (lOi; William II., KI Account of the [1^9 Marriage of the I of Naples . , . IS9 The usurper Tai |2.iS Miiinfroi usurps |iiOG Clement IV. in kingdom of N .'00 Malnlroi slain li, iO.S Coiiradin heir tu of Austria, be Michael Paleolo Btantlnoiile.. i.'^'J The Sicilian V,, W2 IVter Ill.of Arr Continests of M KlugsofArraf Wl Count of Champ vane in right M I'hilip I. of Fra jiagne by his Henry l.'of N .loan, daughter kingdom of N linquishing ( Valois p Philip of Valois Krenoh throne '1/ Havinond, Couii ,„, Ariagon, l.v h IW His grandson, I' HI P James I.of Arra, "iidthe kiiigdo f/O Dispute of Po| riieon ■' .'^Iphoiiso VI ol ipiers tile kinx Ahoiiheker, Com hi ,,;'''"''''''s from / P'' His son Voiisulf |30 lA.D. I'AOK Profession of tlic law stuilicd 4H UiiivL'isiiii K louiidi'd in Kiirui>t; IS Itlii'torieal stmlics, mul si'ieiici's 48 llUVi IVwri'es roiiU'iii'ii nil stndfiits uf till" (.'anon law .. '18 |il5H llahila of llie ICiniioror Kredeij ltaibaio-»a coiiliT |irivileui'siin iiiiivi'isilii's 48 Extin'.'tioii of lliu I loose of liolifoslaufeii 49 |1250 Tlip (iraiid InterR');nuni> a iieiiod of anareliy in (icnniiny 49 ll2J;j The IlaiiM-atic Loamio 41) n'l'i'A Itudolpli of Ilapshiir^', Knipi'ior of Gomiany 49 1llf|i|iosed by UiCKory IX. and the I.e.ij;iic of I.ombardy 50 Factions of the '"Ueliilis anil (ildbellines iu Italy . 50 The Italian niunici|ialilies lose tlieir libeily 50 The inslilutioii of Podesta in several Italian slates, 50 The i'odestas.or captains, arro;,'ate sovereign power over their cities 51 Commerce of Venice and (jenoa 51 I'Or Dojje of Venire, institution of that magistrate 51 History of Venice 51 llerediiary arisiociacy of that republic 51 History of (ienua 51 Aceonnl of the republic of I'isa ,52 Norman chiefs acquire a portion of Italy 5a |h?7 Kouer, sovereittn of Sicily . . . , ,52 \VM Anacletus II., anti-pope.' 52 lICi; William U., KiuH of .Naples and Sicily 52 I Account of the House of lloheustaufen 52 llW) Marriage of the Emperor Henry IV. with Constance I of Naples 52 ll89 The usurper Taiicred 52 |2.iS Miiinfroi usuijis the kin>;dom of the Two Sicilies. . 52 l2('p() Clement IV. invests Charles of Aiijou with the I kingdom of Naples ,52 t'fti Mainlroi slain iu the battle of Iteneventum 52 filiS Conradiu heir to the crown of Naples, and Frederic of Austria, beheaded 52 Michael I'aleologus expels the Latins from (loii- stantliiople ,52 pf^-' The Sicilian Vespers, massacre of the French .... 52 fii Peter III. of Arragon crow ned In Sicily 53 Contjuesls of Moorisli kingdoms iu Spain by the Kiu«sof Arragon and Castile .'.... 53 634 Count of Champagne accinireslhe kingdom of Na. 1 varrein right ol lllanche.ilaughlerof Sancho VI. 53 p?4 Philip I. of France aciiuires Navarre and Cham- pagne by his marriage with .loan, daughter of Henry I. of Navaiie 53 p3li .loan, daughter of Louis le Hutin, transfers tlio kingdom of Navarre to the Count of Kvreux.re- liiii|uishing Champagne nnd Krie to I'hilip of Valois . ;-,3 J;!S Philip of Valois succeeds Charles the F'air on the Kreuoh throne 53 |II7 liajmond. Count of Harcelona, becomes King of Arragon, by his marriage w ith I'etroiiilla 53 |04 His grandson, I'edio 11., does homage to Innocent ,, "I 53 |.iO James I. of Arragon conquers the llalearic Islands 1 nnd the kingdom of Valenlia 53 |7'J Dispute of I'ope Martin IV. with Pedro 111. of -Ar- rai;on 53 AlphouM) VI of Castile (i.e. Alplionso I.) con- quers the kingdom of Toledo 53 Abouheker, Commander of Ihe Faithful, expels the l.eirides from Africa 53 p'.l Ilia sou VoiisulV buihls tlie city of Morocco 53 A.D. VAOK 1120 Abdnlmuumi'n founds the dynasty of the Alrno- hades, and overthrows the Alnuaavides 53 Naser. Mohammed at)eni|its ihe eomiuest of Spain. 5.3 1212 The Moors deleati'd near I beda in Spain 54 1231) — 1262 Moorish kinudoins of Cordova, Seville, and Mui'cia, coiKiui'ri'il by I'eidinand III 54 1248 Mahomet, King of (jianada 54 115t) Spanish Order of .Mtautioa 54 1158 Order of ('alatrava insliluted 54 llGl Order of f-t. .lames of Composti-Ua 64 1090 Henr> cd' lturgund> crniti'd Count of Portugal., . . 54 1139 His sun, .Mpliouso l.ol Portugal, routs the Moors iu the pli. ns of Our ({ue 54 Innocc'ii IV. r\ 11. of Kuglaiid 54 1108—1223 Ucign of Phibpll. Augustus, King of Frauc(^ 55 Louis VI 1, Phili|) .\ugustus. and Louis IX., seve- rally look the cross anil proceeded to the Holy Land 55 1208 lumieent III. persuades Louis VIU. to a crusade ai;ainst the Albigeiiscs, under the Ciuinls of Toiiliiiise and Catcassoune 55 1226 Deathof Louis VIII 55 1229 Louis IX. aci|uires Laiigueiloc by tlie treaty of Paris 55 (A)unty of Toulouse, county of Veiiaissiu, ami pos. sessions of the Coents oi' Caicassouue 55 ICstablishment of the tribunal of the Inquisition.. 5.') 1220 Order of St. Honiiuie founued 55 llli? Death of the Empress Matilda 55 llo7 Henry II. of England inherits Normandy, Gas- cony, (iuienue, Aiijou, Touraine, and Maine, , , . 53 1172 His cen<|uesi of Ireland 55 1175 Koderick, King of Counnught, submits 55 1199 ('sur)iation of King .bdiii 55 1210—1213 .bdin of England dejosed by Innocent HI. 55 1215 John signs Magna Cliarta at Uunnyuieile near Windsor ". 55 1216— 1272 Keignof Henry IU. of England 56 1272 Edward 1 56 1282 He conquers Wales, Llewellyn being slain near the .Menai, and Prince David e.xccuied 56 1157 Valdeniar I., King of Denmark, undertakes a cruaade agaiii>t the ]iagaii nations of the North.. . 50 1183 Canute VI., of Denmark, reduces Pomerania, Meeklenburg, and Schwerin 56 1202 Conipiests of Valdeniar II. of Denmark 56 l'J2" He is defeated in Holsleln 56 10(<0— 1133 Anarchy in Sweden 56 1 157 >*'. t-'ie the apostle and conqueror of Finland , , . . 6/ Charles I. King of Sweden and (iolhland 57 1250 llirger, King of Sweden, spreads the Christian re- ligion in the norili of Europe 5/ Prussians unknown before the close of the tenth century 57 St. Adellierl suffers martyrdom iu Prussia 57 1215 The Abbot of Oliva appointed the (Irst bisho)) in Prussia, by I iinoceul HI 57 1:.;18 Hoiiorius III. publishes a crusade against the pagans of Prnssin 57 li)26 Coiirud, Duke of Masovia, grants to tlur Teutonic Kiiigliis the conipiests tliev might make in Prussia '. h" 12.5.1 They build the city cd' Koningsberg 57 1:280 They founil Marieiiburg, thi'ir capital .57 12«3 The Teutonic Knights enlarge their conquests... 5/ 1 loo— 12U0 Commerce of the liallic 57 1192 Maiuaril, liishop of Livonia 57 1204 He institutes the Order of Knights of Christ, or Sword-bearers 57 12o7 Union of the.'^e wiih the Teutonic Knights 57 History of the Moguls 58 1200 Conquests id' Zinghis Khan ,"-8 1227 llisdeath '. 58 His son Octal Khan conquers the north of ('liina. 58 1237 Hatou conquers Kip/.ac and enters Itnssia 58 The .Mogul Tartars overrun Poland, Hungary, aud 58 Moravia ', 5S 1278 Cublai.or Yuen Chi Isou, coiuiners the south of Cliiuu 58 1) -1 t c, ,3 XIV ANALYTICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. All. I'AQK 12/8 Tartarian khans nf P-.nsia, /ajjiitai, ami Kipzac. . . oS 1291 Kail of the Mos{iil ))OH'cr in Clilna, and death of Ciiblii 5S Till! (trand ur (iolden Iliirde, or Horde of iCipzac, a terror to the Russian priiu-es 5S 1431 Achniet Khan, tliu last chief of the Horde of K ipzac 59 Desci'nduuts of Vladimir the Great shiire the Uus- sian territories 5'.) 1157 The (JraiidDiiUe Andrew 1 5i) Urand-diichy of Kiow devastated l)y the Lithua- nians anil Poles 5!) 1223 Tonshi.son of Zinijliis Khan, defeats llic prinees of Kiow 50 12J7 His son Haton takes Moscow 50 The Mo^'ul Tartars eoncpier the Grandducliy of Vladeinir, and ilevastate llussia nO 1241 Alexander Newski defeats the Kniglils of Livonia. 49 I'JGl On his death he was declared a saint in tlie Rus- sian calendar 59 The I'iast dynasty in Poland 59 1138 Dissensions on the partition of that kingdom by lloleslaua 11 .V.) 1230 Conrad, son of Casimir the ,)ust, establishes llie Teutonic Kni);hls in Culm 59 Laws of tlic IIuui;.irians 59 1077 — 109.'> Con()uests of l.adislaus I. Kin^' of Huu;;ary 60 1102 Coloman, Kin;,' of II>in>,'ary,con(iuers Croatia and Dalmatla .' CO 1131 Itela II., Kin«of Ilun-ary GO App.mages of the youn^jer sons of the kin;,'8 weaken that kingdom AO 1201 Andrew II., King ol llnngiry CO 1217 He undertakes a crnsaile to the Holv Land CO 12J2 Tlie (Jolden Hull, or Constitution ofliungary 60 Andrew II. confers privileges on the Saxons settled in Transv Ivatiia 60 1235 liela IV., King of Hungary 60 1241 The Moguls under llatou and (javouk con Saxony 71 37''' Fie lerie of I loln'ozollerii aei|nires Saxony 71 3UII Aiiiii'liy in Italy 71 30'.) lleiLM ciVtlie Kniperor Henry VII 71 i'ii'i Hoiis.- of Kste j;ovi'rn Mmlena and Ue(,'i;io 71 i:<0 House ' ir(ionza;;a, dukes of Mantua 71 3'K*» .lolin (i.ileas, of the H'ju^e of Visconti, duke of Milan 71 447 House c-fSforza accpiire Mil in 71 |3U0 — 1400 Florence. Venice, and (»'nua maintain re- publican inslitulions 71 The Gunfaloniere of Jii.stice c-tablished in Flo- rence 71 |400 The Florentines overpower Ihe republic of I'is.i. . . 71 y'.W r>^urpation of tin' .Mi'dici in Fhirence 71 |!i7ll ^Vars of (ienoa and Venice yl I'eter Doria takes the port of l.;hio^'^'ia from the Veneti.ins 71 1.180 The Venetians expel the Genoese from Chiot-eia.. 71 |4ti4 Genoa becomes a dependency of the ducliv of Milan ■. ■.... 72 )i^ fienoa recovers its independence "J'i 138^ The \enetians seize on Treviso ','2 •JO Tliev deprive Si^isniund, Kint{ of Ilun^jary, of llalmalia 73 ^01 — 145-1 Tiieir dominions in Italy ~'2 .loanini !., of Naples, adopts Charles of Durazzo, who puts her to ih'a'h 7'- i'2'A .luanna II.,;al, and lay* sieiie to Lisbon 7^ ■'5 John the llastard. Kin;} of I'ortngal, defeats the Castilians 73 128 Accession of the House of Valois to the throne of France 73 |338 Conleslof Fdward HI. wilh I'hilip VI 73 The Salii! Law 73 J.'i88 Insanity of Charles VI. of France 73 |41'.l .lean ^alH I'enr. Duke of HiirKundy, assassinated. . 7-' tia Henry V. viclorious at Aginccnirt 73 4l!(l IlisriiarriaKe with Catherine of France 73 Heatli of Henry V 73 429 Henry VI. crowned at Westminster as Kin({ of Knudaiid ami France 73 Contest of Charles X'U.wiih the linHlish under the Duke of Itedfonl 73 Joan of Aic, the Maid of Orleans ^3 1*29 Coronittiou of Charles VII. at Ithuitns 74 A.n. 1445 1401 \i9i 130(> 1379 1387 1397 141-2 Uii 1448 1450 14.57 1411 1 1439 1380 1311- 14.54 146'.; IS'JO 1340 IS70 1370 |.S«0 1404 1310 1342 1380 1411 14;'S 1444 1450 1300 1327 1358 13C0 1390 130'.) 1400 140.) 130U 1421 14,53 140',; U04 PAOE A stnndini; army formed by Charles VIl. to re- press his ambitious vassals 74 Civil wars of the Houses of York and Lancaster. . 74 HeiKU of Kibvard IV 74 Candidates for Ihe crown of Scotland 74 Uobert llriice, Kin;; of Scotland 74 Ko'iert II., kini<. Fstablishment of the Stuarts on the throne :if Scotland 74 MiirK.ircl of Norway 7'1 I'niou of Calniar. Sweden, Norway, and Den- mark t'overned by Margaret ^'^ Fric VII. sole mon.irc'i /.i (!lirisl'iplier Ill.succeedstolhat Union of Northern kineili ms 75 Charles VI 1 1. Canulson, Kin^' ol Sweden 75 Chrislian I., King of Deumaik and Norway 75 Charles VIII. (lethroneil 75 Hi., restor.itioi 7? Christian I. acipiires Holstcin and Sleswic 'Jr> Histtuy of I lie (Jraud-diikes of llussia 75 lira ml dukes of Litliuaiiia 75 (irand-dnkes of Wolodiniir 7'' Victory of Demetrius Iwaiiovitseh, snrnanied DonsKi, or con<|ueror of the Don 70 -1343 The Teutonic Kni^'his of Marieuburg ac- (|uiic Dinlzie 76 Their wars iiKainst the paean Lithuanians 76 Their wars wiili the kin^s of I'oland 76 Peace of I'liorn '^6 Teutonic Kiiii;hts established in Konint-sberj;. . . . 70 riadislaiis IV.. Kins,' of Poland 70 Casimir the (ireat's concinest of Red Uussia 76 Piast dynasty extinct 77 Louis, l\in^5 of lluu^'irv, aciiuircs the crown of Poland . .'. ' 77 l'ladislausJa!;ello, of Lithuania, KiiiKof Polanil 77 (Jeiicral Diel of Polish nobles 77 Charles Uobert of .Vnjou, Kill;; of Hungary 77 Lonis I., of Hungary, aciputes i-rcil territorial ac- ces-ions • 77 Ills (laughter Mary marries Siyismund of Liixem- biirj;, who unites Hungary to the German 1; mpire Tl Calamitous reiL'n of the Kmperor Sigisinnnd 77 His son Albert. Kni|ieior and Kin^' of Hungary . . 77 L'ladislans of Poland, Kiuf; of llnu;;ary, slain at Varna by the Turks 77 John Ilunniailes ilefcats Mahomet II. at ItelHrade " Dricin ol the Ottoman I'lnks 78 Osniaii, or Ottoman lakes Hiirsa in Hithynia 78 The Janissaries established by Orchan 78 Sultan ^Sollnlan takes liallipoli in the Thracian Chersonesus 78 ,\niiiiaili I. concincrs Thrace 78 111! is slain by the Ser\ians at Cassova 7*^ Hajazet I. defeats SiKismund of Hnni^'ary at Ni- copolis 78 Timoiir, or ramerlane, establishes his authority in Samaicand as his capital 78 He compicrs Kipsac, Persia, and India 7** lie defeat.* Itajazet I. in the battle of Aurora 78 Me marches towards ('liiiia, and dies 7^^ The Moi;ul Dinpiie in llindostan established by ilaboiir, or Haba ", 78 Amiirath II. cunciiiersthe Morea, or Peloponnesus 73 Scanileibe;; and John Hiinniades oppose Amnrath 1 1 . at Cioja 78 Mahomet II. takes Coiistantino)ile 79 David Coniiieiuis, Kmperor of Trebizond, slain by the Turks 79 Pius II. dies while prepariny a crus.nle against the power of .Mahomet II 79 PFRIOn VI. Frnm the tailing I'f Constnntinuiiln In/ the Turks to the Pence iif if'estphaUu. A.D. 1453—1648. 1400 Revival of learnin;; in Knrope 79 Italian school of iiaintinu 79 Metaphysical anil philosophical pursuits 79 Klariilme discoveries 8U 1493 Christopher Columbus sails to the Il.ihama Islands 80 1494 lie discovers the Continent of America 1497 Ainerijj'o Vespntio, a Florentine, (jives his name to Sontli America Spunibh coni|iiest;i in .America s "1 n t: I. Z 3 80 Furdiiiaiid lli« Cnlliolic rt'ci-ivps iiBrnnt from Alex- aiidi'r VI. of the Ainciipiin territories 8 ' Tlu! I'ortuKiicse ilisiovi'ries in the Mast HO 1521 Cortes siilicUies the empire of Mexico 80 Deatli of Montezum i iuiil Gimlimo/.iii HO 1533 I'l/.iirrii makes coiKpiest of Peril 80 Atnbali|iii, Inea oT I'eni, slain 80 Tlie S|iani:inls import iiii(,'roes to work in tlie mines of Soul li America 80 They estalilisli tlie Inquisilinn in tlmse countries. 81 1500 Caliral talies i)osse>sion of liiaziUbr till! Kill); of I'ortnsal 81 1384— ICHi Virginia coliini/.i'd bv Sir Walter Raleii;li.. 81 KIOH neiKiiof.IamesI., Kinu'oriJreat liritain 81 KW'.l West Iniliii Islands setllcd by the Kntjlish 81 1655 Admirals I'enn and Veuables take Jamaica from the Spaniards 81 153i— l(i04 Kreiicli estaldisli themselves ill Canada in the reigns of Francis Land llenrv IV 81 1608 City ofQueliec fonnded .' 81 ltili5 French settle in Miirtiidiine and (inadaloupe 81 1030— 172'2 Their c(dony in St. UomiiiRi 81 llarthclemi Diaz, a I'ortngiiesu admiral, donbles the Cape of Good Hope 81 1408 Vasco di Uama reaches Calient, by that route, in the reign of Kmaniiel 81 1509 Francis Almeida defeats the KL'vptiaii and Indian fleets .; 81 1311 Alfonzi) Albii(piei'(pii> coni|Uers (ioa 81 1547 Silveira defeat > the lleet of Soliman the (Jreat at Din HI Mercantile establishments of the I'ortnKnesn in India 81 Change in the commerce with India once carried on by the Venetians 82 The I'oriiignese and Dutch eni;ro9s the trade by the route ulthe (^ipe 83 Knglish. French, and Danish commerce withjAme- rica and Inilia 83 1517— 154'2 IVrlugnesecommerce withChiiiaand .lapan 83 1519 Mayellnn's voviige bv the route of Ca|ie Horn, and the Straits 111 Magellan 82 Estaldishmeiit of horse posts in Kurope, for letters 82 1500 Abuses of the clergy of Home 82 Causes of the Kiformation 82 1513 Sale of indulgences by I.eo X 82 Martin laitlier liurus the hull issued by I.eo X. against him, at Witienilerg ' H3 Zuingle preai'hes the Keforniation at /.urich 83 1332—1538 Doctrines of .lohu Calvin 83 152') Prnli^st of ihe Lutherans and Calvinists against the Decrees of the Diet of Spire 83 1530 The Confession or Faith presented to the Diet of Au.'sbuig and the Kniperor Charles V 83 L'niversi'.ies ami suhouls founded in the I'riitestant Slates 83 Wars ensue throughoet ciuilral Kiirope in conse- (pience of the Ueformatinn 83 1J43 Pa'il III. convokes 111.' Council of Trent 84 1547 lie transfers this assembly to Hidogiia 84 1351 Julius HI, re-assi'mbles the Council at Trent .... 84 Maurice, Elector of .Saxony, takes Augsburg and marches against the emperor 84 1560 I'ins IV. renews the Council of Trent 84 Its decisions maintain the cause of Rome against the Hiote-tant Liagiie 84 1534 Ignatius Loyola founds the order of Jesuits 84 Their vow of obedienee to Uonie 84 Their missions to China, Japan, and the Indies. . 84 nalauee ot power, devised in Italy 81 1477 Maximilian, atrimoiiial iloininiousin Austria and (Jermany to his brother Ferdinand 1 83 1520 Louis. King of Hungary and lloliemia, is slain at the battle of Mohacs liv the Turks. . 85 His king iom~ilevolve on Ferdinanil I. of Austr i 85 1700 'I lie House of the Kmpenn- Charles V. hecoii s extiiiel on the demise oi Charles 1 1, of Spain ... 83 1740 The male line of Ferdinand I., of .\iistria, ends in Charles VI 85 1380 I'hilip II. inlieiits I'ortngal in right of his mother Isabella, daughter of i;miinuel 85 1580^Death of Henry the Cardinal, King of I'ortngal . . 85 A.n. V\r,) 1544 — 1551 Francis I., King of France, and his son Heniy II. oppose the further aggrandi/.ement oi the House of Austria s'l Henri Qiiatre, Louis XI II., Richelieu, and Ma7.ariii, I join the I'rotestant League ag.iiiiil Austria S,> 1618 Thirty years' war commeneeil s, 1619 Reign of the Emperor Ferdinand II si I 1648 Feace of Westphalia -• ' 163.1 Treaty of the Pyrenees s.i 1493 Reign of the Emperor Maximilian I ,S' .Anaiehv of the German Empire s,; 1495 The perpetnal public peace, published by the Diet ; of Worms ^' The Imperial Chamber constituted -■' 1512 Institution of the Anlic Council, by the Diet of ( 'ologne ^' 1519 The Imperial Capitulations, a guarantee of Ger man liberties S' 1531 The war ol'.Smalc.ahle ^ I'roscriptioii of Luther by (Jliarles V ^ Ciarh's V. condemns the Confessinu of .\ugsburg . " 1530 Union of Smalcalde, or league of I'rotestaiil princes in Germany The Holy League of Catholic princes The Turks iiiv.ide Hungary, which oecasions the truce or accommodation ofNiiremlierg 1544 Peace signed at Cressy with Fr.incis I H\ 15)6 I'roseripiion of the P'loteslaiil Elector John Fre- deric of Saxony, and the Landgrave i,f Hesse . . 1.347 Capture of those princes by Charles V 13<8 Maurice created Eleelor of Saxony The Interim designed for the extirpation of the reforniel reliL'ion Manrii-'e, of Saxony, espouses the Protestant cause, and nearly sur|iiises Charles V. at Iiisprnek. . . . ^"ll 13i2 Treaty of Passau secures toleration to the Pro- testants >■''. 13.35 Diet of .Augsburg concludes a pieification f'\ The Ircclesiaslieal He-erve exiilaineil s; 1608 Henry IV., of Fiance, promoh's a new union of the Protestant princes of (Jerma.', s" I6I19 Holv Le.igne renewed at Wurt.-.om.' s" 1610 MnrderofHenry IV. by Uavaillac -: 1618 Tliirtv years' war narrated s' 1620 Rattle t)f Prague "" 1626 Tilly defeats Christian IV., of DeiiniaiU. at Lul/.en >' Giistavils Ailolplius,i.f Sweden, puis himself at the head of the Piotestanl League 1631 He gains Ihe b.attle if Leipsic 1632 Is slain at Liitzen. where bis arms were victorious 1634 The Swedes defeated at Nordlingen 1633 Treaty of Prague between J<.iiU George of Saxony and the Emperia- Louis XIII. ileclares war against Spain Baiiier and Torstenstou, Swedish generals, con- tinue the war in (ierniauy Tnrenne and D'Kngliieu distinguished in this eon- test againsi the emperor 1648 Peace of Munster f'l The religions pacihcation conflrmed France acquires Mitz, I'lml, Verdun, anil Alsace . The Low Countries inherited by Philip II. of Spain 1.3.36—1699 Origin of the republic of the I'niled Pro- vinces 1.359 The Inquisition established in the Low Countries by Philip II Confederacy of the noliles at lireda, called the Coniiiromise They are denominated Giienx or Reggars William of Orange, Liaiisof Nassau, and the chief nobilitv emigrate 1367 Hiike of Alva sent into Flanders— executes 18,000 persons, together with the Counts Egniont and Horn The Heggars of the Woods The Maritime Heggars I.'i68 The Prince of Orange place-' himself at their head 13/2 He takes the Hrill by surprise The republic fonndecl by Ihe Assembly of Dort . . . 1576 The I'aeiliealioii ol GlienI signed Queen lili/.abeth coiiutenanees the new repnldic. .Mexiinih'r Farnese, a .Spanish governor, takes Maeslrieht by assault 1379 The Prince of Orange, by the Cuioii of I'lrecht, establislies ,he Seven United Provinces of Hol- land, &c -' 1384 William, Prince of Orange, assassinated at Delft.. Maurice of Orange, stadtliolder ANALYTICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XVI I ^^:l y the Dii't of ;uilcc of f«M- r)i:iti(>n of llic Till- I'rinop of Virmn (Alcxiinilcr Farneso) takfs Antwerp.... 12 Diilfili I'.iist Iniliii C'cinnwiiiyestalili-lii'il Tnicu of Twplvi- years betwci'ii the Uiiileil Pro- viiici's iiiiil Spain llenowalof the war Alliiincp of France and the States-General Ii„l,.p lence of the I'nited provinces, acknow- k'llseil hy Spain • Closing of the Scheldt ruins the commeree of Antwerp .jl Uelrospeni of the allairs of Switzerland 91 Iliike of ltur:.Mindy slain at Nan<'y l)y the Swiss . . 91 Mi Maximilian I. attacks the Swiss (.'anions 91 (9 I'eace roncludcd at llasil 91 )1— 1503 Hasle.or Hasil, SehalTliaiisen, and Appenzi'l, "^^ admitted as Cantons of the Helvetic C'un- federacv 91 The French exiH'Ued from Milan, which reverts to M iximilian Sfiirza 91 The Swiss K'in the battle of Novara, hut are de- feated at Mari(,'nano 91 Treaty of Frihuri" between Switzerland and France 9i Treaty of alliance with Francis I. at Lucerne 9a The Catholic Cantons make war on the I'ro- Icstants of Zurich, Heme, &c 9i lieneva the seat of Calvinism 9'.> Muke of Savoy hloukailes ticneva 92 The H-rnese iissi-t the (ienevans '.y Peace with the Iluke of S.ivoy 92 The Kmperorsol (iermany customarily ciowneil as Kint's of Italy at Milan, and emperors nt Uome 92 Maximilian I. unable to repair to Home, is content with the style of Kmperor Kleet 92 (Joronatioii (If (Jharles V. at llolo^-na bv I'ope Cl.mentVII '. 92 Expeiiilions by Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I., into Italy, frustrated by the Spa. lied in this con- iU, and the chief ards Tlie Spanish pow er dominant in Italy Clement VII. besiei^ed in Uome by the Impe- 92 92 92 92 9.1 93 93 n.ileilnt Delft.. House of Medici reestabli'.hed at Florence. . , , . . Alexander .le' Medici assassinated by Lorenzo de' Medici .' Cosmo de' Mediri, diike of Klorence and Sienna . . He becomes (irand-Huke of Tuscany Francis de' Medici, lirand-Duke, holding of the Kmpire 93 Maximilian 1 1, emperor iCi Houses of Visconli, Sfor/.a. and Fariiese !);{ ■i/ IVter Louis Farnese, son of I'opo Paul III., assas- sinated 93 llO— iri23 Kniuhtsof St. .Tohn occupy lUiodes y3 123 They surrender Khoiles to Soliman the (ireat after six months' sie|;e 93 Tliev receive a ({rant ot Malta from the Kmperor Charles V 93 The French, assisted by Andrew Doria, repossess themselves oi (vetioa 94 I^oriii next espouses the cause of Charles >' 94 The French besiege Naples, but are fr\istrnted by this (iennese admiral 91 ES Andrew Horia, ofTered the sovereignty of Genoa by Charh'S v., stipulates for the liberty of that city, and expels the French garrison 91 Doije, and nrisiocrncy of (ienoa 94 pi The Venetians increase their continental territory 94 )3 On the death of Pope Alexander VI., they seize on Kimini anil Facnza ' 94 James, King of Cyprus, espouses Catherine Cor- naio, a Venetian lady 94 Shortly after his death the Venetians seize on Cyprus 94 Injury to Veneliau commerce, by the discovery of the passage to India round the Cape of (iood Mope 94 Lisbon becomes the emporium for East Indian produce 95 P8 Alliance against Venice coiicbided at Cambri'i by Louis XII. and other potentates 95 p9 Louis XII. defeats the Venetians at Agnadello , . 95 The Dtlomans deprive them of some possessions in the Mediterranean 9,^ In The Venetians lose Malvasia and Napoli di Ro- mu|{na in the Morea 95 (0 Sultan Selim II. coni|uers Cyprus 9) A.I>. I'AOE 1571 lion .Tiian of .Austria destroys the Turkish fleet at ' epanto 95 1573 Venetians lede Cyprus to ihe Turks 95 Decline of the repuldic of Venice 95 .Maximilian of Austria espouses .Mary of llurgundy, and thereby aei|uires Flanders 95 1477 Louis XI. seizes on the duchy of Burgundy, the occasion of the wars witli .Austria 9.^ lie seizes on Provence, and claims .Milan and Naples 95 1494 His siui Charles VIII occupies Naples 95 1495 He defeats ihe Italian confederates at l''oroiinovo, and ((Hits Italy 95 149)^ — 1515 Kxpedilions of Louis Xll. against Milan and Naples 9G 1550 Henry 11. (d' France joins Ihe Proleslaui League, ami Maurice Elector of Saxony 96 1372 ('liarles IX. massacres the lliii^ouots or (alvinists of France 90 157G Kdict (d' pacillcatioii by Henry III., of France, wlio had been Kin,: "' Pol oiii 96 15S9 House of Valois ends with Henry III., murdered by Jaijues C'h'ment 91) Accession of Henry Iv'., and the House of Koiirbon 97 I59H lie (lublishes the Kdict of Nantes for the religious liberty of his sul'jeets 97 He encourages Ihe manufactures of Frame 97 I'ilO Is assissinated b\ Uavi iliac 97 MliHU'ily of his son Louis Xi 1 1., and adminisiratloii of Cardinal Uiclielieu 97 1623 Keduction of La Kochelle, the fortress of the Cal- vinist party 97 Uiclielieu maintains the Diil.c' of Nevers in the duchy of Mautiia 97 1631 Peace concluded at Hatisbon and Quera>que 97 1643 .Miiioriiy of Louis XIV., and regency of Anne of Austria ilie ipieeu-niother 97 Administration of Cardinal Mii/arin 97 1648 Hv Ihe lavice of Munsier, Louis XIV. acquires Alsace, .tc 97 lly the peace of the Pyrenees he aciiuires Uons- sillon and some cities of Flanders and Lu.\em- hurg 97 1474 Reign ol Ferdinand the Catholic and Isaliella of Castile 97 147(', A'.phonso v., of Portugal, defeated at Toro by Fer- iiinand the CathidiL' 97 I47.S Ferdinand and Isabella establish tlie Inipiisition ii: Spain 97 Feriliii.ind coni|iiers the Moorish kingdom of (irenada 97 He banishes the .lews from .Spain 97 Fniigration of the Moors 9S Alexander 1 1 1, comers on Ferdinand the title of Catholic King 98 p'erdinand conijiicrs the Spanish province of N.!- vane 98 1510 Jnlius II. forms the IIolv League against Louis Xll. in Italy " 98 1516 Charli's I., King of Spain, grandson of Ferdinand the CatlMlic 98 1519 He is elected emperor under the title of Charles V. 1557 Philip II.,King(d'S|iain . ._ • 98 15.59 He makes peace it Chateau Cambresis with France 08 His despotiiim gives t ccasion for establishing the Dutch republic 98 1388 Tlie Invincible Armada defeated by Khzabeth's admiials 98 Deri ne of the Spanish p.iwer 98 1610 Reign of Philip III., who expels the Moors from Spain S8 1493 Ucigu of i;maniiel the Fortunate, Kiui; of I'ortugal 98 15 J I — l.i57 Gieainess id Portugal nndei .lolin III 98 15,8 King Seliasliau of Poriiigal slain in the kingdom of Fez, and Muley .Mahomet, King of .Morocco, drowned 99 Decline of the Portuguese power 99 1580 Death of Henry the I'arilinal, when llie Duke of .Mva coiiquers I'ortugal for Philip II of Sp;.in . 99 The Dutch purchase in Lisbon the proiluciiuiis of India 99 Philip II. prevents tl.e Dutch merehanis from re- sorting to Portugal 99 l.W.'i Coineliiis lloulman and Molin:iar sail to liiilia... 99 Tliev defeat the Portngnese tit sea near Ilantam in .lava 99 S< tr; 9 A.D. PAOE Tliov poiKnicr the Moluccns and ohkioss tli« sjiice limli! m Oi)u and Dili nlcmu rcnniin to the l'iirtn|,Mit'se 00 lC-10 Jtcvolt of the Catalans HO 11)40 Tlie l)nki> of liiatjanza scizi's on Lislion, and is crowned kinK l>y till' litli' of .Iiilin IV 09 148) Tilt' Hiiiisi- of Yoik ends, liv tin.' tlculli of Uicliard III. ill till' liatllc of |{osn°ortli 100 14!^C Ilcniy VII., of tlu' Iloiisi! iif Tiiilor, I'sponsi's Kli- /iil)elli,dn«(|iri'ssiiiii and cunfiM'aiu'ii "1 ninnasterics in Kiijiland lOO Tlic Six Articles of reli(jion in the reign of Henry VIII 100 liJJS lie takes till' title of Kins; of Ireland 100 1547 Keiuu of IMward VI. Calvinism established in ICnjilaud 100 15i)3 Maiy I., (Jiieen of Khk'"'"'' persecutes the I'ro- testani s 100 She restores the Catliolic religion IdO 1554 Iler niarriai:e vvitli I'liilip II 100 Ciaiinier, I.aliiner. ami liidlev, bmni 100 15.5S RriKii of Queen Kli/.abelh . . .' 100 i;iizalietli establishes the I'rotestaiit laitli 100 Uistinctiun of the Kn;;lish or llii;li ('hiiicli, and thi: Calvinistio or Viesbyteiian lOO Marv of Lorraine, widow of .lames V., is Uegent of Scotland lUO The ConLMCHaiion, or I'resbvteiian church of Scot- land ; 101 1,")C0 Klizalicih's j;eiieral expels tlie I'rencli iriKips Irom Scotland by the capilululion signed at Ix'itl 101 I5ti0 Mary.yiieeii of Scots, and her husband Francis 11., renounce her claim to ilie Knybsh cruwn 101 15C0 Death of Francis 1 1., Kinjj of France 101 Dcalli of Darnlev, second hiisliand of Maiv of Scots .' '.... 101 loll.l The Scottish tiueen Hies into Knijlaud 101 15^7 Mary is hcheaded by lUizabelh's older, on a suspi- cion of ciJiispiraries 101 1507 Minority of .lames VI., Kin^' of Scotland lOi laOS H.bellionof Ilo-h O'Neal, Kail of T\ rone 101 Robert Deveren.x, l^arl of Kssex, haviiijj failed to suppress it, Charles, Lord Mouiitjoy, reduces Ireland 101 Queen Klizabetli patronises commerce and naviga- tion 101 She encourages the Flemish manufacturers in Kiig- land 101 l.-ijo Richard Chaniellor's voyajie to Archangel 101 t'harter granted liy .loliii'ltasilovii/. II. to the Kn^'- lisli ciim|>aiiy tradiiii; to Russia 101 1.'77 — 15H0 Sir Francis Drake's voyage round the \^orld 101 MiOU Knglish East India Company instilutcd 101 1584 .Sir Walter Raleigh allenipts to coloiii/.c Virginia. . 101 15!:'.'< Maritime greatness of Kngland. The Sjianisli ar- m.'uia destroyed 102 1C03 Accessimi of Ja'nies I. (.lames V I. of Scotland), and the I louse of Stnart 1 02 1625 Reign of Charles 1 10:i He levies impositions without a parliament lO'J He endeavours to establish episcopacy in Scotland llJ 1C38 The Covenant taken by the I'resbvterians of Scot- laud '. 102 lfi<10 The Long Parliament— StralTord beheaded 102 1641 The civil war in I'.nglnud 102 1642 Dr. Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, behettdei. .. 102 1044 The I'arliairentati.ins defeat Charles I. near Voik. 102 16'1G He llies to Scotland, and is stdd by the Scottish army tu the parliament 102 The I'urilans overpowered bv tlie Independents . . 102 1640 Charles 1. beheaded at Whitehall 102 Oliver Cromwell, Protector 102 A.D. I'A,, Revolutions in the North nf nnropo li.l Union of Calmnr dissolved Ii:" 1471—1520 StenoSture, Siiatite Sture, and Steuo Sture the young, govern Sweden 1>; 1407 John, King of Deiimark li.i 1513—1520 Victory of Christian II. of Ttenniark over Stuno Sture the young, at Ilogesund |l>;| 15i!0 Christian II. crowned at Stockholm lij He massacres the Swedish nobles |il 1521 (iiislavns Vasa delivers Sweden from the Danes., Ji ( 1523 Is crowned King of Sweden 15'J7 Frederic 1. of Denmark embraces the Ilelbrmatiou of religion 1> { 1534 Christian III. abolishes the Catholic worship and episcopacy, in Denmark and Norway )' House of Oklenbui'g i ! 1544 Treaty of I'artilioii among the branches of this family 1 The Dukes of Ilolsteiu-fiottoi'i I l,')89 Reign of Clirislian IV. in Denmark I 1616 The Danish Last India Company instituted 1 Danish colony in TraiKpiebar I | Iniversity of Copenhagen, anil other Danish col- li-; 1' I. ■►41. Retnrniatioii ot rclii-'ion in Sweden The Hereditary I'liion passed at (Irebio i( 04 Charles IX., King of Sweden 1 | 11)11 (iiistavus Ailolpbiis the (Jreat. King of Swdeii, commands the I'rotestant confederates in (ier- maiiv 1631 He defeats Tilly at Lcipsic 11)^12 Is slain when gaining tlie victory ot Lutzen 1632 Chiislina, Queen of Sweden 14tt) Albert of Hiandenbuig, tJrand-Master of the Teii- toiiic Order 1510 His contest with the I'oles Doctrines of Luther disseminated in Prussia 1535 Duchy of l'riissi:i made hereditary ill the House ol Rraiiiteiibiiri.', I'V tlie treaty of Cracow I."i25 W.ilter di' Ciniienberg estalilislies the Tentoiiic Kiiii'hts ill F'ranconia 1527 Walter de I'lalleliberg, Crand-Master of tlie Tea tonic Onler, made a ]iriiiee of the Kmpire hv Chillies V '. 1535 .hiachiiii II. Klector of llraiiileiiburg 1640 F'redcric William the Cireat, Kleetor of Itrandeii- burg and Duke iif I'russia 1688 His Min, Fiederic I., King of Prussia Lntlicraiiism intioiiiiceil iiilo Livcmia I'l 1561 (joith.iid Kelller, (iiaiid-M.isler of the Kniglils Sword-beaiers, cedes Livonia to Sigismuiid .Au- gust us, King of Poland l] Ki'itler iscreaied Duk.' of Coiirl.iiid 1 1 Suppression ot the Knights of Livonia, and of the Archbisluips of Uiga and their siill'ragans I(| ii)61 — 15.-L' The city of Htvel and Lsthi.nia, clam the l>iolectioii of Krie XIV., King of Sweden, against the Riis-ians H Contest be tweeii Poland and Sweden Ifj 1660 Terniinali'il liy the Peace of Oliva 1{ 1481 Achniet.Klian ofKipzau, resisted in llussia by .lolili llasilovit/. Ill I'i 1481 — lo.VJ The Nogai Tartars assist the Cznrs in the di'striiction of the (iraiid Horde of Kip/.ac 1552 John lliisilovit', IV. takes Casan and Aslracan ... The SI1eli17.es, or standing army, instituted Discovery ot Siberia 1'] 1548 Reformed religion embraced in Poland by Sigis inuiiil II 1573 Heiiiy HI. of Valois, Kini; of Poland 11 1618 Iladislausot Polanil niarclies to Moscow 1458 Matthias Coivinus, King uf Hiingaiy, son of John lliinniadea . .. 1485 He takes Vienna from the Kmperor Frederic III. . 1401) Death of Matthias at Vienna hi 1526 Louis, King of Hungary, slain at Mohacx by Sol man I. the (ireat . . , ,' '. 1- 1526 Ferdinand of Austria claims the crown of lliiii- gnry, which is given by the Hiingaiians to .lolin " " L of Zips I ' '" aids Joli Vienna, 1541 .Soliman invades Hungary and takes Hilda li 1502 Truce between Ferdinand and Solimau • . . ll Protestants of Hungary and Transylvania perse cnted I'l Uethlem Gnbor, and (jeurge Ragotzi, Protestant jninces of Tiansylvnuia V' Zips 1529 Suliman 1. aids John de /apolya, and lays siege tu Rcdolphll. ofA cation at Vieni |0 Feriliuand 1 1, en FVriliiinnd III. e Paciticatinn sigui The Hussites, o by Maximilian Diet of Prague, toleration . . . Is The Letters of ! thias The Rohemiau ei The Thirty Year di>sensioiis . . I Buttle of Prague Fall of ihe Electi Severities of Fen John (ieorge, Flh liajiizet II coiKp |4 Seiiin I. defeats sia He defeats the ! Mamelukes, ai |fl— l.i34 Solimau I, garv, and llagii l6 Death of Sidt.in I man pi.wer ... lO .«.d!n' II. takes C ■ I His fleet destroy I ^iii t/ic Pence of Jf Revolution in Ihe Forniidable powt'i Aha.sement of the 8-171.) Louis XIV, Ailniiiiistration ol His (pieen, Maria of Spain. .. I is XIV., ill 111 Tii| le Alliaiic He attacks liie .'^ runs Ilollaiiii . Kiiglaiid ami Swe Aiiislerd.'ini defeii uiiilatiiig till Cliues II. of Lu I.iuiis XIV. coiiiii Conile gains the Tureiiiie cotnpieri Di'alli of Tureiiiie Cllcllli The Swedes louli li.iu of Uraiule Peace of Nillle; TiMubles of the M. de l.niivois ta Truce of twenty Louis XIV. persei The Dragonnade.' liivocalioii of the The French I'roli niaiiulactures ii Louis's disputes XL as to the R I.ilieitiesof the Leopold I. iniper Lull is XIV. brea! uirestii at'iiiiist •lames II. Kin;; I he Lnglisli Rev William and .Mar Alliance against Marshal do Li Fli'iirus. ,.,,.. Marshal Catinat Stafiirda Peace of Uyswicli llealh of Charles 'I'teatyof Partitii Claiaiof the Arc Charles II. nam the Dauphin, t Philip V.proclai ANALYTICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. I'AOll Ill-.l ll| (I Steim Sturc H: ifci Drnniiuk over ml l(:i 1'. 1 n tliu Danes.. [< 1 IV Itolormiitioii l.j c wuriilnp niid «iiy 1 1- aiiclios of tliis iistitutLMl. u'l Uaiiisli I'lil- relivii iii« ol SwiiU'ii, licrates in (>t'r- t Liilzen isterolllii" Ten- m Pnissiii in lliu llousuul 'vacDW s llu! Teutiinio sliT ol' till' 'I'm till! Kniiiive tiy rg 1 ■ luv of llranilcn- 1 i>ia I lia 1 iif ilir Kni^lils 1 Sixi^niiiiul Au- 11(1 ' onia. anil uf tliu nn'rnijans 1' hunia, ila m tlic weiU-n, against len U'l 1 n UiiKsiabjJolui till' Czars in the of Kip'/.ai- 1 ind Aslracan ... i' iii^tiiuti'il 1' 1 I'olanil by SiBis- ;i i.iui ".'.!! !.'...... 1. Moscow 1' gaiy, son of Julin ■or Kii'iifric 111.. t ^iohal'7. by Soli- \i ic crown of IIiiu- 1( nnnaiians to .lolin Trans\l\ania.... I, ami lays siejje to akc8 Unilu 1" uUnniu • '■ ''1 ansyh aiiia perse. agotzi, I'rolcslaiit PAOE Rodolpli II. of Anstiia nsrces to a veliKious pacin- cntinn al Vienna 1*'8 Feriliiianil II.cni|i«ror I'W I7 Fcrdinnnd 111. oiniieior 10!^ 15 I'acillcalion signed at I.intz lUH The I hissites, or reformers, of lloheinia tolerated bv Maximilian II 108 Diet of I'raijue, when liodoIiiU II. (-rants them toleration 108 I2 The Letters of Majesty conlirmed by Kinj; Mat- ' thias ion The Iloheniiau crow n elective U)'J Tlie Thirty Years' War, a coiiseqnence of religions dissensions lOt* Battle of I'raKUe 10'.> Fall of Ihe Elector I'alaline U''-' Severities of Ferdinand II. ieis llessaralia lo'.l |4 .> l.oiiis XIV. ( ationises leaniini,' and Ihe arts. 110 Ailniiiiistration of (^olbeit 110 His iiiieen, Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV. of Spain 110 l.oiiis X IV., ill her right, con(|uers Flanders Ill Tii|lc Alliance signed al tie Hague Ill He a'.liicks tiie Seven liiited I'lovinces, and over- run" Holland Ill England and Sweden make an alliance wjlh Louis 111 Anislerdam defended liy cutting the dxkes and in- undating the country Ill riiiii es II. of F.iiglanii makes iieacewiili Holland HI I.uiils XIV. conquers I'laiiche Cumte Ill Coiidc gains the victory ol Seuef Ill 'riiieiiiie conquers Alsace Ill Htalli of Tuienne in the campaign against Moiite- CIMUU Ill The Swedes routed at Fehrl.ellin by Frederic Wil- It .in I if llrandeuliiirg Ill I'eaie of N inieguen Ill Tmnbles of the re-unions 1 1 'J M. lie I.ouvois takes Sirasbnrg , 11 'J fiiite of twenty yeais signed at Hatisbon IIL' Louis XIV. (lersccules the C'alvinists II-.! The llragonnailes 1 1'J llivocatiun of the edicts of Nantes and of Nismes. W'l Tlie French Protestants carry their industiy and manul.ictures into foreign lands 112 Louis's (iispntes with Clement IX. and Innocent XL as 10 the Rcgnle I I'J Lilieities of the Gallioan chureli 1 Hi Leopold I. emperor W'A Louis .\IV. breaks the truce, and publishes a nia- nifestii against I.eopoM 1 1 Ki .lair.es II. King of England I Ui 1 lie English Revolution \l'A William and Maty ciowned UH .Mliaiice against Louis .'CIV 113 .Maislinl de Luxemburg gains tliu victory of Fleuriis 113 Marshal Catinat defeats the Duke of Savoy ut Stafirda 113 Peace of Ryswick 113 Death ut Charles 11. of Spain 114 Treaty of Partition 114 Claim of the Archduke Charles 114 [ Cliarles 11. names Philip of Aiijou, second son of the Dauphin, to succeed him 114 I Philip V. proclaimed at Madiul 115 A.n. TAOK 170i William IIL, and liis successor Queen Anne, the Dutch, Prussia, Portugal.. iiid the Emperor, unite against Louis XIV. and Philip V 115 1704 Marlborough and I'liiico Eugene defeat Marshal Tallaiil at lllenheini 115 17t'G llattle of Hnmillies won by Marlborough 11.') Prince l^iigeiie defeats Marshal de .Marsin at Turin 1 15 IJO^ Hattleorondeiiarde ll.i 170'.) Mailboiougli dele:its Villars at Malplacpict 11') 1711 Death of the Eni|ieriir .loseph I U.i The archduke liei ernes CI arles V 1. of oermajiy. . 11') The Tories supplant the Whig ministry in Eng- laml 115 Preliminaries of peace signed in London IK! 1712 Villars defeats the lOail of .MbemarU- at Deuaiii . . I Id 1713 Peace of Utrecht 110 1/14 Peace between the emiieror and Fiance signed ,it Iladtf n Ufi 1715 Death ot Louis XIV lll> Dispute beiween the Molinists and the .laiisenisls. 1 Ifi The Hull I'liigi uitiis I Hi 1C58 State of (ierniany under Leopold 1 117 The Electors of the Empire 11' Hiuseof Wittel-bach II" 1G'J2 Ernest .■\ugusius uf lirunswick Lunenburg, lirst Elector oi' Hanover 117 The King of liohemia obtains a voice in the Elec- toral College 117 The Imjierial Capitulations changed into a perpe- tual Capitulation 117 Kingdoms of Saxonv and Prussia established 11/ 1701 Inslallatioii of Frederic I. Kini: of Priissi.i ll.S The Electress Sopliii of Hanover, daughter of llli- zabetli and the I^lcclor Palatine, and graiiil- dangliti'r of .Tames I. of England 118 1711 Her son, (Jeorge, Eiectovof Hanover, ascends the throne of England 118 History of the diic.il House of Savoy 118 1713 The Cortes ot Spain legii'ale the Ciisiilian S'iccos- siiin to be ill the male line of Philip V 119 16C1 WarofAlphonsoVI.of Porlus;alag.iinst Spain... 119 He cedes 'I'angiers to the English II'.) He ceili's the island of Doinbav also to the l^nglish 119 106,3 — KHio Victories of Count Suhomberg and the Por- tuguese 119 U'C7 .Mphu;. so V I. dethroned, and Pedro II. appointed reg.'ut 120 Kir.,-' Spain rec. guises the iiulependi-nce of Portugal . . . PJO 1700 I edro II. joins the alliance against Philip V. of Spain 120 The Portiigii'se ami En;.'lisli proclaim the Arch- duke Charles at Madtiil I'JO 171.' Treaty of Itiecht between Spain and Portugal.,, PJO Cessions to Portugal in S..iilh America liiO Hi 19 The Commonwealth ot England 1^0 llol Ciomwell passes the Navigaiion .Vet ll'O li'.').') — KoS He acqiiiies Dunkirk and Jamaica ll!0 ll'.'j'.i Uichard Cromwell rcsii.ns the protectorate I'M 16(10 (ieneral Monk restores Charles U li^O Ur'giii of Whig amlTorv 1 actions I'Jl 1GS5 H .i-n of .lames 1 1 . of Engiaiid I'Jl The bishops committed to the Tower 121 l(i88 Ibrthofllie Pretender Il'I \\ illiani Prince of Uiange lands in Torbay 121 1CS9 .lames II. del'ealed at the llovne by William HI.. I'il The Declaialiiui of llights. . .' 121 1701 Succession of the House of Hanover enacted 121 It 89 Ueigii of William and .Mary 121 17* 2 .Accession of (ju. en .\nne 121 1711 lieignof (ieorge 1 121 lt;07 De Rnvter and Van Tronip sail up the Thames to Chathani 122 Treaty of Ibeila 122 1(574 Treaty of Westminster 11:2 lOoO Dealh of William 1 1. Pri ace of Orange 122 .lohn de Witt enacis the Perpetual Edict 122 1072 Louis XIV. invades Holland 122 John and Cornelius de Witt assassinated ut the Hague 122 1073 William I II. of Orange, sladtholder 122 1715 The Harrier Treaty 122 1G5C War of religion in Switzerland between Zurich and Kern* in the Piot. slant cause, anil St. (iail, &c., on the Catholic side 123 1G54 Chillies X. succeeds Christina of .Sweden l!J3 1058 He besieges Copenhagen 123 The Duicli licet defeats the Swedes and relieves Copenhagen . . 123 V % i 3 ANALYTICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A. II. I'AOK 1600 MinDrilyofririHcs \I. nISwiMlcn 12:f I'ciicc ciiiicIikIccI at Cupciilintjcn l.'M I'ciico (if ( lliv.i 123 1C80 Hnvi)lulioii in Swi'doii i-d'crteil by (Hmrles XI. iil(aiii' till- rkraiiic 125 Ma7.(>|i|ia. Mi'tman iif tlin Cutisai's, juiiii iilin 125 170'< I'l'lcr llic Great drfcals (inieial I.^wi'iiliaiipt lit 1 Desna 125 170') n.'featof Chailcs Xll.at I'uli.iwa 123 1*18 Cliarl.'." XII. killi'd at tliu sirgi- iil iMrdciicslmll, ill Norvvav 125 I 171'J Trealv of Stoi'liliolm lictween .Swi'ilen ami (Jeorue ' LiiiKnt'laud 125 j 1721 Peace cif Nysladt l)el»eeii Peter I. and Krederlo I. K ins ol Sweden 125 I Sweden tliereliy ae(|M>red Finliiiil. anil I'eler !. I Jii'qnired I.iriinia, K>tli(iiiia, liisjria, and Carelia, 126 ICCd Fredeiie III. of Denmark niiiivnece'ises iif the Dalles l'_7 1670 IVaee siuneil at I.nnden 127 l(i4S U.'i);n or.Iiiliii t^isiniir, Kln^' of Pnland 127 The Lilifrum Viln eX|il.'iiiiiMl 127 1617 War of the Co^s 10s .nnd thi' Poles 127 164.') Heiiin of Alexis Mieliaelovitz in Itiissia 127 I6r»7 Treaty of .\iidnissov lietween lti) Il[- illsi'i|ilines tl e Iliissiaii soldiery I2'.> 170^1 Peler 1. loiinils the northern capital of St.lVlershurt; 12'.* He I'onstrueis the jiort of Kroii.^clilot 12'.) 170;) lie vani|iiishes Charles XII. at Piiltowa l^i) I71H Peter |iiils his son .\ lexis to death IJ'.t 1725 (atheritie I. ascends the throne on the leath of the Knijieror IVt.r I 129 1664 The Tinks invade HiiiiL'ary nnd (iermany, anil are defeated hy Montecr.culi 1'2'.) Truce of tweniy years coneliided at TemesH ar .... 12'J 1671 HiiMiiarian luihles beheaded, and the Prolestanls lierseciiled 136 1677 Count Tekeli, leader of the llnnparian nialcon- tents 130 16K3 Kara Miistapha lays sieije to Vienna 130 John Sobieski, Kiny of Poland, saves the city of Vienna 130 1068 Charles of I,oi laine, Louis of H iden, and Prince Kiii;ene, defeat the Tmks and t,.ke Hilda 130 1687 '•"t'e Imperialists defeat the Turks at Mohacz 130 Mahomet I V. cause* Kara Miistapha lobe stranpled, and is li mself deiiosed by the .lanissarle.s 130 Leopold I. assembles the states nt Presliiira, which ciuwn his son, .fosepli I , as hereditary Kin^' of HiniL-ary 130 1689 Loiiis of linden ).(aiiis the victories of Nissii and Widdin 1,30 Miistapha Kiipriili retakes Nissa, Wlddin, and Hel-raile 130 1601 Is ilKleated by Louis of Dadeii at Saluiikeinen and slain 130 1697 Prince Kii),'ene defeats .Musiapha II. near the vor Teiss 130 16>.)9 Peace of Carlowit?. 131 1703 Francis Ka^iiic/.i, prime of Transylvanin, leader uf the Iliiiiuanan insurrection 131 1645 Snltan Ibrahim attempts to lake Caiidia, or Crete, from the Venetians 131 1648 Ma.iomet IV.Snlta....... |« j,^^,,^,, ,, ^^m Ibt'J Aclimet Kiipriili, after a hmg sic(;e, takes the cilv ,^H ||e iriins the \ici "''''""'"" '• ! "PeaeeofHerliiU (ilati AITairs ofSardinii i>f.'i»inn VIII 1M-I760 (Joorue II. I hlUOl) Vlll. IM KiiKlish victory a From the Fenre of VtreiM to th,- French Revolutint). A.|JB Successes of Mar; 1713—178'.). 1H Louis XV, invade ,,.,,» „ ... , -,., . -^B Treaty of union w 1700 — i800 Pro:,'ress of the sciences and ol literature, ,. Jm j.^^j- ■I he modeni philosophy J ,,„'.d.HV ii.' ima,' Ilolilies. llolini;bi(ike, Sliallesliiiry. and I inilal |« De.itli of the Kmi Voltaire, D'Alemliert, Diderot, and Jlelvetiiis I 3H Kreileiic II ileleal Deism and inlldelity 1 vH Maria Tlieresii The Keononiists 1 ^^M jj,', t,,|4,,g Dresdei l''taiici> (inesnay, and Victor de I{ii|iietti, M.iripiN ^^B ]ip.,ee I'oueiuded 1 of Mirab-au ;. ............_..,. ; V ,„;,i, xVand .M Hie I'reldent de Montesipiien imblishes his A.v/iri' >^l Cuniherlaiid at ,r,.''". , ' ■■■,■■'•,■■.■.■, , ■„■ ' >fl French ciiiiqnests rile I ontrai Sneial iil .lean-.Iacunes Housseau 'sH Prince Charles Si The llluminali in Germany ;^ vaiices to Deri). Itnlance of power in Liiiope :|H i)„|(,, „f (;„niberll Preponderance of l^iiL'land ''^H Ferdinand VI. Kii Slate of Hussia and of Prussia <.|h Prince Doria expi The mercaniile svstem of Fiirope '|^| Hlockaile of (ienoi Ciihinies of the Furopeaii powers I^B L„„|s'xV. concpic Public I II nils and liinded debt {^■.SieiM; nf Maestrich The sinUini; fund instituted liy Mr. Piit 'V^M Peace of ,\ixlaCI 1715 Minority of Louis XV. The retfenl Duke of Or ^Hcnniraet of the .\s ..,''.',""*,,••••■•,■ •;•.•: :.\"\: "::\\ ■■ Minority of Ivan 11 Phil p v., and iidministrnlionol Cardinal Alberoiii '^m hurt; in Russia. ,„, , „„'" ^l''''" • •• • • ,••■••, W Hirmi created Dnk 1(1H 1 he .•Spaniards loiupier Saviliiiia and Sully j^B Factions of the Ha The (juadniple .Mliaiice sit'iied at London n^l I.li/.abeth inoclaini Ariidesol thisire.ity spieilied ^^■Adolphiis Frederi. 17-0 Philip V exihs Alberoni ^H ofSweden 1721 Peace of Paris S Peace of Aho ..... Uenumialinn of Italy nnd thu Netherlands hy t|H,liisepli I. Kill); of I ,'■'"'11' V '• «Tlic.lesuilsiiistitul Ihe Coni|iaiiyof O-tend >«AVar between Porti (Jiicstiiin of the reversion of Tuscany, Parma, am! G^|Li War between the Turks and Venetians for the pus j^Vi'lie French, under session of the Moiea I^M Miniu'c The Kmpcror (Iharles VI., I'liilip V., and the pupi., J^Tliey occupy Ilami side uiih the Venetians ^^>-17lU I'lie KiiL'lis 1716 Prince Fiij-ene ),'ains the battle of Peterwnraihii ^H clicrry, and Mali and takes Teincswar, . ^Kciierai Wolle sla 1717 He routs till" Turks at Helijrado . ^H into the hands I7H Peace of Passiirow'il/. |HDiiadaloiipe, Mart 1722 Diet of PresliurK conlirni' the succession to feiii. ill', ^H vanou> West li acciiriliii^' to tlie Aiistri III Pragmatic .Sanction .. ^H lish 1719 Ulrica Fleonora elected tiueen ofSweden ^^^^176 I Kvents of 11 'The Uiii/(U .hsuritnre, limiting; the authority of llii' ^H^eorue 111. Kinf crown in Sweden ^K'lie Fiimili/ Cnmp 1720 Frederic I. of Hesse Cassel, Kinc of Sweden, . .. |^B^ Diike of Clioispi 17.1^1 Stanislaus Lec/.iiiski restored 10 the throne of I (. ^^Veter III. Fiuiperi) hind I^Bleconi'ludes peac 1730 De.itli of Peter II. of Uusshi, and accession of tlin SK'cter III. dethroi Kmpress Aiiiie ^^H "'"'^'•> AilKiistus III., supported by the ICnipress Amir ||^BA general pacilicat and the Polish nobles, proilaimed kiu« ^^H l"'''!* Field Marshal Miiniih besies;es KiiiK Stanislaus ^^H&rlioles of the pea in Danl/.lc ^H or lestitutioDs 17.33 Louis XV, sei/.es on Loiraiiie ^^F<>nimerce ofKnul 1734 Marshal Herwick slain at Philipsburg ^^Eiuiseiiiiences of 1738 Peace of Vienna j^H^nenial Furope, 1739 The Turks, direcied by the ('ount de Itouneval, ^^Vecline nf the Mo defeat the Austrians and lay Hie:,'e to Kelijrailc.. ^^Poiirajah Duwhili, 1739 Miinieh defeats the Turks at'Chocim ^^vlis ilefeals in act! Peace siuned at HelKraile ^Hpc.ith of .latlier A 1740 Mari.i 'Theresa, Queen of Ilnn|{ary j^Bhali Alhini codi 1743 The Elector of Bavuriu elected emperor by the title ^H^ "tx Fniilish . , . of Churles VI I .^■?""'*!st' with Ilyd 1 P.U, 1; , takes t)iK cilv 1 ( Rernlntinn. A] of litiniituro... , 1 1 1 lislicsliis Kspril ig^l ■s Kuussc'iiii, ... I.J , i. 1 '.'...■....'■•'.'... 1 r'.i'i'it! !!".!!.... i >nt Duke i)t' l>v Imiliiiiil AlberuMi iiid Siijly t l.iiniUiii Nellifiliuids liy cany, I'armn, nml Hii'i'Di' i;iiiii'les VI. I Kraiioi', Kiinl;iiul, l.iiiil, Spuiii, ami 111 Tiiscaiiy to l)cp!i Anilmiiy FaineM', uf I'ariiia ■ Ostcliil Ciiniiiin;. ,, and riacenua i > lelians lor the \ws- p v., anil tlie imiu', le of IVtcrwar.uUi; lecessinn tofeni dcs .•jniatic Sanction .. War belneeii Portugal ami Spain 14.") Lisbon ilestroyed by an earthquake 145 Kiui; .losepli wounded, and in consequence some of the I'lirlUKuese iud)les are executed 145 The .lesuiis banished from Portniral 14) The .lesuiis ex))! lied from France and Spain U.") Their (;i)oils lonllscated I4.i Clement XIV. suppresses their order 14(1 Contest of Ln;!lainl and France re-pi'clini; the de- marcation between Viri;iiiia and I'iiii.ola, N:c... 146 iTlie Lnijlish capture French menhant \essels ofT Ncwroundland and on the hiudi seas 141) iTre.iiv of Westminster bi'tween Kii^laud and I'reile- ric il.of Prussia llfi JFrederic 11. invades Saxony 14() |l.ea!.'ue ai.Minst Krederic II 14(> The French, under the Dukeof Richelieu, conquer Minorca 14fi hey occiqiy Hanover, Ibunswick, and Hesse 14li ITl'l I'he Kiit'lish lake Chandernai;ore, Pondi- cherry, and Mahe 147 eneral Wolle slain at Quebec, » hen Canada falls into the hands uf the Kiijjlish 147 (iadaloii])e, Marliniipte, Tot)a0 17.14 (iialVeri, Kenenil iif the ('nrsicans 15U 17116 Theodoie. Ilaron Nenhiin', elected by the Corsicans for their kill;; I.'i0 17.''8 The French land in (Corsica l.g I7.V) I'asc.il Piioli. general of the Coisicaiis liil 17''7 Iteiyn of Sultan Muslapha III bil 17*1^ The Itenoese cede Corsic.i to Louis XV l.'il The French conquer that isliiiid , 1,')1 1764 (.'atherine II places Slatiislans Poniatowski on the throne of Poland 151 The Dissidenis.or Protestants of Poland 151 1768 Treaty of Warsaw 152 Polish conl'edeiiicy 152 War bet H cell Itossia and TinUey 152 Catherine overruns Moldavia and Wallai hia 152 1770 HoMianznw defeats the Turks at the rivers Piulli and KnknII 152 Count Panin carries Mender by assault 152 I771' The Russians burn the I'lirkisli fleet in the bay of (^iiisme 1511 1772 Prince Do1;:oriicki conquers the ('litiiea !.");( 1771 'It'" plau'ue at Moscow 15ii The courts of Vienna and Herlin oppose the am- liitious ]iriije ts 111' Catherine 11 I5.'l CoiiL-ress lit Itiicharest 1.5:i 1774 Aehniet IV.. sultan XM He concludes peace with Romanzow at Kainari;i near .Sitistriii 15,'> The Tiuliiis of the Cr'mea and Cuban declari'd iiiclepeiulent of the Porte l.'i;! 177^ Catheiine acquires A/.olV and Kiubiirn by this treaty, and loiiniU the city of Chcrson 151 Part olMoldavi I, iitid lliikowiiia.cciieil to .Aus' in. 151 Russian establishireiils on the shores of the IJI.icli Sea 154 Prince llenrv of Prussia proposes to partition Poland . . .; 154 1772 Coiiventiiiu si:;neil liy Uiissia, .\nstri.>,and Prussia at St. Pelersbnv^ for partiiion of a ccitain part of Poland 154 Shares cnnlirnied to those powers by the rcputilic of Warsaw 1 54 The l.ihrriim <'V^l ratilled 155 1771 thistavns 111., Kini; of Sweden 155 Captain llellichiiis conspires aL'aiiist the aolhorily of the states id Sweden 155 (instaviis III. carries the revolution of Stockholm into ell'eet l.ifi New constitutions of the Swedish nnmarchy ISti A partial revolution lakes place at Copeiilia!;en , . It! The Zaparo^ t'ossacs 15l) Succession to the I'.leclorate of ISavaria contested on the demise of Maximilian 157 1778 Convention sii;in'd iit Vienna on this question .... 157 F'rederic II. takes the Held on this occasion, and invades Bohemia, bni is foiled by Marshal Lauilohn ' 158 1779 Congress held at Teschen in Silesia secures his dominions to the Elector Palatine, Charles Theodore 158 Paciticaiioii of Germany 158 1785 The (Jermnnic ConlVdinition 159 Revolt of the English colonies of North America. . 15!) 1765 The Stamp Act passed and rescinded 1.5) 1767 Duties on ten, &c. in North .\nierica 1.5'.) Ailministraticn of Lord Nortli I61) 1774 Embar!;o on the port of Hoston It'iO 1,74 Congress at Philadelphia If.o 1776 Declar ition of iiide))eiiilence Kii) C'oinmaiid conferred on (ieorKC Washin(;ton 16(1 1776 He surprises the Hessians at Trenton lit) 1777 IiHrf;oyne cnpitiiliites at Saralo^ja l;',o 17/8 Treaty of Paris between France and the I'nitcd States of North America 160 1778 Action between Keppel and t ount d'Orvilliers. . , 161 % t 2 3 » xxil ANALYTK^AL AND CHIlONOLOfJICAL TAIJLF. A. II. I'AOT. IT'^O War lii'lH iM'ii l'tii;]iiii(l iinc\ llio Dntcli ri'imlilic, . . |(W 17'**' I'liicl IIikIiii'v ilc'liMt' CiMinl il4' llnii-M- ICl Till' I'ltMiih tiilic Diiniiildi, Tiilia;;!), niiil otliiT iiilaiiils liU 'I'licy iilhc) |iii>.-e»s tlM'iiiKi'lvi'HiirSi'Mi'uiil 101 'llii' SiiaiiiiuiN tiiKe rrusiiciiln ami \Vi'»it'iii Flo- 1 Ida ICl I/Sll— 1;hJ Sii'i;.' of (iiliiallar ICl I'dit Maliiiii ami Kort. St. riiilip laki'ii liy tliu Fii'iii'li anil .'>|iaiiiaiiU Ifil Till' I'liMirli tiiki' 'ri'iiiL'i>iiiali'i' lOl 1781 I.m.l CciiiiWiilliH iMi.iiiilalcs to \Va>liiii;,'loii, I.a Fayrlti', a!iil Kiii'lianiliiMii 1(j1 17t lir n sliiil si'a Itl'J Kni(i|ii'aii Kiuti's »lii<'li jiiini'il the ainieil niMitiMlily U\\! 1778 C'atlieiinc II, plai'i's SacliiMii (iih'iay iiii the Umiiiio III the t'liini'it U'd 1782 l)is)iile with Turkey ies]ieiliiiy th.' Kliaii nl' the Ciimi'ii 103 17^3 The Knipiess Catheiine seizes on the I'limea anil Inbaii If.T (jiivei iinii'iils III' the Tanriila anil I 'aneasnsi lOlj The Diilcli bl ekailethe Schelill U'lit 178.'i Till' I'.niiii'Mr .Iiisi'|ih 11. eiinsents, by the treaty ol' Konlainebleaii. to the ehisiniiol the Sehelilt .... lOi Hi M'nnt fills in tlie I'liiteil l'ru\ inees 104 I.iiiiis, Diike 111 llnuihwirk, ;;o»eiHiir oi' the .'iiiil;:akiil1', Hiissian ainba8s:iilor,oominitteil to ihe Caslle of the Seven Towers 106 I'rinee I'litemkin marches against the Turks II 6 178'.) Marshal Laniloliii, with an Imperial arniv, invests lieli!::iile ". 100 178'.) (iiistaviis III. invailes Finlaml, and threatens Cioiistailt 106 The Dams lay sieL'e to (iultenbnri; ItiO Gnstaviis Ill.'ilelVats the liiissiali lleet iimler tliu I'rinee of Nassau Sei^-en 106 17!'0 I'eaee eoiichiili'il between Sweden and Iiii>sia .... lO/ I7>H I'rinue I'oteiiikin takes Ucz.ikolV by as>ault 10/ 17t'J Snw.iiim and the I'rinee of (,'i>biinr>; deleat the Turks at Foeksani, and likewise on the Uymna, 167 llender surrendered to the Itnssians 107 .Marshal Suwarow lakes Ismail by assault 107 Frideiie William II., ill aliianiu with ICn^^land, send^i an army against Catherine 11. and Leopold II 167 17!H Leopold II. makes jieaee with the I'orle at Szis- towa in linli'aria, and ri«tiiies liel^jrade 107 The lOmpni-sof Itussia eontiiiiies the war 10/ 17'.*2 I'laie siyned at Jassy between Selim III. and the Km pi ess Catheiine I07 Catherine II. tbiinils the eity and |iurt uf Odessa un the eiiust ol the lilack bieu 107 PKRIOD IX. I'rom Ifie Commevrpvicnt iiflhc Frrnch linuiluHnn to the IJmvnUil (,f liutiuapdne. A.l). 17,S9— 1815. 1/89 The French Hevolntioii iOS Primary i auses eundnciiit; to this importunt event, lt)9 Retrospect of the reign of Louis XV 169 i;-» lleiyn of Louis XVI |B lloynlisis ol Lii .Ailniini-tratiiiUH of the Count de Maurepas, ii HB 'he tiniiid-Duli Turiiol. and nf Malesherbes fflj 'iam II. of I'r t;ii;i Fremh tinaiiees exhausted at thu closo uf tlir ,u republic Anieiiraii war M tunie of the nobles, the cleruy, ami the deputi . 'ft del'e.its fieneri The Natiiimil Assembly constituted M He t'ranis a triit The C t de Mirabea'u « ""ke uf Farm The Duke of Orleans employs his resources 1, pS Ihiuiiaparte ami aij.tate the public, iinil promote insurrections. . "yj ','•' enters Milan Marijuisde la Fayette, commandant of a nation 1] j^, Ferdinand IV., Miiaril J& lieniia, concliii 17H9 Deslruetioii of'the Ilaslille .'. JM Ihiouaparle defe lieclarathinofilieUi:;hlsiif Man IB '''1"' Archduke ( Till' ani.'ieni provinces ilivided into eiKlity-thri'i' jM and obli.'osliii deparlmenls '^1 I'elcbrated retrei Fmi);ratiiiii of the wealthy class, ami the iiobilitv,. ^H ''■"'• Nel«>nevai I.iaiis XVI. lliis. and is arrested at V«reniie». .'... ^V Nejfoci.itionsof The Orleans parly S iilmrtive The Moderate party preponderant ]H French arinamer 1791 The Constituent Assembly, succeeded by the I.e. ^M ful in an iuvas Kislative Assembly ■JK Marshal Wurius Leopohl II. adiliesses the sovereigns of Fnropu ill ^H Huonaparte siiti 111. cause nf Louis XVI SM Francis II., Ih Alliance of Prussia and Austria 'H fienoe,e lerriluri 'I'he Legislative .X.ssembly eom|K)9ed of ineNpe- i^B public rieuced iiepiilies ^1 I'eace conchided I'opiihirsocieivdenominatid Ihe .lacobins ^M Articles of this It 179-2 Adniinistratiiiii of Dumouriez, Uul.iiid, niiil oilif; ^B Netfocialionsat 1 repub leans ^H The Cisalpine re Insuriectiiin of ihe Fanxbonrns «L '''umnlts at Umm The Seitionsof I'aris ^V fieneral llerthi .\ttaik on the Tnileries nnd massacre of the Swiss ^M K'une The Naihiii'aVcoiiVeiitVm".'..'.'. ...*..'..'*.'.'!. .!!'!|jB IJeatli of I'ius VI Louis XVI. and the nival family imprisoned in tlif^ff ''he Tuulou llee Temple '. ^H Ibioiiapartean 1/91 The Dnke ii'f'ilrun's'wickuu'd' tieneral CMairl'.ii; tB , •'^•"'l* take Verdun .ind Loiikwv |H Hn"""!''''!'' luml 179L' The Kepublic /'-• «ni/ ini/i'm'.«rt/e H Lord Nelson, all 17'.»3 Trial and exeiuiion of Louis XVI ■ stroys or take Fioscrijition of the Uirondists |H , "''V "f Ahuuki Discredit of the assiijnatB, or paper-money ^H Charles Kmaiine 'The yueen.Maiie Antoinette, executed ^1 " convention The Duke of Orleans yuillotined jH ™,I"''''"'' Th" w hole kingdom visited with reiuorseless cxeci^^R^ The second coali tions of men, anil of women ^B ''""'• hmperorii Lra of the Republic adopted ^V ,' 1 1":'''''* "•' allmi 'The Christian religion atiolished H Disorder ol the H liiivalist iusiirieclion in Itrittanv ^M M'lU'ii'y cousin 179;! llaltlei.fSaunmr H ffriliuand IV., 1793 Toulon admits some Knglish auxiliaries, but i<|^B rrencli in llor taken by assault ■■ *"■'[«'"' ^'l';""! Ibioiiapaiii distiiiKUishes himseli under (JencrjijH hlishes a Part Carteauxin this siege ^K, Cmifh's Lmanm Lnous taken by the republicans and parllv ,|, ^^P Congress ol lias stroved . ' iH "' ''clween Fr 1792 (ienei'al Cus'tiiio't^'k'es Ma>rnVe'.'.'.'.\'.".'.' .'."!!."!.■ '''liB Archduke Dumouriez gains a victoiv at Jemuppe, and cii^^H Stockiich . quers lielgium '. H ouwaruw, gener 1793 Vicissitudes of the campaign in Flanders ^1 leals Morean ^ The Duke of York deleateil at Ilondscote ^B. ''(""fral .Macdui (ieueral I'lcliegrn obliges the Austriaus miil,:^B' SUWiU'uw defeat Wnrmser to repass tlie Uhine |H „,""' '"^''°" • • • The (lommiltee of Public Safety, riresided I'S I "e Archduke Kobespierre BH , '"'rland, and t 1794 Hiibespierre aiiil manyof tlie ".Miiutitaiii" fact;. :^B JJ,i'«'iirow crosse guilhilineil S ri>« Turkish an .lonrdan defeats the Duke of Cobourg at Fleunii^^B Tl" 'l'7 I"'""!'"' Dugommier and Peiignon defeat the armies t^B* 'lie Duke of Yt Spain H Helder 1793 (ieiierall'ichigruconiinersthe Cnited Provinces ■ He returns horn William V., stadlholder, retires to Fngbiml |jH •'""'"■"' '"•"'" Monsieur takes the title of Louis XVllI.on 1! aB. ''"-' '••'iglish tal death of the Danphi H* "»<"."'lii"-ti', ha Insurrection id' the Chouuiis in Hrittany and Ni:^^H . ■'i''^". V'." '*'*S< niHiidy ^H A Turkish am Hoyalisls lauding'atyuiberoii'defcated by'uenen^B totally routed llu^li,, , _ |H He lands at Fri 1793 The Executive Directory.' .".','.*.'.',".'.."!.'!!!!*..!,. 1™ Discontents ag ANALYTICAL AND CIIUONOLOOICAL TABLE. x\m Maiiri'iiiiM, III' till' clllSU III' llll' tiiiii nil'* s Ktiit ailli'K : ill iii'i'siin , iiiiilllieilt'imtii's K.'(l ills ri'soiircMs tn I' iiisiirrt'ctiims... lilt III' a iintiunal iiiio eiKlity-tlim mill llie iiiiliility., lit Viiii'mi's ml •cimU'iI by till- \,e- eimiH of Kuri'iiu iii TlllOSl'll ol' llll'Nlie- II' .hirubiiis Uol, 111(1, ami ulliPi I issiicri' ol' till' Swiv y lm)irison«i lluoiiaparte ilefeats .Mvinv:i at Areola 17H The .\rehiluke Charles ileleats (ieneral Jourilan, anil olili.'os him to reeross the Uhine I7H Celelirateil retreat of (ieneral Moreau 17H l.oril Nelson evacuates Corsica 1/8 >'i';;nei,itiimsof Loril Malmesbury at l.ille prove abortive \J>i Freueli armament uiiilertieneral lluilie uiisuecess- fiil ill an invasion of Irelaml 17H Marshal Wurmser siirreiiilers Mautiia 178 lliiunaparte siijus )>reliniiuaries at Leubeii with Francis II., Dniperor uf (lermany I'S Ociiiiese territories cunstituteil into a I,i).'urian re- public I7H I'eaee eoncluiled at ('ampo Formio ir'.> Articles ol this treaty 17>.) Ni'iiociationsat Uastailt 170 The Cisalpine republic 179 'i'llinults at Keniu 17>l General llerthier establishes n republic at Home 1 79 The Helvetic republii siibsi'ivient to France 179 Death of IMus VI. at Valenci 179 The Tiiuloii fleet miller Ailmiral Ilraeys, vvitli lliioiiapartuanil a French army, nail anil taku Malta I.SO Itiiiiiiaiiarle hauls his trmips 111 Fitypt lyu Liiril Ni'l-ion, afieraii iuilelali^ialile pursuit, de- striivs or lakes the Toulon lleet in the Nile, or Hay of Aboukir 180 Charles Kmanuel IV., Kinj; of Sardinia, coiicliules a convention at Milan with the French re- public IHU The second coalitiou aijaiiist France ISII I'aul, Kinperor of Uu»»ia ISO Tiealies of alliance enumerated ISO Disorder ol the Fieucli linances ISO Military consiriptiuii in France 180 Ferdiuund IV., of the Two Sicilies, attacks the French in Hume 180 General Chanipioniiet takes Naidcs, and esta- blishes a I'arthenopean republic I.SQ Charles Emanuel IV. retires to Sardinia ......... 181 Conjjiess of Uastailt dissolved l.sl War Ijctween Francis II. and the Frencli Isl The Archduke Charles del'eats Joiirdau at Stockach 181 Suwarow, generalissimo of the allies in Italy, de- feats Moreau at (.'assanu 181 General Macdonald efl'ects a. junction with Moreau 181 Suwarow defeats Joubcrt nt Novi, vthu is slain in the action 181 The Archduke Charles attacks Massena in Swit- zerland, and marches towards the Uhine 181 Suwarow crosses the Alps 181 The Turkish and Russian fleets take Corfu and other islmids 182 The Duke of York conducts an expedition to the Ilehler 182 He returns home, according to a capitulation w ith General lirune 18-2 The Kuglisli take Surinam from the Dutch 182 lluiinaparte, bavins conquered K(,'ypt,is obli^'ed to raise the siege of Acre 1 82 A Turkish iiriiiy landed at Aboukir, and was totally routed by lluouaparle 182 Ile lands at Frejus in I'ruveiice 182 Discontents ajjainsi the Directory 182 A.D. 1799 1800 1800 1800 1801 ISOl IHOl 1802 i;Ba 1/97 17'.t.^ 1800 1801 17115 I79:i 1790 1798 1800 1801 1795 1797 1798 1802 '.7;j 1796 1797 1801 1791 1791; 1797 17Urf 1799 1800 1795 1796 I'AOK Counts de Fiotle, il'Autii'liamp, and de llourmont, head an iiisiirrccti"ii of the Chou.ins I Hi The DiuctiTy overthrown by lliionapurtu and bis bri>:lier l.iicieii IHJ A new I'liiKtitutiiiii pris, ai.d lakes Milan .. . I.S.'t 111' ili'teals Melas in tlieb.ittle ol .Marenni), where (ieneral Di'Mtix is slain I8'l Ui'iieral Moieaii del'i'ats (ii'iieral Kr iv. and enters M unli'li ■ 18;t Francis II. relusi's to r.ilily the pteliiuiiiarii's signed at I'aris 18.'( Arini>tiei' and truces a|;ieed oil in (jciniaiiy and Italy IK:| Peace' of l.uni'Ville ls:i The ICu;;li^li roiiipel (Jeneral Vaubuis to surrender Malta 18:t ('onvi'iiliiin of Fl-.Xrish 181 1 General Kleher a-sassiiiiied in I'^jyi'l 1"^ Sir llalph AhMVeroinliy lands at Abmikir ami de- feats General Metiuu at Ualimanieh neai Alex- andria 1811 Death of Abereiouiby 1:^4 The Fii'iicli capitulate to (i"Deral llntchiiison at Alex.iudria 184 Alexander, Fmpi'ior of llussia 181 I'eaci' III' .\Tnii'ns 181 Stipiilatiiin fur siirreiiderlu;,' Malta to the Knights id' St. .lol 184 The piinciple of free commerce n>it alluded to in the Treaty 18,') Hetiospei't of the alT.iirs of Spain 18.') Chataeteriif Charles IV IHj Dun Maliiii'l (iuiliiy, I'riuieof ihe I'eaee 185 Sir John .lervis deleats .\diniral (^oriliiv.i olT Cape St. Vinci'Ut IJ'j riie i;ngli>li take Trinidad and Miiiiuia 18J Spain siirreiideied Louisiana aiideveiitiiiilly I'arma to the Fieiich, liy the treaty of SI. IldefJiiso. . . , 185 The Graiul-Duchy of Tuscany piomi.scd, in consc i|nence, to the infant id' I'arma 18.5 Treaty III Madrid sifined by l.ui-ii'U Huonapartc. . 180 Aiiniiuistration iifthe lti:;hi lion. William I'ltt... ISli F.liiipu'nceof Mr. IMmiind Burke Isti .Suspeii^iun of the Habeas Ciapiis .\ct 1.' Alien Hill I8t> A French Heel sails to llantry Hay 186 Fiigland subsidizes the continental powers, and excites the coiililiiins against the French republic 186 Insurrection in lieland I81I The Cnioii between Great Itritaiii and Ireland . . . 181) Highl of search 180 Armed Neutrality 1)^6 Sir Ilyile I'arker and Lord Nelson attack the D.'uiish fleet at Copenhagen 186 Hanover occupied by the King of Prussia 186 The Ilatavian Uepublic esiablished 187 Admiral l.iiril Duncan ilel'eats De Winter in the action ofl' Camper.low n 18/ Tieaties of pe.ice anil alliance 1.87 Overthrow uf the Helvetic confederacy 187 Stale of Italy at the peace of Amiens .' 187 Victor Aniailens 111.. King uf Sardinia 187 Charles Fmanuel IV Is7 The Cisalpine republic 187 liepublic ol (ieniia ilemocratic 188 I'rince id' I'aruia proclaimed King of Etruria 188 I'ius VL, pi'.itcsts against the French uniting Avignon to the Veu.iissin 1^8 He eniiips au army under (ieneral Colli 188 Peace lit' Tt'lentino with I'ius VI 188 (ieneral Duphiit killed in au insurrection at Hone 188 A republic proclaimed in Home 188 I'ius VI. niaile prisoner, and dies at Valence 188 Pictures and statues removed from Uuuie, &c., to the Louvre 188 Admiral La Tonche obliges Ferdinand IV. to re- cognize the French republic 188 Uepublic of the Seven Islands, or Ionian Islands . 188 Neutrality of the North of Germany recognized by the Coiiventi'jn of Uiisil '. 188 Frederic William II. of Prussia lemains neutral. . 188 K,' 9 WIV ANALY'U'Al AM) llIUONOLOCiU'AL TAHIK. A. II. >"0K l7iHS DiM'iilni'K il.iiiH Aii;lii') niiia'tioiia ii iivw cuiioli- tlltMIII III I'kIuiiiI IS'.) 'Iliiil lliiiini' iliM'luiril I I'leiliiiiiN in lliu lluimunr Saxony ' IH'.t Alwiiiilil'v III' lliii l.ilii-niiii \ fill IKtl 17'<'- t'liiliiMiiit' II. M'liiti nil army iiiUi PiiIhihI I*'-* 'I III' I'lili'.s laki- ii|i anus . . .' la'.) I'i'Xi ('iillM'iilliin III' SI. I'l'li'lnlilllp, lii'lwrt'll Ullntia mill rriimiiii 11)11 Nl'» llinMlrnilllMIIII'llt ul' riiliiiiil ID" i:xti-iil iil'lhi' iiiiiliiiii MJ/i'il hy Ciitliciine II I'.H) l'l'il:«^i:ut anpllsiuulii I'Jil Tiraty lii'lVM'i'ii Uiiniiiii anil I'ulaml a» tliL'ii run Miinleil ; I'JO Vi'.H Sii ri'l aaMiiialioii nl Wamaw fIrclH Tliailili'iiit KiimiiH/kii urni'ial nl'ilu' iiiMini'clliiii 100 llrVdll 111 llii' t liy I I \Vai»aw I'.IO 1701 SnwaniM ilor/.lMi al MaliliiAitx ll'l III- I'arrii's I'r.iva, tliv ^rcat Hiilnirli iil \Varsii», hy ii'^Hanll IIU Kin;,' ^tanislans AuKiistusrctiicK In (iriiilno, «livri> llr..limi. Ill's IDl h'iiial |iartiUi>n nl I'lil.iiiil I'.I'J 17'.'li Diaili III Cal liii nil' 1 1 i i>'-' 1M)1 .Miiiili'iiif llii' i;iu|ii'iiir I'aiil I'.":! Till' l'.in|ii'iur .Mi'xaiiili't ni' lliiMiia aliaiiiiiiiii> tliu I'l.iiiii t'i'i' .1 ti"i> ti.iili' lis iieiitr.il \'i*->ni'N 11):! I";'-' .A-sassiiiaiiiin iil tiii«la\ iis 111. nl Swciiiii \'Xi li'tUi lU'i^ii III' (liiinUan VI 1. in Di iiiiiaik lUii I'l'.lllOl) I\, rniitinnnl. The iiiili'ur'i /iri/.nji/i nmrc »/ h'niiiiv iiwler the sirni/ of .\nimi,m Hiinn«inrti: A.l». l!UJ Hiinn.iiiaitr ili'c'lan'il, at I.Mins. l'ii'..iili'iil nl lla- I 'iiliiiit or C'iha!]iilu* i-*,'/,n/.'ii' I'.t3 IHOl Kri-nrli riiiiciiiilal Willi rii|M- I'iiis V 1 1 liU Iti'^liiialiuii III' the Cal lull ir ili>li. (k I'.U Insiii III lull III till' l.i'^liin III' lliiiiiiiir I'.l't IfUS (li'iii'r.il l.r (IliMf's (>.\|M'ililiiiii tu St. l'iiiiii'i>;ii. . I'.H lliiiin.i|i'iite cliiisei; CimikiiI t>ir tiMi xi'ars, ami aUo roihl.' ■ l'.>4 (ii'iii'ial Ncy I'nii'is Sm it/.t'ilaiiii 1U5 1HI)3 New I'linsliiiiUon ni Sw ii/i'il.inil. nr ll.i Act iif Mi'iliiiiiii mt Till' Hm'i'i>> iiIIIic I)i.'|iulaliiiii til Uiiiirn KM;;laiiil .mil the l''irn('li ri*)iiililii> li).'} I'.i".iiii my nl .Ml-. .Ii'll'i'isiin in llii' I'liili'il .Siali'ii, . I'.lo Tliii-i' Stall's |iiiic'li iM' LmiUiaim ol'tlie Iri'iu'li. , , I'.'.'i .MVaii s nl' till' Itaias iaii ri'|>>i>ilii' lilo IHU-1 (li.iili's IV. Ill' siiaiii iiinvillliiu'ly jnins in tlir waf aL'aitisl Miii^liiiiil 1% IHU;)— 1!t!< at lii^ ('(ii'iinalinii in Nntre D.iim.' 197 Alt'MiiKli'riil' Hiissiadt'iiiamls tli.it Nupnli'on sliuulU i'\ac'iiate llann^ei', and liiilcii.aily ."''aiiliiiin. . . . 1D7 Cualitinn nl Kiis^ia, I'nissia, ami Aiii>tiiu a;^'aiiist till' I'lcncli Kmiiri'iiv 11)7 Till' llti^listi lake Siiriiiaiii I'.t7 '"iciiili »|i(iliatii)iis nf ilic Italian ^tail's l'.)7 'ilr. I'itt iifjain aiipniiitcd I'liiiif Mini-lcr 1'.)" '.'ai'inas tiL'atii's \vliii:li led lii the coalitiuii a^'aiii.^t Viimiu 198 ' 11.. ill H()iila;.'iu' liri. ken ti|i, anil alt tnvaniiin nl' K ii;:i' idnv dd 198 i30.') 'ill" .1"'.(li'i : I Ties co'"....tiuls ill Ilaly,an(llll•,• (VK'll(l 'ki /nlin in I lie '."y ml 198 i.lii'! ir^ 1'' Ha\aria, Wiirl ..ilierj,' and liaden, unit tlu'iMii-c 111' the allies 198 181).') tlel'eati General Muck, who capitulaU^s in ITin to Naiioli'on 198 The Fiuneh emperor eutuis Vienna 199 *.|i 18llfi 1805 18U0 ISO,-) IHUI'i I80C 1800 IH07 IHI17 l!<07 18117 1800 1807 1808 1808 llii tile ol' AiKterlitu IV. (CI* nf I'reslinrK .. I'ait ol Italy, Venii'i', D.ilinati.i, and .\lliaiila ci-i,. til Napoleon . , A>i>trla ri'di''< the Tyrol to the r.leilor ol ltu\iir,| Tlie Kmperni Alexander repairt to llerliii Ity a treaty kIuiii'iI at V iiiiiia, I'reiieiie \V illian, llLnf rnini.i.i aeipliles po»»e«i>inn nl llaiiiivi, .Sir Hnl'i'il Calder « sueeeii'' oir L'ape Fi.iislerii.. Iliittle of Tral'uUar, uiid de ih of .\(lniirkl l.ur; NeKnii I I''rrdiiiaiiil IV. eniliarks I'll, icily , .lorii'pli lliiniiiipartii eieati d (vliiK of i\apU"( I'^iiKeiie lle.iiiliainais, Viceroy nl l>aly,and iK'lari'; next in Mii'eeiiHinn In thai tlirniiu Ariaiiiji'iiient nf ^ever il Italian diiclileii Mnr It c;e iti (I tii.iiiil lliikeni' IIcik .mil I'levea ,,. Ileriiadnllc made I'miee »l I'lintecnrti Itei liner eicited I'liiice nl Nein liiitel The rrelii'li eiilei I'ninklnrt and levy iicoiitriliiili< 1 Violation ol the I'tviKlini; Ireuties Death nf Mr I'iit, also of .Mr. Knx in li-Oti, «!, had {(lined l.nrd lirenville'a adniinintiatii 11 .... Lord i, uiideid. lie iii'^nciati'H I'nr peace Imtnli ■ Wlthnllt Mli'11'114 Treaty »ii;neil at I'aiis lielween the I'.nil Alexander and N.ip< lenii L'lU; The Conledeiation nl the Ithiiie 1.' V M.ixiinlliaii .ln>epli, Kint: id Muvari Kinndniii nf Wnrlemla'ra est. .jliiln"' ,,, . llei'laralinnofthe llmperor t'lam'i II ui i>rvaii;iii the i-nipire, and iiecniiie^ h'rancis 1 el AiiKlna.. (.niiis llniiiiaparte, Knv d' lloll.ind Kieilirii sv illiain 111. siiuW his iillinialiiin to I'liTi. IV. I'liiu'i' Iliilieiilnhe tot. illy dele.ili'd liv Napuhmi .lena ... Duke of Hrniiswii'k, .ideated hy .Marshal l)ns liir peace, in I'r not nous Cniiven'iiin nf llaitenstein preparatory of a 11. i ciialilioii Sieiie nf D.inl'/.ie Hatlle of Kriedlaiid Napoleon enteis Knniiii;sbeif{ .\riiiistice cnneluded at Tilsit between l''ra»ii'. Itassia, and I'msi-ia IntiTvieH III the L^nipeiors Alexander uiid Na|:> lenii, on a raft in the Niemen. Spoliation of part of the I'rnssiun dominiuus ('oiiM'iilinii of KoniiiKslier); Wars nf (iii>taviis .'\ilnlplius IV. of Sweden The Kiti^ of Saxunv put in ponscs.^ion ol the Ducia of Warsaw .' Jerome Itiinnaparle, Kiiii^ of Westphalia, liiii llrniiMvivk .mil lles.se, pait of llanuvi., \< . Kiveii him fnr his kin^'dom Aflair , Sp I ('on '..111 i iiM...invbleau Maish'il .Inii'ii ei ii .sSpaiD Ilei ; .inei^ ' > 1 '1. ".imli force ' 1 iI.l'S I,ish(iii. Ju I '. 11 .1 of I'urtiigal, u itii his laniiii r.n I lUii Jaiieiiu.. Cunllseaiion of Kll;lli^h merchandise in the Ihiii senile cities KiikIikIi Orders in Council, ri'Knlalin^ 11 liaicKii.. of hostile poll ^ The deciee of Milan Jxapnlenii establishes the Continental Systiin. a;;aiiisl llritlsh trade Vins VII. reins s to accede to it (ieneral Mioll is thereupon enters Home Napoleon creates a new French noldlily Insurrection in Madrid au'ainst (ioduy Abdication of Charles IV Ferdinand VII. Kin;,' of Spain The Flench under Murat enter Madrid Charlea IV.cedeii his duminious to Napoleon,. it liavonue Fetillnand VII., n cuiiseiit to that Valeni;.tv Miis^acie liy .Mm .III eph Itiionapnil .it. or .lonchin 1, iiiTiil iiisnrreci liilcriiew of Alexi Convention of lie Frai.cis, Kniperor welir or militiin Francis appeals ti varin, Saxmiy auiiii"! him, . .. Aiiiixmt and chi'l The Kmpeior Frn Napoleon beats (1 lie defeat the Ai at Itnlialion . . . Napoleon enters ' 1 It tic d 1: etsd' N.ipoh "11 In dam n inili.e, of bi'il M,n , tihe lle.i. .' I lis effect I'he Ai'lidnku allack I'ru-.'.ia '..iltle of Warrain lusinri'ciion nl ill I xpelition of ihe .All armistici' cone ■lie Karl nl Cli.i take the island I hey take Fliisliii The' l'n;.'lish nrn by M.irshal lIci I'eacu nf Scliiel Fi'iiicis and N.ij The lllyriaii piovi Kiiipiie Niipolenli si'iies t l-iipc I'lils V 1 1, ill Naval V ictories of Colonies of Cayeu The Spani.irds ex — IHlll .Napoleon 1 and espouses .M .'Midiciti'iii of I.oii Napoleon annexei (jii.idaloiiiie.lhe y taken by the I ill The Continental Trianon Iiisiiriectinii at 1 1| Sir Arthur Welles Itiissian licet in Charles t'oltou Maish'il .liinut's conveyed ill I'lii Marshal' Soult tal the rortii;(iiesB, Sir Arthur Welles rclii'k". into (i.ill (letieral lleresfor llueiios .\y res . (leiieral Aniliniiit (iciicrai \S hiieiod take lliienos .\v The .lunta 111 Sevi Vll Ueiicral Diipiiiit -. Ileaili nr>ir .Inhti Di'fi'iice of .Sarai^t Lord Welliii^jtcii Talavera Soiill overrun > At .liiiiot taki-s 1. iiidii Wellin^Ilon inaiiit aiiainst .Maislia Mn^lish cnmnicriH nf French, Span Ahiilition of the S Condition ol '.dhi .Ml'airsof Swii/.crl IVhilcal comluioii Ahdicatmn nf tl l^inperur of Aus Cunl'ederaliou of I ANALYTll Ai, AM) CIIUoNOI.OdK AI- TAHLi;. %x\ iiiil Alljiinlii CI' , Icidll III hll\.ii , I III llirliii •'mlt'iii: N\ ilii.iii »«liMi 111' ilaiii>\. Iljit' Kii'iBlHI'lr.. iif Ailiiiiii.! !.<[, S Kiif Naiili"< July, mill (I'l'Liir, iiu iliii'lileii •IX .mil I'li'vi^K ...^^^ r\o ^^Hl* liiilel >'vy iiL'unli'ilmiii I'.ix ill l.-Oti, wli lnlilli^llilli. I \HMV but 111' ■ L'll tllU I'.lill vnri. »tn"' i 1 1 1. . .1 ri'iii:;ii ^^, CIS I III AiiKifia. ^^f-i .mil iilliniiiliun III I'liri' StTi ,mI l(\ Najiuli nil : M^imliul ll ■> betwei'ii l''ruiic. uuiiUr uiid Na|i. u iliiiniiiiiiiis (il'Swcilcii !>»iunol thi> Hiicliy \Vcsl|ihalia, li;i. of UilllOVl , \ I " ^■I'.-.C* Lisllllll, 111, u ilh his raiMi\ inilisu ill llic Mail iilatiiitf a blucKa.i iitiiielitiil Syslrni. H Runie nubility iuiluy Nl'uMr'iil".! !!!!.!.. IS tu Nu|iul(^uu, al i'AOK KiTiliuaiiil Vll.,mi>iiaccil «llh dcatli, Imibliui'il to ruiinfiit til thai airaiiueiniMit, uiiil in uuiill'"''* at Val.Mieav Mi Miis-acii> iiy Minat In Mail till > ^**'> ' I'll ltiiiiiia|, KIliK orNluili Sflft it,i>r .liiiichiiii, Kiiiu iif NhiiIi'i !<"'< ., ,,. riiMiiaiirri'diiiii iif S|ialM ami riirtiiunl iVi liiii-rtieu iif Alrxanilcr ami Na|iuli'uii at l-atVart .. '^"'i t'liiiM-iitliiii iif lli'riiii '■!'■>> Ktai.ciH, KiiijiiMor nf Aii-lna, call* uiit the Lunil- wi'lii or militia iif iii't ilnniiiiiniiH UUli l-'iam'itf a))|it'aN to ihi' (ji'rinaii Station; when 'Ba- varia, Sax. my ami Wiiiti'mlHTK ili'cluic uur ll^.lill'^t him 'i'lf Aiiiiii.iit ami cliii'fsiif tliii Austrian I'uri'ua "< l> 'I'll!' Km)i<'iui' I'laiu'is iiivailHi llavaria ' mull', of lii'ii.K cut on liiiin all iiu|i|ilii's 2l))> ...n . I the Aicliiliiki' John in Italy 'Juij lie,. I ' I elTt'Cti a jiinrtion uilh Napoli'iin . . . . 'jLli rill' A.'liilukL' KiTiliuaiiil lakes Warsaw an. I attiicit riu^.'iun I'olaiiil '.'Iil'i 'tittle lit W'auram Llllli liisiiiri'Ctiiin i.l Ih.' Tyioi hcailcil by lIolViT -'< li rxpeiliiioii iiflhc lluki' of llruiiswick OcU 'Mxi All arniistic ciiiicIiuIimI at /.nay ill ^Ul> 'j'lic Kail I'l Ch.ilham ani Si'i Klihaiil Strahan take till' i«laml of VN alchi'ron 'iUli I lit'V take I'lusliiii^ L'tllj Till' Kiii.'li'th armumi'iit Irustrnti'il as to AntwiMii by Marshal lli'riiailiilte 'JU7 IVac'it of ."^iliii'iibniMii bctwi't'ii the cni|>rroi> Ki'iiu'is anil N.i|ioli'i L'U7 Till' lllyriaii |iiiitiiic('a not niiili'il with tlic l-'n'iich l'lni|m<' '•iit' Nniii)li'..n si'Ucs un the I'lccleBiimtieal Stnti's iJHV l'o|ii' I'ium \ ll.ile|io>eil Iiy Na|>oleon '■:i exiiel the Fieiicii I'r.mi St. l)omiii:;o Sib'/" -IHlu .\a|ioleun (liMiires the empie-'S JiiMe^hine, ami es|iiMises .Maria l,oiii>a of Aiistiia llnT .'Vbilii'Jti'iii ol' l.niiis Hii.iiiajiaitu *J0/ Nii|ioli'oii annexes Il.illaml to the Fieiicli Km)iire *JU7 till. iilaloiipe, the .Mauritius and Island of Ibiniboa taken by the linKlish L'O'i The i'ouiinentul Syslvni. Uncree or tarilV of Trianon 2(IH liisiiricetion al i >|uirt tlUU Sir Arlliiir Wellesley ile'eatM Juiiot at Vimieta. ... HUM UiisMaii Heel in tin' Tai^us slirremleied to Sir I'hailis Cotton 208 Maish.il .liinut's army, by eapitulation nt CMtlUii. conveyed in l'!iuli>h vessels lo France !iOW Mai>)ial Sonit t.ikes Oporto after a resistance by llie l'ortni.'ueso . SiUS Sir Arthur Wellesley lands nt Lisbon, when SonIt retires into (iailieia iil'S (icncral lleresfoid uu.l Sir Iloniu I'lipliam t.ike lliiL'Uus Ayres 0()<) (ieiieial Am'hmiity l.iUes Monte Video iiU'.) (ieiierai W hileioeke 'n'loateil in an attempt tu re- take lliieiios .\J ri"> aOil The .lunl.i ol Sevilli ileclaies lor Kiiij,' Ferdinand Vll OO'.I tjciu'ial lliiponl Miiienilers al Hay len 'Jli'.) Ilealli ol sir .lohii M.iore at ('oriiii'na '.'(I't Deliiice of Sai'i^ossa by I'alafox 2ui) Lord \Velliii|;l"ii defeats Jouniaii ami Victor at Talavera L'lO SiMilt overrun- .Amiabisia. Sie.eof I'li.lij; lilO .liiiiot t.iki-s I. luila.l K<»liii{o ami Almeida 210 Wellinulon inaiut.iins )iis post ol Tones Vedras aiiainst Marshal .Mjisseii.i at Santaiem 210 Knijlisli comn.ii.v, l.nipu o| ihe Sea. Cominest of Fieiich, Spanish ami Hutch colonies 2|0 Abolition otihe Sl.i- ..'-irade by Knu^aml 210 Coiiilitioiiol '.illaiid 210 .MI'airs 1)1' s»ii/..rlaii.l .ml of Italy, ti'viewed .... 211 I'ldiiital condition of tierniany 211 Ahilicalion of the impeiialcrowii by Fmncis, limpetor ot Austria il'J Confederation of tlio Uhine 21'.' A.n. l$"7 I.'Ji 1807 1H09 1810 1813 trim IMUJ 180S 1809— IHIO VliOt Slate iiml extent of the Anslriuii dunilniiins un Ihe I'e.ice ol l.ni.ev.lle 2 111 U llH ot Ihe I'.'.ieeol Sehil'llbrilllll 21.1 Acipilsitiiiiis ol l'iiia«ia 213 The ieeii|iitl. 11 ot ll.inover i'ail»e» a war betwefll KiiKland anil I'niH'.ia 2lli Destitution III I'liit-iii.and eiili;;liienedadniinlsltii' ii'i. ■ Freiieric Willi, ini III :'V.i {It kimia' iif ^"l'*>l>'<'» ■'<> Kenuiaik 214 Loiils ( ath. alt ai'il liambu'i bombard Copeiilia- lien, and srt'ure the I >.>msli 11. il , Sl^ I lllisii.au Vll. suce.'eil«f.l l.j I itileiic Nl, Kiii); :il lleiilMurk t'H The Klap. for .♦h'iniulfcT declares war nijaiiy-l th«» Kniiiish .,21* lie eom|Ui'rs Fiid.iiid IVunk fhp ''w'des iiH 'Sir ioliii Moori' arrives with I'.IIKJhh snceouis .at tiolllll({eu,l,ut il. lllreeeiM II by (illslaMls IV.... iH^ (inntaviiH ,\ilolpliiis 1 V,, deponed , 2i5 The Duke .if Siiileiniaiiia piochilmpd »s Kin;; Chaile.Mll. .. 215 I'eaee orFreiU'iii'sliani between Hu -a auni Swcleii 21j Maiali.il llerii iiloiii. I'l. eieil I'riii. . Kiiyiil i .ilter- wards crowned a'. kin:;Cliarh -. l.Jiii.ol Sk(i'i|(.||) 21i'i Munilieeiii liiiiiiil.iiioiis, and ii'il.'imI iin.leit.ikinijs ul tlie l.nipei'or .Mexan.li'i . Ktissia 2ltl Swell ish anil Kliuli'li vt.ii, uii^ iiip. riuiii 'J Hi Allans 111 I'l'inia and the I'.iri. L'll! Alt xamler aiimxes (ieoi ijia tu his vniplre UIG Ills war with I'er-ia I'lli His war with I'm key 21l'> .Mi I'.icha of 'loaniiiiia 2 It! ('omlilion III riiike> .inderSeliai 111 21li Sir .lohn DuiKworlii liiiee \Ui- piii.saj{« of the D.irilaiielli's 2lC .\ilmir.il Siiiiavin delent* ttM> Tiiiki"!! fleet at l.eiiiiins 217 Selim 11 1., eslalilislu's ilie Ni .n ;;edii1, troops in I'iu lope 111 unit; ir Ills, and di~' |,liiieil 217 Ab.iicatioii ol Selim 111 •ll'J Musiapha IV., Suit. ii 217 Miistapha IV. ami Selimi III. le alike victims ill an iii'.urreetioii 217 Mahni.'U.I II., Sultan 21/ D*ll) The linssi.in ^ftierals t m' Isniuii, uiiil Silislria 218 (Ji'iiii.il Kanieiiskoi iieleats Muiki . I' icha 2IS Str.ini; I'm kisli position at >hiitnla 218 The Uiissi.iiis lake Iliidschuk, ^ ''lirilesov and Widdin 218 I'KUMI) \\.,cimc!ii,h;l. Will' lU'cliiiv and Jlnwrti'iil nf Ihe h'mpiru lluntiiiimrlc. A.b. is'io— laij. 1811 Napoleon's infant son receives the till.' of Kin^'of Home 21s I'iiis V II. refuses lo eiinfirm the nomin . imi ot luu French prelates 2H {••Il A council .isscnibh'd nt I'luis, lor this ol'i-'ct, fails 21,S 1811 Ketreal of Maasena, imrsued by Lord W .'lliniitou, Ihioiiyh l-ortui!al .' 218 Is 11 Hailajos invested by WellinKtoii, "ho rcti aU into I'ortiiHal 21'J Marshal Sucliet storms Tarrai;iimi, and debats the Spanish (Jen. i.il lllake at Minvipdro 21'.l 1812 \Veiliii::lon lakes Cnidail ltoiln;.'o, ami a^aiii retires 21'.l 1812 lie defeats .Mar lit at Salainancii 2iy Alliance of Itiissia and Sweden anainst Nipoieon, and design on Norway 21'.) Napoleon s alliance with Frederic V\'illiain I II,., 21l> The I'.niperor Francis unites with Napolcoii .■ gainst Uussia, but is not iniicli in eanicsi 21".) Liiunier.ilioii of Napoleon's forces 220 Nap.di'oii passes the river Niemeli 220 1812 lialtleof Mohiloll ii'.n Napoleon takes Sinoleii'.ko 220 Naii.ili'oii ileleats I'rince KntnsulTitt the.Moskwa. 220 1812 lie enters .Moscow, September U ... 220 CoiilhiKVation ii that city 'jO,, liisasti'oiis reheat of the F'tench from Kussia 22'J KulusoiV, who hairhitberio reiiealed, now puisuea and harasses tile French army 220 I'assaxe of the llercsina on tiie retreat, with severe loss 221 V i; 3 ANALYTICAL AM) ClIHOXOLOGICAL TALLE. AH. PAClK )812 NapDloon rotiirns to Paris, liMviiiij his aimy iimlcr till' LMiiidiict ul' Ills iiiarslials 3'Jl tii'iii'nil Viii'ke aiul tlie l'i'ii>siau truups caintnlutv ti) till' Itussiaii^ 'J21 ]^\'2 I'iiisVlI. at Fiiiitaiiieliluaii siyiis u cuiu'iirdat .... 'JJl IHU) 'IriMlv 1)1' Kaliscli, lii'twri'ii AluxaiicU-r and l''ri'- ili'ri'.-Williain III "21 Kiitu-iiirs |>u>rlaniaiiiiii IViini Kaliscli I'ur tlie Dis- siiliitimi iil'lliir Ulii'iiinli I'liiili'iloralioii 221 1S13 Kiiii; .Miiiat iitiri's U) Napli's 22i Tori'i's 111' till! Iii'lli^i'ieiiis inepaiutDiv to tlio (•amiiiiijjii I't'lSl.'i '. 222 Napnlruii taki's llii' I'oninianil in ptn'son 222 liatlli'iil'tirnssCji'r.-clu'll or LiuziM 222 liatlli'of I!ai\l/i'il 2J2 ISUi C'lmviMiiioii siuiii-il at Presili'ii, iiiuler llir nuMiia- tioti II' llir l-',iniu'ror l''rani!is 222 i l''raiicis ilei'lart's war a;.'aiii8t llu' l-'ii'iicli 22.'i 1 Tieatirs >i),Mii'il auli'OMliMit to tin; sixlli cnalition ; of till- aliii'il soviTi'i^'iis 22'1 Arniii's oltlu" .MUi'si'iiiniunateil 2.'.'. Strenyth of Naiioli'ou's army 22;J : liattli'ol' (Jiofs-lli'fivii .' 224 I 1813 liallliMinires.li'ii 221 Kail 111' GiMU'ral Mori'aii 224 I Vaiiil. inline, ik'TiMtfil in tin* Ilatile of Ciilin. snr- ! ri'iiili'rs to llairlay ili; Tolly an i Marsli.il Mil'.o | railovvicli 224 | Nov roiiti'ii liy Iti'rnailotli- 224 . 1813 llaitli' of !,i'i|isiL' iiaini'il by HIiicIilt, l!i'nni,'si'ii ami the I'rinoc Koyal of SwimIi'h 224 I I'Hl'IiI of N;i|)oli'on III Mayenci- 224 Kint; of n >varia joins tli<' allii/s 224 Mar-lial Davonst attauktil ill llaniliiUL; bv the Prime lioyal '. 22.'i 1814 Frederii- VI. of Deiimavk joins tliu allies 22j Peace at len<,'tli concln ISK! WelliiJijloii defeats M.irslial .lonnlan at \itloria .. 22j Till' electors of Ilaiiinev and Ilesse recover those iliiininions. and other |ioliiical arran^eineiits take ]ilace thl'on^hont I icrniany 225 Forces of the eoiiteiidni.; parties, before the cam- pai:^n of iSU 22.5 1M13— 1814 The allies enter France 22,') 1814 N.ipoleon rlel'eated li\ liliicher at Kotliiere '2-25 lilnclier, siiironiiiicdbv (ironchy. loses CdOO men at i;t'i"e- 22.1 Kveiits and vicissilinlesot the war in France 223 1814 Napoleon liefeat.-d at I.aon 22.") (\)iii;re~s i.f Cliatillon for a peace .i2li The l^iadrn|ile .Mliance siynei! at Chaiimont, March 1 22t) .Mannoiit and Morlier driveu I'loni .Moiitmnvtreainl Hi'lleviUe 226 1814 The allied sovereians enter Paris 22ti Count dWrtois. I, ieuteiianl General of thekini;:loni 22ti 1814 Napoleon abdic.ites in favour of the Kill;; of Koine 'J2t> The soveieiHiity of I'llia secnred to him, to which island he is coiidiiiMed liy cnnmissioiiers 220 WeliiiiKton deh'ats Soiill atOitlies 22t) The liiltU' of T.mloiis Conduct of .lo.ichim Mnrat. Kiiii; of Naples, in Italy, at this crisis of political alT.iirs 227 18 14 Kii;;eii'e neaiih.irnais' action with Field Marshal llcUegaiili! 227 A. II, 1814 He retires to fievmany Heiun of I.oiiis XV II I. Kiiiijof France lie ^'lants a Charter to his people 1814 Cessions anrl rustiliitions of colonies, on tlic ton elnsioii ofa i^eiieial peace at P. iris 1814 The Kniprror of Uiissia, Kinn of Pmssia, Priiic Jj Mi'tteniich, Prince lllncher, Pl.iton'. and oilur i;encrals, visit the Prince Ue^eiit in lamdun A I tides of the Peace of Paris Kiii^' of S.ixoiiy loses a p nlioii of his doininions.. Tieity for the abolit on of iie;;ro slavery ijam -r^ 1S14 Itnon ,paite lands ill Provence ^J i-l His .idvenlnres ami sncccsful maicli on Paris .... I.oiiis Will, retires to (ihent The Additional Act to the Constitution of ih,. I Empire 1815 The Champ de Mai, hell at P.iris The allies |irepare to Inllil the treaty of Chaiiim.ir. ;a Mnrat ilcclares for Iliion i parte 'J lie is defeated at Toieiitiin 1815 Fiiilinand IV. restored in Naples The .\ct of the (ii'rniaiiic Conlederutioii The Act of Coliu'ress si;,'ned ^»t,mi,- 1 „ The armies of the allies .ippio.ich France Wi . "'^^ '^"^''y Numerical slrcimth lit II lonapiites ariiiv WB"'"''"' '"''H'l'l' < Jnne. lie cros-es the S.imlire, and dt feats lllncher f^pi>|''''^< I'i'W IIIC l,i:;iiv, who retires in i;ooil order h^^n <|t,,.,f ;,,,.„ The Ilnlie of Wellin-lon ileleits Hnonapaite , S^ '■ laiioiis o Water'oo ^W" '" the tiiluini I'riiicc Bincher and llnluw assist in that fi . 0)M(l, that nbstrni't victory iiijiliipii'ssioiioil i llir::^^St^'"!:'::!:";"";":;;::::::::.:*■• '■•-•--.--» He surrenders to Captain Maitliuid, U.N •(■ enlihfliii'il hy c Is banished to St. Helena, wliero 111! dies otli M i\ ^S is Iniiii lilstui'\ ,,.'?,'■?' • ; ■,■,;,■■■, i" ■• 'i '.■ ■ 'i. " ■ 'SB I'xiii'fii'iiri' til Welhii.ton and Hliicher march in trininphto I'.i J^t ,■ , Capitulation of that capital ^■^•'hi't Wl' Irilrll I.oiiis XVll I. is restored to the llironu of Franc. . .'SBlMVi' itilliilii'il (' Military execution of Marshal Ney and Co.in! (MH ixiU'iii'iii'i', oft I.ibedoyere |J| ,,,,,^|^ ill {.onor Indcniaiiv piiiil hv France ^!Wk , A;;rcenient entered into for the ai ohtioii of ■'- *^P""-' '"' ''I'stroy. sl.i'e trade ^4r ''"PI"''"''' 'ii'ti 1815 The Holy .Mliance si<,'iii'd ai Vienna a^ft\s ;i chilli • fur The t!ortes of Spain ^^K* t i * ^ Uetiospeet of ill,' political allairs of lairope ^M. .*-'"""""' I"'' 1810 .Mental afflietion of (Jeorge III tB "' l'"'^' a,L;i'S i" 1811 (ieor;!e, Piiiice Uei;ent ^Bli'l'i' !lfl' Cl'l'tnill 1812 W.ir between the I'liited .Slates and I'.iiiiland — wHluikl title in -ill Cape of Wool Hope, FNsetiiiibo, llerbici', a!i i ^^K . . . , DemeraiaceihdtoKnijland ^M " ' '" Uecapitiilalion of treaties, ii:c "'H' ' "'"' 'li.is'L'st I Tlie Ionian Islands placed '.iiider the protection < : d^Br\'f \\ ho iii.'iv j (iieiit llrituin J^K L. stoin I, I'l, 1815 Militarv execution of Mnrut on landin)! in ,i ,. ^» ' .^- " " '."<"l" kinsjilom of N iiples ^M^' ''"""'""''' .1 Seltleinent of the slates of liermauy i^H'' ''.'* Uliivi'i's 1814 Norway aciinired by Sweden J^Hltat^es that wi' War helw cell Uiissia and Tnikev favourable to til ^ ^BB,,, ,,'".. ,1 ' . ,, former power ^utefahli' t,. th Uiissiaii acquisitions in the Tnrkish provinces, 111 ^^B"''' > '<"' Hot o those of Persia, and in Poland .f^Hlniiti this kiln l^talu of the tJtlonian ICmpire l^B)'!' iil oliii'its I HiSTOKICAL AND Kxi'LANATORV NoTESi...... -T^f ' 'dllers, vv P isDiial I'xpe ,'*'|Ve may learn PO«i mtr own luisl ■ 'i'lie kilo .ri;iii) whicli Wl •«ilouh|,.,llytliei '6 ^arii iVoi'ii the WM, ill as iiiucli Ut;||):iill, or ililll;^e has also the io«|amii-iiti., anil ■8«iiM' Criiiii iiuli it hi'loiiu-s t,, imclers iiiiil ' I'ither iiiistinil 1)) theif eui Z VIE W iiios.on lilt' tiiii- Vm ' -»- J-J '• :is ■ riMssia. I'liiic yS laioH'. aiiil (iili. r ,;j^ OF Tllli It ill Liiniloii. . his ilomiuioiis t::?:::::::.: i REVOLUTIONS OF EUROPE. lucli mi I'.iiis .... isiitiitioii iif ilii' 4 I'iity iil'CliiUiMii.iii ™ INTRODUCTION. oration ^^Tiinv has very properly liponcoiisidort'd as that tl'siii'iiiv .'••••■■ ■■'''"''''' hraiit'h ot" ))liil<)si)phy, whicli tcat'hi's, by iliMls liliiduM- :.■ ^j^iipK's, how men oiiu;lit It) coiuhu't thcinsi'lves I sitiiiitioiis of lift', hoth iiublic ami private, lis lliimiaiiariL" r. ^|^ j^ H^^, ililirinity and iiieapaeity of the hiiiiiaii isist in ilial ri..,i. SB*'' ''■''' alistraet or jjreneral iih'as make no last- [iipicssiou on it; and often appear to ns (Umlit- r (ilisenre, — at least if tliey he not illusli'ated , „ V- ^^eoiitirmtil h\ exiierii nee and ohscrvation. e litf iliosolli M:i\ f^B 's Iroiii liistory alone, wnieh snperadds to om' ^^ xjierienee that of other men and of other iiunnmiililiil'a: "^^Bs, that we learn to comiuer tile prejndiees whieli tluiiiii! iif Kiaiic. 'tlBl''^'' iiidiihed from edneation, and wliieli om- Ni'v ami (;ii . 111! 0^| r\|)erii'iiee, often as eontraeted as oiir ediiea- teiuls in (general rather to streni;then than to 1.- ,-,1 •i^iie or destroy. "Not to know ( says I'icero) lll.ullllOIl ul iii'^^B , , ■' ,. , ■ ■ -~~^ Kippened lielore we were born, is to remain iMiiia ^j^ys a child ; for\vliat were the life of mini, did _^_.iit combine present event.s witli the reeollei;- ^^"'■'■•"'"l'^" ^ „,■ p;,st a-es !'• eri' are certain princi])les or rules of <'ondiiet H ami I'.nulaiiil — l]|B|'"''d true ill all eases; because they accord and ilu), lierliav, n^' = mfflist with the invariable natniv of "thiniis. To t and diifest these, ludoiiji;s to the student of lev the iiiiiteciiiiii >: 4Bry, wiio may, in this way, easily form to liiiii- svstcm, both of morals and of polities, founded oil lamliiitt ill "' «M,.\.ombined Jndj^nneiit of all a^es, ami eon- ,„_.j„y ^^^H" '■'.'' universal (xperieiiee. Moreover, the ,^^itai:es that we real) 'rom the study of history .ey favourable til ill ,^^,.^,|•|, ,..(), 1,, (,, t|i„vi,. ,ve ac(piire by our own ex- Mkisli vrovinces, in^W)''^' ! ''"' ""* ""'>■ ;•'"'** "'^^ knowledge we de- i„l I^lhdiii this kind of study embrace a jjreater er of objects, but it is purchased at the e.\- ^^^ of others, while the attainments we make '^'''' 1^™ prrsonal experience often cost us extremely I e may learn wisdom, (says Polyhius) either jour own misfortunes, or the misfortunes of The knowledije (adds that eelehrated liaii) which we acipiiri at our own expense jlouhtcdly the most ellicacious ; hut (hat which paru from the misforluiies of others is the ill as much as we receive instruction witli- laiii, or danger to ourselves." This kiiow- jlias also the advantage of being in general lai'curate, and more complcti' than that which ViiM' from iiidi\idual experience. To history I il lielongs to judge witb impartiality of puh- laiacters and political measures, which are I'ilhcr iiiisunderstood or not properly appre- liy their contemporaries ; uiul while men individually, and from their o\vn ohsciTation, can see great events as it were. hut in part, history embraces the whole in all its various details. Tbiw, for example, we can see but imperfectly all the hearings of that mighty revolution which is now (171)!}) jiassiiig before our eyes; and it will re- main for iiosterity to perceive all its inlluence and ellects, and to judge of its diU'erelit actors without feelings of irritation or party spirit. It is a fact universally admitted, that all ranks and ]irofessioiis of men liiid in history appropriate instruction, and rules of conduct suited to their respi-etive conditions. In oi'cnpying the mind agreeably with such a vast diversity of subjects, it serves to form the judgment, to insjiire us with tlii> ambition of glory, and the love of virtue. Those es])ecially who devote themselves to the study of ])olitics, or who are destined to the management of public ail'airs, will discover in history the structure and constitution of governments, their faults, and their advantages, their strength and their weak- ness ; they will tlnd there the origin and progre^^s of empires, the |irinciplrs that have raised them to greatness, and the causes which have prcparrd their fall. 'J'he philosopher, and the man of litters, will there trace the ]irogress of the human mind, the errors and illusions that have led it astray; the connexion of causes and etfects ; the origin of arts and sciences, their changes, and their intluence on society ; as well as the innumerable evils that have sprung from ignorance, superstition, and ty- ranny. History, ill short, avails more than all preee|)ts to cure us of those mistakes oriLxiiiating in sidf- love, and national partiality, lie who knows no olln'r country than his own, easily iiersuades him- self that tlu' government, manners, and opinions of the little corner of the earth which he inhabits, are the only ones consistent with reason and pro- priety. Self-love, so natural to man, cherishes this Jirejudice, and makes liim disdain all otlier nations. It is only by an extensive aeipiaintanee with his- tory, and by familiarizing oiuselv.'s with tin- iiisti- tulioiis, customs, and habits of diU'erent au'es, and of dillerenl counlriis, that we learn to esteem wisdom and virtue, and to acknow le(l.;e t:ilents wliere\er they exist. IJesidcs, v.lien we observe, that, though revolutions are continually ehaiiLring the face of kingdoms, nothing essentially new ever liapjiens in the world, we cease to be longer the slaves of that extravagant admiration, and that 11 L I 3 I'si' f)f Ui-tiirv. I ubiic U.v.,n"U Numisni;it;i. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. (Ji'ojirapliy. ('liiiimpli)i;y. (tl'tlt'illo^lcs. kin«i,'i'aiihy. It'liraica (Jt'oirrji )(fra] i'i'i'(lulou-i ;isl()nishni('iit wliicli is ifcucnilly the clKiriictiTistif III' iijiiiiiMiK'i', (ir the mark ot'ii t'ccliU' iiiiiiil. The iiiosf iiii|i()it;int ;ittriluiti' ot" liisfory is tnitii, !>ii(l ill onlcr to tiiiil tliis out, it is in fcssarj to (>x- ■.niiiiic the iiiiitciiiils which scrvi' iis the I'lfiiicuts ;ni(l cviilciK'cs of lii-iloiy, liy tlic test of soiinil I'lili- cism. 'I'liisc niatiiiiils arc of two kinds : 1. I'lih- lie Acl.s (Dili Jiccords, such as nic(hils, inscriptions, treaties, charters, oilieial paper-i ; and in ijcneral, all niilinu's drawn uj) or inihlished hy tile esta- hlislied authorities. \l. Priviitc irritii's, yW.. au- thors of histories, of chroiiieles, inenioirs, letters, vVc. These writers are eitiior c(nitiMii|)orary, or sui'li as live remote from the limes of wliicii they write. Puhlie acts and odicial records arc the stroiiy;- ost evidences we can ])cissilily have of historical truth ; but as, in dill'ereiit a;j;es, there have lieen fii- hriealors of pretended acts and writiliijs, it l)ceoines necessary, before inakinir use of any ))ublic docu- ment, to 1)0 assured that it is neither spurious nor falsilie beyond others, it is neeessarj to oxamiiio the s|)irif and charactiM- of each, as well as the circumstances in whiih they are placed at the time of writiiifr. lleiieo it follow s—Tlitit wo (uijfht to distrust an historian who is delicieiit ill critical diiceriimelit, who is fond of fables, or \\ ho scniplos not, in order to jiloase and amuse his readers, to alter or disjruiso tlio liuth : That as imjiartiality is an essential (piality in an historian, wo must always bo on our jju;, aijaiust writers who allow their minds to he wari , aside liy the prejudices of their nation, their piii' or their jirofossion ; for, in order to bo im|iaii the historian must form his judiinieiit on aili. Ilioinsehos, withmit roj^ard to the actors: 1: historians who have had a ])ersonal concern in' transactions, or hi on oyc-witnessos of the in,: tliey describe, or who, writinir liy the iiermissim, autliority of i;overnmeiit, have had free aecisN national archives and public libraries, oiiirht alu to be preferred to those who have not enjoyeil' same advantaijes : 'I'hat amoiii; modern histori, he who has written last often deserves more i tidence than those who have liandled tlie \ subject before him ; inasmuch as he has had i- his power to olitain more exact informatinu, avoid all jiarty spirit, and rectify the errors of predecessors. Tlieri> are several auxiliary sciences which r bo said to constituto the very fouiidalimi el'!, fory ; and anioiii]; those, i;ooi;rapliy, ^one;i!.. and chrmioloijy, hold the lirsl rank. In tnilh. fact can ho fully ostalilished, nor can any nan • jiossoss interest, unless the circumstances rrl:i: to the times anil places in which the events I. ha])poned, as well as to the persons who have l eoncernod in them, be jireviously made known,: distinctly oxplained. If is obvious, therefore,' };ooii;raphy, pienoalofiy, and chronolosiy, an faithful intoriiroters and inseparable coinpaniiiij history. (Joo(;rnpliy may he divided into the niathi'ii oal, the iihysical, and the jiolitical ; aceordii:., the diirerent objects vvbieli it embraces. .M ■ inatical ffcotfraphy regards the earth, coiisidei a measurable body. I'hysieal ■jooijraphy hast' object to examine the natural or physical sir of the earth ; while |)olitical (j:eonra))hy ilhrli] the ditrerent divisions of the earth which men invented, such as kinijdoins, states, and prini' This science is also divided, relativoly to tlir H of which it treats, into ancient, iniddlo-au''. modern ij:eoi;raphy. Ancient iroojiraphy !'• which ox]ilaius the primitive state of the w and its ])olitieal divisions ])rior to the subver>ii the Roman Empire in the west. \\\ the l'i' phy of the middle afros, is understood that »t| acipiaints us with the political state of the iia who liijurod in history from the tlflli conluiy II end of the lirt(>eiilh, or the boninniiiff of tlii teontli. Modern !?eoi(raphy represents to u- state of the world and its political division-, the sixteenth century to the present time. Antiipiity has liandod down to us the wmil several very eminent freo;;raidiors, the mo'^t ' hratod of whom are Strabo, I'tolemy, Toin]i Mela, I'ausanias, and Stojihanus of U_\z;uitl Amonj; the moderns who have lahouroil in department of fieoirrajihy, those more ])arliir< desorviiifi; of notice, uro Cuvior, Collariiis, B D'Anvillo, (iossoliii, Mannert, and I'kort. The t,'eo),napliy of the middle ajros is but known ; and remains yet a sort of desert wliii maiids cultivation. There does not exist a ■ ({eojrra]iliieal work vvbieli f;ivos a correct rein tation of that now order of things, which tlnj man nations introilue<'d into Eurojio afli: downfall of the Uoman Empire in the tiflii I'l's The literati of France and Goniiaiiv have ili I 1.1 rays of ligli Ions ; but no ill:; (li.irouirhl )i' modi rii aut restorer of >; luster, a Cioriri on eiismog: [I'ciilh century liceii aiiioiiM My since tin find iMcrcator blier, are well Iks which they liiiong the nui pliers are to piiii, D'Auvill ilie, Montolli III, ^:c. Deli; jrajiiiy to the [itiiin. lUiscli Jiaphy, which liiaices, and lia rovciiienis, es ticli translatori lin, ])uhlished : Isiientilic form I was diirini,' tl !my tliat fiiif more jiartic Hes of tlic mos |])riiicipal stall liiLT from the Jicers and gee Imieii, to pub tile charls and d as tlic thoati] sniiected witii )islics, or III,- eciiiioniy of IJotero, ahoi Wi'w tile fil> M'lii'uiar sciei ^■:i|'li.V. Till tops of the Mies into the f< and fravo inowii,-' It ^e of tlie oiyi if Europe Ice, whicii bor and constituti Miii'ial polity. !m:ai.oi;v, or >ii and descci iiiiporlant to •iipliy. If t( li'iiicipa! chara part on the "s clear and •lii|) that sul iivostigati- tl: lotive claims o je study of t rcount of the f.V in wliich tl is i.l\elo[ Jvcn hirth to all to pieces )y the liirjil ;uisli eortaint (i('ii!;raiihy. Clniiiii)liii;y. (il'lU'llloKU'S. lie on our (.'u;, liiids to bi' \v;iii , r.itioii, tlu'ii' |i;ii- ■ V to !)(• iiiiliiui; liiiiu'Ut (111 :i(Mi> the actovs : 1; mill concern iii' sscs of the cNi; V tlic ])crniis'ii()i, I'lnd iVcu •.icc'r~. ■iirifs, oiijjlit ;ilu vi> not cnjoycil' uioilci'u histiiri, ll'SCVVCS UIOIC I hiindlcil the •■; as he lias hail i: id iiit'onnatii)ii, fy the ci Tors of icionres which i: tbuiulaliou (it! inraiiliy, fienenk rank. ' In tnilli, M- can any nan r eunistaiu'cs ri'l;i! ich the events I sons who have I* ily made known, \, ions, thei'et'ori', ' •hionolosry, an irahle conipanini/ into tho niatlm itieal ; accordii.. enihraccs. .M earth, considci <>ooiji"ai)hy has I or physical stni •|| )feo;rra])hy illu^trf ■arth which nwii' states, and prini' •elativcly to thi' t-t ent, niiddle-ai;.' It ireofiraphy is I' state of the wl )r to tho suhver-i ( •est. Hy the 1:1' nilerstood that vi al state of the 111 he fifth cent HI yi hejiiiiniuK of tin represents to ii-J ilitical division-. present time, vn to us the «ii pheis, the nio'^t , Ptolemy, Tomi- ihanus of H\z;i»iJ have hihonred iii( hose more parlii'''| Livier, Cellarius, 11' ■vt, and likcrt. iddle a^'es is but sort of desert wliii does not exist ii ■ i\es a correct voiiifj things, which tin' into Europe atb: )ii-o in the lift li i'''l German V have n()!,'r!i|iliy. •liniU'u (ii! lograplu'rii. INTRO UUCTION. iti^ta'!!. U('iiealui;istij. Difliciiltitwol' Cliro- uolou'v. «e ravs of lij^lit on ceitain jiarts of these obseui'i; iiiiis ; hut no nation in Kuiope can yet boast of liny- lli.iroilu'lily cxjilored llieiu, f modi rii authors, too, the most conspicuous as restorer of jieoiirapliical science, is Sebastian ister, a (jcrmaii, who |niblislied a vohmiiuous < on cosinof,aapliy, towards the middle of the entli cciitniy. The l''ieiiiin','s and the Dutch been amoiiLf the earliest cultivators of f,a'"" liy since the revival of letters. Ortelius, nil iSleicator, Varenius, Jaiisun, lib an, and ler, arc well known by the maps and learned s which they have produced, moll),' tile number of celebrated I'rencli geo- hcrs are to be reckoned Sanson, Delisle, iui, D'Anvillc ; ami mori; recently Zannoui, ■he, Meiifclle, Barbie du HocaLre, Malle- 1, masterpieces of their hr charts and plans of the countries that had d as the theatre of hostilities. imccled with f5eof,'raph\ is the science of slics, or till- study of the conslitution and po- 1 economy of states. Two Italians, Sansovino liotero, about the end of the sixteenth cen- weri' the first that attempted to treat this as rlicular science, separate and distinct from ajiliy. 'J'he (ierinans followed nciirly in the Iteps of the Italian writers ; tliey introduced tics into their l^niversitics as a branch of I and pave it also the name by which it is iiown.- It was chielly, however, diniui; the ■ of the eiu;hteeiitii century tliat thi' pivern- ; of lairojie eiicouraifed the study of this new |ce, which borrows its illustrations from bis- md constitutes at present an essential branch ktiiinal polity. SM.Ai.or.v, or the science which treats of the ti and descent of illustrious families, is not important to the knowle(li,'e of history than rajiliy. It teaches us to know and distiii!,niish Iriiicipal characiers that have acted a coiisiii- part on the theatre of the world ; aiilier» maintained that tho world was eternal. Ocellus Lucanuf), .1 11 2 Ane i>( the Woilil. Mosps, AslroiKimv. KOCirS REVOLUTIONS. fiivtjciriim CaU'iidiir, lU'lcirintMl ('iilciiclir. Greek i)liili)so])hpr of the Pytlmsoreau seet, at- tempted to ])r()ve tluM liypotlu'sis, in a treatise en- titled /Jo I'nircrno, wliieli the .Maniuis D'Arfjeus and tlie Al)be Batteux Iiave transhited into Freneh, Arintotle followed in the ibotstips of Oeellus. Ilia opinion as to the eternity of the universe is de- tailed at length in his commentaries on Physics. Some modern pliilosophers, as Uuti'on, Hamil- ton, Doloniieu, Sanssure, l"'anjas de St. Fond, &c. have assigned to our globe au existence long an- terior to the ages when history commences. Tlieir reasoning they support hy the conformation of the globe itself, as well as the time that must have ne- cessarily elapsed before the earth, in tlie progres- sive o|)erations of nature, could bo rendered a suitable habitation for man. The most ancient account tliat we have of the origin of the world, and of the human race is de- rived from Moses. Tliis leader and lawgiver of the Jewish nation lived about loOU years before Christ ; and nearly 1000 before Herodotus, the most ancient proiane author whose works have been handed down to our times. According to Moses and the Jewish annals, the history of the human race does not yet comprehend a period of six thousand years. This account seems to be in ojjposition to that of several ancient nations, such as the Kgyptians, Indians, Chaldeans, Thibetians, and Chinese, who carry back their cln-onology to a very remote date, and far beyond wliat Moses has assigned to the human race. But it is sutlicient at present to remark, that this high antiquity, which vanity has led these nations to aiU pt as a reality, is either altogether imaginary, or i)urety mythological, founded on a symbolical theology, whose mysteries and allegories have been but little vmderstood. This primeval epoch is usually tilled with gods and demigods, who are alleged to have rei'Tued over these nations for so many myriads of years. Traditions so fabidous and chimerical will never destroy the authenticity of Moses,, who indepen- dently of his nativity, and the remote age in which he lived, merits implicit credit from tlie simplicity of his narrative, and from the circumstance, that there has never yet been discovered on the surt'ace or in the interu'.d structure of tiie earth, any or- ganic evidence or work of human art, that can lead us to believe that the history of tiie world, or more properly s])eaking, of the human race, is anteredent to the age which the Jewish legislator has assigned it. With regard to the division of time, a consider- able period must, no doubt, have elapsed before men began to reckon by years, calculated accord- ing to astrononucal observations. Two sorts or forms of computation have been successively in use among different nations. Some have enijiloyed solar years, calculated by the annual course of the sun ; others have mie'e use of lunar years, calcu- lated liy the |)eri()(lical revolutions of the moon. All Christian nations of tiie jiresent dtiy adojit the solar year ; while the lunar calculation is that fol- lowed by the Mahometans. The solar year con- sists of ;i'().") davs, ") hours, 4H', 4.')'', :il)"' ; "the lunar year, of :».)4 days, 3 hours, 4K', :}S", 12"'. The invenlioii, or more projierly speaking, the calculation of the solar year, is due to the ancient lUyptiaiis, who, by the position of their country, as well as by the periodical ovcrHowings and eb- biiigs of the Nile, had early and obvious iiuhio nieiits for making astronomical observations. I solar year has undergone, in ]irocess of time, \ rious corrections and deiioniinations. The ni< remarkable of these are indicated by the distii. tions, still in use, of the Julian, the Gregori:. and the Reformed year. Julius Cicsar introduced into the Roman eni|i. the solar or Egyjitiaii year, which took, from In; the name of the Julian year. This he substitu; instead of the lunar year, which the Romans I, used before his time. It was distinguished, account of a slight variation in the reckoning, i; the common and bissextile or leap year. 1 common Julian year consisted of 'M>i> days ; :.: the bissextile, which returned every four year-, ;i(!(> days. This computation was faulty, inasm; as it allowed 'Miii days, and (> entire hours, dtv annual revolution of the sun ; being an i\ every year, of 11', 14", 30'", beyond the true ti:. This, in a long course of ages, had amounted several days; and liegan, at length, to derangi'i order of the seasons. Pope (iregory XIII.,' wishing to correct ; error, employed an able mathematician, nan Louis Lilio, to reform the Julian year accon! to the true annual course of the sun. A new lendar was drawn up, which was called after ■ name of that pontiff, the (iregorian calendar; - as, in conse(iuence of the incorrectness oC Julian era, the civil year had gained fen day, same Pope ordered, by a bull published in I'i' that these shoulu be exiiunged from the caliii;. so that, instead of the Titli of October 13S'.', l should reckon it the loth. The Catholic States adopted tills new calf! without the least dilHculty ; but the Proti-i in tlie Kmpire, and the rest of l'Airo])P, as al-.i Russians and the Greeks, adhered to the .In year ; ,an\ hence the distinction between tln' and ne,v style, to which it is necessary to jiii} tentiou in all ])ublie acts and writings siiin year l.")S2 of the Christian era. The ditlVn between the old and new style, which, until I' was only ten days, and eleven from tliecomiiic! ment of 1700, must be reckoneil twelve o during the present century of ISOO; so thai 1st of January of the old year, answers to the 1 of the new. The Riformcd year or Calendar, as it is ca is dist'iict from the (iregorian, and applies !< calcul'.'.tioii of the year, which was made by a: lessor at Jena, named Weigel. It differs iVoii: Gregorian year, as to the method of eaUuk the time of F.aster, and the other moveable I' of the Christian churches. The Protestant Germany, Holland, Denmark and Swit/tii adojited this lu-w calendar in 1700. Thiii ample was followed in 17.J2 by Great Britain; in I7.");i, by Sweden; but since the year 17'i' I'rotestants of (iermany, Switzerland and Mnli abandoned the reformed calendar, and adopti ' (Jregorian; and there is, jiroperly sjieakiiis nation in Ikirope at this day, except the Uii^ anil the Greeks, which makes use of the J calendar, or old style.'' But it is not merely the variations that have vailed as to the form and computation of llu' that have ]ierf)lexed the science of chroiiol the ditlerent methods of commencing it havi lOKoriivn CaU'iuliir, ii\i:in Yi'^ir. .eloniu'il IJiili'iiilir. lul obvious inihii observations. 1 H'ocess of tiiiic, \ iiitioiis. The 111' iitcd by tlio distil. liaii, tlie Gregoii ) tbc Roman vmy lich took, from h Tins he 8ubstil\r licli tiie lloIn:\Il^ as (listinguishoil, 1 the reckoniui:, ii or leap year. 1 d of Ht55 days ; :.: every four yeiii-. was faulty, iuasin entire hours, fur: n ; beini; an fv beyond the true Ii:. es,' had amounted ength, to derange: ishing to correet : lathematician, n;ui Julian year aecon! : the sun. A new was called after ' 'gorian calendar ; incorrectness ol' il gained ten days ill ])vd)lished in 1' ;ed from the caleii'i of October 15S'.', l mmciiri'ment of Year, niid New Style. liTii t;iir()iiolou'ists. IXTRODUCTIOX. Tlie Christian Era. Seriptural Dates. Miiiiiluiie lira. ited this new cale,. ; but the I'r.ite-i of Europe, as al-H adhered to the h\. ction between the is necessary to \y.k and writings sine, 11 era. The dillVr ityle, which, until 1' ■I'n from the commc! reckoned twelve ■.. y of ISOO; so tlial ^ar, answers to the 1 Calendar, as it is ca rian, and applies!" lich was made by :i : gel. It dill'ers fioii. ■"method of caleuls he other moveable f, s. The rrotestaiil mark and Swit/eri u- in 1700. Tlieir i2 by Great Britain; since the year In'' Switzerland and l'"'' •alendar, and adopt'' , properly spoakiii!.'. day, except the Ui^ makes use of th ? variations that havf computation of tlie; . science of chroiiol commencing n the source of much confusion. The Romans, ni tiie time of Julius C'tcsar, began tlio year the Hrst of Januiiry. The ancient Greeks at ,t reckoned from the winter solstice, and after- nls from midsummer ; the Syro-^Macedonians Seleucida', commenced from tiie autumnal etjui- ngx. The sacred year of the Jews began with tie iiist new moon after the vernal equinox, that i^iii the month of iMarcli ; and their civil year lligaii with the new moon immediately following autamnal equinox, tliat is, in the month of temher. Ayriie same diversity of pn.etice which we observe long the ancients existed also in the middle , The Franks, under the Merovingian kings, u the year witli the montii of Maieli. Tlie KS began it sometimes at Christmas, or the 1 of Uecember ; sometimes on the 1st of nary ; and sometimes on the 2.')th of March, ed indiscriminately tlie day of the Annuncia- , or Incarnation. Under the Carlovingian ces, two methods of beginning the year were erally prevalent in France, — the one fixed its inencement at (Christmas, or the 2.)th of De- ber, and the other at F.aster ; that is, at the on which that moveable feast hai)pened to This latter custom prevailed also under the etian kings, and it was not sujipressed until r the middle of the sixteenth century. Charles , by an edict published in l')(>4, ordeied, that ['"ranee the year should lienceforth commence lie 1st of January. Previously to this edict, iiietimcs happened, from the varialde date of ter, that the same month was found to occur :e iu one and the same year. For example, year 1358 having begun on the 1st of Ajiril, liich F.aster day happened to fall, did not ter- ate until the 20th of April following, that is, he eve preceding Easter. There were eonse- itly iu this year nearly two complete montlis pril. Since the reign of Charles IX., it has inued the invariable practice in France to he- he year on the 1st of January. England the year used to commence on the of March, and the old style was there oh- d until 17r)3; when, by virtue of an act of i\ment, passed in llo'i, the beginning of the was transferred to the 1st of January. It decreed also, at the same time, that, in order L'commodate the English chronology to the style, the Hd of Sei)tember 1752 should be ned the 14tli of the same month. is easy to conceive the perplexity and con- that must have been introduced into ehro- y, as much by the ditTerencc of styles as by iifferent methods of commencing the year, ing is more probable, than that we should find mistakes and contradictions wliich, in y, have no existence ; and the nmre so, as the rs or recorders of public acts, who employ different styles, or date the beginning of the variously, never give us any intimation on the ct ; and all reckon promiscuously from the of Christ's nativity, without informing us iher they follow the old or the new style — er they commence the year in the month uary or March, at Easter or at Christmas, dern chronologists have foimd much emhar- ent in calculating the number of years that it havt'^Bed between the creation and the birth of Christ. Father Petau, one of the most leiirned men in this sci( nee, admits that this jioiiit of chro- nology is to be establislied rather by jiioliulile con- jectures than solid arguments. There lune even been reckoned, accoiding to Fabricius, about a hundred and forty diil'ereiitoi>iiii(iiis resjiecting the ciioch of Christ's nali\ ity. Some fi\ this era in the year of the world litiKi, while others carry it back (o the year (>4S4. This great discordance of opinions arises from the contradictions Idiind to exist between tlie three principal texts of tlie Old Testament. The Hebrew text, for instance, to which most chronologists give the ))referenco, Hxcs the deluge in the year of the world 1G5() ; while, according to the Samaritan text, it hapiiened in 11307 ; and, according to the Septuagiut, in 2242. The system at present most accredited is that of Archbishop lisher, an Irish prehite, who, founding his (!alculation on the Hebrew text, fixes the date of Christ's nativity in the year of the world 4000. A variety of epochs pro\ ailed at different times ; as most nations, both ancient and modern, who had governments and laws of their own, adopted chronological eras that were peculiar to tliem- selves. The ancient tireeks had their Olympiads, and the Syro-Macedonians the era of tlie Seleu- cida'. Th(! Romans calculated by consulships, which became the era of their public acts ; and besides these, their historians used to reckon from the foundation of the city, which goes back 752 years before Christ, or ;t24!) after the creation. The era of Dioclesian, introduced in bonom- of that emperor, and sometimes also called tiie era of the martyrs, began in the year 284 alter Christ, and was for a long time used in the AVest. Hut, without stopping here to enumerate the different eras of antiquity, we shall rather restrict ourselves at present to the jiointing out of those that belong more properly to modern history, viz. 1. The era of the modern Greeks. 2. Of the modern Jews. 3. Of the Spaniards. 4. The Hegira, or Maho- metan era. 5. The Dionysian, or Christian ^ra. The era of the rn'.i.lern Greeks is known by the name of the Mundane era of Constantinople. It begins 5508 years before the birth of Christ. The first yv ar of the incarnation thus falls in the year of the world 5500 ; and, consequently, the year 1823 of tlie Christian era answers to the year 7331 of the Mundane era of Constantinople. Under this system, two kinds of years are in use, the civil and the ecclesiastical. The former commences with the month of September, the other has begun sometimes on the 21st of March, and sometimes on the 1st of April. This era is followed, even at this day, by the Greek church. The Russians, who adopted it from the (Jreeks, along with the Christian religion, made use of it even in their civil acts, until the reign of Peter the Great. That emperor, in 1700, abolished the Mundane era of Constaiitinoph>, and substituted in its place the Christian era, and the Julian calendar or old style. The modern Jews iiave likewise a mundane era ; as they reckon from the creation of the world. It commences on the 7th of October of the Julian year, and reckons 3701 years before Christ. The year 37C2 of the world is the first of the Christian era, according to the Jews ; and the year 1823 answers to the year 5583 of their mun- dane era. The Hi'sitii. Vu!i(ar ICra. .Iiiliaii Puriocl. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Solar mid Lunar Cjcliv (IjcU- (if IiKlictioiis, KiistiT. Kcrle.siiUttiral Hi p'liiiiTsal llistor file Miilillu Ai,'ca In Spain, the rra l)(\!;aii with tlio year of Ronio 714, !iM joai's bcibri' thi' birth of Christ ; hfiiif,' the time when the triunivirate was renewed l)etween Ciusar Oetavianus, 3Iark Antony, and Le])idus. 'i'he S])aniiir(ls, wishiim to pve Oetavianus some testimony of their satisfaction on heini; eompre- luMuh'd within his iirovinee, lieijan a new era with tliis e\ent,'* wliieh |)revaih'd not only in Spain and I'ortuiral, hut also in Africa, anil those jnirts of France Avhicli were suhject t(, the dominion of the Nisiiroths. It is of ureat im])ortanee to know that the Spaniards and l'ortui;ucse constantly eni- plou'd tins era in their annals and i)uhlic acts, so jate as the 11th an, and ended on llic 7th of the follow- inir September. l)iou_\sius, or Denys the Little, a Roman Abbe, wiio lived in the timi^ of the l^mperor Justinian, about the year of ("hrist ."iIU), was the author of the vuli^ar ei'a, which afterwards received a more perfect tbrm from the hands of the venerable liede, an F.n<;lish monk, about the year 720. Before that time, the Latins, or Christians of the AVest, employed thi^ era of the Consuls, or thiit of l)io- elesian. Denys tlu^ Little, imaf^inini; it would be more convenient for the Christians to reckon their time from the birth of (hrist, a|)plied himself with iireat industry to calculate the number of years that had (dajised from the Incarnation to his own times. ^Modern chronoloirists have remarked, that, both Denys anit a difrerence of opinion prevails on this suhject, as may be seen in the learned work of Fabricius. There are some of these chronolo- irists who date the birth of Christ thirty-four years earlier, wliile others find a diilerenee of Imt oni^ vear, or at most four, between the trui^ epoch of the nativity, and that adojited by Denys. This disa!,'reement of the modern chronoloijists has ijiven rise to the ilistinction between the fnic era of the birth of (,'hrist, and the I'ldijar or Dioni/siaii era, which the general usage has now consecrateil and established. In France, this era was not introduced until the (-ii;hth century. We tind it em))loyed, for tin- tirst fiTue, in the acts of the (.,'ouneils of Oerniany, Liptines, and Soissons, ludd in the years 7-!'i-;{-4, under I'epin, surnamed the Short. Tiie K Uijs of l''ranc(> never used if in their ])\d)lio acts, until the end of the ninth century; and the I'opes . ..i^ since the eleventh. In order to compare the different eras, and to facilitate the ])rocess of reducing th(! years of one into those of another, a schemi^ has been jirojiosed called th(^ .lulian perioil. 'I'he invenlicni of this is due to .Foseph Scali'ier, a ])rofessor at lieyden, and \V(dI known by his chronological works, lie gave it tiie name of Julian, because the Julian year served as tlie basis of it. It is composed of the several products of the rycles of the sun, the nin; and the indictions multiplied by each other. The ri/r/i' of the sun is a period, or revulir, of twenty-eight solar years ; at the en,: days. The cycle, of the moon comprises nineteen li; years, twelve of which are called comnuin, ami remaining seven intercalary; these yield a pimi of (lOH!) days IS Inuirs, aceo'ding to tlu' calcul;;' of the ancients;" and are icpial to nineteen .hili:: solar years. 15y means of this cycle always m I'ing, the new moons fall again on the same li, and the san.e Hours on which they had lia|i|ii: nineteen years before ; so that, for all \\\r i moons, the cycle which is to conu' is enlircl) ndlar to tht^ jireceding. The cipher winch i eates the year of the cycle is called the lo_v(il to leark the times of the new moons. 'i'he cj/clc if inilictiuns is a cycle which ir every tiftcen years ; and which, like those aln mentioned, was frccpiently employed in chir ansarean inilir; ; the us(! of which was limited to the AVist, whi( h began on the 2.')th of Se])tember; ':i ■i. the Roman or I'ontifical indiction, whieli Fopes eni])loyed in their b\dls. This last 1): on the 2r)th of December, or the 1st of Jiuii according as the one or the other of the^r ' was reckoned by the Ronnins the tirst of tin' : year. The cycle of the sun, comprising twenty- years, and that of the moon niiu'teen, when il plied togethi'r, give a ])roduct of .');J2, which is r. the Faschid cycle, beeatise it serves to asccrliiii feast of Faster. The product of .")li2, multipli' 15, the cycle of indictions, amounts to the ini': 7i)S0, which constitutes the Jidian ])erio(l. \^ i in the compass of this period m, y be ])laci'il, J were, mnh-r one view, these dill'erent eras ;■ ejiochs, in order to compare and reconcile with each other ; adopting, as their common 1 1 the nativity of (Jhrist, fixed to the year 47 U ij Julian period. History has been divided, according lo tin' ferent subjects of which it treats, into Civil, 1. siastical, Ijiterary, and Philosoj)hical lli''l Civil and political history is occupied entirely events that relate to mankind, as distributed* leties, and u b, and nnmnc |(1 to tliose c\ On. Literary he origin, pr.i| I sciences. Li lit a branch u btrat(^s the difl flourished ii Bern times. Another divisi( is that of U Itory. I ' niver |ninniary of tli figured on tl he present lim ly general hit Its of the rev Iworld, whethe »ers, or of sevi farious and coi ' he u general lain, a general pnerid history r embraces, in i l)le, or provin hi. finally, in rcga Dry is ,srs iiiiK'trrn In I I'oninioii, mill i('si> vii'ld 11 prin; to tlu' rnlciil;:', - iiiiu'ti'cii.luli^ cycle :d\va\s n 1 on llie sunic lij lliey liad liaiiiu' : lit, ior all thi' ! come is entiicl} ci|>li(M' \viiicli i is called the ;/" vrite it in ciiaiu.' rs, where it \va- nen" moons. 1 cycle which r. , "like those iiin niiloyed in cliiir in of these iiuliil. rihntion or ccs^ e llonians, ami i: period. Thc\ li. • Great, that is, a' e distin}j;nis!u(l ;; instantinople, wi. Emperors, ami )er ; -'. that a^ Civsarean indii': ■d to the AVcsl, )t" Se])tend)er ; ; indiction, whi^h Is. This hist b: I- the 1st of Jam other of tlic-r ■■ the first of llic iprisini? twenty- nnefeen, when ii j of r);j2, which isi icrves to ascerliiii. \ of .")H'2,multiiilii Mounts to the 11": ' ulian ])eriod. ^^ 1 m. y ho placed, io diifer(lhcr division of history, according to its os.- tant, is that of Universal, Uenoral, and Particular Hlitdiy. Universal history gives a kind of outline Otjfnniiiiary "f the events of all the nations that hl^' liitured on the earth, from the remotest ages to^^ie present time. Iv general history, is understood that which Its Ol the revolutions that have hapi)ened in (world, v.hether of great states or confederate jrers, or of several nations combined together, rarious and complicated interests. Tims, there he a 'reneral history of France, or of Great tain, a general history of the United Provinces, eneral history of Europe, &c. Particular his- ' eiiihraces, in detail, the events of a particular pie, or province, or citv, or illustrious indi- d. [inally, in regard to the time of which it treats, 3ry is distinguished into Ancient and Modern, liiut of the -Middle Ages. Ancient history is if the nations who tloiirished from the time lie creation to the fifth century ; while the liis- of the middle ages has, for its object, the re- Itions that took place from the fifth to the end \\w Kfteenth century. What is now termed ■rn history, is tliat which retraces the events be last three centuries. [his division, which apjilies more particularly Jie history of Europe, is founded on the great llutions whicli this part of the world experi- td in the tiftli ami fifteenth centuries. T.'ie Jlution of the lifth century ended in the sub- ion of the lioman empire in the West, and lirth to the ])rincipal states in modern I'.u- ; wliile that ol" the fifteenth century, which its commencement from the destruction of [Eastern empire, brought along with it the re- of literature and the tine arts, and tlie reiio- |)n of civil society in Europe. Itliough ancient history does not enter i'\to the of the following work, nevertheless it uppear- iccessary to give here a brief sketch of it to jreader, with the view of connecting the order line, and the chain of the great events that occurre,t only a few scattered fragments of it in Porphj ry and Eusebins. It appears, therefore, that of tlie 4.)00 years that fall within the compass of ancient history, the tirst thirty centuries may, without inconvenience, be retrenched. Amidst the darkne-s of those ages, we discover nothing hut the germs of societies, governments, sciences, and arts. The Egyptians, the Israelites, the Pluenicians, the Assyrians, the IJabylonians, or Chaldeans, made then the most conspicuous figure among the nations of Asia and Africa. The Egyjitians and Chaldeans were the first who cultivated astronomy. Egyjit was lung the nursery of arts and sciences. The Phonieians, without any other guide than the stars, boldly traversed unknown seas, and gave a vast extent of intercourse to their commerce and navigation, 'j'hey founded many celebrated colonies, such as ('arthage in Africa, and .Malaga, and Ca I 3 ('iiiic|ui'-.ls(ii AlcxandiT. (iiccci- Siiliiiiu'd. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Kiii).M (if Itiinii' Ki'imlilic III' Id, Alll,'Ms1ll4. n1)out the jcar of the world ;14()!J. T)io Persian iiii])iri', wlii'U at its <;ii'iili>t licii^ht, iiiidi'r Diiriiis llystasj)cs, tcmiiinlii'iidi'il all that part of Asia Mliicli stictt'lu'N IVoiii till' Indus to llio ('as|iiaii Sia, and iVoni the iMixinc to tlio slioics of tlio Mfdilcnancan. I'-Lrypt in Al'riia, and 'I'liraci' in I'.nropc, well' sntiji'i'l to its laws. AttiT a dura- tion of iicailv two ci'lilurirs, it >\as tinally de- stiiiycd by thi' Macedonians in the year ;t(17'.'. Cireeee, wliieii was at first di\ideil into several petty kinu'donis, eliaiijri'd its condition towards the poniniencenient of the f'ointh millenary ; when its principal cities, till then miveined hy kin;js, fmined themselves into detaclu'd repulilics. An enthu- siasm for liheity spread o\er all (ireece, anil in- siiired every hosoni with the love of ij:lory. Jlili- tary braviMy, as well as arts, and talents of all kinds, were fostered and encoinaf;ed by public fianies, the jirineipal of which were the ()lynipi<'. 'J'wo cities, Athens and Laceda'tnon, fixed ujion themselves for a lime the eyes of all (Ireece. So- lon was the Icfiislator of the former, and liycur;;\is of the latter. 'I'o these two repnhiics all the rest fiiu'i'umhed, either as allies, or by ri^'ht of cou(|Mest. Athens lias ri'iiiliMcd herself immortal by the vic- tories which she (gained over the I'ersians, at the famous battle:; of Marathon, Salamis, and I'latii'a ; fouirht A. M. :!.">!•-', ;(.")•,'•,', and :i.v,':t. The ascendancy which these victin'ies jiroenred the Athenians o\er the rest of the (I reek slates, excited the Jealousy of the Laccda'inonians, and lieeanie the ])rinci)>al cause of the famous civil war which arose in ;)>')7'i. betueen these two re(mlilies, and which is known by the name of the I'elopon- nesianwar. 'Ihis was followed by various other ei\il ■\\ars ; and tiicse disasters conlributcd i;really to exliau-.t the Circeks, and to break that union which had been tlie Inic source of their prosperity and their irlory. I'hilip, Kin;,' of .Macedon, had the address to turn these unhappy ili\isiiins to bis own advantage, and soon made hiuiself master oi all (ireece. 'I'lii' battle of Clueninea, which be irained over the Athenians about the year of tlie world 3(J4(!, completed llu' eonrpiest of that coun- try. Alexander the Cireat, son of I'hilip, afterwards attacked the Persian empire, which he nllerly overthrew, in coiiMMpicnce of the three victories which he trained o\er Darius Codomanniis, the last of the Persian kings, at the jiassaire of the (iranicus in ;(()(iS, at Issiis in IKKl'.l, and near Arbela in illi"'-'. The monarchy founded by Alexander fell to ])ieees after bis death. I'rom its wreck were formed, anion;; i,Jiers, by three of bis generals, the three kinirdoms of INIacedon, Syria, and Kirypt ; all of which Avero conquered in succession by the llo- mans, a. m. Usa,"), 'Mi'M), and :W72. (ireece itself had been rcdncpd to a Roman province, after the famous sack of Corinth, and the destruclit)n of the Aclncan league, a. m. 3S.')U, or 114 years before Christ. Tiie empire of the Cheeks was succeeded by that of the llonians, which is distinguished from all its predecessors, not more by its extent and duration, than by the wisdom with which it was administered, tmd the fine monnments (d" all kinds which it has transmitted to jiosterity. The great- ness of this einjiire was not, however, the achieve- ment of a single coniiueror, but the work of ages. Its ])rosperity nuist be chiefly nseribed to the- mitive constitution of the Republic, which iiis] the IJomans with the lo\c of liberty, and the ^; of palriolisiu, -which animated tlu'iii to gliu\ perseM'rance, and taught them to despise il; ,, i and death. Their religion, likewise, ser\cil ])owerful eiiirine to restrain and direct the m tude, according to the views and designs cf governnient. The earlier part of the Roman history ii!:i\ i divided into three periods. The first of the - presents Rome under the go\ernnient of Ki;. from the to'ie of its foundation, about tlie \i:, the world ;!".'l!), to the expulsion id' Taripiin Proud, :.".d the establislunent of the RepiiMi ;M',Kt. 'I'be secoiul extends from the estahli>lii of the Republic, in the year of Rome '.'I."), l. first I'unie war, in the year of the City liiu, of the world ItTltS. The third commences i the first Punic war, and terminates at the li, of Aetium, which put an end to the l{e|)ul.: goverinnent, and re-established monarchy i;; Augustus, in the year of Rome 7'-';!. During the first of these periods, the Kun bad to sust .in incessant wars with their ncii;lil the ])etty states of Italy, They suhdiuil the v of that peninsula in course of the second pi and it was not till the third, that they i their arms beyond their own country, to cii. the greater portion of the then known world. . first two periods of the Rom. in history ari' iV, obscure and iiii' .rtain traditions. In those n: ages, the Romans paid no atleiition to tlu-i, of letters. Immersed entirely in the busim-.j war, they had no othi'r historical records ihiii, annals of their pontills, wliii b perished in lln- of Rome, at the time of its invasion by the d. in the year of the City lUl."). The most ancient of their hisloriims was l':i; Pictor, who wrote his Annals in tlie sixth ccir after the foundation of Rome, or about the tii; the s^couil Punic war. These Annals, in w I'abius bad consulted both tradition and In;. authors, are lost ; and we possess no infori:;.' on these (wo |)eriods of Roman history, i'\ ; what has been left us by Uionysius of ll;ih nassns, and Titus Livius, who both wrote iip reign of Augustus, and whose narratives . resemble a romance rather than a true histiin, The cultivation of letters and arts amnn. Romans did not, jiroperly speaking, coimi until the third period; and after they had lin; tercourse with civilized nations, as the (an nians and (ireeks. It was not until -IM } hi after the building of the city that they strui k first silver coinage ; and ten years afterwanN, eipiipped their first fleet against the Cartbau'ii ;il It is at this jieriod, also, that truth begins tu <: il iijion their history, and to occupy the pl;u' " fable and tradition. Resides their native h.-' rians, Titus Livins, Plorus, and Velleius I'lil : bis, several Cireek authors, as Polyhins, I'liil Appian of Alexandria, Dion Cassius, \i'. furnished useful memorials on this perioil. history of Polybins, especially, is a work ni highest merit. The statesman will there tint! sons on jiolitics and governnient, and the ho!J instructions in the art of war. t A long series of foreign wars put the liiiiij in possession of the Isles of the .Mediternii.| ■rtliaL'c ImiiiiiiIciI tiuir War<. tiniiin Tiiuniviril 11, Northern A piia, (ireece, 'I Miphralcs. T Idic of Ciirthai: Idccidcil the en iiiiiaiis. Irlhage was a ]is had foundr ^loilerii city of mil i:tO hel'o ^tiiui of their ri'iidcreil tin 'se anil their Icarrii'd their i ir its |irotect ' victorious, kirsfs along the plands of the .^ le allempts w 11 Dn of Sicily w ill a war \. ith Ireil years, Ron ■1 them the en llitil these two made each oil that the Cart coiKpieror. II lasted nearl; III riiiiis h\ the llir of Poly hills kiiaiis now rem jilour of that B, and all the li bed with the i lllis. The ilest year of '{on lime year that \ ■e fail of Ca pest of (iree occasinneil |ers and gin of the ilast jlished nation Scs they had Ital harhinge lof liberty in bt : powerful sections and isieii of the lishiiieiit of 111 |o triiiiij\irati toiisisted of ^as dissolved arose aiiiong iered Piiiirjicy !ar of Ronii uiiler the tit levation of f assassinate! SIS, at the hi [)f Rome ;iL |econd trinnivi i\, Casar Oct Inils of illustr 9, were at 111 |by order of t tth ilismiited jLepiilus of 1) ill the far iii(;< (if Hiinii'. '\mlili(' u( Kuir.i' scrilicd to tl»' ■ He, wliii'li iii>i ■ity, lllltl llir s tlll'lll lo ijlon to (lrsi>is(" (1:.:.. cwisc, st'i'M'il liirct till' 111 lul lU'sigus 111 nan liistmy iiiii;. u' tirst (if till - }J riMiu'ut (if Kii., 1, IlllOUt tl'.l' \r„ 1)11 of 'riii-(piiii I' llu' l{c|)ulili 11 till' (■>liilili>lu, t' Hoiiii' •Jl.'i. i( the City V.n\ (I (•llllllllflM TS 1 llUtc'S lit tllC li. to tilt' Ul'jUll' <1 MioiiarL'liv 1" V,':!. \ t riods, till' lii ' hjjI itli tlirir ni'iu-li! suliduid tlir V till' M'l'Olul |ll 1 , lliat tliry i':i roiiiitry, to ni. |i known wotlil. n liistiM-y iiiT I IS. In tlllisi' Ir: Iriitiiin to tlir ■• in till' Imsiiii- I'al vn'orils lliii: [ii'iislu'il ill ill' • Mision by tlii' (■ ^rlliiiL'i- V'chiihIi'iI. ,• \V,ir>. liiMiiiii 'riinmvir.ili's. INTRODICTIOX. Iti'in:in I'.miiiri'. TiliK, 'rriiinii. mill till' AiilKiiiiii's. vara put tlio llm if thi3 i\Lediteniiii| 1, NorfliPi-n Afrii'ii, Kj-'vpt, (iinil, lU.vrln, Ma- liii, tirri'ci', Tliraci', and all Asia, lis liir as '',ii|ilii-ati's. Till' drstiiutioli of tl'i' powi'lflll ilic of Cardial,'!' ^^as tlii' t;i-aiid ra^t of tin' ilii' (li'ciili'd llic I'liipiri' of till' woilil in favour of jiiuaiiM. illia?,'!' was a colony wliirli tlic aiii'irnt I'lit'- is had foinidi'd on tin' roast of AlVira, ni'ar null I'll rity of 'I'nnis, in tin- yi'ar of tlii' world lid i;iO hi'foiT till' lonndini; of Homi". In tioii of tlit'ii' inotlii'i' I'oinitiy, tlio Cailliiii.'i- iiiidi'ii'd tlii'nisi'lvrs famous by tlii'ii' lui'l- sc and tlii'ii' 'uaiinc. 'I'lic I'Xti'iit lo w liirli caiiicil tlii'ir I'oiniiirn'r, and llii' forre iict'i's- 'or its |)roti'ctioii, ri'iiilcicd tlirir anus rvcry- viclorious. 'I'licy gradually rxtrndi'd tlii'ir lists alon;,' tin' sliorrs of Africa, in Spain, and lands of till' .Mcditrrraiiran, (• alli'iiipts w liicli tlii'v had Jiiado to jrct iios- II of Sicily was the occasion of ciiihroilint; ill a war \, ith the KoiYlims. For nearly two red years, IJoiiie and Carthaire disputed be- I llieiii Ilie empire of the world; and it was ^tliilil these two miulily rivals had, iinire than made each oilier tremble for their indepeiid- ihat the Cartlia;;iiiiaiis yielded lo the yoke e ciiiiipieror. 'I'lieir capilal, after a siei^e lasted nearly three years, was completely II ruins by the famous Scipio .Kiiiiliaiiiis, the (.f l'ol\bius. No iiioiniiiient ol the Car- nans now remains to point out the ancient lour of that republic. 'I'lieir naliimal ar- , and all the lileraiy treasures they contained, I'll with the city, or were destroyed by the IIS. 'I'lie destiuclioli of Carlbaiie bappened \ear of !{oiin' (H)S, and of Ihe world o^.'ili, me year that witnessed the sack of Corinlh. ic fall of Carlliai;e, and more esp,'ciall\ ihe si of (ireece, K^ypt, and the Asiatic kiiif,'- occasioned a wonderful revolution in the .CIS and f;o\eriimeiit of the Uuiiians. 'Ihe of the I'.ast, the arts and iustilutimis of the shed nations, briuii,'lit them acquainted with sthey had never known, which soon proved tal harhinirers of vice. 'I'lieir patriotism and (of liberty insensibly declined, and became t : powerful and ambitious cilizeiis tomenled cctioiis and civil wars, which ended in the sicn of the republican jfovoniniL'iit, and the slmieiit of monarchy. o triumvirates appeared in siu'cessimi. 'I'he (insisted of I'ompey, Casar, and Crassiis, as dissolved in conseipience of the civil war rose aiuoii;^ till' triiimv irs. Ca-sar, liaviui; icrcd I'oiiriiey at the battle of I'harsalia, in ar of Uonie 701', bcciime master of the eni- iider the title of perpetual dictator. This levation of fortune be did not loiii;' enjoy ; assassinated in the senate by a band of coii- rs, at the head of whom was lirutus, in the f Uome 710, and 4"? befuro the birth of |ci'oii(l triunnirate was fonneil between iNIark i\, Casar Oclaviaiuis, and l,e])iilus. Many ^nds of illustrious Homans, and amoni; others were at this time proscribed, and ]nit to |by order of the triuiiivirs. Jealousy liaviin; Ktli disunited these new tyrants, Octavianiis (liCiiidiis of bis power, and defeated !Mark in the famous naval battle which took place near the promontory of Actiiini, in Ihe year of Itome 7'-;t. Antony liavini; heei, iissassiiiali'il in I'uy pi, iiumedialely afli r bis ib Ca'sar Oc- tavianiis berame sole master of the .pire, vvliich he afterwards ruled willi sovereign aulhorily under the name of Auuustns. At this time the Uoiiian empire comprehended the liiiesf countries of I'.uiope and Asia, willi l\Lrypt and all Ihe northern part of Africa. It vvas boiinded on the VM'sl by the lUiiiie and the Danube, and on the east by the Kupbrates. 'I'lie successors of Aumistus added the urealer part of liritain to the empire. Traiaii carried his viclori- oiis arms beyond the Danube ; be coiuiuered the Daciaiis, who inhabited those countries known at present under the name of iliiiit;aiy, 'I'ransy hania, .Moldavia, Walaebia, and Ilessarabia. In the I'.ast this prince cNteiided the limits of the empire be- yond the r.nphrates, having subdued .Mesopolamia, Assyria, Ariueiiia, Colcliis and Iberia (or (leor- gia); but the compiests of 'I'rajan were aban- doned by bis successors, iiiul the einnire again shrinik vvithin the bounds prescribed by Aiii;iistiis. This empire, wliieli extended from north lo south nearly six biiiidred leagues, and more than a thousand from easi to west, vi/. from the ','4'' to the .')()'^ of latitude, comprised a total of 1S0,000 sipiare leagues. The [loimlation, during its most lloiirisliing state, may lie estiiuated at abmit C.'0.00(),0()0,^a population which ciiiials that of modern I'.iinipe, with the exception of Creat liri- tain, Denmark, Sweden, Uussia, and Turkey. The government which bad been iiitroduceil was an absolute monarchy , only clothed with the forms (d" the ancieul republic. I nder the popular titles of consul, tribune of the people, general, grand poiitilt', censor, iVc, the |iriiice united in hiiieelf \\\\ the various attributes ot' supreme power. The seiiale indeed enjoyed extensive preroi;atives ; ihe legislalivc pov\ er, w liicli bad been reserved at lirst for the jicople, was after'.vards transferred to this body; but as the military were w holly sub- ordinate to the prince, and as he had also at bis command a numerous guard, it is easy to ]ierceive that the aiithorily of the senate was but precari- ous, and by no means a coniiteriioise to that of the prince. A government so constructed could not in»urp the well'are and happiness o( the |ieople, except under luances as linmane as Titus, as just and en- lighteneil as Trajan and the Antoiiines ; or so long as the forms introduced by Augustus should be respected. It could not tail to degenerate into ar- bitrary power, under tyrants such as Tiberius, C'aligula, Mero, and Domitian ; and the senate iiiiisl then have been but a servile inslriinieiit in the hands of the ]niiice, emidoyed by liiiii to faci- litate the means of satiating his passions and bis tyranny. The inaxinis of absiduto jiower soon became the fashionable and favoinite doctrine. Civilians be- gan to teach publicly that all the antbority of the senate and the people was transferred to the prince ; that he vvas superior to the laws ; that bis power extended to the lives and fortunes of the citi/eiis ; and that he might dispose of the state lis bis own patrimony. These encroachments of despotisiii, joined to the instabilily of the imperial throne, the decay of military discipline, the un- bridled licence of the troops, the einploying whole ('|>n^tlllltilll■. 10 Clirisliaiiily KstaWishcd. Ari'acliii8. ll>iii(iriiis. KOCH'S RliVOLUTIONS. Till! Niiiu IVriiiiU tri'iitiMl of ill tlii, History. lull (if till' Hum tiiiirc l>y Niirtlii ItlllllM. (•()i-|n of l)!irliiirianfi in tlieir wiirs, iiiiiRt nil be rcrk- oiuil iiMioii;; till' iiuuiIht of I'liuscs that liastuncd till' ilowiitiiU of flic Riiniaii I'liipirc. (-'oiistaiitiiic the (iivat was the tirst of thu I'lii- ju'iiirs that ciiihraci'd (,'liristiatiity, aiiil iiiadi' it the I'stalilislicd ri'li<;iou of tin' state in •VH. lie (juittcd till' city id' llonic, tlii' ancient rcsiileiiit' id' till' (Ui'siirs, and fixed his capital at Hy/.antiuiii, in liHO, which tooli from him the name of Con- stantinople. AnxioiiM to )novidi' for the security of his new capital, he stationed the tlowcr of his U'ljioiis in the J'.ast, disiiiantli'il the IVonticis on the Hliiiic and the Daniihe, and dispersed into the |iriivinios and towns the troo|)s who had lie'cto- foi'c encamped on the hordeis of these ^'reat livers. In this Avay he si'cincd the |)cace and tranquillity of the interior, and infused, for a time, a new vi- gour into the LjoM'rnmcnt ; hut he committed a j^rcat mistake in j,'ixiiifrthc lirst cxanipl ■ of mak- inj,' a I'oriual division of the stati' between his sons, williont re^rard to the principle of urity and iiidi- visiliility which his ])rcdccessi)rs ''.ad held sacred. It is true, this separation was ni.r of loiif; coiitinii- aiice ; hut it was renewed aft 'rwards hy 'I'heodo- sius the (ireat, who tinall\ di\(led the empire lic- twecii his two sons in the yar lilt.") ; Aicailiiis had the eastern, and Jlonorius the ■.'cstcrn part of the empire. This latter comprchei'.ded Italy, (jaul, liritain, Spain, IS'orthern Africa, Uhetia, Vindelicia, iS'oricmn, I'annonia, and lllyria. It was duriun: the rei;,'n of Honorius, and under the adiiiinistralioii of his minister Stilico, that the nu'iiioralile invasion of the harliarians hap|)eiied, which was followed shortly after liy (he destruc- tion of the Western Kmpire. It is with this i;reat event, which !;avp hirlli to a variety of new states and kini,'iloiiis, that the 'ol- lowim^ History of the Kcvolutioiis of Kurope com- mences. It is divided into nine sections or pe- riods of time, accordini; to the successive chaiifjes which the jiolitieal system of lAiiopi' ex]icrieiieed from the iiflh to the nincteenfh century. In Uu'Jir.st, which extends to the year HOO, the harbarians, who invaded the 'Western I'.mpire, formed new states in Spain, Ciaul, and Italy; and jiroduced a comiilete revolution in the i;ovcrn- ment, laws, manners, letters, and arts of j;uro|)e. It was duriiii,' this period that the Franks f^aincd the aseendancy over tiie other European nations ; that the Popes laid the f;rouiidwork of their secu- lar power ; that Mahomet founded a new religion in Asia, and an empire which extended through Africa into Spain. In the scriind jieriod, which extends from HOO to !)()2, a vast eiii|)ire was erected, and again dis- mcmhered, after enjoyin;; a short-lived splendour. l'"roni its wreck were formed new kini;doms, which have served as the basis for several states of mo- dern times. Others were established by the Nor- mans, liussians, and Hungarians, In the third iieriod, which terminates vvitli the y. ar 1072, (icrmany became the preponderating power, and began to decline, through the abuse of the feudal system. The House of Ca))et mounted the throne of 1' ranee ; and the iSorinans achieved the conquest of I'.ngland. Th(! Northern nations, converted to Cliristiauity, began to make some fiffure in history : thn moiiniThy of Uussia Ik. great and powerful ; w bile the Cireek eiii|iii that of the Honians, fell into decay. Dining the foiirt/i period, which ends \\\V year lltOO, the Woman rontiUs aciiuired :iii nieiise sway. This is also the epoch of the sailes, which had a powerful intlnence m, «• social and political state of the I'.uropean iiiii, 'I'he darkness of the middle ages began gr;ii! to disappear; the cstahlishmint of cominir and the enfranchisement of the serls, gavi' to new ideas of liberty. The itonian juii- ilciiee was restored from the neglect and iiM. into which it had fallen, and taught in the iii: sities : Italy was covered with a miiltitnile i; publics, and the kingdoms of the Two Hicilic, of I'ortugal were founded: The inquisitieii J estalilished in I'rance, and .Magna Cliarta in i land : The Moguls in the Kast raised, li\ conquests, a powerful and extensive eiiipiir. The ,fi/t/i period, 'vbicli ends at the taki: Constantinople by ilie Turks in I4.");i, wit., the decline of the I'l. liHcal jurisdiction : l.r . and si'icnce made Mi-ai" |irogress, and vaiinv [lortiint discoveries p.epared the wa\ ll- greater improvements : Commerce began In risli, and extend ils intercourse more wiillj I'',iiiopeaii states assumed their ])resent form ; n^ the Turks, an Asiatic race.M'stablished tluii minion in I'',iiro|ii'. The ni.rt/i ])eriod, from \4')'-i to Hils, i. eporli of the revi^al of the belles lettres, and tli arts ; and of the discovery of America : It i- tl'.'t nf till' Ui'formatioii of religion accoiii|i.. in (■"rmany ; the inlliience of \\liicli has i\|. over all the countries in the world. It un- wise I'.uring this period that Kuriipe was ili - by religious wars, which eventually miM iduiiged it again into a state of barbarism. ]ieaci' of Westjihalia became the basis of tin fical system of I'.urope. In the miHiilh iieriod, from l(i4H to I'bl. federal system was turned against Franee, « ])ower threatened to overturn the jiolitieal lia of I".urope. The ))eace of Utrecht set hem, the ambition of its aspiring monarchs, wliil of Olivii adjusted the contending claims ") North. The I''uropean states, delivered from the l of universal dominion, began to think tlu' blishment of it an impossibility; and losiii; ceit of the system of political equipoise, tin; stituted in its place maxims of iiijusliiv violence. The citjhlh period, wliicli comes down to is an epoch of weakni'ss and eorrnptioii, il which the doctrines of a libertine and impimii losophy led the way to tb.e downfall of tlirem the subversion of social order. [The consequences of this new jihilosopliv ns to the iihitli period, during which YAxmf almost entirely revolutionixed. The preset! tory terminates with the year 1K15, which a natural division in this revolutionary eiiiH'li final results of which can he known only to terity.] TIIF. IN liAll llliiman empi ly tending t vere exhaiii.fi til lay prostr: klreaily lost ii [of the gover I the animositi people, all a empire. 1 Btcd by luxury jiiians were ii l-iiiis swarms ( unacquainted iiid death, 1 I of the Imperi jeral of the I policy, had (oils of fiireig had assig pr provinces of ^cil, by way ( (iaul ; while tiiiia and In T and other 1 :imans, which \vY with the tliev em|iloy(j tiled the barb prey. Town niidals, the kcsin of tli!it I the downfa lie of these Itlis, the lUir Is, the Hum ■x, the Oslrog [nations, wit Df (iernian ori Nanhals, that part of en the lllbe Jell of the anc ans and the {liid under the id them, with |g against th fiie of Aureli in the Wos I'lvania, and bsed in thcsi led from (,'on pinoiiia, on to the Hon luiitil tliecoi jtlipy set on It was on t ^Ives with t Mount Cau( of which, of the Uoi iis far as Hdii cif ttic niiniim niiiic liy Notllicrii PERIOD I. A.D. 400—800. '>'• V;ini|HU. I IK' t-'niiikFt. PERIOD I. Tin; INVASION OF TIIK UOMAN KMIMUE IN TlIK MV.SV l\\ THK UAU- liAKIANS, TO TIIH TI.MH or {'IIAULKMACiNK, A.D. Km; S(M). lJIJiimisui ciiipirc liml, for iiiaiiv yciiis, l)rrii iilU tciidirii,' towards its dowiiliill. its I'licr- \(ri' cxliaiii.trd ; iiiid it rc(|uin'd no Krcat to lay pnistratc tliat niifaiitic power wliicli klnady lost its strnifitli and aitivity. 'I'lic [of IliV f;ovt'rniiH'iit, the relaxation of disci- I till' animosities of faction, and tlie miseries people, all aniionnced the ajiproaeiiinfr ruin empire. Divided liy nnitnal jealousies, ated liv luxury, and oppressed by despotism, amans were in no condition to withstand the rous swarms of barbarians from the North, imacipiainti'd with luxinj, and (lespisinj; \r and diath, bad learned to comiuer in the J of the Imperial armies. Icral of the l''.m|)erors, i;inded by » short- policy, had received into their ])ay entire Ions of foreigners ; and, to reci>ni))Clise their , had assipicd them settlements in the pr provinces of the empire. Thus the Franks by way of eoiu|)ensatioii, territories in (iaul ; winle similar trrants were made in bnia and mi 'I'hrace to the \'andals, Alans, and otbi'r barbarians. This liberality of umans, wliicli was a trne mark of \veakiiess, \vr with the vast numbers of t'.ese troops the\ employed ill their wars, at leii!,'tli uc- med the barbarians to rei^anl the (•ini)ire as prey. Towards the close of the year 4()(!, niidals, the Snevi, and the Alans, sounded bcsin of that famous invasiiui which ai-cele- [tiie downfall of tin; Western empire. The i)le of these nations was soon folhiwed by lln; Itlis, the liurgundians, the Alemanns,' the Is, the Huns, tlie An;;les, the Saxons, the Ih, the Ostrofioths, and the Lombards. All [nations, with the exception of the linns, af (iernian orif^in. Vandals, it appears, were oriijinally set- , that i)art of northern tierniany w hicli lies en the Klho and the Vistula. 'I'hey formed ^ch of the ancient Suevi, as did also the llnr- Biis and the Lombards. After the third cen- kiid under the reifrn of the Kmporor I'robus, Id them, with the Burirnndians, eiiLraijed in pn ajiainst the Honians on tlie Hhine. In liie of Aureliaii (272) they established tbem- in the Western part of Dacia, that is, in klvania, and a part of modern Hunu:ary. Bsed in these districts by the (ioths, they led from (Jonstantine thv^ (ireat settlements pinonia, on ,-ondifion of renderini; military to the llomana. They remained in I'an- luntil the cominencpment of the tiftli century, [thoy set out on their eniijjratiou towards It was on this occasion that they associated fives with the Alans, a people oriirinally "Mount Ciuieasns and ancient Scylhia; a of which, settled in Sarmatia near the of the IJorysthenes or Dnieper, had ad- as far as the Danube, and there made a formidable stand ai,'ainst the llomans. In their jiassaife tlircuif,'!) (lermany, the \ andals and the Alans joined a body of the Sucvi, who also in- habited the banks of the Danulx', eastward id' the |)owerful nation of the Ali'iiianns. Initeil in this rude confederacy, they entered (iaul, pluiideriii:; and (lestroyilifT wherever they went. Mayence, Worms, Spire, Slrasbouifr, and many tlourishiii;^ cities of (iaul, were pillayed by these barliarians. Till-; (iiiTlls,'' the most powerful of these de- structive nations, be^an to rise into notice in tlie tiiird century, after the time of the I'.mperor Caracalla. 'I'hey then inlmbited the country between the Vistula, tiie Dniester, the Horys- tbenes, and the Tanais or Don. It is not certain whether they were oriy^inally from tiiese rei,'ions, or whether, in more remote times, the_\ inhabiteil Scanditiavia, from which, accordiiii; to .rornaiules, a (iothie author, they emigrated at an early period. It is however certain that tliey were of lie rman ex- traction ; and that, in the third and fourth cinturies, they made the Ca'sars tremble on their thrones. 'I'he I'.niperor Aurelian was compelled (271) to abaiid(Ui the province of Dacia to their dominion. This luitioii, the lirst of the (jernian tribes that embraced tlu; Christian reliffioii,'* was divided, in their ancient settlements beyinid the Danube, into two principal branches. They who inhabited the districts towards the east and the I'.uxine Sea, between tlio Dniester, the IJorysthcnes, and the Tanais, were called Ostroixotbs ; the Visii;oths were the branch vvhich extended westward, and occupied ancient Dacia, and the res^'ions situated between the Dniester, the Danube, and the Vistula. At- tackt"d in these vast countries by the Ihuis ('Mi'i), some were snbjuf;ated, and others coinjiellcd to abandon their habitations. A part of the Visi- goths then tixi il their abo probably a confederacy which the (iermaii tribes, situated between tlie Rhine, the Maine, the Wes("r, and the KUie, had formed among theniselves, in order to maintain their liberty and independence against the Romans. Tacitus, who wrote about the commeneement of the second century, did not know them under this new name, which occurs for the first time in the histm-ians of the third century. Among the (ier- man tribes v\ ho composed this association we lind the Chaiici, the Sicambri, the Chaniavi, the Che- rusci, the Uructeri, the Catti, the Anipsivarii, t!ie llipuarii, the Salii, &ii,* These tribes, though coni- > 2 3 r.' Till' licriiiiiiis. Till' Ali'iiiiiiiiii. Till' riiiiM. KOCH'S REVOLITIONS. Tlii> l)Mri,'Uiiiliiin< Siii-\ i iiiMiili- (iiui) Altilii. Thi'iiilnrir Clini^. Vniiil.iN HIl'l ^ i"'" Uiitlii ill S|Kiiii. liliK'il lnr till' )iiir|in«rs of cnninion ilofi iici', uihIit till' nciicriil niiiiic III riiilik'., prrKri-vt'd, iii'M'itlii'- IcsH, r:irli tlicii' lavs :iii near liliiTs (T)!)"), and strippi'd them of all their pos- .>iiiiis ht'tween the Loire and the I'yrenees.'" iiiil lieeunu! thus, hy decrees, t' e uudispufed session of the Franks. The descendants of (ivis added to their conquests the kingdom of the uiitimilians (.>II4), whieli they totally overthrew. Tlii'se same princes increased their possessions the interior of Germany, hy the destruction of • piiwerful kini;dom of the Thurin^jiaiis (."):tl ), iiiprisin^; those vast countries between the Werra, Aller, the Kibe, the Saal, the Midda, and the iimlie ; and which are now known under the nil's iif Saxony, ThurinKia, Franconia, the I |i|i('r iiliitinate,' ' i&c. Tl'.is kingdom they divided with t'ir allies the Siixons, who obtained the northern liiiJIrtof it, situated between the Unstrut and the Saal. While the Visiy;oths, the Uurifundians, tiio ranks, and the Alemanns, were disputing' with finia icli other the eoiupicst of Ciaul, tlie Vandals, the iiovi, and tlie Alans, turned their ambitious views vmiils Sjiain. After havinjf settled some years (iiiiil, these tribes passed the Pyrenees (K)'.)) istahlish themselves in the must fertile re- niis of Spain. The Vandals seized Ho'tica, and lit of Uallicia ; the Suevi seized the rest of ii'ia ; while the Alans took jiossi'ssion of iisilania and the province of I'arthajjena. The !;iiis afterwards submitted to the sway of Cion- uoniMii Kin^,' of the Vandals (420), while the Suevi ire n i' ri'iili iriiai (lorii brill tiiiisi n th till': tierc laviu k III ig till iniiu r tl) !vera er a! tlici 1 ob jlain coril fotiis men olv SCt'l! Thi 1 thi lieving himself riiiiied in tbe esteem of that prince, invited I III' \ aniliiU over to Africa ; propi)>.ing to them the suireiidrr iif the pruvinris iiitnisled to his coniiiiaiid. (iensiric was al that time kiiii; of the NaiidaN, Tin' piepiinilerani e wliicii the N isi- goths had aci|uiri'il in Spain indiicid that girinre to accept the olier of the Koiiian (ieiieral ; he em* barked at the port iif Andalusia ( 127), and passed with the Vandals and the Alans into Africi. Meantime Itimifaci', ha\iiig niaiii' ii|i matters aiiiii'abl\ with the iiiipciial cinirl, wisliid to ri'trait the eiigageiiicnts which he had made with the ^ andals, Cienseric nevertheless persisted in his enterprise. lie carried on a long and olisliuat' war with the Romans; the result of which turned to the advantage of tiu' barbarians, (ieiiseric ciiii- (piered in siiccessioii all that |)ait of Africa per- taining to the Western empire, from the Straits of Cadiz as far as Cyiinaica, which was depenileiit on the empire of the I'.ast. He subdued likcwis ' the Balearic Isles, with Sardinia, Corsica, and a part of Sicily. The writers of that age who siieak of this in- vasion agree in painting, in tiie most UmIv cnlours, the horrors with which it was accoinpaiiied. it appears that Gcnsiric, whose whole siilijicts, in- cluding old men and slaves, did not t xceed eiirlity thousand persons, being resolved to maintain his authority by terror, caused, for this piu'iiose, a general massacre to be made of the ancient iii- baliitaiits of Africa. To these political scM'ritiis were added others on tiie score of riligibn ; being devoted with all his subjects to the Ariiin hen -y, lie as well as liis successors became the constant and implacable persecutors of the orthodox Christians. This prince signalized liiiiis.lf by ids maritiiiii' exploits, and hy the piracies which he eoiiiniilted on the coasts of Italy and the wiioli' lioinan iinpiri'. I'.iicouraired, as is KU]iposeil, by tlie I'.iiiprcss Kudiixia, who wished to aveiigi' the death of her husband \ alentiiiian III., he undertook an expiilition into Italy (4.).')), in which he made himself master of Koine. This city was pillaL;ed during tifteen days by the \ aiidals, spoiled of all its riches and its liiiest monuiiients. rnnunierable statues, ornaments of ti'iii|)les, and the gilded cupola of the teinph' of Jupiter Capitoliuus, were removed in order to be transported to Africa ; together with many thousands of illustrious cap- tives. A vessel laden w ith tlic most precious monu- ments of Rome perished in tiie passage. The dominion of the Vandals in Africa lasted about a hvuidred years. Their kingdom was de- stroyed by the Kmperor Justinian, who reunited Africa to the emiiire of the East. Ciiliiuer, the last king of the Vandals, was conquered by Belisarius (.");i4), ami conducted by him in friuniiih to Con- stantinople. UiiiTAiN, inaccessible by its situation to most of the invaders that overran the Western empire, was infested in the tifth century liy the nortliern in- habitants of that island — the free Britons, known by the name of Caledonians or Picts, and Scots. The Romans having withdrawn their legions from the island (410), to employ them in Gaul, the Britons, abandoned to their own strength, thought proper to elect a king of their own nation, named Vortigern ; but, finding themselves still too weak to resist the incursions of the Picts and Scots, ' M Aiiulu-Siixtiii.s. Tliu Ilciiliiicliy. KillLI lli;l)c"rt. KOCirs REVOLUTIONS. 'riii'uiUirie. .Iii>liiiiau anil lli'lisariJ Luinl)aril;i (Hiiiqucr lt,:1 ■svlu), lin'iikiiiLT ovpv tlip wall of Si'vcnus, ])illi\ijcil ami laid -waste tlir Koiuaii inovini'i', tlicy took till' iiiiprudcut ri'soiutioii ot" calliiin- in to thrir succouf tile AuLili's, Saxons, anil Jiitlaudi'i's, who wi'i\' already disliniridshed lor their niantinie ili- enisions. A body of these Anijlo-Saxons arri\ed in liritain (-t.")0) in the first year of the reii;n of the Knijieror -Marcian, under the eoniinand of Ilenyist and Horsa. Vroin lieinir friends and allies, thi'y soon beeanie enemies of the Hrilons ; and ended hy establishinir their own dominion in the islaned to have emigrated from the coasts of the IJaltic Sea, had been a|)i)roachiii;j: towards the Danube. They served as iuixiliaries to the Honiaiis in Italy, after the example of various other tribes of their coun- tivMien. lieinir resolved to usnr|) the domiMion (d' that country, they chose for their \<'\U)i Odoaccr, under whose conduct they seized Kaveiina and Uome, dethroned Itomulns Momvlhis Aus^nstulns, the last of the Homan em|)erors (47f)), and put an entire end to the empire of the ^Vest. The Heruls did not enjoy these cmicpiests more than s-M'iiteeu years, when tliej' were deprived of '.hem in their turn by the ()stro;,'oths. This nation then occujii.'il those extensive eonntries nil the right bank of the Danube, in I'aunonia, Illyria, and Thraco, within the limits of the KastiMii eni|)irp. 'J'liey had rendered themselves formidable to the llomans in that rpiarter by their fre(iuent incursions into the very lieart of the emjiire. The Kmjieror /eiio, in order to withdraw these dan;,'erous neiij:hbours from his frontiers, encouraged their king, Theodoric, as is alleged, to undertake the conquest of Italy from the Heruls. (ii'rmanii' Natimis. Sliivi.cir ShiMiiiiaiis. I'i'hi' ViMinli. This jirince imniedir.tely ])eiietrated into tlio cu try: he defeated the llerids in several actln; and at li-uglh forced Odiiaeer to shut hiniself ii|i tlie city of Uavenna (4S',I), where, after a sic;,'i three years, he fell into the hands of the i tpieror, who de[)rivcd him at once of his tin and his life. Theodoric deserves not to bo confounded iv the other barbarous kings of the tilth cenii; Educated at the court of Constaiitino|)le, whci-i' ])assed the years id" his youth, ho had leariii'd establish his authority by the equity of his 1;\' and the wisdom of bis adniinistratious. He rus an empire which, besides Italy, embraced a ijri part of I'aiinouia, llhetia, Noricuin, and lllyri;i, This monarchy, formidable as it was, diil exist beyond the s))aeo of sixty years : after ti > guiuary warfare of eighteen years, it was tm subverted by the Greeks. The Kinpernr .Fusti:, employed his generals, iJelisariiis ' '' iind ISarsK recovering Italy and Sicily from the hands el' tioths. 'J'his nation defended their posses^i with determined obstinacy. Kncourageil hy Tut:) one of their last kings, they inaintained a y- tracted struggle against the (ireeks, and with i : siderable success. It was during this war thati: city of Home was iiillaged afresh, and at Icn.-j (.")-i7) dismantled by the Goths. Totila sust lii a conililete defeat at the foot of the AiK-nuiiii- Uinbria (.").")'J), and died of the wounds whiili niished from the Ge had received in the action. His successor 'fi. was by no means so fortunate in military all'n;- In a bloody battle wliicli he fought with Miir-= in ('am|)ania (;">.")U), he was vampiislu-d and si,. His dominions passed into the hands id i; (ireeks, with the exeeiition of that part of Hli. and Norieum which the Alemanns occupied,;.; which, during the war between the (ireeks ami I Goths, bad become the ]iossession of the l-'rank- A new revolution liap])ened in Italy (oliS), the invasion of the Lombards. This ])eople, w ori'jinally inhabited the northern ])art of (ierni;; on the Kibe, and formed a branch of the lTi nation of the Suevi, had at length fixed them«il' in rannonia (."i"-?), after several times chaiiL'i their abode. They then joined with the Avar-. Asiatic people, against the Gepiihe, who possis* a formidable ilominion in ancient Dacia, on ! left hank of the Danube. This state -was n- overturned by the combined forces of the M nations, and the whole territories of the (icjiii passed (.)li.')) under the dominion of the .\v; The Lombards also abandoned to tliem their |k sessions in I'annonia, and weiit in quest of in settlements into Italy. It was in the spring ofi that they began their route, under the condud their King Alboin, who, without coming to ri'!;i: combat with the Greeks, took from them, in cession, a great number of cities and provii I'avia, which the Goths had fortified with ca was the only town that opposed him with goroua resistance ; and it did not surrender after a siege of three years, in CiTi. The Lonili; kings made this town tho rapital of their ii dominions, which, besides Upper Italy, kii"' more esjiecially by the name of Lomhardy, m prehonded also a eonsidernhle part of the mid iiid lower districts, which the Lombards gradiu wrested from the (ireeks. The revolution, of which we have just ii a summary view, o])e ; but it had a in fate of ancient G es, whose foriner b( the Danube, now iind these rivers. Tli (ins, recorded by T were replaced by tl federations, viz., the maims, Suahians, aii< II the regions cr the name of (ierni lie Ale'.iianns, and tl IK, occu|iied, ahmg - iter ])art of what is c Ii sides of the Danube nks, masters of a po ii'ived, uiidor their iiii Kliine, a part of unci tenitories i)f wliici iiianiis'-'and the Thii ,vi'r (ieriiiany, no othc II those of the Tl ^ialls ; and as to tl iiud the Saal and tl cited of inhabitants b lie (iernian trilus, am the kingdoiu of the '1 tnrii by the Slavi, ot their manners. Ills nation, did'erent npy a great jiart of 1 lie in history until tl risliaii era. .Jornandi 1 century, is the tir 111. lie calls them .S'< liiishes them into tlir icili, the Slavi, and th IS Dccuiiied the vast I'.tixino Sea, between Nic|ier, &e. It was II' sixth century that 11 their ancient habit; t's over the oast and side they extended t ' and the Saal ; on tl uilie, and penetratei Illyria ; oceii|iying a this day under the ill, Servia, Hosnia, ( intliia, Stiria, and tl listory of the sixth I' memorable than tl "Tors of the l-",ast hai iiins of the Danube. liiise colonies of thei insilves on the Kibe, countries situat iihe, were the Czei Soi-abians inhabiting ween the Saal and t known under the i lit, anil Lower lii iitahes, and the Abo Hirg, I'omerania, an lastly, the ,Alorav ivia, and in a part oi III the seventh cent ruled over many oft ICcrTiiiiiiic NatiDiis. ;ivi.(ll- SliiMiiiiaiis. 1'1'h,' Vi'iii'iii. PERIOD I. A.D. 40IJ— SOO. fii'iniiin Institiiti iiid the Thnriniiians. In short, in till kver (ii-rmany, no other names were to Ix^ found In those of the Tlnn'in),nans, Saxons, and ^ilUls ; ami as to thi! eastern ])art, situated fund the Said and th<' F.lhe, as it had been Icrti'd of inhabitants by the frecpient eini}frations ic (ierman trihes, and by the total destruction the kinijdom of the Thnriiiijians, it was seize dis- aished from the tiermans by their languafie their manners. ills nation, ditl'erent coloines of which still lupy a ureat part of Furope, did not beiiin to iirc in history initil the fourth century of the istian era. .Jcuiiandes, a Clothic writer of the li century, is the first author wlio mentions m. lie calls them Slavi, or S/nviiii ; \\ni\ dis- aishes them into three principal bianelies, the |liedi, the Slavi, and the Antes, whose numerous IS occupied the vast countries (ui the north of l.uxiup Sea, between the \ istula, the Jsiester, Nic|)er, &e. It was after the eominenccnient lie sixth century that these nations eniittrated in tlndr ancient habitations, and sjnead them- les over the! east and south of Furope. On tiie sidi' they extended their colonies as far as the ' and the Saal ; on tlie other they crossed the nulie, and ])enetrated into Norinnn, I'amionia, lllyria ; ocenpyinn '^" those cotmtries known liis day tinder the names of Hnnirary, Sela- ia, SiMvia, liosnia, Croatia, Dalmatia, Caiiiiola, ■iiithia, Stiria, and the marcii of the \ Cnedi. t' history of the sixth century presents nothiiiLT (re memorable than the bloixly wars which the rms of the l.ast liad to maintain ai;ainst tlu" ivians of the Danube. Kise colonies of them who first distiniiiiished nisilves on the Elbe, the Havel, the Oder, and llie countries situated to the north of tlie liiuhe, were the (V.eehi, m- Slavi of Hohoniia ; Sorabians inhabitiiifr both sides of the FIbe, ween the Saal and the Oder, in the countries iv known tinder the nanips of Misnia, Saxony, halt, anil Lower Lnsace ; the Wilzians, or 'lalabes, and the Ahotrites, spread over Hraii- iliiiif?, Pomerania, and Meeklenburj? proper; 1, lastly, the Moravi, or Moravians, settled in bards (!;radm innia, and in a part of moilern Huiifiary. AVe in the seventh century, a eiiief named Sanio, u rulod over many of those nations. lie fought successfully against the armies of Kini,' Dafrobert. It is sujiposed that Ihi-i man was a F'raiik mer- chant, whom se\,inl of these Flavian tribes had elected as their chii t'. There is one Ibiiii;- whieli, at this jieriod, ouijhl above all to lix our atte'ution, iinil that is the iii- Huence whir of assessors or sheriti's. This new division caused a total chanite in the ;,'eoirra])hy of Furo])e, Tlie ancient names of the countries were everywhere replaced by new ones ; and the alterations which the no- menelature of these divisions underwent in course of time created no small embarrassment in the study of the history and geography of the middle ages. Anions; tlio freemen who roniposcd the armies of the (ierman nations v,c Kiid the u'l'andecs and nobles, who were distinguished by the number of men-at-arms, or freemen, whom they carried in their train.'' They all followed the king, (U- com- mon chief, of the expedition, not as mercenaries or regular soldiers, but as volunteers who bad come, of their own accord, to a<'company him. The booty and the comiuests which tliey made in war they regarded as a common lu'ojierty, to which they had all an equal right. Tlu' kiinrs, chiel's, and grandees, in the di\ ision of their territories, received larger portions than the other military and free- men, oil account of the greater cH'orts they had made, and the greater number of warriius who had followed them to the H(dd. These lands were given thiMii as jiroperty in every respect free ; and, although an obligation was iiuplii'd of their con- curring in defence of the eoinmon cause, yet it was rather a sort of consequence of th<' territorial grant, and not imposed upon them as a idause or essen- tial condition of the tenure. It is therefore wrong to regard tins division of lands as having given rise to Hefs, AVar was the favourite occupation, the only honourable rank, and the inalientible |)reri)gative of a (ierman. Tliev were soldiers, not of necessity lU' constraint, but of their own free will, and because they despised every other employment, and every other mode of life. Despotism was, therefore, never to be ap- j. - II •I 'I Cii^tiiins 111' the 1() (fl'l'IllilllS. Kid's, cir lii'in'lii'i's. KOCH'S RKVOLUTIOXS. Duels and .Iiid^'i'ini'i.jg (>r(i(Ki. Slati' (iT I,i1eraturc. ])ii'lioii(l('(l ill ii K<>'*'^'''i"ic"t '''"■ tliiS) wlu'io the ji'rcat liodv of the uiilioii were in iiriiH, s;it in tlii'ir n'cncial as-;L'nil)li('s, anil inarcliril to tlu' li'.'lil of war. 'I'lirir UiiiLjs, however, soon in\ente le as it were m for a man of letters, or any person ' of handling: tiie jieii. The bishops, niore- leUI the lirst rank in all politieal assemblies, ill war niarelied to the Hold in person, at the 1 of their vassals. nother circumstance tliat contributed to raise eiedit and the power of the clerjiy was, that Latin language continued to be employed in Kouian provinces which had been subjected he dominion of the German nations. Every It; was written exclusively in the Roman tongue, icji bi'came the language of the church, anil of ulilic acts ; and it was long before the German [eits, which had become universally prevalent, be reduced to writing. The corrupt pronuii- 011 of the Latin, and its mixture with tbreign ins and constructions, gave birth, in course of , to new languages, which still retain evidence u'ir Roman origin, such as the Italian, Spanish, uguese, French and Englisii languages. In lifth and following centuries, the Teutonic uage, or that spoken by the conquerors of was called lini/ua Frmiriru : this was dis- uislied from the li)i(/iia liumann, or the laii- spoken by the people ; and which after- Is gave rise to the modern French. It apjiears, lore, from what we have just stated, that the isioii of the German tribes into the provinces lie West was the true source of all the bar- ty, ignorance, anil superstition, in which that of Europe was so long and so universally ed. here would have been, therefore, every reason Icplore a revolution, not less sanguinary in f than disastrous in its coiiseiiuences, if, on the if had not been the instrument of ile- iiig l.iirope from the terrible despotism of the iiiiis ; and, on the other, if we did not tinil, in rude institutions of the (Jerman comiucrors, I' germs of liberty, which, sooner or later, were lo lead the nations of Europe to wiser laws, better organized governments. iiioiig the states which rose on the ruins of the ;iii empire, that of the Franks acquired the iiiiderance ; and, for several ages, it sustained ■liaraeter of being *he most iiowerful kingdom urope. This monarchy, founded by (;iovis, extended Htlll more by his successors, em- ■d the whole of Gaul i xcept Lani;uedoc, which iiii,'ed to the Visigoths.''" The greater part of iiiuiy also was subject to it, with the exception axoiiy, and the te.ritories of the Slavi, After d fallen into decay, by the partitions and civil 1 of the descendants of Clovin, if rose again, y however by tlie wisdom and ability of the uis of the palace, who restored it once more s original sjilendour. lese mayors, from being originally merely l-masters of the court, rose by degrees to he II' ministers, governors of the state, and ulfi- ly to be kings. The f'tuiider of their great- was Pepin d'Hcristal, a cadet of the dynasty le Carlovingians, which succeeded that of the tivingians, towards the middle of the eighth iiry. Under the Merovingian princes, the ri'ignfy was divided between two ]irincipal dorns, viz. that of Ausfrasia, which conipre- li'd Kastern Franco, being all that part of I situated between the Meuse, the Scheld, iind Kliiiie ; as well as the Ucrnian provinces beyond tlu Rhine, which also made a ])art of that monarcliy. The whole of Western Gaul, lying between the Scheld, the Meuse and the Loire, was called >;eustria. llurginidy, Aquifain, and I'ro- vciice, were considered as depenilciieies of this latter kingdom. Uagobert II., King of Ausfrasia, having been assassinated (in (>7H), the King of >ieustria, Thierry III., would in all probability have re- united the two monarchies ; but the Austrasians, who dreaded and detested Ehroin, Mayor of Neus- tria, elected a mayor of their own, under tlu nominal authority of Thierry. This gave rise to a sort of civil war between the Austrasians and the Neustrians, headed by Pepin d'Hcristal, .Mayir of Austrasia, and liertaire. Mayor of Neuslria, who succeeded Ebroin. The battle which Pepin gained at Testry, near St. Quentin (tiH7), decided the fate of the empire ; Uertaire was slain, and Thierry III. fell into the power of the conqueror. Pepin afterwards confirmed to Thierry the honours of royalty, and contented himself with the dignity of Mayor, and the til. of Uuke and Prince of the Franks ; but regarding the throne as bis own by right of conquest, he vested in himself the sove- reign authority, and granti " to the Merovingian Prince nothing more than the mere externals of majesty, and the simjile title of king. Such was the revolution that transferred the supreme aullio- rify of the Franks to a new dynasty, viz. that of the Carlovingians, who, with great moderation, still preserved, during a period of sixty-live years, the royal dignity to the Merovingian jirinces, whom they had stripped of all their power.^' Pepin d'Hcristal being dead (714), the partisans of the ancient dynasty made a last cH'orf to liberate the Merovingian kings from that dependence under which Pepin had held them so long. This jirinee, in transferring the sovereign authority to his grand- son Theodwald, only six years of age, bad devolved on his widow, whose name was Pleetrude, the regency and guardianship of the young mayor. A government so extraordinary emboldened the factious to attempt a revolution. The rigent, !is well as her grandson, were divested of the sove- reignty, and the Nensfrian grandees chose a nniyor of their own party named Rainfroy ; but their triumph was only of short duration. Charles Marfel, n lural son of Pejiin as is supposed, hav- ing escaiied from the prison where In- had been detained by the regent, passed into Ausfrasia, and then caused himself to be proclaimed duke, after the example of his father. He engaged in a war against Chilperic H. and his mayor Uainfroy ; three successive victories which he gained, viz. at Sfavelo, Vinci near Cambray, and Soissoiis, in 7l(> — 17— IS, made him once more master of the throne and the sovereign authority. The duke of Aquifain having delivered up King Cliilperic to him, he contirmed anew the title of royalty to that prince ; and shortly after riiised his glory to its highest pitch, by the brilliant victories which he gained over the Arabs (I'M — 737), in the plains of Poitiers and Narbonne. Pejiin le Href (or tlie Short): son and successor of Charles Martel, finding his authority established both within and without his dominions, judged this a favourable opportunity for reuniting the title of royalty to the power of the sovereign. He niauagetl to have himself elected King iu the Ge- c >^. I, 1« Kdiic :i HiMiuljlic. T!i.' Ic-(iiu>*;liLst.s. I.uiiiliiiril Kind's. KOCH'S REVOLUTION'S. Stephpn II., Vo].! Avails and Surac. Miiliumut, I'll.],! iicriil AM-ionihly of tlu' I'niiiks, which -was (•(iiivciuM ill tht^ L'li!inii)-(k'-.Mais, in tlu' m-i^ilihiiurhood o Soissoiis. Ciiilihiic 1 II. the last of the Mcrovin- | giiili kiiii;s, Aviis Ihi re (li"|ii)scil (7.')1 ), ;iii(l shut up | in ii coiivi'iit. l'c|)iu, A\ith tlic iiitfutioii of rcu- j dcii'.i'i- his jii'i'sou sacred and iin iolahic, had re- i cour-'C to the ccieiii(}iiy of coronation ; and lie was the liist kuiti w'lo caused iiinisclf to he solemnly coMseci-aled and crowned in the cathedral of Sois- soiis, hy St. lioniface, Kist archhisho]) of Mayence."'^- 'I'he exaiii])le of I'ciiin \vas followed soon after hv SI vi'ral princes and sovereif:ns of l'hiro|)e. 'I'lie last conipiest he added to his dominion \\as the ])ro\inee of Languedoc, which lie took ('")!() from the Arahs. The oriinii of the secular power of the Uoiiian ])olitill's conim.'iices witli the reiijii of Tepin. This event, which had so ])eculiar an iiiHuence on the reliiiioii and ;;d\eriiineiit of the I'liiropeau nations, re(piires to he detailed at some leiifith. At Ihe jieriod of which we write, there existed a violi'iit controversy hi tweeii the churches in the Kast, and those in the West, r.'spcctiii.f the wor- shi)i of iiiKinis. The l'.iii|)e;i)r Leo, tlii' Isauriaii, had declared himself ai^ainst this worship, and had proscrihed it hy an imperial edict (*-(!). lie and his successors persisted in dc stroyinj; these objects of idolatry, us well as in perseculiii;j; those who a\owed themselves devotees to this heresy. This eNtra\a;,'-ant zeal, which tlie Uoiuan pontill's hlamed as I xcessive, <'xcitcd the iiidiunatiim of the people an'ainst the lirecian Kmiierors."'''' In Italy, there were fri'iiuent rehellions ai;aiiist the imperial olU- cer; that wep' cliarfied v\itli the execution of thiir ordi'i's. The Romans csiiecially took occasicui, lidiii this, to expel the duke (U- governor, who ri'- sided in their city on the part of the emperor ; and the) fo'-iiially erected themselves into a re- initilic (I'M)), under the pontilicate of Urcf^ory II., hy usurping- all the rii,dils of. sovereignity, and, at the stiiiie time, re\i\iiii; the ancient names of the senate and the Uoiuaii people. 'I'lie l*o])e was reeoLTiiised aseliiefor head of this new repuhlic, and had the ^'ineral direction of all atlairs, both at home and abroad. The territory of this republic, i formed of the duchy of Rome, ext'liiled, fron. iioiih lo south, from N iterho as far as Terracin;» ; and from east to west, from Is'arni to the mouth of the Tiber. Sueli was the weakiie.is of the Isastern (■m|)in', that all the elt'orts of the emperors to re- duce th ■ Homans to snlijection proved untivailiiii!-. The lire.'k viceroy — the Duke of Xaples, who had niarched to hesiesje Rome, was killed in h.utle, toi;ether with his son ; ami the exarch himself was compelled to make peac(> with the reiiuhli- cans. "his state of distress to wliich the (irecian em- nire was reduced allorded the Lombards an op- |)..ituiiily of extendiiiii; their possessions in Italv. Aistoliihus their kili)^ attacked the city of Ravenna (1.")!), where the exarchs or governors-p'iieral of the (ireeks had fixed their residence; and soon made himself master of it, as well as tlie ])lovilice of the 1 xarchati ,>^'' iind the I'entapolis. The exarch Lutychius was oblii,'e(l to Hy, and took slielter in Naples. This surrender of the capital of Grecian Italy emboldened the Lombard kin;; to extend his views still farther: lie demanded the suhniission of the city iind ducliy of Rome, wIhl'Ii he considered as a dependency of tlie exarchate. Pope 8tr. II. became alarmed, and hejjan to solicit anal;.; with the Greek empire, whose distant Jiower m to hiin less formidable than that of the Loml his iieinhbours ; but bein;;- closely jiressed In; tolphus, and lindiii!; that he had no suciinj ex))ect from ('onstantinople, he deterniin, [ ajijily for protection to the Franks and their J Pepin. Tlie Franks, at that time, held the fir^l : amoni,' the nations of F.urope ; their ex;! against the Arabians had gained them a hi; ] putation for valour over all tlu; West. Sn repaired in jierson to France, r.nd in an iiiii-|< which lu had witli Peiiiii, he ioiind meaii> terest that prince in his cause. Pepin did regard himself as securely established on a I which ho had so recently usurpi d from the .\l| vingian jirinces ; more es])ecially as there sii isted a son of Ghilderie I IL, named Thiein. a foriiiidahle rivalry in the puissant dukes of.,, tain, who were cadets of the saiiie familv. had no other right to the crown than that 1 1 - tion ; and this title, instead of descending tl Sims, might jierhaps serve as u ])retext liil priving them of the sovereignty. Anxious It der the crown hereditary, he induced the I'lj renew the ceremony of his coronation ir.i Cliureh of St. Denis ; and at the same linj consecrate his two sons, Charles and Carl' The Piipe did more ; hi' disengaged the Kiii; the oath which he had taken to Childiiii, hou.id all the nobility of the Franks, tliiitj lireseiit on the occasion, ill the name of Christ and St. Peter, to jireserve the royal li.J ill the right of Pejiin and his descemhiut^ lastly, that he might the more eH'ectually ■ the altachmeiit of Pi'pin and his sons, and |irl for himself the title of being their proteclij jiublicly conferred on them the honour ot patricians of Rome. So great '■ondeseension on the part of tlii' could not but excite the gratitude of Pepin, not only promised him succour against tlir bards, he cngagi'd to recover thi' exnrcliatr their hands, and make a present of it to tin- See ; he even made him a grant of it by anil tion, which he signed at the Castle id' Chiir-.l I'Oise, and which he likewise caused to be -jj h_V the princes his SOI. s.^' It was in fultilni' these stipulations that Pepin undertook (".i.'i two successive exiieditions into Italy, lb' ])elle(i Aistol|ilius to acknowledge liiiiiv.| vassal, and deliver uj) to him the 1) ovcrtiirt'w the powerful momiicby ^c I'cisiaiis ; coiKiucrcd C'barasm, 'J'raiiNOxiaiia, lie Indies, and founded an empire more I'X- |\e than that of tlie Romans bad been. The |al of the Caliphs, which hail ori^:inally been ciliiia, and afterwards at Ciifa, was transferred li_\ tlie I'aliph Moa\ia 1. to Damascus in i; and by the lalijih Almanzor, to Iiai;di.d in •Arabia, (j*'>^>) which \\as fouiuled by that ee. [was iiniler tlu' Caliphate of Walid (711), that Lrabs first invaded Kuruiic, and atta( ked the tirciiv of the \ isiLCotbs in Spain. This nio- liv had already sunk under the tecbleniss of liii;s, and the despotic prerogatives wbicli the ■es, and espo ; illy the bisho[)s, had arro!j;ated iiselves. These latter disjiosed ot the tliione I'ir ]ilcasur<', ha\iiii; declared it to be electi\e. decided with supreme autlunitj in the coun- (t the nation, and in all atl'airs of stale. .Mu/.a lul time commanded in northern Africa, in of the Caliph Walid. li_\ the authority of iiivci'ciifn, he sent into Spain one of bis j,'cne- lliaiiicd Taric, or Tarcc-Alien/.ara, wbo, havinu- a descent on the coasts of Andalusia, took Itatioii on the hill which the ancients called , and which has since been known by the of (libraltar ((iibel-'I'arie), or the iiill of ^, ill commemoration of the Arabian u'ciieral, ,vas in the neiirhbourhood of the city \eres I'nmtera, in Andalusia, that Taric eiicoiin- tlie army of the Visiijoths, commanded by kiuij' Uoderic. The battle was decisive, as I i-imitbs sustained a total defeat, lloderic (I ill the llii{ht ; and Alii/a, the Arabian l-iinr, lia\inf; airi\ed to second the etlbrts of the comiiicsl of all Spain followed as a fi|iiiiice of this \ictiiry.''" Septimania, or liiciloc, which then made a part of the \ isi- Ic iiuinarchy, passed at the same timi- under Imiiiiiiiin of the Arabs. tierce iinaders did not limit their con- Is ill F.urope to Spain and l.aniruedoc; (lie Vic Isles, Sardinia, Corsiia, part of Apulia alahria, fell likewise under their dominion : [iiilcsti'd the sea with their fleets, and more oiice carried terror and desolation to the lualcs of Home. It is probable even that all llic would have submitted to their joke, if Martel bad not arrested the career of their leroiis and wiir- lle defeateil their nun liniies in the hlooily battles whiib were fomrlit il'oiliers iiml Marbonne {I'Xl-'i'M), and at 1 compelled Ibem to shut themselves up witb- ' piDNince of liaiiKuedoc. |i' unity of the empire and the reliiiion (d' liiK't did not loiiff remain undivided. The first dynasty of the Caliphs, that of the Onimiades, ■was subverted; anil all the princes of that family massacred b_\ the Aba>sides {'iVJ), who seized the caliphate.'"' A solitary descendant of the Om- miailes, named Abdalraliinaii, grandson of the Hf- teeiitb Caliph llasidiem, was saved in Spain, and fixed his residence at Cordova ; and being ac- knowledged as Caliph by the .Mussulmans there, lie detached that prosince from the great empire of the Arabians (Tod). This revolution, and tlii^ confMsion -witli which it was accompanied, ga\e fro>li courage to the small number of Visigoths, wbo, to escape the iMahonietan yoke, had retired to the iiioiintaius ol Asturias. Issuing from their retreats, they retali- ated on the liitiikds; and towards the midille of the eighth ceiitury, they laid the tbiii.datioii of a new Cbristian state, calleil afterwards tlie kinmloiii of Oviedo ur Leon. Alplionso I., snrnaiiied the Catholic, must be regarded as the lir^t founder of this new monarchy.^" Til;' I'ranks, likewise, took advantage of these events to expel the Arabs from Langiiedoc repin took |)oss(ssion of the cities of >^ismes, Magiie- lonne, Agde, and Le/.iers {'1'^-), which were deli- veii'd up to him by a noble tiotli, named Osmond. The reduction of >-ites. These two (iMiasties were ovi ilurned (a! .1 DOS) by Aboul (.asseiii Mohamiiii (I, son ol Obeidallah, who claimed to be descemh d from All, by I'atima daughter id' the prophet; be subject eil tlie whole of Moithern Africa to bis yoke, and took the titles ol' Mil /i ltd i and Caliph. From him were de-ceiided tbc Caliiihs, called Fatimiles, wbo exrended their coinpiests to Kgypt, and laid tin re the foundation of Kaherab, uli, Tarento, Turin, Liguria, Teti, &c. The fall of the Lombards put an end to the reptJ government of the Koiiians. During the lil{ of Pavia, Charles having gone to Home t(i sent at the feast of Easter (774), was nl there with all the h(;iiours due to an ExiuJ Patrician ; and there is incontestable |)riH| he afterwards received, under that title, tlir of sovereignty over Rome and the Eccloii States. The Patrician dignity, instituted by ('( tine the Great, ranked, in the Greek enipirJ after that of emperor. It was of such ceiiJ tion, that even barbarian kings, the destiii)| the ancient Roman empire in the West, ll candidates for this honour at the Court oil stantinople. The exarchs of Ravenna werel rally invested with it, and exercised uiiild title, rather than that of exarch or goveriiJ authority which tlii'y enjoyed at Ronie. i Steplu" II. had, twenty years before, cuij the patriciate on Pejiin and his sons ; alll these princes ap))ear never to liav;; exercM right, regarding it merely as an lionorary t1 long at least as the kingdom of the T.oiiil. parated them from Rome and the States j Church. Charles no sooner saw himself mJ that kingdom, than he atlected to add to hit of King of the Pranks and Lombards tliatj triciaii of the Romans ; and began to exercij file eucouragenients _ni,in Knuiiri! of (111- West revivi'd ij liv (JliiirlrniaKiie. rEllIOD II. A.D. 800— ;)()',>. Schdols Uiitubli lii'd. Alciiiii. Scl:i\uiii»ii iiiitioiis. ■21 |r and the Ecclcsiiistifal Stiiti-s tliosc riithts of emaoy which the Ureuk emperors and exarchs Enjoyed before him. his prince returned to Rome towards the end |e year 800, in order to in(iuive into a con- ey wliich some of the Komau nobility liad frti'd ai;ainst tlic life of Voyn: Leo III. The ic siHair having been discussed in his jjreseriee, llie innocence of tiie Pope clearly established, Hcs -went to assist at the solemn mass which I'clebrated in St. Peter's Church on Christmas JsOO.) The Pope, anxious to show him some Ic festimony of his gratitude, chose the nio- when the prince was on his knees at the l«f the grand altar, to jjut the imi)crial crown head, and caused him to be proclaimed to bcople Kniperor of the Ilomans, loMi this atiair must be dated the revival of tlic Ian Dinijire in the West,— a title which had extinct for three hundred years. The em- k of the I'^ast who, during that interval, h;ul Iniit'd exclusively in the enjoyment of that appeared to have some reason for opposing liicvation which iniglit eventually become ])re- lal to them. The contest wliicli arose on this |ct between the two cni])erors, was at length terniin ited by treaty. TheCireek emperors ^nised t'"" new dignity of diaries (81'2) ; and hese .■;u.;'.'«ioiis they were allowed to retain jiossessions, which they still held by a feeble re in Italy. I thus maintaining the imperial dignity against Sleek einperois, Charles added nothing to bis power ; he acciuired from it no new right over nisiiiembered provinces of the AVestern em- Itlie state of which had, for a long time past, tixed by speciHe regulations. He did not laugmeiit his authority over Rome, where he JiuumI to exercise the same rights of sujieriority Ir the title of emjieror, which he had formerly 1 under that of patrician. lis ])rince, whose genius soared beyond his Itlid not iigure merely as a warrior and a con- pr ; he was also a legislator, and a zealous pa- (of letters. IJy the laws which he published the title of Capihi/arirn, he reformed seve- pdxes, and introduced new ideas of order and Commissioners, nominated by himself, charged to travel through the provinces, to [■intend the execution of the laws, listen to the hunts of the people, and render justice to i witliout distinction and without partiality, fiiiieeived likewi!'.' the idea of establishing a li'.iily of weights and measures throughout Impiie. Si.uie of the laws of that great man, lv( r, indicate a disposition tinctured with the jiriMii and superstition of his age. 'llw Jiui;/- t)f Gild are expressly lield by him to lie hosts of right and wrong, and the greater ])art |inies expiable liy money. Uy a general law, ho passed in 770, introducing the payment |olesiastieal tithes, and which lie extended to riUKiuished Saxons (701), he alienated the |ions of that people; and the code which he on this occasion, is remarkable for its |ily; which their rejieated revolts, and fre- ; returns to paganism, cannot Justify. I to his patronage and love of letters,' this is at- liy the numerous schools which he founded, klie encouragements he held out to them ; as well as the attention he showed in inviting to his court, 'he i.M>st celebrated learned men from every country in Ivirojx'. He formed them into a kind of a'.'aJemy, or literary society, of which he was himself a member. When at an ad\anctd age, he received instruction in rhetoric, logic, and astro- nomy, from the famous Alcuin, an Knglishman, to whom he was much attachi'd. He endeavourei" also to improve his vernacular tongue, Avhieli was- the Ti'Ufonie, or ttiu/ua Frumica, by draw- ing up a grammar of that language, giving German names to the months and the winds, which had not yet received them ; and in making a collection of the military songs of the ancient Oernian^. He extended an e(|ual protection to the arts, nioie t^s- jiccially architecture, a taste for wliicli he had im- bibed in Italy and Rome. AVriters of those times speak with admiration of the jialaces and ediliees eonsfructeil by his orders, at Ingelhii'in, neat -Meiifz, at Nimegueii, on the left bank of the Waal, and at Aix-la-(;hapelle. These buildings were adorned witii numerous paintings, as well as marble and mosaic work, which he had brought from Rome and Ravenna. The empire of Cliarlemagne, which may bear a coniparisoii as to its extent with the ancient Em- liiie of the West, embraced tiu' priiieiiial jiart of Europe. All CJaul, CJermany, and Spain as far as the Ehro, Italy to Ueneveiito, several islands in the Mediterriineaii, with a considerable part of Pannonia, composed tiiis vast em])ire, which, from west to east, extended from the Ebro to the Elbe and tlie Raab ; and from south to north, from the duchy of Benevento and the Adriatic St'a to the River Ejder, which formed the boundary between Germany and Denmark. In defining tiie limits of the empire of Charle- magne, care must be taken not to confound the provinces and states incorporated with the empire with those that were mi'rely tributary. The for- mer were governed by officers who might be re- called at the will of the jirince ; while the latter w I're free states, whose only tenure ou the einjiire was by alliance, and the <'ontrihutions th(>y en- gaged to pay. Sueh was the policy of this jirinee, that, besides the marches or military stations which he had established on the frontiers of (Jerniany, Spain, and Italy, he chose to retain, on ditt'erent points of his dominions, naticnis who, under tlie name of tributaries, enjoyed the protection of the Franks, and might act as a guard or barrier against the barbarous tribes of the east and north, who had long been in the habit of making incursions into the western and southern countries of Europe. Thus the dukes of Uenevento in Italy, who were simply vassals and tributaries of the enii)ire, sup- ])lied, as it were, a rampart or bulwark against tlie Greeks and Arabians; while the Sdavonian na- tions of Cieriiiany, Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Cro- atia, though feudatories or vassals of France, were governed, nevertheless, by their own laws, and in general did not even jirofess the Christian religicn. From this brief sketch of the reign of Charle- magne, it is easy to perceive that there was then no single power in Europe formidable enough to enter into competition with the empire of the Franks. The monarchies of the north, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, and those of Poland and Russia, were not then in existence ; or had not emerged from the thick darkness that still covered 13) Du'licii, Kill}; of KimlMihl. I.Diii-i Ir Dclidimiiin". KOCirS UKVOLUTIONS. Itiiiiiali, or lt<>ni;iiin Origin cil' l''ri'iiiti. Kinuilom ol' liorinii those |)iii'ts of coutiliriital l';iii(i|)0. Iliif^hinil then Uri'si'iitcd :i lir|)liircll_\ nl'scM'll coiiriMliTllIc «:ovci'n- iiii'iil>;, till' iiuioii (if wliii'li w;is f;ir from liciiiif well (■oiisiili(l;itc(l. 'I'll!' kiiitjs of tliis coiifcilt'racy were iiicessiiiitly eiiLTaijcd iu war with each other; anil it WHS not niitil severiil years after Charh'riiau'ne, that l',;rliert the (ireat, kint; of Wessex, prevailing; in the contest, coustitutcil himself kiiiif of all Eiii?- lanil in S',>7. 'I'he .Mahometan i)iirt. of Spain, after it was se|iarate(i from llie trreat ('ni)>ire of the (,'aliphs, was eni^ai^cil in perpetual warfare with the Kasf. I'he Ofiiniiades, soMreiLfns of Cordova, lav from |irovokiii!; their western iieii;hlionrs, whose valour they had already experienced, showed Iheniselves, on the contrary, attentive to preserve peace and yood undcrstaiidinLT with thcni. The (i reek em- perors, v\ ho were continually (piarrclliiii; with thi^ Aralis and liul.'ariaus, and airitated by factious and interline <'oiiiiiiotious, could no lonijcr he an ohject of siis|iicion or rivalry to the nuinarcliy of the I'rauks. Thus (lid the empire of C'harlematpip enjoy the Lrlory of hi'iic.; the ascendant power in j-'.urope ; hut it did not 'oni; sustain its orininal splendoui-. It would have reipiircd a man of extraordinary talents to nianau'e thi" reins of a Lcovcrnment so ex- tensive and so complicated. Louis-lc-Dehonnaire, or the (ientle, the son and successor of Charles, .lid not iKissess a :;iiiij:le ipialilicatiou jirojier to fjovern the \ast dominions which his father had heipiealhed to him. As im|iolitic as he was weak and supeistilious, h.' had not the art of makini^ himself either loved or feared hy his sulijects. Uy the imprudent jiartition of his dominions lietwecn his sons, which he made even in his lifetime, \w planted with his own hand those seeds of discord in his t'amily which accelerated the downfall of the euqiire. The civil wai-s which had commenced in his rei<;n continued after his dcatli. I.onis, sur- named the (ierman, and Charles the Hald, com- liined aiiainst their elder brother l.othaire. and defeated him at the famous battle of l'"ontenay in liuryundy (S41), where all the (lower of the ancient nobility perished. l.otiis and Charles, victorious in this cnifaiiement, ohliijed their brother to take refuirc in Italy. They next marched to Strasbonrir, where tlioy renewed their alliance (S4"i), and conKrmed it by oath at the head c*" their troo|)s.>' These ])rinces were on the ])oinf of dividiiiff tlio wl;(ile monarchy between them, when, by the in- tcrf( <'ence of the nobility, they became reconciled to their elder brother, and concluded a treaty with him at Verdun (^4:1), which (inally com|)letei| the division of the emjiire. Hy this form:il ('i tribu- lion, l.othaire retained tin; inijicrial diLTui y, with the kinufdom of Italy, and the provinces situated between the Uhone, the Saone, the Meiise, the Scheld, the Rliiiu>, and tin; Alps. Louis had all (iermany beyond the Uhine, and on this side of the river, thi" cantons of i\Iayciicf, Spire, and Worms ; and, lastly, all that part of Gaul which extends from the Scheld, the Meuse, the Saone, and tlm Rhono, to the I'yreneos, fell to the lof of (jliarlcs, whose division also com|)rehcnd('d the .March of Sjiain, consistini? of thi^ jndviiice of Barcelona, and the territories which Churlemagm- had concpicred beyond the Pyrenees. It is with this treaty, jjroperly speakini,', that modern France eonnneiu'cs, which is but ;i partment of the ancient empire of the Iran!, uionarchy of Charlema^jnc. For ii loni; li' retained the boundaries which the coid'cn i; Verdun had assiirned it; and whatever ii (lossesses beyond thes(! limits, was the ac(|iii. of cominests which it has made since the : teenth century. Charles the Itald was iii then the first Kiinr of I'rance, and it is tVnuii that tin? series of her kinus comiiiences. li moreover, under this jirince that the ^ovenu of the INenstrians, or Western I'rauks, nssim new aspect, liefore his time it was entir('l)j rrankisli or (Ierman constitution ; the n and customs of the conipierors of (iaiil evei\u( jiredomiuated; their lani,'uaf;e (the /iiii/iia /'c was that of the court and the uovernmeiit. after the dismcmbernient of which we have s|i the (iauls imported it int?V iV'enstria, or \\ I'rance; the customs and popular l;inf,'na:.'r adopteil by the court, and had no small ielli on the i;o\ernment. This lanu:uai;e, wliiil then known by the name of the liiittKin ( i iiianic, polished by the refinements of the i assumed by dei;rees a new and ]r.ircr form, ;i; course of time, became the parent of the ii: French. It was, therefore, at this period, vi/ rciu:n of Charles the Hald, Ihiit the Western Ir heu'an, properly sjieakin;,', to be a distinct lis and exchani;ed their more ancient appelliiti* that of /■'rtiic/l, t\u- name by which they iin known. At this same period (iermany was, for tlv time, embodied into a nuiiiarcby, havinir il> jiarticnlar kini;s. liOnis the (ierman was ihil monarch of Ciermany, as (Charles the Halil \\\ 1'" ranee. The kiiufdom of Loui>. for a Ioml' l was called F.astern France, to distiniiuish iij the western kiuirdom of that name, which forth exclusively retained the name of Fraiio. 'I'he empire of Charlcmiif^ne, which the ll of Verdun had divided, was for a short s|i; united (HS4) under ('liarles, siu-namcd the yoiuii(er son of Louis the (ierman, and KiJ (iermany ; but that prince, too feeble to mi: so trreat a vveii^bt, was deposed by his (Ic subjects (SS7), and their example was sp'j followed by the French and the Italians, vast empire of the Frii'iks was thus dismem' for ever (i'SS), and besides the kinirdu France, (iermany. and Italy, it f,'ave birth t" new states — the kiiii,'doins of Lorraine, IJurd and Navarre. The kintjdom of Lin-raino took its nanii' Lothaire 1 1., youn;,'er son of the F.m]ieror l.ill I., who, in the division which he made estates amoiii,' his sons (S.5.")), i^avc to this l.nll the |irovinces situated between the llhiii' Mcuse, and the Scheld, known since unili name of Lorraine, Alsace, Treves, Coloi'ne, .IJ Licfte, and the Low Countries. At the d Lothaire IL, who left no male or Icf^itimatc ! his kini^dom was divided by the treaty of I'rod (H70) into two e(|ual jiortions, (me of wliichl assifined to Louis the German, and the nlliJ (Miarles the Hald.^ Hy a subse(|uent treaty,! eluded (^7!)) between the sons of Louis, stiiiiJ th(( Stannnerer, KiuR of Franco, and Loiisr Younff, Kin},' of (iennany, the French divi^il Lorraine was ceded to th's latter prince, wliol jiii!,'(li>mof llurKunily, II, Kill!;, ^iiliilph, Kill),'. ;d the whole of ' of (iermany, an( ed till' kini^dom i katiiral son, who, Irleposed by Louis Viccessor of A mil j (!)!•,'), (;harlcs th |iidvantaH:e of the piniself in possessi( nt IvniiUi finally \i liy Henry, surna vo new kiin;doms iirtrundy, viz., I'n , and Transjnram fiirmer was a nob i Ciiarh's the Hald be kin),', his brofl [tics in the state, he |t of Vienna, Diil and I'rime .Minis In^je the I'rincess ill., Fm|ieror and princess, he did |iinis views to the the Staiimierer, I afforded him an i tercst most of the ►ted to his j;oveii he held at Manta led them hy oath t ly. The schedule lliires of the bisho| of the extent of Scliended Franehe- Juine, l^yons, Vieii \iviers, I sez, wi liciloc, Provence, ai Jaused himself to hi Ic archbishop of tl sion of his usurpe biiiliined efforts vvhii piiice and Germany examiile of Hosoi idolph, ),'overnor ol lateil hy the fenia lie was ])ro(laim liiiirice in the Valai^ ]cil between jMoun I coiitained Switzerl , the Valais, and a | Jsou happenint,' abi |ih with a favour: bir his frontiers, ai by of Hurifundy. two kinfj;dotns I into one. Hufro, |t lime the jruardian his relation, the lioson. The Ital loverinnent of lUifi Trown on llodolph liidy, llu!,'(), in orde jiriine of Italy, and I the district of I'n < royal ward. Thu> Ipli, liiese two kiuf] fiiits, viz. Conrad, hi hudson. Thesi! pri j sometimes Kinys o, lini-ilom of HurBUiuly. II, Klll!{. |iiiliil|ih, Kill);. riilUOD II. A.D. 800—902. Kiiii,'il;ated lis princess, he did not scruple to raise his lions views to the throne. The death of the Stannnerer, and Ihe troubles that en- [allbrded him an opportunity of attachini; to atei'cst most of the bishops in those countries ^ted to his jjoveriimenl. In an assembly lie held at .Maiitaille in Damiliinc (S71I), he ted them by oath to confer on him flic royal ly. The schedule of (his election, with the lines of the bishops allixed, informs us dis- of the extent of this new kiimdoin, which Brheiided Franche-Comte, ALk^mmi, Chalons- •me, Lyons, Vienne and its de|)endencies, Viviers, I se/., with their dependencies in Itiedoc, Provence, and a ))art of Savoy. Uo- la^l^ed himself to be anointed kini; at Lyons, le aiclihishop of that I'ity. He maintained sion of his usurped dominions, in spite of kiiibincd ettorts which were made by the kin^s ranee and (jermany to ie'!"co him to snbi'.T- i'xample of Boson was followed soon after piiolpli, ^(overnor of Transjurane liuri;nndy, ^'lated by the female side to the Carlovin- lle was proclaimed kintf, and crowiu'd at liiurice in the Valais; and his new kin^jdom, 1 between Mount .lura and the I'enine jfoiitained Switzerland, as far as the lliver I, the Valais, and a part of Savoy. Tl..- death EMin lia|)penini( about this time, furnished Ipli with a favourable opportunity of ex- Iil; his frontiers, and seizing a part of the By of Uuri4:nndy. pse two kin^duniB were afterwards (!)H0) into (uie. Hiififo, kins; of Italy, exercised It time the j^uardianshi|) of the yountf C'on- pic, his relation, the son of Louis, and ijrand- lioson. The Italians, discontented under loveniment of IIiij^o, and having devolveil Ti'dwn on llodolph II., king of Transjurane liidy, Hugo, in order to maintain himself on prone of Italy, and exclude llodol]ih, ceded the district of Provence, and the kingdom royal ward. Thus united in the person of Ipli, these two kingdoms passed to his de- liiits, viz. Conrad, his son, and llodolph III., jiinlson. These princes are styled, in their I sometimes /fiavurre, the kingdom next to be mentioned, known among the anciiMits under the name of I'ufii'iiriia, was one of tln^ jirovinces beyond the Pyrenees which (Miarlcina'^ne had conipiered from th(^ Arabs. Among the counts or wardens of the JNIarehes (called by the Derinans ,Mari;raves) which he established, the me .t remiirkable wen; those of Harcelona in (!ataloiiia, .liicca in Arragon, and Painpeluna in Na\arre. All lliese Spanish -Marche- .ere com|)rised within Western 1' ranee, and within the division which fell to the share of Charles tlu Hald, on the disineinherment of thai nionarehy among the sons of Louis the (ientle. The extreme imbecility of that p inee, and the calamities of bis reign, were the causes why the Navarrese revolted from France, and creeled tliem- selves into a free and independ<'nt state. It ap- ))ears also, that they were implicated in the defec- tion of Aqnitain (S,');}), when it threw oll'the yoke of Charles the Uald. Don (iarcias, son of the Count Don (iarcias, and grandson of Don Sancho, is geni'rally reckoned the lirst of their monarchs, that nsiu'iied the titl.' of Ki)i(/ of /'/i»i/)rfiiiiii (S-'iS). lie and his successors in the kingdom of Navarre jiossesscd, at the sane time, Ihe province of Jacca in Arragon. The Counts of Harcelona were the only Spanish de|iendeiicies that, tor many cen- turies, continued to acknowle hastened the decline of the empire. Dukis i Counts, hesides being intrusted with the ju. and jioliee of their respective governmenls, i cised, at the same time, a military power, collected the revenues of the Kxche(|uei-. many and ho dill'erent jurisdictions, united in I ami the same jiower, could not but beconie gerous to the royal authority ; while it facilii^ to the nobles the means of fortifying thcmsch their governments, and breaking, by degiir unity of the state. Charlemagne had felt tli convenieiite ; and he thought to remedy tin by successively aholishing the great ducliii •■ dividing them into several counties. Into nately this jiolicy was not followed out by] successors, who returned to the ancient praclii creating dukes ; and hesides, being edncati'il nurtured in sU|)ersfition by the priests, tlii'\ | themselves wliolly under dependence to lii>: and ecclesiastics, who thus disposed of the stiJ their pleasure. The conse(|uence was, that t;iM ments, at first alterable only by the will iif| King, passed eventually to the children, or of those who were merely administrators, or sirl intendaiits, of them. Chailcs the Raid, first King of France, h;iil weakness to constitute this dani,'erous priii info a standing law, in the parliament vliii held at ('liiersi {S77), towards the close nl | reign. He even extended this iirinciple gein to all fiefs; to those that held immediately ell crown, us well as to those which held of laic,| ecclesiastical superiors. 'J'his new and exorbitant power of the nn'I joined to the injudicious partitions already i;I tioned, tendeil to sow fresh discord anioiurr ditlerent members of the state, by exciting a i| titude of civil wars and domestic feuds, whir a necessary conse(pience, brought the whole W ])olitie into a stale of decay and dissolution. Iiistory of the successors of Charlemagne jirc^ a sad picture, humiliating and distressing to inanity. Lvery page of it is tilled with instil tions, devastations, and carnage : jirinces, sp: from the same blood, armed against eacli n' breathing unnatural vengeance, and bent | mutual destruction : the royal authority iii' and despised by the nobles, who were perpitj at war with each other, either to decide private (juarrels, or aggian(li/.e themselves a! expense of their neighbours; i ud, tinallv, citizens exposed to all kinds of op|, ession, n to misery and servitude, withou, the hop| possibility of redress from the government, was the melancholy situation of the Stati ccmiiosed the Lmpire of Charlemagne, wliiiij irruption of new barbarians, the Normans tnin: extremities of the North, and the Hungariaii> the hack settlements of Asia, exjiosed it afir the terrible scourge of foreign invasion. The Normans, of (ierman origin, and hilialii!| ancient Scandinavia, that is to say, Sweden, mark, and modern Norway, began, fowanis | end of the eighth century, to cover the seti their ships, and to infest sviccessively all the J Kclii;iim nCOdiii. ,111111.111 S,M-kiii(!9. ',irH hiirki'ii. rKllIOD II. A.l). SIH)_0C,'>. Itiiric. Ii'i'laiiil iiiMidi'il. DiiKi' Itiill.i, nr llMlvrt. Lc ((lasts of F.unii)(\ l)iiiiii(f llic spaco of two lilrcil years, tlicv coiiti miciI their ineursioiis ](|i v:i>tatiiins, with a lie ess and perseveraiu'c ' SUM issrs all imafjiiiatiiui. 'I'liis plieiiiiiiieiuiii, tc\er, is easily explained, if we attend to the Ic (if harbarisMi in which the inhabitants of iidinavia, in (general, were at that time pliuit,'ed. tpisihK ajjricnltnre and the arts, they found liiselves luialile to draw from Hshinn and the ic the necessary means even for their scanty histeiice. The ciimfortahle circumstances of dr iici^'hhours, who cultivated their lands, ex- |(l their cupidity, and invited tlu'ni to ac(|uire Iferce, piracy, or plunder, what they had not RcieMt skill to procure liy their own industry, fv were, moreover, animated hy a sort of rcli- kis liiuatieism, which ins|iire(l them with coura;,'e 1 the most perilous enterprise. This reckless Icrstiliou they drew from the doctriiu's of Odin, was the ^'od of their armies, tiie rewarder of v.v and intrepidity in war, recciyiuf,' into his liuiisi' of I'dt/ntUa the lirave who fell lieneath swords of the enemy ; while, on the other Ll, the ahodo of the wretclied, called hy them \vitr, was prepared for those ^\ ho, ahandoneil base and elleminacy, preferred a life of tranipiil- t(i the f^lory of arms, and the perils of warlike Iciiture. I'liis doctrine, i;enerally dilFused over nil the |tli, inspired the Scandinavian youth with an (■|iid and ferocious coma;;!', which made them all dan(j:ers, ■ nd co'isider the sauisuinary Itli of warriors astiie sipc ,t path to immortality. CM did it haiipen that the sons of kiii;,'s, even ■m' who were already destined as successors to lir lather's throne, volunteered as chiefs of Btes and l)rijj;ands, uiuler the name of Svn b(/N, solely for the purpose of ohtaininir u name, siijiialiiiinff theniselvt's by their maritime ex- lits. Iiese piracies of the Normans, which lit f-lrst (■ limited to the seas and coinifries border! ni; IScanilinavia, soon extended over all the western siuithern coasts of Kin'ope. (icrnuiny, the L'lloins of liorraine, France, l",n(flaud, Scotland, land, Spain, \\w Ualearie Isles, Italy, (irecce, (•\en the shores of Africa, were exposed in lir turn to the insults and the ravages of these [liarians.* France more especially suH'ered from their i'.- |si(iiis, under the feeble reiitiis of Charles th(> I, and Charles the Fat. Not content with havoc which they made on the coasts, they rniled the Seine, the Loire, the liaronne, and Uliiiue, carry im; tire and sword to the very lire (if the kin;;d(im. Nantes, Anijers, Tovu's, bi-i, Orleans, Mons, i'oitiers, Uourdeaux, llouen, k-is, Sens, i.aon, Soissons, and various other Ics, experienced the fury of these invaders, lis was three tinu's sacked and i)illa!,'e(l by them, jliirl the Stroiii;, a scion of the royal House of liil, whom Charles the Hald had created (S(ll) Ike or (iovernor of Neustria, was killed in battle III) while comhatiuf,' with success ai,'ainst tlio Innans. At leni^'th, the terror which they had je;iil everywhere was such, that the French', who Jiililcd at the very nauu' of the Normans, had liiMf^er coura;,'e to encounter them in arms ; ii; order to rid themselves of such foriniduhle hiies, they consented to purchase their retreat by a fuim of money ; a wretched and feeble re- medy, which only au'irravated the evil, by incitiui? the invaders, by the hope of gain, to return to the charge. It is not however at all astonishing, tliat France should have been exposed so long to these incur- sions, since, besides the iuillicient stale of that monarchy, she had no vessels of her own to pro- tect her coasts. The nobles, occupied solely with the care of augmenting or conlirmiug their grow- ing Jiower, olfered but a feeble opposilion to the Normans, whose presence \\\ the kingdom caused a diversion favourable to their views. Some of them even had no hesitation in joining tin- bar- barians, when they happened to be in dis;,'race, or when they thought fhi'y had reason to complain of the goverinneut. It was in conseqneiicf of tlu"se numerous expe- ditions over all the seas of Kurope, that tin- mo- narchies of the North were formed, and that tlu- Normans succeeded also in fomuling several other stales. It is to them that the jiowerful monarchy of the Unssians owes its origin ; H\uie the Normau is allowed to have been its foinider, towards the middle of the ninth century.' He and the grand (hikes, his successors, extended their con(|uests from the lialtic and the ^Vhite Sea, to the Fuxine ; and during the tenth century they made the emperors of the Fast to trendih^ on their thrones. In their native style of piratical warfare, they embarked on the Dnieper or liorysthenes, infested with their tlccls the coasts of the Ulack Sea, carrieci terror and dismay to the gates of Constantinople, and obliged the (ireek emjierors to ]iay them large sums to redeem their capital from pillaije. Ireland was more than once on the point of being subdued by the Normans, durini{ these jii- ratieal excursions. Their tirst invasion of tins ind staled to have lieen in the year 7'.)."). (■real ravages were committed by tlie barbarians, wlio compuTed or founded the cities of ^Valerford, Dublin, and Limerick, which they formed into sejiarate jietty kingdoms. Christianity was intro- duced among them towards the middle of the tenth century ; and it was not till the twelfth, the lime of its invasion by the Fnglish, that they succeeded in expelling them from the island, ■when they were dispossessed of the cities of Waterford and" Dublin ( 1 170) by Henry II. of England. Orkney, the Hebrides, the Shetland and Faroe Islands, and the Isle of Man, were also discovered and ])eoi)led by the Nin-mans." Another colony of these Normans ])eo|)led Iceland, where they founded a rejiublic (S74), which preserved its independence till nearly the middle of the thir- teenth century, when that island was (•on(iuere(l by the Kings of Norway.^ Normandy, in France, also received its naj le from this people. Charles the Simjile, wishinu; to jtut a check on their con- tinual incursions, concluded, at SI. Clair-sur-Fple (ill','), a treaty with Uollo or Uolf, chief of the Normuns, by wliieli lie abandoned to them all that part of Neustria which reaches from the rivers Andelle and Aure to the ocean. To this he added a ])art of ^ Cxin, situated between the rivers Andelle and I'.pte ; asalsothe territory oflhe- ..iLrne, Hollo embraced Christianity, and received the bn))tisnial name of Kobert. lie submitted to bcconiij ii vassal of the crown of Franco, under the 5 .1 5: niMiu;iriiin inrciitiK. .'(t Ili'iirv 1. (it (iiTiimny. (Illici ilii' (inal. KOCirs UI.VOLLTIONH. AU'ri'il tin' (iriiiit. Sliilii iirit'ariiin;{, Kir ill Kiiiiljuiil. title tit' Duke lit' Niirniiiiulj ; and o1)ti\iiirii in iiiiir- liiif,'!' the |iiiiiri'ss (ii>{lit(r (if Cliiuli-i the Siiii|ili'. In till' t'dlldw iii^ ci'iiliiiN , \M' sliiill iiii'i't witli tlii'sc Niiiiiiiiiis 111' I'luiicc as till' (•(iii(|iirniis (if Iji^hiiiii, anil tlic I'dUiulri'H nl' tlic kiiii^ilniii nl' tlic t\V(i SicilicN. 'Till' lliin^Mi'iaiis, II |M'(i|ili> Dfl'iiikisli m- riiinibh oiiyiii, cniiniMtcil, as is ifrm riilly mi|hhisi(I, I'ldlii lliisiliiria, a riiuiilry I) in^f tii lln' iimtli nl' tiif i'ii>|iliiii Sen, liitwi 111 till' Willi;!!, Ilic Kiiiiiii, 1111(1 Aldiiiit I nil, mar the siiiirci' dl' the 'I'lilidl and the Jaik, lie iiiddciu I'riil. 'I'lic Orientals dcsiifiiatc tliiiii li\ tile ^'ciiciic name of 'I'lirks, while tliey deiiiiiiiiiiatc llieiiisehes .\l
  • UMiid the d|i|il'essi(iiis of the I'al/.iliaeites ;" and estahlished theinseUes (SST) ill ancient Dacia, iinili r Ihe a(is|ii('es (if a chief nanieil Ai'jiad, fidiii wlidiu till' ancient soxMcinns of lluii<;!iry ileiiM' tlieii' nrigiii. Ai'niil|ili, Kin;; of (iirinany, eniployeil these lliin^arians (Si)'.') anaiiist the Sla\d-.Mdi-a\ians, whii |)(issessed ii lliiiii'ishiii^' state on the hanks iif the I)aiiiihe, the Mmaii and the I'.lhe.'- While enj,'ai,'eil in this expeditidii, they were atla(ked ayaiii in their Dacian piis^cssidns hy the I'at/.inaciles, \\lid suc- (■(■( (led at leni:lh in evpellin^' them tVdiii these l( nitdries.'-' Takiiiy: ail\aiitaj,'e afterwards of the (hath of Su ialiipnlk, kiiii; of the Mora\ians, and llie trimhles Cdiise(|neiil on that event, they dis- severed from .Mora\ia all the cdnntiy which ex- li mis from the frontiers of Mnldavia, Wallachia, and 'l'ransU\ania, to tlie Dannlii' and the Moran. 'I hey CdiKinered, ahont the same time, I'annonia, with a part of Noricuni, which they had wrcsl.-d from the (Jernians ; and thns laid the foundation of a new state, known since by the niiine of II un- piry. Mo sooner had the Ilnnf,Mriaiis estalilished themselves in I'anminia, than they coinmenced their incursions into the principal states of l",in(>|)e. (iermaiiy, Italy, and (iani, agitated hy fai ion and anarchy, and even liie (ireeian em|)ire in tin Mast, hecame, all in their turn, the hldody scene ot their ra\a;;es and devastations, (ierniany, in particular, for a IdiiK time felt the eU'ects i f theii fury. All its provinces in succession were laid waste hy these harharians, and com^ii'lled to pay thiMii trihiite. Henry I., Kini? ol Cierjnaiiy, iind his son Otho the (ireat, at l<'u;ftttj Miiicce«(lcd in ar- restinu; their destructive '■•.ireer, aiitl delivered Ihiiope from this new yoke w liich threatened its in(le|i('ndence. It "as in coi)se(pience of these iiiciirsiiilis of Ihe lliimrarians and Normans, to which ma\ he added those of the Arahs and Slavonians, tin' the kingdoms wiiieli HpraiiK from tlie cmjiire of I'ranks lost once more the ailvantatfcs whii Ir pnlilical iiislilntions of ('haileiiiai;ne had prnrii them. licarnin^', which tint priiici' had em nn;e(l, fell into a state of ahsoliite lani;nor ; aii< was put lidlli td civil and literary improvenieiil, the deslriiction of convents, schools, and lihran the polity and internal security of the states u destroyed, and commerce leduceil to noflii; I'lliKiand was the only exception, which then < jdjed a transient i;lorj under the memorahle luj of Mfred the (ireat, who succeeded Klhehn H7'J. 'I'liaf prince, >,'riiiidsou of kin« l',i;l expelled the NonnaiiH from Ihe island (HH7), restored peace and tranipiillity to his kinui Alter the example of ('harlema^'iie, he eullivi' and protected learninix and the arts, hy reslm; the convents !ind schools which Ihe harharians I destroyed ; invitinff pliildsd|)herK and artists In' cdiirl, and eivili/.iiif; his suhjecis hy literaij i stilnlidiis and wise ref;iilations.'* It is toliir uretted, that .i rei^tn so ^dorioUH^was no v. lolliiwed hy new misforlnnes. After the Nor •lie Danes reappeared in lliiuland, and oveisjiii, it once more with tnrhnlence si. id desolation. During; these uni idiuhteiied and calaniih times, we tind Ihe art of iiaviifation niakini,'i"i siderahle progress. The Normans, Iraversim;! seas perpetuallv with their lleets, learned to i": struct llieir vessels with ureater jierfei lion, lu ' I (line heller skilled in wind and weathci , ami ' use their oars and sails with more address, was, moreover, in eonsiMpieuce of these invasini llial more correct inl'ormalioii was ohtaineil r yarilintc Scandinavia, and the remote rei:idii> Ihe North. 'I'wo Normans, Woll'slane and Olh^ til,' one fiMin Jtitland, and the other from NUrui n iderlook ■leparate voyages, in course of the iiii; century, principally with the view of making' n. ritime discoveries. Woll'slane proceeded to vi- tliaf )iart of Prussia, or the A'.sYo/i/V; of the aiicicn' which was renowned for its produce of veil ainher. Other did not eonline his adventmi^ the coasts of the Itallic ; siltin)i out from the |i' of Ilelindland, his nalive country, he iliiiiM Cape .North, and ailviinced as far as Iliariiiii:, the 'iioutli of the Dwiiia. in the ]irdvinee of .Xni aiii^'l. lidtli he and Wolfslane eiiminnnicatcil tli (lipids of their voya^'es In .Mfred the (ireat, »\. Ill (lie use of them in his Aiiglo-Su.xoii traiislalji of Orosius. Hesides Icelaml and the Northern Isles, of vvlii we have already spoken, we Iind, in the tm: century, some of tlie liii^itive Normans peoplii: ( ireeidand ; and others forinin;^ settlements r I'iuland, which some suppose to he the islaiul' Newfoundland, ia North America." {KiiiKil'ini (if (JiTtniinv 5II.IUA I., iirilie I'uhI lOlhiillii' (Jri'iit. ruo.M orm lull' most of the llielilliered empire I Ihe prey of disdid ■ ei'iiianv assumed Is iiiainlained the ( rr ill l'.nrd|i('. It Ithe peace (if Verdi I.iuiis the ( ieriii bille. At that liiii cantons of Spii side Ihe Khim',al liiiid that river, v Ijiii'i' of the I'lank llie. Id the Alps ai ircial of the* Shivia larics. Muiii the tirst fori aiithdiity was Iriiian, in an assei I'liriiially enifa^ed t hits iiiitl /iriri/ri/i s ; ; iiiiit to i-iJiiniili tfl riiiiiljiitiirs ill III! Ic slates, hdVVever, s kiMsehes the ri^ht o ■I ('arl(iviii;;ian nioi lilary. i.ouis the ]ii;iliiiii amon<; his liiis the Vduiif;, I larles liaviii)? heeii i I'lankl'dit (SH7), tl Ins place Arnulph tis prince added Id perial (lif,'nity. 1 lie ciistdin of ele \\\\ iliivvn to moder Infant, son of rmie hy election ; a rv yiMin;f (ill 1 ), the French iidhlem Ike or fjdvernor nf latcil hy the female Vnail i.ioimtcd the iirlcs the Simple, Ic and leijilimate 1 |lis latter prince, Ik kiiiirdom of Lorra Id iiniu'xed to the ( |iith of Conrad I. (!) Ill Henry I., sum k' Saxdii dynasty of Vnuaiiy. |lt was to the valoii , and to his instil iit rrmany was iiideht( liiil monarch, takin;j Jiiililcs which had ar Siiniile, recovered [Liirraine, the nohil Bssioii to him in tl |i'< union he extern Ivviirils the west, as Jlii'ld. The kintrs of le territory of Lorrai X- KiriKiUini of liiTmiiiiv. 'll.iiiA 1 . or till' I'lmliT. oiliii till' (irc'iii. riUllOI) III. A.I). !M12— 1074. Caiiiilc till* (iriMt. Kiiii{ III |l<'iiiii;irk. •-'7 rKRHM) III. iKOM oiiio rill' cur.Ai' lo (iiMUioiiv 'riii; (iiii.\i'. a. d. dc? -kiti. ■iiii; iiiDNt 1)1' llir hIiitcM timl s|ii!iiii,' iViiiii ihc IiiiiiiImtiiI ciiiiiin' nt' tlif FiMiiks coiiliiiucd Id [iIk' iii'i'v of ilisiii'ili'i' mill uiiiii'i'lix, llic Uiiiifiiiim iniiiiiiiN iiMsiiiiiid M iii'W liinii, mill I'lir si'm-hiI |H jiiiiiiiliiiliril till- riiann'liT nl' brill:; llic nililii; n r ill liiiiiipi'. It WHS iTi rtcil iiilii a iiiiuiiirrliv Ithi' |iriii i' N'liilim (XIH)' "I"' 'i"'l '""' ''" "i''' l.iiiiis tlir (ii riniiii, scniiul Miii cit' I.iiiiis llii' llilli'. At thill liiiic it cniiiiiiisrd, licsiili's llic riiiiluli.H lit' Spill', v. nniiN, mid Miimiicc, on siili' till' lihiiii'iiiil till' riiMiiti'i's mill pniviiii'i's liiiiil |li;it livcf, \sliiili hail hi'liniffcil to thi' |]iil'i: III' till' I'l'illlks, I'l'iHil till' I'iyilri' mill till' llic, to till' AlpN mill till' ciilililii's of I'aiilKiiiiii. ^I'lal (if till! Simian tiilics, also, wi'ir its tri- larirs. 'loiii till' lii'st fonnation of this kiiii;iliiiii, the fill aiithoi'ity was liiniliil ; ami Louis tlii' li'iuaii, ill mi assriiilily hrlil at Marsiic (S.")!), ■1 liiiiiiallv ('iii;af;i'il !ii mdinfiiiii llir xldtis in l/irir \/its inid /ii'in/i i/i X ; tn lullinr tin ir loinisrl tuiil ; mill tu foiisiilir tin m iin liis triir iiiHi luiiiis \l niiiiljiitiir.s ill all tin- ({tfitim n/ i/dicriinirnl. \v sillies, liowi'MT, soiiii fouiiil iMiaiis to vist in liiisi'lvi's the ii;,'hl of choosiiii,' llicir Uiiins. 'I'ln' It Cailoviiii^ian iiKiumclis of (icriiiaiiy wrrc lic- (itaiy. l.ouis flii' {iciniaii cvi'ii diviilcd his i:;iloiii anion;; his lliii'i' sons, vi/,., (ailonian, luis till' Youn^', and t'hailrs till' l''at ; lint larli's having been di'pnscd in an asscnibly liild I'raiikfoit (SH7), the slates of (icrinany elected his place Armilph, a natural son of ('ail'Miian. kis pi'iiice added In his crown hotli Ihilj and the ■ perial di);nity. fi lie custom of election has coiitinned in (icr- ^ii\ down to nioderii times, (..uin ri'.nfmit, oi- Infant, sou of .\riiiil|iii, sue •ceded to the (•ciiie liy election ; and tlwt piitwce having died ij jiiiiiiK (i'll). the st;itvs hr»rowi'd the cniwn rieiich iiohleiiimi, ii:»iiied Coiiiad, who was Ike (ir ^'ovenior of France on the Uliiiie, and latcil liy the female side to the Cuilovin^ian line, knrail Moiintid the throne, to the exclusion of paries the Simple, Kin^' of France, the only mid U'^'itiiiiate heir of the dmlovin^ian line. bis latter prince, however, fouii'' Mieiins to sei/.e kiii^'doni of Lorraine, whiih I. :iis the ^'"Uii;; Id annexed to the crown of (ieiinany. On the lath of Coiinid I. {'.tl!l), the choice o"f the states 11 (III Henry L, siiriiained the Fowler, a scion of r Saxon dynasty (d' llic kind's and emperors of Vniiaiiy. |lt was to the valour and the wisdom of Henry , and to Ills institutions, civil and military, that rniiany was indebted for its renewed ^'randeiir. Jiat iiioiiarch, takin;? aihanta^e of the intestine iiiihlcs which had arisen in Fraiire under Charles Ic Siiii|)le, recovered possession of the kingdom lLi)riaiiip, the nobility of which made their sub- Kssiiin to him in the years UTA and ',)'2i). By lis uiiion he extended the limits of (iennany |\vai(ls the west, as far as the Mense and the 'liilil. The kiii^s of (jennany afterwards divided le territory of Lorraine into two f^overnnieuts or diichies, called I pper mid Lower Lorraine, 'I'lie former, situated on the .Moselle, was called the duchy of the Moselle; the other, bonndi'd by the IMiilie, the iMeuse, and the Sclield, was known by the mime id' Lolhiers or Hriili;iiil, 'I'liese two duchies coiiiprised all the prii\iiiei's of the kiiii;- dolii of Lorraine, except those which the eiiiperors jiidifcd proper to exempt from the aiilhority and iiirisdlclion of the dukes, 'I'he duchy of the Moselle, alone, liiially rclained the mime of Lor- raine ; and passed ( Itl-lS) to (ierard of Alsace, descended from the dukes of that iiame, who. In the eighteenth cenliiry, succeeded to the Imperial Ihldlie. As to the duchy of Lowei Lorraine, the I'.iiipeior Henry V. conferred it on (iodt'rey, ('(iimt of Loinain ( I lOfl), whose male desicndanls kept possession of it, under the title of Diikis of llrabanl, till lit.').'), when it passed by female succession to the Diikes of Huriciiiidy, who toiind iiiemis also to ac(|iiir(', by dei.'-rees, the L'realer part of Lower Lorraine, commonly called the Low (diintries. Henry L, a prince of extraordinary t''''i'iis. pro\('d hiiiiself the true restorer of the (ierniaii kiiiu'dom. 'I'lie Slavonian tribes who inhaliiled the hanks of the Siial, and the counliy between the Kibe and the Hallic, committed incessuit ravau'cs on the frontier provinces of the kingdom. Willi these he wa^ed a snccessfiil war, and re- duced them once more to the condition of trilni- laries. Itiit his policy was turned chielly auaiiist the Hunpirians, who, since the rei'.:u of Louis IL, had repeatedly renewed their incursions, and threatened to subject all (iirmatiy to their yoke. Desirous to repress ellectually that ferocious nation, he took the opportiiiiily of a nine years' truce, which he had oblaiii'd with them, to constnicl new towns, and foitify |ila('eH of slreiii;th. He instriicti'd his tidojis in a new kind id' tactics, accustomed Iheiii to military e^(•l^ltiolls, and, ahoM' all, he f riiied and cipiipped a ( ivalry sufKcient to ('(>])(' with those of the Hmi^ririans, who par- ticularly ('Veiled in the 'rl I'f maiia«;in«; lioiscs. 'lliese iUpredators haviii:; returneil with fresh forces ;, the expiry (d the truce, he comiileti'ly defeated them ii twn bloody battles, which he fixii^ht \\ ith tliei (llHH) Ilea' Sondershaiiseu and .Meresbiir:; ; and thus exonerated (iermaiiy from the tribute which .1 had formerly paid them.' This \i(torioi;- jirince extended his coiKiiiests beyond the I'.mIi r, the ancient frontier nf Den- mark. Aft( I a prosperous war with the Danes (lllil), he founded the maiTrravjite of Slcsw ick, wliiili the l''.ni|iei(ir Conrad II. afterwards ceded back (10:i:t) to Canute the Great, Kim; of Den- mark. Otho the (ireat, son and sucrossor of Henry I., added the kiiittdom of Italy to the coiu|nests of his father, and procured also tht> Imperial diixnity for himself, and bis suecessors in (iermany. Italy had become a distinct kingdom since tliere\olii- tiou, which liappened (SHS) at the death of the J''.mp('ror Charles the Fat. Ten princes in sne- cession occupied the throne during the space of -il 'I • «. a. .3 I'lnHicror of (Jcrmiiiiy. 2K .Icilm XI. ami XII. Topes. Ik'r('ni;c'r. Hit; .1, KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Otho crowned Gmperot ill Uomi*. Gcrmuii ilominion. scvc'iity-thrce years. Si-vcral of these prinres, such as Gviy, Lambert, Arnulf, Loiiis of Uur- giiiidy, and Bereii^'er I., -were iinestoil, at the same time, uith the Imj)erial ditjiiity. Berciiger L liaviiifj been assassinated (924), this latter diff- nity ceased entirely, and the eity of Home was even dismembered from the kinijdom of Italy. Tiie sovereiftnty of that city was seized by the famous Marozia, widow of a nobleman named Alberic. She raised her son to the pontificate by the title of John XL ; and the hetter to establish her dominion, she espoused Huffo King of Italy (i)U2), who became, in consecpience of this niar- ria},'e, master of Home. But Alberic, another son of Marozia, soon stirred up the jieople a);ninst this aspirini,' ])rincess and her husband Hujjo, llaviuif driven lluijo from the throne, and shut up his mother in prison, lie assimied to liiniself the sovereign authority, under tlie title of Patrician (if the Romans. At his ileath (!)54), he trans- mitte;ed himself to he elected pope, by the title of John XII. This epoch was one most disastrous for Italy. The weakness of the governnK'Ut excited factious among the nobility, gave birth to anarchy, and fresh opportunity for the depredations of the Hun- garians ami Arabs, who, at this period, were the scourge of Italy, wliicli they ravaged with impu- nity, i'avia, tile ca])ital of the kingdom, was taken, and burnt by the Hungarians. These troubles increased on the accession of Berenger II. (it.")0). grandson of Berenger I. Thiit prince associated his son Adelbert with him in the royal dignity ; and the public voice accused them of having caused the death ofKingLutliaire, son and successor of Hugo. Lotliaire left a young widow, named Adelaide, daughter of Uodolph II., King of Burgundy and Italy. To avoid the importunities of Berenger II., who wished to compel her to marry his sou Addbcrt, this ])rinccss called in the King of Germany to her aid. Otho complied with the solicitations of the distressed (pieen ; and, on this occasion, undertook his first expedition into Italy (!).")!). The city of Pavia, and several other places, having fallen into his bands, he made himself be proclaimed King of Italy, and married the young eror, had made with that prince. Afterwards, however, he lent a favourable ear to tiie complaints which Pope John XII., and some Italian nohlemeii had addressed to him agnii.,-! Berenger and his son ; and took occasion, on tlit:| account, to conduct a new army into Italy (ilili Berenger, too feeble to oppose him, retiicil second time within his fortitieations. Otho niarclitj from Pavia to Milan, and there made himself crowned Kuig of Italy ; from thence he passed Home, about the commencement of the followitf year. Pope John XII., who had himself inviifl him, and again implored his protection agaiiKl Berenger, gave liini, at first, a very brilliant r'| ception ; and revived the Imperial dignity in t. favour, which had heeu dormant for thirty-eii'; years. It was on the 2d of Fehruary, 002, that iff Pope consecrated and crowned him Emperor ; bj he had soon cause to repent of this proceedi Otho, immediately after his coronation at Uimiil undertook the siege of St. Leon, a fortress Umbria, where Berenger and his Queen had t;ike| refuge, AVhile engaged in the siege, he reccivfl frecpient intimations from Rome, of the miscondtfr and immoralities of the Pope. The remonstraiir.J which he thought it his duty to make on ll, subje<'t, ofl'ended the young Pontiff, who resoUiv in consecpience, to break off union with l!] Kmpenu'. Hurried on by the impetuosity of I character, he entered into a iiegociation wi:j Adelbert; and even persuaded him to coiiii' i| Koine, in order to concert with him measuns defence. On the first news of this event, Oti ])ut himself at the head of a large detachment, \vi!;| which he marched directly to Rome. The I'dir however, did not think it advisable to wait ill approuch, hut fled with the King, his new iillvl Otho, on arriving at the capital, exacted a soli'ir.J oath from the clergy and the jieople, that hciuf- forth they would elect no po])e without his couiisfJ and that of the Kniperor and his successors." ll;nl ing then assembled a council, he caused Pope Jii!:' XII. to he deposed ; and Leo VIH. was eleetcil his place. This latter Pontiff was maintained 1 the pajiacy, in spite of all the eH'orts which bl adversary made to regain it. Berenger II., \\M having sustained a long siege at St. I,eon, fcl length (il()4) into the hands of the conipieror, \\\\ sent him into exile at Bamberg, and compelleil I sou, Adelbert, to take refuge in the court of Coii| stantinoiile. All Italy, to the extent of the ancient kingdnnl of the Lombards, fell under the dominion of Ihf (iermans; only a few maritime towns in Lowif Italy, with the greater part of Apulia and Cil labria, still remained in the power of the (irei'kJ This kingdom, together with the Imperial digail'j Otho transmitted to his successors on the thimi'l of (Jermany. From this time the (iermans liclil;! to be an Inviolable principle, that as the Imperii] dignity was strictly united with the royalty Italy, kings elected by the (lernian nation sIkhiIcI at the same time, in virtue of that election, bcc(iiK| Kings of Italy and Emperors. The practice of tln' triple coronation, viz., of Clermany, Italy, iiiii Rome, continued for many centuries ; and fiwJ Otho the (ireat, till Maximilian l.(l.')OS), no kiiil of (iermaiiy took tlie title of Eni])eror, until al'lil be had been formally crowned hy the Pope. The kings and emperors of the house Saxony did not terminate their eonijuests with Ik'l dominions of Lorraine and Italy. Towards the (';i4 Saxon dynasty, extinct. KraMConian or Salic dynasty. PERIOD III. A.D. 902—1074. Kingdom of l!iii'i;uiidy. Diiki.'s ol' /.alirintji'n. Switu'riaiid. 20 Ll the north, they extended them beyond the kal and the Elbe. All the Slavonian tribes be- Jpecn the Havel and the Oder ; the Abotritos, the lliedariiins, the Wikiaus, the Slavonians ou the [avol, the Sorabians, the Daleminciuns, the Lusi- lians, tlie Milzians, and various others ; the dukes leu of Bohemia and Poland, althougli they often kok up arms in defence of their liberty and inde- Biidonce, were all reduced to subjection, and aj^ain pmpelled to pay tribute. In order to secure their blimission, the Saxon kings introduced German bloiiies into tlie conquered countries ; and founded tcre several niargravates, such as tliat of the North, this side of the Elbe, afterwards called Bran- eiiburg ; and in the East, those of Misnia and lusatia. Otho the Great adopted measures for romulgating Christianity among them. The bi- lioiiric of Oldenburg in Wagria, of Havelburg, Jrandenburg, Meissen, Merseburg, Zeitz ; those Posnania or Posen, in Poland, of Prague in koheraia; and lastly, the metropolis of Magdeberg, hi owe their origin to this monarch. His grand- jon, the Emperor Otho III., founded (in 1000) lie Archbishopric of Gnesna, in Poland, to which lo siil)jected the bishojirics of Colberg, Cracow, liid Hreslau, reserving Poseu to the metropolitan \ee of Magdeburg. The Saxon dynasty became extinct (1024) with die emperor Henry II. It was succeeded by that If Fraiiconia, commonly called the Salic. Conrad 11,, the Hist emperor of this house, united to the jciman crown the kingdom of Burgundy ; or, as is sometimes called, the kingdom of Aries. I'liis monarchy, situate between the Khinc, the ^I'uss, Mount Jura, the Saone, the Rhone, and Ihc Alps, had been divided among a certain nuin- per of counts, or governors of provinces, who, in loiise(iueiice of the weakness of their last kings, Toiirad and Rodolph III., had converted their lemporary jurisdictions into here1iu|iri('s. itoyai Citi,, 'tcJriliiig to this system, the whole of ChristL-iuloin coiiiiJOsL'tl, iis it were, a simple and iiiilividuiil ro- 'public, of which the l'oj)e was the spiritual head, and tlie Enipeior the secular. The duty of the latter, as head and patron of the Ch\neh, was to take cognizance that nothing- should he done con- trary to the general welfare of Christianity. It was his pari to protect the Catholic Church, to be the guardian of its preservation, to convocate its general comu'ils, and exercise such rights as the natiue of his office and the interests of Christianity seenu'd to deinaiul. It was in virtue of this ideal system that the emperor.; enjoyed a ])recedency over other nio- iiarchs, with tlie exclusive right of electing kings ; and that they had hestowecl on them the title of niiisters of the world, and sovereign of sovereigns. A more important juerogntive was that whicii they jiossessed in the election of the Popes. From Otlio the (ireat to Henry IV., all the Uoman ])ontitfs were ciiosen, or at least contirined, by tlie emperors. Henry 111. deposed three sehismatical popes (10-4()), and sidistituted in their ])lace a (iernian, who took tlie iiaiiic of Clement II. The same emjii ror afterwards noiuiiiated various other popes of his own nation. However vast and formidable the power of these nionaichs seemed to be, it was nevertheless fir from being a solid and durable filiric ; and it was easy to foresee that, in a short time, it would cruiulile and disappear. Various causes eons])ir("d toacielerate its downfall; tlie first and principal of wliicli necessarily sprang t'rom the constitution of file empire, which was fiully in itself, and incoiii- jiatible with any scheme of aggraudisemeiit or conipiesf. A great empire, to prolong its dura- bility, requires a nerfect unity of |,o\ver, which can act with des])at<)i. and communicate with faci- lity from one extremity to the other; an armed f'oici' constantly on foot, and capable of niaintaiu- ing the public trani|uillity ; frontiers well defend, d against huslilc invasion; and revenues |)ropi.r- fioned to the exigencies of the state. All these eharacleiisties iif political greatness were want- ing in the (iermaii empire. 'I'hat empire was electlM' ; the states Cfi-operated joinlly with the emperors in the exercise of the legislative |)Ower. There were neither permtinent armies, nor fortresses, nor taxation, nor any regu- lar system of linance. The gdvi'rnment was with- out viu'oiir, incapable of pidtecfing or ]uinishing, or even keeping in suhjeclion, its remote provinces, consisting of nations wlio (lilfered in language, manners, and legislatimi. One insurrection, f liough (inellcd, was only the fori'runner of olbers ; and the comiuered nations shook off the yoke with the same facility as they received it. The perpetual wars of the emperors in Italy, fnmi the first con- (piest of that country by Otlio the (ireat, jirove, in a miinner most evulent, the strange iiuhecility of the government. At every change of reign, and every little revolution whicli hap|iened in (ler- immy, the Italians rose in arms, and put the ein- jierors again to the iiei'cssity of reconipiering thai kingdom ; which undoubtedly it was their interest to have abandoned entirely, rather than to lavish for so many centuries their treasures and tiie blood of their people to no jiurpose. The climate of Italy was also disastrous to tli<' Imjierial iirmies ; and many snecessions of noble Cierman families found there a foreign grave. An inevitable consequence of this vitiated (< stitiition, was the decline of the royal autlidr;-] and the gradual increase of the power of the bility. It is important, however, to remark,! in Uermany the progress of the feudal system ; been much less rapid than in l'"rauce. The th\\l counts, and margraves, that is, the governors [ provinces, and wardens of the marches, contiiiJ for long to he regarded merely as iiiiperial oHiu without any jiretensions to consider tii"ir govtrl nieiits as hereditary, or exercise the rights of sii. reignty. Even fiefs remained for many ag their primitive state, without being perpetuatdl the families of those to whom they had been i ginally granted. A total change, however, took place tow;, the end of the eleventh century. The dukes; counts, become formidable by the extent of tl.J power and their vast possessions, liy degrees, (if stituted themselves hereditary ofticers ; ami content with the appropriation of their duehics; counties, they look advantage of the weakniv the emperors, and their (piarrels with the piiJ fo extort from them new privileges, or tisur]i ij prerogatives of royalty, formerly resened for J enipi rms alone. The aristocracy, or landed ]i: Jirietors, followed the example of the ilukes ;, counts, and after the eleventh century the, began to jilay the part of sovereigns, styling III. selves, ill their public acts, By i/ic Grace of (', At length tiet's became also hereditary, Cdur II. was the first emperor that permitted the tiaJ mission of fiefs to s(ms and grandsons; the - cession of collateral branches was subseciiii:.! introduced. The system of hert'ditary feudulif became thus tiiiuly established in (iermany, a I by a natural eonseipience, it brought on the I struction of the imperial imtliorit_\, and the mil I the em])ire. j Nothing, however, was more injurious tn i:J authority than the extra\agant power of the clii; I whom the enipeiurs of the Saxon line had IdiuiJ i with honoins ami benefactions, either from :i /j ' for religion, or \\\\\\ the intention of using tlicn.J I a counterpoise to thi' ambition of the tinker iij secular nobility, it was I'hiefly to Otho the (i i that the hishups (;f (iermany were indebted :| tlu'ir Iem]ioial piiv\er. That prin<-e hestowitl Ihi'in large giants of land from the imperial il ' mains; he gave lluni towns, counties, and en!;.| I diikediims, with the prerogatives of royalty, m;i| i as justiciary powers, the riiilit of coining miunr of levying tidls and other public revenues, Al 'I'hese rights and privileges be granted llieiui;:! der the feudal law, and on condition of remlcii-l him military servitude. Neverthi-lcss, us the jiosal (d' ecclesiastical dignities belonged then il the crown, and liefs had not, in general, hecunl hi'ieditary, the Emperor still retained possessioii those which he conferred on the clergy: tlics( : bestowed on vvlionisoever he judgi'd proper, ii-i them, however, always in conformity with bis onJ views and interc-ts. The same policy that induced Otho to tr;iii bislio])s a large ])ortion of his doiii;ii;ii led him also to intrust them with the governiiufl of cities. At that time, there was a distiiicliif of (owns into royal iind jtrvfcctorial. The liilil were dependent on the dukes, while the fornul subject immediately fo the king, irave rise to v\i Ifjri'uory VII., I'opo. I Oinniiitdi^ ('ali|)lis. 1 Saiiflio, kiiiK (if Niivi: since been cnllc Ise royal cities tlia jiractice of eslab 1 or jnngistrates, fc bts of justice, civ i:y-ney, customs, lives usually re ^ferred the countii I'le a bishop reside in jirocess of t rer to subject tbesi and render then B(l of being imnwii ifinally. he successors of C Itated his "xaniple. isions of the cro' ^lothing, and the ai tied with the diniii jliops, at first dev( nil necessity and gri lir own strength, Ike use of it. and t ler to sap the imp hsolidate their owi pscs (if the downfall I new power of the Iwliich is ascribed I'dllowiiv" I'eriod, Ire ill 'i( 1 'ai a SUCCll : - i. , l| k'illil this !■.:■: '. ,. I fj'lie (lynasiy ol the ( Diit the middle of l Ined in the elevent j)|icn((l at Cordova |it prince was dethro I ended in 1()27. pvinces, and tiie prii lined tlleiiiselves in :ler the title (d" kii biietaii Stiit('i rose i llicipal cities, 'i'he Ire the kingdoms o ilion, Saragossa, To ^is partition of the [iriiices of Chris 111 power at the e\ Isidcs the kingdoms Islcd in Spain, at Iveiith icnlury, the Il liecn disniciiilieif( ^1 the county of liari sovereignty of tin Siiiicho the "Creat. Is 111' to miile in bis ovi Icicigiities, with th \\ IIS this occurred ni siniction of tli liilil have been easy ■iiiii|)let(' ascendene K had kc;it their W L\;narie fell into t hi so f.itid to the M piiiiiioiis aiinuig his ' eldest, had Naviirn L' line of Navarres fill d'Alhrct, was de '■ Catholic. From \ |ii!,'of Eenn and Cast [(iri'Kory VII.. Tope. ()mniiii(li' I'liliplis. [ Saiiclio, kiiiK "f Navr.rio. PERIOD III. A.l). !)(!2— 1074. IIii;,'li ('ii\)et, I'dUlllkT ol'ii I'li'uch DviMsty. 31 since been called imperial cities. It was in ■sc royal cities that tlio Gcrnian kinsj;H were in I practice of eslablisliin;^ counts and liuigonias- I or jTia!!;ist rates, to exercise in tlieir name the hts of justice, civil and criminal, the levying -ncy, customs, iScc. as well as other pre- fc;ij,cs usually reserved to the king. Otlio ll'erred the counties, or goveruorshiiis of cities ■ere a bishop resided, on tlie bishops tiieniselves, in process of time, made use of this new vcr to subject thesi' cities to their own autbo- t, and render them midinte and cpi.sco/jal, in- bd of being imtnvdiatv and royal as they were uinally. be successors of Otho, as impolitic as himself, llaled Ills I'xiimple. In eonse(iuence of this, tlu' cssiims of the crown were, by degrees, reducer their court. A change of dynasty became then indispensable ; and the throne, it was evident, must fall to the share of the most ])owerful and daring of its vassals. This event, which bad long been i'oreseeii, happened on the death of Louis v., surnamed the Slothful (!IS7), the last of the Carlovingians, who died childless at the age of twiuity. lingli Capet, great-grandson of Uidiert the Strong, possessed at that time the central parts of the kingdom. He was Count id' I'aris, Duke of France and Neustria ; and bis brother llelirj was master of the duchy of Hurgundy. It was not didleult for Hugh to fm-m a party; and under their auspices he got himself ]iroclainied king a( Noyon, and crowned at Klieims. Charles Duke of Lorraiii, jiaternal uncle of the last king, and sole legitimate heir to the Carlovingian line,'' ad- vanced bis claims to the crown : be seized by force of arms on Laoii and Uheims ; but being betrayed by the Uishop id' Laoii, and ilelivered up to his rival, he was contined in a prison at Orleans, \\ here be ended bis da_\s ((till). Hii^b, 1.11 miiiinting the throne, restored to the |iossession of the crown the lands and domiuions v\bicli had belonged to it between the Loire, the Seine, and the Meuse. His jiower gave a new lustre to the royal dignity, which he found means to render beredit;ir\ in his family; while at the same time he permitted the grandees to transmit to their descendants, male and female, the duchies and counties wliicli they held of the crown, re- serving to it merely the feudal supeiiority. Thus the t'eudal government was lirnily eslablished in France, l,v the hereditary tenure of (he great iiefs ; and that kingdom was in conseiiucnce divided among a certain num' cr id' powerful vassals, who rendered fealty and homage to their kings, and miirched at their coiiimaiid on military expeditions ; Init who nevertheless were nearly absolute masters in tlieir own dominions, and often dictated the law to the sovereign himself. Hugh was the jiro- genitor of tiie Capetian dynasty of French kings, SI) called from bis own surname of Capet. Kngland, iluriug the feeble reigns id' the Anglo- Saxon priiici s, successors to Alfred the (iteal, had sunk under the dominion of priests and monks. ! -H •.X Danes, Kiiiijs m En<,'l:uii()rniiin ganisons. The lands and places of trust, of wliich he had deprived tiie English, were distributed r.mong the Js'orniaiis, and other foreigners who were attached to his fortunes. He introduced t\\^ feudal law, and rendered fiefs liereditary ; he ordered the English to be dis- armed, and forbade them to have light in their houses after eight o'clock in the evening. He I'ven attempted to abolish the language of the country, by establishing numerous sciiools fir teaching tlie >>onnan-Freiicli ; by publishing the laws, and ordering the pleadings in the courts of justice to be made in that !. uguage ; hence it liappened that the ancient Uritish, coiubined with till' Norman, formed a new sort of language, which still exists in the modern English. Willia'ii thus became ihe common ancestor of tlie kings of Eng- land, whose right to the crown is derived from him, and founded on the (^oiKpiest. ^\bout the time that William concpiered Eng- land, another colony of the same Norimuis founded the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The several jjrovinces of which this kingdom was composed were, about the bi'ginning of the eleventh cenlury, divided among the Uermaiis, Greeks, and Ara- bians,'' who were incessantly Waging war with each other. A band of nearly a hundred Nor- mans, equally covetous of war and glory, landed in that country (lOK!), and tendend their services to the Lombard princes, vassals of the German empire. The iiravery which they dis|)layeil on vaiious occasions made these princes desirous of retaining the.n in their pay, to serve as gu.irdi.ms of their frontiers against the Greeks, and Arabians. The Greek princes very soon were :io h .,i eager to gain their services ; and the Duke of Naples, with the view of attaching them to his interest, ceded to them a large territory, where tiiey built the city of Aversa, three leagues from Capua. Tlie Emperor Conrad H. erected it into a, county (1038), the investiture of which he graiittj Hainulph, one of their chiefs. At this sa4ne period the sons of Tancrcd ducted a new colony from Normandy into La Italy. Their arrival is generally referred tui year lOUIl ; and tradition has assigned to 'i'liiii a descent from Rollo or llobert 1. Duke of .\l mandy. These new adventurers undertook [ conquest of Ajmlia (1041), which they t'urj into a county, the investiture of which tlici [ tained from Henry III. llobert Guiscanl, of the sons of Tancred, afterwards (1047) i pleted the conquest of that province ; he aildi it that of Calabria, of which he iiad also d('])rj the Greeks (10.)0), and assci'ied the title of IJJ of Apulia and Calabria. To secure himself in his now conquests, as J as in those which he yet i.. 'difated from tik empires, llobert concluded a treaty the same with Pope Nicholas II., by which that i'ontill' firmed him in the possession of the duclii.,1 Apulia and Calabria ; granting him not oiil investiturt- of these, but promising him als of Sicily, whenever he should expel the (jr-j and Arabians from it. llobert, in his twin, knowledged himself a vassal of ); while Kiiu'lanil ;uid Seodaud shook oil" the Danish yoke (lOfi), on Ihe p,h ol" Harilicaiiule ; and .Ma^'iius, Kinijol' Xor- I, even made hiinsell' master of Denmark, which Inot recover ils entire indei)endence until the Ih of that jirince (1047). Ihe ancient dynasty of Kini;swho occu|)ied the 111'' (if Denmark from the most remote a;;es Liiiiwii hy the name of Skiuldunys, heeause, Iriliiiir to a fahulous tradition, they were de- ,iled from Skiotd, a jjretended son of the j)iis Odin, who, from heing the conijueror, was Itcil into the deity of the >: is allei;-ed, from llejrner Lodhrok, 1 the title of Kinits of I psal, the jilace of their pence. Olans Skotkonuut,' elian|,'ed this title tliat of Kin^f of Sweden. He was the lirst liu'cli of his nation that endiraei'd Christianity, Icxerted himself to propa;,'ate it in liis kiiii,'- . Sijicfroy, Arehl)is]io|) of York, who was into Sweden hy I'.lhelied, Kiiiif of l',nf,dand, ii/i'il Olaus and liis whole t'amily (1001 ). 'ihe liT^iiin of the Swedes would have been more lilitious, had not the zeal of Ofuis liei n re- llii'd hy the Swedish Diet, who decided for full |l\ 111' conscience. Hence the stranne mixture, I of doctrine [iim' worship, that luni; prevailed lien, where Je^us Christ was profanely as ^li'il uith Odin, and the l'ai;an yodiless I'reya iiiiiiiled with the N ir;,'in. Anund Jac(iues, of Olaus, contrihuted much to tlie proifress of |8ti:mily; and his zeal procured him the title list (.'/iri.slian Kiiuj. Norway, Olaus 1., surnamed Tnji/i/iKsoii, IriU the end of the tenth centiu'y, constituted ell' the apostle and missionary of his people, liiiiilertook to ee ivert them to Christianity hy lie mill punishmeni. Iceland and tjreenland" J likewise converte'! hy his cU'rvts, and at'ler- |s hi'caine his tributaries (lO'J'.l). One of his s^^iiis, Olaus U., called the I'at, and also the , succeeded in extirpatinj; pa'ianism from luy (l()",*0); hut lie used the cloak of relif^inn It'.ililisii his own authority, hy destroyinj^ seve- I'lly kin|,'s, who bet'ore this time possessed I their own dominions. kristianity was likewise instrnnu'iital in throw- ■oine rays of li;;ht on the history of the Sela- ^11 iKitions, by impaitiiitj; to ihem the know- id' lelters, and raisiny; them in the scale of Irlance amon;; the civilizi'd nations oi" Kuro|)e. ISilaviinians, who were settled north of the liiiil been sididued by the (iermans, and com- to eiiihrace Christianity. The hani,ditiness linmir of Thierry, Mar;j:rave of the North, in- II llii'Mi to shake olf the yoke, and to concert a general insurrection, wVioh broke out in the reiitn of Otho II. (!)K2). The episcopid palaces, ' hurches and convents, were destroyed ; and the people returned once more to the superstitions of pa;^'anism. Those tribes that inhabited Hrauden- luirt;, |iart of I'omerania and Mecklenburt;, known formerly under the name of Wilziaus and \Ve- bita')es, formed themselves into a republican or federal body, and took the name of J.uitiziniis, The Abotrites, on the contrary, the I'olabes, and the Waifrians," were decidedly for a monarchical (government, the capital of .vhich was tixed at .Mecklenbui'!^. Some of the princes or soverei}j:iis of these latter people were styled Kiii;/s of the I'oicdi. The result of this jrenei'al revolt was a series of lon^ and bloody wars between the (jerm.ms and Sclavonians. The latter defended their civil and i-eliirious liljerties with a remark- able couraj^e iind perseveranc(> ; and it was not till after the twelfth century that they were subdued and reduced to C'hristianify by the continued efforts of the Dukes of Saxony, and the Mar- fjraves of the Xortb, and hy means of the crusades and colonies whieli the Oerinans despatched into their country. '" The Hrst duke of Bohemia that received bap- tism from the hands, as is supposed, of Metho- dius, bishop of Moravia (Sitl), was liorzivoy. His successors, however, returned to idolatry ; and it was not till near the end of the tenth century, proiicrly speakiiiL,', and iu the rei;;!! of IJoleslans II., surnamed the I'iiius, that ('hristi- anity became the estalilislud relit^'ion ot Hobemia (i''.t!l). These dukes were vassals and the tribu- taries of the (iermaii empire; and their tribute consisted of 500 silver marks, and I'JO oxen. They exercised, however, all the rinhts of sove- reii^uty over the people ; their reii^ii ^vas a system of terror, and they - 'Idom took the opinion or advice of their nobles and i;ranilees. The suc- cession was hereditary in the reiLfu i in; dynasty ; and the system of partition was iu use, otherwise the order of succession would have been tixed and permanent. Over a nuiiiber of these partitionary princes, one w;is vested with certain rinhts of superiority, under the title of Ciraiid I'rince, iU'eordini; to a custom foiuiil very (U'evalent aiuou;; the half-civilize 1 nations of the north and e;ist of i''.ur(ipe.' The itreater i)roi)ortion of the iiih:\'.)i- lants, the lahouriiii; classes, artisans, and .lomes- tics, were serfs, and oppressed hy the tyrannical yoke of their masters. The pidilic sale of men was even jiractised in Ihihemia ; the tithe, or tenth part of which, beliii:^"d to the sovereign. The descendants of Horzivoy possessed the throne of Hohemia until IIJOO, when tlie male line became extinct. The Poles were a nation whose name does not occur in history before the middle of the tenth century; and we owe to Christianity the lirst in- timations that we have rei;ardiii^' this people. Mieczislaus I., the lirst duke or prince of the l.'oles of whom we possess any authentic accounts, embraced Christianity (OOO)) at the solicitation of liis sjiouse Dambrowka, sister of HolHslaus II., duke of Hohemia. Shortly after, the lirst bishopric in I'oland, that of I'osen, was foiaided by Otho the (ireat. Christianity did not, however, tame th>v ferocious habits of the I'oles, who remained for a loni;' liiiH! without the least progress iu nien- D C'^ Oi i Itii.s>iiiii ilominioii. ;34 Vlailimir tlii' (irciit. (iraii'l Dukes iil' Ki.ti r of H.isil II. andConstan- j tine \III., Kmperors iif Coiistalitinoiile. It was this prince that inlniduccd the (ireek ritual into j Kus^^ia, and founded se\er,d schools and con\pnts. The alphabet of the (ireeks was imported into lins>^ia along with their re!ii;ion ; and from the nigii of \ ladiinir, that nation, more powerful and united than mo'^t <>( the other Ktiropean states, carried on a lucrative commerce with thelirei'k I'Mipire, of \\hich it became at len^ili a i'lrmidalile lival. At the death of that prince (101.")), Russia cemprehended those vast regions which, from east to west, extend from the ley Sea and the month of the Dwina, o the Nicmeii, the Dniester, and the Hug; and -oiithward of this last river, to the (' irjiathian Mnuntains, and the eonlines of Hun- gary and Moldavia. The city of Kiow, on the I)nie|)er, was the capital of the empire, and the residence of the Orand Dukes. This pericjd also gave rise to those unfortunate territorial partitions which, by dividingthe Unssian monarchy, exiiosed it to the insults and ravages of the neighbouring nations. .laroslaus, one of the sons of Vladimir, made himself famous as a legislator, and supplied the NovoL'orodians with laws t7), changed entirely the aspect of Ilun- He assumed the royal dignity, with the coim: I'ope Sylvester II., who sent him on I is ocr:.. the AtKjvlio Cruwil,^'^ as it is called ; the -, according to tradition, which the Ilnngariii!,. to this day in the coronation of tlieir kin^'-. once the apostle and the lawgiver of his cnn: Stephen I. combined politics with jusliii employed both severity and eleinency in ri In his subjects. He founded several bishoprn tirpateil idolatr>. banished anarchy, and ;;; the tnithority of the sovereign a vigour an ciency which it never before possessed, l likewise is generally ascribed the ]ioliticaliliv of lliingaiy int). They would ;'ven succeeded in takini; this Easti'rn capital, anniliiliilinff the (ireek I'mpire, had nut the uire of Leo the Isaurian, and the sm-piisini,' Its of the Griycoifi, or (ireek l'"lre,'' rendered rllnrts useltss. At leuiilb, iu the elevenlli Juyithe Noiiuaus eonipiered all that remained Circeks in Italy ; while the Seljuk Turks, umst not be confounded with the Ottoman ks, dc(irived them of ibe i^ri'ater jiarl of Asia or. Ink is the generic a])pellation for i^ll the Tar- [alioiis,'" mentioned by the ancients under tlu' (if Scythians. Their oriirinal countrv was lose vast regions situate to Ibe north of .Mount l;isiis, and eastward of the Caspian Sea, be- llic Jihon.orOxus of the ancients, especially larasm, Transoxiana, Turkestan, iS;c. About Killith century, the Arabs bad passed the Oxus, leiidcred the Turks of Charasm and Transoxi- [licir tributaries. They instructed them in the ■(111 and laws of Mahomet ; but, by a traiisi- |l;itlu'r extraordinary, it afterwards hajipened, Itlic van(puslied imposed the yoke on their jinastcrs. Ic empire of the Arabs, already enfeebled by rritorial losses which have been mentioned, (c(! more and more, from about the middle ninth century. The Caliphs of Uagdad bad kitted the mistake of trusting their persons to jitiiiy guard of foreigners,'" viz. the Turks, taking advantage of the elleudnacy of these soon arrogated to themselves the wiiole lity, and abused it so far, as to leave the lis entirely dependent on their will, and to III themselves the hereditary Huccession of bvcnniient. Thus, in the very centre of Ihe late of Bagdad, there rose a inidtitude of bvereignties or dynasties, the heads of which, Jtlie title of Jimir or Commander, exerciseil liaenie power; leaving nothing more to the tiiaii a pre-emiiieuec of dignity, and that rather of a siiiritnal than a temporal nature, lie- sides the external marks of homage and resjiect which were jiaid him, his name eoiilinued to be l)roclainu'd in the mosipies, and inscribed on ilie coined money. 15y him were granted all Icllcrs- ])atent of invstiture, robes, swords, and standards, lU'companied with high-sounding titles; which did not, however, iirevent these usurpers from mal- treating their ancient masters, insulting their per- son, or even attempting their lives, whenever it might serve to jironiote their intcirest. A general revolution broke out under the ca- liph Kahdi. That prince, wishing to arrest the progress of usurpation, thought of creating a new minister, whom he invested with the title of I'.mir- al-Oiti/'u, or (!ominaiider of Coiuuianders ; and conferred on him powers much iiiore ampli than those of hi;' vi/.ier. T'lis minisler, whom lie se- lected from the Emirs, otHciated even in the Lir and mosiiue of liagdad, instead of the calipli ; and bis name was pronounced with ('([ual honoms iu the divine scr\ice tlirouu:hoiit the empire. This de- vice, which the caliph employed to re-"-;tablish bis authority, only tended to accelerate .is de>tiuc- tion. The liowides, the most jiowerful ds nastv aiiK/lig the Emirs, arroirated to tlieuisehi's the dig- nity of Chief (,'ommander (it-l,)), and seized both the I'ity and Ihe sovereignly of Bagdad. The CJa- liph -'It of all temporal [lOWcr, was then only graiii. .lan. or sovereign ponlilf of the Mussul- man religion, under the protection of Ihe liowidiaii prince, who ke])t him as his prisoner at Itagdad. Such was the sad situation of the Arabian eni- jiire, fallen from its ancieut glory, when a uiiiiie- idtis Tiiikisli tribe, from tne centre lA' rinkcstaii, ap|)eared on the stau'c, overthrew Ihe diimiiiiotis (if Ihe liowides ; and, after imposing new fetters on tile caliphs, laid the foundation of a powerful em- pire, known by Ihe name of the Seljukides. This roviiiLT tribe, which took its name from Seljuk a Mussulman Turk, after lia\iiig wandered for some time with their Hocks in Transoxiana, passed the .lilion to sc( k iiastiuage in the |)roviiice of (;liora- san. Keinforced oy new Turkish colonies from Transoxiana, this coalition became iu a little time so powerful, that Togrul lieg, lirandson of Seljuk, had the boldness to make himself be proclaimed Sultan in the ( ity of Niesabur,"" the ca|iilal of Cho- rasan, and formally aiinounced himself as a con- queror ( lOUS). 'i'liis prince, and the sultans, his successors, subdued by deirrecs most of the Jiro- viiices ill Asia, which formed the caliphate of Bagdad.'" They annihilated the power of the lio- wides, reduced the (.Jaliphs to the eondilion of flependents, and at length attacked also the pos- sessions of the (ireek empire. Alp-Arslan, the nepbev.' and imiiiediate suc- cess(U- of Togrul Beg, gained a signal \icloi\ in Armenia, over the Emperor llomanus Diogenes (107'i). who was there taken ])risoiier. The con- fusion which this event causeil in liie Greek em - ])ii-e was favourable to the Turks, who seized not only what remained to the (ireeks in Syria, but also several provinces in Asia Minor, such as Ci- licia, Isauria, I'aiiijihylia, Eycia, I'isidia. Lyca- onia, Cappadociu, tialatia, I'ontus, and liilhyiiia. The empire of the ' eljukides was in its most flourishing state under tlu? sultan Malek Shah, the son and siicce«sor of Alp-Arslan. The caliph^ Cayeiii, in confirming to this piinco the title of D 2 Sclim-kiiin Dyimxiy. 3(5 I'uwcr of Kimliiii I'cm- tiD'n. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Kumi- si'.lijc'ct til Kiii^', iiKiormiiiiy. Ililili'lirituil, ('iiriUnil. lit Siiltnii and Cliicf ('oinmaiKlcr, adilcd also that of (.'omitUDidrr of t/ic /■'tiit/i/iil,w\m-h t)ptoro that liiiu! had never been eoiiferred hut on the eali|)hs idmie. On the (h'alh of .Malek (lOiCi), tliu disputes that rose auionj; his sons occasioned a civil war, and the partition of tlie empire. Tlu'sc vast territories were livided anioiii; three |)rincipal dynasties de- scended from Seljnk, those of Iran, Kerman, and Itoiiii) or Home. This lii'ter branch, whicli a'>''ril)es its orii;in to Soliman, i;reat fjrandson of Seljuk, ohtained the provinces of Asia Minor, whicli the Seljukides liad contpipred from the Cireeks. Tlie princes of this dynasty are known in the history of thp Crusades by tiif name of Sultans of Iconium or Cognl, a city of Lycnonia, whore thu sultans estahlislied their residence after heincf depriviil the crusaders of the cily of Nice in llillm The most |>o\verful of the three dynasties w;i< i of tlie Seljukides of Iran, whos(^ sway exieii over the fjreater part of I'|)per Asia. It s however, fell from its •frandeur, and its s' were divided into a number of petty Kovereii;iii!. over which the Kiuirs or i;overnors of cities : ]irovinces usurped the supremo iiower.*' ' divisions iirepared the way for the conqmsN I the crusaders mi Syria and I'alestine ; and i.| nished also to the (^ali|)hs of Hi>;^dad the ni.i of siiakinij ott" the yoke of the Seljukides (llj and recovering the sovoroignty of Irak-Arabia, I liai'dad. PERIOD IV. FROM POPE GREGORY VII. TO nONIEACE VIII. A.D. 1071— laOO. A NF.w and jiowcrfnl monarchy rose on tiio ruins of the (ierman empire, that of the Homati I'on- titls; whicli monojiolizeil l)oth spiritual and lem- |)oial clominion, and extended its iniluence over idl I lie kiiiijdoms of (Miristendoin. 'i'liis supremacy, whose artful and comiilieated mechanisiii is still an oliject of astonishment to the most subtle ])oli- ticians, was the work of I'opo (irej^ory VII., a man born for trreat nndertakinirs, as remarkable for bis i^eiiins, which raised bim aliovo his times, as for the austerity of his manners and the boiuid- less reach of his ambition. ludiu:nant at the dc jirn.vity of the at;c, which was iuimersed in ii;n( ranee and vice, and at the j;ross imnKU'alily wliieli pervaded all classes of society, both laymen and ecclesiastics, (ireijory resolved to becouie the re- former of morals, and the restorer of relif^ion. To succeed in this project, it was necessary to re])laco the t;overninont of kinjrs, whi. u had totally lost its power and etKcieney, by a new authoiity, v.'iose salutary restraints, imposed alike on the hi}j;h and the low, !iiif!;ht restore vi;j;our to the laws, put a stop to licentiousness, and impose a reverence on all l)y the sanctity of its oriffin. This authority was the spiritual su])remacy of the Pope, of which Gre){ory was at once the creator and inventor. This extraordinary person, who was the sou of a carpenter at Saona in Tuscany, named Honi- zcnie, or, accordiiiij to otiiers, descended of a Ro- man family, had paved the way to his future ifreat- ness under the ])recedinif ))ontitt"s, whose counsels he had directed under the title of CJardinal Ililde- brand. While (Janlinal, he en};aj;ed Pope Nicolas II. to enter into a treaty with Robert Gniscard (10.")!!), for procurini; that brave Norman as an ally an.l a vassal of the Holy See. Takinj^ advantage, likewise, of the minority of Henry IV., lie caused, this same year, in a council held at Rome, the famous decree to hit ])assed, which, by reserving the election of the pontiffs princi|ially to tiie car- dinals, coiiverte Il| iiorius II., whom the reigning empress had tilled for that honour. At lengtli, being riiiH himself to the pontiKeal throne, scarcely liml : ohtained the Imperial coiilirmation, when lie ; in execution the project which he had so long U concerting iind prejiaring, viz. the erecting «i\ le- [ spiritual despotism,' extending to jiriests a askings; makiiiif the suprenu' [lont ill' tlie ailii; in all affairs, both civil and ecclesiastical—' bestower of favours, and the dispenser of crmvi The basis of this dominion was, that the Vicar Jesus Christ ought to be su]ierior to all liui!;; jiower. The better to attain his object, he l}i: by withdrawing himself and his clergy from d authority of the secular jirinces. At that time th(^ city of Rome, and the w!i ecclesiastical states, as well as the greater ])arl Itidy, were subject to the kings of Germany, n in virtue of their being kings of Italy and Uoiii; emperors, nominated (u* confirmed the popes instaUed the prefects of Rome, who there reciiv the (lower of the sword in their name. Tk sent also every year commissioners to Rome, l levy the money due to the royal treasury. K )iopes used to date their acts from the years the emperor's reign, ami to stamp their coin «;' his inune ; and all the higher clergy were virtiu. hound and subject to the secular jiower, liy r solemn investiture of the ring and the cnisii: This investiture gave to the emperors and the elhi sovereigns the right of nominating and confinnii bishops, and even of deposing them if tiiey " causi". It gave them, moreover, the riu;lit of o« ferring, at their pleasure, those fiefs and royal ]'!< rogatives which the munificence of princes lia vested in the Church. The emperors, in |)ultiii bishops and jirelates in possession of these lit used the symbols of the riiiij; and the croii' which were badges of honour belonging to hi llililt'liri'i'il. I'cipe, hy till' ll.UUL' of Cnviry VII. Iiiil abbots. They ma 1,,. the oath of fidelit .lis the origin of their iitiiin to furnish their , irorni military servic llicgory VII. prohil uuieation, all sovereis ncstilure, by a formal 1 a rcumcil ;.ssenibled IS nuire than the sir 11(1 the crosier inipli iiiicil at depriving pr lilting, conlirming, or ,s (if receiving tiieir fl Ills; military service. \ whicli the bishops \ ,uliiinlinatioii to priiu (>|iccl, entirely ind iiM'stitures, the ponlil iliji'cl ill view. It w I'lli liimself and his AJioli' ecclesiastical sli iiTiiian kings ; especii ivhiih these princes liac iiiiiatinu: and conlirnii 'iicl, that if he could lerun indcpcmUnt of iilliiw, by a natural co ins lieiiii,' sii|)renie heai (iiificr be dependent oi Iciiiperor, excluded froi titure of bishops, w iiilcrl'ere in the electioi This affair, equally ii was of the utmost ii tu'iinany, who had c cmir (if [lutting the gre iiilii the bands of ecei lliiiM' princes of the rig tiiiil liel's, was in fact till' half of their eni| llatteiiiig themselves w iriiiiiry liberty, foi^'ot tli till' emperors had loadi tlic hann rs of the Pi till' secular princes tbo: iiiiprudcntly trusted in There yet subsistei wliicli connected the IKilitical orders of socii rest in the iirotection < that was, the marriage ill use at that time ove as it still is in the Gi It is true, that the law nii'iidcd strongly by adopted by the Romii nil means of introducii (limches of tiie Calliol ivlth better success i llurope thai", in the n |iiiesls contiaued to n Kngland, and the kii ncii in Prance, Spain tlic law of celibacy, wj luin hy a multitude ot Gregory VII., perc (|i>riry completely dope lie necessary to breal rt'uewed the law of « llildoliriinil, ri>|M', liv the liaiue of (Ircjjiiry VU. ri;uioD IV. A.i). 1074— i:ji)o. The I'.iIm' DiMTcliils. (iciLcnil ('olllicils. (iri'^'ury Vll's imwcr. |ii(l abbots. They mndo tlicin, at tbi- same time, like the (latb of tidclity and iille;riiiiiee ; iiiiil this lis the orii^iii of their depeiKU'iici', and liieir ol)li- tatiiMi to fiHiiisii their priiiees witli troops, and to nlbriii military servire. (Iirjrory VII. i)r()iiibiteil, mider jiaiii of exeom- nuiiiciition, all sovereii;ns to exereise the rijfhtH of hncstilure, by ii formal decree wiiieli he published ^1 a couneil assembled at Home in 1074. Tiierc! as iiiore than the sim|)le ceremony of thu rin;,' liiil the crosier implied in this interdict, lie liiacil at depriviiif,' princes of the rii;ht of nonii- laliii!,', coniirminf;, or de|)osiny: |)relates, as well Is (if nceivinjr their fealty and homat,'!', and exact- llii; military service, lie thns broke all tliose ties b\ wliicii the bisho|is were held in allegiance and ii'iliiiniination to princes ; makinf; (hem, in this J(s|i((l, entirely indepenilent. In snppressinjj; Investitures, the ponliil' leid _\ct a nunc important hliji'il in view. It was Ids jiolicy to withdraw [jdlli himself and his successors, as well as the [hIidIi' ecclesiastical state, from the power of the craiaii kinn's ; especially by abolishing' the rit,'ht nvliiih these |)rinces had so lony: exercised of no- bniiiatini;' and conlirmlni; the I'opes, lie saw, in Jfic!, Ibat if he could succeed in ri'ndeiinf,' the Ick'iirv indcpent in the popes a jurisdiction till then unknown in the chiu'cb. Several I'opes be- fore (iregory VII. had already availe(l tbeuiseUes of these False Decretals ;' and tliey had even been admitted as true into ditlercnl collections of canons, (iregory did not content himself with riyidly enjnrcinn' the principles of the impostor Isidore. He went even farther ; he iireteiuled to unite, in himself, the plenary exercise both of the ecclesiastical anil episcopal jiower ; leaving nothing to the archbisliops and liishops but the simple title of his lieutenants or vicars. He completely un- dermined till' jin I -diction of the mctropolit-ans and liishops, by authorising in all cases an iip|ieal to the (.'onrt of Rome; reserving to hiinself exclu- si\ely the cognizance of all causes ternii .' itiajar — including more especially the privilege (..'Judging and deposing of bishops. Tliis latter |)rivilege had always been vested in the provincial councils, who exercised it under the authority, and v\ilh the consent of the secidar |)owers. (iregory abo- lished this usage ; and claimed for himself the power of judging the bishops, either in person or l)y his legates, to the exclusion of the Synodal Assemblies. He made himself master of these assemblies, and even arrogated the exclusive right of convocating (ieueral Councils. This ])outitl', in a council which he held at Rome (1070), at length prescribed a new oath, which the bishops wer(! obliged to take; the main object of which was not merely canonical obedience, but even fealty and homage, such as the prelates, as lieges, vowed to their sovereigns ; and which the puntitr claimed "• ■ himself aloiu', bearing that they should aid iind defend, against the whole world, his new suiiremacy, and what he called the riyal riyhlx of St. I'ltcr. Although various so- vereigns maintained jiossession of the homag<>they received from their bishops, the oath imposed by Gregory nevertheless retained its full force ; if was even augmented by ids successors, aiul extemled to all bishops witlKUit distinction, in spite of its inconsistency with that which the bishops swore to their princes. Anotbt;' very effectual means wliieh Gregory cr. (iri",'(iiy VU. cxiom- rjiiinir ill's ttic I'.iii- jMTdt lli'iiry IV. KOCirS IIRVOLUTIONS. KmixTdr lIcMiry IV. iliprs iKMimii'i'. ( liurc'li n"ii>'Ulc'«. VII. niiuli' use of to confinn lii'< new imtliorify, Wiis to si'nil, more fn'iincutly tli;iii Wis prcilfccsMois li;i(l iloiic, lt'f;;i|c^ into tlu- did'cri'iit stales :iii() IviiiLnloiiis of Cliristeiicloin. He iiiiidi' tlirm a kind ol'jjovcniois of iioviuccs, mid invested tlieni Mitli tlu' most iiin]iie ))owers. Tliese let^ntes soon idi- tiiined ;i kno^\ledl;(' id' id! the iitFiiirs (if the [iro- \inc('s del(".,';ited to their cife; wliich j^reiitly iniptiired the luthority of the nietii uliliins and liroNincia! eonneiis, as W(dl iis the juri-idi'tion of the hishops. A ela\ise was also inserted, in the I'orni ), for the imrpose of aiiswrriuLT before the synoil to the jirineipal accusations which the nohlrs of Saxcuiy, eULrasfed in disputes with that prince, had r( fened to the l'o])e. The emperor, hurninir with indiL'uation, and hurried on hy the impeluosity of youth, instantly convidveil an assembly of bishops at WorTus, and there caused tlie pontilf to l)e dcjiosed. No sooner was this sentence conveyed to Home, and read in ])resenee of the Pope in a comicil which he had assembled, than end and interdict from ^'overniiif; the kini,'dom of (iermany and Italy, Ilemy, son of the I'.ni]ieror Henry, who, with a hauLihtiness unexampled, has dareil to rehid airainst thy church. I absolv(> all Christians what- ever from the oath which they have taken, or shall hireafler take, to him ; and henceforth none shall be |)i'rmitti'd to do him homa;,'e or service as kimr ; fur he who woidd disobey the authority of thy Church, deserves to lose the diijnity with \;liieli be is i/ivested. And seeinir this prince iias refused to submit as a Christian, and has not returned to the Lord whom he hath forsaken, holdini; com- munion with the I'xconuuunicated, and despisini; the advice whiih 1 tendered him for the safely id' bis soul, I load him with curses in thy name, to tlie end llial people may know, even by exju'ri- ence, that thou ait l'(der, and that on this rock the Son of (he livini,' (iod has built his chnreh ; and that the i,'ates of hell shall never prevail ai;:ainst it." This nieasure, which scorned at first to have been merely thr- idled of the ]iontifrH impetiin.; soon discovered of >vliat importance it ^vil^ him to persi'vere, and what advant:n;e he mi. derive from it. In lunnblinj,' the llmperor. most powerful iiKUiarch in I'.urope, he niiutht h that all the other sovercii^ns would bend Iji i bini. He omitted uolbinif, therefore, thiit mi. serve to justify his conduct, and endeavounil ]irove, by so|)histries, that if he had authority exeonimiinicate the Kmperor, he nii'j:lil liken depri\e him of his dignity; and that the riu'lii release siibjei IS from their oath of alleijiani r \i an emanation and a natural consequence nli |)ower of the Keys, The same equivocal iiii. liretatioii he afterwards made use of in a seiiti; wdiich he published aiiainst the same prince ( lllv and wdiieh he adilressed to the Apostles St. 1'.' and St. Paul, in these terms: " Yon, lathers ;, princes of tin? ajiostles, hercdiy make known In' whole world, that if you <'an bind and uidiimi heaven, you can much more, on earth, take tV all men empires, kiufjdoms, jiriiu'lpalities, dmhi, manpiisales, counties, and iiossessions, of wli;ii- ever nature they may he. You have often |iiive(l the unwortliy of patriiiridiates, luimm aridibishoprics, and bislnqirics, to jfive them persons truly reli^dous. Hence, if yon pn- over spiritual affairs, does not your juiisdiii extend iijartiori to temporal iiud seculardiiriiili and if you jud;re the aiifrtds who rule over piii. and potentates, even the haughtiest, will you alsojudiic their sla\es! Let then the kimrs princes of the earth learn how ifieat and irresisii is y(Uir power'. Let them tremble to cot'.feiiiii i comii.ands of your church ! And do you, hli^- Peter, and blesse cised the ri};ht of contirmin(| the Popes, and i of deposing; them, should there be occasion ; 1 hy a straiif^e reverse of prero);atives, the pnp now arroi,'ated to themselves the eonlirniatinii the emperors, and even usurped the right el' il thronini; them. However irregular this step of the pontiff mi: be, it did not fail to produce the intended elii In an assembly of the Iiiqierial States, hi'lil Tribnr (l(f7fi), the I'.mperor could onl\ eliti their eons<'iit to )iostpone their )iroeeedinL,' i' new election, and that on the exjiress eonditieii his Kubmiftiu!; himself to the jndirment ot' I Pope, anil beiiK? absolved inimediatily from I'J excommunication he had incurred. In I'nii' (pience of this decision of the Stales, Henry cre- tlie Alps in Ihe middle of winter, to obtain ni"J eiliation with the Pope, who then resided with ;'( famous Countess Matilda, at her Castle of Calll^• in the JModenese territory. Absolution was i. ijranled him, however, except under eondili'-i the most liumiliatinf;. He was eompidlid t" penanii> in anouler court of the castle, in a wooil shirt and barefooted, for three successive da_>s, a: afterwards to si;;n whatever terms the pimii chose lo ]ireserihe. This extraordinary spei'laoi must ha\r spread consternation amonj,' the sm reii,'ns of lairojie, and made them treinble at ll censures of the Cliurcli. After this, Gregory VII. exerted his utiii! |t;ii;;^iiv VII. 'n nlH- liitiiiii 111 teiii|Hiriil Kttiiy. hiiiicc to engaire al ^timi, I'l acknowlei tiitmlaries. "Let , ill a letter whi ion, •• thai the cbiii (', lull lit him knov bvirciirn." From th iciiipiie as a lief of fii setting up a ri> ■ the person of He; Icli'il from him u igoiv pursi ed the • iitlier sovereigns i I' iif Poland, havii lacinv, who had v , llie pontilf took o |iriiice ; releasin^f IS of lidclily, and |]ii|is henceforth to ( |i('ss consent of the I liis aspiring ponlitf li'il iiolliing, provii cil. However cont les were to his jiretel lliiples of aulhorily, : liiipiisiiig an\ thing oi ]>\as thus tliat, in c liiiii to ]ia\ him til 0, he alleged the prelenihil that th: |il Mils Iriliiite, hut i ' 111 St. Peter ; as he Islaiice of that apostl ;'i;uii-e, he expresae ItriM' to jilease Si. P as thy soul in III I lice, and absolvi Itli." And in a lei I'liiiccs of Spain, 1, llial the kingdoui I |iriiperty of the II Irate themselves fro 1 lauds they bad com lie alHrmed to Sol ll Stephen 1., on n Ills of Pope Silvesh ;iliiiii as free propi It, ill virtue of this i IIh' ciiiisidered as a prill. He wrote ii; 5r l( I'. ;i<) hiriii'c t" (Miijniro nil sovcrci^^ns, without din- ^tidii, I 'kiiovvli'di;!' thciiiM'lvcs his viisHiils tiil'Uiiiiics. "l,<'t not the liiiipi'riii' iiiiii),'iiif," hi , ill II letter nlii<'li lie wnite In IIk' (ieiiiiim lull, •• tliiil the ehiireh is Milijeet t" him !im h 111 let him know thiil she i-; set over him us bveiei;;ii." l''rorii that time the |ioiiliir icKMiileil leiiipiK' 11^ II hef ot' his eliiireh ; Mini iit'teiwiinis pii selling,' ii|i II I'iviil emiienn- to Henry IV,, Itlie pei'son of ilcnminn of liiixemhiiri;. he Icli'il iVoTM him u I'onniil oath of vassalin{i'. i;iir\ ]imsi eil the same conduct in ie;;aiil to (itlier soMTcii^ns ul' Europe. Holeslaiis II., In; of I'liland, havim; killed Stanislaus liisliop 'iiicow, who had ventured to cxcoinmunicale L the pontilt' took occasion fiom tin-, to depnse piiiiee ; releasiiiff all his siilijeels Iroia their of lidelitj, and even proiiihitiii^f the I'olisli ps lieiiceforth to crown nny kin^ without the |^l■^s consent of the I'opo. Iiis aspirini; jiontitf stuck at nothiii^r; he ro- il iiolhini;, ]iroviiled he could ohlaiu his I'lt. However contrary the customs of fcirmcr were to his iiretensions, he (luoted them as liiiples of luilhority, and with a lioldness eapahle Iniposiiu; iiii\ tiling on weak and ii;noraut minds, r\v;is tiiiis that, in order to ohiiue the Freiii h tiiiii to jiny him the tax of one penny each so, he allei;ed the example of Cliarleiiiairne, pieteiideil tliat that prince had not merely tills Irihute, hut even u'lanted Saxony as a ' In St. I'eter ; as he had eoiKpiered it w ilh the stiiiice of tlial apostle. In ^^rilill:: to I'hilip 1, ■riiiice, he expressed himself in these lei iiis : IliUe to |)leaHe St. I'cler, who has thy kiniidom Veil as thy sold in his jiowcr ; and who can lliec, and ahsolve in heaven as well as mi I." And in a letter w hieli he aildrcssed to i I'liiiccs of Spain, he allein|)ted to persuade hii, lliat the kiiii,'doin id" Spain, lieini; oiiu'iiially Miroperty of the Holy See, they could not ex- piate llieinselves from jiauni,' him a tax on all J liiiiils they had compiereil from the liilidtds. lie alHrmcd to Solomon. Kini? of II unitary, |t Sicplien 1., on recciviuff his crown at the Ills of I'ope Silvester II., had surrendered his jjiloiii as free projHrty to the Holy See; and It, ill virtue of this doiKilion, his kin(,'doni was llic considered as a part of the domain of the Ircli. He wrote in exactly the same style to lis imun'diiite successor. In (Uie of his Ins to Sueno, Kini; of Deninirk, he enjoins him Idiliver u\\ his kin;;doni to the power of the iiiish See. He refused ( I(t7<>) I' _'raiil the rojid |iiity to Denielrins Swinimir, Duke ol Croatia Daliiiatia, except on the ex|)ress cdudition It he should do him homuije for his kiny;doiii, eiif;a;re to pay the Pope an annual Irihute of luinilred ffolden i)ieces of Kyzantium. This klitf had the art of disiruisi.iir his amhition so Itrruusly, under the mask of justice and piety. It he prevailed with vaiious other sovereii^iis to lmiwled;;e theiiiscdves his vassals. Bertrand, |iiit of I'rovence. transferred to him his fealty lii)iiiai;e, to the ])rejudice of those feudal ohli- piMis he owed to the Empire. Several princes Itiily and (lermany, iutluenced l)y arliti<'e or in- liilalion, ahandoned the emperor, and ]uit them- ris under siihmission to the Pope. His etlbi'ts re not ecpially successful with 'William the Con- queror, Kin;; of l'",ni;land, whom he hud politel) invited, hy lelti'r, to do him homau'e for his Uiii;,'- dom, after the manner of his rovil pri deeessms. That prince, ton wise to he dn|ied h\ papal impo- silion, replied, that he was not in a linmiiur to p'l'form lioiiia;;\ the thunders of (•( I lesiaslical anathemas, others with a \iewlo secure for thenis(dves the proteelioii of the Holy See, acknowledged these usurped piiwiiN of the Po|ies. 'i'he Kim;s ot I'orliiyal, .^rla^on, l.iiulaiid, Sec tlalld, Sardinia, the two Sicilies, lUid seseriil olhi IS, hecame, in course of lime, v.issals iind tri- hutarics to the Papal See; and there is not a douht that the universal nionar(di\, the scheme of which CJrei,'ory VII. had coiieei\ed, wonld have lieeil completely esfahlislied, if some of his suc- cessors hail lieeii endowed with his vast amhition, iind his superior ;;enius. In e\ery other lespcct, circiunstaiu'cs were such as to hasten and facilitate the pro;j:ress of this new ponlitical siipreir,a( J. It had commenced in a harharous aire, when the whole of the Westiiii world was covered with the darkness of iiriioriiiice ; and when mankind knew iii^ithcr the just riiihts of soverriituti,, nor the hounds which reason and eipiily should have set to the anthoril\ of the priesthood. The court of Uome was then the onl\ school where jiolitics were studied, and the I'opes the only nioiiarchs that put them in prae- liee, An exlrava^iaiit siiperslition, tlu' iiisepmahle conipaidoii of iynoraiiee, held all I'.urope in suhjec- lioii ; the I'opes were ie\eieiiee(l with a \eneration nsenihlinir liiat which heloiius onl\ to the I)eit\ ; and the wlnlr world Ireiiihled at the utterance of the siiiifle word li.ri-iiiintiKiuraliini. Kindts were not sulKeieiilly powerful to oppose atiy suceesst'ul resistance to the eneroachmeiits of Uoinc ; their authority was eurlailed and counteracted h\, that of their vassals, who seized v,\X\\ ea^teriiess every occasion which the Popes oH'ei' d llieui to airu:rau- dize their own |)rerou;atives at the expense of the sovereii;n aiilhorily. '1 he Emperor of (lermany, who was alone ahle to countervail this new spiritual tyranny, was :it open war with his ^raiid vassals, whose usurpa- tiiuis he was anxious to repress ; while they, (lis- respectin^f the majesty of the throne, and consult- imr only their own animosity a^fainsl the eniperor, hlindly seconded the pretensif (ireu'ory lu" aiiie so extravairant, that, not content to attack him with spiritual weapiuis, he set up ri\al emperors, and excited intestine wars ai;ainst him ; and his s\iccessors even went so far as to arm the sons a^jainst their own father. Such was the oriirin of the contests which arose hetween the Emiiire and the Papacy, luider the reis;n of Heiu-y I\'., and which asrilnted hoth (lermany and Italy for a period of seicriil centuries. Thi'j ijave hirth, also, to the two factions of the (Jiielphs and the (jhihellinos, the former Imperial, and the other S (,'■ ' ■ I :■• ' ft "CiZ^^BS^^yS CiiiK'dr'liil (if Wiiinit, 40 HiTiiy of the (jiTmiii I'mjilru. KOCH'S UKVOLUTIONS. 'I'lli' l',n'li'j.i,i»lic;il »l;il, Till' .Ml'llllicilllt Millet-, l'ii|u' liiihiri'iii 111, l';i|i;il, will) I'm- ;i lnl!i; cniirsi' nf tinic tmc r;i( li iitlicr to pieces with iiieuiieeiMilile liny, lleliiy \'., Mill 1111(1 Mieei'KMif nl' lleillv IS'., tenniiinteil tlie L:i'iiiiil ili^|iiite ;ili(Mit tlie iiive>-titiii'es of llie linn mill llie nosier. Hy the ('ciniiiidiit, wliicll lie eoiiehiileil ill \\ drill'* (H'.',) \Nilli I'ope Calixllis II. > he relioiiliceil tlie cereiiioiiv of tlie rilii; Miul till' croHN ; ami (,'nililiii;,' to tlie eliiiielies free liliertj of eleelioii, lie reserM'd iiofliiiiif fo liiiiifelf, exci'iit the ]ivi\ilei:e of (ieiiiliiiu; coiiiiiiis- sioiiers to the eleetiolis, iiiid f;i\ili|,; to the iif.\l_v elected jiiihites, iifler coiisecriition, the iinesliliire of the reu'iiliini rights, lij iiieiiUN of the sceptre, iii- H'ead of the riiii; iukI crosier, 'llie ties of misshI- UUe >vlii(li eciiinected the liislio]is \\ ith tiie empe- rors, were still piesi'rved li_\ this liiinsnction, con . tniry to f!ie iiiteiitioiis of (iieu'oiv Nil.; lint the cniperois heinp' olilif,'cd to appro\e of the iieisoiis whom the Church slioiild hereafter present, lost their cliiel iiitliicnce in the elections, and were no loiitjer entitled, as formerly, to ^;raiil or refuse iii- vestitnre. 'I'licse hroils with the conil of Rome, the check wh'cli they ;fave to the Iiii])erial authority, joined to the iiK reasim; iihiises of the feiidiil sjsteni, ilH'orded the jirinces and states of the l^nipire the melius of USUI pin^ the heritahle «uecession ot tiuir dnehies, coniities, and Hefs ; and of lajiiifr the foundations of a new jiower, \\liich they iifter- Avards exercised under the name of territorial Milieriority. l''reileric II., eom|ielled by the jires- sure of events, was the lirst emperor that sanc- tioned the !• rritoiial ri^dits of the states hy char- teis, which he delixt ml to several jirinces, secular and ecclesiastic, in the years 1 "i'JO and \'i'^'2. 'J'lie Imperial diLruity thus lost its splendour with the ]iower of the emperors ; and the coiistitntioli of the I'-iiijiire was totally clian-jed. 'lliat \iist mo- narchy deLrcnerated h\ ileirrees into a kind of fe- deral system; and the Kni]ieror, in com se of time, hecaiiie only tlu' comnion chief, and sii))erior over the numerous vassals of v\hicli that association was composed. 'J'lie extraordinary eliorls made by the Kinpcrors Frederic I. and II. of the house of Ilohciistaufcn,'' to re-establish the totterini; throne of tiie empire, ended iniiothinLr; and that house, one of the most ])owirfnl in I'.nrope, was deprived of all its crowns, ami persecuteil even to the scall'old. The empire thus fell into irradiial decay, while tlie |)ontil)eal jiower, risiiif; on its ruins, i;aiiied, day by ,'lit of contiriuin;;, and even of dcposintr, them ;•'' and eompellini; them to acknowleilu:e tiuir feudal su- periority. Hcint; thus no loiiu-er obliurcd to submit their tdeetion to the arbitration of the Imperial court, the ambitious ponlills soon asjiired to ubso- luti sovereiifiily. 'I'lie ciistoiii of datiiifj their acts, and eoiniiii; their money with the stain]i and name of the em- peror, disappeared after the time of (irei;-ory VII. ; and the aulhorily which, the einjicrors had exer- cised at Home ■ Antouj.' The .Mendicant ordeis took thrii under Innocent III., near the end of the U\^'.: and heiiinniiiic of the tliirtceiilli century, T: number increased in a short t line so proditri'-;-, thai, in r27I, tbev could reckon tweiitv-' orders. Tlu' conipliinls which were raisrl this subject from all parts of Christendom, oMi. l'o]ie (irci;ory to reduce them, at the {'omnil l.yi.'.is, to four oideis, \i/,., tli<' Hermits i.l • AVilliani or Aiiu'iistines, Camielites, the Miinr I'ranciscan friars, and the I'reachiiitr or Doinii friars. The I'opes, jierci'ivini^ that they iiii; convert the monastic orders, and more jiaiti' larly the mendicants, into a ])ovverfnl eu^'iin streii;;theninj^ their own antliorily, and kc(|- the secular cleiyy in subject ion, irrantcd by di.r to these fraternities, immnulties and exeii!;ii, tendiiiit to withdraw them from the jurisdielii the bishops, and to emancipate them from n other authority, except that of their Heads, \ the l'oi)es. They even conferred on tlieni v;ir; ]irivileu;es, such as those of preachiiif^, coiilV>-i and instrnctini^ the yinmir,— as beiiifj; the ii, likely means to auf,'iiient their credit and tliiii tinence. The conseipieuce was, that the lui'i were fretpieully employed bv the I'o|ies in iiu;! of lei;ates and missionaries; they Were fearcil : respected by soveiei^'iis, siiifiularly revered li\ l people, and let slip no occasion of exalliii: power to which alone they owed their iironiul: their rcspcctabilily, and all the advautau;rs l' enjoyed. Of all the successois of Gregory ATI., lu' v I'lill.iliell 111 I lllllill Im' 11,'lii'i'ii iiKKilllinl l>y kiililril IlilH most i Ills, and the exteii liiriil III., who w llils of Seiiiii, and < aL'C of ;i7. He |tiir, and cipially fei surpassed him in (lie slll'l'css of his 1 1 il himself as l/li' hii (lull hi (/nrirn tin I/, i((ir/il. It was I iif the famous com ■liinon: As (t'nll (sav tiitiriis ill tlir Hi'iiii . (I lid II: ' I'tlirf til III I yili^liiil til" !/i<"i't 1 ViJi/if/ ; (iiiii (IS till III fun, .Ml dm s nii/ii/ti/ I'll/Ill/ iiiilhnritji. let ciintent to exerd nleased, by means < Jc'li lie dispersed ov Jlirt' was the first tin lo','ative of dispelisiiiL \\-\\w of what he fii mtr. It is to him al luisitiiiii is ascribed, I rwarils heciine the hiitisiii ; hut what i' llirk, is, that be laii fliilaiit power, which tciH'il in eollatim: or liilirs and beneliees. llie secular princes Ir ri.dits of noiiiinat ili'cn'cs of (ircLTon |irivilei,'e of electiii clcr;,'y and coim-reir llie cliaplers of coin I'Irrtrll iirclafes be Jriiors ; and collatioi Icliccs was reserved I". All these reyi \\< the end of the tw ritlieilial churches, ii hie, claimed to them- llie exelllsiiui of tin lie the I'opes, L'radi Is and collations, fi jiiiiatioii and collatioi ■cHiTs. The prineipl Tilled on the faUe dee ■ecclesiastical jiirisdi pi of Home, as a ri\ < lV"iii the I'lipe that I that portion of anil ■iiueil ; and of vvliieh the act of coiiiii |illiir tlie more entiti lie exercise of that jiiil;;e proper. flii- priiiiiple of a coi I'l'V pl.iiisilde ])retext llatioil to heuelices. llie canon law, beiiii:; i pislitips, it seemed na |iiimd in the jurisd |iiivile^'es derivi |i i>r ciillation to beiu laience, thcrelbre, L'ull.lliMll 111 rlllllch !»■ I„.|l,r« il.-llllli'il li> Ih,. |M1P.S. ri;uioi) IV, lililnl llilll llUiKf ill till' HiipiTiority of llis III'-, !iiiil tlif cvti-nl of his kiio>\ Iril^i', >viis [iciiil III., wli" WIS of till' fiiiiiily of flif |)il> (if Srulii, mill I'li'Milril to till' |iuntiti(':ili' 1)1' iiL'i' of ilT. Ill' ^^/iiiiil Inn II mil \iiiiriiH ill the ,tt'rmiiiiii III, l/ir iiiic In rule thv mill II: I't/iir to i/irr liijht hi/ iiii//it, md /his In- hiishiil III" i/iiiik/ /iiiwiry, t/ir juiiiti_tiral ami fiii/it/ ; (iiiii lis l/ir iiii'i'ii nirifrs Air liijlit /nun jiii'ii, s(i iliiis riiiinllij hiirrnw its upti iiiliiiii'/roiii aj'tipiil iiiil/itirilii. |(it niKtriit to t'M'l'cisi' the U'^'ishitivc powi'r iii lilrii'.i'il, hy nii'iins of tin" iiimii'roils ilrrritnls ■h 111' ilispt'i'si'il ovi'f all Christi'iKliiiii, this (itf «iis till' lirst that airoiiatiil to himsrlf tlio fnijativi' of ilisprii'-iiiL,' u itii tin' I aws iIu'ihsiIm's, filliic of nliiit lu' ti'iiiH'd till' /i/iiiiliifh- II/ /lis •(■/•. It is to llilll also that tlu' iniLriii of the liisitii'ii is asi'i'ihi'il, thai ti'i'rihli' triliiiiiaU\ hicli r\\:irils lii'i' mil' tlu" tiriiii'st prop nf sari'iilutal pnti-iiii; lull what i'* of iiini'i' iiiipnrtaiii'i' tn (iul, is, that hr laiil thi' IniiiiJatii'iis of that fliilaiil |io\V('i', w liii'li his siici'i'ssoi's havi' siiirc tii-i'il ill ciillatiiiLr or picsi'iitiii',' to (.'cclosiastiral liilii's anil hrni lii'i's. fill' secular prima's haviii;; In ni ih privril of Ir li.'lits i_\ [ (li'cri'cs of (iri'LTory ^'II. and his siicri'ssiirs, inivilfLTi' of cli'i'tiiu' hishiips was ri'sldi'cil to 1 i'lrr;,'y and (•diiifri'i.Mtiiin of i'a,|i church, and lie chtiptcrs of coiiM'iits; the contirniation of riteil prelates heloii'.'ed to their iiiiniediate mors; and colhitioii to the other ccelesiastieal lelices was riserM'd for the hisliops and ordi- is. All these regulations were chain.'i'd to- l-c the end of the twelflh ci'iitiiry. The canons ;illii'dial ehurehes, anlhorized hy the Coiirl of |l)i', claimed to themselves the riulil of eh'ciioii, excliisioii of the clerirv and the people; lie the Popes, ;_'rudiiiilly iiiterferiiii; with flec- ks iind collations, found ineaiis to usurp the jiiiialioii and collation to almost all I'celesiaslical Icticcs, The principle of these usiirpalions was iilcil (in the faUe decretiils; accordiin; to which iccclesiastical jiirisdiilion einanates from the bt of Honie. as u river flows from its source. !';"iii the I'ope that iiiflihisho|)s and hisliops that portion of authority with which they are •il ; and of which he does not divest liiin- li\ the act of coniiniinicaliiii; il to tlieni ; hut lillierthe more entitled to co-operate with tlicin 111!' cMrcisc of that jurisdiction as often as he jiiilu'c piojier. Ill- principle of a conjunct authority, furnished h'V |il,insil)lc |irele\t for the Popes to interfere riillation to lienetices. This collation, accordinu' lie canon haw, lii'inu; essential to the jnrisdiclinii lollops, it seemed natural that the I'lijic, who iiuned in the Jurisdiction, should also concur lt!ic piivili';j:es derived from it, icamely, iiiiluc- iii' collation to lienelices. From the ri;;lit i'! . ot distinction, was in like icanner reserved fo, tliem. It would have even hceii reckoned a lireach of decorum to address an archhishop, deniandiiiLr IVoni him the contiriuatioii of a hishop iiominaled h_v the Pope ; so that this point of couimon ri'^lit, which vested the confiiin- ation ( ;■ I verv prelale in his immediate superior, was also aniiiliilated; and the Koniisli See was at leiiLrlh ackuowledued over the whole NVestern world, as the only source of all jinisdiction, anil all ecclesiastical power. All i'\lraordinary event, the oirs]>riiiLf of that superstitious ai^e, served slill more to increase the power of the Popes; and that was the (Crusades, which the nations of I'.nrope undertook, at their iiipiest and hy their orders, for the compiest of Palestine or the Holy Land. These expeditions, known hy the name of Holy Wars, hecause ie- liirion was made the pretext or occasion of them, reipiire a soniewliut purticnlar detail, not merely of the ciicuinstauces that accoinpauied them, but iilso S. - I ^ >-". Lai I'ilL'riiii.idcs Id .Io- Crufinl'/ iireiicliiMl. KOCH'S llEVOLUTIONS. (;werfnl princes. Gmlii ] liouillon (lOlKi), I)uke of Lorrain, accoiii|i;i by his brother HaUlwin, and his cousin linl ; of Uoin-L,', with a vast retinue of nobleiinii, himself at the bead of the tirst body of cniv, He directed his march throujj;h Uermany, j|J m'ary, and Hnlijaria, towards C^onstantinopl, was soon followed by several French jirilici's, as lluifli the (ireat, brother of I'hilip 1., of France ; Robert, Duke of Normandy, m William the Coiupieror ; Stephen VI., C'dih;] Illois ; Eustace of Uoulotfiie, brother to (im de Ijoinllon; and Kohert, Count of Flanders; all iji'eferred the routi^ by Italy. They ])assi.ii winter in the em irons of Itari, I}rinili>i, Otranto ; and did not embark for liieece iiiih. followinjj: sprini;. Uoemond, I'rince of Tani.i son to Uoijer, Earl of Sicily, at the insti>;ali : the French fjrandees, took the cross, after ' example, and carried with him into the Ivnij flower of the Normans, and the noblesse of Si Apulia, and Calaliria. Lastly, llayinoiiil ; ('ount of Toulouse, accom])anied by the liisli • Puy, traversed Lombanly, Friuli, and Daln.vJ on his passaLTc to the Holy Land. The ^reneral rendezvous of the crusaders i at ('haleedon in liilliynia. It is supposed ■ their forces, united, amounted to six hundreil i! | sand ciimbalants. They eommeneed their i'.\|i. with the sieire of Nice, cajiital of the enipi! Konm, of which they made tbeinselves iii;i>'i after having repulsed the Turks, who li vanced under the command of the Sultan KI Arslati, the son of Soliman, premier snll:i;4 Kimm. Another victory, irained over tlie -. sultan (10'.)7) in the (ior;;oniaii valley in Itilli\' opened for the crusaders a ]iassafte into >, There they undertook the sicL'e of the striiii:; of Antioeh, which they cariied after an iiiiiM loss of lives (lOi)K). ilavini,' at leni;lh arri\rtj| I'alestine, they planned the attack ^)( Jeriivi;f which the ('idi[ili of I'.irypt had just rccm.; from the Turks; and v\ Inch the crusaders, in i!'i| turn, carried by assault from the Fy;yptiaiis ( ll','] This city was declareil the capital of a new kd doni, the sovereiLrnty of which was bestowin (iodfrey of Houillon, tliouirh he refused in i^ the title of kin;?. This famous prince exiii:; his coiupicsls by a splendid victory, wliiili ^'ained that same year near Ascalon, omi- ■ ('ali|)h of Ejj:ypt. On his death, his liint'l Ualdwili succeeded him, and Iransmitliil throne to bis cousin Haldwin of Hmu';;, « Jioslerity reiirned in .lerusalem until the iliv.J lion of that kinydoiu by Saladin (11H7). liesidcs the kin;;doin of .(erusaleni, w. comprehended I'alestine, with the cities of Sii Tyre, and I'tidcmais, the crusaders founilnl veral otiier states in the I'.asl. The earliii'i.: Fdessa, tirst ciuuiuered by Haldwin, broll!i!| (iodfrey, ])assed to several French |)riiices in cession niilil the year 1114, when it was siiln by Atabek-Zen;;hi, continoidy called Saiii'J The principality of Antioeh fell to the sliiinf Hoemond, I'rince of Tarentum, whose heirs descendants added to it, in II SM, the ('o\hiI)| Tripoli, which had been founded (1110) by 111 niond, (Jouut of Toulouse, one of the orusiiild Hch.iril I. (if Knitluml. Sii' six siicceediiij} cru- I (iilli''S. Iliey were deprived of these sovereign who afterwards ( l'ri|i(ili. Lastly, the I- [inl Ciem-de-Lion, jtliedrecks (UDI), Ictiitiiiy Holy Land (1241 |s:ilciii. That faniou I'l- part of Palestine, piiioii of the Sultans i 111' si'vcntb and last ^; 111 by Louis IX. Kim; |i'ivi'(l it necessary tc "f llu:yi)t ; but "his il. Heinif made pri ktioii at Mansonra i Hcliiird I. of Kn^'l-iuil. . «ix siicceodiiif; crii- saiirs. rKIlIOD IV. A.D. 1074—1300. Viirs iinili'i't\ken liy tin; ('linrcli (>r K'linn. ' AltiiL'i'nsi'SiiiiilWalili'nscs. 43 Dic'V wi'i'O (leprivod both of tlio one iind the of tlicsc scivcici^'iitics })y the >I;mi(>hikes in ^vlic) ;iftcr\nu(l^s (I'-'Sit) conquered Antiocli fiiiHili. Lastly, the kini^iloin of Cyprus, whieh nid C(enr-(le-IJon, Kini,' of Ent^huul, fot>k [tlie (iieeks (1101), was «un-endered liy that ic to (iiiv lie Lnsignan, whose posterity reiirned ■nriis till the year 14H7, when that island was iiossession of hy the repnhlic of "N'enice. kc transient dnration of these different states lliits nothini; surijrisinjx. The CIn-istians of ;isl, disunited anionjj; themselves, surrounded hands, and incessantly attacked by ])owerful Ins, Ibund tlieniselves too remote from Europe Itain froui that ipiarter any prompt or ett'ef^tivo hur. It w;is, therefore, impossible for them |t(i withstand the ctibrts of the Mahometans, Iwcic animated, as well as the Chrisliaus, by Itiirian zeal, whieh led them to combine their Is airainst the enennes of their relii^ion and iiroiiliet. The enthusiasm of reliifious wars linl, however, become extinct imtil nearly two pries. It was encouraged and supported by Inuiiierous ])ri\ilei;es which popes and sove- coiiferrcd on the invaders, and by the rich |\vtii(>nts that were made in their favour. All continued to be in motion, and all its tipal soverei!.'ns marched in their turn to the I cither to attempt new cond the restoration of .lerusalem fccvcral other cities of Palestine; altlnuigh th-y liiot long continue in his possession. The fcniiMU Turks, ojjpressed by the Moifuls, seized Holy L;ind (1244), and ])illaged and burnt Is.ilcm. Thai famous city, togethi"r with the ir part of Palestine, f'ell afterwards under the liuioii of the Sultans of F.gyi)t. lie si'vcnlh and last grand crusade, was nnder- |n hy Loins IX, King of F'ranee (124H). lie li'ivcd it necessary to begin his conquests by if Kuyjit ; but his design completely mis- il. Heing made ])riso!H'r with his army after hition at Mansoura (1250), he only obtained his liberty by restoring Damietta, and paying a large ransom to the Snltaii of Egypt. The un- fortunate issue of this last expedition slackened the zeal of the Europeans for crusading. Still, however, they retained two imjiortant jilaces on the coast of Syria, the cities of Tyre and I'tole- niais. Hut these ])laces having been conquered by the Mamelukes (1201), there was no longer any talk about crusades to the East ; and all the attempts of the Court of Home to revive them jnoved inelfectual. It now remains for us briefly to notice (he ef- fects which residted from the crusades, willi re- gard to the social and (xilitical state of the nations in 'Western Eurojie. One eonseiiiu'nce of these, was the aggrandisement of the Koman I'ontiifs, who, during the whole period of the crusades, lilayed the part of sujirenie chiefs and sovereign masters of Christendom. It was at their rcipiest, as we have seen, that those religions wars were undertaken; it was they who directed them by means of their li's;ates, — who com|)elled cTiiperorB and kings, hy the terror of their spiritual arms, to march under the banner of the ('rijss^wlio taxed the clergy at their jileasure, to defray the expenses of these distant ex])cditions, — who took inider their imnn'ower, civil lU' judiciary. The wealth of the cleriry was considerably increascil during the tiiiu' of which we s])eak, both by the lunnerous endow- ments which took jibu'c, and by the ac(iuisiti(Mi whieh the (.'hurch miule of the immense landed ))roperty which the )iious owners sold them on assuming the hadire of the Cross. These advantages which the See of Rome drew from the ('rusades in the I'.ast, were inducements to nndertake sinular expeditious in the West and North of Mnrope. In these (piarters we find that the wars of the cross were carried on, 1. Aiiainst the ISIahometans of Spain and Africa. 2. Against the Emperors and Kings who re- fused oliedieiH'e to the Fm|>ire gaiiu'd gradual accessicms of strength. In England and Hungary, we observe how the grandees seized on the opportunity to increase their own power. The foruu'r took advantage of their sovereign's absence in the Holy Land, and the latter of the ])i-oteetion whieh they received from the Popes, to claim new inivileges and exl(nt cliiu'ters, such as they did fi'oni John of England, and Henry 11. of Hungary, tending to cripple and circtunscribe the royal authority. L':a Till- Hcliijiims iiml Militarv 44 Oiclcis. Siiiiiiinus ami ciiiits iiC iirins. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. ( Inlci'dl'St. ^(l]m or ,k'iiis,il,.; Kiii;jlit.s UosiiituUiTS. ('y|iriis iiikI UIkxIcj. Ill Friuicc, liowi'viT, (lie result. ■\v;is diirciviit. Tlicrc, tlu^ kings lioiiii,' f'locd, liy im'iiiis of tlio ciiisiidi's, troiii :i crowd of icstlcss and turbulent vMssals \\\\n oflcu tiucw the kinij'doin into ii state of fact ion ;uid di-,,| title of lirand Master. He prescribed a n; the Hospitallers; and I'oiie Calixtus 11., r, ])rovinir of this rule ( ll'.'O), di\ided the iimj of the order into 1 lire" classes. The nobli- Knights (d' .lustice, v\ere destined for the sion of arms, making war on the Infidels, iiini] tectint; pilgrims. The priests and chapliiii.. lected from the I'cspeetable citizens, were iiiii, with functions jiurely ecclesiastical ; wlul>| serving brethren, who formed the third ela charged with the care of sick pilyrims, aiii!j w Im' to act in the capacity of soldiers, new knights were known by the name id' /u| (/ till' JJoKj)///// (if St. John of Jcnistihir.. were distinguished by wearing ii white m: cro> Isle of ( \ From this they jiassed into Uhodes, whirl; had conipiereil from the Intidels (11110). latter island they kept possession of till l.V-'J; being then expelled by Solinian the Gumi, obtained ( l.-iItU) from Charles V., the miiiiiul grant of the Isle of .Malta, under the expn of making war against the Intidels. Of ll.i- thev were at length deprived by Buon; [lii,: nn's. The order of Tem])lars followed iiearlv l' St. John. Its first founders (111!)) wc'ii ■ Ereiich gentlemen; the child' of whom wen I; de I'ayens, and (ieoffrey de Si. Omer. Hi made a deidaralion of their vows before tliii'l arch of Jerusalem, they took upon themseh" special (diarge of maintaining fi'cc passage iiiiil conduct lor the jiilgrims to the Hol_\ Land. ! win, king of Jerusalem, assigned them an v melit in his palace, near the temple, wheiio took the name of IvuKjhtx of thr Tviniih.X Ti miliars. They obtained from I'ope llniT 11.(1120) a rule, with a white habit; li)»| I'.iigcne 111, added a red cross oclagoii. order, lifter iiccumulatiiig vast weallh and r I iKiii'jIits Tcmiiliirs. Til,. Ti'iitDiii'.- DiiliT. I]li,i; 111' (;liivali>-. bcinlly in France, an Iheir military exploi fc at leiiglh suppr lima {VM->). he Teutonic order, e o|)iiiion, took its |c or Ftoleniais. Tl Idiiie charitable citizi erected a lios])ita |r vessels, for the n wounded of their Itleineu having join • devoted theniselve! [sick ; as also to the ist the Infidels. '. ne of the Teutonic Jileni, received conlir |. (119'-'), who presei Hospital of St. J( liiilaiice on the sick hiir knighthood, tha any Walpott de i'as> ^tiT of the order ; am wliile habit, with i |iii from th(> other o rlii grand master, H It they Jiassed into Ved (i;i01)). They 1 iMiiricnbiirg; but hsi lunice (d" a change i Itlicir grand master ]'.'S), they transferred |iiii, ill I'raneonia. fourth order of H ily Land, was that ot Id had for their jirii |li'pcrs ;'•* and wdio, i ilical, became a mi' ■ ri'-iiled ill the [".as IiiiscIm's in the 11 niii into I'ranee (I'J It at Hoigiiy, near 111. iiiiiled them wii |) .erywhere pievail- si'veral noble aiul distinguislied individuals iiti'd tliemselves, by a solemn vow, aecoidiug lie genius of the times, to the defence of reli- |ii ami its ministers; as also of the fair sex, and I'ly person suil'ering from distress or oppres- I'l'iim the end of the eleventh eentuiy, to ! tiiiii' wIkmi the crusades begaii, we Kntl clii- lr\, with its )>oiup and its ceremonies, esla- d in all the principal states of Lurope. 'I'his liilary institution, l>y insjiiring the minds of men til new energy, gave birth to many illustrious |ir;ii|rrs. It tended to repress the disorders of |irili\, to revive order and law, and establish a rv ri'lationship among the nations of l'',urope. general, it may be said, that these ultra- marine expeditions, prosecuted with obstinacy for nearly ti>o hundred years, hastened the jirogrcss of arts and civilization in Lurope. The crusaders, journeying through kingdoms better organized than their own, and observing greater retinement in their laws and manners, were necessarily led to form new ideas, and aeijuire new inforniatiou with re- gard to science and politics. Some vestiges of learning and good taste had been preserved in Cj recce, and even in the extremities of Asia, where letters had been encouraged by the patron- age of the Caliphs. The city of Constantinople, which had not yet suffered from the ravages of the barbarians, abounded in the finest monuments of art. It presented to the eyes of the crusaders ti spectacle of grandeur and magniHcence that could not but excite their admiration, and call forth, a strong desire to imitate those models, the sight of which at once jileased and astonished them. To the Italians especially, it must have proved of great advantage. The eontinued intercourse which they maintained with the Last and the city of Coiistantino|)le all'orded them the nu'ans of be- coming familiar with the language and literature of the (jreeks, of conniiunicating the same taste to their own countrymen, and in this way advancing the glorious epoch of the revival of letters. About the same time, commerce and navigation were making considerable jirogress. 'i'he cities of Italy, such as Venice, (ienoa, Lisa, and others, in assisting the Crusaders in their operations, by means of the transports, jirovisions, and warlike stores with which the\ furiiislicil them, continued to secure for themseUes important ]uivileges and establislinients in the seaports of the Levant, and other ports in the (ireck em])ire. Their exam- ple excited the indnslry of several inaritinie towns in I'ranee, and taught them the a(l\antai,'i' of aji- jilung their attention to I'astern commerce. In the Morth, the cities of Hamburgh and Ltibee formed, about the jear 1241, us is generally su]i- jioseil, their first ciimmercial association, which afterwards became so formidable under the na^e of the JJdnsifilic l.dtyuc.'^^ The staiile articles of these latter cities consisted in marine stores, and other pi-oduelions of the North, which they ex- changed for the spicerii's of the Last, and the manufactures of Italy and the Low Countries. The progress of industry, the protection which sovereigns extended to it, and the pains they took to cheek the disorders of feudalism, contributed to the |irosperily of towns, by daily augmenting their population and their wealth. 'i'his ju'oilnced, about the times we are speaking of, an advan- tageous change in the civil and social condition of the people. T'broughout the iirincijial states of Lurope, cities began, alter the twell'lh century, to erect themselves into iiiditical bodies, and to form, by ilegrees, a third order, distinct from that of the clergj and nobilitv. Helore this period, the iidia- bitants of towns eiijojed neither civil nor political liliertv. Their condition w;is very little belter than that of the peasantry, who weri' all serfs, at- tached to the soil. The rights of citizenshi|), and the privileges deriv d from it, were reserved for the clergy and the noblesse. The Counts, or governors of cities, by rendering their power here- ditary, had a])])ro|)riated to themselves ,.ie rights that were originally attached to their functions. They used them in the most arbitrary way, and ! : i.'^ 46 Muiiicipalitii'S. Kri'c ('(ir]ii>riiti(in.j. Itiiliaii Ut'imblici. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Kii^Dsh lIcjiisiM)!' Coniriio' Ivlwaiil in. Ilcury 111. Fi'i'iicli I'uiliiinuniLi. li);i(U'(l the inli!i1)itiiiits with every kind iif opjji-os- sioii tiiat uvurici' or ciiprici! could siinjii'st. At loiiglli, tin- cities wliicli were either the most ojipressed, or the most power' d, rose in rehellioii iii,':unst tins inloleriihle yoke. The inhiihiliints t'onned themselves into conl'ederiitions, to which tiny f^ave the naiue of ('a»i)iiiiii<\i or /■'/•«• Car/xi- /•(ttiuiin. Kither of their own uccord, or hy char- ters, obtained very often on 'inrclensonie terms, they |)roeureersonal liberty and flie poss^'isi^ . of theii' etfects, under the i>rotection of tliei- own maj:;istrales, and the institution of a militia, or city uuard, This revolulion, one of the nujst impmlant in l',uro|ie, lirst took ]dace in Italy, where it was occasioned by the freiiuent iuteLrcLrnums that occurred in (iermany, as well as by the disturbances that r)se between the Knipire and the iiriesthood, in the eh'ventli century. The iinathemas thundered a'j;ainst Henry IV., by tibsolvini^ the subjects from the obedience tlwy owed their sovereiijn, serveil us a pretext to the cities of Italy for shakiiii;- otf the authority of the Imperial viceroys, or bailiiis, who had become tyrants insteail of rulers, and for estahlisliiiiir free and republican f^Dverinuents. In this, they were encouraficd and supported by the ])rolection of the Iltinian ponlid's. whose sole aim and pcdicy was the abasement of the Imperial authority. liefore this ))eriod, several maritime cities of Italy, such tis Naples, Aiualti, N'enici', I'isa, smd (ienoa, uuboldened by the tulvantai^es of their situation, li\ the increase of their po|iulation and their comiuerce, had already cii.aneipated them- selves from the Imperial M)ki', and erected them- selves into rep\d)lics. Their example was followed by the citic-; of Loml).irdy and l' c X'enetian terri- tory, especially Milan, I'avia, Asti Cremona, l.odi, Como, I'arma, I'lacciitia, \'erona, I'adua, iVc. All these cities, animali'(l with the euti.'siasm of li- berty, adopted, tdioiit the be;,'iiniini,' of 'he twelftb century, consuls and pojinlar forms of j.;overnment. They torined a kind of military force, or cit\ LTuard, and vested in themselves the lif^hts of royalty, and the jxiwer of makiuL'', in their own name and authority, alliances, wars, and treaties of peace. From Italy, this revolution cxteiub'd to France and (iermany, tin' Low Countries, and Fn;r!and. In all tliese ditl'ercnt stales, the use of C(munniU's, or borouirlis, Avas established, snid l)rotccted by the soverei;.'iis, who emploU'il tbi'se new institutions as a powerful check ayninst ihe encroacbnients and tyraiuiy of the ti udal lords. In I' ranee, Louis tlu' '''at, who be-all his reifjn in IIOS, was the tirsi kin;; that u'ranted rights, or constitutional charters, to certain cities within his domain, either from political motives, or the allure- ment of money. The nobility, after Ins example, eayrerly sold libi rty to thi'ir subjects. The revolu- ticm becauM' L'ciieial; the cry for liberty 'ras raised everywhere, and interested every minil. Throu^h- oiit all the provinces, the inhabitants of cities sidi- cited charters, and somelimi's without wailiii"- for them, thi'y formed tbenrselves voluniarily into communities, electing niairistrates of their own choice, establishin;.; I'ompanics of militia, and tak- iu},' charge themselves of the fortilications and wiirdenship of their cities. Tlie magistrates of free cities in iKuthern France were nsnallv ! mayors, shcritl's, and liverynn-n ; while, i;' south of France, they were called syndii, consuls. It soon became an established prii, , I that kings alone had the jiower to auflaiii, ■ election of corporally towns. Louis VIII. ' , . that he regarded all cities in which these f,| rations v.'cre established as belonging t. liiil main. They owed military serxice direiti\, jiersomdly to the king; vvh'le sncll cities ;;. ] not the;!' rights "r chai.ers were obliged toi their chiefs to the war In (iermany, we tiud the em]>erors adoptii,; same policy as tlie kings of F'rance. There, which the i)rogress of counnerce ami manular' opened lip to the industry of the inhahii:ii,' cities, and Ihe impintant succoins which tli, ])erors Henry IV. and N . had received linn, ■ in their cpiarrels with the I'ope and the priiuj the Lmpiri', induced them to take these citi,. der their iM'otection, to iiugnicnt their nmiiln:, multiply their pi'i\ileges. Henry \. was th, empenu' that adopted this line of [)(!lic\. granted freedom to the inhabitants of severul i.. even to arli/.aus and tradcsiiu'ii ; whose ctinilj at thai time, was as degrailed and dehiisei! ;i,{ of serfs, lie exiendeil ,o them the rank anlj vileges of citizens, and thus gave rise to tin' sioii of cities into classes aie' c(M'p( nations of irJ This same pi-ince ^ 't about re|)airing tlii' :1 which the I'liiperors of ihe house of Sa\iiii\i ciuninitted, of giving "I' '" ''■"' bishops the ti'ii,;.| jurisdicli(Ui in all the cities wherein they n-n He gradually superseded these riirbts, b\ th. _ |irivilt'ges which he i/ranted to the inliabili;/.! cities. The emperors, his successors, follewi example: in a little time, several of iIicm' , threw oil' the yoke of their bishops, while 'j extrlcateil lbeiii';elves from the jurisdiction nil siipcrio •^, iM' proMists, whether imperial or |i j !iiid adopted, in imilali hlies, in all the (irincipal states of l'",urope. I land set 1111 example of this; and though l'.!i.J authors are not agreed as to the precise linn' the Commons of that kingdom wi'i'e calli"! . I'arliament, it is at least certain that thrii adiuis..ion Ix'lougs to the reign of Heiin (about l','«i.') or r.'()(i). and that the forinai sioii of the I'arliainent into two Inmscs is ;i. as the reign of Fdward III.'' Fralicefoll' i example of Lngland ; the coiivocMlion of tlic-li'l by I'hilip the Fair ( IHO:!), on the subject (lispiilcs with I'oiie lioniface \ III., is coiimW as the first assembl_\ of the Stales-general, fj ];ose(t of the three .)rders of the kingdom. \'l (iermany, the first ii't.'(. IlilnnjcliisciiiiJlil of t'ri'a. eiativo voice at the Louis the Bavaria all these states, we hg more especially , them in checking I st()|) to the fury of most powi'rfiil of ■Avlicre cities in a ( B, hecame less enter even the nobles of let the power of I authority was tin L'itics, naturally iiic pi'iileclcd thei:i, ser' L'licral .'issembli'.'s, )< ;lie noblesse, and we I subsidiary supi)lies St' the state. liberty which Ihe l]jnicnr( 1 by the est; llii's, or corporate Inn pil.mts of the coiiiiM' N'arious circums he use of these more •ry. The sovereign ■iiid policy, set the Hi own demesnes ; ani by the feudal lords \i courtesy to their ! llescition of their Iiilciits, were c. impel mid mitigate the ser' nullities, or chartered bl'iniioted these eiifia kii wliicli they grani Ifeiiclid superiors. Ilid_\, we perceive ling lis an iiimedial (111 of ('(iiiiiiuinilie^ lai'ose among ||i(> ni niely thrown off the Slieity of the serfs ; r\, ill order lo aii:,m 'il I" bear ;;rms, a I'lirso, Ca|)laiii of |i fellow-citizens, am jliiseinelit. All tliosi to pii'scut them be |(if the iieople, wlio pn sum or lax, w h BMiicr. The feudal I I'lifiaiichiseinenls In lli'i'ly of the three c bli(aiite the coiiditioi 1 lihei'ty. I'rauce, after tlu- t iif Louis the Fat, th lie fVeipicnt. The e, Louis \II., by m all the serfs w'liici Ins, and w itliin five [ tin' I'luy t>t" [iiivatc or iuti'stiiu- wars. niDst powi'il'iil "of tin- feudal eliiefs, tindiiig fwlu're cities iu a capacity to defend tlieiii- lieeaine less enter|)rbiii^r in tlieir ainliitioii ; Icveii tlie iiolilcs of inferior rank learned to cl the power of these eoinnuinities. The authority was therehy strenu;thened ; and >;ilics, naturally incliuiiiir to the sovereif;-iis priitected them, pcrved as a eonnterpoise, in •ciieral assi'iiihlies, to the power of the cleri^y llie iiohlesse, and were the means of ohtaining I Milisidi iry supplies necessary for th(^ exificii- •-'• the state. ■ liherty which the Inhahitants of cities had ||)i(icun 1 hy the eslalilishiiieiit of these coin- Ities.or corporate hodies, extended itselflo the pilaiits of the country, hy way of eiitVanehise- \arioiis circuinslanccs conciirreii to reii- lic use of these more freipient, after the t Weill h ■rv. 'I'lie soveriiiTiis, i,'uided hy the niaxiiiis liiid policy, set the lii'st example of this within ](i\VM deiuesiies ; and they were speedily iini- liy the feudal lords a. id nohles, who, either If courtesy to their soveieiLTiis, or to prevent Jiscilion of their vassals, or ac(piire new ilculs, were compelled to iirant lihertv to the Biiil iuitii;ate the servitude of the other. The nuuities, or chartered cilies, likew ise seccnided priiiuoted these enfranchiseiuents, hy the jiro- kii which they f^ranted to the serfs ai^ainst |fcii(lal su|)eriiM-s. Ilalu we iierceivc these enlVanchisements vinir as an iimiediate eonse(pience of the in- lidii of ciuuiiiunilies. The continual fee.,Is liu'ese anion;; the mniienuis repuhli<'s ',• liiidi nicly thrown otf the voke of lUlhorit;,, made 51m rty of the serfs ;i nu'asure :;''solnlely ne- ►■y, ill order to aii;,inent the niimher id' cities il I" hear ;;niis, and hold places of trust. Iiairsii, Captain of Holo^ua ( I -.")()), proposed I'cllow-cilizens, and carried the law of eli- Piiscineiit. All those who had serfs were oh- tii present them hefore the I'odesta, or Cap- liif the peo|)le, who allValKdiised them for a ill sum or tax, which the repiihlic paid to pwiier. The feudal superiors, tindiiii; that I'lifiiiiichiseiiients had a [lowc fill ■-uppiut In llii'ily lit the tliree cities, were (dilii;ed either ^licirate the cunditioti of their serfs, or 1,'rant liherty. I'lmice, after the twelfth contnry, and the iif i.ouis the Fat, these enfrancliiseiueiits lie- |i> lie iVeipient. The son and successor of that l.iiuis Nil., hy royal letter (MHO), alfraii- II all the serfs which the crown iiossesseil at Ins, and within tive lea^nies of it. Louis \. 1 a licueral law (Kilo), for the enfranehise- iif all serfs helotitrin^' te the crown. He J iiiaile a ])osilive declaration, that y/ari ri/ iras I"/'// tti iKitiin; whiih mtindrd 'lint ion or the miligation of slavery. They reimhin^ed themsi'lM's for the loss ■ .' the line or tax which they had heen in the hahit of levyiii:j, on the death of their sell's, h_\ an aiiu'iiientatioii of iiie (piit-rent, or annual cess which they exacted from lliem on tlieir lieiiiLT aH'ianchised. In the Low Countries, lleiii) IL, duke of lira- hant (I'-'IS), in his last will, granted liliert\ to all cullivitors of the soil; — ^he atfraiirhised them on the riulil of mortmain, and ordained, that, like the inhaliitauts of free cities, they sli. nld he judiicd h_\ no other than their own magistrates, hi this manner, liherty hy degrees recovered its proper riyhts. It assisted in disiielling the clouds of ignorance and sniierstition, and spread a new lustre over Knrope. C)iie event which eontrihuted es- sentially to give men more exact notions on go- vernment anil Jurisprudence, was the revival of the Uoman law, which happened ahoiit the time we now speak of. The (ierman trilies that deslro\ed the NVcstern F.mpire in the tilth centui\, would naturally des)iise a svsteni of legislation, such as that of the Romans, which neither accorded with the ferocity of their manners, nor tie ruileiiess of their ideas. In conseipience, the n volution which occasioned the dow iifail of that empire hroiight at the same time the Roman Jurisprudence into ile- sneiude over all the Western world.'" .V lapse of several centuries, however, v\as re- (piired, to vcctily men's ideas on the nature of so- ciety, and to prepare them for receivinu- tile laws and institutions of a ci\ili/eii and reliiied govern- ment. Such was the general state and condition of political knowledge, when the fame of a eele- hrated civilian, called Irnerins, who taught the law of Justinian puldicly at Rologna, ahoni the com- mencement of the twelfth ceiiturv, attracted to (■- si uia TUo ( ,|1U)1) I .|^V (Jri'^Kjry IX. KOCirS IlEVOLUTIONS. .Iitil^qiii> uiitry, i;i:i(lually I'ariiiil into practici' tho i)rincii..'i's wiiicli tlifv iiail iniliibi'il in liu' school of IJolo; na, llincc, in a short tinic, and wilhuiil tlu" dii t intcrfcivnt'i' of lilt' l(';;ishitivL' author!;, tlic la:\ of Justinian was iidojitL'd by (U'^roos, as a subsidi uy law in -dl the jiriiu'iiial states of Durojii'. Yarii'iis circuiusli.act'S contiilniti'd to at'cilcratL' the ino^'toss of this revo- lution. I'ooido had felt for a Ion::, liiuc the ne.is- sity of a new l"j:islatuiv, aiid. the I'lsidHcicney of tlieir national laws. The novolty of ihe lloniaii hnvs, as well as their c(iiiity and ])recision, arrested the attention of ;dl Huroiie ; and so\ I'l-eiirns found it their iixterest lo [irotc^'t a jnrisprudi ii e, whose maxims wer' so favouiable tu royalty and nio- nurcliieal iiowcr, aid v, i.ieh served at once to slii'iifjlhcn. nui! cxteiiil their authority,- The int; > liK'tioii of the Itoiiiau jmi-qirudence was soon ft.'W'.^i'd I ) Mi-.il of the v'anou law. The I'ojies, i)er('i'ivii-,r tlit r.iiiid i)roiia;,.ktion of this new science, and ea;/cr o airtsf its progress, immeili- ately set tlu'lllsei^■•■■ tc the wi;rk of raising that vast and astunis"iiny edifice 'he (^'aiion law, as an engiiie to lu'.nui'tc the aC'.'omplishuient of their own t;Matliivs. (iratian, a monk of Bologna, eii- eourau'ed by I'o;..' Kugcnius II I,, compiled a cul- Iretion of (Iannis, under the title of tlie l)v< rvt, wliich he arrant 'd in systematic order, to serve as an uitroiluctiou to tlie study (d' that law. This eoinpil.'tion, extracted from diU'erent authors who had pi' ceded him, rd'onimeiided itself to the World by its popular method, which was adapted lo the genius of the timi's. I'ope ]'^ui;eiiiiis 111. gave it his ajiproval in ll.')"J, and ordained that it sluuild be read and explained in the schools. This collection of (iratian soon obtained a wide and most successful reception ; from the schools it ])assed to the public tribunals, both ci\il and eccle- siastical. At h'imth, I'ope {Jregory IX., in imita- tion of the lOmperor Justinian, who had ausi'd a collection id' his own statutes, and those (d' his pre- decessors, to l)e made by Ti'iI)oniaii, order<'d Ids cha)ilain Raymond de I'eiinafort to compih and digest, in their projier order, all the decisions of his jiredec'ssiu-s, as will as his own ; thus extend- ing lo common practice, what had been originally established but fiu' one place, and for |)articnlar cases. He puldislied his coUectitin (I'iii.")) uiiilcr the name of Decretals, wilh an injunction, thai it, should b(! eiuiiloyed both in tlie tiibiinals and in the schixds. If this new system id' jurisprudence served to exielid till' Jurisdirlion, ainl slreliglheli the tempo- ral power of the I'opes, it did not fail at tlu' same time to produce salutary effects on the governments and manners of Europe. The peace, or truce of Gixl, which some bishops of France, in the ele- venth cenlury, had iustituted as a check on the nn- britlled fury of private (iiiarnds and civil discord, was established, by the Decretals, into !l general law of the churr'h."" T/ir Jii /i/iiieiil.s (if (1< .ontrila;. L.eir inllueiico to repress the ove. grown (iij'. the m oilitv. Tb ~ rap.'l progrci-s wdiiel. ■■: new jUi'is|irL.j iu:id<', liiiisl ho ascrd'^d to lue reeeiil foiiiiq of uiii'. ersilics and (lie encoiirageiiieiit> sovereigns granted these literary eoriinrJ Uefore tlu ir establishment, the priiicip;il schools were those which were attaelu'd 'it;,; monasteries, or catludra'. ami collegiate cli Tliere weri-, howcM'r, only a few coll<':,'r luted ; and these in large cities, such ;l^ I'aris, Aii.'.i r;, Oxford, Salamanca, iS:c. I etiees there ■ luglit were com|)rised under 111 libi'ral arts, ,i/,. (iiaiiimar, llhetoric, Di di Logic, Arilhiuetic, tietunetry. Music, aini J nomy. The llist three were known by ll of Triiiiim ; ai.d the other four, which an, of malhematic-. by that of Qitdttririiim. .' Theology and Jurisprudence, they did not. iignre among the academic sciences ; an 1 was no school i''' medicine ju'ior to that el '^ — the only one of which any tract's are (IImv towards tlie end of the eleventh century. These schools and acaileiiiies caiinol, I; means, be ]iut in coiiiiiarison with niodcnr.: sities ; which dilfer from them essentially,' to the variety (d' sciences which are prolovi. by their instilulions as pri\ileiii'd bodies,') a system of government and jurisdicliou |ir< their own. The origin (d' these riiivir-, coeval with the revival of the iloiu.in law i:. and the imt'iition of academic degrees. 11. Iruerius, who is generally acknowledgc'l . resl(U'er of the Uoiuan law at Hologna, «.■ the llrst liiat conceived the idea of coiifeni:.: certain soh'iuuilies, doctmial degrees; aiiil.v.J license in' diplomas to those w ho excelli study id' Jurisprudence. I'ope Eugeiiir.d (ll.'iiJ), when he introduced the ('ode .il dj into the academy of Hologna, gave peniii^'J confer the same degrees in the (^'anon law. ,j been customary in the Civil law. 'J'liesc .; were much coveted and esteemed on u(i' the honours, immunities, and prerogalivi- Ihe sovereign had attached to tliem. -N'f however, conlriluiled more to bring iiiiiv': iulo favour, than the ]irivileges and imiK w liicli the I'.mperor Frederic liarbarossii lutl on tlieiu (ll.')X), by his Aiit/niitic (or rii called lldliitii). 'I'he example of tlii'^ was speedily followed by the other soMii Kurope. Tamlili'.s 1)1' (uTinaiiy Till' (iraiiil Iiiti'rri';,'!! Till' Kaiisi'ittic Leai!': riic iMchinjf of jnrii bol of JJologna to |0|i'-'. Theology al as medicine ; and hllies, as they were ( fcs were composed. Ich cDiiibined all tl led under the reign Dm it obtained its F.'OO. Except its( lities of Bologna, I'a ■aiica, Coimbra, Can I their origin in the the downfall of the house of Jlohensta t|)ed by the princes i ■sioiu'd a long serie: [tliat frightful state i Be of the Grand Int Implied over law an altered from its h;\ ' found to remedy tl by fi)riiiiiig alliance lat "of the Hhine,''^ ii |cli began to appear election of tlie ei: Ices and state.? of the led, became then tl kt oHiccrs of the crow I of the thirteenth ce t's exclusivelv the r: of Electors." The liire, anxious tu con rlit Id promote only tl ' incapable of suppor hi's of the crown. 'J Jill) oilier object in vi I tridlic from eleetioni I the candidates for fcis or mortgages of s 1 ilemesnes as suited of these weak emj isbuig in Switzeria Expectations of his i ? of arms the dismdt and tribunals to tlu ||uereil several of tli liisurpers who had se coiiseipieiice of tl now detailed, we iiialile chanires accc liiices of the l',ini)ire ll ' (ieniianic body, r (oiiy the provinces a ' invested, thought t 1 to portion them out |e of these partitions Iceiilli century ; and fciiie of the most jiow lulliiily almost to inti lies, and earldoms o •^, far from condeii > means accorded ■ill law, on the contr P', us a]ipearing to Imiililiiig the power lug for themselves a le Empire. Ill' ancient duchies ot fciiCL'il a new revoluti Tfdul ill's 1)1' f"'f '"•»">■• I'lic (iraiicl IiiU'm'niiiim. 'I'lii' HaiiM'iitic I.i'aL"ii;. PER[()D IV. A.D. l.);4— IJiOO. Fall ol'thf (iiiclplH. Ili'iiry till' I.iiiii. lliii.M' III' Iliilit'iiMtaiil'i'ii 49 hic toarliinf? of jdrisprudoiipc passed from tho Dol of Uologua to till" ilitlorpiit iicaik'mies of top". 'rhfoloi;y also wiis soon admitted, as lis mpdicine ; and tlii'su eoinpli'tcd tlic four bltii's, as tliey 'vvcro call> d, of which the uiiiver- fcs were eompused. That of Paris was tlie lirst |ch eDiuhined all the faculties. It was com- led mider the roi^'ii of Philip Auijustus, from ])iu it obtiiiued its tarliest charter, about tlie r.'OO. Except itself there are only the uiii- kities of Hologua, Padua, Najjles, Toulouse, Sa- laiii'ii, Coinibra, Cainbrid|j;e, and Oxford, that tlu'ir ori^rin in the thirteentli centurv.'''' hie downfall of the Imperial authority, and of I house of Ilohcnstaufen, and tht; new power tiled by the princes and states of the Eiii]iire, tsioiu'ii a lon^' series of troubles in Ciermany, I that friflhtful state of anarchy, known by the ke of the Grand Jntcrrci/tiinn, Strenujth then [iiinlied over Inw and rii;ht ; the government altered from its basis; and no other means fiiimil to remedy this want of public security, _ by fiiniiin;; alliaiK'es and confederations, such hat'of the Hhine,*'^ and the Hanseatic Eeairue, |ch li('!,'an to appear about this tiuu- (12.">;i). election of tlie emjierors, in which all the Ices and states oi'fhe Emjiire had formerly con- led, became then the privile^'c solely of the Vt ollicers of the crown, who, towards the mid- iif the thirteenth century, claimed for theiii- |("i exclusively the ri;^ht of electini;, and the iif Electors."* The princes and states of the iiiie, anxious to contiim their growinj; power, rht to promote only the feeblest emperors, who iiuapable of supportiuf; the rij^bts and prero- Res iif tiie crown. The eh etors, in particular, liLii (itlier object in view, than to derive alucra- IfralKc from elections; bar^;aiuing every time I till' candidates for lai'i;e sums, and obtaining kts or mortnaijes of such portions of the Imjie- I demesnes as suited their convenience. ()ne ' of tiiese weak emperors, liodolph. Count of sbiirij in Switzerland (Vil'.i), disappointed Expectations of his electors, lie repressed by (if arms the disorders of anarchy, restored the land tribunals to their jiristine vif,'our, and re- liieri'd several of the Imperial domains from siirpers who had seized them. iimse(iueiice of the revolutions ■which we iiiiw detailed, we tind very important and hiirulile cliaiiires accomplished in the dilferent liuci's of the Emiiire. The princes ami states li ' Ueniiauie body, resjardinu; as their own pa- |oiiy the provinces and tiefs with which they ' invested, tlioui,'ht themselves further autlio- , tn ]iiirtioii them out aiiioili^ their sous. The ' of tliese partitions became jjeneral after the ■eeiitli century ; and this vvroUH;lit the downfall bine (if the most powerful families, and tended liiitipiy almost to intinity the duchies, princi- lii's, and earldoms of the Empire. The em- irs, far from condemniii)^ tiiis practice, which means accorded with the maxims of the al law, on the contrary p;ave it their counte- po, as ajiiieariufi; to them a jirojier instrumei'it kimililiiiir the power of the jjrandees, and ac- liii,' for themselves a preponderating authority Empire. ' ancient duchies of Bavaria and Saxony ex- tiiced a new revolution on tlie fall of the pow- erful Iiouse of the Ouelphs, whicli was deprived of both these duchies by the senlimce of prosi'riptioii which the Emperor Frederic I. pronounced atruiiist Henry the Lion (llSU), Duke of Uavaria and Saxony. The tirst of these duchies, which had formerly been dismembered from the Marirraviile of \ustria by Frederic 1. (U.'iti), and erected into a duchy and tief holdim; immediately of tlu^ Em- pire, was exposed to new iiartitiiins at the time nf which we now sjieak. The bishopries of Uavari;i, Stiria, Carinthia, Carniola, and the Tyrol, broke their alliance with IJavaria ; and I he city of Uatis- boiine, which had been the residence of the aneieiil dukes, was declared /»im('(/('((f the ancient dukes, were raiscnl to the rank of free and imperial cities; and the Houses of Baden, Wurtemher^r, Hohcn-Zollern, and l"ur- stenberj;, date their celebrity from this jieriod. The death of the aiiti-emjieror, Henry le Kuspou (1'247), last Landfrrave of Thuriiifiia, icave rise to a Umf! war between the Mari^raves of .Misnia and the Dukes of Brabant, who mntually contested that succession. The former advanced an Expec- ( - f i Ducliv 111' Austria. 50 The Kiiiiii'i.ir AIIm'iI. iliur);' KOCH'S IIFAOLUTIONS. llallMii ri'iiiiliiii'H. Frrdi'rir II. ii|i|;i'h«(mI Ir, (!ri'i.'cir) l\.& luiKK.'1'iil IV. tttfivc, or Doi'd of flpviTsion of the Ein]K'ror I'ro- (liTic II., us well ,'is the cliiiiiis of Jutt;i, isistf't of tlic l;ist liin(lifr;ivc ; anil tlic otlicis iimintaimMl tliosc of Si,])liiii, (linifjlilcrof till' i,aiiili,n-a\i" LoiiIh, cMit bi-otlirr ami iiri'ili'oi'ssor of Jlciiry Ic Haiqioii. At Iciiiftli, l)j- a partition wliirh took jilai'i' (I'itU), Tliiiiinu'ia, iiroiii'r'y so calh'il, was uiadi' over to till' llonsc of Misnia; anil Ili-nry of Hial)aiit, siir- naiiu'il the Infant, son of lliiny'll. Duki' of Hra- liant, and Sophia of Thuriu^ia, was scrurcd in the possi'ssion of lli'sso, and bcranic tho founder of a now dynasty of lundj;ravi's — tliosc of t\w Huus.e of Hesse. 'I'ho aiieipiit dnkrs of Austria, of the House of Hrnnberi,'. havinir become extinct with Frederic the Valiant ( I'.Md), the succession of that dncliy was keenly contested between the niece and the sisters of the last dnke; who, thoufih females, conld lay claim to it, in virt\ie of the ])rivilef,'e granted by the I'.mperor Frederic Uarbarossa. Ottocar II. son of Wenccslans, King of Hoheniia, look advan- tage of these troubles in Austria, to jiosscss him- self of that ])rovinre (1'2.)1). He obtained the in- vestiture of it (l';!(>'i) from llichard, son of John, King of Fnglaud. who had ])nrchaseil the title of cnijieror at a vast cxiiensc ; but llodolph of Hai)sburg, treating him as a usurjier, made war upon him, defeated and slew him in a battle which was fought (127N)at Marchtield, in tlic ncighbour- lionil of Vienna. The duchies of Austria, Stiria, Carinthia, and (,'arniola, being then detached from the kingdom of nohemia, were declared vacant, and devolved to the Km|)ire. The investiture of these the F.niiieror conferred (12K'2) on Albert and Ui)iloli)h, his own sons. Albert, the eldest of these princes, who was afterwards eni])eror, became tlu' founder of the Hapshurg dynasty of Austria, In Italy, a great number of republics rose about the end of the elevenlh, or beginning of the twclflh century. These republics, though they had cast oil" the Im])erial autliorily, and claimed to them- seKes the rights of so\creignf\, i)rotested, uever- tlii'less, their fealty to the i;in|)ernr, v, nom they agreed to recognise as their Mi]irenic liead, 'J'he Eiiijierors Henry ^ ., Lotliaiie the Saxnn, iinil t"our:;d HI., saw themselves compelled to tolerate an iisiupation which tliey were too feel)le to re- press. Uiil I'reilerie Uarbarossa being determined to restore the rojalty of Italy to its ancient splen- dour, led a powerful army into that kingdom (lir>S) ; and in a diet v\hicb hi^ assiMnbied on the ])lains of HoncagHa, in the territory of I'lacenlia, he caused a strict investigation to be made by the lawyers of Hologna into the rights oii which he founded his juetensious to tlie title of King of Italy. The opposition which the e\( lution of the di eices of that diet met with on the pari of the ^lilanese, induced the I'.nijieror to unibrliike the sii'/c of their city. He made himself 7iiaster of it. ill IHl?, razed it to the foundation, and dispersed the inhabitants. This chastiseiiient id' the Mihiuese astonished the Italians, I)iit without abating their courage. Tliev afterwards took advantage of the reverses of the |-',mperor, and I be schisni which had arisen i'- the Komi-li Chiircb, to form a league with the jirincipal cities of I,oiiibaiil_\ (IH!7), into which thi'V drew the King of the Two Sicilies, as well as I'ojie Alexander HI., whom the i;in]ieror treated as a schismatic. Thoiity of '^lilan was rebuilt in cousciineiu'c of thlH lengup ; ns also tlint nf.lj anilria, called ilella I'aglia. The war w;i> ])rotraetcd ; but the Emperor being abaniliim Henry the Lion, Duke of Ilavaria and Sa\eM most powerful of bis yassals, received a iliiri Lignano, whicli obliged him to make an ncincj dalion with I'opc Alexander III., and to >i,'i T Venice, a treaty of six years with the conlii|.4 cities (l\~n). This treaty was afterwanU verted, at t'onstance, into a deliidtive ; (llH;i); by virtue of which, the cities (d'lliilrijs guaranteed in the forms of government iIki adopted, as well as in the exercise of the ii'. rights which they had acipiired, whether li\ i.. ov i)rescription. 'j'he Emperor reserved for lii the investiture of the consuls, the oath of alli'i;i. which was to he renewed every ten years, ;ii.; niijjcals, in civil cases, where the simi exceed.; value of twcnty-ttve inijieriiil livres (about 1 francs). The Emperor Frederic II., grandson of rnr 1., and heir, in right of his uu)llier, to the kiii; of the 'J' wo Sicilies, made new etlorts to n-; the jirerogatives of the Kmpire in Italy, lii' cities of Lombardy renewed their leagiii', •>vliieh they drew Pope Ciregory IX. (I'.'-'d), w ilignity and power would \)e eniiangeteil ii F^mijcnu', being possessor of the 'i'wo Sic shotdd succeed in coiupiering the cities of! hardy. The war which ensued ( 1 '-'11(1), w!i« and severe. Popes tiregory IX. and Inn IV. went so far as to ])rcach up a crusade u.-i the F^mperor, as if he had been an iniide' that unfortunate prince, after the most cdiin^ j and indefatigai)le ell'orts, iiail the mortiHi;ili> see his troo|)s once more discomfited by tin ii of the League. 'I'lie cities of Italy were no sooner ilil;ij from the terror of the Emperins, than tluij loose their fury against each other; iui|i(ll. the rage wilh which Liinibard\ swarmed before the In, century, and by incoiporaliiig them with tlnir territories, oliliged tile deserted nobles ami .rj dees to seek an eslablishnient, within llieir\i| Till- latter, finding their partisans unit ])owerlul, soon attempted to seize the goveniii.TJ and hence arose an intenninable source ul di>-ciiril, which ended with the loss of liljii'i| fli. g'cater jiart oftlies- communities. To arre^~l liuse evils, and ])Ut a check i ambition of the jiowerfiil cilizens, they ml' the plan of inlnistiiig the governiiient to ii -ii iiiiifiistiate, to he called the l'ttiits;u, who be chosen in the iieighhouring cities. 'I'bi--- was but a jialliative rather than ;i remedy ; order to guarantee themselves from the opp! of the nobles, the corporations of sevei;il trradnally adojited the |iltin id' conferring ii diclalorsbip on one of the iiowcrfid citizens sijine prince or nohleinan, cmmi though lie «■' stranger, under the title of ('(i/i/aiii ; lui|ii'iJ this way, to succeed in re-establishing pcini Oiisiiii and coiiiii; Villirc. Ilii cuiii|'iu>t ul'Uuli per. These chiefs ( |s of time, to rende tliiiiity wliieh at tii killed on certain co I scM-ral new indei Ire fiiriiicd ill Ital; brlecnth eeiitiiry. I eiiice and (ieiioa ; hiiblics of Italy, by I irigatiiin and coir.n liner of these cities i Itlie invasion of the le cruelty of these ba: tliglit over the w labitaiils of ancient fn and lagoons on t llf; and there laid t Inice, which, whethe [its ciiiistriiction, or , iliser\cs to be mil It' uiirlil. At first i aiiininistercd by i vcr was anniial. ' long these j early aili Icliiiii of a chief ((ii or Doge. This Deiiiled on the sulfra; Icxercised iic\ertliele: it was not till after liiiitliority was grailu Jiiiiieiit, which had 1 |iii ili'iiiocratical. i'l'iiice, which from , enjoyed in the mi ■own which Tyre hai ViliipiilN. " iie com dated from the I miller the magistra pii 11.. whom the \v, pnler of their stati I'lois he obtained f I iiiiiminity of eoiiiiiu liiie; and he jiroiHire I'liil very important ■ill lie coiicliided wit I Willi the Caliphs ol lii'ir commerce ii Bi a desire to extend |r territory. One ol j inaritiiiie cities of liiialia ; both of whii r.iey of Peter I'rseol fcv Were obliged If) of Dalinatia by I > regarded these citie bile ; while the Kin^ l:iid claim to them Mhe hands of the Ki llf the eleventli cent le a |icrpetual sourci en the Kings of Hui liice ; and it was not die Kepnblic found r'ly in Dalinalia. the Veiieliaiis bavin jous League of Lomb J, contributed by tlieii ■vast projects of tliel'.i Milder HI., as a to |iUm1 thorn the sove: Oiiu'iii inil coiiiiKirci' ol' lU comi'iL'st of Dulicalm. PKUIUD IV. A.l). IU74— lliOO. DdU'i's (if Vi'iiicr. 'I'lirCouiiiiliif Ti'ii. ('uiiinii'rc'i- of (ii'iuia. 51 jlcr. These cliipfs or rnptnins contrived, in pro- fs ordini', In rciiilcr absiilufi' iiiid pcrpctuiil iiii lidiitv wliicli at Hist was ti'iiipniary, and only jiiilcil on ititain conditions. Hcnci' tlic ori{;in scMial ni'W indcpi'iidcnt sovoreigntios wliicli |ii> (uiiiK'd in Italy during tlie course of tlie rlccntli century. I, nice and (ienosi nt tliat time eclipsed all the biililics of Italy, by the Hourishint,' state of their iiration and cou.nierce. The origin of the liner of these cities is generi'ly dated as far hack I the invasion of the Huns uni'7), who took the title of ke or Doge. This dignity was for life, and bciiiled on tiie sidlVages of the connnunity ; but Icxercised neveithi'less the rights of sovereignty, it was not till after a long course of time that I authority was gradually abridged ; and the go- jiinicnl, which had been nuinarchieal, becanu' |iu lieniocratical. I'l'uice, vvhiortant advantages, by the treaties |cli lie coiicliideiit of those whose families this new law had excluded from the government; anil it v\;i^ this which afterwards occasioned various insurrec- tions, of which that of Tieiiolo (1310) is the most remarkable. The partisans of the ancient govern- ment, and tliose of the new, attempti'd to decide the mutter by a battle in the city of Venice. Tiejiolo and his party were defeated, and (luerini, one of the chiefs, was kill 'd in the action. A com- mission of ten members was nominated to inform against the acconiiilii-es of this secret conspiracy. This commission, which was meant to be but tem- jxirary, was aft( rwards declared per|ietual ; and, under the name of tfic ('ukikH af Tiii, became one of the most formidable supports of the aristo- cracy. The city of Genoa, like that of Venice, owed hei prosperity to tlie progress of her commerce, which she extended to the Levant, Constantinople, Suia, and r.gypt. Governed at first by ei I •I I'liHcr 111' till' (!i'ii(ic:ir. 52 lti'|iiililii' III' l'i«i. Nuriimii i'imi|iust iil' Na|ili's. KOCirS IIKVOLUTIONS. I'lir ii!iiii'|ii'r M;iiiirrip('liiy;o, wi'i'c ccili'il to tlictn by flip Grrck ciu- liciors. 'I'lic Kiuii-- ri\:. suit to a Sicili.in woman : hence a (juarrcl which drew on a ;;eneral insurrection at 1';^] All the French who were in the city or tlu' bourhood were massacred, with the exce|iti ; one ;;entleman from I'rovenee, called Vi Pe -ellet, who had conciliated all hearts viiiiies. 'J'liis revolt ;;ra(lually extenihil t other Sicilian cities. Kverywbere the \''' were ]mt to death on the spot. .Messina \H' last that cau;;lil the infection ; but there lln lulion did not take jilace till thirty ilays til'lil same event at I'alenno Cillth April, \'}x'>} ' therefore, not true that this massacre of tl.cl^ IVliT iif ArriiK'ii'A n)iii|U(.'r't Sii'ilv. ri:iU()i) i\. V.I). 1071— i:«i(». MiNii> ili'lciti'd li\ Al|i|i»ii»i) 111 ( .islillc. Alnnilii'ki'r. Alxhilniiiiimin. iMiii'd nt llio sanii' hmir, nml (it flii' Round ol M >|)cv licll^. over nil [liills of (lie islaiul. Nor It ni'irc lili'Oiilili' tliiil ttic Jilot IkkI liccii roii- rd li\ I'cli f 111., KiiiLC ot' jVrnif;nii ; since the I iiiiilMns (liniilii)iMl ut first the l)aiiii('r of the II li, liininu' iiNiil\cil to siirrciidrr to llii' l*o|ii' ; iicimc (IriM'U iVoiii tliis icxiliifioii, mid dicnd- llii' \rii;;i'anrc of Cliiiilcs, they di-spati'licd till, s to till' Kint? of Aii-i^'du, will) was tlion siiii,' >villi a licet i 11" the AlVican coast, and _(■ liini III oil' r of their crown. Tliis prince [lied to the in\ilatioii of the I'alenuilanM ; he :1, il at 'rrajiaiii, and llieiice iias>ed to J'alernio, le lie was crowned Ivini; of Sicily. The whole 1,1 siiliiiiiltcd to him ; and t'harles of Anjoii iiliHu'cd to raise the sieije of Messina, w hicli iiiiilerlakeii. I'eler f Castille, vvhose history is extremely fertile in Kreal evfiits. Alidiiiiuo \ I., whom some call Alphoiiso I., after having; taken Madrid and 'J'oledo ( lllS."i), 1111(1 sulidiieil the whole kiiiirduni of Toledo, was on the point of alto^iether rxpelliii;^ the Mahometans from Spain, when a revolution which happened in Africa aii)iiuenleil their forces hy fresh iniinhers, and thus arrested the jirogress of the Castilian prince. Tli Zeirides, an Arab iImiiisIv, descended from Zeiri, son of Mounad, rei;,'neil then over that part of Africa which coiiipreln lids Africa pro|)erly so called (vi/. 'J'ripoli, Tunis, and AI«;ieiN ), am! the Mojjreb (eomprehcniliiif,' Fez and Moruceo ), v\ Inch they had coiKiuered from the I'atamite caliphs of I'.U^ypt. Il happened that a new aiiostle and eoii- ipieror, named Aboulieker, son of Omer, collected some tribes of Arabs in the v ieinity of Siiijulinessa, a city in the kiniidom of Fez, and ;;ol himself ]iro- claiined Commander of the I'aithfiil. His ad- herents took the iiaiue of .t/w;-(/^c//ii//i, a term which sifiiiilics Z(i(/iiiis/i) (liiiitid til r(t'(/i()ii ; ami whence the Spaniards have formed the names Ahnoravitirs and MiiniliiiKl/iN. Ilaviii;: inaile himself master of the city of Sn;,'iilmi'ssa, this warlike F.iiiir extenib'd his coiupiests in the Mo^'reb, as well a*; in Africa I'roper, whence he expelled the Zeirides. His successor, Yoiisud", or Jose])h, the son of Tascl elin, completed the conipii'st of these countries; and built the citv of .Morocco (lOii!)), which he made the capital ot the Moureb, and the seat of his new eui)iire. This prince joined the ^lahomitans of Seville, to whose aid he marclied with his v ictorious trooiis, difeated the Kin;; of Castille at the battle of Hadajos ( lOlID), and suhdued the |)rineipal Ma- liomelan states of Spain, such as Cirenada and Seville, v^e. The eniiiire of the Almoravidrs was siihvertrd in till' twelfth century by au.i'.her Mahometan sect, called the M' Sons, in Mauritania, and assinned the quality of Kmir (Il'.'d), and the surnaim- of Miihtuii, that is, tin r/;/>/— llie leader and director of the Faithful. Ilavinjr subdued Morocco, Africa, and the whole of the Me^rreb, ho annihilated the dynasty of the AInioravides ( 1 H(i), and at the same time vaniiiiisbed the Mahometan slates in S]iain. lie took also (llliO) from the Normans, Tunis, Mohadie, and Tri])oli, of which they had taken jiossession. One of his successors, named N'aser-Moliainincd, formed the project of recontpierin^r the w hole continent of Spain. The iinniense pre|iaratioiis w hicli he made for lliis jiiir- piise alarmed Aliihonso \lll., Kini; of Castille, w ho imiiiodialely formed an alliance with the Kiiifis of Arraijon and Navarre, and even en!,'aj;ed J'ope Innocent HI. to proclaim a crusade aijainst the L'. a; KiTiliiiiiiid 111. t.ik«>i« CiiriUiMi r)4 "i"l Si'\illi'. Urili'rni)l'AU'.tiitiiM.V('iiliitriiva. KOCFl'S 1U;V()1,IJT1()NS. / iiii; lorn iif l''irtiii<,il. r';"liii', (.(' Fnini'i'. WiIILiIII tllK (^UIKIIll'I mi.uhIn. M'. Il.ijr> II. Ill Kntilai Malidtnr'fnns. The nrniicM of Kiirciiic and Africa iiii't (III till' t'oiitilirs of CuMtillc mill Aiiilaliisiii (121'.'); iiiiil in till' cinirniH of the cilj riinlii was f(iii;;lit :i lilooilv battle, nliicli xii cripplid tin' |iiiwi'i' cil' till' Aliiiiiliaili's, as ti) iii'iMsiiiii in a >linrl timi' the ilownlal anil ilisiiu'nibt'rnu.'nt of tlii'ir ('iM|iiri'.*'" AI)cHit llii- |ii'rio(l (r2(l!»), till' MalioniiMaiiM of S|iaiu I'vollril alVi'sli fiiiin AlVira, anil ili\jilrcl thiiiiM'Krs into si'vi'Hil iii-ttv stati's, of wliii'li tin ininripal ami tin' only oni' that I'xistcd for si'vcral crntnrii's was that of tin' drsri'nilauts of NaMi'i', Kin^fx of (iii'iiada. FiTilinand 111., Kin^,' of Cas- tilli' and Leon, took aihanta..'!' of this i'\cnt to ii'ni'W his coniiMi'sts ovi'i' tiir Malionirtans. Ilo took fioni thi'ui till' kiiif;ilonis of CoidoMi. Muici >, and Si'vilh' (1V';»I>, I't si'i].), and lift thru onlj tl sin;;li' kin>;iloin of (iiniada. 'I'lii'si- wars airainst thi' .Mahmui'tans wcri' thr occasion of Ki'MTal rcliy:iiiiis and military onlrrs hcini; founded in Spain. Of these, the most anciinl was that founded and H\ed at Alcantara (ll.")li), n hence it took its name ; liavinj,' for its hadi,'e or decoration a i,'reeii cross, in form of the lil\, or ,ffi iir-(/i-/is. 'I'hc irder of (.'alatrnva was instilnted in 1I.")H; it was conlirmed h\ I'lijic Alexander III. (Il(il), and assumed as its distinctive mark the red cross, idso in form of the lily. Tlie order of St. James of Cani|ioslella, founded in llfil, and contirnicd by the same I'opc (117.")), was distiii- 1,'uished liy a red cross, in form of a sword. I'inally, the order of Montesa (i;U7), supplanted that of the Teinphirs in the kiic'doni id' Arraj,'on. The Kinf;s of Castille and Arra;;on havinj; coii- f|Ui'red from the Arabs a jiart of what is properly called Portnfjal.forined it inloadistinct froverninenf, under the name of /'ortoriilo, or Portu^'al. Henry of IJnr>,'nnily, a l'"rench prince, grandson of Uoliert, called the Old, Duke of Ituriruiidy, and (jreal- f^raiidson of Uobert II., Kiuj,' of France, haviiif,' distinguished himself by his bravery in the wars between the Castillians and the .Mahometans, Alphonsi) VI., Kiu^' of Castille, wished to attach the youii),' prince to him by the ties of blood ; and, for this pur])ose, j,'i>ve him in marria^^e his dauirli- ter the Infant Donna 'riieresa ; and created him Count of Portniral (ID'.IO). This state, indndinf,' at Hist merely the cities of Oporto, Urafja, Mi- randa, Lamei^o, Viseo, and C'oimbra, bcffan to as. sunie its ]ir('sent form iu the reij^n of Alphonso I., son of Count, Ili'nry. The Mahometans, alarmed at the warlike ijiopcnsities of the young Alphonso, had marched with a superior force to attack him by snr])rise. J''ar from beinj^ intimidated by the dauf^er, this prince, to animate the couraf^e of his troops, pretended that an ajiparitiou from heaven had authorized him to proclaim himself kin^ in the face of the army, in virtue of an express order which he said he had received from Christ,"-'" He then marched against the enemy, and totally routed them in the plains id" Ouriiiue (li:V.>), This vic- tory, famous in the annals of Portugal, jiaved the way for the conquest of the cities Liiria, Santarcm, Lisbon, ('intra, Alcazar do Sal, Evi , and Elvas, situated on the hanks of the Tagus. Moreover, to secure the jirotection of the ' 'Urt of Rome affainst the Kinjrs of Leon, who disputed with him the in- dependence of his new state, Alphonso took the resolution of acknowledging himself vassal and tributary to the Holy See (1142). He afterwards ronvoked the rsfntc* oT "'.i . ':iiigdnfn lit Lam,, and there declared liiN nnlepelidence by a fm mental law, which also regnlad d tln' order nf. ci'ssioii to the throne. Saudi > I., son aiiij . cessor of ,\lphonNo, look from ihe Mahometui,. town of SiUei in .\lgar\e; and .MphoiiM] soon after (l.lil) completed the conipiesl ni^ province. The first Kii 1,'s of I'ortugal, in order to -I the protection of the court of Uome, were nMi; to grant extensive binetli es to the ecclcsi,.' with ri'galian rights, and the exemption nf' clergy from the secular jurisdiction. Their ces-nrs, however, linding themseUes tiriiil\ ,. bll lied nil the throne, soon changed their |i> and manifested as much of inditl'erence l'i>i clergy lis .\l|)lionso I, h.id testitied of kindiiiv.; attachnnnt to thriii. Hence originated u : series of broils and ipiarrels with the lomil KoiMi'. I'n|ii' Inunieiit IV. deposed Samli (rj4.')), and appointid .Mphouso III. in his | Denvs, son and successor of this latter priiiii', excommunicated for tiie same reason, ami < , pilled to siirn a treaty ( I'.'S!)), by which tin it- were re-established in all their tornuT rii,'htv. In France, the whole policy of the kiic- directed ii'.;ainst their powerful vassals, who ,l!. among them Ihe linest |)ro\inccs of that kiiii;i! The Dukes of Hurgnndy, Normandj and Ar- faine ; the Counts of Flanders, ChampaLrin', . Toulouse ; the Dukes of Hretagne, the Cllllll^l Poitiers, Uar, IMois, Anjou and Maine, AlniJ Anvei-fine, Angouleme, Perigord, CarcasMiiii,] &!'. formed so many Jieltj sovereigns, ei|ia!r some resjiccts to the (dectors and princes Gennanic empire. Several eircimistance>i, \:i ever, contributed to maintain the balance infiJ of royalty. The crown was hereditary, iiinlj demesne lands belonging to the king, whiili,l,| very exti'nsive, gave him a jiower which liir weighed that of any individual vassal. Hi., these same demesnes being situate in the ci'iiir| the kingdom, enabled tin; sovereign to obsiri ciunluct of his vassals, to divide their for , ])reTent any oik' from ])reponderating over mih' The [lerpetual wars which they waged with other, tlie tyranny which they exercised omtJ dependants, and the enlightened jiolicy of ^r* of the French kings, by det'n'cs re-esfablislir royal authority, which had been almost ainiili.- under the last princes of tlie Carlovingian iljii:' It was at this ]>eriod that the rivalry liilw France and F^ngland had its origin. Tln' that Philip I. committed, in making no o]i]v to the oompiest of Knghuid, by William lliikil Normandy, his vassal, served to kindle llu H;iit,I war lietween these jirinces. The war wliiili :| ])lace in 1087, was the iirst that hajipened lir! the two nations ; it was renewed under tin' - quent reigns, and this rivalry was still nut'l creased, on occasion of the unfortunate divorffl tweeu Louis VII. and Kleanor of Poitoii, in: of Guienne, Poitou, and (iascogne. ThisiliM- jnincess married (1132) Henry, Kurnanui! PI tagenet, Dnko of Normandy, Count of Anjinif Maine, and afterwards King of England; j brought him, in dowry, the whole of her mMI sessions. Hut it was reserved for Philip And to repair the faults of his predecessors. Tiii^fj mon-arch, whose courage was eipial to his priull lliis policy, recovei he slreiigthciiei InminriMis accessii >ii.l;iMds," (IlKO.: Idiiis, the carldiiins pi'iiii, which he iini Ilk aihantage of t lliriscn in Fnudainl CSS tlie Fnglisli of ^line, and I'liitoii ( ! cimqiiests by the at Itoiivilies ( nf Fnuland, III III ..ri'hiinlers.-'^ ■M ml of Ihe Frill Ijiiril wilii the crii I'lillip ,Vlll,'UstUs mill lllMI'l'llril ill I iilli.'i-iiiarine e ^li rnpiiri'il great ai, pill exiiailst France priisadcs u iiii'li l.oii lii;,'eliscs and thei liiiise and Carcas> lie rii_\al |ioWer U.'iiiiii.'i;; this crnsaiU hiliiiiilj war, which : |ig wliii'li, fanatici^ ill make himianit) li Ifiiil, the chief or g lie \\ linle estates ol il him by the Po Idl Siiiion, siirrendei ptiircs III l.oiiis VIII pt was this I'ircumst; ill in pi'i'siin at tli si the Count of ' 111. He died at tli Bii; tl- his son and Jef liiiisliiiii; this di |)i was concluded ; am! the Count, th nlliiwcil to remain liinanu'i'iiient of thi ('mint's daughter ung; with this i nf this marriage iDilse should revert iiiljiiil^'cd to the i'l I cscliral of the Con 111 nf Carcassoime, i • Alliigenses, was : all rii.'ht over the v liine, Agile, Uode/,, pipience of this hloi tof the terrible trib llic founding of the ciny IL, a desceiid;i liiiving mounted t [nf his mother Mati luiliy of Normandy juiiic, and Maine," Inuiie and Poitou. which he subdue III had never iieeii laiis or the barbari Jlie, was, at that tini siiverei;;-nties, \iz. |lit, Leinster, and M^ ••■imied the title of ki It II Ijwli-ll ili»|")S'<'»'"''l''' ^"t' ni.iiiilv, ike. II, iir> II. "f KiiKliinil. riilUOI) IV. A.I). 1074— i:»(M). Klii^ .liiliii. ISmtT III' till* liiiruiM, M.iiliia Cliarlii. liis ipnlii'v, rrcovi'i-cd liirt Kiipnriority over I'.iik- . hi' hdcaLflliciii'il liif powrr iind inilliciiilj liy iiiiiiii liius iirirs-.icms wliicli lir iniKic In llu' ii-ImIiiIn" (llHO-l'.'Jt)). Hrii-l.'S Altiiis Vrr- idiiU, llii' rarltliiiiiM "if l''.\icii\, AiiM'i^'lic, :iri(l iiiii, wliiili 111' !iiilii\i'(l iiiidrr ililli'ic'iit lilli's, Ilk ;iihalit;ii{i' lit' till' r) wliiili lie (1 at ltiiiiviiii'''< (''-*' l)i "^'-''' ''"' t I'lanri' ; uliilr, nii tin' ciiiitiary, i-ij^uili's wliirli l.imis \ 111. midcitiiipk ajjaiiisl Ihiyi'i!''! H and Ihrir |Pioti'itorn, tlii' (nunls (' ; and [i:; uliiili, fanalirisni pirpcUali'il alii ritii's I iiiakr luiinaiiity tu Nlindilrr. Simon, (oiilit lint, till' iliii'l' or ;,'rii('ral nl' tlicMi' ciaisadt'i's, « huh' I'slatcs lit' the ('uiiiits ot' 'ruiilousi' I him hy tlu' I'opi'. .Xnianri, llic muii and (il Simiin, Mini'iidi'ird his chuni-i ovrr tlii'.si; lull's til Louis VIII. Kiiif; of Franii' ( I ■,'-'•!) ; I was this ciirumslanci' that indiifrd l,oiiis to ill ill prison at tin' lirail of lln; cnisadi'i' , st till' Cnniit of 'i'onlousi', his \absal and I. Ill' dii'd at till' I'losi! of this cxpi'ditioii, ii,'li' his son and nuri'rssor, Louis IX., tin' iif iiiiishini; this disastrous war. Hytlii' pi'are li was I'oiii'ludi'd at Talis (I22'.»), hi'lwccu thf and till' Count, tin- (?ri'uti'r part of Liinjfiii'dof [iiiliiwi'd to rt'inain in thi' possi'ssiou of Louis. rramri'iiirnt of this tri'uty Wits tlii' marrium' ('i)iiiit's dau(?liti>r with AlphuiiNo, hrothiT to iii^'; with this c.xpri'ss clause, that failiiiff iif this niiirriafji', the whole territory of Iniisc sliiiuhl revert lo the crown. The same ailjiidi,'i'd to the I'ope the county of V'enaissili, I'scliiat of the ('omits of Toulouse; and the t (if Carcassouiie, implicated also in the cause ' Allii^'ciiscs, was coiiipilled to cede to the all rii;ht over the viscounties of He/.iers, Car- liiic, A^de, Kodc'y:, Alhi, and Nismes. One pieiice uf this bloody war was the eslablisb- iif the terrible tribunal of the Inquisition,''^ lie foimdinij of tlie order of Dominicans. •'■• my IL, a descendant of the house of Tlaiita- , liaviii},' mounted the throne of l'lni;land, in iif his mother Matilda, aniu xpd to that crown ucliy of Jsornuindy, tbe counties of Aiijou, nine, and Maine, foj^etlier with (iiiienne, ioiliie and I'oitou. He afterwards added Ire- wliicli he subdued in 1172. This island, 1 had never been coiiquered, either by tlie laiis or the barbarians who had desolated 11', w;is, at that time, divided into five jiriii- siiveiei;jiities, \i/.. Munster, Ulster, Coii- it, Leiuster, and Meath, whose several chiefs limed the title of kinga. One of these ju'inces enjoyed the dignity of nioniircli of ilie islind ; liiil he had iieitlirr authority sulHcieiit to seciiii' in. teriial traiii|iiillit\ , iinr power eiiiiiiL;h to ripd with Micirss the attacks of eneniiis from witliniil. It was this state of weakinss that indiiced llii.iy In alti'ni|it the conipii'sl of the i>laiid. lie ulilaiinil the sal let inn of I'ope Adrian IV., by a bull ill I I .'i.'), and iiiidertnok, in a formal cii'^ai^'i'mi'iit, to siibjicl tile Irisii to the jiiiisdiction of the Holy See, ami the paynii'iit nf I'l ttr's jji )ii(\"' The expulsion of Deriniit, KUiii of Liiiisler, who had riiidereil him- self odious by bis piiile and bis lyraiiin, fiiniislii'd lli'iiry with u piitext for seiidiii;,' honps iiiiii that island, to assist the dithriini'd prince in n cnverin;; his dniijiniiiiis. The siici'i'ss of the Km;lish, and the \icloriis which they uailied over Knileric, Kiii;» of Colli iaui;lil, who at that time was chief iiiDiiaicli of the island, determilii'd Henry to iindirtake, in person, an expedition into Inland (in Octnliir 1172). lie soon reduced llie provinces of Leiii- ster and Minister to subiiiissimi ; and alter haviiiy; eonstructeil several forts, and nominati'd a viceroy and ollnr crown olHcers, he look his departure vvilhout ciimpleliiiu; the ciili(|iiest of the island. Uodi rie, Iviiii; of Connauirbt, submitted in 117.'); but it was nn| till the ni^Mi id' (jileeli Lli/.abetb llial tlu; entire reilinlinu cd' Ireland was accniu- |ilis|ieil. Ill Kii;,'laiid, the rashness and rajiacily of .John, sou of lii'iiry 1 1., occasioned a mmhiy revnlulinii in the KK^ernmenl. The discoiiteiiti d nobles, with the Archbishop of Canterbury at their he id, joined in a league ai,'aiiisl the Ivin^'. l'o|)e Innnci nl III. formally deposed liim, mtide over his kim;iliim to the Crown of I'rance, and proclaimed a i riisade airaiiisl him in every country of Kurope. ilohn obtained an aeeoinniodatioii with the I'ope ; and in order to secure his iiroteclion, he consented to becoine a vassal of the Church, both for I'liiLrland and Ireland ; elifjragilii? lo pay bis Holiness, besides I'cter's jicnce, an annual tribute of a thousand marks. Hut all in vain ; tbe nobles persisted in their revolt, and forced the Kiii^f to (,'raiit them tbe ffrand charter of Mai/na ('hartii, litth .lime, 121.5, hy which he and his successors were for ever de- prived of the power of exacting subsidies without the counsel and advice of I'arliamcnt ; which did not then include the Coiumons. He itranted to the city of London, and to all cities and bur^;lis in the kinjxdom, a renewal of their ancient liberties and privileges, and the rif,dit of not bciiij; taxed except with the advice and consent of the coninion council. Moreover, the lives and properties of the citizens were secured by this charter; one clause of which expressly provided, that no subject could be either arrested, imprisoned, dis|)ossessed of his fortune, or deprived of his life, except by a Icf^al sentence of his jieers, conform to the ancient law of the country. This charter, which was re- newed in varimis subsequent reii^ns, forms, at this day, the basis of the English Constitution. Kiiif,' John, meantime, rebiUed against this charter, and caused it to be rescinded by Pope In- nocent III., who even issued a bull of excommu- nication against the barons; but they, far from being disconcerted or intimidated, made an otter of their crown to Louis, son of Philip Augustus Kiinr of l""rauce. This prince repaired to England, '.ind there received the fealty and homage of the grandees of the nation. John, abandoned by all . 4 - • , I-. I'nllorMcwcllyn. 50 (./'()iii|iu'»l of Wiilos 1)y Kdwiird I. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. rinitos of the Niirth. All'airs of Dunmaik, Swcilish kiii|,'s. S«cilisli comiuosts. \V;irs of Prussia. Till' 'I'l/iitoiiic knights his subjects, attoniptod to tako refuge in Scotland ; l)iit lu' (lii'il ill liis tlijjlit at the Cattle of ^Newark. J I is (icatli made ii sudden cliange in the minds and sentiniciits of tlie l",iif;lish. Tlie baious for- sook the stanchird of the Fieneh priiiei", and rallied rotiiul that of youiif,' Henry, son of Kiiii; Joliii, Mliose hiiig aii(i nnforttinate reign was a siiecession of tioiihU's and intestine ■wars. Edwanl I., son and successor of Henry HI., as (U'temiiiied and (•oiirageoiis as his father had been ■wvnk and in- dideiit, restored tranquillity to England, and made liis name illustrious hy the comiuest Avhicli he inailc of tlie inincipality of AVales. This district, from the most remoie antiquity, ■was ruled hy its own iiafive jirinces, descended from the aiu'ieiit Uritish kings. Altliough (hey had been vassals and tributaries of the Kings of l'",nglinid, they exercised, nevertheless, the rights of sovereignty in their own cou'-try. Lewellyn, Prince of Wales, having espoused the cause of the insurgents in the reign of Henry HI., iiiiil made some atteiiijits to withdraw from the vassalage of the English crown, Ivhvard E declared war against him (I'.'S','); and in a battle fought near the Meiiau, Eewellyn was defetiti'd and slain, with ■JOOO of his followers. David, his brother and successor, met with a fate still more melancholy. Having been taken jirisoner by Edward, he was condemned to death, and exeiiited like a traitor (128!i). The territory of Wales was annexed to the crown ; the king created his eldest son Kd- ward, I'rince of 'Wales; a title which has since been borne by the eldest sons of tlie Kings of Eng- land. At this period, the kingdoms of the North pre- sented, in general, little else than a s]ie<'taele of horror and carnage. The warlike and ferocious temper of the Northern nations, the want of fixed and specific hiws in the succession of their kings,'" gave rise to innumerable factions, encouraged in- solence, and fomented troubles and inlesline wars. An extravagant and superstitious dcMition, by loadiin; the <'liii'. Ii with wealth, agi;ravate(l still more the evils ivith which these kingdoms were •listracted. The bishops and the new metropo- litair-i,''' enriched at the expense of the crown lands, and rendered bold by their ])ower, and the strength of their castles, (hiniineered ill the senate and the assenililies of the states, and neglected no op])ortiiuity of encroaching on the sovereign's aufliority. They obtained, by compulsion, the introduction of tithes, and the immunity of the ec- cdesia'-lics ; and thus more and more increased and cein(>n1ed the sacerdotal iiower.''" This state of trouble and internal conimotion fended to abate that ardour for maritime incursions which had so long agitated the Scandinavian nations. It did not, however, incvent the kings of Denmark and Sweden from undertaking, from time to time, ex- peditious by sea, under the name of Crnsades, for the CO versimi of the Pagan nations of the North, whose territories they v\('re ambitious t iutesline disorders, wc lli'.il the Swedes even attempting tbrei;;ii coiisioii of their new dom klt'iided themsehes by d( [liir a long and murderoi iinicd on against the idi miitry, which had been icniKiii cidonies in succe lie yoke of the Teutonic ( nit of its ancient inhabita knights took care to iiil their religion in Prnssi iiil forts, and fiuinding b ' citv of Koningsbc 'l-ir •!\ I'-'.-),''); and that of .Mi fliidi liecamo the capital ( !nve bei 11 foundcil in 1'; The Teutonic knights < Srtcdisli coiKiucsts. Wars iif rrussi;i. Till' Tfiitunic kiiiglils. rRRIOD IV. A.D. 1071—130;). ('Dinincrpi' iil'tlu' Hiiltio. JtiKii iMiilt. Livoiiiun niilitnrv Orilcrs. 57 |r apostle iiml the conquornr of Finland (1157) ; pstMhlislied nlso n Swedish colony in Nyland, (1 sulidiied the provinces of llelsins;land and iiiii]i|liind. (hailrs I., son of Swcrkar, vuiitrd |c kin^-'ilom of Gothland to Sweden, and was the Lt lliiit look the title of these two kini;doiiis. (ric, suniimicd I.uspv, or the Lisper, resumed the usiidiiii; system of warfare ; and, in the character 11 missionary, conquered Tavastland and the ivteru part of liothnia. Birger, a prince of the |(ilkuM};iau dynasty, who ascended the throne of hvcdcii in 1-50, concpiered, under the same prc- Ll, Ciirclia and Savolax, and fortified A'iburf^. Ic cnnipelled the inhabitants of these cotnitries to tihiiici' till' Christian relisjion (12i)!{), and an- kid them to Finland. We find, also, several of L Swedish kini,'s inidertakinf; missionary exi)edi- lons au;ainst their Pagan neighbours the Estonians, l|in, iVnni time to time, committed dreadful ra- iircs oil the coas s of Sweden. These expeditions, lliiiji V ore always esteemed sacred, served as an kriise /or the sovereigns of the North in avoiding jie ci iisailes to the Holy Land, in which they took )part." I'nissia and the Prussians arc totally unknown history before the end of the tenth century.** hi' autliiir of the Life rf St. Adelhert, of Prague, I) siifrered martynlom in Prussia in the reign of ihn III., is the first that mentions them under is iipw name (i)i)7). Two hundred years after. Abbot of Oliva, surnamed the Christian, he- mo tlie apostle of the Prussians, and was ap- iiited by Pojie Innocent III. the first bishop of rii'sia (1'215). This idolatrous nation, haughty 1 iniUpcndent, and attached to the reigning su- r with the Teutonic order (1237), who, at that time, nominated the geiii'rals or i)rovincial masters iu Livonia, known by the names of Hccrmiistcr and Lamlmi'istrr. Pope (iregory IX., in conlirmiiig the union of these two Orders, exacted the sur- rend'.'r of the districts of llevel, Wesemberg, Wei- sensteiu, anil I lajisal, to Valdemar II., which the knights, with ccnisent of the Bislio]) of Dorpat, hid taken from liiin during his captivity. This retin- cession was made by an act passed at Strensby (123S). Several documents which still exist iu the private archives of tlie Teutonic order at Kn- ningsberg, anziiC'. iiict<'|)('iul('iit of tlicse bisliops, Tlie coinl)in;iti()ii of tlusi' two Oidcrs iciidcied tlii'iii so ])i)\v(rrul, tli;it llicy irniduiilly cNtciidi'd tlu'ii' coikhr'sIs over mII I'liissi!!, i.himia, t'oiiil;iiul, and Si'iiiin"illi:i ; liiil llicy could iirvcr siu'cci'd liu'tlicr than to suh- Jci't tlirr-c iialioiis to ii rigoi'ons sfrvilii(U', uiidur j)n'tciii-i' of conversion. IJi'foic we speak of Kussia iiiid tlio otlicr I'.asti'in countries of fiiuDiie, it will l)e iu'ccs-.ary to turn our attention for ;i little to tlie ^Monads, whose con- ([Uests and depredations extended, in the thiiteenth ccntui-y, fioni the extremity of Moithern Asia, over Russia and the f;reuter part of i'.uriipe. The native country of this peoj)le is found to he those same reifious which they still inhahit in oiu- day, and \Nhich iiio situated to tlie muih al hranches, the Ehillis or ()r/o/s, heller known liy the name of C'alinncs, ai«l the Mii(/i| eni|)ire, and the residence of the (Jreat Khu] while the other parts of the donunions w. ri' .• veriu'd by princes of the fannly of Zinghis Ki:.i| who either iud\nowlcdged tbi' (jreat Kh;in as lli; supreme master, (U' had their own particular kiij and chiefs that jjaid him tribute. The |irin(iiiii| subordimite Khans of the race of Zijighis w those of Persia, Zagatai, and Kil)/.ac. Their peiiilence on the (ireat Khan, or cm|)eror of ( h:::i| ceased entirely another with their linsl and tlocks, according to the eustiun of the Mn:'i| and Tartar nations. ''7 T'.k principal sect of tliin Khans was called the Grand or Gaf'/cii Jl(ir.,'i,>: t\:. l/orda of Kijizac, w hich was long an (dijii'i : the greatest terror to the Russians, Poles, kit: r anians, and Ilungariaiis. Jts glory declincil I- wards the end of the fourteenth century, aiid r;:.| tirely disaiipeared under the last Khan .\clinii'i.[ in ll'Sl. A few separate horibv-i \vere all I'.nil remaiiH'd, detachi d from the grand horde, siidun those of I'asan, Astracan, Siberia, anil the CMiiifsi — all of which were, in their turn, subdued ei' (v| tirpaled by the Russians.'"' A crowd of princes, desccndauls of Vlailmi'l (aaiicl-dakcsct'Kiow. Iliitoii invaili's Hussia. Vli'xaiiiliT Ni'wski. (ireat, had shared ; l„„,l,s of Russia. One ll, the dignity of Cirani Ihts of superiority over V acted the jjart of pel |r (111 each other. Th was Kiow, which Itnipnlis of the empir. having assumed jl,-)7), fixed his residei |er Ivliasiiia, and thus jlitical schisin, the con Lt fatal to the Russian low, with its dependent feniselves by degrees fn tiuuUv became a pre lies. ■ \n the midst of thesi bils, and when Russia ItV against the Hul^ Jior liarliarous tribes in Ll tlie niislbrtu'ie to be idiT Zinghis Khan. Ti piqiieror, having inarch Idcrto attack the Polovv: siiL'c, the princi's of 1 bt iii'0])le. 'I'he balth the hanks of the ri\ )vts;uiirinnaiy recorded tiv totally defeated ; six tlie field of battle ; ai Ibsiii vas laid open to t ; pructrated as far as liule country on their m jii'v rotiirned by the san tiling their ravages fart |m nil invasion, undo iif Toushi, and goveri \ Ihe Mogul emjiire. 'J liiipiishcd the Polow/iar Icwliole country of Kiji Tlissii, where he took I It to pieces an army ol Pinna, Several other to\ k'l'i' sacked by the Mogii f the tnllovving year. 'I nikc, .luri ! ' , perished liiiii-^iif fell in the lith the Moguls near th llidcil his coiupiests in city 'I'orshok, in tbe |(ir siinie years hi; contii rlioli' of Western Russia t.iok Kiow, Kaminie Ilalitsch. From till (iraiid Duchy of Ki [liicli, with its depende lliiv ing century, came i |illiiiimians and Poles. Vladciuir, which con "rtliern Russia, c was s fiirtars, whose terrible yo I liiMidi.'d years.'" I An extraoidinary perse TiMistious crisis, preserv Mil si]d\ing into total ixander, sou of tbe (ii rliii obtained the epithe "ill a victory v\ hich he It' l.ivonia, near the Nei Cniiicl-aukMol'Kiow. liiit()ii inviidi's Uiissiii. \i,.\Mnili'r Ni'WsUi. rERIOI) IV. A.l). 1074— ir.OO. Ilissi'iisions (if I'liluid. Muxiils coiiiiuri' I'dliuid. Laws (il'tlir lliiiiLMriuiis. M (iiviit, had shiirod amoiis; tlioin tlu vast dii- iiiiis (if lltissi:i. Oiu' of tlii'si" i)iiiic(>s, invested till' diijidty empire, finally heoanie a prey to the Litliuaniaiis and Hcs, the midst of these divisions and intestine oils, and when Russia was struLTudin^' wM\ diHi- Btv ai,':iiiist the |{idj,'arians, I'ohiw zians,*'' and V'r liiirliaroiis tribes in the neiiihhourhood, she l\ the iiiisforto'ie to he attacked hy the Mosrnls, ilcr /iiiirhis Khan. Toiishi, eldest son of that hinueror, li;i\iuir inarched round the Caspian, in dorto attack the I'olow/.ians, encounteieil, on his Ksav'p, the princes of Kiow, wlio were allies of ft people. The battle which he fou<,d)t (12'i:t), the hanks of the river Kalka, was one of the ()»ts;uuruiiiarv re( orded in history. The Uussians pre tiitally defe:;ted ; six of their princes perished the field of battle; and the whole of Western i>!,i:[ V as laid open to the coiKiueror. The Mo- lls pi iietrated as far iis N(ivo;i'()rod, wastili!,' the )i()|(! country on their march witli tire and sword, hey returned by the same route, hut without ex- tiiliii',' their rava^'es farther, lii \TM tliey made iM'cdiid iiiyasion, under the ((Uiduet of Hatou, |ii (if Toushi, and frovernor of the northern parts Ihe Moyiil emjiire. This prine(>, after liaviii!; |lii|iiisheil the I'olow/.iaiis and l{uli,Mriaiis, that is, |e«liole country of Kijizae, entered the north of lissii, where he took Rni;en and Moscow, and It to pus I's at! army of the Uussians near Ko- (imia. Several other towns in this part of Russia ere sacked by the Mofrnls, in the commencement [lie fiillowini; year. The family of the (iiand If.kc, .liui '.' , perished in the sack of N'hulemir; he liiiie-eif fell in the battle wliicli be fought Jith the Moguls near the river Sita. Ha^ou ex- liidcd his coiupicsts in northern Russia as far a> If city Torshok, in the territory of Novogm'od. lir some years hi' continued bis ravai?i's over tlu jliole of Western Russia; where, among others, i(ik Kiow, Kaininiee in I'odolia, Vladeiuir, 1(1 llalitsch. l''rom this we may date the fall of (irand Duchy of Kiow, or Western Russia, liicli, with its deiiendeiit |)rinei|)alities, in the lliiv ii.g century, came into the ])ossessioii of the lithMiiniatis and Poles. As for the (irand Duchy Madeiiiir, yvbich comprehended I'.iistern and leithcni Russia, ( was subdued by the Aloguls or t;m;us, whose terrible yoke it wore for more than Ve lie.ndi.'O years.-'*" All extraoidinary jierson who appeared at this >;isti(iuH crisis, preserved that Jiart of Hussia iMi sinking into total ruin. This yyas I'rince ilixander, son of the (ir.md Dtik. , .Faroslaus II,, lid (ditaine- dukes of Ciija' ia and -Masovia. It was this prince who ealh. d iii the assistance of Ih: "' < utonic knights against the pagans of I'russia, . i' . established that Order in the territoiy of Culm (I'ilU*). The Moguls, after having vanquished Russia, took possession of Poland (l",Ml)). Having gained the yietory !it the hiitlle of Scbiedloyv, they set fire to Cracow, inid then niarcheil to I.ignil/. in Silesia, where a nc n ■ ous army of crusaders were assem- bleil under the eoinniaud of Henry, Dnke of Rreslau, This prince yvas defeated, and slain in the action. The yvliole of Silesia, as well as Aloravia, nas cruelly pillaged and desolated by the Moguls. Hungary, at this period, ])resentpd the spectacle of 11 warlike and barbarous nation, the ferocity of whose iniinners cannot be better attested tliaii by the hnvs passed in t .e reigns of l.adislaus and Coloman, about the ad of tin ide- enth and be- ginning of the fyvidl'tli centuiy. Crimes were then punished either witii the loss of liberty, or of some member of the body, such as Ihe eye, the nose, the ioiignc, (ic. These laws y\ere published in their general assemblies, which wore coniposed of the king, the great ofHcers of the eroyvn, and the representatives of the clergy and the free men. All the other hrnnehes of the executiye poyver ]iertaiiied to the kings, who 'iiade war and jieace at their pleasure; yyhile the counts, or governors of provinces, claimed no jiower either persoiuil or hereditary ." I •_ Kin;;;, iil' Iliiii^'ai y. CD Ciii.-acli' iiuilcT AiiiUfW II. The! (iiilili'ii Hull. KOCirS REVOLUTIONS. 11,-ilnii eiiiiq.iers Iliiiii (irci'k 111' l^.jtLTii Kiniiii The Ci'iisiiiU-s. r\. tTiidrr a goveiiiniciit .so ilcspotk', it was easy for the kings of llimirary to oiilargc the IjOiiudarics of their states. Ladislaus took from the Greeks lhi> (Uu'liy of Sirinium (lOSO), comjirisiiii,' llie hiwor part of Selavouia. Tliis same ])rinee ex- tciiih'il his eomiiiests into Croatia, a couiilry which •was •governed for several ages hy tlic Siavian princes, who jxissessed Up])er Sdavonia, ;in(l ruled over a great ])art of ancient lilyria and Dahiiatia, to which they gave the name of Croatia. Dircis- laus was the lirst of these ])rinces that took the title of king (ini)S4). Demetrius Swininiir, one of his successors, did homage to the l'o]ie. in order to o1)tain the proteetinn of the Holy See (lOIti). The line of these kings having heconie e\tiiut some time after, Ladislans, whose sister had heen mar- ried to Demetrius Swininur, took aihantage of the eonnnotion that had arisen in Croatia, and con- (pie ed a great part of tliat kingdom (10',)1), and especially r])per Selavouia, which was one of its de))endeiu'i( s. Colomau com|ileted their coiupiest ill 110'-', and the same jear he was crowned at I!el- grade King of Croatia and Dalmatia. In the course of a few years lie suhdued the maritiuu' cities of Dalmatia, such as Spalatro, Iran, and Zara, which he look from the rei>uhlic of Veince. ■"'■■' The king- dom of Kama, or Hosnia, fell at the sanu' time under his power. He took tlie title of King of liama (ll():t): and liela II., his successor, made over the ihu'hy of Bosnia to Ladishius, his younger son. The sovereignty of the kings of llimgary was also occasionally acknowledLced hy the luinces and kings of Uulgaria and Servia, an(l even hy the Russian ])rinces of llalitseh and 'VVolodimir. These i!on(iuests gave rise to an ahuse which soon proved fatal to ilungary. The kings claimed for thems( Ucs the right of disposing of the newly concpiered provinces in favour of llii'ir younger sons, to whom they granted them under the title of duchies, and with thi rights of sovereignty. 'I'hese latter made use of their suprenu' power to excite factions and stir up civil wars. The reiun id' Kimr Andrew 11. was rendered remai'kahle hy a revolution which ha])i)eni'd in the government (l'-17). This juince inninir uiider- lakeii an ex])editiou to the Jloly Land, which he eijuipjied at an extravagant and ruinous expense, the iiohles availed themselves of his ahsence to auLrment their own power, and usurp the est.ites and levenues of the crown. Corruption had pi'r- vaded every hraiich of tlie administration ; and the king, after his ri'turn, made several inetl'ectual ed'orts to remedy the disorders of the government, and recruit Ids (>xhausted linances. At lengtli he adopted the ])lan of assendiling a general Diet {\'2'i'2), in which was ])assed the famous decree, or Golden Jill//, which forms the hasis of that ile- feetive constitution which prevails in Hungary at this day. The jiroperty of the clergy and the nohlesse welt! there declared exenijit from taxes and military cess ; the nohles aeiiuired hereihtary ]'osscssion of the royal grants wiiieh they had re- ceivid ill recompense I'or their services ; they were freed from the ohligatinii of marching at their own exjien'.e on any expedition out of tin- kingdom ; and even the right of rcsistaiK'C was allowed them, in ease the king slajuld infringe anv article of the deeree. It was this king also (Andrew 11.) that conferred several im|iorlaiit privileges and immu- nities (HI the Sa\(uis, . l"nder the reign of liela IV. (1241) I1,|,;J was suddenly inundated with an army of Mi,,, commanded hy several chiefs, tin; priiicii,;,! whom were Baton, the son of Toushi, and (im,, son of the great Khan Octai, The lliui^iiiiij sunk in elteininacy and living in perfect sctin had .leglected to jirovide in time fo'- their defeJ Having at length rallied round the !':mncriifi. king, they jiitehed their camp very negligiinl,, the hanks of the Sajo, where they were saiiiri* h_\ the Moguls, who made terrihie hisvoe of i|j,,j Coloiiian, the king's hrotlier, was slain in ■ action ; and the king himself succeeded witin; cnlty in saving himself among the isles of l);ilnivj The whole of Hungary w;:s now at the in the concpieror, who penetrated with his victor; , troojis into Sclavolua, Croatia, Dalmatia, 11,^;^ Servia, and IJulLraria ; everywhere glutting lli^ with the hlood of the people, which he sji, torrents. These harharians seemed (h^teriiiim lix their residence in Hungary, when the un.', the death of the Khan Octal, and the accessinul his son (iayouk to the throne ■ i:mtfed Const:, nople, when a new revolo' ;i hiMMiened lliir| Another Alexius, surm ". ,' ■:ir.zi"',/lf, exii;,-, an insurrection umo' dis ; and li;i\i:i| Latins take Coiistaiitinn Fall ut the I.atiiiiiower. ilviiasty el' I'ali'iilnuas irnrcd the death of t Vxius, he made himsi Crusaders immediii ^1' to Constantinople, and, after having tteil a new emperor i tinf I'landers, and on Hs event transferred t lliiis (T'-'lM). Itwasfi I cliiirclics, which, how ' lieniiancnt, as it ten 1, alius at Constantiiu tllealitiiiie ilie Crusadi cs the provinces of t |M' which they had ;i lich vcl remained to lie |t of tlie maritime coas I Aichipelago, the Pro islands ot the ('yd Isc of the Adriatic, > ilic of V'nice. Hoi |rat, and i imaiider-ii Bicil for Ins slnire the all that helonged t ■spliiirus. He aftervv; liielians, who took | le utllcr chiefs of the ttielis of the dismenih pin, however, were to i Ire assigned them, e\ ^s;ils to the I'.mpire, ai I'leigiity of Ihddwin. Ill the midst of this gi the Greek ])rineeK at lile remains of their ri>, scin-in-law of the I Iviil on the coni|nest .\sia. He made him Idia, part of the coasts }rvgia, and was crowi 0(i. Ahout the same p ■ir.nieiius, grandsons i pas 1., having taken shi I fniiiidation of a new I kiital the citv of Trehizi t\t length 'Alichael A sion of Durazzo, i nsiilerahle state, extern of Lepanto, and piniaiiia, Ktolia, and princes assumed t ppei-ers. Tile most po peinlore Lasearis, Kmp isars found little diffie ri's, tlieir supi 'iority i bi y lediici d them tit 1 ^iistaiilinople, of wliii |ii|iiM(ii of Nice, undert assistaiiee of the (i niself master of it in >* f the Latin empei k'ro]ioiit, whence he p;i iii|ueriir liecame the am ', the House of Paleolof, hatinople until the taki laks in \4y,). I It now reimiiiiH for ut vohilioiis of Asia, clos lairo|ie, on account o jtieiis to the Holy Lai I..itiii^tiiki' CoiistuitiiKiiili'. I'lillurtlic I-iitiii Ii'WiT. l)Miii>l> 111' I'alcoUiiiiis. PERIOD IV. A.D. 1074^-1300, 'I'lu' Sil.|iiki;iii Tiirk'i. S,il;ih-('4-il('i'ii's viclfji'ics, lliMth cil' S:il;i(liii. (SI cmed the doath of the Emperors Isaac and Ixiiia lu^ m:u!e liimsclf master of the tlirono. Crusaders immediately returned, ai-iiii laid L to Constantinople, wiiieli they took hy as- fit ; and, after liavm^ shiiu tlie usurper, they Ipti'd a new emperor in tlie person of IJaldwin, tl (if I'landers, and one of the nobli- Crusaders," Ks fvent transferred the Greek Empire to tlie fins (I'-'O-l). It was f(dh)wed hy a union oi the I iluirches, whieli, liowever, was neitlier j^eneral • iK'niianeiit, as it termin;ited with the reign of 1, alius at Ciuistantinoph'. ^Ii'auliuie ihe Crusaders divided among tlicm- tis tlie provinces of tlu> Greek lOiniiire, — both Isc which they had already seized, and those lich vet remained to he coniiuered. The greater ft 111 till' maritime coasts of tlie Adriatic, (ireece, Archipelago, the i'ropoiitis, and the Euxine ; jsliuids lit the Cyclades and S])orades, anil |)si' of the Adriatic, were ailjudgid to the re- blic iif V 'nice. Uonilaee, Slaripiis of ?lont- Jrut, anil ommaiidcr-in-chii'f of the crusade, ob- picil for his sicare the island of Crete or Ctindia, all that belonged to the I'"mpire be\ond the |s|)liiinis. He afterwards sold Canilia to the liii'tiiiiis, who took possession of it in 1207. (itlicr cliicf-j of the Crusaders had also their jrtiims of the 'lismenibered iirovinees. None of Bin, lioweM'r, were to jiossess the countries that Ire assigiiiil them, exccjit under the title of .uls to the Empire, anil by acknowledging the Ircri'igiity of lialdwiii. Ill the midst of this general overthrow, several till' (ireik ]irinccs attenijited to presene the lilc remains of their l.miiire. 'i'heuilore Eas- ti~, son-in-law of the Kuiperor Alexins ill., re- Ivcil im the conipiest of the (ireek provinces Asia, lie made himself master of Hithyiiia, lillu, ])art of the coasts of the Arelii])el!igo, and Jrvgia, and was crowned emperor at Nice in 0(1. About till" same period, Alexius and IJavid lir.nieiiiis, grandsons of the I'.mperor Aildro- bus I., having taken sheUer in I'ontus, hiid there ' fnuiiilation of a new Empire, which luiil for its liital the city of 'rrebizond. [Vt length Michael Angelus Cominenus took Issi'ssion of Durazzo, which he erected into a nsiileiable state, extending from Durazzo to the lU' of Eepanto, and conipreiieiiiliiig Enirus, fiiiiiaiiia, I'.tolia, atid part of Thessaly, All princes assumed the .ank and dignity of ppcieis. 'liie most powerfiil among them was pi'iiilore Easearis, Emperor of Nice. His sue- siiis found little dirtieulty in risuniing, by de- al's, their supi 'iority over the Eatin emperors, pi y n iluci d them at last to the single city of Jiist;iulinople, of which ^lichael I'aleologus, W|iiMiir of Nice, undertook the siege ; ami, with f :l^sistance of the (ienoese vessels, he made hisilf master of it in I'.'dE Ualdwiii IE, the Y •( the Latin emperors, fled to the Isle of L'ldpont, whence he ])asseil into Italy ; and liis !lii|ui'ior became the ancestor of all the emperors , till' House of I'aleologus, that reigned at ('on- hutliioph- \nitil the taking of that capital by the luksin l-|.-):i. |lt now remains for us to cast a glance at the Vnhilions of Asia, closely connected with those Kiirope, on account of tlie crusades and expe- ;ii"iis to the Holy Land. The Emiiire of the Seljiikian Turks had been divided into several dynasties, or distinct sovereignties ; the .\tabeks of Irak, and a number of jietty princes, reigned in S_)ria and the neighbouring countries ; the Eata- niite ('aliphs of Egyjit were masters of .lerilsalem, and ])art of Palestine, when the mania of the crusades converted that reirioii of the East into a theatre of carnage and di.'vastat'on. For two hundred years Asia was seen coutenuing with Europe, and the C;liristi;m nations making tb ■ most extraordinary eHbrts to maintain the eon- (juest of Palestine and the neighbouring states, against tli" arms of the AlalKunetaiis. At length there arose among the Mussulmans a man of suiierior genius, who reiidend himself formidable by his warlike prowess to thelMiiistiuns in the East, and deprived them of the fruits of their numerous victories. This eon<)ui ror was the famous Salaciiii, or Salaheddin, the son of Ayoub, or Job, and fo\inder of the dynasty of the Ayou- hites. The Atabek Noureddin, son of Amadodillii Zenglii, had sent him into l''.ir\pt (llfiS), to assist the Ealainite Caliph against the Franks, or Cru- saders of the AVest. AVhile there, he was deelareil vizier a.nd <;en''ral of the armies of the C;iliph ; and so well had he established his ])ower in that country, that he effected the substitution of the Abassidian Cali|)lis in place of the Fatamiles; and ultimately caused himself to be jiroclaimed sultan on the death of Noureddin (1171), under whom he had served in the niialit\ of lieutenant. Ha\ing vaiupiished Kgypt, he next subdued the dominions of Noiuedilin in Syria; and, after having extended his victories over this province, as well as .Meso|io- tamia, Assyria, Ainienia, and Aral ia, he turned his arms auaiust the Christians in Palestine, whom he had hemmeil in, as it were, with his coiifpiests. These princes, separated into jietty sovereignties, dividi d by mutual jealousy, and a prey to the dis- tractions of anarchy, soon yielded to the valour of the heroic .Mussulman. The battle which they fought (11^<7) at llittin, near Tiberias (or '"a- baria), was decisive. The Christians sustained a total defeat ; and Ciiiy of Eusignan, a weak prince without talents, and the last King of Jerusalem, fell into the hands of tlie coiuiueror. All the cities of Palestine opened th"ir gates to Saladin, either voluntarily or at the \nnnt of the s.vord. Jerusalem surrendered alter a siege of fourteen days. This defeat rekindled the zeal of the Chris- tians in the West ; and the most iiowerful sove- reigns in Europe were again seen conducting innumerable armies to the relief of the Holy Land. Hut the talents and bravery of Sidadin rendered all their etforts ■anavailiiig ; and it was not till after a murderous siege of three years, that they succeeded in retaking the city of I'toleinais, or Acre ; and thus arresting, fir a .•.lior; s])ace, the total externiin;!tion (d'tlie Ciiristians in the IJast. (l;i the death of Saladin, whose her.iism is ex- tolled by Christian as widl as Mahoniilau authors, his Empire was dividid among his sons. Several princes, his depend: Its, and known by the mime of Ayouhitcs, reiiriu'd afterwards in F.gypt, Syria, Ari\ienia, and Yemen, or Arabia the Happy. These jirinees j;iils, aiitl isfut inln Eg.»iit uncU-r tho reign of tlic Sultan Saleli, of tiiL- Ajoubife dynasty. Tiiat |)rinr(; l)oui;iit tiiiMn in vast nuniljurs, and ordereil tiiiMii to be traini'd to tlie exercise of arms in one of the niaritiiiie cities of Egypt." From this sehool lie raised them to the higliest oifiecs of trust in tlie stale, and even selected from them his own body guard. In a very sliort time tliese slaves liecame so numerous and so powerful, that, in tlie end, tliey sei/eci the government, after liaving assas- sinated the Sultan Touran Shah (son and successor of Saleii), who iiad in vain attcni])ti'd to disen- tangle iiimscU of tl\cir eliains, and recover the authority which tiiey had usurj)ed over Iiim. This revolution (I'JiiO) liaj)))ened in llii! very )n'escnce of St. Louis, who, having been taken ])risoner at the battle of Alausoura, had j\ist concluded a truce of ti'n years with the Sultan of Egypt. The Mameluke Ibeg, who was at lirst a))poiutcd regent, or Atabek, was soon after jiroclaimed Sultan of Egyjjt. T'lu; dominion of the .Mamelukes existed in Egyi)t for the sjiace of "iliii years. Their numbers being constantly recruited by Turkish or I'ircas- I'ewer of tlie I'uiitin's. Arroijaiice ol' liuiiit'ucu VIII. Teni|ioral ilonihiiou of Hm„. sian slaves, they disposed of tlie tin-one of at their pleasmv ; and the crown generalU i',.|, the share of \\h: most audacious of the gaiiu, ., vidcd he was a native of Turkistan. Tluiij nielukes had even the courage to att;i(t ^Moguls, and took from them the kingdoni Damascus and Aleppo iu Syria (1210J, ofwjj the latter had disposscKScd the Ayoubite piii, All the jirinces of this latter dynasty, withtj, of Syria and Yemen, adopted the expeilin.i submitting to the Mimelukes; who, iu unl,; beconu' nuisters of all Syria, had only to ri,;. the cities and territories which tlie Fruuks, Christians of the AVest, still retained in llnirp session. They first attacked the princiiiiiliu Antioch, which they soon eompiered (li| They next turned their arms against the c(nii,i Tripoli, the capital of which they look bj iiv. (r,'Si)). The city of I'tolemais shared tiu' . fate ; after in obstinate and niurderous hi'i,, was called •'Word iu hand. Tyre suitcikI, on ciMiitulation ; and the Franks were cnii; expelled from Syria and the Fust in tlif i PERIOD V. FROM POPE BONIFACE YIII. TO THE TAKIX(; OF CONSTANTINOPLE BY T! Tl UKS. A.I). i:wo— U.-)3. At the commencement of this ])eriod the Poiiti- ii; (loin. ('olleetors or treasurers wer(> esliililivl by them, who sii|)erinlended the le\yiu;;iil: dues they had found means to e\aiiuniiiiii(':iriiiii III' III' llfiviiriii. l'a)iiil Ki-'i; at A\ i;,'ii-;t). |ii> adopted, with their advice :i|iprolialioii, measures a-;ainst the-e daiiiieroiis Jteiisioii . of iIk; court ot Uome. The Three hites, who appeared for the lirst time in these eiiililies, i|cclii|-ei| llieiiisclves stront;l_\ in favour jtlii' Kiiiu. and the iudependenee of the crown. |iiiiise(pieiice, the exeoniiiinnieation which the ||i'' liail threalened an'iiust the K in;: proved in- ctnal. I'hilip niaile his apjieat lo a future i'iiilil\, to which the three orders of the (State licred,^ Tlic Eniiieror Louis of Uavaria, a prince of s\iperior merit, having; incurred tin; eeusures of the Chure'i for defendins;- the ri|,dils and preronati\es of his eroAvn, could not oliliiin ahsolution, nof- vvithstaiidiii}.; the most hiiniiliatini; condescensions, and the oiler which he made to resif^n tlu- Impe- rial dignity, and surrender himself, his crown and his iiroperty, to the discretiMU of the I'ope. He was loaded with curses and anathemas, after a series of various proceediiiirs which had heen in- stituted af{iiinst him, 'I'he hull of I'opc Clement VI., on this occasion, far surpassed all those of his liredecessors. '• May (lod (said he, in speakin;^ of the Kin|ier(ir) smile him witii madness and dis- ease; may h(a\en cnisli him witii its thunder- holts ; may the wriitli of (jod, and that of St. I'eter and St. I'aul, tall on him in this winld and the next; may the whole nuivcrse comhinu aj^ainst him; may the earth swallow him u]i alive ; may his name perish in the first geneiation, and his memory disap|)ear from the earth ; may all the elements consiiire aj^ainst him; niay his children, delivered into the liands of his enemies, he mas- sacred hefore the eyes of their father." Th(> indif^nity of such proeeedinf,'s roused tlu. attention of the princes and states of the J'.inpire; and on the representation of the Electoral College, they thought jiroper to cheek these houiidless |irt;teii- sions of the I'opes, by a decree which was passed at the Diet of Frankfort in l.'CiS. Tliis (lecree, re^jarded as the fiMidamental law of the iMnpire, declared, in substance, thai the Imperial dignity was held only of liod ; that he whom the Electors had chosen emperor hy a plurality of sullVaa-es, was, in virtue of that election, a Irui' kiii^; and emperor, and needed neither contirniation nor coronation from the hands of the I'ojie ; ami that all iiersoiis who should maintain the contrary, should be treated as guilty of liit;li treason, Amont; oilier events prejudicial to the aiilhority of the I'opes, one was, the translation of the poii- titical see from Rome to Avii;non. Clement \ ., iirchbishoi) of Honrdeaux, liavin;; been advanced to the papacy (IIU).")). instead of repairini; to Uome, had his eoronation celebrated at Lyons ; and thence he transterred his resi(leiu(> to A\i;;iion (Lit)!)), out of complaisance to I'hilij) the Fair, to wlioni he owed his elevation. The successors of this I'ope eontinueil their court at Avi;f|U)n until VMi', when lire^ory XI. luiiiin removed the see to lloinc. This sojourn at AAi;;non leiid"d to weaken the anthoritN of the I'opes, aud diininisli the respect and veneration which till then had been ]iaid them. The |irevailiim- opinion bevoml the Alps admitted no oilier city than that of Uome for the true capital of Si. I'eter; and tbe\ despis(Hl the I'opes of Avi;jrnon as aliens, who, besides, were there sur- rounded with jiowerbil princes, to whose caprice they were often ulilined lo vield, and to make con- descensions prejudicial to the authority they 'la ! usurped. 'J'his circumstance, joined to the laps, oi nearl\ seventy years, made the residence at Am^uoh he stiu'iuati/ed by the Italians, under the name of the J!iilii//ii>ii\-/i ('(iptivilii. Tt occa- sioned also the dimiiiiilion of the jiapal authority at Rome, and in the Fcelesiastical States. 'J'he Italians, no louui r restrained by the presence of the sovereiu'n pontilfs, \i(d(led hut a reluctant obedience lo their representatives; while the re- inemhiiuice of their ancient repuhlieauisni iudneeil !i ilii'ii/.i Iriliiiiic dl' Itoini'. t! I S( lii>iii lit' till' I'liiurli. Uriian VI. .Mm .Will. KOCH'S RKVOLUTIOXS, I'liiiiril III' ('i.l|.it,ilin', Muss, mill .IriMiiii'uirraj,' (.'oiiiicll of Hasil. ■rill' Ih-jj-iiiiitic .Siiii'lii l.lllt•^lil•^.^ rtialliiMiiC .l.ilih of I'iirirt. lliiiili' tliciii to load :i (li)t'ili' oar to tlioso wliopiviicliod tip insuii'ootioii iiiul lovolt. llistoriiiiis iiifonii us, tliat Nii'iilas (ialiriiii do Riouzo, or Cola di Uioii/.i, a man of irroat olociiioiioo, and avIiono aiulaoity was eiiual to his ambitioii. look advantage of those re- publican |)roponsiti"s of the lloiuans, to ooustituto himself master of the city, under the pmiular title of Tribune (KUT). He projected the sehenio of a now goverinnont, called the Guvd Kstati:, which ho pretended wouhl obtain the acceptation of all the l)riiices and republics of Italy; but the dospiiti<' power which ho exercised over the citizens, whose liberator and law|,'ivor he afl'octed to bo, soon re- duced him to his original insignilieanco ; iind tlie city of Uonio ngaiu assumed its ancient form of govenunent. Meantime tlie IVipes ilid not re- cover their former authinity ; most of the cities and states of the Leclcsiastioal dominions, afti'r having been long a i)roy to faction and discord, fell under the power of the nobles, wlio made an easy contpiost of them ; scarcely leaving to tl' Pojie a \estigi' of the sovereign authority. It re- quired all the insidious policy of Alexander VI., and the vigilant acti\ity of Julius II., to repair the injurj whieli the territorial iiitluence of the jiontill's had sullored from their rosidonco at Avignon. Another I'ireumstain o tiiat contributed to liumble flie ])a|)al autliority was the schisms whicli rent tiio I'luneh, towards the enduf llio fourteenth, and beginning of the tifteentii centmy. Gregory XI., who iiad abandoned Avigmni for Uomo, beini; dead (i:t7S), the Italians elected a I'ope of tiieir own nati,)ii, who took tiio name of L rliaii N'l., and fixed his residence at Rome. The French cardinals, oi. the other liand, declared in favour of the (.'ardii'al Hobt rt id' Geneva, known by fl\e name of Clemont VIl., who lixed his capital at Avignon. The «holo of ('hrist"iulom was tlivided between those two I'opes ; and this grand sehi>;m coniiniu'd from l:J7H till 1417. \X llonu', I rbati VI, was succeeded by Uoniface IX., Inniicont VH., and tiregory XII. ; whili- Clement VlI. h:id IJonedict XIII. for his successor at Avignon. In order to ti'rminate this schism, every expedient was tried to i.iduce the rival I'ojjcs to give in their abdication ; lint both having refused, several of the ('ardinals withdrew their iilleiri mco, and assend)led a council at I'isa (141)!(). where the two rcfraetorv I'upt^ wcro deposed, and tile ponti- fical dignity conferred mi Aloxamli'r V., who was afterwards succeeded by John XXIII. This election of the coiiiicil o!ily tended to increase the schism. Instead of two I'opos, there arose three ; :,nd if his I'isaii Holiness gained partisans, the Po]>os of Rome and Avignon contrive' alio to mamtain each a number of supiiorters. \d these I'opes, wishing to maintain their rank and et th([ii«»lves to invent now means of oijpressuig the people ; hence the iniinense numbi'r of abuses and exactiiiiii, which subverted tlir discipline of the cburcii, and roused the exasperated uatious against tho court of Rome. A new General Council was convoked :it Con- stance (1414) liy order of tho Pjiiperor Si.'ismund ; and it w.is there (bat the maxim of the unity and perinanoncy of Councils was established, as well as of its supi'riority over the I'ope, in all tliat pertains to matters of faith, to tho extirpaiiiuj schism, and the reformation of the Churcli, In,!;,! its sii]iroiiie head, and in its subordinate iinn;],. The grand schism was hen? termiiiiileil In i abdication of the Roman poiitifl', and the i|,'r, tion of those of I'isa and Avignon, It \va> ■ famous Council thatg.'ne their decision agiiiiMj ■ lluss, the Rerormer of Hohemia, iind a Idllinvt;] the celebrated WickliU". His doctrines wciv demned, and ho himself burnt at Coiistiuu,;; was .lerome of Prague, one of bis most zea't^ partizaiis. As to the measures that wi-re tiik: C'onstance for ollecting tlu; reformatimi !,{■ Cburcli, they ])ractically ended in nutliiii;;. their main object was to ret'orin the ciiuyt I Kome, by su|)prossiug or limiting the new |ir,.| gatives which the I'opes for several cenliiiii< usurjied, and which referred, anioiig otlur thij t'> the subject of benefices and pecuniary e\;uii all those who had an intero'^t in maintaiiiiu:;!.. abuses, instantly set tliemseUes to defeat tiii:| posed amendments, and elude redress. I Council had formed a committee, composiil .f dejuilies of ditreretit nations, to advise iiii';i!,, acconi|)lisliing this reformation, ■svliicli tlir w, world so ardently desired. This committee, V\, by the nanii of the Vullcyr. o/ /icfurmi.y, .liroady made considerable proirress in tiieir -J wiicn a ipiestion v as started, Wbelhor it wu- per to proceed to any reformation witlum consent and co-operation of tho visible Hcaih Church ! It was car; '.ed in the negative, tliii J the intrigues of the rardinals ; and, befiiiv iJ could accomplish tiiis salutary work of rW'urJ tion, the election of a new I'ope had t:ikiii pliT (1417). The choice fell on Otbo do Coli,] who assunied the iianie of Martin V., iniil conformity with a ju'evious decision of the C'liiuil be tiieii laid before thorn a scliemo of ivi', This ]iriieoeding having been disap|)roveil li\:| dirterent nations of Europe, the wliole niatt^ remitted to the next Council ; and in the ii,: while, they did nothing more than pass sdiih- cordats, with tho new I'ope, as to what steps should take until the decision of tho appreaA Council. This new (,'onncil, which was assembleil iit l'.| (14151) by Martin \ ., resumed the siispeiiiliil ' uf roforiMation. The former decrees, that ■.itnil ral Council was superior to the I'ope, ami o not be dissolved or proroguoil exco|)t by lluiit free consent, wore here renewed ; and tiie ^'W l>art of the reserves, reversions, aniiats, ami' exactions of tho I'opes, wtu'o regularly abuH-: Tho liberty ofa|)i)eals to the court of Uiiiiir also circumscribed. I'",ugenius IV., succi'> Martin V., alarmed at the destruction tliii< luiJ at his authority, twice |)roclaimod the ilissulii';! of the Council. The first dissolution, wliiiii cnrreil ui the 17tb o( December, 14:tl, \v;i- voke ' It till- urgent application of the I'.Hii- Sigisiiumil, ii\ a bull of the >amo I'ope, i^iml the l.")th of Dei ember, 14:j:i. In this he acl'. lodged I be validity of the Council, and .iijUM all that bo had formerly done to invalidate i:' thority. Tho second dissolution took ])lacc mrj 1st i< put a check to flu ■ I'durl of iioine ; and fit 111 icniver by degree Wa>. The I'opps, mi kikiii"is, and of the neei III iif the sovereigns, 1 pre attention and rospei LVl leligtli the new li |out the I'liiirloeiitli cent s^ uf this revolution, iliirkness of siipersliti. Jr.ili'ope were almost ii liNt III' the di>li',ictioie fi' ;iiiil the Clinrch, and cral learned and iiitre pruiice, who, w bile inv Jusc iirthe new jiower i re 111 revive the doetrin |ii>lii.'!iti'ii the minds i ' riglil-<, and to exaiiiii bit-, uf the sacerdotal an Jtlii'M' refuniiers was , ^iiiiiilcan, who uiiderto ';iir, Kin:: of Franci III. His example wa |ti'il poet, Dante Alighi I iJiipiTor Louis of Ha •me. Marsilo do I'ai lliiiiii Oekaiii, Loopo |iTlii'ii in the track ol l: tlie crowd of writ alter the grand sehi lliiiiliirly distinguished ^liiilas iW^ Cleniango, a ltini;s mot with general Inuy productions, how lliail taste. The philosi lAialiii' translations, am Itleties, reigned in all lirs (111 the human iniiiil li-y vestige of useful 1 ■I'll!' I'rii;,'niiitii' S;iiii'li(iii. l.ilii'itii'si l'(iallir.iiil'lLiirrli. .Iiiliii oC I'iiiis- lliiiiti'. I'ERrou V. A.I), laoo— 1 1.".;!. It(ii.'i'r ll;ii'(jii. I l'i'lr;iri'li. liiii'cMi'i^.. (J.l ' Liiicli .iiiil ('(illi'M l'a|ji>v. I - 1 I;u'c i: 'II trim-l ■:: IT :ir:i !" I :i UIIKIII «i l! ..■ ['v\ ■i* -^iDiictl a now scJiiHin. Tho )iroliitPH who ro- n;iiiii(l !'♦ Itii^'lo iiislitntcil a iirocediiic airniiist liiii • tlii'V iii"' siis|iciult'il liiiii for contuiiKK^v, anil |ii;illv (li'i'iosi'il liiin. Aniadi'iis \ III., cx-Diiki- of liiviiiiv, \MiM i'lt'''lt'il ill Ills |)la('(', uiiiliT tlic iiaiiK! I'lli^ \ ., anil ri'ciijfiiiscd liy all tin' partisans of jic Council as llii' Icnitiniato 1'o|h'. This latter liisiii la^ti'il ten vars, Felix V. at li'n!,'lh jjavn liis ik'iiiissiuii ; anil tint Council, which hail filliilinwn from llaslu to Luusanne, ti'rininati'il its Itiiimsiii 1(1!). 'flk' J'rcncli nation ailopti'il several of the ile- k'ls of the C'oiiniil of Ha^le in the famous l'r:ifj- |;itic Sanction, which (liaries \ II. caused to he fiiwii up at IJounri's (l-HIS) ; and whose stipiila- olis served as the liasis of what is called the fj- frtic'i (if t/ii' Vdlliciui ('/lurc/i. The example of |i' I'rcncii was s]icedilj- followed hy the tieriuaus, iiii aiicileil to these decrees, at the Diet of May- ', ill 141!!). The court of Home at length rc- kiiud a |)art of those hoiiourahle and lucrative j[lit^ of >vlii(h the Council of Haslc had depriM'd Lmii, liv the concordats which the (Jeniiaiis con- IkIciI (1-tlS) wi'ii Micholas \'., and the Flench |,')l(i) with I^eo \. The (.'oniieils of which we \\i' now spoken tended materially to limit the lorliitalit power of the Ivoman ponlill's, hy t;isiii;^ Tliclioii to the principle « liicli estahiished the sii- ^ri(iiit\ of Ceiieral Councils over the I'opes. This iviin put a check to the enter|)risiiiL; amhition of |c cuurl of iiome ; and kiiiirs availed Ihcinseives fil to iccover hy de;;rees the preroijatives of their pwu^. The I'opes, moreover, sensihie of tlie'" ;ikuiss, and of the need they had for the proti . ^n 111' the so\erei!,'iis, learned to treat them with ic iiltcMlioii and res]ieet. JAl leiiulli the new liitlit which he^iiu to dawn liiiit the loiirteeiitli eentiirN, hastened on the pio- . of this revolution, hy irradually dissipatiiifj liiikiiess of superstition into which (he nations IKuropc were almost universally sunk. In the |(Nl ol the ili-.traetioiis which ai;itateil the I".m- ;iiiil till" CImrcli, and durini; the jiaptil schism, ftnil learned and intrejiid men made their a|i- [iniiice, who, while investii;atiiii; the oriijin and use III" the new jiower of the I'opes, had the con- to revive the doctrine of the ancient canons, liiiliirhteii the niinils of sovereigns as to their (i' iiy:lils, and to examine with care into the just pits ol' ilie sacerdotal authority. Among the first jlhi'se reformers was .lohii of Faris, a famous kiiiiiiiiaii, who undertook the del'enee of I'liilip I'uir, Kiiiur of France, ayaiiist Fope Itoniface 111. His example was followed hy the cele- kti'il iioci, Dante Alighieri, who took the ptirt of Kmpi lor l.ouis of liavaria against the court of lliie. Marsilo de Fadna, John do .laiuluno, llliiiiii Ockam, Leopold de IJahenherg, &c., Iriliiii ill the track of the Italian poet; and |i'ii«: the crowd of writers that signalized them- iil'ter the grand seliism, three French authors lliciiliirly distinguished themselves, Feterd'Ailly, rliiibs lie (lemange, and John Cierson, whose iiiits met with general apjilause. iSlost of these |i:iiy productions, iiowever, were characterized lliail lasle. The [iliilosophy of Aristotle, studied l\r;il)ic translations, and distigured hy scholastic lllclies, reigned in all the schools, imposed its Ills oil the human mind, and nearly extinguished |iy vi'sligi; of useful knowledge. The belles lettiTs wore (juite neglected, nnil as yet had shed no lustre on the sciences. (Sometimes, howcMW, genius hruke wilh a transient splendour tliioiiL'h the darkness of tlii- moral horizon ; and several extlaordiimry pei .i.i^, depising the vain cavils of the schools, hegaii t > sluily truth in the voliimi' of niitme, and to copy after the lieaiiliful modi 1» of intiquity. ISueh was Jio^'cr llacmi (ulii died in l"J!)4),aii Fligliv.hman, and a I'rancisean friar, who has become so famous hy his discoveries in eh"- niistry and meehaiiical philoso[iliy. Danle, nur- tured in the spirit of the ainients, was the tirst that unih^rtook to reline the Italian langiia^'e inio jioetry, and gav it the i)oli-li of elegance and uiaci< in his compositions (he died in Ffil). lie was sneceeiled by two other clebrated authors, I'l;- trarca (who died in Fn4), iid Ifoccacio ( l:!"!.')). The period of wliieh we spea, .'uve birth to se- veral new inventions, which proved iisel'id auxili- aries to men of genius, and tended to aei.eleriio' the jivogress of knowledge, letters, and arts. Among the principal of these may he mentioueil the iiiveo- tioii of writing paper, oil-paintinir, printing, irmi- |)owder, and the mariiu'r's compass; to the ell'ects of which F.iiro|)e, in a great measure, owes ils civi- lization, and tlie new o:ili r of things which a|i- peareil in the fifleenth century. Uefore the invention ol'pajer from linen, parch- ment was giuerally used in lliirope for the Iran- seiiliing ol' liooks, or the drawing out of jiulilic deeds. Cotton jiaper, which the Aralis l)rou:ilit from the l^ast, was hut a poor remedy for the .■areeness and dearth of parehiiient. It would a|ipear, that the invention of paper from linen, and the custom of using it in Ihirope, is not of older date than the Ihir'eenlh century. The famous Monlfaueon ackuovvledgi s, tliat, in sjtite of all his res«'arches, both in I'ranie and Italy, he could never liiid any niamiseript or charter, vv ritten on our ordinary jiaper, older than the year I'J'O, the time when St. Louis died. The trulh is, we know neither the exact date of the invention of this sort of pajier, niu' the name of the inventor.'' It is certain, however, that the manufacliire of jiaper from cotton must have inlrodiiced that of paper from linen ; and the only i|uestioii is, to determine at what time the use of linen heeame so common, ill Furope, as to lead us to sujipose they might convert its rags into paper, 'i'lie culiivalion of hemp and Hax being originally jieeuliar to the ie)rthern ciunitries, it is ]irohable that the lirst at- tempts lit makiiiiT paper of linen rags were made intiirmany, and the countries ahiuinding in llax and hemp, ratl.'cr than in the soutliern provinces of l',uro|)e. 'J'he most ancient mamit'actory of paper from linen to be met w ith hi Germany was established at Nnremlieig (FlilO). The inveiitimi of oil - paintin„' is generally ascribed to the two brothers \ aii-l".iek, the younger of whom, known by the name of John of Bruges, had iiaiiied < ..usiderahle celebrity about the ei.d of the fourteenth century. There is, however, reason to believe that this inveiilion is of an older date. There are two authors who have carried it back to the eleventh century, viz., Theo])iiilus and laaclius, whose works in iiKiiiuscriiit have been pri'serveil in the library at ■\Volll'enhuttel, and ill that of Trinity College, Cambridge ; and who speak of this art as alreaily known in their times. According to them, all sorts of colours could be mixed up with linseed V w liiM'iitiiin ol'llil |iiiiiiliiu' liiM'iitiiiii III' riiiiliiit;, i'uti'r SrliwlViT. (tiiti'lll)iMj KOCH'S Ui;VOLUTlOiNS. .Iiiliii Fiiiist. I'.iii{ni\iiij{ oil ci'in ' Miim) l''iiilt"ii'rrn. \lli.-rt Diin-r. i;iiii|'(iH'r imi'il ii AriilliiA. Kiri'-nr nil, 1111(1 (Mii|ilii\('il in paiiitiuK; liiit tlu'v nLfrcc ns l(( till' ilKMiiivriiiciicc ol'n|i!il\iu;;' llii" kiii ()/'(///( V Of iKHtrail mi aci'ouiil ol' tin' ililli- ciilly ill ilrviiiir I'oloiiis iiii\ I with oil. Adniitliiitf llic civdiliililv of tlifsc i«o juitliorK, mid tile liii^li :ilitii|iiitj of tlii'ii- works, it would iippi'iir, iicviM'- tiiili ■^s, tliiit they made no jri-ciil ll^l of lliis iiivcii- lioii ; wlirtliiT it iiiiiy Ik; tl.ut ]iiiiiiti'lM |ii. fcned to iclaiii tlu'ir foiinor iiiodc, or that the dilliciilty of drviiiLi: oil coloui'M had discoiniiui'd tlii'iu. It is, liowivi'i', too tiiic, that the iiin-t invciitiouw liavi' oflcii laiiitiiislifd ill iiiiiiicritcd ui'irlt'i'l, loiif; lii'forc iMi'ii had k'ai'ut'd lo reap any adciiiiatc advaiitau;i' fidiii tlicni. Wire llii' \aii-lCicks the ^\vs\ thai practised this slxh' of jiaiiitini; ( Or did .lohn of IJriii^c-i, till' yoinitrcr of the lirothi'is, and wlio I'ar- lii'd it to till' highest dcu'iTi' of perfection, invent some mixture or composition for increasini; the exsiecalivr (pialities of linseed or nut oil ; eope- cially with rci^ard lo colnurs not ea.iily dried ^ It heiouirs to eoiinois-ienrs and artists to examine tliesi (piestioi.s, us wi'll as to de( ide wlietlier tlie piclures, alleirud to have heen painted in oil cV!nf,' on wood ; while this latter owes its origin to honiouldiny: or im])rinfini,' of '•(Minnoii caiiK, uhicM seems to have lUirncsted the first idea il'it, 'i !>■ use of cards was I irrowed from Italy, I,, ■ ;.'.ll wo ind tliis <'usfeni estuhlished in ( j( . !inny «uoi) aflei the coinmenceiiu nt of the fourteenth <'entur_4, ^vhere card-makers formed -v distinct trade, ahout lour and twentv vi ars hefore the invention of printins,'- It is prohahie that the tiernians were the lirsl who designed models anri proper casts for the impression of canls.' The desire of i;aiii simuested to these card-makers the idea of enijraviiiu: on wood, after the same manii:'r all kinds of tiy:ur<'s or scenes from Siicrid History, ancom])anied with leirends, or narratives, intended to explain their meaniiii;. It was from these legends, jninted in single folios, an.' ihlished also in the form of hook--, or rather of •>•■: essions i'rom eniira villus on solid htoi'ks of wood, that the art of typof;ra])hv took its orifjin." This wonder- ful art, to vvhich Lurope owes its astonisliinu; ])ro- ^ress in tlie sciences, consists of two distinct inven- tions, — that of th(.' morvahlv ti/p's, and that of the font. The former lieloni;s to John (iutenhiuir, a P'litlomaii of Mayence, who made his tirst attempt in movoahle types at StrashiUi,', in HJtd ; the other, which is fjenerally altrihnted to I'eter Sclnef- fer of (jernsheim, look j'hiee at .Mayence in 115'.'. (iutenherj^ residrd at Strasbiiru; from H'-'l till 14 l.i. Ueing ii noble senator of that city, he married a lady of rank; and diiriii!,' the twenty years of h's residence there, ho cultivated all sorts of occult arts, especially that of printinjjf. It was chieliy in reference to this latter art that he contracted an ;iC(piainfance vvitli several of his -wt allhy fellow- citizens, one of vvlioni, named Andrew Dri/.ehn, havin:^ died, his heirs l^'oui-ht an action against Gutenberg' on account of some ilainis vvliich tiu'y made against him. The jniigistrate oril ■ inipiiry to be instituted, tlu' original copy of wl,, drawn up in 14lli(, was discovered .\ Scliii;' (174.)) in tlie iirchivi'rt of the city, and is slil served in the ])uh;i' I; ,rary at Strasburg. A,. . ing to this aiitli'.il'c oocumuiil, it iippr;iiw, i fiimi the J ear 1 i.KJ llieri" existed ii printing. i at Strasin rg, under (he direition of liiilni! and in the house of Andrew Dri'/.elin, hisa-.Mi- that this jiress consisted nf forms, thatW(i ■ teiied or locked \>\ means of sitcws ; and tli.it' types, either cut or engraved, which were einli, within these forms, were niovcahh'." (iutenheru', after his return to Maycin'i, ■ conliiiueil his typographical labours. W liil< ' he contracted an ac(piaintance with a iiru elate in the exercise of his art ( I tl.'i) — the I'n; iloliii l'"anst, a citizen of Mavence. Thi'- i alliance continued only live years; and it i> ,i; Ibis interval, as is generally supposed, that \\.< , vent ion of the font, or eastimr of Ivpes, shmil, placed : as well as that of the die and the niii.: or mat- ix, by the help of which the art iifl;!, grajibv was brought nearly to its present stait peri'i'ction.'" Some disjiules, whicli hail arij between these new lesociates, liaviii;: (Ii-mO, their parlnerslii|), l''aiist obtaim d the pres4 .ill enberg, with all its printing ap[)aratns, vvhicli : lallen to him by sei|uei-.tratioii. (iutenlieii.', ii ' ever, fitted up another press, am' conliniici print till the time of his death, in i tt)H. NuhJ of the books which issued from the ))ress(if'if celebrated man, either at Strasliurg or Miucntl bears the name of the inventor, cu- the date iifrf impression ; whether it was that (iiitenherir w a secret of 'lis invi iilioii, or that the prejuilin. the class to which he belomred jircvented liiiii iV boasting of his discovery." I'aust, on the i: trr.ry, no sooner saw himself master of (iiiteii' i'.| presses, than Iw became ambitions of iiotoiiiti, example of which he irave by ])r. Ilxing his in and that of I'eter Sclioffer to the famous I'miIk v\ Inch they piililished in 1457. Tlie arts of vvhich we have just spokcii. in probability, sui.'u:e.sted the idea of enuraviu: eii|iper, of which we can discover certain !r towards the inidille of the Hftceiitli century, !.| honour of this invention is generally asciil i il ' j goldsmith of Florence, named .\laso I'le .'i who is snpiiosed to have made this iliscoveiv (he year IlliO, whih' engraving tiirures or >\\'.\ idate. Ihiccio Baldini, another I'loreiitiiic, ij drew .Montegua, a. id Mark Antonv K;.iiii '4 both Itidians, followed in the stejis of liniu'in' and brought this art to a high degree 'if pi rt'cc;;: There is, however, some cause to doubt wlu'!:j Finigiierra was exactly the Ki>t to whom tlii'i''j of this sort of engiaving occi, red ; since, iin ferent cabinets in I'.urope, w tiiid s|)eciini'ii- engraving on eop|)ei, of a ilate earlier than w'J his heen assigned to h'iniguerra. If, Iiowcvit,!:" giory of this invention belongs in reality to Italians, it is (juite certain that the art of i ii:.'i;; on copper, as well as on wood, was cultivati'il I its infancy, and brought to ]ierfectioii, in (Jeniuil The tirst native engravers in that country vvl known, citlier by their names or their sigiinlw'j in the tifti^eiith century, were Martin Scli'i: painter and engraver at Clolinar, where he iH" IIHO; the two Israels Von Meche'n, liitiior Jdii, vklio resided at 1 liiiliail Wolueiimtb 111 nlebrated Albeit hiDiis a ligiire ulioiit i liiiniii!,' of the sixti .Next '" the invent lllicr \\i ■'• so iiitich a ltiii|iiivvdi r, which, h lew iiictluiil ' f lortil'v jitics, wi'iiii!. I a col b't and tactics of war tM'i'id discoveries \\ ■tiuuisl. from each kiii'c, tie |iiiiii'ipal in 111' cause III' its deti lilie with sulphur a jir:ikiiii.', forms the i Fill' :i|iplii';;liiiii of p hii|ilii\ineiit Ii" 111 ag Jll'IIM iliif Stolll ^, biilii liislilil'' hodies. ,'). Dines, and ilestro_\iiiij All thcsi' discoverie !lir knowledge of sa llii^ivc properties, cal I'lil. Most pr:ihabl; ill' Ivi't (liiilia or biiiiil in a natural stai Iss jiniliahte that Ih l('i|iiaiiited with the Icliirc the Europeans, till) tirst introduced Jill' celchiatcd Uoge Ir iViar (if the thirteei pith the coiiijmsition i: cut in tire-wiirks an |(ii'ilin iiiiidc r<(i cniiHiii- |ti>ii>> a li:.'>ii'i' iit llic I'liil III' till' illU'i'lith iir.il ftjiimiii!,' Ill' till' xixlci'litli riMituij. \c\i '" till' i)iM'iitioii (iT priiiliiiiTi tlii'ii' Im iki Itlicr ll. -i> liiurll iillChlH (1111- iillrliliiili lis tliiil of tiiiiiiiiwiK 1, ^vlli^ll, I'V iiitrodiicini,' iii-tilli r\ . miil ii lew iiutliiiil !' Inilil'\ iiiii, ;itl;if \\iii". 'Tills iiivintiiili ciiiiniriM's [■\.r;il ili'^riivi'iics uliirli il is necessary tn (lis- iiii fmm each dlliei'. I. The tlisii)\eiy '>( liii'i', tli' pi'liii'ipal iiis;i'eilient in );iiM|iiiw(lei', ami ill' raiisi' if its ik'tonatidli. 'i. 'L'Id iiiistiiK' of Jiliv with sulphur ami ehareoal, which, propcily iikiiitr, foi'iiis the in\entiiili of ^uiipowihi'. '.i. ;ipplicatioli of jiowdev ti) liie-xvorks. 1. Its |lii|]ii)Miiciit a~ ;ili nielli (ir iiropelliiiif powei' fur iii\u!iu' stoiii >, hiillets, (ir nllier h' ivy iilid coiii- liMiliir liddies. o. Its eiuployiiicnt in springing' hiiii's, ar.d destrojiim; fcirtilications. All these ili>c(i\eries hclini;; to dillcrt'llt epochs. Ill' kiiowledixe (if saltpetre or uiire, and its i'\- u^ivc properties, called deloiiaiion, is \ery lUl- iiit. Most pr^iliahly it was hiiiii(,'ht to us from I' i'/i't (lmli;L or Chiiiii), where saltpetre is t)iai(l ill a natural state (d' )ireparatioii. It is not v-i iiKihahle that the nations of the East were ■i|ii;iiuled Avith the coiii|iositio.i of jjuni'owder Icliirc the Kuropemis, and that it wis the Arahs I'hii liisl iiilrndiiced the nsu of it into Kiiroiie. Jill' celehrated lloirer Uacon, an Kiii,disl. monk Ir iViar of the tliirteeiitli century, was acipiaiiited Trilh the ('(llllpu^ition of fjunpouiler, and its ernploy- rjit ill tiri'-works iiml puldie festivities; and ac- |(iri|iiit,' to all iip|iearances, he ohtaiued this iii- priiiatii)li IViiiii the Arahie authors, who excelled |i llicir skill of the clieiiiical sciences. The em- |lo\iiK'nt of iruiipowder in I'lurope as an aifcrit for niiiwi ii; halls and stones is ascertained to have iccu ahiiut the coninu'iiceiueut of the fourteenth I'litiuy ; and it was the Arahs who first avaih d hi'insclves of its atlvantai^es in their wars against (ic S|)aniardij, Iroiii Spain the use of jiunpowder hill artillery jiassed to France, and tluiice it jri'.iUially cMiiuled over the other Stales of I'lii- Dill'. As to tlieapiilicatiun of itunpiAvder to mines, 111 the destructiou of fnrtitied works, it doi's not hiprur to have heeli in priiclice before the end ot 111' iilteenth century,'^ The iiitroductiou of ImuilK bill iiKirtars seems to lia\.' Iieeii of an earlier date 111(17). 'I'lie invention of tiiese in Kurupe is at- l-iliiited to Si'^isimind i'aiidcdph Malalesta, I'rince h' Kiiii'iii ; hn! in France they wore not in u.^e till (liiiul the reii;'n of liOiiis Xlli. Muskets and lulililncks heijaii to he introduced early in the Itli'cuth century. They were without spriny;- jicks till ir)17, \vlieii tor the first time muskets III pistols with spring-lucks were manufaclured ; Nuremberg, Si'M'ial circumstances tended to check the pro- brss of lire-arms and .'. •' improvement of urtillery, tastiim :>ia(K' most peoj-le prefer their ancient Jiiuriiies of war; the construction of cannon was lul iiii])erfecl ;'^ the manufacture of gunjiowder Jii'l ; and there was a very general aversion to the Icwly invented arms, as contrary to huinanity, tIkI calculated to extinguish military brii\ery. Vlmve all, the knights, whose science ■was ren- dered comph'lely nselesM .by the introdui'tion ol fire-arms, set ih scIvch with all their might t" oiipose this iiM'iitiiin, liiim wliiit we have just sai-d il is oh\iinis, that the comniKn trudiiioii which aitcribes the iineiitioii of gunpowder to a certain iii.m.K, iiimicd Herthold Schwartz, merits no credit what 'Ncr. 'J'liis tradi- tion is founded on mere hearsay ; and no writers iiLjree as to the name, the country, or the circiiiii- staiices of this pretended iinintoi ; nor as to tin time and placiwlieii he made this extraordinary discovers. Lastly, the miriner s compass, so essential to the art of navinntion, w as likewise the prodiictii iif the barbarous ages to which we now I I he ancients were awar ' of ihe pro- perl' aifnot to attract iron ; but its direc- t ' 'lie, and the manner of coiiimii- iiic.r J tic virtueM to iron and steel, wen t n to all those nations of anti- ipiil;. nowiR'd for their n;i\i;;:ition and conme :. 1 . I'his discovery is usually i ttrihuted to a citizen cf Auialli, named l''la\io (iioii, who is said to ha\(' lived almut llie beginning oi'l'ie four- teenth century. This tradition, ancient tli ugh it be, cannot be admitted, hcc'iusi.' wc hiiM' ..icon- testable evidence, that, before this period, the polarity of the loadstone and the magnetic needle were known in F.urope ; and that, from the com- mencement of the thirteenth century, the I'ru- ven(;al niariuers made use of the compass in Uiivi- gation.''* It must he confessed, however, that we can neitlier point out the orii.'inal author of this valu- able discover), nov- the triu- time when it was made. All that can be well asii rtained is, that the mariner's compass was reclitied by degrees; and that the Knglish had no small share in these corrections, Jt is to this polar virtue or (luality of the loadstone, iii.d the magnetic needh', that we owe the astonis nig jiroicress of commerce and naviiiation in Kurojie, from the end of the fifteenili century, Tlu se were already very considerable at the time of which we speak, allhough mniuilion was yot confined to the Mediterriinean, the 15; 'tic, i nd the shores id' the Indian Ocean, I rile cities of Italy, the llaiiseatic tnwiis, and tliiise of the Low I'ountrii's, engrossid, at that time, the iiriiici|ial commerce of l''.iiro|)e. The \ inetians, the (ienoese, and the l''loreiitines, were masters of the Levant. The (.ienoese had more especially tlu' commaml of the lilack Sea, while the X'enetians laid claim exclusividy to the com- merce of India and the F.asi, which they carried on through the ports of I'.gypt and Syria, This rivalry in trade endiroiled these two republics in freipient disputis, and involved them in long and sanguinary wars. The result turned in favour of the \ enitians, who found means to maintain the empire of the iMediterranean ai;ainst the Cieimese, The manufactories of silk, after having passi'd from (Jreece into Sicily, and from Sicily into the other parts of Italy, at length fixed their itrincipal resi- dence at Venice, This city came at length to fur- nish tlie greater ])art of Eurojie with silk merci'ry, and the productions of Arabia and India, The Italian merchants, commonly known by the name id' Lombards, extended tlu'ir tritfic through all the ditl'erent states of Euroiie. Favoured by the ])ri\ileges and immunities which various sove- reigns hud granted thcni, tliey soon became mas- V 2 O ■JSr; IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // 1.0 I.I 11.25 £ Hi. 1120 2.2 1.8 U 11.6 Photographic Sdences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ,*lf £# Tlifi Iliinspfttic League. ». 68 The Baltic trade. . , / Flemish rommercial citi0„j. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Knglish commerci'. The Hiiiiiic townn. WiMjllens and Silks. ters of the commerce Pr.nd the current money of every country where t^f) hey established themselves ; and, in all probiibiliJify, they were the iirst that adopted the practice^ of letters or bills of exchange, of which we may|i discover traces towards tlie middle of the thirtfvcnth century. The Hanseatic^* League, which the maritime cities on the Baltijij had formed in the thirteenth century, for the/ protection of their commerce against pirates aind brigands, gained very consi- derable aceessio/ns of strength in the following century, and evfon became a very formidable mari- time power. A great number of the commercial cities of the E/mpire, from the Scheld and the isles of Zealand, t^o the contines of Livonia, entered successively into this League ; and many towns in the interior^, in order to enjoy their p'-otection, solicited tlye favour of being admitted under its flag. The* first public act of a general confedera- tion among these cities was drawn up at the as- sembly of their deputies, held at Cologne, in 13G4. The whifilo of the allied towns were subdivided into quarters or circles ; the most ancient of which were tiie Vencdian quarter, containing the south- ern and eastern coasts of tlie Baltic ; the Westpha- lian, for the towns on the western side ; and the Saxon, comprchendiuif the inland and intermediate toivns. A fourth circle or quarter was afterwards added, that of the cities of Prussia and Livonia. The boundaries of these diflercnt circles and their capital to^vus varied from time to time. The general assemblies of the Leai{ue were held regu- larly every three years, in the city of Lubec, whicli was considered as the capital of the wiiole League ; while each of the three or four circles had also their particular or provincial assemblies. The most flourishing epoch of this League was about the end of the fourteenth and the early part of the flfteenth century. At that time, the deputies of more than fourscore cities appeared at its as- semblies ; and even some towns who had not the privilege of sending deputies were, nevertheless, regarded as allies of the League. Having the com- mand of the whole commerce of the Baltic, their cities exercised at their pleasure the rights of peace and war, and even of forming alliances. They equipped numerous and powerful fleets, and offered battle to the sovereigns of the Korth, whenever they presumed to interfere with their monopoly, or to restrict the privileges and exemptions which they had had the weakness to grant them. The productions of the North, such as hemp, flax, tim- ber, potash, tar, corn, hides, furs, and copper, with the produce of the large and small flshcries on the coasts of Schonen, Norway, Lapland, and Iceland," formed the staple of the Hanseatic commerce. They exchanged these commodities, in the western parts of Europe, for wines, fruits, drugs, and all sorts of cloths, which they carried back to the North in return. Their ])rincipal factories and warehouses were at Bruges for Flanders, at Lon- don for England, at Novogorod for Russia, and at Bergen for Norway. The merchandise of Italy and the East was imported into Flanders, in Genoese or Venetian bottoms, which, at that time, carried on most of the commerce of the Levant and the Mediterranean. Extensive as the trade of the Hanseatic cities was, it proved neither solid nor durable. As they were themselves dciicient in the articles of raw materials and large manufactories, and entirclT dependent on foreign traffic, the industry of othf'r rations, especially of those skilled in the arts, had a ruinous effect on their commerce ; and, in course of time, turned the current of merchandise into otlier cliannels. Besides, the want of union ainoii» these cities, their factions and intestine divisinm, and their distance from each other, prevented tliim from ever forming a territorial or colonial jHiwpr, or obtaining possession of the Sound, which alone was able to secure them the exclusive comnicrfi'of the Baltic. The sovereigns of Europe, peneivim; at length more clearly their true interests, aiij sensible of the mistake they had committed in surrendering the whole commerce of their kingdom to the Hanseatic merchants, us^d every means to limit iind abridge their jjrivileges more and more. This, in consequence, involved the confederate towns in several destructive wars with tlie Kin:^ of the North, which exhausted their finances, aiil induced one city after another to abandon the League. Tiie English and the Dutch, encmua^'i'J by the Danish kings, took advantage of thi* favourable opportunit) to send their vessels to the Baltic ; and by degrees they appropriated to them- selves the greater jiart of the trade that had Ijcen engrossed by the Hanseatic Union. But wlia i* of more imi)ortance to remark, is, that this Lea^'iir, as we'd as tiiat of Lombardy, having been formeJ in consequence of the state of anarchy into wiiiili tiie Emjiire had fallen in the middle ages, tlie na- tural result was, that it should lose its credit ami its influence in proportion as tlie feudal anaiThy declinec', and wlien the administration of tiie Em- jiirc had assumed a new form, and the huidoj nobility, emboldened by the accessions wliicii tlie seventeenth century had made to their power, luul found means to compel their dependent cities to return to their allegiance, after having made re- peated efforts to throw off their authority, en- couraged as they were by the protection wiiicli llu' League held out to them. In this manner did the famous Hanseatic League, so formidable at the time of which we now sijeak, decline by degrees during the course of the seven- teenth century, and in the early part of the eighteenth ; and during the thirty years war it became entirely extinct. The cities of Lubec, Hamburg and Bremen, abandoned by all their confederates, entered into a new union for tlie in- terests of their commerce, and preserved the ancient custom of treating in common with foreign po^ve^, under the name of the Hanse Towns. The cities of Italy and the North were not the only ones that made commerce theii- pursuit in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, and other towns in the Nctliir- lancls, contributed greatly to the prosperity of trade by their manufactures of cloth, cotton, camlets, ami tapestry ; articles will! which they supplied the greater part of Europe. The English exclianiioil their raw wool with the Belgians, for the finislio'l manufactures of their looms, while the Italians furnished them with the productions of the Levant, and the silk stuff's of India. Nothing is more sur- prising than the immense population of these citif'i whose wealth and aftluenee raised their rulers In the rank of the most jiowerful princes in Eumi"'' The city of Bruges was, as it wore, the centre ami principal repository for the merchandise of the Flemings introdiico their stijili in Kn({laiicl. Ci'rniiin constitulions. PERIOD V. A.D. 1300—1453. ConeonluU with Romt'. Fuiidiil inheritance. Kevohitiun in Switzerliinil . 69 I Is'orlli and the South. Such an entrcpfit was ne- cessurVi at a time when navigation was yet in its iuliuicj-. Foi- this purpose, Flanders and Brabant were extremely proper, as these j)rovinccs had an ciisy communication with all the principal nations of tlic continent ; and as the great number of their iiiauufiictorics, together with the abundance of fish wliich their rivers attbrded, naturally attracted a vast concourse of foreign traders. This 8Uj)eriority, as the commercial capital of the Low Countries, I)ruj,'i's retained till nearly the end of the fifteenth century, when it lost this preponderance, which was then transferred to the city of Antwerp. The intestine dissensions with which the cities I of l-'lauders and Brabant were agitated, the restraints which were incessantly imposed on their commerce, and the frequent wars which desolated the Low Countries, induced, from time to time, a great many Flemish operatives about the four- teenth century, and the reign of Edward III., to take refuge in England, where they established tlii'ir cloth manufactories under the immediate j)ro- tei'tiou of the crown. One circumstance which ]nore particularly contributed to the prosperity of the Dutch commerce, was the new method of salting and barrelling herring, which was disco- vered in the fourteenth century by a man named AViliiam Beukelszoon, a native of Biervliet, near Sluys. The new passage of the Texel, which the sea opened up about the same time, proved a most I favourable accident for the city of Amsterdnm, which immediately monopolized the principal commerce of the fisheries, and began to be fre- ! (luenled by the Hanseatic traders. We now I'eturn to the history of Germany. The Iiiiljerial throne, always elective, was conferred, in i;iO»>, on the princes of tlie House of Luxembourg, ;who occupied it till 1438, whcMi the House of llapsburg obtained the Im])erial dignity. It was under tlie reign of these two dynasties that the pivernnicnt of the Empire, which till then had hi'i'ii vacillating and uncertain, began to assume a constitutional form, and a new and settled code of laws. That which was published at the Diet of I'lankfort in 1338, secured the independence of the Ein])ire against the Popes. It was preceded j by a League, ratified at Kensu by the Electors, I iiiul known by the name of the General Union of I the. Electors. The Golden Bull, drawn up by the Emperor Charles IV. (13.)G), in the Diets of'Nu- j romberg and Mctz, fixed the order and the form of I electing the Emjierors, and the ceremonial of their I coronation. It ordained that tliis election should be determined by a majority of the suffrages of the [ seven electors — and that the vote of tlic elector j who might happen to be chosen should also be j included. Moreover, to prevent those electoral divisions, which had more than once excited fiic- tions and <'ivil wars in the empire, this law fixed I inevocably the liglit of suffrage in the Princi- lialifies, then entitled Electorates. It forbade any j division of these principalities, and for this end it introduced the principle of birth-right, and the order of succession, called agnate, or direct male j lino from the same father. Finally, the Golden Hull determined more particularly the rights aiul jnivileges of tlie electors, and confirmed to the electors of tlie Palatinate and Saxony the vice- rnjalty or government of the empire during any interregnum. The efforts which the Council of Basic made for the reformation of the church excited the attention of the Estates of the empire. In a diet held at Mayence (143!)), they adopted several decrees of that Council, by a solemn act drawn up in presence of the ambassadors of the Council, and of the Kings of France, Castile, Arragon, and Portugal. Among these adopted decrees, which were not afterwards altered, we observe those which esta- blish the sujieriority of Councils above the Popes, which prohibited those appeals called nmisso medio, or immediate, and enjoined the Pope to settle all appeals referred to his court, by commis- sioners appointed by him upon the spot. Two concordats, concluded at Home and Vienna (1447-48), between the Papal court and the Ger- man nation, confirmed these stipulations. The latter of these concordats, however, restored to the Pope several of the reserves, of which the Prag- matic Sanction had deprived him. He was also allowed to retain the right of confirming the prelates, and enjoying the annats and the itlternato months. The ties which united the numerous states of the German empire having been relaxed by the introduction of hereditary feudalism, and the downfal of the imperial authority, the consequence was, that those states which were more remote fiom the scat of authority by degrees asserted their independence, or were reduced to subjection by their more powerful jieighbours. It was in this manner that several provinces of the ancient king- dom of Burgundy, or Aries, jiassed in succession to tlie crown of France. Philip the Fair, taking ad- vantage of flic disputes which had arisen between the archbishop and the citizens of Lyons, obliged the archbishop, Peter de Savoy, to surrender to him, by treaty (1312), the sovereignty of the city and its dependencies. The same kingdom acquired the province of Dauphiny, in virtue of the grant which the last dauphin, Humbert IT., made (1349) of his estates to Charles, grandson of Philip do Valois, and first dauphin of I'rance. Provence was likewise added (1481) to the dominions of that crown, by the testament of Charles, last Count of Provence, of tlie House o.*" Aiijou. As to the city of Avignon, it was sold (1348) by Joan I., Queen of Naples, and Ci.untess of Provence, to Pope ('lenient VI., >vhc-i at the same time obtained let- ters-patent iioui the Emperor Charles IV., re- nouncing the cl aims of the Empire to the sovereignty of that city, as well as to all lands belonging to the church. A most imjiortant revolution happened about this time in Switzerland. That country, formerly dependent upon the kingdom of Burgundy, had become an immediate province of the Empire (1218), on the extinction of the Dukes of Zahrin- gen, who had governed it under the title of regents. About the beginning of the fourteenth century, SwitziTland was divided into a number of petty states, lioth secular and ecclesiastical. Among these, we find the Bishop of Basle, the Abbe of St. Gall, the Counts of Hapsburg, Toggenburg, Savoy, Gruyfires, Ncufchatel, AVerdenberg, Bu- check, &c. The towns of Zurich, Soleure, Basle, Berne, and others, had the rank of free and im- perial cities. A part of the inhabitants of Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden, who held imme- diately of the Empire, were governed by their own magistrates, under the name of Cantons. They Cr, f.r P fe u'::a 70 Empuror Albert I. lliittlo of Morgartpn. Swiss confediTiitioii. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Diiuhy of Diirgundy. Kingiiom of Uohemiii, The Hussite wiir. were placed by the Kmperor under the jurisdiction of ffovernors, wlio exercised, in liis name and that oftiie Empire, tlie power of the sword in all those cantons. Such was the constitution of Switzer- land, when the Eniiieror Albert I., of Austria, son of llodolph of Hapsburg, conceived the project of extending his dominion in that country, where he already had considerable possessions, in his capa- city of Count of llapsburs^, Kyburg, Baden, and Lentzburg. Being desirous of forming Switzer- land into a principality in favour of one of his sons, he made, in course of time, several new ac- quisitions of territory, with the view of enlarging his estates. The Abbeys of Murbacb, Einsiedel, Interlaken, and Disentis, and the Canons of Lu- cerne, sold him their rights and possessions in Claris, Lucerne, Schweitz, and Undcrwalden. He next directed his policy against the three imme- diate cantons of Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden ; and endeavoured to make them acknowledge the superiority of Austria, by tolerating the oppres- sions which the governors exercised, whom he had appointed to rule them in the name of the Em- pire. It was \mder these circumstances that three intrepid individuals, Werner de Stauffach, a native of the canton of Schweitz, Walter Fiirst, of Uri, and Arnold de IMolchfhal, of Underwalden, took the resolution of delivering their country from the tyranny of a foreign yoke.'" The conspiracy which they formed for this purpose, broke out on the 1st of January, IIJOS. The governors, surprised in their castles by the conspirators, were banished the country, and their castles razed to the ground. The deputies of the three cantons assendjled, and entered into a league of ten years for the main- tenance of their liberties and their privileges ; re- serving, however, to the Empire its proper rights, as also those claimed by the superiors, whether lay or ecclesiastical. Thus a conspiracy, which was ori- ginally turned only against Austria, terminated in withdrawing Switzerland from the sovereignty of the German Empire. The victory which the con- federates gained over the Austrians at Morgarten, on the borders of the canton of Schweitz, encou- raged them to renew their league at Brunncn (1315) ; and to render it perpetual. As it was contirmed by oath, the confederates, from this circumstance, got the name of Eidgrnossni, w' ich means, bound by oath. This league became b 'nce- forth the basis of the federal system of the Swiss, •who were not long in strengthening their cause by the accession of other cantons. The city of Lu- cerne, having shaken off the yoke of Hapsburg, joined the league of Brunnen in 13;V2, ZiU'ich in 1351, Cilaris and Zug in 1353, and Berne in 1355. These formed the eight ancient c& .itons. The situation of the confederates, however, could not fail to be very embarrassing, so long as the Austrians retained the vast possessions which they had in the very centre of Switzerland. The pro- scription which the Emperor Sigismund and the Council of Constance issued against Frederic, Duke of Austria (1415), as an adherent and protector of John XXin., at length furnished the Swiss with a favourable occasion for depriving the house of Austria of their possessions. The Bernese were the first to set the example ; they took from the Austrian dukes, the towns of Zoffingen, Arau, and Bruck, with the counties of Hapsburg and Lentz- burg, and the greater part of Anrgau. Kyburg fell into the hands of the Zurichers ; the Luocriusj made themselves masters of Sursfee ; and tlic free bailiwicks, with the county of Baden, the lu-.vni of ^Icllingen and Bremgarten, were suIhIuciI bj the coiiibincd forces of the ancient cantons, who since then, have possessed them in common. In the kingdom of Lorraine a new \w\\n roso about this time (1303), that of the dukes of lim. gundy. Philip the llardy, younger son of Jdhn the Good, King of France, having been ( iiui,,] Duke of Burgundy by the king his father, mar- ried Margaret, daughter and heiress of Louis 111, last Count of Fliinders. By this marriage he uli. tained Flanders, Artois, Franche-Comt6, Nevers, Uethel, Malines, and Antwerp, and transmittod I these estates to his son John the Fearless, ami his grandson, Philip the Good. This latter i>rinff increased them still more by several new ai'iiuisi. tions. The Count of Namur sold bini his whok | patrimony (14'i8). He inherited from his cousin, Philip of BurgiHidy, the duchies of Brabant and I Limbourg (1430). Another cou'sln, the famous Jaqueline de Bavaria, made over to him by trcati I (1433) the counties of Hainault, Holland, Zcaliuid, and Friesland, Finally, he acquired also the ilinhj of Luxembourg and the county of Chiny, liy \ compact which he made with the Princess KliKa w\\ (1443), niece of the Emperor Sigismund. Tliiv diflerent accessions Avcre so much the more jm. portanf, as the Low Countries, especially Flaiulirsl and Brabant, were at that time the seat of the niosi flourishing manufactories, and the principal man of European commerce. Hence it happened, thai the Dukes of Burgundy began to compete witli the first i)ower8 in Europe, and even to rival the Kiia of France. Among the principal reigning families of thf I Empire, several revolutions took jdace. Tlie an. cient Slavonic dynasty of the Dukes and Kiiiii'! of Bohemia became extinct with AVenceslaus V.,wh«| was assassinated in 130(>. The Emperor Heiin[ VII. c House of Luxembourg, seized tht oppo; ■ of transferring to hi^ own family tlie I kingi ." Bohemia, in which he invested his socj John (1300), who had married the Princess Klia-[ beth, sister to the last King of Bohemia. John,! having made considerable acquisitions in Bohemia. I was induced to cede, by treaty with Poland, the I sovereignty of that province. The Emperor Cliarlts I IV., son of John, incorporated Silesia, as \\\«\ Lusatia, with the kingdom of Bohemia, by thej Pragmatics which he juiblished in 1355 and i:t"( The war with the Hussites broke out on the diaiiil of the Emperor Wenceslaus, King of Hoheniiil (141S), because the followers of John Huss, audi Jerome of Prague, bad refused to acknowlciljie, a- r successor of that prince, the Emperor Sigisimind, I his brother and heir, whom they blamed for the I martyrdom of their leaders. This war, one of the I most sanguinary which the sjjiritof intolerance and I fanaticism ever excited, continued for a long series I of years. John de Trocznova, surnamed Ziska,! general-in-chief of the Hussites, defeated sevoralj times those numerous armies of crusaders, which I were sent against him into Bohemia; and itwasi not till long after the death of that extraoniiiian [ man, that Sigismund succeeded in allayui;; thej tempest, and re-establishing his own authority i that kingdom. The house of Wittelsback, which possessed il I House of Saxony. KlecUiK of Broiidenbur^'. Family of Esto. PERIOD V. A.D. 1300—1433, Family of Visconti. Kcpiibliu of Florence. Wars of (itnioa and I'isa. 71 Lhc Rsinic time the ralatiiiatc and Bavaria, was Jividcd into two principal liranclies, viz., tliat of Jlhc Electors Palatine anil the Dulves of Bavarjii. IHv the treaty of division which was entered into nt" Favia (132!)), they agreed on a reciprocal suc- cession of the two branches, in case the one or the lotlicr should happen to fail ot .heirs-male. The [direct line of the electo s of Saxony, of the Asca- liiiiiii House, happening to become extinct, the lEmperor Sii,'isnunid, without paying any regard to Jthi' elaiiiis of the younger branches of Saxony, con- Ifenrd that Electorate (1423), as a vacant fief of ■the Emj)iie, on Frederic, the Warlike, Margrave of IMisnia, wlu) had rendered him signal assistance in [tlio war against the Hussites. Tliis prince had Jtwo grandsons, Ernest and Albert, from whom are Iripsceuded the two principal branches, whicli still Idivide the House of Saxony. The Ascanian dynasty did not lose merely the lelcctoratc of Saxony, as we have just stated ; it ■■nas also (U jjrived, in the jireeeding centiiry, of the Iclcctorate of IJrandeiiburg. Albert, surnamed the |])ear, a scion of this house, had transmitted this ■latter electorate, of which he was the founder, to Ihis (leseendants in direct line, the male-heirs of luhii'h failed about the beginning of the fourteenth Iruiitury. The Emperor Louis, of liavaria, then llicstowcd it on his eldest son, Louis (13'24), to the Icxclusion of the collateral branches of Saxony and jAiilialt. The Bavarian princes, however, did not lloiii,' preserve this electorate ; they surrendered it ■(loTIt) to the Emperor Charles IV., whose son, |si;;i»mund, ceded it to Frederic, B\irgravc of Nu- Iroaiberg, of the lloiise of HohenzoUern, who had linlvaiiecd him considerable sums to defray his ex- |]KMlitiiiu« into Hungary. This prince was solemnly linvcsted with the electoral dignity by the Emi)en>r, ■at the (.'ouiieil of (-'onstanvc (1417), and became Itlie ancestor of all tlie Electors and Margraves of JBraMdenburg, as well as of the Kings of Prussia. The numerous republics which had sprung up lia Italy, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Iwere torn to pieces by contending factions, and a |]iioy to mutual and incessant hostilities. What Ifonlrihuted to augment the trouble and confusion lin that unhappy country was, that, during a long Iscries of years, no emperor had repaired tliither in Iperson, or made the smallest attempt to restore the liinperial authority in those states. The feeble ItH'oits of Henry VII., Louis of Bavaria, and ICharles IV., only served to prove, that in Italy the Iroyal prerogati>e was without vigour or effect. JAuurehy everywhere prevailed ; and that spirit of lliberty and republicanism which had once ani- liiiated the Italians gradually disappeared. Dis- k'listed at length with privileges which had become If" fatal to them, some of these republics adopted lie plan of choosing ne^v masters ; while others hvere subjected, against tlieir inclinations, by the liiiore powerful of the nobles. The Marquises of jKste seized Modena end Ueggio (1336), and ob- |t:ihicd the ducal dignity (1452) from the Emperor jFrederic III. Mantua fell to the bouse of tionzaga, Iwlio possessed that sovereignty first under the title jiif ^Margraves, and afterwards under that of Dukes, Iwliich was conferred on them by the Emperor jChar.cs V. in ir)30. But the greater part of these Jltr«lian republics fell to the share of the Visconti of IJIilan. The person who founded the prosperity I of their house was Matthew Visconti, nephew of Otho Visconti, Archbishop of Milan. Invested with the titles of Captain and Imperial Viceroy in Lombard}-, he contrived to make himself be ac- knowledged as sovereign of Milan (1315), and conquered in succession all the principal towns and republics of Lombardy. His successors fol- lowed his example : they enlarged their territories by several new conquests, till at length John Ga- leas, great grandson of Matthew Visconti, ob- tained, from the Emperor Weneeslaus (131)5), for a sum of one hundred thousand, florins of gold, which he paid him, the title of Duke of Milun for himself and all his descendants. The \ isconti family reigned at Milan till 1447, when tliey were replaced by that of Sforza. Amcuig til- republics of Italy who escaped the catastrophe of tlie fourteenth century, the most conspicuous were tliose of Florence, Genoa, and Venice. The city of Florence, like all the others in Tuscany, formed itself into a republic about the end of the twelfth century. Its government un- derwent frequent changes, after the introduction of a democracy about the middle of the thirteenth century. The vari(uis factions wiiich had agitated tht! republic induced the Florentines to elect a magistrate (12!)'.'), called Gonfalunicrc dc Justice, or Captain of Justice : invested with power to as- semble the inhaljitants under his standard, when- ever the nu'ans for conciliation were insufficient to sui)press faction and restore peace. These internal agitations, however, did not prevent the Florentines from enriching themselves by means of their com- merce and manufactures. They succeeded, in course of tinu', in subjecting the greater part of the free cities of Tuscany, and especially that of Pisa, which they ccnnjuered in 140ti. The republic of Lucca was the only one that maintained its inde- ])endence, in spite of all the efforts which the Flo- rentines nnide to subdue it. The republican form of goveriunent continued in Florence till the year 1530, when the family of the Medici usurped the sovereigntv, under tht protection of the Emperor CTiarles V". The same rivalry which had set the Genoese to quarrel with the Pisans excited their jealousy against the Venetians. The interests of these two republics thwarted each other, both in the Levant and the Mediterranean. This gave rise to a long and disastrous series of wars, the last and most me- morable of which was that of Chioggia (1376-82). The Cienoese, after a signal victory which they obtained over the Venetians, before Pola, in the Adriatic Gulf, penetrated to the very midst of the lagoons of Venice, and attacked the port of Chi- oggia. Peter Doria made himself master of this port ; he would have even surprised Venice, had lie taken advantage of the first consternation of the Venetians, who were already deliberating whether they should abandon their city and take refuge in the isle of Candia. The tardiness of the Genoese admiral gave them time to recover themselves. Impelled by a noble despair, they made extraor- dinai-y efforts to equip a new fleet, with which they attacked the Genoese near Chioggia. This place was retaken (24th June, 1380), and the se- vere check which the Genoese there received, may be said to have decided the command of the sea in favour of the Venetians. But what contributed still more to the downfal of the Genoese, was the instability of their government, and the internal >. c c.:2 Tlic I,^^vunt triidc. Vi'netiiui cuii<|iu>stK. Jouri I. of Naples. KOCH'S llEVOLUTIONS. IIoUBi! of Anjoii. Ciistilian couiiiu'stij, I'lttaloiiiii. la 5 Iff romniotions of tlir rejjiiblic. Ajjitated by conti- nual divisions bi'lwccn the nobles anil tbc; common citizens, nnd incapable of inanai;in^ their own allairs, they at length surrendered themselves to the power of strangers. Volatile and inconstant, and ecpially impatient of liberty as of servitude, these tickle republicans underwent a frequent change of masters. Twice (i;i90-14.")H) they put themselves under the protection of the Kings of Friince. At li'iigth Miey discarded tlie rrench, and chose fi)r their protector either the ^Manjuis of 'Nlontfcrrat or the Duke of Milan. Finally, from tlie year 1404, the city of Cienoa was constantly regarded as a dependency of the duchy of !Milaii, until l.V,*S, when it recovered once more its ancient state of independence. AVhilo tho republic of flenoa was gradually declining, that of Venice was every day acquiring new accessions of power. The nunu'rous esta- hlif'hments which they had formed in the Adriatic Gulf and the Eastern Seas, togetlier with tlie ad- ditional vigoiu' which they derived from the intro- duction of tlie hereditary aristocracy, were highly advantageous to the progress of their commerce and marine. The treaty which they concluded witli the Sultan of Egypt (134H), by guaranteeing to their rejmblic an entire liberty of commerce in the ports of Syria and Egypt, as also the privilege of having consuls at Alexandria and Damascus, jnit it in their power gradually to appropriate to themselves the whole trade of India, and to main- tain it against the Genoese, who had disputed witli them the commerce of the East, as well as tlie eomniund of the sea. Those successes en- couraged the Venetians to make new acquisitions; the turbulent state of Lombardy having attbrded them an oiiportunity of enlarging their dominions on the continent of Itiily, where at tirst they had possessed only the single dogeship of Venice, and the small jirovince of Istria. They s(u/.ed ou Treviso, and the wboV; Trevisan March (i;5rt8), which they took from ine ]iowerful house of Car- rara. In 14'-'0 they again got possession of Dal- matia, which they conquered from Sigismuud, King of Hungary. This conquest paved the way for that of Friuli, which they took about the same time from the I'atriarch of Aquileia, an ally of the King of Hungary. At length, by a succession of good fortune, they detached from the duchy of Jlilaii (1404) the cities and territories of Vicenza, Uelluno, Verona, I'adua, Ureseia, IJergamo, and Cremona (1454), and thus formed a considerable estate on the mainland. Najiles, during the course of this period, was governed by a descendant of Charles, of the first House of Anjou, and younger brother of St. Louis. Queen Joan I., daughter of JloL.-rt, King of Najilcs, having no children of her own, adopted a younger prince of the Angevine family, Charles of Durazzo, whom she destined as her successor, after having given him her niece in marriage. This ungrateful j-rince, in his eagerness to possess the crown, took arms against the Queen his bene- factress, and compelled her to solicit the aid of foreign powers. It was ou this occasion that Joan, after rescinding and annullhig her former deed of adoption, made another in favour of Louis L, younger brother of Charles V., King of France, and founder of tho second House of Anjou. But the succours of tliat prince came too late to save the Queen from the hands of her cm) I enemy. Charles, having made himself master o|l Kaples and of the Queen's person (138'2), inime.l diately put her to death, and maintained liini>fi|| on the throne, in spite of his adversary, Lnuii;,l implored the protection of Alphonso V., Kiiijoil Arragon, whom she adopted and declared her hpii | (1421) ; but afterwards, having quarrelled v\i that prince, she changed her resolution, and pusx a new act of adoption (14'23) in favour oFiliiJ same Louis of Anjou who had just made wail against her. Kene of Anjou, the brother and sut.[ eessor of that prince, took possession of the kin;. I dom of Naples on tlie death of Joan II. (Uli.));' but he was exjielled by the King of .\rr;i(;oii| (1445) ; who had procured from I'ope Euui'iiiuJ IV. the investiture of that kingdom, wliiiii lit| transmitted to his natural son Ferdinand, secnded from a jiarticuhir branch of the Kind's ofl Naples. The rights of the second race of Aiigc in,! princes were transferred to the Kings of FiamiJ along with the county of I'rovcnce (14SI). Spain, which was divided into a variety of su- 1 vereignties, both Christian and Mahometan, ]m.| sented at this time a kind of separute or (listiiw [ continent, whose interests had almost notliiii^ ial common with the rest of Europe. The Kiiigsn'l Navarre, Castile, and Arragon, disagreeing iiniou; themselves, and occupied with the internal afci of their own kingdoms, had but little leisnieiul attempt or accomplish any foreign enterprise. Oil all the Kings of Castile at this period, the inii>tl famous, in the wars against the Moors, «»'[ Alphonso XI. The Mahometan Kings of Morocco I and Grenada having united their forces, laidsictel to the city of Tariil'a in Andalusia, where Al.[ |)honso, assisted by the King of Portugal, veuturcilj to attack them in the neighliourhood of that place, [ He gained a complete victory over the Moon I (1340) ; and this was followed by the conquest of I various other cities and districts ; among otliers, | Alcala-Real, and Algeziras. While the Kings of Castile were extending tlicit I conquests in the interior of Spain, those of Am- ' gon, hemmed in by the Castilians, were obliged I tt) look for aggrandisement abroad. They \w- sessed the country of Barcelona, or Catalonia, in I virtue of the marriage of Count Raymond Be- 1 renger IV. with Donna Petronilla, heiress of I kingdom of Arragon. To this they added the I county of Rousillon, and the seignory or lordship of Montpellicr, both of which, as well as Calj- Ionia, belonged to the sovereignty of F' ranee. Don James I., who coiKiuercd the kingdom of Valencia and the Balearic Isles, gave these, with Rousillon I and IMontpellier, to Don James, his younger son, and who was a descendant of the Kings of Majorca, I the last of whom, Don James III., sold Montpellicr to France (1349). Don Pedro III., King of Arra- gon, and elilest son of Don James I., took Sicily, | as we have already seen, from Charles I. of Anjou. Ferdinand II., a younger son of Don Fedtu, uioily iiml Surrtiniii .loliii, kin« Castilians and tin |innus battle fought l4th August, 13S5). laslers of the field, leded ill iiiaintainini |oitugal. The war, ars between the Poi did not termiuat lliieli was then coik lihn I., King of Cast liinis of Queen Beat kd no children. J( fcw dynasty of king! I Portugal from 138.1 [In Trance, the direi Hugh Capet, hav Ins of Philip the F'a illateval branch of V( series of thirteen k tars. The rivalry bctvvi jliieh had sprung up Isnmed a more hostil ■ the family of Val( " the two nations ha Icidar territory, or \) lilted even the succesi Ihiih the kings of El Idwaid III., by bis las nephew to Charlei pugs in a direct line. 1 opposition to Phil ho, being cousin-gei fee more remote thai liiim of Edward wa fhieh excluded femal li'ouc ; but, accordini Sicily iinrt Surrtiniii. Jiiliii, kini; iif I'ortiiKiiI. Kilwiird III. iilninis Kmiice. PEIITOD V. A.D. 1300—1453. W'nva of I'lifilaiiil 1111(1 Kniiiri'. Victorii's of /Hciiry V, 73 Irmcd 11 separate brancli of tlio Kings of Sicily, h the extiiK'tion of wliich (140!)), that kingdom Ivertcil to tlio erown of AiTagoii. Sardinia was leorponitcil witli the kingdom of Arragon by Don tnics II., who iiad comiuured it from the I'isans. ft iiallv, Miilionso V., King of Arragon, having Ipriv'eil the Angevines of tlie kingdom of Naples, Itiililislied a distinct line of Neapolitan kings, ■his kiiigbin, who, as an accomplice in the murder of the Duke of Burgundy, was declared to have lost his rights to the crown, and was banished from the kingdom. Henry V. died in the flower of his age, and his death was followed soon after by that of Charles VI. Henry VI., son of Henry V. and Catharine of Prance, being then proclaimed King of England and Prance, fixed his residence at Paris, and had for his regents his two uncles, the Dukes of Bedford and Gloucester. Such was the jireponderance of the English and Burgundian party in Prance at this period, that Charles VII., commonly called the Dauphin, more than once saw himself upon the point of being ex- pelled the kingdom. He owed his safety entirely to the appearance of the famous Joan of Arc, called the Maid of Orleans. This extraordinary woman revived the droojiing courage of the Prench. She compelled the English to raise the siege of Orleans, and brought the king to be crowned at (.:: i,.T:3 74 from Krauco. IlniuR 1)1' I'laiitaiti'nct. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Knclisli civil wur. lluuitti iirstuiirt. MarKiirot of Norwii\. lllit'iins (1 121>). Hut wliiit coiitriliiiti'd still more to rt'trii'V(( till' party of Clmrk's VII. wtis thf rr- i;ou('iliiitioii of tliiit priiu'c witli tlio Diiko of Hiir- pinily, vliii'li took pliice ut the ))i-ii('i' of Arras (14;i')). Tin' (liiko haviii); thou imitoil his forct's witli tlios(> of till! king, the F.ntflisli wcro in tlu'ir turn oxpcllrd from Fraiu-o (14.i;<), tlii' siiiijlf city of C'ukiis III iiig all tliat romaiuod (o tiu'm of their fornu'r coiKiucsts. An iinporlaiit revolution happened in llie go- vernnu'utof Frauee under the reign of Charles \ll. The royal authority gained fresh vigour hy the e.\|iulsi()u of the English, and the reeoneiliation of various parlies tii.it took plaee in conseiiueuee. The feudal system, which till then hail prevailed in France, fell hy degrees into disuse, Chailes was the first king who established ii |)ermanent ndlitia. !«:.d taught his successors to aliandon the fell '.al mode of warfare. This prince also insti- tuted ('i/iiipanirs of urdotitKuicv (144.")) ; aiul, to defray the expense of their maintenance, he or- dered, of his own authority, a certain impost to ho levied, called the Tax of the (iiiis-d'armfs. This standing army, which at first amounted only to (iUOO nu'u, was augmented in course of lime, while the royal tinanccs increased in proportion. IJy means of these establishments, the kings ob- tained such an ascendancy over their vassals that they soon found themselves in a condition to pre- scribe laws to them, and thus gradually to ubolish the feudal system. The most oowerful of the nobles could make little resistance ..i;ainst a sove- reign who was always armed ; ••.hile the kings, im])osing taxes at their pleasure by degrees dis- pensed with the necessity of assenil)ling the States- general. The same jirince secured the liberties of the Ciallicau church against the encroaeliments of the court of Rome, by solemnly adopting several of the decrees of the (Jouncil of liaslc, which he caused to be passed in the National Council held at Uourges, and i)nblished under the title of the Praymatic Sanction (14IIH). In England, two branches of the reigning family of the I'lantagencts, those of Lancaster and York, contested for a long time the right to the crown. Henry IV., the first king of the House of Lan- caster, was the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and grandson of Edward III., King of England. He iisur])ed the crown from llichard II., whom ho deposed by act of I'arliament (Li'JS)). But instead of enforcing the rights which he in- herited from his father and grandfather, he rested his claims entirely upon those which be alleged bad devolved to him in right of bis mother, Blanch of Lancaster, great grand-daughter of Edward, surnamed Hunchback, Earl of Lancaster. This jirince, according to a popidar tradition, was the eldest son of Henry HI., who, it was said, had been excluded from the throne hy his younger brother, Edward I., on account of his deformity. This tradition proved useful to Henry IV. in ex- cluding the rights of tlie House of (Marence, who ])receded him in the order of succession. This latter family was descended from Lionel, Duke of (,'larence, and elder brother of .lohn of Gaunt. Fhilippine, daughter of Lionel, was married to Edward Mortimer, by whom she had a son, lloger, whom the Parliament, by an act passed in ISSfl, declared presumptive heir to the crown. Ann Mortimer, the daughter of lloger, married CliiirlcBVlll.ofSwt i:|,ri,tiiin I of n.Min Klmii« of Kil«a<'^ Hichard, Duke of York, son of Edward l,!iiii,| who was the younger brother of Jidm of tjjjl and thus transferred the right of Lionel lo |i| royal House of York. The princes of the House of Lnnciislcr ;„| known in English history by the name uf thiHj Rose, while those of York were designatid Imiji of the White Rose. The former of these l' occupied the throne for a period of sixij.|i|,1 years, during the reigns of Hem-y IV., V., \l, J was under the feeble reign of Henry VI, I'latiiJ House of York began to advance their right ImjJ crown, and that the civil war broke otit liiinrtJ the two Roses. Richard, Duke of York, ainl \i\ to the claims of Lionel and Mortimer, m;h |J lirst to raise the stainlard in this war of I'dii;,.- lion (14.")'^), which runtinued more tliaii il,it.| years, and was one of the most criit I and sun,. nary recorded in history. Twelve ])ifclii'il li;iii|,| were fought between the two Roses, eighty prito of the blood perished in tin.' contest, and I'.nal, during the whole time, ])resentcd a tragiiiil»ji,(| tai'le of horror and carnage. Edward IV.,- Richard, Duke of York, and grandson nl' Aj Mortimer, ascended the throne (I4(il), Avliicl, had stained with the blood of Henry VI., aiuij several other ju'inces of the House of Laiifurti:, In Scotland, the male line of the ancimit ki.-. Iiiiving become extinct in Alexander III., ikhhI of claimants appeared on the iield, who ^U^|. with each otii.i ■in succession of the tbriiiic chief of these i;'nii)etitors were the two SiditiJ families of Baliol and Bruce, both desci'iuli the mother's side from the Royal Family. Fj princes of these contending families ri'iijneil jl Scotland imtil the year 1H71, when the croij passed from the House of Bruce to that of !^luj.i| Robert II., son iif AValter Stuart and Marjon Bruce, succeeded his uncle, David Il.,aiuliiib fandly the throne remaiiunl untd the Uniim, win Scotland was united to England about the In ning of the seventeenth century. Under llu' vernment of the Stuarts, the royal authority t.| quired fresh energy after being long restrained; circumscribed by n turbulent nobility. TuwajJ the middle of the fifteenth century, James l.,| very accomplished ])rince, gave the first bhmif the feudal system and the exorbitant power of til grandees. Ho deprived them of several of I crown-lands which they had usurped, and coin cated the property of some of the most amliick^ whom he bad cimdemued to execution. Janifs followed the example of his father. He stiTiijtil eneil the royal authority, by humbling the \m\vM ful family of Douglas, as well as by the wisi'laif which he prevailed with his Parliament to uilopll The three kingdoms of the North, after \m been long agitated by internal dissensions, mJ at length muted into a single monarchy by Miil garet, called the Semiramis of the North. T priiu;es8 was daughter of Vahlemar III., the 1 King of Denmark of the ancient reigiung I'luiii and widow of Haco VII., King of Norway, i was first elected Queen of Denmark, and tluiid Norway, after the death of her son, Oliius VJ whom she bad by her marriage with Haco,™ who died without leaving any posterity (I'^iij The Swedes, discontented with their King, Albi of Mecklenburg, likewise bestowed their I'ron upon this princess. Albert was vanquished i Cliiirli'sVllLofSwcilfn. ClirWiim I of ndiimnrk. KhaiiH (if Kil'^'W. TERIOD V. A.D. 1300—14.):!. Ijtliiiiiiniin roiKiiic'sts ill KtisKiii. finiiKlilucliy of Kiow. L prisoiiPr at tho battle of rahlckoopingClSSO). L wliolc of Sweden, from tliut time, uekuow- ,.(1 llie authority of Queen Margan^t. IJeiiig liioiis of uniting tlie three kingdoms into one irlu liody-polit'i'i'*''"' assemliled their respective lates at Cahnar (i:«)7), and tlieru caused her Ll-nciiliew lirie, sou of AVratislaua, Duke of nura\iiii, and Mary of Mecklenburg, daugiiter |lm,'i'l>i"'U. her owi sister, to be received and I'd as iier successor. The act which ratified I poipetual and irrevocable union of the tliree ulilonis was approved in that assembly. It Ividt'd, that tlie imited states shouUI, in future, r, imt'one and the same king, who should be tscu with the common consent of the Senators Dt'iiulies of the three kingdoms ; tliat they fulil ahvajs give the preference to tlie descend- L (if Kric, if tliere wero any; that the three Lilcms should assist each otiier with tiieir com- til forces against all foreign enemies ; that eacli Imliiin should preserve its own constitution, its lute, and national legislature, and be governed tfoniiahly to its own laws. 'Ills union, how formidable soever it might Doar at (ii'st sight, was by no means firmly con- idiitcd. A federal system of three monarchies, lidt'd by nmtual jealousies, and by dissimilarity jtiicir laws, manners, and institutions, could pre- Lt nothing either solid or durable. The predi- jtidii, hcsidt's, which the kings of tho union who Icecded Margaret showed for tlie Danes ; the Ifcronce which they gave thciii in the distribu- 1 of favours and places of trust, and the tone [superiority which they art'ectcd towards their |cs, ti'udcd naturally to foster animosity and lii'd, and, above all, to exasperate the Swedes linst the union. Eric, after a very turbulent gn, was de]i<>sed, and his nephew, Christopher liavarian, was elected king of the union in place. This latter prince having died without lie, the Swedes took this opportunity of break- r the union, and choosing a king of their own, alios Canutson Bonde, known by the title of arlesVIlI. It was he who induced the Danes Ivciiture likewise on a new election ; and this no year they transferred their crown to Christian, » of Thierry, and Count of Oldenburg, descended I the female side from the race of their ancient |i;;s. This prince had the good fortune to renew ! union with Norway (1450) ; he likewise go- nicd Sweden from the year 14.»7, when Charles III. was expelled by his subjects, till 1404, when Iwas recalled. But what deserves more particu- P) to he remarked, is the acquisition which ristian made of the provinces of Sleswic and stein, to which he succeeded (HoO), by a 'li: tUeir extensive depend- encies. Ringold was the iirst of these princes that assumed the dignity of grand duke, about th(^ middle of the thirteenth century. His successor, Menilog or Mindow, harassed by the Teutonic knights, embraced ('hristianity about the year 1252, and was declared King of Lithuania by the Pope ; though he afterwards retiirned to Paganism, and became one of the most cruel enemies of the Christian name. Gedimin, who ascended the throne of the grand duke (1315), rendered him- self famous by his new conquests. After a series of victories which he gained over the Russian princes, who were supported by the Tartars, he took possession of the city ami principality of Kiow (1320). The whole of tho grand duchy of Kiow, and its dependant principalities on this side the Dnieper, were conquered in succession. The Grand Dukes of Lithuania, who had become for- midable to all their neighbours, weakened their power by partitioning their estates among their sons ; reserving to one, under the title of grand duke, the right of superiority over the rest. The civil dissensions which resulted from these divi- sions, gave the Poles an opportunity of seizing tho L C. c Di'iiii'triii!) ImiiiiovUxIi. 7fl ('(iiihucsIm liy tlic! TiMituiilc kiilKlita. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. I.itliiiiinin. I'lii4). The result was a idiij bloody war with Poland, which did not terinia till the peace of Thorn (14()(>). Poland tlunj tained the cession of Culm, Miehelau, and IhnJ that is to say, all the countries now compri'hnJ under the name of Polish Prussia. Tlic rw| Prussia was retained by the Teutonic onkr.i jiromised, by means of their Grand Master,! fealty and homage for it to the Kings of I'liliJ The chief residence of the Order was then trj ferred to Koningsberg, where it eonliniied the time when the knights were deprived I Prussia by the House of IJraudenbiirg. At length, however, Poland recovered frnmJ state of weakness into which the luifortuniiliMif sions of Boleslaus III, and his dcsccnibiit*!; ])lunged it. Uladislaus IV., surnamed the Un having combined several of these principal was crowned King of Poland at Cracow (i; From that time the royal dignity became pcra ncnt in Poland, and was transmitted to al successors of Uladislaus.*' The immcdiuli' cessor of that prince was his son Casimir Great, who renounced his rights of soveici."! over Silesia in favour of the King of Bohemia, j afterwards compensated this loss by the acquisilij of several of the provinces of ancient Russia, likewise took possession of Red llussia ( i;iW,| also of the provinces of Volhynia, Podolia, Chrfi and Belz, which he conquered from the (in Dukes of Lithuania (1349), who had foruierljlj memberod them from the Russian Emj)in' Under Casimir the Great, another revoluli^ happened in the goveriunent of Poland. Prince, having no children of his own, aiidiiTil ing to bequeath th> crown to his nephew l.oi his sister's son, by Cli:'.rles Robert, King of Htl gary, convoked a genera i assembly of the luiil at Cracow (1339), and theio got the succcssioti the Hungarian Prince ratified, i.-" opposition toT legitimate lights of the Piast dynasty, who reid niiiii»iiiii«.'wi'"', Siireuil"f<'liriHliiinit; Decline "iTfUtonic ( Ml.'• llcrliiii' "I Teutonic ()r>ler. PERIOD V. A.D. Ul»0-14.5a. LdiiiH, kiiiu ul' lliiiiKiiry. \Viir iiKiiiii>t tli« Turku. Di'i'liiii' III' (iri'ck i'iii)ikro. 77 Mnsoviii niul Silesiu. Thifi stibvcrHiou of llic fcditary I'iKlit <>*' *'"' iliHiToiit braiii'licH of llu- 1, L'livf till' I'iiUhH nol)U'H a prett-xf for inter- in tlio cli'ctioli of thpir kiii^s, until at liint rriironc l)i'i'iinn! completely elective. It also Lli'il tlu'Tii an opportunity for limiting the power Bicir kill!,"*, anil layiiiff the foiniilalion of a re- BiiMii ami aristocratic novnnnent. Dejjuties sent into llunsary (1355), ev(;n diirini; the |of ('asiiiiir, who ohlif?e(l Kins; Louis, iiis in- mI KUi'CL'ssor, to HubHcribe an net which pro- id that, tin lii« accession to the crown, he should hiiiiHi'lf, and his succesMors, to disburden tiie Lh nobility of all taxes and contributions ; lie sliouhl never, under any pretext, exact Llien from them ; and that, in travellinjf, he ^1(1 riaiin nothiuf? for the support of his court, nv iiliice durin>; his journey. The ancient race liu' I'iast sovereii^ns of Poland ended with Ca- ■ (i;)70), after having occupied the throne of I kiii,i,'(li)iii for several centuries. lis successor in Poland and Ilunj^ary was Louis, niiu'd the (ircat. In a Diet assembled in V,W2, ilitiiiiicd tlie concurrence of the Poles, in the icu wliich he had inadeof Sigismund of Luxcni- fft, as his son-in-law and successor in both kdoriis. But on the death of Louis, which peiicd immediately after, the Poles broke their ii'cment, and conferred the crown on Hedwif,'a, •oiiiit'cr '.lauf,'hter of that i)rince. It was iilutcd, tliaf slie should marry JagcUo, Grand io of Lithuania, who agreed to incorporate ^uaiiia with Poland, to renounce Paganism, I'liibiace Christianity, himself and all his sub- . Jagi'llo was l>a])ti/.ed, when he received the Ic i)F I'ladislaus, and was crowned King of liiiil ill Cracow (LISO).** It was on the acees- of Ja^'t'llo, that Pol.ind and Lithuania, long sod ill their interests, and implacable enemies Hell Dtlier, wi le united into one body jiolitic ier the authority of one and the same king, Icrtheli'ss, for nearly two centuries, Lithuania IprcKcned its own grand dukes, who acknow- lod the sovereignty of Poland ; and it was not, norly speaking, till the reign of Sigismund Justus, that the union of the two states was lly accomplished (15(ii(). This important luiioii BiTcd Poland the preponderating po-.i'er of the (til. It became fatal to the in'Uionce of the Itoiiic order, who soon yielded to the united ris of the Poles and Lithuanians. hdislaus Jagello did not obtain the assent of I Polish nobility to the succession of his son, (pt l)y adding new privileges to those which r had obtained from his predecessor. He was Itirst of the Polish kings who, for the purpose liuiiosing an extraordinary taxation, called in j Nuncios or Deputies of the Nobility to the kcial Diet (1404), and established the use of the fines or provincial diets. His descendants en- Id the crown until they became extinct, in the k'entii century. The succession, however, was leil ; and although the princes of the House of ^llo might regard themselves as hereditary pos- ors of the kingdom, nevertheless, on every ngi; of reign, it was necessary that the crown bid be conferred by the choice and consent of liiubility. li Hungary, the male race of the ancient kings, pendants of Duke Arpad, had become extinct in Andrew III. (IHOl). The crown WH8 then contested by seNeriil competitors, and lit length fell info the hands of the House of Anjou, llif reigning family of Naples. Charles Ilobert, grand- son of Charks II. King of Naples, by Mary of Hungary, outstrip|)ed his rivals, ami transmitted the crown to ids son Louis, surnamed tilt? Great (LiOH). This prince, characterized by his emi- nent qualities, made a distinguished ligiire among the Kings of Hungary. He comiiu'icd from the Venetians the whole of Dalmatia, from the frontiers of Istria, OS far as Diira/Ko ; he reduced llie Princes of Moldavia, Walachia, Bosnia anil Bul- garia, to a state of dejiendence ; and at length mounted the throne of Poland on the death of his uncle Cusimir the Great."'' ^Mary his eldest daugh- ter succeeded him in *.hc kingdom of Hungary (1;1H2). This princess married Sigismund of Lux- embourg, who thus united the monarchy of Hun- gary to the Imperial crown. The reign of Sigismund in Hungary was most unfortunate, and a prey to continual disturliances. He had to sustain the first war against the Utto- mnu Turks; and, with the Kmpcror of Constanti- no]ile as his ally, he assembled a formidable army, with which he undertook tiie siege of Nicopolis in Bulgaria. Here he sustained a complete defeat by the Turks. In his retreat he was compelled to embark on the Danube, and directed his llight towards Constantinople. This disaster was fol- lowed by new misfortunes. The maleconteiits of Hungary offered tlieir crown to Ladislaiis, called the Magnanimous, King of Naples, who took pos- session of Dalmatia, which he afterwards surren- dered to the Venetians, Desirous to provide for the defence and security of his kingdom, Sigismund acquired, by treaty with the Prince of Servia, the fortress of Belgrade (1425), which, by its situation at the confluence of the Danube and the Save, seemed to him a proper bulwark to protect Hun- gary against the Turks. He transmitted the crown of Hungary to his son-in-law, Albeit of Austria, who reigned only two years. The war with the Turks was renewed under Uladislaus of Poland, son of .lagello, and successor to Albert. That prince fought a bloody battle with them near Varna in Bulgaria (1444). The Hungarians again sus- tained a total defeat, and the King himself lost his life in the action."* The safety of Hungary then depended entirely on the bravery of the celebrated John Hunniades, governor of the kingdom during the minority of Ladislaus, the posthumous son of Albert of Austria. That general signalized him- self in various actions against the Turks, and obliged Mahomet II. to raise the siege of Belgrade (145(5), where he lost above twenty-five thousand men, and was himself severely wounded. The Greek Empire was gradually approaching its downfal, under the feeble administration of the House of Paleologus, who had occupied the throne of Constantinople since the year I'iGl. The same vices of which we have already spoken, the great power of the patriarchs and the monks, the ran- cour of theological disputes, the fury of sectaries and schismatics, and the internal dissension to which they gave rise, aggravated the misfortunes and disorders of the state, and were instrumental in hastening on its final destruction. John 1. and his successors, the last Emperors of Constanti- nople, being reduced to the sad necessity of pay- m I C c i, .'-*3 'I'lic Oltiiiii.iii 'I'lirkH, 7H Oitmaii. (iri'liJin. Timoiir, or Tniiii'rl.iiii'. KOCH'H IIEVOLUTIONS. |)<'l'i'al<>l'lla.|iiX('t. Hiiluilir nilHilliTH llllli;!. lluilliLiili'H. Scaiirl,',!,. iiik( trihiitc to till' 'I'lirkN, ami niiirchhiK on iiillitfii',v ('X|MMlilioiis, lit llii' ('iiiniiiiinil of the huIIiiiim, o\\r;i TMitioii III' llii'ir slmttcri'il iiiiil ilicliiiliit; I'.nipiii', Ciir HiPiiic tiiiii', ciiliri'ly to tlii' ifvrriis of I'oi'tiiiic \\liii-li liiiil III I'lilli'ii llic OltoinaiiM ; anil to llir ilitliriillii'M wliii'h tlir sir^r,. ol'iluii' caiiitiil iifc- si'iitdl to a liarliarous nation uniii'iiuainti' was oni' of till' nnmhiT of those cniiis, wlm, aftiT Ihi' siiIimt- sion of the Scljnkians of Uoinn or Ironiniii, liy tin- Moi,'iils, hIiiiiccI aiiioni; tlniii tin- m|1oIIs of tlu-ir an- oiiMit niasfcrs. A part of Hilhynia, anil llir \vliol(> country lyiii',' ronnd .Monnt Olym|ins, fril to thi' shiu'c of Ottoman, who al'lcrwanlM fornu'il an alliani'c with the otiii'r emirs, ami invailnl the jios- Ki'ssions of the tirt'ck r.m|iin', nnilcr the H'chlc rriu;nofthi' limprror Amhonirus II, I'rusa, or Unrxa, tin- jirincipal city of Kithynia, was con- iHicriil liy Ottoman ( \'Si'i ). lie anil his Hnci-cssorM madi' if the capital of their m'w state, whi<'h, in comse of time, (;ained the aseendeney oMr all the other Turkish sovereiijnlies, formed, like that of Ottoman, from tlie ruins of Iconium and tin' (ireek l)mpire. Orchan, the son and successor of Ottoman, in- stituted the famous Order of the Janissaries, to which in a ^reat measure the Turks oM'ed their success. He took from the (ireeks the cities of Nice and Js'iconiedia in Hithjnia ; anil, after haviii'; s\ihdueil most of the Turkish emirs in Asia Minor, he took the title of sultan or kinj,', ns well as that of pacha, which is eiinivalent to the title of em- peror. His son Solimau crossed tlie Hellespont, hy his orders, lU'ar the ruins of ancient Troy, and took the city of {iallijiuli, in the Thracian L'her- siUR'sus (i;j.")S), The <(in(iuest of this place opened a passa(j;e for the Turks into I'.nrope, when Thrace and the whole of Cireece was soon inundated hy these new invaders. Aninrath I., the son and suc- cessor of Orchan, made himself master of Adria- liople and the wliole of Thrace (IIJGO); he next attacked Macedonia, Servia and Bul^'aria, and ap- pointed the Hrst y/c^/fiz-fir//, or (iovernor-(jeneral of llounielia. Several Turkish princes of Asia Minor were obliged to ackTiowledgo liig authority ; he made himself master of Kiutaja, the metropolis of Phrygia, which afterwards became the capital of Anatolia, and the residence of the governor of that province (lUSO). Aninrath was slain at the battle of Cassova, which lie fought with the despot of Servia, assisted by his numerous allies. In this bloody battle the despot himself was slain, and botii sides equally claimed the victory. Uajazet I., the successor of Aniurath, put an end to all the Turkish sovereignties which still subsisted in Asia Minor. He completed the reduction of Uul- garia, and maintained the possession of it by the signal victory which he g-ained at Kicopolis (i:J!)fl) over Sigismnnd, King of Hungary. The Greek Empire would have yielded to the persevering efforts of that jirince, who had maintained, for ten years, the sie;,'e of Constantinople, Inid he not been attacked, in the midst of these enterprises, by the famous Timour, the new conqueror of Asia. Timour, commonly called Tamerlane, was one of those ISIogul Emirs who had divided amongst them the MoverelKtity of TrniiKojiiuun, after tli,.J tim'tion of the Mogul dynasty of /agatni, '|, oxiaiia was the tlieatn,' of his llrst explnii,; , he usurped the whole power of the K.hiui<, i,ti pcriirs iif Zagatai, and tlxed the capital of hj, J dominions at the city of Samarcand ( lllli!)), |>, the wliole of I'pper Asia, K'p/ac, iiinl U doslan, Were vanquished by him in sikomuJI wherever he marched, he renewed the niiiiu'h. of horror, liloodshed, and carnage, wiiirli marked the '''olsteps of the tirst Mogul ci)mi|iii.[j1 Timour at lei ' attacked the dominions nf |{,,^ in Anatolia (I 'l^. He fought :i bloiMlyainl si\e battle near Angora, in the ancient dill, lia, which proveJ (UOII) with which he was struck in the iiui;; Timour in Caianiania, T'imonr, a short time after, formed the prfijJ of an expedition into China ; but be died im; route in ( HOS), at the age of sixty-Jiinc. Hi«rj dominions were dismembered aHer liis ilnj One of his descendants, named liahour, fi)Ui.ik| powerful Enqiire in India, the remains uf w:. are still jireserved under llie name of the Ki; of the (ireat Mogul. The invasion of Tii retarded for some time the progress of the Tiirti Hmpire. Tlie fatal dissensions, which anise mJ the sons of Hajazet, set them at o]ien wmtM each other. At length Aniurath II., the m\i\ I Mahomet I., and grandson of Hajazet, suciti ' in putting a slop to these divisions, anil r>ii'p I the I'^mpire to its jirimitive splendour. Hoi ' prived the Greeks of all the places which HtiUfll I mained in their hands on the HIack Sea, almij I coast of Thrace, in Macedonia and Tlussi 1 He even took, by assault, the wall and forts n!iiJ they had constructed at the entrance of the istliii:! I of Corinth, and carrieil his ravages to tlio \m I centre of the I'cloponiu'sus. The two heroes of the Christians, John Ha| niades and Scnnderhpg, arrested the progress ufa Ottoman Sultan. The former, who was gem of the Hungarians, boldly repulsed the Sultml Servia, whom he was ambitious to conquer, other, a Greek prince, who possessed oueol'llj petty states of Albania of which Croja \w i capital, resisted with success the repeated allitlj of the Turks. Supported by a small but well ciplined army, and favoured by the iiiounlai with which his territory was surrounded, liftw comiielled Aniurath to raise the siege of (^mM At length appeared Mahomet H., the son anihsl cessor of Aninrath (1451). This pri'ico, ^* was raised to the Ottoman throne in the twentiaj year of his age, coticeived the design of acliii'ii| the conquest of the Greek Empire, by the tiiti FROM THE TA^ Miiliniiii't II. I nil of ('iill-.t.illlilliiiili'. ('i.iM|iii'«l« ''* MMliiiriii't II. rr.Kioi) v[. A. I). I i.vu- i(i4«. llri'i'k li'iirnliiK ciirriril liitii liiiK. A(-.tl)>,ll"t> «'tiiiil)iitiilitn, ipoiliil liy u llrit of IIIIO Niiil, he iiii|)fiirt'(l that 'fiipilal, and nuiiinclici'il tin- nicni' hill' tilli April, 14.VI. Tlif l)i'Hii'K<'(l, liiiviiiK Iy tViim >>•)'•" <"' l'>>""<' iiu'li III oppose llu' Iciiiir loicc ofllu' I'niiii), yirUlcd to llir powcr- iiiiil r(iliiul)li'd cH'ortM of (he 'I'nikH, after ii iiiiMis defiiiee of titty-tliree diljH. 'I'iie I'ity was licil li\ aHsauit, "ilttli Miiy, and di'livered up to I iiiin'!*trained pillage of the Holdierx. Constan- Mirria I Ura^axeN, flie last of the (Ireek [iii'iiiii, periNlied ill the lirst onset; and all tliu i;iliil;ints of that )(vv»t and opulent eity were car- I into slavery."" Mahomet, on entering,' the very 1)1' thi' sack, saw nothing hut one vast and (Uh- [| xilitiide. Wisiiin^f afterwards to attract new Liliitaiits to tiiis city, which he proposed to make ) !.('iit of his r.mpire, lit' guaranteed an entiri^ rrlv (if conscience to tile dreeks who miirht eoiue lat'tilc llicre ; and authorized them to proceed to I election of a new putriarcii, whose- divinity lie kiuiu'cil by the honours and priNileges which he aclicd to it. lie restored also the forliticatioiis Itlic city, and, hy way of precaution a«ainst the nuincn'ts of tlie Venetians and other western kinii'), wiiich liu Imd some rcasuu to dreud, hu (■(instructed the faiiKius castle of the l)urdaiu>l|Pi| At the entraiiee of the llillispiiiit. This eomiuest was followed h\ that of Rrrvia, Hosnia, Alliania, (Irceee, ;tid the whole I'el.ipon- nesus or .Morea, as will us most of the islands of the Archipela;,"- 'I'he (ireek I'.iiipire of 'I'relii/.oiid, on the co'ist ol Asia Minor, siilirnitted In like man- ner to the law of the coiii|iieror (lllllil. David Comnenus, the last emperor, fell liy the swords of the .Mahometans, and with him pi'iished many of his children and relations. Such a rapid succes- sion of co'i(|uests created an alarm aMioni; the powers of .'liristeiidom. In an asseiiihly, which I'ope I'ius II. held at Mantua ( H-'il)), lie proposi i| a ^'eiicral nssociation iimoiu; the powers of tin- West ajfainst the Turks. A crusade was pnlilished hy his ord"rs, and he was on the point of settimr out in person at the head of this expedition, when he was suddenly cut oil' liy dciitli at Ancoua (llti4), where he had appointed the (jeneral reii- de/.voiis of the eonfederati^ troo|is. This evcnl, added to the terror which the arms of .Mahomet had creati'd amoiiir the nations of the West, dis- concerted the plans of the crusaders, and was the means of dissolviiiir their confederaey. The Turkish Knipire thus lieeaiiK- Hrnily estalilished in Knrope, and the Tartars of the t'riniea put them- selves at the Hamo time under the ji' ' ctiuu of the Torte. PKRfOU VI. FROM THE TAKING OF COKSTANTINOl'LE BY THE TURKS TO TJIE rEACK OF WESTIMIALIA. A.M. 14,-):i— HUH. ■if. rovohitinn which happened in the tit'leentii ■itaiy entirely changed the face of Europe, and lioihiL'cd a new system of jiolitics. This revolu- lii was not achieved hy any eomhinations of [iiI'miiKl ])olicy, nor hy the operation of that phy- I'di-ce which >;eiierally subverts thrones and IvminiiMits. It was the result of those pro- tssive changes which had lieen produced in Ite k'iis and understandinga of the nations of Eu- hic, by the iin])roveinents and institutions of pre- iliii!.' times ; as well as by the invention of impel printiii),', of guniiovvder, and the mariner's |iiiliass. by means of these, the empire of let- aiid arts was greatly extended, and various jlntary iiii|)rovcnicnts made in the religion, maii- lis, and governnients of Eurojie. The people by k'recs shook off the yoke of harharisni, supersti- pii, and fanaticism, which the revolution of the jtli century had iin]iosed on them ; and from that jiic the principal states of Europe began to acquire ■o strength, and gradually to assume the form, Biich they have since maintained. jSevoral extraordinary events, however, con- lired to accelerate these happy changes. The fill's lettrcs and the fine arts hrokc out with new t'lidour, after the downfal of the Greek Empire. Dii! celebrated Petrareh, and his disciples Uoe- Icio and John of Ravenna, were the lirst that riiui,'lit the Italians acquainted with ancient lite- rature, iis the true soiirre and standard of good taste. Tliey prepared the way for a vast number of the Grecian lileiati, who, to escape the barbarity of the Turks, had lied into Italy, where they opened schools, and brouu) I the study of Clreek, literature into considerable rejiute. The most eelehrated of these Greek refugees were, iMaiiuel Chrysoloras, Cardinal Hessarioii, Theodore Ciaza, George of Trebizond, John Arg\ro)iliilus, und De- metrius (Hialcondyles. Protected by the family of th(^ Medieis at Florenei', they assisted in forming those fine geniuses which arose in Italy during the Hfteenth century, such as Leonardo Aretino, the two (iuarini, I'oggio of Eloreiiee, Angelo I'olitian, and many others. Academies, or free societies, were founded at Rome, Naples, Venice, Milan, Ferrara and Fhirence, for the encouragement of ancient literature. From Italy the study of the ancient arts passed to the other states of Europe. They soon diffused their inHui>nce over every department of literature and science, which hy degrees a'sumed an aspect totally new. The scholastic system, which till then had been in vogui' in the pulpits and univer- sities, lost its credit, and gave jilace to a morn re- fined philosophy. Men learned to discriminate the vices of the feudal system, and sought out the means of correcting them. The sources of disorder and anarchy were gradually dried up, and gave C ..1 i..":::3 Uiscovt'ry o!' Aiiu'rira. HO I'hrisloplic'i Ciiliimbiis. Amcriuo Vf'siiiilii). KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Fcriliuuuil tlic Callidli,., Cortes ('i)li(|Ui>rs Mexico. Miiu'xul' I'ntuiii. pliice to bettor ori;ani/.od govorninonts. l'iuntln;», Nculpturo, aiul tlic iirtg in )j;i'iu'ral, clearo'l tVoiu the Gothics rust Avliich thoy liad contracted diirint,' the barbarous aifcs, and tiuislied after the models of the aiicieuts, shone fortli witli renewed lustre. Kaviijation, under tlie direction of the compass, reached a degree of perfection which attracted universal attention ; and while the ancients merely coasted alonj^ their own sliorcs in the ])ursuit of coiunierce or maritime exploits, we find the modern Kuropeans cxtendini,' tlic^. navigatiou over tlie whole i;lobe, and bringing botii hemispheres under their dominion. America, mikuown to the ancients, was disco- vered during tliis period ; as well as the route to India and tlie East, round the continent of Africa. The notion of a fourth (piarter of the world liad long been prevalent among the ancients. ^Ve all recollect the Atlantides of Plato, which, accordiug to the assertion of that j)hilosopher, was larger than Asia and Africa ; and we know that vElian the historian, who lived in the reign of Adrian, afHrmcd in like manner the existence of a fourth continent of immense extent. This o])inion had got so much into fashion, during the fourth and tifth centurii's of the ('hristian era, that l.acfantiiis and St. Augustine thought themselves bound in duty to co]iil)at it in their writings; inveighing against th( :iuti|mdes by reasons and argimieuts, the tVivolousuess of which is now very generally admitted; but, whatever were the notions whicli the ancients might have entertained as to a fourth ipiarter of the globe, it is very certain that they knew it only from eonjectine, and that their navi- gali(Ui never extended so far. The honour of this imi)ortant discovery belongs to modern navigators, more es])ecially to Chris- topher Columbus, a native of Genoa. From the knowledge wlii<'li this celebrated man bad accpiired in the scienci's of navigation, astronomy, and geogra)>hy, he was ])ersuaded that tliere must be aiiother hemisphere lying to the westward, and miknown to Europeans, but necessary to the eipii- librium of the ixlolx'. These conjectures lie coiu- mnnicated to several of the courts of Ihirope, who all regarded him as a visionary; and it was not till after many solicitations, that Isabella, tiueen of Castile, granted him three vessels, with which he set sail in ipiest of the new continent, 3i'il August, 14'.!','. Ath'r a perilous navigation of some iiiontlis, he reached the Island tiiianahani or Cat Island, one of the Eucayos or Bahamas, to which he gave the name of St. Salvador. This discovery was followed soon after by that of the Islands of St. Domingo and Cuba ; and in the second and third voyages which that navigator undertook to Ame- rica (I4'.»U-14!I8), he discovered the mainland or continent of the New 'World ; especially the coast of I'aria, as far as the point of Araya, making part of the jirovinci- known at present by the name of Cuinana. The track of the Genoese navigator was followed by a Florentine merchant, luiiued Amerigo Ve- sputio. Under the conduct of a Spanish captain, called Alfonso de Ojeda, he made several voyages to the New World after the year 14!>7. Dillerent coasts of the continent of South America were visited liy him ; and in the maps of his discoveries which he drew up, he ururped a glory which (iid not belong to him, by applying his own name to the new continent; which it has sinop p,| tallied, The Spaniards conquered the islands ainl ,■ great ])art of the continent of America ; extt'iitl their victories along with their discoveries. Slir.rl lated by the thirst of gold, which the Nc\vAVii,i|l oH'ered to them in abiiiidance, they cdmniii;,;! crimes and barbarities which make lunnanij shudder. Millions of the unfortunate nativcswrJ either massacred or buried in the sea, in spii, jl the efforts which the Spanish bishop, li;ii||||.ii.,r de Las (,'asas, vainly made to arrest the I'lnj ,if[|,| countrymen.' In the year after the lirst (liMointl of Columbus, Ferdinand the ('atholic. Kin;; J Spain, (d)tained a bull from I'ope Alexander by which that pontiff made him a gift of nil i|n| countries discovered, or to be discovered, tcnvstjl the west and the south ; dr.awingan imagiiiiinl from one pole to the other, at the distuiicc (ii|| hundred leagues w'estw;ird of Cape Yenl iiiul iJ Azores. This decision linving given otreiiii' lnii,| King of Portugal, who deemed it prejudiciiil t'ltif discoveries in the East, an accommodatidu « contrived between the two courts, in vliim' which the same Pope, by another bull, ninwi^l the line in (piestion further west, to the (listar.cil of four huiKlred and sevi-nty leagues ; so tli; i i^l the countries lying to the westward of this should belong to the King of Spain, while ilinsl which might be discovered to the eastward, sliniirl fall to the iiossession of the King of PortMa;al.- was oil this lU'etelided title that the Spaiiiaril Ibunded tlu'ir right to demand the subiiiissinii ij till- American nations to the Spanish crown. Tl« principal compiests in the New AVorlil c(iiiiinii,f(| from the reign of the Ijiiperor Charles V. ll \v;mJ bis name that Ferdinand Cortes, with a nieivliaiiil fill of troo]is, ovi'rthrew the vast Empire of V.i'\if I (I.'>'2l); the last emperors id" which, ^I(iiili7iiia| and (iuatimozin, were slain, aiKt a pi(iili:.'iiis number of the Mexicans ])ut to the sword. Tk) conipieror of Peru was Francis Pizarro (l"iM,| lie entered the country, at the head of ItllO iii,t| at the very time when Atabalipa was eoiiiiiieiui!i:| his reign as Inca, or sovereign, of Peru. Tliiil prince was slain, and the whole of Peru su!)(lufi| l)y the Spaniards. [The S])aniards founded varioiis colonies anil establislimeiits in that part of America which llieil had subjected to their dominion. The (liiiraiwl of these colonies dillercd from that of the es|;ilili>!i| nients which the Porluunese had founded iiiliiilal and the Dutch, the Kiiglish, and the Frciiiii. iD| ditfereiit parts of the world. As the S|i;iiiiarJi were by no means a commercial nation, tlic ])k-\ cious metals alone were the object of their cii|iiilil).| They a|iplie(l themselves, in consequence, tn Ihil working of mines ; they imported negroes to lalnniil in them, and made slaves of the natives. In pro- cess of time, when the number of Europeiuis luJi increased in these countries, and the pieii(iiii| metals became less abundant, the Spanish cdlmiisl were obliged to employ themselves in agriciiltim', and in raising what is commonly- called celniiialj ]iroducM'. What we have now said, accoiiiils li'r| the limitations and restrictions which were iniinwil on the trade of these colonies by the Spanish lM' vcrnment ; they wished to reserve to tlieiiiselvi'* exclusively tlii' ]iroHt.s of the mines. Coiiinipm', | which at Hrst had been contiuud to the single on till' C'iilluili, iiui'f.s Mi'xico. olusi. nmiil iliscovcred. Inquisition iu S. America. Viriiiiiia coloni»Ml. PERIOD VI. A.D. 1453—1648. Kn^liiih tjikt' Jiimnica. l'nrtii!?iiese ilincovcrics. Portu^tiii'se commorce. 81 it has sill ^ islauils ami, I icovcrics. SiiEil till' NcwMotiil tlipy iMimminji in;\ki' IuiimmJ laft' iintivisivfj Sl'U, ill S|li|r iliop, lt;ir||,|.|f.1 St till- fun (ifi-J 111' first ilisiminl itholil', J Confession of Augsburg, that is, the Confession J Faith, which they presented to the Kmperor larles V., at the famous Diet of Augsburg, held Jn this manner a great part of Europe revolted jm the pope and the Romish church, and enl- aced either the doctrines of Luther, or those of linglc and Calvin. The half of Germany, Den- Irk, Norway, Sweden, Prussia, and Livonia, ppti'd the Confession of Augsburg ; while Eng- 1(1, Scotland, tlie United Provinces, and the liicipal part of Switzerland, declared themselves ■favour of the opinions of Zuingle ami Calvin. Jo new doctrines made likewise great progress in mice, Hungary, Transylvania, Bohemia, Silesia, 1 Poland. (I'his revolution did not convulse merely the iirch; it influenced the polities, and changed form of government, in many of the states of Europe. The same men who believed themselves authorized to correct abuses and imperfections in religion, undertook to reform political abuses with the same freedom. New states sprang up ; and princes took advantage of these commotions to augment their own power anil authority. Consti- tuting themselves heads of the church and of the religion of tlieiv country, they shook off the fetters of priestly influence ; while the clergy ceased to form a counteracting or controlling power in the state. The freedom of opinion which characterized the Protestant faith awoke the human mind from its intellectual lethargy, infused new energy into it, and thus contributed to the progress of civilization and science in Europe. Even the systems of pub- lic instruction underwent a considerable change. The schools were reformed, and rendered more perfect. A multitude of new seminaries of edu- cation, academies, and universities, were founded in all the Protestant states. This revolution, how- ever, was not accomplished without great and various calamities. A hierarchy, such as that of the ( 'lunch of Rome, supported by all that was diiriiitied and venerable, could not be attacked, or shaken to its foundation, without involving Europe in the convulsion. Hence we find that wars and factions arose in Germany, Prance, the Low Coun- tries, Switzerland, Hungary, and Poland. The march of reformation was every where stained with blood. [This, however, was not always shed on account of religion, which was made the pretext for the greater part of the wars that raged for two hundred years. All the passiinis of the human breast — the ambition of the great — and the turbulent spirits of the disaffected — assumed that mask. If the Re- formation contributed ultimately to the progress of learning in the Protestant states, it arrested these improvements in the Catholic countries, and gave birth to a headlong fanaticism which shut men's eyes to the truth. P^en in the Protestant states, it occupied the attention with the s'udy of a theo- logy full of scholastic subtleties, instead of directing the mind to the pursuit of more useful sciences. If this liberty of opinion, and the absence of all authority in matters of faith, gave new energy to human thought, it also led men into errors of wliieii the preceding ages had seen no example. The re- publicanism which desolated France in the sixteenth century, the rebellions which distracted England in the seventeenth, the pestilent doctrines that were broached in the eighteenth, and the revolu- tionary spirit which overturned all Europe in the nineteenth, may justly be regarded as the conse- quences of the Reformation, whose evils have, in a great measure, counterbalanced its advantages.*] The means that were employed to bring the quarrels of the church to an amicable concl usion, tended rather to exasperate than allay the mischief; and if the conferences among the clergy of different jiersuasions failed, it was not to be expected that a better agreement, or a re-union of parties, could be founded on the basis of a General Council. The Protestants demanded an uncontrolled liberty for the council. They wished it to be assembled by- order of the Emperor, in one of the cities of the Empire ; and that their divines should have a voice and a seat in its meetings. The pope was to sub- • This is one of the ivirauravhs iiitcriHilateil l)y M.SoIioeil, wliusc opinion iirtliig mutter wo \>\ no nuvuis siibsorilic tu. — T. (J 2 >- C-. >-^ c:: • IA»^ Comicil of Trent. 84 Miiiirico of Suxoiiy. iKimtiiis Loyoln. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Jesuit misiiiuiiii. Feudal syKteni. lliilauce of (lOMor. mit to ita authority, and all matters should there he decided nccordiiig to the rule of the sacred Scriptures. These terms were by no means agree- able to the Catholics. Paul III. summoned a council at Mantua (1557), and another at Vicenza (1558) ; but both of these convocations were inef- fectual, as was also the proposed reform in the court of Rome, made by the same pontiff. It was resolved at last, at the instance of the Catholic princes (15')2), to convoke the Council of Trent, though the opening of it was deferred till 1545. This famous council met with two interruptions ; the first took place in 1547, when the pope, who had become alarmed at the success of the imperial arms, transferred the council to Bologna, on pre- tence that an epidemic distemper had broken out at Trent. All the prelates of the emperor's party remained at Trent, in obedience to the command of their master, who protested loudly against the assembly at Bologna, which, nevertheless, held its ninth and tenth sessions at that city. This latter council having been dissolved by Paul III. (154S), its aifairs continued in a languid state for the next two years, when Pope Julius III., the successor of Paul, revived it, and transferred it once more to Trent (1.551). Another interruption took place at the time when Maurice, Elector of Saxony, had made himself master of Augsburg, and was march- ing against the emperor towards Inspruck. It was then agreed to prorogue the council, now in its sixteenth session, for two years ; and to assemble again at the end of that period, if peace should happen in the mean time to be established. At length, in 15G0, Pius IV. summoned the council, for the third aiul last time, to meet at Trent. The session, however, did not commence till 1552, and next year its sittings were finally terminated. In this council, matters were not treated in the same way as they had been at Constance and Basle, where each nation deliberated separately, and then gave their suffrage in common, so that the general decision was taken according to the votes of the difierent nations. This form of deliberation was not at all palatable to the court of Rome, who, in order to gain a preponderance in the assembly, thought proper to decide by a majority of the votes of every individual member of the council. The Protestant princes rejected entirely the authority of this council ; which, far from terminating the dispute, made the schism wider than ever. Its decisions were even condemned by several of the Catholic sovereigns. In France, more especially, it was never formally published, and they ex- pressly excluded such of its acts of discipline as they considered contrary to the laws of the kingdom, to the authority of the sovereign, and the maxims of the GulHean church. It is, nevertheless, certain that this council was instrumental in restoring the tottering power of the Roman pontiffs ; which received at the same time a new support by the institution of the Order of the Jesuits. The founder of this order was Ignatius Loyola, who was bom at the castle of Loyola in Guipuscoa. He made the declaration of his vows in the church of Montmartre, at Paris (1534), and obtained from Paul III. the confirma- tion of his new society. This Order was bound, by a particular vow of obedience, more intimately to the court of Rome, and became one of the main instruments of its enormous power. From Spain the society wiis speedily propagated in all [\,t other Catholic states ; they filled cities and cou,;,! with their emissaries ; undertook missions J China, Japan, and the Indies ; and, under the su.1 cial protection of the see of Rome, they Boonsu.l passed in credit and wealth every other rdigiojl order. I In the midst of these changes which took pl«,l in civil and ecclesiastical matters, we find a nnl system arising in the political governiiie.it i\ Euro])e ; the consequence of those new ties mJ relations which had been established amongst liitl different powers since the close of the fifteeniil century. Prior to this date, most of the Europettl states were feeble, because insulated and (tetachtil Occupied with their own particular interests aitl quarrels, the nations were little acquainted wiiil each other, and seldom had any influence on thtJ mutual destinies. The faults and imperfcotibsil inherent in the feudal system had perv;\de(l il Europe, and crippled the power and energies J government. The sovereigns, continually iit nl with their factious and powerful vassals, coiijl neither form plans of foreign conquest, norcaml them into execution ; and their military opcrutioul were in general without luiity or effect. [H nJ it happened, that in the middle ages, changes weJ produced in the different states, which so liiiiil alarmed their neighbours, that it may be said iheil were scarcely conscious of their existence. Suil were the conquests of the English in France, whi()[ might certainly have compromised the iudepecil ence of Europe.] I A combination of causes and circumstanml both physical and moral, produced a revohitiun ]M the maimers and governments of most of the tVii;.r tinental states. The disorders of feudal anarthl gradually disappeared ; constitutions better orpiM ised were introduced ; the temporary levies oil vassals were succeeded by regular and jjcrnianeitl armies ; which contributed to humble the exorbiij power of the nobles and feudal barons. The cotJ sequence was, that states formerly wcik and ei'| hausted acquired strength ; while their sover: i^ freed from the turbulence and intimidation of iheij vassals, began to extend their political views, ati! to form ])rojects of aggrandisement and conquest. | From this period the reciprocal infiuencc oftl European States on each other began to be mai fest. Those who were afraid for their indepeudJ ence would naturally conceive the idea of J balance of power capable of protecting them agaiul the inroads of ambitious and warlike priuml Hence those frequent embassies and negociatioiiiT those treaties of alliance, subsidies, and guarante«iJ those wars carried on by a general combination a powers, who deemed themselves obliged to bcaiil part in the common cause ; and hence too thoxl projects for establishing checks and barriers ml each otlier, which occupied tlie different courts (T Europe. [The system of equilibrium, or the balance ( power, originated in Italy. That peninsula, scpiJ rated from the rest of the continent by tlie sea aiiJ the Al])8, had outstripped the other countries iil the career of civilization. There a multitude o independent states had been formed, unequal ii point of power and extent ; but none of them hiil sufficient strength to resiet the united power of ikil rest, or usurp dominion over them ; while at llnl lions'! of HiipsburB. Aii8tri.vn ilominioiiii. lliuiKiiiy "'"l Holiemiii. PERIOD VI. A.D. 1453—1648. KmppTor Charlos V. Kraiicin I. Philii) II. 85 I'rotiwtjuit LciiKUu. ame time, none of them were sufficiently con- Jemiitible in point of weakness, as not to be of some tcight in the scale. Hence that rivalry and jea- busy ainonif them, which was incessantly watch- Ll' over the progress of their neighbours ; and li'iice, too, a series of wars and confederacies, Vliose object was to maintain some degree of nimlity among them ; or at least ii relative pro- ortion, which might inspire the weaker with ouragc and confidence. The popes, who were jccedingly active in these transactions, employed 11 their jiolicy to prevent any foreign power from hterferiiig, or establishing itself in Italy. The octriuc of political equilibrium passed the Alps bout the end of the fifteenth century. The iouse of Austria, wluch had suddenly risen to a L'h pitcii of grandeur, was tlic first against which i cflbrts were directed.] This House, which derived its origin from kodolph of Hajjsburg, who was elected Emjjcror f Ucrnmny towards the end of the thirteenth cen- hrv, owed its greatness and elevation chiefly to he Imperial dignity, and the different marriage- llianccs which this same dignity procured it. laximilian of Austria, son of the emperor Ircderic III., married Alary of Burgundy (1477), Vighter and heiress of Charles the Kash, last lukc of Burgundy. This alliance secured to I'ls'ria the whole of the Low Countries, in- |u(tiiig Franche-Comtowcr absolute and hereditary in the Empire. Henry IV., Louis XIII., and the Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, adopted the same line of policy.* They joined in league with the Protestant Princes, and armed by turns the greater part of Europe against Austria, and the Emperor Ferdinand II., whose ambitious designs threatened to subvert the constitution of the Empire. This was the grand motive for the famous thirty years' war, which was put an end to by the treaties of Westphalia (l(i48), and of the Pyrenees (16.59). France succeeded, not how- ever without prodigious efforts, in supporting the balance against Austria ; while the federative system of the Empire, consolidated by the former of these treaties, and guaranteed by France and Sweden, became a sort of artificial barrier, for preserving the equilibrium and the general tran- quillity of Europe. <; ;_:jii L ."ira 80 Anarchy of Oormiinj . Tlio ' Public Pence/ Aulic Council iuiititiilril. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. War of Smalcnldu. Union of ProU-atiinU, The Cntholic Lcni[ii|.' It was during this period that almoHt every kingdom in Eiuope clianged their condition, nnd assumrd by degrees, the form which they have still retained. The German Empire continued to ex- perience tliose calamities to which every govern- ment is exposed, when its internal springs have lost their vigour and activity. Private wars and feuils, vvliich the laws authorized, were then re- garded as the chief bulwark of the national liberty ; the noblesse and the petty states in general, knew no other justice than what the sword dis- pensed. Oppression, rapine and violence, were become universal ; commerce languished ; and the different provinces of the empire presented one melaneholj scene of ruin and desolation. The expedients that were tried to remedy these dis- orders, the truces, the treaties (called the Peace of God), and the different confederacies of the Im- perial states, served onh- to palliate, but not to cure the evil. The efforts which some of the Emperors made to establish the public tranquillity on some solid basis, proved equally abortive. It was not until near the end of the fifteenth century that the states of the Empire, impressed with juster notions of government and civil subor- dination, consented to the total and entire aboli- tion of feuds and intestine wars. This was accom- ])lisiie(l under tht; reign of Maximilian I., by the Perpetual Public Peace, drawn up at the Diet of Wonns in 149.5. All violent means of redress among tiie members of the Germanic Body were rigorously interdicted ; and all who had any com- plaint to make against each other, were enjoined to apply to the regular courts of justice. This ordinance of the public peace, which was after- wards renewed and enlarged in several diets, has been regarded, since that time, as one of the prin- cipal and fundamental laws of the Empire, The establishment of the public peace rendered a reformation necessary in the administration of justice, which had long been in a languid and disordered state. For this purpose, the Imperial Chamber, which sat at first at Spire, and was afterwards transferred to AVetzlar, was instituted at the Diet of Worms (1495). Its object was to judge of any differences that might arise among the im- mediate members of the Germanic body ; as also to receive any appeals that might be referred to them from the subordinate tribunals. It was com- posed of a chief or head, called the Judge of the Chamber, and of a certain number of assessors, chosen from among the electors and independent nobility. The institution of the Aulic (.'ouneil, another sovereign court of the Empire, followed soon after that of the Imperial Chamber. Its origin is generally referred to the Diet of Cologne (1.t12). Of the same date also is the plan which they adopted of dividing the Empire into ten Circles, as a proper expedient for maintaining the public peace, and facilitating the execution of the sentences of the two Imperial Courts. Over each of these circles were placed conveners, dir«!ctors, and colonels, whose duty it was to superintend and command the troops of their respective dis- tricts. The custom of imperial capitulations was intro- duced at the time of the accession of Charles V. to the imperial throne (1.519). The electors, apprehensive of the formidable power of that prince, thought proper to limit it by a capitulation, which they made him sign and solemnly svtH,! to observe. This compact between the d,,! emperor and the electors, renewed under CTml subsequent reign, has been always considered J the grand charter of the liberties of the GerimDj,! body. The dissensions on the score of religion i happened about the beginning of the Kixtceniil century, gave rise to a long series of troubles and civil wars, which proved of advantage to iIkI House of Austria, by the confirmation of tbtj power in the Empire. The first of these is koinl by the name of the war of Smalcalde, of whidl the following is a brief sketch. The Emp^n,! Charles \'., in the first diet which he held J Worms (1.521), had issued an edict of proscriptioj against Luther and his adherents, ordaining ihul they should be treated as enemies of the EnipiKj and prosecuted to the utmost vigour of the la»,l The execution of this edict was incessantly nt^A by the emperor and the pope's legates, until \\\ whole Empire was in a state of combustion,! The Catholic princes, at the instigation of Cardimll Campcggio, assembled at Ratisbon (1524), mjl there adopted measures of extreme rigour, ftjl putting the edict into execution within tlicT respective states. The case was by no means iht| same with the princes and states who adh«re(l iJ the reformation, or who gave it their protcctioil To apply the conditions of the edict to fhera, J would have been necessary to come to a ciiill war, which the more prudent members of ||(I Germanic body sought to avoid. This religioul schism was still more aggravated at the Did J Augsburg, where the emperor issued a (lecwl condemnhig the Confession of Faith which tvl Protestant princes had presented to him. Tliil decree limited a time within which they wttil commanded, in so far as regarded the articles iil dispute, to conform to the doctrines of the CiithoEil Church. Thus urged to extremities, the I'rote).! tant leaders determined to assemble at Smnicaljil before the end of this very year (1530), whenl they laid the foundation of a Union, or defeiisiitl alliance, which was afterwards renewed at dift'erral times. John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, mjl Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, declared themselnil chiefs of this union. In opposition to this conftT deracy, the Catholic ])rinces instituted the Mn league; so called because its object was Ihil defence of the Catholic religion. Everything seemed to announce a civil yiv\ when a new iiTuption of the Turks into Hungi";! and Austria induced the Catholics to sign, ill Nuremberg (1530), a truce, or accommodutioo,! with the princes of the union ; in virtue of whiebj a peace between the states of the two rcligioml was concluded, and approved by the emperor; tol continue till a general council, or some new u-l sembly, should decide otherwise. This peace mil renewed in various subsequent assemblies. Thtl Protestant princes, however, still persisted in theirl refusal to acknowledge the authority of coimcilT convoked by the popes ; and their confcder/il daily receiving new accessions, the emperor, afwl having made peace with France, at Crepy (1M4),| and concluded an armistice of five years with Ihil Turks, resolved to declare war against these Rcliis-I matics, who, presuming on their union and theiil amicable relations -with foreign powers, thou|{lil| Maiiri<:« crcatuil Saxony. Peace of. Augsbii jliemsclves capable le issued an edict jie Elector of Saxoi pic two chiefs of iito a secret alii lounger branch of lear relation of the brring tlic theatre ( Elbe. The elector li an action whic fl,)47), fell into ]nd the Landgrave kte two months aft Iras then dissolved, aw himself master It Augsburg in wl lictator. A large del (n the city, served fst of his army wa kood. At this diet he Electorate of Sa: Cis ])risoner, John (if the new elector tc Ind what deserves ti this diet is, thai iclienie for the entii Estaiitism, by comp If the reformation t Ly means of a formu known by the name ks preliminary arra [lie use of the comii larriage of their p Jiiould be decided bj The victories of bave made him abs Here soon followed 1 he former glory of 1 lice, though indebte lliought he might tal pondition to which Ihe low state of his cmpt to limit his a estant religion. W loinc of the princes kud concluded a sei tVance, at Chamb( apidity against the hrined him at Inspr Recourse to the medit hhen a treaty was C( Has signed at Passt hf the Protestant wc Was agreed that a kumiuoned to draw permanent peace 1 fligions. This diet, which ^ f;rents, did not asser l.i.i.i. There a del un the subject of rcli both Protestant and berfect liberty of w lehould ever be attei cable means. The a Jreveiiues, which the jduccd into their stat one of the articles brovidcd, that everj Renounced his ancit M.iiiri<:>! crcatutl Elector of Saxony. l'euw'uf,Au«»l)urg. PERIOD YI. A.D. 1453— lots. ' Kculvaiiistiual Kosltmi.' Henry IV. of FriiiiCB. Iluhumiuii eontiist. 87 Biemsflvos capublt- of dictating laws to tlie Empire. . issued an edict of proscription (1546) against jie Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse, Dip two ciiiefs of the union ; and liaving entered Into a secret alliance with Uuku Maurice, ii Cuiiiigt-r branch of the family of Saxony, and a bi'iir relation of the elector, he succeeded in trans- fcrriiiir the theatre of war from the Danube to the Elbe. The elector being defeated by the emperor, It an action which took place at Mecklenburg |I.)47), full "1^° ^'"^ hands of the conqueror; inil tlie Landgrave of Hesse met with the same tte two months after. The union of Smalcalde tas then dissolved, and the emperor, who now jaw himself master of Germany, assembled a diet It Augsburg in which he acted the part of a llctiitoi'- -^ ^Mge detachment of his troops, billeted 111 the city, served as his body guard, while the est of liis army was encamped in the neighbour- hood. At this diet he conferred on Duko Maurice he Electorate of Saxony, of which he had deprived lis prisoner, John Frederick. The investiture If the new elector took place at Augsburg (1.548) ; |nd what deserves to be particularly remarked this diet is, that the emperor entered into a cheme for the entire ruin and extirpation of Pio- jestaiitism, by compelling the princes and states If the reformation to rejoin the Catholic Church, by means of a formula which he made them adopt, kiiowu by the name of the Interim ; and which, by hs preliminary arrangement, allowed them only he use of the communion in both kinds, and the niirriage of their priests, until the whole matter Jhould be decided by a council. Tiic victories of Charles V., which seemed to Lvc made him absolute master of the Empire, Here soon followed by reverses, which eclipsed all he former glory of his reign. The Elector Mau- kcc, though indebted to him for his new dignity, Ihought he might take advantage of the distressed poiulition to which that prince was reduced by |lie low state of his finances, to make a new at- «nipt to limit his authority, and restore the Pro- fstant religion. With this view, having enlisted Lome of the princes of the Empire in (lis cause, kud concluded a secret treaty with Henry II. of Trance, at Chambord, he marched with such apidlty against the Emperor, that he nearly sur- jiriaed him at Inspruck, and obliged him to have Recourse to the mediation of his brother Ferdinand, shen a treaty was concluded with Maurice, whicli »as signed at Passau (1552). There the liberty ^r the Protestant worship was sanctioned ; and it vas agreed that a General Council should be kumiuoued to draw up the articles of a solid and permanent peace between the states of both «ligions. This diet, which was long retarded by political ^vents, did not assemble at Augsburg till the year 1555. There a definitive peace was concluded uii till! subject of religion, and it was ordained that both Protestant and Catholic states should enjoy a berfect liberty of worship ; and that no reunion phoulil ever be attempted by any other than ami- Kablc means. The secularizing of the ecclesiastical Ireveimes, which the Protestant princes had intro- jduced into their states, was ratified ; but there was one of the articles of the treaty which expressly hirovided, that every prelate or churchman, who Ireuounced his ancient faith to embrace the Con- fession of Augsburg, should lose his benefice. This latter clause, known by thi; name of Ecclesiastical Reaervr, did not pass but with the most determined opposition. Differences of more kinds than one sprang from this treaty of peace, — the articles- of whicli each party interpreted to their own advantage^ Hence those stratagems which at length occasioned a new war (1B18)— that of the Thirty Years. The Protestant Princes and States, wishing to provide for their own security, and to put an end to those arbitrary measures, of which t'\ey thought they had reason to complain, assembled at Heilbronn (1594), and there laid the fouudutiou of a new union, which was confirmed in the assemblies held at Halle, in Suabia, in the years 1608 and 1610. The chief jiromoter of this union was Henry lY. of France, who designed to use it as a check on the ambition of the House of Austria ; and as a means for carrying into execution the grand pro- ject which he meditated with regard to the pacifi- cation of Europe. He concluded an alliance with the princes of the Union, and determined the number of troops to be furnished by each of the contracting parties. The Catholic princes and States, afraid of being taken unawares, renewed their League, which they signed at Wurtzburg (KJO'J). The rich duchy of Juliers, which had become vacant this same year, was contested by several claimants ; and as Austria was equally de- sirous of possessing it, this was made the occasion of raising powerful armies in France, Germany, Italy, and the Low Countries. A considerable number of troops had already taken the field about the beginning of the year 1610, when the unexpected death of Henry lY. disconcerted all their measures. This changed the politics of the French court, and also induced the princes of the Union to conclude a treaty with the League, — the articles of which were 8igneolitics had as great a share as zeal for religion, may be divided into four principal jieriuds, namely, the Palatine, the Danish, the Swedish, and the French war. Frederick Y., Elector Palatine, and head of the Protestant Union, having been raised to the throne by the Bohemian States (1619), which had rebelled against the Emperor Ferdinand II., engaged in a war with that prince ; but being deserted by his allies, and defeated at the battle of Prague (1620), he was driven from Bohemia, and stripped of all his dominions. The victorious arms of Austria soon extended their conquests over a great part of the Empire. Christian lY., King of Denmark, who was in alliance with most of the Protestant princes, next undertook the defence of the federal system ; but ho was not more fortunate than the Elector Pala- tine had been. Being defeated by Tilly, at the famous battle of Lutzen (1626), he was compelled to abandon the cause of his allies, and to sign a separate peace with the Emperor at Lubeck (1629). Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, J...... !5^ i-'::a GiiHbtYiiH Adoliiliussluiii. (tg S\vc King of Spain acknowledged the United Fro- liiici's iiH free and indepc ndent States ; he gave up In tliiin all the places whieli they had seixed in 3i:il)iint, FlnncU-rs, and Linihur^', viz., HoiH-le-Duc, iTL'en-op-Zoom, Breda, and Maestriclit ; m also [licir possessions in the East and West Indies, in Vsiii, AtVicii, and America. The closing; of the Bchelili whicli was granted in favour of the United JrovinecH, entirely ruined the city of Antwerp, LikI shnt out the .Spanish Netherlands from all niiritinie commerce. The fendal system of the Swiss, which had orl- Ijiiiitud in the fourteenth century, acquired a new niportuncc towards the end of the Hfleenth, hy eiison of the success of the confederates in their Liir with Charles, Duke of Burgundy. This irince, who was of a hot and turbulent spirit, was fnnstanfly occupied with projects of conquest. I'likinK advantage of the ruinous state of the Biianei's of the Archduke Sigismund of Austria, L iniluccd him to sell him the territories of Hris- tim and Alsace, with the right of repurchase. peter de Hiigenbach, a gentleman of Alsace, who l!i(l been appointed governor of these coimtries by llic Duke, liad oppressed the Austrian subjects, Inil hnriisscd the whole neighbouring states ; espe- liullv tlie Swiss. The complaints which were nad'e on this score to the Duke having only ren- IJcred llagenbacli still more insolent, the Swiss, vith tlie c(mcurrcnce of several states of the Em- ', paid down, at Basle, the sums stipulated in Uii: contract for repurchasing the two provinces ; knd, by force of arms, they re-established the Aus- Irinn prince in the possession of Alsace and Bris- ran. They even went so far as to institute legal hrncoedings against Hagenbach, who was in con- lef|UPiice beheaded at Brisach in 1474. The Duke, determined to avenge this insult, lisscmbled an army of 100,000 men, with which penetrated through Franehe-Comt6 into Swit- erland. He was defeated in the Hrst action, nhifh took place at Granson (1476) ; after which reinforced his troops, and laid siege to Morat. here he was again attacked by the SavIss, who killi'd 18,000 of ins men, and seized the whole of Ills camp and baggage. The Duke of Lorrain, an klly of the Swiss, was then restored to those states bf "which the Duke of Burginidy had deprived him. I'his latter prince, in a great fury, came and hid kicgc to Nancy. The Swiss marched to the relief If this place, where they fought a third and last liiitle with the Duke, who was here defeated and ^iain (1477). These victories of the Swiss over the Duke of BurgunllUt(>» of SMit'.- 02 irlaiiil. Diiki'K ofSavov. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Kni|HT(ir> (»f ()crm;iuy. Aniiim of Nnplfi. h'liiiilly i>r Molicl. Ix'tWL'cn tliege two ntntci* (15111), which Avai houii iificr I'oIIoxvihI hj ii iu>w trciity of iillinnre, coii- cluiU'd uith rramiM 1. at Luiornij (IS'.'l), uad rejfuliirly niifwcd under tlio HubHciiiu-nt ri-iKiis. Thi- rlmiif{i' which tiioli place in religion, at the betiiinilnf,' ot the Hixteeiith ceuturj, extended its inlliienietd Switzerland, where it kindhil the Haine of civil disciird. l'"(iur cantoiiN, those of Zurich, IJerne, SchiiuiriiauNen, and IJasle, renouncing en- tirely the Uoniiiili faith, had embraced the doc- IriniM of Zuinulo and Calvin ; while two others, viz., (ilaris and Appenzcl, were tlivided between the old !ind the new opinions. The Uefornuttion having likewise found its way into the coniniun hailivvickH, the Catholic Cantons ro8e ino])poKition to it (l.):il); denyiu)^ liberty of conscience to the inhabitants. Hence, a war arose between the Cantons of tlie two religions ; which, however, was terminated the same year by a treaty of jjeace, jfuarauteeinff to such ])ari8hes Avitiiin tiie bailiwicks as had em- braced the new doctrines, the liberty of still ad- berinj,' to them. The siime revolution extended to (ieiiuva, whoso inhabitants had declared solenndy in favour of the refornieil worsliip, and erected themselves info a free and independent rejniblic (1.">;14). The church of (.ieneva, under tiie direc- tion of Calvin, became the centre and citadel of the lleformation ; while the academy founded in that city, i)roduced a vast number of theolojjians and celebrated scholars. It was at this time that the Duko of Savoy planned the blocka. i. more and more under the ''inj' ..nil teeble reifii of Frederic III. At leii^'th it \' .IS reduced t> the mere ceremony of coroiiatioi , r.id the simple exercise of some hono- rary and leudal rights, such as the investitures which the Imperial Court continued to grant to the vassals of Lombardy. Although the Imperial di;.'!iity implied the royalty of Italy, whirh »j cousidercd as indissolubly luiited to it, ncvcrthiipq it was the custom that the kings of Germuiiy ii||„„{^ li;i\e theniHelves crowned separately, kiiiKs nf ii,;, at Milan, and emperors at Uoiiie. Freilcrli' |||' having had certain reasons for ivoiding his ,.o„' nation iit Milan, received *"rom Mie hunilH of l'^.^ Micliolas v., in his ow- capiial, the two cruMii, of Italy and Uonu>. ISIilan, and the republics of Venice and .■>tonrf It were the principal powers that shared iu.Kiii. i||p. the dominion of Italy towards tb'' en.; 1 fifteenth century. The continual •' vr-' wliiclitln-. states waged with each othi ., add .i i ■ the weak. nessoffhe German emperors, > ucoiiMged funiKn powers to form plans of aggrandis. ment anil lur (piest over these countrir.,. The kings of I'liinn, (,'harles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I,,,. 4 away by a numia foi coni|uesf, undertook Kcvmi expeditions into Italy, for enforcing their cbiir.. either on the kingdom of Naples, or the ihithvot Milan. They were thwarted in their schcimsliv the kings of Spain, who, beinj;- alieady nuistors o| Sicily and Sardinia, thought they behoved also to extend their views to the continent of Italy. Fit- dinand the Catholic deprived the French of tlie kingdom of Naples (hWO). His successor, Clwrlei v., expelled them from the Milauais, and oliliscil Francis I., by the treaties of Madrid (152(i), lam- bray (132'J), and Crepy (l.')44), to give up his pre- tensions on the kingdom of Naples, and the duchv of Milan. From this time the Spaniards woro ilie predominating ptiwer in Italy for more tliim 1 hundred years. In the midst of these revolutions, there ame three new principalities within that kingdom ; tli(i$« of Florence, Parma, and Malta. The repulilir nf| Florence held a distinguished rank iu Italy diiriiis the flfteenth century, both on account of the tluu- rishing state of its commerce, and the large I'jteiil of its territory, which comprehended the greater part of Tuscany, and gave to this rcjmbhn the means of li' IdiTu; the balance hetweci the ither powers oi lul;, . The opulent family of the Mi'u' . here exrril8e<* .' '■'••' degree (■ ... ucnce; thev ruled !■' I> ' ^'.1. by their inunificcncp, and the judii ' .. u.se which Ihcy made of their ([real riches. The credit and popularity of the .Medici excited envy and persecution against them, ami caused them to be several times banished from Florence. They were expelled from this latter place at the same time that Pope Clement VII., who was of this family, was besieged by the Imp«- rialists in Rome (1327). That pontiff, in making his peace with Charles V., obtained his consent that the Medici should be re-established at Flo- rence, in the state in which they were before their last banishment. The Emperor even proinised the Pope to give Alexander de' Medici his natural daughter in marriage, with a considerable down-. The Florentines, however, having shown some re- V 111 II) " I" •■•■ ■•••• ■• *,ii Nai.li's, which the I^iffniiMle' MiMllrt. Brunei' lliikiiorTiiMiiny. TlieVix-ontl of Milan. TKRIOD VI. A.D. 1453— lfl4H. Kiimlly of Kiiriii'W. KiilKliUiit'St. Jiiliii lit Miill.1. D.-t .iitanrp to roccivp the MoilicI, thrjr "ify was lic- Jlii({((l by tin- Inip«Tial army, aiid c mufllfil to ilurri'iwifr by capituliitlon (1530). Till' Kiii|«'ri)r, by a chiirter ilntt fiijoy it BiforiliiiK to the ordi'r of iirimogi'iiituii'. |]|o wiis aiitliorincd, nior<>ovi'r, to coiiHtriicI u fitnilt'l at Flort'iii-e, by iiioaii* of whifli lie aflci - nartln rxercis'-'d an absolute jiowiT over hiH fidlow- ritizi'iiH. Ah for the dural dignity with which the fw'vi prliicf of Florence was vested, it properly '•'I, III (1 to till" duchy of I'arma, in the kingdom ' ' Xii;li's, which the Emperor had conferred on fft: .\1>> uiderde' Medici did not lonj? enjoy his new oiioui . He was universally abhorred for his rui'lties, and aitsasMinated by lpublic8 whieh the I'isconti of Milan had subdtieti and overthrown in he fourtct iih century, were those of Parma and lacentia. They hud formed a dependency of the uchy of Milan until lol'i, when l.ouis XII. aviiig been expelled from the Milanais by the Hies of the Holy League, these citien were sur- emlcred by the Swiss to Pope Julius II., who laid lomc claim to them, as nitiking part of the dowry of the famous Countess Matilda. The Emperor Maximilian ceded them to the Pope by the treaty of peace which he made with him in 1512. FraiiciH I. took these cities again from the court nt' Uoiiiin whft< he recduqiiered tlu' duchy of Milan (lOlOi); '>iil tltiii* prince having also heen cxpelli'd from tlw Milanais ( 1521), the l'i>|ie nuiiin got pusscsMOM of P:irma and Plaeenlia, in xirtiie of the trcatj. titNich '•I' liiwl concluded with Cliarlcs V., fur the w-esta- blishment (*' Francis Sforza in the Uu'hj <,)f Milan. These cities contiuiM d tc form part o- (he ei^clesi- astical status until l.VI.1. "hcii they \\r,f dismem- bered from it by Paul 111., who erected tlitin into duchies, niid conferred them on his son Peter Louis Farnese, and his hrirs-niali' in the onlcr of primogeniture; (o be held " ider tiie title of tiel's of the holy see, and on • nditioii of paying an annual tribute of !)000 diu iN, This elevation of am i, >v liosr very birth secfiied a disgrace to the poutl^f, ifav,' universal oHei»ce. The new Duke of Panniv soon rendered himself so odious by his dissolute life, hiri crimes and s(;ui- dalous excesses, that a conspiracy was foriiiei()ti of this place longer than 1523, when Solinci the Great under- took the siege of llhodes, with u army of 200,000 men, and a Meet of 400 sail. ' ho knights bohlly repulsed the dilferent attacks the Turks ; hut being entirely dependent on tin .r own forces, and receiving no succour from the powers of Christen- dom, they were compelled to c:i litulate, after an obstinate defence of six months. Leaving Kliodcs, these knights took shelter in Vitti ho, belonging to the states of the church, wl '-re tin ■ were cordially received by Pope Clement VII, There they re- mained until the I'imperor Chai 's V. granted them the Isle of Malta, which bee .me their prin- cipal residence ( 1330). That princi ceded to them the islands of Malta and Go/.zo, with the city of Tripoli in Africa, on condition ot liolding them from him and his successors in the kingdom of Sicily, as noble fiefs, frank and free, without any other obligation than the annual gift of a falcon, in token of their domanial tenure, and presenting to the King of Sicily three of their subjects, of whom he was to choose one, on each vacancy of the bishopric of Malta. Charles V. a(i'led another clause, that if ever the Order should leave Malta and fix their residence elsewhere, that island shoidd revert to the King of Sicily. The Knights of St. John continued in the sovereignty of Malta and Gozzo till 1798 ; but they lost Tripoli in 1331, which was taken from them by the Turks. A memorable revolution happened at Genoa, about the begiiuiing of the sixteenth centtiry. of the ecclesiastical of the male line in 1 of Jerusalem, after U Land, had retired I Iiiilc|H>ii(loiu'U of Genoa. 94 Aiwlri'W Duriii. Vi'iietiiiu powur. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Alliiira of Italy. Kings of Cyprus. New iHwsiiKU to Indiu. That republic, after h!i\iug for a long (iino forineil part of the (liu'liy of Mihin, recoveretl its ancient indepcntk'ncc about the time when the French and Spaniards disputed the sovereignty of Italy, and the conquest of the Milannis. Expelled by the Imperialists from the city of Genoa in 1022, the French had found means to repossess it (lii'i?), witli tiie assistance of the celebrated Andrew Doria, a noble Genoese, who had been in the service of Francis I. This distinguisiicd admiral, sui)planfed by favourites, and maltreated by the court, abandoned the cause of France in tiie fol- lowing year, and espoused that of the Emperor Charles V. The French then laid siege to the city of Naples, whicli was reduced to the last extremity and on the point of surrendering, when Uoria, having hoisted the Imperial Hag, set sail for Naples, vith the galleys under his command, and tlnv>w abund- ance of provisions into the besieged city. The French army, now cut oH from all commimication by sea, soon began to experience those cahiniities from whicii the Imperialists had just been deli- vered. Their whole troops being destroyed by famine and contagious disease, the expedition to Naples fell to the ground, and the affairs of the French in Italy were totally ruined. It is alleged tliat Charles V., to recompense Doria for this ini- j)ortant service, oH'ered him the sovereignty of Genoa; and that, instead of accepting this honour, that great man stipulated for the liberty of his country, wlienever it should be delivered from the yoke of France. Courting tlie glory of being the liberator of his native city, lie sailed directly for Genoa, of which he miule himself master, in a single night, without shedding one droj) of blood (Ii)2S). Tlie French garrison retired to the (titadcl and were obliged to capitulate for want of provisions. This expedition ])rocured Doria tlie title of Father of his Country, which was conferred on him by a decree of tlie senate. It was by his advice that a committee of twelve persons was chosen to organize a new scheme of government for the re])ul)lie. A register was drawn up of all those families who were to compose tiie grand council, which was destined to exercise the supri?me jiower. The doge was to continue in office ten years ; and great care was taken to remove those causes which iiad previously excited factions and intestine dis- orders. Hence the estalilishment of the Cienoese aristocracy, whose forms have since been pre- served, with some few modifications which were introduced afterwards, in consequence of certain dissensions which had arisen between the ancient and tlie now nobility. Venice, the eldest of the European republics, had reached the zenith of its greatness about the end of the fifteenth century. The vast extent of its commerce, supported by a powerful marine, the multiplied sources of its industry, and the monopoly of the trade in the East, had made it one of the richest and most formidable states in Eurojie. Besides several jiorts on the Adriatic, and numerous settlements which they had in the Archipelago, and the trading towns on the Levant, they gained ground more and more on the conti- nent of Italy, where they formed a considerable territory. Guided by an artful and enterprising policy, this republic seized with marvellous avidity every circumstance which favoured its views ofiiK. grandisement. On the occasion of their (piarrilj i with the Duke of Ferrara, they ol lined iiussoi. f sion of the province of I'olcsino de Uovigo, Ijy j treaty which they concluded with that prime ja 1484'. Afterwards, having joined the league which tlie 1 powers of Italy had opposed to Charles VIII, aiiil his i)rojects of conquest, they refused tii grm supplies to the King of Naples for the recovcrv i j his kingdom, except by his consenting to yiild'up ] the cities of Trani, Otranto, Ilrindisi, and (Ja poli. Louis XII., being resolved to eiifoiiii iiis I claims on the duchy of Milan, and wishing to sain | over this rejjublic to his interest, gave up to tlionii by the treaty of Blois (1490), the town of (.V I mona, and the whole country lying betweeiuhel Oglio, the Adda, and the Po. On tlie (leiithofl Pope Alexander VI. (1501)), they took that favour- [ able opportunity of wresting from the ecili'sias. tical states several towns of the Romagna; anioiii! | others, Uiuiini and Faen/.a. Of all the acquisitions which the Venetians made, the most important was that of Cyprus. Thai | island, one of the most considerable in the Me- diterranean, had been conquered from the (iiciks by Richard Cfcnr de Lion, King of KiiglamI, v.ho surrendeied it to Guy of Lusignan (111(2), the Lisi i king of Jerusalem, in compensation for the loss of | his kingdom. From Guy de Lusignan desci'iukil a long line of Cypriot kings ; the last of whom, .lohn 111., left an only daugliter, named Cliaiiiitr, who succeeded him in that kingdom, and ciiii-nl her liusbaud, Louis of Savoy, to he also ciriwneii king. There still remained a bastard son of John I 111., called James, who was protected hy the Sultan of F-gyiit, to whom the kings of ('ypriis were tributaries, and who succeeded in ex|Mniiij Charlotte and her husband, the prince of Sivnj, from the throne (1400). James, who was di'siious I of putting himself under the protection of the Venetians, married Catherine Cornaro, daugliter ot | Marco Cornaro, or C(U'nelio, a patrician of Venice, The Senate, in honour of this marriage, ailoptej I Catherine, and declared her daughter of St. MmV, or the Republic. James died in 147H, leaving; a liosthumous son, who died also in the second year of his age. The republic then, consideriiii; the kingdom of Cyprus as their own inheritance, took jiossession of the natural children of James, aii'l induced Uueen Catherine, by various means, to I retire to Venice, and there to resign her eromi into the hands of the Senate, who assigned her a jicnsion, with the castle of Azolo, in Trevisaiio, for her residence ; and obtained for themselves the investiture of that island from the Sultan of lA'\pl : (1490). A career so prosperous was eventually followed | by a reverse of fortune ; and several circumstaiirps concurred to accelerate the decline of this Hourisli ing republic. They received a terrible blow lij the discovery of the new passage to India roumi the ;| Cape, which dejirived them of the cominerce of | the East; thus drying up the principal soiiiTe of I their wealth, as well as of their revenue and their [ marine. In vain did they put in practice all the arts of their policy to defeat the commercial enter- J prises of the Portuguese in India ; exciting ajjaiiiM jL them, first the sultans of Egypt, and afterwiinli f the Turkish Emperors, and furnishing th(nc .\lii- 1 (■(inimerce witli 1 Vietory of Louis } Turks ileli';>ted at jonictaii]iowerswit lortiigiiese surmoui Vtaiiied a firm set baise of time, the Wcr. Lisbon, in [ii|)()riuiii liu- the p Irnetians could no lis Held of Eastern Irtune whicli so lo ■ the re|niblic, had Ir conciuest. The lakliig cncroachmei biiietiiiics forgetting tev drew down u])o Lentiiiciil of the pr J To this jeahuisy i lafjuo, which I'ope . lilian, Louis XII., trill of the Italian ,)0H), for the parti 1 Term Finna. »iy over the repuh lus followed by sue V.;ts, that the senal fcnsteniation ; and llallibly lost, had I llies, Hut the pope kailed the prciiondi Ldileiily abandoned ||iarato treaties of pe las the Eiiqieror V leir example, In c hiis, after having bei Iruw, lost only, In t jtoiy of ("reniona i ■ties and ports of Ro Iss was far surpassi jiMiced ill their iin Janiifnctiiies, on ace Ihieh tliey were oblij limcroiis enemies. The ruin of this Icteil by the prodigi( le Ottomans, who t loir best i)osses,"ion leditenanean. Dra |eiiiselves, into the • lirks, they lost foui ■go ; among others |aiii|Kdia, and Pare saee of Constantiin le Turks, Alalvasia rly two jilaccs whi lorea, J The Turks also to( Ills, the finest of the liiean. The Sultan eoiKiiier that islam |iTc(l;)70), althougl ) Kiound for hostilil fthe cities of Nicosi k'teil the conquest o leeours which the ' I granted to the Vi liitheaiqiroach of th pet retired within ley were attacked 1 land of Don Juan Jiarles V. The C letory (1571). Tl ('(immiTcowiOi Imlia. Victory of Louis XII. Turks ili'fe:>ted at Lepiinto. PERIOD VI. A.D. 1453—1048. Decline of V'eiiicn. Riviilry of France 95 and Aiiiitrin. ometiiii jjowcis with supplies. The activity of the lorlugiit'sc surmounted all tlicsc obstiiules. They Vtaiiu'il a firm settlement in the East, where, in burse of lime, they became a very formidable owcr. Lisbon, in i)lace of Venice, became the knporiuni for the productions of India ; and the eiietians could no longer compete with them in is Held of Eastern commerce. Besides, the ffood iiiuni! which so long attended tlic undertakings tlio republic, iiad inspired them with a passion ir conquest. They took every opportunity of iikiiis cncroacluiienis on tlieir ueighbours ; and, iiiictinies forgetting tlie counsels of j)rudence, icv drew doun upon themselves the jealousy and sciitnieul of the principal states of Italy. To tliis^ jealousy must be attributed the famous !a"ue, which Tope Julius II., tbe Emperor Maxi- iliiin, Louis XII., Ferdinand of Spain, and se- rai of the Italian staves, concluded at Cambray 50H), for tbe partition of the Venetian territory J'ciru I'irma. Louis XII. gained a signal vic- ry over tilt republicans near Agnadello, which as followed by such a rapid succession of con- Is, lliat the senate of Venice were struck with iistoriiation ; and the republic must have been I'allibly lost, had Louis been supj)orled by his it's. Hut the pope and tbe King of Spain, who (jailed the prei)onderauce of the French in Italy, iililciily abandoned the league, and concluded iivatc treaties of peace with the republicans; nor as the Enijieror Maximiliiii long in following ■ir example, In consequence of this, the Vene- iis, after having been menaced with a total over- low, lost oidy, In the course of the war, the ter- |ti)ry of ('ii'Miona and Ghiera d'Ada, Avilli the |li(s and jKUts of liomagna and Apulia. Hut this is was far sur])assed by that which they expe- Mirpil ill their linauces, their coiiinieree, and iinnfaetures, on account of the expensive efforts liicli they were obliged to make in resisting their imicroiis enemies, Tlip ruin of this republic was at length com- leti'il by the prodigious increase of the pcnver of Ottomans, who took from Ibeiii, by degrees, ir hi'st possessions in the Archijielago and the ciliterrauean. Dragged, as it were, in spite of iPiiisi'lves, into the war of ('harles V. against the rks, tiiey lost fourteen islands in the Archipe- amoug others Chios, Patmos, ^I'.giiia, Nio, .inijialia, and Paros ; and weri' obliged, by the ace of ("onstantinople (1040), to surrender to e Turks, Malvasia and Napoli di Uomagna, the ly two places which remained to them in the orea, Tlip Turks also took from them the isle of Cy- iis, the finest of their possessions in tin' Mediterv iii'an. The Sultan, Selini li,, being determined ouiiiier that island, attacked it with a superior ir(c(1570), although the Venetians had given him pound for hostilities. He made himself master the cities of Nicosia and Fannigusta ; and com- •ted the conquest of the whole island, before the iitoius which tlie King of Spain and the pope li panted to the Venetians, could join their fleeti nllie ai)])roaeh of the (Christian army, tlie Turkish I't retired within the Gulf of Lepanto, where ywere attacked by the allies under the com- laiid of Don .luan of Austria, a natural son of iiarii's V. The Christians gained a complete I'lory (1571). The whole Turkish fleet was destroyed, and the confederates took immense booty. The news of this defeat struck terror into the city of Constantinople, and made the Grand Signior transfer his court to Adrianople. The Christians, however, reaped no advantage from their victory. A misunderstanding arose among the confederates, and their fleets dispersed without accomplishing anything. The Venetians did not return to the isle of Cyprus ; and knowing well that they could not reckon on any effectual aid on the part of their allies, they determined to make peace with tlie Turks (1573). By this treaty they left the Porte in possession of Cyprus, and con- sented to pay it a sum of !il)0,0()0 ducats, to obtain the restitution of their ancient boundaries in Ual- matia. From this epoch, the republic of Venice dates its entire decay. It was evident, that it must thenceforth resign its pretensions as a leading power, and adopt a system of neutrality wlilcli might put it in condition to maintain peace with its neighbours. England, as we have mentioned above, had been the rival of France, while the latter now became the rival of Austria. This rivalry commenced with the marriage of Maximilian of Austria, to jMary, daughter and heiress of Charles, last Duke of Bur- gundy, by which the House of Austria succeeded to the whole dominions of that prince. The Low Countries, which at that time were the principal emiioriuin for the manufactures and commerce of Europe, formed a part of that opulent succession. Louis XL, King of France, was unable to prevent the marriage of the Austrian piince with the heiress of Burgundy, but he took advantage of that event to detach from the territories of that princess what- ever he found convenient. He seized on the duchy of Burgundy as a vacant fief of his crown, as well as the seigniories of Auxerrois, ]\Iaconnois, Bar- sur-Scine, and the towns of the Sonime ; and these different countries were jireserved to France by the treaties of peace concluded at Arras (14H2), and Scnlis (14!)H). Such was the origin of the ri- valry and bloody wars between France and Austria. The theatre of hostilities, which, under Louis XL, had been in the Low Countries, was transferred to Italy, under Charles VIIL, Louis XIL, and Francis I. From thence it was changed to Ger- many, in the reign of Henry II. In Italy, besides this rivalry between the two powers, there was another motive, or pretext, for war, viz,, the claims of France on the kingdom of Najiles and the duchy of Alilan. The claim of Louis XL on the kingdom of Naples had devolved to him with the county of Provence, which he in- herited in virtue of the will of CMiarles, Count of Provence, and the last male descendant of the House of Anjou (1481). Cliarles VIIL, the son and successor of Louis XL, urged on by youthful ambition, was determined to enforce tliis claim. He undertook an expedition into Italy (1494), and took possession of the kingdom of Naples without striking a blow. But being opposed by a formi- dable confederacy of the Italian princes, with Maxi- milian at their head, he was obliged to abandon his conquests with the same facility he had made them ; and he was fortunate in being able to effect his retreat, by the famous victory which he gained over the allies, near Foronuovo, in the duchy of Parma. The claim to the duchv :iiii. !»• fruliir armies, which put an end to tlio feuihil liiwer. Louis XI. was chit-fiy instrumcntiil in Iriiiiriii? •!'" h''"*'"^^''^*' ""Ji"'' suliJL'ction, and init- l„„";iii end to the cruelties and ojiprossions of i:uxhy. If tliesc chanj^es, liowcver, contributed puhlie order, it is nevertheless true that the lationid liberty suifered by them ; that tlie royal utlidntv daily received new au^^nientations ; and vit so" early as the reiijn of Loins XII., it was busidei'oil as high treason to speak of the necessity russiinihliuj; the States-General. The practice of hiisi' assemblies, however, was reiH'wed under the Wi'ssors ;if that prince ; they even became fre- hiciit uiider the last kin;,'s of the House of Valois, Ihu convoked them chietiy with the view of de- limliiii; supplies. Francis 1. aiiifineiited bis in- Uiiicc over tlie clerjfy by the concordat which lie pialiiddl with Leo X. (loKi), iu virtiii! of which obliiliicd the ncjinination to all vacant pre- Itiiics; leavini,' to the I'ojie the contirniation the prelates, and the liberty of receiving the niiats. I Till' race of Valois was succeeded by that of tlie Iniirhims, who were d 'scended from Robert, C!ount Ft'loiniout, younger son of St. Louis. Henry I \ ., Ii' Hist king of this dynasty, was related in the Vi'iitv-lirst degri^e to Henry HI., his immediate kiUHCssor. This jirince, who was a Calvinist, |i' more easily reduced the party of the League, imliliily abjuring his religion at St. Denis. He IucIhiIliI a peace witli the Spaniards, who were Bics of tlie League, at Verviiis; and completely iiipiillizeil the kingdom by the famous edict of I'.iti's, which he published in favour of the re- IriniMl religion. Uy that edict he guaranteed to I'ldlestaiits perfeet liberty of conseience, and piililic exercise of their worship, with the |i\ilcu'i' iif tilling all otlices of trust ; but he ren- livil llii'iii, at the same time, a ])iece of disservice, ^'nulling them fortitied placi's, under the name [lilaces of security. Uy thus fostering a sjiirit of lily ami intestine faction, he furnished ;i plausible lilcxt to their adversaries for gradually under- lining the edict, anil iinally proscribing the exer- kc of the refiirined religion in France. (This great prince, after having established the Biiqiiillity of his kingdom at home and abroad, oinageil arts and manufactures, and put the |ministiationof bis iinances into admirable order, iissassiiiated by llavaillae (UJIO), at the very Idiuiiit when be was employed in executing the r.ml sclu'iiie which he had projected for the jiaci- tatioii of Kurojie. Cardinal llichelieu, when he Mimed the reins of government under Louis Jill., hail nothing so much at heart as the ex- sion of the (^'alvinists from their strongholds. |i:s he accoin|)lislied by means of the three wars hicli he waged against them, and by the famous of Uoclielle, which he reduced in l(i'28. Ii;it great statesman ne\t employed his policy riiiist the House of Austria, whose preponder- ;,'ave umbrage to all F.uropc. He took the l|ii)iinnity of the vacant succession of Mantua to niiuise the cause of the Duke of Nevers against K (,'oiiits of Vienna and iNladrid, who supported Diike of Guastalla ; and maintained his jiro- ce in the duchy of Mantua, by the treaties of jiii'i' which were concluded at llatisbon and Que- ■.i|ue (KilU). Having afterwards joineil Sweden, ( made war against tho two branches of Austria, and on this occasion got possession of the places which the Swedes had seized in Alsace. liouis XIV. was only four years and seven months old when he succeeded his father (llilJJ). The queen-mother, Anne of Austria, assumed the regency. She appointed (Cardinal Mazarin her prime minister, whose administration, during the minority of the King, was a seene of turbulence ::ud distraction. The same external policy which bad directed the ministry of llielielieu was fol- lowed by his successor. He prosecuted the war against .\ustria with vigour, in conjniiction with Sweden and their confederates in Germany. Uy the peace which was concluded with the Kiiipeior at >I mister, besides the three bislio])rics of Lor- raine, France obtained the Laiidgiaviate of Lower and Lpper Alsace, Sungaw, and the prefeetiire of the ten Imperial cities of Alsace. Spain was e\- chiiled from this treaty ; and the war continued be- tween that kingdom and France until the peace of the i'yrenees, by which the counties of lloussilloii and (Jonllaiis were ceded to France, as widl as several cities in Flanders, Hainault, and Luxem- bourg. Spain, which had long been divided into several states, and a stranger, as it were, to the rest of F.u- ro|)e, became all of a sudden a foriiiiilible jiower, turning the political balance iu her own favour. This elevation was the work of Ferdin:;nd the Ca- tholic, a prince born for great exiilnits ; of a jiro- found and fertile genius ; but tarnishiiev his bright ipialities by perfidy and unbounded ainbilion. He was heir to the throne of Arragon, and laid the foundation of liis greatness by bi'i inarritige with Isabella (14(>i»), si.-ter to Henry VI. last Khig of Castile. That niatcli unitei'i the kingdoms of (aside and Arragon, which were the two princip:il Chris- tian states in Spain. Henry of Castile had left a daughier, named Jane, but she being considered as illegitimate by the Castilians, the throne was con- ferred on Isabella and her husband Ferdiiiaiiil (1474). The Infanta Jane, in order to enforce her claims, betrothed herself to .Mpbonsi) V. King id' I'ortugal ; but that prince, being defeated by I'er- ilinand at the battle of Toro (I47t>), was obliged to renounce Castile and his marriage with the Infanta. At the accession of Isabella to the throne of Castile, that kingdom was a jirey to all the miserii"; of anarchy. The abuses of the feudal system were there maintained by violence and injustice. Fer- dinand demolished the fortresses of the nobles who infested the country; he gave new vigour to the laws ; liberated the people from the oppression of the grciit; and, under pretence of extirpating the Jews and Mahometans, be established the tribunal of the liupiisition (147H), which spread universal terror by its unheard of cruelties. Toniuemada, a Dominican, who was appointed grand Iiii|uisitor (14S;{), burnt in the space of four years near (1000 individuals. Tho INIoors still retained the kingdom of Gre- nada. Ferdinand took advantage of their dissen- sions to attempt the coiniuest of it, in which he succeeded, after a vigorous war of eighteen years. Abo Abdeli, the last King of Grenada, iled to Africa. An edict, which was published immedi- ately after, ordered tin- expulsion of all the Jews ; about 100,000 of whom iled from Spain, and took shalter, some in i'ortugal and others in Africa. u I I i. .^3 '.IX I'Vrdiiiiinil till" Catliolio. NcaiKilit 111 all'iirs. Cliaili's V. riiiliii 11. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Kli/.abt'tli of I<:ii){lanil. I'hilip IV. D'Olivnre/., .luhli II. ut' rDi'tUKui, Fi'vcliiiiiml did not include the Moors in this pro- Rcrijition, wiiom lie thouglit to jjiiiu over to (lln'is- tiiinity liy inuiins of iicrst'cution ; hut liaviiii^ re- volted in till' jc'iir l.")00, lie then allowed them to ■ eniiijnite. It wiis this hlind and headloni; zeal that jiroem-ed Ferdinand the title of the Cal/iu/ii: Kiuy, which I'ope Alexander III. conferred on him and his successors (I4ii:j), This jirince also aui,miented his power by annexini; to his crown the (jrand Mastership of the Military Orders of Calatrava, Al- cantara, and St. James of (,'onii)ostella. Mvcrythin^ conspired to agj^randize Ferdinand ; and, as if the Old World had not heen sulHcient, a lSe\v one was opeiu'd up to him by the discovery of America. He was heir, by the father's side, to the kingdoms of Arragon, Sicily, and Sardinia. He got possession of Castile by his marriage, and of Grenada by force of arms; so that nothing was wanting except Navarre to unite all Spain under his dominion. The Holy League, which I'ope Ju- lius H. had organized against Louis XII. (1511), furnished him witii a ])retext tor seizing that king- dom. Enteiing into an alliance with the I'ope, he concerted wit!; the King of Fnglinid to invade (iuienne, on wliicli the Fnglish had some ancient claims. They demanded of the King of Navarre that he should make common cause with the allies of the Holy League against Louis XII. Tiiat j)rince, however, wishing to ju-eserve neutrality, they prescribed coiulitions so severe, that lie had jui other alternative h-ft than to seek protection in France. Ferdin;uul then, obtained jxissession of all that part of Js'avarre which lay beyond the Py- renees. Twelve years before tliat time Ferdinand had, by the treaty of tirenada, plainied with Louis XII. the concpiest of the kingdom of Naples. Frederic of Arragon was then dejirived of that kingdom, and Ins states were divided between the two allied kings ; but Ferdinand having soon (luarrelled with Louis XII. as to their respective boundaries, this was made a pretext for expelling the French from Naples, which was again united to the Siianish monarchy, in the years ISOU and 150.5. Charles V, of Austria, grandson of Ferdinaiul, and his successor in the Siianish monarchy, added to that crown the l,ow Countries and Franche- (Jonite, which he iidierited in right of ids father, l'hili|) of Austria, and Ins grandmoflun- Mary of Hurgundy. He added likewise the kingdoms of !Mi'xico and Peru, on the continent of America, and the duchy of Milan in Italy, in which he in- vested his son Philip, after having rejicatedly ex- pelled the French in the years 1522 and 1525. 'i'liese were all tlu! advantages he derived from his wars against Francis L, which occn]iicd the greater part of his reign. HIinded by his animosity against that prince, and liy his ruling passion for war, he only exiiausted his kingdom and impaired his true greatness. Charles resigned tiie Spanish monarchy to his son Philip 11. , which then com- ]»reheniled the IjOW (Jountries, the kingdoms of Naples, Sii.'ily and Sardinia, the duchy of Milan, and till" Sjianish jiossessions in America. The |)eace of Chilean (Jamliresis, which Philip H. signed in I55i>, aftera long war against France, may be regarded as the era of S|)anisli greatness. To the stales which were left him by his father, Philip added Ihi! kingdom of P(u-tugal, with the Portu- guese possessions in Africa, Asia, and America ; but this was the termination of his prnspcritv, i His reign after that was only a succession if misfortunes. His revolting desiiotisin excited ||,, Helgiaiis to insurrecticni, and gave birth t(i il,,. republic of the United I'rovinces. Llizalictli „.■ Fugland having joined with the confederates (.|'ii,j Low Countries, Phili]), out of revenge, e(iuip|Hili formidable fleet, known by the name of tlio h. vhiciblv ArnKula, whicii was composed ui ]:^ vessels of enormous size, manned witii 'H\\Hi soldiers, exclusive of sailors, and armed witli lljuii jiieces of cannon. On entering the chamulilnv were defeated by the English (21st of July, l•")^^i, and the greater part of them destroyed by a sliiro, F'rom this calandty may be dated the dccliiii'i,f| the Spanish numarchy, which was exhausted its expensive wars. Philip, at his death, iefi enormous debt, and the whole ghu'y of tlioS|a. I insh nation perished with him. The reigns (if ij, feeble successors are oidy renuirkable lor tluiri disasters. Philip HI. did irreparable injury to !.;J crown by the exjudsicui of the Moors or Munsci, ( 11)10), which lost S|)ain nearly a million (itli(:| industrious subjects. Nothing can etpial thi' mi-. fortunes which she experienced under the rei^'infl I'hillp l\. During the war which he had tu m;;,. ])ort against France, the Ciitalaus revolleil, u ; jiut themselves under the protection of that irmvi| (KMO). I'lncouraged by then- example, the I'l.r.l tuguese likewise shook ott' the yoke, and iciijimjl the House of Hraganza on their throne. LumK, the Neapolitans, harassed by the Duke d'()li\:iri';,| ]irime minister of Philii) IV., revolted, and ;ii.[ temiited to f(U'm themselves into a republic (liilii. These reverses on the part of Sjiain added toilitl number of her enemies. The iamous Croiiiwiii, having entered into an alliance with F'rance (lii.'i.'ii, dispossessed the Spaniards of Jamaica, one ol'tlni; richest settlements in America. Towards the end of the Kl'teenlh centur\, l'.r| tugal had readied a high pitch of elevation, wl, she owed to the astonishing jirogress of hi r ii:.ii.| gation and her commerce. John II., whose lln first doubled the Cape of tiood Hoiie, augineiii.iil the royal ai'thorify, by bumbling the exorliii:; and tyrannical power of the gramlecs. In the ilwl which was assembled at Kvora, he retracted t!i-| concessions which his preilecessurs had mtide t:| the nobles, to the prejudice of the crown abolished the ]iower of life and death, wliieli Ihtl lords exercised over their vassals, and sulijeili! tiieir wns and their tenitories to the jurisdiiliil of (dHcers appointed by the king. Th(^ uuliliir who were displeased ;it these innovations, li;niii.'| combined in defence of their iirivileges, and the Duke of Hraganza for thidr leader, .lilinj without being disconcerted by this oppositimi, the Duke brought to a trial, and his head cntnlfJ while his brother was banged in elHgy. Thi-ivl ample of severity intimidated the grandees, aiij made them sul)uat to his authority. Tli"' uv brilliant era of I'ortugal was that of Emauiulaisli John III., who reigned between the years llii'l and 1557. It was under these two princes that I Portuguese formed their powerful empire in liiilii,| of which nothing now remains but the ruins. The ghu-y of Portugal suttered an eclipsi' iiiiilftl the feeble reign of Sebastian, grandson imd iiiuiici diate successor of Jidin, That prince, who eiiiH'j to the throne at the age of three jears, had husl Si'liiLstinii of I'ortiignl. riiilil' II. ciiminers I'or- rERIOI) YI. A.D. U5:J— 104S. Dutch (:uii(|iu'sts ill the Ka>t liiilies. •loliii IV. ol PortiiKiil. 09 Ibrouglit up by the Jesuits, who, iiistciul of in- IstriictinK lii'" i" ^''c; iiiiiKirtiiut ails of goverunicnt, lliiid "-ivi'ii him the i'iliicatii)ii of ii moiiii. Thi-y Biiitl inspiiTcl him with a dislittf for matrimony, but with a docidcd attachment for the crusadea, Miiloy Mahonu't, Kinj,' of Morocco, having re- niicstt'il liis assistance a)iir>), under the conduct of Cornelius Houtman and :Molinaar, in order to seek, at the fountainbead, those commodities which were refused them in Portugal. Mo sooner had they attempted to form settlements in India than the Portuguese determined to prevent them, and fought with them, near Uantam, a town in Java, a naval battle, which ended in favour of the con- federates. Encouraged by this first success, tin Dutcli un- dertook to deprive tlu' Portuguese of their princijii-I liossessions in India. The comiuest which tliey made of the Moluccas procured them llie siiice trade. They likewise formed settlements in the island of Java, where they founded the city of I5a- tavia, which became the capital and emporium of their settlements in India. At length (ioa and Diu were the only places that remained to the Portu- guese of their numerous possessions in India. These important losses greatly exasperated the Portuguese against the Spaniards. ■\Vliat added still more to their resentment was, that in the court of Madrid they saw a premeditated design to make vassals of the Portuguese ; and to cut olf the most likely means of enabling them, sooner or later, to recover tlieir ancient independence. It was with this view that their army and their marine were disoigaiiized, their crown revenues dissipated, their nobility precluded from the ma- nagement of affairs, and the natiini exhausted by exorbitant assessments. The revolt of the Catalans, which happened in H>4(), at length determined the Portuguese to shake otf the Spanish yoke. A conspiracy was entered into by some of the grandees, in concert with the Duke of Hraganza, which broke out on the 1st December that same year. On that day, at eight ()'( lock in the morning, the conspirators, to the number of about 4tK>, repaired by dilferent routes to the jialaee of Lisbon, where the vice- tiueeu, Margari ; of Savoy, and dowager of Mantua, resided, with V'asconeellos the secretary of state, who exercised the functions of prime minister of the kingdom. Part of them disarmed the guard of the jialace, while others seized Vasconcellos, who was the only victim that fell a sacriHce to the public vengeance. They secured the person of the vic(!-(pieen, and took measures to protect her from insult or violence. The conspirators then proclaimed the Duke of Braganza king, under the title of John IV. That prince arrived at Lisbon on th'.' .'Ith December, and his inauguration took jilact on !he loth. It is not a little surprising that this I'evolulioii became general in eight days time, and that it was not confined merel;- to Portugal, but extended even to India and Africa, l^very- wliere the Portuguese expelled the Sjianiards, and proclaimed the Uuke of Hraganza. The city of Ceuta in Africa war the only town which the Spaniards foiuid means to retain jiossession of. John IV. was descended in a direct lino from Alphonso, natural son of John the Uastard, who was created Duke of Hraganza. The first care of this new king of Portugal, on his accession to the throne, was to convene an assembly of the states at Lisbon, in order to make them acknowledge his right to the crown. The states, conformably to the fundamental laws of the kingdom, declared that Catherine, daughter of the infant Don Edward, II 2 ; I H.MiivVII. Hcur> VIII. 100 Tlii^ ({criirnint 11111. CriiiiiiRT iircliliislmi). KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Tlie Six Articles. IMwiird VI. Miii-y I. I'orsociilinii iiiiil i^raudmother of Kiii;^ .Tolui, having bocome tho true and li-;^ltiiiiato lii'ircss to the tliruiiu on the deatli of lloiiry tlie Cardinal, her jframlsou Joliu IV". was fntitled to the repossession of those riijlits of wiiic'h that princess had been unjustly de- prived by the Spaniards. The better to establish himself on the throne, John concluded treaties of peace with France, the United I'rovinces, the Netherliinds, and Sweden ; but eoutining his whole ambition to the maintainini; the ancient limits of the kinf,'dom,hc remained completely inactive with rei^ard to Spain, which being overpowered by nu- merous enemies, was finite incapable of eun-ying on the war with vigour against Portugal. The truce and alliance which that prince had entered into with the Dutch, did not prevent these repub- licans from continuing their coniiuests in India ; •where, in process of time, tliey stript the Portuguese of their liuest settlements. England, long before this time, had emerged from the state . i' turbulence and desolation into which she hai' lieen plunged by tiie destructive wars of the fvo Koses. A new family, that of the Tudors, had mounted the ihrone; Jlenry VII., who was its founder, claimed the crown in right of bis mother ilargarct Beaufort, alleged heiress of the house of Lancaster, or the IJed Hose; and raised an insurrection against Richard 111., tlie last king of the house of York. This prince being de- feated and slain at tlie battle of lloswortli (148')), Henry, who was then iiroclainied King of Eng- land, united the titles or claims of the two Roses, by his marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Ed- ward I'>'., and heiress of York, or the AVhite Rose. The country being thus restored to tran- ijuillity after thirty years of civil war, everything assumed a more prosjierous appearance. Agricul- ture and commerce began to flourish anew. Henry applied himself to the restoration of order and in- dustry. He humbled the factious nobles, and raised the royal authority almost to a state of abso- lute despotism. The reformation of religion in England began in the reign of his son Henry Vlll. That prince, who was of a very capricious character, vacillating continually between virtue and vice, apjieared at first as tlie champion of jiopery, and published a treatise against Luther, which procured him, from tlie court of Rome, the title of Defender of the Faith. Hut a violent passion, which he had con- ceived for Anne Uoleyn, having induced him to attempt a divorce from Catherine of Arragon, daughter of Ferdinand the Catholic, he addressed himself for this iiurpose to Pope Clement VII., allei;ing certain scruples of conscience which he felt on account of his marriage with Catherine, who was within the degrees of alHnity prohibited in the sacred Scriptures. The Pope beir.g afraid to displease the Emperor Charles V., who .vas the ne])liew of Catherine, thought proper to defer judgment in this matter; but the King, impaciein, of delay, caused his divorce to be pronounced by Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (ir);i2), and immediately married Anne Holeyn. The sentence of the Archbishop was annulled by the Pope, wlio published a threatening bull against Henry. This incensed the King, who eai'sed the Pajial authority in England to be abrogated bj the jiarliament, and installed himself in the capacity of supreme head of the English church (1534) ; a title which was conferred on liini by the elergj, aiii! confirmed by the parliament. He also inti(iiluc,.,| the oath of supremacy, in virtue of which all iv|,,, were employed in oitiees of trust, were obli^'^'(l ij acknowledge him as head of the church. A cnutt of high commission was establislied, to jud^rj ecclesiastical causes in name of the king, and from whose sentence there was no appeal. Tiu- ion. vents or monasteries were suppressed, ami \\\^\, revenues confiscated to the crown (15:11;. l,);)Oj, Henry even becamv' a dogmatist in theolo;;y ; n,,] discarding the principles of Luther, as well as thn-e of Calvin and Rome, he framed a religion acconiini to his own fancy. Rejecting the woisliip n; images, relics, jiurgatory, monastic vows, aiul \\> supremacy of the Pope, he gave his sanctlim, It the law of the Six Articles, to the docf riue of t!.' real presence, the communion in one kind.tliL'viiirl of chastity, the celibacy of the priests, tlic nia- and auricular confession; inflicting very sovirji penalties on all who should deny or disobey ouh « | other of tliesc articles. This moiiiircii, who was the iirst of the Eii.'li'- kings that took the title of King of Ireli'ud (l.ilj, was involved in the disputes which then ciiiliDil.il the continental powers ; but instead of hiildiii; tl: balance between France and Austria, he adlitn;) in general to bis friend and ally Charles V. a;,Mk[ France. This conduct was regulated li politics than by jiassion, and the jiersonal iiitoriyl of his minister Cardinal Wolsey, whom tlic ibI peror had attached to his cause, by the lioiie ufth:! pajial tiara. The religion which Henry had planted in Eiijl land did not continue after his death. Eilwal VI., his son and immediate successor, iiitrmlucv; pure Calvinism or Presbyterianism. Mary, iliiii.''.! ter of Henry VIII., by Catherine of Aniiu'on, si her accession to the throne, restored the (';ithvL;[ religion (15")3), ami likewise received tlu' ini legate of the Pope into England. Slie iiiHici«| great cruelties on the Protestants, many of wh : were burnt at the stake ; among others, ('niuny Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Bishops uf L:| don and Worcester. With the view of ninretirs. establishing the (-'atholie religion in her ilnK.-! nions, she espoused Philip, presumptive luirlinrJ Spanish, monarchy (15."i4). The restrict Iihk witil which the English parliament fettered hiscdiiti: of marriage with the Queen, so disiilcasd lh£| prince, that, finding himself without piiwer a authority, he speedily withdrew from Enu'lsri- iNlary's reign lasted only Hve years : she «;is ^ ceeded by her sister Elizabeth (1358), duiiu'liti Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn. This priiici'^ once more abrogated the authority of tlu' and claimed to herself the supreme administniii.cj both spiritual and temporal, within her kiiii;' Though she adopted the Calvi'-istic priiuiiil everything regarding the doctrines of the t'lm.t!J she retauied many of the Romish ccrcmonis and the government of bishops. It was tlii< lb gave rise to the distinction between the 7i«(///> Hiyli Church, and the Culvinistic or i'/'ti!| tcriaii. About the time when the High Cluircii |al rose in England, a change of religion took placd Scotland, protected by Queen Elizabetli. regency of that kingdom was then vested in' Queen-dowager, Mai'y of Lorraine, the widow j llci„'n 111' Eliziil Miirv (^ic-oii of I'Vnils in Irolnii James v., and mo ticotland and Fn iriiided solely by t Lerraiuc, had intr J to repress the folio I liad forineil a new I i'otujrvijiition. Tl I iiialecnntents, win I under a foreign yo I ing for assistance t {was by no means liradily foresaw, tli liiiasler of Scotland, I.Maiy's claims to tl |]iaitly on the assun JA ((iiisiderable ni Itlii'ii inarched to S [jiiiictiiin with the g |sif;'i'd the French llidiuhurgh. The Iraiiitulatc. By the jthi' I'iciich and Er l^ciitland ; Francis ivit'e Mary Stuart, v Iniins of the sovereig Essumcd ; wliile a ]; III Kdiiihurgh for th Tlie parliament 1 llic Ciinti'ssion of Fi py tlu' I'nsliyterian ■viirsliip was introd liamciit even wei fciriso (if the Cathol iiT return to Scotlai liiT luishand Franeifi 1 tlu'se changes ; has allowed the libc ■tliiclicil tl) licr com kas afterwards aecu liiialiim of Henry 1) liid lieing obliged llultcr in England ( lud imprisoned by I'lcr a captivity ot Jfiici'd to death, an (•'iS7), as an acconii lad liecn formed i lelalive. The troubles whii iid excited in Scotl;: kind of corru))t Iriginally in that isl Icpii aide to extirjiat Vho were vassals of \v laws of England, ' whole country ; bs ill the hands of Bllioiifrh they ackno\ Instlisli kings, jireser fcid niauncrs of thei lined to seize v\v.r\ h I'lnglish yoke, wli jwitiiined series of v fi' Irish themselves, jti tiieir part had no li'ir possessions at llio kings of ICnghin lolii'y, for several ci jiiirccs in perpctua Irauce, somethnes a l!ci„'ii 1)1' Eliziilii'tli. M;iry (inct'ii of Scuta. IVmls in IrulniiU. TEUIOD VI. A.D. 1453—1048. Iloliflliiin of O'Neill. Till' Kiinlisli Niuv. Sir I'.Diiike. .sir\V.KiiUM;4h. 101 I junics v., ami mother of Mary Stuart, Quofii of j jicdtland and Franco. Tliat jjrinccss, -wlio was i;iiiil'-''l sololy liy the councils of lier brothers of Liirrainc, liail introduced a body of French troops li) repress the foUowerH of the new doctrines, who liiiil foriiu'd a new league, under the name of the It'mniriv'itiou, These, reinforced by the (.'atholie IniaU'coutcnts, wlio were aijprehensive of falling hauler a foreign yoke, took the resolution of apply- I i,,,, for assistance to the Knglish ([ueen, which it [was l)v no means dithcult to obtain. Elizabeth lieatlilv foresaw, that so soon as Francis became |,„;,s|e'r of Scotland, he would attempt to enforce iMarv's claims to the throne of England, grounded iiaitl'v on the assumption of her being illegitimate. Ja cousiilerable number of English troops A\ere Itiu'ii marched to Scotland, and having formed a iuiK'tion with the Scottish malecontents, they be- Ifie^'oil the French in the town of Leith, near llliiiiihurgii. The latter were soon obliged to Irapitulatc. By the articles signed at Leith (lodO), Itlie I'iciich anil English troops were to evacuate? Isccitland; Francis II., King of France, and his hvife Mary Stuart, were to renounce the titles and (irms of the sovereigns of England, which tliey had sunieil ; while a parliament was to be assembled kt Kiilnliurgh for the pacification of the kingdom. Tin' parliament which met foou sifter, ratified II' Ctiul'ession of Faith, drawn up and presented bv till' I'lesliyterian ministers. The Presbyterian livor'^liip was introduced into Scotland ; and the piuliiinieiil even went so far as to prohibit the ex- ticise (if the Catholic religion. Mary Stuart, on Lr return to Scotland (l;jt>l), after the death of lii'v iiushand Francis, was (1)1 iged to accpiiesce in I tlicse changes ; and it vv is with difficulty she i\;is allowed the liberty of having a Catholic cha])el Ittiiclied to her court. This unfortunate princess k;is afterwards accused of having caused the assas- liiKil ion of Henry Darnley, her second husliaiid ; 111(1 being obliged to fly the country, she took llii'lter in Tiigland (l.")(iH), where she was arrested liiil imprisoned by order of (iueen Eli/abeth. llU'i- a captivity of nineteen years she was sen- diced to death, and beheaded (IHth February, l.'iS"), as an accomplice in the diirerent plots which Jail been formed against the life of her royal liitivc. The troubles which the reformation ' army. The rebels, however, ultimately failed in their enterprise, after a sanguinary war which lasted seven years, ('harles, Lord Mountjoy, governor of Ireland, drove the insurgents to their last recesses, and had the glory of achieving the enti'- reduction of the isliiiid.' The maritime greatness of England began in the reign of Elizabeth. That jirincess gave new vigour to industry and commerce ; and her ell'orts were seconded by the perseculing zeal of the French and Spanish i;overnments. The numerous re- fugees from France and the Netherlands found a ready asylum in F.ngland, under the protection of Klizabetli ; and her kingiK;m became, as it were, the retreat and principal i-esidence of their arts and manufactures. She encoiiragi'd and protected na- vigation, which the English, by degrees, extended to all parts of the globe. An I'higlishman, naiiii'd Richard (.'hancellor, having discovered the route to Archangel in the Icy Sea (l.").").)), the Czar, .lolin Ilasilovitz II., granted to an English company the exclusive privilege of trading with Russia (l.")()!)). The commerce of the English with Turkey and the Levant, which began in 1")7'.), was likewise mono- polized by a company of merchants. Sir Francis Drake, a distinguished navigator, and the rival of .Magellan, was the first Englisliman that performed a voyage round the world, between 1577 and 1580. The intercourse between England and the East Indies began in 15!tl ; and the East India (.'ompany was instituted in 1000. Attempts were also made, about the same time, to form settle- ments in North America; and Sir "Walter Ralei!,di, who had obtain-'d a charter from the Queen ( 1 5S4 ), endeavoured to found a colony in that part of the I Acci'ssiou i>r .fanu'H 1> 102 Iti'iijiiiil'Cliiirli's I. StmlVoril mill l^iml. KOCH'S UEVOLl TIONS. Aiiii'rii'iiu contiupiit, now callod Viri^inin, in coiii- |iliiiu'Ut to Eliziilx'tli. Tliiit colony, howi'vi'r, did not, ])roi)i'rly spciikinfr, tako root or llourish till till' r('ii;n ot'.Jiiiiirs 1. Tlio coniiictitiou with Spain, and the dt'Rlruction of the Invini;ible Annmlii of I'lulip II., by the conihiiiLMl Hocis of Euf^hmd and llolhmd, ffini- a new ener^jy to tlu Kn>;lish marine, the value of whieli they had learned to ajipreeiate, not merely in guarding the indej)endenco of tin' kin>;(lom, but in seeuriiii,' the prosperity of their eonnneree and navigation. Tile House of Tudor ended with Queen Eliza- beth (KiOU), after havinir oceuiiicd the throne of Knf.'hinil about IIH years. It was replaced by that of (Stuart. James VI., Kinjj of Scotland, son of Mary Stuart and Henry Darnley, succeeded to tlie throne of En>,'land, and took the title of Kin;,' of tJreal Kritain, which his successors still retain. Tl.is prince derived his rij,'ht to tlie crown from the marriaifc of his jjreat firandmother, .Marijaret Tudor, daui,'hter of J^ellry VU., with James IV. of Scotland. Vain of his new elevation, and fond of prero;j;ative, James constantly occupied himself with projects for au^rmentim; his royal power and authority in England ; and by ins tilling these ])rin- ciples into his s(Ui, he became the tru(! architect of all the subsciiueiil misfortunes of liis house. Charles I., the son and successor of Janu'S (Ki'Jo), seldom convened the I'arlianient ; and when they did assembhs he provoked them by the measines be projiosed, and was then oblifred to dissolve them. IJeing entirely guided by his ministers. Laud, Archbishop of I'anterbury, the Earls of Slratt'ord ami Hamilton, and his (|ueen, Henrietta of France, be ventured to lev\ taxes and impositions without the advice of Parliament. This conduct on the |iart of the king i)roduced a gen<'ral discontent. The flames of civil war began to kindle in Scotland, where Charles had intro- duced E|'iscopacy, as more favourable than I'resby- terianisni to royalty, lint tiie Scottish nobility having formed a confederacy, known by the name, of the (Juri naiit, for the maintenance of their eccle- siastical liberties, abolished Episcopacy ( ItiltH), and sid)se(iuently took up arms against the king. The ParliauK'nt of England, under such circumstances, rose also against Charles (Hi41), and piissed an act that tliey should not be dissolved without jire- viously obtaining redress for the complaints of the nation. This act, which deiirived the king of his jirincipal prerogative, proved fatal to the royal dignity. A trial was instituted by the Parliament against the king's ministers. The Earl of StraH'ord and Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, were ht- lieaded (l(i40— l(i42) ; and Charles had the weak- ness to sign the death-warrant of his faithful servants The Presbyterians soon became the prevailing l)arty, and excluded the bishops from the Upper House. The management of afl'airs fell then into the hands of the Ho\ise of Commons ; Episcopacy were abolished ; and the Parliament of England acceded to the Scottish C'ovenant. War now broke out between the king and the Parliament ; a battle was fought near York, in which the latter was victorious (l(!44). Charles, seeing his allUirs ruined, took the determination to throw himself into the arms of the Scots (I(i4G), who, lie sup- posed, might still retain an affection for the race of their ancient kings. He soon found reason, Till' I'lirlinnii'iit. (:i^il\Vll^. Deillll (it'CliiuWa I, {■ liowcvrr, to repent of this step ; the Scots ^\\,\^^^^^ hesitate to sell him to the English Parliaiiicut i;, , a sum of £40t),0()0 sterling, v\liich tliej i,,,,,,,, necessary for the jiaynient of their troops. A new revolution, which soon after liii|m|.|,i,i in the Parliament, completed the ruin of the y,,,' The Presbyterians, or Puritans, who iiml ,„"] jiresscd the Episcopalians, were cruslieil, in ||,,,j turn, by the Indeiiendents. These latter wen- , sort of fanatics, who admitted no subiiriliii:iii,i|, | wliatc^ver in tin; church, entertained a inii'ni liorror for royalty, and were inclined for a rijiul,. lican or democratic form of giivernini'iil. '||,, head and soul of this faction w.'.i the faniiiiis Olii,, Cromwell, who, with great dexterity, luaiic ii ;,j i engine for raising himself to the sovcrfi;;ii ;,j. thority. The whole power of the Legislatuii' i,\, entirely into the hands of the Independent pariv who, by one act, expelled sixty members fnnii i!,. House of Commons. The Parliament, UDwidu. | jiletely under their dominion, appointed ii cihu. mission of l.'it) jiersons, whom they vested \\i|i| jiower to try the king. In vain did tiio r|i|i(r| House ojipose this resolution; in vain iliil it, [ king object to the Judges named h^ the lluii.i. tli(^ commission |iroceeiled, and ]iroiioiiiiriii il,, I famous sentence, by virtue of which ('harks ut,| beheaded on the ItDlli of January, Hi4'.l, | family were disjiersed, and saved tlicinsehc< I Might. The revolutions in the North of Europe, iiiuuM the jieriod of which we now sjieak, were iiotltsl imiiortaiit than those which agitated the Wotji:;; the Soutii. I liese arose cbietly from tiie d'l-^.k-l tion of the I nion of (,'almar, and the reroniialiiJ in religion ; both of which bajipened aliiiut t!:>| beginning of the sixteenth century. The Liiif,i of (!aliiiar, between the three kingdoms of ikel North, had been renewed several times; hut. Iiiii,;| badly ceiiiented from the first, it was at an." irreparably broken by Sweden. This latter kiiij.| dom had been distracted by intestine feuds, nn.l sioncd by the ambition and Jealousy of tiie imlile-.l wlii'-h continued during the whole reign ofClniir.! VIII. , of the House of Honde. After tlu'lnii. of that prince (1470), the Swedes, witliiiiit rcJ nounciiig the [Tnion, had regularly ajipoiiitivl «! administrators of the kingdom, from the year Hll till 1.520, three individuals of the family of Stim.l viz. Steiio Sture, called the O/d, Suante Stureaid| Steiio Sture, called the Voinii/. Meantime Joim, Iving of Denmark, anil sun u (Christian I., had governed the three kiiniloiriil since 14it7, when Steno Sture tlie ehler liail re-| signed, until 1501, when he resumed the iulmiiii-l stration. At length, however, Christian II., »ii of John, made war on Steno Sture, surnaiiiwllht Young, with a view to enforce the claims wiiiclil he derived from the act of union. Being victorioiiil at the battle of Dogesund, wliore Sture lost liislif(|[ he succeeded in making himself acknowleiljiedlifl the Swedes as king, and was crowned at Stock- [ holm (1520). Within a short timi; after tliiscfr(.| mony, he violated the amnesty which he ])ublicly announced ; and to gratify the revenut' of I Giistavus TroUe, Archbishop of Upsal, whom thel Swedes had deposed, he caused ninety-four of tli!l most distinguished ]iersonage8 in the kingdnm lol be arrested, and publicly beheaded at Stocklioliii. This massacre caused a revolution, by whidl S«i'ili*li IiiiloiN'iicU'niM'. (iiisliiviiM Viwa. l«rii:{ri'»H()l till" Ueforniiilioii. PERIOD VI. A.D. 1453— KitH. Ildiisc iil'Oldoiiliiir^'. .MVairs iiC llrniiiiirk. IliiKcs III' lliiUti!iii-th)tti)rii. io;i iSwi'ilcii rccnvrrpd its ancient Ktiitc of indrpcnd IciHC. (Ju^tiiviis ViiNii put liiiuHclf lit tlic licnil oi ■till' Diili'i'iirliiinH, iinihitious to hcconu- tlio liljcnitor lif his couiitry (l.")'.»l). Hi> w:is ilccliiri>il Regent, Iniiil two yi'iiis lifter, Kilij,' of Sweden ( 15"i;i). Tlio ,.\iiiiiiili' of the Swedes wn^ «non followed by the Ihiii's. "ho, indiifniiut nt the excesses iind cruelties |(if Clirisliiiu II., de|)r)sed him, and conferred their L,i\vn oil Ficileric, l)uke of Holstein, iind piiternid himlc to thiit priiiei', ('liristiiin, after haviii),' loiuf hviuiileii'd iihoiit the Low t'omitries, was made (irhdiiir hy the Danes, and reinuiiied in captivity ||ii' ri'st of his days. The Kinj^s of Deiiniark i;i\iii;,' renewed, from time to time, their i)reteii- llmis to the Swedish throne, and still continued lit' three crowns on their escutcheon, several wars priikt' out oil this subject between the two nations ; iiiiil it was not till the jieace of Stettin (1570), IJKit the Danes acknowledged tlie entire indepeiid- Jiur of Sweden. Dcniiiiiik then lost the nscemlancy which she |i;iil so I'liii: inaintaincit in the North. The f(n- ti'iiimeiit of the kiiiffdom underwent a radical |b;iii:,'t'. A corrn])t aristocracy rose on tlie ruins \( till' natioiud liberty. The senate, composed Hilly of the nobles, usurped all authority ; they Bvirriilid the election of the kin>,'s, and ai)])ro- hii.'iti'il to themselves the powers of the States- Iciioriil, which they had not convoked since 15H() ; Bicy encroached even on the royal authority, wliich Fiis curtailed more and more every day ; while the »r(Miiit:itives of the nobility were extended by the •(Hiilitioiis which the senate prescribed to the kiuifs )n tliiir accession to the crown. The reformation ■ rciiiiioii took place in Denmark, in the rciffu of iiik'iic I., the successor of Christian II. That Iriiici' employed nn eloquent preacher, named .lohn riuscii, and several other disciples of Luther, to Iriimulijiite tlie I'rotestant doctrines in his kiuff- loiii. Ill 11 diet held at Odcnseo (15'i7). the kini; bikIi' !1 public profession of the new faith ; and, in |iiti' of till' remonstrances of the bishops, he passed ilocrt'c, ill virtue of which liberty of conscience tiis pstnhlished, and permission granted to the ■rii'sts and monks to marry. These articles were piii'WC'l ill another diet, assembled at Copenhagen lilO) ; where the king ratified the Confession of liiilh pnsi'iited to liiin by the I'rotestant ministers, linihir to what had taken place the same year Pt ■ Dli't of Augsburg. At length Christian III., who was elected in l.i:U, liiiiiiirht these changes in religion to a dose. rill' liisluijis, during the last interregnum, had done Kviyiliiiig to stoj) the progress of the Reformation. ' king, desirous of annih'dating their temporal |(n\i'r, colluded with the principal nobility to have till' bishops in the kingdom arrested ; and laving then assembled a meeting of the States at |i>|H'iiliageii, he abolished Episcopacy, and sup- vssi'il the public exercise of the Catholic religion. lit' rustles, fortresses, and vast domains of the b'latps were annexed to the crown; and the other V'licHces and revenues of the clergy were appro- jriiitcil to the support of the ministei-s of religion, [iililic schools, and the poor. The monks and piiis were left at liberty, either to cpiit their con- pnts, or remain there during their lives. The sli(i|is were replaced by suiierinteudents, the niiiiiiiition of whom was vested in the king ; fli'lu ' h congregation retained the privilege of choosing its own pastors. I'rom Denmark this revolution passed to NorAvay, which at that time, on account of lia\iiig joiiic ' 'hc^ party of Christiiin II., who was deposed by t anes, lost its inde- jiendence, and was decliireu ii province of the kingdom of Denmark. The House of Oldenluirg, which hud occupii'd the throne of Denmark since 141H, was separated in the reign of (^'hristian 111. into two jiuwerful branches, viz. the royal, descended from that prince; and the family of Holstein-(iottorp, de- scended from his brother, the Duke Aiiolphus. This latter branch was afterwards divided into tbre(> others, vi/. those of Russia, SwediMi, and Holstein-Oldenburg. As the law of primogeniture was not established in the duchies of Sleswick and Holstein, which had fallen into'the suceession of the House of Oldenliurg, the Kings of Denmark soon found themselves under llu^ necessity of divid- ing these duchies ammig the younger princes of their family. The treaty of partition, which was entered into (1544) between Christian III. and his brother, had been jireeeded by a treaty of ])er- jietual union, annexing these duchies to the king- dom, and intended to preserve the throne, which was elective, in the House of t)ldenburg; as well as to jirevent any portion of these two duchies from fulling into the possession of strangers. The union was to endure as long as the descendants of Frederic I. reigned in Denmark. They pro- mised to settle, by arbitration, whatever did'erences might arise between the states of the unimi ; to allord each otiier mutual succour against every external enemy ; and to undertake no war but by common consent. The treaty of 1544, wliicli regulated this par- tition, made several exce|)tions of mitfiers that were to be maiiageil and administered in common ; such as the customs, jurisdiction over the nobles, the bishops, and certain cities. This gave rise to a sort of copartnershij) of jiower, c(Mnmon to all the princes of the union. Everything regarding either the general safety as? stipulated in the treaty, or the exercise of these jirivileges included in the exeepticms, was to be discussed and settled by unanimous consent ; and for this purpose a coun- cil of regency, an excheijuer, and common courts were established. This union and community of rights were followed, as a natural conseipience, by long and destructive feuds between the Kings of Denmark and the Dukes of Holsteiii-(iottorp, in which the other powers of the North were also implicated. Christian IV., grandson of Christiiin III., was distinguished not more by the superiority of his talents, than by the indefatigable zeal with which he applied himself to every department of the administration (15HS). It was in his reign that the Danes extended their commerce as far as India. He founded the first Danish East India Company (Kill)), who formed a settlement in Tranciuebar, on the Coromandel coast, which had been ceded to them by the Rajah of Taiijore. Various manu- factories of silk stuffs, jiaper, and arms, were con- structed, and several towns built under the auspices of (!hristiaii IV. The sciences were also much indebted to him ; he gave a new lustre to the I'niversity of Copenhagen, and founded the Aca- demy of Soroe in Zealand, besides a number of colleges. If he was unsuccessful in his wars " I ('Iii'i»liiiii IV. of DiMiiiiark. 10 t Hri'.'ii ul' Uii^liiviiK Vasii. liiilliLTiin rrliKiiiii, KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. SwccUsti rt'fi)riiis. (illstaMI.4 Allllljllius. IliiUlii III' l.iily,i'n. ii),'iiiiiNl Sw('(li-n mill Aiislriii, it nmst lie nsciilii'il ' III till' iiiiiriiw liinitH of liis ]n)\vri', to llii- inltiirmi! lit' till' aiistorialii' ft]iiiit, iiiiil of tlio I'ruilal rr^iim' ] wliirli still ]iri'Viiili>il in Di'iiiiuirk. llo Kurci'rtlrd, j linui'vi'r, in ixriutlinf,' tho Swc'iIih IVoni •■ii'ri>s to | till- Irv Si'ii, uliirli iiju'iu'il tlii'ni » wiiy to tiiu j I'oiists 111' ljii|)liintl, liy iilitiiinin^j jMishcssiim, ut tliu )ii'iiri' of Sioruil (KUIJ), of that iiart iif Li\])lanil \\liirli rxtiiiils alon^,' tin? Noillii'in anil Iry Si'ns, I'liini 'i'itislioril to 'Wnranifrr anil 'NVaitlluijs. Tlii' ilispiiti's i'oni'i.'rnin(j; tin- three rri)A\ns Avcru si'tlluil liv tlu> same treaty, in surli a way that both sovi'- ri'iuns uiTi- ju'iinitti'il to use them, without author- i/.iuLT the Kiuf,' of Deniiiaik to lay any elaini to the Sweilish erown. Swetlun, \Uiieh had Ion;,' ninintnincd n stvnijfrlc against Denmark, at leii},'th aeiniireil sneli a jire- jioniliranee over her as to threaten, more than onee, the entire suliversiou ol' the throne. This jneponderanee was the iieliievemenf of two irreat men, who rose in the period we no^,• speak of, viz. (iiistavus A'as:i, anil his {irandsir.i, liustavus Ailiilpluis. Ciustavus Vasii was no', merely tlie liberator, but the restorer of his eoe.iitry. Elevated to the throne by the free ehoiec of the nation, he ira\e Sweden a power and inflieneu wbiih it never had before. I'^verythini,' unile • him assumed a new aspeit, till' itovirnment. the nligion, tlie tinanees, the eomnieree, the ai^rirultiire, t'le sciences, and the morals of the Swedes. Instead o'' the assem- blies of the nobles, formerly in use, and destructive of the national liberty, he substituted diets com- piiseil of tlie ditl'erent orders of the state, the notiility, the elerjry, the citizens, and the peasantry. l!y this means he acquired a new intiuence, of which he took iulvanta^'e to hmiible the ]iower of the chmch and the nobles, which had lon^' been a source of oppression to Sweden. 'i'l;e reformation of reli>;ion, which then occnj'ied every mind, aiijeared to Ciustavus a very jiroper expedient to second his views, and introduce a better order of tbinirs. On his accession to the throne, lie authorized the two brothers Oh'us and Laurentins I'etri to preach publicly at Stockliolm the doctrines of Euther, and did everything in his ]iower to iiccelerate the j.roifress of the lieforma- tioii in his kinf,'dom. The hisliojis, who were ajipiehensive for their beiielices and their authority, having; drawn the f;reater part of the nobility over to their interest, the kin;;, in the jiresence of a diet of the four orders assembled at ^Vesteras, took the determination of formally abdicatinu; the crown. This stc]) threw the diet into si state of consternation, and encouraged the two lower orders, the citizens and jieasants, to declare them- selves loudly for the kin;;. The bisho])s and nobles were obli^jed to comply ; and the kin;;, resuming; the reins of ;;overnment, succeeded in overrulini; the deliberations of the diet. Uy the aiithority of a decree, he annexed the strong; castles of the liishojis to the demesnes of the crown, and re- Ireni'hiMl from their vast possessions whatever he judi;i'd convenient. The prelates at the same time were excluded from the senate ; the ties that bound them to the court of Home were broken ; and they were enjoined henceforth to demand confirmation from tlie kin;;, and not from the Pope. The revenues of the e!er^:y in ;;eneral, and those of the convents, were left at the free disposal of the king, and the nobles were permitted to bring forward whatever claims they could addiin' („,,, hinds granted to these convents by their aiu'i'^drv 'I'here was nothing now to retard the niarili oi ,,,. foniiatiou. 'i'he Lutheran religion was iiilioiliii,,] universally into Sweilen, and that I'Miit loiun. buleil not a little to exalt the royal authorilj, tiiistavus secured the hereditary siirci's>ii,|| ,( the crown in favour of his male descendants. %, states, anxious to obviate the troubles and di.,,. ders which the demise of their kings hail dfin liroduced, regulated the succession by an act knuwn | liy the name of the Jhnditanj I'liioii, It \,), jiassed at Orehro (151t)), and ratified anew Init, states assembled at "Westeras. The L'luiiii .\i! was renewed at the Diet of Nordkiipiiiu', iiM!> reign of Charles IX. (lti()4), when the sucii>.i„;, was extendi d to females. The reign of Uustavns Adolphus, the snu ,i Charles IX., forms the brightest gem in tlii'«l.;, of Sweden. The virtues and energies i,fili,';| liriiice, the sagacity of his views, the ailniir;ilil> order which he introduced into every biiiiiiliij[| the adndiiistration, i ndeared him to his siilijuii; while his military exploits, and his siiiierimitj i:| the art of war, tixeu '.pon him the adminitimi > all Kurojie. Ciustavus hroii;;ht tlio wars, which he Imi i sustain against the diU'erent powers of the Nnri~,| to a most triumphant conclusion. Uy the luut which ho concluded at Stolbovawith Russia (liiHi, he obtained possession of all Ingria, lvi'\li(ilm,:iii;| Russian Carelia ; and even cut that Eiiipiiv iff from all communicalio.i with Europe by tlii' dui; of Finland and the Halt ic Sea. His sucl•^s^ v..| liot less brilliant in his cani])aigns against si.ii. iiiiin;! III., King of Poland, who jicrsisted iiiii*! te l) ig with him his right to the erown of Swi'ilii III- took from the Poles the whole of Liviiniii, «i:;i a part of Prussia ; and kept jiossession iif ihr- eonipiests by the six years truce which 1k' iw eluded with "the latter at Altmark (Ki'-'it). It was about this time that Sweden bcuMii i occiiliy a distinguished place among the iimuisll Euro]ie ; and that she was called on to take tel lead in the league which was to protect the |iiiiiw| and states of the Empire against the aiiiliilii'ii :! Austria. Gnstaviis, who was in alliaiu'c vilil France, undertook a task as iliiHcult as it was;!-! rious. In the short space of t .vo yiars anil ;i l.ili he overran two-thirds of (ierinany with lii-^ ^H^• rious arms. He vanipiished Tilly at the t'nii. ■ battle of Leipsic (UilU), and extended his ini,. quests from the shores of tiie Raltic to the liliu and the Danube. Everything yielded hcl'on' liinJ and every jilace ojiened its gales to him. Ibl great prince, who had made war a new art, :iK| accustomed his army to order, and a systi'iii ' tactics never before known, iierished at llie imiu rahle battle of Lutzen (ICIi-), which the Swni gained after his death, in consequence of the skiihl disiiositions he had formed. The war was continued under the minoriiyo (iueen Christina, his daughter and heir. It «3| still carried on, although the Swedes had uiiilftl tr.ken a new war against Denmarji, with tlii' vitil of disengaging themselves from the iiu'ili:ilw| which Ciuistian IV. had undertaken between m Emperor and Sweden, at the congress wliiili «i| to meet at Monster and Osnaburg. The result i" that war was completely to the iiilvantage of Sivtj (if rnisui I. rrjiioi) VI. A.i). i43:j— 1048. 'Tt iif llrnuilon • r ill. I'ljllti'l'. ^ll'lH k:'""''' '')■ •'"' I"'"'''" "'' lli<)mHl)ro (l(i4.")) liu'lri'i''!'"" of till- Sound, »h iiIho llic jHiNsoKHioii I'llii' pnninci'K iind islands of .Inniptliind, Hi'i^'c- .,1,11, (if NVcslplialia Kccurt'd to Swi'dcii coiiHidi-r- lilc piissrssioiis on the soutlii'iu coast of the Hallii: ,.;i siali iin Wisniur, lirinu'ii and \ I'lden, and ,it (il'Toincraiiia. Till' iiowi'i' of till" Teutonic kiiiifhts, wliich hnd ('(II (.'icatly reduced duriuff tlio ])rcccdini,' period, v the 'Kil'dion of a part of Prussia, was coni- \cW\\ iiMiiiliilateil in the Nortli, in constMiucnce I' ihc cliiMiiri's introduced liy llie rcforniation of lii;iim. Allierf of Hrandenburj;, i^randson of the Icitiir Alhcrt Aciiillcs, on liis elevation to the i^riiiiy of ('I'i'ud JNIaster of the Order, made an at- ,.iiilil til uitlidriiw from I'oland that fealty and ho- I'lMl the l\ni;'lils had hound tlieuiselvcH ,11^',. til which the ky the treaty of 'liioru in ll(i(). This contest fur- Vi.jietl iiiiiller for a war lietween them ; wliich lie- piii ill l")li', iiiid ended in l.i'il, by a truce e!ns; at the exjiiration of whicli the i,'rand ;i>ter, who saw (lie doctrines of lvho ms his maternal uncle, granted biiii Teutonic pnis>iii, willi the title of Duchy, as a hereditary ■('f, lietli for himself and bis male luurs, and for lis lirolliers of the House of Urandeiibur;? and fniiiroiiia, and their feudal heirs ; reserving; the i'lit iif reveision in favour of roland, failing the |i;ili' (lesceiidanls of these jiriuces Tlic Teutonic kni;;ht.s thus lost Prussia, after L\iiii,' jiossessed it for iieiirly three hundred years. itiiiiii; to their jiossessions in (iermany, they Istnlilislied their priiu'ipal residence at Merfjen- pu'iiii ill I'laneonia, wher(- they proceeded to the diiiii of a new grand master, in the person of h niter tie Cronberg. The Poles, in getting ()uit ll'tlio Teutonic knights, whom they bad regarded sitli jealousy, and substituting the House of Uran- 'iilaii'g in their place, never dreamed of adopting In enemy still more dangerous, who wfuild one lay cuucert the ruin and anniliilalion of their lllllllll'V. Iiiiiiieiliately after the treaty of Craeow, the new Duke of Prussia made a public ])rofession of the [jUllienui religion, and married a daiigbter of the iiiij; of Denmark. This princess dying vvilliout Biale issue, he married for his second wife a prin- Jc'^s ijf the lirunswick family, by whom be bad a nil, Albert Frederic, who succeeded him in the Biicliy of Prussia. The race of these new dukes bl' i'nissia (l.')(iS), as well as that of Franconia, Biiicli should have succeeded them, ai)pearing to nearly extinct, Joucbiiu 11., Kleetor of liran- luliiirg, obtained from the King of Poland the Investiture of Prussia, in tief, conjunctly with the l('i;;iiiiig dukes. This investiture, which was re- newed in favour of siiveral of Iub successors, se- fciirwl the siiccussion of that duchy in the electoral iiiiiily of Urandenburg ; to whom it devolved on Iho death of Albert Frederic (KilH), who left no piule descendants. lie was succeeded by the '.lector John Sigismund, who had been coinvested YJtli him in the duchy. That prince, who hud married Anne, eldest danirbter of Albert Frideric, obtiiiiud likewise, in right of that |)rincess, jiart of the sneeession of Julicrs, vi/.., the dueliy of Clrven, the counties of Miirck and Uavensberg, which had been adjudged to the bouse of Urandenburg, by the provisional act of partition concluded at San- ten (l(il4), and converted into a definiti\e tri'aty '\t Clevcs. The granils(ui of .lohn Sigismund, the Elector Frederic \Villiam, was a prince of superior genius, and the true foiuidi'r of the greatness of bis family, illustrious in wi'r as in peace, and re- spected by all Furoiie, ho ac(|iiire(l by the treaty of "Westphalia, a part of Pomerania, the archbisbopvic of Magdeburg under the title of a ducliy, with tbi! bishoprics of llalberstadt, iMinden, and Caiuin, under the title of priuci|ialities. His sun Frederic was the first King of Prussia. [The Teutonic knights had nearly lost Livonia at the begiuiiiiig of the sixteenth century ; but that province was saved by the courage and talents of the Provincial Master, AV'alter do Platfenbcrg. Tlu! Grand Duke Iwan, or .'obn III., having threatened Livonia v\itli an iiHMsion, Platleuberg concluded a defensive alliance at Walik (I.')!)!), with Alexander 11., (irand Duke id' Lithimnia, and the bishops of that country, .\fter having assem- bled troops to the number of 14,(100 men, be de- feated the llnssian army, which was 40,000 strong, at .Maholm,' a second victory, which he gained with the same number of troops over 100,000 Uus- sians at Pleskow- ( L')0'.i), is one of the most famous exphiits in the history of the North. Next year be concluded a truce of six years with the Livoniun order, which was afterwards renewed for fifty years. It is commonly said that Walter, the ])rovincial master, taking advantage of the distresses of the Teutonic knights, and urging the repeated suc- ciuns which he bad fiirnisbeil them against the Poles, jiurcbased from them bis own independ- ence, and that of his Order ; but a recent author (Le Comte de Hray) has shown that this was not exactly the ease. Hy a first agreement signed at Koniiigsherg (|.-)'iU), Albert of lirandenburg, who was then only Ciraiid Master of the Teutonic Or- der, eouHrmed to the knights of Livonia the free right of electing a chief of their o^^•n number, i)ro- mising to sustain the individual whom they should nominate. He secured them the possession of the whole sovereignty of Ucvel and Narva ; the coun- tries of Altenkirken, .Ferwen, and AVierland; as also the town and castle of 'Wesenberg, with their dependencies. This agreement was revived and I 'itilied by a second, signed at Ciroliin ( L'l'i.")), when it was formally stiiiulalcd, that the relations be- tween the knights of Livonia and the Teutonic order should be maintained as they were, and that the Livonians should continue to regard the tirand !M aster as their true head, and render him homage and obedience. They were forbidden to solicit from the Emperor or the Pope any privilege dero- gatory of their allegiance. It appears, conseiiuently, that Walter de Pb'.ttenberg did not purchase the indejiendence of his Order, but that he regarded those ties which existed between it and the Teu- tonic order as broken, when Albert of Uranden- burg was declared Duke of Prussia. He next re- newed those connexions with the German Empire wliich had existed since the thirteenth century ; and was declared by Charles V. (1527) a priuee I ! L .•::a The Ili'I'iirini'd Ui'li;{i(ili. 100 Dmi'Iiv lit Coiirlaiiil. TriiiiliUiit cit' I.iviiiiiii. KOCH'S UKVOLUTIONS. r«iu'o iif c)U\,i. Ildrilr cif Kiii/.Mc. Ivnii lliiHiliivit/. Ill, of thu Kinpirp, having a vote imil a Kcat hi flic (lilt. II. \\\^ iliiriiii,' tilt! inastcrKliip nf I'liitti'iilicr^ that tlu' liiillu'iaii (li)ctriiii'H pciictniti'il info Livo- Ilia, wliiii' till') iiiiiilc rapid proi^rcKH, fRpi'cially in till' cilicH. WalfiT (icxlcrouslj fiinicd the (lififiiil)- aiiciH caUHcil liy the opponitiou oftlii' clcri/y to tlii' now li'iii'ls, into ail occasion lor cstiililiHliiiii; his iMithoritv over all Livonia and lOsllioniii, which the Order had formerly shared vvilli the liishops. The citizens ot" lli^fa ackiiowledm'd him as their only sovereign, and expelled the arclihishop. 'I'lie hnrfjesses of Hevel followed their example. 'I'lie cler^ry were so fiiirhteiicd at tlies(> iiioveiiu'iifs, that the archliisliop of Hiu:a, anil the hishops of Dorfat, Oesid, (,'ourlind, and Hevel, fornially snliiiiilted to the Order. The cleiity themselves soon after ciii- hniced the reformed ridii^ion.] 'J'he dominion of the lvnii;lits Sword-hearers had contiuned in Ijivoiiia until the time of the famous invasion of that coiiiilry hy the C/.ar, .lolm basilovit/, IV. That prince, who had laid open the Caspian Sea hy his conipiest of the Tartar kinifdonis of Casan and Astrachaii, meditated also that of liivonia, to ohtaiii a comnuinication witii Lurojie hy the Itallic. (iotthard Kcttler, who was then Grand Master, findiii},' himself iinalile to coiie with all enemy so powerful, implored first th' assistance of flie (iermanic body, of whom he was a memher ; hut liaviiii; i;of liothiim hut vaijue jironiises, he next addressed himself to SiL;isiinmd Anjfustus, Kill;; of I'olaiid, and, in concert with the Archbishop of llitfa, he concluded with that prince a treaty of submission at Wiliia (l.'idl); in virfuu of which, flu- whole of liivonia, with Ksthoiiia, Courlaiid, and Sc^mijfallia, comprisiiif; not only what was still in the possession of the Order, but those jiarls wlii<'h had been seized by the eneiiiy,vvere ceded to the crown of I'oland and the (irand Duke of Lithuania, on condition that the use of the ('onfession of Autjsburj; should be priserved on tlnr same footiii!? as it tlicn was, and that all orders of the Htato should he maintained in their floods, properties, rightR, iirivilejijes, and iniiminities. IJy this same treaty, Conrland and Semi!;fallia were reserved to Gottliard Kettler, the last (irand Master of Livonia, to he enjoyed hy himself and his heirs male, with the title of duchy, and as a fief of the kinif and crown of Poland. The new hike, on fakiiif,' the oath of fidelity to the Kini; of I'oland, solemnly laid aside all the badi;es of his former dii^nity. He married Anne, daus;liter to the Duke of Mecklenhuri;-Scliwerin, and frans- iiiitt(!d the (hicliy of Courland to his male descend- ants, who did not become extinct until the cif^li- teeiitli century. The Order of liivonia was en- tirely sup]iressed, as were also the archbishoprics of lli^a, and the bishoprics under its jurisdiction. The revolution in liivonia caused a violent com- motion amonj,' the powers of the North, who were all calmer to share in the plunder. While the Grand Master of the Order was in treaty with Poland, the rify of Revel, anil the nobles of l",s- thoiiia, left without aid, anil oppressed hy the 11 us- sians, ]iut themselves under the ))rotection of Krie XIV., Kiiiif of Sweden, who obtained possession of that jirovinee. The Isle of Oesel, on the con- trary, and the district of Wyek in Esthoiiia, were sold to Frederic II., Kini^ of Denmark, by the last bisho|) of the island, who also ceded in lii,,, ,i bishopric and district of I'ilteii in Courliuul. \\ land at first held the balance, and maint:iiiir.| | vonia ai;ainsf the Russians, hy the peiii,' u|,j she concluded with that |iiiwi'r at KiiMi|„„i Horca (l'iH',»). A Htruu:;;le afterwards I'lisuiiH,,. fwei'ii I'ol.md and Sweden for the sa ,„ , which was not finally terniiniited until the i,, , ' of Oliva (ItiCO). Russia, during the jieriod of wliicli \\,' ,i„, treat, assumed an aspect entirely new. Sju. >,,,. (•ceded in throwinifolf the yoke of the ,M(n;ii|,,i,„| hei,'aii act a conspicuous part on the tlnatrf i,(| liiirope. The Horde of Kijizac, called iiK,, |;,,, Gfund, or the Gotdrn l/nrilc, bad been t;nii]vi exhausted by its territorial hisses, and the iut '«iii', wars which followed; while the (irand Diiki, (I Moscow grained powerful acressioiis by llie n iini,)! of scNeral of these petty ])rilicipalities, wlail for a loni{ time di\i(led amon^theiu the sov('m;TO I of Northern Uiissia. .lolin Itasilovitz 111., w]', filled the u'rand ducal throne alioiit the eiiil diu.! iifteenth century, knew well how to profit liyllnyl circtiiiistances to strennlheii bis authority iit liiiiniT and make if be respected abroad. In ciiuis' i>(l several ex))editions, he suhdned the ]ii)wiirriil if.I public of Novo;(or()d, an ancient ally of the II sealie towns, and which had for a loni,' tiiiu fected all entire independence. Hi! was iilxiih,! first sovereiifti of Russia that dared to refill humiliatin;,' ceremony, accordiiiff to wliiih itj 1,'raiid dukes were oblii,'ed fo walk on font li >„:. the envoys that came from the Khan of Ki|i/i' He even suppiessed the residence of Tartiii ij. voy s at his court ; and at lenitlh shook ell' th'i: Mike entirely, refusinj; to pay the tribute wl,', the ifraiid dukes bad owed to the khans for^iv.ai centuries. Achiiiet, Khan of Kipzar, liaviul despatched certain deputies with an order, iini: the i;reat seal, to demand ])ayment of this tiiliiiu the 1,'raiid duke trampled the order under his It!, spit U|ioii it, and then put all the deputies to iLcJ except one, whom he sent back to his niastir. The khan, with the view of reveni;iiijr that i;;.| suit, invaded Russia several times, but the emit duke viijorously repulsed all his attacks ; ami \\U{ he was arrestiiiif the jiro^ress of his arms (iiilhil b(M-ders of the L'ufra, he despatched a body nf Iriiijul to the centre of the (irand Horde, who laid i\wl thin;; desolate (1181). The No;;ai Tartars juiiiril the Russians to finish the destruction of thi'tiniyil Horde, whose diH'ereiit settleinents on the Wdlal they laid completely in ruins; so that iiiuliiiiil more remained of the ]iowerful empire of Kipicj than a few detached hordes, such as those of ('a ill It lii'loiiKi'ii to liin ri-iKii. A j,|.,.iiii chief of the P 11 Ci)8KackH, immril Jiiriimk, Jilin riniiliiyi'tl liiiiiM'li ill nililiriii's mi tlii' IioiiIimh Illlii. Ui]|(,'ii uiiil the L'liHpiau Sen, bi'iiijf piirmifil L ;i (li'lacliiiiriit iif UuHHiim troopH, ri'tiri'il til tile tiiliiii's iif Silii'iiii. ill' boDUeutert'il tlu'se ri'ifiiiUH the lu'iiil of 7000 Cussui'kH, iiiiil liavili|( i;''iiiii'il l;\ii;il victoiii's iiNer tin- Tartiirs (if Silieriii, and lir KliMU Kntsclii'iii, 'le i;ot p(i>i'<7),wliiehliasMineel)eeoini'the capital of Siheria. I'l'iliir Iwaiiovit/., a prince weak both in niiiiil il IiimIv, was entirely under the eoniiKels of his tii|li('i-iii-law Horis (ioduiiow, who, with the |t\v uf iipi'iiiiiif a way for himself to the tiirone, liMtl till' .Miiini; Demetrius, Fedor's only brother, I III' il^sassillatell (l.'iSII). This crime ;{ave rise loiitf series of troubles, which ended in the lull iif Keilor ( l.")i)«). With him. as he left no liliiii'ii, the rei^'iiiiif; family of tlie ancient sove- ■i'.'iis of Russia, the descendant!! of llurie, became lliiiiil; afier liavini; oecupieii the throne for more kill I'iu'lit liuiiilrcil years. Alter this, the lliisHiim crown was worn by jier- jlis of ilillert'iit bouses. Their reij^ns were dis- lilii'il liy various pretenders, who assumed the liiii' of DeinetriuH, and were siip]iorted by the )lis. During' fifteen jeara Russia presented a liMkiii!? specliicle of eonfusiou and eariiaj;:e. At ;'lh, as a remedy for these disasteis, they thought jlii'stiiwinj; the crown on a foreiifii prince. Some Id'i' C'iiarles lMiili|>, the brother of (iustavus ii||iliiis of Sweden ; and others voted for L'ladis- is, the son of Si(,'ismiiiid IV., Kiiijj of Poland. Bt'M' resolutions tended only to Lnerease the piiiili'i's of the state. Tiie Swedes took advan- 'oftiieiii to seize Iiiij;riii and the city of Novo- limi ; wliile the Poles took poMHUHsiou of Snin- Ti>k(i ami its dependencies. iThi' Russians, now Keeiiif» their monarchy on the Ite (if a precipice, adopted a plan of electing; a |w cznr of tlieir own nation. Their choice fell 1 Michael Pedrovitz, who became the founder of Miew dynasty, that of llomanow (ItJlU), under |ium Russia attained to the zenith of her fjreat- That prince, guided by llio sage counsels of fiitlier Fedor llomanow, Archbishop of llostow, bii rectified all the disorders of the state ; he Jrchiised peace of the Swedes, by Hurrendering Itliom Ingria and Russian Carelia. The sneri- p which he made to roland were not less psiilerahle. By the truce of Uiviliiia (KilK), tiie peace of Wiasma (KKU), he ceded to ^m the vast territories of Sinolensko, Tschernigou, 1 Novogorod, with their deiicudencies. Poland, at this time, presented a corrupt iiriH- loeriicy, wbicli had iiiMcnsibly deifelieratcil into (■(implcte anarchs. The nobles were the only |iir. sons llidt enjojed the riiflils of citizenship; they alone were repreMented in the diets, b) the nuncios or deputies which they clccteil at tile Dietilies ; the honours and dignities both in clinreh and state, and in general all prerou'atiMs wiiatcvei-, weri^ re- served for tlieiii ; while the liuri;('ss('s and peasantry alone supported the whole burtlieii of expenses. This coiiNtitiition, at the same time, was under the control of a sort of democrai y, in as far as the nobles, without exception, were held to be perfectly eijual in their riixhts and (li);nities. Imperfect as a governineiit must have been, cstalilislied on such a basis, it still continued, ne\ertlielcss, to preserve some decree of vigour ; and Poland supported, though feebly, the character of beinj; tlic ruling power of the North, ho long as the lloiisc of •lagello oeciipied llie throne. Hesides I'riissia, of which she bad ili-.piissessed the Teutonic Knights, she aci|uired i.ixinia, and maintained it in spite of Ull>si:i. The reformation of religion was likewise jiro- mul^'ated in Poland, where il was )ii i-tieularly patronized by Sigismund II. A great pail of the senate, and t, e better half of the noliilii \ , made, with their kinu, -t profession of the new opinions; and if the refor nation did not take deeper root ill that klin^doin, (-r if it had not a more coiis|ii- I iliius inllueiice on tlie civili/ation of the people, it was from not beini; supporled by the iniddle classes, which were not to be found in thii' kinifdoni. Tile male line of Jaiiello, haviiii; become extinct with Sigismund II. (I."i7'j), the throne became jmrely elective ; and it was ordained that, during the King's life, no successor could be appointed ; but tiiat the states, on his demise, should enjoy for ever a jierfect freedom of election on every va- cancy of the throne. Such was the origin of the diets of election, which, from their very constitu- tion, could not fail to be always tumultuous in their proceedings. The nobles in a body apjieared at these diets; thither they repaired in arms and on horseback, rank( d accordin:^ to the order of the Palatinates, in a camp prepared tor tlii' purpose mar Warsaw. Tlie custom of the t'actti i'unrcntti took its rise about the same time. Henry ile \ alois, who was elected king on the death of Sigismund II., was the Hrst that swore to these conventional agreements, [by which he engaged, that no foreigner should be introduced either in a civil or military department.] These 7*«(;^((, which bad all the force of a fundamental hw, specitied those conditions under which the throne was con- ferred on the new moiuireb. The royal anlhority was thus curtailed more and more, and the prero- gatives of the nobility exalted ill proportion. Poland, in consequence, soon lost its inllueiice ; the government was altered from its basis, and the kingdom plunged into an abyss of calamities. Among the elective kings who succeeded Henry lie Valois, the last that supported the dignity of the crown iigaiust Russia, was LTadislaus IV., the son of Sigismund III., of the House of Yasa. In an expedition which he undertook into the interior of Russia (l(ilS), he penetrated as far as Moscow; and in a second which he made (l(iU4), he com- jielled the Russians to raise the siege of Sino- lensko ; and shut them tip so closely in their camp, I. .■•::a 108 AlViiirs of IIiin;,Mry. M;itUiias t'livviiuis, Kin;;. Siiltiin Solinuiii's victorifs. KOCirS REVOLUTIONS. Turks take Hiiila. Ii,i^'()t/.i, I'riitotant ol' Traiisylviiniii. Iriii tliat they wi'io i>l)lii;o(l to nijiituluto fni- want of lu'ovisioiis. JIc then niiiili' a iii'w attack on the I iipital of Hiif sia ; autl at tlio peace of Wi:isnia, lie ohtaincil conditions most atlvantngcous to I'oland. In tlio history of Hunfiaiy, fhcniost splendid era was the reinn of Maftliias t'orvin, wlio, at the ai;e of scarcely sixteen, had been raised to the throne l)y the pure choice of the nation (I-4.')S). Like his father the valorous John Hunniades, he was the terror of thi' Turks durin;; his wliole rei;:u ; he took liosnia from them, and kept Transyl\auia, AVallachia, -Moldavia, Sdavonia, and Scrvia in depenn(|uerinjr the kingdom, lie attacked the fortress of lielijrade ( l.")'il ), and made himself master of that impcu'tant place, be- fore the llnni^ariaus could march to its relief. Ills first success en<'oura;j:ed him to return to the chariTc. Having crossed the Danube and the Drave without nieetinir with any resistance, he en- iraixed the I lun;,'arians ni'ar iMohticz (l.")"J(i), in that famous battle which cost tlieni the life of their kiny and tlu'ir jirineipal noliility. Twenty-two thousiind Hungarians were left on the lield of battle, and the whole kingdom lay at the mi'rcy of the coiKpieror. Soliman now ])roceeded as far as the Uaali ; but instead of completinfl the con- cpiest of Huimary as he miitlit ha\e done, he con- tented himself with tin; laying; waste all that part of the country ^\\\\\ lire and sword ; and carryini; several hn.i(lre;s of llun- !;arw Ihit thouf^li the Uohemian States were disposed to listeii to the pretensions of rerdinand, it was not so with those of llunf,'ary, who frans- I'er-.'d the crown to .lohn de Zapolya, Ctnuit of Zips, and Palatine of Transylvania. That ])rince heinf,' hardly pressed by Ferdinand, at leni,'th determined to throw himself under (he i)rotection of the Turks. Soliman marched in ])erson to his assistance, and laid siejfe to the city of Vieinia fir)'2U). In this enter])rise, however, lie failed, after sacrilicinj; the lives of nearly 80,000 men. In l.");iS, a treaty was aj,'reed on between the two competitors, in virtue of which the whol'j kingdom of Hungary, on the death of J,,; Zapolya, was to devolve on Ferdinand. Thisir™ i was never carried into execution. John nt death having left a son named John SijjisiiiiinJ I then an infant in his cradli;, Uishop (jeor;'!' Ji,, | tinuzzi, ]uinu" niiinster of the defunct Kiii" m, f claimed the young jn-ince, and secured fur liiiinL| jirotection of the Turks. Soliman undertook luifK I expedition into Hungary in his favour (loll)' Iji.'l by a ])iece of signal ])erHdy, he took this cicoa^iujl to seize the city of Uudn, the cajjital of tlii'kiii..r dom, and several other jilaces ; ami banishcil \{ prince with his mother the (iueen-d(nva!,'ir, t, Transylvania, Mhich lie gave up to him, withsn,.. ral other districts in Hungary. The city of l|ii|,j with the greater ixirt of Hungary and Siiavnuul reniaiiUHl in the power of the Turks; and r,rii;.| nand Mas obliged to pay an annual trihuti' Inriltj ] votection of that kingdom, the possession ofwhrf Mas guaranteed to him by the truce wliicli Ikh,, eluded with them in loO'i. In the midst of these unfortunate event*, t;-,| Austrian jirinces had again the imjiruilciico i, alienate tin; atlect ions of the Hungarians, In \\j intolerant sjiirit they dis])layed, and tlic I'lrunJ which they incessantly nnide to extirpate the 1'^, festant religion in that kingdom. The opiiiiiiii<,| Luther and (.'alvin had already been pro|i!i(,';ii,i u Hungary during the reign of Louis, the [ircili'd,,,,!! of Ferdinand. They had even made grciit iir,,.! gress ; especially in Transylvania, Mhere the (,n.\ man language and literat\n'e Mere generallv c vated. The oppressions which the ])artisaiis(i|ih(| ni'w doctrines experienced, added to the atlimii which the Austrian jirinces madc.from tiiac to liiai to std)vert the ancient constitution of the kiin'iliuj excited fresh troubles, and favoured the (l('sii;iiM| the discontented and ambitious, mIio Mere \\;iifh.| ing their op])(n-tunity to agitate the state, ancliiiakij encroachments on the goveriunenf. Sti|i|n';l Hotsclikai, Uelhlem Gabor, and Gecn-ge Hiiu'itel Jirinces of Transylvania, M'cre successively tliccliirsl or leaders of these maleeonteuts in the rci^'ii< if Kodolpli IL, Ferdinand II. , and Fcrdinanil III., Fniperors of Germany. According to the piuilin. tion of Vienna ( Kiljli), and that of Lintz (llUJiJ as Mell as by the docrees of the Diet of Odoiiliurj (l()22), and of I'resliurg (1047), these ]iiiiic(i| were coinjiclled to tolerate the jinhlic cxcni-i- the reformed i digion ; and to redress the polllinll com]ilaints of the Hungarian maleeonteuts. Tlie same tronbh's on the score of religion, wliWl infested Hungary, extended likcMise to Ilolimial M'here the ncM- doctrines met Mith a muclilxllnl reception, as tliey M'ore in unison M'ith tlio nli- gious system of the Hussites, who had almilij numerous jiartisans in that kingdom. It wasrliull;! under the reign of the mild and tolerant .Miixirai-r lian II. that Protestantism made its May ia Ho-I hemiii. All those who were formerly called I'InA (jKists, from their profeRsing the comniuiiiini in| both kinds, joined the followers either of Lu ' lliltlcoll'riiKilf- I'liitfshiiila \vr> l,,r„st l(i09. The \\\vi Matthias, on 1 loh'niia ; as also by ■cknowlcdgcd by lloptcd son and su« 1 The dirtereut intc Lar().ssa of Alyii'i's. ku'iust 1(109. Those k-ttors wi-rc confirmoil by fji^.r ;\[iitlliiiis, on his acccssiim to tho tlii'onu uf fcdh'miii; ;is ii'^o ^y Fenlinaiul III., whuii he wiih |fkii(mli'ili;<''l hy tho Uohcniiiiu States as the idoptcd soil ii!>'l Huccossor ol' Mattliias. Xlu' (Urt'crout iiitorprolations whioli wore put on licse Iclti'is occasioiioil tlio war, known in iiistory v the iiiiiiio of Ihe Tliirty Years' War. Tlio Eni- J.ior Matthias liappeniiis? to die in tiie midst of |,tst> iliBturbances, tiie Hoheniian States, roirard- r„ (iioii- crown as clcetive, annulled the eleetiou ll'Veiiliuaiul II. (lOlit), and conferred tlic erown 111 FiTileiic, tiie Elector Palatine. lieing in strict illiume with tiie states of Silesia, Moravia, and Lusatia, they declared war against Ferdiiiiind, wiio IMS suiiported, on tho otiier liaud, by Sjiain, tlie iitliolic princes of tlie Empire, and tlie elector of faxduy. Xhc fiuiious battle of Prague (U)20), and the I of the Elector Palatine, lirofglit about u rcvo- liitiou in liuhemia. Tlio ringleaders of tiie insur- ■tdiou were executed at Prague, and tlioir goods lontiscatod. Ferdinand, wlio treated tliat kiiii;- loiii as a conquered country, declared tiiat tlie latfs hail forfeited their riglits and privileges ; liiii, ill the new constitution which he gave tliem, lo coiiscuted to restore these, only ou condition of Lniessly excepting the rigiits which they had JlaiiniMriii the election of their kings, as well as llu Letters of Majesty which granted to tho Pro- |("itch of glory. liesiiles the island of llhodes, which lie look from the Knights of St. John, and the greater jiart of Hungary, be reduced the pro- vinces of Jloldavia and Wallachia to a state of dependence, and made their princes vassals and triluitaries of bis Empire. Ho likewise conquered Hagdad and Irak- Arabia, which happened, accord- ing to the Turkish authors, about the year lo.'M. That prince distinguished his reign by the eilorts which be niaile to increase the maritime strength of the Empire, which his predecessors had neg- lected. He took into his service the famous pirate Harbarossa, King of Algiers, whom he created Capital! Pacha, or Giaiid Admiral. Harbarossa eipiipped a Hoot of more than a hundred sail, with which he chased tho imperialists from the Archi- pelago ; and intesteil the coasts of Spain, Italy and Sicily (l.")(l.')). Soliman miscarried, however, in his enteriirise against Malta, The courageous defence made by the knights, together with tli(^ arrival of the Heet from Sicily, obliged the Otto- mans to retreat. The decline of Ihe Ottoman Empire began with the death of Soliman the (Ireat (l.')(i('p). The sul- tans, his successors, surrenelering themselves to luxury and eHomiuacy, and shut up in their sera- glios and harems, left to their grand viziers tho govornmonl of the Eni])iro, and the manageiiieiit of the army. The sons of these sultans, educated by women and eunucbs, and secluded from all civil and military atl'airs, contracted from their earliest infancy all the vices of their fathers, and no longer brought to the throne that vigorous and ontorprising iHiirit, which had been Ihe soul of Ihe Oltoman governmenl, and the basis of all their institutions, Selim II., the son of Soliman, was c b^4 -am T.-a (ill'.lt IIUWIT of FlUllOC. 110 Kiclu'liiMi. Mir/.iiriii. lii'liiii oi I.cmis XIV. KOCH'S llEVOLUTIONS. till' first wlio set tliisfiital cxatnjiloto his siuTOSfiors. In liis timo, tiie Tiirlis took the Isle of Cyprus from the Vonetiuus (1570), which they mamtiiiiiptl liiilaiicc of Power. Stiiiidiiig Armies. Iiiviwioii of the Netlieilaiids. Ill of tiic tiM-rihle defciit wliii'li tl •i])itc' OI I lie HMTiuie ueicur wuii'li lliiy n'((i|,,i at lA'puuto (loTl), and which was folknvt,! y tiu! ruin of their mariuc. PERIOD VII. FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHAIJA TO THAT OF UTRECHT. A.D. 104«-i:i3, The political system of Euroi)e rniderwent a great eliange at the ednmiencomenl of this period. France, alter liaviiifr lonf^ strnirirled for her own indepi'ndcne(^ against Austria, at lengtli turned the balance, and became so formidable as to combine against herself the whole -policy and military i)ower of Europe. The origin of this extraordinary in- fluence of France belongs to the reigns of tlharles Vll. ;ind Louis XI. Several important accessions which she made at this epoch, together with the changi" which happened in iicr government, gave her a jiower and energy, which might have secured her a decidi'd j)repondcranci' among the conti- nental states, bad not her inlluenci' been over- balanced by Austria, which, by a concurrence of fortunate events, and several wealthy marriages, had suddenly risen to a degree of power that ocited the Jealousy of all Eurojje. Hence, for nearly two hundred years, it re(pnre(l all the pi/litical resouices of I' ranee to make lu'ail against her rival; and what added to her misfortunes was, that, tliough freed from the distraction of the Italian war, she was still agitated by civil wars, which cmjjloyi'd licr whole military force. It was not till near the middle of the seven- teenth century that she extiii'atcd herself from this long struggle ; and that, diseni;agi-d from the shackles of her ov.n factions ami internal dissen- si(nis, hir jiower assumed a new vigour. The well regidated condition of her finances, the ])rosperity of her coinineree and manufactures, and the respectable state of her uuirine, all concurred to ditl'use wealth and abundance over the king- dom. The abiiseuient of the House of Austria, effected at once by the treaties of AVcstphalia and the I'yreiu'cs, together with the consolidation of the (icrmanic lioily, and the federal system of the I'rovinecs in the Netherlands, put the last climax on her glory, aiul secured to her the prepoiuler- Jince in the political scale of Europe. This change in her iiolilical system was achieved [u'ineipally by the two great stalesnu'ii. Cardinals Hicbelien and Mazarin, who, by drying up tlu' fountains of ci\il dissensions, and concentrating the reins of authority in the hands of tlie govermnent, raised that monarchy to the rank which its position, its population, and its internal resources, had assigned it among the ])owers of the continent. Ma/.arin left the kingdom in a flourishing state to Louis XIV., who, tiided by the counsels and assistance of the famo\is Colbert, became the patnni of letters and the fine arts, and finished the W(uk which was begun by his prime minister. Nothing could ecpial the ard(mr which insnircd that j)rince for military fame. France would have been j)ros|ier(nis niider his reign, and respected even by all Kiu'ope, had he kept nothing else in view than the true iuterests and happiness of his people ; but he was ambitions of that sort ofslurti which is the scourge of mankind, the Ltlmv i't| heroes and conciuerors. Hence there resulii'il a| hmg series of wars, which exhausted the sinii^,)!, I and resinn'ces of the state, and introducoil ;i nrel change in its political system. The sanu' slrtJ who had formerly made common cause vi\\\ France against Austria, now eondiined Ilg;lill^l li;, foimer, to humble that gigantic i)ower \\\mi seemed to threaten finer liberty ami inileiieiuliii,, [In these alliances the maritime jHiwers mI,;. tarily took part; and, having less fear tli;iiii|,(| otiu'rs of falling imder the yoke of a uiiiviTiH'uili'i,(v, .' ]«)\vi'ix miIm,. <8 li'ar lli:iiii||(| R of a uiiivfMll ratos iii.;rcl_\ |'i,i| - tlic fine siiiii" I. Tlicy umlfi system, liiTHiR I could ('(iiiini:!!,.! al coa'.^ls, iiiiuhl incrci', and iiir. mat inc. '||„'\ e ill the iitlairi vith Avhich Iriij tcs ot'thi' (■(iiii:. incipal aim v[| and tlicir cin HI, Aviiichlij till' |IIVClllill tliiisc aliiM'il dies, iiriiliil.j. atidiis, wliiri'l , and licraiifl 1 1 « as thin I red, l)y vliiikj to pniccrc of its riv.iji; piiWiTs lii':,iiii| the Cdmniirrf | pi' cxporiniccil uidiiif; aniiiii I a (k'lircc llial ure of till' ill- 1 govi'rniiicnt, norc ami mure riiicipal oliji'ct onimuiiii'atiiiii licy of Riclu'- 1 ocraiiim tur reus fornii'ily no\vii, c.vci'pt ] :>p('au pDWCH ■rtook attain'.; lie advaiK'i'd. over seven! Ills, especially the seigiiiorii's Maliiu'S, the niar(]uisate of Antwerp, Upper luolil'ii's, the counties of Naiiuir, Ilainault and Iriois, I'ainhray and Caiiihrcsis, wliieh he alleged eloiiii'i'd to lii"i> ill virtue of tlu; riyht of dvvulu- |d/i, aifonling to the usages of that country. Ac- pniiiii; t" *•>"' ">-'''*• *''° P'""l"-"rty of goods jjassed ,llic°liildieu of the first marriage, when their -outs contracted anothtr. jMaria Theresa, Queen ri'raiice, was the daughter, hy the first ninrriage, fl'liilip IV. King of Hpain ; whereas Charles II., sacccssor in that monarchy, was descended of |,. soi'Diid marriage. Louis XIV. contended, that eai the moment of Philip's second marriage, tlie y of all the countries, wliieli were aticcted rt'hc liijdit of devolution, belonged to his queen ; i that, after the death of her fathei', that princess iild enjoy the succession. In opposition to Ii'si' claims' of France, the Spaniards alleged, that |c liiild of devolution, being founded merely on Istein, and ajiplicable only to iiarticular succes- ciiiiid not he opposed to the fiindainental Bs (if Spain, which maintained the indivisibility j llial nionai-ehy, and transferred the whole suc- sioii tu Chillies II. without any jiartition whiit- ler. Ill course (if the cannmign of KitiT, the French Iheiiisidves masters of several cities in the bw Countries, such as Uriiges, Funics, Armen- iiTs, C'harleroi, llinch, Atli, Tournay, Doiiay, lurtiav, Oiideiiarde, and Lille ; and in course of fiiliowiiig winter, they got jiossession of anihc-Comte. The Pope and several princes tirnz viihmteered their good olHces for the re- liaiidii (if jieaee, they proposed a congress at bi-la-t'liapclle ; but the principal scene of the iatioii was at the Hague, where Louis sent Coiint il'Fstrades to treat separately with the lti'<-(ii'iu'ral. This negociation was greatly ac- tratcd liy tlie famous Triple AHiaiiee, concluded I till' Ila:.'ue KitiS, between Great liritain, |cik'ii, and the States-Cieneral. By the terms Ithis treaty, the allied jiowers olfered Louis the Imiative, either to leave him in possession of the Icis which he liad con([iiered, during the cuni- ftu (if l('i()7, or to cede to him either tlie duchy l.uxiinbtirg, or Franche-C'omtu witli the cities iliray, Douay, Aire, St. Oiner, and Funics, Ih llicir deiiendencies. The Spaniards having (I the foniK r of these alternatives, tlie |ui.'lit (if a treaty of peace was agreed on, and hcil fiy the ministers of Fiance, Lngland, and Statcs-Ucneial ; and this scheme sewed as the lis of tiie treaty which was concliideil at Aix- |Ciiaiiell(, between France and Sjiain (May '.id 111 consideration of till! restitiilioiis which had made to Spain, France retained, in terms his treaty, the towns of dharleroi, llinch, Atli, (lay, Toiirmiy, Oudenarde, Lille, Anuenlieres, bitray, Dergues, and l''urne8, with their baili- Iks and dependencies. I'liis peace was soon followed by a new war, lili Loins XI V\ undertook against the rejmblic ill' Seven United Provinces (1(172). AVishing Ip avenged on the Dutch, whom he knew to be j|ini»'i[ial authors of the Triple Alliance, and ling only bis own jiropensity for war, he lui'il as a pretext, certain insulting medals had been Btruck ii'. Ihdlanil, on the »i'ofAix-la-('hapelle, and the Triple Alliance.' (vain did the States-Oenerul oiler liiiii every s, tisfaetion ; he persisted iu his purpose of de- claring war ; and the better to succeed in his design, he ondeavoured first to dissolve the Triple Alliance, (.'olbert de Croissy, whom be sent to Lngland, found means to detach Charles II. from the alliance, .ind to draw him over to side with liouis against the Kopublic. T'lie same success at- tended the negociation which he set on foot with the Court of Stockholm. Following the example of England, the Swedes renounced the Trijile Alli- ance, and joined with France. Several princes of the I'^mpire, such as the Elector of Cologne and the Bishop of Munster, adopted the same line of con- duct. The war broke out in 1()72; and so rapid were the conquests of Louis, that he subdued in one single campaign the provinces of Gueldres, Utrecht, Overyssel, and part of Holland. He would have carried the city of Amsterdam, if the Dutch had not cut their dikes and inundated the country. Alarmed at these extraordinary successes, and a])])reliendinL' the entire subversion of the Ke- liublic, the Li.peror Leopold I., the King of Spain, the elector of Brandenburg, and the Imjierial States, leagued in their favour, and marched to their relief. The l rliament of Enuland obliged Charles II. to make jieace with the republic, by re- fusiiiii: to grant him supjilies (1(574). The Elector of Clologiie and the Bishop of Munster did the same thing. Louis XIV. then thought lUdiier to abandon his coniiuests in Holland ; and directed his jiriiiciiial strength against Sjiaiii and the (jer- niaiiic slates. lie suhdued l'"ranche-Conite in the spring of lli7 I ; and in course of the same year, the I'riiiee of (^oiide gained the battle of Seiief. In the I'ollowing winter Turenne attacked the quarters of the Imperialists in .Msace, and chased them from that [irovince, in spite of their sujierior numbers. That great general was slain at Saspaeh in Ortenau, in the campaign against Montecuciili (11th Aug. lt>74). Next year Ad- miral du Quesiie gaineil two naval vict7")). The l'^in[)eror then declared war against Sweden ; and the Fleeter, in concert with the jirinces of Brunswick, the Bishop of Munster, and th" Iviiig of Denmark, stript the Swedes of the greater part of their possessions in tlie Empire. At length, in the years 1(>7H-71>, a peace was concluded at Jsimeguen, under the mediation of I'^ngland. Louis XIV. contrived to divide tlie allies, and to make a separate treaty with tiio Dutch, by which be restored to them the city of Maestricht, w liich he had seized. The example of the Dutch was followed by the Spaniards, who iu like manner signed ii special treaty with France ; in virtue of which, they gave up to h,'uii<|iii-r!< Alsai'r. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Ho in'rsi'ciiti'H the I'umhIi Cahinijt?!. Kiliot lit' Nmiti's rrviikfil. l)ouj,'e, with their (h;iU'ii(h'iit'iL's. Tho ))(.';ice of Muiister Wits iviiuwod by that coiicludoil at Niuu'gitL'u, between i' ranee, tlie Eni])ire, atid the Emperor. Franee, on reiiouneing her risjht to a {iiirrisou in riiilipsburg, {,'ot possession of the eity of Friburg in Uris<,'aw, but refused to restore wliat shi liad wrested from the Duke of Lorraine, except on conditions so burdensome, tliat the Oiike would not aceei)t them, aiul jn-efer-ed to aliandon (he re- ])ossession of his duciiy. As to the ])eiii'e wiiich France and Sweden had negociated witii Denmark and Iter allies the Princes of tiie Empire, it v.as renewed by ditt'erent special treaties, concluded in course of the year 1(579. No sooner was tiie peace of Nimei,'uen con- cluded, (ban there sprun;^ up new troubles, known by the name of the Troubles of the Itc-Kiiimis. Louis XIV. 1 whose and)itio)i was without bounds, had instituted a Chumbcr o/ Rv-union, in the [jar- liament of Met/,, for the puri)ose of examining the nature and extent of the territories ceded to him by the treaties of Westi)halia, the Pyrenees, Aix- la-(;hapelle, and Nimeguen. This Chamber, as well as the ])arliament of Uesani^-on, and the Sove- reign Council of Alsace, adjudged to the King, by their decree, several towtis and seigniories, as being liefs or dependencies of Alsace ; as also the three bisbii-prics, Franche-Coiiite, and the (erri- tories which had been ceded to him in the Nether- lands. The king's views were principally directed to Alsace. He had already tendered his claims on this province, shortly after the peace of the I'yre- nees, when (he matter had been referred to the decision of arbiters chosen by the emperor him- sel''. The work of arbitration was not far ad- vaiceil, when it was int ■rrupted by (he Dutch wir, ill which the Emperor and the I'.mpire were both implicated. The ])eace ofNiinegiieii having contirmed the treaty of Minister, he preferred the method of re-union to that of arbitration, for re- claiining his alleged ri'hts. Taking advantage of the general terms in which the cession of Alsai^e was announced in the seventy-third and seventy- fourth articles of the said treaty, he claimed the absolute sovereignty of the wlio'e province, and obliged the immediate states, included in it, to acknowledge his sovereignty, and do him fealty and homage, notwithstanding the reservations which the eighty-seventh article of the same treaty had stipulated in favour of these very S(a(es. M. dj i.ouvois appeared before S(rasburg at the head of the French army, and summoned thiit city to submit to the King. Accordingly, it surrendered by ca))ilulation on the JiOth Septeinher, ItiHl. These re-unions exfendeil also to the Netherlands, where the French seized, among others, the cities oi (^Mirtrai, Dixmunde, and Luxemburg. Louis XIV,, in thus taking upon himself alone the interjiretation of these treaties of peace, could not hut offend the powers interested in maintaining then). A new general league was projected against France, and at the Diet of llatisbon they deli- berated on the means of setting on foot an Impe- rial army ; but the want of unanimity among the members of the Germanic body, the troubles in Hungary, which were immediately succeeded by a war with the Porte, and the inarch of a Turkish army on Vienna, threw them into a slate of con- sternation, and prevented the Imperial Diet from laiii, tidopting any vigorous resolution. S): hausted by protracted wars, and ahaiKluiuil England and Holland, was quite iu(';i|iaiit,ii J I from taking arms. Nothing, therefore, reinaiiul for the parties concerned, than to have I'ecourHi, I negociation. Cionferences were opened at Frai,l;.f fori, which, after having languished for lift,,,, months in that city, were triinsferred to Ikaiisi,,,, , where a truce of twenty years was sia;iui| (i:„';j August, KiSt) between France and Spahi ; ;« between France, the Emperor, and the llm „„ | By the former of these treaties, Louis ritajn i Luxemburg, Hovines, and Chiinay, witii tluii i;,! ])endencies ; restoring buck all the places \s\\\(^i he had occii|iieil in the Netherlands prinr ;„ ,i|, •.'0th August, KiSH. As to the treaty Ijitwij, France and the Emperor, the former i-fliiim,! I during the truce, the city of Strasburg, iiinl ihl fort of Kehl, besides all the places and sciu'iiHirirtl ■\vliich (hey had taken possession of since tluuunT niencement of the troiiiiles till the 1st of Aina,;j KJSl. In all till! places that were surreuiii'rnl i, him, Louis preserved the exercise of Iiis sincrw.-. rights, leaving to the i)roprietors or scigiiii)r< ili| entire enjoyment of the fruits and reveiiuos It. longing to their territorial rights. It was nearly about this same time that Liap XIV. undertook to extirpate Calvinism in I'mittl Incensed against (he Pro(estants by the olil Chajl cellor Letellier, and bis minister Louvnis, t\ chancellor's son, he circumscribed, by i'i'|in!rl| declarations, the privileges which (hey eiijii\nlis| virtue of former edicts. The holding of !;in,rj synods was forbidden ; the two Chaiiiliiis \v\ supi)i'esseil ; and they were all, without exi'cpiiirj debarred from exercising any piddie fuuctiiiii, tl last, Louis went so far as to send, iiiiiiinlijt.J after (he truce of llatisbon (U'>S4), dragtmiis mfl all France, to endeavour, as was said, to inm : the Protestants by gentle compulsion. This in,;. sure was next followed by (he famous IMict ; KiS"), which revoked that of Nantes, imlilislinl i;| lo'.IH, and that of Nisnies in Wl\). All cxi'iiiH'.il their religion — all assemblies for worship, ovijiii; (he house, were forbidden to (he Protestanls,\ii.k| jiain of iinjirisonment and contiscation of :,m.ii; Their churches were ordered to be ileiiii)li4 Parents were enjoini'd to have (heir chililrin!nf.| (ized by (he Catholic clergy, and to hriiiL' tiitnl up in (he religion of (he s(ate. The mi'iistiisivtsl banished, and (he other Protestants were forliiilile to dei)a''t (he country, under pain of the 'A\\ for men, and imprisonment and contiscation 1 women. The rigour of these prohibitions, liojJ ever, did not prevent a vast multitude of the Vxai^ Protestants iront removing to foreign couiitriii.isi transferring the seat of their industry to (ii'iiimii Englani", and Ilollanil. This blindfold zeal for religion, however, iliilnsi hinder Louis from vigorously suppiu'ting tiu'iiisl of his crown against the encroachments of tincm of Kiime. Among (he diU'erent dis])utes tli;il 'sA between him and the popes, ti-at which niranlJ the lliyalc deserves to be particularly rcniirknil The King, by declarations issued in Hii;) : l(i7.'), having extended that right to all tliL"artlij hishopries and bishoMrics within the kingiliuii, t bishops of Aletli and Panders, who pretemliil he exein|>t from it, a])plied to the Pojie, ilaiiiiiil his protection. Innoceut XI. interposed, by mM liiwtlers. 2. That I.ilii'rtii's ol' tho Uallicuit cliiircli Kli'ctoi- I'aktiiio. PERIOD VII. A.D. 1W«— 171.;. .I.inu'3 II. 'Ictlirmii'il. Willi.im III. v'lKilitiun >i!'ain..-t I.ouis. 111) liiii'iit biii'ts wliicli he aflilrcssed to the king in I'lvoiir ofllio bisliops. This induced Louis to con- L^^ilii. nil assembly of the i'lencli elcrgy, in whieh, |l)i'si(U's llie exleusion of tlie Regale, he ciiusod Itlu'in to S). Louvois, the French minister who directed lise operations, had Hattered himself that the Dutch, when they beheld the war breaking out in their vicinity, would not dare to take any part in the troubles of Enghrid. In this opinion he was deceived ; the Prince of Orange, supported by the Dutch Heet, effected a landing in England (Kith November, l(i()S). The revolution there was soon completed, by the dethronement of James II. ; and Louis XIV., ending where he should have begun, then declared war against the States-General. This mistaken policy of the French minister be- came the true source of all the subsequent reverses that eclipsed the reign of Louis XIV. A powerful league was now formed against France, which was joined successively by the em- l)eror, the Empire, England, Holland, Spain, and Savoy (KW.;;. Louis XIV., in order to make head against these formidable enemies, recalled his troops from those places which they occupied in the palatinate, and on the banks of the Rhine ; but in withdrawing them, he ordered a great num- ber of the towns to be burnt to ashes, and laid waste the whole country. Uy this barbarity, which circumstances by no means called for, he oidy ag- gravated the hatred and increased the ardour of his enemies. Mar was commenced by sea and laiul ; in Italy, Spain, Ireland, the Low Countries, and on the Rhine. Louis supported it nobly against a great i)art of Europe, now combined against him. His armies were victorious every- where. Marshal Luxembourg signalized himself in the campaigns of Flanders, by the victories which he gained over the allies at Fleurus (1st July, l(i<.)0), Steinkirk (Hrd August, 1(>9'2), and Laiiden or Nerwindeu (2i»th July, IC0;J). In Italy, Marshal Catinat gained the battle of Stafarda (ISth August, 1090), and Marsailles (1th October, l(>9;t), over the Duke of Savoy. The naval glory of France was weil supported by the Count de Tourville at th*- battles of Beachy-head (lOth July, 1(!!U)), and La liogne (29tli May, l(i92). However brilliant the success of her arms might be, the i)rodigi(nis efforts which the war required could not but exhaust Fri'ice, and make her anxious for the r("turn of ]i icc. Besides, Louis XIV. foresaw the ai)proachiiig death of Charles II. of Spain ; and it was of iin])ortaiice for him to break the grand alliance as soon as possible ; as one of its articles secured the succession of the Spanisli monarchy to the emperor and his descend- ants, to the exclusion of the King of France. In this case, he wisheil, for his own interest, to give every facility for the restoration of peace ; and by the treaty whieh he concluded separately with the Duke of Savoy, he granted that Prince, besides the fortress of Pignercd, and the marriage of his daughter with the Duke of Burgundy, the i)rivi- lege of royal hono'U's for his ambassadors. This treaty, concluded at Turin (29th August, 1090), was a preliminary to the general peace, signed at Rvswick, between France, Spain, England, and Holland (20tli SeptembcL-, 1(19';). Each of the contracting parties consented to make mutual restitutions. France even restoreil to Spain all the towns and territories which she had occupied in the Low Countries, by means of the re-unions ; with the exception of eighty-two places, mentioned in a particular list, as being de,)endencies of (Miarlemont, jMaubeuge, and other places ceded by the preceding treaties. Peace between France, the cmjieror, and the Empire was also signeil at I t or: ; r,..;.t ST.. ST.:; . I'lMco of lUswiek. 114 'III' Spanish Siicci'ssion. Claimants iuii| |iartition. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Arduluku Cliarli'^. Philip 111' Anjou, Kin;; of Spain. Ryswick. Tlie troiitics of AVestphiilia and Ninio- j,'UOii wcro tliero rciicwod ; siiid the decrprs of the ('liiiiiil)i'r of Ki'-uiiion at Aletz, and of the sove- ri'if,'ii courts at Hcsaii(;oii juid Urisacli, wore re- sc'iiidod and annulled. lyouin XIV cn^'ajiod to ri'stoi-p to till! I'^uipiru all (hat he had .inpropiiatud to hinisi'lf, l)_v means of the iv-unions, citliiT be- fore or durinLf tlicMvar ; that is to say, all jilacos situated or ae(iuired heyond tlie hounds of Alsaee. 'J'iie city of Strashin-^' was ceded to France, hy a l)arlicular article of the treaty ; hut tliu fortress of Kehl, the cities of l'"rihnrf:, Urisach, and I'hilips- hui'i;, were surrendered to the (Mnjjeror. Leopold, Dutic of Lorraine, and son of (Miarlcs V., was re- instated in his duchy, without any ritlier reserva- tion than that of Saar-Louii, aiid the city and ]irefecture of 1-ontovy. As to the claims of the Duciiess of <)'-l( ans on the ])alatinate, they were submitted to the arbitration of tlie emperin- and the Kinm of France; to he referred to the decision of tin- Pope, should these two sovereigns happen (o dirt'er in opinion. Tlie peace of llyswick was followi'd by the war of the Sjianish succession, which embroiled Eu- rope afresh, and occasioned consideriible chancres in its |)olitical state. Charles II., Kint; of Sjiain, son of I'bilip IV., and last male descendant of the Spanish branch of the House of Austria, having' neither son, nor daughter, nor brother, the Spanish monarchy, according to a fundamental law of the kingdom, which fixed the succession in tlie cnynatc line, apjieared to belong to Maria Theresa, Queen of France, eldest sister of Cl.arles, and to the children of her marriage with Louis XIV. To this title of Maria Theresa was opposed her ex- jiress renunciation, inserted in her marriage-con- tract, and confirmi d by the peace of the I'yrenees ; but the French maintained, that tliat renunciation was null, and that it could not prejudice the children of the ipieen, who held their right, not from tlieir mother, hut by the fundamental law of Spain. Admitting the validity of the queen's renuncia- tion, the lineal order devolved the Siianish suc- cession on her younger sister, Margaret Tlieresa, who had married tlie Emperor Leoiiold I., and left an only dauitliter, Maria Antoinette, spouse to the Elector of Havaria, and mother of Joseph Ferdinand, the Electoral Prince of Uavaria. The Emperor, who wished to jireserve the Spanish monarchy in bis own family, availed him- self of the renunciation which he bad exacted from his daughter, the Archduchess Maria Antoinette, when she married Maximilian, the Elector of liavaria, to ajipear as a candidate himself, and advance die claims of bis mother, Alaria An' . , ilaiigliter of Philip III., King of Spain, and aunt to Charles II. He alleged, that the Sjianish suc- cession bad been secured to this latter princess, botii by her marriage-contract, and by the testa- ments of the Kings of Spain; and as be had two sous, the Archdukes .losepli and (Jbarles, by his marriage with the Princess Palatine of Neuimrg, he destined the elder for the Imperial throne and the States of Austria, and the younger for the Spanish nionareby. The.-ie (lilforent claims havinj? excited appre- hensions of a general war, Eiiglai -1 and Holland, from a desire to prevent it, drew u|) a treaty of Jiartitioii, in concert witli Louis XIV. (1 1th Oct. KiitS), in virtue of which the Spanish moiiardiv was secured to Joseph Ferdinand, in ciisc of \\ death of (.'harlcs 11. ; while the kingdom {,iw\ Two Sicilies, with the ports of Tuscany, the mar. quisate of Finale, and the province of (iui|nis,(,j^ . were reserved to tlie Uauphin of FraiiLc. Tl: Archduke Charles, son to tiie Emperoi-, wn, ■ have the duciiy of Milan. Although tiic Kiii^r,,, I Spain disapproved of the treaty, in so tin- us n admitted a jiartition, nevertheless, in his will, ||J recognised the Prince of Uavaiia as iiis suctt»trt | in the Sjianish monarchy. A ])reniature death having frustrated ail tlu' liijj I expectations of that jirince, the powers m Ikj |i;,|| I concluded the tirst treaty of partition di'.'w up j I second, which was signed at London (.March i:i, [ 1700). According to this, the Archdekc ('liiirl,,,! eldest son of the Emperor Leopold, was (l(sti!i,,i [ the presumptive heir to the Spanish iiicir.aithv, They awarded to the Dauphin the duchy nf Lij. raine, with the king.loni of the Two Sicilies, aiilj the jirovince of Guipnscoa ; assigning to the DulJ of Lorraine the duchy of Milan in excliaiij, I Louis XIV. used every ell'ort to have llrs iimj treaty of partition approved by the court of Viii,u| He sent thitlwr the Maniuis Villars, who, li,- having been long amused with vague iirmiiiv*, failed entirely in his iiegociation ; and the Ijc. peror, whose main object was to conciliate lit court of Madrid, lost the only favourable iudiiu:;; which might have fixed the succession ol i:;,! S])anish monarcliy in his family, with the (imsiii;) of Louis XIV. and the princi))al courts ()fi;uni|ft[ At Madrid this affair tooli a turn diaiuciiidhl opposite to the views and interests of tliu (■iiim«| Vienna. Charles II., following the ciiuiisil< ,:[ his prime minister. Cardinal I'oitocancio, ii; after having taken the advice of the Pope, ami, tlie most eminent theologians and lawyi is in Lil kingdom, determined to make a second will, i;| which he recognised the rights of Maria Tliinvi,! his eldest sister ; and declared, that as the riiiiiii.f elation of that |)rincess had been made solilv; prevent the union of Spain with the kiiigdnnl of France, that motive ceased on traiislVrrlmiisif Spanish nuniarchy to one id' the younger s(iii< the Dauphin. Accordingly, he nomiiiiituil I'LJijI of Anjou, the Dauphin's second son, heir |iili»| whole dominions ; failing him, the Dul\e of Ucit.I his younger brother; next, tiie Archduke Charlfl and lastly, the Duke of Savoy; expressly forliiililirJ all ])artitlon of the monarchy. (;harles II. having died on the 1st of Niivinite following, the Junta, or Council of Uegeiuj, wlii he bad appointed hy his will, sent to Louis XIV. praying him to accede to the settlement (if lli'iil late king, and give u]) his grandson to tliiMvi-bil of the Spanish nation. The same eouriir 'ij«| orders to jiass on to Vienna, in case of a r('l'ii*;il Ills jiart, and make the same offer to tiie archilukil The court of France then assembled a i;wi| council, in which they held a delibeialiiiii what st<']) it was best to adopt, in an iitlair whiill so nearly concerned the general repose (it liiirii|«| The result of this council was, Ilia*, they mit'litwl accede to the will of Charles II., and reiioumi'llil| advantagi 8 whiidi the second treaty of iiarlilioil lield out to France. It was alleged, as the roa-'« of this resolution, that by refusing to acci'iit lt| will, Liniis must either abandon altogetliir liil UiTui,'iiitii)n of I'hil Wars ol' Louii XIV, Ipreti'iisioiis to the Spa 811 rxpeiisive war to ( treaty of partition as l)lc,' in this latter cas 'o-ciperatioii of the tw Louis XIV. having (lie will, Philip of ly till' Sjiaiiiards, and lailrid uu the 14th ol uropeaii jiowers, sii wcileii, England, Ho ;he North, acknowledj 'ortugal and the Dul •eatii's of alliance will (111 of political affairs North, was such, t [or Loiiis XIV., witl roscrve the Sjianish uiiilson ; but he seei (■rjtliingto raise all J llcitcil, that he aimed jiivtrsal nionareby, a itii S|iaiii. Instead position, he gave it llds-patuiit ill favou: lull lie was departii if preserving his righl Dutch dreaded no riial: making eiicro ilhi'riaiiils, which the rricr against Fiance ; ijii'arcil to be equally : would have been If these maritime po iiit, who, since the Orange, to the crou wire ill their ham itliiuit being swayed laiiicd aulhoiify from itriiduco a French arm Ills ; and on this occai TO ipiartered in vari uH, according to a sti Spain, were disarmei ic a powerful mot; >v States-(ieneral agii |mo dirticnlty, howev ■ilish Paiiiament to hi lliat \hms" Avere ave Isiif the Continent : Ifi'i'il the minds rin(i ii uis XIV. having fo 11 of that 1 ,ince as I " 1 Parliament had jtiiinng the Outch iH'o. A new and jx: iiiist Louis. The Enij 'uvinccs, the Empire, t ■issia, and the Duke ( cession. The allies i: the Spanish Netherli liiiigdoin of the Two sfiiiiy; and never to p fli Spain. At the eommeuccmcii he time maintained th iirms, notwithstand fcrsaries he had to o j campaign of 1704 thai leu one reverse was oi lU'Cujiuition of I'hilii) V. Wursul'LouwXIV. PKRIOU VII. A.D. 1(U8— 17i;{. M.irllioi'DiiKl' 'I'l'l I'lio'oiii" li^ittlr of Itlriilu'im. Di'iith of .Iiiseiili I. 11. -1 Imeti'iisioiiH to tlip Spanish moncrcliy, or undertake I' i,(,„,„sivo Will' to obtain by coniiiicst \\liat the Itieatv ot partition assigned him ; without beinr Inble ' ill tliis hitter case, to reclvon on the effectual Ico-opeiatiou oftiie two maiitime courts. |,(iuis XIV. iiaving therefore resolved to accede Ito the will, rhilip of Anjou was proclaimed ki. g bv tlic Siiauiai'ds, and made his solemn entry into Jliadriil uii tiic 14th of April, 1701. Most of the EuroiK'an powers, such as the States of Itaiy, Rwcdeii. England, Holland, and the kingdoms of Ihc North, acknowledged Thilip V. ; the King of Portu"al and the Duke of Savoy even concluded Ireatii's of alliance with him. Moreover the situa- liiinof political atl'airs in (ierniany, Hungary, and he Nortii, was such, tiiat it would have been easy ■iir Louis XIV., witii prudent management, to jjiTsin t' the Spanish crown on tlio head of his riimlsoii ; but he seemed, as if on purpose, to do iviivtliingto raise all Europe against him. It was llliiiitl, that he aimed at the chimerical project of liiiversid monarchy, and the re-union of France 111 Spain. Instead of trying to do away this inosition, he gave it additional force, by issuing fcltus-patcut in favour of I'hilip, at the moment tliiii ho w.is departing for Spain, to the ell'ect If presciviiig his rights to the throne of France. Datcii dreaded nothing so much as to sec' the ulI: making encroachments on the Spanisii (ihi'rhiniis, wlii<'h they regarded as their natural anh'i' against France ; the pre ervation of which »i|iiiin'il to be equally interesting to I'Jiglai.d. It would have been ])rudent in l^ouis XIV. to i\f these maiitime powers some security on tliis it, who, since the elevation of "William, Prince ■ Oniiige, to tlie crown of (ireat Uritain, held as I were in their hands the balance of Europe. tithout being swayed by this consideration, he bluiiu'il authority from the Council of JIadrid to Itriiiluce a Frencli army into the Spanish N ether- pis; and on this occasion the l)>itch troops, who *ro quartered in various places of the Isether- niis, according to a stipulation with the lute King I Spiiin, were disarmed. This circumstanec be- nic a powerful motive for King William to rouse States-(icneral against F'rance. He found line (lilliculty, how^ever, in drav/ing over the fitish Piirliament to his views, as a great majority that Hous'> were averse to mingle in the (juar- Mif the Continent ; but the death of James II. lei'od tilt minds find inclinations of the English. puis XIV. having formerly nckuowledged the Bi (if that J ,inco as King of Clreat Britain, the Ldish Parliament had no longer any hesitation I joining the Dutch and the other enemies of ■ame. A new and powerful liague was formed kiiist Louis. The Emperor, England, the United loviiieei', the Em[)ire, the Kings of I'oUugal and ussia, and the JJuke of Savoy, all joined it in fcession. The allies engaged to restore to Aus- ' Spanish Netherlands, the duchy of !Milan, ! kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with the ports of Iscaiiy; and never to permit tlie union of France ph Spain. ^t the commenccmont of the war, Louis for lie time maintained the glory and superiority of arms, notwithstanding the vast number of ^crsaries he had to oppose. It was not until fcampaignof 1704 that fortune abandoned him ; |cu one reverse was only succeeded by another. Tlio Duke of ^Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated Marshal di'Tallurd at Huchstett, or Ulcn- hein. (Aug. 115), where lie lost l!(),l)00 men, and was himself carried prison"r to England. Tliis disaster was followed by the loss of llavaria, and all the French possessions beyond the llliine. The battle wliieli Alarlborougli gained (May '?;!, 170(1) at Uamiliies, in Brabant, was not less disastrous ; it secured to the allies the connuest of the greater part of the Netherlands ; and to increase tiiese misfortunes, Marshal de Marsin lost the famous battle of Turin against Prince Eugene (Sept. 7), which obliged the French troops to evacuate Italy. The battle which was fought at Oiuleiiarde, in Flanders (July 11, 170rt), was not so decisive. Both sides fought with eiiual ailvantage ; but the Duke of Burgundy, who was commander-in-chief of the French army, having quitted the field of battle during the night, contrary to the advice of Vendome, Marlborough made this an occasion fm' claiming the victory. At length the dreadi"ul winter of 1700, and the battle of Malplaquet. which ^Marlborough gaiiu'd over ^'illal■s (Sej)t. 11), reduced France 'o the greatest distress, and brought Louis under the necessity of suing for peace, and even descemliiig to the most humiliating conditions. M. de Torcy, his minister for foreign ail'airs, was despatclied to the Hague ; and, among a number of pieliiiiiiuuy urtiiles, he agreed to make restitution of ;ill tlie eomiuests which the French had made since the peace of Monster. He consented to smreiider tiie city of Strasburg, and henceforth to juissess Alsuce acconliiig to the literal terms of the treaty of Munster; the throne of Spain was reserved tor the archduke ; and Louis consented to abandon the interests of Philip. But the aUies, rendered haughty by their success, demanded of the king that he should oblige his grandson voluntarily to surrender his crown, otherwise they would compel him by force of arms, and that within the slunt space of two months. The conferences, which had been transferred from the Hague to Clertni_\- dcnberg, were consequently broken oil", and the war continued. In this critical state of things two unexpected events happened, which changed the face of atl'airs; and Louis XIV., far from lieing constrained to submit to the articles of the preliminaries at Ger- truydenherg, saw himself even courted by England, ancl in a condition to dictate the law to several of the p(.wers that were leagued against him. The Emperor Joseph I. died (April 11, 1711) without leaving any male offspring. His brother, the Archduke Charles, who took the title of King of Sjjain, now obtained tlie Imperial dignity, mid became heir of all the slates belonging to the Ger- man branch of the House of Austria. It appeared, therefore, that the system of equilibrium could not possibly admit the same prince to engross likewise the whole Spanish monarchy. This event was coupled with another, relative to the change which had taken place in the ministry and Parliament of Great Ikitain. The "Whigs, who had been the ruling party since the Revolution of KU'.S), were suddenly supplanted by the Tories. This over- throw brought the Duke of Marlborough into dis- grace, who had long stood at the head of affairs in England, as chief of the Whig faction. Queen Auue, who stood iu awe of him, found no other I 2 -4 :3; £■::: €':•:: ! r^ 110 (JIDM'II Allllf. Il.ittif o( IViiiiiii. IVacu 111' I'tri'clit. KOCH'S llEVOLUTIOXS. IliMim- of HiinoMT (iil)Mltitr mill Miiuina. Dinitli of Louis XIV. expedifiit for depriviii^; liiiu of bin infliienco, than to make jii'iifo witli Fraiu'e. L'Ablie OuiiltU'r, wlio rcsidcil at London in quality of almoner to the ambassador of Charles of Austria, was de- spatched hy iier ^Majesty to France, to uuike tlie first overtures of peace to Louis. A secret nesjo- tiation was set on foot between tiie two courts, tlie result of which was a preliminary treaty signed at London (October Sth, 1711). A coni^ress was opened at Utrecht, with the view of a j,'eneral pacitication. The conferences which took place there after the month of February, 1712, met with Ion;; interruptions ; both on ac- count of the disinclination of several of the allied powers for peace, and because of the matters to be separately treated between France and F.ngland, which retarded the progress of the general nego- ciation. The battle of Denain, which Marshal Villars gained over the Farl of Albemarle (July 24), helped to render the allies more tractiible. Peace was at length signed at Utrecht in the month of April, 17l;i, between France and the chief belligerent powers. The Emperor alone re- fused to take part in it, as be could not resolve to abandon his claims to the Spanish monarchy. The gland aim of England in that transaction was to limit the overwhelming power of France ; for this purpose she took care, in that treaty, to establish as a fundamental and inviolable law, the clause which ordained that the kingdoms of France and Spain nc-,er should be united. To eft'ect this, it was necessary that Philip of Anjou should for- mally renounce bis right to the crown of France ; while his brother, the Duke de Herri, as well as the Duke of Orleans, should do the same in regard to the claims which they might advance to the Spanish monarchy. The deeds of these renuncia- tions, drawn up and signed in France and in Spain, in presence of the English ambassadors, were inserted in the treaty of Utrecht; as were also the letters-patent which revoked and annulled those that Louis had given for preserving the right of the Duke of Anjou to the succession of the French crown. Louis XIV. promised for himself, bis heirs and succiissors, never to attempt either to prevent or elude the effect of these renuncia- tions ; and failing the descendants of Philip, the Spanish succession was secured to the Duke of Savoy, his male descendants, and the other princes of his family, to the exclusion of the F. '.'iich princes. Anothei' fundamental clause of the treaty of Utrecht bore, that no jirovince, city, fortress, or place, in the Spanish Netherlands, should ever be ctded, transferred, or granted to the crown of Frnnce ; nor to any prince or princess of French extraction, under any title whatever. Vhese pro- vinces, designed to serve as a barrier for the Low Countries against France, were adjudged to the Emperor and the House of Austria, together with the kingdom of Naples, the ports of Tuscany, and the ducby of Milan ; and as the Emperor was not a party to the treaty, it was agreed that the Spanish Netherlands should remain as a deposit in the hands of the States-tjeneral, until that prince should arrange with them respecting the bari'ier- towns. The same stipulation was made in regard to that i)art of the French Netherlands which Louis had ceded in favour of the Emperor ; such as Menin, Tournay, Furnes, and Furnes-Ambacht, tlie fortress of Kenock, Ypres, and their dpiiimi. encies. England, in particular, obtained by thi« trnu I various and considerable advantages. Louis XIV. withdrew bis protection from the Preti'iiiler, anj I engaged never to give him harbom- in I'lam,., The succession to the throne of Great IhitainnMi guaranteed to the House of Hanover, '\\^,A agreed to raze the fortifications of the j)oit of Um,'. [ kirk, which had so much excited the jciilmisvull England; while France likewise ceded tovJ Hudson's IJay and Straits, the Island ol' St. I (.'hristopher. Nova Scotia, and Newfoiiiullnml i,! America. Spain gave up Gibraltar anil .Minotn I both of which bad been conquered by tlie \m'\\s'ji I during the war ; they secured to her, beslilos, fotl thirty years, the privilege of furnishing iiegrois fe the Spanish American colonies. The King of Prussia obtained the Spftiilsh p^l of Gucldres, with the city of that name, iii.d tlif| district of Kessel, in lieu of the priiKi|ialitv of' Orange, which was given to France ; tlioii|;li \f\ had claims to it as the heir of 'William III., Kiiu of England. The kingdom of Sicily was !ulju(li.'a!| to the Duke of Savoy, to be jiossessed by liiinaBil his male descendants ; and they confirnied tiiliiiii| the grants which the Emperor had made lilni. i that part of the duchy of Milan which liud bf.l longed to the l)uk(- of Mantua, as also Ak'xaiiiinil Valencia, the J .n'rielline, and the Valley ol SiMif Finally, Sardinia was reserved for the Eleciorill Bavaria, the ally of France in that war. As the Emperor had not acceded to the trfilil of Utrecht, the war was continued bctwieii liiijl and France. Marshal Villars took Laiiihui acJ Frib\irg in IJrisgaw ; afterwards a conlVrciico tooll place between him and Prince Eugene at Hiif stadt ; new jireliminaries were there drawn npj and a congress was opened at Baden in SwUhJ land, where the peace was signed (Septeiiiln'riiJ 1714). The former treaties, since the pearee Westphalia, were there renewed. The liloftonl of Cologne and Bavaria, who had been put totbl ban of the Empire, and deprived of tiieirc>tawl were there fully re-established. Sardinia, whitiif had been assigned to the Elector of Biivaiia I the treaty of Utrecht, remained in possession i the Emperor, who likewise recovered Bri.saclu Friburg in Brisgaw, instead of Landau, which inJ been ceded to Fra.ice. Louis XIV. did not long survive this treaty. Never did any sovereign patronize lite.il ture and the Hne arts like him. JIany celebnitiT academies owe their origin to his auspices, sotll as the Academy of Inscriptions, Belles-LelirHJ Sciences, Fainting, and Architecture. His rm was illustrious for eminent men, and talents o every description, which were honoured ami etj couraged by him. He even extended his I'avoJ to the philosopheiS and literati of forcii;ii ooiinj tries. This prince has been reproached for hisioj great partiality to the Jesuits, his confessors, m for the high importance which he attached to I dispute between the Jansenists and the Jloliniil^ which gave rise to the famous bull U>i'(/emt\im approved by the clergy, and published by the kiif as a law of the state over all France, This!" trious prince ended his days after a reiKHoffl venty-two years, fertile in great events ; he trail mitted the crow;; to his great grandson, Louis .VI i:nii»'r(ir I.cmiih)1i1 (. IJiTtiiriite DriliiiiiiMT. The liii|HTiiil Ca|iitiilati(mH. rEllIOD VII. A.D. 1048—1713. AiiKHstiH II. nt'Siixoiiy, (■lc(!ti'il Kiii^of roliilid. 117 Kiiiv's (iC I'rii.HHiii. Ivho was only five yoars of nge when he mounted Hi,,. Ilirmio (Sept. 1, 1713). [ii ihr coiirso of I'lis period, Heveral memorable Ifvonts liii|>|)eiic'd in Germany. The emperor, l.nipolil 1., havini,' assembled a diet at Uatinboii, III ili'inaml subsidies a^^ainst tlie Turks, • iid to lolllc certain matters whieh the prceediir ..t had Ift't i,.i.'('('iiled, the sittin}|s of that assembly were niiliMinl to the present time, without ever having louu (li'clared perinnnent by any formal law of the mnirc. The peace of Westphalia had instituted ,11 lifjlith t'let'torate for the palatine braneh of IVittU'sbacli ; the emperor, Leopold 1., ereeted a liiitli, in favour of the youni^er braneh of tlie oiiso (if Urunswiek. The iirst elector of this timll\, known liy the name of Hrunswiek-l.unen- ur!,','(ir Hanover, was the Duke Ernest Augustus, loni the emi)eror invested in his new dignity, to bi'( ml to his heirs male, on account of his en- ;ai;iii(,' to furnish Austria with su])plie8 in money nil troops, for carrying on the war against the irks. Tins innovation mot with decided oppo- litiim ill the Empire. Several of the electors were slilc to it ; anil the whole body of princes de- iirod, that the new electorate was prejudicial to lieiriliij'nity, and tended to introiluce an electoral Jiiaichy. Tlie Duke of Brunswick-Wollf'-nbuttel ipet'iiilly iirotested against the preference which as j.'iven to the younger branch of his house over R' elder, in spite of family compacts, and the right f primogeniture established in the House of iriiiiswiek. AcoiitVderacy was thus formed against the ninth ilertoiate. The allied princes resolved, in an as- iiiblj held ut Nuremberg, to raise au army, and ipplv to the powers that had guaranteed the treaty I' Westphalia. Trance esjiouscd the quarrel of fsi> princes; she eoncluded wivh the King of iimark, a treaty of alliance and subsidy against ' ninth electorate, and declared, befor" tlie diet Iftlu' Kinpire, that she regarded this innova'iou ablowaiiiu'd at the treaty of AVestphalia. i;> urse of time, liowe* , these animosities were laved. The princes recognized the ninth elec- rate, and the introduction of the new elector ik place in 1708. A decree was passed at the ^('t, whieh annexed a clause to his admission, that Catholic electors should have the privilege of a istiii!,' vote, in eases where the number of Pro- lai't electors should happen to equal that of the latholics. By the same decree, the King of Bo- raia, who had formerly never been admitted but the election of the emperors, obtained a voice in tlic deliberations of the Empire and the Elec- iral College, on condition of his paying, in time raing, an electoral quota for the kingdom of Bo- leniia. The imperial capitulations assumed a form en- jrcl}' new, about the beginning of the eighteenth Intury. A difference had formerly existed among lc members of the Germanic body on this im- Vrtaiit article of public law. They regarded it as llliini,' illegal, that the electors alone should claim le right of drawing np the capitulations ; and ley iiiaiutained, with much reason, that before Icse compacts should have the force of a funda- lental law of the I'hnjiire, it was necessary that ley should have the deliberatioi' and consent of le whole diet. The princes, therefore, demanded, pt there should be laid before the diet a scheme of perpetual capitulation, to servo as a rule for the electors on every new election. That (|oestioii had already been debated at tlii! Congress of West- phalia, and sent back by it for the decision of the diet. There it became the subject of long discus- sion ; and it was not till the interregnum, which followed the death of the Emiieror Joseph 1., that the principal points of the perpetual capitulation were finally settled. The plan then agreed to was adopted as the basis of the capitulation, which they jirescribed to (.'liarles VI. and Ids successors. Among other articles, a clause was inserted re- trarding the election of a king of the Uonians. This, it was agreed, should never taiie jilaee during the emperor's life, except in a case of urgent ne- cessity ; and that the proscriptimi of an elector, pimce, or state of the Empire, should never take idace, without the consent of the diet, and observ- ing the formalities enjoined by the new capitula- tion. There were three electoral families of the Em- pire who were raised to the royal dignity ; viz., those of Saxony, Brandenburg, and Brunswick- Lunenburg. Augustus II., Elector of Saxony, after having made a profession of the Catholic re- ligion, was elected to the throne of Poland ; a dig- nity which was afterwards conferred, also by elec- tion, en his son Augustus III. That change of religion did not prevent the Electors of Saxony from remaining at the head of the Protestant in- terest in the Diet of tin; Empire, as they had given them assur:. :ice that they wouhl make no innova- tions in the religion of their country, and that they would appoint a council entirely composed of Pro- testant members, for administering the afiairs of the Empire. These princes, however, lost part of their influence; and so far was the crown of Po- land, which was jiurely elective, from augmenting the greatness .and real power of their house, that, on the contrary, it served to exhaust and enfeeble Saxony, by involving it in ruinous wars, whieh ended in the desolalion of that fine country, the alienation of the electoral domains, and the in- crease of the debts and burdens of the state. If the royal dignity of Poland was prejudicial to the House of Siixony, it was by no means so to Prussia, which the House of Brandenburg ac- (juired soon after. The elector, John Sigismund, on succeeding to the duchy of Pruss'u, had ac- knowledged himself a vassal and tributary of the crown of Poland. His grandson, Frederic "Wil- liam, took advantage of the turbulent situation in which Poland was placed at the time of the inva- sion of Charles X of Sweden, to obtain a grant of the sovereignty of Prussia, by a treaty whieh he eoncluded with that republic at Welau (lOth Sep- tember, 16.")7). Poland, in renouncing the terri- torial rights wbicli she exercised over Ducal Prus- sia, stipulated for the reversion of these same rights, on the extinction of the male line of the electoral House of Brandenburg. Frederic I., the son and successor of Frederic William, having become sovereign of Ducal Prussia, thought himself authorized to assume the royal dignity. The elevation of his cousin-german, the Prince of Orange, to the throne of Great Britain, and of his next neighbour, the Elector of Saxony, to the sovereignty of Poland, tempted his ambi- tion, and induced him to enter into a negociation on the subject with the court of Vienna. The 1.'., C2 ; tret ! I'ri'di'lii' Williiiiii i)( I'ril^^siii. lis Mii^lisli rciyul riiniily. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. (Iporitr I. (^liiuiljcH in It.ilv. Diikcs ol'S.ndv'. Ktnppi'or Leopold promised to nrknowlodife liiin us l\\uf( (if I'lUssiu, 1)11 iircount (il'iisiipply of 1(1,000 men wliicli l-'ifdciie iiroinised to furnish liiin in tlie war ol'llu! S|umisli succcHNioli, wiiirli was tlit'ii comnu'iiciiii,'. To n'lnove iill aiipri'luMisioiiM on tlu' pari of I'oland, who nii(?lit pcrliajis otlVr sonic op- pofilion, lliu fli'c'tor si(j;ncd a revi'ixal, ln'arinf,', tiiat tilt' royal dignity of Prussia siiould in no way pre- judicL' till' rifjiits and possessions of tiie kinj; and /tail's of I'olani' over I'ulisii Prussia ; tiiai ncitiu'r lie nor liis suecesaorH ffliould attempt to found flainis on tliar part of Prussia ; and that the elauso in tlic treaty of Welau, wiiieh secured the rever- sion of tlic territorial riiriit of Ducal Prussia, on tiie extinction of the iieirs male of Frederic Wil- liam, slioulil remain in full force and ^in■our, never to be infriniied by the new kinj? or any of his suc- cessors. After these diflerent conventions, the elector repaired to Koninftsheru;, wiiere he was proclaimed Kinf; of Prussia (ISth .January, 1701), It is wortliy of remark, that on tlie ceremony oi' his coronation, lie put the crown on his own head. All the European jiowers ucknowledfied the new kinff, with the exception of Prance and Spain, witii whom he soon ciiifajfed in war. The Teutonic kniffhts, bearinj; in mind their ancient claims over Prussia, deemed it their duty to support them by a protest, and their example was followed by the Court of Uoine. Nothini; is so remarkable as the ojiinion which the author of the Memoirs of Bran- dinhury delivers on this event. " Frederic," says he, "was llattercWi», 1701, 1703. The war of the Spanish succession I',;h' „, sioned great changes in Italy. Spain, after Im, been long the leading power in that couiitiy.ai place to Austria, to whom the treaties of I'lr,,^ and Baden had adjudge Savoy, in orde-r to counterbalance the pown Austria in Italy. The origin of the House of Savoy is as nlj the beginning of the eleventh century, vvhc iind a person named Bcrtlndd in ]iossessioii nfSi voy, at that time a province of the kingdom nl lid gundy or Aries. The grandson of IJertliolil ir ried Adelaide de Suza, daughter and hriri'.. Mainfroi, Manpiis of Italy and Lord of Suzii. 1: marriage brought the House of Savoy coiisiiliri' l)ossessi' tiio 'iticM of the I'jri'iii'CK mid liiii ill 111!' vi'iit-s 1 ..', |(i!)(!. Ill till' will- of till' niiisli siicci'sHioii, Vittor AiiiihIciim II, dccliiicd lliist r»r lii'4 soii-iii-liiw, I'liiliji Kiii^ of S|iiiiii, 111 |:ikiiij; U[)oii hiiUHclf tin' cliicf foiimiiilid of riciicli iiiiiiy ill Italy ; liut aftfiwiinlH, |i('r- |\iiiL' ill'' daii(,'t'f of his situation, and Kcdiiccd liy iiilviiiitii;;! oils oll'i'is wliicli tht' ('nipeior inadc^ 11, lie tiiiiiiKlit propcf to altpr liis plan, and joined itiiiiid ailiaiici' against Francu. Savoy and Jiliiioiit a;;aiii hiTanio the thcalre of tho war ho- tcii rraiicc and Italy. Tiic Ffciich hiivini? nn- Viiki'ii tilt' sit'(;e of Turin, the dnkn nnd I'rinci! Ui'iii' fm'ci'd their army in its eiitrenclinients he- [,. the place, and ohli^jeil them to iihandon Italy. Jc t'liiperor (granted the duke the investiture of ilitlVieut estates -which he had secured to him, liis accession to the g''and alliance ; such as liiiill'ciTat, the provinces of Alexandria and Va- ciii, llie country hetweeu thu Taimro and the k, the Lumelliiie, Val Sessia, iind the Vif,'eva- Ifcci; to he jiossessed by him and his male de- ^iiilimtH, as tiefs holding of the emperor and the ic. ItIic peace of Utrecht conKrnied these jiosses- \\\-i\o the duke; ami EiiKhind, the better to se- > tlic ('(piilihrium of Italy and I'^irope, granted 11, liy that treaty, the royal diijnity, wi.li the ■iiml of Sicily, which hIio had taken tram Sjiain. liat iilanil \. '.s cedei' to him under the express tihp, that, 01- the < vtinction of the male line of l\oy, that ksniidor I should revert to Spain. Hy If same treaty tin y secured to the male descend- lls of that house, the riijht of siu rcssion to the bullish monarchy ; .ind that clause was contirnied J a siiieiiiii law passtd in the cortes of Spain, and I' siibscipieiit treaties coneUided between these Iwirs and Europe. The dvike was crowned Jill;; of Spain at ralermo (Dee. 21, ni.'J), by the iliisho|) of that city ; and the oidy ])ersons who llWd to ackiiow)edt;e him in that new capacity li'iv the emperor and the jiope. hi projiortion as France increased, S])ain had Ipcliiicd ill jiower, in coiise(|uence of the vices of iTt'ovcrnmcnt, the fceblciu'ss of her jjrinces, and wiint of (|iialitications in their ministers and Ivduritcs. At lenfjth, luider the rei^n of Charles 1,, tlie weakness of that monarchy was such, that Jraiicc despoiled her with impunity, as ajipears Ij those cessions she was obli^eil to make by the ;ili('s of Aix-la-Chapelle, Nimefjuen, and Uys- kiik. ('Iiarles II, was the last j)rince of the •paiiish line of the house of Austria. At his death iNov, 1700), a loiiff and bloody war ensued about |ii' snciession, as we have already related. Two uiiipctiturs appeared for the crown. I'hilip of ^iijoii, j;randson of Louis XIV., had on his side the I of Charles II., the efforts of his grandfather, Inil the wishes of the Spanish nation. Charles of lustriii, younger son of the Emperor Leopold I,, lis sii])portcd by a formidable league, which poli- liial considerations and a jealousy of the other jiiiwi'rs had raised against France. I'hilip, who had been placed on the throne by llu' Spaniards, had already resided at Madrid for Vveiiil years, when the Austrian prince, his rival, psisted by the allied Heet, took possession of Uar- celona (Oct, ',», MOH), where he established his ca|iilal. The incessant defeats which Fiance ex- perienced at thif ))cri(id, obliged I'hilip twice to abandon Ins capital and seek bis safety in tligiil. He owed his restoiiilioii for the liist time to >lar- shal de lierwick, and the victory which that gciicritl gained over the allies near Almau/.a, in New Cas- tile (Ajiril "i."), 1707). The aich.iiikc IciviiiK afier- wards advanced as far as Madrid, the Duke de V'endome umlertook to repulse him, 'I'liat i;eiieral, in conjunction with IMiilip V., ilefeated tiie allies, who were commanded by (iencriil Stiihremberj;, near Villa Viciosa (Dec. 10, 1710). Tliese two victories contributed to establish I'liilij) on his throne, Tlu^ death of .losejdi I,, which happened soon after, and the elevation of his brotlicr, the Archduke ('harlcs, to the Imperial throne and the crowns of Hungary and Hohcmia, accelerated the conclngion of the peace of I'trecht, by which the Spanish monarchy was preserved to I'hilip V, and his descendants. They deprived him, however, in virtue of that treaty, of the Netherlands and the Spanish possessions in Italy, such as the Milanais, the jiorts of Tuscany, and the kingdoms of Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, The conilitions which England had exacted at the treaty of Utrecht, to render eil'eetnal the re- nunciation of I'hilip V, to the crown of France, as well as that of the French princes to the monarchy of Spain, having made it necessary to assembh; the Cortes or States-Cieneral, I'hilip took advantage of that circumstance to change the order of succes- sion which till then had subsisted in Spain, and which was known hy the name of the Casti/ian Succession, A law was passed at the Cortes (1713), by which it was ordaineil that fi males should ii'.ivcr be admitted to the crown, except in defaidt of the male line of I'hilip ; that the male heirs should succeed according to the order of primogeniture ; that, failing the male line of that prince, the crown should fall to the eldest daughter of the last reigning king and her descendants ; and, failing them, to the sister or nearest relation of the last king; always kee])ing in force the right of primogeniture, and the preference of the male heirs in the order of succession. France, by the sixtieth article of the treaty of the Pyrenees, having renounced the protection of I'ortugal, the war betweeti Spain and this latter power was resnnu'd with new vigour. Alphonso VI., King of Portugal, finding himself abaiuloned by his allies, resolved to throw himself on the favour of England. The Knglish granted him suii- plics, in virtue of a treaty which he concluded with them (June 23, 1001), and by which he ceded to them the city of Tangiers in Africa, and the Isle (.f Bombay in India. France, who well knew that it was her interest not to abandon Portugal entirely, rendered her likewise all the secret assistance in her power. The Count Schombcrg jiassed over to that kingdom with a good number of officers, and several companies of French troops. The Portu- guese, under the command of that general, gained two victories over the Spaniards at Almexial, near Esfremos (lt)()3), and at Moiites Claros, or Villa Viciosa (Uitii)). which re-established their afl'airs, and contrihuted to secure tin- indeiieiidence of Portugal, A\ ben the war took place about the Right of Devolution, the court of Lisbon formed a new alliance with Fr.ince, Spain then learued KT.LX ■ . It—,) llcM'liitiim In I'lirtiiifiil. Sdiilli Amcrii-.iii pio\ilin'H. KOCH'S UKVOLUTIONS. (>. l'r<)m«i'll, IVcitiTtor. NViir »illi llolhiii'l. Miiiik ri'itiiri'ii (liiirli'i ll. thnf it wciulil lie mine lor luT iiitorcNt to iilinnilnii liiT |ii(>ji'<'ts of CDiKHii'riliy: I'lPituniil, iiiiil iicccpt till' iniipoMili of aci oiiiiiiocliiliuii ti'lidi'lrd to liiT liy tlic iiiciliiitioli of l''.ii^r|:iiul. It li:i|)|)('iiri|, ill till- iiM'iiiitiini', iliat AlplioliHO VI., :i iniiitc of vicious iiuliils, ;iiiil of u ferocious and luiitiil triiipcr, wiiM ilctliioiicil (Nov. "JH, l(')(i7), ami till' Infant Don I'cilio, iiis iirotlu'i', waH de- clared rc^'cnt of till- kiiii,'doii]. Tlii' (iiii-cn of Al- plioiiNo, .Miiry of Savoy, vvtio iiad inatiafjcd tin- vvluilc ilitiifj;tii', olitailiiMJ, from the court of Uoiiic, a dissolution of licr iiiania^tc vvitli AI|)lu)iiso, and espoused the rejient, iier luollier-iu-law (April ',', KiliM). That |)i'ineo would vviilimfly have t'liltillcd the enf»»i;einents which Ills piedci'essoi' had con- tracted with I'liiiice, hut the l)n^lish aniliassador haviiij; drawn over tlie Cortes of l*oi-tii};al to his interests, th'' rei;eiit was ohlii;ed to make jienee witli Spain, wliiih was si^fiied at Lishon, I'eliruary lUlh, 1(!()S. Tlie Spaniards there treated with tli'e rortULjnese as a sovereii;n and imh'pemli nt nation. Tiuy aijreed to make niutnal restitution of all they liad taken [lossession of diirini^ the war, with the exception of the city of Ceuta, in Africa, which remained in the power of Spain. The subjects of both states ohtained the restoration of all jnoperty alienated or confiscated diiriiif^' the war. That peace was lidlovved l)y another, which Portu^fal concluded at the Hai(ue, with the Inited Pro- vinces of the Netherlands (July .'M, KKi'.l), who were permitted to retain the coiKinesIs they had made from the I'ortu^^uese in the Last Indies. The court of Lisbon was soon after invidved in the war of the S|Kuiish Succession, which divided all Europe. Don I'edro II. had at Hrst acknow- ledged I'hilip v., and even contrarted an alliance with him ; but yieldini,' afterwards to the inliuenee of the British minister, as well as of the court of Vienna, he joined the Grand Alliance a;^ainst France.^ The TortUKuese made a distii'sruished figure in that war, chiefly durinj? th'.' campaign ov' 170(i, when, with the assistance of the Knglish, they penetrated as far as .Madrid, and there pro- claimed Charles of Austria. The Portuguese, by one of the articles of their treaty of accession to the grand alliance, had been given to exjiect, that certain important jilaces in Spanish Ksfreniadura and (iailicia v\>-iild be ceded to them at the general jieace. Th.it ( ngagement was never fidtilled. The treaty of peace, concluded at L'trecht ((ilh February, 171.')), between Spain and Portugal, had ordered the iinitiial rt-stitntion of uU eoniinests made diiung the war. The treaty of Lisbon, of Kiti"*, wai- then renewed, and espe- cially the articles which •■'ipiuuted for the restitu- tion of all eonliscated pn^^ertTi. The only jioint which they yielded t< the I'l.jlijffuese was that which referred to the colony of St. Siiirament, which the Portuguese governor of Rio .Janeiro had e«tablished (KiHO) on the northern bank of the river La Plata, in South America, which was op- ])osed by Spain. By the sixth article of nr treaty with Portugal, she renounced all her foriiwr claims and pretensions over the aliove colony. A similar dispute had arisen between Franee and Portugal, relative to the northern bank of the Amazons river, and the territories about Capo North, in Aineii n, which the French maintained belonged to them, as making |)art of French Guiana. The Portuguese having constructed there the fort of Macnpa, it was taken by the Ir,.,/^ governor of (,'ayenne. By the treaty of I tivcln it was agreed, between France and Portiii^iil, iln| i both banks of the river Ama/.oiis kIiiiiiIiI |„|„,, entirely to I'orliigal ; and that France sliini|,| ,,' noiince all right and pretensions whate\ir tdi),, I territories of Cape North, lying betwei ii llic ni,.,! Amazons and Japoc, or Vincent Pinsoii, lu Souiii I America. In Kngland, an interregnum of eleven ycamfol. I lowed the death of Charles I. Oliver ('i(im\uH the leader of the Independent Jiarty, piissnj t,,. Acts of Parliament, one of v\liich abolitlin! (i,, House of Lords, and the other the royal i|ii;ii)i,, The kingly oHice was suppressed, as iiseli's> tuif, nation, op|iressive and dangerous to the iiiiiri.i, and libertiis id' the jieople ; and it was diiiiln!, that whoevrr should speak of the restiiraiidi, ,,( | the Stuarts should be regarded as a traildr ti. (oiinlry. The kingdom being thus chaiii,'i'il imoi a republic, Cromwell took on himself the chiflj direction of affairs. This ambitious man wiisiutl long in monopolizing the sovereign iiiilliDrilvl (1().')3). Jle abolished the iiarlianient callcil tlif I liump, which had conferred on him his ]iii\\i[| and military commission, lie next asscnililid 1 1 new parliament of the three kingdoms, IuimI number of 14 1 member"; and he took ciirchl have it composed of individuals whom he know be devoted to his interests. .\ecordiii^l\, ih, resigmd the whole authority into his haiiil''. Aul act, called the Act of Ciovernmeut, coidi'iici! on] him the sn])reme authority, under the lille nf I'ln, teetor of llie three kingdoms; with the ]iri\ilc.-. of making war and peace, and assembliiii; imij i three years a iiarlianient, which shoulil cmicmI the legislative power conjunctly with hiiMsclf. Cromwell governed Kngland with a more un- controlled power than that of her own Uiiiu's haill been. In UJiil, he passed the famous Navi;'atii!ii| Act, iihich contributed to increase the c()iiim«cc| of (ireat Britain, and gave lier marine a luepou- derance over that of all other nations. Tliatrt-I traordinary man raised England in the estimalinn I of foreigners, and made his protectorate W spected by all Europe. After a war which lu-haJI carried on against the Dutch, he obliged lliwii, kl tlie treaty of "tVestminslcr ( lli.")4), to imver tlitiil ilag to British vessels, and to abandon the imim of the Stuarts. Entering into alliance vvitli l'i-inc(| against Spain, he took from the latter the isliiiuUf Jamaica (105.}) and tlm port of Dunkirk (Ki.'iS), After Ilia doatli, the generals of the ariiiycnri-l billed to restore the old parliament, ciiIIpiI tlie| Uump. Richard Cromwell, who succeeded I father, soon resigned the Protectorate (April'. 1050). Dissensions having arisen betvvi'iu the | parliament and thi? generals. Monk, who \v;u vernor of Scotland, marched to the assistuiuicifl the parliament; and, after having defeated ife I Independent Generals, he proceeded to assend)! al new parliament composed of both houses. No sooner was this parliament assembled, tliiia tli'vl decided for the restoration of the Stuarts, in thtj person of Charles II. (IStli May, HifiO). That prince maile his public entry into Loiidou,! in the month of May, 16(iO. His tirst rue was I to take vengeance on those who had been ehiitlyl instrumental in the death of his father. Hoif-I scindcd all Acts of I'arliament passed since tlie| Tie Tiirlemind \\ pi.|liriiiM'me»l 111' William lli.iiiid^ far IMM, nn'l ''''•'' ii^.lund and S.'otb „,ity for ahsnluti ;i\iinN whiih he 1 ,,<, he ailepled III „, |,;irliaiiient ; an t,;,ii eiiee to pfonn ifii, ill CDiiseipieii l„,l iiiritatieli, v\hicli i,,,v revolution.* T ,.„,,, so famous J, ,|||iMit this time nliiii I harlcs for h ,i„i>ideiali(m of the ,|lih idiaracter. But wliii •.ui'ceedcd ,r„„e (llilh rdi., H minds ef his _ aiietir, and his illtonie. and the .Ic; ;^ he raised to tin , ihaii;.'!' the religii i,.:li still more desp iiue. Kiicoiiraged 1 iiii niiiiiey iiniile at his court ; and Uada, to wlioii) mission, be iravi iili\ In AVindsor ( Kil" 'fluM'd to publish th i, were treated iiprismied by his ord l)iiriiig these trans ndelia, hapiieiied I •.'OlhJmie, KiH.S), ki if the Pretender. J Iren for more that iiiii credit to a re as a s|uirious child. aje with Anne Hy ^'laremluii, had two ml leL'arileil, till th ilary, the t Idest, wa if Orange, and Ann louiigor son of Fred he Knglish Protestu it all their wrongs ililiate with the dea !es>i(in (if the Princi iuij disapiiointed i ith (d' the Prince o In dethrone the kin| ith the Whigs in off ifOiangc. William fct, made a descei 0,1)00 men nt Torb xperieiicing the ams 'anus, who, seeing hi iry, took the resoluti flieie lie had alread Ihc vouiig Prince of Til' Triricn mill Wliiifi. lii'lliriiiii'niriilur.liinii'it II. Willmni Hi. mill Miir) II. TKIIIOD VII. A.l). HUH— ma. lli'cl.iMlinll III I(i^lll4. Till' rriiti''.taiit Sucremliiii. Hi'illii iif Aiiiiu. \n Inr ni'''''i •""' rr-rsliilili-'lirit l'.|iiMiipiirj Imtli in IliL'liiiiii "'!'' J^i'illiX"'- llisti>;iitiil lij Ills |iiii- rii-itv fill' iiliHiiliili' liiiwrr, iiriil Injlnwiii),' lln' jiniiiii* "liiili 111' 'I'l'' iiiiliilii'il Iriiiii liis )ui'ilr(i'N- t,]< hi' ailnlilt'il liirnsmcs whirii WiTi' opiioNcd liy kii' iiiiriiiiiiii'iit ; ami I'vcii wriit sn far uh iiioii- liiii (iMi'i> 111 iiroii'iiincc tlirir ilissniutlnti. His h'iirii, ill ('i>iist'i|iiriii'i'. Avas u scciii' of faction i4 iiu'itiil'i"!' ^* '''''' l""^'''l •'■'' forcrvmuns of ii li'W irviiliitiixi-* '111'" appellation of W/iii/.i anil ■iin, sii faiiioiis in Kn^^lisii liistorv, tonlv its iiliiiiit tliis liiiii'. \V( coiilil aim. 1st, Iiowomt, limliiu ( liarli'i^ for his faults anil ini'KnIaiitics, in Iiiii>iiii'niliiiu iif fill' lipncvoli'ini' ami aiiiialili-ncss ll'liis rliiirai'tri'. Hut it was otliiTwisr with Jaiiirs 11, wliii Mirrrnii'ii liis hritlicr on llii' liiitisli JiniiR' (Killi I't'li., I'iH.")). 'I'liat jiiiiiri' alirnalril (ii' miliils I'f his snliji'i'ts liv his liau^jhtj ili'- I'liiiiiur, ami his I'xtravasant zi'al for thi' rhinch ll'ltiiim". ami Ihi- .Icsuits his confi'ssors. Scarci ly \;is lu' laisrd to thi' tin'; no, ^\ll^n he uniliTtnok ili;iiiu'i' ihi' r('li;;ion of his country, anil to (;o. \,«;\\ M\ niiirc despotically than his liriithcr had lnuc. Kmiiuraijcd liy l.ouis XIV., who iilU'rcil liiM iiuiiicy and troops, he was the lirst Kin^f of Eii.'l:iiiil tiiit had ke])t on foot an army in time of iiiiT, and caused the lei;isliiturc to decide, that Ilii' kiiii; can disiieiise with the laws, Availinjj (iiiM'll of this decision, he dispcuHcd with the HMiul stiitiites issued aijainst tlie t'athidics ; he ImiiiUi'd tliciii the pvdilie exercise of their reli- liiiii widiiii tlie three kin;;ilonis, and ^nidually h\i' till 111 a preference in all jilaces of trust. At L'lli, lie even solicited the iiope to send a nuncio ui'siilc at his court ; ami on the arrival of l''crdi- il Daila, to wlioni Innocent Xi. had ciiiilided h\i niissiiin, he cave him a |)uhlie ami solcnni liilivloAViiidsiir (U)H7). Seven bishops, who had tfl'ii'.i'il til puhlish the declaration respectinij Ca- nli's, were treated ns ^'uilty of sedition, uiul iii|ii'isimed by his order in the Tov\ er. l)iuiii|,' these transactions, i'" Queen. .Mary of lli'ik'nu, hap]ieneil to he il, nvered of a prince r'Hlh Jmic, i(iHS), known in history hy the name If the Pretender. As luT Vajesty had liad no lliililri'ti for mure than six yem^v, it was not ditticnlt Li pm credit to a rejiH>rt, flt.it the yount; jirinco ii< :i siniriiins child. JaM»«>s II., hy his first mar- lijL'i' with Anne llv!e, (laughter of the Karl of .'larriiiloii, had two daui;hters, both Protestants, liiil loirarilid, till then, as heirs to the crown. Jl.iiy, till' (Idest, was niiirjried to William, Prince If Oniiiije, and Ainie, the yoiiniti'st, to tieorifc, |ouii;;or son of Frederic III., Kiiiff of Denmark. riii' Kurdish Protestants had H altered themselves llnl all tlieir wronijs and mi--iirtune8 woidd ter- piiiKili' with the death of .lames II. ami the ac- le»>i(iii of the Princess of Orange to the throne. priii^' ilisappiiintcd in these expectations by the liithiif the Prince of "NVnles, their only plan was In ili'thrime the king. The Tories even joined pith the Whigs in offering the crown to the Prince kfOrangc. Williani III., supported by the Dutch ffot, made a descent on England, and landed IJ.IIOO men at Torbay (.5th Nov., KiSH), without Ispirii'iiriug the smallest resistance on the jiart of pmis, who, seeing himself abandoned by tbemili- firy, took the resolution of withdrawing to Prance, niiero he had already sent liis queen and his son, Ihc young Prince of Wales. He afterwards re- turned to Ireland, where he had a htrmig parly; but lieiiig loniiuered by \\ illiam, at the battle of the Itoyne (lltli July, HiiMI), he was obliged to return to Prance, wliere he ended his days. Immediat'ly after the Might of .lames, the pur- iiaiiii'Ut of I iigland declared, by an net, that as he had violated the fundamental law of the cinistitn- tioii, and ahandiineil the kingdom, the tinnne was become vacant. 'J hey, therefnre, \nianiiiiously conferred the crown on William III , Prince of Orange, and Mary his spouse ( Peliriiaiy '.'".', UISD); intrusting the admini...trati(in of atfairs to the prince alone. In redressing the grievances of the nation, they sit new limits to the royal authority. Hy aii Act, ciilled the /Jri/iirdtitiii ;lil to flip Britisli throne from .Tiitnos I. Iter lUiitcniiil Liraudliitlu'r. Tlu' ])<)wi'r and political iiiiluciicc of tlio I'liitt'd I'roviiH'L's of till' >ii'tliorlaiids had incrciiscd ovi'ry day. since Spain iickiiowlcdm'd their indciicndcncc liy the treaty of ^lunster ( I(i4S), Thi ir extensive connneice to all parts of the f^lobo, and their fliiit- rishini,' niiirine, uttrurted the admiration of all I'lurope. Sovereigns conited their alliance ; an, the ca])itiil of the States-iieneral, be- came, in course of time, the centre of l'",nro))ean politics. That republic was the rival of Kni^land in all her commercial relutii)iis ; and she ventured also to disp\ite with her the empire of I lie sea, by refusing to lower her Hag to Uritish vessels. These disputes gave rise to bloody wars bet\\eeii the two states, in which the famous Dutch Adndrals, Troni]) and l)e Uuyler, distinguished thenisehcs by tlieir maritinu' exploits. De lluyter entereil the Thanu's with tlio Dutch tleet (l(il>7), advanced to ('hatham, burnt the vessels in the roads there, and threw the City of London into great consternation. Nevertheless, by the treaties of Ureda (l(i(J7) and Westminster (1(174), they agreed that their vessels and Heets should lower their flag when they nu't either one or more ships carrying the Uritish Hag, ami that over all the sea, from Cape Finisterre, in (iallicin, to the centre of Statt in Norway; but the States-General ))reserved Surinam, which they had comiuered (hning th(? war; iind at tiic treaty of connuerce, wbicli was signed at Hreda, the Navigation Act was moditied in their favoiu', in so far that the jirodnce and merchandise of (lermany were to be considered as i)n)ilucti(>ns of the soil of the republic. It was during these wars that a change toidv jilaco with regard to the Stadtholdership of the I'nited Provinces. AVilliam II., I'rince of Orange, had alienated the hearts of his sidijects by iiis at- tempts against their liberties ; and having, at his death, left his wife, the daugbtcr of ('barles I. of r.ngland, i)regnant of a son (Ki.'.O), tiu' States- (ieneral took the oppcu'tnnity of leaving that oHice vacant, and takimr upon tbemsehes the direction of affairs. 'I'iie suspiciinis whicli the House! of Orange bad excited in Cromwell liy their alliance wilii tbe Stuarts, and the resentment of .lohu de WitI, I'lMisionary of Holland, against the Stadt- liolder, caused u secret article to be added to the treaty of Westminster, by which the States of Holland and AVcst Frieslaiul engaged never to elect William, the posthumous son of William II., to be StadthuUler ; and never to allow that the office of captain-general of the republic sluuild be con- ferred on liim. .iohii de AVitt likewise framed a regulation known by the name of the Prrpctiiid hldiit, which separated the stadtholdershi|) from the office of ca|)tain and admiral -general, and which enacted, that these functions slio\dd never be discharged by the same individual. Having' failed, however, in liis efforts to make the Stafes- (ieneral adopt this regulation, which they con- sidered as contrary to the union, John de Witt contented himself with obtaining the npjjrobation of the States of Holland, who even went so fur as to sanction the entire suppression of the stadt- holdership. Matters continuerl in this situation until the time when Louis XIV. invadeil Holland. His ularming jirogrcss caused a revolution in favom- of the I'rince of Orange. The ruling faction, at i|, head of wliicli was ,)obu de Wilt, then jdsi ii i good ojiiniim of the people, lie was aicu,i.(|i, having m'glected nnlitary atfairs, and l(!l'i tlicSiaifl without defence, mid a jirey to the eiicniv. Tli,l lirst signal of revoliiticui was given by llu' miuIiI town of \'eere in Zealand. William vvii>> ih,,,! proclaimed Stadtliolder (June l(17'i), inul lii,' ,.>. ample of Veere was soon followed by all tlicdiiHi of Holland ann induced the Europiaii| states to respect the Helvetic neutrality. This ])rofoun(l peace, which Switzerland cnjintill by means of that neutrality, was never intcmiiitii' exccjit by occasional domestic ipiarrels, wliicli iir"*f| from the difference of their religious opiiii'iiisj Clwrli-'sX. i.rSwi";-ii- l„|,iiCii.siiiiir, K.ol I'ciliitKl. PERIOD VII. A.D. 1648—1713, War ol' Swi'deii lUiil Di-nmiirk. Troaty of ('i>)i(>iili:if;('il. 123 '■rtain families, from the canton of Scliweitz, liil tied to /uricli on account of their rolij^ioiis s iiiiil lia'i 'x'en protected hy tlmt rcpuljlic. riiis s'tim'd up ii war (KioO) Ijctwocn tlie (Jatliolic laiitoiis mill the Zurichers, witli their alliuH the B ,.||,,s^. • but it was Koon terminated by the jiuiice If Dwleu, whii'h renewed the clauses of the treaty If IWI, relative to these very subjects of dispute. lonie attempts having afterwards been made jiiisl liberty of conscience, in the county of Foiiirenbiiry;, by the Abbu of St. Gall, a new Avar Like out (Hl'i), between live of the (Jatbolie Mioiis, and the two Protestant cantons of Zurich iiid Bcriic. These latter expelled the Abbe of ll. Gall fioiii his estates, and (lisjiossessed the atliolics of tiie county of Baden, with a consider- ,1,, pint of the free bailiwicks, which were j^ranted tlioiii by the treaty concluded at Araw. The hill' then saw himself abandoned by the Catholic taiiliins; and it was oidy in virtue of a treaty, Uiih lie concluded with Zuricli and Uerno (171H), llial liis successor obtained his restoration. Swi'ili'ii, during the greater j)art of this period, luiipoiti'd lh(! first rank among the ])owcrs of the Idiitli. The vigour of her govermnent, added to Jii' weakness of her neighbours, and the imj)ortant (l\a»tai;es which the treaties of Stolbova, Stums- iloif, Uronisbro, and Westphalia had procured her, licnred this superiority ; and gave her the same lilliiemv in the North that Prance held in tlio Buuili. C'lu'istiua, the daugliter of Gnstavus liltilphus, lield the reins of government in liwedeii about tlie middle of the sixteenth century; fcul to );iatify lier propensity for tlie Knc arts, she ii'siilved to abdicate the crown (l(>i54). (Iharles [iiisliiviis, {'ouut Palatine of Doux-Ponis, lier Idiisin-ijerman, succeeded her, luider the tith; of I'harles X. Ueing nurtured in the midst of arms, Lnil amliitious only of wars and battles, he was liiximis to distinguish himself on the throne. John lasimir, King of Poland, having ])rovoked him, f\ ]ii()testing against his accessiou to the crown of Bwcdeii, Charles made this an occasion of breaking Uio lieaty of Stumsdorf, which was still in force, M invaded Poland. Assisted by Frederic William, lilt' Elector of IJraudenlmrg, whom he had attaciied lo his interests, he gaineil a splendid victory over Poles near Warsaw (July, KloS). At that rrisis, the fate of Poland would have been decided, |f the Czar, Alexis Michaelovitz, who was also at r with tlie Poles, had chosen to make com^'ou hiw with her new enemies ; but Alexis thought |i iiiiirc lor his advantage to conclude a truce with llic Poles, and attack the Swedes in Livonia, In- pria, and t'arelia. The Emperor Leopold and the Sill),' of Doninark followed thi> example of the Iwr; and the Elector of Brandenburg, after ob- laimiii,' the sovereignty of the Duchy of Prussia, ty the treaty whidi he concluded with Poland at pVi'laii, acceded in like manner to this league — the ibjed (it which was to secure the preservation [if Poland, and maintain the equilibrium of the iorlh. Attacked by so many and such powerful enc- bii'S the King of Sweden determined to withdraw lis trnojis from Poland, and direct his princi|)al lorce against Denmark. Having ma.')H). The Swedish ileet was repulsed, and the Dutch succeeded in relieving (.'openhagen, by throwing in a supply of provisions and ammunition. The King of Sweden persisted, nevertheless, in his determination to reduce that cajiital. He was not even intimidated by the treaties which France, England, and Holland, had concluded at the Hague, for maintaining the e(iuilibrium of the North ; but a premature death, at the age of thirty-eight, put an end to his ambitious projects (23rd F'ebruary, H)(iO). The regents who governed the kingdom during tlie minority of his son (.'harles XL, im- mediately set on foot negociations with all the powers that were in league against Sweden. By the peace which tliey concluded at C't.uenhageu with Denmark (July 3, KitiO), they srirreudered to that crown several of their late coiupiests ; reserv- ing to themselves only the provinces of Schoneii, Bleckingen, Halland, and Bohus. The Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, the prot(!gu of Charles X., was secured by that treaty in the sovereignty of that ])art of Sleswick, which had been guaranteed to him by a former treaty concluded at Cojienhagen. The war with Poland, and her allies the Elector of Brandenburg and the Lmperor, was terminated by the peace of Oliva (May 3r(l, KJtiO). The King of Poland gave up his pretensions to the crown of Sweden ; while the former ceded to tin; latter the provinces of Livonia and Esthonia, and the islands belonging to them ; to be jiossessed on the same terms that had been agreed on at tlie treaty of Stumsdorf in 1()3.). The duke of Cour- land was re-established in his duchy, and the sovereignty of ducal Prussia confirmed to the House of IJrandcnburg. Peace between Sweden and Russia was concluded at Kardis in Esthonia ; while the latter power surrendered to Sweden all the places which she had conquered in Livonia. Sweden was afterwards drawn into the war against the Dutch by Louis XIV., when she ex- perienced nothing but disasters. She was deprived of all her provinces in the Empire, and only re- gained possession of them in virtue of tlie treaties of Zell, Nimeguen, St. Cierniain-en-Laye, F"on- tainebleau, and Liinden (l(i7!l), which she con- cluded successively with the powers in league against I'^rance. Immediately after that jieace, a revolution happened in the government of Sweden. The abuse which the nobles made of their privi- J. ..>■., Clmrlfs XI. of Swetlou. 124 Swcdisli Dii-t. Cliarlfs XII. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Victorious nt Niirva, Till- I'ulish coiitcsi.' l'ot«T tlie Great. legps, tlie pxtrnvnjiiint initliority clairncd by the scir.iti', sind tlii.' (liH'orciit methods wliii'li the grandees employed for ijniduiilly usurping the do- mains of the erown, had exeited the jealousy of the other orders of the state. It is alleged that Baron Gillenstiern had suggested to Charles XI. the idea of taking advantage of this discontent to augment the royal authority, and humble the arrogance of the senate and the nobility. In compliaiicc with his advice, the king assembled the estates of the kingdom at Stockholm (1680) ; and having quar- tered some regiments of his own guards in tlie city, he took care to remove sucli of the nobles as might give the greatest cause of apprehension. An accusation was lodged at tlie Diet against those ministers who had conducted the administration during the king's minority. To tliein were attri- buted the calamities and losses of the state, and for these they were made responsible. The senate was aho implicated. They were charged with abusing their authority ; and it was proposed that the Slates should nuike investigation, whether the powers which the senate had assumed were con- formable to the laws of the kingdom. The States declared that the king was not bound by any other form of government than that which the constitu- tion prescribed ; that the senate formed neither a fifth order, nor an intermediate power between the king and the States ; and that it ought to be held simply as a council, with whom the king might consult and advise. A ('allege of Bc-iinion was also osfablislird at this Diet, for the purpose of making incpiiry as to the lands granted, sold, mortgaged, or exchanged by preceding kings, either in Sweden or Livonia ; with an offer on the part of tlie crown to reim- burse the proprietors for such sums as they had originally paid for them. This proceeding made a considerable augmentation to the revenues of the crown ; but a vast number of proprietors were completely ruined by it. A subsetpient diet went even further tliau that of IfiSO. They declared, by statute, that though the king was enjoined to govern his dominions according to the laws, this did not take from him the power of altering these laws. At length the act of 1«!)3 decreed that the king was absolute master, and sole depository of the sovereign power ; without being responsible for his actions to any power on earth ; and that he was entitled to govern the kingdom according to his will and pleasure. It was in virtue of these different enactments and concessions, that the absolute power which had been conferred on Charles XL, was transmitted to the hands of his son Charles XII., who was only fifteen years of age when he succeeded his father (April 1st, 1()!)7). By the abuse which this prince made of those dangerous prerogatives, he jilunged Sweilen into an abyss of troubles ; and brought her down from that high rank which she had occupied in the political system of Kurope, since the reign of Gustavus Adoljihus. The youth of Charles ap- peared to his neighbours to afford them a favour- able op])ortunity for recovering what they had lost by the conquests of his predecessors. Augustus II., King of I'oland, being desirous to regain Livonia, and listening to the suggestions of a Livonian gen- tleman, nameil John Patkid, who had been pro- scribed in Sweden, he set on foot a negociation with the courts of Russia and Copenhagen ; the result of which was, a secret and offensive allien,,] concluded between these three powers ii"aiii»| Sweden (1699). Peter the Great, who haiij ' conquered Azoff on the Black Sea, and cqiiinnJi his first fleet, was desirous also to open nn ||, I eoasts of the Baltic, of which his predecessors h been dispossessed by Sweden. \Var acconliujL I broke out in the course of the year 17U0, 1^' King of Poland invaded Livonia ; the Danes U I upon Sleswick, where they attacked the l)iii;,j of Holstein-Gottorp, the ally of Sweden; whiid the Czar, at the head of an army of 80,0(J() mf, I laid siege to the city of Narva. The King of Sweden, attacked by so inanvciit.l mies at once, directed his first efforts against" Den. I mark, where the danger appeared nu)st iircssinj,! Assisted by the fleets of England and Hdllan,] I who had guaranteed the last peace, he imulejl descent on the Isle of Zealand, and advunctil rj-l ])idly towards Copenhagen, This olilii;ivl Frt.l deric IV. to conclude a special peace with him ii| Traveudahl (August 18, 1700), by which ihiij prince consented to abandon his allies, and rostotel the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp to the same state ijl which he had been before the war. Next dirpctiml his march against the Czar in Esthonia, the joiuil king forced the Russians from their entrcnchinfniJ before Narva (November 'M)), and made iiriMinetil of all the general and principal officers ot'tln'Ru.. sian army ; among others, Field-Marshal (ieiierjjl the Duke de Croi. Having thus got clear of the Russians, thJ Swedish Monarch then attacked King Auj;miu(,l who had introduced a Saxon army into I'olaiulJ without being authorized by that republic. Chirlpil vanquished that prince in the three famoiis batlbl of Riga (1701), Clissau (1702), and Pulttisk (1703)1 and obliged the Poles to depose him, and ch'cl igl his place Stanislaus Lecksinski, Palatine of l'nseii,| and a protege of his own. Two victories whichl were gained over the Saxons, and their aMics tkel Russians, one at Puuie (1704), and the oIIht ail Fraustadt (1706), made Stanislaus be aikiinK.f ledged by the whole republic of Poland, anjl enabled the King of Sweden to transfer the scat nfl war to Saxony. Having marched thro\igli Siksii,| without the jirevious authority of the comt Vienna, he took Leipzic, and compelled Aiiirusiuil to sign a treaty of peace at Alt-Ranstadt, h\ wliirfil that ])rince renounced his allitmce with tlie t'zirJ and acknowledge'd Stanislaus legitimate Kin;' o!| Poland. John Patkul, being delivi-red up to thel King of Sweden, according to an article in thitl treaty, was broken on the wheel, as beiii^' the| principal instigator of the war. The prosperity of Charles XII. had now cnmcl to an end. From this time he experieii'^ednnlyal series of reverses, which were occasioned iis murlil by his passion for war, as by his indi.'tcrctions, andl the unconquerable obstinacy of his character. Tliel Russians had taken advantage of his long Kojoiiral in Poland and Saxony, and conquered tlie (rroalcti part of Ingria and Livonia. The Czar had iioivl advanced into Poland, where he had deniamlcd ofl the Poles to declare an interregnum, and elett »l new king. In this state of matters, the Kin? ofl Sweden left Sixony to march against the V-nri and compelled him to evacuate Poland, ami rclirel on Smolensko. Far from listening, however, tol the equitable terms of peace which Peter olfcrpill Chatles XII. iiivartea Prl'i'iitfil lit Piiltowa. PERIOD VII. A.D. 1G4S— 1713. Ilratli (if Cliarles XI (. I'uiu'i' of SStockliolni. \\m with Uiissiii. 125 ,. ],g persisteil in his resolution to march on to Soscow, in till' hope of dcihronhig the czar, us he j" (letliruiietl Augustus. The discontent which r innovations of the czar had excited in Russia, Inneiiied to (.'liarles a favourable opportunity for iSwinif his object ; but on reaching the neigh- fjjood of Molulew, he suddenly changed his lurposi-'' and, instead of directing his route to- Vii'ls tlic (capital of Russia, lie turned to the right, lid penetrated into tlie interior of the Ukraine, in Irder to meet Mazeppa, Hetinan of the Cossacs, irlio had offered to join liim with all his troo])8. k'othing could have been more imprudent than Biis determination. By thus marching into the rkraiiie, he separated himself from General Lew- liiliaupt, wlio had brought him, according to Irdei's, a powerful reinforcement from Livonia ; Tjid trusted himself among a Kckle and incon- Itant people, disposed to break faith on every Ipnortunity. Tliis ineonsiderate step of Charles did not escape he pi'netratiou of the czar, who knew well how protit by it. I'utting himself at the head of a llioseii body, he intercepted General Lewenhaujit, liid joined liim at Desna, two miles from Propoisk, [, the Palatinate of Mscislnw. The battle whicli t'ouitht with that general (0th October, 170S) tas most obstinate, and, by the confession of ill' ci-ar, the Krst victory which the Russians lad <'aip"d over regular troops. The remains of "1 I'lpt's army having joined the king in the ii, . ales undertook the siege of Pultowa, lituati- -i i' ' banks of the Vorsklaw, at the ex- Iri'm :■>•'■* ' -i' province. It was near this ])lace, lliattne ihnious battle was fought (SthJuly, 1709), 'h blasted all the laurels of the King of pwi'len. The czar gsiined there a complete vic- Jorv. Nine thousand Swedes were left on the fceld of battle ; and 14,000, who had retired with Gori'ial Lewenhaupt, towards Pcrevolatscbna, be- Iwcen the Vorsklaw and the N ieper, were made pri- loneis of war, three days after the action. Charles, Ifcompnnied by his ally Mazeppa, saved liinisclf pith ililH>'idty at Uender in Turkey. Tills lUsiistrous rout revived the courage of the liiemies of Sweden. The alliant e was renewed liftweeu the czar, Augustus II., and Frederic II., liiiin if Denmark. Stanislaus was abandoned. Ail Poland again acknowledged Augustus II. The Danes made a descent on Schoncn ; and the czar iihlevcil the conquest of Ingria, Livonia, and L'arella. The states that were leagued against ll'raiiee in the war of the Spanish Succession, Iftishliij,' to prevent Germany from becoming the Ihcatre of hostilities, concluded a treaty at the Jague(lilst Marcli, 1710), by which they under- Kooli, under certain conditions, to guarantee the neutrality of the Swedish provinces in Germany, jtswell us that of Sleswick and Jutland; but the Ivlnj; of Sweden having constantly declined ac- Icedln;; to this neutrality, the possessions of the Swedes in Germany were also seized and con- Jqiii'ied in succession. Tin; Duke of IIolstein-Got- Ror]), the nephew of Charles XII., was involved in pis dls!,'rare, and stript of his estates by the King |»f Denmark (1714). Ill the midst of these disasters, the inflexible Kill)? of Sweden persisted in prolonging his sojourn Jit Bender, making repeated efi'orts to rouse the iTiii'ks against the Russians. He did not return from Turkey till 1714, when his affairs were al- ready totally ruined. The attempts which he then made, either to rnne>^ the war in Poland, or in- vade the provinces of the Empire, excited the jaalousy of the neighbouring powers. A formi- dable league was raised against him ; besides the czar, the Kings of Poland, Denmark, Prussia, and England, joined it. Stralsund -and NVismar, the only places which Sweden still retained in Ger- many, fell into the hands of the allies ; while the czar added to these losses the conquest of Finland and Savolax. In a situation so dusperate, Charles, by the advice of his minister, Baron Gortz, set on foot a special and secret negociation with the czar, which took place in the isle of Aland, in course of the year 1718. There it was proposed to reinstate Stanislaus on the throne of Poland ; to restore to Sweden her ])os8essions in the Empire ; and even to assist her in conquering Norway ; by way of comiiensiitiou for the loss of Ingria, Carelia, Livonia, and Esthonia, which she was to cede to the czar. That negociation was on the point of being finally closed, when it was broken ofl' bv the un- expected death of Charles XII. That unfortunate prince was slaiu (December 11th, 1718), at the siege of Fredericshall iu Jforway, while visiting the trenches ; being only thirty-seven years of age, and leaving the affairs of his kingdom in a most de])lorable state. The new regency of Sweden, instead of remain- ing in friendship with the czar, changed their policy entirely. Baron de Gortz, the friend of the late king, fell a sacrilice to the jiublic displeasure, and a negociation was opened with the court of Sweden. A treaty of peace and alliance was con- cluded at Stockholm (November 20, 1710), be- tween Great Britain and Sweden. George I., on obtaining the cession of the duchies of Bremen and Verden, as Elector of Hanover, engaged to send a strong sciuiulron to the Baltic, to prevent any further invasion from the czar, and procure for Sweden more equitable terms of peace on the part of that prince. Tl;e example of Great Britain was soon followed by the other allied powers, who were anxious to accommodate matters with Sweden. By the treaty concluded at Stockholm (21st Ja- nuary, 1720), the King of Prussia got the town of Stettin, and that part of Ponierania, which lies between the Oder and the Pceue. The King of Denmark consented to restore to Sweden the towns of Stralsund and AVismar, with the isle of Rugen, and the part of Ponierania, which extends from the sea to the river Peene. Sweden, on her side, •■enounced, in favour of Denmark, herexeinp tiou from the duties of the Sound and the two Belts, which had been guaranteed to her by former treaties. The czar was the only person who, far from being intimidated by the menaces of England, pers.'sted in his resolution of not making peace with Sweden, except on the conditions which he had di tated to her. The war was, therefore, con- tinued between Russia and Sweden, during the two campaigns of 1720 and 1721. Different parts of the Swedish coast were laid desolate by the czar, who put all to fire and sword. To stop the progress of these devastations, the Swedes at length consented to accept the peace which the czar of- fered them, which was finally signed at Nystadt (13th September, 1721). Finland was surren- ir.;:.j , £^ i >■.' Frodoric IT', of I)nnm;irk. 126 Stiiti's-G.'Uural ofnctmmrk. KOCH'S ilEVOLUTIONS. Polilieul Itevolutiou in Pciiraark. Christian V. ilei'cd to Sweden in lieu of licr form.'lly ceding to tlie czar the province; of Livonia, Estl^oiiia, Ingria, and Careliu ; their limits to bo dctermmcd accord- inj; to tlio rcfjiildtions of tlie tri 'ity. The aseendiincy wliich Swi^deu Iiad gained in the North since the reign of Gustavus Adolphus, liad become so fatal to Denmark, that ehe was on the point of being utterly subverted, and etfaced from the number of European powers. Nor did she extri'jate herself from the disastrous wars wliicli she had to support against Charles X., until she had vificed some of her best provinces ; sudi as Sc' jn, Dleckingen, llalland, and the govern- ment of Uohus, which Trcderic III. ceded to Sweden by the treaties of lloschild and Cupen- liagen. It was at the close of this war that a re- volution happened in the gov rnment of Denmark. Until that time, it had been completely inider the aristocracy of the nobles ; the throne was elective ; and all power was concentrated in the haiuls of the senate, and the ])rincipal me.- 'lers of the nobility. The royal jnerogative was linuied to the eomniand of the arniVj and tlie i)residency in the senate. The king was even obliged, by a sjiecial capitula- tion, in all affairs which did not re([uire the con- curicuce of the senate, to lake the advice of four g eat olHcers of the crown, viz. the Cirand Master, iiie Cliauccllor, the Marshal, and tlu^ Adnilial; who were considered as so many channels or vehicles of the royal auf liority. The state of exhaustion to which Denmark was reduced at the time she made peace with Sweileii, obliged Frederic III. to convoke an assemblv of the States-General of tlie kingdom. These, wldcli were comjiosed of three orders, viz. the nobility, the clergy, and the burgesses, had never '.jceu sunnnoned together in tliat form since tl c year loIU). At their meeting at ('ojienhagcn, the two inferior orders reproached the nobles with having been the cause of all the miseries and disorders of the state, by flie exorbitant and tyrannical power which they had usurj)ed ; and what tended still more to increase tlieir animosity against them, was the obstinacy with whicj. they maintained their privileges and exemptions from the public burdens, to the prejudice of the lower orders. One subject of bishop of Zealand and the- burgomaster of (y'openhagen, the idea of framing a declaration for the i)urpose of rendering the crown hereditary, both in the male and female descendants of Frederic III. It was not dilHeult for tiiem to recommend this project to their respective orders, who Hattered themselves that, under a hercditn.ry monarchy, they would enjoy that equality which was (jfni,,! them under an aristocracy of the nobles. '11^, J of this declaration, having been approved jinjl signed by the two orders, was i)resenteil in ij.^ name to the senate, who reje-H'd it, on the irrou-, that the States-General then ussemhlcd, Iki,i ,, . right to deliberate on that proposition ; l)iit ,|| I clergy and the burgesses, without being iliscnuJ certed, went in a body to the king, carrying' \vii|,| them the Act which oifered to make I'lio inmJ hereditary in his family. The nobles haviuitmjjj a pretence of wishing to quit the city in oiil.'i \A break up the Diet, care was taken to shut ilj doors. The members of the senate and the nc bility had then no other alternative left t'lautel agree to the resolutior of 'he t ,vo inferior iril>.vl and the otter of the crown was made to tj o \[fA by the three orders conjunctly (l.'lth OrtuW,! l(i(!0). They then t«., vdered him the capitulation I which was annulled ; and at the same tii •(> thevl liberated him from the oath which he had trkfj on the day of his coronation. A sort of dlt,,,' ,. ship was then conferred on him, to reguiuti' iIki new constitutional charter, nccording to liis i;,),;,)! j>lfasure. All the orders of tin- state then luokil new oath of fealty and homage to him, while thJ king himself was subjected to no oath wiiativt.f P'inally, the three orders separately reinill. J 1 1 Act to the king, declaring the crown hercditarviiJ all the descendants of Frederic III., Iiolh riialel and female; conferring on him and his succi'ssnr!) an indimifed power ; and granting him tlic priviT lege of regulating the order both of the ri";i'iin| and the succession to the thrfuie. Thus terminated that imjioriant revulutiuiij without any disorder, and without shodilinL' J siiiL,de drop of blood. It was in virtue of tinsel powers which the states had conferred on hii;,! tliat the king published what is called tlio Riijjalt Law, regardeil as ll;e only fundamental Ian- Denmark. The king was there declared iih4H). Distracted at Lc bv foreign wars and intestine factions, she Icnii'd' every moment on the brink of destruction ; Lhvbile llie neighbouring states were auguient- L their forces, and strengthening tin; hands of fciir j;nvi'rnii!ents, I'ohuul grew gradually weaker weaker, and at length degenerated into abso- lite iiiiareby. The origin of the lAhvntm f'ctu of I'ules, which allowed the opposition of a single iiiiilieito frustrate the delibi^rations of the wlxde iit, beb)ugs to the reign of John C'asimir. The ^.| that suspended thi; diet, by the interposition ' his veto, was Sdiinski, nusnber for Upita in lilhi.aiiia; his example, though at lirst disap- iiMil, found imitators ; and this foolish practice, lliieh allowed oni' to usurp the prerogative of a lijoiity, soon passed into a law, and a nuixini of TtiwiuiU the end of the reign of Uladislaus VII. (miirileroiis . ar had arisen in I'olanil, that of the Ihsus. 'I'liis warlike ]ieople, of Ilussian origin, I their language ami their religion ))rove, inha- |teilbiilb banks of the Uorystbenes, beyond Kiow; |hiiv they were subdivided into regiments, under Monimaiid of a general, called llctnian; and •rviil as a military frontier for Poland against tlu' |i;rlais and Turks. Some infringenu'uUi that had 'CM niiiile on their privileges, added to the etl'orts lliich llie I'oles had made to induce their clergy s(]uiiale I'ror i the Greek Church, and acknow- t'e llie siipreniacv of the po])e, exasperated the .s;i(s, and engendered ttnu)ng them a spirit of l^nlt (KltT). Assisted by tin; Turks of tl>e Cri- l(':i, they invaded l':ily with them ; but the minds of both jiarties iii.'evas|ieiated, luistilities always rei oininenecd liliieMij new oti'enee. At length, their Ileinian, Tiiiiielniski, being hardly pressed by the Poles, Ik the resolution of soliciting the protection of li"iii, and concluded a ireaty will- the t /,ar \y\\s Miehaelovit/. (January It), l<').")t), in virtue [whirli, Kiow and tho other towns p- tendier, KltiS); and retiring to Prance, ho t)"- c ended his days. Alichael Wiesnotiiski, who succeeded Jidni ('asiinir, after a stormy interregnum of seven months, had no other nu'rit than that of being de- scended in a direct line from Coribuf, the brother of Jagello, King of Poland. His reign was a scene of great agitation, and of unbridled anarchy. Pour diets weie interrupted in less than tour years ; tlu! war with the C'ossacs was "cnewed ; the Turks and \\u- Tartars, the allies of the t'os- saes, seized the city of Kaniiniec (lii72), the only bulwark of I'oland against the Ottomans. Mi- chael, being thrown into a state of alaim, concluded a disgraceful jieace with the Turks ; he gave up to them Kaniiniec and I'odolia, with their ancient limits ; anil even agreed to pay them an annual tril ''i of twenty-iwo thousand ducats. The I'krame, on this side the Uorysthene", was aban- doned to the Cossacs, who were to be jilaeed \inder the jnoteetion of tlie Turks. This treaty was not ratified by the rei'idilie of I'oland, vvho preferred to continue the war. John Sobieski, tiraiid (ie- neral of the Crown, gained a brilliant victory over the Turks near Choezim (November lllli, IliT^M. It took place the next day after the death of Mi- chael, and determined the I'oles to confer their erowii on the victiuioiis general. Sobieski did ample justice to the choice of his fellow-citizens. Hy Xhv. jieace which he concluded at Zarowno with the Turks ("itith October, lli'li), he relieved Pidanil from the tribute lately pro- mised, ami recovered some parts of the Ukraine ; but the city of Kanuiiiec was left in the power of the Ottomans, with a considerable jiortion of the Ukraine ami I'odolia. Poland then entered into an alliance with the House of Austria, against the Porte. Sobieski became the deliverer of Vienna ; r: :j , ■ * ( .'(■8bi(lll iimstructed the port of Kronschlot to serve as liiitViH'e for the new city, which he intended to lake the capital of his Empire, and the ]nineipal iii'it for tiu- commerce and marine of Russia. Jill fortune of this new capital was decided by the Lous battle of Pultowa (July Stii, 1700), which fcewise secured the preponderance of Russia in the iiirtli. [('hallos XII., who had taken refuge in Turkey, L'll every eifort to instigate the Tinks against the lui-siaiis; and he succeeded by dint of intrigue. Ill' I'orte declared war against the czar towards leeml of the year 1710; and Charles opened the kmpai;,'ii of 1711 by an expedition which he iin- leriook into Moldavia ; but, having rashly pcne- sKil into the interior of that province, he was Uouiided by the Grand Vizier near' Falczi on Ic I'rutli. Besieged in his camp by an army lly sujierior to his own, and reduced to the last MNsity, he found no other means of extricating iniself from this critical situation, than by agreeing la treaty, which he signed in the camp of Falczi lUtJuly, 1711); in virtue of which, he consented (restore to the Turks the fortress of Azoll", with ! territory and its dependencies. Tliis loss was nply compensated by the important advantages ' fh the peace with Sweden, signed ct Nystadt Sept. IDtli, 1721), procured the czar. It was on lis occasion that the senate conferred on him the kilhet of Great, the Father of his Country, and |m/ifcor of all the Riissias. His in.auguration the iiiijierial dignity took jdace, October 22d, 21, the very day of the rejoicing that had been kpuiutt'd for the celebration of the peace. Peter mself put the imperial crown on his own lail. I That great prince had the vexation to see Alexis Czarowit;? his son, and presumptive heir to the Fiinpire, thwarting all his improvements, and caballing in secret with his enemies. Being at length compelled to declare that he had forfeited his right to the throne, ho haii him condemned to death as a traitor (171H), In consequence of this tragical event, he published an ukase, which vested in the reigning prince the privilege of nomi- nating his successor, and even of changing the appointment whenever he might judge it necessary. This arrangement became fatal to Russia ; the want of a fixed and permanent order of succession occasioned troubles and revolutions which fre- quently distracted the whole Empire. This law, moreover, made no ju'ovisiou in cases where the reigning prince might neglect to settle the succes- sion during his life ; as happened with Peter him- self, who died without aiipointing any successor (Feb. 1725). Oatherino 1., his consort, ascended the throne, which, after a reign of two years, she transmitted to Peter, son of the unfortunate Alexis. In Hungary, the precautions that had been taken by the States of Prosburg to '"-,tablish civil and religious liberty on a solid baSiS, did not prevent disturbances from springing up in that kingdom. The Court of Vienna, perc'eiving the necessity of consolidating its vast moiiarchy, whose incoherent parts were sutt'erhig from the want of unity, eagerly "ized these occasions for extending its power Hungary, where it was greatly circumscribed by the laws and constitution of the country. ITence those perpetual infiingenients of which the Hungarians had to complain, and those ever- recurring disturbances in which the Ottoman Turks, who shared with Austria the dominion of Hungary, were also frequently implicated. Transylvania, as well as a great part of Hun- gary, was then dependent on the Turks. The Emperor Leopold I. having granted his p'otection to John Kenieny, Prince of Transylvania, against Michael Abarti, a protege of the Turks, a war be- tween the two I'^inpires seemed to be inevitable. The Diet of Hungary, which the emperor had as- sembled at I'reshurg on this subject (l(i()2), was most outr.igeous. The states, before they would give any opinion as to the war against the Turks, demanded that their own grievances should be re- dressed ; and tlie assembly separated without com- ing to any conclusion. The Turks took advantagi; of this dissension, and seized the fortress of >ieu- heusel, and several other places. The eni]ieriir, incapable of ojiposing them, and distrustful of the Hungarian malcontents, had recourse to foreign aid. This he obtained at the Diet of the Em- pire; and Louis XIV. sent him a body of (i,000 men, undercommand of the Count de (^iligni. An nction took place (KiO-l) near St. Ciothard, in which the French signalized their bravery. The Turks sustained a total defeat ; but Montecucili, the commander-in-chief of the imperial army, failed to take advantage of his victory. A truce of twenty years was soon after concluded at Temeswar, in virtue of which the Turks retained Neuheusel, AVaradin, and iNovigrad. ^Michael Abath, their tributary and protege, was continued ill Transylvania ; and both parties engaged to withdraw their troops from that province. This treaty highly displeased the Hungarians, as it had been concluded without their concur- K Trniilili's ill IIiiUKiiry. 130 Turku lie«iei{f Vu'iiim. Soliioski ri'lii'vou it. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Kiii|{i* of Iliinijury. KupriiU, Oranil \ izier. KiiKciie jul'fiits MiiHtuiilmll. reniT. Thtiir fonipliiints aj{iiiiist the Court of Vicuna bicaiuu louder than cvi'r. Thejeoinpliiiiied, especially, that the eiiii)('r(>r should culertain (jcnuau troops iii tlie kin^'dum ; that he sliould intrust the principal fortresses to foreigners; and impose shackles on their religious liberties. The Court of Vienna having paid no regard to these grievances, several of tlie nobles enteied into a league for the jire-'orvation of their rights ; but they were aceusrd of holding correspondence with the Turks, and conspiring against the person of the emperor. The Counts Zrini, Nadaschdi, Frangepan, and Tattenbaeh, were condemned as guilty of high treason (lt!71), and bad their iieads cut olf on the scaffold. A vast number of the I'rotestant clergy were either banished or con- demned to the galleys, as implicated in tlie con- s])iracy; but lliis se\erity, far from abating these disturbiuci's, tended rather to augment them. The suppression of the dignity of I'alatine of Hun- gary, which took ])lace about the same time, added to the cruelties and extortions of all kinih: practised by the Uerman troops, at length raised a general insuriectioii, which ended in a cisil \\ar (1(!77). Tlie insurgents at lirst chose the (.'oiint Francis AVesseliiii, as llieir leader, who was afterwards re- placed by Count Mnierie Tekeli. These noblemen were encouraged in their enterprise and secretly abetted liy I'lance and the I'orte. The enipernr then found it niu'cssary to comply ; and, in a diet which he assembled at Odenlmrg, he granted redress to most of the gric\aiices of which the iliingarians had to complain; l)ut Count Tekeli having disapproved of the resolu- tions of this diet, the ci\il war was continued, and the Count soon found nieiuis to interest tin! Turks anil the prince of Transylvania in hisciuarrel. 'I'he Grand \ i/.ier Kara iMuslapha, at the head of the Ottoman forces, eaiiie and laid siege to Vienna (,luly I Ith, 1<)S:{). A rolisharmy marched to the relief of that place under their king, John Sobieski, who was joined by Charles IV., Duke of Lorraine, (■eneral of the I mjierial troops ; tliey attacked the Turks in their entrenchments before Vienna, and (ompelled them to raise the siegi; (September I'Jth, 1()MJ). Every tliiiij; then succeeded to the em- peror's wish. Besides Poland, the Russians and the republic of Venice took jiart in this war in favour of Austria. A succession of siilendid vic- tories, gained by the Imperial generals, Charles Uuke of Lonaine, I'rince Louis of Haden, and I'riiKje Eugene, procured for J^eopold the concjuest of all that part of Hungary, which had continued since the reign of Ferdinand I. in tin; power of the Ottomans. The fortress of Neuhcusel was taken, in conse(iuence of the battle which the Uuke of Lorraine gained over the Turks at SIrigova (KiliH). The same (j eneral took by assault the city of Buda, the capital of Hungary, wliicli had been in pos- session of the Turks since 1341. The memorable \ictory of Mohacz, gained by the Imperialists (IGlSlj, again reduced Transylvania and Sclavonia under the dominion of Austria. These continued reverses cost the Grand Vizier his life ; he was strangled by order of the Sultan, Mahomet IV., who was himself deposed by his rebellious jaiiis- sariea. Encouraged by these brilliant victories, the Emperor Leopold assembled the States of Hungary at Presbtirg. He there demanded, that, in con- sideration of the extraordinary efforts he Imd Ic^ i obliged to make against the Ottomans, tlnj 1^||,,_ dom should be declared hereditary in his ijimii' The states at first appeared inclined to niiiiiiiain their own right of election; but, yielding suoii to the influence of authority, they agreed to ,],.ji,j the succession hereditary in favour of tlw niaks of the two Austrian brandies; on theexlinitiniKif which thi'y were to be restored to their ;iiuiiiii rights. As for the privileges of the states, fiumilnl on the decree of King Anilrew II., tluj \\,r(. i lenewed at that diet; with the exception of timj daus.: in tlie tbirty-iirst article of \\u\ dctrd. which authorized the siates to ojiiiose, hy (i|i,.|,| force, any prince that should attempt to inlriiijel the rights and liberties of the country. 'I'lie Jesuiis, I who were formerly jiroscribed, were restored, aiul their authority established throughout :dl tfcJ jirovinces of the kingdom. The I'rotcstiuiis both confessions obtained the coiiHrmatioii oil the churches and prerogatives that liiul In,], I secured to them by the articles »;f the Diii i,i'| Odenburg ; but it was stipulated, that oiilj (a tholies were entitled to possess property williiinh(| kingdoms of Dalniatia, Croatia, and Schivni The Archduke Joseph, son of Leopold I., \m| crowned at this diet (December lOth, ItWJ), aslljl lirst hereditary King of Hungary. 'J'lie arms of Austria were crowned witli ii,i\ I victories during the continuation of the w ar ii|.'iuci«:iil for a time revived by their new Granil A'iziir MiMa-l ])ha Kupruli, a man of considerable genius. Afcrl gaining severid aihantages over the lMi|ieri;iii-ivl he took from them Nissa, Widdin, Seiiieiidiia, iiiil| Belgrade ; and likewise reeoinpicred liiil;':i: Servia, and Bosnia. The extraordiniuy ellurtil that the I'orte made for the campaign of tiie I'ol lowing year, inspired them with lunies of Litiirl success ; but their expectations were quite di^: pointed by the unfortunate issue of the f;iiiiinjl battle of Salankemen, which the I'rince of liailfll gained over the Turks (August lOlli, Ki!)!). TIkI brave Kupruli was slain, and his death deeidedltel victory in favour of the Imperialists. The wirl with France, however, which then occupied ihfl ]irinci|ial forces of Austria, did not |)ciiiut ihel emperor to lea]) any advantage from this victor; f he was even obliged, in the following ciiiii|rai!;ii!,l to act on tlie defensive in Hungary; and it wJil not until the conclusion of peace with Fiaiift| that he was abli? to resume the war against l^i Turks with fre.iU vigour. Princ(! Fuigene, wkol was then commander-in-cliief of the lni|)('riil| army, attacked the Sultan Mustapha II. in peMiii, near /enta on the river Teiss (Septeint)ei' lllhj 1(1!)7 ), where be gained a decisive victoiy. Hii grand vizier, seventeen pachas, and twolliinls the Ottoman army, were U ft dead on the Held m battle ; and the sultan was compelled to tall I'Sfl^ in disorder on Belgrade. This terrible blow ma the Porte excoedliisl^ anxious for peace ; and she hud recourse to lliJ mediation of England and Holland. A negoiial tion, which proved as tedious as it was intricntel I'ciici' 111' Ciirlowitz. ll;ii!iH./.i. I'riiicB uf Tiansyl- Mlllilt- PEIIIOU VII. A.D. 1048—1713. riii'iliciitiuli i>r llimuaiy. 'I'liikH CLiK^iiiT Cuuclia. i:>i Iwas Mt on loot lit Coiislaiitiiiopic, mid tlR'iico trans- llVni'il to t'ailoNvit/, ii town of Sclavoniii Ijiiiif VeUvccii till' two c'iiiiips, one ot" whii.'li wns at I'l'lirwaradiii. mi'l tho otluT nt IJclgnuU'. A k.acc wiis tliorc concludiul (Jumiarj- "ifitli, KilM)) : (iif iiniiiTor, l).V tliix trciity, rftainod llunjf.liy, rrausylvauia, and Sclavonia, with tliu uxufplioii of Ihf ll'uiat ol' Tcineswar, wliicli was rescrvi'd to lie I'diH'. Tliu riviTs Muroscli, Tr'ss, Suvi-, and liinii, were Hxt'd ut the limits between the two Emiiin'n. Tlie Count Tekeli, who during the fchcilo of this war hud constantly espoused the taiK' of the I'orte, was allowed to remain in the Pttmnim territory, with such of the Hungariuns 1)1(1 Tniiisylvaniaiis as adhi^red to him. Tlu' peace of Clarluwitz had seoured to the liKiu'ror nearly tlie whole of Hungary; hut, iflo- uu< llioiii;li it WIS, it did not restore the internal tamiiiillity of the kinu;dom, which very soon ex- (■riiiiitil fresh troubles. The same complaints tat li;i(! arisi'U after tlie jieace of Temeswar, were leui'wcd after that oi Carlowitz ; to these were even tilled several others, occusioaeil by the iiitroduc- liniiif llii'hereilitary HUCCM'ssioii, at the diet of 1<)H7, llic siipiinssion of the clause in the tliirty- t-l urtitle of the decree of Andrew H., by th<' Miiruliou of the Jesi'its, and the banishment of tekdi and his adherents. Nothinj^ vas wanted lut ii ringleader for tlii' maleontents to rekindle the limfs of civil war, and this leader was soon found I t!ic |H rsoii of the famous I'rince Uagoezi (or la!;iilskij, who appeared on the scene about the I'iiiniiiic of the eighteenth century, and when the tiller part of Kurojic were involved in the war of leSpaiiisli succession. ]fniiiL'i'< Ragoezi was the grandson of (ieorge jaiioezi II., who hiid been I'rince of Transylvania, 1(1 held a distinguished rank in the States of lluii- iry, not more by his illustrious birth than by the rat possessions which belonged to his family. ■ Court of Vienna, who entertained suspicions J him on ticcount of liis near relationsliip with ikeli, had kept Irm in a sort of captivity from liis ';usa. They also retained Clissa, and some other K 3 ..I . I MllHtll|>llll II., SllltMII. 132 Vi'iii'tiium ol)liiiii till- Mori'ii, KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Sliiti' ol' 1,1'iiriiiii^ iiuil (i„ r.ilili! Ail», DcUta. places in Duliii.-ilia and Albania, which thi'y liad Kcizcil (luring the war. Thi' rpigu of Malioniot from tliat time i)rosL'ntiMl uothin); lint a succession of wars, t,{ which that against Hungary was the most fatal to the Ottoman Empire. The Turks were overwhelmed hy the powerfid leajfuo formed between Austria, Poland, Hnssia, iinil tlu! re- j)ublic iif Venice. They expi a'uced, as we have already noticeil, a series of fatal disasters during that war; and, imputing these misfortunes to the otreiniuacy of their Sultan, they resolved to depose him, Mustapha II., the third in succession from iSlahomot IV., terminated this destructive war by the peace of t'arlowitz, when the Turks lost all their ])()sscs9ions in Hungary, except Tomesuur ;iii,i Uelgrade. They gave up to r(dund the furirf,,' of Kaminiec, witli I'odolia, and flic part nf ii,,, Ikraiue on this side the Nii'iicr, which Jimi in.^^ ceded to them by former treaties. The Vciiciinn, by their treaty with the I'orte, obtained i)osM>])ils more docile, \ollai D'Alcmhert, Diderot, Helvotius (a niiin aiiiial enough in other respects, but whose good (HiiM were obscured by a craving vanity for distiiiclioj and a foreigner, Baron Holbach, who was sellf • This is not trae. Rily was the l)irth-)ilii('n "f ll" trines iu iiuestion. See Huyle's Diet., Art. Viret.— T. Iiilldidity ill rcli, DcKirinc ol' iloli llmlriiii* of iMi-i at I'aris, had the Christianity, and re: whati'vcr in matte iiitidclily, sometinK >iim'linii's under lhniu>.'li<)iit their vai iiicanii which ai)pea |i||s|i tlicir infamoti ahuut universal tol ihi'j' persecuted tho; Id these new doctriii (if the Catholic chu (if tiie press, whi(di I iliicina.s, enabled th (hisses of society w iviiilc In dint of ri^ they shut the mouth; hal their theories. hv D'Alenihcrt and ci'dliier writers, and hdii'C of all iiuman k \l)(((li(i, became the I (if Christianity forj where youth in:bibu I il^lraelioll. It oiiijlit to be told [thai, with the excep anil even of the sove ediiseipienccs of this iiriiiy, Holland, Swi jcifihe nurlh, where tl lalldwed tlicmschcs t ],iiiil iiui)icties. I'ortii lli'uk any notice of Iciimipted several gei |pre|iarcd them for rc( liihiih, hy attacking lerder, at length over llrv, and afterwards i Id-he, The root of this p hat of Deism and in jiu IJiLdiind. The dis llioiiist.s and the Stuai lliiry, which stained t |llieiiunli':ird of, had fuhlie right, if we ma; III! sid)vcrt all subord Jthat the first who sti lorL'iiial social contrac jliiale power to be deh jpciident on the sovci Ipariisau of monarchy. jlowing out the applica puilt on this founda |(les|iuiisni, James Harr ami espcciidly Algeri liiovel idea, and drew 1 m to the views of its kor is a two-edged v py, John Locke pi fpile of history, he adii pf a social contract f piid maintained that m lliiiii rei)ublics degencri I'lom England these lii'io they were grcc ie enemies of religioi filers, who, without Pllmved themselves to 1 Iiillili'lity in rflit;ii)H. Ddclrini'i)!' Hol)l)i's. rr.aioD viii. a.d. nia— nsn. Vii'lnr (Ic MinilH-au. Il.iruii il« MuiitfHi|Uii'ii, Tin' MihIitii I'linuiio|)lii'r>i. VM it I'aris, 111"! the aiiiliicity to c()iis|)iro sitfiiiiiHt Cliri^ iiiii'lii'i''^ iiiidor tho form of AtliflHiii ; and ,li,„i,j{h()iit their various writings tliej- took every nu'iiiif whicii apiiearod to tlieni likely to iieeoni- plisli tlii'ii' iiifiiiiioiis design. AVhilo clamouring? ;,lniut iiiii\eisal toleration for religious ojiinions, ilicy pci'si'ciited those who ollered any opposition til tlii'i'i' "e"' root of this political mischief, as well as Itlial (if Deism and Inlidelity, must be sougiit for liii r,iii,'luiiil. The disputes between the Itevolu- llkmists and the Stuarts, in the si'\enteeiith cen- lliiry, which stained tliat nation with a crime till lllii'ii uiilie 11(1 of, had given liirth to a new sort of lliublii' right, if we may so call a system which went Itii Kiilivcrt all Kubiii'('iiiation. It is remarkable, Itliat the first who stari'd the hyjiothesis of an IdriL'inul social contract which supposed all legiti- Iiiiati' power to be deleiratcd, and coiiseiiuently dc- Jp'wlciit oil the sovereignlv of the people, was a Ipartisim of monarchy. Tiiomas Ilobbes, who, fol- llmviiig out tho application of his own principles, piiilt (111 this foundation a system of absolute •s|iuiisiii, James Harrington, author of the Oceana, laiul especially Algernon Sydney, all seized this biovcl iiiea, and drew from it results quite oppo- kitetii the views of its author; though, in fact, the fcrriir is ;i two-edged weapon, and will cut either pvay. John Locke pushed it even farther ; in de- fpitc of history, he admitted as a fact the existence Dl' 11 social contract from which states originated, kiiid maintained that monarchies were nothing else kliaii reiHiblics degenerated. I'min lliiglaud these doctrines passed to rrancc, nhne they were greedily received, not only by ■hi' enemies of religion, but also by a multitude of "Titers, wiio, without belonging to tliat parly, kllowed themselves to be drawn away by the vanity of fame, and the '■rlut of a false philosophy. Tho public mind had been already prepared for them by another invention of the eighteenth century, which was erroneou;i in {irinciple, though laudable in its design, and contributed to the overthrow of better theories, because it had fallen into the hands of a sect w ho were misled by enthusiasm. This sect was that of the Ettmumixtii, and the invention that of tho P/ii/siorratio Syntcm, u'* it wwh called, which, by estimating the wealth of ii nation solely according to the mass of its natural prodiictioiiK, tended to reduce all public burdens to a single tax on land, and consequently to introduce a perfect equality in property. The iineiitor of this doc- trine was a physician of I'aris, named Trancis (iuesnay ; thnugb Victor do l{ii|uetti, Marc^uis dc Mirabeau, was its most zealous propagator. The lirst French work on this new right of the jieople apiieared in 171S, under the title of L'JCuprit ili.i Lois, or Spirit of l,;tws. Its author, Uaron .Moutes(iuieu, there extolled the representative syiileni, and the doctrine of the division of power, which from that moment became two of the arti- cles of faith ill the new philosophy, which none were allowed to controvert. The Spirit of Laws, a work written with elegance, and replete with wit, often profound, though sometimes superlicial, combined with some splendid and sublime ideas a number of sophisms, subtleties, and errors. The enigmatical luaiiner in which the author sonictinies delivers himself has led some to impute doctrines to him which probably never entered into his sys- tem. Four years afterwards, Uousseau, a native of (ielieva, ]uiblislied his Social doiitract, clo- cpiently composed, but feeble in point of reason- ing. The author meant to jirove that, by an origi- nal contract, the people had reserved the right of declaring their mind on everytliing relating to govi riiment — a monstrous system, which, instead of the liberty which it professes to introduce, tends to establish the most revolting despotism, by giving th(^ whole power to the inajorily ; that is, to the least enlightened and most unrottecting part of the nation. In consequcncp of these publications, a vast nuniber of writers set thdiiselves to propagate and inculcate on the young, the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people, as the source whence all legitimate power emanated. This doctrine ad- mitted a case, which its partisans, however, agree never existed, namely, an act by v\ hich the people had delegated the exercise (. itiier of a jiart or the whole of their ]iower. It made de.pofism. lawful, wherever it was found actually established; and it led to anarchy, since all delegated power may be withdrawn, and because the sovereign ])eople could never deprive the next generation ,of their natural and imprescriptible rights. These new doctrines were received in sonic countries which had resisted the poison of irreli- gion. 'J'hey found numerous partisans in Ger- many, where they seemed to many to be the final accomplishment of the reformation of the seven- teenth century, which was regarded as the era of religious liberty. The literary journals of that country promulgated them in all forms ; they pre- vailed ill universities and seminaries of learning ; different sovereigns did homage to them, flattered by the pauegyrics which the philosophers bestowed on them. ' lU Till' Illiimiiiiiti. Iliiliin if I'liHor ill WiiHti-rii Knriiiu'. KOCirs UKVOLUTIONS. Tli(< NnrtliiTIi l'()»ir<, I'riiiMiaii Miiii.iri'liN. MiinnHiiiii ('(imiiicrri'. The time iit li'llKth i:uii(', wlicH fl)<> ftbottoi'M of tlicsi- (ipiiiidus tliii\i:;lil iiicii's iiiIiuIh snIHciciitly lirc|)iir('rive); hut only in Bavaria, for it continued in several countries of (jermany, and i>rohaliiy still exists under other forms. It was in this manner that the iiuhlic mind was corrupted in the eii,'hteriitli century. Oliedience and love to their kinijs ceased tii he the hoast and ^lory of the people ; a vai,'ue desire to chanife took possession of men's minds, and filled their heads with errors ; and hence was engendered that savai?e revolution, which will form tin; suhject of our ninth period. In the eip;htli, on which we are now enteriii!,', the polity of Kurope expe- rienced several remarkable chan^fes. The equilibrium amoru? the dilFerent states, discomposed by the ambition of Louis XIV., had been confirmed by the peace of Utrecht, which lasted durini,' twenty-four years without any ffreat alteration. Nevertheless, in the ])oliticaI transactions which took place at this time, Eufjland enjoyed a (ireponderance which had been ^jrowiuj,' (ifradually since she had ceased to be the theatre of civil discord. The f,'lory which she had accjuired by the success of her arms in the S])anish wars, and the important advantaf^es which the treaty of Utrecht had procured her, both in Knropc and America, augmented her jjoiiticid power, and gave her an influence in (general affairs which she never had enjoyed before. Tliat nation carried their commerce and their marine to an extent which could not fail to alarm the other commercial and maritime states, and make them perceive that, if the care of their own trade and independence made it necessary to maintain a system of e(iuilibrium on the continent, it was equally important for their prosperity that bounds shouhl be set to the mono- polizing power of Enufland. This gave rise at first to a new kind of rivalry between France and England — a rivalry whose effects were more par- ticularly manifested after the middle of the eigh- teenth century, and which occasioned an intimate alliance among the branches of the House of Bour- bon. At a later date, and in consequence of the principles which the English ])rofesse(l as to the commerce of neutral states, the powers of the North leagued themselves against that universal dominion which they were accused of wisliing to usurp over the sea. In the ninth period, we shall e^en see the whole continent for a short time turned against that nation — the only one that has been able to preserve her commerce and her in- dependence. This preponderance of England is the first iliiinge which flie |ioliticaI system of I'',ur(i|i|. ,,,. peril-need in the eighteenth centm-y. The iioc(,||,| took place in the North. Till that tiinc, i),,, northern countries of Europi- had never, cxci.p, transiently, had any political connexioim witJi ih,. South. Ilussia, separated by the |)ossessi(iii, „f SwediMi on the coasts of the Ualtic, had IicIdukmI rather to Asia than to our (piarter of the wurlil. I'oland, f'lillen from her anr'ii.'ul greatness, i,;,,! sunk into a state of anarchy and e\li iisii,,,,. Denmark and Sweden were disputing the mi,, maud of tile Italtie, and had no otiier inlliii'ni'i> „„ the jiolitics of the South than that which S\vi.(||,|, had ac(iuired by the personal (pialities of sonn nf her kings. The great war of the North, wliidi broke out at the commencement of the liijlituiitli century, and the concpiests of I'eter tlu' (Ir, i| whi<'h extended the limits of his Empire as Urm the (iulf of l''iidand, an of flie eighteenth century. At lint time the genius of l''ri>deric II. almie raised !• im pitch of greatness which enalib d it to stny^'lc against the siijierior force of its neighbours, hut without menacing the indepeiulenee of other statH, This growing power of I'russia, however, ma- sioned a rivalry bi-tweeii it and Austria, wliicli f.t seventy years liad an intluenee on the pDJilics uf Europe. It produced the extraordinary spiM'tmr of an intimate alliance between two ancient iiv;ik the Mouses of Austria and Itourbon ; anil, liy ili- viding Germany between two opposite systi'ni>,i! |)ave(l the way for the dissuhitiiin of thiil l'.iii|iiri. Such was tlie third change which the piility f Euro]ie experienced in course of the eii;lilniiili century. The fourth change was less felt tliaii llio thr' others; its fatal conse(iuences did not di'vi'lope themselves until the Ninth I'eriod. For thi! f.iy time within the last three centuries, the suvinuti! of Europe ventured to break treaties and to vio- late engagements, to declare war aiul nml rlikc conquests, without alleging any other motivi's tliaii reasons of convenience, and the ambition i)f ii.'- grandisement. Thus the basis of the eipiilibiiuni system, the inviolability of possessions hdiionniMv actpiired, was sapped, and the downfal of the whole system prepared. The events of the wan for the succession of Austria, furnished the Hr-t examples of thi.i contcnipt fur treaties; t hoy win' reni'wed in an alarming manner on the paiiiti n of Poland, and by the attemjits which the Piii|imjr Joseph made to sei/.e Bavaria. The act of iniquiti committed against Poland was often cited, (luriiiK| the period of the French Revolution, to jiistilyall sorts of violence and usurjiation ; and it vajt'ol-| lowed by a long train of calamities. Commerce continued, in the eighteenth ccntiin, to be one of the j)rincipal objects that occupied the cabinets of Europe. The mercantile system was brought to great perfection, and became, »iih| most nations, the basis of their administnilinn, The maritime powers turned all their attention. iMiiiiliriiil MeiKii W.iltiiili''" Ailiiiii 'fb* K»K»r,i O'Oi ;,nil hesfoweil the «; I the iiiiaiher ai d wi liviii'W estii' iishmei I iiiiilatiiin of l.ouis ] up uiiiiieriius stand I ilicj even carried Kni(i:i»il in cuntiiiei I she luiil no occasion nrii|imtioii to that o: I til I'liniisli them wi I iiiTciisary to carry i time of Freder I lartic'i and the inilit ;i ili'itice of perfect i I niliiiil iif fiirtiier inqi I (Til system of severii liiiii, liy the iiuentio I iMi'Ml iif liatiiHial del ill Mr. I'ilt, called t Till' e.vlraiirdinary Ijiriipe had made J iii:iiiil;iiniiig the er lu'iiii-t 'he anibitiou! lii'iMight on a Iwliirli i;ii\e these nat riL'in:: mis, iiidiislrj, |ii'p;iiiiiJi,' the evils w I wars h:iil occasioiied, linaiiilKiii the stijiiilat land Steckholm ; and li'iunl against everyi jiii'W t'ciu'ial war. 'J Isiili-iistcd lietween F Iriiii,' the reign of (iei illiat (if (ieorge II. Jailiniiiislratiiin of W llriiiponiry interests tl ' two courts — th ll'irtiMiiler, and the o Ijiriiji'i'ls (if Spain. ilii; Duke of Orlen llh:' laiiiiirity of Louii llaiii that peace and llrcalii's had iiitrodui Impily those disorders IXiV. had left in iKiiis (if S]iain, on t Isirims (if reviving his livciit into the rash scl lhi< prime minister ; p Itort'ciiiKpicr those tei ll'lrccht had dismemb piarihy ; to deprive tl rcncy, and vest it in blare the Pretender. Illiniiic of (ireaf Brita 'fhc treaty of Utr ^uillized a great part Vttftive, in as far as mor and the King pimiiiitstotheSpani liarles VI. did not pmlity of King of Sp I'luscd to ac(piiesc(? ii fish monarchy, which llipulated in favour of lirojccts and secret int Iff. the Duke of Orle; Wiaupc with EnglaiK fiirticularly interested \\ il|Hili''« Ailiiiiiiialrntlon. I III' Ui'.'ii i)'()rli'unH. TElllOD VIII. A.I). 17i:i— l7Nli. Til" Tri|ili- Alliaiii'i', Ciirilliial Allii'riiiil. Tliu Wvliii'li tlie powern of Kiiriipc had made diirini{ the last centnry, for iiiiiiiiliiitiiiiL; the eipiililii'iuin of the rontinent janaiii-t till' ambitious ilesiifus of France and Swe- liruiiKhl on li loni; period of tranquillity, liihlili (tiive these natioiiN an opportunity (d'eneou- Iriiitiiii mis, industry, and conniieree, and thereby |ri'|iainiii,' the evils whieh the lom{ and disastrons [wars liail occasioned. (;aliiiii'ls were attentive to iiainlaiii the stipidations of the treuties of I treelit hiiiil Stiicliiiolni ; and, by means of netjoeiations, to jt'iuril iiijaiiist everythiiii; that mi^dit rekindle ,i liii'« nciieral war. The kooiI uinlerslandini; that lillllM^t^'ll between I'Vaiiee and (ireat llritain dn- I rim; the ni^u of (ii'ort'e Land the beffinniui,' of lllial (if Geor^je II. —or, in other words, under the jailiiiiliistralion of ^Valpole, — was the etleet of those ll(iii|jiMiiry interests that entrrossed the attention of Itlii' two courts — the one beiii;; under terror of the I'ri'li'iiiler, and the other alarmed at the ambitious Ijiriiji'cls of Spain. i'lic Duke of Orleans, ret'eiif of France during,' llh' iniiinrity of Louis \V., waR anxious to niain- llaiii lli;it peace and political order which the late llri'nlii's had introduced; having it in view to re- Jiiifily those disorders in the finance, whieh Louis IXiV. Iiiid left in HO de|)li)rable a state.' The iKiiit' of Sirain, on the other hand, who was de- Ifiriius of revivinif his rights to the crown of France, Iwciit into the rash sehemes of Cardinal Alberoni," Ihis prime minister ; purporting to renew the war ; lloncimiiuor those territories which the peace of ll'tri'i'lit hail dismembered from the Spaniuh nu)- lliari'liy ; to deprive the Duke of Orleans of the ri - ™n, and vest it in the King of Spain ; and to blaif the I'retender, son of Jarneu II., on the Slirimc of Great Tiritain. The treaty of Utrecht, althouj,'h it had tran- Kjuiilized a preat part of Kurope, was nevertheless 'rfictive, in as far as it had not reconciled tlie em- beror and the Kini? of Spain, the two ju-incipal tiaimiuits to the Spanish succession. The Emjieror I'hadcs VI. did not recognise Philip V. in )iis piiality of King of Spain; and Thilip, in his turn, Vfuscil to ncuniesci! in those ])artitions of the Spa- hisli monarchy, which the treaty of Utrecht had klipuhiteil in favour of the emperor. To defeat the Jiriiji'cts and secret intrigues of the Spanish miius- pr, the Duke of Orleans thought of courting an Vlliancc with England, as being the power most particularly interested in maintaining the treaty of I trecbt, the fundamental articles of which bad been dictated by heiM'If. That alliance, into « liirli the liiiited I'rovinecM also entered, was eoncliidiil at the Hague (.January Itli, 17 17 ). The articles of the treaty of Ltreclil, Iho-e especially which re- lated to the Hucci'ssion of the two crowns, were there renewed; and the regent, in ciiiiiplaisauce to the King of Lugland, agreed lo banish the I're- tender from France, and to admit lliitisb commis- Niirics into Dunkirk to superintend that port. ('ardinal Alberoni, without being in the least disci :,.erted by the Triple Alliance, iiersislrd in his design of recommemihg the war. ' snoner bad he recruited the Spanish forces, a pupped an expedition, than he attacked Sardinia, which he look from the empiror. Thiv coiiipust was followed by that of Sicily, which the Spaniards took from the )uke of Savoy ( 171S , France an.i Fngland, indii>iiant at the infrac- tion of a treaty which they rej^arded as their own work, immediately coiichiiled with the t mperor, at Loudon (August '.2nd, 171^), i.ie famous (Quadruple Alliance, wiiici, containei' Ih" plan 'fa Ire iy of peace, to be made betweeii tin; I uperor, tlie King of Spain, and the Duke of Savoy 'he allied powers engaged to obtain the cons ,i >f the par- ties interested in this proposal, and, iii case of re- fusal, to compel them by ; 'e of arms. The c jieror was to renounce ,:s ; ifht to the Spi'imii crown, and to acknowh li;e 1 ;;ilip V. as the legi- timate King of Spain, in consideration of that prince renouncing the provinces of Italy and the Netherlands, which the treaty ot I Ireclit and the ipiadruple alliance adjudged to the emperor, 'i'he Duke of Savoy was to cede Si"ily to Austria, re- ceiving Sardinia in exi liange, which the King of Sjiain was to disclaim, '''he right of reversion to the crown of Sjiain was transl'errid froiu Sicily to Sardinia. That treaty likewise gratited to Don I'arlos, eldest son of I'hilip V., by his second mar- liage, the eventual rexersion and investiture of thi duchies of I'ariun tinil I'laeentia, as well as the grand duchy of Tuscany, on condition of liolding them as Hefs-male of the emperor and the Fmpire, after the decease of the last mule issue of the fami- lies of 1- ; . ,1 - and -Medici, who were then in pos- session , ■: ! tlie better to Hecnri! this double suc- cession to tne Infant, they agreed to introduce a body of (>,0()() Swiss into the two ducliies, to he ipiarlcied in Leghorn, Porto- Ferrajo, Parma, and i'l • ,;ntia. The contracting powers undertook to g 'arantee the ]iaymenl of these troops. The Duke of Savoy did not hesitate to subscribe the conditions of the (piadruple iiUiance ; but it was otherwise with the King of Sjiain, who per- sisted in bis refusal ; when France and F.ngland declared war against him. The French invaded the provinces of (iui]uiscoa and Catalonia, while the English seized (iallicia and tlie ])ort of Vigo. These vigorous proceedings shook the resolutions of the King of Spain, lie signed the (lundruplo alliance, and banished the Cardinal Alberoni from his court, the sidviser of those nicasiiris of which the allies com])lained. The Sp'inish troops then evacuated Sicily and Sardinia, when the emperor took ])ossession of the former, and Victor Ama- (leus, Duke of Savoy, of tlie latter. The war to all appearance was at an end ; peace, however, was far from being concluded, and there still remained many difliculties to settle between r.. :.3 ; CV'J j L-'-^ i Spaniuli Keimiiciiitiou of tim 13fi NetluTliiu(\s. Chiirles VI., Eni))i'ror. KOCirS REVOLUTIONS. CoiiBvoss of Canibriiy. I't'iici! of Vii'tinii. AUiiineu of llimovcr. tlu' Emperor, the King of Spain, and tlio Duke of Siivoy. To acconiplisli tiiis, and conelude a defi- nitive treaty between tliese tliree powers, a con- fjrcss was summoned at Cambray, wiiieli was to open in 1721, under the mediation of 1'" ranee and England ; but some disputes whieh arose regard- ing certain jjreliminary articles, retarded their meeting for several years. Their lirst and prin- cipal olyeet was to ettcet an cxcliange of tlie acts of mutual renunciation between the Emperor and llic King of Spain, as stipulated by the treaty of the quadruple alliance. The emperor, who was reluctant to abandon his claims to the Spanish monarchy, started difficulties as to the form of these renunciations. He demanded that I'liilip's renuneiaiion of the ])roviiices of Italy and the Ne- therlands sliould be CO) Krmed by the Spanish cortes. Philip demanded, in his turn, that the renunciation of the omi)eror with regard to Spain should be ratified by the states of the Empire. To get clear of this difficulty, France and England agreed, by a special compact, signed at Paris (September 27tli, 1*21), that the renunciations of both princes, however defective they might be, should be held valid under the guarantee of the two mediating powers. Scarcely was this difficulty settled, when another presented itself, much more embarrassing. This related to the company of Ostend, which the em- peror hiid instituted, and to which, by charter signed at Vienna (December 19th, 1722), he had granted, for thirty years, the exclusive ju-ivilege of trading to the East and West Indies, and the coasts of Africa. That establishment set the maritime powers iit variance vvitli the emi)eror ; especially the Dutdi, who regarded it as prejudicial to their Indian commerce. They maintained that, accord- ing to the treaty of Monster, confirmed by the twenty-sixth article of the Barrier Treaty (1713), the trade of the Spaniards with the East Indies was to remain as it was at that time. Nothing in these preliminary discussions met with so much opposition as tlie grant of the even- tual reversion and investiture of Tuscany, Parma, and Placentia, which the cm])eror had engaged, by the Qua>s of llussia (5 aelianiie in the di The emperor, seeiii the assistance of K I coiid the efl'orts of eontributed to the I iiiither France nor In this situation lis iiu'iliatioii, and I sicncd at Paris, w be an armistice for I of Ostend should 1 and tliat a new G at Aix-la-Chapelle Tiiis congress w and tlience to Soiss IV.'S. Aiiibassadori llurope apjicared tl I some reason, a liap I as most of the diffi I the Congress of Cam I of Vienna, and as th I WIS to settle the suc( I But the emperor ha I Irian Fraginatic Sai lllioliasis of the arra I peace of Soissuiis, th I of now disputes, i I minister of France, Ifiaim of the court o: [turn, threw obstacles 1,11 Soissons. This ii I overtures to the cou eonterled a secret n ll'omid means to assoc This gave rise to : ili'ensive alliance, wli llivccn France, Spain, ''"■)). These powe Hiecession of Parma J Infant Don Carlos ; Isolvod to substitute 1 Swiss garrisons, nam( I The Dutch acceded I linn of the cngagei JlioHcrs came under ti jivith respect to the C The emperor, find leliiilcd witiiout his er |"fha\ing failed in hi; on of the Austrian '. limli^'naiit that the all I to lay down the law jiif the Ostend Comp I Spanish troops into lilelermined not to ct lolf all relationship v Irecalled his ambass; |lirevent the Spanish of Italy. The last I farnese, being dead |liis duchy by force of At length", to termi IKing of England, i llicncral, opened a n I' Cumliniy. lllUlOVlT, ig of Spain re- protests ut'tlif my ; nor would ion of an act ui' 11,!,' powors. AH till' pri'limiirj. | il ^vitli tlie coil. for till' coiichi. tliu Emperor, | Savoy. Every lie t«riiiinalioii', fu tlio coniiiils. I f the metliaiiii,. rruptious. 1, who liad sue. fi ministry, scm la, chiuglitiT of I I at the court of I iOuisXV. This lip v., Iiliiilitily from Cainliray, nt as envoy lo I the (liH'eri'iicci I to of tin' media. a special treaty II the Emperor I h, l-'i.-)). This I of Philip V, 1, lerlands, ;\s wdl | and the Indies. nellies uf Panin I il (lueliyofTu*. only new claun' | t by vviiicli liie liitee the fanioiii I I, ■wliieii securej [ ci'ssinii ofalll ateouiit tlial I court of Vi-I ^ imicd by a de- Dr and the Kin; ne was that tlic | ,11 for the Kin; iind the isiau'll [I'autedtol lis subjects free I niinunitics ami I till! nations ill I IS with Spain. Holland; aiiJ lishcd betwMil iittraetcd nniie| of Bourlioiiil Kiiiff of Spain,! Infanta. Tol sot on font a I liable of comi-[ concluded all ■inberli.iriJ).! Alliimcc ojl these two alii-! iniark acfi'deJJ le I.of Kussiail the iMupire,! ror even euc-f I'russia from I 3W11. Europel •al war. Tlnl ('iirdiniil Hcurj's Admiiiiii- tratioii. IVace of Seville. PERIOD YIII. A.D. 1713—1789. Austrian PragmaticSiuictlon . War with Turkey. EuKi'ue'.s victorie.H. 137 k ambassadors to the difterent courts were recalled. I'lie English sent a numerous and powerful fleet 1 II) Ainenca, the Mediterranean, and the Baltic ; wliile the Spaniards commenced hostilities, by liniiii; siege to Gibraltar. Tlie death of the Em- I i,rpi.s of Kussia (May 17, 17'i7), liowRvcr, caused a dianiie in the disposition of the northern powers. Tlic emperor, seeing he could no longer reckon on the assistance of Russia, showed no anxiety to se- cnml the etl'orts of the Spaniards ; but what chiefly rontributed to the maintenance of peace was, that iH'itlicr France nor England were desirous of war. In this situation of affairs, the pope interposed I his mediation, and a new preliminary treaty was signed at Paris, which ordained that there should bean armistice for seven years ; that the Company of Ostend should be suspended for the same time ; and that a new General Congress should be held I at Aix-la-Chapelle. This congress was first transferred to Cambray, I ami thence to Soissons, where it was opened in I IV.'S. Ambassadors from almost all the courts of Lurope appeared there; and they expected, with some reason, a happy conclusion of the business ; I as most of the diflicultics which had embarrassed I Ihe Congress of Cambrtiy were settled by the peace I of Vienna, and as thi; only subject for deliberation I WIS to settle the succession of Parma and Tuscany. I But the emperor liaving demanded that the Aus- I Irian Pragmatic Sanction should be adopted as Itheliasis of the arrangements for establishing the I peace of Soissons, that incident became the subject lof new disputes. Cardinal Fleury, then jirimc liniuisler of Prance, having strongly opposed this Jrlaimof the court of Vienna, the emperor, in his [turn, threw obstacles in the way of the negociation lal Soissons. This inclined the cardinal to make Invertuies to the court of Madrid, with whom he fiiiieerted a secret negociation, in which he also It'ouiid means to associate I'',ngland. This gave rise to a treaty of peace, union, and liiH'eiisive alliance, which was signed at Seville, be- llueen Prunce, Spain, and England (November !), li','!)). These powers engaged to guarantee the jsuetessioii of Parma and Tuscany in favour of the I hiiiuit Don Carlos ; and to effect this, they re- Jsolved to substitute (!,00() Spanish troops in the ISwiss garrisons, named by tlu: (iuadruple Alliance. iThc Dutch acceded to that treaty, in considera- Itiou of the engagement which the contracting |l«nvcis came under to give them entire satisfaction Iwillnespect to the Company of Ostend. The emperor, finding the treaty of Seville con- iiided without his co-operation, was apprehensive |ofha\ing failed in his priiiciiial aim, viz., the adop- lihiii of the Austrian Pragmatic Sanction. He was diifiiant that the allies at Seville should pretend |lii lay down the law to him touching the abolition iif the Ostend Company, and the introQuction of Spanish troops into Italy. Accordingly, being liletemiiiied not to comply, he immediately broke lotl' all rcliitionship with the court of Spain ; he jrecidleil his ambassador, and took measures to Iprcvent the Spanish troops from taking possession |"f Italy. The last Duke of raniia, Anthony iFainese, being dead (1731), he took possession of ' is ilucliy by force of arms. At length, to terminate all these diflcrences, the iKing of England, in conceit with the States- llieiieial, opened a negociation with the emperor ; the result of which was a treaty of alliance, signed at Vienna, betwocn him, England, and Holland (March H>, 1731). In virtue of that treaty, the three contracting jiowers mutually guaranteed their estates, rights, and possessions ; l^nglaud and Holland, more especially, engaged to guarantee the Austrian Pragmatic Sanction ; and the emperor, on his side, consented to the introduction of Spa- nish troops into Italy, and to the suppression of the Comjiany of Ostend ; he even agreed that the Netherlands should never carry on trade with the Indies, cither by the Ostend Company or any other. In consequence of this treaty, which was ap- proved by the States-General, Don Carlos took possession of Panna and Placentia, and the Grand Duke of Tuscany also recognised him as his suc- cessor. Thus terminated these long disputes about the Spanish Succession, after having agitated the greater part of Europe for upwards of thirty years. In the midst of these contentions, a war had arisen between the I'orte am' the Republic of Ve- nice, in which the Emperor Charles VI, was also imjilicated. The Turks wore desirous of recover- ing the !Morca, which they had been obliged to abandon to the Venetians at the peace of Carlo- witz ; but instead of attacking that republic, while the emperor was engaged with the Preneh war, and unable to render it assistance, they waited till the conclusion of the treaties of Utrecht, Rastadt, and Uaden, before they declared hostilities. The pretexts which the Turks made to justify this ruji- ture were extremely frivolous ; but they knew well that the Venetians, who had lived in the most complete security since the peace of Carlowitz, had neglected to repair the fortifications which had been destroyed in the war, and that it would be easy for them to reconquer them. In fact, during the campaign of 1715, the Grand Vizier not only recovered the ^Morea, but even dis- possessed the Venetians of the places which they still retained in the Isle of Candia ; and, at the conimenccment of the following campaign, they laid siege to the town of (^orfu. Charles VI. thought he was bound, as a guarantee of the peace of Carlowitz, to espouse the cause of the Venetians ; he declared war against the Porte, and his example was followed by the pope and the King of Spain, who united their fleets to those of the republic. The Turks were defeated in several engagements, and obliged to raise the siege of Corfu, after sacri- ficing a great many lives. Tlie camiiaigns of 171() and 1717 in Hungary, were triumphant for the armies of the emperor ; Prince Eugene gained a brilliant victory over the (iraud Vizier, near Peterwaradin (August oth), which enabled him to invest Temcswar, which he carried after a siege of six months, and thus com- jdeted the conquest of Hungary, To crown bis glory, that great captain next undertook the siege of Belgrade, regarded by the Turks as the prin- cipal bulwark of their Empire. The grand vizier marched to the relief of the place, at the head of a formidable army. He encamped before Bel- grade, and enclosed the Imperial army within a semicircle, reaching from the Danube to the Save. Prince I'jUgene had then no other alternative than to leave his ctimp, and attack the Turks in their iutreiichnieuts. He took his measures witii such •I.::::: " 1 Successes of ("liiuloa VI. 13 s CriiHii of Iliiii^'iiry. I'liii'ii (if Swcilcii, KOCH'S REVOLUTIO>fS. ('iinstitiitioii nf Swcdi-n. Stanislaus, Kiiii; uf I'dliiu,!, Aiiiie, lliniircss of Kiissiu, iuldrpss, tliat, in spite of tlui f,'reat superiority of the Turks, he forced tiiem biiek to tlielr rtiuip, and put tliem coinpletely to rout (August l(i, 1717). This victory was followed by tlie reduction of Belirrade, and several other places on the Save and tlu> Danube. The Porte bejjan to wisii for peace ; and as tlie emperor, who had just been attacked in Italy by tlu- Spaniards, was eiiually desirous to put an end to tlie war, botli parties ai;recd to ac- cept the mediation of England ami Holland. A congress was opened at Passarowifz, a small town in Servia, near the mouth of the Alorau. A ])eace Wiis there concluded between the three belligerent ])owers (July 21, 171H), on the basis of the Vti pos- siiictis. The emperor retained Temeswar, Orsova, Belgrade, and the part of Wallachia lying on this side of the river Altita ; as also Servia, according to the limits determined by the treaty, and both banks of the Save, from the Drino to tlu> Unna. 'J"he Venetians lost possession of the Morca, but they retained sevi'ral jilaces in Herzegovina, I)al- niatia, and Albania, which they had cons, in case lie should happen to die witlunit leaving any male oflspring. This jirince, Knding afterwards that he had no other children left than the two daughters by his marriage with Elizabeth, Princess of Hruiiswick, and being desirous of se- curing to them tli(> Ruccession of Hungary, as well as his other estates, assembled a Diet at Presburg (I7'22), and there engaged the states of the king- dom to e.\tcu.| Cassel. The states, in their electiun of thai piiiwl (May 22, 1720), ordained that the queen, hi uvf she should survive her husband, siiould be •v-n.i stated in her rights, and resume the crown, ivilliiijjl the necessity of a new deliberation of the siaiciF Frederic, by the Royal Asstiranee, and llie lural of government which he signed, agreed to (tiImI new modifications of the royal jiowcr, espiiiiUjI concerning a])pointiiients to places of trust. ili| these different stipulations, and the chaiiLri s whiri took ]ilace in consequence, the power of the Sm'. dish kings was gradually reduced to very iiiirrinrl limits. It was so much tlu- more ea> conlil 1,;,,' sul)iiiitt('(l liii|;e| it wllOSC (•(lllM1,t[ As for 111, ,l,..| solved, tliii if sutfraiics, Hull 's mill a ristiii.1 ower was Msifjl embers iif wlii.J tors of till' Kiiiu.] ;)l's to till' Kili;, m at the ividliul ei'wiinls ri".i;'i|pil 'retlerii'of H(<,c. on of thai |iriiiitl le (lueeii, in nJ slioulil 1)1' ri'-iii.l le erowii, witliojtl on of tlie slali'i, .•e, and lliu I'linjl ai;ree(l to ci'iUial [lowei-, cspiTijIljl •es of trust, iivl le {diaiiL'! s wl; iwer of till' Sivi'.l o very iiiirnul easy to iinlifl as the kiiiL', 111 i)f (.'overniiiii:!,! erviiittlliL'linl' lliiu'ii of I.ouis XV. (■;,mi);iii,'iis III' Italy. Siiiiiiisli (-'omiiiestof Naples. PHllIOD VIII. A.D. 1713—1780. Kiii>.'ilnm of llio Two Sicilies. I'encn of Vienna. i:ii) anil nec;isinnpii| oiii the Niirlkl ii;lit about iiiwll the iipiiiirla-f nislaus mi thil er-ia-law, anil The I'rimaleJ nobility ln'iiii^ :»s eouseiiui'iil ifcr of Ciiuiiiiiil, I just asi'i'iiileiil cedinl IVliT 1 iu the llira-fi jn-ofreiiy. Th'l on Auiii' on wliieli tliejj 'h she eancollfi oseow. 'rin( !•' ranee in I'ol Russia and Ihj Ansnistiis IllJ ate khijr, wluuf hrone. r;iilf 'roni the tii'liln liiin army, M I Stanislaus, lii< ir Xhc Russians, reinforced by tho Saxon troops, ..,,1 -Warsaw, and coni])ulleil Stanislaus to retire ,1 Daiitzie, where he was besieged by a Kussian miiv, under eomniand of rield-iMarshal ISIunieh, „iri'il)li!.'ed to seek safety in Hijjht. T,ouis XV. ishiii" to avenar Krma (.lime 2!)), and Guastalla (September 17), uy niiiile themselves master of all Austrian Lom- laiily, with the single exception of Mantua, which icy laid under blockade. A Spanish army, coni- aiuli'd liy the Duke of Montemar, accompanied Iho Infant Don Carlos, directed their march on aplcs, which threw open its gates to the Spa- lianls. The victory which they gained over the iii|ii'rialists at Bitonto (May 25), decided the fate IP kingdom of Naples. After this conquest, 10 Infant passed to Sicily. He soon reiluced al island, and was crowned King of the Two licilifs at Palermo (July 3, 1735). The emperor, overwhelmed by so many re- rses, and unable to withstand the powers leagued inst him, eagerly solicited assistance from Rus- la. The Kinjiress Anne, wlio saw the war termi- ti'il in I'oland, and Augustus in (piiet possession llii' throne, despatched a body of 10,000 auxili- u's, under the comtnand of General Count ile inoy, into Germany, in the spring of the year '1'). These troops, the first Russians who had poared in that country, joined the Imperial army 1 llio llliine, which was commanded by Prince iUL'i'ne. That general, however, did not succeed Ills design of transferring the seat of war to lorrain-'. Matters were iu this situation, when the mari- time powers interposed their good offices for ro- ;itoring peain- between the Enijieror and tho States leagued against him. (Cardinal Fleury, perceiving th.it their mediation was not agreeable to the Im- perial court, took the resolution of concerting a secret negociation with the emperor, the result of which was a treaty of lueliminaries ; although much (ieliberation was necessary bi^fore coming to the conclusion of a detinitive peace. This was lit length signed at Vienna, between France, the I'^mperor, and the Kinpire, on the Hth of Movem- ber, 173S. The former treaties of Westphalia, Nimeguon, llyswick, Utrecht, and the (luadruiile Alliance, were admitted as the liasis of this treaty. Stanislaus renounced the throne of Poland, and retained the title only during his life. They gave him, by way of compensation, the duchies of Lor- raine and Bar, on condition that, at his death, they should revert with full right to FraiK'c. The single county of F'alkenstein, with its aiipurtenances and dependencies, was reserved for Francis, Duke of Lorraine. In exchange for the duchy which "le abdicated, that prince received the grand ilucliy of Tuscany, whoso last possessor, John Gaston, of the House of Medici, had just died without leaving any posterity (1737). The kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with the jiorts of Tuscany, were secured to Don Carlos and his descendants, male and female ; and, failing them, to the younger brothers of that prince, and their descendants. On his jiart, Don t'arlos ceded to the emperor the duchies of Parma and Placentia, and even renounced the rights which former treaties had given him over the grand duchy of Tuscany. They restored to the emperor all that had been taken from him in the provinces of Milan and Mantua ; with the re- servation of the districts of Kovara and Tortona, which he was obligeil to cede to (.'barb's Fmanuel III., King of Sardinia, together with San-Fidele, Torre di l''orti, (iravedo, and Camjio-Maggiore ; as also the territorial superiority of the tiefs com- monly called Laniihes, to be held entirely as Im- ))erial fiefs. Finally, France undertook, in the most authentic form, to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction of the ein])eror. The Kings of Spain and Sardinia were not satisfied with the conditions of this treaty. The former wished to jireserve the grand duchy of Tus- cany, with the duchies of Parma and Placentia; and the other had expected to obtain a larger por- tion of Lombardy. Thus, these princes long hesi- tated to admit the articles agreed to between the courts of F' ranee and Vienna ; nor did they give their consent until the year 173{t. While these disputes about the succession of Poland occii])ied a great part of iMirope, a war broke out between the Turks and the Uussians, in which Austria was also implicated. The Flm- press 7\nne of Russia, wishing to recover Azoff, and repair the loss which Peter the Great had sustained iu his unfortunate campaign on tho Pruth, took advantage of the war between the Turks and the Prussians, to form an alliance with Khouli Khan, the famous coiuiueror of the Fast, who had just s ibverted the ancient dynasty of the Sojibis of Persia. The incursions which the Tar- tars had made at different times into the Russian ]irovince8, without the Porte thinking proper to check them, served as a motive for the empress to order an expedition against the Turks (1735), and 4 ' --•""Tj 140 Tlio Ciimi'ii. Tiirki.»li victurii's. TriMty ol' Hi'lyrailo. KOCH'S KEVOLUTIONS. Death of Clmrles VI. Austrian Sucepssioii. Till' Assiento Coniraot. to lU'claro wnr airiiiiist the I'ortc soon after. It was (luriii!; the canipiiij;!! of 17!3(i that t'oimt Lacy nuuk' himself inastor of A/.ott", and that Marsiial Munich, after having forced the lines at I'erekop, penetrated into the imorior of the Crimea ; hnt liaving in that expedition lost many of his men hy famine and disease, he found it impossible to maintain liimsclf in tiiat peninsula. The emperor oHered himself at first as a medi- ator between the bcl'i .-^rent powers. A con- ference was opened at ^lemerow in Poland, wliicli proved fruitless. Th" llu-sians, who had just taken Oc/.akolf, embo'' enei) by tiieir success, were desirous to continue tlio w.ir; while the emperor, without rcHecting on the bad condition of his military strengtli, and the loss which he liad sustained hy tlie death of the celebrated I'ri 'e Eugene (Ai)ril 21, 1730), thought only of sharing the conquest with tiie Russians. He tlien laid aside tlie character of mediator, to act on the de- fensive against tlie Turks ; but he had socn reason to re|)ent of this measure. The Turks, encou- raged by the famous Count do Bonneval, gained considerable advantages over the Austrians ; and in course of tlie comjiaigns of 1737 and 1738, they dislodged them from Wallachia and Servia, retook Orsova, and laid siege |i tlie city of Beltrrade in 173!). The court of A'ienna, in a state of great conster- nation, liad recourse to the mediation of M. de Yil.ijieuve, tlie French ambassador at Constanti- no])Ie, to sue for peace with the Porte ; Count Meipperg, who was sent by the emjieror to tile Turkish camp before Belgrade, signed there, with too much precipitation, a treaty, under very dis- advantageous terms for Austria ; and the Kinpress Anne, wlio had intrusted tiie Prench ambassador witii lier full jiowers, consented also to a peace very unfavourable for Rii^^iia, notwithstanding tlie brilliant victory wiiicli Mai 'lal Munich had gained over tlie Turks in the neigh lourhood of Choczim (October L'S, 173!l), whicli 'as followed by the cajiture of that place, and the coii 'uest of Moldavia by the Russians. The emperor, by that peace, ced'd to the Porte Belgrade, Sabati!, and Orsova, with Austrian Servia and Wallachia. The Danube, the Save, and tlie Uniia, were again settled as the boundary between the two I'impires ; and Austria preserved nolhing but the Baiiat of Teiiieswar of all that had been ceded to her by the jiinice of Passurowitz. The Austrian merchants, liowever, were granted free ingress and egress, in the kingdoms and jiroviuces (f the Ottoman Empire, both by sea and land, in their own vessels, with the Hag and letters-jiatent of the emiieror, on condition of their paying the accustomed dues. Russia suirendered all her conquests, and among others Choczim and I\Ioldavia. The boundaries between the two Empires were regulated by dif- ferent special agreements. The fortress of Azoff was demolished ; and it was stipulated that Russia should not construct any new fortress witliin thirty versts of that place, on the one side ; nor tlie Porte within thirty versts, on the side of the Cuban. Russia was even interdicted from having and con- structing fleets (u- other naval stores, either on the sea of Azoff or tlie Black Sea. The Zuporog Cos- sacs continued tnidcr the dominion of Russia, which obained also from the Porte the ueknow- ledgnient of the Imperial title. The peace I I tween Russia and the Porte was docliired up f petual ; but they limited that between Austrin'iijl the Porte to twenty-seven years. The latter «, I renewed under the Empress Maria Theresa' anil rendered also perpetual, by an agreement whifJ that princess concluded with the iortc, Jlayijl 1747. ■ ''' The succession to Char'f carried on in Spanish America, under favounif til contract called the Assioito. Philip ". tlidughtf turning these differences relative to ilie Aiistriaj succession to his own advantage, either for (Irawit France into an alliance with him against Kiislanl or to procure for his son Don Philip a settlemei| in Italv, at the expense of the daui,'liler Cliarles VI, Frederic II., King of Pnissia, who had just sdJ cee led his fath^-r Frederic I., judged this ii favoui able ;iine for turning his attention to the ail'airs his own kingdom, and profiting by the troops am Marin TluTcsa, Kmpre84. (■mlition uKiiiiist licr. Fiiidorii' till- Ciruiit. PERIOD VIII. A.D. 17i;j— 1780. Treaty li;i(l in \:iin endea-Noiin-d to prevent i!ie eleiti u of the Orund Uuke of Tuscany to the Imperia oirone, who hail heci; ass'iiuited with his wife, IM.ii.! Thf . ' <, in tlie L'overnment of her hereditary domnii.-:!/.. Tlirt iniiice, however, was elected at l''!ii:;k'i rt, uiuli-r the protection of the Austijun and i\ i ,m itic lu mics. An alliiihrt hud been conelndcd at Warsaw bdweiii .Maii.i Theresa, Poland, Englanil, and HoUiiiil (.lanii:iry S, I74.i;. Augustus III. had engaged, as l^lector of Saxony, to drs])ateh an army of :J0,0(1(» men to the qneen's assistance, in ( ''isideratiiin nf the subsidies wbicli England and lliilhmd had promised to pay him. Tliat army bein;; joined by the Austrians, had advanced into Silesi:., where they sustained a total defeat near Hoiienl'riedbergfJune 4). Tlie victorious King of Prussia returned to Bohemia, and there defeated the allies a second time, near Sorr, in the Circle of Konigratz (September 'M). Ho then attacked Saxony, in order to eomi)el the queen to make peace, by harassing the eU'ctor her ally. The vic- tory, which he gained over the Saxons at Kessels- d(n-f (December l.i), made him master of Dresden and the whole electorate, which he laid '.nder con- tribution. These victories accelerated the jieace between the King of Prussia, the Uueen, and the Elector of Saxony, which was signed at Dresden, under the mediation of (Jreat Britain. The King of Prussia restored to the elector all his estates, the latter ])romising to pay liim a million of Impe- rial crowns. Tiie (pieen gave up Silesia and the conite of (ilafz ; while the King, as the Elector of Brandenburg, acquiesced in the election of Francis I. to th(! Imjierial throne. The King of England, tlie Dutch, and the States of tiio Empire, undertook to guarantee tliesi' stipulations. The treaties of Fuessen and Dresden restored traiKjuillity to the Empire ; but the war was eon- tinned in the Netherlands, Italy, and in the East and West Indies. The French, under the conduct of Marshal Saxe, distinguished themselves in the Netherlands. The victories whicli they gained over the allies at Fontenoy (May 11, 174.1), and at Rocoux (October 11, 1740), ])rocured them the conquest of all the Austrian Netherlands, except the towns and fortresses of Luxemburg, Limburg, and Uueldres. Charles Edward, son of the Pretender, eneou- iicar I raged and assisted by the court of Fraiici', Jamij in Scotland in August 1745. Being joiuoil ]» j uumber of partisans, whom he found in tlmt kiiii. dom, he caused his father to be luiicliiiim-,! '^ Pertli and Edinbin-irb, at^uuiing to liiniscjf tW title of Prii.ce ■A W i'.le-.;, luil Regent of tlic ii„(.j kingdoms. 'I'Ih; victory niiich i. gaini'il Prcstonp;!i!s over I'ie l',ngli-;h Irocp--, rendcrud master of all ^ '•! *J md. ilc ne.>.t ,naded I-.h^. land, took rariii-If, ..nd advanced is ! .■ „g j)(,|.|'j s, Leading ti my,- jm) coiv-' vnatiDii i; Lnndnlil (irorge II, v,-,s obli;4;.;(l to ie;al tii- '.^'-e of Cum! beiland, with his troops, from tlie N etherliuuK, Th'.ii, prince (I'ovc back the Pretender, re-touk Carlisli', I'lul ri'stored tranciuillity in Scudaiul, bv defeating the rebels near Culloden in the Hish'. lands. Charle. Edward was then re H'ed to the lirressily of concealing 1 in.i.L\f ■ mon^' the nioun. tuius, until the month of Oct ;lt.v foUovviiij;, wlien he found niear.s to tninsiiort liimseH'to Fimicc I'he .'.aiii'aign oi' 171' i Italy was gloiiuus fi,t til Freiub, and f'.Mr »1 '" the S;,.iniai(ls, Jii,. repiihiii' of tiiMioi 'jeing otteiK.ed at tlie climsf [^ the treaty of Wornn, which look from thci.i tlit marqnimte iif Finale, esiioused the {aiisc nf i!„. two cronns, anil facilitated the JuiK-timi nf |i„. French army of the Alps with thui of Luinbanlv, One eiii.'t of this jnnetion was the cuuquisi '„{ Piedmont, as also of Austrian Lombardy, exciptiii,! the citic-i nf Turin and Mantua, which the ;illiii bad laiil 'nidcr blockade. The t.u of the war, however, experienced uiuv change iu Italy, at the opening of tiie fiillHwin.. campaign. Maria Theresa, disengaged IVuiu tlit war with Piw^sia, sent consiilerahle reinfoiciMiwiii into Lombardy, which gave her arms a supfrimiiv over those of the allies. The Fremdi and S|i,i. niards were stripped of all their conlllu■^ls, ml sustained a u'rand defeat at Placciitia (June Iti, 174t)), which obliged them to beat a re tieiit. To add to their misfortunes, the new King uf Spuiu, Ferdinand VI., who had just succeeded his father, Philii) v., being displeaseliged tlie niagist .as stailtluilder and ohitiun was a<'liieved lilliout any obstacle on fi interest in opposing bjiild to the wishes o lent so tiir as to deedai las i!ie otKces of ca| Iri'ilitary in all llie jii pil t'iMiiide — a eiK'umsti r fiiiuidatidii of the re| This eliaiige which ha lip iliil not, however, Iskini; new conquests. isioii of Dutch F'la: le town of Maestricht. plliaving advanced wi K'towu, a bloody baftli luh '.', 1747), which w yiertlio command of >; li'r;'eii-(i])-Zoom, wh iMe Dy its situation am juaded it, was earriei I'veudal, two months Ini'lii's. However brilliant th < was on the continei Ihi'ii- maritime expedi |nitheiii Lonishurg an ;and completely desi lii'h Inid beciii much i Itiy of Cardinal Fleii ■■IS at length felt the 111 were two events wl Tile Enipri>ss of Ru bijenients into which ^ frts of Vienna and Lo Diilrli FlanikTi) invaded. Williiim IV. Stadtlioldur. llu^liali Naval bucci'ss. PERIOD VIII. A..D. 1713—1789. IVacp 111' Aix-laCliaiH'ili' Kii'cU'iic 11. ai(iuiri!.s Sili'siii. ii:{ [lif sani'' time n'.ndc a vi>f(irnus attack on t\w Nidn f I'iidincint, rclu'vcd the Genocsi-, and obliged foni'iny to retreat. Ill 1747) 'ho French, wlio were (ilready masters f the Aiisliiaii Ni'tlieilands, attacked and eon- iiiieil Dutch Fhmders. They blamed the Dutcli rliiiviui: st'iit constant supplies to Maria The- Ki, toi' haviiit? invaded the l'"rench territory, and -jiilctl a retreat through their own to the enemy's wiips al'ler the t.iittlc of Fonlenoy, Tliis invasion iiiMil tenor in tlie jn'ovince of Zealand, who thus 'loiiiselves deprived of their harrier, and ,".\- joscilto tin- iiu'oads of the French. Tiie partisni;s If llic Prince of Orange took advantage of that lirramstance to restore the stadtiiolcler«hip. This it'iiitv, as well as that of captain and admiral- Lhow! of the rejiublic, had remained vacant since ihpilcatii of William III. William IV., I'rince of Nassau-Diet/., though le«iis testamentary heir to that prince, had (mly llilaiiied the stadtlioldership of F'riesland, to wliicii Iris ;il'l('i\vards added that of (ironingeu and pmldiTS ; l)Ut the ertbrts wliicli he made to obtain ,,ilitr otHces and dignities of the ancient P inces ifOraiiiii', jiroved inell'eefual. The four provinces |fllull:ui(l, Zealand, IJtreeht, and Overyssel, jier- jslfil in their free government, and even refused If iiiiiice tiie olKce of general of infantry, which il rfiiuested. France, by attacking Uufcii llimlers, contributed to the elevation of William. ,m wa.* a general feeling in bis favour in those iviiiccs which had no stadtbolder ; the ])eople of liMlitlVrcHt tiiwiis and districts rose in succession, ml ubliued the magistrates to proclaim William stadtholder and captain-geiu'ral. This re- bliiliiiii was achieved without disturbance, and lillwut any obstacle on the part of those who had j interest in opposing it, but who were obliged hicld to the wishes of the people. 'I hey even IPii! SI) tar !is to declare the stadtholdership, as I as i!ie olKces of ca|)tain and admiral-general, Ifpilitary in all the prince's descendants, male J ft'iuule— a circumstance unprecedented since I'.iiimlatiou of the republic. J Tlii< change which happened in thostadtholder- lip ilid not, however, prev('nt the French from lakiii:; new conquests. They had no sooiu'r got simi of Dutch Flanders, than they attacked |c town of Maestricht. The Duke of Cnniber- ml having advanced with the allied army to cover t town, a bloody battle took place near Laveid lul\ ',', 1747), wliicb was gained by the I^-ench, Vicr the connnand of Marshal Saxe. The fortress I'lveii-op-Zoom, which was deemed impreg- f Dy its situation and the marshes which s>u'- Jundid it, was carried by assault by Count rvtiMJal, two months after he had opened his llii'lu's, iHiiwever brilliant the success of the French p was on the coi\tinent, they failed in almost llhcif maritime expeditions. The Fnglish took 111! them Louishurg inul t^'ape IJretou in Amc- aiiil completely destroyed the French marine, lull had been much neglected, under the mi- llry of Cardinal F'leury. All the belligerent pvi'is lit length felt the necessity of peace ; and k wi re two events which tended to accelerate The Empress of llussia, conformable to the to'iuents into which she had entered with the lirts of Vienna and Loudon, by tho ti'eaties of I74(! and 1747, bad despa "bed Prince Repnin to the Rhine, at the head of 30,000 men. .Marshal Saxe, at the sanu? time, hiul laid siege to Maestricht, in presence of the enemy, wiio were SO.OOO strong. 'I'he taking of that city would have laid open all Holland to tin." French, and threatened the re- public with the most disastrous conseiiuences. A preliminary treaty was then signed iit Aix-la- Chiii)elle, which was followed by a delinitive |)eace (October 18, 1748). There iill former treaties since that of Westphalia were renewed; a mutual restitution was madi^ on both sides of all con- rjuests made during the war, both in Kurope and in the Fast and "West Indies; and in consideration of the important restitutions which France had made on the continent, they ceded to Don Philip, the son-in-law of Louis XV., luul brother '' "'"' ri^P'"' The islands l>ing on the Liilli ami west of the Kymen were likewise in- Jrliiilt'd ill this cession ; as were also the town and lorlrisH uf Nyslott, with its territory. All the rest If Fiiiiiii'd was restored to Sweden, toj^ether with III,, uihcr coniii'ists which Ilussia had made during . ivar. The Swedes were jjerniitted to purchase liiiiiKillv in tliP llussian ports of the Uultic, and kf (iii'lf of Finland, jjrain to the valne of i)0,000 (iililes, witliout payint; any export duty. I'ortnjrat, about the middle of t!ie eighteenth Iteiiliin. became tlie scene of various memorable Ifunls," which attracted jjeneral attention. John •„ who had governed that kingdom from 170(> in.')0, bad fallen into a state of weakness and ,ilni;c, iiiid aband(ni('d the reins of government to lull tiaspard, his confessor, under wiiose adininis- Inlidii lunnerous abuses had crept into the state. Pusi'lili !■> tbe son and successor of John V., on Isiiiiiliiif; llie tin-one (July HI, I'.'iO), undei'toiik to trl'irin llu'so abuses. Hy tbe advice of his minister, |i,!iisti:iu I)c (^arvalho, afterwards created Connt )()i'\ras, and Manpiis I)e Ponibal, he turned liis Itti'iitioii I" every branch of tlie administration, pit' patronised tbe arts and sciences, encouraged (.'riouiluri', manufactures, and commerce ; regu- lalfil the tiiiances ; and tised every eil'ort to raise army and n:i y of Portugal from that state of Bjiit'iiur into whub they had fallen. These iiino- laliiiiis ciiiiUl not be accomplished without exciting (Kiuiteiit in the ditferent orders of the state. Se- ka-tiaii ' creased this by his inflexible severity and ' (it'spotisni which he displayed in the exercise If his ministerial functions, as well as by the anti- lialli)- which \w showed against the nobility and II' ministers of religion. The companies which ■instituted fen- exclusive commerce to the Indies, [ifrica, and (.'liina, raised against him the whole iwlj of merchants in the kingdom. He irritated lie miliility by the contempt which he testiKei'. lowanis tliciii, and by annexing to the crown those Inimi'iisc domains in Africa and America which llii' nobles enjoyed hy the munificence of former \iiii;s. The most powerful and tbe most dangerous piciiiies of Ibis minister were the Jesuits, whom ' had ventured to attack openly, and bad even IrJcrcil to be expelled from Portugal. Of this Ivcnt, which was attended with remarkable con- jcqui'iu'cs, it will be necessary that we give some ICCdUllt. During the life of John V., a treaty had been lifiu'il between the courts of Madrid and Lisbon ln.il)), in virtue of which the Portuguese colony |f St. Sacrament and the northern bank of the iipr I,a Plata, in America, were ceded to Spain, Jiiapliange for a part of Paraguay, lying nu the lasii'in bank of the Uruguay. This treaty was on liiiiiit of being carried into execution ; the (ci'mnissioners apjiuinted for this purpose had com- fcfiiml their labours ; but the inhabitants of the Ifili'd territories opposed the exchange, as did se- lerd individuals in both courts. The Jesuits were ppected of being the authors and instigators of That opposition. In the territories which were to p adi'd to Portugal, they had instituted a re- public of the initives, which they governed tis ab- solute niasti rs, and which they were afraid would be subverted, if the exchange in question shoulil take place. They used every means, therefore, to thwart the arrangements of the two courts; and it is alleged they even went so far as to excite a n'- bellion among the inhabitants of the countries to be exchanged. The conseipience was, a long and expensive war between the two crowns, which occasioned much bloodshed, and cost Portugal alone nearly 20,000,000 of cruzados. In the midst of these events, there occurred a teri'Me earthiiuake, which, in the twinkling of an e\ . , demolished the greater jiart of LIsItm, and destroyed between 20,000 and :iO,000 of its inha- bitants (N'oveinber 1, 17');")). Pire consumed what- ever had escaped from the eartlupiake; while tbr- overflowing of the sea, cold, and famine, added to the horrors of these calamities, which extended even over a great jiart of the kingdom. The Jesuits were reproached for having, at the time of this distressing event, announced new disasters, which were to overwhelm Portugal, as a punish- ment for the sins of which the inlialiitants bad been guilty. These predictions, added to tlie cimimotions which still continued in Ura/.il, served as a pretext for depriving the Jesuits of their oHice of court -confessors, shutting tliein out from the palace, and even interdicting them from iiearing confessions over the whole kingdom. 'I'be outrage which was cinniuitted against the king's person iinmediately after, furnished the mi- nister Avith another pri'text against that religions order. Tlie king, when going by night to Belein (Si'ptemtier H, n.")K), was attacked by assassins, who mistook him for another, and tired several shots at him, hy which he was severely wounded. Several of tbe first nobles in the kingdom were accused, among others the Duke d'Aveiro, the Maripiis and Marchioness do Tavora, tbe (.'ount d'Atoiigia, &c., as being the ringleaders in this jilot against the king's life, who were sentenced to exe- cution accordingly, [though their iiniocence was afterwards fully established.] The Jesuits were nlso implicated in this affair, and iiublicly declared accomplices in the king's assassination. They were proscribed as traitors and disturbers of the public peace; their goods were confiscated ; and every individual belonging to the order was embarked at once at the several ports of the kingdom, without any regard to age or infirmities, and transported to CJivita A'ecchia, within the pope's dominions. The Portuguese minister, apprehensive that this religious order, if preserved in the other states of Europe, would Hml means, sooner or later, to return to Portugal, used every endeavour to have their society entirely suji- pressed. He succeeded in this attempt liy means of the negociations which he set on foot with se- veral of the Catholic courts. In Prauce the society was dissolved, in virtue of the decrees issued by the parliament (17()2). Paris set the first example of this. Louis XV. declared, that the society should no longer exist within the kingdom. The court of Madrid, where they had two jiowerful enemies in the ministry. Counts d'Aianda and De Cam- pomanes, commanded all the Jes\iits to banish themselves fnnn the territory and jurisdiction of Spain ; and, at the same time, declared tlieir goods to be confiscated. They were likewise expelled L I',. .~a ■ IViu't- of Aix-lii-(Mmi)f lie Mtt NVi'Ht Iiiilia Islam! >. NiiMi Scutiii iiijil Can Ilia. KOCH S IlEVOLUTIONS. Wiiv botwecn Franc, iiii'l Kiixliind. LcKKiii' uKaiiiKl I'nis.i,,. k from fhi; kingdom of Nuj)les; uiul tlu' ordor wnn rit liiijilli ciiliifly HuppicsKi'd, bj a brief cf Popo cii-mciii \i\. (July -n, n-;<).* The p(i:ict> of Aix-la-lhapcllc had hj no means rt'nt()ren^ rivalry divided the two na- tions, whieii served to nourish :ind multiply Huh- jeets of discord between them. llesideH, ihe acti- vity of the I'reneli in repairing' their murine, whi.'li had been destroyed in the last war, was viewed with jealousy by (ireat Britain, which was tlioii as|)irin^' to tile al)soUlte eomiuand of the sen, and was conscious that Fiance alone was abh' to conn- teract i\er ambitious projects. Several matters of dispute, which the peace of Aix-la'Clvapelle had left undecided, still subsisted between the two nations, relative 1(* lluir possessions in America. The principal of these re^aided the boundaries of Nova Scotia, ('anada, and the neutral islinuls. Nova Seutia had been ceded '.. Enu'land, by the twelfth article of the treaty of 'trfcht, accordinj;: to its ancient limits, These litt.'l. the French had circumscribiil witliiu thi- boumls ,if vlie i)eninsula which forms that pro\ince; while the (:hii,'lish in- sisteil on c\ttudinLC them to the southern bank of the riv.r St. Lawrence, of which the excivisive na- vigation beliinired to the French. The limits uf Canada were not better defined than those of Nova Scotia. The F'roneh, with the view of opening; up a coiiiniunication Ijctween Canada anil Loi i-.iana, had constructed several forts alonif the river Ohio, on the conliues of the F.n;,'lish colonics in America. This was opposed by England, who wai afraid that these eatal)lish- nu'nts would endanger the safety ot her colonies, especially that of Virginia. The niiitral islairds, namely theCaribees, which cotnprehe, ided St.I.ucia, Dominica, St. Vincent, and Tobago, >lill remiuncd in a contested st.ite, according to the ninth article of the treaty of Aix-la-(Jhai)elle. The French, however, alleged certain acts of possession, by which they claimed the property of these islands, as well as of the Caicos and Turkish Islands. Connuissioners were appointed on both sides to bring these disputes to an amicable termination, A confcrein-c was o])ciu'd at I'aris, which began about the end of September 17.")(), and continued for several years; but as neither party was dis- posed to act with siiu'erily, these conferences ended in nothing. The English, who saw that the Fiencb only sought to gain time for augmenting thcur marine, hastened the rupture by committing acts of hostility in America. The lirst breach of the peace was committed on the banks of the Ohio, where the French, to avenge the nnnder of one of their officers, seized on Fort Necessity, belonging to )he English (July, 17r)4). The English, on their side, captured two French vessels off the Hank of Newfound! id, which bad refused to salute llu' English flag. 1 hey evc'u at- tacked all the I'rcnch merchantmen which thoy met, and captured about 300 of them. Thus a long and bloody war was waged for the deserts and uncultivated wilds of America, which extended its ravages over all ])arts of the globe, involving more cspeci' y the countries of Europe. England, according t(> a well known jiolitical stratagi m, sought to occupy the French arms on the Continent, in order to prevent the increase of her maritime strength. France, instead of avoiding that snare, imd confining herself solely to navil operations, commit'ed the mistake of lalliiigim,j|Lf the views id' Ihe British minister. While rciiillii I the hostilities of England by sea, she aduptid al iLI same tinu' nuasures for invading the Klci'tiir;,ii.„f| Hanover. The court of London, wishing tn ^mM against this danger, began by forming a ilosii- ;,|.| liance with Russia (September HO, 1*,").")); t|,( I demanded of the empress those supplier whithl they thiuigbt they might claim in virt\ic ol' t'oiim,,! treaties ; and on the refusal of that piiiiciss, uhjl was afraid to disoblige France, and to tiuil lii'riif|f| attacked by I'rnpsia, they ajiplie 1 to this InUffl po«er, with whom they concluded a troatv iitl Westminste.' (January Ui, 17.) has given rise to difliriitl opinions among statesmen ; the greati i pnrt liavij condemned it. Its object was, on the pan ofl F'rance, to guard herself against fdi attacks on llipl t'ontinenl, that '•he might direct her whole f nd against her maritime rival; but exp'turv lit gufiMM'. War in'lw n'U Engluud iiiiil S|iaiii. rEiuou VIII. v.u, i7i;j— i-Ho. IVti'r III. ilt'throm-cl. Cntlioriiii- 11. i-m|iruM. Treat) of I'lirls. 147 :ic iiDWi'i'H li'itguril !ij;iiiiist liiiii, (hiriu.,- tlio inns (if tliu Seven Yeius' \Viir.^ 'i'liis wnr Ibiirk on tlwiii, wlioit llicy cxiii'iiciKiMl iiutliiiij; l.ut l| I'l'iits ami iliNiiHti'iM.' 'I'lu; i'xtnii)i'(lin:n\ cllorls r'lilil, tin y were niiikiiin on llic coutincMt initii- I Ik ti'lnl'i'il to ri'liix their iniiiitillie niiei-iilidiis, I III thus all'onieil KiiKland tlie nieiiiis of iiivailiii^( 1.1 ||. lni^mssioiiH ill other ])aits of the woihl. In I, , y^,n,.s n.')7 and ITtil, Chmuleniaffore, I'ondi- Ihcrntii'"' ^I"'"-'> '" ''"^' ^''■"^' '"difH, fell into the V,„i;',ir till' i:nKli'*h ; and in 17.")H tliey seized on \}\c I'niit'li Nettleiuents on tile river Senegal liiul liu- I'tiii^^l" "'" .Afriea. The isIandH of C'ai)e iBri'ti"! i""' '^'* •'"'"' '" Anierira; the forts and Ttpllli'niiMil> on the Ohio; (iiu liee (where Cieneral nViill'i' lillj' '""' *'''■ ^vhoh' of Canada, were all ducred in like manner, between the years 17.")t'> I 17(1(1. Finally, the islands of (inadaloiipe, l;iiii'!.'iil;uite, Uoniiniea, .Martiniiiue, Hrenada, St. hiiiiviit, SI, I.iieiu, and Toh i^'o, were also taken Pfiiin France. The Kiiii; "d' Prussia, fhoui;.i overwhehned liy Uir maul" I' of his encTnies, and lindini; no great ls>i alnadv IV.r advanceil, vJieii the Dnke de , iMiil, who was then a' the head ol the I'Vench kiiiii^liy, ohsirvin;,' the (;r(ii-t, vvhicli he nenociati d with the Urt "f Madrid, and which was eonrliuled at fari- (.\ii}.'ust l.")th, 1701). The olijeet of tliis (iH was to cement an alliance and a iierix'tual Jiiiiili lanolii,' the diU'ereut branches of the lloiise f|luurl;oii, for tin' jiuriiose of counterbalancing Ifiiiariliiiic power of l'',ngland. Till' Iviiii; of Spain had come under no engiigc- liut 111 join in the war which subsisted between ftaiur and Kngland ; but the liaughty maniu'r in iili till' court ' agreed to a suspension of arms with the King of Prussia, anVesel and (iueldres. The Elector of Saxony again took possession of those states of which the King of Prussia had been de- prived ; and the treaties of Hn slau, Herlin, ami Dresden, were renewed. Thus, after seven cam- liaigns, as sanguinary as they were expensive, the peace of Huhertslnu'g restored the affairs of Ger- many to the same state in which they had b;>en before the war. 1'" ranee, by the tre,.i} ci' Paris, ceded to F^ngland Canada and the isluiul ly ;.'apc Iketon, with the islands and coasts -t tl'i tudf and River of St. EawreiK'e. The b-'iiniiiies between the two na- tions in North America were fixed by a line drawn along the middl(> of the Mississippi, from its source to its mouth. All on the left or eastern bank ol" that river, was given up to F^ngland, except the city of New Orleans, which was reserved to France ; as was also the liberty of the fisheries on a part of the coasts of Kewfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrenee. The islands of St. Peter and Miquelon were given them as a shelter for their iishermen, but without permission to raise fortifi- cations. The islands of Martinico, tiuadaloupe, Mariegalante, Desirada, and St. Lucia, were sur- rendered to l''ranee ; while Cirenada, the Grena- dines, St. Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago, were ceded to England. This latter power retained her conquests on the Senegal, and restored to I'rance the island of Gorea, on the coast of Africa. France 1.2 r . .-a Arlirli'x of till- I'lii'ilicatiiMi. l48 l.uril CUm''* Vlotutli'i In lllniliMUn. KOCH'S UKVOLUTIOISSt. i wnn ])iit ill jxiti^rssiciii iif flic I'ort^ nnd I'lftorU'x U'liii'h lii'liiiiufol III hor ill llif r.uHt IikIu'm, on the cuHNtN of ('oi'omiiiiilcl, Oi'iNxa, Mtilubiir, niiil lien- Kill, iiiuli'i' till* i-fHtrictioii of k(>o|)iii)< up nu iiiilitury force in Kcii^ul. Ill I'-iiropc, Friiiicc rcHtoruil nil tlie ronquostn hIic liuil iiiiulc in (icrinany ; an uUo tlic iHluiiil of Miimrcii, I''iik1uii(I j?!ivc up to her Hclloinlc, on llic coiist of llrittany ; while DiiiiUirlv wn-' kept in tile Hiuiie eoiulition us hud been dclcniiincd liy the jieiice of Aix-lu-('ha|)elle. The island of (Jiiha, ■with the Ilavunnu, wore restored to the Kinj? of Spain, who, on his part, ceded to Kiit;laiiil Florid i, with I'ort-Anuustine and the Hay of I'cnzacol i. The Kiii^; of I'ortuiful was rest ucd to the saioe state in which he had lieen hefm ■ the vxr. The colony of SI. Siicraiiicnt in An erica, liicli the Spaniards Iwid eoiKpiered, was Ki\cu ha( k to him." The jieace of I'aris, of which we have just now spoken, was the era of Kiijj;land's j;reatest pru-- perity. Her coiiiincrci^ and navi|,'!ilioii exteiiih-d over all parts of the kIoIic, and were supported hy u iia\al force, mi iiiiich the more iiiiposin;;, as it was no loiiifcr countcrlialanccd hy tin' maritime jiowcr of l''raiir(>, which had lieen aliunst aiiiiihi- lated ill the preccdini,' war. The iiimieuse terri- tories which that ])enee had secured her, both in Africa and America, oprned up new channels for her industry ; and, what deserves especially to be remarked, is, that she acquired at the same time vast anil important possessions in the Ivist Indies, [Her iiiHiience, howi'ver, on the \iolilics of the coiilinent, diminished rather than increased, after the ju-aee of I'aris. Her ally, Frederic II., liavini,' been abandoned by the cabinet of London, at- tarhed liimself to Russia; while, on the other side, Austria had been esfran','ed from (ireiit Uri- lain by the treaties of 17."»t> and I'M, Holland and l*ortu){al were thus the only stales which re- niained iii utrict alliance with the court of Knj,'- land.J The Kmpirc of the Great Mogul in India Imd fallen into decay about the be^rinnin^^ of the eii,'h- teeiith century. The viceroys and petty ^(overnors of the Fnipirc, called Souba/i.i and Nabobs, had become independent, and usurped the prerogatives of royalty in the districts under their authority; while the Mo(;ul Kinperor, reduced almost to tlie single city of Didhi, his capital, preserved nothing but the shadow of sovereign power, by means of the investitures which lie granted to these ambi- tious princes, and the coinage that was struck in his name. Whenever any differences arose among these princes, they usually had recourse to the European nations, who had settlements in India, and had erected forts with the consent of the Great Mogul, where they kept an armed force for the protection of their commerce. If the French took the part of one nabob, it was sufficient for the English to espouse the quarrel of his adversary ; and while the two nations were mutually culti- vating jieace in F'.urope, they were often at the same time making war in India, by furnishing supplies to their respective Hies. Success was for a long time equal i ii boll, sides; and it was not until the war of 17") , nnd by the victories and conquests of the famous Lord Clive, that England obtained a decided ascendancy over the French in that quarter of the world. Sourajah Dowlah, the Soubnh of Bengal, insti- llrlii.li I'.mwrn In Imii,, iU'iiin iir ( l.iitU'H lll.df H|iitiii. by the French, h:,,! gated, as is KUii, 'seij, iiy me r rcncii, h:,,! t:,\ ,.m possession of Calci'ta (n.'tll), the priiici|i:i| mii|,.,I iiicnt of the I'.iiglish <>n t.ic Ganges, ilj, ,.,^ J treatment of the Eii;riish garrison, wliicli he I,;,,] I made prisoners of war, excited the rcsi'iitnu'iit i,|| that nation. 'I'o avenge this oiilruiic, Ciiliiiifil ('live, Hupported by Admiral Watson, rcliMik d,!. culla (.lanuary, 17.'>7); and after havinir ilisi„„.| sesseil the French of Chandcriiagori', lliiji' jujuii F pal CNlablishmeiit on the Ganges, he v:llllllli^hlli the Soubah in several actions, depiiscil liini, ;,iii|| put ill his place JatHer All Khun, his gciU'rul aini ]>rime minister, who was entirely devoted in Kin; ■ liiml. With this era commences the foundation nf t||J Tirilish Empire in India. It happeiinl u s||,pJ time after, tliat the Mogul Emperor, SIcdi Alliin;,! being driven from bis capital by the l'iil;iii<, ;,|,L Indian tribr, solicited the protection of th,. [,^^.,,1 lish, who availed themselves of this iictMHiim, ;,,[ well as of the death of JalHer Ali, whicii liii|i|iiii,, at Ibis time (August I'Jlh, 17(1.")), to get tiiciiiMli.J vested by treaty, and by means of an iiii|iiri;i|l charter, in the sovereignly of all Heiigal. In virtiiJ of this title, which U'gilimized their pouiT in |l||f eyes of the peo]ile, they sci/.ed on the pulilii' ni,-, lines of the kingdoms of llengal, ]iali:i, ami <)ri^li iiii'iiarchy. 'I kin;; of Spain nccordci Li. »i'M'iitli urticle of t Inliirh w'ciiii'd the kilifi llhal |irinrc and his des iiiij, failing llioiii, to hi |il,.ivniiaijts, of both se King "f Sardii Ifiil'.MCi- liis right of revi Iciilii, wliicli til" foin l\i\.|a-('liapi'lle hud si |(,iili's >liiiiild remove ]'|«(i Sicilies to the cro jl'rami', « ishiiig to rotii ji'lilli|i, iiiiil lo prevent I (ii'iiu'iliitiirbcd by the Isinliiiia, engaged to pi lialriit with which he si li>liiil. Tills eipiivalei iiill) liy a cimvention c iKiaiMi', Spiiin, and lb litur consented lo rest llip two cases speeiHcd ifialy of Aix-la-Chapi rialr licM'i'uilants of I)i prime, or one of his d I' tiniilie of Spain i anil sliould one oi Inplii'ii ill the meanti liiil (ipaiii engaged Hiiiuiil enjoy the same liirli inii;lit accrue to fs|ii'iist's of administrat nulla on the Nura, Ifliial possession. Fo Ifrtiiok, hy a special ag II I'aris tin" same day iht King nf Sardinia, Liofs,0()(),'.'()O livres In France, should one liappi'ii. Till' sudden nggran Ihcliiiieof I'cter the (i Ileal system of the N orl litrsclf to the first ran Poland and Sweden, h il'tlie throne of Poland bl at the same time bull. That duchy, wh by the family of Kct ill' tlie crown of Polai |lie death of the Duke wiidaiit of that II iussia, licing then only favoniite, named L listd by fortune, win room to James III., [lial princess mounted iii>ed Uiiim to the rani ffOreat Chamberlain tl Mglity favourite asKv Firillnanil, Kilng "f Nu|>lci(. Kini(il»m III SiiliilllUt. IliiMi.iii liinlury. riittlOD VIII. A.D. 1713—1780. Iliii'liv III' )'iiiirliiiiil. Wat lii'twdMi Knu'.i.i nnil Dt'iiniiirk. 140 ■ p^ llii^ liiw III' rc^fiilati'il till' (iidpr of niicrrHi-ioii Iwiu'lMvnH to tiiki' pliii'i' ill till' kiiiKiliiiii III' Ihit Siiilii'K. mill Aviiicli uiiH tin* Hanii' iim tliiu |,|,iih l'|iili|) V. Iiiwl (Rfiililishi'd ill Simiii iif tin' liiirti'Hot '"'''• After llir iIi'sccikIiiiiIh iiiiili' mill Ifrmalf "' '•'" """ '""'.V. C'liiirlrs Hiilisliliitril lii<< IbrotliiT!), Doll I'lillipi I)uki> of I'liniiii, mid Dun l|„iii,; iii|iliii;f, tliiit the kiii;((loiu of rlir Two Si<'i- ji, shdiild iK.'Vcr ill any chho lio iiiiitrd uilli IIr- iSniiiii'li iiiiiiiiircli). 'I'liis rc^iiliilioii of tlir new Kjni^iif Spain iiccordcil prrfci'llj with tiie terms of III,,. «(>ciitli iirliclc of tlio liTiity of Vifniiii (17.'*H), Inliicli sct'iiii'd tilt' kiii^doiii of tlii' Two Sic ilit-H to llhit priiii'i' mid his dcNn'iidmits, niiile mid ffiinilo ; liiiil. I'liiliii;; tliciii, to his yoiiiigiT hrotlu't's iind tlii'ir rlllhltlls, of hotll HI'XI'H, he Kill); iif Sm'diiii:i continnrdi howcviTi to IciiI'mcc liis rii.'lit of rt'^i'isioti to timt part I'f I'iii- .iilii, wliii'li Ih" foiiilh aiticli' of the liraty of hi\.|:i-( liapi'lh' had Nrciiri'd to liiiii, in cum' Don ■(iiili'i ^liiiiild rcinoYu from tlu> kiii^'ilom of the I'lwu Sicilii's to the crow n of Spain. 'I'lic court of Ifniiii'i "'''h'lii,' to ri'tiiin that possession fur Don l]'hili|i, and to |iri>vi!iit the truiii|iiillity of Italy from Ibi'iiu'iiittiirlicd hy the pretensions of the Kin^f of |Kiiiliiiiu, eiiiiiiK'i'd to procure that prince an e(|ui- aliiitwlth which ho should have eiison to he sa- Jli>tii(l. 'i'liis eiinivalenl was settled (Jiine 10th, l|;ii;i) by a convention concluded at I'aris, liet« ecu IFr.iiu'c. Spain, and the Kim; of Sardiniii. 'I'he Jitlir leiisiiitcd to restrict his ri({ht of reversion in Itlie two cases specified in the seventh article of the Viaty i)f Aix-la-Chapelle ; viz. 1. I'uiliiij,' the Lilt' (Icsccnilants uf Don Philip; ','. Shotdd that Jfriiui', iir one of his descendants, he c lie '. either liilhi' llu'uiie of Spain or to that of the Two Sici- liiS uikI should one or other of these two cases Ii3|>peii ill the nieantinie, the crowns of I'ranei! Iliiil Spain em;a!;ed that the Kiii^ id' Sardinia ihiiuld enjoy the same amount of annual revenue vliicli iniiiht accrue to him (after deductini; the kniiriisi's iif administration), from that part of I'la- Hiilia on tiie iS'ura, should he ever come into iiMinl possession. For this jiurpose, France mm- Ifrliink, hy a special afrreenient, which was si({iied kt I'lirJM tlie same day with the precediii);, to jiay Iho King of Sardinia, hy twelve instalments, the piuil'>',000,'jlH) livres ; on condition of reverting I France, should one or other of theNUultcmutiYes S|)pcn. Tiu' sudden n^'^randisonient of Russia, since Iht'tiiue of I'eter the (jreat, had chant;eil the poli- |iral system of the North. That power had raised iirsi'll' to the tirst rank. She dictated the law to tuiaiid and Sweden, her ancient rivals ; disposed kl'llie throne of Poland on every chaiij^e of reign ; liiil at the same time decided the fate of (.'our- liiiil. That duchy, which had long heen possessed liy the family of Ketler, who held it as a lief If the crown of Poland, had hecomc vacant on llic death of the Duko Ferdinand, the lant male Ifscciulaiit of that House. Anne, I'.mpress of Russiii, heing then only Duchess of C'ourland, had faviiurite, named I'lrnost .lohu Oirun, a man \>isn\ by fortune, whoso grandfather had heen fonin to James III., Duke of CJourland. When t princess mounted the throne of Russia, she jailed Uiron to the rank of Count, niul to the office IfOrcat Cliamberliiin and Prime INIinister. The lauglitv favourite nsFunicd the name and arms of the family of Iliron, in I'raiicc ; mid prevailed with . the empress to grant him the duchy of Coiuland. At the death of tlie last duke, he cm ii succeeded in getting liimsi If elected hy the states of that I ciiiiiitry (17-17), with the aid of a hody of Uiiss!,in I troopi, vvliich the cmpresH had sent to .Mittaii, I to support his elecliiili. lie vvas invested in the 1 duchy hy the Repiihlic of Poland, to he possessi'd I hy himself and his licirs-male ; hut he did not long j eiijiiv this iHvv dignity, lie was depiived of it on : the death of the cmpresH (1740), mid hanished to I Siberia hy the (irmid Duchess Anne, mother of the young emperor. This princess caused a new elec- tion to he made hy the nohility of L'ourland. The duchy was then conferred on Louis Frnest, Prini'i! of llriinswick, who was to marry F.li/.aheth, daughter of Peter the (ireat. Hut the young i-in- peror, Iwaii, having heen dethroned immediatidy al'ter, the Prince of llrunsvN ick never obtained pos- session of the (Inch). The I'.mpress F.lizaheth having declared to the Itepiililic of Poland that the Duke de Iliron should never he liberated from his exile, Augustus III., King of Poland, declared the duchy of Coiuland vacant. He then prevailed on the Niate-- of that country to elect his own son, Prince Charles, whom he soleninly invested in the duchy (HoO). A new change liape.ned at the death of the I F.iiiprcss I''ll). The (lethronement of Peter III., which wi' have 1 just mentioned, , was an event very favouralile to Denmark, as it relieved that kingduin from a ruin- ous war with which it was threatened on the part of the emperor. Peter III. was the head of the House of Holstein-Ciottorp, whom Denmark had deprived of their possessions in Sli'swick, hy taking advantage of the disasters that liefel Sweden, which had protected that family against the Danish kings. The Dukes of Holstein-(iotto,'p exclaimed against that usurpation ; to which the Court of Denmark had nothing to oppose, except the right of con- quest, and the guarantee which the Kings of France and Fiigland, as mediators in the treaty of Stock- holm, iiad given to Denmark with respect to Sleswick. Peter III., was scarcely seated on the throne of Russia, when In; began to concert means for re- covering his ancient patrimonial domains, and avenging the wrongs which the Dukes of llolstein- (iottorp, his ancestors, had received at the hands of Denmark. Being determined to make war against that power, he attached the King of Prussia to his cause, and marched a Russian army of 00,000 men towards the frontiers of Denmark. Six thousaiul Prussians were to join this army, which was sup- ported by a Russian Heet to be stationed on the coasts of Pomerania. The King of Denmark made every effort to repel the invasion with which 1 : ;.:.'-3 I .:' rS 1^ I'llllli line ll.ri'ili'H lliilnli'ill l.'lO l<> lll'IIIIMlll. Iiuiiirrt'llnn i's|ioiisf ||||< i|iiiini| 111' lu'r Imsbmiil. Slir imiui'- iliiili'ly ri'i'alli'il llii' Hii'si.iii iiiiiiy lioiii Mi-rUliii- hmif ; mill liciiii^ ili'siroiis ol' csliililisliiiig llii' Iniii- i|iiillity ot'llii' Noi'lli oil II Holiil Icisis, mill coiilli'iii- inm II mioil uiiilrrKlmiiliii^ Ih'Iwi'i'II llii" Iwo [.liiici- |ml liniiirlii's ol'llic IIoihi- ol' llolHlriii, sin- ni;ii'i'il, liy II I'i'iity ol' iilliiiiui- willi Ilir Kiiii; of Di'iiiiimU (17t'i."0. Ii> li'liiiiiiiili' all 'lu'si' iliU'i'i'i'iurs liy a |iio- ^iNiollal mraii;;t'iiii'iil, wliiili was iiol loIaUf i'MitI iiiilil llii' luiiiorilv ol'llu' (iiaiiil Diiki" I'mil, llii- sou of I'll 11- 111! This iiri'oiiiiiioiliitioii lu'twcrn llii' Iwo Coiii'ts was siijiii'il al ('o]ii'iiliai;i'ii ( April '.'■.'nil, 17(!'.'). 'riii> IjiilHTss, ill ihf iimiu- of lii'f Mill, ifavi' up lu'r I'laim lo III!" tliii'iil pari of SU'swirk, ocrupii'il hy llu' Kilii; o( Hi'iiiiuiik, Shi- ri'ilcil, iiioicoM'r, lo llial soviiriitn a porlioii of llolslciii, pos'^cssi'il liy ihc fainilj of lioltorp, in i\ili?iiii;i' for tlii' roiiiilii's of Olili'iiliiiiij mill Ui'liiu'iilior.si, ll was aijroi'il ihat Ihi'sf coiiiilii's shoiilil ln' i-rralcil iiilo iliirhirs, aiiil llial the aiirii'iit suirrii;;<' of 1 lolsli'iii-Ciolloip, al till' Impi'iial Uirt, shoiihl ho Iraiisfi'iii'il |o llu-ui. This pio\isioiial Irraly was lalilii'il w hcii the tiiaiiil Diiko caiuo of ai;i', iiiiil llic traiisfi'ii'iiro of lIu' I'l'ih'il li'irilorios look plai'i" in I77-1. Al llu- saiiu' tiiiii' Ihal piiiu'i' ili'flari-il, Ihat hi' ih'sii;iii'il Iho roiiiilii's o( Ohli-iiluutr mill IV'liiu'iihorsl lo form an I'stahlisluiii'iil lor a yonni^i'r hianrh of his family , thai of I'.iitui ; to whiih llio I'onliartiiii; powi-is also si'iuii'il till- liishopiif o( Lnlu'i', to ho lulil III pi'ipi'Inal possfssion. Tho Hishop of l.uhrr, thi' h'' .1 o( llio yoniiijoi- luaiu'li of tlio (iollorp t'aniily, was that sanu' yoar put in possossioii kA' till' ronntii's of Ohlrnhnis; unl Di'lmi'iihoi'st ; mill till" r.iupi'ioi' .losfpl- 11, I'li'i'ii'il thi'si" fonnlii's into a ihii'hy ainl lii-t'-nialo of tin- l'',mpiii'. inuli'r till' mil- of the Dnrl-.y of llolsli-in-Olili'iihiiii;. lli'ii' it will hi> lu't'ossaiy lo mhi'il lo tho rovo- Intioiis that took plai'o in llio island of I'orsii-ii, whirli, allor a loni; si'iicii o( Iiouhlos and distrar- lioiis, passed from tho dominion of Cii'iioa to that oi Fianoo, 'I'lu* oppnssious whirh tlii' Cof-iians liad siiiriM'od niiilorllu' uoM'inimMil of tlu' li'iun-so, who troatod tlu'iii with i'\lriMiu' liiTi'in. had ivii- diTi'd (hrii' yoki- odious and iiisuppoitahlf. 'I'lii'v iv'so si'voral turns in n'hi'llion ai;aiiist thf Kopnlili- laiis ; hn! from tin' want o( union amoui: tlu'iii- si Ivi's, thi'; failod in tlu' ditli'ii'iit atti'iupls w hii-li tilt') made foi- ctVoitin^ thoii lihi'ity and indo- pi'iulonro, Ono iA' ihi' last insunvotioiiu of tho ('orsicaus was lh.it o( \'i\K Thi-y choso for their loadir Andii'.N (I'l'oaldi, of a uohU- ('auiily in tin- Island, and l.viui liiatlVri. ii iiiin o( founijri' and an on- thnsiast foi lihcrly . Tho tu'iiooso, at'tov tryiii;!: ia vaiu to subduo tho iiisuiyoitts, woi-o ohligod to lia\o ii'ciiiiisi' lo III!' pi'oli'cliiiii of fiiri'li'iiir They iipplii'd In llif Kinpi'i-nr (Ilinih's V|., ^^| l si'iil thrill Ni'vi'ial di'tiichiiU'iilH of lionps iiiiil,.,' h ('oiiiniaiid of (ii'iirial Wiiohloudiiuk, iiml I'lji.,.. l''lodi'iic linniN of Wiuli'iiilirix, The ('lusiiim. Inn fi'i'ltlc lo opposo mi ciii'iuy so Hii|iiii,i| ; ' i sIli'liKlli. wi'ii' Kind In Illy dnwii Ihi'ir iinns. Hm III!' war iilioiil Mil' I'olisli Hiiri'i'SNion liaviiii,'iilili.,,,| Mil' I'liipi'ioi- lo w illidniw his 1 loops, lln' ls|;iiiii'|,|J iiiisod 11 now insiuj'ortioii, A (^rui'ml assi'inlil, was llii'li riiiiM'Ui'd, wliioh ilrolaiod ('iiisii',i lu li,. I a fii'i' mid inih'pondi'iif lopiihlir (I7H!), (liiUVijI was ri'-oli'i'ti'd (Jriioriil, mid had fnr his i'iil|i';iit||,, llyai'inthiis I'aoti, fatlirr In llio I'mnoiis ^ri'ii,'|:,| „|' llliil liaiiii'. 'I'lillH till' (ictioi'so, iifirr liivislijn,, I iiiiii'h oxponso on auxiliary troops, h ' llii' iimrii. lii'iitini, lo liiid llioiiiHclvcN slill in tli ^aiiii' minli. lion in wliiili llioy woro, lii'l'oro roi rniiij; i||,. im. porial suii'iiiiiN. 'I'lioy ihon took inln ijiri,- p^ i hoilios of Swiss mid (irisoii troops ; iiml tmh i.,,'. listod oiillawN mid vai^ahonds, mid plari'd iluin j{, their ranks lo opposo the ('oi'Hii'aiis. It happened, during lliosi' Iransai'tiniis, tliin ;m i udvenliirer iippomed in Corsieii, the ii'liln ,oii riieoilore Haroii Nenliof. lie was dosniuii'i' nfj iiohli' family in the eouiily of Mark, in Wisiiiimii;,. I and having proeiirod iirins mid miiiiiiiiiiiiuii m Tunis, he repaired to Corsieii (17IUi), wliiic h,. was deleriiiinod lo try his forlinie. His i'iii;a;;iinij inannors, iiilded lo the prospeils wliieh he lii'li|,.iii | of a powerful foreiijii assislanee, indneed llie I'msi. emiN lo oonfer on him the royal dij^niiy. Ih'Hasi proelaiined Kiiiir of Corsiea, and imiiieilialiU as. | sullied the estirnal liadi;os of royalty. Hi' u'l. pniiited ^{narils and nllieer... of slate, eoiiieil luuiin I in his own iimiie, and erealed an order of kiiinlu. | hood, ealleil the Hcdiiiiiituiii. Tiikiiit; luhanl.n,' of the enthusiasm williwhioh he had ins|iiivil ihr Corsieans, he iioldly made war on the IIi'iihih', and laid se>eral of their plans under liloikiuK. Unl his inoiiey heim; exhansted, and llie imo]i1i| heirinniny; to eool in their altaehmeut tuwiinls luui, | he look the ilelermiiialioii of apjilyiiii; fir ;issi>t. anee to foreiijners. lie oniliarked for llii|lai;il, where he foiind means lo oii^aije a soeiely of imt-l I hauls, hy the allmeiiients of a lnera!i\i' nimiiui with Corsiea, to I'lirniNh him wilh arliller\, ;iiiiiiiu.| iiilion and other supplies, willi wiiieh he ivtmiudl lo the island. In, lor these eireiimslanees the (ienoese, Ihioal- enod wilh losiiisj; for ever tlioir bOM'ieii,'lil) imr I'orsiea, entered into an assoeialion with ihe CiHirll of N'ersaillos. This eoiul, feariiis; that I'.iidaiul would take advantaire oi' these distnrbiiu'i's In ctll possession of the island, ooiieeited nieiiMiris «ilh| tho Court of Vienna for ohliginij tho Coi-sii'inb u return to their alloi;ianee to tlie Cieimeso. I'lrl this purpose a plan of paeiliealioii was di:uvii i;p| at \ orsailles, mid I'onnt do Hoissionx was i'li',ir:i\l| to earry it into oxoeuliou. This jjoneral lauiloiiinl tho island (I'liS), al the head of a body of I'rtiirhl auxiliaries ; and his arrival deteriiniieil Kiiiil Theodore lo abandon Corsiea, and seek his s;itVl,T| in llii;ht. lie retired to London, where I\o «iil imprisoned fnr dehl. After a loiii; eaplivity liiMvaJ set at liberty, and died in a stale of misery (l".'i''!.l Hoissienx harassed the I'orsieans exeeediiiclj, li'itl he failed in his etrorts to rodiieo llieiu lo subii^ivl sioii. His sueeessor, the Marquis do MailKln'isj was more fortuuiite ; ho took liis measures witlir i;,illiirii>iii>lllllllUli'''N. HU 1 f (iall'i |ll,i,|ii tlui fiiiielions I „|alliiii'«. ''''"•> !'• ■in lill' person of ( Luisirii, will), willi I lirssi'l'', siieeeedi'd ii llaMin iiiiil San l''ior ■liaii' piislii'il their ■llii'j I'liiiM liavi l|,il\ali' aliiiiiosilies. Ml) ill proiiinliu |iiilrni:il'li>isioiis ret Iliiii- I'lieiiiies lo reel li|iirri'il. Itivarola mi |r,iiiiniin(l, Ihe sole e lliiiwiis a man of rar llii' was lieijiiiiiiii;? to lo give siiliie stabilit Llaiiil, wlieii he was Iv lill.' eiiiissaries Jdoalh iiliiiiu'<'d Corsiei lli•« VI., Mil,, I ■'ii'pH iniili'iiii,, I '1^. mill I'liiii, 'I'lif ('iirsii'aii,, xi> Hii|HTi,i|- ii, I I'ir anus, n,,, llHVilli,',,lili^,,,|| . III!' Islamlns | iii'iiil iissniihlj I <'iirsi(';i lull',, TM). (;i:,iiv,,i, ir Ills iMillciiijii,. lous Ki'iiiTil „f I lil'liM- l;i\bhiiij,I II ' ' 'III' IIKHli. Ii' Mimi' idiiili. ;'i'iviii|{ till' liii. into Ihcii- |im ; mill i'\cii ,.||'. placi'd (hem in | ill'tiolls, llllll ;,||| till' ci'liln ifii I (U'h'cihIi'i' dl'a I ill NVrMpliiiliaj iiiiiiMiiiiitidii III I ''M'>), wlli'iv iif Mix l'lici;;ill;.< lil'll lit' lll'Woiii I lU'i'il llir t'liisi. {iiii_\. lie was I iiiiiui'iliiiicU as. I liiltj. II,' in. I, I'tiiiii'il iiuiiin I [nlrr of knii;h|.| iiijj; iuUiiula.'f il iiispiivil Iho lIU' (1>'1UM'M', ili'i' lilmiaili'. ul the iM'ii|il,' towiirils him, I liiii; I'or ;bM>|.l for llnihuhl,! IH'U'IJ (if UUT-I !i\(' cimmu'iTo rlilli'vj, anniiu.l •h hi' ri'lunii'ill iuii''ii'ai ll'at iNlaiiil hi'caiiic llie nccih; (if new kiiiiliiiMi'1'1. (iall'iiriii anil Maira llien tmik ii|iiiii ,|,|,iiithii fiiiicliiins (if (;i'ni lals, and llie dirccliiin „l all'aii's. Till'}' had a • ulli'ai;iie and (-(ladJiUor ill ihi' |ii'»'i>ii "' ('iioiil l(i\ai'iila, :i native of (uisiia, wlio, wilii the UHsistiince of Monie liii^flish „.,s,.|s, siiiri'i'ili'd in e.\|iellin(< the (icnoese friiiii ll;i,lia iiiiil Sail {''iori'iizo. The (Nirsiciins inighl |i;ni' nuslii'il their ailvanta;,'eH iiiiieh farther, if llii'i I'liiilil have Kiihdiied their own fends and liiiiali: iiiiiiiioMilieN, and ('ni|iliiyed llieniHelvi'H ,„hh ill |"ii"i"''"n ''■•' piililii: interest; lint their liiiliiaaiilivisiiiiis retaril(!(l their HiireesH, and allowed lllii'ii riu'iiiiis |o recover the places they had coii- Iniiiri'ii. Uivaiola and MaIra havinj; ie»ii;iied tlu! |[,iiiii luiiili till' >*"^'' eliargi" (Ii'voIvimI on (iail'orio, luliii was a man of rare merit and of tried valour. ■ill' was lM'i;inniiiK '" <'ivili/.e his countrymen, and J]„ uivc siuiie staliilily to the ^overnmont of the 1,1,111(1, wlii'ii he was iissassimited, as is siip|iiised. In Ihi I'liiissaries of the (ieiioese (17"))!). Ili^ iloalh liliiiii,'i'il Corsica unci! more into the stale of Ifoorilcr and anarchy, from wliicli he had lahoiircd jlluliliMT it. At h'liKlli ujipearod the colehnitcd Pascal I'aoli, ihtiin his i'lfcil father had liniughl from Naples to ^'ll^il•a. Dein^,' elected tjeneral-iii-cliief liy his •(iiiiilnincii ( l7.")-»), he inspired llieiii with fresh |oiira;i' ; and, while he carried on the war with lUiYi's-^ iij,'aiiist the (ieiioese, he made eH'orls to Imiii aliuses in the state, and to encoiir.'i;,! a^ri- illiiiv, letters, and arts. .Notliiiij,' was wanting;- for |ho ai'i'iiniiilislmu'iit of tliis Dliject, and to coiilirni I lihcrl) and iiidependence of his coiiiitrj, hiit I'l'SlMilsiiHi of the tienoese from the maritime ■iiwiiMif Hastia, San Fioreii/.o, Calvi, Alt;aj,dii)la liiii Ajac'i'iii ; the only places which still remained 111 Ihi'ir |iiivver. In this he noiild proliahly have lim-i'i'iicii, had he not met with new interruptions pill I'laiii'i', who had undertaken, liy the several lroalii'> wliich slie had coiicliidcd wilii the (ieiioese liilhi' jcais 17.")'.', i'l.')."), I7.")ii, and I7til, to defend Iliiii' |iiii'ts and fortiticatioiis in that island. The oiii,'iiial iiiteiitioii of the French, in lakiiifj; lii>MS>iii;i of these places, was not to carry on lo-tilitu's with I'aoii and the natives, lint simply |oiolaiii them for a limited time, in discharije of ihl wliicii the French pivernnient had coii- Jridi'il with ilie Heiuiblic of (ienoa. The (ieiioese l>il llatlcrcil tlieiii Ives, that if exonerated from ki' duty (if guarding the fortilied ph-.ces, they |i(ij|(l lie able, with their own forces, to recoii'picr 1 the rest of tin island; Imt it was not lon^,' till i() loiiiiil themselves lU'ceived in their exiiecta- I'lie I'orsieans diove the (ieiiocsi- from the iliiul of Capraja (T7ti7). They even took posses. Ion (if Ajaccio, and some other parts which the Tri'iiL'li had thoiisjht lit to abandon. At the same po t'lcsliippiiii; of the Coisieans made incessant licu'>iiiiis on *.he Uenov^e, and annoyed their loiiiiiu'rce. Till' Senate of li>'ioa, eonviiiced at last tlitit it i iinpossibh' for them to subdue the island, and |efiii|{ il,i> time ap). roach when the French troops were to take their departure, took the resolution of siirrenderinij their ri^;lits over (Corsica to the crown of FraiKM', by a treaty whieli was sii^iied at V(!rsaillcs (May ITilh, HUH). The kiiij; promised til restore the island of (.'apraja to the Ue[iubli(\ He Kii!ii""it«'''' 111 them all their possessions on Icrni JiriiM ; and i'iif,'af,'i'd to pay them annually for ten yeais the sum of 200,00(1 livres. The (ie- noese reserved to themselves the rii;lil of reclaim- ini{ the Hover(dp,'nty of Corsica, on reimbursiii;^ the kill); for the expenses of the ex|iedition he was alioiil (ii undertake, as well as for the maintenauce of his troops. This treaty occasioned stroiif^ re- iiionstraiices on the part of the Ciirsicatis, who preparid theiiisidves for a vi;;orous defence. The lirst campaign turned to their a(lvaiitaf,'e. Il cost l''iaiice several thousand men, and about thirty millions of expens(?s. The Duke de Choiseul, far from bein^c discouraged by these disasters, trans- ported a stroiiL' force into the island. lie jmt the C'ouiit de Vaiix in the |)lace of the Maniuis de Chaiivelin, who, by the skilful dispositions which he made, found himself master of all Corsica in le s iIkiii two months. The islanders not having received from I')nglaiid the supplies which they had reipiested, the priispeel of which had ke|it up their courage, consiili'red it rash and hopeless to make longer resistance. The ditlerent. provinces, in their turn, gave in their submission; and Ihejirin- cipal leadiu's of the (Jorsicaiis dispersed themselves among the neighbouring stales. Pascal I'aoli took refuge in England. The throne of Poland having become vacant by the death of Augustus III. (October Tith, XKYA), the Fmpress Catlierine II. destined that crown for iStaiiislaus I'oniatowski, a I'olish nobleman, who had gained her favour when he arrived at St. Pe- tersburgh as plenipotentiary of Poland. That princess having gained over the court of Berlin to her interests, sent scM'ral detacliments of troops into Polaiul ; and in this manner succeeded in carrying the election of her favourite, who was priiclaiiiied king at the Diet of Warsaw (Sejitember 7tli, 17(11). It was at this diet of election that the empress formally interceded with the republic in favour of the Dixsidcntu (or dissenters) of I'oland and Lithuania, with the view of having tliein reiii- statc'l ill those civil and ecclesiasticil rights, of which they had been deprived by tlie intolerance of the Catholics. The name of /Jissidoils was then given to the Pretestaiits and (ireck non-con- formists in I'oland, both liiitherans and Calviiiists. That kingdom, as well as Lithuania, had contained, from the earliest ages, a vast iiuniber of (ireeks, who persisted in their schism, in spite of the elliirts which were incessantly made by the Polish clergy for liriuging them back to the pale of the Uomish church. 'I'lie I'rotestant doctrines had been intro- duced into I'oland, and had made eoiisiilerable progress in the course of the seventeenth century; more es|)ecially in the reign of Sigismuiid Augus- tus. The nobles who were attached to that form of worslii]) had obtained, at the Diet of AVilna (l."»()H), the right of enjoyini;, along with the Cireeks, all the prerogatives of their rank, and of being admitted withoul distinction both to the assemblies of the diet and the offices and dignities of the republic. Moreover, their religious and pi litical liberties had been guaranteed in the most solemn manner, not only by treaties of alliance, , ■_ .--3 DissiiU'iifs of I'oliinil. 152 l!c'li(;i()iis lilvrtii's. TiL'iitv of Wiirsaw. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Win lii'lwcfii Tiirkoy ami Iluniaii7.uw'8 Viiforics. i and the Pacta Coiivcuta of the kiii^s, but also by the laws ;nid constitution of their kingdom. The Catholics liavinjj afterwards become the stronger jiarty, their zeal, animated by their clcrjry and the Jesuits, led them to persecute those whom they reirarded as heretics. They had in various ways e n-eumscrihed their religious liberties, especially at the diet of 1717 ; and in those of 1733 and 1730, they went so far as to exclude them from the diets and tribunals, and in general from all places of trust ; only preserving the peace with them accord- ing to the ancient laws of the republic. The Dissidents a\ ailed themselves of the influ- ence which the Empress of Russia had secured in the alfairs of I'oland, to obtain by her means the redress of their grievances. That princess inter- l)osed more esijccially in favour of the (5reiks, ac- cording to the ninth article of i he peace of Moscow between Russia and Poland (KiKti) ; wliile the courts of Ijerlin, Stockholm, London, and Copen- hagen, as guarantees of the peace of Oliva, urged the second article of that treaty in support of the I'rotestant dissenters. Far from yielding to an intercession so powerful, the Diet of Warsaw, in- stigat'il by the clergy and tlie court of Rome, in the year 17')(> co.ilirmed all the former laws against the Protestants which the foreign courts had de- sired to be altered and amended. Tliey merely introduced sonu' few moditicntions in the law of 1717, relative to the exercise of their worsliip. This i)alliati\e did luit satisfy the court of St. Petersburg, wliiih persisted in denumding an en- tire e(iuality of lights in favour of those under its ])roteclion. Tlie Dissidents had the courage to resist, and entered into a confederacy at the assem- blies whidi were held al Shick/ (17(i7) and Thorn. Such of the Catholic nol>ility as were (iiscontcnted with file government, allied themselves with the Dissidents, and formed several distinct confedera- cies, which afterwards combined into a general confederation uiiiler Marshal Prince Radzivil, An extratM-dinary dirt was then assemliled at Warsaw. Their delilieratimi'-, which began October .'itli, 17<)7, were very tmnultuous. AVithoul being inti- midated by till' presence of a Russian army, the Bishop of Cracow and his adherents gave way to the full torrent of their zeal, in the discourses which tliey pronounced tiefore the diet, 'i'he em- press caused them to be arrested and condncti'd into the interior of Uussia, whence they were not permitted to return till al"fer an exile of several years. They agreed at length, at that diet, to ap- point a comiiiittee, coni]iosed of the dill'erent orders of the re])ublic, to regulate all matters regardi ig IIk Dissidents, in concert with the ministers of tie jirotectiiig courts. A separate act was drawn up (I'ebruary 'Jttb, 17()H) in the form of a convention h( tween Russia and Poland. Hy that act, the Dissidi'Uts were reinstated in all tiieir former rights. The regulations which had been jiassed to their prejudice in the yv , is 1717, 171!'' 173(!, and 17()(>, were imnulli-d ; and a superior court, composed equally of both (larties, was granted to them, for terminating all disimles which might arise lietween persons of diflVrent re- ligions. This act was eontirmed by the treaty of jieace anri alliance conehidc'! at AVarsaw between Russia and Poland (Pebru.iry '-Mtli, 17t)H), by which these two jiowers guaranteed to each other the whole of their possessions in Europe. The Empress of Russia guaranteed, more espccialh the liberty, constitution, and integrity of the IViu' republic. The act we li.ave just now mentioned, ns well as i another which modiKed what were called tlu'ci- dinal or fundamental laws of the repuhlic, hnvju,, displeased a great majority of the Poles, tlicv iisf'il every eflbrt to have these acts recalled. TluMJifil of 17(18 was no sooner terminated than tliey fiini),.j| themselves into a confederacy at Bar iu I'lidiiij for the defence of their religion and liheilics, ^A degrees these extended to several palatinates, aujl were at length combined into a general coiil'cil;.fj.| tion, under the Marshal Count l)c Pnc. 'rii(| standards of these confederates bore repifsonij.r tions of the Virgin Alary and the Infant JisusJ Like the Crusaders of the middle ages, tliey wnrcl embroidered crosses on their garments, witli ihef motto 'J'o ('(Dii/Kcr or JJic. The Russians df.] spatehed troojis to disjierse the confedenitis as liml as they combined : but at length, with the iissisi.l ance of Franco, and M. De Vrrgennes, the I'michl ambassador at the Porte, they succeeded in stiirln J uj) the Turks against the Russians. 'Jlie wiirhi.f tween these two Empires broke out towards tliel end of 17(>H, which proved disastrous for the Turks I and suppresse Clioczini. The Russians took ]iossessi(in ef Imlil without costing them a single drop of hlend, aiif soon after jienetrated into the interior of MuMaril and V» allachia. i'he campaign of 1770 was most s))lendid fur till Russians. Cieneral Romanzow, ^\lm suecicili'j Prince (lalit/in in the commainl of tlic aniij i Moldavia, gained two brilliant victor'es over llil Turks near the Prufh (Jidy IHtb) and the KiiU| (August 1st), which made him master of Danube, and the towns of Isniael, Kiiia, aiJ Akerman, situated iu liessarabia, near the iii"Ul| of that river. Anolher Russian army, niicier Ikl command of (ieiieral Count Panin, attacked llj fortress of Hciider, defende 1 by a strong Ttirkisf garrison. It was carried by assault (Scpteiiiba '.'(Uh) and the greater part of the garrison put tl the sword. 'J'lie emjiress did noj confine herself to ri'piilMii the Turks on the banks of the Dneister and ill Danube, and harassing their commerce in til HIaek Sea. She formed the bold pnijcit it ]| tacking them at the saiiii^ time iu the i-l:inils the Archipelago, and on the coasts of (ireicoai the Moreii. A Russian fleet, under the eoiiiiniH ]1,.,triiilioiicil'th(!Tiirkisli li.rt. CiiKlnr-t 1)1' till" CnmiM. rEllIOD VIII. A.D. 17i:}— ITSO. I )isni('nil)('rni<'iit uf I'ulaiiil. T:irt:irs lU'rlart'd iiiilc'iH'iHlenf. 1.):$ If ^ifxis Oiloffand Admiral Sjiiritoft", sailed from Ithi' lialtii', and passed the Norll»eiu Seas and tlie hlrail'* ef (Jibialtar, on tlieii- way to tlie Areiii- 1' |.,^,i,. liein^ joined by the scuiadrou of IJear- Ivilinind KIpliinstone, tiiey foiii;lit an obstinate liiiilllL' witi! tlie ilect of the Capitan I'aelia (July Ijlh n^"j' between Seio and Anatolia. Tlie jhiiis of tlie two oonimandeis, iSpiritoll" and the (iinitaii I'aelia, havinj? met in the enffa-renient, oup I't tlioiu caught tire, when botli were blown into the air. Darkness separated the eombatants ; liiit iIh' Turks havinj; imprudently retired to tlie iiiiriow bay of t'hisme, the lluf siaiis pursued them, Ijiiil luiriit their whole fleet durimj the iiisht. I'his (lisiistcr threw the eity of Constantinople into |CTi;it coi^tcrnation ; and the bad state of defence liiMvhiili the Dardanelles were, f;ave them reason llo liar that if the Kussians litid known to fake ad- Ivinilaje of this panie, it would have been easy for Itliim ti) have carried the Turkish <'a])ital. Kear- IAiIiii'mI l'',li)liinsfoiie, who eonnnaiided one of the JBiissian siiuadi'ons, bad sugfjested that advice ; lliiil ihc Kussian admirals did not tiiink jirojjer to Jliiwil. The war on the Danube was continued next Ivear, lliouirh feebly ; but the second Russian army, luiiili'i' the couimand of I'rinee Dolgoruki, suc- Icifilt'tl in forcing the lines at Perekop, deh'iided lliv an army of (iO.OOO Turks and Tartars, com- [iiiaiiilL'd by the Khan of tli(^ Crimea in person. |D(ili.'{iraki, after having surmounted that formi- Idalilc liarrier, made himself master of the Crimea, saUo oi'i'ie Island of '1 amau ; and received from ||!i'.' I'liiprcss, as the reward of liis exjiloits, the sur- liaiiii' '^'/. An act was signed by certain Ipntinclcil deputies from the Tartaric, by which lllial nation renounced the domlniiui of the Otto- linaiis and jnit themselves under the protection of |Hii-i:i(1772). Tlii'sc comiuests, however splendid tliey migh* |h'. iiiald not fail to exhaust Russia. Obliged frc- lijui'iilly to recruit her armies, whieli were cnn- |ftaatl\ tliiimed by battles, fatigues, and diseases, Iflii'SDOii saw the necessity of making ])eace. 'the |pla!.MU', tliat terribli" ally of the Ottomans, passed li'Mii tlie army into the interior of the I'.mpire, and Iptiii (rated as far as ^luseow, where it cut olf nearly |10lV> '" men in the course of a simple year (1771). IBii; wnat added still more to the embarrassments III' Calluriiie II. was, that the court of Vi( una, Iwliiili, in i-onjuuclion with that of Uerliii, had liiiidirlaki II to mediate between Uiissia and flni iPorli', rejecfed with ;i with bis military st(u-es. A body of 2S,()0ll Turks, who weie bring- ing a convoy of '1,000 or .'),000 wai.'gons to the arm;,, lia\iugbeen defeated bydeneral Kamenski, and ilie waggons burnt, this event struck terror into the canq) of the grand vi/.ier, who, seeing Ids army on the point of disbanding, agreed to treat with Marshal Ronianzow on sucii terms as that general thong r tit to ])rese'i'ie. Peace was signed in the Russian camp at Kai- nargi, four leagues from Silisfria. lly that treaty the Tartars of the Crimea, Uoud/.lac, and Cnttan, were declared entirely independent of the Porte, to be governed bencetorth by their own sovereign. Kussia obtained for her merchant vessids free and unrestrained navigation in all tl.e Turkish seas. She restored to the Turks Kessarabia, Moldavia, and Wallachia ; as well as the islands in the Arehi- peiauo which were still in her possession. Rut .be reserved the eity and territory of Anoli', the .•■'■■33 Kukowiiiii ceded to 154 Aiistriii. I'l'iiou (>>' Kiiiimriji. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Kussi;i, Prussiii, ami Aiist'i.-i divide I'ulan . an entrepot for her eoinnu'ree with tiie Lov.int. Tlu> foundation of tliis eity was laid by General lliiiuiilial (Oetoher Utth, 177N), on tlie western hunk of the Dnieper, fifteen versts above the eoiiHuenec of the In^idetz with tliat river. The House of Austria also reajjcd advanla^jes from that war, by the oeeupation of Unkowina, whieh siie obtained from Uussia, who had eon- ([Uered it from ll\e Turks. 'J'his |)art of ^lolilaviu. eouipreliendinj; the districts of fiuczawa and Czer- iiowitz, \\as claimed by the court of ^'ieinia as one of its ancient territories in Transylvania, whieh had been nsmped by the ])rinees of Moldavia. The I'orte, who was indebted to Austria for tiie restitution of this latter province, had no alterna- tive but to abandon the districts claimed by Aus- tria. I'rincp Gbikas of Moldavia, havinir o|)posed the cession of these provinces, was \m\ to death by order of the I'orte; and Bukowina was confirmed to Austria by subsequent conventions (1771) and 1777), wliich at the same time regulated the limits between the two states. The piiice of Kainargi, though glorious for Russia, ))roved most calamitous for tile Ottoman I'orte. IJy establishing the inde- jieiulence of the Tartars, it lost the Turks one of their principal bulwarks against Russia ; ami they were iinlignant at seeing the Russians established on the Black Sea, and permitted imrestrained na- vigation in all the Turkish seas. Henci'forth they had reason to tremble for the safety (jf ihcir capi- tal, which might be assailed with impunity, and its sujiplics intercepted, on the least disturbance that might arise between the two empires. The many disasters which the lurks had expe- rienced in the war we have now nieulioned, had a direct influence on the fate of I'oland, which ended in the dismembtrment of that kingdom. This event, which bad been predicted liy John Casimir in the sevenleenth century, was brought about by the mediation of the courts of Berlin and N'ienna for the restoralio'i of peace between Russia and Turkey. 'I'he conditions of that treaty, whieh were dictated by the I'-mjiress (alherine II., having dis|)leased tlu^ court of Vienna, whieh had more- over displayed hostile intentions against Uu^sia, by despatching troo|;s into Hungary, and t;iking pos- session of a part of I'oland, which Austria claimed as anciently belonging to llungaiy, the empress took this occasion of observing to I'rince lIress engaged, hvihel same treaty, to surrender Moldavia and Wall'ifliiJ to the 'I'urks, in order to expedite the rcsturatiinl of ])eace between her and the I'orte. In teriiisolL that agreement, the declarations and letter^-paicntl of the three courts were presented at AVar^aw ij Se])teniber, 1772; and, on taking iiossession (ifil;e| territories and districts whieh had been ;iv>iL';udr tliem, ihey ))ublishrd memorials for cstalili.liiJ the legitimacy of their rights over tli.' couiilrifsl which they claimed. The King of Poland luid liiJ ministry in vain claimed the assistance and pidtif.r tioii of the powers that guaranteed the treatiis The\ i.,id no other alternative left, than to eomie.] scend lo every tlii)ig which the three courlsilt. inanded. A signed at Warsaw, Sepl"mui r iS, \"U and afterwards ratified by the Diet of Po'.aail. 'I'o .Austria was assigned, in terms of hertivattj vith the re|)ul)lic, liw thirteen towns in tlicioimij of /i|)s, which Sigism.'.ud, King of Hungary, liaij mortgaged to Pcdand in 1 U'i ; besides neiirl\ ttj half of the Palatinate of Cracow, paitof Saiiilomir Bed Russia, the greater part of Ilelz, Pocutiii, aral part of Podolia, The towns in the cmMily Zips were again incorporated with Hung vy, Imr which they had been disim mbered, and al! ■ he irfl were erected iiiio a jiarticular state, iiiaier iliiu name of the kingdom of t.alicia and Ludoiiniial One very im])ortatit advantige in the .'Vii>iii.iJ division was, the ricl: salt mines in Wieliezk;i, aiiJ Boehnia, and Sanibor, >vhieh furnished salt to lliJ greater ixirt of Polant'-" Russia obtained foi !■ -i sbio'e, Polish l.iviiiiial the greater part of ..-.' and ."olotsk, the wiiolJ I'alatinate of ?' 'r.ul the two extreiidtiiM!! ■ussia, and resented to n J )iiliis of till! tlireel il' tliL' inti'iKtedJ •i-\\;ii-(ls fiiti.reiil S tile ijortiou tol thci'mim-siiill y iigi-ceil iiboull t they might l;i;| s were si),nicil jtl evs of thi' threel uudiirii's of thel n-c to fiill to thej vi'ly, were there! I to I'adi oihfr.l ssessioii till th(| id to ;ict in ruii.l .uncut with thel (■ut,';ii,'oil, In the! ;i iui(l \V;ill;\oliiJ ; the i-i'st(iraiiiiii| te. In loriiholT tid li'tti'r<-]i;ilfiit| d ;it 'Wiirsaw ia| losscssion of thel 1 l)L'i'u ;is>ii;iK'dl for I'staWi'hinjI '1- till' couiitriet ' Poland iinil hill I'ribsiiin .-iciiuisitious. t'oroiuercc! in uniiii. factions in Swodon^ PERIOD VIII. A.D. 1713—178'.). Ili'.illi 111' Adiiliiliim FrLMlcric. (jiisluMis 111. u\crthrow» the iirlntouratic (lowur. 155 111- )ii('( \\ and protcc tlio treatii'sl lan to ciiiiile^ •ci- c'lurts lie. :1 at Warsaw,! iu; M'uati' anil !i '111' plciiifo. I till- arrm;;! liich till' I'oi'iiir.Uy iTiM rili'si' arrali.'e. mill r i>i, l":tj ;.f I'ulanil. s of lii'r ti\;ily| s iu till' niiur, lluM-ar>, h.. ,('s n(!avl\ 'h ■t of Saiiiliiir.ir Iz, I'ocntia, an th< cminly oj lluu;.'' •:]-,{!" and ai; ■Iilmt afi', iniiii.'r ai nd LodoiiMiaJ 10 .Uistnaij \Vii'liczk;i,aliJ slii'd salt to tli^ I'olisli l.ivimii otsk, till' wIloI ) i-xtiTinitii'M!! I . Palatinate of Minsk. '^ Thes'; the eni])rcss „ ,,[ into two grand {'overnmciits, those of Po- I isk uii'l Mcclnlcw. Tlio Kiiijj of Prussia had the L.o.sof (^I't'iit Pohind, situated beyoiiil the Netze, Lwi'll ii^ "'•" whtde of Polish Prussia, exeept th'' of Di'iiiv-ie and Tliorn, Mliieh were reserved ,1'olaiul.''' That republic, in virtue of a treaty the King <'f Prussia, renounced also her do- uiiil liglitS) and tlie nnersion which the treaties bfWclau aii(l Uidgost had secured to ner witli re- jfil to Electoral Prussia, as well as the districts Ef Laucnlimij, liutow, and Draheim, The portion hf the King "f Prus.ia was so much the more ini- lortaat in a iiolitical |)()int of view, as it united the Ijii.rooni I'f Piussia willi his possessions in Ger- jjiiv and. h; ^'^'"0 ''•'" ''"' coinniaud of the fistiiki, it made him master of the commerce of 'olamli I'spi'cially of the corn-trade, so valuable to Ijort'stiif fjn-ope. Till' tl'.iTc courts, iu thus disuuinlierin'j; Poland, •eiiomicc'd, in tlie most formal manner, ail farther Iretcnsions on the republic ; and, lastly, to con- tininiiitt' tlicir work, they passed an act at AVaniaw, Iv wliii'li they sanctioned the lihenun vvtu, and Kf uaaiiiiiiitj in their decisions formerly used at . ilii't ill stall' matters : the crown was declared n,iiivi', and foreij^u jjrinces were declared to be silmli'il. Tlic prero},'ative of the kin;;, already jerv liniitcil, was circumscribed still more by the ttablisliiiu'ut id" a permanent council ; and it was Liutoii, liiat no one could ever change tliis con- jiiutioii (if which the three powers hail become lie guarantees. (This iiarlitioii of Poland must be regarded as fceliaibingcr of the total overthrow of the political Leiii winiii for 300 years hail iirevailcd iu Eii After so many alliances had been formed, L'j so many wars undertaken, to preserve the Joakcr states against the ambition of the greater, hi'ie tiiid three powers of the iirst rank coin- liiiiui' lu (lisniember a state whiidi had never given ifm the slightest uuilirage. The barriers between Kilimato right and arbitrary jiower were thus crtludwn, and heuecforth the drstiny of inferior lalis was no louf;er secure. The system of po- piial I'lpiililMium became the jest of innovators, d many well disposed men began to regard it as Ichimi'ia. Though the chief blame of this trans- jtion must fall 011 the ciu.rts of St. Petersburg, yin, and Vienna, those of Londoi_ and Paris leri> acciiniplices to the crime, by allowing this Iniialioii to be ciM.snmmateil without any mark of liar ri'|iriihatioii.] I lu Swclcii, Mic aristocratic system had prevailed jiKC the changes which had been introduced into liform of government by tlie revolution of 17"J0. (hi' rlnof ]i(iwcr reside '1 in the body of the senate, Bi! the '.iiyal authority was reduced to a mere (allow. The same factious, the Hats and the kmiii'ts, of which we have spoken above, con- jnui'il te agitate and distract the state. Tlie Hats Im'of oiiinion, that to raise the gh)ry of Sweden, III to recover the jiroviuces of Livonia and I'iii- il, it was necessary to cultivate friendship with Iranie and the Porte, in dcr to secMri: their ipiiort in case of a rupture with Russia. The loiiiatu, on the other hand, maintained that en, exhausted b\ the preceding wars, ought uiigage in no undertaking against Prussia. In lefi'rring a Hysteiu of paeiticution, they had no other object in view than to maintain peace and good understanding with all states, without dis- tinction. These two factions, instigated by foreign g(dd, acquired a la'w importance when the war broke out between Russia and the Porte. It w''.'! in the diet of 17()'J that the Hiits found means to get possession of the governmeut, by depriving the members of th:^ opposite party of their prin- cipal employment: There was some reason to believe that Fraii'-e, in conseciuenee of her con- nexions with the Porte, had used every efl'rt 'o stir up Sweden again t Russia, and that the mi-i- sion of Vergei'ves, '.iho passed from Constanti- no], le to Stockholm, had no other object than this. Uusiiia liud then to make every exertion to raise the credit and inriuence of the Bonnets, in order to maintain peace witii Sweden. In these endea- vours she was assisted by the I'ourt of London, who WLre not only willing to sui)])ort the interests of Russia, but glad of the opportunity to thwart I'rance in her political career. The death of Adolphus Frederick, wliidi hap- pened in the meantime, opened a new field for intrigue in the diet, which was summoned on account of the accessimi of his son and successor Ciuslavus III. ( February 12, 1771). This young prince at first interposed between the two parties, with a view to couciliati^ them, hut with so little success;, that it rather increased their animosity, until the lionnets, who were supported by Russia and Fngland, went so far as to resolve on the total expulsion (d' tlu; Hats, not only from the senate, but from all other places and dignities in the king- dom, l^ita'iitiousness then beeanie extreme ; and, circumscribed as the royal power already was in the time of Adoljihus Frederic, they dem-.uuled new restrictions to be imposed on his .successor. The treaties that were projected with Russia and F.ngland, were evidently the re>ult of the system adopted by that faction who had now seizei' the reins of governinent. In this state of affairs, the young king sa\\ the necessity id' attempting some i hange in the system of adnii 'istratiou. His gentleness and eloquence, and his ait'able and |)iipnlar manners, had gained him a uiimber td' pai!'s,-i,'s. He possesseil iu an emiiieut degree the art of dissimulation ; and, while he was making i!very ariangemcnt for 'i revolution, and concerting measures in secret with the French ambassador, he seemed to have nothing so nuicli at heart as to convince the world of his sincere attachment to the estalilished constitution. It is alleged, that he had sent emissaries over the whole kingdom to stir up the peojile against their go- vernors ; and that he might have some pretext for calling out his troops, he induced Captain Helli- chius, till! commandant of (Miristiaiistadt iu Blek- ingcn, to raise the staiid.ird of 'CMilt against the states, who still continued their sittings at Stock- hdvised the king not to quit Stockholm, the command of w'liich was in- trusted to a senator, the Count of E.alling, with the most ample powers. At Iengt'\ the regiment of Upland, whose officers were devoU-d to the senate, were ordered to the capital, with the inten- tion, as is supposed, of arresting the king. That prince then saw that he had no longer time to delay, and that he must finish the execution of the plan which he had proposed. On the morning of the lOth of August, the king presented himself to the troops who mounted guard at the palace ; and having assembled the officers, he detailed to them the unfortunate state of the kingdom, as being the consequence of those dissensions which had distracted the diet for more than fourteen months. He pointed out to them the necessity of abolishing that haughty aristocracy who had ruined the state, and to restore the con- stitution to what it was before the revolution of KibO ; expressing, at the same time, his decided aversion for absolute and despotic power. IJeing assured of the fidelity of the guards, who were eager to take the oath of allegiance to him, he ordered a detachment to surround the council chamber, where the senators were assembled, and jmt the leaders of the ruling party under aTCst. Th(! artillery and other regiments of guards having also acknowledged his authority, their example was soon followed b_\ all the collvgvs (or public offices), both civil and military. The arrest against Helli- chius was revoked, and the regiment of Upland received orders to march back. These measures and some others wore executed with so much skill and jiunctuality, that the public tranquillity was never d'sturbed ; and by Kvc o'clock in the evening of the same day, the revolution seemed to be ac- complished without sliedding a single drop of blood. Next day, the magistrates of the city took the oath to the king, and the assembly of the states was summoned to meet on the 21st. On that day the king caused the ])alace to be surrounded by troops, and cannons to l)e jiriinted into the court coposite the cliaml)er of the states. Seated on his throne, and surrounded by his guards, the king open 'd the assembly by an energetic discourse which : ailf his crown, began to sing Te Dnim, in which he was joined by the whole assembly. Matters )iassed in the interior of the jirovincos with as little tumult and opposition as in the capital and j)rincipal cities. The king's brothers received, in his name, the oath of fidelity on the part of the inhabitants and thi.- Military. In virtue of this new form of goveriiinent, all the fundamental laws introduced since lOtIO were cancelled and abolished. The succcssidn |„ ,i I tlirone was restricted to males only. Tl,., n,,, f order, and the right .>t primogeniture, as mM by the convention oi 174;J, and by the docrpc il the diet of IT.jO, were conllrmed. The Kji,., ,y.J to govern ahine, according to the hnvs; himIiU senate were to be considered as his cdumilio,-! All the senators were to be nominatoil by [|J king, and matters were no longer to be di'i'lilld bi a plurality of votes. The senators were simpiYi! give their advice, and the decision beloiiKiMl i,i'i|,J king. (Courts of justice, however, were oxciiitrj The chief command of all the forces in the kiiiii dom, both by sea and land, and the suiin'iiu'diJ reel ion of the exchequer, were conl'errcil (in i king. On the report of the senate, lie Hllwl iiiull the high offices in the state, both militurv, nm and ecclesinstical. He alone had the right' of |iit| doning, ami of summoning the states, \Ylioniii|| nevei assemble on their own authority, oxci pt j cu e %\here the throne became vacant, \\\- tiictnij extinction of tb'^ royal family in the inali- liu,. The duration of the diets was lixcd fur ilim months, and (be king had the privilege of iJissulvJ ing them at tlie cud oj that time. Hecoiilii iiiaki no new Liws, nor inteipret the old oiii's, uorimj pose subsidies or assessments, nor doclaiv war! without the \dvice and ci nseiit of the status. Hf wus allowed, however, ui levy an extiamiliiurj tax, in cases where the kingdom might lie atiurkrt by sudden invasion ; but on the termiiiallon i I'tlil war, the states were to be assembled ami tin- neJ tax discontinued. All negociations for jipncel t''uces, and alliances, whether ofTensive or dileil sive, were reserved to the king, by whom tliJ were to be referred to the senate. If, in tlioJ cases, the unanimous voice of the seiiale wiiMinT posed to that of the king, it becjinn' liisduivll j accpiiesee in their opinion. Every SwtdislicilmJ j was to be judged by his natural judge. Thi' kiiJ ; coubi attaint neither the life, honour, nm- rmiinij of any citizen, otherwise than by the U'ltuI I'i'iii I All extraordinary eomniissioiis nr tribunals lui to be sujipressed, as tending to eslablisli l_w;iiiii| and despotism. The revolution of Stockludm, of whicli we just noxv spoken, bad nothing in eon'iiu)ii witliil;! which happened at Coiienhagen the saim \r and which, without in any way airectiiii; tiic loJ st'tution of the kingdom, merely tniiisrcircil iM reins of government from the liamis of the mjl^ ing queen to those of the (lueen-dowai^cr.'* In a remote corner of Kiirojie tlieie ixis'lci association (>f warriors, of a kind ([iiite pmiha namely, that of the Zaparog Cossiics ; so called t cause they dwelt near the cataracts of llir Uiiii'ii where they served as a military frontier, lirst in ill I'oles, and afterwards to the Uussians. TlnMlii| residence of these Cossacs was calb d Sets(h:i contained a considerable mass of h.nises, scatlf! and badly constructed, i.i'd had a small fort creJ pied by a llussiaii garrison. The jiositina ( Sctscha had not always bi'cn the saiiii'; liiil | was ultimately iixed on the western lianknt'llj Borysliicncs, opposite Kanieiioi-Satoii, an ami! fortress of the Uussians, and was ealkd Nel Setscha. 'J'lii'se Cossacs, known in i'ulaiid li; ll| name of Uuydamars, jind formidable hylhiiri cuvsions and their dexastatioiis, had adojiliil ;i f publican form of government. Their ciipitiil«< ■riii.('(w*ic!t submit Iliissiaii iluiiiinioii. Till' I'.nivri'ns Aiiiic. Lidcil into thirty A' h-r hiiiiiiii of that jiower Itiiiir al'teiwanls impli i|ia, the\ put theiusel tl Tailais ^S the Crin |«;i, anil transfi'rred lie eastern bank of the J'iiii,' disi-iinti'iited ui |ri-;d till ir incursion' i on Setscha, they ti lifiiiielves once more i ladVtU). The Kmp mheir privileu. s, and in rebuilding thi pi of the Dnieper. A« they colli inued, h rd pluMiler on the frui liil having neither frie; 'ulved to annibilale Besides tl'i'ir depreilal B'lised <>•' having iisu Joiintries between the fell us of several distrii I'liived to the ( 'ossaci prlaidarly exasperatei fas that being so ob rlio (''.w*»'s submit to Itiissiiin lUmiinioii. Till' I'.niiiri'an Amic. TERIOD VIII. A.U. 171:1— 17S9. l)!»|ii'rsioii of tlic /iilirtrciKH. ('laiiiiiints til the lliiviiriuii 157 SIK'CI'SSli)!!. biudwl into tliiity Kurenes, or quarters. Every [■ii,sac belDii^'od to one of thesi' kiircncs. Tliere f |o(l"t''l ■»»•>''•' l'** stayed at Setscha, and was ob- ■iji'd to conform to its laws. All those who he- inii.reil to tlie same Kureiie, formed as it were one iiif the same family. Like tlie ancient Spartans, lifV flcri' nourished with tlie same food, and ate I I'he s;ime tid)le. The overseer of each separate iiri'iio was called Ataman, and the chief of all the iiri'iii's Kusc/imroi- Ataman, All the chiefs, with- lul ilistinction, were elected by common consent ; Ataman by his own kurene, ;jnd the Kosehewoi vlliL'wlinle kurenes united. They were deposed fiievcr they became unpopular. The assemblies ifSi'Isclia were cither ordinary or extraordinary. II iliat which was regularly held every year on ,. 1st of January, they made a formal division of II' tielJs, rivers, and lakes, among the kurenes. ev niiide use of lots in order to avoid disputes; iiurtlii'V renewed them every year that a favour- e cliiince might be given to all the kurenes in ■fossion. At that assembly they elected new iliifls, if tliey happened to be discontented with leolil ones. As lor the extraordinary assemblies, IhPV were held when it was iu agitation to under- ilil' a ciimpiiign, or to make an excursion ; and iiiTilly on all occasions when the common in- rest sci'in"(l to require it. They bad a junder the comnn)ii Iroli'i'tiou of those t\\v> states. They Jireferreil i;t I'l' Russia, ami w»'re continued mitler the ilo- hiiiiiiii (it that jiower by the peace of Moscow. peiiisr al'ti'i>vai(ls implicated in the revolt of -Ma- 1, they jiiit themsehcs under the protection of i'aitars ,.f the Crimea after the battle of I'ul- |[«:i, unit trunst'i'rnd their capi'.al of Setscha tu lii'iasteni hank of the Dnieper, nearer its moutii. iiiii; ili'-iontented Muder the Tartars, who re- |rci;d till ir ineorsious, und often imposed cxac- loiiM)ii Setscha, they took the resolution it nitling lliHiielvis once more under the dominion ;.f Uus- jiallVt;t). Till' Kmjjri'ss Anne contirmei' them heir |iriMlei_s, and furnished money to assist Bifiii in ri'huikling their <'apital on the western laiil of the l)nii'])er. Astlu'v continiu'd. however, to commit robbery jiiil phiiiiler on the fiuntiers without intermission, Iliil having neitln-r friends nor allies, Catherine II. pilvi'il to annihilate t)iis fantastic association. (fMilis tl'i'ir depredations, the /aparogs were fi'iisi'il of having usiir|>('d possession of several Iciuitries belwecn the l)ni"per ;ind the Hog; as II ;^ iif several ilistricts which had at all times 'iii'.'i'd to the Cossacs of the Don. Wliat more iriiculHily exasperated the empress against them, ►»•■, that being so obstinately attached to their absurd form of government, they opposed every scheme of reform, the object of which was to make them live in regular society, aiul in the bonds of matrimony ; or to induce them to form themselves into regiments, after the manner of the other Cos- sacs. They had also refused to send their deputies to Moscow, at the time when Catherine had sent for them from all parts of the Empi ■, for the formation of a new code of laws ; and there was some reason to fear they might attempt, to revolt, on account of the changes which the empress pro- posed to make in the administration of the govern- ment. These and other considerations induced that princess to despatch a body of troops against Setscha (ll'ti). The Zaparogs, attacked unawares, and inclosed on all hands, saw themselves without the means of making the least resistance. Their capital was destroyed, and their whole tribe dis- j)ersed. Those who were not inclined to embrace another kind of life, were sent back to their native towns and their respective countries. The succession of Bavaria reverted of right to the Elector Palatine, Charles Theodore, as head of the elder l)ranch of AVittelshaeii, That prince had on his side the feudal law of (ierniany, the golden bull, the peace of Westphalia, and family compacts frequently renewed between the two branches of that house ; all Eurojie was persuaded that, should the case so turn out, the rights of the Elector I'alatine would he l)eyond all c()utro\ersy. Mean- tinu>, the I'U-'ctor Maximilian bad scarcely closed his eyes, when several pn^tenders appeared on the tield, to dispute the snccessiou as his )>resumptiM' heirs. Tb.,' Emperor Jose])h claimed all tlie Hefs of the I'.mpire, which his predecessors had conferred on the hovise of Bavaria, \sithout ex- pressly including the princes of the palatine branch in these investitures. The Empress Maria The- resa, besides the Hefs of the I'ppcr I'alatiuate holding of the crowu of Bohemia, demanded all tlie countries and districts of Lower and l"])per UaNaria, as well as of the Tpper I'alatiuate, whi<'h bad been possessed by the jirinccs of Bavaria- Straubingen, who had become extinct in 14'J."). .She also alleged a pretended iuvestitiire, which the Emperor Sigisimind liad grunted, in 14'J(!, to his son-in-law Duke Albert of Austria. The Electress- Dowauer of Saxony, sister to the last Elector of Bavaria, tliought herself entitled to claim the allo- dial succession, which she made out to be very ex- tensive. Lastly, the Dukes of Mecklenburg brought forward an ancient deed of reversion, which theii ancestors had obtained from the emperors, over the landgraviale of Leuclitenberg. Before these diliercnt claims could be made known, the Austrian troops had entered Bav;i;..i, immediately after the death of the late elector, and taken ])ossession jf all the countries and districts claimed by the Emperor and the Empress-Queen. The Elector Palatine, intimidated by the cabinet of Vienna, acknowledged the lawfulness of all the claims of that court, by a convention which was signed at Vienna (January 3, n7S), but which the Duke of Deux-Poiits, bis successor and heir juvsumptive, refused to ratify. That prince was supported in his ojiposition by the King of Prussia, who treated the pretensions of Austria as chinic- rieal, ;ind as being incompatible with the security of the constitution of the (iernianie body. The king interposed in this all'air, as being a guarantee AM* Vri'di'iip II. iiiviuU-sltdhi'iiiia. 158 Wiir lietween Kraiice and Kii|{lniiy were sii ppod in their man h by Marshal I.auddhn, who h;iil taken up a very ad\antagC()Ms jiosition, and defeated all the measures of the Piince of Prussia. At length a third Prussian army marched into Austri;; and Silesia, and occupied the greater part of that pro- vince. Europe had never seen armies miiri' nu- merous and better convent of Branntiu (August, 177Sj, which had no better success than the ])ri'ceding, on account of the helligcrons disposition of the emperoi-, who was for continiiing the war. At length th(> return of peace was brought about by the iicnverful intervention of the cc)urts of Versailles and St. Petersburg. France, w'.io was obliged, by the terms of her alliance witii Austria, to furnish supplies foi the empress-queen, could not in the jiresent case re- concile this engagement with the interests of her crown, nor witli the obligations which tin treaty of Westphalia had imposed upon in r, with respect to the (Jerinanic body. Besides, le war which had broken out between her and England, on ac- '•onnt of her alliance with the United States of Anieiica, made her anxious for the restoration of peace on the continent, for avoiding everything which might occasion a diversion of her maritime liirces. The Emjiress of Russia, who thought her alory interested, could not remain a quiet spec- tator of a struggle which, if prolonired, mii;;ht set all Euro])e in a flame. She c ol Wittlesliach, as c(uiipreheiHled in the faniilj nuiij pacts of that house. 'I'he existing treaties between the ceiirt ul Vicuna and the King of I'russia, with tliohi' ol Westphalia, Breslau, Berlin, and nresdeii, wirj renewed and cimtirmed ; and a formal ackmnvli'il.'. mcnt made to the royal line of Pruss'a, of lliiij right to unite the margraviates of Bairmith niii| Anspach, failing the present possessors, to the lif. reditary succession of the electorate of liiam!cii.| burg ; which right the House of Austria hail alloi in question during the dispute which we havJ already mentioned. As for the House of MeikJ li'uburg, ihey granted to it the privilege iif tha > III appcUandn, in virtue of which, no one nml| irry lU appeal from the tribunals of tluit eomilr; to the Novcreign courts of the Empire. Thi' tivil nii'diating powei"; undertook to gu-uaiitoi' thil treaty. Thus the war for the succession of Bavariaj was checked at its commencement. Th'' fnlh)iviii| peculiarities are worthy of remark, vi^., tliatl Palatine family, who were the party ciiieflv inJ tere.'-teil, took no share in it ; while Biivaiia, tliej sole cause of the war, was no ^\ay engigeil in ilj and the Elector Palatine, who had even irl'uwll i' Tcselu'ii. II (if l^ ' ''f l'"fi' COllli J l'<'sn lie,. p,(^ 11. S llilvitljr |,p|,^ It I'oiidfri'ss wai licliw^isoiii'iiei 1"' l'iii|insj „| ' •" lier inif-rl IS to the IpiJ iiiHlcr the KiiJ )inmim(lcil ihil ill tlii> n\,;[(\\i I'lL' (■(}llgff4S| t' Uretcuil, \\4 la. All tiling cipal ilifflciiltiei ill li"i s ^v^'U ii* tli{i»( ami holdiii! lay the Kii'ftoJ ^ tlic sum 111 Knipii'i' ; wliili ■-aid piiuco till had ov(>r nr| oiiy, and posJ \'\w I'lilaliiiJ siiccc>(.rth Ami'riciin coloiiii's. PERIOD VIII. A.I). 17i:i— 17H!». The Stinii) Act jiusucil uikI ri'scMidtM). Diitit's on ten, Jkc. 155) tl the (■(Hirt III ^villl tlifhc il Di'osdi'ii, wira 1 acknowli'd.'J uss'a, of tliciij naireutli aii(| ors, to till' he- of lii-amlcii'j tria had calli'' hicli we Iwv^ lusc of Mi'i'kJ iviU'ilo (if M 110 one cii'i ;' that ciimitr ii-i'. Till' twd icraiitic tliil ion of Biivavil Til'.' lollinviu^ yii;., tliuttli^ ty chicily iii'^ ■ *Ua\ari;i, lliej lift 1 u;i'd in it i (■\(;11 ll'fUH'll| », . jjsistftut'O of the King of Pniwsia, waH, iievcr- Ihelcss, the party chicHy b(.'iK'til('(l hy th(> pt'uci', Tuiiifalis of tlif piotc'clion of tliat priiict. Tlic lfo'i>-(' of Austria haviuj^ failed, us wo have ,('('11, ill her project of couqueriiif,' Havaria, Iriiil, ill till' '"'''t place, to ffet possesHioii of that [oimtrv hv waj of uxchaiifje for the Netherlands. 11,,, ijoi'tor i'alatiiic appeared willing to iiieet the Xif,v« of tlic loiirt of Vienna; but it Avas not no Itillillic Uiikc of Deux-l'oiit^i, who haiijjhtily op- lomltli'' exchange; while the Kill),' of riii-.sia, ported it, was ol)li;fe(l to aeknowleilge that Liliaiu'xchanije was inadmissible, ami in opposi- [ou ImiI'i to former treaties, and to the best in- IfciH (if the (iernianie lody. 'I'lie court of liciiiia then abandom d this project, at least in piaraia'O ; hut the alarm wliicli it bad caused ■omliout the Kmjiire, gave rise to an association, lowii hy tiie name of the (ieniianic Confedera- Imi. It was concluded at Herlin (July 2!), I'lM) "vi'Cii llie tinee Electorii of Saxony, Uranden- .', and liniiiswiek-Luiiebiirg ; besides several v,iiii'< (if the lini»eridl State wlio adhered to it. hi<;isMiiiation, imrely defensive, had no other ijfft thai, the preservation of the (ierniaiiic iiiiii, with tlie rights and jiossessions of all its leniliers. Tk' revolution in North America, of which we 'fi.iiw about to give some aeconiit, deserves to iilai I'd among the number of those great events ilidi lidoii'.'' to the general history ot Kurope. fs the sanguinary war which it kindled be- leii Fiiiiue and Kngland, and in which S":iin llollaiul were also implicated, it m;' , re- nias the harbinger of those revolutions which k place soon after in several of the Continental lies (if Europe. The Knglish colonics in North icriia were no otherwise eoiinected with the loiliei rouiitry, than by a government purely civil, imilarity of manners and customs, which ijiMije had :cnderec eolouiea increased in strength, population, 'wcaltli. lie I'uiisideration, however, likely to secure Jrallej;iauce, was the protection whijb England ili'il tiieiii against their iio\\erfiil neighbours frinili in Canada, the Spaniards in Elorida, the Barbarians in the ^Vest. The Canadians, cially, proved daring and troublesome neigb- lii New England, mIucIi rendered the as- iiieeaiul protection of the mother country in- ifiisahle. 'J'he aspect of affairs changed at the [e iif the jieuec of Paris (17(i:»). England, liy 'Jii; IKissessiou of Canada and Floriila, broke main lie which uttuched the colonies to her miiieiit. Delivered then from the terror of the FrtMieh, n»ul having no moro need of foreign succour to protect them from their attacks, the Americans began to concert measures for extri- cnliiig fliemsi IvcH from the dominitin of Britain. The first il.-iturbances that broke out were occa- sioned by tli" attempts whicii the Kritish parlia- ment had nuidc fo impose tuxes on the Americans. The national debt of England having increased considerably during (he preceding war, the parliii- i:"'nt thought they bin! a right to oblige the colonies to furnish their (juola for the liijuidation of that debt, which bad been contracted, in ii great mea- sure, for the interests of America. The parliament passed an act, according to whicli all contracts in the American colonies were to be drawn upon stamped paper ; and the tax on the stamp was re- gulated according t( the ditl'erent objects of the contra.'t (ntif)). ■\Vl:en (' is act had passed into a law, ami was about to In carried into ell'eet in America, it <'ansed a general insurrection. The pio])'!' coiiimitted all sorts of excesses and abuses agai'ist the king's ofliceis. The courts of justice were shut u'li, and the colonies began to form as- sociations aiiioiij,; thi'iiiselves. They disputed the right of the liritish parliament to impose taxes on them ; alleging tliaf they were not represented there, and that it was the eonstitutioual iirivilego of every Englithmiui, that he could not be taxed except by means of his own representatives. The colonies having thus attacked the sovereiijnty and h>gislative power of the parliament, laid an interdict an all commerce with the mother country, and forbade the jiurchase of commodities imported from Gre;it liritam. The Parliament had the weakness to rescind the Stamp Act. They published, however, a de- claratory act whicli set forth, tliat the colonies were subordinate to, and dependent on, the Crown and PiuUanient of Cireat Hritaii;, in whom resided full power and authority to make laws and statutes binding on the coloniis, in all possible cases. The provincial assemblies of the colonists were enjoined, by that act, to receive into their towns whatever number ot British troops the mother country might think proper to send, and to fur- nish them with wood and beer. Far from allay- ing these disturbances, this new act tended, on the contrary, to exasperate them still more. The Americans considered it as tyrannical, and as having no other design than to destroy the foundations of their liberty, and to establish an absolute and desijotic power. The British ministry made still farther conces- sions. They abandoned altogether the idea of a tax to be levied in the interior of the country, and limited themselves entirely to tuxes or duties on imported goods. T'be Stamp Act was replaced by another (17(57), which imposed certain duties ou tea, jiaper, lead, glass, and paint-colours, iSc. &c. exported from Ejiigland into the colonies. This act was no better received than its pr'.'decessor. The Assembly of Massacbussets whicli was foimed at Boston, addressed (.'ircular letters to all the colonies, exhorting them to act in coneert for the support of their rights against the mother country. The resolutions which some of the colonies had already adopted, of prohibiting the use of commi?- dities manufuetured in Great Britain, became com- mon to all the colonies; and the American mer- ciiauts in general counterinaniled the goods which ■ '2 T.il. NiirtirH iiiliiiiiilatratioii, 100 KliiliiirK'uat lldstoii. Niirlli Aiiivrii' 111 C'dnKrcm. KOCHS REVOLUTIONS. rica. tlioy hud iircU'rcd tVoia Kii^'Iiiik), Sootliiud, and Irt;- l;in(l. 'I'lip Hi)irit of revolt thus cxtLndiii^ tvidcr uiid wider, the Hritish j?overmnpnt dctenniiu'd to employ tniops f the restoiatioii of order and tranquillity in tlii donics, and niakini; them re- spect the sovereignly of Ciroat llritain (ITlilt), All'airs were in this situation when Lord North, who had heen plaeed at the head of the adminis- tration, sneceeded in eulniingthe minds of the eolo- nistH, hy passinff an act whieh abcdiKiied the ob- noxious taxes, with the sinj,de exception of tliat on ten. The intention of the minister in rctainini,' this tax, was not with any view of roapinjj advan- tajre from it ; hut he hoi)ed hy this tritlinj; duty to aecustom the colonies to support greater taxes. The Anu'ricans were very sensihle of this ; liow- ever, as they imported very little tea from Kuj^laiid, and as the Outeli furnished them with this artii le hy way of eontraband, they showed tu) symptoms of resentment until the year 177:t. At that time, the I'urliaincnt havinj,' lay (iie jiort of Boston under interdict ; the SI >^ :!»>:! t" abolish the constitution and demo- cratic .i;ovci5iiii':nt of Mass'ichussets, and substitute in its place a government more nxonarchical ; and the third to authorize tlie colonial jjovernors to transport to Knglind the Americans who were accused of rebellion, to be tried in the Court of King's Bench. General Gage was sent to Boston witli a body of troops and several vessels, to carry tiiese coerci^ e measures into effect. By thus ado])t- ing decisive measures, the British I'arliament ill vain flattered themselves, that they could reduce, hy force, a continent so vast, aid -o remote from the mother country as thatof Am. ric :.. Supposing even that they could have succeed- 'd, the spirit and nature of the English government wo\dd never have permitted them to maintain their conquests by force. The colonies, h.owever, far from l)eing intimidated hy these acts, warmly espoused the cause of the ])roviuce wliich had been singled out for punishment. A general congress, composed of tlie representa- tives of all the colonies, was o])ened at Philadel- phia (September .'ith, 1774). They declared the acts of the British Parliament against jMassachus- sets, to be unjust, oppressive, and unconstitutional. They agreed never more to import articdes of com- merce from Great Britain ; and to i)r(!seut an ad- dress to the king, and a petition to the House of Commons, for the redress of those grievances of whieh the colonies had to complain. This latter step haviuif produced no effect, and the Parliament having still persi>ied in their rigorous measures, hostilities commenced in thi The American (,'ongress tl mand of their army on Geor He mom. fApiil, l;;jl The American Congress then c(.. I, ncil tin. foml WuKlunjfliiii, a rio| planter in Virginia, who hud .ccpiireu consiiln military reiuitatinu by his success ii DpiHisiii,; (J Erench in '. riada; and at the suiiic ilm,. raise the iUi'j;' date supjdies of wliich the tuLmiJ stood ill need, the congress agreed to i-•^lll■ imiJ ni Miey, sufHcient to meet tlie unavoiilaMi. ])euses of t!ie war. A ileclaratiou, piit)lisl:,.,| the month of July, 1775, explained iju' ivii.^u which h.id coniptdied tlie Americaiis to tuki' ul arms; ami announced their intention not tio,,, rate from (ireat Britain, nor adopt a s\\tiiii absolute independence. But as the liiitisl'iiiuu, had made exiraordinary efforts for tlie caihinio of 177('>, and taken a body of Geriiiaii llimii. iuij their l)ay, the Americans thought pro|)cr In |,,, oil" all alliance with Knglaiid, that tlicy mi^n have recourse in their turn to the proti "ctinii foreigners. The independence of the colonies \va>i fi]riii:i| declared by an act of Congn'ss (July till, l"ii| They then drew u)) articles of cuiil'iiUi-aiiu iiiid |ierpetual union anionic the States of Aimriij to the number of thirteen provinces, uiiiiir t'l title of the Vnitcil Stiitis uf AmcricA.'^^ IiMirtii of this union, each of the states reuMinid mj, of its own legislature and internal adtiiiuistriliii while the congress, 'vliicli was conipuM'il nfj pilties from all the C(diiiii"s, had the ])iiviir regulating all political alfa' s ; that is tci s;i_v oi, thing concei'iiing war or ()eace, alliiincts, mui.^ matters, weights and measures, pnsts, &c, ; well as the settlement of any dift'eieuciN ivli: might arise between two or more of tlic fir>t f'a\ourable action tor tlu- Ami cans, ill their war against England, was tlmtt'oii at Trenton on the Delaware ( December'.'JtIi, I nii where (ieneral Washington surprised a ludy Hessians and I'liglisli, and made them prisoiioij But the event \vliich in some degree set tlic seal the iiidepeniteuee of America, was the inipml: check which (ieneral Burgoyiie met witii i;i Saratoga. Having advanced from (^:uiiulii in sal port the operatiiiiis of lieneral Howe, who iii marcliing on Philadelphia, lie was coiiipi'lli the American troojis under General (iatcs lol down his arms, by a capitulation wliich \\1 signed in the eamp at Saratoga (OctohiM' lU^ 1777). The news of this disaster was an suou received in Eurojie, than Erance, wKi", daiiiL' tl time that England was occupied with the iliitil bailees in Anierici, had put her niariiie mi a spectable footing, took the resolution of iickuol ledging the new rcjiublic, and entered into !i I'lii: alliance with it. Treaties of friend^thip, alliaii^ and commerce, were ccucluded at Paris betwe them and the L'nited K ,Ues of America (Fobru^ 0th, 1778). Erance de landed as a priaiaij cq dition, that the llniti'd States should not lay iM their arms, until Engl'ind had ttckiiowledittil l!ij independence. The notification which tin- toi of Erance made to that of London of this tif^ with the United States, became the signal of berweoi. these two nations. , This war which Erance had undertakpii agai| England for the free navigation of the se.is, wai first which did not involve the continent of lliit'i| as it was confined entirely to maritime epoiatio AltilllHl"'t»'l'" III iiixl I'Vi'liili llei'ti llcjilliey ili'lV cl« 111' I Till' Kiiropean power I i„ this enterprise, a hilf (iivat Britain d( m\ had not a single i fiiiiliived to interest Ollsi.'. >i,uiii, after having „l;,iiie(liatiiig power, inn-nt ef those engag( tnidcil. ''v the family! tin'hiuu had determii Bi'ili'
  • , had lent itself i (if liir ciiciuics. The jilaineii of the multipli WTiviiiressaiitly harass Tlii'V had sought to ju'o llllili'l- tin shield of tlia |rni|iR"'* of Russia h; Ifiliiii,' the comin(!ree |«:i'i ill oi'iler to prev iiHilraiity that I-'.nglam ir ajaiiist the reimbl IVitlioiit entering h ir, the priiu'l|)al seen. Wmik it extended to lliall rely confine ( ij-i'ivatiiiiis. Wiu'ii hostilities coi 111 Eiiirlaiiil, the lattei iimarilinie strength. ixirnuitii's of the glo -sols was prodigious. lilh stores. Her dock ■livity; Imt after Era loir naval force, it v Iriat Uritain, (ddiged Irciiulh, to defend her H' iiiiiiicrous attacks ii<. Not fewer thai ik place between the ivhii-h i;m,'land, fro \m:\\% and the abiliti I'l iiise a single ship of flKiii was fought near Hvcoii D'Oivilliers an (linn, the glory of whi itii nations, was as in M fiillowed it. The * ^peaking, was th; •milt with (,'ouiit de elwi-i'ii the islands of E ii-'lish admiral having (Peiled ia taking five lea.lniiral's, whom he isoiiiT to London. At the beginning of tl fl'riMich of their poss: Wiasl'omlit.i„,,.,-y, Ch [iicytook from them the iiliiPloe, as well ;'s thai 'lie coast of Africi.. jpsii. lIuM.iselves for tl c inlands of DliiH >hi' was entitled to claim in virtue of foiincr lltf ilii>, had lent itself an accomplice to the interents ■iif liri I'lieiiiies. The Dutch, on their side, com - lp!;iiufil of the multiplied vexations with which th<\ Iviri'iin'i'H-'aiitly liarassi'd hj the Hritish privalepr>.. iTiii'V liiiil ■"iiiu'ht l"]iroteet tlieni-^elvesat;ainst llies,', Imulirlli' liield of that armed licutrality which llii! |l'i!i|in ' <'t Russia had jnst iieijociated for pro- Itfiiiii^' the eomiiien-e of neutral states ; and it lv:i< III order to jireveiit their accession to that liiiiliility that l''.iiy;laud made such h.i^te to declare Ml ;iu'iiiisl the repnhlic (I)ecemlier JO, 17X0), WitliiMit eiiteriiif,' here into t!ie details of that , till' primipal scene of whicli was in America, lllinyli it extended to Africa and the Indies, we iniTcly couHno omsidvis to a few general t'jii'rv;iliiiiis. Wiiiii liostilitif-.-f commenced hetn. u Fraiua! M IJiilland, the latter liad a very ijieat superiority nmarilinie streiifitli. She had armie at the two l\tr('iiiitii's of the ^lohe. The innnher of liur ^H'ls WHS prodiijiouH. Her arsenals were i^orjjed liilli stoics. Her dockyards were in the j^icatest Itlivity I hut after 1'' ranee and Spain had united ftfir iiiival force, it was no lonyier jjossihle for JSnit Dritaiii, ohlij^ed as she was to divide her llMiilli, to defend her distant jiossessioiis ajfainst luiiiii'iims attacks of the l-'rench and their K. Not fewer than twenty-one enirai^enients |oiik]il;u'e between the hellii^erenl powers; in all f which Miiu'land, from the experience of her ilaiinls, and the ability of her na\al olHcers, diil lose a siiiijle ship of llie line. The tirst naval [I'lumwas l'oiii,'ht near I'shant (July 27, n7S), Won D'Oivilliers and Admiral Keppel. Tliis iHioii, the trlory of which was claiiiicil e([ually by lolhirilioiis, was as indecisive as most of tiiose lliicli fnllowed it. The only decisive action, pro- lerly spciikiiiu:, was that which Admiral Roiiney lit'lit with (.'ount dp (irassR (April l.', 17SU), lelwivn the islands of Dominica and Saintes. The k'lisli admiral iiavini^ broken the French line, nweilcd i'l takinu; tive ships of the line, includini; fulmiraf's, whom lie had tlio honour to carry fcoiiiT to Ijondon. lAtthc hc^jrinning of the war, the English sfiipt Ifricncl) of their possessions in the East Indies, i !is I'ondiciierry, Chandernagore, anil iVIali^'. |if) look from them the islands of St. I'eter and |ii|iicl(ir, as well ;'s that of St. Lucia, and Gorrea nlie cnast of Africa. The Trench afterwards Ipaii. Iliei.iselves for tl ese losses, by conquering I* ishiuils of Doniinita, St. Vincent, Grenada, jolwiTo, St. Christophers, Nevis and Moiitserrat. |l;lic' forts and establishments of the English ftiie SiMiLiial in Africa, as well as Gondelore in iKust liidicd, fell into their possession. Sii'L'ii iiI'liiliivdlMr. Wll.-llilll.'lllll''. »ll(TC«'il''<. ICll I.iiril Coriiv^idli-i HitriiMiiliT^. The Hpauiards made themselves masters of the forts which the llnglish occupied on the Missis. sippi. riiey took fort Mobile or Oonde, in ancient I'"lroviiice, (ienerals Washington, Roehamb mil, and La Eayette, turned their forces against biiii, and were supported in this attack by a Erench lleet, which the Count di Cirasse had brought to their aid. Lord Cornwallis, sur- rounded on all sides, and shut up in York Town, was (diliged to eaijitulate (October l!t, 17SI ), and surrendered himself and his whole army jiri- soiiers of war. This event decided the fate of America. The news of it no sooner arrived in England, than a change took place in the Hrilisb ministry. Lord North and his colleagues gave in their demission, and vveie re])laced by the members of tlipop])osite jiarty. The new ministry attempted to negociato a special peace, either with the Americans or with the Dutch ; but their eti'orls having proved unsuccessful, they adopted the alter- native (d recognising the independence of Aiiieriea, and then entered into a negociation with France. A conference was opened at Paris, under the mediation of .Tosepli IL, and the Emiu'ess of Russia. It continued from the month of October 17H?, till September 17S;{, when detinilive treaties of peace were signed at Paris and Versailles be- tween Cii-eat Uritain, France, Spain, and the United States of America. The concliisimi of the treaty between Enitland and Holland did not lake place till the 20th May, 17S4. In virtue of thpse treaties, the independence of the thirteen United States of America was acknow- IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) A % V A

    d of Taman, and all the part of Iban which lay on the right bank of the river of II name, and formed, as it were, a frontier be- Jteii the two empires, were abandoned to Russia. le fortress of Oczakoff, to which the Tartars |lhe Crimea had some claims, was ceded to the rte with its whole territory. Thus ended the Binion of the Tartars in tlie Crimea, once so lible to Russia. The empress formed the whole vast country into two new governments, My, those of Taurida and the Caucasus. pere had existed for a long time certain dis- les between the Dutch and the government of I Austrian Netherlands, as to the execution of iBarrier Treaty (1715), and that of the Hague IIS), They had neglected to define precisely ] limits of Dutch Flanders, which these treaties ' pointed out rather than determined ; and for hg time the Imperial Court had ceased to pay I Dutch the subsidies which the Barrier Treaty 1 stipulated in their favour. That court would I consent to agree to a definitive settlement of f« limits, or the payment of the subsidies, until Rland and Holland should co-operate with her in repairing the Barrier towns, whose fortifications had been ruined during the war of the Austrian succession. She demanded, also, that these powers should unite for concluding a treaty of commerce, and a tariff favourable for the Low Countries, as they had engaged to do by former treaties. At length the Emperor Joseph II. thought he might avail himself of the war which had arisen between England and Holland, to free the Austrian Nether- lands entirely from the claims which the Barrier Treaty had imposed on them. The order for de- molishuig all the fortified places in the Netherlands comprehended the Barrier towns ; and the Dutch were summoned to withdraw their troops from them. These republicans, not being able to solicit the protection of England, with -vyhich they were at war, found themselves obliged to comply with the summons of the emperor. Their troops then evacuated all the Barrier towns in succession. This compliance on the part of the Dutch, en- couraged the emperor to extend his pretensions still farther. Not content with annulling the trea- ties of 171.5-18, he required that the boundaries of Flanders should be re-established on the footing of the contract of 1G64, between Spain and the States-General ; and instead of making his new demand a subject of ncgociation, he took possession of the forts, as veil as of the towns and districts included within the limits which had been fixed by this latter agreement. The Dutch having ad- dressed ttieir complaints to the court of Vienna against these violent proceedings, the emperor consented to open a conference at Brussels (1784), for bringing all these disputes to an amicable ter- mination. He declared, at the opening of the meeting, that he would desist from all tlic claims which he had against the republic, provided they would grant to the Belgic provinces free passage and navigation of the Scheldt ; with the privilege of direct commerce with India, from the ports of the Netherlands. But while proposing this state of things as the subject of ncgociation, he an- nounced, that from that moment he was firmly resolved to consider the Scheldt as free ; and that the least opposition on the part of the States-Ge- neral would be, in his eyes, as the signal of hosti- lities and a dechivation of war. The Dutch, with- out being intiMiidated by these threats, declared the demand of the emperor to be contrary to their treaties, and subversive of the safety and prosperity of their republic. Vice-Admiral Reynst was or- dered to station himself, with a squadron, at the mouth of the Scheldt, and to prevent all Imperial or Flemish ships from passing. Two merchant- men having attempted to force the passage, the Dutch gave them a broadside and obliged them to strike. The emperor then regarded the war as declared, and broke off the conference at Brussels ; he had, however, made no preparations ; and the Low Countries were entirely divested of their troops, magazines, and warlike stores. That prince had Mattered himself that the court of France would espouse his quarrel, and that he would obtain from them the supplies stipulated by the treaty of Ver- sailles. But France was then negociating a treaty of alliance with the republic, and easily foresaw, that if she abandoned the Dutch at that particular time, they would be obliged to throw themselves into the arms of England. M. de Maillebois then M 2 '-.ri '] -y^ i S J i r '"' ' '> i"."!^^ , , :-; "4 ^: ;3 ::,.;:a y:'^ i •■". tc^ci: ! ■1'u*:tI i ■'I a M i '' .u'.'. } i! Treaty of V'ontaincbleau. 1G4 Koiiiil'ilican lurty in Ilolluna. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. liiaiirrection nt the IIii^jiic, .StiultliolUvr (lepwed, iiuil rcatoreil. received orders to pass into Holhnd, while France set on foot two armies of observation, one in Flanders and the other on the Rhine. The king wrote to the emperor very pressing letters, wishing him to adopt pacific measures. These proceedings, and the numerous difficulties which the war of the Netherlands presented to the emperor, induced him to accept the mediation of the court of France ; a negociation on this subject was entered into at Versailles. The emperor therein persisted at first in maintaining the liberty of the Scheldt, but afterwards became less rigid on this point. He \\ as content to enforce his other claims. This negociation was as tedious as it was intricate. It occupied the French ministry during the greater part of the year 1785. The emperor insisted much on the cession of Maestricht and the territory of Outre-Meuse. From this demand lie would not recede, except on the payment of a large sum of money by way of indemnity, and another in reparation of the damage which the inundation of Flanders, ordered by the States-Ge- neral, had occasioned to his Austrian subjects. By the peace which was signed at Fontainebleau, the treaty of Munster (164S) was renewed, but nothing was said of the Barrier Treaty nor of that of Vienna (1731). They agreed on shutting the Scheldt, from Saftingeu as far as the sea, as well as the canals of Saas, Swin, and other communications with the sea in the neighbourhood. The States- General engaged to pay the emperor, in lieu of his claims on Maestricht and the Outre-Meuse, the sum of 9,500,000 Dutch florins ; and another of 500,000 florins for repairing the damages done by the inundations. That prince got ample satisfac- tion on the subject of most of his other claims, and France undertook to guarantee the treaty. Im- mediately after it was signed, they renewed the negociation respecting the treaty of alliance pro- jected between France and the republic. This treaty was also signed at Fontainebleau (Novem- ber 10, 1785) two days after the treaty of peace. Various intestine disturbances at that time agi- t!itcd the republic of the United Provinces. The animosity of the republican party against the stadtholdor and his partisans, had been revived more keenly than ever, on account of the war in America between France and En^"l''nd. The republicans reproached the stadthohs'^r for his dc- votedness to the interests of England, which had made him neglect their marine, and fail in the protection which he owed the Dutch commerce, in his capacity of admiral-general of the forces of the republic. The different magistrates of the muni- cipal towns, in order to discredit the stadtholder in the opinion of the publf'., encouraged periodical writers to inveigli against the person of William V. and his administration. They blamed his coun- cillors, and especially Louis, Duke of Brunswick, who, as governor to the stadtholder during his mi- nority, had had the principal direction of affairs, and who still continued to aid him with his councils. The city of Amsterdam, which had always been distinguished for its opposition to the stadtholder, was the first that demanded the removal of the duke, whom they blamed as the cause of the languid state of their maritime power. That ])rince was compelled to give in his demission (1784), and even to withdraw from the territories of the republic. The retirement of the duke cmbnldenei the opponents of the stadtholder, who soon W beyond all bounds. That party, purely aristocraij in its origin, had been afterwards reinforced bvl multitude of democrats, who, not contented wjij humbling the stadtholder, attacked even tlie powj of the magistrates, and tried to change the coiistl tution by rendering the government more popnl/ and democratic. In the |)rincipal towns, ussocij tions were formed wider the name of Fnc Hod'J for exercising the citizens in the maiiii!,'ciiien;( arms. The party opposed to the stadtholder toe the name of Patriots. They were socreth- snrt ported by France, who wished to enii)loy thcin i an instrument for destroying the influence of Enj land and attaching the republic to her unn i| terests. A popular insurrection, which ha])pdiej at the Hague (1785), furnished the states of Hi? land with a pretext for removing the sladllioMi from the command of tliat place, which was ij trusted to a council. This blow, struck at a ]irJ rogativc which was regarded as inherent in tM stadtholdership, induced the Prince of Oraii!;ei| quit the Hague, and fix his residence in the vince of Guelders, the states of whicii were ati particularly devoted to him. An attack which ill prince made against the towns of Elbur? ai Hattem, for refusing to execute the onlei-s whij he had intimated to them in the name of tlie Siitl of Guelders, exasperated the minds of the Duitl It added to the strength of the patriotic ])artj, aJ encouraged the states of Holland to mnke a i newed attack on the stadtholdership, and even i go so far as to suspend the ])rince from the fuiJ tions of captain-general of that province. The court of Berlin had taken measures, boj with the states-general and the province of Hij land, to facilitate an accommodation bctAveeii li two parties. Frederic AVilliam II. who siicceodl his uncle, Frederic the Great (178(5), sent tot Hague, with this view, the Count de Gorts I ister of state ; while M. Gerard ile RayiieJ ordered to repair thither on the part of FranJ .legociation was opened between tliese ti ministers and the principal leaders of the patriot l)arty, but without effect. Their animosities ratli increased, and the patriots broke out into evq kind of violence. They dismissed the niai;islral of the chief towns by force, and replaced them I their own adherents ; a step whicli obliged I aristocrats to coalesce with the stadtholder's paij in order to withstand the fury of the repubhfl A civil war seemed to all appearJtiice inevilabj In this state of matters, the Princess of Oraa took the resolution of repairing in porsontoJ Hague, with the design, as she alleged, of eiidl vouring to restore peace. She was arrested onf route by a detachment of the republican eor|M Gauda (June 28, 1787), and conducted to SchJ hoven, whence she wag obliged to return to! meguen, without being able to accomplisli f object of her journey. The King of Prussia demanded satisfactioii| this outrage offered to his sister. The statw Holland, not feeling disposed to give it in I terms which the king demanded, he sent a H of 20,000 men to Holland, under the commanij the Duke of Brunswick, who, in the space i month, made himself master of the whole cotinl and even obliged the city of Amsterdam to sub* StiiltliolfloHliip liercditnry. |( ■ .:;^ : n It l» > 106 SubmiHsion of Klemiali pro- vinccB to lA.'opol«l II. Tho Tiirkisli wiir. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Leopold joins Humlii. Ouatuvus ill. duclania wui uKniimt Uiigaiu. gaged, under the guarantee of the three mediating powers, to govern the Netherlsiiida agreeably to the constitution, laws, and privileges which had been in force under the Empress Maria Theresa ; never to do anything to their prejudice ; and to annul whatever had been done to the contrary under the reign of Joseph II. A declaration published by Leopold (November 1790), enjoined all his Uelgic subjects to take anew the oath of allegiance. That prince granted a general and unconditional pardon to all those who should lay down their arms within a given time. All the provinces in succession then gave in their submission. Brussels opened her gates to the Austrian troops (December 2, 1790), and the patriots Vaneupen and Vaudernoot took refuge in Holland. The animosity which had for a long time sub- sisted between Russia and the Forte, occasioned a new war between these two powers in 1787. The Turks could not endure the humiliating conditions which the late treaties with Russia had imposed on them. Tlie high tone which the court of St. Petersburg used in their communications with the Porte, wounded the pride of the Ottomans ; and the extraordinary journey of the empress to Cher- son and the Crimea (May 1787), in which she was accompanied by tho Emperor Joseph II., car- ried alarm even to the city of Constantinople. The inhabitants of that capital thought they could per- ceive, in that journey, a premeditated design in the courts of St. Petersburg and Vienna to annihilate the Ottoman Empire, and divide the spoil between them. The court of London, supported by that of Berlin, dexterously fanned the spark which lay concealed under these ashes. They wished to be avenged on the court of St. Petersburg for the difficulties which she had thrown in the way of re- newing their treaty of commerce ; as well as the advantageous conditions which she had granted to France by the commercial treaty concluded with that power. The great activity with wliich Russia had carried on her commerce in the Black Sea, since she had obtained entire liberty by her treaties with the Porte, excited likewise the jealousy of England, who was afraid that the commercial con- nexions which she maintained with that power, through the Black Sea, might thereby be destroyed. The Turks, moreover, had to complain of the Russian consul in Moldavia, who, as they alleged, sought every means to interrupt the peace and good understanding between the two Empires. They demanded that he should be recalled, and moreover, that the empress should renounce the protection of Prince Heracli\is, and withdraw her troops from Georgia. Finally, they wished that all Russian vessels that passed the Straits should be subjected to an examinatiei, in order to prevent contraband trade. These demands were no sooner made, than the divan, without waiting for an answer from the court of St. Petersburg, determined to proclaim war (Au^,ust 18, 1787), by sending the Russian minister, M. de Boulgakoff, to the Castle of the Seven Towers. On the news of this rupture, the empress despatched a considerable force against the Turks ; her troops extended from Kaminiec in Fodolia, to Balta, a Tartar village on the frontiers of Poland, between the Dneister and the Bog. Prince Potemkin, the commander-in-chief of the army, had under him Suwarow, Repnin, Kamen- skoi, and others. The Emperor Joseph II,, ;,ft|,f| having for some time supported tlie charnctfJ of mediator between the Turks and Uussiaml engaged in the war as the ally of Russia (Ffbruurvl 9, 1788). He attacked the Turks in Moldiiiiaf and on several points of Hungary. Marslml Laiil don undertook the siege of Belgrade, of whioli liel made himself master (October 8, 1789). U waj obvious, however, that the progress of thi' Ausl trians did not correspond either to the ability oj| their generals, or the superiority of their arras. Another enemy of Russia appeared on the stai;e,| Gustavus III., King of Sweden, listened to thJ insinuations of the cabinets of London and SorlinJ and made a diversion in favour of tiie Porte. prince, after renewing his alliance with the Porlel commenced the war against Russia, at the vcrvl instant when the whole of her forces were turiicdT against the Turks. A land army was formed bjl his orders in Finland, while a Swedish Hcet, conJ sisting of twenty ships of the line and ten frigates I advanced on Cronstadt, and threw the city of M Petersburg into a state of great terror. An tiJ gagement between the two fleets took place neaj the isle of Hoogland (May 30, 1789). Both aidei fought with equal advantage ; but an unforesftij event disconcerted the measures of tiic Swedisji monarch. After he had made his dispositioiiii M attacking the city of Fredricksheim in rinlamij several officers of his army refused to marchl alleging as a reason, that the constitution of tbj kingdom would not permit them to be accessaij to an offensive war, which the Swedish nation haJ not sanctioned. The example of these officens ocJ casioned die defection of a great part of tlie troopsj The expedition to Finland misgave, and the KusJ sians thus gained time to put themselves in a stat([ of defence. The empress, thus attacked by tiie King ol Sweden, claimed the supplies whieii Denraarlf owed her, in virtue of the alliance whicli subsistw betweei. the two states. The Danes Htted out i squadron, and marched a body of auxiliary trood into the government of Bohus, which they sooJ conquered (1788). From Bohus tlicy marciief to West Gothland, and laid siege to Gottcuburjl The King of Sweden hastened in person to tbf defence of that place, one of the most imporlanl in his kingdom. It would certainly have fallenf however, but for the powerful intervention of thI cabinets of London and Berlin, wiio obliged IhJ court of Copenhagen to conclude different trucef with Sweden (1789), and to adopt a perfect neul trality, even with the consent of the court of Slj Petersburg. The war between the Swedes and the Russiatj was then confined to naval operations, the sucoei of which, in the campaigns of 1789 and 1790, wil nearly equal on both sides. The defeat which lli| Swedish fleet sustained in the Gulf of Vibui (July 3, 1790), was compensated by the victoij which the King of Sweden gained in person (Jul! 9, 10), at Swenkasund over the Russian fleet, com manded by the Prince of Nassau-Seigen. Thil action, which cost the Russians many men, and j great number of their ships, tended to accelerall the peace between the two powers. The Kin? m Sweden being deserted by the courts of Londol and Berlin, who had drawn him into the wai was terrified lest the Russians should take adna |(Jiily2l,l789). ;i Bussiiui viclone*. Siiwarow tako* lamiiil. IVnco of SzUtowii. PERIOD VIII. A.D. 1713— 17S9. (.'utherino II. aiugly i.'uii- tinuoH tliu war. IVai-o of Juasy. 1G7 I foftlip discontents that prevailed among tiie Isivediuli nobles, to penetrate into the interior of lliis kingdom. He willingly accepted the equitable Ifoniiitioiis which the Empress of llussia ])ropo8ed Ito hira- I'cacc was concluded in the plain of Ifffrci.i. near the river Kymen (August 14, 1790), lutffcen tiie advanced posts of the two camps ; |«nilthe limits of both states were re-established on Ithe footing; of former treaties. I As to the events of the war between Russia and lllio Porte, they were entirely in favour of the former iBoivpr. A body of Russian troops, in conjunction livilli the Austrian army, made themselves masters lofChoaim (September 1788). Prince Potemkin luuiierlook the siege of the important fortress of lorzacolf (December 17), ami carried the place by lissault, in spite of the courageous defence made Ibythe Turks. The whole garrison were put to llhi' sword, and a great part of the inhabitants met Iwilh the same fate. Suwarow and the Prince of Icolmru beat the Turks near Focksauiin Moldavia Jljiilj 21, 1789). The same geniu-al, with the as- Idilnnce of that prince, gained a brilliant victory lover the Turks near Martinusti, on the banks of ItheRjmna (September 2'i), which gained him the iriiillict of Rymniski. The taking of the fortress of iBemler, was an immediate cons(?quence of that Irictory. Besides the province of Oczakoff, the Iwhole of Moldavia and Bessarabia, with Tulcza, llsakzi, Kilia, and Ismael, and tlie fortress of Sud- lioukkale, in Turkish Cuban, fell successively into fth". hands of the Russians. The taking of Ismail Ibv Suwarow, occasioned prodigious slaughter. It Icost the lives of 30,000 Ottomans ; without reckon- liD; the prisoners, who amounted to the number of 110.000. These victories stirred up the jealousy of the iBritish ministry, who fitted out an expedition to Imakc a new diversion in favour of the Porte, and leiifafted their ally, the King of Prussia, to despatcii li body of troops to the frontiers of Silesia and ■Poland. Not confining himself to these operations, Ithat prince concluded a formal alliance with the IPorte, in which he agreed to declare war against ■the Austrians, as well as tlie Russians in the course lof next spring. The Emperor Leopold II., yieid- liiii; to these menaces, and being desirous of re- litoring peace to his subjects, concluded an agree- Inieut at Reichenbach (July 27, 1790), with the Iwurt of Berlin, by which he granted an armistice, lind consented to make a special peace with the iPorfe— matters continuing as they were before the Iwar, This peace was signed at Szistowa, in Bul- Iparia (August 4, 1791), under the mediation of lllulland and Prussia. The emperor restored Bel- |j[rade, and in general, all that he had taken from Ilho Turks during the war. He agreed to retain IChoczim no longer than the conclusion of the peace between the Russians and the Turks ; only they promised him a more advantageous frontier on the left bank of the Unua; and on the side of Wal- laehia, the river Tzerna was auopted as the boundary between the two Empires, The Empress of Russia having resolved not to receive the proposals which the two allied courts offered her, then continued the war alone against the Porte, and her generals signalized themselves by new exploits. At length, the British ministry being convinced that this princess would never yield, thought fit to abandon the terms which, in concert with the court of Berlin, they had de- manded, as the basis of the pence to be concluded between Russia and the Porte. Besides, they were desirous of making up matters with llussia, at the lime when she detached herself from France, by renouncing the engagements which she had contracted with that power by the treatv of com- merce of 1787, with the court of Berlin. The British ministry agreed never to assist the Turks, should they persist in refusing the ecjuitable con- ditions of peace which the empress had offered them. A negociation wus opened at (ialatz on the Danube. Tlie pieliininuries between Russia and the I'orte were sigi.iMl there ; and the definitive peace concluded at Jassy in Moldavia (January 9, 1792). This treaty renewed the stipulations of all former treaties since that of Kainargi. The Dneister was established as a perpetual frontier between the two Empires. The Turks ceded to Russia the fortress of Oczakoff, with all the country lying between the Bog and the Dneister. The cession of the Crimea, the isle of Tanian, and part of the Cuban, lying on the right bank of the river of that name, was confirmed to Russia. The Porte likewise engaged to put a stop to the piracies of the Barbary Coi'sairs, and even to indemnify the subjects of Russia for their losses, should they not obtain reparation within a limited time. Russia likewise restored all her other conquests ; only stipulating, for certain advantages, in favour of Moldavia and Wallachia. It had been agreed between the ]>lenipotcntiaries of the two Empires, that the Porte should pay a sum of 12,000,000 of piastres, to ind, 171)'), liiun the convention ceased to govern France. The Uei)id)licau Government ; from October jo, i;ii,'), till May in, 1S04, when Buonaparte tis (li'fliired emperor. 4. The licign of Jsapo- Kju Bticiiiuparte ; from May IH, 1804, till March 1S14, when the allies entered Paris. 5. lie Ri'storation of the Bourbon dynasty, after an Jlc uf more than twenty years. Thi'sc divisions point out the most remarkable liani,'fs that occiuTed iu France durinj; this pe- lod. Nevertheless, as we must notice the events Ihicli took i)lace in the rest of Europe, a more lonTonieiit division will be as follows. 1. From L cominenccnient of the French Revolution Bllhc Peace of Amiens, Slareh 27, 1H02. 2. Irora tiie Peace of Amiens till the year 1810, Iheii the power of France was at its greatest telit. :). From the end of the year IHIO, till if Treaty of P.'ris, in November, 1815, which in- luili's the decline and fall of the French Empire liJer Buonaparte, and the restoration of a new joiiliiiil system in Europe. After givini; a sketch lllie various events which happened in France, ■c shall shortly advert to the revolutions which le (liilereiit states of Europe underwent during It same time. The atiairs of other parts of the lorlJ can only be taken notice of, as they may pppen to be connected or interwoven with those fliiirope. J We now return to the first of those periods, eom- lenciiiu with the origin of the French Revolution Way 1780), and ending with the Peace of Iniipiis. I The primary and elementary causes of the Re- llutioii ill France must be traced back to the dis- lilfred state of her finances, which began under louis XIV. ; to the general immorality which ttvailed under the Regent Orleans ; to the nial- Imiiiistration of the government in the reign of louis XV. ; and, finally, to the new doctrines, plh religious and political, which had become Wiioniible after the middle of the eighteenth Inlur)-. Among the more immediate causes Ihifh (,'ave rise to this national convulsion, must ]( reckoned the mistake which Louis XVI. com- [itted in supporting the American insurgents [ainst their lawful sovereign ; and sending troops jtheir aid, accompanied by many of the young kblcsse, who, by mixing with that peoph?, im- Ibcd their principles of liberty and in(lependence. I this rash step France gained u triumph over Ir rival, but she ruined herself; and her impru- Mccwill ever remain a warning to nations against incautiously rushing into unnecessary wars; and against that destructive system of jiolicy which in- vidves the fate of kingdoms iu concerns uncon- nected with their own internal safety and pros- perity. At the same time it is not to he denied that there were many abuses in the existing government of Franct! that retiuired to be corrected. The royal prerogative at that time may be called arbitrary rather than despotic, for the monarch had, in reality, greater power than he exercised. The jiersons and properties of the subject were at the di6|iosal of the crown, by means of hnposts, con- fiscations, letters of exile, &c. ; and this dangerous authority was resisted only by the feeblest barriers, (."ertain bodies, it is true, possessed means of de- fence, but these privileges were seldom respected. The noblesse were exempted from contributions to the state, and totally separated from the com- mons, by the prohibition of intermarriages. The clergy were also exempted from taxation, for which they substituted voluntary grants. Resides these op])ressive imposts, the internal administration was badly organized. The nation, divided into three orders, which were again subdivided into several classes, was abandoned to all the evils of despotism, and all the miseries of partial representation. The noblesse were divided into courtiers, who lived' on the favour of the prince, and who had no common sympathies with the people. They held stations in the army for which they were not qualiHed, and made a trade of all appointments and offices of trust. The clergy were divided into two classes, one of which was destined for the bishoprics and abbacies with their rich revenues, while the other was destined to poverty and labour. The com- mons scarcely possessed a third part of the soil, for which they were coinjielled to jiay feudal senices to the territorial barons, tithes to the priests, and taxes to the king. In compensation for so many sacrifices they enjoyed no rights, had no share iu the administration, and were admitted to no public employments. Such was the com'ition of France when Louis XVI. ascended tl ■ ;bi-one. This order of things could not continue i,>,- ,'ver; but with proper cau- tion and skilful mana ,ement, many salutary im- provements might have been introduced, without plunging the nation into rebellion and anarchy. Louis XVI. had just views and amiable disposi- tions ; but he was without decision of character, and had no perseverance in his measures. His projects for regenerating the state encountered obstacles which he had not foreseen, and which he found it impossible to overcome. He was conti- nually vacillating in the choice of his ministers ; and his reign, up to the assembling of the States- General, was a complication of attempted reforms, which produced no beneficial result. Maurepas, Turgot, and Malesherbes, had been successively intrusted with the management of affairs ; but they found it impossible to give satisfaction to any party. Their efforts for retrenchment displeased the courtiers, while the people were discontented at the continuation of existing abuses.* The ex- hausted state in which the American war had left the finances of the kingdom, and the unskilfulness of the ministers; one of whom, the celebrated • Mignc't.— Neckcr on tlie French Kevolution, Bertrnnd's Annalu. %t M f ■■• • 1 .:.. .. 1 „. ^ : I r ;>j » ::. .tx ; •-■, -:* ' r-"-^ , ft: 13 1 "— ^MMl 1^: 3 1 f-^ t-", I fca^i *S:ss : M.«css; ^ : ,..«««ivt ■1 'J*- . 1 ■ ■'■' ' . ' ^ i;'] ■ , , i' ■ .'■ ( :.' iV \'6 170 ('iiluniio IImiuicmi miniHtKr. Neukiu''!! iiiliiiiiiiiitrutluii. 'I'hi! 'riiTit- Ktnt. KOCH'S IlEVOLUTIONS. TliB Niitliiiml AsKoiiiI'ly, Tliu lliiHtiln (l('i.troji.(|. Till' Orlciini* liictiun. Ni'ckor, <'()ul(l roiitrive no otlu^r ihcIIkxI of rcpiiir- ing those Ionuch, timii by iiiciiiin of fort'cd Iouiik, ^vliicli iiii^'Mii'iitcil the iiatioiiiil debt, iind luldi'd to fill! othor LMiil)urras8incnt» of tlii' j{oveniiiii'nt. TIh! pluu of M. do C!idoiiiip, iiiiotlior of tho iniiiistorH, wiiH to iiHHombli! tlio Nofah/rn, or rospoctiiblo and distiiiKiiiNliod porMoiis of the kiiif^doni (Fobruary '22, 17H"), with tho view of ohtiiiniun tlir(>ii;,'h thoir moans thoso now ini])osts wiiioh ho could not ox])oct to bo simolionod liy tlio ]mrIiiimont of Paris. Hut thin assoinbly sooinod littlo dis])osod to soi'ond luH dosiijns. Thi^y disoovorod, with astunisimioiit, that within a fow yuars loans had boon raised to tho amount of l,ti4(i,00(),000 of francs; and that there was an annual deticit in tho rovonuo of 140,000,000.* This discovory was tho signal for the retirement of Calonnc. Mis successor. Cardinal do Brionno, archbishop of Toulouse, tried in vain to ovorcoine the rosisf- ancc of tho |>arliamont, who declared, by a solonin protestation (May 3, 17KH), that the riijht of h'rantinjj; supplies belonfjod to tlie States-General alone. Louis XVI., yioldiufj to this expression of the pidilic opinion, jiromised to assemble the de- puties of till! nation. A second mootiu)^ of the Notables, holil at Versailles (November (!), deli- berated as to the form and constitution of tho States-General. M. Nockor, who was recalled to the ministry, counselled tho kinj; to prefer the ad- vice of the minority, who had espoused the ]iopular side ; and proposed to ijrant to the Tiers-Etat, or Third Order, a double number of representatives in the States-General ; an advice which was im- prudently followed. The States-General were summoned to meet at Versailles on the 27th of April, 17H0. The num- ber of deputies was 1200 ; (iOO of whom were of the tiers-etat, .'JOO of the noblesse, and IJOO of the cler;,'y. The king opened the assembly in per- son (May .5, 17Si)). It was accompanied Avith great solenmity and majfnifioonco. The clorijiy, i'l cassocks, larffo cloaks, and square bonnets, or in a purple robe and lawn sleeves, occupied tho first ]ilace ; next came the noblesse, liabited in black, havinj? the vest and facing of silver cloth, the cravat of lace, and the hat turned up with a white ]>lume. The tiers-etat followed last, clothed in black, a sliort cloak, muslin cravat, and the hat without plumes or loops. These individuals comprehended the choice of the nation ; but the greater part of them were entirely inexperienced in state affairs, and not a few of them were imbued with the principles of the new pi 'losophy. The majority proposed to regenerate t'. ^ government according to their own speculative notions ; while others secretly entertained the hope of overturning it, to gratify their own antipathies; or to satiate their avarice and ambition. A difference immediately arose on the question, whether they should sit according to their orders. Conciliatory measures having been tried in vain, the deputies of the tiers-etat resolved to declare themselves a National Assembly. The king having ordered them to suspend their sittings, they assembled in the Tennis Court (June 20), where, in opposition to the royal authority, they took an oath never to separate until they had achieved the regeneration of France. The ma- • Neckcr ou tho Frencli Revolution, vol. i. jority of tho clergy and some of tho nol)lc»,j,,_^ Ihis tumultuous asNombly. liouis XVI., liyu /jj," J K>i:ssioit (,luno 2:J), condemned the ci'mdun' J this meeting ; abrogated its docisiuns ; uml ,, lished a dociaratiou containing the basis u( ;, |,,, constitution. Hut tho authority of the kiiw u now ceased to ho roHpoctod. The Natiomd Asmiiiij. refused to accept from him as a boon, wlim |LJ wore in-cpiiring to seize by force. Alariui'd mty opposition, Louis commanded the nobles uinl ||J clergy to join tho (wpular party, or tii.Ts-itut, ;n measure for conciliating tin; public niiad. The piinie agent in this revoliitiou wiis MirJ beau, a man of an ambitious and turbulcni M\i]a who intlamod tho assembly by his vi(]k.in i,* rangres. A demagogue from interest, and ufi;,,,,, abilities, though inniiiu'al in his charactoi-, hi; ,i_ resolved to build his fortune on tho ])ublii' IniiiliW and to prevent, by all means in his power, thi first symptoms of a return to suboriliiiatioii nm tiaiKiuillif y. Tho Duke of Orleans supplied nionpi to corrupt the tro()j)s, and excite insurrections ov all parts of France. In the mean time, tho king assembled im ami at Versailles, under the command uf Marsti; Hroglio ; and banished Nockor (July 11), win whom lie had just reason to hi; (lis|iliasci This was the signal for a popular comniuiitj] Paris was in a state of the greatest fenneiitatki Till! press inflamed the public mind. Tin' iicmilj discussed in the oj)en air those questions w were agitated in the Assembly. A table servi the purpose of a rostrum ; and every citizen li came an orator, who harangued on the dantfors his country, and the necessity of resistance, Tl mob forced the llastille (July 14), seized onil (lep6ts of arms, mounted the tri-colourud cockadi and became the apostles of the revoliiiioi Bailly, the academician, was appointed niiijiirj tlie citizens formed themselves into a AV(/;i Guard, under the command of the Marquis Fayette. The king, placed in so critical a siiui tion, and surrounded with danger, coiiseuti' withdraw tho troops collected in the capital a the neighbourhood. He recalled M. Nficki'i(Ji 17), and repaired to Paris to intimate his itoi intentions to the Assembly ; declaring, tlwl identified himself with the nation, and rclitil the affection and allegiance of his subjects. The National Assembly had usurped the whol legislative power, and undertaken to draw up new constitution. Their charter, which conimenci with a Declaration of the Rights of Man, coi tained principles erroneous in themselves, ai subversive of all order. Such was the ardour their revolutionary enthusiasm, that they abolishi without discussion, and at one nocturnal sittii the feudal regime, the rights and ])rivilege8 of pr( vinces and corporations, the tithes and the greati part of the seignorial prerogatives. It was di creed (August 4), that the legislative pc should be exercised by a single chamber ; and iti the king could not refuse his sanction to thi decrees longer than four years. As the revolution did not proceed with arapidil equal to the wishes of the Orleans faction, tb( took care to stir up new insurrections. The mi of Paris attacked Versailles (October 6), investf the chateau, committed the most horrible cxcessi and conducted the king and his family prisoners UmU XVI. iittuiiiliU to quit Kninci-'. MiirijiiiK "l" 'n Fnyrtk'. r^.HIOI) IX. A.D. 17Hli— IHIS. Tint LcKiiilntivc A»if '''" cl«W) ^y I'lieinn their heiiefieeH "j ,l„, (lisposiil of the niition. They ordered the ivinioii "f l''riiiiee into eighty-tlin-e depiirtmeiitN; ,( sale of the erown-lunds, and eeeletiiiiMtieiil pro- riv; the iHituinK of ])n|)er money, under the niinie ,f(^siiiiints ; the iidniiNHionof JeWH to the rigiits of imciis ; the prohihition of inoniiHtic vowh ; the iijIiKif the Niitioniil AsHemhly to dielure wnr, in .ijiisei|ui;u('e of a proposition from the kin>{ ; u ular constitution, whielj rendered the clergy in- ienemli'iit of the head of the church, and jjave the fopic a right to nominate their bJHhopH ; tlie aho- ilion of the nohlesse ; and the establiHhinent of a ibunal at Orleann, for judging criracH of high lason aniiinHt the nation. Occupied with thcBO decrees (1790-01), the :ational Assembly left the king no authority to the crimes and excesses which were mul- iillying every day within tlie kingdom ; nor did fv adopt themselves any measures for putting a up to them. The king, indeed, according to the ilaii ot'tlu'ir constitution, was to b(> the depositary 1(1 supreme head of the executive power ; hut he been stript of the means necessary to the iffrttive exercise of any authority whatever. He neither places to grant, nor favours to bestow. e was left without any control over the inferior la nf the administration, since the men who lied these posts were elected by the pc(ij)le. He IS not even allowed the pomp of a throne, or the londour of a crown. The Assembly seemed to link it a part of their glory to divest their monarch ifhis most valuable prerogatives ; to destroy every lie of gratitude and attachment, that could inspire IHilidi'nce, or create respect. Though they chose liiiig, they treated him in the first instance as tnetny, and proceeded to erase, one by one, e characteristic traces of his dignity. They lolLshiy imagined that a monarchy could subsist then its authority was reduced to a phantom ; that e throne could stand secure amidst the ruin of inks; exposed to all the waves of faction, and hen every sentiment of respect and affection was lestrojed. Such was the idea of royalty enter- iifd by the French legislators. By abolishing le gradations of society, they sapped the very lundations of that frail and 'iii «;.^inary majesty hich they had modelled and fashioned according their own ideas. Thousands of noble families, iding their lives insecure, resolved to abandon le country. The king himself made an attempt escape from the captivity in which he was held. ledid escape in disguise, but was recognised, and •ested at Varennes by the National Guard (June i), reconducted to Paris, and suspended from functions. Monsieur, *.'. e king's brother, was lore fortunate. He arrived at Brussels. The lunt D'Artois, the younger brother, had quitted 'ranee the year before. The Orleans party undertook to compel the Na- ional Assembly to pronounce the deposition of the lag. A large assemblage, which had met in the !hamp9-de-Mars (July 17, 1791), was dispersed lyan armed force, by order of-Bailly, and com- landed by La Fayette. The moderate party in le National Assembly had gained the ascendancy. he constitutional articles were revised in some 'hits, and digested into a systematic form. The king accepted this new code (September lU) ; and there was every reason to believe that he was resolved to carry it into execution, if the defi'cfH inherent in this ])rodu('tion of these legislative enthusiasts had penaitteil him. T'he Constituent Assembly, after having declared Avignon and Ve- nainnin annexed to France, Hcpuratcd (September 30), to make way for a Leginl.itive Assembly. The royal brothers and most of the ciiiigrants, having fixed their residence at Coblcnt/,, published addresses to all the courts iif Kurope, to solicit tlieir assistance in restoring the king, and clu'cking the revolutionary torrent which threatened to inundate Germany. The princes of the Kmpire, who had possessions in Alsace, found themselves aggrieved by the decrees of the Constituent Assembly, in respect to those rights which had been guaranteed to them on the faith of existing treaties. They accordingly claimed the intervention of the em- peror and the Empire. The electors of Mayence and Treves had permitted the French noblesse to organize bodies of armed troops within their i-states. After the arrest of the king at Varennes, the Km- peror Leopold had addressed a circular to all his brother sovereigns, dated from I'adua (July (i), in which he invited them to form an alliance for restoring the king's legitimate authority in France. Accordingly, an alliance was concluded at Vienna a few days af\er between Austria and Prussia, the object of which was to compel France to maintain her treaties with the neighbouring states. The two monarchs, who met at I'ilnitz (August 27), de- clared that they would employ the most efficacious means for leaving the King of France at perfect liberty to lay the foundation of monarchical govern- ment. But after Louis had accepted the constitu- tion of the Assembly, tlie emperor formerly an- noimced (November 12), that the co-operation of the contracting powers was in consequence suspended. In a moment of unreflecting liberality, the Constituent Assembly had formally declared, that none of its members could be elected for the first Legislative Assembly. This new Assembly, which met October 1, 1791, was composed of men altogether deficient in experience, and hurried on by the headlong fanaticism of revolution. It was divided into two parties. On the right hand were those who hoped to preserve monarchy, by main- taining the constitution with certain improvements and modifications ; and on the left, those who proposed that they should proceed in their revolu- tionary career. This latter party, in which the deputies of the Girondists had the ascendancy, had conceived two methods for overturning the con- stitution, viz. 1, to bring the king into disrepute, by obliging him to make use of his suspensive veto against those decrees which appeared most popular ; and 2, to involve the nation in war, that they might find employment for the army, who seemed pleased with the new order of things. The party on the right, who formed the majority, had not the courage to oppose the execution of this plan. The Assembly issued decrees against the king's brothers, highly unjust, inhuman, and re- volting; as well as against the emigrants and the priests, who had taken no share in these levelling projects. They deprived the king of his body- guard, and heaped upon him every species of annoyance and humiliation. r- :. di t] 1 1 :•< t . .n : I-: ra ; kS : ■ ■ ».— < r r ( Till' .l.ii'iiliiii iKirty, 172 Hiiliiiiil anil liiiMiiiiirli'/. IimiirriTtiiiiiii lit' till' Hi'riliinii. KOCH'S UEVOLUTIONS. Altiirk on Ihi' TiilliTi,',. Uiijiil Fitmllv lmiiri«,ni!il. ('iini|iiii|{ii III' I7U1. Tliin AHMcmlilv, however, wnn by 110 iiiciiiiN in the eiijojiiieiit iiiiiiie »( Jiivohiiix, Hii called from their nice(ini( in II convent in I'liriH, formerly helnnKinK to tl1.1t reli- ^'ioiis order. These NocielioH, wlio hiid oveiNpreiid idl I'Viinee, were iifHlinted witli eiieli otiier, iind ■ill under tlic eoiitrol and direction of the ]iiirent tiociely ill the metropolis. It was there that lliey prepared thoxe liiWH vvliieli they eompelied the National AHsenihly to paMn, and coneoeled their plolK againist the royal autiiority. Thiy had nii iiiiinenNe number ot einiNxarieN ainoni{ tiie ])riiiti- Halcs of every country, wlio propapiled their doe- trincH, and prejiarcd the way for the triumph of tlieir abominable connpiraeiei*. In order to provoke a declaration of war, and thereby get rid of the army, the deputicH on the left never ceaHcd to iiiveli,'h from the public tribu- nals against the conduct of foreign jiowers ; and to re]ireneiit the king as secretly leagued with them in their designs. His most faithful servantH had been the object of their calumnies. The ministry resigned their office, and the king reconstructed a cabinet composed of Jacobins (March 17, 171)t!), the nuist conspicuous of whom were Uuniourieis, who became minister for the foreign dcptirtnient, C'lavieres and Uuranthon, who were intrusted with the finance, and Roland, who was promoted to the administration of the interior.* The pcrHdy of these ambitious statesmen ruined the king. The Emperor Leopold, with whom they were on terms of negociatiun, demanded redress for the grievances of those ])rinces who had possessions in Alsace. Instead of giving him satisfaction, the new Trench Cabinet induced the king to propose to the Assembly (April 20), that they could answer his demands in no other way than by a declaration of war. This proposition passed with little deliberation, and was hailed with enthusiasm. Seven members only had the courage to oppose it.f The Assembly continued to issue their revolutionary decrees, which were both rei)ugnant to the con- science of the king, and dangerous to the security of the throne. Louis, who had been recently offended by the dismissal of his guards, declared he could no longer submit to the insolence of these new ministers, three of whom he discarded with indignation. Their accomplices, the Jacobins, and P6tion the mayor of Paris, then organized an insurrection of the armed popidace of the Fauxhotirga or suburbs. The mob then repaired to the Tuileries (June 20), to force the king to sanction the decrees of the Assembly, and recall the patriot ministers. The king saved his own life and that of his queen, by repelling those factious demagogues with firmness and courage. He constantly refused to grant what they demanded of him by violence ; while the National Assembly displayed the most shameful pusillanimity. They even carried their cowardice so far, as to replace ration and Manuel in their functions, whom the king had suspended for having failed to perform their duty. Potion, and that troop of miserable wnitches who ruled at their pleasure the Sections of Paris, where no good citizen dared to appear, then de- • MigiiL't. Necker. " t Among these wai M. Koch, author of tlie former part of this nurk. manded the dethronement of the king- ai„| ,, order to compel the AiiNembly to ])roiiiiiiii('i' „.„ ti'iH.'c against him the conspiratorN piiliUily „jp^^^ i/.i'il a new insurrection. The poituliu'c'rii,,. „ arms and attacked the castle of the Tiiili'tj,. (August 10). The king refused the UKKiHtanif,,] those faithful citixens who hiul tlockuit niuiiij \a person. Misled by unwise or jierfidiuuH rouii»e|< lie re|)air"d with his family to Paris; and eniinnJ the Natii. ' Assembly, addrcHsed them inihfi, worils : " C 't'emen, 1 am come here to aviiiiliJ coinmission of n great crime. 1 shall iilwuiMon] sider myself and my family in safety wlii'n ] jJ among the representativcH of the nation." |y po])ulace having assailed the castle, the faiilifj Swiss (iuards defended it with connive, in| jicrished in the performance of their duty. Even individual found in the Tuileries was inaiiiiatril by the rabble. The lepresentatives of tht> iwtidiJ who were, during this time, in a state of tliegriatiJ alarm, decreed, in presence of the HoviTciJ and on the proposal of Vergniaud, tluit the kinJ should be suspended, and the National Convi'iitiol assembled. Some days after, Louis, with his quppn, thi I)au])hin, Madame Uoyale, and Madame Klizobeilil the king's si8tor,wcrc imprisoned in the Tompli'iunl der a guard of the muiiicipulity of Paris, ci)m|i(uer of partisans of the revolution. This niniiinpalltij and the ministerH appointed by the Asfii'inblJ exercised a most tyrannical authority. The pn| sons were crowded with priests and nobles. DaJ ton, the minister of justice, and a moxt violFoj^ reyolutionist, entered into arraiigemcnis with iht commune for the massacre of these iniincnj men. The cruel work of butchery continued I three days without remorse (Sepfcmbcr 2 mid IJ)| and without the Legislative Assembly daring interpose. A few days after, the prisoiiers, ivhi liad been sent to the tribunal at Orleiins, ivJ conducted to Versailles, and put to death by IM hands of relentless murderers. At length tu Lcgishtivc Assembly, whose whole conduct hii been a tissue of crimes and cowardice, were &\ persed (September 21), to make way for horrible National Convention. The war had commenced in the montli of Aptl 1791. Luckner, Rochambaud, and La Fayett^ commanded the French armies, but tlieir opera tions were without success. The Austriaiis haj merely acted on the defensive. In virtue of 1 alliance concluded at Berlin (February 7), betweej the emperor and the King of Prussia, an army « .')0,000 Prussians, to which were added 0,000 Hei sians and a body of emigrants, all under the conj mand of the Duke of Brunswick, and an Auslriij army, commanded by Clairfait, entered France b way of Ardennes. Longwy and Verdun openel their gates to the Prussians (August 13) ; hutthfl progress was arrested by the manaiuvrcs of Da mouriez, who had succeeded La Fayette in tlf command of the army ; as well as by sickness an] the want of provisions. After cannonading Valaf (Sejitember 20), which was commanded by (>^ neral Kellerman, the combined army retired I wards the Rhine, and into the duchy of Luxeii| burg. The Girondists, reinforced by all the M contemptible enthusiasts in France, formed ta National Assembly (September 21, 1792). Ilj limatc Bovercigns ; n 'I'lii' Miiiintuiu flii'tliiii. Trittl uf I-u"'* ''Vl. Till' Kri'iic'li Itcimblli!, PEUIOI) IX. A. I). 1780—1813. I'.\i'riitiiill uf trf)illii \VI, TIk' ('iiii>uiitltiii. U(ilN>ii|iii'm>. 17:» |,ervilay of their meeting, they voted the nbolitioii lof royalty i>ii the ])rupu8itiuu of the eoiiu'diiiii Icollot D'HerhoU, and proelaiinrd the Uvpubliv, luke the iW8Cinblie» which had preceded It, thin Itu (liviiled into two pnrtieH ; the one conipuHed of Itlietiirondiritfi and tiieir friendit, who winhed for III,. feHtoration of order, that they mii^lit enjoy the lfniit!i <>' th*''i° (-'rimcH ; the other culled the Alouii- itmi, hi"' "" interest in continuing tliu revolution. Viililiiftl (liiniinion was the object of contest which Ifrom the heninninK engnged theue two piirtien ; but Tthfv nHsuinod the pretext of honcfit dcHlgn, to eon- \tn\ their innin purpone from the eyeo of the vulgar. The ih'puties of the MountainiKtH, oh they could Lt charge their advcrRarlcR with the reproach of Lalium, exhibited them to the jx'ople ax Fvdc- Mistn, a reproach which woh afterwiirdM liitul to Jthc party ; and in order to have a rallying word, iTallifii decreed (September 3), that the republic v,.< one and indivisible. Ill vletail nil the lawn and octs which the Con- kciitioii publiKhcd during the three years which it Lipri'KHed France, wouhl be to unfold a diHgu^ting 3il»lo),'iie of crimes and extnivagiincies ; we must jbecoiileiit with merely adverting to such of its tperations ns were distinguished by their enormity, kr produced any durable effect. One of its first Uwrees waH, to banish all emigrunts for ever ; and llo onl(etiti()n. Of six hundred and ninety voters, three hundred and eighty decided that his exeeutiun should take place within twenty-fom- hours. Loui 1 heard his sentence of deafii with eom- ])osure and dhristian resignation. He had already made his will, a monument at once of his piety and the purity of his heart. He died the death of u martyr (January 21, 1703). At the moment when ihe exe(^utioner's nxe was ready to strike, the Abb6 Edgeworth, his confessor, addressed him in these sublime words; — "Son of St. l.ouis, ascend to heaven !" The whole inhabitants of Paris, who viewed this foul ileed with horror, were uiuler arms. A mournful silence reigned in the city.* All governments agreed in condemning the con- duct of the regicides ; but the voice of general de- testation did not check the career of the sanguinary faction. The crime with whii^h the convention had stained themselves presag' 'i the ruin of the Girondists, though they retarded their downfnl by a struggle of four months. An insurrection of the sections of Paris (June 2), organized by Hehert, procureor of the commune, and by the deputies Marat, Danton, and Robespierre, decided the vic- tory. The Girondists were j)roscrii)ed for the crime of federalism. The victorious party honoured themselves with the title of StinH-culoUea, and commenced what has been called the Reign of Terror. The Convention was now nothing more than an assembly of executioners, and a den of brigands. To hoodwink and deceive the people, tl(»'y submitted for their a])probation the i)lun of a constitutiun, drawn up by Hirault de Sechellos (June 'iA) ; according to which the primary assem- blies were to exercise the sovereignty, and deli- berate on all legislati\e measures. After the 2nd of June, the whole po\M'r was in the hands of the Committee of Public Safety, which was formed in the Convention. Danton, the chief of the Corde- liers, a popular assembly more extravagant than the Jacobins themselves, was the most inituential person there ; but he was soon supplanted by Robespierre. The constitution of the 24th of June had been adopted in the j)rimary assemblies ; but Robespierre decreed that it should be suspended (August 28) ; and that the republic was in a state of revolution, until its independence was acknow- ledged. Under that title they organized a government, the most tyrannical anil the most sanguinary which history ever recorded. Robespierre was at the head of it. All Prance swarmed with revolu- tionary committees. Revolutionary armies were dispersed everywhere, dragging tiie wealthy and well-affected to punishment. A law with regard to suspected persons changed all the putilic nditiccs into prisons, and filled all the prisons with victims devoted to destruction. To remedy the fall of the assignats, the Convention fixed an assessment, called the maximum, on all articles of consump- * Clery's Journal. T^ -I J; :3 : , fj 3 ; 1',....— 1 ;. 1 Miiric Antoinctto lii'liuuded. 174 (>ro);i>ri '1 1 ~1 :'3 :-r;ai 176 StailtliiililiT es. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Paridiim tactions. Nt>w tVeneh Coiutitiuioii. Tliu Directory. T)ie French Direc ii the office of stndtholdci- being again abolished, as the Prince of Orange, after being deprived of all his functions, had Hed to England. France con- cluded a treaty with this republic at the Hague (May 10), where the independence of the latter was formally acknowledged. She entered also into an alliance against England, paid 100,000,000 of Horins, and ceded a part of her territory. It was at this time (June 8, 1795) that the royal infant Louis Xyil., only son of Louis XVI., died in the Temple, in consequence of the bad treatment which he had endured incessantly for nearly three years. His uncle, who had assumed the title of regent about the beginning of 1703, succeeded him in his right to the throne. That prince, who then resided at Verona, took the title of Louis XVIII. After the battles of Mans and Savenay, and the taking of Noirmoutier, the Vendeans had found themselves greatly exhausted. Hut at the time of which we now speak, they formed themselves into bands of insurgents in Urittany and Normandy, under the name of Chouans. Mter the death of Larochejacquelin, Charette and Sapineau con- cluded a peace with the Convention at Jausnaie (February 17, 1705). Cormartin, the leader of the Chouans, did the same at Alabilais ; but, within a few weeks after, the Convention caused him to be arrested and shot, with seven other chiefs. This was the signal for a new insurrection. The English government at length resolved to send assistance to the royalists. A body of emigrants and French prisoners of war were landed in the Bay of Qui- beron (June 18). But the whole of the expedition was badly managed, and had a most disastrous re- sult. General Hoche attacked the troops on their debarkation. The greater part might have saved themselves on board the vessels, but the Marquis de Sombreuil, and 500 young men of the best families were taken and shot by order of Tallion (June 21) in spite of the opposition of General Hoche, who declared that he had promised to spare their lives. In the National Convention, two parties were contending for the superiority ; the Thcrmiilorians or Moderates, and the Terrorists. The inhabi- tants of Paris, reduced to despair by the dearth which the maximum had caused, and instigated by the Jacobins, had several times revolted, espe- cially on the days of the 12th Germinal (April 1), and the 1st Prairial (May 20). The moderate party, strengthened by the accession of many of the deputies proscribed since the 2d June, 1793, gained the victory ; and purged the Convention, by banishing or putting to death the most execrable of the terrorists. They even conciliated, in some respects, the opinion of the public, by drawing up a new constitution (June 23), which might appear wise and judicious compared with the maxims which had been disseminated for several years. Its fundamental elements were a legislative body, composed of two elective chambers ; one of which was to have the originating of the laws, and the other, composed of men of judgment and expe- rience, was to be invested with a veto. The ex- ecutive power was to be lodged in the hands of a council of five j)ersons, clothed with an authority greater than that which the constitution of 1791 had given to the king. The Convention passed several other laws, which indicated a desire to return to the principles of morality. Tlicy also resolved to exchange Sladamo Royale, tlic onll remains of the family of Louis XVI., for th,. puties delivered up by Dumouriez. But tlipv 1 J again the aiiections of the people, by their lam i^_v, the 5th and 13th Fructidor of the year thiefliiietl (August 22 and 30, 1795). Premouialicd liy uSiort fault which the Constituent Assembly had (,„ mitted, in prohibiting its members from entc-ii imto the legislative body, and wishing, at the sin time, to escape punishment for the miiny wimi they had committed, they ordained that two-tl of the members then composing the Conventioi should, of necessity, become a part of tlic \m legislation ; and that, if the primary assenitjlii did not re-appoint 500 of the ex-conventional ii puties, the newly elected members should then selves complete the quota, by adding a sufficic number of their ancient colh'agues. The new constitution had been submitted fi the approbation of the people, which they donliii not it would receive, as it was to deliver I'liuu from the revolutionary faction. The (Jouvcniii took advantage of this disposition of the poupii to compel the sections likewise to accept tlicr decrees, by declaring them an integral part of tl constitution. But this attempt was the ouwi of new troubles. The sections of Paris wished vote separately on the constitution, and on if] decrees which, in that case, would liavi rejected over all France; ; the moderate paih the Convention, if we can honour them with tin name, joined with the terrorists. Perceivim ll storm to be gathering, they now sought assisiam and support from the troops, whose camp iy( pitched under the walls of Paris. They arim a body of I -'gauds, at the head of wliich it| Buonapar' •, who gained a sanguinary vietorj ovi the Pari ans, on the 13th Vendemiaire, iiitlievi three (October 5, 1795). The desire to restoretl Bourbons had been the secret motive with tl chiefs of the insurrection. A new legislative body assembled, which mijl be regarded as a continuation of the Convonlioi so long at least as the .500 deputies of the Comet tion were not excluded, who sat in consequence the armual renewal of one-third of its menibei The Executive Directory, appointed by the Couni of the Ancients from a list presented by the Count of Five Hundred, consisted of Larcveilliere-! j)eaux, Ilewbel, Barras, Le Tounieur, and Cami who had replaced Sieyes, — this member havii declined to make one of the Directory — the wli five being regicides. The forms of terrorism w mitigated in some respects, hut the innraUoftl administration gained nothing by the chan;;e. T reign of the Directory was an era of eorniplii and dissoluteness, and its effects were loiii; fe An unbounded avarice seized the nation, ainltl Directory encouraged and fed that shameful sion, by lending itself to the most infamous tral Men coveted the nobility of riches, rather than tl of honour and birth. Tlu! Directory had to struggle against two conveniences ; the one was the spirit of relielik which induced the terrorists to form a eouspii among themselves, — such as that of Uruet Babeuf (May 10, 1790), and that which is kiw by the name of the Conspiracy of the Camp (jronoble (September 9). The other inconveiiif was still more serious, namely, the cnibarr Ilptr nioicv. The Krencli Direfltory. PERIOD IX. A.D. 1789—181,-). War with I'riisaia. Campaii!" '" Itiilv. lliiouu[)artc's victuties. Iilate of the fliiauces. The quantity of assignats llbrowa into cirouliit ' ■ ■ inounted to 1 8,933,500,001) Ihncs. To red.'''. a sum, they decreed a loan ■of 000,000,000 in . .-..e. Tliis measure proving linetfectualt the a8t.jgun;s were replaced by another liort of papor-money, viz. rescriptions ; and finally llv mandaU's. But both of these were discredited ; Itjie former after being issued, and the latter even lefore they were put into effective circulation, on liesround that it would be found necessary to iritlulraw them altogether from circulation. The Cate thus became bankrupt for 39,000,000,000 of [jucs. It then became necessary to have recourse ■o a system of regular imposts, which the people Lil not been accustomed to pay. The Executive Directory had succeeded in put- r an end to the war in La Vendee. This suc- [esi was owing to the firmness and moderation of General Hoehc. StofHet was betrayed, and shot it Angers (February 25, 1796). Charette, who U fallen into the hands of the republicans, met tith the same fate at Nantes soon after. His teath put au end to the war (March 29). The Count d'Autichamp, and the other Vendeeau ge- tenlS) sijjned a treaty of peace with lloche. ^mge C'adoudal, the leader of the Chouans, fled J England. At tiist, from the accession of a third of the tierabers of the two legislative councils, the mode- We party gained the ascendancy. On M. Uar- jtelemi's being appointed to the Directory, tiiere Irosc a schism between Lareveillere-Lepeaux, Rew- W, ami Uarras, who were called the Triumvirs, ICarnot and Barth^lemi, who were inclined for leace, and for putting an end to the measures of •revolution. The triumvirate lost the majority II the council, where Pichegru had put himself at Jhehead of the moderate party, who hoped to re- Jtore the monarchy. Royalism, assisted by the iberty of the press which France then enjoyed, sJ made such progress as frightened the triumvirs. hey thought themselves sure of the army, so easy Dbe seduced when they are allowed to deliberate ; especially of Buonaparte. They then per- jiirmed the exploit which is known by the name Ifthe Revolution of the 18th Fructidor (Septem- V 4), Sixty-five dei)uties, and the two direc- jors, llarth£lemi and Carn6t, were condemned to lansportation ; and such of them as were appre- leuded were banished to the deserts of Sinamari 1 Guiana. The last named deputies of the two jounoils were expelled ; and the moderate laws, Kued three months before, were superseded by RTolutionary measures. The authors, editors, and Iriutcrs of royalist or moderate journals, were also ransported ; the liberty of the press was abolished, Jnd continued so in France from that time till |814, Merlin, a lawyer of Douay, was appointed 9 the place of one of the exiled directors. The kt Framjois, a native of Neuchiteau in Lorraine, ' the weakness to accept the situation of ano- Pier, Here, it will be proper to take a retrospect of lie events of the war. The Grand Duke of Tus- piiy was the first that set the example of a rccon- Slialion witii France, which was signed at Paris (February !», 1705). The King of Prussia, whose Inances were exhausted, entered into a negocia- lon with l!arth£lemi, the republican ambassador, ihieli was concluded at Basic by Baron Hanlen- borg (April 5). Prussia not only abandoned the coalition ; she even guaranteed the neutrality of the North of Germany, according to a line of de- marcation which was fixed by a special convention (May 17). The Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel like- wise made peace at Basle (August 28). The retreat of the Prussians on the one hand, and the scarcity which prevailed in France on the other, had retorded the opening of the campaign of 1795. Field-Marshal Bender having reduced Luxemburg, after a siege of eight months, and a plentiful harvest having once more restored abund- ance, the army of the Sainbre and Mouse, com- manded by Jourdan, and that of the Rhine and Moselle, under Pichegru, passed the Rhine. The former, being beat at Hochst by Clairfait (October 11), repassed that river in disorder; and May- ence, then under siege, was relieved. Pichegru, who had taken Manheim (September 22), re- treated in like manner, and General Wurmser re- took that city. An armistice was concluded on the last day of the year. In Italy the French were expelled from Pied- mont and the states of Genoa, which they had in- vaded ; but the victory which Scherer gained over De Vins at Lovano (November 23), was a pre- lude to greater advantages, which they gained in course of next year. Ill Spain, Moncey gained the battle of Ormea, and occu])ied Bilboa. But the peace which the Chevalier Yriarte signed at Basle (July (>), put an end to his conquests. The King of Spain ceded to the republic his part of the island of St. Do- mingo. Lord Bridport defeated the French fleet off L'Orient (Juno 23, 1795), which intended to oppose the debarkation of the emigrants at Quiberon. The coalition, which the retirement of Prussia and Spain had threatened to disso' ^e, gained fresh strength by several new alliances, such as that of Vienna, between Austria and Great Britain (May 20), and the Triple Alliance of St. Petersburg (September 28). The campaign of 179(i was glorious for the French arms in Italy. Najioleon Buonaparte was there, at the head of an army destitute of every- thing except courage. By a series of victories which he gained at Montenotte, Dego, Millesimo, ('eva, and Mondovi, over the Austrian General Beaulieu, and the Sardinian General Colli, he obliged the King of Sardinia to sign a truce at Cherasco (April 28), by which he surrendered \ip three fortresses, Buonaparte passed the Po at Placentia ; granted a truce on very disadvantageous terms to the Duke of Parma; and forced the pas- sage of the Bridge of Lodi (May 9). The fate of Ijombardy was decided. Cremona and Piz- zighitono opened their gates to the conqueror (.May 14), who soon made his entry into Milan. The Duke of Modena obtained a 8usp<;nsion of arms. The King of Sardinia agreed to sign a peace at Paris, by which he surrendered Savoy and the district of Nice. The terror of the French arms was so great, that the King of Naples pro- mised to remain neutral, by a convention which he concluded at Brescia (June 5). The pope also obtained neutrality, by the armistice of Bo- logna (June 28), but on conditions exceedingly severe. Though the war had ceased in Tuscany, a body of French troops occupied Leghorn (June 28), to seize the English merchandise in that port. N f ■ J) ) : 13 ..;-0 ; ^v$*i^ 178 Itnliiin rampnif;!!. Morcmi's ri'treat. Arc-li(lukc C'liurles. KOCH'S RKVOLUTIONS. Capitiiliition of Muntuu. Treaty of I^oIh-ii. Li>4Uriaii Kt'imblic. •i » The court of Vionna was resolved to make eveiy effort to save ^lantua, the only place which re- mained to them in Italy. At the head of 50,000 fresh troops, AVurmser marched from the Tyrol, broke the French lines on the Adige (July iJl), and compelled Buonaparte to raise the siejj;o of Mantua. The latter general encountered the Austrians, and beat them at Castiglioue ; without, liowever, being able to prevent Wuvmser from throwing fresh supplies into Mantua. Tiiis place was invested a second time ; and a second time the Austrian army marched to its relief. AVIiile Uuonapartc was engaged with Davidovitch at llo- vcredo (September 4), and Massena pushing- on as far as Trent, AVurmser marched in all liaste towards Mantua. Buonaparte suddenly directed his course against him, vanquished him in several battles, and compelled him to throw himself, with the wreck of his army, into the fortress (September 15). After tins event, the King of the Two Sicilies and the Duke of Parma signed a delini- tive peace at Paris ; and the republic of Genoa concluded a treaty (October !)), by which it re- tained at least the appearance of independence. Austria tried a third time to blockade Mantua. Two armies under the command of Alvinzi and Davidovitch marched, the one from Friuli, and the other from the Tyrol. The former was en- countered by Buonaparte, who defeated them in a sanguinary action at Arcole (November 17). Immediately he directed his march against the other, and beat them at Rivoli (November 21). AVhile matters were thus passing in Italy, the army of the Sambre and Meuse, commanded by Jourdan, had several engagements with the Arch- duke Charles, brother of the emperor, on the Sieg and the Lahn. Moreau, at the head of the army of the llhine and Moselle, passed the Rhine at Strasburg, and gained several advantages over the army which AV'urmser had commanded at the be- ginning of the campaign ; he concluded truces with the Duke of AVurtemberg, the Margrave of Baden, and the Circle of Swabia, who supplied him with money and provisions (July), and penetrated into Bavaria, the elector of which was also obliged to submit to very rigorous conditions (September 7), to obtain a suspension of arms. Jourdan, on his side, having also passed the Rhine, marched through Franconia, as far as the Upper Palatinate. The Archduke Ciiarles, who, since the departure of AATurmser for Italy, had been at the head of all the Austrian armies in Germany, retired before so great a superiority of numbers, and drew near to the quarter whence he expected the arrival of rein- forcements. He immediately fell on the undisci- plined army of Jourdan, defeated them at Ambert (August 2-1) and AVurtsburg (September .'{) ; and put them so completely to the rout that they were obliged to repass the Rhine (September 19). T)us disaster compelled Moreau to make his re- treat ; in effecting which he displayed the talents of a great general. After a number of engage- ments, in which he was more frequently the con- queror than conquered, he brought back his army to Huningon (October 26), where they passed the Rhine. That fortress and Kehl were the only points on the right bank of the Rhine which re- mained in the possession of the French. The cabinet of London, finding that Spain had declared war against her (August 19) according to the treaty of St. Ildefonso, which allied. strictly with France ; and moreover, seeing Irchindi threatened with an invasion, ordered the ]]t\\M troops to evacuate the island of Corsica (OttobeJ 21), of which the F'rench took possession. Lorl ftlahnesbury was sent to Lille to negociut(! a pcafl (October 24), which he was not able to ohlainj because the conditions were not agreeablo tn \\J three directors who formed the majority. The atJ tempts which the French made to land in Irelanl (December 22), under Admiral Morard de Ual'ei and General Hoche, proved unsuccessful. In 1797 the Austrians made a fourth atteniiittd sa^e Mantua. Alvinzi arrived with S0,0()0 niciil but, after several bloody engagements, this araiil was dispersed, and old AVurmser saw hiniself runJ pcUed to surrender Mantua by capitulation (FeJ bruary 2). Buonaparte, who had broken his truci with the pope under some frivolous pretext, inJ vaded the Ecclesiastical States ; but being nieiiatfl in the rear by a new Austrian army, he againiiiadj peace with his holiness at Tolentino (t'ebruan 19). The pope, besides renouncing Avi'^'imJ and the Venaissin, ceded also F'errara, Bologiial and Romagna. The new Austrian army in italj was commanded by the Archduke Charles; bil not being able to cope with that of Buonaparte iJ pitched battle, the archduke retired tiirough tlij Tyrol and Carinthia into Stiria, where he was foil lowed by the French general. This precipilaiJ march threw the F'reneli army into a situatinj highly perilous ; since, besides the want of piiml sions, they were menaced in the rear by an insiirJ rection of the Tyrol, and the arms of the Veiictiaif republic. Buonaparte then offered pence, wliicj was accepted by the cabinet of Yieinia, and signeJ at Leoben (April 18, 1797), the same day thai Hoche passed the Rhine at Neuwied ; and twi days after Moreau had passed that river at SlrajT burg. The preliminaries at Leoben were honourablj for Austria. She renounced, it is true, Belgian and all her possessions in Italy, as far as tlicOgliol but she was indemnifted by a considerable part o the Venetian territory, as well as by Istria ani Dalmatia ; for which the republic were to rcceiif Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagna ; Peschiera anl Mantua were to be surrendered to tlie cmperoti France recognised the principle, that the iiilpl grality of the Empire was to be the basis of a paril iiication with the Germanic body. Immedialcll after the peace of Leoben, Buonaparte, withoiT having received orders, overturned the A'eneliii republic, and caused his troops to occupy that cilj (May 16). He united the provinces of Loinl hardy which Austria had ceded into a republic, o| the model of that of France (June 29); amlthi new state was called the Cisalpine Eepiiblic. HI obliged the Genoese to change their governmeal and to constitute themselves into the Ligiirii^ Republic (June 6). The ncgociations for a definitive peace wereloiJ in coming to a conclusion. Buonaparte rcgretlff having promised the restitution of Mantua ; anl the three Jacobin members of the Directory, wtl were displeased with the terms on which the peacf with Germany was to be founded, began to intrigr for the cession of the left bank of the llhine; am with this view, to protract the conclusion of tkl peace, until the Revolution of the 18fh Bructidij I'Mof of ('iim]|io Fiirmio. Coiiveiitioii oC Berlin. ("oniiri'ss of Kjistailt. PKRrOD IX. A.D. 1780—1813. CiMilniiie Ueptiblic. Pius VI. captive. Hotvetic Kepublic. 179 Lould iT'"" *''"''" P*''^y •'"' asceiuliiiifj-. The ne- jociatiuiis with Lord Malniusbury were Jniint'ili- Clelv liiokiu off; and Buonaparte threatened to Ksurae liostiUties, unless Austria would accept the „„jitioiis dictated by the new directory. I'eaco L, lit li'ii(?th concluded at C'anipo Formio, near I'diiw (October 17), by lluonapartc and Count xiuisde Cobeuail. The two parties divided be- »ewi thi'iii, it U Hftid, the wiiolo territory of the Lpublie of Venice ; so tiiat the Adige should be lie frontier on the continent of Italy, while the Kenetian Islands, on the coasts of Albania and Burkeji sliould belong to France. Austrian Lom- ilv, with Peschiera and Mantua, the Modenois, inJ the Venetian territory to the west of the Adige, 111(1 the tliree legatines of liologua, Ferrara, and Bomagna, were to form the Cisalpine republic. Uongiess for a treaty of peace with the Empire Las to be opened at Kastadt. By certain secret jticleii, tlie emperor consented eventually to the lerpctual and complete cession of the left bank of |hc Rhine ; and stipulated for himself the posses- liou of Salzburg, in case of a partial cession ; and rtatpr advantages, provided the whole left bank If the Rhine were abandoned to France. The lutes of Germany, who might suiter loss by the iiitial or total cession of the left bank of the Ihine, were to receive indemnification in Ger- Buv, as was expressed in the treaty. A compen- Jitiim was to be allowed to the Prince of Orange ; lut this was not to take place in the neighbour- Vod of the Batavian republic, nor in that of the lustrian possessions. Prussia was to preserve her tovuices on the left bank of the Rhine ; but she s to claim no new acquisitions in Germany. I The Directory were not equally satisfiei) with all le articles of this treaty ; but they durst not dis- vow the negociator, who had assisted in accom- Ishinj; the Revolution of the 18th Fructidor. [he French government were displeased with the kcrease uf power granted to Austria, and especially pth the dismemberment of Bavaria, which Rew • , who piqued himself on his political abilities, prdcd witii reason as contrary to the interests France. Moreover, the articles relative to Irussia and the Prince of Orange were in direct Jpositiou to tlie Convention of Berlin (1794), iMch was the basis of the existing unanimity be- Veu Prussiii and Fx-ancc. By that convention le bishopric of Munster was made over to the iBj, by way of reimbursement for his ])ossessions kyoiid the Rhine ; while the House of Orange Jis to have AVurtzburg and Bamberg. These cir- Imstances obliged the Directory to conceal from k court of Berlin the secret articles of the treaty 1 Campo Formio ; and this constraint greatly bbarrassed them, by the mistrust which it excited ithepart of Prussia. I General Buonaparte, with Treilhard and Bon- Ifr, members of the Convention, were appointed 1 iiegociatc at Rastadt with the deputation of the mpire. Buonaparte made only a short stay there, hign a secret convention with Count Louis de pbenzl (December 1) ; according to which layence was to be restored to the troops of the Viich republic, in fulfilment of what had been "lived on at Campo Formio. The object which French negociators proposed, was to obtain |e entire cession of the left bank of the Rhine, Tefrom all charges ; and to obtain it without be- ing obliged to purchase it at tiie price which Buo- naparte had promised to Austria. The meaiis for 'ttaining this object were, to secure the consent of the majority of the deputation, and the agreement of Prussia, and then to prevail with the latter to object to the dismemberment of Bavaria — a mea- sure which would compel France to reveal the secret neguciations at Campo Formio. The first ])ropo»iition on which these ministers demanded the cession of tlie whole left bank of the Rhine, became the subject of a tedious negociation, alter- nately promoted and thwarted by a thousand in- trigues, At length the deputation admitted it (March, 1798), but under restrictions whicli the ministers of France were determined to reject. The latter then proposed as a second basis, the in- demnification of the princes in possession of the left bank of the Rhine ; which was adopted with- out much difficulty (March lii). The third de- mand referred to the manner of carrying the two fundamental articles into execution. On this ground, the French advanced a multitude of pre- tensions, each more unjust and more ridiculous than the other. Until then the negociations, in all probability, were serious on the part of Austria anil France ; as the former, supported by Russia, hoped to ob- tain the consent of Prussia to the dismemberment of Bavaria ; while France, on her side, vainly an- ticipated a strict alliance with the cabinet of Ber- lin, which would have enabled the Directory to have dictatefl its own conditions of peace. But, towards the middle of the year, war had become inevitable, in consequence of the numerous ag- gressions which the Executive Directory had com- mitted in diffei-eut countries. To them war had become necessary to occupy their armies. The continuation of the congress at Rastadt, therefore, served merely to gain time to prepare for hostili- ties. If the court of Vienna had flattered them- selves that the Cisalpine republic would form an independent state, they were undeceived by the treaty of alliance with France which that republic was obliged to accept, in spite of the determined refusal of the Council of Ancients. It was, in reality, a treaty of subjection, by which, among other articles, it was stipulated that there should always be 25,000 French troops in the Cisali>ine States, for the support of which they should pay 18,000,000 francs per annum. A tumult having happened at Rome, in which one of the Frem h generals was killed, the Direc- tory made this a pretext for invading the ecclesias- tical states. General Berthier proclaimed the Roman republic (February 1."), 17!)8) ; and Pope Pius VI. was carried captive to France, where he died (August 29, 1799). The Directory, without any other motive than the hope of plunder, and a wish to satisfy the am- bition of certain individuals, excited a revolution in Switzerland ; and, under i)retence of being in- vited by one of the parties, they sent troops into that country (January 20) ; overturned the ex- isting order of things ; and, under the title of the Helvetic Republic, they established a government entirely subject to their authority (April 11). A piece of imprudence, committed by the French ambassador at Vienna, was the cause of a popular conmiotion tliere ; in consequence of which he quitted his Bituatiou. This event made a great n2 1 • ..1 : ,! ■ i Itiiminpiirtc bikes Malta. 180 IMIlHofthoNilu. ('(KiUtinn ognliiMt Franco. KOCirS REVOLUTIONS. Cniiscriiitioii in Fninci'. French conniiestii, Tlicy tnke NihiIch. •■I m noise. It gaxe rise to tlic conferences whicli toolt place at Seltz in Alsuce (April 13), between the ex-director Francois and (Jount De Cobenzl ; in wliicli France and Austria tried, for the Inst time, if it were possible to come to a projier nnderstand- ing rpffarding their mutual interests. These con- ferences had no other eftect than to 'convince the court of Vienna that they must turn the current of their politics into a new channel. A French fleet, commanded by Admiral Breuoix, sailed from Toulon (May 10), with General Buo- naparte and 40,000 men. When they arrived oiF Malta, Buonaparte got possession of that island by treachery, and by means of a capitulation, signed in name of the order of St. John (June I'i), by some of the knights who had disclaimed all submission to the grand master and the assem- bly of tlie states. From Malta the French fleet sailed with a fair wind for Egypt, and landed at Alexandria (July 2), to undertake the conquest of that country ; although France was then at peace with the Porte. The English fleet, how- ever, under Admiral Nelson, which had gone in (juest of the French, joinod them ott' Alexandria, and defeated them in an action which was fought in the bay of Aboukir (August 1), and which lasted thirty-six liours. Charles Emanuel IV., King of Sardinia, insulted in every kind of way by the French generals, and by his neighbours the Cisalpine and Ligurian re- publics, resolved to shelter himself from these an- noyances under the protection of the Directory. He had concluded an alliance, olfensive and de- fensive, with France (April 5, 1797) ; but the latter having demanded a new pledge of his friendshi]), he concluded a convention at Milan, by which the French government granted him their protec- tion, on condition tliat he would surrender to them the citadel of his capital. The events which we have now detailed gave rise to the second coalition against France, which was entered into by Great Britain, Russia, Aus- tria, the Porte, and the Two Sicilies. The two flrst of these powers promised to support the rest ; Britain furnishing supplies, and Russia auxiliary troops. Before taking up arms, the cabinet of Vienna attempted to conciliate that of Berlin, with the view of compelling Franco to moderate some of her claims. Negociatious were accordingly en- tered into at Berlin, at first between the two powers alone, and afterwards under the mediation of the Emperor Paul of Russia. But in order to obtain a mutual co-operation, it was necessary to begin by establishing mutual confidence. This was impossible, as each of the cabinets had its own secret, which it would not communicate to the other. Prussia had her own treaty of the 1st of August, 179C ; and Austria her secret articles of Campo Formio. The circiunstances which deter- mined the Emperor Paul to take a part in the war against France, was the indignation which he felt at the spoliation of the knights of Malta, whom he had taken under his protection, and afterwards ac- cepted the office of grand master. This coalition was formed by the following treaties of alliance: 1. Between Austria and Russia ; in virtue of which, u Russian army of 60,000 men under the command of Suwarow, advanced on the Danube towards the end of the year. 2. Between Austria and the Two Sicilies ; concluded at Vienna (May 19, 179H). 3, ppj twcen Russia and the Two Sicilies ; concluded n] St. Petersburg (November 29). 4. BctwfpJ Great Britain and the King of the Two SiciH,.,] concluded at Naples (December 1), 5, p j tween Russia aiul the Porte ; concluded at ConJ stantinoplc (December 25). 0. The trpntv 1 St. Petersburg, between Russia and Great BritaiJ (December 29) ; by which the Eiiipcrur PaJ promised to furnish Prussia with a body of 4.) 0( auxiliaries, to be paid by Great Britain. 7, 'fij treaty of Constantinople, between Great BriiaiJ and the Porte (January 2, 1799). H, i\J treaty of Constantinople, between the Porte an* the King of the Two Sicilies (January 21, niiflJ To these several others may be added, wliifj were concluded at a later period, viz. 9, 'I'U of St. Petersburg, between Russia and I'ortUE (September 28). 10. Between Russia ani Great Britain (June 29). 11. Between RussJ and Bavaria (October 1). 12. Between tired Britain and Bavaria ; signed at Munich (Marci 1(J, 1800). 13. Between Great Britain an] the Duke of Wurtemburg; signed at LoiiisbunT (April 20). 14. Between Britain and the cloct(j of Mayencc (April 30). 15. The treaty of sub! sidy, between Britain and Austria (June '.'0)1 l(i. The same between Britain and Bavarial signed at Ainberg (July 15). After the revolution of the tSth Fructidor, tlil Executive Directory of the French republic liiid i| struggle against the general discontent, as wel! : against the disordered state of the finances, and tlil intrigues of the Jacobins, whose influence lliel had imprudently augmented, hoping, by thej means, to annihilate tlie party of the opp'ositioJ That faction would infallibly have ert'ected counter revolution in France, had not the Uirectort by a stretch of arbitrary power, annulled tbl el(!ctions of 1798. The want of funds, which wj always growing worse, had retarded the renew of the war ; but when it broke out, the DircctoiJ adopted a measure which we ought not to pass silence, as it has exercised a lasting influeiiop ( all the states of Europe, who were obliged to fol the example. AVe allude to the law which intni duced the military conscription (Spptoinbei 1798), and which was the work of GcneH Jourdan. The coalition was not yet consolidated, anl Austria had not yet finished her preparations fJ war, when the King of the Two Sieircs, instigatJ by a party who wished to urge the cabinet i Vienna to greater dispatch, commenced hoslilitiej by expelling the French from Rome (Novembt 24), That enterprise failed of success. TIj Neapolitan troops, who were conimaniled bvl foreigner. General Baron de Mack, showed neitkl discipline nor courage. After this first repuisj the king took shelter in Sicily. His capitalb came a prey to the most frightful anarchy. Maf| to save his life, deserted to the enemy. The zaroni defended Naples against the Frcncli ami and it was not till after a battle of three days, tlif Championnet, who was at their head, succeeileili getting possession of the city ; after which he prJ claimed the Parthenopcnn Rcpuhlio (Janual 25). General Joubert took possession ofTurii and when the new campaign opened, the whole J Italy was in the hands of the French. Bulhorizcd by any c: ('oiii,Ti'SH nt llastndt lirokiMi 1111. War apii""' Austria. PERIOD IX. A.D. 1789— 181j. Ciiin]iiii)(n in I'iodmoiit. .'*u»iirfovcmbcr 9, 1799), the council lumiinatcilL Buonaparte commandant of the troops, abolished! the Directory, and ordered the Legislativi; Ai. sembly to be transferred to St. Cloud. The mint- ing which took place next day was a scene ofl great turbulence. Buonaparte lost all prcsuntv o,'| mind; but his brother Lucien and the ;,'reiia(li|.rs I of the guard dispersed the Council of Five Uun. dred. The consfitutiim of the year three waji abolished (November 11). A provisional go. vernnient was established, consisting of Sinvts I Roger Ducos, and Buona])arte. A legislative com- mission of twenty-flve members was charged to I draw up the plan of a new constitution. The new constitution Avas announced on ihel 22nd of Frimaire, of the year eight (IM Decem- ber, 1799). The republican forms were preserved' I and tlie government, in appearance, was intrusted I to a council of three persons, appointed for ten I years, and decorated with the title of consuls, viz,, Buonaparte, Cambaceres, and Le Bruu; but in I reality to the first only, on whom they conferred a I power truly monarchical. The other constituted I bodies were a conservatory senate, contrived byj Sieyes, to be the guardian of the public liberties; I a tribunal of one hundred members, whose business | it was to discuss such forms of law as the fjovem- ment laid before them ; and the legislative hndvl of three hundred members, who gave their vote I without any previous debate. Buonaparte seized I the reins of government with a Arm hand. He I abrogated several of the revolutionary laws, araal- 1 gamated its different parts into a system, and h\ \ degrees organized the most complete despotism", He consolidated his power by quashing the insur- rection in the West. By his orders, Generals! Brune and Hedouville concluded a peace (January I IS, 1800), first with the Vend^eans at Montfau(;on, I and afterwards with the Chouans. He gave a I most striking example of perfidy, by causinji the I brave Frotte to be shot a few days after. But he | conciliated the affection of his subjects by the re- storation of religion, which he established by I means of a concordat with the court of Rome) (July 15,1801). Buonaparte was no sooner placed at the head of I the government, than he proposed to make peace [ with England, by means of a letter ( Det ember 2C, 1799), not written, according to etiquette, by one I of his ministers to the secretary of state for foreign I affairs, but addressed to King George III., whom I he complimented for his patriotic virtues. He I stated the necessity for peace ; and trusted, that I two nations so enlightened as France and (ileal I Britain, would no longer be actuated by false ideas | of glory and greatness. This step, made in so un- usual a form, could not possibly have a successtiJ I result, especially as Mr. Pitt was determined to I employ all the resources of England to ovcithw'v I the revolutionary despotism which the first consul was endeavouring to establish in France. That 1 great statesman endeavoured, by the treaties of | subsidy which we have already mentioned, to re- pair the loss which the coalition had juat suffered llittle of Marenuo. (ieiiiTiil Moruiiu » viotoilcs. Arinistieo with Aimlrin. rEllIOI) IX. A.U. 1780—1815. Peace of LunDvUlo. Kni;linh occr.py Malta. Sir K. Ahercroniby'ii victory. 189 Iktlii; ri'tiroment of Paul I., who, boiiijj inortifled I ititli the bad 8ucce«H of the RusHiun arms, which I be ascribed to the Hllies themselves, hud reculled |histroop» at the beginning of the year 1800. Gi'iieral Mcias, who commanded the Austrinns lui Italy, opened the campaign of 1800 in the most liplfiiiiid manner. In consequence of the victory Inhirli he gidned over Masscna at Voltri (April 10), llhc latter was obliged to throw himself into Genoa, Ivbrrc he sustained a siege of six wcclis with great ltoura),'e. Melas made himself master of Nice I (Ml) 51)' "'"^ Suchct passed the Var on his loiarch into Provence. But, in a sliort time, Buo- liapnrtc, at the head of a new army which reiidez- IvouH'd at Dijon, passed the Alps, and took pos- lipijiiin of Milan (June 'i), while Melas was not I, et aware that Ijis army was in existence. For- lir.uatciy for the latter, Massena was obliged to liiirrcucier Genoa at that very time (June 3), which InlsoeJ the corps of General Ott at his disposal. ■ He had found it difficult, with his small garrison, ltd preserve order among tlie inhabitants, of whom 1 1,1,000 are said to have perished by famine or lilisease during the blockade. General Ott was ilifeatcd by Berthier at Montebello (June 0). J.Melas himself engaged General Buonupare at Ma- Irfiyi) (June 14). Victory was already witliin his Iffjsp, when the arrival of ♦he brave Uesaix witii division disappointed him of the trium|)li. Ilhi' defeat had a most discouraging effect on Ge- Ineral Melas, and cost Austria the whole of Lom- Ibrdy. A truce, which was concluded at Alessan- li{na'(Jime l(i), put Buonaparte in possession of llhat town ; as well as of Tortona, Turin, Placentia, lloni, Genoa, &c. The Austrians retired beyond llheMiiieio. Mureau, at the head of a Frencli army, had Ifi-sed the Rhine (April 25), and defeated Kray in Iseveral engagements. The Austrians tlien retired (within the Upper Palatinate. Moreau had already Iniade himself master of Munich, when he received lllie news of the truce at Alessandria. He then Icoiicludcd an armistice at Parsdorf (July 13). The I Count St. Julien, who had been sent by the Em- Iperor Francis II. to Paris, having signed the prc- lliminarics of peace without sufficient authority, the I court of Vienna refused to ratify them, as they had lenpiged not to make peace without the consent of j England. Hostilities were to re-commence in I Germany in the month of September; but the (Archduke John, who commanded the Austrian I iruiym Bavaria, having requested that the armistice I should be prolonged. General Moreau consented, I on condition that Philipshurg, Ulm, and Ingol- (sladt, should be given up to him. This arrange- I ment was signed at Hohenlinden (September 20), land France immediately denjolished the fortifica- Itions of these three places. Hostilities having re- I commenced about the end of November, General 1 Moreau defeated the army of the Archduke John, I at the memorable battle of Hohenlinden (Dccem- I der 3) ; after which he marched in all haste on I Vienna. Austria being released from her cngage- jmeuts by the cabinet of London, then declared I that she was determined to make i)cace, whatever I might he tlie resolutions of England ; on wliich a j new armistice was concluded at Steyr (December I -'5). Braunau and Wurtzburg were delivered up I to the French. General Brune, who commanded in Italy, re- newed the truce of Alessandria by tlie convention of Castiglione (September 2!l), and thus gained time to take possession of Tuscany, which they had forgot to include in the truce. Being rein- forced by tile army of Macdonald, who had arrived in Lombardy, he passed the Brenta ; after travers- ing, by a perilous march, the lofty mountain of Splugen. In virtue of a new truce, signed at Treviso, the French obtained the recovery of I'es- chiera, the forts of Verona, Legnago, Fermo, and Aucona. Meantime, negociations for peace had been en- tered into at Luneville, between Joseph Buona- parte and Count Louis de Cobeniil. The Hrst consul having refused to ratify the armistice of Treviso, because it had left Mantua in the hands of the Austrians, the Imperial plenipotentiary at Luneville signed an additional convention, by which that place was delivered over to the French. Peace between Austria and France was signed a few days after (February 9) ; and Francis II., at the same time, made stipulations for the Empire. He ceded the Belgic provinces, the county of Falkenstein, and Frickthal. In Italy, the frontier line between Austria and the Cisalpine republic was traced, so that the Adige should separate the two states, and the cities of Verona and Porto Legnago should be divided between them. The other conditions were, that the Grand Duke of Modena should have Brisgau in exchange for his duchy ; that the Grand Duke of Tuscany should renounce his grand duchy, and receive a free and competent indemnity in Germany ; that the Empire should give up all the left bank of the Rhine ; that the hereditary princes, who lost their territories in constMiuence of these cessions, should receive com- pensiition from the Empire ; and, lastly, that the Germanic body should ratify the peace within the space of thirty days. By a secre* article, Saltz- burg, Berchtolsgaden, Passau, the bishopric and city of Augsburg, Kempten, and twelve other im- mediate abbeys, besides nineteen Imperial cities in Swabia, including Ulni and Augsburg, were secured to the Grand Duke of Tuscany. The Empire showed great a.ixietj to ratify this peace, which was the precursor of its annihilation. The English had compelled General Vaubois to surrender the isle of Malta. After the flight of Buonaparte from Egypt, Klebor had taken the com- mand of the French army, which was then reduced to 12,000 men. A convention was concluded at El Arish with the Grand Vizier, who had arrived from Syria at the head of a formidable army, by which the French general engaged to evacuate the country. The English government having refused to ratify this treaty, unless Kleber would surrender himself prisoner of war, that general immediately attacked the Grand Vizier, and defeated him at El Hanka (March 20) ; after which he ogain subdued Cairo, wliich had raised the standard of revolt. The English government were willing to ratify the convention of the 24th January ; but General Menou, who had succeeded Kleber, who had fallen by the dagger of i\ Turkisii fanatic, was determined to niaintniii himself in Egypt, in the teeth of an evident impossibility. Sir Ralph Abercroinby, the English commander, who had arrived with a Bri- tish force, effected his landing at Aboukir (March 8, 1801). Menou was defeated in the battle of Rahmanieh, near Alexandria (March 2i), which '■ ' I ' .1 • -J : '1 . :3 _ ^ ■ 1H4 (ii'iicriil Mciiiiii niiiitiiliiliM. Variuiia Tri-atii'H. I'liiil, ICmiH'riir III' IliiiiMiii. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. IVni'ii of Amleiiit. Artic'lcn (if tliu 'I'rcau laliiiiil uf Malt). coBt Gciiprnl At)prcri)inl>y his life. Hut tlio Fruncli kooh cnw tlu'inHi-Ui's nHsiiilcil on nil liaiuls by the Turku and the KngliF,000 French troops should occupy the peninsula of Otr.inio and part of Abruzzo, until the conclusion of peace with Eng- land and the Porte. 2. Portugal, since the year 175)7, had wished to withdraw from the first coali- tion, and even concluded a peace with the executive directory at Paris (August 10) ; but the English squadron of Admiral St. A'incent having entered the Tagus, the queen refused to ratify that treaty. Portugal thus continued at war with France initil 1801. The French army, which was already in Spain, having shown some disposition to enter Portugal, peace was concluded at Madrid between Lucien Uuonaparte and ^M. Frcire (September'.'!)), the ministers of the two states at the court of Spain. Portugal shut her ports against the Eng- lish, and regulated the frontiers of Guiana, so as to prove advantageous to France, li. In Russia Buonaparte had succeeded to a certain extent in conciliating the goodwill of the Emperor Paul. Nevertheless, at the death of that jjrince (October 8, IhOl), there existed no treaty of jieace between Russia and !•' ranee. A treaty, however, was signed at Paris in the reign of Alexander, by Count Markofl' and Talleyrand (October 11), and fol- lowed by a very important special convention, by which, among other things, it was agreed : — That the two governments should form a mutual con- currence, as to the principles to be followed with respect to indemnilications in Germany; as well as to determine respecting those in Italy, and to maintain a just ei' of this Hili'iicc. At tlip time when llu> jicnrp (lln'i'ht wiiH roiicliulcd, (ircnt llritain lind nil i,i,ri'st ill liii^'"!; '!"' pniifiiili! of IViu- coiiiiiiprce liiiculriil utiitcN liflil HiicrtMl ; iilid slic liiid coiiso- Ifiillv unnoiiiifpd it in the trciif y (if niLvigiUioii ..lo'mini'ici', which wiis ('(iiicludi'd in \l\',i. All .followiiii? Ircatit'H, until thiit of 17H;t iiiclufiivf', bvin' iTiu'Wt'd tht! iirtic'li's (if I'ticciit, tlif Niloncp , iliJH Milijci't lit Ainii'iiH ]ihic('d (jreiit llrilain, in t\i ri^l'C'ti "" '''" *i>"tiii« of n coniiuou ri^ht, fliiili, ui'coiiiint? to tho system of the En^'lish, diild not liiivi' iiecu fiivoiiriihh! to the i)riiicii)ie of lice Inulc, — a doctrine uiiich it was for their lierciit to sui)i)res8, since they liad tiien tho com- lamloftiu' sea. Tvi' have now hrought down tho liistory of the Irciii'li ri'viiliition, from its commeiiceniciit to the Ijr 1802, when the French power hej^iin to ])re- tmlcrati' in I'.urope. The iiiHiieiice of tho rc- wiis onorinously great. The Netherlands liil a floiirishiiijjf portion of Germany, as well as joncvii, Savoy, and Piedmont, were incorporated Kill iIk; territories which had lieen f;ovenied by liuisXVI. The Dutch and tlie Cisaljiine stales, icimlins; the Milaiiois, a coiisidernhle part of tho lemtiiiu territories, the duchies of Mantua, Mo- pna, and Parma, besides some of the ecclesiasticnl lovinccs, had bowed their neck to the yoke of the fct consul. The Swiss, enslaved by the Direc- Iry, hail not been able to recover their ancient lilcpcaili'iice. Tuscany and the Liirurian republic irst not presume to disjmte tho will of tho eon- tfror: vhile Spain, forgetful of her ancient dif;- llv, was reduced to a state of subservient and •jrailfil alliance. It will be now necessary, ac- Inlin^' to the plan of this work, that we take a W) of the ni(n-e remarkable events which hap- iiiol in the course of the preceding thirteen years I the other states of r.urope. I Portugal had been a co-partner in the first coali- kn a;;ainst Prance, and bad furnished a body of low troops to Spain, and some ships of war to ligland. We have already related how Mary I. jis prevented from disengiiging herself from the pt) of 17!)7. The Prince of Ura/.il, who liad kuiiii'il the regency (July I.'), 17'.)!)) in conso- leiice of the iiiHrm state of his mother's health, lok a more decided part in the second coalition, rsii;iung an alliance with Russia (September 28), pis alliance drew him into a war with Spain. Jie Duke of Alcudia, usually styled the Prince of Imcc, seized sevornl cities in Portugal without luch (littienlty, as lior army was in as bad condi- Inas her tinances. A peace was speedily eon- pideil at Uadajos (June 0, IXOl). P(Jrtugal irceil to sliut her ports against English vessels, id ceded to Spain Olivencja and the places situated the (iuadiana. The engagement respecting kiisli vessels was renewed by the jieaco of lailrid (September 29), w liich reconciled Portugal jilli France. [hi Spain, Charles IV. had succeeded his father "es III, (December 13, 178«) ; Philip, tho West son, having been declareil incapable of Igiihig, on account of his deficiency of intellect. \ king, who had no pleasure but in the chase, re himself up entirely to that amusement. He Jis tile jest of the queen and her favourites, to lliom he abandoned the cares of government. ^ 1*90 a difference, which had arisen with Eng- land resjiecting th(! right of jiroperty to Nootka Sound in North America, was on the point of in- terrupting the repose of this indolent monarch. Hut matters were adjusted by a convention signed at the Kscurial (October 2H, 17!)0) by which Spain renounced her rights over that distant pos- session. The chief favourite since 1700 had been Don Manuel Ciodoy, created Duke of Alcudia, a weak minister, under whom every thing became venal, and the whole nation corrupt. Tho revo- lutionary principles which had taken root there after the expulsion of the Jesuits, as sufHcient care bad not been taken to supply the place of these fathers with other public instructors of youth, were readily propagated under so vicious an admiiiistrii- lion ; es]iecially after tho |iublication of the famous Memoir of Jovellanos (17!).">), on the improve- ments of Agriculture and the Agrarian Law ; a. work which was composed by order of the (Council of Castile, and written with clearness and sim- plicity. Tho author, no doubt, deserved credit for the purity of his NentimentH ; but, in bis enthu- siasm for tho objects which he recommended, ho overlooked all existing laws; encouraged the spo- liation of tho church, the crown, and the commu- nity ; as well as the suiipression of corporations, and conditional legacies, or life-rents ; in short, a total and radical subversion of the institutions of tho country. This work may bo said to have pro- duced a revolution in Spain, for the Cortes of Cadi/, did no more than carry into execution the schemes of Jovellanos. If the Prince of Peace failed in conducting the administration of the interior, he was not more successful in making the crown of Spain bo re- sjiected abroad. By the peace of Uasle (July '22, 17'Jii), Charles IV. renounced the Spanish part of St, Domingo, By the alliiince, oH'ensive and de- fensive, of St, Udefoiiso (August li), 17!)0), Spain identified herself with tho French system. The war with (ireat Britain ruined her marine. Ad- miral Jorvis defeated the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent (February 14, 1707), commanded by Ad- miral Cordova. It was in this engagement that I'aptain Nelson, afterwards so famous, established his fame by the courage and conduct which he displayed. Admiral llervey conquered the im- portant island of Trinidad ( February 18). General Stewart, without much difficulty, took possession of Minorca (November 7, 17t)S), The alliance of Spain with France was also tho reason why the F.niperor Paul declared war against her, af\er his accession to the coalition (July 27, 1790), The Porto followed the example of Russia (October 1, ISOl). After the peace of Luneville, a reconcilia- tion v\ith the former power was signed at Paris (October 4). The war which Spain was obliged to wage with Portugal, procured her the city of OliveiKja, which was ceded by the peace of Badajos (June '.)). By tho treaty signed at St. Ildefonso, Spain sur- rendered Louisiana to Buonaparte, and eventually the state of Parma (October 1, ISOO). She also surrendered to him five ships of the line, besides a considerable sum of money which she paid him ; and all this on the faith of his promising to procure the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, with the title of royalty, to the king's son-in-law, the Infant of Parma. These stipulations were more clearly es- tablished by the treaty which Lucien Buonaparte - < * ' i I — I c;' ::i i 1 !.l !! J Mr. I'ilt'ii iiilmiiiinlrriiii.: IHII liiKiirriM'tiiiii III Iri'laiiil. The I'llidll. KOCH'S IlKVOI.irnoNS. ('iiiiM'iitinii iif (!ii|inilii.KrMi. Tllr llllll«l< TllwIH. Dc.illi 111' IIinjK'rtir I'liil. Mini tlir I'riiii'i' of I'i'act' littrrwiil'iU Ni^ncil lit Miiill'iil ( Miii'i'h '.'I, ISOl). 'I'lii- pi'iiri' of AiriiriiH conI S|)iiiii no ollirr Niicritin' limn the iNliiiiil >'■ Triiiidiiil, wliicli hIic wiin olilif(i>il to iiliiiiuloti l<> KiikIiiihI, riilircly on the ilcciNioii of lliioiia|mrti-, wlio (lid not cvi'ii iiNk the coiiNi'iit of (IiiiiIi'h IV. S|iaiii liiiil loHt ull Nort of rcNpcct or conMiili'nilioii, liolli fi'oin the iinivcrNiil mill cotit('ni|itiliii' wriikticNM of lii'i' K'>vi'r!iiiH-ilt, mill lirriitlHc nIii' IiiiiI %oliiiitiii'ily jiIiicimI licrNi'lf iiiidor ilcpi'iiilriii'i' to I'miiri', l''roni till' very coiiiiiu'iicriiiriil. of iIiIn period, (il'i'iil liritiilli hull liri'ii pri'Ni'i'vi'd from llir iiillii. rliri' of tlif ri'VoliitioiMiry prinripli'N, wliirli liail ii Ki'cat iiimi,v parliHaiiH aiiioM){ the wIiI^;n of thiit kinuiloiii, liy llic tlrinncNM of lirr priini* iiiiniHtiT, Williitiii I'itI, uiid till' Npit'iidid i'liii|iifnri' of I'.iU iniinil Hiirki', a iiii'mli(>r of tlir IIoiik<< of Coiii- iiioiiN. I'itt I'oiiNolidiilcd ||ii< HyNti'iii of finain'i' liy I'xtfiidiiiff till- NiiikiiiK fiinil, >vliirli hi- had crratrd ill 17^1'. Ilr ^avf liriniii'HN to tin- ffoMTiiiiiciit by olitiiiiiiiiK till! Niispi'MKioii of till- lliihriiH Cin-pus Act, uiiil hy nii'ans of tin- .l/iiti Hill (.laniinry 4, I71l>t), which allowed tiic ina^'iKlratc mi cxtciiNivc nutliority in the NiirM'illancc of forciKiici'K, It wiin in Ireland where tlu- K''''i'lcKt. niiniher of inalcon- teiitN appeared, anil thcNc coiiNiNteil chielly of CatliolicN, although an act, paNMcd in I71KI, had rendered tile CatliolicH eliffihle to alinoKt all otHcial eiiiployiiientH. That iNland, lievertheleHH, was the theatre of Heveral eoUHpiraeicH, the ileHi^n of which w»H to render it independent. 'J'heir scilitioiiH IciiderM iicleil in iiniNon with the I'Vench, wlm riiiide HtteinptK at ditlerent times to etl'ect a landin^r in tlial country. l''il>eeii thoiiNund troops, accoiii- ))aiiied hy eighteen sail of the line, emharkeil for that purpose from lirest harhniir in the month of Deceinlier. Kiit this fornii hiMu arinmnent liud scarcely put to sea, when they were accidentally overtaken hy a storm, l.iiflil of these vessels rcnched the Irish coa.^l, and a| peared oil' Ihintry Hay; hut they were forced from that station hy another tempest, when they returned to France with the loss of two ships of the line, some fri^tates having narrowly escaped fallinir in with two s(|uailronH of the KiikHsIi navy. At len^'th, us a remedy for this political iiiischief, the union of Ireland with Ciroat Hritain was cH'ected, so that liuth kingdoms should have one and the same ]inr- lianient ; and CieorKC III. assumed the title of Kint< of the I'nited Kinf^doin of Groat liritain and Ireland (July 2, IHOO). Gnat Itritaiu was the moving; prini'iple of the two Hrst coalitions iif^ainst riance, althou^'h she fought rather with money than with troo|is. She succeeded in ruining the marine and the com- merce of hoth France and Spain, and obtained the complete command of the sea. A short time be- fore the death of Paul I., she was involved in a war with the ])owers of the North. 'I'lic resentment of that prince aj^iuMst the tahinet of London, for j refusinj; to put biin in possession of jNIalta, whicli I ■, v! F",nt?lihh troops had sci/.ed, was the true cause I of !i~.stir es, althu- .jh a liti^nited iiuestiou of I pui,' c !gnl was m.iile the jiretext. The jioint at I is'iUP v.as to knov . whether the convoy granted ! to ih" merchant si ips of neutral states by their soviici^'ii, protected them from hein^f searched by those of the bellij^erent powers, or not. Denmark, with whom the discussion first arose, maintained the afHrmative, and England the negative ; al- though it was not till the end of the M^r |;J that she maintained this diii'trine. At tlmi li, there bad been Home misunderstanding li ' Ailmiral Keith, the commander of tin lorces in the Mediterranean, and Caiituin \j] Doikiim, who was convoy ing a llei'l nl' j;,,,, iiicrchantmeii. In nc ii >ii>th .if .liily I'njlinv,, the Danish fri^- ' Iiii lieyn, wliiih In,,! J tempted to ilel'enii liiT col. voy against ii Miin I, the iMiglish crilizers, was taken and c;inin| |„(I the Downs. These acts of violence gave rise to a vny un discussion between the courts of l.ciiiiliiii iiiidlJ penhagen. The former having sent ullnlintij Sound, commanded by Admiral Dickson, Dmv, was obliged to yield to the tempest. Inn |, manner very honourable. Hy a i iiiivi i'>,< v.i was signed at (.'openhagen (AngU"! '.'It, 1 <'iii^, jJ decision of the ipiestioli was reii^tti'il fen- 1 ir||,j| discussion. 'I'he F.nglish gove. nmiiit rclcoil ly Freya, and the King of Dein.iurk pi in. • ' pend the convoys. This accommodat on d the fame of Nelson: and, al'l.ou^li lh( Dam ■ n r- obliged to ^'I'ld to the miinrinrityo Hjitisli u' >. . .hey acip ■ ; themselves bmcl| mi 1' ujutiiily. Within seven days after, armistice was concluded. Admiral Parker continued his route by the DiilliJ and arrived before Carlscrona (April lit), wliftj he was on the eve of commencing hostilities ajfiiai Sweden, when he was apprised of the dcatli tiftl Kniperor Paul. That event dissolvcil the \tw of the North, and put an end to the war. liy convention which the F.mpcror Alexainicr tool eluded at St. Petersburg (.lune 17), the piiiicipl^ of maritime law which the Fnglish had pmlw were recognised. The other jiowers of the Norll acceded to this convention. The Danes evarnald Hamburg and Lubec, but Prussia coiitiiiucil II ])ossession of Hanover until the conclusion ol tU peace betv> oen France and England. '!• riu' II ilai iiill lli'l" |„„| llimrili'ii vfil fl„. Ill Ui'lir Cdiid I With ri'«iird to Ho L,,ii iii'iwecii i"i»; liiiiilii''* 1"!'' disaste -liMiiliil the middle I|y, hud l; i "" [r iiliiilitiiin of the ^iv hcciiiiie Hcnsibl I'lhi' niii" the 1)ata\ian i 0,000 of Horins, p Irrmli troops in Holh enrjijinal number o Ifvcrtlipli'ss, under ( liiventidii at Amiens ■niia' i;u iranteed to It lif rharui d witli I Ifsladtlioliler li\ li.' Theo\i'ilhro\\ of i V) is iimloubtedl\ i micli liintory l.as to Klor\ 111 !■' ranee . T I.M. 0.1m and La Hi I France, which exc ps publialicd by th p), ill spite of the i idicious patriots h« fcd supported by the Xli,. Iliitin Inn Hmmlilli', |(,ril Dmii' III'* vtctiiry. P„. ijthi'lir Cipiid'iliTiiry. IT.lUOl) IX. A.l). 17M1»— IHI.V TIk- lli'lvctii- Ki'imlillr Thi-'rwiiHIcilirH. I.Miiiliiinlv. 1M7 H'llh ri>Ki>i'iu' (•(inHf(|iu'uci' of \vliiy •''"' •'"''"•y fllw lliiKiu' (Miiy I'll HilS), wliicli. Iiy Ki>iM« I Frniiii' till' III! iillji Kiilijrctcil it in I'tlVi't to lliiil kwiT, mill rciliici'd it to tlic coiiilitioti of ii pro- Uri',— till' iiioi'i' iu>){li'i:t(>(l, iiH it wiiH not I'litirrly Till' I'onNtitution wliifli tlir Haliiriiiii Hr- 7/1' (till' tliiU iH tlio title which it iiHHiinicil) hud (I'll, Viicilliitt'il hotwi'i'U two oppoNiti! systcniH, , I iTciitM of wliicli fouhl conii' to no iiKi'Cf- i.i;— niiinclyi tliiit of ii United ;inil thiit of a lfir/i''ri'i)iil'li''. While fhi'Hc iiiiittcrH were unilcr Ibili'i till' '''nKlinh, who hud joined the Ntuilt- tlt'r'ii iiiirty. stripped the repnhlie of itH colonieH ; Mipivi'il itH nmrine, piirtieularly in the netinn Ihirli' Ailniinil Duneiin fou^'ht with I)e Winter Ijr ('iuii|ii'rdown (Oeloher II, 1707); and unni- llali'il lier roniinerre imd lier nuvi);ulion, by iikiiiliiiK lii;r cou8t», — not execptinn even her khi'rii'H. [tIii' folldwinn iH a sninmury of the treiitieH whieh W I'Jiicluded hetween France and tlie Hiitavian Ipiililii' liL'foro the peace of Amiens, Home of Ihiili lire for the first time liere made known to fpiililin. I. The treaty of alliance at the Hiikuu !:iy |(i, I7!ir>). 2. The convention at the lliii;ne liil) '.'7, 17iH(), relative to the maintenance of 1,000 French troops by the Dutch. H. The JuMiitiim at the Ha>;ue (May \\, 17!tO), relative tilt' |iaynicnt of the Ncctuid moiety of the I0,000,()00 of florins which the Datavian republic t'liKKHi'd to pay. 4. The treaty of Paris laimary T), 1800), by which Buonaparte sold to |e llalaviau republic, for a sum of (i,(M)0,tM)0 of ors, the property and effects which t'le rrench ' Bi'l^'ian umiffrunts, the clerjjy of France and Jeliriuin, the F.lector Palatine, the Mouse of Sulni kil other princes of the Knipire, possessed within ' baiiiuls uf that republic ; as also, the Prussian ImlorioH lyin^ within other countries, which at Bt lime had not been ceded by the court of Jcrliii, and other riffhts equally inalienable, li. The Invention at t^e Hague (August 2i), IHOl), by ibii'li the Uata\ian republic, on paying a sum uf 0,000 of tlmins, procured the reduction of the Irriu'li troops in II(dland to 10,000 men ; althougli fiiriifiiial number of 25,000 still remained there fcvcrtliclrss, under different pretexts, G. The liivcntiim at Amiens (March 27, 1H02), by which Imiie (fiiriranteed to the republic, that they should Bl lie cliarsjiil with the indemnities promised to lestiidllnililer 1)\ the treaty with England. iTlii'uvii-throw of Uu- iincient Helvetic Confede- ]f) is uniU)ubti'dl\ une of the high crimes with Itiicli liiifory I, as to rcprouch the Executive Di- ktorj 111 I'rance The constitution drawn up by iM.OiliK and l.ii Harpe, at\er the iiuulel of that I France, which excluded the feileiitiM' sjstem, p8 I'l'hlishcd by the French pailj (Miiirli ;!0, p**), ill spite of the inodificatioiis whicli the more liicious patriots had uttenipled to introduce, kd supported by the Fn uch army under General Hchauenburg. To compel the smaller rantmiN to submit to Uiis yoke, it wan neccMitary to hiive re- course to lire and sword. The (irisons fmiiMt meanit, however, to evudi' it by receiving an Aid** li'i|i|f army among them, in vlrtiir of a (!on«eutiKN» ftiUiv-h HMs I'lincliided ,1 I'oire (Oi'toliii 17); 'tw4 it WHS not till after tin' uiilortunati' campajipi of I71IM thai they wer" coiiipelled li ri'iioiilKv their iiiili'pi liil''iicc. l nmcr iippropriat, il In hci^elf the Swiss part ,1 the hinluipric uf llasli'. 'lul lh»' citicK of Mulhouse and (ii ii'-v i. The term- *r siiliji ciion on wliiili till' llelvetii (cpiihlic was fo Mtaiid in future with i'ninie, w,'ri' detcriiiineil by ni alii* ance, dtlereaivc ;md di'l'i'iisive, coiicliuleil mI I'arin (August IH). J^vvit/.erlimd 'ii'Ki-.'rnrlh reiiiiiiiii'i'd that neutrality >\liich forcii iiiricii. slie had ri'uMrdeil as the pledge and Mafegiiii; commanding cIi;l- racter, the religious jiiril i ' the cnuntry, the instruction of the pi'i>|>le, aii'I the dilf'nsion of knowledge, at least pt erved them from those crimeg and excesses \ lich stained the revolu- tionists in France. .Vt the peace of Ami. us all Italy, with the ex- ception of a part of the V nrliaii territory, which was united to Austria, hail \irliled to the doniiniun of Fraiu'e. The King ol he Two Sicilies alone had still maintained a son 'if independence. In no coinitry had the revoluti' nary principles of the eighteenth century found mi> f :ibettors among the higher classes than in Pieil nont. The King ol Sardinia was the first sovereij^n whose throne wtis underniiiuMl by their inllvii' •■*■■ Scarcely had Victor AmadeuH HI., who a«' iided the throne in 177:1, joined the league agaii 1 France (July 25, 17!'2), when the republican ai uies attacked, and made an easy conquest of, Savoy and Nice. Great Uritain granted him, by the treaty of London (April 25, 17'.)3), subsidies for c nying on the war with vigour. We have related iiove the disasters which he met with in the wai against France. The peace of Paris cost !.im tli. sacrifice of two provinces. In vain did his son < liarles Emanuel IV. hope to save the remainder n his estates, by becoming an ally of the I'leiuh Directory at the treaty of Turin (April 5, 1797). His political in- fluence was lost ; they knew they nuld command anything from that ally. Their hist recjuest was the surrender of the city of Turin, by the conven- tion of Milan (June 2K, 17!tS). 'J'he Directory afterwards declared war against that prince without any grounds ; and he could not obtain permission to retire to Sardinia, except by signing a kind of abdication (December!)), against which he after- wards protested. Piedmont was thus 1,'overned en- tirely according to the pleasure of France ; and immedialely after the peace of Amiens it was de- finitively annexed to her territories. Austrian Lombardy (with the exception of Mantua), the duchy of jModena, the three lega- tines ceded by Pius VI., and a part of the Vene- tian territory, formed the Cisalpine republic, I which Buonaparte declared independent, by the '3 i'.'f Trontv of I,col«'n. 188 Kincilom of Etriiria.' 1*11)1111 ufTiiirs. KOCirS REVOLUTIONS. Pius VII., Pope. Fvriliimnil IV. of Naples, I'ciite of Hiisil. A jircliminarirs of Lcobon (Juno 29, 1797). He soon after (Oi'tiiier 22) added to it the Viilteliiie, C'hiaveiina, and Bormio, which he had taken from the Orisons ; and, at a later period (Septcnibcr 7, IKOO), he added a part of Piedmont, \iz., the Is'ovarese, and the country beyond the Scsia. Mantua was likewise annexed to this republic at the peace of Lunevillo. Its connexions with Fraiifo had been determined by the alliance of 1708, which was more servile than those in which the Batavian republic, and afterwards that of Swit- zerland, were placed. In this pretended republic, France exercised an absolute power ; she chanj^ed its constitution at pleasure, appointed and deposed its hiijhcst functionaries as suited her convenience. The victories of Suwarow ])ut an end for some time to the existence of that state ; but after the battle of Marengo, matters were replaced on their ancient footiuLf. The republic of Genoa, distracted by innova- tions at home, a; d threatened from abroad by England and France, hesitated for some time as to the system which they should adopt. But after the French had become masters of the Bocchetta, the senate consented, by a treaty concluded at Paris (October 9, 1790), to give them a sum of money, and shut their ports against the English. After the preliminaries of Looben, this republic accepted a democratic constitution from the hand of Buona- parte, according to the treaty of Montebello (Jime 0, 1797). It paid large sums of money, and was gratified by the Imperial fiefs which Buonaparte added to its territory. It then took the name of the Ligurian Republic (June 14). "We have al- ready mentioned how the Grand Duke of Tuscany was unjustly deprived of his estates, which Buona- parte made over by the treaty of St. Ildefonso to the hereditary Prince of Parma, son-in-law to Charles IV. of Spain. This young prince was proclaimed King of Etruria (August 2, 1801), and acknowledged by all the European powers ; but, during his brief reign, he was more a vassal of Buonaparte than an independent sovereign. Pius VI. had protested against the spoliation of the church, which the Constituent Assembly of France had committed, by the re-union of Avignon and the county of Venaissin (November 3, 1791) ; and from that time he was treated as an enemy to tlie republic. Tlie truce of Bologna (June 23, 1790), cost him 21,000,000 of francs, and many of the finest s])ecimens of art. He consented that such statues and pictures, as might be selected by commissioners appointed for that purpose, should be conveyed to the French capital. Finding it impossible to obtain an equitable peace, he set on foot an army of 4o,000 men, which he placed under the command of General Colli, a native of Austria ; but Buonaparte, notwithstanding, com- pelled his holiness to conclude a peace at Tolen- tino (Feb. 19, 1797), which cost him 15,000,000 more, and the three legatines of Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagno. He renounced at the same time Avignon and tin county of Venaissin. In con- sequence of a tumult which took place at Rome, in which the Frejich General Du()h()t was killed, a French army, under General Berthier, entered that city (February 11, 1798), and proclaimed the Roman republic ; which, as we have noticed, enjoyed but an ephemeral existence. The govern- ment was vested in Hvc consuls, thirty-two sena- tors, and seventy-two tribunes, called the ReprJ sentatives of the People. Pius VI. was carlij captive to France, and dici^ at Valence (AiimiJ 29, 1799). The conclave assembled at Venice a J elected Cardinal Chiaramonte in his place (.Marcl 13, 1800),who assumed the title of Pius Vli,, a„l within It short time after made his public ciitJ into Rome. Buonaparte, then elected first consul allowed him to enjoy the rest of his estates in pcncJ Towards the end of 1792, a French Hcct, ctJ manded by Admiral La Touche, appeared dtf tM port of Naples, and obliged the king to acknon ledge that first of all sovereigns, the Frcnrli Rd public. This did not prevent him from cntcrini into the coalition (July 12, 1793), by a treaty ( alliance witli England, which was concludi'rt Naples. After the success of Buonaparte in Lou bardy, Ferdinand IV. averted the storm whicj threatened him, by signing first a suspension i arms at Brescia (June 6, 1798), and the peace i Paris a few months after, which he nbtainod oi honourable conditions. We have already niej tioned, that he was one of the first sovcreiijns wh entered into the second coalition against Ftiincel and that the precipitancy with which he tlieJ commenced hostilities, proved prejudicial to ihl success of the war, as well as disastrous to liiinstU He did not regain possession of the kingdom '. Naples till after the retreat of Macdonald in niiil and he purchased peace (March 28, 1800) at tkl expense of receiving into his kingdom 1G,0( French troops, who remained there until till conclusion of the treaty between Alexander uuJ Buonaparte. The combined fleets of Turkey and Russia hal subdued the islands that formerly belonged to I Venetians, viz., Corfu, Zante, Ccphalonia, ^ Maura, Ithaca, Paxo, and Cerigo. According toi convention concluded at Constantinople bctweti Russia and the Porte (March 21, 1800), thesi islands were to form an independent state, all though subject to the Ottoman Empire, under ihl name of the Republic of the Seven Isliiiids. Tiiil republic was acknowledged in subsequent treatiej by France and Great Britain. By the peace of Basle, (iermany had been Jil vidcd 'nto two parts; the North, at tlic head ol which was Prussia ; and the South, wliorc Aiislril had the predominancy, in consequence of liel armies and by the favour of the ccclesiaslicif princes, for the secular states abandoned hem often as they could do so with impunity. Bv acoiiJ vention which Prussia concluded at Basle will France (May 17, 1795), the neutrality of tlieNonl of Germany was recognised, on conditions wliidi the princes situated beyoiul the line of demarcalioJ were anxious to fulfil. Prussia afterwards conl eluded arrangements with these states for c-tH blishing an army of observation. This defeclioJ create(l no small animosity between the courts cl Berlin and Vienna, which the Frendi dextcroii'lf turned to their own advantage; especially durinj the sitting of the congress at Rastadt. In vaindil tlic Emperor Paul, who had determined to railJ war against the republic, attempt to restore harJ mony between these two leading states. He wJ equally unsuccessful in his project of drawma Prussia into the coalition ; although Frederic HI hud been deceived by France, who, after havinj promised him, in a secret convention concluded J| Hfvoliitioiiary principles. l)ict uf Warsaw. Affairs of Poland. PERIOD IX. A.D. 1789—1815. Pulish (^onstitutiun. Cuthcrino II. Ilismumljurmcnt of Poland. 189 Berlin (.August 5, 1796), a compensation propor- Licil to the loss which he had sustained hy Jug tlie left bank of the Rhine, entered into Injagemeiits directly opposite, by the secret ar- itifsinthc treaty of Campo Formio ; neverthe- |e,.< Frederic ■\Villiam III., who succeeded his Itlier (November 10, 1797), remained faithful to i neutrality which the state of the Prussian finances bpeari'd to render necessary. r Tho revolutionary doctrines which were trans- Llaiiteil i"to Germany by the French emissaries, liad fallen on a soil well prepared, and in which Ihey speedily struck root. By the peace of Lune- le, all the provinces situated on the left bank of |lhe Rhine were incorporated with France ; and L. moment was approaching which was to wit- Jiess the do^vnfal of the German Empire. While lilie French nation, seized with a strange mania, ■nore overturning law and order from their very Ifouiiditions, and abandoning themselves to excesses which aijjiear almost incredible in a civilized coun- |tn, ill the North another nation, sunk into anarchy liiid oppressed by their neighbours, were making |a noble eiibrt to restore the authority of the laws, linil to extricate themselves from the bondage of a |foroign yoke. The Polos had flattered themselves, that while Itlic forces of Russia were occupied against the ISweiles and the Turks, as we have already men- Itioued, they would be left at liberty to alter their Ifoiistitiition, and give a new vigour to tl:s govcrn- Imfiit of tlieir republic. An extraordinary diet |vras assembled at Warsaw (178S), whidi formed ilseif into a confederation, in order t-,- avoid the linconvenienees of the Lihcmm Veto, and of the lunanimily required in ordinary diets. The Em- Ipri'ss of Russia having made some attempts at that liiii' to engage the Poles to enter into an alliance lapiiiist the Porte, she was thwarted in her inten- Itiiins by the King of Prussia, who, in consequence lof his engagements with England, used every ffuit to instigate the Poles against Russia. Ho Ifnoouniged them, by ottering them his alliance, to latli'inpt a reform in their government, which Ihussia had recently guaranteed. A committee lof leijislation, appointed by the diet, was commis- Isioncil to draw up the plan of a constitution for the Ireformation of the republic. This resolution of the diet could not but dis- Ijleasc the Empress of Russia, who remonstrated litfainst it as a direct infraction of the articles agreed Ibetweeu her and the republic in 1775. The Poles, Iwho thus foresaw that the changes which they in view would embroil them with that prin- Icess, ought to have considered, in the first place, lliow to put themselves into a good state of de- [fimr. But instead of providing for the meliora- Itioii of their tinances, and putting the army of the Iropublic on a respectable footing, the diet spent lacnnsiderable time in discussing the new plan of he constitution which had been submitted to tliem. IThe assnranee of protection from Prussia, which I had been officially ratified to them, rendered the I Polos too confident ; and the treaty of alliance hhieh the King of Prussia had in effect concluded jwith the republic (March 29, 1790), began to lull I them into a prol'ouiul security. Stanislaus Au- Ipistus, after having long hesitated as to the party |lie oiiglit to espouse, at length voluntarily joined that party in the diet who wished to extricate Poland from that state of dcgi'adation into which she had fallen. The new constitution was accord- ingly decreed by acclamation (May 3, 1791). However imperfect that constitution might ap- pear, it was in unison with the state of civilisation to which Poland had arrived. It corrected se- veral of the errors and defects of former laws ; and, though truly republican, it was free from those extravagant notions which the French revolution had brought into fashion. The throne was ren- dered hereditary in favour of the Electoral House of Saxony; they abolished the law of unanimity, and the absurdity of the Libcrum I'vto ; the diet was declared permanent, and the legislative body divided into two chambers. One of these cham- bers, composed of deputies whose functions wei-e to continue for two years, was charged with dis- cussing and framing the laws ; and the other, consisting of a senate in which the king presided, were to sanction them, and to exercise the Veto ; the executive power was intrusted to the king, and a council of superintendence consisting of seven members or responsible ministers. The inhabit- ants of the towns were allowed the jjrivilege of electing their ovvii deputies and judges, and the burgesses had the way laid open to them for at- taining the honours of nobility. The latter were maintained in all the plenitude of their rights and prerogatives ; the peasantry, who had been in a state of servitude, were placed under the immediate protection of the laws and the government ; tlie constitution sanctioned before-hand the compacts which the landed proprietors might enter into with their tenantry for meliorating their condition. The ettorts which the Poles had made to secure their independence, excited the resentment uf Russia. The empress bad no sooner made jieacc with the Porte, than she engaged her partisans in Poland to form a confederacy for the purpose of overturning the innovations of the diet at Warsaw, and restoring the ancient constitution of the re- public. This confederation, which was signed at Targowica (May 14, 1792), was headed by the Counts Felix Potocki, Rzewuski, and Eranicki. In support of this confederacy, the empress sent an army into Poland, to wage war against the partisans of the new order of things. The Poles had never till then thought seriously of adopting vigorous measures. The diet decreed, that an army of the line should immediately take the field, and that a levy should be made of several corps of light trooi)s. A loan of 3;{,000,(100 of florins passed without the least opposition ; but the Prussian minister having been called u])on to give some explanation as to the subsidies which the king his master had promised to the republic by tlic treaty of alliance of 1790, he made an evasive answer, which discouraged the whole patriotic party. The refusal of the Polish diet to accede to a mercantile scheme, by which Dantzic and Thorn were to be abandoned to the King of Prussia, had disaffected that monarch towards Poland. It was not difWcult, therefore, for the Empress of Russia to obtain his consent to a dismemberment of that kingdom. The aversion which the sovereigns of Eurojie justly entertained for every thing that re- sembled the French Revolution, with which, how- ever, the events of Poland, where the king and the nation were acting in concert, had nothing in com- mon except appearances, had a powerful eftVct ■"J 190 Stanislaus Kin); ur Pulunil. Prussian acciui^iitious in Poland. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. KoaciuHzko. I'olisli Insuriei'tloii. Itusaians (lofaileil, »1 ijt upon tlio court of Berlin, and proved the cause cf their breaking those engagements which they had contracted with that republic. It was then that the Poles fully comprehended the danger of their situation. Their tirst ardo'r cooled, and the whole diet were thrown into a state of the utmost con- sternation. Abaiuloned to her own resources, and convulsed by intestine divisions, Poland then saw her utter inability to oppose an enemy so powerful as the Russians. The campaign of 17!(^ turned out en- tirely to the disadvantage of the patriotic party. After a successful career, the Russians advanced on Warsaw ; when Stanislaus, who was easily inti- midated, acceded to the confederacy of Targowica, by renouncing the constitutiou of the 3d May, and the acts of the revolutionary diet of Warsaw. That prince even subscribed (August 25, 1792) to all the conditions which the empress thought proper to dictate to him. A suspension of arms was agreed to, which stipulated for the reduction of the Polish army. In consequence of tlie arrangements entered into between Russia and Prussia, by the convention of St. Petersburg (January 23, 1793), tlie Prussian troops entered Poland, and spread over the country after the example of the Russians. Proclamations were issued by the courts of Berlin and St. Petersburg, by which they declared the districts of Poland, which their troops had occu- pied, incorporated with their own dominions. The adoption of the constitutiou of 1791, and the propagation of the democratic- principles of the French, were the causes of this new dismember- ment of Poland. Prussia took possession of the larger part of Great Poland, including the cities of Uantzic and Thorn ; the town of Czenstochowa in Little Po- land was also adjudged to her, with its frontier extending to the rivers Pilica, Sterniewka, Jezow- ka, and Bzura. The left bank of these rivers was assigned to Prussia, and the right reserved to Poland. The portion awarded to the former con- tained 1,001 square German miles, and 1,200,000 inhabitants. Russia got nearly tlie half of Lithu- ania, including the palatinates of Podolia, Polotsk, and Minsk, a part of the palatinate of Wilna, with the half of Xovogrodck, Brzesc, and Volhynia ; in all, 4,.").")3 square German miles, and containing 3,000,000 of inhabitants. The Poles were obliged to yield up, by treaties, those provinces wliich the two powers had seized. The treaty between Poland and Russia was signed at the diet of Grodno (July 13th, 1793). But that with the King of Prussia met with the most de- cided opposition ; and it was necessary to use threats of compulsion before it was consunnnatcd. On this occasion, these two powers renounced anew the riglits and pretensions wliich they might still have against the republic under any (lenoiiii- natioii whatsoever. They agreed to acknowledge, and if it should bo required, also to guarantee, the constitution which sliould b(- established by the diet Avith the free consent of the Polish nation. After these treaties came a treaty of alliance and union between Russia and Poland (October ICth, 1793), the third article of which guaranteed their mutual assistance in case of attack ; the direction of the war was reserved to Russia, as well as the privilege of sending her troops into Poland, and forming magazines there, when she might judge it necessary ; while Poland agreed to enter into n* connexion with foreign powers, and to makt nj change in lier constitution, except with the iiiinrol batimi of Russia. The portion that was left ti the republic, either in Po'and or Lithuania, cnul tained 3,S03 square miles, with soniewhiit m,J than 3,000,000 inhabitants. This state was vidcd into eighteen palatinates, ten of which wcrj in Poland, and eight in Lithuania. To each ol these palatinates were assigned two senators. palatine, a castellain, and six deputies to sit n tliJ diet. These uifferent treaties, and the grievances o| which the Poles had just cause to complain, threJ the public mind into a state of agitation, wliicj the following year broke out into a gi^iicial in-urj rection. A secret association was formed at War! saw ; it found numerous partisans in the annvj which was to have been disbanded accoidiii" iJ the arrangements with Russia. The conspiritoii chose Thaddeus Kosciussko for tlieir cliief, in t projected insurrection against Russia. That i;i'. neral had distinguislied himself in the Amoricaii war under Washington ; he had very reccnth' sij nalized his bravery in the campaign of 1702; ; after the unfortunate issue of that war, he liad wi tired into Saxony with a few other patriots, whJ were ready to exert their energy in the cause oil freedom. The insurgents reckoned with cuiiJ fidencc on the assistance of Austria, wlio liafl taken no part in the last dismemberment of PoJ land ; they flattered themselves that Turkey audi Sweden would not remain mere spectators of tliel eiforts which they were making to regain tlieirf liberty and their independence. Ivosciuszko had wished that they should post-l pone the execution of their plan, in order to gain more time for preparation ; especially as a suspi.| cion was excited among the Russians. He cici retired into Italy, where he remained until one oa his accomplices, who had been ordered, as al propagator of sedition, to banish himself from tliel Polish territories, informed him that his couiitn.r men wished him to appear among them witlioutl delay, as a better opportunity might not soon arisiJ Madalinski, who commanded a brigade of cavalnl under the new government, when sununoneil tol disband them, refusi'd ; and throwing off tlie niaskT gave the signal for insurrection. He snddciilyl quitted his station, crossed the A'istuhi, and afterl having dispersed some detacliments of l'riissiaiii,l whom he encountered in his route, he maiclicill directly to Cracow, where he erected tlie stamlarJl of revolt. The inhabitants took arms, (■xpelMl the Russian troops who were quartered in thall city, and proclaimed Kosciuszko their geneiah Al sort of dictatorship was conferred ujion liim (Marchl 24, 1794), which was to continue so lonj; iiil their country was in danger. He took anoutliotl fidelity to the nation, and of adherence totheprin-l ciples stated in the act of insurrection, by wliichl war was declared against tlie invaders of tiieir| rights and liberties.* The Russians and Prussians immediately de-l spatehed their troops to arrest the progress of lliel insurrection. The defeat of a body of RussiaMif near Raslavice, by Kosciuszko, inspired the insur-l gents with new courage. The inhabitants of ^Var- • Vie dn Cathuriuu, |iur ^Jaslira, tomo ii. llistoitc (l>i| Uefiio lie Frpilerie Guillauniu, \mt Scgur. In8iirr«''("' "t Warsiiw. Pfiissians aiid Aiistrians in- vade Po\iiiid. PERIOD IX. A.D. 1789—181.-). K(isciiis/ko iirisoner. Siuviirow rtt'strdvs I'raga. KiissiiuiB enter VVarsiiw. 191 knn: «rose in like manner against the Rusainns, who a I'arrison there of 10,000 men, under tlie iiaiul of General Igelstrom. It Avas on tlie ijitofthe 17th of April that the tocsin of revolt iouiuloil in the capital ; the insurgents seized leaM'nal, and distributed arms and ammunition di,,, the people. A brisk cannonade took place .twMU the Russians and the Poles. Tlie combat i-liiiued for two successive days, in which ■ ■vcriil lousauiis of the Russians perished, while 4,500 (teiiiaile prisoners. Igelstroin escaped from the itvwitli about 13,000 men. The same Insurrec- )'ii broke out at Wilnn, from whence it extended frail Lithuania. Several I'olisii regiments who 111 entered into tlie service of Russia, changed s, and enlisted under the banners of the insur- ants. In spite of their first success, it was soon per- iveil that Poland was deficient in the necessary iouiei'S for an enterprise of such a nature as that nhich tliey were engaged , The great body of If ciiizens were neither sufficiently numerous nor iffifii'iitly wealthy to serve as a centre for the ivohition whicli they had undertaken ; and the inituile in which the peasantry were kept was It ill tali'ulated to inspire them with enthusiasm ira cause in which their masters only were to be lenaiiuMS. Besides, the patriots were divided in liiiion ; and the king, although hi^ appeared to ipMve their efforts, inspired so much mistrust by li weakness and timidity, that lie was even ae- iseil of secretly abetting the interests of Russia. v, the nobles, who alone ought to have shown luraV' inul energy, were found but little disposed sive any effectual support to the cause of liberty. jery contribution appeared to them an encroach- leiit'on their prerogatives ; and they were as much ersetualcvy en masse as to the raising of re- lits, which deprived them of their tenantry. IP) woie, moreover, afraid of losing those rights privileges which they exclusively enjoyed ; it was with difficulty they renounced the hope wearing a crown which was placed within their ,fh, I'mlcr these considerations, Kosciuszko was inviuced that it was impossible for him to or- inizc an armed force equal to that of the Russians tlic Prussians, who were acting in concert to lit the measures of the insurgents. At>er some Ikior operations, an important engagement took ke on the confines of the palatinates of Siradia Cujavia (June 8, 1794), where he sustained IVat ; in consequence of which the King of iissia made himself master of (Jracow. That nee, supported by a body of Russian troops, iilirliiok, in jiersoii, the siege of Warsaw. Tiu' inlorces of tile insurgents were assembled under lewailsof that eity. They amounted to about '000 I'Dinbataiits, while tlie enemy had more Ian 50,000. The siege of Warsaw continued iirly two months, when a general insurrection, iili had spread from Cireai Poland into Western fussia, obliged the king to retire, that he might St the progress of the insurrection in his own imiiiions. llic joy of the insurgents, on account of this iiii'nt, was hut of short duration. The court of imna, which till then had maintained a strict resolved also to despatch an army into Hiis army was divided into two columns. one of which marched on Brzesei, and the other on Dowl)no. On the other hand, the Russians, under the command of Suwarow, advanced into Lithuania, and pursued a body of the insurgents, who were comniaiided by Sirallowski. Kosciuszko, who now saw the great superiority of the enemy, made a last effort to prevent the junction of the army of Suwarow with that of Uaron de Fersen, the Russian general. Directing his march towards the latter, he fought a battle with him near Mat- chevitz (October 10, 1794). The action ecniti- nued from sunrise till beyond mid-day. Six thou- sand of the Polish army perished on the field, and the rest were made prisoners. Kosciuszko was himself dangerously wounded, and fell into the hands of the conqueror. He had endeavoured to escape by the swiftness of his horse, but was over- taken by some of the Cossacs ; one of whom, with- out knowing him, ran him through the back with his lance. Falling senseless from his horse, he was carried to a monastery ; when it was inti- mated, by one of his officers, that he was the com- mander-in-chief. Surgical aid was immediately administered to him, and he was soon after con- veyed to St. Petersburg.* This disaster quite dejected the courage of the Poles. Their generals, Dombrowski and Mada- linski, who were carrying on the war in Prussia and Great Poland, abandoned these jirovinces, and marched with their troops to the relief of Warsaw. Suwarow likewise directed his march towards that ca]iital, and was there joined by a considerable body of Prussians, under Dorfelden and Fersen, in conjunction with whom he commenced the blockade of that citv (November 4). The Rus- sians, who amounteu to 22,000 men, prepared for an attack of the entren-hments of Praga, one of the suburbs of Warsaw. The Poles, who had a body of between 8,000 and 10,000 men, made a courageous defence ; but nothing could withstand the ardour and impetuosity of tlie Russians, who were burning with rage to avenge the blood of their eountryinen who were massacred at Warsaw. Three batteries had been erected in the night; and tlie two first divisions, though harassed by a vigorous fire in every direction except the rear, bravely surmounted every obstacle. In the space of four hours they carried the triple entrenchment of Praga by main force. Rushing into the place, they pursued their adversaries through tiie streets, put the greatest part of them to the sword, and drove 1,000 into the Vistula. In this scene of ac- tion, a regiment of Jews made an obstinate de- fence, and at length were totally extirpated. Thir- teen thousand of the I'oles, it is said, were left dead on the spot ; 2,000 were drowned in the Vis- tula, anil between 14,000 and 13,000 were made prisoners. f The suburb of Praga was jiillaged, and razed to the foundation. Terror seized the inhabitants of Warsaw, and they determined to capitulate. Suwarow n.aile his triumphant entry into that capital, and wnis presented with the keys of the eity (November 9), The Polish troops laid down their arms ; the insurrection was quelled ; and the greater part of those who had distinguished themselves in it were arrested by the Russians. The King of Poland retired to Grodno ; and the • Histoiri! ili'9 Ciinijiagiics ile Suw»ro\v, toiiiu ii. t Uistoiro ue Sawornw, tome ii. Til '* Aliilicatioii of StiiiiisliiiH. 102 I'artitioii of I'olaiiil liy I'nis- HJa, AiiHtriii, anil Uimsiii. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. i », I- L final (liKinombernient of tliat country was agrcoil upon by the three allied powers. The court of Uerliii having signified their inten- tion of retaining Cracow and the neiglihouring country, of which their troops had just taken pos- session, Austria, wlio was also desirous of pro- eiuing that part of Poland, took advantage of the discontent which the conduct of I'russia during the campaign of 1794, and lier retreat from the ensuing coalition, had excited in the Empress of Russia, and entered into a separatt; negociation with the court of St. Petersburg. They arranged privately between themselves as to the shares which were to fall to each. An art, in form of a declara- tion, was signed at St. Petersburg between these two courts (January U, 1705), purporting that the cabinet of Berlin should be invited to accede to the stipulations therein contained ; in considera- tion of the otter which the two courts made to ac- quiesce in the reunion of the remainder of Poland with the Prussian monarchy, and the engagement which they entered into to guarantee that acquisi- tion. A negociation was afterwards set on foot with the coiu't of lierliu, wliich was protracted to a great length ; as that court, who were ignorant of the engagement which Catherine had come under to secure Cracow to Austria, had always enter- tained the hope of being able to retain it them- selves. It was only when the act of the 3rd of January was communicated to them, that they agreed to a special convention with the court of Vienna, which was signed at St. Petersburg (Oct. 24, 1705). The city of Cracow was al)audoned to Austria, who, on her side, resigned in favour of the King of Prussia a portion of the territory which the declaration of the IJrd of January preceding had secured to her. It was settled that the limits of the palatinate of Cracow should be regulated between tlicse two powers, under the mediation and arbitrement of the court of St. Petersburg. Stanislaus had then no other alternative left than to resign his crown into the hands of the Empress of Russia. The act of bis abdication was dated at Grodno (November 25, 1705). It was by these different conventions that Russia obtained all that remained of Poland and Lithu- ania, as far as the Niemeu and the confines of Brzesci and Novogrodek. She likewise obtained the greater part of Samogitia, with the whole of Courland and Semigallia. She hud besides, in Little Poland, that part of the territory of Chelin situated on the right bank of the Hug, and the re- mainder of Volhynia ; in all, containing about 2,000 square miles, with 1,200,000 inhabitants. To Austria were assigned, in addition to the principal part of Cracow, the palatinates of Sendo- niir and Lublin, with part of the district of Chelm, and the palatinates of Brzesci, Podolachia, and Masovia, which lay on the left b-rnk of the Bug ; comprising, in all, about 8.')4,000 square German miles, with about 1,000,000 inhabitants. To Prussia was assigned part of the palatinates of Masovia and Podolachia, lying on the right bank of the Bug; in Lithuania, she had part of the pa- latinate of Troki and of Samogitia, which lies on this side of the Niemen, as well as a small district in Little Poland, making part of the palatinate of Cracow; the whole consisting of about 1,000 square German miles, with a ])opulatiou of Ui'simrcuRortlio Crimoi Policy of CalliiTiiic i| ' ' KmiiiTor I'ttiil niuriloral 1,000,000. Finally, by a 'subsequent convfuti,), which was concluded at St. Petersburg (Jam,. 2(i, 1797), the three co-participant courts ;iirnn»i. among themselves as to the manner of (liscliaflj the debts of the king and the republic of \\,\lfl They agreed by this same convention to allow tj dethroned monarch an annuity of 200,000 ducati At the commencement of this period it was jm yet perceived of what importance it was Inr KuJ to get possession of the Crimea ; ami it was ij until the agriculture and industry of that coimj had begun to prosper under a wise administralioi that they began to aiiprehend it might one dJ have a ])owerful influence on the balance of trail! The Empress Catherine, who had been ttaltcn in her youth by the eulogies of the philosoiiheJ so as to become a disciple of their new doctiinel was the first to perceive this danger. Sjio declared herself a most implacable enemy to [A Prench Revolution. She would gladly have armJ all Europe to exterminate that sanguinary IklioJ Nevertheless, she did not take up arms licrself.aJ only joined the first coalition in an indiri'it nial ner, and by concluding treaties purely (letViisi J such as that of Urontningholm with Sweden (oj 19, 1791), that of St. Petersburg with tliu Kiiij Hungary and Bohemia (July 12, nS2), aiidtlj wliich was concluded (August 7) in the saimtij with Piussia. Nevertheless, when Erodciii' retired from the list, she resolved to si'iul inti) iij field the 00,000 men which England was to tal into pay. The treaty was on the eve of Im signed when the empress was suddenly cut otflj death (ITovember 17, 179G). Paul, her successor, refused to saiu'lion iW treaty. AVe have already noticed the aitivc pj which that monarch took in the war of against Eranci' ; and we have already mi'iiiinnJ the unsuccessful attempt which he made to revil the principle of the armed neutrality. Tliiseif peror, whose excellent qualities were tarnislioi want of steadiness aiul consistency, publislnd j his coronation (April 5, 1797) a fundamental 1 regarding the order of succession to the tlironl This law, intended to prevent those revolutiol which the unsettled state of the throne had pi| duced in Russia, established a mixed lineal ; cession, agreeably to the order of prinioijeniliirj admitting fenuiles only in case of the total exliiJ tion of the male descendants of the male line I Paul ; and defining with the most scrupulous e| actness the order in which females and tl'.eir i' scondants should succeed to the thr nie. llutttj prince, wlw was weak ami narrow-minded incapable of discharging his imperial fuiiclioij had entailed upon himself the hatred of bolhll nobility and the people. He met with a viold death, being murdered by a party of daring col spirators (March 24, ISOl). Alexander, who succeeded his unfoituny father, lost no time in restoring peace to liisdonj nions ; he entered into uu arrangement with Ot Britain (June 17), by which he abaiidonoill principle of free trade for neutral vessels; adm ting that even a convoy should not protect Ihfj from being siibjccted to a sean^h or visitatM when ordered by the captain of a vessel bclougf to the navy of a belligerent state, llelikew concluded peace with France and Spain (Ocl| her 4, «). THE MILITi OiistaviM III. nuassiniitcil. Minority of fiustuviw IV. ChristiiinVII. K.of Denmk. PERIOD IX. A.D. 1802—1810. CliuiiUes ill Franco. liiiciiiiiuirte'K nmliitiuii. Itiiliiiu l » i TIIE MILITARY PREPONDERANCE OF FRANCE UNDER THE SWAY OF NAPOLEON BUONAPARTE. A.D. 1802—1810. Isthr period on which we are ihjw entering, and irhiclH'Oinprehends eight years, we shall find Napo- toii Buonaparte devoting his unremitting efforts Da threefold project, the object of whicii was to mire for himself the empire of tiie world. The ptof these was to render the monarchical govern- [leiit hereditary in his family, preparatory to the litrodueliou of an universal despotism ; the next las to extend the boundaries of France; and tlie 1st to surround that country, not with a multitude ]fropublics as the directory had done, but Avith a lumber of petty monarchies, the existence of which iould be so amalgamated with his own dynasty, ht they must stand or fall with it. "NVe shall find lini iieeplng these projects incessantly in view, so ■at every step which he took towards the aceom- fishment of the one, was calculated at the same Bic to advance the other two. I Before tlie end of the year 1801, a council, com- |osfd of 450 deputies of the Cisalpine republic. Us assembled at Lyons, in order to delibetate as I the changes to be made in the constitution, liiich was assimilated more and more to the mo- pchical form. In the mean time, the presidency ' the republic was conferred on Buonaparte Pamiary 20, 1802), under the title of the Italian miiblic. 1 Notwithstanding the easy triumph which the Institution of the year eight had gained, by dis- liviiig the legislative body of France, dissension p not long in breaking out among its members ; pi an opposition was formed which, condemned silence, had no other means of manifesting itself, Ian by secretly thwarting the views of the govirn- Ifiit. There was, however, another opposition Ihich appeared among the members of the tribu- Ite, and which greatly irritated Buonaparte, by pnly attacking his projects of legislation. The period had now arrived, when one-flfih part of the members of these two bodies were to retire. But the new constitution, in settling this partial altera- tion, were divided as to the mode of proceeding ; or rather it was the general opinion, that the ex- members should be determined by lot. This temporary vacancy furnished Buonaparte with a pretext for getting rid of all those whose presence had laid him under any sort of restraint. A de- cree of the conservative senate, of l)''i 22nd Ven- Idse, in the year ten (March HO, lrt02), turned out twenty ui the tribunes, and sixty of the legisla- tors ; and supplied tljeir place with members taken from the lists formed by the electoral colleges of the departments.* Having thus discovered what ad- vantages might accrue to him from an institution which Sieycs had contrived for balancing the autho- rity of the government, from ihat moment he con- verted the senate into an instrument for sanction- ing his own usurpations. A notification from the French ambassador in Switzerland announced that the Valais should henceforth form an independent republic (April 3). The inhabitants had not requested this favour ; it was granted to them because Buona- parte wished to get possession of the Simplon, lireparatory to the union of that country with France. The second decree of the new constitu- tion of the 6th Floreal (April 2(1) granted a general amnesty to all emigrants who should return within the space of three months, and take the oath of allegiance. All their property that re- mained unsold was restored to them, except the forests. About 1,000 individuals were excepted from this act of justice, which strengthened the authority of buonai)arte by conciliating the public opinion in his favour. • Migiict, chill), xiv. O ..::i - - I 194 Lc^'iou of Ilunniir. (/Uiirordat 8i|{iit>il nt Parisi. Kxpt'ditiuii to St. Doiiiiiitfo. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Biioniiiiarte Conjiil for Lil'e. Helvetic Conrtltutlon. ■X ill Immediately after this, lluonuparte Kuhniittocl to the tribiiiiato and the Ic^'ishitivc body a plan lor tho institution ol' a Legion ol' Honour (May 10), This lection was to be composed of tifteeu coliorts of dif^nitaries for life. The first consul was the chief of the legion ; each cohort was to be com- posed of seven grand oIKcerg, twenty commandants, thirty ofiicers, and ItOO legionaries. The object of Buonaparte evidently was to establish a new aristocracy. But the minds of the council were so little prepared for this proposition, and so contrary was it to the republican ideas with whicli they were still imbued, that it passed but by a very small majority, and the first consul thought proper to delay carrying it into execution.* For some time the first cons\d had been in negociation with Pope Pius VII. on tlie affairs of religion. He had adjusted a concordat with his holiness, subjecting public worship to the super- intendence of ten prelates of the highest rank, and filty bishops. This famous concordat was signed at Paris (.hiiy !•)), and ratified at lionie (August 15) ISOl. It was afterwards subniitteil for the acceptance of the l''reiir'ii nation, and adopted by a very great majority. The sabbath and the lour grand festivals wer<- restored ; and from this date the government ceased to follow the decennary system. This was the first abandoinnent of the republican calendar. Buonaparte hoped to attach to himself the sacerdotal party, the oriler most dis])ose(l for passivi' obedience ; and in this man- ner to balance the clergy against the royalists, and the pope against the interest of the coalition. The concordat was ratified with great pomp in the church of iN'otre Dame by the senate, the legislative body, the tribune, and tlie public functionaries. The first consul appeared in the ancient court carriage, with all the circumstances and etiquette of royalty. t Another law of the constitution of the liOth of I'Toreal (May 20) sanctioned the shive trade in the colonies restored to Prance by the treaty of Amiens, and in the French colonies situated be- yond the Cape of Good Hope. By this law, how- ever, slavery was not restored in St. Domingo. Tiiat colony was under the dominion of the negroes, who, after having niassacnrd the whites, and eonnnitted barbarities which surp.iss even those of the French revolution, had succeeded in establishing their independence. After the preli- minaries signed at London, Buonaparte had sent an ex])edition to that island, having on board 40,000 men, commanded by his brother-in-law, Cieneral Le Clerc. On their arrival at St. Domingo, the; French took possession of tlie town of ("ape Fran- (jois, which was the seat of government, as well as of several other places. Toussaint L'Oi-.verture, originally a slave, and raised to be chiel of the blacks, then gave in his submission; hit General Le Clerc, having afterwards arrested tii.n, had him conveyed to France, where he died. This circum- stance excited the blacks to a new revolt under the command of Christophe, the relative and friend of Toussaint ; and after a bloody war, France lost this valuable colony, together with a numerous army and many commercial advantages. After the conclusion of the peace of Amiens, the Tribunate, purged of its republican members. .Migiivt, eliap. xiv. t Ibid. signified a wish that some pledge of nntional ,,|., titude should be offered to General BuontpanJ The Conservative Senate then nonunutcd him HrsJ consul for ten years. When this decree of il J senate was announced to him, he cuuld not loi.l ceal his chagrin ; and that he might not be com] pelled to accept a favour which he disilaiiipd IJ demanded that the decision of the senate siioultj be submitted for the sanction of the people, 'fy two other consids were resolved to consult nation (and this was the only occasion in whiij they ever acted on their own authority), not asij the decree of the senate, but on the question \\li,J ther Buonaparte should be elected consul far liftj Out of ;j,3'J7,37i), of which the primary A»seiiiti|J was composed, 3,5(!8,88ri voted in tlie utfirnialivej and only 8,494 in the negative. Agreeiilily tot expression of the public voice, the senate pioJ claimed Buonaparte first consul for life ( \ii„i •2, 1802). ' Two days after, the third decree of tliu stnaiei of the IGtli Thermidor brought the goveinnuiitl still nearer the monarchical form, by giaiitiui; J the first consul great influence over the Llccioiajl Assemblies, with the power of ratifying trcMticJ granting pardons, nominating senators witlnHiJ jiresentation, appointing the presidents of ilu Llectoral Assemblies, adding to the numbir oil their members, and even jiroelaiming his own mrJ cessor. The Tribunate, which still appeared sni!.t.f what formidable, was reduced to fifty inenikis Such, in the space of two years, was tlu' ]iii]J gross of usurpation and despotism. In the couis* of 1802, the reunion of three different tountiiej to France was either accomplished, or in a staij of preparation. The first was that of the islaiij of Elba, to whicli the Kings of Kaphas and SarJ dinia had resigned their riglits ; the second wa that of Piedmont, which France liad.occiipicd sinfj the 0th of December, 1708 ; and lastly, on tliJ deaf h of Ferdinand, Duke of Parma, his estates wej taken possession of by France, as having (levoivwl to her in virtue of the treaty of Madrid (AInrch; 1801), although they were not annexed to tha country till 1808. These acquisitions weio niailel on the political principle avowed by Buonajiartii which allowed everything to be done that ti(aiie( did not expreijsly forbid. The peace of Canipo Formio had reoogiiisci! \\i right of Switzerland to form a constitution for heJ self; and Aloys Reding, happening to be at I'aril about the end of 1801, obtained the consent ol the first consul for the re-establishment of di'inol cracy in the jietty cantons. From that tinif wi jiarties rose who liad long been kept down by force I and Switzerland experienced a series of revolutimisl in which the unionists or aristocratic party, the Federalists or democratic, alternately hail tkJ ascendency. At length a new constitution, iiiorf aristocratic in its piinciples, was suhinitted fol the approbation of the people. It was ucccptff by 7;i,453 citizens, and rejected by i)2,4'2l); M as 107,172 individuals, who had a right to volfl had disdained to exercise that privilege, tlie Hell vetic Senate had the effrontery to reckon all ihf absentees among the acceptors; and the new ml stitution was introduced (July 3) as having beef sanctioned by a nutjority of the people. BuonM parte had given the Swiss to understand, tliij he relied on their willingness to be uniieil War in Switzorlui Ali'xander, Kniij. Kin'laiid re-c'omn Iraiioo I but, as tl a pretence of not i L,. withdrew his t ] 20). This was tin I Jeniociatic cantons I Sclnvi'itz, restored I nhicii most of the o I tial government, hai I aeiv cantons, and s« I in ilitir own territor I of till-' lifst consul. jconiinand of Ney, Ifslablislied the go- Iniemiedby tliefirst & lliiinself an arbiter I summoned a Helvet llil,lS03),and procla Lpiland, known by t Idwi. Switzerland t IpuljliL', composed ol I The constitution of Itratic; hut the equal Ibisls of them all. i Isemblc ill one of the liaiid in rotation. I I thief magistrate of Illic lii'st Landanin laoniiuatcd by Buonn Buonaparte jilaye^ liiepociations for ind Ihiilost a part or tin Iky tliL' cession of the l\ias he, ill concert v\ irlio were the princi lafair, Without here ente hejociations, we s'l Inaiii obstacle whiel lions of Iluti«bon b khiili France conclu iutalion came to a fi Siame ut the Recess mliou (February 2.), Jaeiit regarding ind lhaiigca was brought riio war between jtiio\ve, ISOU), by wiiieh the arrange- Tiieiit regarding indemnities and territorial cx- panges was brought to a di termination. The war between France and Great Britain was teuowed in 1X03. Public opinion in England had Bedared against the j)eace of Amiens, wliich was ly no means favourable to her, coneidering the Vritice-; which she had made. Tlr- Britisli mi- kisliy ivpeuted for having agreed to lue surrender U Malta and the Cape of Good Hope. They de- Vil the restoration of Afalta under j)retext tliat [he !!uarautoes had not been granted without re- tricliou. The arbitrary and violent acts wliich Buonaiiartc had committed since the peace, and |bove all the annexation of Piedmont to France, irnislied a second motive for not evacuating an klaml so important from its position. After a lery spirited iiegociation. Great Britain offered to ptuiT Malta to its own inhabitants, aiilot against the govenuiHiiiJ but he was reluctant to betray this excellent uimT whom Buonaparte hated, and who had been n.f cepted by name from the general amnesty . iliJ silence was sutficient to entangle him in a piv.f tendot(d Mills, to liie exclusion of his dauf^hters ; and failiii); ihc males, to his brothers Joseph and Louis, and I ilifir male descendants. rhe same decree o." the senate made several inirairlaiit chauftcs in the constitution, with the Ivirnnf renderinir it perfectly monarchical. Buo- I nparte accepted the di^'iiity which had been con- Iffrrod on him. He only asked, that the nation I should be consulted upon the question of lieredi- llarvrijj'ht. Wishing,' to legalize this usurpation in llie eves of tlio vulgar, he invited the sovereign ipiralitT to Paris to crown him. This ceremony Itook place in the ehiu'ch of Notre-Danie (Dccem- bor'J, 1H04) ; and, contrary to the general custom, I Buonaparte i)ut the crown on his own head, after Iwliicli he placed it upon that of liis 8])oiise. Some |i\e(ks afterwards, in opening the session of tlie |lf;i4ative Body, he solemnly declared, that, as he IwassatisHed with his ;;raiideur, he would make no Iniore additions to the Empire. The base transaction of 21st March was fol- (i\vp(l hy an exchange of very violent letters, be- Itnccii the Russian ambassador at Paris, and the Iministcr of Buonaparte. In addition to the indig- Imtion which that event had excited in the mind lof Alexander, and which the prevailing tone of the Inotes of the French minister were not calculated Ito diminish, there was dissatisfaction on account Icftlie non-execution of many of the conditions lanced to in the treaty of lUth October, IHOl. JAIcxaiider demanded, that the rrencli troops jihould be withdrawn from the kingdom of Naples ; llhat Buonaparte should concert with him as to the TprlMciples upon which the affairs of Italy were to jlie reijulated ; that without delay he should in- llcmnify the King ofSardinia, and evacuate Hanover ■July 27, 1804). To these, Buonaparte only rc- hy recriminations, when the two courts re- hlled their respective ambassadors. The emperor pil not waited for this opportunity to employ Bii'aas for setting bounds to the ambition of Buo- kia|iartc. By the declarations interchanged betwixt me I'uurts of St. Petersburg and Berlin (May 3 and fi), it was agreed, that they slioidd not allow the Troneh troops in Germany to go beyond the Irontier of Hanover ; and that should this happen, Jacli of these two courts should employ 40,000 men |o repel such an attempt. The Prussian declara- jion added, moreover, that there should be no dis- lute as to the countries situated to the west of the IVoser. Not content Avitb having thus provided kthe security of the north of Germany, the Em- pror Alexander immediately concerted measures fill; Austria, with the view of opposing a barrier Aimtriim prepnriitluua. Sir Siiliiey Siiillli. lli'rtiilmrimi«Vi«'roy of Italy. 107 to the usurpations of France. Declarations, in the shape of a C()n>cntion, were exchanged bf tweeii these two courts liefore t*"' end of the year; and they agreed to set on an army of ;J.50,00() men. The maritime war, like that of 1803, was limited to threats, and immense preparations on the part of Buonaparte, and also by Sir Sidney Smith, ti> jirevent the junction of tlie French fleets, or burn their shipping in their own ports. The English took jjossession of the Dutch colony of Suriiuini (May 4) ; and towards the end of tlie year com- menced hostilities against Spain. The first six months of the year 1805 -were marked by the new usurpations of Buonaparte in Italy. 1. A decree of the estates of the Italian republic assembled at Paris (March 18), proclaimed Napoleon Buonaparte King of Italy ; and it was stijjulated that he should give that crown to one of his legitimate or adopted sons, so soon as the foreign troops should have evacuated the kingdom of Naples (where there were no foreigners except the French troops), the Seven Islands and Malta ; and that henceforth the crowns of France and Italy should never be united in the same person. Buonaparte repaired to Milan (May 2(i), where he was crowned with the iron crown of the Emperors of Germany, who were kings of Italy. Eugene Beauharnais, son of the Empress Josephine, was ajipoinleil his viceroy. 2. Napoleon conferred the principality of Piombino, under the title of an hereditary fief of the French empire, on Eliza Bacciochi bis sister, and her male descendants (May 25). This comideted the spoliation of the House of Buoncompagni, to whom that title and estate belonged, together with thi' greater part of the isle of Elba. ',1. The senate and people of the Eigurian republic demanded voluntarily, as was said, to be united to the French Empire. Their request was agreed to (June 5) ; and the territory of that republic was divided into three depart- ments. 4. The republic of Lucca demanded from Buonaparte a new constitution, and a ])rinee of bis family. By a constitutional statute (June 2.3), that republic was erected into a principality, under the ])rotection of France ; and conferred as an hereditary right on Felix Bacciochi, and his wife Eliza Buonaparte. 5. The states of Parma seemed destined to be given up by way of c )mpensation to the King of Sardinia, together with the territory of (ienoa ; but Buonaparte, finding himself in- volved with the Emperor Alexander, caused them to bo organized according to the system of France. It was impossible for the sovereigns of Europe not to unite against a conqueror who seemed to apply to politics that maxim of the civil law, which makes everything allowable tnat the laws do not forbiil. AVe have already seen that Russia and Austria had concerted measures for setting bounds to these usurpations. But it was AVilliam Pitt, who was restored to the British ministry in the month of May 1804, who conceived the plan of the third coalition. Disdaining the petty resources which the preceding ministry had employed for harassing France, he conceived the noble idea of a grand European League, for the purpose of rescuing from the dominion of Buonaparte the countries which France had subdued since 1702, and for reducing that kingdom within its ancient limits. With regard to the territories which were I > ii\ ('iinvr'iitioii botwL'cii Aiiittriii 1<)K and U>i»Hiii. lli'tweeu I'liii^liiiid gc Riisaiii. KOCH'S IlEVOLUTIONS. Tliroiitcncil iiiviiii;i)ii uf liiiKliind. lli'fi'iit orCiviionil Mack. t It c to bo taken from France, ho proimsnd iirruni^c- inontM, l>y inruns of which thoy minht t'orni a har- rier ai,'ainMl iirr fiitiiro piojc'i'ts of iifj^ranili/.cincnt ; and liiiallj, to introduce! into Kuroiic a i,'cii('ia[ Hy.lcni of puhiic li^ht. In fact, the plan of Mr, I'ilt, whicii wan coniniunicatcd to tlic Russian ),'o- vcrniniMit (Juiu' l'.», lH(),">j, wiin the Hanii; as tliat whicli, ten years afterwards, was executed liy tlu" (jraiid Alliance; fakinuf this additional circuni- stanco into ,ic<'ount, namely, the restoration of legitimacy, without whicli they woidd only havu huilt their Hchcmcs upon the sand. If this plan failinl in ISO."), it was only because thi^y caleulati'd on the participation of I'russia, as an indispensal)le condition ; which they did not ({ive up wlu-n that pr)wer had declared her resolution to preserve her neutrality. Here it will bo proper to point ont, in their chronological order, the treaties which composetl, or were connected with, the third coalition. 1. A treaty in form of a declaration between the courts of St. Petersburg and N'ienna (November (i, 1804), by which they engaged as follows: — Russia to fit out llo.OOO nu)u, and Austria •-';5.),000 ; with tlio view, not of effecting a 'ounter-revolution in France, but of preventing the further usurpations of IJuonaparte, and obti iiung tiie restoration of the King of Sardinia, thi; hand Duke of Tuscany, and the heir of tiie House of Este, to their own properties in Italy ; or to oblai.; for tlieni other settlements in lieu of these. '2. The convention of Stockholm, between Great Britain and Sweden (December H), the object of whicli was, to enable the one to provide for the defence of Stralsund, and the other to form a body of Hanovevian troops in Pomcrania. U. A treaty of alliance between Russia and Sweden (.lannary 14, ISO.')), the jiarti- culars of it are not known ; but it is certain, that the debarkation of a body of Russians in Pomerania was reckoned on, whicli was to be under the command of the King of Sweden, in addition to the 12,000 men which he was himself to transport thither. It is probable, that by this treaty Gustavus Adolphus acceded likew'-se to the convention of November (!, 1S04; but at the same time exjjressing his regret that they should have renounced the project of restoring legitimate monarchy in France. 4. The treaty of St. Petersburg between Riissia and Great Britain (April 11), the object of which was to form a league for setting on foot an army of .50,000 men ; independently of the force which (ireat Britain was to furnish for obtaining the evacuation of Hanover ; foy restoring independence to tiie re- piiblics of Holland and Switzerland ; for re-esta- blishing the King of Sardinia ; for efl'ecting tlie evacuation of Italy by the French ; and for esta- blishing in Einope an order of things which might oppose a barrier to any future usurpations. 5. Declarations exchanged at St. Petersburg (August 9), between Austria, Great Britain and Russia ; in lieu of a convention ; by which Austria acceded to the treaty of the llth April. (J. The convention of Helsingborg (August 31), between CJreat Bri- tain and Sweden ; being an extension of that of December .5, 1804. 7. The treaty of Beskaskog between the same powers (October .'}) ; by which the King of Sweden joined the coalition. By the treaty of April llth, it was agreed that the Emperor Alexander should make another at- tempt for arranging matters with Huonapaitc, «o i !iK III (iri'vent the war. M. de Novosil/otf, i,,,,. , fl the Russian ministers, was sent to Paris. ()i, i,}^ f arrival at Berlin, he receivc hich was commanded iioiuiiiallvl by the Archduke Ferdinand the emperor's euuMiiJ but in reality l.;, Genertil ,Ma<-k. The tirst \\n*.\ sian army under the command of General Kiitmnff | liad arrived in Gallicia, and was conliiniiTiir its march in all haste. It was followed by iiiiulhfrl mider .Miehelson. T'he Russian troops in l)a|. | matia were to attempt a landing in Italy. The army (d" .Mack jiassed the Inn (Septeiiiheri S). They had reckonc .Iwi'.ys distrustful of Austria, abandoned tliciaiNl of thj allies, and retired with his troops iiiio| Francouia. The Electors of Wurtciiihcru' luil Baden were di'sirous of concluding treaties ol'iil.| liance with Buonaparte, after he had jiassed th' Rhine ; these treaties were signed at Lii(hvii;sliur»| and Ettingeii (October 4, 10). The jilaii of lliio-f najiarte was to cut oti' the army of Mack vvliohadl entered Suabia, from that of Kutusoff which wasl marching through Au^-tria. In this he socceeikd,! by presuming to violate the Prussian teirilnry.l Alarniont, who had marched by way of Miiyeiue,! and Bernadotte, who had conducted the arniyiiil)! Francouia, where they were joined by the liiiva-l rians, traversed the country of Ansjiach, and thiisl came on the rear of the Austrian army (Octnbtrl (1). From that date scarcely a day passed withnutj a battle favourable to the French. Seveiiil ilivi-l sions of the Austrians were obliged to 1-ij ilnwiil their arms. Mack, who had thrown liinisolt' iiilol Ulm, lost all resolution, and signed a capitiilatioiil (October 17), by which he promised to sunvmlirl if assistance did not arrive within einlit (liiys. Ht'l did not, however, wait for tliis delay. By asecoiiill < apitulation two days after, he surrendered wiij 2.),000 men. The army of Mack was thus totally dissipiUiJ.I except (i,060 cavalry, with which the Archdiikfl Ferdinand had opened himself a passage Ihiouihl Francouia ; and 20,000 others with wliidi Kicn-I mayer had retired to Braunau, where he was niell by the vanguard of Kutusoff. These two geiierabl continued their retreat. The Russian army re- >'a|K>li'i>ii tuki-a Viuiiim. jlittli'ul Aimtcrlit/. (Viiiv. Iii't. I'riiiuiutkniiiiiiiii. PERIOD IX. A.D. im)2— 1810. .1 I .l(liiitt';it Oliiiutz, on tlm Hanie daj that the I'-niperor I jlisaiiiler arrived in the eani|), they eonceived lljfiiwlves Ntronjif enouKh to eneonnter tlus enemy, Ijiiilirami'diately diHeontinued their retreat. Tlu! Ibailli'of Austerlitz, wiiieii Buonaparte fmiifht (Do- Iteiiilicr -) with Ibo eombingd army of the A\ih- |tn;iiis aad RuHitianH, decided the campaign in his Mi'iiiitiine Uiionaparti" found Inmself in a jiosi- llimi wliicli niijfht beeonn? dan^ferous. When tini lufliduke (;luirles had perceived that tiie French Iliad lumeiitrati'd their forces on tin- Danube, lie Ijfiil supplies to (ieneral Mack, and commenced ||ii> ivlrcat from Italy, that ho nii^jlit be nearer the Iffiilre id' hostilities. This retreat he could not IfllW'l, except by lia/,arding several en^^aifenn-nts Imlli Masscna, who continued the pursuit. When iDear t'illi'y lie formed a junction with the .Vrch- Ijulie John, who bad retreated from the Tyrol |(Xon'iiiber 27). Tlio united armies of these two Ipriiucs amounted to 80,000 men, with whom they liuarthi'd towards Vienna ; while the Hininiirians Itiisi'Wi WHv.vc to defeiul their sovereiffii. 'I'he next lliy alter the battle of Austerlit/., the llussian army received a reinforcc-ment of 12,000 nnui. An army |ciini|iosed of I'ruasians, Saxons, and Hessians were Ltlif |iiiiiit of penetrating into Franconia; and tome cuips of Prussians, llussians, Swedes, llano- nerlans and Un<;liHh, had Joined a second army in Bheiiiiilli of Germany, ruady fo invade Itel^iuin. pioreover, the linfflisli and tlie Russians were pre- jiariiii,' to eil'ect a landing,' in the kin!,'dom of Naples. I was ill this critical moment that the cabinet bf Vienna siijned an armistice at Austerlit/, by nhieh they engaged to send back the Russian »raiv, and to cpiell the insurrection in Hungary. frilhin twenty days after, peace was sijfiied at Tresburj; between Austria and France (I)eciniber til). The former acknowledged all the usiirpa- lious which I)uona]inrte had committed, and ceded lo him, on the part of the kingdom of Italy, the Wieut states of Venice, with Dalmatia and Al- laiiia; and on the part of her allies the elector of laden and the new Kings of Ravaria [ind Wur- lenihei^', the Tyrol and all her hereditary posses- fioiis ia Suabia. The violation of the Prussian territory in Fran- Ionia had excited the moat lively indignation at BitIiii. The king resolved, sword in hand, to reui,'e tliis outrage against bis royal digiiity. The frii«siau troops occupied Hanover, which the rmich had Just evacuated ; and that country was islored to its legitimate soveriugn. A body of Rus^i;lns, for whom they had till then vainly de- luded a passage through Silesia, obtained per- iniisiun to traverse that province to Join the army IfKutusotf. The Emjieror Alexander had himself |rrived at Berlin (October 2.">), as well as the phdukc Anthony, giund-inaster of the Teutonic Jiai;'ht8. A convention was concluded at Potsdam INovendKr ;J) between Alexander and Frederic III. of Prussia. This latter prince Johied the >ahtion, with the reservation of a preliminary at- ! tempt to obtain the nsKeui of nuoiiflpuui- to <-mii I ditions extremely e(|uital)le. In ease (luse Wrii rejected, Frcileric promised to take the llelil wil 180,000 men, who, ill fact, were |)iit in a comlitio^ lo march at the earliest iioli.'c. ('011111 lluugwity who had been sent to Niciiua as the beari 1 .1) overtures of peace to HiKuiiipiirte, accompanied with an energetic deelaratiun, look it into his head that it would be prejudicial to the interests of Prussia were he to pre^s the object of his coiumis- sion ; he resolved, thcret'ore, to wail the course of events. After t\w Irui'c of Auslcrlitz, he toidi it upon him to cliaiige the system of bis governuieiit. Witlioiil having any sort of authority, he coiiidiiiled an alliance with Uuoiiaparte at N'i.'iiiia (December 1.")), for the guarantee of their respective states, and for those of Havaria and the Porte. Prussia was to cedt! the |)riiicipality of Anspaidi to Havaria; that of Neuchatel to France ; and that of ('leves to a prince of the Empire, whom Huonaparte might name. In return Prussia was to gel possession of the I'jioctorale of Hanover. When Count llaugwitz arrived at Rerliu with the treaty, Frederic ;it first was inclined to reject it ; but the luiiiister having represented to him the danger to which Ibis would expose him in the present stale (d' alluirs, the king reluctantly con- seiiled to ratily the treaty ; ])rovided a clause was added, that the occu])ation of the provinces mu- tually ceded should only be announced as provi- sional, until the King of England should give his assent, by 11 future treaty, to the ces>iou of Hanover. It was in this manner that Prussia, in etl'ect, got possession uf that eleclorati! (.lanuary 27, 1800). Meantime, fount Ilaiigwil/., who had repaired to Paris, found it impossible to obtain the acceptance of Buonaparte to the ralilication of the treaty so inoditied. He then signed a tecond convention i (February 1.')), by which Prussia engaged to de- I clare the occui)atioii of Hanover definitive; ;in(l to shut the rivers in the north of (ierinany against j the English. The King of Prussia, who liad I already ilisbanded his army, found himself in a situation that obliged him to ratify that arrange- ment. Huonaiiarte had made prodigious efFortsto revive the French marine. The Heet at Roehefort, com- niandei'a])les ; the one hy the way of Corfu, and the other from Malta. 'I'he plan was carried into execution, and the foreii^n trooj)s were received as friends. A decree of Mapoleon, dated from Seluenbrunn (December 27), had declared that the dyiuisty of the Hourhons had ceased to rei;;u at .\*a|)les. After the battle of Austerlitz, the Russians ar.d Knj,'lish abandoned Italy; an- from his Jiead, so to speak, like the fabled .Minerva from the lirain of Jupiter. The circumstances in wiiich be was placed, the. success of bis arms, iind the weakness of foreipi cabinets, suifijested to him one idea after another. It was when he was on his iiiarch ajjainst the Rus- sians that be received the news of the battli; of Trafalgar, wiiich bad C(im])letely destroyed the labour of three years, and annihilated his hopes of reducing Knglund by planting his standard on her soil. His imagination then eoiicoived the plan of opposing one combination of strength to another, and surrounding France with a number of states, independent in appearance, but subject to the di- rection of the bead of the Empire. After the peace of Presburg, he had repaired to Munich, where he adopted his stepson, Eugene E^auharnais, and declared him his successor in the kingdom of Italy. In announcing this eleva- tion to the senate (January 12, 180(i), he declared that he reserved to himself the right of deter- mining the common tie which was to unite all the states composing the Fedtrativv Sijstcm of the Frmrh Empire. This was the first time that this system was spoken of. In a short time after, he declared that the whole peninsula of Italy made part of the Grand Empire. Finally, a constitu- tional statute of tlie Imperial fanuly, wiiich published at that time (March :i((), niiiy 1]|. r,.l giirdi'd as the fundamental law of the ri'duriiij.j Sjsti'Tii he liud hit'dy announced. 'I'liiif h||||,|,j granted to the I'.mpcror of the French nn iiIimiIhiJ supremacy over all the sovereigns of hJH tiimil, J an:! he no doubt had great hopes that tlii> ii,j would arrive when no others would he foiiinl ; any of the adjacent states. In annexing the Venetian provinces tn the kiii". dom of Italy, Duoiuiparte detached fi„in ||||,Jj Massa-Carrarii and Carfagnana, whi''h lie liri.ti,\v,.,i| on the I'rince of Lucca. At the same tiiiu., y created within these iirnvinces twelve diicliii,, jJ he itary liefs of the Kmpire, and tluci' wiiliiiJ the slates of I'arnia ; all of which he (lis|i(iM.||,)|| in favour of his generals and ministers. The duchy of Cleves, ceded by I'russin, ns wiH as that of Uerg, which liad been ceded tci liim U the King of Ilivaria, were conferred, toijcthfr wlihl the hereditary dignity of Admiral of I'mnci., ,,|J bis brother-in-law, Joachim Murat (.Mnri'li :iiij,l Alexan Huonaparte was living at that time in the iiinstl jierfcct peace with the tierman Empire, to wliict that city belonged, and which could not protetiii.l By til" treaty of Presburg, the Bocca di Ciittaro, inl Dalmatia, was to be restored to the French; bull the Uussians, whose fleet was cniisiiig off tlip.'i'f coasts, immediately took possession of that jilacel (February 4), ut the moment when the Au»liiain| were about to surrender it to the French. Bunnad parte made this a pretext for refusing to nive upl to the court of Vienna the fortress of llinunaii,' which he was to evacuate according to the slip tions of that same treaty, and for leaving a part oil his army in Germany. He did more; he oidcredl General Lauriston, who commanded the FrciichI army in Dalmatia, to occupy Ragusa CM ay '.']), al republic placed under the protection of the I'arteJ with whom there subsisted a treaty of peace was not, however, until the 1.3th of August, 180',l that Ragusa was formally united to the kiiigdoml of Italy. The Elector of Baden and the Princes ofNasswl were obliged to make cessions to France. Tlifl former surrendered Kehl, and the latter Cii?sclaiiJ Kosthcim, opposite Mayence. "Wesel, a fortrpiil in the duchy of Cloves, was likewise occupied bjl the French troops. All these were so ninny vio-[ lations of the peace of Luneville, and the trralyc Vienna in 1803. Ill order to promote this federative system, thel States-Genenil of the Batavian republic rcccivcdal hint to petition Buonaparte for a king. Atreair| |.,,,ilM.f Mr. rilt. ii,,,iiiur (■• •'• i''<'x. iViiliHliTHtliiii III' i]\e niilmc. rF.nion ix. A.n. iho.'—isio. Kit (Mnrt'ht;4), ivhirli l.'i'iii> thr hrothnr of Na)nili'()ii, a\!is L,|,,ii.il hciiiliiiirj ami i()ii!«titul»onal Kiii(,' (>( lldl- linil: I'"' •''''■ '" •^'""'''"•' '" hiM iiialf Ihsuo. Tlmt loiiiit' "'"" ni'i'i'l't'''! ** "l> rt'liu'faiicc a crinvii wliirh fliuil iirviT covi'ti'il, anil Avliii'h he wore with |i,u(lMlii,'iiitv. IVilliiim I'it'. "luiin liiHtory would linvo lircii ji,ii,| to ciill 111"' ttriat I'itt, had hlic not already ,i,iii tiiiit tillr t" hJK father, had dii-rl ahoiif the nnini: I't 'lie y ir (.Tamiarj 211). (liarleH I'ox, l. I'ltiiiiT !iiilaj;iiiii~.t, Hii('('ei't \n I.iird Yarmouth and afterwards to Lord fjiiilirdali'. After the death of Fox (Sept. IJl), Ikf iicijm'iations ended without having prochieed lii\ rhaMijc in tlie rjlatioiis hetween France and liiilliinil 1 neverthelesH they deserve to be phieeil Liiin' liie important events ef that year, as they Lre the immediate eiiusc of the war with Prussia, liwoshiill liave oeension to mention. Tho lJn|)eror Alexander likewise niade an at- ■fnipt fur a reeoneiliation with liuonaparte. He lent M. D'Ouhril to Paris, who, after n nej^'oeia- lioii ct' ti'ii days, concluded a treaty with (ieneral hrki'.tlie French jjleniiiotentiary (.Inly 20, ISOO), Ivwhiili it was ai;reed that the llnssian troojis liiiiulil evacuate the Uoeea di Cattaro, and the Vri'iii'li troops quit llanusa ; that the inde|)endcnce Ifllii' ri'iiulilic of the Seven Islands should he ac- Immli'iiireil, as well as the indepeiulenee and iii- ■firil) of the I'orte ; that in three months the fnmh lr"'il>s shoidd evacuate (iermany ; that the w parlies slioulil use their joint intluence to pro- •iiri' a fP'-sation of the war between Russia and Iwcili'H ; that Huonapartc should accept the me- lijlidii of Hussia, in nej;ociatintr a maritime peace. Miri't iniicle secured to I'erdinand l\. the llalpiirli' Isles, in comjiensatiou for the kini;dom ■ Naples. It thus ajipeareil that the Kim,' of tsnliiiia was the greatest sufferer. The F,mi)eror jlkxaniler rel'used to ratify this treaty, whether it tliat lie considered the terms not altni^ether lonnurable, or that he was displeased with the lomlusioii of the eonfcderation of the llhine, which kok place at tiiis lime. Till' confeileratioii of the llhine was undoubtedly |ip iiinst important ronsequeneo of the peace of frrsluir!,'. That event, which entirely chanired lip slate nf (iermany, and placed so lartre ajiortiou If that Empire under obedience to liuonaparte, la* prepared by the article of the peace which re- Kiii'.ed the soverei};nfy of the Kiniis of Bavaria I Wuiteniberif, and the Elector of Baden ; as ►ell as liy several other irregular transactions which Bck place after that time. Such was the conduct If ihi' Elector Arch-Chancellor, in arrogatini,' to limsclfthe riffht of appointing his own successor; Inil niiminating Cardinal F'esch as such, who was jluimaparte's uncle. The confederation of the Ihinc was concluded at Paris (July 12, ISOO), Iflivien Buonaparte and sixteen of the (icrniun Tiiiiccs, including the Duke of Cleves, who sepa- htcil from the Germanic Einpire, and formed a liriicular union among themselves, under the pro- lEctioii of Buonaparte.* , I'Matcinis of I.uecliesinVs Hist, of tho Causi'sand Effertg fllie Cunl'cJeration of the Khine. Tho deelarattorn which the tnlni"ter of France and those of the confederated estates remitted oti the same day to the diet of Katishon, intimated to that assembly that the (lermaii I'.mpiie had eeaseil to exist. The chief of the (ierniaiiie bodw who hiul been kejit igiK^rant of all these intrigues, then ])uhlished a spirited ileelaratiou (Aiiir'ist (i), by which he resigned a crown which cmilil only ap- pear valuable in his eyes ki huiu; as he was able to fiiUil the duties and exercise the prcrogiitives which weic attached to it. This transaction, which put an end to the (ier- nian F.mpire, had been kept a secret from Prussia, liuonaparte, in announcing to l''rederic AVilliam the result which it had protlnceil, invited him to form a similar confederation in the North of (ier- many ; hut, at the same time, he negociated pri- vately with the I'lectors of Hesse anil Saxcmy, to jirevent them from entering into that union ; and declared, that he could never permit the cities of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lubee, to becimie parties to it. In his negociations with l''nglaiid, he pro- posed to make over tliese cities to l''erdinanil IV., King of tlie Two Sicilies, He carried his perlidy even farther. He several times oll'errd to the F.nglish plenipotf ntiaries the same F'dectorate of Hanover, which, a few nionliis be ore, he had almost compelled Prussia to claim as her own ; and he oH'ered to the Kleclor of Hesse the jirinci- ])ality of Fulda, which had been granted to the House of Orange, then in strict alliance with that of Bratulenburg. All these underhand manieuvres opened the eyes of the eabiiu'l of Berlin, which immediately resolved to declare war. I'nfortn- nately for Prussia, she eonnneiu rd hostilities with- out waiting the arrival of the supplies which Rus- sia owed her, in virtue of the alliance helween the two states by the treaty of PelerhotF (.Inly 28, ISOO) ; and she had to take the lielil against an active enemy, whose Avarlike troops were idready in the hi-art of (iermany. (ieneral Knidielsdorlf, whom the King of Prus- sia had sent to Paris, gave in the demands which were to be considered as his ultimatum : — Buona- j)arte treated his propositions as extravagant and insulting, and accordingly commenced hostilities. The eam])aign was decided by the battle of ,Iena, or rather by two battles which were fought on the same day (October 11, IKOtJ). Buonaparte in pt rson gained the one near Jena over Prince Hoheiilohe; Marshal Davoust gained the other near Auerstadt over the Duke of Brunswick, com- mander-in-chief of the Prussian army. The route was complete. F'or a short time the troops retired withotit confusion. The approach of the enemj's cavalry, however, extingtnshed all remains of order, and the most precipitate dispersion of the van- ((uislied army ensued. About 20,000 were killed and wcuuided in the battle and pursuit ; and the prisoners formed at least an equal number.* The scattered remains of the troops who united after the action were either defeated or obliged to sur- render as prisoners of war. The king, with the wreck of his army, marched back to Prussia. Berlin, his capital, fell into the liands of the con- queror. The carelessness, the unskilfulness, or the treachery of their commanders, and the want of means of defence, were tlie causes why several • Cursory View of Prussia, from the iloatli of FrciU'ric II. to the peaee of Tilsit. I > ■■■3 • '- I :3 (iciii'ia) HliicliiT (:'i|iitii)ati'S. 202 Kiiiiiiioin lit' S.ixoiiy. The Hi'iliii Di't'ieu. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Till- ('"iiliiicntal System Kattlo of Kylim. " Coalition against NaiH'Iwm. c; < c E It ■fS: forti'pssos, and wliole bnttalions of troops, surroii- (lei't'd iit'tLT 11 sliglit ri.'sist;iiict'. Tlicrc -wi'it somo ^^lll) woi'o I'vi'ii obliged to rapitiilatc in spito of tlieir ])riivpry. At llifiirf, Fiuld-Miii-slitd Mi'lk'ii- d()iir(ai)itid"atiMl willi 14,000 iiicu (October l(i). Si)ainliiu t'l'U on the liiiino d;iy tbat tlie enemy cii- tered into Berlin (October "J.")). Prince Hobeiilobe, after a brave defence, ctipitnlated tit I'rentzhiu (October '"<), witb a corps originally consisting of 1(1.000 infantry, iind sixteen regiiiieiits of ciivalry. Stettin ;ind Custrin opened tlieir gtites tifter a sliglit resistance (Xoveiid)er 1). At J.ubce, 21,000 men, witb (ieneral lilucher, laid ilowii tlieir arms (Nov. 7). ^lagdebtn-g caiiitiilated next day witb •J-'.OOO metj. Iniinediately after tbo battle of Jena, Buonaparte took. ])osscssii)U of tb(; principality of i'nldii. lie bad tbo unfeeling insolence to send a message to Ibe old Duke of IJrnnswick, tbat none of Ins fi- niily sbonld ever reign after bim. Tbat |)rinco ilied of tbe wounds be bad received at Aumstadt ; and bis brutal foe would not even jterniit bis lite- less body to be (lejiosited among tbe iislies of bis tmcestors. Tbe lUector of Hesse, wbo bad re- niiiined neutral, was declared ;iii enemy to I'raiu'e, and bis ti'rritories seized. Huonaptirte, in return, grtiated neutrality to tbe I'.leclor of Saxony, wlioso troops bad tougbt tigaiust bim at Jena. Tbe Kintrof Prussia bad tried to allay tbe storm Mbicb fbreatened bis inonarcby. Tbe .Martinis tie Luccbesini ami (ieneral Zastrow entered into a negociatioii witb Mar-btil Dnroe at Cbarloltenburg (October :iO). liuonii|)arte refused to ratify tbe ]ireliininaiies wliich were signed tbere, because tbe idea bad occnneil to bim in tbe meantime of exciting tbe Poles to insurrection. An armistice Wiis tben silfned (Noveinbir 1<>), on conilitions extremely rigorous, by wbicb Hreslau, (ilogau, Colberg, Ciraudeutz, and Dautzic, were delivered up to tbe Frencb. Frederic, wbo biid resoheil to tbrow biiiiself on Russia, wliose forces were ap- jiroacbing in till baste, rejected tbtit armistice. From Berlin, Biiouiiparte reptiirod to Posntmia, wbere be concliiiled ;i treaty witb tbe Elector of Saxony (December II). Tbiit prince tben as- sumed tbe title of king, joiiu'd tbe tonfederiition of tbe Rbine, iind got jiossession of tbe Cin'lc of Cotbus, belonging to Prussia. By a tretOy signed at tbe same ])lace (December 1.')), tbe Dukes of Saxcmy, of tbe race of I'.ruest, were likewise re- ceived into tbe Confederation of tbe llbine. A Russian army of 00,000 men b;id arrived in Prussia in tbe inontb of November. Frederic William, on bis side, formed a new artiiy of 40,000 men. Several iictious took jjlace witb. nit any de- cisive residt ; but after ibe battle of Pultusk (Dec. 2()), wbere tbe victory was claimed bntb by tbe Frencb and Russians, eacb i)arty retired to w inter (piarters. It was during Buonaparte's stay at Berlin tbat ho conceived tbe idea of tbe continental system ; or at least ri'dnced its elements into sbaite. Tbe jmrport K>f tliis system was to ruin tbe coininerce, and by consecpience tbe prosperity of England, by exiduding from tbe continent of Europe tbe im- ))ortation not only of her own maimfictures, but tbe productions of ber colonies ; tbe use ot wbicb litid become, tbrongb long habit, one of tbe neces- saries of life to all the nations of Euro])e ; a'ld for which, moreover, no substitute could be f':dlKliii Iionie inanufactures. This chimerical sdipna. imj the federative system, which we have aboady nicnl til|>liii8 IV. 20;} were invii . 'flu- same (lay a convention with tlic Kinu; fcStt'Cili'H was likewise nif^ned at UartenHtein, in lU'iK'i' of which Prussia promised to send a r^. lif iiiiops to Ponierania. Austria was dis- ^((1 III enter into this j)roject, hut hcfore coming niilocision, she tried the scheme of mediation ; ill ilic month of March, new proposals for Ljcoweie iiiiiile, which proved unsuccessful. Sup- |u wore promised to Prussia hy a convention |(rm'(liit London (June 27), hut which a change ifiiicuinslances prevented from being ratitied. I ^viiiie the armies continued in a kind of inac- 1,111, Marshal Lefcbvrc pressiid the siege of Daut- |f, Al'tir several attempts to blockade the place, Idieral KidUrentli took it by capitidatiou on very joiuiuriilile terms (May 24). Neisse, Ko/.el and l]jl2jiltpwise capitulated in course of the follow- Miioiitli. 'I'liese two latter ])laces were not to . ri'sloii'd to the French. Hostilities reeoni- fcfiia'il ill the month of June. Skirmishes were Ijilv takiui; place, until the battle of Friedland Iciilpd the campaign (June 14). (ieneral Hen- li;ii>ii ik't'eated tlie divisions of Laniies and !Mor- |er, when the Russians, thinking tlie battle was Liied :is they no longer saw the enemy, slackened leir «ertiiins ; but towarii;iii and Prussian armies passed the Niemen iJiiuo 1>*) ; and next day Buonaparte entered ilsit, I Miantime the cabinet of Vienna, with whom ■ejodatiims were still carrying on to obtain tlieir Jccessiou to the convention of Bartenstein, had leat General Stulterbeim to the head (piarters of lie two nioiiarchs, with power to sign a defen- Ivpalhaiice; but the war had tlien recommeneetl Villi new vigour. There was a party in both ibiiiets, and even among the allied generals, who fislioil to prevent ttiis alliance ; and this party Ifceedeil in their designs, A Russian (jeneral Leared at Tilsit on the part of Bennigsen to ne- Indale an ariiiistice, which was concluded on tin? Bill (June '11), without including the Prussian piy. Tour days after, an interview took ])b\ee Jetween Alexander and Napoleon, on the invita- |oii (ifthe hitter, who wished to exert all his addiess duce tlie Northern Autocrat from the jiatlis of joiioiir and political virtue. This memorable in- irview took ])lace on a raft in the middle of the Ivor Niemen. ICach jn-ince, accoiii|)aiiie(l by tive Jtiioials and courtiers, reached the raft from the lp|iusile bank at the same moment, and embraced Jich other with all the a|>])eatance of perfect cor- lialily. They conversed tor two liours in a ))avi- loii, ami the ambilious despot of France displayed siieh ;ilo\ving colours the joys of arbitrary joiniand unlimited dominion, and held out such 1 attractive prospect of the advantages which he light derive from an union of councils and eo-oper- lion, tiiat Alexander listened with pleasure to lis now adviser, and was ready to rush into an piius and disgraceful alliance. On the same day, |icld-Maishal Kalkreuth signed an armistice on ■ part of Prussia. The next day he bad a sec(nul ►tetview, at which the King of Prussia assisted, who, when he objr cfed to some jiarts of the jiro- posed treaty, was insulted with a hint of his not being entitled to the honour of cmisultation, as he had been so coinpleUdy eompiered. It was on this occasion that Buonaparte demanded that the I'imperor Alexander shoubl dismiss bis minister Baron Budberg, and the King of Prussia Baron Hardenberg. The Prince Kourakin, and Count de (iollz were substituted in their jilace. The treaty with Russia was tirst signed (July 7). The Kmperor Alexander obtained from Biionai)art(" the spoliation of his former ally, or, according to the ibrm which was given to it in that transaction. That t/io Kiiir/ of Prussia should recover one lialf cf his estates. 'I'he jirovinces which Prussia had obtained by the second and third division of Po- land were ceded to tlu^ King of Saxony, under the title of the duchy of Warsaw, with the exception of the fortress of (irandentz, wbicli remained in the possession of Prussia, and tlie city of Dantzic, which was to regain its independence, with the exception of the de])artment of Bialystoek which was annexed to the Russian Kmpire. Alexander acknowledged the kings created by Buonaiiarte, including the King of Westphalia, lie likewise acknowledged the confederation of the Rhine, and ceded to Buonaparte the seignory of Jever, which he inherited from bis mother. He promised to withdraw bis troo])s from Moldavia and Wal- laeliia ; and to make common cause with Buona- iiarte against Kns;lan(l, should tlie latter refuse to make pence by sidimitting to the principles office commerce by sea. It api)ears, moreover, by cer- tain secret articles, that Ah \;in(ler ])romised to surrender to Buonaparti? tlh liocca di C'attaro, and the isles of the Ionian republic ; which took ])lace ill the month of August following. The ])eaee which was signed between Russia and Buonaparte two days after (July 0), included nearly the same stipulations. A special convention Avas required for execut- ing the articles of the treaty, which related to the evacuation of the states of the Kinu' of Prussia. This was negociated and signed at Koningsberg (July 12) with unpardonable precipitancy, by Field-Marshal Kalkreuth, who forgot to insert cer- tain sti])ulations so essential and so obvious, that it must have aiipeared to liini superHuous to men- tion them. Buonajiarte showed a signal instance of had faith in taking advantage of these omissions to ruin the provinces which were left in jiossession of Prussia. It may be justly said, that the c(ni- vention of Koningsberg did nearly as mueli mis- chief to Prussia as the peace of Tilsit itself. It occasioned the necessity of signing a series of s.ib- sequent conventions, by each of which Prussia had to submit to some new sacrifice. Some of the more important of these we shall afterwards have occasion to mention. The King of Sweden, who was attacked in Pomerania by Marshal Morlier, had concluded an armistice at Schlatkorv (A|)ril IS), (iustavus Adoli)hus IV. projected an attack on Marshal Brune, while a body of 10,000 Prussians were to make a descent for blockading Colberg. To carry this ])rojeet into execution, he was so eager to de- clare against the armistice, that, on the signature of the |)eace of Tilsit, be found himself alone under arms, and ex]>osing his troiqis to great danger. This unseasonable zeal obliged him to evacuate I » Diicliy of Wiirsiiw, 204 .IiTonii- K ill:; of Westplialiii. d arles IV. of S|iiiiii. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. .Imiot invades Portu^Ml. I'r. Hov'y had never once been consulted. As to the other districts which Buonaparte had taken possession of in Ger- many, or of which he had deprived tlieir rightfid sovereigns, viz., the Elector ;_ of Hanover, the jirineipalities of Erfurt, Fulda, Baireuth, and !Munster, with the counties of Catzenelnbogon and Hanau, they were governed entirely to his own interest, and disposed of at his convenience. AVhile the armies of Buonaparte were occupied in Prussia, S])ain formed the resolution of shaking otfthe yoke which 'lie tyrant of France had im- posed upon lier. Charles IV. solicited privately the mediation of the Emperor Alexander, to bring about a jieace with England. Bv a proclamation of October :{G, l«0(i, a levy of '40,000 men was ordered for the defence of tht? country, without mentioning against what enemy. This imprudent stej), which they had not courage to prosecute, ruined Spain. At the commencement of 1807, a French army Avas assembled in the vicinity of Bayonne. A trap was laid for Charles IV.; and he had the misfortune to fall into it. According to a convention signed at Fontainebleau (October 27), between his plenipotentiary and that of Buonaparte, for the partition of Portugal, that kingdom was to be divided into three lots. The most northerly part was destined for the King of E.ruria (who was to surrender up Tusi-any to Buonaparte), and to be called the kingdom of Northern Lusitauia. The southern part, com- prising Algarves, was to form a principality for Don !Manuel (Jodoy. The provinces in the middle part were to be disposed of at the general ])euce, when the King of Sjiain was to assume the title of emperor of the two Americas. Immediately after the signing of this treaty, Buonaparte aiuiounced to the Qu(>en-Dowager of Efruria, who was regent for her son Louis II., that the kingdom no longer belonged to him; and that a new destiny awaited him in Spain. In course of a few days, the French troops occupi( d Tuscany. Maria Louisa resigned the goveriinipj and retired to Madrid. All this took place „,\1 Buonaparte had obtained orders that the l.im Spaniards, who were in Etruria, should bespmi the islands of Denmark. A decree of the French senate, of Aumw il IS07, though not published till a month M suppressed the trit)unate, and iutrodi\,il iithJ changes, intended to extinguish all traces of tj repnl)lic. By a treaty signed at FMituiiuMpJ Buonaparte made over to his bro»',ier ],oiii« tiJ principality of East Fricsland and the t.-rritn'rv i Jever, in lieu of the city and port of Flushiii".' In terms of the treaty of the 2*tli Ot^obeJ 30,000 French troops, under the commanil of Junol crossed the Pyrenees in two divisions ; and toJ possession of Pami)eluna, St. Sabastiaii, FiimorJ and Barcelona. The two divisions united a'^nin"] Salamanca, and being reinforced by l'l,000 SiiJ iards, they marched upon Lisbon ; wiiile 40.(|( others assembled at Bayonne, under the pictend of supporting their companions if it were iie'issM The Prince Regent of Portugal embarked with a his treasures (November 20), and departed fj Brazil. The whole of Portugal was taken posseJ sion of ; and General Junot proclaimed that tj House of Bragnnza had ceased to reign in Kuinni but the French never executed their selicmc partition. AVc have already observed, what ])rogross tlJ f(>derative system of the French Empire liJ made in 1807, by the fomidation of tlie kiii^'iloii of Westphalia and the duchy of Warsaw, and! the occupation of Portugal ; and we sliall neji a)) the Archduke ('liarlj was defeated at Wagram, uiid retreated in gooT order into Moravia. An armistice was tlienioi eluded near Znaym (July 12J, on conditions voii oppressive for Austria. But the ncguiiatioiis I peiice were long jnotraeted, as both jiiirties weij waitinir the result of an expedition whidi tJ I'higlish had made to Zealand, and as Austril hoped that Prussia, and perhaps even Russia, woii| declare in her favour. The inhabitants of the Tyrol, who were M'i much attached to the House of Austii;i, I'loJ wlioiii they had been separated at the ]ieaie Presburg, had taken up arms under the eondmtiJ an innkeeper, named lloffer. By the arniistiwd Znaym, Austria was compelled t'> abandon lli| brave people, whom the Bavarians and the Fici; together had great difficulty in reducing to sui| mission. We cannot pass in silence the bold expcditiol made by the Duke of Brunswick, the son aii| heir of him who had cominauded at .Teiia. Atll head of a body of volunteers which he had (umtl in Bohemia, he had entered Saxony when tki armistice was concluded. Not being disposi'd tl accede to it, he traversed the duchy of IhunswicI and the whole of Lower Saxony ; beat the \Ve(t| phaliau General Rewbel, who had attemiitwl I stop his march ; and reached the mouth of tlJ Elbe in safety, where he found transpinls whia took him and his army on board and con\eyM them to England. An Fnglish fleet, commanded by Sir Kicliaij Strachan, vvilh 38,000 troojjs, under the ccninmLl of the Ivirl of Chatham, the brother of Mr, Pit( was despatched to Zealand, with the intent i destroying the shiiiping, dock-yards, and arsiiial at Antwerp and Flushing, and for occMpviii!; ikl island of Walchereu, They landed in tliiit islant keraiR'O of Pius A' fli,. Wiililicron Kxpoditiori. liraiiil Onc'liy of Tuscany. tniilisli (, jluii. iiwiiiUitioiiii. PERIOD IX. A.D. ISO','— 1810. N;ii>o1('oiiilivm('('s.I()07 Louis Kill;.' Ill' IldU'iuil. Uuiv :;0), of which they took ])oss(>ssi()ii, nnd f iheiiisi'lves nmstors of Flushiiiar-Adiiiir;d (Cochrane took Martinico by eapi- lalioii (February 12). Admiral Gambier and IrJ Coeliiane destroyed a French fleet, coni- fnded by the Vice-Admirals Villaumez and L' AU naiiiJ (xipril 11), in Bascpie Uoads, by means of fnp-eve rockets. The French fort of Senegal I into tlie hands of the English in the month of jiic I'ollinving. General Carmichael, and a body [Spaniards who had arrived from Portorico, ex- pelled the French from St. Domingo (July '). Admiral Collingwood and General Oswald took jiossession of the Ionian Islands (October H). Buonaiiarte had i-ow arrived at the summit of his grandeur, but Providence had ilenied him ii family by his wife Josephine I'ascher de la Pagerie. With the consent of both iiartics, a decree nf the senate pronounced the dissolution of that iiiiirriage (December Ui) ; while the ollicial authorities of Paris annulled it, on the pretext of informality. Another decree of the senate (February 17, 1810) conferred on the elilest son of the French Emperor the title of King of Rome ; and ordained, that the Em])eror of the French should he crowned a se- cond time at Rome within the tirst ten years of his reign. Buonaparte soon after (April 1) espoused the Archduchess Maria Louisa, eldest daughter of the Emperor of Austria. By a treaty of peace ciuidudcd al Paris, be- tween Buonaparte and Charles Xlll. of Sweden, this latter jirince reirained possession of Swedish Pomerania, on condition of acceding to the conti- nental system, though under certain iiioditications. Had Charles executed this engagement, his king- dom would have been ruined beyond resource. The part of t\w Hanoverian states belonging to the King of England which Buonaparte had still reserved in his own posses:doii, was ceded by a treaty concluded at Paris (Jaiiuary 1-lj, to his brother Jerome, to he incoijxuated with the king- dom of 'Westphalia. Besides the duchy of Lauen- buig, Buonai)arte reserved to himself a landed revenue of ■1,5.")!»,0U0 francs, for bestowing in lega- cies and endowments. Louis Buonaparte had reluctantly accepted the crown of Hidland ; but from the moiiient he had placed it on his head, he had nothing more at heart than the interests of the country ; and re- sisted, as far as prudence would allow, the tyran- nical orders of his brother, when he judired them prejudicial to the wrll'iire of llolliind. This gave rise to fretpient broils, accompanied sometimes with threats. Buonajiarte reproached the Dutch government, more espec: !ly for not earnestly and rigorously enrorcinu' thi continental system, so pernicious to their commerce. At the beginning of the year 1810, things had come to such a state that it' was expected Jsapoleon, in a moment of chagrin, wonhl cancel the kingdom of Holland from the list of European states. To avert this calamitv, Louis signed a treaty at Paris (March Hi), hy" which a body of 12,000 Dutch and 0,000 French were to he stationed tit the mouths of all tlic rivers, to protect the swarms of French revcnue- oflieers who were siiiieriiiteniling the execution of Buonaparte's orders, liouis coded to him Dutch Brabant, Zealand, and a jiart of Gueldres, of which the Waal was henceforth to form the frontier. In vain did that excellent man hojie, by so great a sa- crifice, to repurchase the independc-ice of his king- dom. IJnder pretext of certain insults which the French agents had received at th(> hands of this exasperated people, Bumuiparte sent a French army to occupy tlic whole country. Then it was that Louis resigned a crown which he could no longer wear with honour ; he abdicated in favour of his son (July :<)• Wut Napoleon, indignant at a measure on which he had i.ot been consulted, annexed the kingdom of Holland to the French Ihnpire, by a decree dated at Rauibouillet (July D). ■• » "■"3 . ■■■^ ! -■*• ) ;5 I',ii)(IUIi take Oiiiiilaloiiiiu. 208 Isle i>r Hoiiiliuii taken. The Tarill'iil' Trianon. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Insnrvection in !'iirtiii,'iil, (.'unvrntiiin of (!intra. Wellington lanila in l'orlui(al. t ■c E Some montlis afterwards, tlio republic of Valais, which, since the year IKO'i, hail formed an inde- pendent stale, was united to the l'"reuch Kmpire by a decree of Buonaparte (fov. 12). But tiie most important of tlie usurpations of Buonaparte in IHIO, and tiiat which was instrumental in work- in{,' his downi'al, was the reunion of the Ilanseatic countries situated on tl'c coasts of the North Sea, viz., certain districts ot Westphalia, and the grand dudiy of Berg, some possessions of the princes of Salm-Salm, and Salm-Kyrburg, part of the duchy of Oldenburg, the free cities of Bremen and Ham- burg, as well as the city of Lubec and the duchy of Lauenburg. By a decree of tlie senate (Dec. IH), these places wore declared united to France ; the necessity of which Buonaparte had stated in a message ri Idressed to that pliant and submissive body. France still retained possession of Guadaloupc, the Isle of Bourbon, and the Mauritius. Tlie year IHlO, in which the greatness of Buonaparte in Europe reached its summit, deprived him of tiiesc possessions. General Beckwith and Admiral Coch- rane attacked and seized Guadaloupc. An expe- dition sent by Lord jMinto, the English Governor- General in India, and 1,000 men from the Cape, reduced the Isle of Bourbon (.Tuly Tth), and tiiat of tlie Mauritius some months after. It will now be necessary to point out some of the modifications wdiich the continental system underwent. The English, in 1800, luid taken the first step to put an end to that unnatural state of commerce which preceding measures had esta- blished. They first revoked the orders of 1H07 regarding America ; so that the Americans were permitted to carry on trade in all ports subject to French influence, which were not actually under blockade ; and the law of blockade was even re- stricted to the ports of Holland and France, and those of the northern parts of It.aly, between Pesaro and Orbitello. The clause in tlie decree of the lltli of November, relative to the payment of a compulsory duty in England, was abolished. A new era in the continental system began with a decree of Buonaparte (August 7), kno^vn by the name of T/ie Decree or Tariff of Trianon. A second, by way of sujiplement, was issued from St. Cloud (September Vi). Making a distinction be- tween the trade and the produce of the colonies ; and availing himself of the universal custom which had rendered the latter among the necessaries of life, he resolved to take advantage of this circum- stance to replenish his treasury, by permitting their importation on paying an ad valorem duty of fifty per cent. A third decree, signed at Fonta'-.^blcau, ordered all English merchandise, found in France or her dependencies, to be seized and burnt. At th-'t time, France, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany, were covered with bonfires, wiiich destroyed the property of native merchants, and opened a new prospect for English manufactures one day to re- place the articles that w-ere thus wantonly con- sumed. We shall now give a short outline of the most remarkable events that took place in the rest of Europe, during this period of French prepon- derance. For more than six years Portugal, by means of the pecuniary sacrifices whii^h she had made to the French crown, had maintained her neutrality be- tween France and England. But as she haj )J trayed her predilection for England diiriu"' iJ Prussian war, lier ruin was determined oip aij as she could no longer conceal from hersul'f til danger of her position, the prince regent nitcrd into a strict alliance with Great Britain, by a cJ vcntion signed at London (October 22,' iso;' General Junot had taken possession of the countil after the royal family had embarked lor Brazil and solemnly declared, that the House of Hrii;t-i,J had ceased to reign in Europe (February 1, iwwi Following the example of the Spaniards, thfl PoriJ guese soon shook off the yoke of the Corsican od pressor. The city of Oporto gave the first si":^ of insurrection (June (i) ; an English army, com manded by Sir Arthur Wellesley, whom, by ami cipation, we shall call Lord Wellington, landed il Mondego Bay (July 31), and defeated Junot i Vimeiro (August 21). The French general, •.vl.J army was reduced to a most distressing state, oJ tained from General Dalrymple, wlio had takel the command of the English troops, a capituliitjol on very honourable terms, which was concluded a Cintra (August :!0). Junot and his troops wer< conveyed to France in English vessels. The Russian admiral, Siniayin, was not so foi^ tunate. He was then lying in the Tagus \yith ^ fieet of nine ships of the line, and a frigate, w!,ir| had been employed'in the war against the 'iiirkj in the Archipelago, and found himself under ihj necessity of surrendering his fleet to Sir CliarleT Cotton, the English admiral (September 3), whici was not to be restored to the emperor until ilJ conclusion of a specific treaty between Russia aiil Great Britain. The convention of Cintra, of whicI the true circumstances yvere not yvell kiio\yni ex| cited so great a discontent in England, that Hew Dalrymple and Lord Wellington were callel home, that an investigation might be made iutl this unpopular measure. During their absence, and after the affair of Co runna, Soult received orders to attempt the cmii quest of Portugal, yvhere there were not more thai S,000 English troops, under the command of Ge| neral Craddock, and an army of tlie iiatiyes. the head of 23,000 men he marched towards ChaveJ and took possession of that place (Mareh7),whicl is one of the frontier fortresses of the kimidonJ But on his arrival at Oporto he encountered thl Portuguese army, who for three days disputed will him the possession of the place. Here he rel mained a full month before he durs* jiroceed ol his march. Meantime Lord Wellington 1 iid laiidel at Lisbon with a neyv English arm). He niaf nieuvred so well that, by the end of Jlay, Soiil| yvas obliged to retire into Galicia, with the loss o his artillery and baggage. Next year the I'rencl sent a third expedition to Portugal, but as thisbej longs more properly to the war in Spain, \ve shal take occasion to notice it afterwards. After thl retreat of Soult, the Portuguese acted a considerl able part in the liberation of Europe. Lord ■Well lington, who was intrusted yvith very cxteiisivl jiowers, organized their army, and augmented it tl 40,000 men, with the assistance of £()00,000 sterl ling, wliich England furnished for that purpose, I The connexion between Great Britain and Fori tugal became still more intimate by the treaty j alliance which was concluded at Rio hwm (February ID, 1811). George 111. therein prouiisa^ Hi'iliii (il'Cliiirli'B IV. KN|"'il>tiu>< tu lliKMKiH Ayres. Trt'.itv u( KuiiUiiiiulik'uu. TKRIOD IX. A.I). IS02— 1810. S|i,inisli I'litriiits. I'V'iilinaml VII., K. .Iosf|ili. 20!) Sir .1. MiHirc's HcliiMt. Itrtoilo R'cogiiisu any Kill}? of Portu^'al but the lliiraiiillt'fe'itiiiiiite represeiitativp of tlie House 'vr iBn'^.iiiz!'' The reijeiit granted Dritaiii the rif;lit IjfbuiWinS s'"!'*" "f ^^''"' '" Brazil, and of suppljiny llhrmscivus with timber lor tlie purpose from the Iforests of that country ; anil by abrogating certain Ifcriiii'i' stiiiuiatioiis, he agreed to receive into liis IjmiH as iiiiiiiy Hritish vessels as elioac to enter. IlkTCijcnt liiievvise promised to co-operate wit ii |Eii|,'1;>iiJ for tlie abolition of the slave trade ; and llMs is tlie Hrst example of a stipulation of the kind. Ilojctlier with this treaty there was also concluded li treaty of commerce. Towards the end of ISIO, IPortuial became the theatre of war, as we sihall )k>erve when we come to speak of Spain. (Iiarles IV., King of Spain, Iiad tiattored him- liflfthat by submitting to the payment of subsidies ) France, acording to the treaty of October 30, |liil)3, he would be exempted from the necessity of llikiu.? part in the war which had broken out be- Itwi'cu liuonaparte and England ; and it was on lllie liiitli of tins that the latter power had com- Imenced hostilities. Four Spanish ships, returning Kuropc, loaded with treasures and valuable Iffitreliaiulise from South America, were seized off ICape St, Mary (October 5, 1804), by an English laiuadroii. After that act of hostility, which, but |(or the negociation that had preceded it, might Ihave been regarded as a violation of the hnv of Inlioii!--, Clinrles IV. declared war against Eng- llami {December 12) ; and t'.ie following year be Ihiil the mortilicaton to see his marine *otally de- lilnijcd by the battle of Trafalgar, which Admiral IXelsoii gained over the combined fleets of Gravina |iii(l Villeiieuve. Ill 1801), the English made an attempt to get Iposs.ssion of the Spanish colony of Buenos Ayres. ITbe expedition sailed from St. Helena under the Icommaiid of Admiral Sir Home I'opham. The JrDops were commanded by General Bercsford. iBuciios Ayres capitulated oa the 2nd of July ; Ithere tlie Knglish found numerous treasures which Ircre transported to Europe ; but an insurrei'tion lof llie iuliiibitants, headed by a Spaniard named iPucriilon, nud L.niers, a native of France, obliged General Deresford to surrender himself and his Iroops prisoners of war (August 12). Admiral ppliam took possession of Maldonado (October i8), wliere he remained in expectation of the sup- [plies wliidi he expected to come from England. Gmcral Auclimuty landed at Maldonado in the pgiimini,' of the following year, and took the town fcf Mime Video by assault (February 2). New Viiilorcemeiits having arrived from England, Ge- penil Wliitelocke again attacked Buenos Ayres, pJ penetrated into the town f.Tuly 5) ■ but Li- piers, at the head of the Spaniards, made so able a pfeiii'c, that the English general signed a capitu- laiioii, by which he obtained the restitution of all Jritisli prisoners ; and the English promised to fvaeuate Jloiite Video within the sjiace of two Voiitlis, Cliaili's IV. and his minister, during the war pilli Prussia, had shown a desire to shake ofl" the pke of Buonaparte. By signing at Fontainebloau partition of Portugal, they opened a way for ■lie I'l'encii armies into Spain, who took possession |i St. Sebastian, Pampeluna, Figueras, and Barce- T«M,and were even masters of Madrid ; while one «rtof the Spanioh army were occupied in Portu- gal, and the other in Denmark. The consequences of these impiudences were, the conquest of Spain, an I the dethronement of the Spanish family of Bourbon, as we have noticed aliove. When the Spaniards rose in rebellion against the French intruder, they formed themselves into Juntas, or directorial coniniittees, in every iiro- vince. That of Seville, which was c imposed of enterprising men, took the lead in the iiisiu'rec- tioii, declareil war against Buonaparte in the name of Ferdinand VII., and concluded an armistice with Kngland. Their authority was not acknow- ledged by the provincial juntiis, each of which had set on foot an army of their own. All these ar- mies engaged the French troops wherever they met them, and were very often vamjuished. The insurrection did not come to a head till after the battle of Baylen (July 20, 1808), where 14,000 French troops, under Generals Uupont and Vidal, laid down their arms. Castanos, to whom this success was owing, was then appointed general- issimo ; and the junta organized a regency, at the head of which they jilaced the old Cardinal de Bourbon. There were two other events which greatly encouraged the Spaniards ; the one was the expulsion of Lo Febvre from Saragossa by G ••- neral Palafox, and the other the arrival of the ^Marquis de la llomana at Corimna with 7,000 men, who bad been conveyed to the island of Fu- neii for invading Sweden, but had embarked, in spite of the French, to come to the assistance of their country. Joseph Buonaparte having abandoned Madrid and retired to Burgos (August 1), a central junta was established at Araujuez. This junta raised three armies : that of the North, imder Blake and llomana ; that of the centre, under Castanos ; and that of Arragon, under Palafox. Immediately after the interview at Erfurt, Buonaparte placed himself at the bead of his army, which had been increased to 180,000 men ; and, after gaining several advan- tages over the enemy, he sent back his brother Joseph to Madrid. ^Meantime, two divisions of the English army, having arrived, the one from Lisbon and the other from Corunna, formed a junction in the province of Leon, under tlie com- mand of Sir John Moore. Buonaparte niarched against them, but they thought it prudent to retire. Having arrived at Astorga, he received intelligence of the prejiarations of the Austrians, when he set out for Paris, leaving the command of the army to Soult, who obliged the Englisii to embark at Co- runna, after a severe engagement in which Sir John Moore lost his life. A treaty of pea^e and alliance W'as signed at London between England and the Supremo Junta, acting in the name of Ferdinand VH. (January 14, 1809.) England sent into Portugal a new army, under the com- mand of Lord Wellington. The second siege of Saragossa, which was undertaken Hrst by Junot, and continued by Lannes, was one of the most extraordinary events in modern war. The garri- son, commanded by Palafox, and the inhabitants of the place, who were completely devoted to him, performed prodigies of valour. When the French took the city (February 2;), it presented nothing but a mass of ruins. It was calculated that above 100,000 men perished in that siege. Marshal Victor defeated Cuesta at MedcUin (March 28), and Suchet defeated General Blake 3 / i i: ri 3 i 210 \Vclliii(,'tiiii lit Taliivera. Tlic ('iirtcs. (.'iiiduil UudiKi'o. AlmeMiu KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Kiiltlinh iiluilish till' Slavi' tra.io. Miarurtiiiiun ul' Ildll.iinl. c ■«: c. at Boldiito (Juno Kl) : but Soult, who had peno- trati'd into I'oituijiil, was ri'pulsi'il lij Wi'llhi;,'t()ii, who fought the liattle ot' 'I'alavi'ra with MarHhals .louiduu and Victor, wiiich turned to tlu' disad- vaulai^i" 'it' the FrLMicli. The niif.couduct of the army of Cucsta, whitii iiad bcfii conjoined with that of Wellington in this battle, determined thi' latter hencefoith to carry on u delenuive war with the ]",iiijlish and Portuguese alone ; and to leave to the Spaniards the care of occupying the l'"reneh by harassing their troops incessantly, destroying their convoys and magazines, and surprising their entrenchments. The battle of Ocana (Novendier 1'.)), which Cuesta fought with General Mortier and lust, was the last pitched battle which the Spaniards fouglit. From that time they confined themselves to a guerrilla warfare, by which they did infinite damage to the enemy. Since the commencement of IHOS), the central .iunta had retired to Seville. Towards the end of the year, they wore replaced by an executive di- rectory of nine members ; and next year these were su])ersedt'd in tlieir turn by a regency of five niend)ers, which was established at Cadiz. An assembly of the cortes was summoned to meet there, the members of which were nominated, not by 'he clergy, the nobility, and the cities, which composed the legitimate states of Spain, but by the great body of the inhabitants. That assembly, who could do no more for the defence of their country, employed themselves in establishing a democratic constitution in Spain, destroying by degrees all the institutions of the monarchy, Soult, who was couniiaiuler-in-chief of the army of the south, conquered the whole of Andalusia in ISIO, with the exception of Cadiz, which Victor had in vain attempted to besiege. The principal etlbrts of the I'rench were then turned towards Portugal ; and on this occasion -Massena was charged to undertake the reduction of tliat coun- try, at the bead of 70,000 men. Junot laid siege to Ciudad Kodrigo, which (-urrendered after a vi- gorous defence (July 10). Almeida was likewise obliged to capitulate a few weeks after (Aug. ',>7). These conquests were made without any a])|)arent wish on the part of Wellington to prevent them. He had then begun to carry into execution the plan of defensive warfaie which he had conceived after the hattle of Talavera. In the spring he was stationed on the Coa, and began to retreat after the fall oi Ciudad Uodrigo ; )ior did he ^top till he had reached Torres Vedras. Four months were employed in efleeting this slow retrograde march. Classen I followed him every step, suffering from continual fatigue and daily skirmishes ; and strug- gling against famine, as the IJnglish army had de- stroyed every ihing that lay in their way. Towards the end of October, Wellington toi k up an impreg- nable ))osition, where for four n ninths the I'rench general found all his mantruvres unsuccessful. VV'ellington took advantage of this interval to se- cure considerable reinforcements which arrived from Lisbon. He was thus pre()arcd to fall u|)on bis adversary, when the impossibility of subsisting longer in an exhausted country should at length compel him to retreat. When giving a summary of the history nf France, we spoke of the renewal of hostilities between Buonaparte and Great Britain in 180U, as well as of the part which the latter took in the continental wars of ISO.-), 1H07, and ISO'.I. The etl'iiris wl,i,|,| she had nnide to support these expenses addfil J frightful increase to her national debt; Inn ||„J constantly increasing progress of her cdiiniHriJ furnished her with the means of meeting this i'ui,r.r mous expenditure. In vain had Uunnupuitc ^1 pectcd to ruin the industry of England by lliei„i,] tinentui system. In the French, Spanish, mJ Dutch colonies which she con(|uereil, slu' louuill new channels to supply the jilace of tliost' wliiilj were shut against her on the continent of KuniiiiJ The empire of the sea still renuiiiUMl in the [kissiv sion of the British; and, in 1K07, they anuiliilateil the marine of Denmark, the only kingdom whidJ then retained any nniritime power, but of (hJ circumstance we shall speak hereafter. The year IHOO is renuukablo for the uholitioiuil the slave trade in the English colonies. Simi 17H.'), the Blacks had found zealous advocatfs ii^ the British parliament, amongst whom Fox, Wjl bcrforce, and I'itt, were the most distii.giiisJudJ But the British government, too sagacious to eiitcj precipitately into a measure which miglit ciidiingj the fortune of the planters, and even tlie tr;iiU'uilJ lity of the colonies, wished first to consult cxiiiriJ ence on the subject, and to leave the propditoii time to prepare themiielvcs for a different milrtol things. For twenty years they had refused tj adopt the bill which Mr. 'Wilberforce regulai laid before t'lO parliament, to demand restiictiv'J laws against the trade. It was not until Mr. Ym and Lord Grenville entered into the niiuistrj, tinl this question occupied their serious (lelilH'nitiiiiijJ An act of parliament, ratified by the kin;,' (MajT 10, 1800), forbade the exportation of slaves tiiml the English colonies, and conveying thcni imii I'ol reign colonies. A bill of the Cth February, iHOiJ which was ratified by the king on the 17th M;ircli following, enacted, that the slave trade should m\ tually cease from the dati^ of May 1st uusuliiitj providing, however, that vessels already dopartcl on the trade should be allowed to import siavif into the AVest Indies until the 1st of Jauuani 1808. Of all the countries which were brought iiiidei the yoke of Mapoleon, the most unfortunutiMvilhl out dispute was Holland. Her couunerio, ihl only resource of her numerous inhabitants, waT annihilated by the continental system ; hertiuamel were in such a state of disorder, that, in spite ol all their ecor:)n)3', the annual deficit was re^'ularn about 20,000,000 florins ; her iidiabitants wtrl harassed as much by the soldiers of Buonaparte al by his revenue officers; and as if i:ature, incoiil cert with political oppression, had conspired hel ruin, her soil was laid waste, and her industry Jel stroyed, by periodical inundations, (iics, aud otiifl calamities. Such is the jiieture which thatwreteli country presented up to the moment when Buoiial parte extinguished the feeble remains of iudeiiondl ence which it enjoyed. After various alteralionil that republic obtained a constitution similar il that which had existed in France since 1804. Ml Schimmelpeunink was placed at the- head of thI government (April, 180.5), under the title of Uraiil Pensionary, and vested with such powers as till last stadtholders had never exercised, cveu aflef the revolution of 1788. "We have already obscnw how this power, together with the royal title, werj rendered hereditary in favour of Louis Buonapartel Stati'of S«it/.i'rl:in(l. It^ily \iiiiliT Iter Imnmis. .\a|ilc'ii'""''''' M'lfiit- rKRIOU IX. A.D. 1802—1810. Till' Uoi'i'ss of till' Dt'iHitii- tiiiii III' Kiitislioii. KK^'ltavariatk Wiirtpmber|{. 211 •ere brouglit uiidti it uiil'oi-tiiiiutc withl iev foiiiiiierco, till IS illllllbitullls, wi jstciii ; liLT tiiiaiicel ler, thut, in spiti' ol lettcit was ri'guliirll r inhabitants luri rs of Biioiiaparli'al s il" ralure, intoiil liad cuuspired licl ul lier iiidustrv del Diis, files, ami otliel wiiiciithatwietciifT iiK'iit wheiiDuoial jiuains of imli'pcndl variou^i alteratiotiJ ititutioii siniiiur iJ ice since 1804. Ml at the- head of thl .T the title of Griil such i)o\vei's as till iiTcised, even afliT ve already obseni tlie roj al title, wd Louis Buoiiapartel ail huw tiie Dutch iiiuiiurchy vanished al the Hat ofNapiileon- Switzerland, with the exception of Home jiartial (.i,,iinuiti(iiis Which are scarcely worthy of remark, Ikjilivinaiued tranquil under the systi'ni ofgovern- Pfiit wliieli Uuonaparte had jjreseribed in the act '„i iiiiiliatit>ii (February li), lHo;t) The cunti- nciilal system, aiu' the proliibiti' .i laid on the jjeattr part of Swiss coiiinioilities in l''rance, pa- rj|\/.i'il tlieir industry and their coiimierce ; and caiiseil many of the inhabitants to enii){ratc, who fur the most part directed their course towards ^iirtli America. A treaty ■which (ieneral Ney kaiUlu'iied at Friburg (September 27), regulated lilt c'unnexioiis between France and the llelvetic loiili'ili'iatioii. in a manner more advantageous for lliat country than in the time of the IJirector'- Buonaparte was satisHed with a defensive alliance; kt the Swiss agreed to import t'rom the mines of Franco their stock of salt, which they had till then been in the habit of receiving partly from Davaria. JTIiis stock amounted to 20l),000 (piinluls per an- |num; and the revenue which France derived from lunibi'ing this article was sufKcient to support jinore than 'JO,UOO troops. At the same time a my capitulation was signed, by which Uuo- laparte took into his service 1(1,000 Swiss volun- [eers. It must ajjpear astonishing, that in this laliuu of warriors, who were seeking a refuge om misery in tlie deserts of America, a sufficient umlicr could not be found to make up the com- ilemcnt of Hi.OOO men. The incomplete state of e Swiss regiments was a subject of perpetuiil iniplaint with liuonaparte. The number of the Italian states had been per- letuallj iliminishing ; and about the time of which e now speak, that ])eninsula was entirely sub- tleJ to the iiiHueiice of Huouaparte, and divided lominally between !•' ranee, Naples, and the king- lum of Italy; excejjting the small republic of St. arino, which preserved its independence in the klst of the general convulsion. The Italian rc- inlilir, which since the year 180."> bad borne the itltofthe kingdv.,.1 of Italy, w.".s oppressed by the liuirnious load of coiitribiiiions which were ex- led for the support of the French troops, as well b) payments for the civil list of the king ■md iisTJccioy. That country submitted with great ipatiencp to the law of the military conscription, Mcli was contrary to the feelings and customs of le inhabitants. It obtained considerable aggran- seraents after the peace of I'resburg, by the re- iii)n of the Venetian provinces in 1807, and by at of the four provinces of the Ecjlesiasfical stes; but these accessions made no addition to happiness. Eugene Bcauharuais, dignified with IE title of Prince of Venice, was proclaimed heir the throne of Italy, iiiiling the male descendants Buonaparte. The kingdom of Naples was overthrown about e hejjinning of 1S06. Ferdinand IV. had re- ed to Sicily, and Joseph Buonaparte was put in place; but he did not occupy that unstable ouc longer than two years, when he exchanged for another still more iusecure. But before sur- iiiering the kingdom of Naples to Joachim iirat, who was appointed his successor (June 28, ^•*), he wished to immortalize his name by "Jig a new constitution to that kingdom, which guaranteed by Buonaparte. The attempts which iMurat made to conciucr Sicily j)roved abor- tive. (iermany had experienced two complete revolu- tions ill course of the iiii'e years of which we have given a short summary. The cunstitutioii of the Ciermanic Kmpire was changi'd in si^veral essential respects by the Recess, or Uesolutions of the Dejiu- fation of Uatisbon. Of all the ecclesiastical princes that belonged to the tJeiinaiiic liody, three only were retained, viz., the l^lector, Arch-L'hancellor, who took the place of the ancient lilector of May- ence ; the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights ; and the Grand Prior of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. Tlie territories of the rest, as well as the revenues of all ecclesiastical endowments, me- diate or immediate, were employed either to in- demnify the hereditary princes who had lost the whole or a part of their estates on the left bank of the llhine, or to aggrandize those whom the policy of Buonaparte chose to favour. In place of the two ecclesiastical electors who were supinessed, four lay electors were appointed, one of wli'im only was a Catholic, that of Saltzbiirg, who had Ibrmerly been the (iraiul Duke of Tuscany, and three were Protestants, those of Wurtemberg, Ba- den, and Hesse-Cassel. The House of Orange obtained the bishopric of Fulthi and other territories ; Brisgau anil Ortenau were ceded to the Duke of Modena, who left them at his death to bis son-in-law the Archduke Ferdi- nand. The relation between the two religions was still more uneiiual in the College of Princes, where the Protestants had acquired so great a su- periority that the head of the Empire refused to ratify that article of the Uecess. The college of free cities was reduced to six, viz., Augsburg, Lu- bec, Nuremberg, Frankfort, Bremen, and Ham- burg. The immediate nobility were retained ; but those of them who were entitled to indemnity were disajii)ointed, as nothing remained to be dis- tributed. In jilace of the existing duties payable on the llhine, a rate of navigation was established, the proceeils of which were to be divided between France and Germany ; a part of the endowment of the arch-chancellor was founded on that re- venue. The execution of the Recess of the Deputation gave rise to several conventions amoug the states of the I'hnpiie, as well as to a t"vat variety of claims. So many difficulties hud arisen on this occasion, especially frinu the refusal of the emperor to sanction the Recess, without certain modifica- tions, that the Empire was abolished before this new fundamental law could be carried into prac- tice in all its bearings. The peace of Presburg had created two new kings in the centre of Ger- many, namely, the lUectors of Bavaria and Wur- temberg, who assumed the regal dignity. These two princes, with the l^lector of Baden, were de- clared sovereigns, and obtained territorial additions at the expense of Austria, the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, .md the city of Augsburg. The King of Bavaria annexed that free city to his es- tates. The Elector of Saltzburg exchanged all that the Recess of the Imperial Deputation had given him, for the principality of Wurtzburg, which was taken from the King of Bavaria, to which the elec- toral tit)" was transferred. The grand mastership of the Teutonic knights was secularized in favour of a prince of the House of Austria. The heir of r 2 "2 in 2V2 SiiiliM III' tlio Cuiili'ili'iatiiiii III llii' Kliiiio. Nl'W lil'rtll'lll ciiiislltiitloil!!. KOCH'S IIFAOLUTIONS. Kin;((ir IliiMiriii J.ji,., till- I'liliitiimti'. Ill' lU'iiiiiii's ilii. I'v,,,! r c c E St ■JSS tlio Diikf of >rii(li'nii lost liris^'iii mid Ortfiiiui, which loll to till' Ek'C'tor of Itiuleu. The niiiiiliiliitioii of tin; Clt'iiiiau KiiiiiIm', the i{i-riii of which is to hu found in that tiviity, was (•Hi'cti'd hy till' ('oiifi'dcriitioii of the Rhine, which the Kiiiu:s of Hiiviu'ia iiiid Wurtemheri,', the Arcli- (,'haiicellor, the KK'ctor of liaden, the Duke of {'leves and IJei'fj, the liand;^rave of Hesse- Darni- stadt, the I'l.nces of Ilohenzolleni, S.diii, Iseiii-- hui'ff, Lii'htenstein, and Aienilierir, and Count Lcyen, concluded with IJuonaparte (July (!, IHO(i), who was named I'rutvctor of the Lvayiic, as they anuouueed in their declarations to the diet. The act hy which the Eiuiieror Francis II. ahdicatcd the crown of Germany (August (i) coiniileted the dissolution of the Geriiiaiiic body. The jirinces who had joined that confederation usurjied the sLivvrciyntij, instead of the mere siipiriority which they had formerly enjoyed under the authority of the Empire. Uy overthrowing the harriers which the laws and institutions of the country, the nuist ancient customs, and the synalluffinatic conven- tions, had opposed to the encroachments of abso- lute power, they set a fatal example of traniplini,' under foot tlie well-acquired rifjhts of their people. They carried their injustice still farther. TJiey usurped dominion over the jirinces, provinces, and cities, their associates and cnetjuiils, who were un- fortunately placed ill tli( ir neighbourhood, and who had not been ajiprised in time that they iniifht repair to Paris, in order to co-operate in that trans- action, or counteract the intrigues by which it was accomplished. The Elector Arch-Chancellor then assumed the dignity of Prince I'rimate ; the Elector of Baden, the Dukes of Berg and Cleves, and the Landgrave of IIcsse-Darmstadt, took the title of (Jrand Dukes ; to which the act of the I'ith of July attached the prerogative's of the royal dignity. The head of the Jlouse of Nassau took the dignity of Duke, and Count Leyen that of Prince. A federal diet, di- vided into two cliamhers, was to deliherato on the general interests of the union ; but that assembly never met. Of the six free cities which the Recess of the Deputation had preserved, the King of Ba- varia hud Augsburg adjudged to him hy the jieace of Preshurg ; he afterwards obtained Nuremberg by an act of the confederation. Frankfort fell to the share of the prince primate ; so that there re- mained only three of the Hanseatic towns. Several othc^r jirinces entered successively into the Confederation of the Uliine ; but none of these accessions were voluntary. They all took place in consequence of the war with Prussia, which broke out in October, 1800. These princes, taken ac- cording to the order of accession, were the follow- ing : — The Elector of Wurtzburg, the old Elector of Saltzburg, who took the grand ducal title, the King of Saxony, the Dukes of Saxony, the Houses of Anhalt and Schwartzburg, the Prince of Wal- deck, the Hou s of Lipjie and Keuss, the King of Westphalia, tl. , House of Mecklenburi;, and the Duke of Oldenburg. Thus all Germany, with a few excejitions, entered in succession into that confederation. Several other changes occurred in the Rhenish Confederation, especially after the peace of Scha-n- brunii. The grand duchy of Berg received consi- derable accessions. The kingdom of Westphalia was augmented in ISIO, by the re-uniou of the tiinJ states of the King of England in Geriiiniiv, wuii the exception of the duchy of Luiienhiiiv{,'iH been uliciidy mentioned. Within a slmit after he had disposed of the territory of II ui,,,,.. Ituoniipiirte erected the grand duchy of riimi^i,,,,' by adding the district of Eulihi, and tlui fmu' Jiart of the county of Ilanan, to the lio-iSissiiiinni the prince primate ; with the deductiuu of il,, ])rincipality of llatisbon, on condition ilmt iitti the ileatli of the prince primate, who hail iissuimi the title of the Griiud Duke of Frank fort, ;!,,., territories should pass to Eugene Keauliiiniui!, mu his male descendants ; and failing tliiM', tin should revert to the crown of France. Tin- [fiimJi duke ceded to Napoleon the principality ni Rati hon and his moiuty of the navigation-duus un tin Rhine. The Elector of Bavaria had lost hy tlio iieiu'c ol Luueville that part of the palatinate situiiti'il iiii the left bank of the Rhine, with the (liichv ul Deux-ponts. The Recess of IHOII deprivcdliiii of the rest of the jialatinate ; but that act compensated him, by making over to liim thi bishoprics of Bamberg, AVurt/.burg, Fieisin;'« Passau, and Augsburg, with several ahlicys aiii free cities. By the peace of Preshurg, Uuoniipaiti took AVurtzburg from him ; but he gave him . lieu of it a considerable part of the spoils of Att tria, especially the county of Tyrol, wliich con' tained more than 700,000 inhabitants. To iccom, pense that monarch for the zeal which ho hail ill*. played in ISO!), Buonaparte put him in posscssioi of the principalitii's of Baireufh and llatishuii, tlii duchy of Saltzburg) with Berchtolsgadoii, iiiiil tlii part of Lower Austria which the emperor hail rc^ nounced by the peace of Schn'nbrunn. In return the King of Bavaria ceded back a jiart of the Tjrol containing about .'J0.),000 souls, which was uiiiu'xei either to the kingdom of Italy or the Illyriaii pro( vinces. By the peace of Lunevillc, the Austrian moj narchy had lost in point of extent and populatimi but siie had gained an addition of (i.OUO.OOO francs to her revenue. The govenniiout hail t( struggle incessantly against the ruinous slafo the exchequer, and the over circulation of papi'l money. Neither loans nor economy cniihl icim them. After the French republic was iliaiid into an Empire (August 4, IH04), Francis II. tool the title of J'.inperor of Austria, under the name Francis I. The embarrassed state of his liiiauci was still more increased by the disastrous war 180;J. The jioace of Preshurg cost the fmiim the states that formerly belonged to the Vonctiaiii the Tyrol, and all the possessions of his house il Suabia. He acquired nothing by that treaty ccpt the duchy of Salt, burg and Herclitolspulei His losses amounted ti more than 1,IIU0 sqiui miles of territory, and lu arly 3,000,000 of suhjicti Besides Saltzburg and Berchtolsgadoii, the ci-ilc Grand Duke of Tuscany lost also Passau ai Eichstett ; but he obtained the priiici|)ulily Wurtzburg. The heir of the House of Estc w dejn-ived of Brisgau and Ortenau. At the commencement of the year 180". A' tria had made warlike preparations, which inJ cated that, but for the precipitancy with which ' jicace of Tilsit had been concluded, she would In' made a powerful diversion on the rear of the Frciii arinv. It was not till the convention of Foiitaiii IV: (iCSrlicii'iilirmin, l-rii.siii iiniiiirc's lluiiuvvr. \\;,t « ilh Kiiifl'iiid. PEIUOl) IX. A.D. 1S02— 1810. Krcilcrii' Williiiiu III. I'rciicli uriii) ill I'liiKsiii. K . Ill' Siixiin'v. 1'. Ill' Wiirsnw . •.'la the Austrian mo| ■lit 1111(1 i)o|niliitiiiii| oil of (i,Ol)0,OUil Hovcniiiieiit hiul tj ic ruinous sl;i!i' iiTuliitiuii of |i;iiie| iiioiny conld iwove ulilii.' \v:is (liuit'cl l4), I'l-iUlCH II.Iiiol , iindiT tlio iiiimo iUxiP of his liiiimcej (Usasfrous wwi I'OHt tlio cmiH'rol •d to tlie VciK'tiMl oils (if liis llUllSl'il ^ liy that treaty, nd Bei-chtolsi,"jiifij than 1,000 sciiiail .(JOO.OOO ot sulijtctj iiiii of the I'n'iicli, Ijiiil wliii'h sill' I'lireliased liy new territoiial losses liiilhi' si'l'' "' ' '''""'that iiionient the Areli- IjiiU' Cliarh's made ),'reat exertions for reorijan- lijiii;' till' aiiiiy, introducing' a new order and a Ihllir ilisi'ipline, forming hoilies of militia, iind ji,,,j|riii;t fiiitresHes. He eoiitiiiiied to inspire the iplimi with an entliusiasin which it had never he- l(,irr (li-pliiyeil. Many wealthy individuals made l|,i_.,. |ii(iiiiiai'y HacriHues for the service of their Idiiiiiliy. Ihi'pi'iice of SehnMibruiiii, which terniinatud the |i\;iri'f l^":t, hriui;flit Austria down to the rank lol'ihr tliii'd coiitiiK iital power. That iiiiinarchy ItuiiiliH'lii''"''''' '' surface of 'M'[ s(|naiv miles, and la iiiiniilatii'ii of li 1,01)0,000 ; luit her (•omniei'ce ,iiiiliiliilated liy the loss of Trieste and I'iume, Inliirh separated her from the sea. Tin- immense loMiititv of paper niouey in the eedi.d ]irovinces lioweil hack into till' i.iterior of the kin^'dom, and Ireiliuc'il the currency of these bills to one-iil'tli of llhoirniiiiiiiial value. I'mssia, hy the Ueeess of the Deputation of |Mi:t, ^'aillell 4'i(i,000 sulijects, and more tiiau llOUIMNIO iif frillies to lierrcM'iiue; and the pro- l\iiici's which she acquired, estahlislied, to a certain InMit, the continuity of her U'eslphaliaii pusses- Ifiiiii* wilii the centre of the kinu^dom. A coii- iciilioii with the elector of Ilavaria rei jiecfini; an |tM'hiuii.'i' of territory, made <'iinsiderahle additions Iliillii' principalities ill Fraiiconia. The kini;, from llhaltir.i' occupied himself in apjilyin^ llu" remedy ]ff;i\vise ailiiii '.itration to repair the calamities 111 liiili wars an I levies had inllieted on the coiinliy. n;iiii had I icy tried every lu^'ans of persuasion Itn make liiin join the third coalition ; and it was Icuh tlic violatio.'i of liis territory by the French lltiinpi, that at last prevailed with him to lake that Islcii. Wc have already spoken of the convention ■at I'otsdaiii, hy which he eiijjjaj^ed eventually to jbffoine a jiarty to that confederal y, and of the lal'i'iniit which he made to restore jicice by means |ofiit'(,'(iciatioii. AVe have already iiieutioued how Iwanie involuntarily, and by the turn which Ihis minister ^'ave to the aflair with which ho was Biilrustcd, the ally of him whom he wished to eii- fi!!i' ill war. Prussia obtained, by the treaty of Vicnnii, the precarious possession of the Klectorafo [ofllannver, in lieu of which she ceded Anspacli, |(lfvrs, and Xeiifchatel. Tlie suiiertieial extent of t whole monarchy amounted then to .'),74<) square mill's, with a population of 10,(>.')>',000 souls. Tho occupation of Hanover drew Prussia into I war with England ; but the jiertidy of IJuoiia- kiirlc soon compelled lier to declare war against Trance. He had offered the Electorate of Hanover ' Kinfj of England, and opposed Prussia in llio |imjcct of associating Saxony, Hesse, and the TiaiisL'atic towns, in the confederation whicli Fre- Keric wished to oppose to that of the Rhine. The roiivontion of Vienna thus became the occasion of Inlliotiiig new calamities on Prussia. Frederic PUIlium renounced the territory of Hanover, by llio peace which lie concluded witli George III. at flomel (January 28, 1807) ; but the treaty of 1 ilsit pt the latter the liall" of his German estates, viz. Ill extent of 2,657 square miles, and a population ff -tiG'O.OOO souls. This sacrifice was not sufficient : appease the resentment of Buonaparte. By mis- iiiteipreting the eipiivocal terms of the eoinetitiim of Koniiigslier',', he restored to tbv' kiii'„' only a part of his pni\iiices on the east of the \ istuhi, which ^'■ere ilesnlated by the war, and reduced almost to a desert. After sixteen months of peace, he could iiiit ohfaiii repossession of his other pro- vinces, until he engaged to pay r,'0,l)00,000 of francs, to leavi^ three fortresses in the hands of Buonaparte by way of iiledge, and to promise never to keep more than -io.KOO nu n in the Held. Prussia was in a state of the greatest (bstitution lit the time when Frederic William turned his attention to the administration of the country. The army had devoured the substance of the inha- bitants; the |iiipulali(iii hadsuH'ered great diminu- tion ; while sickness and a com[ilication of miseries were continually cutting them off in considerable numbers, 'i'lie king submitted to the most pain- ful privations, to fullil the obligations he had con- tracted towards France, and thereby to obtain the final evacuation of the kingdom, as well as to leave those iiro\ inces which had sutl'ered more severely than others by the sojourn of the French army. He did everything in his power to revive agricul- liire and industry anuing liis subjects, and restore the resources of the army; and thus jircpare the way for recovering the rank which the Prussian inonarchy had formerly held. Independently of tlie luinlshiiis which Buona- parte inllieted on I'russia, hy luotracting the stay of his army, and by the contributions which he iiniiosed on her, this country was made the victim of a rapacity which is, |ierhai)s, un|)recedeiited in history. By a eonvention which the King of Saxony, as Duke of Warsaw, concluded with Buonaparte (May 10, ISOS), while occupied at Bayonne in overturning the Spanish inonarchy, the' latter ceded to him, for a sum of 20,000,000 of francs, not only the ))ecnniary claims of the King of Prussia over his I'olish subjects (for lliese he had abandoned by the jieace of Tilsit), but also those of certain public establishments in Prussia, such as the Bank, the Society for Maritime (.'om- nierce, the Endowment of Widows, hospitals, pious foundations, universities, and schools ; and, what may seem incredible, those of jirivate indivi- duals in Prussia over Polish subjects. These pecuniary claims were so much the more consider- able, as 'the capitalists of the ancient provinces, since the introduction of the system of mortgage into Prussia, had advanced large sums to Polish ]iroprietors for the improvement of their jiatri- nionies. The sums thus taken from those who had furnished them, and transferred to the King of Saxouv, were estimated at first at 4:5,000,000 and a half 'of francs, and 4,00t),000 of interest ; but the financial authorities of the duchy of Warsaw dis- covered that they amounted to 08,000,000. In vain did Frederic "William offer to repurchase this jiret.'nded right of the King of Saxony, by reimbursing the 20,000,000 of francs which the latter had been obliged, it was said, to give to Buonaparte. The revolution of 1H\4 rectified this piece of injustice, as it did many others. During this period the north of Europe was agitated by three different wars, that of England against Denmark, which occasioned a rupture be- tween the cabinets of St. Petersburg .and London ; that of Russia against Sweden, in which Denmark was involved ; and lastly, the war between Russia I i ' -• I Kn^lliili lioniliurcl Cniipn- 214 li:»«un. SiirriMiilpr ufltic I )iiniiili fli-i-t. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Viir tirlwccn Kiiitliiml .lU'l Di'iiiiiiirk, Hiiwilaiiii riiii<|iii'r Kliil:ini|. L I I c: ■!C. ft. iiiid tilt' I'oitc, in wliich Kiigliuid took tin iictive |i;iit. The i'X|i(Mlitioii of till' I'iiiKlisli ii<;iiiiist tlic Inlc of /I'liliiiid in 1HI)7 WHS nil cvi'iit wliiili wiis ccn- Hiiicd lit llic timi' with jfri'sit Ncvcrity ; n'ld which I'liiiiiot iiltoncthiT be Jnstitii'd, since it is the iiatiin' of till preventive war to destroy the very iir^fiinieiits iind eviilenees of its necessity. Nevi'rtheless, if, on the oiii' Imud, we consider whiit wiis re(iiiisite to Kn|i|iort the interests of Huoniipiirte iifler the |)cii('e of Tilsit, or, more properly speiikiiiif, to carry into oxeculinn the system he h:id orj^aiiized ; and if, on the other, we examine into his condact a short time after, towards Spain and Portugal, it is inipossihie not to excuse Mnjjland. 'I'lu' peace of Tilsit had excluded Hritlsh (iminierce from all the southern ports of the Haltie, and it was hut a small affair that Sweden, and es|)ecially Denmark, who had a communication with the continent by way of ilutland, shoiilil ojien their ports to her. Several appearances indicated that it was the intention of Buonaparte to sei/.o Denmark also after the lieace of Tilsit ; and the Rritish minister declared that he was in posseftsion of proofs of a plan to that effect. The British (ijovennuent accordingly fitted out an expedition for the ])urp()se of preventing his designs, with an activity and a celerity such as they had never dis]>layed in sending aid to their allies ; and that difference in their conduct tended not a little to erciit • an unfavourable opinion as to the enterprise wliich thoy undertook against Denmark in 1S07. An English fleet, having an army on hoard, to which a Hanoverian legion of 7,000 men, then in the Isle of Rugen, was afterwards added, sailed from Kngland about the end of July or beginning of August. It was divided int) two squadrons, one of which, under Commodore Keats, took up their station in the Great Belt, which till then had been thought inaccessible to ships of war, and thus cut otl' the Isle of Zealand from the mainland, where the prince royal with the Danish army then was. The second division, under the command of Admiral (ia-nbier, with troops on board commanded by Lord ("atheart, arrived off Copenhagen. Mr. Jackson was sent to Kiel to demand from the prince royal the surrender of the Danish Heet, which they alle-ged it was. the intention of Buonaparte to sieize. After a fruifU"^ negociation, Coponhagem was invested by the anwy of Lord Cathcart on the land side, bombarded for !thn^>u the part of Great Britain. The citadel was ^iveii U]) to the English. The Danes surrenderpd i heir fleet, with all the naval stores in their arsenals and dock- yards. The English stipulated for a delay of six weeks to prepare for departure, after which they promised to surrender the citadel, and evacuate the Isle of Zealand. In this manner the Danish marine, consisting of eighteen ships of the lino, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five sloops of war, fell into the hands of the English. During the six weeks sti- pulated for, the court of London offered Denmark the alternative either of returning to u stu),, ,A nculrality. or of forming an alliance with l''n»|;,ii,| The prince regent having refiiseil huth nf tl,,,,,, England declared war against liini (Ncivi'inhi.r 4)'.| but she did not violate the capitulation of Cimkh.'i liageii, as the evacuation of that city and the i^lani of Zealand took place ut the term specitli'd. I'ln, event added Denmiiik to the Krencii sutiin I Her minister concluded a treaty of alliuiici. iijL Fontainebleaii, the tenor of which has imt \„A iiiacle ])ublic ; but if. wc may judge liy tiie cvi.mJ which followed, it was agreed that the l);iiii| English subjects found in Denmark. The expedition of the English against Cupdi.l liagen induced the Emperor Alexander to ilcchrcl war against them (November 7). That iiioii;irch| entered decidedly into the continental system, ;i demiinded of the King of Sweden, that, agrccaUyl to the conventions as to the armed ncutniliiy nlf l\u'. North, he should enforce the principle by wliicli| the Baltic was declared ii sliiit sea. The Kiiisolf Sweden replieil, that the iiriiiciples estahlislu'il hyl the conventions of 17H0 and IHOO had been iihacJ doned by that of .Tune 17, IHOl ; thatcininiistiiiiccj wire entirely changed since Denmiuk, on whose co-operations he had formerly reckoned, had 1 her fleet ; and since, independently of tlio Soniiil,! the English had effected another entraiiri! iiitoT the Baltic, through the Great Belt; these ol)jccliniis| however, did not prevent him from incurring i ruinous war. .\ Russian army entered Finland (February 21 J I sort), (ieneral Buxhowden, who had the (01114 mand, announc(>d to the inhabitants of thiil pro. viuee that the Emperor Alexander had tlu)ii;,'lit ill nr cessary to occupy that country, in order to liaul a plr Ige that the King of Sweden wo.iM airepf the proposals of peace which France had niaili'tJ him. Although the Swedish troops in FiiilaniS wen? but few in number, and dcfi nded it linivi'lyj they were compelled to yield to the superior I'orcM of the Russians, and to retire into East Botimiaj Sueab(U'g, the bulwark of l''inlaiid, and depiiiri impregnable, surrendered (.Vpril 0) after a sifq of a few days ])y A'ice-Acliuiral Kroiistadt. manifesto of the I'',mperor Alexander (March 21*8 had already declared the grand duchy of Fiuhniil to be incorporated with bis Empire. This im-l expected attack excited the most lively imli^'iiH tion in Gustavus IV., who so far forgot hinisell as to cause M. d'Alopeus, the Russian minister alj his court, to be arrested. Denmark having als« • Sketch of tlic] War I'i'Ini'i'ii llilKiiLt iiiiil Smi'i It'll. (ilHlimiK IV. lIl'IMWPlI, rrjiFoi) IX. A.I). iH(»'.>— iHio. (■|iarli'« XIII.K.(irSH,Ml,.|i. DmjiiTcir Ali'XiiiiiliT run tiiiui'* thw war. .'1.1 HIllljiM'tS. FlTili'l bfilin-il \Mir!\i;niiiHf him ( Fftinmry 'i!t), » Su-piliili J„„n (if '.'0.(100 Mii'ii, iiikIi r tlic roimnuiiil of (iciif- L| Arinfi'lil. '""'••'■t'lok tlir coikiuc!*! of Norway. Ipiillhim'xiirilitioii wnH rcpiilNcil witli Iomm ; iiiul ll!;,. DiiiiiH ('Mil iimdi- inrurHioiiM into Swcili'ii. Kiiiil-.MiirNliiil (';)uiit KliiiNpor liciii^ uliiccil iit |l,i.|i 1 111' till' hwf'ilish iiniiy, tlini at IMciiliurjf, Idfriii loiii't oil flio oH'ensivf in thr nortli of Fiii- Jli'iil; "hill' :i hccoikI nrmy, iiiiilcrtlic ('oiuniiiiiil of Ififiu'ral Vi'ifPHiick, liisotnliarkcd iit Alio (■liiiii' H). Ijl,,' war wiiH cunictl on with vurinhlo hiicccs", Ikt nitli ('i|Uiil lii'iivi'iy i>n hoth sidcH. At the Iriiil III' llif I'lmipiii^n, tlio IliiNsiuns wi'ic nu:iiiii Imnli'i-i iif I'iiilunil. A lioily of |0,t)0() F.nirllsii |ln«'|i». ('oniinandi'il liy tiio same (Jcnt'ral Moore l»lio, !ili'w iiioiithH after, fell iit ('oriinna in Spain, Ihail iiirivi'ii in tlie rimilH at (iottenliurK (May 17) ; bill ;is till' Swedish kiiiif eoiild not eoiui' to an hjrii'im'iit us to tlie employment of these aiixilia- (ria<, iinr even as to the eoninmiid, he refnsed to jtrmit tlu" troops to diseinlmrk. He even ordered Kencrai .Moure, who had repaired to Stoekliolm, Ttdhciirri'steil. Hut havinif soon found means to \tn\\i\ Miiore returned to Kii;,'laiid with his troops. Hr. Tliiiniton, tlie Uritisli envoy, who had remon- llnloii ii'.!iiiiist this arbitrary condnet of the kiiiff, |;i> ri'l'llill'li.* .Viiiiiiriil Cluuiikoff, with a Uussian Heel of Iwpnlj-fiiiir ships of war, made an attempt to hiirn IheSwi'iiish fleet, (roiiiniaiided by Admiral Naiiek- liiitf, ill Virjjiii Hay (Aui,'ust \H) ■ but the arrival tfaii r.ii^'lisli fleet under Sir James Saumarez in iBiltic I'ort, where Nuuekhotf was, with a reinforee- Bifiit (if some Kiifflish ships under the command bf Admiral Hood, kept them in liloekade for nearly m moiitlis. Ill Finland an armistice had been tonchuiwl (September 18'2!)), on the footintf "f the U'li Pomdcti.t ; but the Emper- Vlexander rc- pi'Pil ta ratify if. Another wim tliiii concluded at pikioki (November I!))- '>y which tlie Swedish nycnRnKod to evacum, I loabnrjf, and to retire ifhiiid the Kemi. Towards the ennntlip point of eomiiiff to an open rujiture fcilhthiitcdurt. But his indignation having abated, l( agreed, soon after, to conclude a new conven- Bon at Stdckholm (March 1, !«()!)), when Cireat Britnin oii),iiged to pay in advance £300,000 sterlini{ f) i|uart('rly instalments. .Meantime a revolution was fermcntinp in Swe- leii, which was to change the aspect of atiairs. IJie hiiiightiness of the kinfj, and his firmness, Ihich he carried even to obstinacy, had created fim many enemies. The people were oppressed 1 a most extraordinary manner by burdens aiul tipostN, which Gustavus increased arbitrarily, and ritlmut refjard to constitutional forms. The leverity with which he punished the troops, not Inly when they had committed faults, but even P'li they were unsuccessful, had alienated the pinds of the soldiers from him, and especially the Imrds. A conspiracy was formed, at the head ct' fWch was Lieutenant-Colonel Adlersjiane, and lolonel Skioldebrand, and which was joined by * Sketch of tfie Reign of Gustavus IV., Part II. the army "f the West, or of Norway, and the troops that were statiiiiicil in the islands of Aland. Adlersparre anil the army of tlie West iiiiirched on Stockhidiii. They had arrived at Orcbro, when l'"i('ld->rirslml Klinnpor, who hud heeii ili^Kraci d, advised the kiiitr to avert the Mtoriii li\ ('liim«iiiK his condiu't. On his rcfiisiil, (leiicral Adlercnut)'. arrested him in the name of the people ( .March I't )• The Duke of Sudermaiiia, the kill's uncle, wa-s proclaimed regent, (iustavus was conveyed t ■ l)rottniiighiiliii, and thence to (iripshulm, vvlicn he signed a deed of abditatioii, which he al\er- wards declared on various oecasiiuis to have been voluntary. The revolution was terminated without commotion and without bloodshed. The regent immediately usseiiibli'd the Diet at Stockholm. Not content witli accepting the ilidi- catioii of (iiistaviis, such as he bad given it, they excluded all his descendants from the throne of Sweden. They oflei-i'd the crown to tli(> regent, who declared lii.! willingness to accept it when they had revised the constitution. 'I'liis revision, by which the royal authority was limited without reducing it to a static of humiliation and de- pendence, having been adopted by the Diet, the Duke of Siideriuania was proclaimed king (.(iiiie ;>, IHOil), under the title of Charles XIII., according to the common but erroneous method of reckoning the kings of Sweden. .\s the new luonarch had no family, thi'y elected as his successor to the throne. Prince Christian Augustus of Holstein- Augustenburg, who commanded the Danish army in Norway, and who had jirocured the esteem even of his enemies, Gustavus and his family were ])ermitted to leave the kingdom ; and towards the end of the year a new fundamental law was pub- lished, refjulating the order of succession to the throne. At Stockholm the people flattered themselves that the dethronement of (iustavus would speedily bring peace to Sweden ; but it was not so. Alex- ander I. refused to treat with a government so insecure as u regencv, and hostilities accordingly continued, tieneral Knorring, who had passed the (iiilf of Bothnia on th(^ ice with 2."),000 Russians, took posspsaion ofthi islands of Aland (March 17), when the Swedish trc ips stationed there retired to the continent of Sweden. Knorring granted the Swedes a cessation of hostilities, to allow them lime to make ov'rtnres of jieace. Apjirized of this arrangenu'iit, (mint Barclay de Tolly, who had crossed the Gulf with another body of llussians on the sidi (if Vasu, and taken possession of Umea, evaeuai d West Bothnia, and returned to l-'iiiland. .V third body of Russiann, under the command of Schouv lotf, penetrated into West Bothnia by the route 1 : Toriiea, end compelled the Swedish army of the north, which was commanded by Gripen- berg, to lay down their arms at Sciwis (March '2ii). This sanguinary affair occurred entii'cly through ignorance ; because in that country, lying under the (j6th degree of north latitude, they were not aware of the armistice granted by Knorring. On the expiry of the truce, hostilities rei^ommcnccd in the month of May, and the Russians took pos- session of the part of West Bothnia lying to the north of Umea. The peace between Russia and Sweden was signed at rredericsham (September 17). The latter power adhered to the continental system, Itornadotti" Crown I'liiin-. 21G AlL-xaiKlcrpioniiiti'sciNilisatiuii. Wurs ul' UuNsiii. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Itctrospect of nlTiurs of till- Uttumiui i;nii)ire. Moliliivia luul Wulladiia c as 4 "^ rcsrrviiij? to hcisi'lf the importation of salt and Much colonial jiroducc as she could not do witliout. She surrendered rinland -with the -wliole of East liothnin, and a part of West lU)thnia lying to the eastward of the river Tornea. The cession of these j)rovinces, -which formed the granary of Sweden, nud contained a population of 900,000 houIs, was an irreparable loss to that kingdom, which had only 2,344,000 iidiabitants left. The peace of Eredericshani was s])eedily followed by that of Jonkoping with Denmark (December 10), and that at Paris Avith France (January (5, IHIO). By tlie first, everything was re-established on its an- cient footing between these two states. Hut by the peace of Paris, Sweden renounced the importa- tion of colonial produce, and only reserved the privilege of importing salt as an article of absolute necessity. It was on this condition alone that she could obtain rei)()ssession of Pomerania. I'hc Prince Royal of Sweden liaving died sud- denly, a diet assembled at Orebro, and elected John IJaptistc Julius Uernadotte, Prince of Poiite Corvo, his successor to tlie throne (May 2H). The election was unanimous ; but out of more than 1,000 of tlie nobility who had a right to appear at tlie Diet, only 140 were present. Bernadotte ac- cepted an oft'er so honourable. On his arrival at I'jlsinore, he professed, as his ancestors had done before him in France, his adherence to the Con- fession of Augsburg, which was then the esta- blished religion in Sweden. King Charles XIII. having adopted him as his son, he was proclaimed at Stockholm (November .")), eventual successor to the throne, under the name of Charles John. Twelve days afterwards, Sweden declared war against Great Britain. In Russia, the Euiperor Alexander, since his accession to the tlu-one, had occupied himself in- cessantly in improving every branch of the admi- nistration. The restrictive regulations which had been published under the last reign were abro- gated ; by gradual concessions, the ])easaiitry were prepared for a liberty vvhicli they had not yet en- joyed. The number of universities, and what is still more essential to civilisation, the number of schools, was augmented. Tlie senate, the ministry, and the civil authorities were re-organized, and new improvements adopted, tending to abolish arbitrary power, to accelerate the despatch of busi- ness, and to promote the distribution of fair and imjiartial justice to all daises of society. ('an;ds were dug, new avenues were opened for industry, and commerce flourished, especially the trade of the Black Sea. The only jioiiit in which the go- vernment failed, was in its attempts to restore the finances ; but tlie four wars of the preceding seven years in which Russia had been engaged, rendered these attempts unavailing. AVe have already related the origin, events, and termination of two of these wars, viz., that of ISOO, which ended with the peace of Tilsit, and procured Russia the province of Binlystock ; and that of Sweden, which annexed the province of Finland to the Russian Empire. The war against England continued after the peace of Fredericsham, but without furnisiiiiig any events of great im- jiortance. The two othtr wars were those against Persia and the Porte. At the beginning of his reign, Alexander had annexed Georgia to his Em- pire, which had till tlien been the prey of continual disturbances. This accession drew him into a njj with Persia, which did not terminate till isiijj The principal events of that war were the dtivj of the Persians at Etschmiazin, by Prince ZiziandJ (June 20, 1S04) ; the conquest of the jji-ovime ol Shirvan by the same prince (January ISU(i) ■ \\1 taking of Derbent by the Russians (July 3); ■^^\ the defeat of the Persians by Paulucci, at AlkholJ walaki (September 1, 1810). Before sjieaking of tlie war between Russia ami the Porte, it will be necessary to take a brief rcj trospect of the Ottoman Empire. The comliiioj of that Empire, badly organized and worse noj verned, was such, that everything then prisasfi its approaching dissolution ; or in other worils, ly expulsion of the Turks from Europe. EvervwinJ the authority of the Grand Seignor was' disrel garded. Paswan Oglou, the Pacha of WiddinJ was in open revolt. AH Pacha of Janiiiii wai obedient only when it suited his coiivcnicuce. TlJ Servians had taken up arms under tlioir Indel Czerni George, and threatened to jiosscss tlieniJ selves of Sabacz and Belgrade. Djez/ar, thcrachi of Syria, without ilelaring himself an ciitiny to i Porte, enjoyed an absolute indepeiideiice. ThJ sect of the "Wahabites was in ])ossession of AraliiaJ Egypt was distracted by civil wars. Spjini IIlT who had reigned there since 17Ki), eonvinicd tial the Porte could never re-establish its amlumti except by better organizing the army, had mkIciJ voured to model it on the European system, 'ilij attempt afterwards cost him his throne. Such was the situation of the Ottoman EmiiircJ when Buonajiarte, in order to prevent Alcxiimltl from sending supplies to Prussia, resolved to fmJ broil him in a quarrel with the Porte, (uiienl Sebastiani, t' French envoy at Constantiiioplef contrived to ouiain so great an influence over tbi divan, that for some time it was entirely under hiJ direction. Subjects of dissension were not wmilJ ing between Russia and the Porte ; and these wrJ of such a nature, as to furnish each purtv 'villi plausible reasons for complaining of the infiaciwiJ of treaties. The French minister was not slow iJ fan the spark of discord. He even induced tli| divan to refuse to renew their treaty of idliauM with England, which was then on the point if csJ piriiig. The Emperor Alexander, foreseeiiic; tliil there would be no redress to his complaints, emi orders to General Michelson to enter MoldaviJ and AValladiia. The Porte then dediifcd \n\ against Russia (December 30) ; but deviiliiij.' the Hrst time from a barbarous custom, slio idlrnvfii ]M. d'ltalinski, the Russian minist.'r, to depw unmolested. A few days after, Mr. Arbuthnot, the Eiiglisli minister, quitted Constantinople, after liaviiii; rcl jieatedly demanded the renewal of tlie alliiiiicel and the expulsion of JI. Sebastiani. 'Within a ftJ weeks, an English fleet of nine ships of the IImI three frigates, and several tire-shijis, commiuiilHr by Vice-Admiral Duckworth, forced the passafl of the Dardanelles, auvder. The Janis- saries having pursued him thither, he set lire to the magazine, and blew himself and his ])erse- eutors into the air. The young Sultan Mahmoud had the courage to declare that he would retain the European discijiline and dress ; but after being attacked in his palace, and learning that the city was filled with carnage and eonilagration, he yielded to necessity, and restored the privileges of the Janissaries, It is probable they would not have spared his life, but for the circumstance that he was the last scion of the race of Osman. The ministers of the divan, whom Cieneral Se- bastiani had gained over to the interests of France, finding themselves entirely discarded by the last revolution, Mr. Adair, the new English minister at Constantinople, concduded a treaty of peace (January ii, 1800), by which the Porte confirmed to England the commercial advantages which the treaty of 1()7." liad granted them, as well as the navigation of the Black Sea, which !Mr. Spencer Smith had obtained (August :<, 1700). Immediately after the return of tlie Emperor Alexander from l'",rfurt,an order was given to open negociations with the Turks. The conference took place at Jassy ; but it was immediately broken off, after the Russian jdenipotentiarics had demanded, as preliminary conditions, the cession of Moldavia and AVallachia, and the expulsion of the British minister from Constantinople. Hostilities then .Mft Uiitlli' of Tiirtnritzii. 218 Silistria mid WidUlii taken. Kiissiiiii Vintorii's. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Iiifiint KiiiB of Uomc. Pojie Pius VII. rntrimony of the Cliurcli. ■c; c c: rocoinmcncrd. The Russians were commanded l)y Prince rnisorofl'ski, and after his deatii by Prince Hagration. Having jiassed the Danube, tliey took possession of Ismael, and fought a san- guinary battle at Tartaritza, near Silistria (Sep- tember 2()), wliich com]ielled tliem to raise the siege of tliat place. The grand vizier, without taking advantage of liis good fortmie, retired to ■winter quarters. The eami)aign of 1810 was more decisive. Ge- neral Kainenskoi, the second of that name, had taken tlie chief command of the Russian army; his brother of the same name, and General iNIarkoff, opened the campaign by the taking of Bazardjik (.lune 4); the ca])ture of Silistria (June 11) by the conmiander-in-chief and Count Langeion, opened the way to Shumla, where the grand vizier, Yussuff Pacha, occupied a strong j)osition, while General SabaniefF defeated a bo(ly of Turkish troo])s near Rasgard (Juni> 1-1), the remains of which were obliged to surrender. The grand vizier then denninded an armistice for negociating a ])eace. The re])ly was, that it would be concluded immediately on his recognising the Danuljc as the limit of the two empires, and promising to ])ay a sum of '20,000,000 of jiiastves ; tlie Russians re- maining in possession of liessarabia until it was paid. The grand vizier, at the instigation of the British minister, rejected these conditions. Yussuff Pacha still occupied his camp near Shumla, the rear of which was protected by the Henuis. Ka- inenskoi, the ehler, attacked him in his entrench- ments, but was repulsed with loss (June 23) . ] left his brother at Kargali Dere, about five li-amj from Shumla, at the head of a corps of obsenntiul while he attempted himself to take Iliulschuk hi main force, but was again repulsed. The youn-J brother then found himself obliged, >>v 'thp y proach of a Buperior force, to abandon liisposiiioj at Kargali Dere (Angust li)). Yussuff, i)('iii;r,|J termined to save Rudschuk, detached MomiiJ Pacha with a body of 40,000 troops, who took ul a formidable position at the place where the J^.nJ runs into the Danube. Kamenskoi, leaviinr (i ("ount Langeron the care of the siege of lluilHlmld and ordering Sass to invest Guirdesov, wliirh i situated on the other side of the Damibe npnojitl Rudschuk, iunnediately directed his march astiinJ Mouchtar, and attacked him in his eutreiichmina at Batine. After a terrible carnage, the RussiaJ took ])ossessioii of the Turkish camp by miiin fofJ (September 7), when M(niehlar escajied with ( small detachment. Within a few days after, CoiinL St. Priest took Sczistov, witli the whole TurkisI fleet. Rudschuk and (iuirdesov surrendond the same day (September 27), and Nicopoli .ma Widdin in a short time after; so that by the fiJ of the campaign the Russians were masters of t!ij whole right bank of the Danube. The grand vijc had continued all this time in his strong r,\n\\ Shumla. The Servians, assisted by a hodv Russians, had taken possession of the last fon,, i-\; in their country which the Turks had still nininld tuined, such as Cladova, Orcava, and Praovn. -I? I PERIOD IX., concluded. THE DECLINE AND DOAVNFAL OF THE EMPIRE OF BUONAPARTE. A.I). 1810—181.5. Wf, have already traced the power of Buonaparte to its greatest height ; we shall now witness its downfal. Nevertheless, an event happened in 1811 which might have given stability to his au- thority, had it been legitimate ; and that was the birth of a son (March 20), to wliom he gave the title of King of Rome. The difrerences that had arisen between Buona- parte and the head of the church, became this year a subject of public discussion. The will of a despot, whom no power could resist, was made to recoil more than once before the inflexible firmness of an old man, disarmed and in captivity. Ever since Buonaparte had deprived the church of her jiatrimony, and had been laid under the ban of excommunication, Pius VII., faithfid to his prin- ciples, had refused confirmation to every bishop nominated by a man who was excluded from the Catholic conmiunion. Buouiiparle thoutrht it might be jiossVilc to make a shift without the con- firmation of the jiope. With this view, he as- sembled a national council at Paris (June 17, 1811), composed of French and Italian bishops, and in which ('ardinal Fesch, the Arehbisbop of Lyons, presided. He soon f(nnid, however, that despotic authority was of little avail against reli- gious opinions. The prelates, on whose compiii ance he had calculated with too much coutidenM declared that the council had no jmwcr to !;nnl that contirniation which was refused by the Po|ip| but the arrest of three of the most refriirti)rj ]ircl lates, who were imprisoned at Vlncemu's (Julf 12), having given rise to a negociation, the resl adopted a modified scheme which the gov(>niim'ii| had connniinieated to them ; on cuadition, liowl ever, that it should be submitted for the apiiroliaj tion of the Pojie. But his holiness, who hiul stif remained at Savona, refused to treat with thl council, which he declared null and void, ;.s liiiTiiJ been conveiu'il without his atithority. The iiroj ject of Buonaparte thus completely failed; ikl council was ral retired again I Portugal, and Joseph Buonaparte returned to llailrld (November I). I At this time the North of Europe had been the lealiT nf great events. For some time, the friend- li|i kiween the courts of St. Petersburg and St. Eouil hail l)een growing cool. The last ns\irpa- loiis of Buonaparte, during the course of 1810, loiight about a complete rupture. The extension f tlie Froncli Empire towards the Baltic was be- kmiiilia subject of suspicion and anxiety to Alex- Wor, The manner in which Buonaparte had Ikon possession of the duchy of Oldenburg, the Jlriinoiiy of his family, was an outrage against Is person. The first symptom of discontent which ' exhibited was by abandoning the continental Woni, although indirectly, by an Ukase (l)e- phorlS, 1810), which permitted the importation 1 colonial produce, while it interdicted that of Iraiice, wine only excepted. Under pretext of fgatiizing a force for the maintenance of these regulations, he raised an army of 90,000 men. A rupture with Buonaparte appeared then un- avoidable. In Sweden also there arose new subjects of quarrel. Buonaparte complained, that in that country the c(nitinental system 'ad not been put in execution with suflicicnt rigour. He demanded, that Charles XIII. should put 2, )00 sailors into his pay ; that he should introduces the tariff of Trianon, and admit F'rench reveniie-olliccrx at Gotteuburg. In short, Sweden, Denmark, and the duchy of Warsaw, wens to form a confedera- tion, under the protection of France. During these discussions, ^Marshal Davonst, who comuiandcd in the north of Germany, took possession of Swt-dish Pomerauia and the Isle of llugen (January 27, 1812). Buonaparte oH'ered, however, to surrender that j)rovince to Sweden, and to comjiel Alexander to restore Finland to her, if Cliarles XIII. would agree to furnish ;{0,000 troops against Russia. Sweden, on the contrary, was on terms of con- ciliation with that power. By an alliance, which was signed at St. Petersburg (April o). Ah xander promised to procure her Norway. A body of be- tween 2.'),000 and 30,000 Swedes, and between ir),(JOO and 20,000 Russians, were then to make a diversion against France on the coasts of (Jermaiiy. This design was afterwards changed, in a confei- ence which the eni|)eror had at Abo (August 'Mj whore it was arranged that the Russian troops, destined to act in Norway, should bo transported to Riga for the defence of Russia; and tliat they should not, till a later period, inidertake the eon- quest of Norway. Charles XIII. was also recon- ciled to Englanil, while he had always pretended to be ignorant of the declaration of war of No- vember 17, 1810. A treaty of jieace was signed at Orebro (July 12), whi're they agreed, though in general terms, on a defensive alliance. ' Buonaparte, seeing the moment aiqiroach when a rupture with Russia would take place, hesitated for some time as to the jiart he should take with regard to Prussia, in the very centre of which he still possessed three fortresses. He determined at last to preserve that state, and to make an ally of it, on which the principal burden of the war should fall. Finn- conventions were concluded at Paris, on the same day (February 24), between these two j)owers, By the principal treaty, an alliance purely defensive was established ; but, according to certain secret articles, that alliance was declared offensive ; on such terms, however, that Prussia was not to furnish any contingent beyond the Pyr \ces in Italy, or against tlie Turks. By the tiint con- vention, which was likewise to be kept secret, the alliance was expressly directed against Russia ; and the King of Prussia promised to furnish a body of 20,000 auxiliary troops. Glogau, Stettin, and Cnstrin, were to be still occupied by the French. The t>vo other conventions related to the sums still due by Prussia, and the supplies which she had to furnish. A few days after, there was also signed at Paris V. defensive alliance against Russia. The reci- procal supplies to be furnished by the contract- ing iiarti(!s were ;U),000 men ; and the court of Vienna was given to hope, that she might again be restored to the possession of the Illyrian ju'o- vinces. From that moment, Buonaparte began to make the most active prcjiarations. By a decree ■H ; I- t I ii'|iiiniti(ms of lUiuiinparii; 220 •'ii'l til-' (>i'rm:iii coiirL'ilci ley. .'.iiittriii iiiiil IliiMiriiu KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. I'lmi ol'tlio ciimpnij;!!. S:iiolcii»k(> tjikcii. Niipnlroii rcticiitHrruni >to5,o,v. c:: '•St.!*' **• -1 of the Ronati'. tlu avIioIu male i)oi;ulati()n of Fnmce, bi'twi'i'ii tlie aui's of Iweiity ami hixty years, was divided into tliree Hans tr bodies, summoned by ])roclamatiou ; the first of these contained 100,000 men, to be placed at tlie disposal of tiie govern- ment. Tiie princes of the confederaMon were to furnisii tlieir contingent as follows : — 15avaria 30,000 troops, ^Vcst])lialia antciiri which had for a moment revived the courage ( the invaders. In a short time famine began to make its pearance in the f^rmy of Buonaparte. I)is»eml)liii| the real state of his aifairs, he twice 'iffered Alexaiider refused to treat at a time when the wJ had so recently commenced; and tol.i tiio llussiaj generals, that he was resolved to continue his r treat. Xapoleon also commenced his rctreatafiij six weeks' occupation of Moscow. ISIortier, v«! commanded the rear-guard, had orders tosettirell iheKremlin, the palace of the ancient czars of Uusjil Buonaparte directed his march towards SniolenskJ through a co\intry reduced to an entire desert. HI was incessantly harassed by the llussians, wiiosf troops, marching at a convenient distance, iittarkJ both his fianks. On arriving at Smoleusko (Si vembcr 0), after having lost 40,000 men, tM army was assailed by the rigours of winter, wliici added to thoirother misfortunes. Kutusolf Imvinr advanced before them, and taking post at Kiasncf they were obliged to force a passage with the los iiui'tii'iitslVuniMo; l',is«mi'"''lh(! IVri'siim. jlislurtiiiicsor Kreiicli iirniy. (ieiiLTiil Yorki' ilescrtstlicni. PERIOD IX. A.D. 1810—1815. Now ("(mrarilat putilislieil. Disiivdwi'd liy I'iiis Vll. Alliaiiuuul' Uii.-tsia& I'riissia. !21 lti;!,00l) men, and 70 pieces of canon. Two Ijis after, 11,000 men of Ney's division laid down leirarms; JJo.OOO men, and twenty-five cannons filhout horses, were all that remained to tlie con- Lror of Moscow. [This exhausted and dispirited army had fifty Jtagiies to march, before they could reach the jerfsiua, wliere other dangers awaited them Tlie Lsjge of that river was occupied by tlio army of Fliicliagoif, amounting to 50,000 men, who had mvcd from Moldavia. Another Russian army, Uer Count Wittgenstein, was marching from tlic iotlli to join the former ; hut ^Marshal Victor's Idv of reserve, which had arrived from Prussia, tle'rceiited them for a while, without having been lileto prevent their final junction. Victor, Oudi- lol, and Dond)rowski, brought a reinforcement to luoiiapart'J of IJ5,000 men, exhausted with cold y famine. The passage of the Ueresina was Irceilwitli iulmirable bravery (November 27, 28) ; |gt it cost France, or the allies, the lives or the Iberty of more than 30,000 men. Al'tliis point, the main body of the Russians [eased to pursue the unfortunate wreck of Buona- tarte's army ; nevertheless, as far as Wilna, they jrcri' continually harassed by the Cossacs. There i besides a frightful deficiency of provisions U clothing, so that upwards of 25,000 men foil a tcrilice to tiiese privations in their route to Wilna. Ihis was the first city or town that fell in their laj ; all the others had been completely destroyed ; ' miserable remnant who reached that place iDttcmber 9) were at length supplied with pro- (isious; but the Cossacs did not leave them long Dihe enjoyment of repose. On the following day fiey were obliged to commence their retreat to liowiio, from which they directed their march jDwards the Vistula. Independently of the corps If Macdunald, who had the Prussians under his lommanil, and of the auxiliary body of Austrians pi Su ins, none of which took any part in that W, only 18,800 French and Italians, and about J3,l)U0 Poles and Germans, found tiieir way back im Russia. liuouaparte himself had taken his departure Irivatcly on the 5th December, leaving the coin- liiiid of the army to Joachim Murat. AVitli such lespatcli iiad he consulted his safety, that on tlie pill id' the same month he arrived at Paris. I'rincfc Schwartzenberg, being joined by General Efjiiiei who eonunanded the Saxons, had fought Jevcral eniragements with the army of Chichagoll', lone of wliich had pro\ed decisive ; and after the iffairof the lieresina ho had retired towards War- law and I'ultusk. Several most sanguinary en- |ij;ei!ients, altliough net more decisive than the lofmer, iiad taken place between Count Wittgen- Jtoiii and the left wing of tlie French army ; esjie- liallj towards the commencement of the campaign, Jlieu Marshals Oudinot and St. ('yr had joined llaedonald. On these occasions the Prussians lad rendered very important services ; but the Vomoiit General Yorke, who rommai 'ed these luxiliarics, had been informed of the retreat of punnaparte, he thought himself authorized, not pom any political motives, which he would never lave avowed, but from the destitute condition in pldch he had been left, to conclude a cajjitulation Mill the Russians, by which he withdrew his phole forces from the French army (December29). Tiiat event w",s of little importance in itself, although it produced a very great sensation in Prus- sia, and served as a pretext for Buonaparte to de- mand new levies, without being obliged to acknow- ledge the whole extent of the losses he had sus- tained. One of his ministers, Rognault d' Angely, had oven the efiVontery to speak, in his oilicial report, of the Glorious Ilatrcat of Moscow ! Moreover, a decree of the senate, issued at the commencement of the following year (January 11), placed a new conscription of 350,000 men at the disposal of the government. In order to raise the necessary funds for tliis new armament, Buona- parte seized the revenues of all the conniumes in France ; their properties were sold to jiromote his schemes ; and he promised to make them ample reimbursement, by assigning to tiiem annuities on the civil list. Nothing annoyed Buonaparte so mueli as the incessant resistance; and ojjiiositioii of Pope Pius VII. In the hope of gaining a more easy victory, by bringing that respectable old man nearer his person, lie had ordered hiui to be conveyed to the Palace of Fontaincbleau, about the middle of the year 1812. After his return from Moscow, he repaired thither himself, and succeeded in extort- ing tiie Pope's consent to a new concordat ; on condition, however, that tiie stipulations should be kept secret, until (hey were examined by a con- sistory of cardinals. But Buonaparte took an early opportunity of publishing tliis new concordat, as a fundamental law of the state — a circ: .istance which induced Pius VII. to disavow i., and to declare it null and of none ott'ect. Meantnne a now and formidable league was preparing against Buonaparte. After the cam- paign of 1812, the King of Prussia had dcumnded, agreeably to the convention of February 24, tliat Buoraparte should reimburse him for the 93,000,000 which he hid advanced in furnishing supplies to the French army, beyond the sum which he owed as his contingent for the war. The refusal of Buonaparte to pay that debt sewed as a pretext for Frederic AVilliani to shake off an alliance so contrary to the true interests of his kingdom. An appeal wliieh he made to the nation excited a general enthusiasm ; and as every thing had been for five years preparing in secret, in 'the twinkling of an eye, the Prussian army, which had been reduced to 42:00i> men, was raised to 128,000. This defection t)f Prussia furnished Buonaparte with a plea for demanding new levies. A decreeof the senate (April 3, 1813) ordered him 180,000 addition;'.! troops. Tiie treaty which was signed at Kalisch and Breslau (Feliruary 27, 2S) laid the foundation of an intimate alliance between Russia and the King of Prussia. Alexander promised to furnish 150,000 men, and Prussia 80,000, exclusive of the troops in garrisons and fortresses. Alexander moreover engaged never to lay down arms until Prussia should be restored to iier statistical, finan- cial, and geographical position, eonlbrniably to the state of that monarchy, such as it had been before the war of 1800. Within a few days after, these two monarchs had an intervie\y at Breslau, where a more intimate friendship was contracted, which subsisted between them for a long time. Prince Kutusoff issued a pioclaipation, dated from Kalisch (March 23, 1813), which announced "3 ► t!oiiri!ilcTi>tiou of tliu Uhine 222 'tuale(l by I ditterent motive. She had still hopes to moid thJ war, by inducing Buonaparte to accept those iiwl derate conditions of peace to which the allii's iial given their consent by the treaty of June 27, ol which we shall have occasion to speak immff diately. A ; the time when the armistice wii signed. Count Mettcniich, who had apprized BuoJ naparte of these conditions, had already certaiJ iniormation that'the two monarchs were not liel ceived in predicting that they would be lefusedl All hopes of peace had now vanished ; but tlictJ still remained another motive, which iimdc th^ court of Vienna anxious for further delay. By a convention signed at Dresden (June 1 Buonaparte accepted the mediation of Austria foi a peace, either general or continental : iiiid I'll armistice, which was to expire on the 20tli Juljl Kiiiiurur FruiioU dL-elarus iiljuiiist Na)x>lc()ii. Treaties ot the AUiucI I'owera. PERIOD IX. A.D. 1810—181.-). Daiiitth tri-itty uith Nu|iiili'i)ii. Vurcvsol'tlic Allii'H. i^aa ^j( prolonged to the lOth of AugiiHt. At tin- re- r . ,|f I'nintis I., 11 sort of ('oiiKross wiis opeiiud jfraiiue. Uuoiiaparft' hud no Avish for peace, as luviT supposed that Austria Avouhl deelare niii.t liim. The allies had no wish for it, as they Lvi well tlie disi)osition of tliat power ; while L'lrii') •'"■ ""') eiihinet wliieh hail paciiic views, L 'ivcu up all liope of ever briiigiuff Uiionaj)urte oai'* vi'iisdiiable terms of acconiniodation. iSueli ,'lli(> auspices under whidi the congress of 1^,-111' was opened. They were di-^cnssing the Inii ill wliieli the uegociations were to proceed, Lpi, the loth of August arrived. Tlie ministers J Kussiii mid Prussia then declared that the term li the iiniiisticc liud expired, and consetpiently lit tlii'ir iliploniatic powers were at an end. flVilhin two days after, Austria declared war Liiist Ihionaparte ; and the three monarchs, who fm' met at Prague, resolved to accompany t..e Liu armv, whicli was under the command of Irinfe Seiiwartzenbcrg, during the wliole cam- ti|,m. II will not be improper here to give a summary ihf treiities which constituted the sixth coalition, 111 pniiured the accession of Austria, so decisive r the eiuise of the allies. 1 . The treaty of Idclitiibacii (June 14), between Great Britain III Prussia. The former bound herself to pay to le latter power, within six months, i;(U>(!,()CK • 'er- for the maintenance of 80,000 troops ; iiiic umler the same engagement with regard ,. itaugiiieutatioii of Prussia, that Russia had en- jediiiio by the treaty of Kalisch. The King of 'ni;sia promised to cede to the Electorate of Ijiiuver a certain jiortion of territory, including le jiiiiieipality of llildesheim, and containing a ipubtiou of between ;iOO,000 and 400,000 souls. I'll.; treaty of Reichenbach between Cireat IJri- iu anil Uiissia (June 1.5), by which the former miseil to pay to tlie other, before the expiry of leytiir, t:l,;in;i,;>li4 sterling, for the maintenance lliO,0()0 men. :*. T'he treaty of Reichenbach, iiwcea Austria, Prussia, and Russia (June 27) ; le Hist engaged to declare war against Uuona- le, il'at the conclusion of tlie ariiiisiice he bad itaueptod the conditions of ))eace which they feml liini. The following are the proposals to [hicli we have already alluded. Austria, on her iilieliall', ileiiianded only the restitution of the iyriaii piovinces, and the territory wliieb she had to the duchy of Warsaw. Such were the 4'w "1 lier siiK^ere desire for restoring peace to rope. Prussia was content to obtain the resti- llioii of licr part of the same duchy, and that of ulzie, uiul the evacuation of the fortresses occu- M ll) the French ; thus abandoning all her pos- ■ioiis on the left bank of the ^'Ube. Moreover, ') iilluwed the kingdom of Westphalia still to iiain, and they deprived Uuonaparte only of his 1 Usurpations in the north of Germany. By lOthci- iiiticlo of the treaty, it was stipulated, that these conditions were rejected, and war once nil, they shoidd never make peace but on con- ion that Austria and Prussia were to be again iced on the footing in which they had been in "i ; that the Confederation of the Rhine should dissolved; the independence of Holland and ly secured; and the House of Bourbon restored the throne of Spain. 4. The treaty of Peters- Idau between Great Britain and Russia (July 0), by which the former undertook to support a German legion of 10,000 men for the service of Russia, a. A definitive alliance signed at Toplitz (September !l), between Austria, Prussia, and Russia, by which these powers were to assist each other with G0,000 men. It was agreed to recon- struct the Austrian monarchy upon the jilan ap- proaching as near as possible to that of 1805, to dissolve the CJonfederation of the Rhine and the kingdom of Westj)halia ; and to restore the House of Brunswick-Luneburg. 0. The treaty tif i.Uiance signed at Toplitz between Austria and Great Bri- tain. Buonaparte, on liis side, likewise acquired an ally at this important crisis. The Danes had already entered into Hamburg with the French, when Marshal Davoust compelled General Tetteu- born to evacuate that city (May '.Hi), which be had got possession of in the month of March. An English Heet having ap]>eured off Copenhagen (May 111), and demanded the cession of Norway in favour of Sweden, the King of Denmark con- cluded a treaty with Buonaparte at (-'openhagen, by which the former engage ' to declare war against S'veden, Russia, and Prussia, and the latter against Sweden. Innncdiately after, an army of I'JjOOO Danes, under the command of Frederic Prince of Hesse, was joined to that of Davoust. Tlie plan of the campaign for the allies had been settled in the conference held at Truchenberg by tb.e Emperor of Russia, the King of Prussia, the Prince Royal of Sweden, and the plenipotentiaries of Austria and Great Britain. Tlie forces of the coalition amounted to 2(i4,000 Austrians, 249,000 Russians, 2**,0''0 Prussians, and 24,000 Swedes; but not more than 700,000 men were engaged in the campaign ; of which 102,000 vvere occupied with the sieges of Uant/ic, /amoscz, Glogau, Custrin, and Stettin. These 700,000 men were divided as follows : — T/ic Army o/ liulicmiu, composed of Austrians, Russians, and Prussians, under the command of Prince S<'hwurt/.enberg, amounted to 2;{7,700 men, with an enormous park of artillery. Thi Arniij i\f the Aort/i, comjiosed of Prussians, Russians, and Swedes, under the command ot the Prince Royal of Sweden, amounting to 1. 54, 000 men, with ;{87 pieces of cannon. T/k; Army of SiUitia, composed of Prussians and Russians, under the command of Blucher, 05,000 strong, with 'MM pieces of cannon. T/ic Austrian Army of Jiavuria, conmianded by Prince Reuss, containing 42,700 men, with 42 pieces of cannon. 'J'/ic Austrian Army in Italy, under Hiller, 50,000 strong, with 120 pieces of cannon. The Austrian Army of livsirrv, stationed be- tween Vienna and Presburg, under the connnand of Duke F'erdinand of Wurtemberg, (iO.OOO strong. The. Russian Army of licsarve in 7'ti/««c/, under the command of Bennigsen, 57,000 strong, with 198 pieces of cannon. To these forces Buona))arte opposed an army of 402,000 men, including 80,000 who occupied thir- teen i'ortresses ; besides tlie army of Bavaria, which watched the movements of the Prince of Reuss, and 40,000 men which Eugene Beauharnais had in Italy. Hostilities recommenced immediately after the termiiiution of the armistice; Silesia, Saxony, and :^ i r» ItattU'ol' (iniSi-lU'croii. Di'iilh 1)1' (icu. Mi)ri'aii. N«y ilul'Hiiti'il lit Uuiiuw itz. KOCirS REVOLUTIONS. NiiiMjlutiirsdi'l'iNitiit Li'ip,j,.. Hid lli)(lit to Ilaiiau. Uiiviiriit ili'iiurt;! Iiim, C ft Cnu m2 '4Ht sometinu's t!ic fi-ontici-s, bt'canio the tlicati'C of war. Tlie Princn Iloyal of Swfilfii covort'il Ber- lin, whicli was tlu-catencil by Marshal Ouiliiiof. TliG battle of (iross-Uoercii (Aiii,'ust 'i'.\), wliich was gaiiirtl by the Prussian Gi'iieral IJulow, savi'd the capital. lu Silrsia, Ulucher, prossed hard by Buo!iaparte, liad retired as far as Jai.er; but the latter, having iiitellifjeuee of the march of the allies on Dresden, retraced his steps with a jiart of his army, wlule Ulucher attacked Marshal Macdonald at the river Katsbaeh, uud fjuiiu'd a siunul victory (Auijust 20), in which he took 10,000 prisoners, and 10;j pieces of cannon, (ienoral Putliod, wlio eoninianded a detachment of 8,000 men, was obliged to surrender at Plagwitz to Count Lan- geron (August 29). Tlie army of Bohemia at- tacked Dre-iden a few hours after Buonaparte had arrived with his reinforcements. The battle was bloody, and lasted two days (August 2(i, 27). Thirteen thousand Austrians being cut off on the left wing, were obliged to lay do .' i their arms; the allies retired in good order, leaving 0,000 men killed and wounded on the Held of battle, and 20 pieces of cannon in the hands of the French, who had lost 1S,000 men by that victory. General IMoreau, who had come on the invitation of the Prince Royal of Sweden to take a part in the struggle against France, was mortally wounded. Before tlie battle, Vandamme had been detached with :!0,000 men to cut oif the retreat of the allies. He eneoinitered Count Ostermann Tolstoy, who was at the head of S,000 Austrians, and re])ulsed him as far as the valley of Culm. The King of Prussia, who was at Toplitz, apprized the Russian general, that unless he made baste to arrest the march of Vandamme, the latter would succeed ia cutting off the Fmperor Alexander from his army. The Russians fought tlie whole day (August 29), with the most heroic determination ; Count Oster- mann having had his left arm carried off by a siiot, the command was taken by Marshal !Milloradowicli. At length they were reinforecd by several Austrian and Russian corps, which the King of Prussia had sent to their assistance, and whicli enabled tliem to maintain tl.eir jiosition. During the night, Barclay de Tolly had arrived witli new rcinf:)rce- ments, and next day (August 30), tlie famous battle of (Julm was fought, which was decided by the arrival of (ieneral Kleisf on the heights of Nollen- (lorf, lying behind the position of Vandamini-. Tiie latter finding himself thus intercepted, a part of his ca\alry fVnced their passage, by cutting their Avay through a regiment of recruits. Vandamme then surrendered himself prisoner, with 10,000 men and 81 pieces of cannon. The grand object of Buonaparte was to get pos- session of Berlin. Ts'ey, at the head of 80,000 men, was charged with the execution of this enterprise. But he sustained a complete rout at Denewifz (September 0), by the Prince Royal of Sweden ; and another by Bulow at Tauenzien. The French there lost 20,000 made prisoners, with 80 pieces of cannon and all their baggage. The plan of the allies to withdraw Buonaparte from Dresden, and allure him into the plains of Saxony, where they could unite all their forces against him, succeeded entirely to their wish. He quitted Dresden (Oc- tober 7), at the bead of 125,000 men, with tlie hope of defeating the enemy in 8e|)arate armies. But the latter had mana-uvred so skilfully, that the armies of Bohemia, the North, Silesia, and Russian army of reserve, were ready to vi\ni I junction on a given signal. The ])laiiis ot'hiiii decided the fate of Buonaparte. His iiimv ih, amounted to 171,000 combatants. Tlie nH would have had ;J01,000, namely, 78,000 Austiiniii «9,.')00 Prussians, 130,000 Russians, aiul 1,s,(h| Swedes, if they had been able to form a iiuiuu ; the comnienceiiient of the battle. Several different engagements had preceded tlj grf'at battle. On the IGth October, the armv Boiiemia alone fought three several aclidib" AVachau, Coiinewit/., and Lindenau. Xone these were productive of any decisive result; In Blucher had encountered Marshal ^larmont on til same day, and defeated him at Mockerii. On t|] following day, there were some eiigagenienls, |,J without any decisive result ; they were f()ii;[ayence, closely pursued by the Co!«:i(f who made a great many prisoners, besides a riJ booty in cannon and baggage. When he ariivii at Hanau, he found his jiassagc intercepted In i enemy which he did not expect. Since the nirai of August, a negociation had been set mi foot^ii the King of Bavaria, for inducing him to abaii ( the cause of Buonaparte. To this measure ' length agreed, by a convention, which was ^'.aii at llied (October 8), which secured to fiavaiJ the possession of absolute and indcpciulent sail reignty, and complete indemnity for the reslill tions wliicli she was, in that case, to make | Austria. SjIwIwii ilcfrated by Wrcde. PcnPiark juiiiH the AUiei. Buttle of VittorU. PERIOD IX. A.D. 1810—181.-). Ki!jtoratiou of Ilnnovvr. French Cunacrintion, Thu Allium iiivuittt Krunce. 223 Immediately after the si^'niii); the convention at luied) tiie Bavarian General Wredo, at the head of I body of between 43,000 and 30,000 AuRtrians md Bavarians, hegnn his mari'h by Neuburg, Ljoaih, and Wurtzburjf ; and after taking; tliis fcliei cit)'i proceeded to Hanuu, of which he took ^saiou (October 24) with 3(i,000 (>r 40,000 He encountered the French, who in their [ilfeat Iwil arrived at Gelnhausn ; there a battle )(it place, which lasted for several successive days. (uonapartc lost 23,000 men in killed, wounded, inJ prisoners ; but, with the 33,000 that were left, le forced a passai^e and retired to the left bank [f ihc Rhine. Marshal St. (^yr, whom Buona- ute liad left at Dresden, saw himself obli);ed to Litukte with 27,000 men. Dant^ie surrendered Jilh 20,000 men, and Torgau with 10,000. In tiie month of May, Eugene Beauharnais had ikeii the command of the army of Italy, which Kupicd the Illyrian provinces. But he was ob- Ul to return beyond the Adige, before General pier, who, having made himself master of the fvrul, was threatening to cut off his retreat. This nipai'^u, nevertheless, did honour to the French kneni'. I Afitr the battle of Leipsic, the Prince Royal of keden niarclied against Davoust and the Danes, le former of whom was blocked up in Hamburg, fi tlic Danes had retired into Sleswick. An mistice was granted them, from which however Ikkstadt and Fredericsort were excepted, as ley had capitulated during the cessation of hos- lities. Frederic VI. concluded a. peace at Kiel 111! haste (January 14, 1814); and Denmark ktered into the alliance against Buonaparti'. We lillhave occasion to speak afterwards of the mu- Jal cessions that were made by this tre.ity. On jesame day Denmark signed a peace with Great pilain. She promised to furnish 10,000 men to ike the field against Buonaparte, and Great Bri- iin engaged to pay them £33,333 per month. pee was at the same time established between lenmark and Russia, by the treaty of Hanover lebruary 8) ; and between Denmark and Prussia Vthat of Berlin (August 25). (Meantime Buonaparte had recalled Marshal luh from Spain with a part of his troops. Lord |ellmgton, the Generalissimo of the Spanish mies, defeated Jourdan at Vittoria (Jime 21, 113), where 15,000 French were left on the field |batlle, and 3,000 made prisoners. Jourdan lost 1 whole of his artillery. Joseph Buonaparte len ttiially abandoned the throne of Spain. The kivity of ^Marshal Suchet defeated an expedition midertaken by Sir John Murray against ■agona. Lord Wellington took St. Sebastian Pampeluna (August 31), and compelled the pieii army to pass the Bidassoa, and to retire iBayonne. Soult again took the command, and I means of reinforcements increased the army to lOOO men. |Iu Germany, the Confederation of the Rhine ' tlie kingdom of Westphalia had both been polved. The Electors of Hanover and Hesse, ! Dukes of Brunswick and Oldenburg, were re- Ired to the possession of their patrimonies, and Tied the alliance. The King of Wirtemberg and Elector of Baden made their peace with the |m, by means of special treaties. AH the princes [the Rhenish Coufederation entered into tb^ Grand League, except the King of Saxony, the Grand Duke of Frankfort, and the Princes of Isemburg and Leyeu, who were excluded from it, and their territories treated as coniiuered pro- vinces. On his return to Paris, Buonaparte announced his intention of continuing the war, and caused the senate to grant him a new conscription of 300,000 men. Nevertheless he appeared willing to bring to a conclusion the negociations which the allies on the continent had set on foot. They had departed, however, from the terms agreed on at Toplitz, according to which the Rhine was to form the frontier of France, and the kingdom of Holland was to be given to a brother of Buonaparte ; but the chicanery of Napoleon, and the warlike pre- paiv.tions which he had ordered, gave England an opportunity of changing the sentiments of these monarchs, and they determined »o adopt the scheme which Mr. Pitt had contrived in \M5. The decree of the senate, of November 18, 1813, completed the immense number of 1,200,000 men; all of whom, independently of the existing army, had been sacrificed to the restless ambition of Buo- naparte. The forces with which the allies invaded Fr^iuce were divided into three armies. The Army of Buhemiu, commanded by Prince Schwartzenbcrg, and composed of 261,000 men, Austrians, Russians, Prussians, and Germans, was destined to enter France by way of Switzerland. The Army of Silesia, under the command of Blucher, consisting of 137,000 men, Prussians, Russians, and Germans, were to pass the Rhine near Mayence. The Army of the North, composed of 174,000 Prussians, Russians, Gernmns, Swedes, Dutch, and English, were to occupy Holland and the Nether- lands. Tiipy were to be commanded by the Prince Royal of Sweden, and, in his absence, by the Duke of Saxe-Wcimar. Independently of these ti.'ee armies, the allies had an army of reserve of 21.5,000 men, and the Austrians had an army of 80,000 men in Italy. About the end of December, 1813, aiid the begin- ning of the year 1814, the two first armies entered France. VVe can only advert to the principal events of that short campaign. After some actions of minor importance, Blucher attacked Buona- parte at Rothiere with a superior force, and in spite of the vigorous resistance which he met with, he gained a complete victory (February 1). Thirteen days afterwards, Buonaparte returned him the compliment at Etoges or Vauchamp. Being enclosed by Grouchy, Blucher had to cut his way at the point of the bayonet, and lost G,000 men. The allies, after having received various checks, combined their two armies at Troyes (February 21) ; bui, Trince Schwartzenbcrg, not wishing to give battle in that position, began to retreat. Blu. cher then separated from him to continue on the defensive, after being reinforced, however, by the divisions of Bulow and Winzingerode, which had arrived from Belgium ; their junction took place at Soissons (March 3). Blucher took up position behind the Aisne. Buonaparte having passed that river, defeated two bodies of Russians, under Wo- ronzoff and Saken, at Ciaone (March 7), and at- tacked Blucher at Laon (March 10). He was there totally defeated ; and that victory induced Schwart- ; a 1 9 ,li» 1 I rciimrtfmi of I'h/itilloii. 220 illiu'tiur's I'litniuilitn in Kriinco. llolgliUol' MuutniHrtrt) tuken. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. tJupitulutiou of I'arin. AlKliciition of NuiKilt.oii LouU XV III. ptocluimtti. ?» c: i ■ «6 ;2 zpnbcrj; to abniidon tlio (Ictbtisivp, and invrcli on I'lirin. Ill' ('iii(ui,'i'il Hiioiiiipartc at Arcis-sur-Aubc, wlu'n.' (lie buttle, altliouf^li bbiodj, was not dc- I'isivi'. 'I'lii-y wci'i; in expectation of seeinj? the ent;;ii,'einent renewed next day, wlien Unonapaite Hnddenlv lesolved to niareli to St. Di/.ier, to lul off llic allies from their coninninieation wilb the Rhine, as well as to draw reinforeeinents IVoin the Kiirrisuns of Lorraine and Alsace, and thus transfer the theatre of war to (1( many. Hut before brin),'ing (In- sketch of this eanipaij,'n to a close, it will be necessarj |o take notice of the C'oiij^ress of Chdtillon, whicii was opened on the .jth of l''ebruary, and which was a continuation of the neifoci.itions that had taken place iu the end of ISIH. The allies consented to allow Uuona- parte to retain the crown of France, but the limits of that kingdom were to be reduced to what they had been in 17i)2. Buonaparte at iirst seemed willing to treat on these terms, but his real object was to gain time. Whenever Ins troops had gained any advantage he inunediately beiglitencd his tone; and iu the course of six weeks the allies broke; ofi" the conference. During the sitting of the Congress of Ch4till'>n, Austria, Uritaiii, Prussia, and Russia, signed the famous Quadruple Alliance at Chau- niont (March 1), which forms the basis of the public rights of Europe at the present time. Ivach of the allies i ngaged to maintain an army of L)0,OI)0 men constantly in the lield against tin. common enemy, (ireut Britain j)roinised to f\u-nish to the three other powers a subsidy of £.),000,000 sterling for the yerr 1M14; in such a way, how- ever, that she was only to pay them proportionally until the end of the month iu wliich the jieace should be concluded, adding to these two months for the return of the Austrian and I'russian troops, and four for those of the Russians. The main object of this alliance was the re-establisbinent of au equilibrium of power, based u\nni the following arrangements : — Oerinany to be composed of so- vereign princes united by a federal bond : — The Confederation of Switzerland to be restored to its ancient limits and its former inde])cndence : — Italy to be divided into Lulependent States, lying be- tween the Austrian possessions in that jieninsula and France : — Holland to be a free and Lule- pendent State, imder tlie sovereignty of the Trince of Orange, with an increase of territory. Blucher had made himself master of Chalons and Chateau Thierry, when the allies learned, by au intercepted letter, what were the plans of Buo- naparte. In order to persuade him that they had taken the alarm at his march, and were resolved to follow him, they sent Count Winzingerode fifter him at the head of a body of 8,000 cavaliy. wliich he might easily mistake for the vanguard oi the allies. By this manoeuvre he was deceivet', and continued his route eastwr.rds while the allies di- rected their march on Paris. Schwartzenberg at- tacked and beat the two divisions of Marmont sjnd Mortier, at Sonde St. Croix (March 25), while the army of Silesia compelled Puthod and Amey to surrender near Lafere Champenoise. This double encounter cost the French 5,000 killed, 10,000 prisoners, and eighty pieces of cannon. Marmont and Mortier retreated to Paris, but they were de- feated at Montmartrc and Belleville (March 30). The heights, which on that side overlook Paris, were taken by the allies, who purchased that vic- tory by the loss of it,000 men. A capitulatiiju [„,• Paris was signed the siune night. f The entrance of the allies into the capital of France took place next day. The wIbIics nf ihs| people were so loudly luid uneipii vocally ivurt'sst'il that the Emperor Alexander flid not hemtatc to declare, in his own name, aiul in the naiiies of hii allies, that they rouhl treat no more with N;i,,„. Icon, or with any of his family, lie invited the senate to (establish a provisional governniiiif,— j measure which was necessary, as the Count l)'.\r. tois, who was appoitited the king's licutciiiiiit. ;;>neral, had not yet arrived. He likewise in\\\n\ that body ti j)repare u constitution, that is to say to submit their counsel and advice to the kiiii;, aji to tlie modifications to be made in the govcriiiuenl'l for the French constitution, which is busud on iIkI Salic law, has been in existence for centuries. It is engraven on the hearts of the l''rpiich nation; anil, should circumstances require certain niudiii. cations in its forms, these cannot einiuiati' liut| froiu the free will of the king. The Hni|ii.nji Alexander made that jn'oposal to the smati', aJ being the only order of the state then in existiMuc; but that monarch did not know that the soiiate was the last authority to which the public o])iiii()uj would have granted any influence, as to the sottic ment of the condition of France. 'J'he voice i\ the ])eople was expressed through a purer eliuuiui by the General Cmnicil of the Department of il: Seine, and by the Municipal Council of I'mij who demanded the return of Louis Will., iluif legitimate sovereign (April 1). In pronouucii the deposition of Buonaparte next i| session of the Island of Elba, with full sovcridgiilvl and the States of Parma for his wife and soul Great Britain acceded to that arrangement, tol which the King of France yet remained a slraiigfrl Buonaparte soon after embarked at St. Uaiiheau,^ to repair to his place of exile. The narrow sjiace to which we -nust confinJ our observations, obliges us to pass in silence oveJ the military events which took place in Ilollanif and Belgium, and on the side of Lyons. But iva must say a word or two on the war in the I'vrel nees and in Italy. Anticipating the resolutions o the allied sovereigns, Lord Wellington, with wliod the Duke D'Angouleme then was, invited th^ I'rench, by a proclamation dated Januarj -'ill to replace Louis on the throne. Within u montl after, he defeated the army of Soult at Ortlief (February '27), and compelled that General to «l tire to Tarbes. To satisfy the wishes of the iiihaj bitants of Bourdeaux, Marshal Beresford connuctef the Duke D'Angouleme to that place, which \rM the first city in France that proclaimed LouisXVIlII (March 13). The allies had already entered Pai' u tif I'urifi. of N^lHlll'Dtl. II. prooliiimwi. A capilulatiiiii fm ito thfi capital ofl Tht! wislu » (if ihef i\ocully cAiiri'ssfilJ id not licmtatc 11 till- Dailies (jf hill Mint KiiiK of Naploa. Hwiuliurimiii i|iiitii lulv. Cunveiitiuii iii|{ni'(l iit Fiiri** TEUIOD IX. A.D. 1810—1815. (iunrriil [iHcillcatiun. Articluii ul' tli« Trcutiva. C'liurt«r Kraiitvil by Luiii*. Til iiKirc uitii Ni [)0. y, lie iiiviti'iiihel ll g<)Vi;iiiiiu,iit|_il 8 the (.'imnt D'Ar.f king's iii'utcMiuit.l Ii! likewlsi' iinlti'ill tioii, that is ti) sajJ ice to the kiiij;, iiJ 11 the govuriiiiieml icli is hused cm tluT e for ceiiturit's, Itl 111! rreiicii nation;! lire certain iiiuditi.r niiot eiiiauatt but! ig. The V.u\[mi I to tlie si'iiati', a(| 3 then in existiiuo iw til at the seuaiel the pubUc o|iiMioii| ice, 118 tu till' sotllfT ice, Tlie Miiio jS rh a purer clianiui;! Deiiartiiieiit of lliJ Council lit' I'uiiiJ ,uuis Will., tluiij I. In iirunniiiiriiifl ext (lay, the Hiiatel ot heloiii; to tilling Ices of Uiiiinapatli'i iiiished anil aiiiiihi-l his march tliui tl,el eil his eriiir. Hel lis l'"ontaiui'l)loaiij uipts, either to k] to his son, hi' wii! (April 10). Nrtlj sia, drew iiji a coiiJ y, Maciliinalil, alil ured him llii' poM til full si)vercii;iil)i Ids ■wit'e anil smiJ irrangeiiii'ut, tJ maiiied a striuit'iTJ ed at St. Rapheai \vu •mist contina pass in silence ovej k place in Holla f Lyons. But vi lie war in the I'vreJ g the resolutions o| liiigton, with wlion was, invited M ated January 2iilil Within a nionli( jf Soult at Ortbf that General to r«| wishes of the mh\ Jeresford conducie at place, which fft aimed LouisXVllII eady entered Pa I ind Buonaparte hud ahdicated liis crown, when Lord Wellington, who was ignoniut of these e\cnts, I'ouKhl the last battle of this janipaign with Soull It Touliiuse (April 10). In that sanguinary but I fruitless eiigiigenieiit, the French were defeated. Ill Italy, ail evil^it not a little extraordinary had hjlipciieil. Joachim Murat had turned his back oa his lienefaetor, who had raised him I'loni the lilunt til encircle liis brow with a diadem. From llbfioimnenceineiit of the year IMIII, he had endeu- iToiiri'il to have his title ueknowlidged liy the House I of Austria. After the battle of I.eipsie, lie ahaii- Idoiicd the continental HjBtem, from a wish to Kleiue Kiigland, and throw open the ports of his Liiigdoni to all sorts of inercliandisi'. He entered iiilo a iii'gociatiou with the courts of London and Ivii'iiiia, with a view to be admitted into the grand IjUiMiie; at the same time, he set ou foot an army loflli|000 men, who entered Koine, and directed Itk'ir march towards Aneoiia. Austria concluded alliance with him (January 11, 1N14), which Ijuaraiiteeil to him the possession of the kingdom lof Naples, with the reservation of an indemnity llortlic King of Sicily, Immediately after, Murat launuiuiieil the change in his political conduct, I llf blockaded the citadel of Aiicona, took posses- liiouofKlorence, where his sister-in-law, the grand Iducheiis, escaped to saM' her life, and pushed on as Ifiras .Miiiteiia, Lord licntinek, wlm coiiimandid llhc Biitish forces in Sicily, then eonchided an liriuistice with Murat, Eugene lieauharnais, who supposed that the Neapolitan army would Icomt'to his siiceoor, was at length undeceived, and lobligi'il to retreat on the ^lincio ; hut he fought a Ibiilllc with Field-Marshal Uellegarik, who coni- liuaiulnl the Austrians iu the room of lliller (Fe- Ibruaiv Nj, Foucht', who was at l.inra as com- Ttiissaiy-gciieral of Uuonaparte, concluded a eoii- heutioii with the Neapolitans, in virtue of which hustuiiy was restored to them. The viceroy , seeing pimsi'lf pressed on the one hand by the Austrians, mJoathe other by the Neapolitans, and liaviiig reciivi'il intelligence of the entrance of the allies Into I'aiis, ncgoeiated an unnistiee, which was ligmd !;t Sehiaiiiio Rizziiio (April l(i). A few pjsafti I, his friends made an attempt to have him krutlaiineil King of Italy by the jieople of Milan, lilt the hatred which the Italians had for the ^'niuh prevailed over their attachment to the vice- toy, who wisely adopted the resolution of siirreii- jieriiig all the places in the kingdom of Italy to the Tluitri.in troops, and retired with his family to periiiaiiy. The senate of Frame had, with all expedition, lom]ileted and publisln d a pretended constitution lApril (i), in which tvvo things especially shocked [he opinion of the public, viz,, the care which the lutliors of that production had taken to secure the lontinuance of their own authority with the re- Icnucs thereto attached, and the violation of the Irst iiriniiplc of monarchy of which they had been Tu:lty, by arrogating to themselves the right of kmfeiring the crow^i of France on him to wlioni > belonged by hirth-right, aiul who, far from re- louiiciiig it, had taken care to secure liis rights hy |n;ial protestations. Within six days after, the jouiit D'Artois, the king's lieutenant-general, ar- red ill Paris, and concluded a convention with p allies (April 23), as a prelude to a general NW' They engaged to evacuate the territory of France, and they settled the terms ou which the places possessed liy tin French troops, not within their own territories, were to be delivered up. The King of France had landed at ( alais (April 25), and was slowly approaching his capital, A deelaratiiin, whii'h he published at St. Onen (May 2), annulled the constitution of the senate, and promised the nation a charter, the principles of which were announced in that same declaration. Next day Louis XVIII. made his solemn entry into I'aris. The Hrst care of Louis was to conclude peace with the allies, A military convention was first signed (May 2H), regulating dill'erent points regard- ing the maintenance and maicli of the troops, hos- pitals, iiiaga'zines, &e,; and immediately treaties of jieaee were concluded with the four grand powers (May ;iO), to which the others acceded. France was to return to her ancient limits of January 1, 1V.I2, with an augmeutatiou of territory on the north side. She likewise retained Avignon and the county ofW'iiaissin. Louis XVIII. adhered to the principles of the alliance of Chauniont, as to the jiolitieal system to be established in Europe, England retained JIalta, but surrendered up the French colonies, with the exception of Tobago, St. Lucia, and the Isle of France, with their depen- deneies. Guiana, which bad been taken from Portugal, was restored. Certain secret articles ]iointed out the miinner in which the allied powers were to dispose of the territories surrendered by Fiance; and annulled the endowinents and dona- tions niiiile by Ituonajiarti' in these territories. Certain siieeial articles were added with regard to Prussia, which annulled the peace of Tilsit and all its conseipiences, 111 the iiiiintli of June, the Emperor Alexander, the King of Prussia, and Prince Metternieh, re- paired to London, where they conchidcd a new iiuadiuple alliance, liy which the four contracting powers engaged to keep on foot an army of 7.'), 000 men each, until the restoration of order in Europe, The sovereigns airreed also, during their stay in London, that Helgium should be united to llol- land, with which it was tu form one and the same state. Immediately aftc r the conclusion of the peace, Louis X VIII, published the charter or constitution which he granted to the nation. This was not a constitution in the sense which had been attached to that wiril since the year 178il ; that is tu say, a body of laws or regulations, fully and iinally set- tling the prerogative of the king, and the powers of the dillerent authorities, as well as the rights and privileges of the citizens. It was aileclaratiou by which the king, in conformity with the iirinci- ples which had prevailed for a century, modified the royal power in certain respects, and promised never to exercise it in future except accor • to the established forms. Thus the royal aun. -ity, which Louis XVIII. derived from his ancestors, and which was founded on the ancient order of succession, remained inviolate and entire in all its branches, which have undergone no modiiieation. Neither had that charter aught in common with those metaphysical conventions, which rebellious subjects have sometimes compelled their captive or intimidated sovereigns to subscribe. It was an emanation of the royal authority ; a free sponta- neous act. The legitimacy of its origin, which is Q 2 l''i t-^ — 'iiii of Vit'iiiiii. 238 Arruiiu'i'mi'iitii in (iirriiiuiy. Tilt* kiiiKiluiii III' I'mwiii. KOCH'S REVOLUTION b. (Jiii'stlim of Suxuiiy. Idirliy iir Sikxuiiy. AIkiIIiUiii of the HIaviitnulr. I C ■'* IP : 1:^ verifiod by tlio vi ly duti- it beiim, guniimtrod it* (liiration and ith iiiNioliiliility. Till' pciicu (it' l':ui-i Kuvc liHC to ii niidtitudi' of tri'iities hctwci'ii the ditrcrciit powiTH of Kuropi'. Of tlipge wo cini only notice a uniall nunilicr, wliicli we shiill do wlii'n we «'<)nu' to mmik. of llie liintory of tlu'HC countriei). Meantime, we niust contine our remni'kM to (general airaii'N, and more jiartieii- larly to tlioHe in wliieli I'mnce is enneerneil. An nrtiele in tlie treaty of I'ai;*, of May 30tli, had Ntipnlated tliat williin the space of two months the plenipotentiaries 'if all the jiimern who had taken part in the late events, France included, should meet in a ((cneriil (■(in(,'ress at Vienna, to concert the necessary arrangements for completin;,' the conditions and regulations of the treaty. The reconstruction of (iermany into a body politic ; the replacing of Prussia and Austria on a footin)^ analo;rous to the power which they had enjoyed in 180(1 and IHO.^ ; the fate of Poland ; the establish- .leuf of an independent state between France and CJermany ; the iicutrnllty of Switzerland ; the or- ganization of Italy, which had been completely subverted by Buonaparte ; tlie regulating of the indemnities which might be claimed by the dif- ferent states who bad taken a part in the war ; and the settling of the territorial exchanges to which these claims might give rise, were the im- portant objects about whicli the plenipotentiaries « ere necessarily to be employed. To these Fng- land added one subject which might appear foreign to the business of that congress, viz., the ipiestion ns 'o the abolition of negro slavery; anoflier was the most unexiucted event of Napoleon's return, which compelled the sovereigns of Europe again to take arms, and to conquer France a second time. Owing to difTerent causes, the opening of the congress did not take place till towards tlie end of the year. We may mention, with reganl to the form of the congress, that although it was com- posed of the plenipotentiaries of all the allies, great and small, they never held any general session. The affairs of Germany were kept distinct from those of the rest of Europe ; the latter, consisting of the plenipotentiaries of the five great powers, namely, Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia ; and the other of the plenipotentiaries of the remaining eight powers ; Spain, Portugal, and Sweden being added to the lirst five. The questions relating to Germany were discussed at first by Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Hanover, and Wurtemberg; although, afterwards, all the sove- reigns of Germany were called into these delibera- tions. There were certain affairs whicli were pre- pared and discussed by special commissions. The subject which occasioned the greatest diffi- culty, and which was even on the point of disturb- ing the unanimity of the cabinets, was the recon- struction of the Prussian monarchy. Prussia was to he restored to all that she had possessed in 1805, except the principalities of Frunconia, which were in the possession of Bavaria ; the district of Bialy- stock, which was annexed to Russia ; and the grand duchy of Posnania, which -4.lexander had declared his intention of comprehending in the kingdom of Poland, which he proposed to restore. Frederic William promised to cede to Hanover a territory inhabited by between 300,000 and 400,000 souls. For these losses he claimed an indemnity ; and !is Saxony was the only kiMgdmn which couiii oH'cr him compensation, (Jreat Britain, UusHiu, iii„| I Austria had consented to an acqiiimtiun \v|||,,|| seemed to be justified by the conduct of the Kin,, i of Saxony, who in 1807 had shared the NpniU nf Prussia, and in IHlU had made coniinoii lim,,, with Buonaparte. The Emjieror Alexaiulcr thin put Prussia in possession of Saxony, which lnr troops had till then occupied. The manner, JKm. ever, in which public opinion in England had n- pressed itself against tlie designs of Prussiu, umi I the insinuations of the French minister at Vioimn iiiducol Austria and the cabinet of Loiuloii td op. pose the execution of this plan, mil only liy n •,.. I resting themselves for the preservation ni' Haxui.\ I but by disputing the claims advanced by I'rusiia I and refusing to allow the duchy of Warsaw to fall'l entirely into the hands of Russia. The Kinpororl Alexander, who concurred entirely with I'russia I supported it with all his efforts. Being aiiiiritnlj however, that Austria, France, and (Jreat Uiiiainl had just concluded an alliance or agreement whiolil appeared to have some reference to the fate ui'l Saxony, and wishing to remove every grouii.l i,f| misunderstanding, he oHt'red to augment tho inir. tiou of Prussia on the side of Poland, and advised | her to be content with the moiety of Saxony whi,| was ottered her, and to accept the provinces beyoiuH the Rhine, which were also destined for her. The five powers having come to an agreement I on these points (February 12), Frederic Aii({ustiiJ was invited to come to the neighbourhood of ViJ enna. Ever since the battle of Leipsic, that prince! had remained in a kind of captivity at Frpderi(!-[ feldt near Berlin, lie accepted the invitation anil j repaired to Vienna, but he refused to consent lol the cessions which they demanded of him. Hiil obstinacy induced the five great powers to go tol greater excess; they ordained that, until tlie kinj should have come to a determhiation, Frussiil should remain in possession of the whole off Saxony. Frederic Augustus wan obliged to jieUl to the course of events, and ratified a treaty whiclil was signed at Vienna (May 18). That part ol'hiil kingdom which was ceded to Prussia was nanied| the duchy of Saxony. The organization of Germany into a confederac),! to be composed of sovereign slates, was, neiltol the settlement of Prussia, the object which ocia-r sioned the greatest embarrassment. But as France! and Russia took no direct part in it, and a» . that reason it can scarcely be said to belong to thel class of general affairs, we shall pajfs it over inl silence. The same must be done with refprd tol all the negociations concerning Switzerland andl Italy, of which we shall speak elsewhere. Great Britain had introduced the question ns lol negro slavery, of which, in the name of humanilyl and religion, she demanded the entire abolilion,! by a decree of all Europe. Denmark had prolii-l bited that traffic long before England. Keilherl Austria, Russia, Prussia, nor Sweden, had anji motive for favouring it ; but it was not the easel with Portugal, Spain, and France, who referreilj with reason, to the example of England herselfJ for resisting the introduction of any sudden eliansel which would be pernicious to the state of theirr colonies, and might ruin the fortune of their nubJ jeets. 'ihese powers readily agreed to combiinl with England for the abolition of the trade ; 1^' PiTlirtliiiii i>rtlii< (''ii|inli'iiira mnrrh tii I'urii. ih'cliirntiim iifthi' Allii-a. TKIIIOD IX. A.D. 1810—1815. S»i'i|i'ii nrriiiliT* Niir«ny, tVriliiiiiuil IV. itMUirml iii 330 Niililn. ihpv n Mit'd thiit it kIkhiIiI ]»• loft to cnclt nf llirm Id ii.\ tli(> trriii on wliicli thi>j coulil ilii so to tlio uo»t auona- luirte had arrived i Ly'jus. Then it was that he threw off the mask. He marched at the head of his army towards the Po, and issued u proclama- tion (March liO), by which he proclaimed liberty to all the inhabitants of Italy. Tho Austrian army in that peninsula immediately put themselves in motion to oppose him. Being defeated at Tolen- tino by General ranchi (May 2), he retreated Hrst to Naples, and, after a short stay there, he took refuge in France. The government of Fer- dinand IV. was again restored. Meantime, as tin. partisans of Buonaparte, and the revolutionists everywhere, were at great pains to ])ropagate and cherish doubts as to the determi- nation of the allied sovereigns to follow up the act of the 13th of March, which had been adopted at a ii,.i .' hen it was hoped that France would have nij ■'.;•, need of foreign aid ; the allied sovereigns deemed it necessary to make known the expression of their principles by a solemn act ; to which they gave the form of a process verbal, or edict, signed by the plenipotentiaries of the eight powers. The publication of that act was equivalent to a declara- tion of war against Buonaparte. It opened the eyes of those credulous followers on whom the usurper had till then imposed the belief that Aus- tria and Russia were on friendly terms with him. All the ncgociations of the Congress of Vienna being terminated by the signing of the Act of the Germanic Confederation, which took jilace on June 8th, the plenipotentiaries of the eight con- tracting powers next day signed the Act of Con- gress, which was a recapitulation or abstract of all their preceding regulations, either by particular treaties or by declarations and edicts (or protocols, as they are sometimes called at Vienna), relative to Poland, the territorial arrangements in Ger- many, the Germanic Confederation, the kingdom of the Netherlands, Switzerland, Italy, Portugal, ,v« I Armies of the Allies. 230 Forces of Napoleon. Buttles ot LiKiiv & Waterloo. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Surrender of Napoleon. Wellinaton .ind Blucher march to Paris. Ik: 4, the navigation of rivers, the rank of diplomatic agents, and the form of accessions and ratifications of the act itself. Thus did the most august as- sembly which had ever taken place terminate its labours. An army of 1,303,000 men was preparing to invade France, hiit the struggle against Buona- parte was decided by about 200,000 ; and not more than 500,000 foreigners set foot on the soil of France. The allies had formed four armies, viz. The Army of the Netherlands, commanded by Loril Wellington, consisting of 71,000 English, Hanoverians, and Brunswickers, with the troops of the Netherlands and Nassau. The Army of the Lower Rhine, consisting of 140,000 Prussians, under the command of Blucher. The Army of the Upper Rhine, commanded by Schwartzcnberg, and consisting of 130,000 Austrian and 124,000 German troops. The Army of the Middle Rhine, 108,000 strong, under the command of Barclay de Tolly. They were to be stationed between the two preceding armies, but they were unable to arrive in time at the scene of action, and the campaign was decided by the first two armies alone. The forces of Buonaparte amounted to 213,000 men, exclusive of 147,000 of the national guard to be employed in garrison. He had divided them into eight armies. That of the north, which he commanded himself, consisted of 108,000 men. Buonaparte opened the campaign on the 15th June, by detaching a second corps across the Sambre, to attack the Prussian General Zieten, who was obliged to yield to the superior strengtii of the enemy, and retire towards Fleurus. Ne.\t day the Duke of Brunswick, wlio had left Brussels at the head of 12,000 men to support the Prussians, was killed at Quatrc Bras, although Marshal Ney, who commanded the French, sustained a consi- derable loss ; on the same day Marshal Blucher was defeated at Ligny, but lie retired in the great- est order to Brie. Buonaparte from that moment resolved to attack 'Wellington, who gave him battle iit Waterloo, or Mont St. Jean. The combat was continued, with various success, from morning till four o'clock, when the Prussians, consisting of General Bulow's division, and commanded by Blucher in person, approached the field of battle, and fell suddenly on the right wing of the French, while Buonaparte supposed that the whole Prus- sian army was engaged with Grouchy, whom he had sent against them with a detachment of 40,000 men. On the first appearance of the Prussians, Buonaparte supposed that it was General Grouchy, who, after having defeated the Prussians, was marching to the support of his right wing. The fact is, that General Thiclmans having been at- tacked by Grouchy near Wavre, Blucher had sent him word ti defend himself in the best way he could, and did not allow himself to be diverted from his original plan of falling upon the right whig of Buonaparte. When Buonaparte at length discovered his error, he lost all resolution. His army were panic struck, and fled in all directions. He was himself nearly taken prisoner, having escaped with great difficulty. The Germans have given this battle the name of Belle Alliance, from the house where Blucher and Wellington met after the action. Of 120,000 French, 00,000 were either taken or killed in the two days of the 10th and 18th June 1815; 04,000 English, and ,50,000 Prussians were engaged in the battle. Tlio Eiil'. lish lost 14,000 men on the ISth, and the I'rus- sians 33,000 in the two engagements of the 16th and ISth. Buonaparte made his escape to Paris, hut the Chamber of Representatives, composed of the par- tisans of the revolution of 178'J, and of lopub- licans who had no wish to jiromotc the interest of Buonaparte, except as an instrument for the execution of their own plans, determined to takp advantage of the contempt into whidi he had fallen to get rid of his presence. They required him to give in his demission (June 22), and he abdicated in favour of his son. The Chambers appointed a government commission, at the head of whicli they placed Fouche, who sent deputies to Hcidelberi', where the head-quarters of the allied sovereigns then were, M-ith a commission to treat with them on the basis of the national independence, and the inviolability of the soil of France. But as there was no mention made in these propositions about the restoration of the king, the allies refused to treat until Buonaparte should first be delivered up to them. Buonaparte had demanded of Wellington and Blucher passports for quitting France ; and onbeiuj! refused, the government commission convoyed him to Rochefort, where he was to embark on board a frigate and go to America. But Captain Slaitland, Avho was cruizing off that port with an English vessel, prevented him from leaving tlie place unless he would surrender to the English, on which con- dition lie promised to guarantee his life. The danger becoming every day more pressing, he at length saw himself compelled to submit. The Bellerophon, with Buonaparte on board, arrived in Torbay (July 24), but the English government would not permit the general to set foot on land, | By a convention signed by the allies at Paris (Au- gust 2), England took upon herself the charge cfl keeping guard over him at St. Helena. Ho was I accordingly transported to that island, where he remained till his death, which happened May 5th I 1821. After the battle of the 18th June, Wellington I and Blucher marched immediately to Paris, as did also the army of Schwartzcnberg by way of Nanej. Davoust had joined the fugitives ; and as Grouchy I iiad had the good fortune to save his division, they were enabled to form a new army of ()0,000 men,! which made some attempts to defend Paris. Se- 1 veral engagements took place at Sevres and Issy;| after which Marshal Davoust announced to the I two field-marshals that Paris was on the point of j surrendering. A capitulation was signed at St.f Cloud (July 3), and the French army retired !)e-| hind the Loire. The allies occupied Paris on the 7th July, and I Louis XVIH. entered on the following day.l Within two days after the allied sovereigns arrived. I An ordonnanee of 24th July declared twenty-nlMl individuals, named in 1814, unworthy of theirl country, as having sat in the chamber of Buoni-r parte, and sworn the banishment of the Bourbons. I Nineteen persons accused of having betrayed the I king before the 23rd March, were remitted to tliel tribunals ; thirty-eight other individuals were or-l dered to quit Paris. These latter were in gonendl relapsed regicides, that is, persons who, after havinjl Roigii of Louig XVIII. Pcatli of Marshal Ney. The Holy Alliance. PERIOD IX. A.D. 1810—1815. Foitugal and Brazil. Ferdinand VII. Tho Cortes. Policy of Emj). Alexander. 231 I obtained pardon in 1814, had, in 1815, sij^ned the tanishment of the Bourbons ; for the king never broke his word of honour given to the primary reiricides, to leave them to the remonstrances of ibeir own conscience. Some months after ( Janu- an 12, 1816), the ordonnance of July 24th was cbauged into a law ; with this modification, that the relapsed regicides were to be exiled from the soil of France. Of the individuals arraigned before I the tribunals, two only were executed, Marshal Xey and Colonel Labedoyfire ; a third (Lavalette) I was saved by the courage of his wife. The cle- mency of the king threw a veil over all other I (rimes. Tiic army of the Loire submitted to the king ; but tiie war continued, nevertheless, for some time on the frontiers of France, as it was a part of the plan of the allies to occupy all the fortresses ; and the greater part of the commandants refused to I receive them. The allies v/ere at length convinced, t, in order to secure the tranquillity of France, I ii was necessary to take more vigorous measures than they had done in 1814 ; but it was not until the month of September that their plan was suffi- ciently matured to enable them to open negocia- tionswith Fiance. They had many difficulties to encounter ; and the treaty between France and the allies was not signed until the 20th November. According to that treaty, France made several territorial cessions to the Netherlands, Prussia, Austria, Bavaria, Switzerland, and the king of I Sardinia. It was agreed, that France should pay to the I allies a pecuniary indemnity of 700,000,000 of I francs ; and that l.)0,000 of the allied troops should I occuiiy certain places iu France for five years; I and that they should he paid and maintained by I France. By an additional article, they engaged I reciprocally to concert measures for obtaining the I entire and final abolition of the slave trade. The same day, Austria, Circat Britain, Prussia, land Russia, concluded an alliance for the following jpurposcs: — 1. The maintenance of the treaties I and conventions which had just been concluded: I And, 2. The perpetual exclusion of Napoleon I Buonaparte and his family from the sovereignty of jFnnce; the maintenance of tranquillity iu that Icountry; and the suppression of revolutionary Iprinciples, so that they might never again distract I France, or threaten the repose of Europe. For Ithis twofold object, the allies agreed to furnish Itheir contingents as determined by the alliance of jChaiimont; finally, they agreed to have another [personal conference in the course of tho year |1«1S. Prior to this quadruple alliance, which, by se- Imringthe maintenance of the Bourbon dynasty Jon the throne of France, forms one of the bases of Ithe new political system of Europe, the Emperors jof Austria and Russia, and the King of Prussia, liigned at Paris (September 26), an Act, known by llhe name of the Holy Alliance, which forms the pond basis of the same system. The allied sove- peigiis thereby declared their firm determination P take no other rule for their conduct than the precepts of the Christian religion. They promised ■) conthme in the indissoluble bonds of brotherly Won, and to be ready on all occasions, and iu all places, to succour and assist each other — to con- pidcr tliemselves but as members of the same Christian nation, and as delegated by Providence to govern three branches of the same family ; and finally, to receive into the same alliance all other powers who were willing to profess the same prin- ciples which had dictated that act. All the Chris- tian powers in Europe acceded to the treaties and conventions of the 20th November 1815, except Sweden, who had taken no share in the war. They all entered into the Holy Alliance, except the King of Great Britain, who, while he fully sanctioned the principles set forth in that Act, was prevented from signing it, because, according to the constitutional custom of England, the sove- reign signs nothing without the countersigning of a responsible minister. Here it will be necessary briefly to point out the more important events which happened since 1811 in the other European states, and the changes which were produced in others by the congress of Vienna. Portugal seemed destined to be nothing more in future than a dependency of Brazil, in a political point of view, as she already was of England with respect to agriculture, industry, and commerce. The latter power attached so great an importance to the abolition of the slave trade, that, by a treaty signed during the conferences at Vienna, she bad purchased the effective co-operation of Portugal in this measure, by giving up all the advantages which she had resencd to herself by the treaty of Rio Janeiro of February 19, 1810, which she con- seated to annul ; nevertlieless, Portugal only pro- hibited her subjects conditionally from carrying on the slave trade in that part of Africa lying to the north of the equator. In S])ain, tlie extraordinary Cortes then assem- bled at Cadiz, after having published a decree, January 1, IHll, importing that they could make no treaty with France until the king enjoyed full liberty, and that he could not be regarded as at liberty until be had taken the constitutional oath, finished the work which they pretended had been intrusted to their hands. Their constitution, which was founded on the principle of the sovereignty of the people, intrusted the legislative power to a popular assembly, and the execution of the laws to a functionary withoiit influence or authority, although decorated with the title of a king, was published on the 18th of March 1812. Contrary to all history, that production of revolutionary fiinaficism was announced to the world as the genuine ancient constitution of Spain. The cortes terminated their session on the 20th September 1813. The new or ordinary Cortes, convened in tho constitutional form, at the rate of one deputy for every 70,000 inhabitants, without distinction of fortune or estate, transferred their sitting to Madrid towards the end of the year. It was this extraordinary meeting of the Cortes that concluded a treaty of friendship and alliance (July 28, 1813) with the Emperor of Russia at Weliki-Louki, where he had then his head-quarters. Alexander there acknowledged the Cortes and their constitu- tion. That acknowledgment was extremely simple. Alexander could not treat except with the govern- ment then established. That government acted in the name of Ferdinand VII., and their actings were to be regarded as legitimate so long as that prince had not disavowed them. The Emperor of Russia had neither the will nor the power to lend UeiKn of Ffrdiniind VII. 232 Kxcrtioiis of Great Britain. Malady of (jeor^c III. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. George ftinco Regent. Peace of Orebro. The Non-iiitercoiuse Act. liis sanction to an order of tliini;a which had not the approbation of a king in the full enjoyment of liberty. It was in this same sense that the King of Prussia entered into an alliance with the Spani.sh government, by a treaty which was signed at Basle (January 20, 1814). After returning from the campaign of 18115, Buonaparte, considering Spain as lost, resolved to set Ferdinand VII. at liberty; hut in the hope of turning that tardy act of justice to his advantage by making that prince his friend, he represented Spain as overrun with .Tacobinism, which was labouring to overturn the throne, and to substitute a republic in its place ; and he accused England as having favoured that project. Ferdinand Vll. de- manded that a deputation of the regency should he admitted to a personal interview with him, who might inform him as to the real state of matters. Buonaparte, who executed with despatch what- ever he had once resolved, found this mode of proceeding too slow. He • mpowercd M. dc la Foret, whom he had sent to Valenqay, to conclude a treaty with his captive, by which the latter was acknowledged king of Spain ; and promised, on his part, to cause the English troops to evacuate the whole of that kingdom. Ferdinand VII. sent his minister, the Duke of San Carlos, to Madrid, for the ostensible purpose of communicating that treaty to the regency, but in reality to take cognizance of the state of affairs. The regf-ncy refused to acknowledge the treaty of Valcnqay, because the king was not at liberty. Buonaparte being apprized of this difficulty, im- mediately released Ferdinand (March 7, 1814). He set out on his return to his dominions, but performed his journey slowly, that he might have leisure to obtain personal information as to the spirit which reigned among the Spaniards. He was soon convinced, that the people, attached to their religion, and to the family of their lawful prince, were very indifferent ,;))out the constitution of the Cortes, and that that as cnbly enjoyed very little influence or authority. Sixty members of the Cortes had even protested against an act which, by degrading the royal dignity, was preparing the way for establishing a democracy. On his arrival at Valencia, Ferdinand abrogated the constitution of 1S12, and directed his course towards Madrid, which he entered on the 17th May. The people every where expressed their attachment to a prince, whose arrival they hailed as the return of justice and ordc though it is foreign to our purpose to narrate wliy that hope has not been realized. Great Britain was the power which acted the most conspicuous part during the era of which we have given the preceding historical sketch. The fortitude and perseverance with which she had prosecuted her system of policy, after the breaking of the peace of Amiens, was crowned with the most complete success ; and the plan conceived by Mr. Pitt, but which that great statesman had despaired ever to see carried into execution, he- came the corner-stone of the future policy of Eu- rope. Great Britain was the mainspring of the alliance, which in 1S13 undertook the deliverance of Europe. She made tlie most extraordinary efforts in raising armies, and granting supplies for maintaining the troops of the continental :iations. A mental calamity, with which George III. had been afflicted towards the end of the year 1810, obliged the Parliament to establish a resenov, That important charge ^"longed of right to tliel heir apparent; but as the .ministry wi-re appro. hensive that the Prince of Wales might in sorael respects change the system of the existing govcm.L mcnt, the parliament passed an act (Decemborl 31), which restricted the authority of the rp^'entl to one year. The Prince Regent suhmitTed tol these modifications. He exercised the regency atl first with a limited power ; but after the year lKl',> when the prospects of his majesty's recovery wrr; I considerably diminished, he continued to excroi«c| the royal authority until his father's death, wliichi happened .lanuary 29, 1820, Avhen the prince tlienl assumed the title of George IV. The regi'ntl found the kingdom at war with Ivussia andl Sweden ; but it was only in appearance, and with.r out eftcctive hostilities. Lord Castlcrcagh, -Hho,! since the year 1812, had been at the head of forei'-nl affairs, listened with eagerness to the first advaiifcsl which these two powers made towards an accom-' modation. Peace was signed at Orebro (July ]'.'), tirst with Sweden, and a few days after withi Russia. The former, in indirect tenns, abandonedl the principles of the armed neutrality of the NoriliT "We shall have occasion hereafter to revert to thf| stipulations of the treaty signed with Russia. Another and a more remote enemy had at tliati time made their appearance. Since the year 1S03,| there had existed a misunderstanding betweeni Great Britain and the United States of AmcrinJ whose lucrative commerce with France was fetlcredl by the principles maintained in I'^ngland as tn thel freedom of navigation. The Americans, on theirl side, published several acts against the commircel of the English, such as that of 18th April, ]m\ which prohibited the importation of English nifrT chandise. From an apprehension that the coiiii-l nental system might involve the republic in awatl either with France or with England, the consiresl passed a law, known by the name of the Scn-t intercourse Act (April 26, 1808), which prohibitciil the Americans from all trade with foreign ports,! and forbade foreigners to carry oti trade bctwecnl one port of the United States and another. Inihel following year, they proceeded further. An acti of Congress (March 1) interdicted all comniorcirl after the date of May 20, 1809, between thel Americans and Great Britain, France, and het| dependencies. The negociations which were set on foot wil England, instead of bringing them to a better un-l derstanding, only set them more at variance. \| new act of Congress (March, 1, 1810) forbade amj French or English vessel to enter th" ports ■ the United States. Within two months after, thel Congress published another act, which rcnioTwij the embargo of April 'l(S, 1808, but left in foml the act of March 1 ; declaring, that if Franre oil Great Britain woidd modify their decrees as tol the commerce of neutral states before the monthi of March, 1811, and that if, when one of thexl powers had set an example of such modification,! the other did not do the same within the space off three months, the original Non-ititcrcoiirsr Afl| would be again put in force against that power. In tt short tiir.e there arose other subjects oil complaint on the jiart of the Americans. Thejl disputed with the English the right of impressiiifl seamen born in the British isles, wherever thetl War with North Amcrirn. SatioTinl Pebt of Encliitnl. ivilliam Sovereign uf Holland. PERIOD IX. A.r. 1810—1815. Tliu rntch Colonics. Ni'w Cnntons otSw il/.prl.-ilirt. 233 Second Treaty of Paris. 'o set on footwitb lem to a better un- re at variance, il , 1810) forbade ami enter th" ports 'fl o months after, th(| [•t, whicli rcmovrf 1, bnt left in force that if France oti their decrees aslci before the monlhl k'hcn one of the^tl such modification,! within the space off on-intcrconnt .ta| .inst that power. 3 other subjects ell Americans. Thejj jight of impressiiifl les, wherever theTl 'ooml them ; a right which they oxorciseil in virtue I (f J fundamental law which does not allow r.iiy dividual, born the subject of one country, the litiertv of depriving himself of that quality, or Jennturalizing himself, by becoming a resident in mother country. Already several acts of violence been committed, when the President of the I liiited States declared war against England, June IJ 1S12. That declaration took place at the very I lime when the chief motive for the war had ceased lloexist; for Great Britain, imitatinn; the example I which Buonaparte had set her, revoked at the Lme time the obnoxious orders of which the 1 Americans complained. That war, so unseasonably undertaken by the I American government, did them little honour. I The American shipping annoyed and injured the Icommcrce of the English; and the Americans Ifoushtwith great bravery both by Fea and land, Iparlirularly in Canada. But as they had no Heet, jthev could neither protect their coasts nor their Itjpitid, which was taken by assault. Vice-Admi- Iral Cochrane and General Ross entered the Poto- Idic, and destroyed AVasliington, the seat of the Iffliiirrcss and the government. From the com- Imfnoement of 1813, the Emperor Alexander had liBterposed his mediation for ])utting an end to llhuwar, which diverted the eftbvts of the English Ifor effecting the d/.iverance of the Continent. Ilhe peace which was signed at Ghent (December 124, ISU), restored friendship and amity between Ithf two parties, without coming to any decision as llothetwo principal complaints which had induced |!he Enslish to take up arms. The financial system of Cireat Britain luulcrwent lu essential alteration, by the adoption of a plan Iprcsented by Mr. Vansittart, Chancellor of the lEjoheqiicr, introducing certain modifications rela- Itivoto the accumulation of the sinking fund. The Ifsponditure of the government in 181.i amounted Ito £77,337,475 sterling, of which Ireland cost J£'<,(i51,335 sterling. The interest of the national [debt amounted to £30,007,128 sterlini;, of which ^13,182,510 were applied fo the sinking fund. Great Iritain paid to the states of the continent, in 1813, £11,400,000 sterling, under the name of subsidies ; p4,107 ships, and 10.5,030 seamen, were employed icommcrce. In 1814, these numbers were aug- mented one-seventh more. At this latter period, Ihcirnavj- consisted of 1044 ships of war, 100,000 lailors, and 32,000 marines ; the land forces pioimted to 302,490 men, including 03,000 militia, lialhnul, and the other powers which liad knciently formed the republic of the United Pro- vinces, after having been for two years united to France, resumed once more their national inde- fcemiencc. After the battle of Leipsic, when the lorpii of Generals Bnlow and Winzingerode ap- Iroadicd that country, the partisans of the Prince If Orange at the Hague, with M. de Hogendorps ft their head, mounted the ancient cockade, esta- lishcd a provisional government (Nov. 17, 1813), md invited the heir of the last Stadtholdcr to re- tarn and place himself at the head of the govern- ►lent. The French troops, finding themselves too Kesk to defend the country at once against the lilies and against the inhabitants, quietly took their leparture. The Prince of Orange having arrived It Amsterdam (December 1), was proclaimed lovercign Prince of the Low Countries ; but he accepted that dignity, on the condition that his power should be limited by a constitution ; a plan of which he caused to be drawn up, which was adopted and sworn to in an assembly of the repre- sentatives. During the sojourn of the allied sovereigns in England, it was agreed, that in order to oppose a barrier to France on the side of the North, Holland and Belgium should be united under the same government. A treaty, concluded at the same time in London (August 13, 1814), restored to the Dutch all their ancient colonics, with the ex- ception of the Cape of Good Hope, Essequibo, Berbice, and Demerara. According to the regu- lations of the treaty of Vienna, the bishopric of Lucca and the duchy of Luxemburg were ceded to the sovereign prince, on condition that he should make a part of the Germanic Confederation. It was at this time that he received the title of King of the Netherlands. By the second treaty of Paris, this new kingdom obtained a slight in- crease of territory, and a sum of 00,000,000 of francs, for constructing a line of fortresses. The superficial extent of that kingdom, with the duchy of Luxemburg, amounted to 1164 square miles, with a po])ulation of 5,400,000 souls ; besides the population of its colonies, amounting to 1,720,0'JO inhabitants. As it had been found impossible to complete the nmnber of troops which Switzerland was to furnish to Buonaparte, according to the conventiou of September 27, 1803, a new capitulation was concluded in 1812, which reduced them to 12,000 men. AVhen the allies approached the Rhine, about the end of 1813, Switzerland vainly flattered herself, that they would grant her the privilege of neutrality. The allied troops had to traverse the territory of the confederacy, in order to enter France. The public opinion then declared itself, by iinnulling the Act of Mediation which united Switzerland to France ; but this opinion was not unanimous as to the future constitution of the country. Of the thirteen ancient cantons, eight concluded a confederation, on the principle which granted an equality of rights to every component part of the union ; and to this the new cantons gave in their adherence. Berne, I'riburg, and I'nderwalden, refused to take a part in it. The Grisons re-established their ancient form of govern- ment. The intervention of foreign powers quashed the civil war with which that comitry was threa- tened ; and after many difhculties, a new confede- ration of the nineteen cantons was signed at Ztn-ich (September 8, 1814). There still remained, however, several litigated points to be decided, which were settled by the congress of Vienna, who declared that the perpetual neutrality of Switzerland should be acknowledged by all the other powers ; and that, the Valais, in the territory of Geneva, and the principality of Neufchatel, should make a part of the confederation, as three additional cantons. The Swiss states having acceded to this declaration (May 27, 1815), it was renewed, confirmed, and sanctioned by the allied powers, in a second declaration signed at Paris (November 20). In consequence of a convention concluded at Turin with Prince Borghese, governor-general of tlie I'Vench provinces beyond the Alps, Field- Marshal Bellegarde had taken possession of Pied- Kingdom of Snrdinin. 234 Piicliy of Lucca. Parma. Grand Duchy of Tuscany. KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. .Tesuits restored by Pius Vlt. Dpath of Murat. TliK Ionian Islands. ^ "*■■ Ht;, ;■* «S-2r: 4 jsa .. mont in the name of the King of Sardinia. Soon after, Victor Emanuel took the reins of government into his own handf . By the first peace of Paris, he recovered N ice, and about two-thirds of Savoy. A secret article of tliat treaty secured him the possession of tlie State of Genoa, wliich was con- firmed by the treaty of Vienna ; but he ceded to the canton of Geneva certain districts in Savoy. The second peaci ■ > Paris restored liim that part of the province w'ucli had been given to I''ranc.-> in 1S14. The 8 rtliiii;ui mouarcliy thus compre- hended an extent o*" 1.500 square miles, with 3,700,000 inhabi mts. The convention of Fontainebleau liad disposed of the duchies of Placcntia, Parma, and Guastalla, in favour of the Archduchess Mar'a Louisa, rd her son Napoleon. This disposition was keenly opposed at Vienna by the Hous.'! of Bourbon, who espoused the interest of the young King of Etruria, tlio lawful heir to these estates. Never- theless the congress of Vienna adjudged the States of Parma tothe archduchess, without making mention of her son, or deciding the question as to thsir reversibility ; a point which was not deter- mined till the treaty of Paris of June 10, 1S17, between Austria and Spain. Atlfer the death of the archduchess, the states of Parmii. are to pass to the Queen-Dowager of Etruria and her son. They contain about 102 square miles, and 380,000 inhabitants. The Archduke Francis, the Iieir of Hercules III., the last Duke of 3Iodcna of the House of Est6, was restored to the duchy of Modena and its appurtenances, about the beginning of 1814. The whole comprehends a surface of !)6 square miles, with 388,000 inhabitants. According to an article of the treaty of Vienna, Lucca, under the tit''^ of a duchy, was given up, not to the young Kin, of Etruria, the lawful hei" of the states of Parma, but to his mother, Queen- Maria-LoTiisa, and her -"escendants in the male line. Besides, the emperoi and the Grand Duke of Tuscany were boimd to pi y her a supplementary annuity of .500,000 francs until the death of the Archduchess Maria-Louisa, when the Duchess of Lucca, or her heirs, are to have the states of Parma ; and the duchy of Lucca is to devolve to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, on condition f *" ceding to the Duke of Modena certain districts contiguous to his estates. The duchy of Lucca is the most populous country in Europe. It con- tains about 137,500 inhabitants within 19^} square miles. The grand duchy of Tuscany, which Murat's troops had occupied about the beginning of the year 1814, was restored to its lawful sovereign, the Archduke Ferdinand III. (May 1), who then gave up the principality of Wurt/burg to the king . of Bavaria. By the treaty of Vienna, that prince obtained the state of Presidii, part of the island of Elba, and the imperial flefs included in these states ; containing SOS square miles, with a popu- lation of 1,178,000 souls. The property of Piom- hino was restored to the family of Buoncompagni, whom Buonaparte had dispossessed. The Grand Duke is to succeed to the duchy of Lucja ; bi>t he must then give up his territories in Bohemia to his brother the emperor, which are very c(/nsider- able, and destined for the young Duke of lleich- stadt, son of the Archduchess Maria-Louisa. Buonaparte having found it impossible to over! come the perseverance of Pius VII., hadsethin at liberty about the beginning of the vcar ISU The Sovereign Pontiff returned to iiis nsiata amidst the general acclamatior'* of the people, anil restored every thing to the footing in which ihpl had heen before the usurpaion of the Frenchl Nobody was molested jn the score of his poihicaf conduct. The Order of the Jesuits, suppressed il 1772. was re ttored by a hull, as a necessary barricJ to o,/,;ose • ; doctrines of the revolution. ThJ congress of Vienna restored to the Sovereiei Pontiff the ^larches and Legatines, with the eil ception of a portion of territory situated to thi north of the Po, which was annexed to the kinel dom of Venetian Lombardy. The ecclcsiasticiil states at present contain a surface of 500 simaJ miles, and a population of 2,000,000. The extravagant conduct of Joachim Murat ir* moted the restoration of the Bourbons to thJ throne of Naples. This was effected by the cxl pedition which Austria had despatched in ISlf against Murat in consequence of the aUiance offenl sive and defensive which that court had coneluJeJ at Vienna with Ferdinand IV. (April 29, I81,ii| who made his entry into Naples on the 17th Junel A short time after, Murat, at the head of a small band of advent'"ers, thought of imitating the esJ ample of his brother-in-law. He landed at Pizzoi in Calabria (October 9), whtrc he hoped io bjl rt'elcomcd by his former adherents ; but tiie peaf santry combined against him ; he was arrestedl tried by a court-martial, and shot (October 10)1 Tlie kingdom of the Two Sicilies has an extent o| 1,780,000 miles, and C,()00,000 inhabitants. After Ferdinand IV. had retired into Sicily, thai island was put under the protection of the Enghsli[ who had there an army of 15,000 men, with i considerable fleet. General Ijord Benlinck, whi commanded the English troops, used all his intlJ ence to introduce the British constitution into thai island. The Queen, who was at the head of thi opj)osite party, was obliged to leave her f"Tiily| From that moment the English remained masteif (if Palermo. But after the first peace of ParisJ Ferdinand IV. resumed the reins of governmcmj and, before embarking for Naples, he annulled (ha constitution of 1812. Corfu, the only one of the Ionian islands whicij was not yet in the jjower of the I'nglish, wa^ given up to them by the convention o^Paris (April 23, 1814). The fate of these islands was decillel by a treaty concluded at the same place between Austria and tireat Britain, Prussia and IlussisJ They were combined into a free and independenl state (November 5), imder the name of the rniteT States of the lonit.n Islands, and placed under tliJ inmiediate and exclusive protection of Grei( Britain. By the events of the years 1813 and 1H14, tbJ House of Austria gained possession of all thil belonged to her in Italy, either before or in cnnseJ qucnce of the peace of Campo Formio. A smal portion of Ferrara, to the north of the Po, wU ceded to her, as were the Valteline, Borniio, Ch.iJ venna, and the ancient republic of Ragusa. Thi emperor constituted nil these possessions into i separate and jjarticular state, under the title oi the Kingdom of Venetian Lombardy. Indcpcmlj ently of these, Austria recovered the lUyrian pro- Empirf of Austria. TlieGi'rmanic Confederation. (irrni.tii kingdoms 8c xtntes. PERIOD IX. A.D. 1810—1815. BcjmbliK of Cracow. Afli.irs of Sweden and Norway. 235 liincfs. of which she also formed a distinct king- dom. By !i treaty signed at Vienna with Russia, A( likewise gained possession of the part of jiterii Giilicia which she had ceded to Alexander J 11*09, and the exclusive property of Wieliczka, iwus then divided between her and the duchy L[ Warsaw. The Austrian monarchy, in its pre- Ltt'tate, contains a surface of 12,000 8(iuare miles, bI a population of 2il,000,000. It was a more difficult matter to re-organize the Liiarcliy of Prussia. "We have mentioned the twociations, in consequence of which she acqiiired Iw a half of the kingdom of Saxony. The Con- Kti of Vienna restored to her not only a part of incieot Prussia, now called the Grand Duchy of foinania, r.nd all the other jiossessions whicli she tid lost by the convention of Vienna (December n5,l!>0.)), and the peace of Tilsit (with the cxcep- |on of Bialystock, Anspach, Baireuth, Westfries- ud, and Hildcsheim), but also a considerable jeiritorjon the left bank of the Rhine, thn Grand fcsch) of Berg, the Duchy i.f Westphalia, Swedisli fooerania, and the sovereignty of several i tlier [rir.cipalifics and comities. Those territorial ar- uiiements were not concluded till 1819. The fnissian monarchy contains a surface of 5,028 jaiare miles, and a population of nearly 11,000,000, The sovereign princes and free cities of Ger- iiiiiy were united by an Act, signed at Vienna, Mer the name of the Germanic Confederation. 1 the members of the confederacy enjoy full loferciitr.ty, and all take part in the deliberations ( the diet in matters relating to the general in- Ifreits of the union. The thirty-nine members, pever, in ordinary cases, have only seventeen joles; plevru of the states having each a vote, ■kilesix collective votes belong to the other twenty- ttht, Nevertheless, in constitutional questions, p thirty-nine members have hi all seventy votes; Bch state having at i'^ast one, and several of them Vo, three, .ind four vjtes. The members have If ri?h'i. of concluding every kind of alliance, pro- fced these are not directed against the safety of le imion or of its constituent members. Tlie Buality of civil and religioiis rights was secured to ll who professed the Christian religion, jTarious states, forming the Germanic confcde- Itioii, mulerwent certain changes in their terri- Irial possessions ; but the negociations by which ley were definitively settled did not take place II819. The kingdom of Bavaria received in- lemmty for the various restitutions which had pn made to the court of Vienna. Its super- fial extent amounts to 1,.505 square miles, and '0,000 inhabitants. The grand duchy of Hesse llained considerable augmentat.ons on the left pliof the Rhine, and has a surface of 214 square Jiles, and 0;iO,000 inhabitants. The Grand Duke Oldenburg, the Duke of Suxe Cobourg, the Jaiwljj'rave of Hesse-Homburg, and the Iloiise of Iraiigc-Nassau, obtained territorial indemnifies on le Rhine. Tlic Elector of Hesse obtained the Md duchy of Fulda ; his dominions consisted of '' square miles, ard .540,000 inhabitants. The of Hanover lost liauenburg, and obtained lildesheini and Westfriesland. That kingdom Retains 750 siiuare miles, and 1,300,000 inhabit- Tlie grand duchy of Saxe-AVeimar, witli '< additional districts, contains sixty-six square lilcs, and 193,000 inhabitants. Such is the composition of the German confe- deration, an association which was formed, as we have mentioned, by the act of June 8, 1815. In 1820, it was declared a fundamental law of the union ; but these events, wliich are posterior to the time of which we treat, do not fall within our history. As Russia and Austria were not likely to come to an agreement as to the possession of the city of Cracow, the former demanding it as an appurte- nance of the ci-devant duchy of'Warsaw, while the latter claimed it as having been deprived of it by the peace of Schn'ubrun ; it was agreed by the treaty of Vienna (May 13, 1815), that that city, with th(? territory which liad been assigned it, should form an independent and neutral republic, under the protection of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Besides the city of Cracow, a district containing 8,000 or 0,000 inhabitai.'fc was f!''s- membered from the duchy of Warsaw, which .r.is conferred on Prussia, under the title of the Grand Duchy of Posnania. The remainder was united to tlie Empire of Russia as a distinct state, under the name of the kingdom of Poland, having its own constitution and a separate administration. That state contained 2,000 square miles, with a popula- tion of 2,.500,000. We have already observed, by what fatal mis- chance Denmark had been dragged into the war of Naj)oleon against the allies. The treaty of peace at Kiel (January 14, 1804), deprived her of Nor- way, in lieu of whicli she obtained the paltry com- pensation of Swedish Pomerania ; and even that acquisition proved nu^ ' )ry. According to arrange- ments agreed on at Vienna with Prussia, the King of Denmark accepted the duchy of Lauenburg instead of Pomerania, which was abandoned to Prussia. The Danish moiiarchy thus lost one-third of its subjects, and was reduced to an extent of 2,420 square miles, and 1,700,000 inhabitants. The Nonvegians, who cherished a national ha- tred against the Swedes, refused to submit to their destin;-. They chose for their king. Prince Chris- tian Frederic, who was their governor-general and heir to the throne of Denmark (May 17, 1814), and they published a representative constitution at F.idswold. The King and the Prince Royal of Sweden marched at the Iiead of an army to re- duce them to submission. After some hostile mnno'uvres, the Prince of Denmark resigned the stivereignty by a convention, which was signed at Moss (August 16). The National Assembly, con- vened at i:hristiana (October 20), decreed the re- union of Norway to the crown of Sweden, as an independent kingdom, under one monarchy, and with a representative ronstitution. They adopted the order of succession as established in Sweden ill 1819. Charles XIII. was proclaimed King of Norway (Noveinbor4) ; and the relations between Sweden and Norway were seab'd, by an ict signed between the two kingdoms (July 31, 1815). By the treaty of Vienna, Sweden ceded to Prussia her jiart of Pomerania, and thus was separated from Germany, of which she had been a constituent member since the time of CJustavus Adolphus. The Swedish monarchy contains an extent of 13,850 square miles, with 3,330,000 inhabitants. Russia acted so conspicuous a part during the period of which we have spoken, that we can scarcely mention any event of general interest in !"M"eii i'lissia ami 236 Turkey, SiiccL'sses of Kutiiiofl". KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS. Ucsunrnbia and part of Mol- (liivia acquired by Russin. Extent of Ruuinn Empire. c:;c Si'-- ^ Ik.; •(vhich she was iinl roncfrncd. She was at war with Groat Brituia, Turkey, and Persia, when Buonaparte commenced hostilities against her in 1811. The Russians acted on the defensive against the Turks ; Prince Kutuzolf, who had the coni- mai;'!, having ber:) '.bliged to send five divisions of his army into I'DJand, caused Silistria to be de- molished, preservi ■• only Rudschuk, on the right bank of the Danube. The indolent Jusuff Pacha, who had ii ver stirred from his camp at Sclu'mla, was replaced by Achmet Aga, anactiM! and cnier- prisin^,' general, who sent for a -einforcemeiit of 35,000 men, mostly composed of exc -Iknt cavalry, and supported by a fc-midable artilhuy. serx'ed uy French officers. Achmi't inarched airnlnst Kutu- zolf, and their lirst cn(i '.inter took place two leagues from Rudschuk (July 4). Eiglit thousand Russians, whj were opjiosed to the vaiig;ia'ii of the Ottomans, under the cc nmand of X\\ Parha, were drivf-n back io their entrenchments. Tvvo d:ns aft'!r, t'lC grand vizier attacked the Rus'«ian '•!iireiichnient!> and dislod'.:ed the troops, who thivW Sliemse'.v's into Rudschuk, It was chiefly the in- hntvy o'' f'n; llussiiii .; that suffered in that battle, owing to :!ie superiovity of the Turkish ca\alry, wlio «''nM have cut them to pieces but for a bold iii:in,!'t v'o of Ci.iiiut l.angcron, who sallied from Ku!l:i-huk, at thf head of the garrison, and pro- tcvti'i the fugitives. The grand vizier advanced under the very cannon of the fortress. He at- ti.mi)ted three times in one day to carry it by force, but ^^as repulsed each time (Tuly 9). During the follo\ving night the Russians quitted Rudschuk and ])assed the Danube. But the Turks having got intel- ligence, entered the town, and prevented them from carrying off all their artillery and ammunition. The army of Kutuzoff, weakened by disease, was unable to prevent the grand vizier from taking possession of the islands of the Danube. A body of 15,000 troops, commanded by Ismael Bey, took up a post on the right bank, so that the grand vizier passed the river at the head of the main body of the forces (August 3). But the face of affairs soon changed. General Ouwaroff having brought a reinforcement of 50,000 men to Kutu- zoff, the latter detached Markoff, with a consider- able body, who passed to the right bank of the Danube, marched in all haste against the Turkish reserve before Rudschuk, seized their camp, and thus cut off the retreat of the grand vizier. The latter found means to enter Rudschuk in a small bark, leaving his army in Wallachia, under the command of Seraskier Tchaban-Oglou, who was blockaded at Slobosia by Kutuzoff; and, after being reduced to 25,000 men, they were obliged to capitulate and lay down their arms (December 8). The grand vizier then demanded a suspensioJ of aiTOS, which was signed at Guirdesov. ^inf ciations were opened at Bucharest, but the TurU refused for a long Mme to make the smallest ofssiol of territ Jiy, Ai 1. Dtfth the mediation of KiielauJ Sw(,i'f'u, and jlu-isi.i, overcame the obstinacv the diiTi^u and p«a<;i wn^ I'igned (May as, loVii 1\;<' Pi te ceded to Ri.'.si,'. about onc-third i Rin'idavi.'., f:S far ns the I'njth, the fortresses i Ctmczim ai'.'l 'Render, an\ii. The peace with PersJ was sigiK'il in h" Russiian camp, near the rivef Seiwa, under t..^ 'lediiitiaii of England, and com turned til- follow ins^ yea- f\t Teflis (September li l'U4) , 1-v^-sia ceded to Russia, Daghistnn, ShirraJ Derbent, and in general the whole western coai of tiie Caspian sea, renounced her pretensions of Georgia, Imircte, Guriel, and Mingrelia, and rJ cognised the exclusive right of Russia to tlic naril gation of the Caspian Sea. At the Congress of Vienna, the Emperor i Russia had obtained the kingdom of Poland, i ive have already noticed. Independently of tliij af'cjuisition, the Russian Empire had an e.\ten( a ai»,000 square miles, 80,000 of which are i Europe, the population of which amounts t| 38,000,000. The population of the whole Empij is f'stimated at 46,000,000. A concurrence of fortunate circumstances lui saved the Ottoman Empire from that ruin will whi7, effected the con(iuest of the greater part of Sicily from the Greeks ; but they were , that the Normans began to infest the coasts of the I'VarMsh empire. In order to stoj) their iiieursioi ■■, Charles constructed u fleet, and sty.tioncd i ' 'le harbours and mouths of rivers tro(iylia)is,i{Un a Turkish! and wandering tribe, originally inliabiti'd tliel borders of the Jaik and the Volga, betwiiij those two rivers. Expelled from those counJ tries by the Vves or Cumans, who c'ombii;tii|| with the Cliazars against them, they atlaikoiif the Hungarians, whom they stript of tin possessions, lying between the Taniiis, tlii!| Dnieper, and the Dniester (a.d. 8H4). 12 The Moravians were the flrst of the Sluviani tribes that embraced Christianity. The Grt kl Emi)eror Michael, at their own re(niest, seuti them, in 801), Cyril and Methodius, two li'iirmMr Greeks of Thessp.lonica, who invented tho S!a vonian alphabet, and translated into their laii.l guago the sacred books, which the Kussiaiul still use. 13 The ratzinacites possessed all l.he couuirioJ situated between the Aluta, the Dnieper, aiuil the Donez. which, near itw source, separatejl them from the Chazars. They gradually dii-l appeared from history about the end uf iIkF eleventh century, when they were diapussesscill or subdued by the Cumans. 14 Historians have commonly ascribed to tliiil prince the division of England into countii'Sif hundreds, and tithes, as also the institution ot| juries, 13 From the occupation of Greenland and FinlanJl by the Normans, we may infer that Norlhl America was known to them several eeuturiesf before it was discovered by the English. NOTES TO PERIOD III. 1 The Hungarians having made a new iiivasiuni under Otho the Great, advanced as far ail Augsbui-g, to which they laid siege , but Ollw,! in a battle which he fought with them iJ the vicinity of that city (935), routed tlienij with such slaughter that they never dtU'Cii tol return. I 2 On this oath, which was taken in 963, the Em-I perors of Germany founded the title by wlilcbl they claimed the right to confirm, or to narai-j nate and depose the popes. Lawyers generalkl allege the famous decree of Leo VIll., pub'^ lished 964, as establishing the rights of emperors over Rome and the popes. But thel authenticity of this decree has been attackedj by the ablest critics, and defended by otiiers.f It would appear that there is no necessity! for this to justify these rights. Otiio, alterl having conquered Italy and received the sub-F NOTES. 241 mission of tlio Ilumanii iiiul the iiopc, I'oulil lasily claiin for liiiiiHi'lf aiul liU NUcci'saorH the s.iim' iiKlitM of Huperiority which tiu' Gr"t'k uml Jriiik I'liipiTors liad t'lijoji-il bi'foro him. 1 3 He wnn duke of Lowur Lurriiiiie, and had (ibtaiiifd tiiat dukodoiii from Otho II. in »77. Ill' trunamitted it fo \m sou Otho, wiio was the hit prince of tho C'ailuvingian line, and died in lOOU. \i iW principalitii's of Beiicveuto, Salerno, and lapuii were govrrnud by Lomhard i)rinces, wlio lu'ld of the German eniiid'ors. The duke- doms of Naph^s, Gauta, Auialti, and jiart of Apulia and Calahria, were dependent on tho Eastern cmperorH ; while tlie ArabH, mastterH of ihi' greater part of Sieily, possessed also Bari anil Tarento in A] ulia. 1 3 Iruiu this treaty i^ dr;l,od the rlffht of vas- salage wiiich the poi.es have exercised till tiie pitsiiit time over tiie kin^'dom of N'ai)ies. [ ti The first invasion of the Normnns in Sicily was ill IDIiO. Talermo, the capital, fell \inder their liowor in 1072, and in lUUO tliey conijuered till' wiuile island. 1 Tlio tirst seeds ot Clu'istianity were planted iu Diimiark and Sweden by St. Ansjfnr, whom Louis tlie Ge'itle eroateh(ip of Ilamlmrg, and metropolitan of all the North. But the progress of Ohristianity was extremely slow in Ihnse semi-barl)araus foimtries. 'J'he Hrst annalist of the North was !m Icelander named Are I'" rode, who Hourished about the beginning; of tlu- eleventli century. Tiio most eminent historian of Denmark was a monk named Swend Aajfesoii, who digested, about 11S7, an abridgment of the history of that kingdom. He was followed by Saxo tlie jjiaiiiniarian, whose history of Denmark, written iu beiuitiful Latin, is full of fables in the times preceding the twelfth century. Norway had lor its first annalist a monk named Theodoric, who wrote about 11 GO. As to Sweden, it has no national historian anterior, to tlie Chronicli's in P'irsi', the first anonymous editor of which lived ill the time of King Magnus Smeck, about llu' middle of the fourteenth century. 8 Olaus s 'lit, iu 990 and 1000, missionaries into Icoland, who succeeded in making the whole inuiitry adopt Christianity. An Icelandic fugitive, named Erie le Roux, discovered Greenland, and formed the Hrst settlements there, about the year 982, His son, Leif, em- braced Christianity during his sojourn in Nor- way. With the aid of some ecclesiastics whom King Olaus gave him, he returned Iu 1000 to Oreeiilaiid, and there converted his father and his fellow countrymen. The knowledge of the tirst Norwegian colonies of Greenland was lost about the beginning of the fifteenth cen- tury. The southern and western districts of it were again discovered about l.")70 ; but it was not till 1721 that the Danes formed new settlements there. 'J The Polabes inhabited the duchy of Lauenburg, the principality of llatzenburg, and the pro- vince of Schwerin. The "VVagrians were settled beyond the Bille in Wagria, in the principality of Eutin, and a part of Holstein. 1 10 Henry, Duke of Saxony, Conrad, Duke of Zah- ringen, and Albert, Margrave of the North, headed an army of thewo crusaiierit against the Slavilu 1147. 11 The riglit of hereditary succession in the eldest son of every ducal family was not introduced into Bohemia till lO.iS. This wa-s the ancient usage iu Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Kussia, and Hungary. 12 No writer of this nation 1« known anterior to tlie thirteenth century. The most ancient is Vincent Krvdlubeck, 'Bishop of Cracow, who died iu 12'J.J. He wrote Uintvria Polona, tirst |)ublished in 1012. i:j This crtmn', singularly revered in Hungary, contains Greek ornaments and inscriptions, which give us to understand that it was manu- factured at Constantinople. There in a pro- bability that it was furnished by the Empress- Tlieophania, mother of Otho III., to I'ope Sylvester II., whom she had lately raised to the liontificate. 14 The Greeks upbraided the Latins with fasting on Saturdajs — permission to eat cheese, butter, and milk, during the tirst week of Lent — the celibacy of tlieir priests — the repetition of the unction of baptism in confirmation— the cor- rupting of the Confession of Eaith — tiie use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist — permission to eat the blood of animals strangled — and thi' proliibition against tlie priests wearing their beards. 15 The difTerence of rank and pre-eminence of these two patriarchs became one of the prin- cipal subjects of dispute, between the two churches. Tliere was a warm debate as to the title of Kcumcnical I'lUriarch, or universal bishop, which the patriarchs o( l^onstantinople had assumed since the timo of the patriiirch John II. in 51 H. The Iloniun pontili's, Tela- gius II. and Gregory I., haugiitily condemned tint title as proud and extravagant. They even went so far as to interdict all con.namiou with the jiatriarclis of Constantinople; and (iregory I., wishing to give these patriarchs an example of Christian humility, in opposition to this lofty title of Universal Bishop, adopted that of Servant of the srrviDitu of God, IG The Bulgarians, newly converted to Chris- tianity by Grei'ls and Latin missionaries, had priests a .1 lii.ihops of both churches ; and each pontiff ilaiiu'l the sole jurisdiction over that provinc;, '! hi; affair having been referred by the B'lij.iii n:-' themselves to the judgment of the Gi.'.k ^iiiperor, he decided in favour of the see of Constantinople. In eonseciuence of this decision, the Latin bishops and priests were exjielled from Bulgaria, and replaced by the Greeks in 870. 17 This terrible fire, reckoned among their state secrets, was exploded from tubes of copper, or thrown with cross-bows and machines for tlie purpose. Firesliips were likewise tilled with them, Avhich they despatched among the enemies' ships to burn them. These could not be extinguished by water, or any other way than by the help of vinegar or sand. 18 The name of Tartar, in the sense in which it is commonly taken, appears to be of Chinese origin. The Chinese pronounce it Tha-thu; and designate by this name all the nations that dwell to the north of the great wall. 11 ' 1 f 24'i NOTES. ■c. c. ■ S!«i .y III Tlio tirNi llint i'tn|ilo]i'(l fliin inilitury KUiird wiis tlir (iliiili M(iiitii-.si'iM, who Miiccridctl to tlic riili|ilmlc ill K;i:t, or 'ilS of tlu' lli'Kiru. 20 Sultan or Salthiiii In !i coiiinioii iiuriic in llir Chiililriiti iiiiil Aruliic liiii), which they hud couquerud fruin thu l''iillii>iti! culiphN of K^'ypt. 22 'I'lio nioHt powcrfid of thcsi' MinirH diin^d not iiMNUnic thi' titk' of Siilluii, hut were i'oiit;'nt with tluit of Atiiliik, wliiih HixuillcN, in tlic TurkiHli liinguitgu, t'utlwr of tlw priiicv. NOTES TO I'KUIOD IV. 1 He wiiH the Hrst of the Uonnu. poiititl's tiiiit iiHsunu'd the title of I'o/ir (I'lipii), to the exclii- Hion of the other lii^hopH imd (u'eiateH wlxt liud formerly niude use of that denoniiniitiou. 2 Pope llrhiiu II., one of the innnediate »uccen- Hors of Gregory VII., went so lii'.' as to reeoiu- niend to all Heeular prinees, that they nhould make Hiaves of hucIi of the priests' wives as li>ed with their husliands alter they iiad re- ceived holy orders. In Denmark and Sweden, the eelihiiey of the elerjfy was not introilueed till near the middle of the thirteenth century. 3 I'ope Nicholas I. and Adrian II., in the ninth century, and John IV. and Gre^,'ory V., ahout the end of the tenth, appealed to the Ftilso De- cretals ill their disputes with the Kin^s of France, on the suhjcel of supremacy and legis- * lative power over the whole church. 4 This House, which succeeded the Salic dynasty, occupied the throne of lliu Empire from the year IISH to 1254. 5 Gregory VII., in lOHO, confirmed tlic election of tlie Aiiti- Emperor Uodolph. Innocent III. claimed the right to arhitrate in the disputes between niilij) of Swabia and Otho of Uruiis- wick (1198), on the subject of their election. The contested eleclion of Uiehard de Cornwall and Alphonso of Castile, to the throm; of Spain, was suhmitti'd to the judi;ment of the pope. The popes derived their claims to these estates from a donation of them, which the countess had made in 1077 to I'ope Gregory VII., and which she renewed in 1102 to Pascal II. 7 The Order of St. Anthony was founded about 1093, and that of Chartreux was founded, in 1080—86, by Bruno of Cologne ; and that of Grandmont, by Stephen de Thiers, a native of Auvergne. 8 The Arabs took possession of Palestine, under the Caliph Omar, a.d. C.57. It fell into the hands of the Fatimite Caliphs of Egypt, a.d. 968. 9-10 There is an amusing description of tlie cru- saders in the Chronicle of Conradus Ursper- gensis, and the sensation which their first appearance made in Gfrmany. 11 One of these first div ons was conducted by Peter the Hermit in ji rson. A contemporary author gives tli following description of that ghostly general ; " His appearance was rude in the extreme, of a short stature, but of a most fervid zeal. His face was meagre, his feet bare, and I .. (ioii» . ; i) !■ in.uiicst and most n(]ii;ili,i sort. iiM Lit journey, and wherever lie \vr„i, he used neither horxe, mure, nor mule, Imt ,,,1 ' a vehicle draw u l_> asses." I'eier intnulnl' jiart of his an \ to a French giiitleii, mi, iiuiuni ti'iiltcr ttiv I'ciiiiyliss, who miinlud In i,,,, him. A numerous Imdy, comiiiitMilnl Ii^ (iermaii priest, followctl him. NciuU 'i|„. whole of them perished, to tlii^ aimiuiit .,1 200,000 men. 12 The llepuhlic of Venice having rel'usiij, i„ s|)ile of the thundering hulls liiiiiiclied iii.',iiii.| them, to surrender up the city of I'ermni, I'lm, Clement IV. puhlished a crusade iigiiinst lli, n, (i;iO!J), and thus ctill remained in Italy to a certain extent, cvcii in the midst of the darkness that covered Euroiit jirior to the twelfth century. 20 in the Truce of God, challenges or duels Wdv prohibited on Tlnnsdays, Fridays, Satuiclau, and Sundays, under pain uf excumntuniculiuii. I They were also forbidden between Septuaj,'t- sima Sunday and Easter week, .ind betvvttu I Advent Sunday and Epiphany. 21 Hugolinus, a famous lawyer under Frederic I., I is generally regarded as the first tliat digested the Two Books of Fiefs, at the end of the Corpus Juris. 22 Several other universities were founded in the I following century : — such as that of Prague, in 1347 ; Vienna, in 1305 ; Heidelberg, iu 13>(i; | Cologne, in 1389 ; Erfurt, in 1389, &c. 23 This Confederation of the Rhino was orii;i- iially concluded between the cities of Mayeiice, Cologne, Worms, Spire, Strasburg, lierliui I for the protection of their commerce on the | llliine. 24 These grand officers were seven in iiunilier, I although formerly other princes were adinitteJ to these elections. NOTl'.S. 3i;« t8 of Spain, ll;i.\, 11', tliatthcHoimii •odosiaii Code, still ,i» extent, vwn in ittt coveioil Kuroin I'hero npppnri nomo ronrton t<» doiiht IIiIh ufate- II,, I, t (if Daiiiliilii, tlie liiHtoiiilli (if Vi'iiirc. '2i U'tii llii' (liiwnfiil of till' Itdinaii Mnipin', in the fil'lh ii'Mlnrj, ('"iNirii w;is ciinciiiiri'il in turn lij the ViiiiiliU. f't'ei IsM, Tianks, iind \ialiH. 'I li<' liittiT hittli'd ihri'i' in the iiintli iiiitiiry, mid ivcii' r\|H'l|id in till' idcvi'iitli. Saidiiiiii I'xpi'- iiciiiiil ni'iirl.V III" Naini' ri'vidnliipii as Coislca. It Icll siini'ssiM'lv into the hands nf the \ iiii- iIiiIh, (iiecks, Arahs, (ieiini'sc, and I'lsaiin. I'lipi' llciiiit'ace Nil I. vested the Kinix of Ana- ;riii, ill S:ii'diiiiii, in 1"J!»7, as his vassal and tii- liiiliirv, who expelled the I'lsaiis in IM','4 -'.'tl. '11 rill' iiiiiiiiiis {'astilian hero, Don llodriiio Diaz lie Viviu', Niirnained the (ii/, had already sei/eil till' kilii'doiil of Valeneiii, iihont the end of the ili'M'iitli rentiny; lint the Aralis look pusses- niiili iif it alter his death, in lO'.lll. t'.N III' (oiiiilies lixes the entire desti lielion of the Aliiiuliailes in the year I '.".Mi. I'Jil Altrr the defeat of the Mahometans, Alfonso, liaviii'^ assenihled the liishops, ileeliued on his iiilli that .lesns Christ appeared to liiin oil the iM'iiiny; liefore the hattle, proini-^ed him eerlaiii \irli)rv, and ordered him to lie proelainied kiiiL' nil till' tii'lil of liattle, and to take for his ariiis till' the Hounds inllieled on his liody, iiiid the l!iirly pii les of Hilver for vvhii'li he was sold to the .'lew-. |:IU Till' lirst six of these wore tlie anrimit lay peers 111' the erown. They were estahlisheil in the iiiUMs nf Louis A' 1 1 1, iind IX., as well as six I'l'i'li'siastieal peers. Tln' states of (iermiiliy, in order to i)r(!serve llir tViidal system, passed a law, whieli forhade till' jiriiiees to leave the (,'rau.| The Russian princes, on going to an audienctj with the khan, were obliged to walk bctwofnl two fires to purify themselves and the presentil which they brought. They were even com-l pelled to do reverence to an image which mil ])laced at the entrance of the khan's tent.^ The first mention which the annals of Ni. tori make of the Livonians, and their wars witbthe| Russians, is about the year 1040. Various contracts were made before that mt was accomplished. The first was in l')41, aiml the price was 13,000 marks of silver. Inj 1340, the Margrave Louis sold his rights o»erl 13 14 17 18 19 NOTES. 245 g different nations gameoftheFriiKh^l Spaniards invented the Germans tims.] folios is that found near Meningeii, It UhristO])lu>r illumed, Printing by blocii, a China since the | his art a secret, on 1 It (lift'm-ent persons cany, and one of those tine geniuses whom Italyproduced in the fifteenth century. Being porseeutcd at Home, he retired to I'oland, to Casimir IV., who entrusted him with the edu- cation of his children, and made him his secre- tary. ''5 The conquest of Indnstan by Timour is fixed to the years V)W, 13'.)!). His dearest trophies were huge towers, formed of the heads which he had cut from his enemies. lie raised 120 of these lifter the taking of Uas^dad in NOl. |2G 111 the short space of six or seven hours, the Turks had cleared the city entirely of all its inhabitants. NOTES TO PERIOD \I. 1 Las v,a8as is generally reproached for having advised the emiiloying of African slaves in the Antilles, instead of the natives, while he was zealously supporting the liberty of the Ame- ricans; and that it was by his advice that Charles V., in 1517, authorised the Belgian merchants to import 14,000 Africans into these islands, which gave rise to the treaty on the slave trade. 2 The kings of Portugal had already obtained Similar coinrniasioiis for their discoveries in the Kast, from Pope Nicholas Y.,Calixtus III., and Sixius .V. 3 The Philippine Isles, discovered by Mag dlan 111 li)21, v.'ere occupied by the Spaniards in l"i<'4. After several fruitless attempts to find a north-east or north-west passage, the English doubled the Cape of Good Hope before the end of the sixteenth century. 5 Magellan, in his voyage, discovered a new route to India by the Straits, to which he gave his name. The Moluccas and the Philippines were then visited by him. He was killed in the Isle of Matan, one of the Philippines, April 27, 1321. 6 Henry IV. conceived the project, and concerted with Elizabeth of England, for securing the equilibrium and the peace of the continent, by humbling Austria. 7 The assassin was called Balthazar Gerardi. He is said to have bought the pistols with which he committed the deed with the money which the prince had given him a few days before. 8 T.'ie first alliance of the Swiss with France was in 14.')3. It was renewed in 1474 and 14.S0. In virtue of this latter treaty, the Swiss engaged to furnish for that prince a body of 0000 auxi- liaries, the first regular Swiss troops that had been received into the service of France, with consent of the confederation. 9 That war was terniinuted in 1603, a little be- fore the death of Elizabeth. NOTES TO PERIOD VII. 1 The first of these medals represented the United Provinces under the figure of a woman tramp- ling on Discord, with an inscription a little luuij-hty, but by no means outrageous for Fraiire. The other medal was more piquant ; it ofleri'd the crown of France to M. Van Beu- iiingon, t'le ambassador of Holland, under the figure of Joshua, who commanded the sun to stand still. 2 This bull, the source of many theological dis-- putes, was issued in 1713, in which Clement XI. condemned 101 propositions, extracted from the New Testament, as false, and infected with the errors of Jansenism. 3 111 1713. Ill this same year was concluded the famous treaty of Methuen, by which Portu- gal engaged to receive English woollen cloths, on condition that England would admit the wines of Portugal at one-third less duty than those of France. 4 The national liberty gained under Charles II, by the famous Habeas Corpus Act, passed in 167'.). NOTES TO PERIOD VIII. Among the means which the regent emjiloyed for clearing off the debts of the State, 'A liich amounted to three millions, one was the famous scheme of Law, a Seotchnian, and the establish- ment of a bank, which com])letely failed after having great success, and ruined a number of families. Alberonl, a man of vast and enterprising genius, was at first only a simple priest in a village near Parma, lie insinuated himself into the favour of the Duke of Vendome, when he com- 1 i i c <.■■ <;■ f 246 NOTES. mandod fliu French army in Italy, The duke took him to Spain, and r, (..^.amended him to the Princess des Ursins, who was then all powerful at the court of Philip V. There ho wus elevated to the rank of cardinal and prime minister. 3 This famous adventurer was descended of a noble family in the province of Groningen. In 1715, he was appointed ambassador for Holland at the court of Madrid. There he insinuated himself into favour with Philip V., who sent him, in 1724, to the court of Vienna, to treat with the Emperor Charles VI. On his return, he was raised to the rank of duke and prime minister of Spain. Being disgi-aced for his im]>rudences, he was imprisoned in tlie Castle of Segovia, whence he made his escape in 1728, and, al'tci- wandering over several countries, he passed to Morocco, where it is alleged he became Mahometan, as ho had turned Ca- tholic at Madrid. Being obliged to (juit that new retreat, he repaired to Tetuan, where he died. 4 The trade which the English carried on in Spanish America, in virtue of the Assiento, haviiig given opportunities for contraband, it was agreed by a subsequent convention, signed at Madrid in 1750, between these two courts, that England should entirely renounce that contract, in consideration of a sum of £100,000 sterling, which Spain promised to pay the Eng- lish company engaged in that trade. 3 On the death of Joseph I. in 1777, and the ac- ccssioa of his daughter Mary, the grandees of Portugal avenged themselves for the intiignities which the Marquis de Pombal had subjected them to. The principal actions which took place between the French and the Hanoverians, with their allies, were those of Hastenbeck in 1757 ; Cro- velt, 175S ; Bergen and Minden, 1750; Clos- tcrcamp, 1700; Villinghauseu, 17C1; Grebcn- steiu, 1762. 7 The battles fought by the King of Pnisujami that war were the following : that of Loivosiul in 1756 ; Prague, Kolin, Jagcrndorff, Ilosbach | ^ Breslau, and Lissa, 1757 ; Zorndorlf and Hod. kirchen, 1758 ; Zullichau and Kunni'radoifX or Frankfort on the Oder, 1759 ; Lioifiiitz aiul \ Torgau, 1700; Fryburg, 1702. The kin; gained them all, except those marked in italics' I 8 jVew dittereuce* having arisen between Spain I and Portugal in Brazil, which occasioned hos. | tilities, a treaty of peace, concluded ^Maicli 1778, put an end to these differences, and tiiially I regulated the limits between the two nations | in America. 9 This prince perished at the siege of Scrinji. I ])atara, his capital, which the English tonkin I 1799. 10 It appears by the overtures which the Empress I of Russia made to the King of Poland in 11 and 1775, that she was averse to the puititinn of| Poland," which, in effect, appeared to be in oji. position to the true interests of Russiii. 11 The Austrian division was estimated at about | 1300 square German mile»,.witli 700,000 iulw. 1 bitants. 12 These countries were estimated at 4157 square I miles, with 3,050,000 inhabitants. I 13 Tlie portion of the King of Prussia comprised I 1001 square miles, with 1,150,000 inhabitants.! It contained 262 cities, and 8274 villages. 14 It was in this revolution that Counts Strueiisecl and Brandt were executed — the former briii» prime minister of Sweden. For the lives of I these two persons, see Converts from Infidelity, [ vol. II., by the translator of this Work, NOTE TO PERIOD IX. 15 The first act of the confederation is dated Ootobcr I 4, 1770, It then comprehended onlyelcvpiil states. South Carolina and jNIaryland wore not I included till 1781. Loudon; rriut«d by Wu.liah Ci.owi:s uud Sons, Stamrord Stroet.